L , *. 1, A ■ THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN" NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GEOGRAPHY, NAVIGATION, STATISTICS, ANTIQUITIES, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS. CONDUCTED BY DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. P.R.S. LOND. SEC. R.S. EDIN. F. S. S. A. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL "*" IRISH ACADEMY; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; AND OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK, &C. &C. VOL. VI. NOVEMBER— APRIL. JOHN THOMSON, EDINBURGH AND T. CADELL, LONDON. M.DCCC.XXVII. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. The two papers, which we learn by a letter from Professor Oersted of Copen- hagen were sent to this Journal by Dr Forckhammir of Copenhagen have never reached us. If Mr Feldborg, to whom they were sent, should see this notice, we trust he will forward the papers without delay. A reply to Mr Charles Bell will appear in our next Number, together with a demonstration of his errors respecting the involuntary rotatory motion of the Eye- ball, a doctrine which he still persists in maintaining. We have received A*s very excellent set of observations made at Rome on the 15th January ; and also his interesting Observations on the Climate of Naples ; and his Remarks on Mount Vesuvius, which will appear in next number. We shall be glad to hear from him as often as convenient. We cannot refer our Correspondent J. R. to any work better than Mr Barlow's, published in 1823, and containing all the recent discoveries on electro-magnetism. He will be glad to learn, however, that a most complete account of the subject is now preparing for the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, by Professor Oersted of Copenhagen, the distinguished founder of this new science. It will appear under the head of thermo-electricity in vol. xvii. part ii. of that work. We beg to acknowledge the receipt of the excellent sets of observations made on he 15th January by Mr Staveley of Nottingham, Mr W. Snow Harris of Plymouth, Mr Murdoch, Huntly Lodge, Mr Christison, Burdsyards, Dr Jackson, and Mr Macvicar at St Andrew's, Mr W. Edgworth, Edgworthstown, the Rev. R. But- ler, Trim, county of Meath, and those made at Tubingen. We trust that these gentlemen and others who take an interest in such observations, will not forget those on the 15th of June next. In answer to C.'s inquiry respecting the most complete Rain-Gage, we beg to re- fer him to the very ingenious one invented by Mr Donovan, and described in the Dublin Philosophical Journal. We regret exceedingly to observe that the circum- stances of the times have obliged the proprietors of this excellent work to disconti- nue it. It contained many original and truly valuable articles, and was conducted with an honesty and candour of no ordinary kind. Mr Foggo's valuable paper on the Dew Point Hygrometer will appear in next Number. The interesting papers from our esteemed Correspondent in India will appear in next Number. %• Our Correspondents are earnestly requested to transmit their Communications to the Editor before the 5th of March, the 5th of June, the 5th of September, and the 5th of December. Authors and Booksellers who wish their Works noticed early in this Journal, are requested to transmit them through the Publishers. Books of Voyages and Tra- vel* are particularly requested, and will be returned when desired. PRINTED BY JOHN dTARK. 3^> CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. XL Page A«T. I. Specimen of the use of Notation in the Analysis of Crystalline Forms. By the Reverend W. Whewell, Trinity College, Cambridge. Communicated by the Author, - . - ■ II. Comparative Effect of Rotation of a Solid Iron Ball, and Hollow Iron Shell, in producing the deflection of a Magnetic Needle. By Peter Barlow, Esq. F. R. S., Mem. Imp. Ac Petrop. &c. Communi- cated by the Author, - - - 0 ill. On the Females of Pheasants which assume the plumage of the male. By M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint- Hie aire, - 9 IV. On Zinkenite, a New Mineral Species. By Dr Gustavus Rose. Communicated by the Author, 17 V. On the Case of a Lady Born Blind, who received Sight at an Ad- vanced Age by the Formation of an Artificial Pupil. By James Wardrop, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. Surgeon Extraordinary to the King. 20 VI. Account of a Survey of the Valley of the Setlej River, in the Hima- laya Mountains. From the Journal of Captain Alexander Ge- rard, Surveyor to the Board of Commissioners. (Concluded from Vol. V. p. 288,) - 28 VII. Account of a Method of fixing the Glass in painted Windows with- out the interruption of Astragals. By John Robison, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. Communicated by the Author, - -50 VIII. Account of a Voyage to Madeira, Brazil, Juan Fernandez, and the Gallipagos Islands, performed in 1824 and 1825, with a view of exa- mining their Natural History. By Mr Scouler. Communicated by the Author, - - - 51 IX. A Chemical Essay on the Art of Baking Bread. By Hugh Col- quhoun, M. D. - - 73 X. Observations on the Comet of 1825, and on the Changes which take place in the figure of the tail, tending to establish the existence of a rotation round its axis. By Mr James Dunlop, Paramatta. Communicated by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C. B. F. R. S. London and Edinburgh, . - 84 11 CONTENTS Page XI. Observations connected with the History of the Developement of Mag- netism by Rotation. By S. H. Christie, Esq. M. A., F. R. S. of Trinity College, Cambridge, Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and of the Royal Military College. In a Letter to the Editor, - - 94 XII. On the Diamond Mines of Southern India. By H. W. Voysey, Esq., - n 07 XIII. On Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays. By S. II. Christie, Esq. A. M. F. R. S. of Trinity College, Cambridge, Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and of the Royal Military Acade- my. In a Letter to the Editor, - - 104 XIV. Account of the Expedition under Captain Franklin, and of the Vege- tation of North^ America, in Extracts of Letters from Dr Richardson, Mr Drummond, and Mr Douglas. Communicated by Dr Hooker, 107 XV, Notice respecting the Mean Temperature of the Equator. By Da- vid Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. 117 XVI. On the Specific Gravity of several Minerals. By W. Haidinger, Esq. F. R. S. E. (Concluded from Vol. III. p. 246.) - 120 XVII. Additional Testimony respecting the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. Communicated by Dr Hooker, - - 126 XVIII. Description of an Instrument for Extracting and Condensing Air without the assistance of Valves or Stop-cocks. By Andrew Bu- chanan, M. D. Glasgow. In a Letter to the Editor, - 133 XIX. Observations on the Mean Temperature of the Equatorial Regions. By Baron Alexander Humboldt, - - 136 XX. Notice respecting the hourly Meteorological Observations proposed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh to be made twice every year, on the 17th July and 15th January, - - 144 XXI. On the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle produced by a common Electrical Machine. By M. D. Colladon of Geneva, - 149 XXII. Description of the Volcano of Kirauea, in Hawaii, one of the Sand- wich Islands. By the Reverend William Ellis. With a Plate, 151 XX Til. On the Subterranean Sounds heard at Nakous, on the Red Sea, - 153 XXIV. Notice respecting the existence of the New Fluid in a large cavity in a specimen of Sapphire. By David Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. and Sec. R. S. Edin. - - - 155 XXV. Account of the Carrion Crow, or Vuliur atratus. By Mr John James Audubon, Member of the Lyceum of New York. Commu- nicated by the Author, - - - 156 XXVI. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - - 161 1 . Account of a New Method of Drawing upon Stone. By M. Laurent, Painter, Paris-. - - - ib. 2. Experiments on the Discharge of Air by different Orifices. By M. Daubuisson, - - - 162 3. Method of restoring Wine that has been turned, - 163 4. Method of preventing, by means of Galvanism, the formation of cal- careous deposits in Lea den Pipes. By M. Dumas, - ib 5. An Improved method of working Water Wheels. By Mr William Moult. ... 164 CONTENTS. Ill Page XXVII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 164 I. Journal of a Third Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Pas- sage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, performed in the years 1824-0, in his Majesty's Ships Hecla and Fury, under the orders of Captain William Edward Parry, R. N. F. R. S. 1826. 4to. 164 II. On the Mathematical Theory of Suspension Bridges, with Tables for Facilitating their Construction. By Davies Gilbert, Esq. V. P. R. S. &c. &c. From the Philosophical Transactions for 1826. Partiii. - - 169 XXVIII. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDIN- BURGH, - - - 173 XXIX. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - 174 I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Astronomy 1. Struve's Observations on the Ring and Satellites of Saturn. - 2. Struve's Observations on Jupiter and his Satellites. 3. Royal Observa- tory of Edinburgh. 4. New Observatory at Brussels. 0. Mr Dunlop's Ob- servations on Encke's Comet in 1825. - - 1?4 — 175 Optics. — 6. Nature of the light emitted by lime in a high state of incan- descence. 7- On the light developed at the separation of Boracic Acid into fragments, - - - - 176 Hydrodynamics. — 8. On the Periodical Fountain of the Jura, called the Round Fountain, - - ib. Meteorology.— 9. Meteoric Stone containing many substances. 10. Great Variation of the Barometer in 1822, - 177 11. chemistry. * 11. Brome, a new substance, supposed to be simple, contained in sea water, 177 III. NATURAL HISTORY. Mineralogy. — 12. Thenardite, a new mineral species. 13. Halloysite, a new mineral species. 14. Artificial cold produced by mixing metals, 182 — 184 Zoology — 15. Mr Audubon's Ornithology of the United States of America, ib. Botany. — 16. Icones Filicum. 17. Hooker and Taylor's Muscologia Bri- tannica. 1 8. Exotic Flora and Botanical Magazine, - 184 — 186 GENERAL SCIENCE. 19. Largo Extinct Volcano in Hawaii, - • 187 XXX List of Patents granted in Scotland since September 9, 1826, ib. XXXI. Celestial Phenomena, from January 1st to April 1st, 1827, adapted to the Meridian of Greenwich, Apparent Time, - 188 XXXII. Summary of Meteorological Observations made at Kendal, in Sep- tember, October, and November 1826. By Mr Samuel Mar- shall. Communicated by the Author in a Letter to the Edi- tor, - - - 190 XXXIII. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept at Canaan Cottage. By Alex. Adie, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. 192 Notices to correspondents. We have received our Correspondent A's Letter from Rome, and shall be glad to hear ngain from him when he returns to Scotland. Mr E.'s Essay is too elaborate for our pages, and is more suited for a Medical Journal. We would recommend it to M. to send his Model to the Society of Arts for Scot- land, which holds its meetings twice every month in the Royal Institution. If it merits it, it may appear at the General Exhibition 'of inventions, which is to take place in May 1827. We shall be happy to solve the difficulties mentioned by our Bristol correspond- ent so far as we can ; but we cannot undertake to be expounders of scientific riddles. M. D.'s observations on Vision cannot be inserted. If he will give us a personal interview with him, we shall demonstrate to him the fallacy of his experiments. The papers to which he alludes are certainly full of experiments and observations ; but they are bad ones. Nature may be interrogated by a thousand and one experiments, and yet m ay not give a response worthy of being recorded. We have received J. G.'s observations on the Mean Temperature of the Earth, containing new formula? for determining the mean temperature of different points on the earth's surface. The author has committed a mistake in considering the mean temperature as an angle , of which he gives the sine and cosine. Owing to the acci- dental circumstance of the polar temperature being not far from 0°. and the equato- rial temperature above 80°. in Fahrenheit's scale, the formulae give tolerably correct results ; but if he uses the Centigrade scale or Reaumur's, he will find that his for- mula; are entirely inapplicable. We shall be glad to receive J. C.'s Meteorological Journal, or an annual abstract of it, as it promises to be a valuable one. In answer to J. C's query, we beg to state that correct indications cannot be obtained from hygrometers in frosty weather. Captain Parry found that with Daniell's hygrome- ter he could never obtain a deposit on the back of the instrument, below an atmo- spheric temperature of -f-60. of Fahr. Mr Nasinyth's description of an instrument for measuring the comparative expan- sibility of metals, W ill appear in our next number. Mr Scouler's paper on the temperature of the North West Coast of America, will appear in next number. Our Correspondents are earnestly requested to transmit their Communications to the Editor before the 10th of March, the 10th of June, the 10th of September, and the 10th of December. CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. XII. Page Art. I. Memoir of the Life and Writings of M. Piazzi, Director General of the Observatories of Naples and Palermo, ... 193 II. Account of the Fossil Remains in the neighbourhood of Harborough. By the Reverend James Layton, in a Letter to Dawson Turner, Esq. Yarmouth. Communicated by Mr Turner. With Figures, 199 III. On the Relative Compressibilities of different Fluids at High Tempera- tures. Ry H. C. Oersted, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Copenhagen, F. R. S. Lond. and Edin. and Correspondent of the Institute of France. In a Letter to Dr Brewster, - 201 I W On the Communication of Magnetism to Steel, by the direct white light of the Sun. By M. A. Baumgartner, Professor of Natural Philo- sophy at Vienna, .... 202 V. On the Modes of Division of Vibrating Bodies. By M. Felix Savart. With a Plate, - - - 204 VI. Contributions to Physical Geography, - - 209 1. Account of the Conflagration in the Quicksilver Mines of Idria, 210 2. Account of the Journey of the American Missionaries to the Volca- no of Kirauea, - - - - 212 3. Account of the Effects of the Earthquake of the 19th November 1822, in the Gold Mine of El Bronce, - . ~ - 218 4. Account of the Lake of Ybera, formed by infiltration from the River Parana. By M. Azara, - - - 219 5. Account of the Cavern of Planina, in Carniola, - - 220 6. Account of the Lake of Zirknitz supplied by Subterranean Streams, 223 VII. Description of an Instrument for Measuring the Comparative Expansi- bility of Metals and other Solid Bodies. By Mr James Nasmyth. 225 VIII. Observations on the Mean Temperature of the Earth at Sydney, made in the years 1824 and 1825. Communicated to the Editor by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K.C.B. F.R.S. L. and E. 22G IX. Account of a Voyage to Madeira, Brazil, Juan Fernandez, and the Gal- lipagos Islands, performed in 1824 and 1825, with a view of examin- ing their Natural History. By Mr Scouler. Communicated by the Author, (Continued from Number xi. p. 73.) - 228 X. On the separation of Epistilbite from Heulandite, as demonstrated by op- tical characters. By David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S., &c. 236 XL Account of the Failure of the Suspension Bridge at Paris. By John Ro- bison, Esq. F.R.S. Edin. In a Letter to the Editor, - 240 XII. Observations on the Bones of Hyenas and other Animals in the Cavern of Lunel, near Montpellier. By the Rev. W. Buckland, D. D, 242 XIII. Observations made at Port Macquarie, Van Dieman's Land, for the J 11 CONTENTS. Page purpose of determining the Decrease of Heat in Ascending in the At- mosphere. Communicated to the Editor by Sir Thomas Bris- bane, K.C.B. F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. - - 246 XIV. On the Mean Temperature of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, as deter- mined by President Caldwell, . - - 249 XV. Account of an Improvement on the Nautical Eye-Tube. By David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. and Sec. R.S. Edin. - 250 XVI. On the Temperature of the North West Coast of America. By Mr Scouler. Communicated by the Author, - - 251 XVII. Magnetical Observations on the Variation and Dip of the Needle, made during the Voyage of the Coquille from Toulon to Port Jack- son, in 1822, 3, and 4. By M. Duperrey, Commander of the Ex- pedition. Communicated by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K.C.B. F.R.S. London and Edinburgh, - . 254 XVI II. Notes on the Habits of the Wild Pigeon of America, Columba migra- toria. By John James Audubon, Esq. F.R.S. Edin. M.W.S. &c. &c and Member of the Lyceum of New York, - - 257 XIX. On the Developement of Magnetism by Rotation, in reply to Mr Christie. By P. Barlow, Esq. F.R.S. Mem. Imp. Ac. Petrop. &c. Communicated by the Author, - - - 265 XX. On the Progressive Compression kof Water with High Degrees of Force, with Trials of its effects on other Fluids. By J. Perkins, Esq. 267 XXI. On Burrowing and Boring Marine Animals. By Ed. Osler, Esq. 270 XXII. Summary for the year 1826 of the state of the Barometer, Thermome- ter, &c in Kendal. By Mr Samuel Marshall. - 274 XXIII. On the production and formation of Pearls. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. V. P. R. S. With observations by the Editor, - 275 XXIV. On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bodies. By W. Haid- inger, Esq. F. R. S. E. Communicated by the Author, - 278 XXV. Or a Remarkable Effect of a Magnet on the Oscillations of the Pen- dulum of a Clock. By George Harvey, Esq. F. R. S. L. and E. 288 XXVI. On the different Primitive Forms of the same Salt produced by a Change in the Nature of the Solvent. By Dr Christian Wollner. With Observations by the Editor, - 289 XXVII. A Description of some remarkable Effects of unequal Refraction observed at Bridlington Quay in the Summer of 1826. By the Rev. W. Scoresby, F. R. SS. Lond. and Edin. M. W. S. &c. - 293 XXVIII. On the Elements of the Four New Planets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, - - - 294 XXIX. Description of the New Mineral called Haytorite, drawn up from the Observations of Messrs Trite, Cole, Phillips, and Levy, 297 XXX. Observations on the Structure and Crystalline Forms of Haytorite. In a letter from Dr Brewsteb to Cornelius Tripe, Esq. 301 XXXI. Account of a New Animal, which dyed Red the Lake of Morat in the Spring of 1825. By Professor Decandolle, - 307 XXXII. On a New Class of Electro-Chemical Phenomena. By M. Leo- pold Nobili, - - 311 XXXIII. On Haidingerite, a new mineral species. By Edward Turner, M.D. F.R.S.E. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author, 317 XXXIV. An Account of Magnetical Experiments made in China and St CONTENTS. Ill Page Helena, with a view of determining the Position of the Plane of no de- viation in those places. By Captain J. P. Wilson of the H. E. I. C. Ship Hythe. - - - - 318 XXXV. Notice respecting the Zoology of the Falkland Islands. By M. Garnot, - - - 324 XXXVI. On a Remarkable Decomposition of Carburetted Hydrogen by its Rapid Escape from a Portable Gas Lamp. By David Gordon, Esq. Engineer to the London Portable Gas Light Company. - 325 XXXVII. Notice regarding the Naturalization of the Cochineal Insect in Spain. By M. Bory de Saint-Vincent, - 326 XXXVIII. ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS, - - 328 1. Professor Harlan on the Mammalia of North America. 2. Account of a remarkable Extinct species of Beaver. 3. Account of the Rocky Mountain Sheep, - . - 328—331 XXXIX. DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCO- VERIES, - - - 333 Professor Leslie's Apparatus for Ascertaining the Specific Gravity of Powders, not invented by him in 1826 ; but by H. Say, Captain of En- gineers in France, in 1797, - - - - - ib. XL. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCES- SES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - - 334 1. Mode of Heating Water for a Bath. By Edward Deas Thom- son, Esq. - - ib. 2. Process of Separating Elaine from Oils. By M. Pechet, ib. 3. On the Steam Navigation of India, - 335 4. On the Bursting of Steam Boilers. By John Taylor, Esq. ib. 5. Account of a New Method of Bleaching and Preparing Flax and Tow. By the Rev. T. B. Emmet t, - - 336 6. Dr Zimmerman's Safety Gun, - - 337 7. Perkins's Steam- Engine, - . ' ." 333 8. Method of producing a fine Black Colour. By M. PETrcOLAS, ib. XLI. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, ib. Elements of Chemistry, including the recent discoveries and doctrines of the Science. By Edward Turner, M.D. F.R.S.E. - ib. XLI1. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - 340 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, - jj,. 2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, • 343 3. Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotland, 344 XLI1I. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - . 346 I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Astronomy. — 1. Fifth Comet of 1825 in Eridanus. 2. Gambard's Elements of the Comet of 1826, in the Whale. 3. Return of the brilliant Comet of Taurus from the Southern Hemisphere. 4. Comet of August 1826. 5, Comet of October 1826, and its passage across the Sun's Disc. 6. Obser- vations on the Solar Eclipse of November 29th, 1826. 7. Mr Herscheland Captain Sabine on the difference of Meridians of London and Paris, 346 348 Optics — 8. Fraunhofer on Halos and Parhelia, - ib. Electro-magnetism. — 9. Effect of a moving disc on a Voltaic conductor. 10. On the conducting power of Metals for Electricity, - ib. IV CONTENTS. Page Meteorology. — 11. Sound of the Aurora Borealis, observed by Hearne, 348 Galvanism — 12. Galvani's First Experiment on the Frog, made in 1700, 349 Pneumatics.— 13. Mr Ivory on the Heat extricated from Compressed Air, ib. II. chemistry. 14. Letter of M. Gaul tier de Claubry to M. Gay-Lussac on the mode in which Alkaline Chlorides act in purifying an Infectious AtmospheTe. 15. On a new mode of preparing Carbonic Oxide Gas. 16. New Theory of Nitri- fication. By M. Lonochamp. 17- Alcohol derived from the Fermentation of Bread. 18. On the confinement of Dry Gases over Mercury. 19. On Se- men tini's Iodous Acid. By F. Wohler. 20. On Bromine. By M. Just. Liebeo. 21. On an Analytic Process for separating Iron and Manganese. By M. Quesneville Junr. 22. PrQto-Ferrocyanate of Iron. 23. Discovery of a substance which inflames by contact with water. 24. New Acids, 348 354 , III. natural history. 25. Mr Stark's Elementary W«|k on Natural History, - 355 Mineralogy. — 26, Kersten's Cobalto-Bismuthic Ore. 27. Selenium dis- covered in Cupriferous Minerals. 28. Silicate of Cerium. 29. Analysis of Zinkenitc and Jamesonite. 30. Professor Mohs — 31. Pyrochlore, a New Mineral Species. 32. Native Gold in Vermont. 33. Dr Brewster's Trea- tise on Mineralogy. 34. Mohsite, a New Mineral Species. 35. Analysis of Hetepozite. 36. Analysis of Huraulite, a new Mineral. 37- Analysis of the Fet Oxide Resinite of Hauy. — 38. Analysis of a new variety of Wolfram. 39. New Crystalline form of Apophyllite in America. 40. New Crystalline form of Laumonite. 41. Farther Observations relative to Kupffher's Law in Mineralogy. 42. Pholerite, or Silicate of Alumina, - 355 — 364 Geology 43. Bowlders exhibiting Scratches and Furrows on their lower surfaces. 44. Mr Poulett Scrope's arrangement of Volcanic Rocks, 365 Botany. — 45. South African Botany. - - . 366 Vegetable Physiology. — 46. Professor Decandolle on the Lenticelhe. 47. New plan of grafting Pear Trees, - - 366—368 iv- general science. 48. Effect of Moonlight on the Eyes. 49. The Royal Medals for 1826 ad- judged to Mr Dalton and Mr Ivory. 50. The Copley Medal of 1826 ad- judged to Mr South. 51. Diamond Mines of Bundelkhund. 52. Destruc- tive Earthquake at St Jago de Cuba. 53. Earthquakes at St Brieux. 54. Earthquake at Arran, in Scotland. 55. Professor Gmelin's analysis of the wa- ters of the Dead Sea. 56. Eruption of one of the Craters of Mount Huararai. 57. Celebrated Lava Cavern of Raniakea. 58. Length of the Ancient Stadium. 59. Miniature Volcanoes in America. 60. Effects of the Inspiration of Hy. drogen, .... 369—373 XLIV. List of Patents granted in Scotland since November 8, 1826, 373 XLV. Celestial Phenomena, from April 1st to July 1st 1827, - 374 XLVI. Summary of Meteorological Observations made at Kendal in De- S cemberl826, and Jan. and Feb. 1827. By Mr Samuel Marshall, 376 XLVII. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept at Canaan Cottage. By Alex- Adie, Esq. F.R.S. Edinburgh, - 378 Ji. ruAfohed lv WJUnrlo,^ THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Art I. — Specimen of the use of Notation in the Analysis of Crystalline Forms. By the Reverend W. Whewell, Tri- nity College, Cambridge. Communicated by the Author. THE notation by which the faces of crystalline forms shall be designated, is, I believe, among persons who have paid an imperfect attention to the subject, looked upon as a matter not of great importance, nor offering any decisive principle of se- lection with respect to the different systems which have been proposed. It is probably taken for granted by most, that such a notation can only answer the purpose of registering the mode of derivation of crystalline faces in a manner easily un- derstood and recollected ; and that, therefore, simplicity and symmetry are the only merits which it can aspire to. This is, in fact, the case with respect to Hauy's notation ; and though that system might perhaps be improved and extended, it could hardly be made subservient to any ulterior object. If, however, we have a notation which indicates, by means of geometrical or arithmetical considerations, the law by which planes are derived, these indications may be used in finding the relations of the planes to one another, and the angles which they make. Such a notation is that of Weiss, which differs very little from a system which I had proposed in the Philosophical Transactions, (Part i. 1825,) without being aware that any similar method had been elsewhere brought forwards. And by means of either of these systems* we may, from the designation of the planes of a crystal, de~ VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. A 2 Mr Whewell on the use of Notation termine its form, and the other circumstances of its geome- try. And conversely, from the angles made by its faces, or from other considerations, we may obtain the laws of derivation by .which its faces are produced, as has also been shown in va- rious cases by Mr Levy. But the fact is, that it is possible to obtain, in almost all cases, the laws of crystalline derivation more simply. That is, not by knowing the magnitude of the angles which the faces make with one another, but by certain properties of the form, as the parallelism of some of the edges, the figure of some of the planes, Sec. ; and these considerations supersede the ne- cessity of measuring the angles themselves almost entirely. Now, in order to make these deductions, it is most conve- nient not to suppose all faces derived from one general law, un- der which the indices only make the difference, as is the case in Weiss's system, and in mine ; but to conceive the forms de- rived by two or three laws, more simple, and less general ; laws so selected, that such properties as are mentioned in the last paragraph may be found arranged in classes, and may thus enable us to make our inferences by reference to a small number of principles. This is the important and beautiful simplification which has been established by Mohs. In order to facilitate our reasonings of this kind, it becomes proper to have a notation, declaring by means of which of the, laws so classified our forms are obtained, and expressing also the primary or fundamental form from which the derivation is made. And this is the object of the notation which I shall propose, and which is different from that of Mohs in several respects, but subservient to his system. The following instance is produced as a specimen of the reasonings above mentioned. And it will perhaps illustrate, more clearly than language can describe, how, with such a system, and such a notation, the determination of the laws by which crystalline faces are derived, becomes simple and easy. The requisite steps for this determination are these : The laws of derivation being explained, a few propositions are establish- ed as consequences of them, with respect to relations of the edges and faces. And by reference to these propositions, we are able, for each face, to trace the law by which it is dedu- in the Analysis of Crystalline Forms. 3 ced from the fundamental form. As my object here is to ex- emplify the mode of deduction only, and not to give an expo- sition of the method, I shall merely put down the steps by which each of the faces of a certain complicated figure may be analyzed, giving in the margin the enunciations only of the theorems which it is necessary to assume. The notation which I shall employ is different from that of Mohs, but seems to me to be that to which Mr Mohs's natu- rally bends when we remove a few anomalies and arbitrary designations, and replace them by such modes of representa- tion as the symmetry of the method, and the principle of avoiding any superfluous assumption plainly suggest. The example which I shall take belongs to what has been called the rhombohedral system ; which includes such figures as can be derived from a rhombohedron. These may be de- scribed generally as forming at each extremity of the figure 3-and 6-sided pyramids. Let the equilateral 3-sided pyramid, which is formed by the faces of the fundamental rhombohedron, be called R. Let any equilateral 3-sided pyramid, on the same base, and with an axis equal to p times the former be called pR. Let any 6-sided pyramid be deduced from /?R by three symmetrical faces of planes, each plane being drawn through an angle of the base, parallel to the next slant side ; such, that if we kdraw from the angle corresponding to this slant side a perpendicular on the opposite side of the base, the por. tion of this perpendicular produced, which is intercepted by the plane, shall be m times the perpendicular. And let the form bounded by such planes be pRm. When any of these figures is turned round its axis, through 180°, it is represented by pW on pB/m; and the forms are said to be transverse to the former ones. Any 3-sided pyramid, or rhombohedron which can be de- duced from R, may be represented by pK or pR;, and any 6-sided pyramid which can be deduced, may be represented by^Rm, or^R'ra. Let now Fig. 1. of Plate I. represent a crystalline form, (for instance a crystal of carbonate of lime,) belonging to the rhom- 4 Mr Whewell on the use of Notation bohedral system, in which it is required to obtain the law of derivation of each of the faces. If we had the faces c only, the others being suppressed, and then produced, they would form at the upper extremity a three-sided pyramid. In the same manner, the faces a, d, e9 re- spectively, would form three-sided pyramids, but transverse to the former, and therefore derived from R/. Let pR, //R', p//R\ p"R\ represent the pyramids. The facesyby themselves would form a 6-sided pyramid. In the same manner, the faces b would form a 6-sided pyra- mid. Let qRm9 q'Rm' represent these pyramids. The faces g are manifestly parallel to the axis, and agree with the faces of a rhombohedron, of which the axis is infinite. Hence they are represented by the symbol oo R. Therefore we have the symbols corresponding to the faces thus, pR9 //R', fW, pf«B/9 oo R, qRmy q'Rm'. c a e d g f b and we have to determine p, p*9 q> m, &c. To find p. We may assume one of the rhombohedrons which occur to be the primitive form ; and it will be conve- nient to take for this the one of which the faces are c. Hence pR is R, and p — 1 . To find pi. If we had only the faces c and a, (suppressing &,) it is evident that the faces a would truncate the edges of the rhombohedron with faces c. Hence the latter rhombohedron being R, the faces a belong to \ R7 (A.) Therefore ^R', is J R', andy = \. Tofindp//. If we suppose the faces c increased, till they intersect the faces e, * it will be found that the intersections . will be parallel to the inclined diagonal of the rhomb c ; and consequently the faces c will then be bounded by two parallel lines, and will truncate the edges of the rhombohedron, of which the faces are e. Hence c being R, e is 2R' (A.) Therefore j/'R' is 2R' and p"= 2. (A.) In combinations of forms pJ\, 2pR', or pR', 2/>R the first trun- cates the edges of the second. • In such a case as that of carbonate of lime the faces e may be enlarged by cleavage. in the Analysis of Crystalline Forms. 5 To find q. If we suppose all the faces suppressed besides € and f, we shall have a 6-sided pyramid, terminated by a 3-sided pyramid, and the faces c of the 3-sided pyramid will be rhombs, in consequence of the parallelism of the lines which bound its faces. Hence, c being R,yis Rm (B ;) and q = 1, m being still undetermined. To find m. The faces e manifestly truncate the alternate edges of the pyramid whose faces are/, (namely, the more acute edges.) Hence e being 2R', and / being Rm, we have the relation — j— r = % (C.) Therefore m = 3, and qRm, which designates/, is R3. To find m1. The faces b intersect the faces^ in Jines which are horizontal, (the axis being vertical.) Hence f being R8, b is ^R3, (D,) and m! = 3, q' being still undetermined. To find q[. The faces a manifestly truncate the alternate edges of the pyramid of which the faces are b9 (the more acute edges .) Hence a being JR', and b being q/KSi we have the relation '-^— — a* 'ss \- (C,) and q' = J. Therefore qfRm', which designates 6, is £R3. To find pf". If we suppose all the faces to be suppressed besides b and d9 since the intersection of b and d is parallel to the intersection of b and b, it is manifest that the edges of the rhombohedron whose faces are d, are replaced by the pairs of faces of the pyramid b, (namely, the pairs which meet at the more obtuse angles.) Hence b being J R3, pftf R, which is d, 3.34-1 1 6 will be determined by the relation -^ — . - = p" = - (E.) And d will be | R'. (B.) In combinations of forms, pR, pRm, the faces of pR are rhombs, terminating the pairs of faces of pRm. (C.) In combinations of forms pR', gRm} the former will truncate the acute terminal edges of the latter, if p = — -r~q> (D.) In combinations of forms gRm, g'Rm, (m being the same in both,) the edges of combination are horizontal. (E.) In combinations of forms pR', and glim, the other terminal edges of the latter, in pairs, replace the edges of the rhombohedron pR' if 37»+l 6 Mr Barlow on the Effect of' Rotation of solid Hence writing all the faces with their proper designations, the symbol of the crystalline form will stand thus. I R', R, 2 Rv f R', 05 R, R3, \ R 3 a c e d g f b We have thus entirely determined the form proposed, with- out any information, except what is obvious to the eye on con- sidering the figure. And in by far the majority of cases, si- milar considerations, combined with a few theorems in addi- tion to those which we have referred to (A, B, &c-) will suffice for a similar solution of the problem. The laws of the derivation of the faces being known, and the angles of the primary form (R,) the angles which any other faces make may be determined by formulae depending upon the primary angles combined with the indices of the derived forms. And this is another important use of the system of notation of which we here speak. The mathematical science of crystalline forms, has there- fore for its object, 1st, To show the kind of forms produced in each system by the laws of derivation above-mentioned : %d, To discover and demonstrate such theorems, with respect to these forms, as may be useful : 3d, To classify the combina- tions of these forms, and to show how, from the properties of these combinations, we may, by means of the theorems just mentioned, form certain rules for obtaining their indices of derivation : 4>th, To establish f or mulce, by which we may find the angles made by any planes of a crystalline form, the in- dices being known. These branches of the science being pro- perly developed, we shall be able to apply to all crystals of which the faces are sufficiently exhibited, a process of analysis similar to that explained in the above instance. Art. II. — Comparative Effect ofRotationqfa Solid IronBall, and Hollow Iron Shell, in producing the deflection of a Magnetic Needle. By Peter Barlow, Esq. F. R. S., Mem. Imp. Ac. Petrop. &c. Communicated by the Author. It appears from the theory of M. Poisson, * relative to the phenomena which have been observed in the rapid rotation • An account of this theory is given in our last Number, p. 328. and hollow Balls on a Magnetic Needle. 7 of iron bodies, that, although (according to the results of some of my first experiments) the attraction of a solid ball and hol- low shell have the same power on the needle when at rest, yet, if they are both put in rapid motion, their attracting power is no longer equal, notwithstanding their diameters, dis- tance, and velocity of rotation, be precisely the same. This very singular result seemed to furnish the means of submit- ting this theory to the test of an experimentum cruris, and Mr Babbage being in Paris at the time this deduction was made, he wrote to me, at the request of M. Poisson, to make the experiment. I accordingly procured one of our largest iron balls, a six- ty-eight pounder, 7.87 inches in diameter, and a hollow sphe- rical case shot, of exactly the same diameter, weighing just one half the former, or thirty-four pounds ; but as I could not conveniently suspend the solid ball in the form I had adopted in my former rotatory experiments, I had another ap- paratus constructed, which is shown in Plate I. Fig. 2, where ABCD is a thick plank secured well to the floor, W a long wheel turning on its axis, and w a small wheel fixed to an up- right axis, to the upper part of which was screwed a short wooden cylinder, having a hemispherical cup exactly the dia- meter of the ball and shell, and into which they were placed when submitted to rotation. The floor was cut away beyond AB, and an upright prop FE was driven securely into the earth, and the table FG fixed to the upper part, projecting over the ball upon which the compass c was placed, which was thus relieved from any shaking from the motion of the ball or shell. This apparatus was fixed on the magnetic meridian, and, in order to increase the apparent effect, the needle was re- duced in directive power by a powerful bar magnet placed in the meridian beyond the table. Every thing being thus arranged, the following experi- ments were made : — 8 Mr Barlow on the Effect of Rotation on the Needle. With the Ball. Rate of Rotation, 640 per minute. Experi- ments. Reading of the needle with the ball at rest. Deflection, motion to the left. Deflection, motion to the right. Mean de- flection. 1 0° 0/ 27° W 29° W 28° & 2 + 1 0 28 0 29 0 28 30 3 — 0 30 28 0 29 30 28 45 4 0 0 28 30 29 0 28 45 5 0 0 27 30 29 30 28 0 6 + 1 0 27 30 29 0 28 15 7 —0 30 27 30 29 0 28 15 8 + 1 0 28 30 29 0 28 45 Experi- ments. 1 2 General mean deflection, 28° 24;. With the Shell Rate of Rotation 640 per minute. Reading of the needle with the shell at rest. 30' 0 0 0 30 30 30 0 +0° 0 + 1 0 — 0 +o +o 0 Deflection turning to the left. 14° 45' 15 0 15 30 15 30 15 0 15 30 15 0 15 0 Deflection turning to the right. 15° 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 W 0 0 30 0 30 0 0 Mean de- flection. 14° m 15 0 15 15 15 30 15 0 15 30 15 0 15 0 General mean deflection, 15° 5; Under like circumstances, therefore, the deflection of the ball was - 28° 24' Do. of the shell - - - 15 5 Which is very nearly in the proportion of their respective masses. These results were observed under more favourable circum- stances than those I sent to M. Poisson ; and although, from the heavy and cumbrous nature of the apparatus, they can- not be said to possess all that accuracy which is necessary for submitting a refined mathematical theory to experimental test M. Saint-Hilaire on the Females of' Pheasants, cj-c 9 yet the difference is so marked as to leave no doubt of the main fact, that a very different result is obtained when* the bodies are in motion, notwithstanding their equal powers when at rest, which is, indeed, all I engaged to ascertain. I have not at present had the pleasure of seeing M. Poisson's nume- rical deductions, nor any sketch of his theory beyond what was contained in your last number ; it will therefore be very gratifying to me if it should be found, when the theory and experiments are compared, that the agreement is as close as from the nature of the operation we have any just reason to expect. Royal Military Academy, 28d October 1826. Art. III. — On the Females of Pheasants which assume the plumage of the male. By M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire. * The name of Faisans Coquards is applied by sportsmen to those pheasants whose plumage is tarnished and discoloured, but in its colours resembles that of the male. It was long be- lieved, and an inspection of their colours naturally led to the idea, that these Jhisans coquards were males suffering under sickness or in a bad state of plumage ; on the contrary, it is now nearly half a century since we have been aware of the facts that these birds are females ; a circumstance partly de- tected by those who have reared them in a tame state, and observed their developement, and partly by anatomical dis- sections. The true sex of these pretended males was ascer- tained both by Vicq-d'Azyr and Mauduit. Mauduit, the author of the ornithological department of the Encyclopedic Methodique, is hitherto the only writer who has furnished us with information on this interesting fact.— ■ (See Article Orniihologie of that work, t. ii. p. 3.) u One fact in their history," says this philosopher, " known to sportsmen, but I believe not mentioned by naturalists, is too important to be omitted. Aged females, who have pro- l Translated from the Annates des Sciences Naturelles. 10 M. Sain t-Hil aire on the Females of Pheasants bably obtained the age of five or six years, not only cease to be prolific, or are so in a very slight degree, but assume a plumage which becomes more and more similar to that of the male the older they grow, so that they resemble males with dull and discoloured plumage." He informs us afterwards, that he dissected a coquard about 1770 ; that Vicq-d'Azyr subsequently dissected many, and that all were females, in which the ovary was, to use his own words, u so much obliterated as to elude their search." He also adds, that a ranger of the forest of Saint Germain had dis- covered that old pheasant hens which had ceased to lay ac- quired a good deal of the male plumage. " This fact," he observes in conclusion, " has doubtless escaped observation in jaisanderies, because there only young females are kept ; but the phenomenon has been since verified in the female of the golden pheasant of China, (Phasianus pictus, L.) because these rare birds are preserved as long as possible." Such are the observations of Mauduit, who, it is evident, has confined himself to the change of plumage ; and no one since his time has bestowed any attention upon this interest- ing physiological phenomenon, which has even been noticed in very few works devoted to ornithology. I am, therefore, induced to publish some analogous facts which I have collect- ed, and which I regard as sufficiently interesting, and more complete, from being the experience of a greater number of years. By means of this advantage, I shall be enabled to bring forward various details connected with the change of plumage, and to show that the passage which Mauduit had only seen to be partially effected, is sometimes full and com- plete. My observations have been made upon the pencilled phea- sant {Phasianus nycthemerus^) the collar'd pheasant (P. tor- quatus,) and the common pheasant (P. colchicus.) 1. The common Pheasant. — The female of this species was reared in the faisanderie of the museum. She ceased to lay at the age of about five years, and the change of plumage be- gan to be developed about the same period. It became first apparent on the belly, which acquired a more yellow tint, and upon the neck, the colours of which became more lively ; in a which assume the Plumage of the Male. 11 short time the whole body exhibited a change. The follow- ing year the colour of the feathers assumed much more of the liveliness and splendour of those of the male bird, and from that time it might be said that the hen resembled a cock-phea- sant whose plumage was dull and discoloured. The third year, however, exhibited the change so much more perfectly, that it became impossible not to commit mistakes in regard to the sex, when the plumage alone was regarded, above all, when no male pheasant was by ; for the resemblance was very great, yet not entirely complete. Such was the state of the plumage of this female at eight years of age ; she partook freely of her food, and enjoyed good health, and every thing appeared to favour the anticipa- tion of perfect male plumage the following year. By some accident, however, she was killed. She had always lived like the other hen pheasants with the cocks, but after the change had become visible in her plumage, she became altogether an indifferent object to them. She herself, at the same time, neither sought them nor avoided them, but associated with them in manner and exterior. At the time of her death, her plumage was so near that of the male, that persons accustomed to see and even breed phea- sants, were deceived, and pronounced it a dead male pheasant. Nevertheless, the resemblance was not complete, as we shall see by the following observations. % The pencilled Pheasant — The present species excited much interest, inasmuch as the observations were more com- plete, having been continued for four years and a half. The preceding example I have brought forward chiefly to assist in illustrating the general circumstances attending a change of plumage, and the period of time necessary for its perfect de- velopement. This female had been reared in company with a male at a country house of an old friend of my family, M. Montard, notary in Paris, but in her old age was presented to the mu- seum. She did not begin to exhibit any change till she was eight or ten years of age ; much later, therefore, than the common pheasant I have noticed. Another remarkable circumstance 12 M. Saint-Hilaire on the Females of Pheasants is, that she had ceased to lay eggs three or four years before the change became apparent ; whereas the common phea- sant ceased to lay and to assume the change about the same time. Some white feathers which appeared among the brown ones of the perfect state, announced the first approach towards a masculine character in the plumage. The passage was more conspicuous the following season ; but the change could not in reality be affirmed to have been effected till the third year. In the fourth year, the resemblance became complete ; the tuft and the tail were even elongated to the masculine proportion, while they acquired the brightest colours ; and this fact de- serves notice, that we not only see the colours change, but their natural proportions likewise. In the fifth year, the si- milarity was identical, and the hen-pheasant was to all ap- pearance a cock ornamented with the most brilliant plumage. The male bird lived till the period when the change began to appear in the female ; and, probably, in consequence of being his only companion, he did not then regard her with in- difference. She, on the contrary, fled from him, appearing sometimes annoyed by his presence. Nevertheless, when the male died, she seemed to be weary of her solitary situation, and on this account was presented to the museum, where she was kept for some time. But the infirmities of old age coming on, and her death appearing to be not far distant, she was killed, in order that her skin might be preserved before the feathers became injured by the effect of some disease. At this time she had lived thirteen or fourteen years, and four years and six months had elapsed since the change in the plumage commenced. She resembled a male minutely in the finest state of plumage, — a fact which any one may convince himself of, by inspecting the specimen prepared from the skin, in the zoological galleries of the museum. Care has been taken, also, to preserve the sexual organs ; their dissection demonstrated, by the side of the persistent ovary, two little bodies, apparently the vestiges of the last ovules which escaped from the ovarian sac. The aduterum of an ovate form was very distinct. It is important to note the pre- sence of the ovary, on account of the observations of Mauduit and Vicq-d'Azyr on this subject. The feathers of the years which assume the Plumage of the Male. 13 preceding the last moult were preserved by those who first possessed the bird, and it is owing to this circumstance, as well as to the memoranda with which they furnished me, that I have been enabled to bring forward many of the above de- tails. 3. The Collared Pheasant — The female of the collared pheasant, whose history we have now to relate, was reared like the preceding, by a private individual near Paris, and was in like manner presented to the Museum in its old age. The donor mentioned that she had produced eggs several times with him ; nevertheless, as the change of plumage was already far advanced, and she presented rather the characters of the male than the female, it was thought necessary, after her death, to ascertain the actual sex, by a dissection of the genital or- gans. The colours were in effect very similar to those of the male, as may be seen by consulting the specimen itself, in the gal- leries of the museum. Yet the upper wing and tail covers were red like the rest of the body, the collar less marked, and the belly much less black than in the male ; so that the resem- blance was by no means so exact as in the preceding example. Thus we should not have admitted this case, which we did not examine in the living state, and consequently did not trace the developement, if it had not excited in another re- spect considerable interest. The spur — a character peculiar to the male sex — was present in this bird, and even almost as large as in a vigorous perfect male. We find, therefore, that the spur itself is not, among phea- sants, the exclusive property of the male, but exists occasion- ally in the female ; and that a hen-pheasant may, after a cer- tain lapse of time, not only become clothed with the exact plumage of the male, but acquire all the external characters, the trifling developement of the red circum-orbital membrane remaining the only index of its true sex. The voice of the old female changes at the same time as her plumage, and becomes, as has been long known, like that of the male. Country people are well acquainted with this fact in the common fowl. It ought, however, to be here remarked, that it is by no 14 M. Saint-Hilaire on the Females of Pheasants means rare to see the spur developed, as an anomaly among the females of species, where the males only are ordinarily fur- nished with that organ, especially among common fowls. But in this case, besides the spur being mostly much smaller, it has generally the appearance of an anomalous organ. Thus the two spurs are very unequal, and sometimes even, when one heel is armed with a very large spur, the other is alto- gether without any. It consequently happens, that a female may often be distinguished from the male, though in other respects resembling him, by the anomalous formation of the spur. As the pheasant can be domesticated like the common fowl, and approximates to it very nearly in organization, it is natu- ral to conclude, that the spur would present similar pheno- mena. And so it proved in the hen of the collared pheasant, the left spur was developed much more than the right ; it was slender, and the surface, as it were, tuberculated. Be this as it may, the possibility of the complete change of plumage in one species — a fact neither observed by Mauduit, nor by any other ornithologist — being well established, are we authorized to conclude, that it may equally take place in other species, not only of the pheasant, but of other genera ? I conceive we can scarcely hesitate to answer in the affirma- tive, as far as the species of one genus are concerned, since we have seen the change perfected in one instance, and partly perfected in two others. Taking analogy for our guide, we should be tempted to extend very considerably this conclu- sion ; and there are, indeed, many circumstances which come in support of it Thus many travellers have descriptions, which can only be explained by the supposition that they have spoken of females more or less clothed with male plu- mage. M. Dufresne, who is at the head of the zoological la- boratory of the museum, has assured me, that the females of the genus Ampelis resemble the males in old age. M. Flo- rent Prevost has witnessed the commencement of a change of plumage in many females of Fringilla ; and the same obser- vation has been made upon the female of the Rouge-queue, * • This name has been applied by the French to several birds ; and as the author does not give the scientific name, we are afraid to fix upon any- particular individual. which assume the plumage of the Male. 15 and upon that of the common starling. Lastly, we may re- mark, that analogous facts prevail, even in animals of a very different organization, not to mention the human race. Among women, after the cessation of the catamenia, the chin and up- per lip become furnished with a true beard, — a phenomenon which no one can deny to be of a similar nature with the de- velopement of the plumage in the hen pheasant. We should be wrong, however, notwithstanding these re- markable analogies, to pronounce this phenomenon to be a ge- neral fact ; for there are birds in which it has never been ob- served. Thus, though the number of pea-hens is consider- able in the menagerie of the museum, and though these birds are always suffered to die a natural death, and consequently often of old age, it has never occurred that a change of plu- mage was remarked ; whereas, in the pheasant it is so fre- quent that I could have cited many more instances. Twelve or fifteen years ago, a female of the common species nearly completed her change in the museum, and I have seen it often myself commenced in the hen golden pheasant. It is worthy of remark, that the peacock and the pheasant, though differing greatly in the point on which we have been comparing them, belong, nevertheless, to the same group, GallinacEjE, and are even nearly related genera, a fact which renders the example more striking. It remains also to be noticed, that the young male phea- sant and the hen commencing her change, are similarly situat- ed in regard to plumage ; it is the same in both, and both in a certain period, more or less distant, will acquire the perfect adult male plumage. The same change will therefore be effected in each bird, and it would be natural to suppose, that it would take place in the same manner, differing only in ra- pidity, the male in a few months passing through that which occupies the female a certain number of years. This, how- ever, is not the fact. It will be sufficient to compare the de- scriptions given by ornithologists of the young male, with the details I have brought forward belonging to old females, to perceive, that, in both cases, the change is effected in a differ- ent manner, and that in fact it is almost impossible to deter- mine whether a hen, in whom the change has commenced, has 16 Dr Rose on Zinkenite, a new Mineral Species. the plumage of a young cock of such or such an age. It is remarkable, that such a diversity should exist among circum- stances tending to produce the same end. The observations of Mauduit had already shown, that hen pheasants resembled the males in their old age ; that the change in the plumage is gradually produced, and more decided, as age advances; and that the ovary is so much obliterated in many of such females, as to be no longer perceptible. It should be presumable, that those in whom the ovary had thus disappeared, were the examples in which the plumage was most changed, which is not the case ; for this organ was not found in females imperfectly resembling males, while I have seen it, in the instance we have described, where the resem- blance was absolutely perfect. To these facts my observations have contributed the follow- ing additional ones : — that the change of plumage commences in some females later than in others — that it may either manifest itself some years after the female ceases laying, (though it de- pends more or less directly on this phenomenon,) or concide with that cessation — that it occurs usually in the fourth year, when the change is perfected, and that the female has then- not only the colours, but the splendour of the male — that, like him, she may exhibit spurs — that the progression from dull, to the brilliant plumage of the adult male, is effected differently in the young male and in the old female, although the result be precisely the same ; — and lastly, that the change of plumage in old females among birds, is not a general fact ; and that, be- cause it has been remarked in one genus, it does not even cer- tainly exist in other genera of the same family ; while, on the other side, many other distant groups appear to afford ex- amples of this remarkable phenomenon. Having given the facts regarding the change of plumage in the hen-pheasant, as detailed by M. Saint-Hilaire, it may be proper to state, that such changes of plumage are by no means confined to this species of bird. In a paper on this subject in the Wernerian Transactions, by Mr John Butter, (vol. iii. p. 183,) which M. Saint-Hilaire does not appear to have seen, a number of facts are recorded of the plumage in female birds Dr Rose on Zinkeniie, a New Mineral Species. 17 changing in age to that of the male. Mr John Hunter had previously noticed this change in the hen-pheasant and pea-hen, in a Memoir published in the Philosophical Transactions, also unnoticed by M. Saint-Hilaire ; and Mr Butter has collected a number of instances, not only among the Gallince, but also among the Palmipedes and Waders, of similar changes. A figure of the common domestic hen in the plumage of the male, illustrates Mr Butter's paper ; and the circumstance of the female of this species when aged, essaying to crow like the cock, is a fact known in every poultry-yard in this country. A vulgar prejudice permits not the change in plumage to be carried further ; for a crowing- hen being accounted unlucky, the death of the animal always follows this incipient change. A specimen of a pea-hen beginning to assume the male plu- mage, is, we believe, in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh. Mr John Hunter regards this change in the female plumage as monstrous ; but Mr Butter, with more ap- pearance of truth, is disposed to consider " that this change of plumage in old hens, is not confined to one, two, or three different species, but that probably the same disposition is common to numbers of the feathered race ;" — " and that the change is almost always natural, produced either by the effects of age, of sterility, or other causes which tend to work some changes in the constitution of birds." Art IV. — On Zinkenite, a New Mineral Species. By Dr Gustavus Rose. Communicated by the Author. Ihe shape of the crystals of Zinkenite most nearly resembles Plate I. Fig. 3, which is a regular six-sided prism (M,) termi- nated by obtuse six-sided pyramids, (P,) whose faces are set on the edges of the prism. The following are the principal measures of the angles, cal- culated from the admeasurement given = 150° 36', upon the supposition of the prism being a regular one. if on M = 120° 0'. P on M - 102° m. P on P (adjacent) = 165° 2Gf. P on P (over the apex) — 150° W. VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. ]827. B 18 Dr Rose on Zinkenite, a New Mineral Species. The faces marked M are usually deeply striated in a longi- tudinal direction ; the inclined faces, though not streaked, are uneven, and by no means smooth. The fracture is uneven, and does not present any traces of cleavage. The lustre is very bright metallic ; the colour of the crystals themselves, and of their powder, is steel-grey. The hardness is between 3.0 and 3.5, a little more consi- derable than that of calcareous spar. The specific gravity I found = 5.303, at a temperature of 10° R. Another experi- ment gave 5.310, at a temperature of 10 \°. The crystals are aggregated in groups presenting a colum- nar composition ; they occur on massive varieties of the same species, in massive quartz. Their length often exceeds half an inch, their breadth two or three lines, but frequently they are also very thin, and form together fibrous masses. When heated alone before the blowpipe on charcoal, the Zinkenite briskly decrepitates, and melts as easily as the grey antimony. Small metallic globules are formed, which are en- tirely volatile, on the blast being continued, while the char- coal is covered with a white coating of oxide of lead, and at a little greater distance from the globules with a white perfectly volatile coating of oxide of antimony. In the mattress it de- crepitates and melts ; near the assay a small quantity of the same kind of black sublimate is formed, as when we treat the grey antimony in the same manner ; at a little greater dis- tance, a yellow substance is deposited, which becomes white on cooling, and may be entirely volatilized. When heated in a glass tube, it decrepitates and melts ; a dense white smoke fills the tube, and is condensed in the colder parts of the tube, but this deposit cannot be entirely volatilized. Near the as- say a melted yellow mass of oxide of lead is visible. The air passing through the tube has a strong smell of sulphu- rous acid. With soda, the mineral yields many globules of metallic lead. Zinkenite is found in the antimony mine of Wolfsberg, near Stolberg, in the south-eastern part of the Hartz. Several years ago, the specimens of the mineral described above, were given to me by Mr Zinken, the director of the Anhalt mines ; in compliment to him, I propose the name of Dr Rose mi Zinkenite, a New Mineral Species. 19 Zinkentie. Mr Zinken himself has given an account of most of its characters in his " Description of the Eastern Hartz? along with some experiments by the blowpipe, proving the mineral to contain sulphur, antimony, and lead, with a little copper. I had delayed publishing the description of the spe- cies, chiefly because I expected to receive a farther supply of specimens, which might have allowed of a more exact deter- mination of the regular forms. I am inclined to think that the six-sided prism M is not a regular one, but an assemblage of several individuals, after the same law, which occurs in ar- ragonite. The exact admeasurement of the angles is very difficult, particularly on account of the numerous longitudi- nal striae. In some crystals, however, where these striae be- gin only at some distance from the edge, I constantly found the angle to exceed 120°, and the mean of two, the most dis- tinct I met with, was 120° 39'. If no attention be given to the striae, the angles will be found varying from 118J0 to 124J°. The crystalline form of each of the individuals, taken separately, seems therefore to be a rhombic prism of 120° 39^ [M) terminated by two planes (P,) making over the edge an angle of 150° 36' with each other. They are set on the obtuse edges of the prism, as in Fig. 4. The mode of their regular composition is represented in Fig. 5. Two individuals are joined to a third in such a manner, that their planes M' and Mfl coincide with the planes M and M9 of that individual to which they are attached. Supposing the individuals to be prolonged beyond their faces of composition, a form will en- sue, resembling a six-sided prism ; but on two faces, opposite to each other, there will be slightly salient angles of 178° 3', while the six angles are each equal to 120° 39'. Of the six ter- minal edges between the faces marked P, four are equal to 165° 30' each ; and two others slightly differing from them cor- respond to the obtuse salient angles formed on two of the la- teral planes of the prism. The inclination of P on M is = 102° 427. I found by measurement 102° 34/— 102° 49'. The difference among the terminal edges would be decisive, if we were not prevented from observing it, by the unevenness of the faces. Generally I could measure only one of them, and in no instance all the six ; they were found about 165° 40* to SO Mr Wardrop's case of a Lady Born Blinds who 165° 5(y. With a somewhat higher degree of precision, I sometimes found the inclination of two faces over the apex = 150° 36', as is given above. Besides the alternation of par- ticles of the individuals, the stria? may likewise be owing to some additional faces, which replace the acute edges of the prism, and have therefore nearly the same situation as the faces of the six-sided prism. Zinkenite bears a high degree of resemblance to the grey antimony, though it is at once distinguished from it by the bright cleavage of the latter, parallel to the short diagonal of a rhombic prism of about 90^°, by its lower degree of hard- ness, which is equal only to 2.0, or the hardness of rock-salt, and by its lower specific gravity, which, according to Mohs, is only = 4.620. As to colour, hardness, and fracture, it greatly resembles Bournonite, but it differs in its regular form, though belonging to the same system of crystallization,' be- sides some slight, yet easily perceptible shades, even in the colour, which is darker in Bournonite, and approaches to blackish lead-grey, while the hardness is somewhat lower, only 2.5 to 3.0 of the scale of Mohs, a little below calca- reous spar. Art. V. — On the Case of a Lady Bom Blind, who received Sight at an Advanced Age by the Formation of an Artifi- cial Pupil.* By James Wardrop, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. Surgeon Extraordinary to the King. The lady, whose case forms the subject of this paper, was observed, during the first months of her infancy, to have something peculiar in the appearance of her eyes, and an unu- sual groping manner, which made her parents suspect that she had defective vision. When about six months old, she was placed under the care of a Parisian oculist, who performed an operation on both her eyes, with a view to afford her sight. The operation on the right eye was, however, followed by * This Article is abridged, though very slightly, from the original Me- moir, which will appear in the next part of the Philosophical Transactions. —En. received Sight by the formation of' an artificial Pupil. 21" violent inflammation, and a collapse of the eye-ball, thus caus- ing a complete destruction of the organ of vision. The ope- ration on the left eye, though equally unsuccessful in attain- ing its object, was not followed by any alteration in the form or size of the globe. From the above early period she had continued totally blind, being able merely to distinguish a very light from a very dark room, but without having the power to perceive even the si- tuation of the window through which the light entered ; though in sunshine or in bright moonlight, she knew the direction from whence the light emanated. With regard therefore to the degree of sight, this lady was more completely blind than the boy in the celebrated case related by Mr Cheselden, in the 35th volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society ; for in that instance the boy knew black, white, and scarlet apart from one another ; and when in a good light he had that degree of sight, which generally continues in an eye affected with cataract ; whereas in this lady, the pupil being complete- ly shut up, no light could reach the retina, except such rays as could pass through the substance of the iris. When she was placed under my care she had reached her for- ty-sixth year. The right eye-ball was collapsed, but the left re- tained its natural globular form. The cornea of this eye was transparent, except at one point near its circumference, where there was a linear opacity, which had probably been the cica- trix of the wound made during the operation in her infancy^ The anterior chamber of the eye was of its natural capacity, but I could not distinguish any vestige of a pupil, some streaks of yellow lymph being deposited in an irregular manner over the central part of the iris. There was every reason to be- lieve that the retina was sound ; for though she could not perceive objects, nor had any notion of colours, yet the cir- cumstance already mentioned of her being able to distinguish between a very light and a very dark chamber, and between a gloomy day and sunshine, rendered it probable that the nerve was in a sound and natural state. Under this impres- sion, I thought that the restoration of her sight by making an artificial pupil was practicable, and certainly well worthy of a trial. Accordingly, on the £6th of January, I introduced a 22 Mr Wardrop's case of a Lady Born BUnd, who very small needle through the cornea, passing it also through the centre of the iris ; but I could not destroy any of the ad- hesions which had shut up the pupillar opening. After this operation she said she could distinguish more light, but she could perceive neither forms nor colours. On the 8th of February, a second operation was performed, which consisted in passing a sharp edged needle through the sclerotica, bringing its point through the iris into the anterior chamber, repassing it into the posterior chamber at a small distance, and then dividing the portion of iris thus included between the two perforations of the needle. Only a very slight inflammation followed, — the light became offensive to her, — she complained of its brightness, and was frequently ob- served trying to see her hands ; but it was evident her vision was very imperfect ; for although there was an incision made in the iris, some opaque matter lay behind this opening, which must have greatly obstructed the entrance of light. On the 17th of February, a third operation was performed, which consisted in still further enlarging the opening in the iris, and in removing the opaque matter, by a needle intro- duced through the sclerotica. This was followed by a very slight degree of redness. The operation being performed at my house, she returned home in a carriage, with her eye co- vered only with a loose piece of silk, and the first thing she noticed was a hackney coach passing, when she exclaimed, " What is that large thing that has passed by us ?" In the course of the evening she requested her brother to show her his watch, concerning which she expressed much curiosity, and she looked at it a considerable time, holding it close to her eye. She was asked what she saw, and she said there was a dark and a bright side ; she pointed to the hour of 12, and smiled. Her brother asked her if she saw any thing more ? 6he replied, " Yes,'1 and pointed to the hour of 6, and to the hands of the watch. She then looked at the chain and seals, and observed that one of the seals was bright, which was the case, being a solid piece of rock crystal. The following day I asked her to look again on the watch, which she refused to do, saying, that the light was offensive to her eye, and that she felt very stupid ; meaning that she was much confused by received Sight by the formation of an artificial Pupil. 2$ the visible world thus for the first time opened to her. On the third day she observed the doors on the opposite side of the street, and asked if they were red, but they were in fact of an oak colour. In the evening she looked at her brother's face, and said that she saw his nose ; he asked her to touch it, which she did ; he then slipped a handkerchief over his face, and asked her to look again, when she playfully pulled it off, and asked, " What is that ?" On the sixth day, she told us that she saw better than she had done on any preceding day ; " but I cannot tell what I do see ; I am quite stupid." She seemed indeed bewildered from not being able to combine the knowledge acquired by the senses of touch and sight, and felt disappointed in not having the power of distinguishing at once by her eye, objects which she could so readily distinguish from one another by feeling them. On the seventh day she took notice of the mistress of the house in which she lodged, and observed that she was tall. She asked what the colour of her gown was ? to which she was answered, that it was blue : " so is that thing on your head," she then observed ; which was the case : M and your handkerchief, that is a different colour ;" which was also cor- rect. She added, " I see you pretty well, I think." The tea- cups and saucers underwent an examination : " what are they like ?" her brother asked her. " I don't know," she replied ; " they look very queer to me ; but I can tell what they are in a minute when I touch them." She distinguished an orange on the chimney-piece, but could form no notion of what it was till she touched it. She seemed now to have become more cheerful, and entertained greater expectation of comfort from her admission into the visible world ; and she was very san- guine that she would find her newly acquired faculty of more use to her when she returned home, where every thing was familiar to her. On the eighth day, she asked her brother, when at dinner, " what he was helping himself to ?" and when she was told it was a glass of port wine, she replied, " port wine is dark, and looks to me very ugly." She observed, when candles were brought into the room, her brother's face in the mirror, 84 Mr Wardrop's case of a Lady Born Blind, who as well as that of a lady who was present ; she also walked, for the first time without assistance, from her chair to a sofa which was on the opposite side of the room, and back again to the chair. When at tea, she took notice of the tray, ob- served the shining of the japan work, and asked " what the colour was round the edge ?" she was told that it was yellow ; upon which she remarked, " I will know that again." On the ninth day she came down stairs to breakfast, in great spirits ; she said to her brother, " I see you very well to-day ;" and came up to him, and shook hands. She also observed a ticket on a window of a house on the opposite side of the street (" a lodging to let ;") and her brother, to con- vince himself of her seeing it, took her to the window three several times, and to his surprise and gratification, she point- ed it out to him distinctly on each trial. She spent a great part of the eleventh day looking out of the window, and spoke very little. On the twelfth day she was advised to walk out, which recommendation pleased her much. Mr called on her, and she told him she felt quite happy. Her brother walked out with her as her guide, and took her twice round the piazzas of Covent-Garden. She appeared much surprised, but apparently delighted ; the clear blue sky first attracted her notice, and she said, " it is the prettiest thing I have ever seen yet, and equally pretty every time I turn round and look at it." She distinguished the street from the foot pave- ment distinctly, and stepped from one to the other like a per- son accustomed to the use of her eyes. Her great curiosity, and the manner in which she stared at the variety of objects, and pointed to them, exciting the observation of many by- standers, her brother soon conducted her home, much against her will. On the thirteenth day nothing particular took place till tea- time, when she observed that there was a different tea-tray, and that it was not a pretty one, but had a dark border ; which was a correct description. Her brother asked her to look in the mirror, and tell him if she saw his face in it ? to which she answered, evidently disconcerted, " I see my own ; let me go away." received Sight by the formation of an artificial Pupil. 25 She drove in a carriage, on the fourteenth day, four miles on the Wandsworth road ; admired most the sky and the fields, noticed the trees, and likewise the river Thames as she crossed Vauxhall bridge. At this time it was bright sun- shine, and she said something dazzled her when she looked on the water. On the fifteenth day, being Sunday, she walked to a chapel at some distance, and now evidently saw more distinctly, but appeared more confused than when her sight was less perfect. The people passing on the pavement startled her ; and once when a gentleman was going past her, who had a white waist- coat and a blue coat with yellow buttons, which the sunshine brought full in her view, she started so as to draw her brother, who was walking with her^ off the pavement. She distinguish- ed the clergyman moving his hands in the pulpit, and ob- served that he held something in them ; this was a white hand- kerchief. She went in a coach, on the sixteenth day, to pay a visit in a distant part of the town, and appeared much entertained with the bustle in the streets. On asking her how she saw on that day ? she answered, " I see a great deal, if I could only tell what I do see ; but surely I am very stupid." Nothing particular took place on the seventeenth day ; and when her brother asked her how she was ? she replied, M I am well, and see better ; but don't tease me with too many questions, till I have learned a little better bow to make use of my eye. All that I can say is, that I am sure, from what I do see, a great change has taken place ; but I cannot de- scribe what I feel."" Eighteen days after the last operation had been performed, I attempted to ascertain by a few experiments her precise no- tions of the colour, size, forms, position, motions and dis- tances of external objects. As she could only see with one eye, nothing could be ascertained respecting the question of double vision. She evidently saw the difference of colours ; that is, she received and was sensible of different impressions from different colours. When pieces of paper one and a half inch square, differently coloured, were presented to her, she not only distinguished them at once from one another, but 26 Mr Wardrop's case of a Lady Born Bli?id9 who gave a decided preference to some colours, liking yellow most, and then pale pink. It may be here mentioned, that when desirous of examining an object, she had considerable diffi- culty in directing her eye to it, and finding out its position, moving her hand as well as her eye in various directions, as a person when blind-folded, or in the dark, gropes with his hands for what he wishes to touch. She also distinguished a large from a small object, when they were both held up be- fore her for comparison. She said she saw different forms in various objects which were shown to her. On asking what she meant by different forms, such as long, round and square, and desiring her to draw with her finger these forms on her other hand, and then presenting to her eye the respective forms, she pointed to them exactly : she not only distinguish- ed small from large objects, but knew what was meant by above and below ; to prove which, a figure drawn with ink was placed before her eye, having one end broad, and the other narrow, and she saw the positions as they really were, and not inverted. She could also perceive motions ; for when a glass of water was placed on the table before her, on ap- proaching her hand near it, it was moved quickly to a greater distance, upon which she immediately said, " You move it ; you take it away." She seemed to have the greatest difficulty in finding out the distance of any object ; for when an object was held close to her eye, she would search for it by stretching her hand far beyond its position, while on other occasions she groped close to her own face, for a thing far removed from her. She learned with facility the names of the different colours, and two days after the coloured papers had been shown to her, on coming into a room the colour of which was crimson, she observed that it was red. She also observed some pic- tures hanging on the red wall of the room in which she was sitting, distinguishing several small figures in them, but not knowing what they represented, and admiring the gilt frames. On the same day, she walked round the pond in the centre of St James's Square, and was pleased with the glistening of the sun's rays on the water, as well as with the blue sky and green shrubs, the colours of which she named correctly. received Sight by the formation of an artificial Pupil. 27 It may be here observed, that she had yet acquired by the use of her sight but very little knowledge of any forms, and was unable to apply the information gained by this new sense, and to compare it with what she had been accustomed to ac- quire by her sense of touch. When, therefore, the experi- ment was made of giving her a silver pencil case and a large key to examine with her hands ; she discriminated and knew each distinctly ; but when they were placed on the table, side by side, though she distinguished each with her eye, yet she could not tell which was the pencil case and which was the key. Nothing farther occurred in the history of this lady's case worthy of notice till the twenty-fifth day after the operation. On that day she drove in a carriage for an hour in the Regent's Park, and on her way there seemed more amused than usual, and asked more questions about the objects surrounding her, such as " What is that ?" it is a soldier, she was answered ; tc and that, see ! see !" these were candles of various colours at a tallow chandler's window. * Who is that, that has passed us just now?" it was a person on horseback : " but what is that on the pavement, red ?" it was some ladies who wore red shawls. On going into the Park, she was asked what she saw particularly, or if she could guess what any of the objects were. u Oh yes," she replied, " there is the sky, that is the grass ; yonder is water, and two white things ;" which were two swans. On coming home along Piccadilly, the jewellers' shops seemed to surprise her much, and her expressions made those around her laugh heartily. From this period till the time of her leaving London on the 31st of March, being forty-two days after the operation, she continued almost daily to gain more information of the visible world, but she had yet much to learn. She had acquired a pretty accurate notion of colours and their different shades and names ; and when she came to pay me a farewell visit, she then wore a gown, the first of her own choice, with the light purple colour of which she seemed highly gratified, as well as with her cap, which was ornamented with red ribbons. She had not yet acquired any thing like an accurate knowledge of distance or of forms, and up to this period she continued to 28 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey be very much confused with every object at which she looked. Neither was she yet able, without considerable difficulty and numerous fruitless trials, to direct her eye to an object; so that when she attempted to look at any thing, she turned her head in various directions, until her eye caught the object of which it was in search. She still entertained however the same hope which she expressed soon after the operation, that when she got home her knowledge of external things would be more accurate and intelligible, and that when she came to look at those objects which had been so long familiar to her touch, the confusion which the multiplicity of external objects now caused, would in a great measure subside. Art. VI. — Account of a Survey of the Valley of the Setlej River , in the Himalaya Mountains. From the Journal of Captain Alexander Gerard, Surveyor to the Board of Commissioners. (Concluded from Vol. V. p. 288.) Not being able to prevail upon the Tartars to allow them to proceed a step further, the travellers unwillingly began their return (27th of July.) They again traversed the Keubrang pass, and repeated their barometric measurement of it with the same result; halted at Rishi Talam, 15,200 feet high, two miles from their former stage at Zongchin, and proceeded by the Gangtang pass to Rishi Irpu, on the H6ch6 river. At the limit of vegetation (16,600 feet above the sea) it commenced snowing, and they were involved in a dense haze : the guides missed their way, knew not how to proceed, and became alarmed. They halted, therefore, for a while ; and, the clouds clearing away for an instant, Messrs Gerard got sight of a shaghar, or pile of stones, the bearing of which they took ; and being surrounded by mist, steered towards it bv a pocket compass. The ascent was steep, and they often scram- bled over sharp-pointed rocks. They proceeded a mile and a half, guided by the compass; and the lower clouds clearing away, they found themselves within half a mile of the shaghar. The summit of the pass was measured barometrically, 18,295 feet above the sea. of the Valley of the Setlej River. 29 A stream, that unites with the Tagld, lay upon the left the oreater part of the way ascending the pass ; they descended it along the Hocho, which comes from the left, where there is a great expanse of snow. They followed its course to Rishi Irpu. The valley is generally half a mile broad. The river is picturesque : in one part a clear and shallow stream, in ano- ther it thunders over rocks in a succession of sparkling cascades. There are several arches of snow over it. In several places its course was partly arrested by rocks from above. It is concealed for a considerable space by a huge pile of stones, and it forces its way underneath, bursting forth in a large body of water. In other places it forms large deep lakes, and leaps over the embankments, with tremendous noise, in sheets of white spray. Limestone, which had been the prevailing rock since they first met with it in the vicinity of Zongchen, near the Tdgld, became more rare as they approached Irpu, and disappeared near that place. It is there succeeded by mica slate. Next day they proceeded down the valley of the Hocho to Ddbling, a place visited likewise in the preceding year, in sight of the Setlej, and of the village of Put, on its banks. By the way they passed the highest cultivation yet seen, con- sisting of barley, phapur, and turnips, at an elevation of 13,600 feet above the sea. A little lower, the ground was covered with thyme, sage, and many other aromatic plants, be- sides juniper, sweet-briar and gooseberries. At Put there are vineyards and groves of apricots : at Ddbling, much cultiva- tion, and plantations of apricots and walnuts. After a halt of four days for astronomical observations, du- ring which time the temperature was warm, varying from 61° at sunrise to 85° at noon, the wind blowing very strongly from the S. W., and the sky frequently obscured with light clouds attended with a little rain ; they moved (4th August) along the banks of the Setlej, or in the bed of the river, to Namgia. On the right margin of the river, the mass of rock (granite) is so steep, and the fracture so fresh, as to give it the appearance of having been recently broken. Several temporary huts, perched high among the crags across SO Captain Gerard's AccoutU of a Survey i the river, are the summer residence of the hunters of Hango, who roam among the rocks in quest of deer. Khab, a village of but two houses, a mile from Namgta, is immediately opposite the junction of the IA or Spiti river, one of the largest tributaries of the Setlej, having its source in Ladak. The cheeks of the gulf (solid granite) seem perfectly mural for many hundred feet ; one of the arms of the Pargeul mountain limits the left side of the channel of the Spiti. The contrast between the two streams is striking : the Spiti issues from its almost subterraneous concealment in a calm blue deep body, to meet the Setlej, which is an absolute torrent, thun- dering over the stones in deafening clamour. Namgta, containing eight houses, is the last or most eastern village in Basehar : the houses are built of granite, but their structure ill accords with the durability of the materials. The want of forests, to supply the timber necessary to give union to the walls, is the source of the bad workmanship : the gra- nite blocks resist the mountaineer's rude implements. The mountains on every hand are of stupendous height. Those immediately at the back of the village exclude the sun till eight o'clock ; and the consequent deficiency of solar heat retards the ripening of the crops. They were here very back- ward : harvest was yet a month distant. It had been determined to renew an attempt of penetrating eastward, beyond the boundary of British influence, into the upper valley of the Setlej. Accordingly they marched to ShipJci, in Chinese Tartary, by the Piming pass (13,518 feet,) the boundary between Basehar and Chinese Tartary. There could scarcely be a better defined limit : in front the face of the country is entirely changed ; eastward, as far as the eye can see, gravelly mountains of a very gentle slope succeed one another. No rugged cliffs rise to view, but a bare ex- panse of elevated land, without snow, and in appearance like a Scotch heath. Just beyond the Setlej, the mighty Pargeul, an immense mass, rises to 13,500 feet above the bed of the river, more than 21,000 above the sea. To the east of it, in the same granitic range, are several sharp pinnacles, nearly as high, being more than 20,000 feet above the sea : on the S. WM at the back of the town of Shipki, is an enormous mass of the Valley of the Setlej River. 31 20,150 feet high, crowned with perpetual snow. The Shirang mountain, over which the road to Gdru leads, exceeds 18,300 feet in actual height above the sea : yet only one small stripe of snow could be detected on it with the telescope. Shipki had been twice before (in 1818 and 1820) visited by the same travellers. They now received a letter from the Garpan of Gdru (in reply to one sent by them from Zinchin,) prohibiting their advance eastward. At the same time the local authorities were instructed to furnish no provisions at any price. Messrs Gerard returned to Narngia by the lofty pass of Kongrna (16,007 feet above the sea:) it is the usual resting- place for beasts of burden. Furze and grass extend consider- ably higher on each side ; and springs rise, which form a lake at the distance of 150 yards. Intending to explore the valley of the Li or Spitz river, and penetrate by that route as far as might be found practicable, they crossed the Setlej by a jh6ld, or bridge of suspension, made of twigs twisted together. The bed of the river is here 8600 feet above the level of the sea ; the breadth of the stream is 75 feet. From the Setlej the path leads up the face of a granite range to Taz-hi-gang^ perched amidst ruins of a frightful bulk, at the height of 11,850 feet above the sea. The temple and residence of the Lamas are still 500 feet higher. Ascending upon loose rocks to the highest point of the road (13,200 feet,) they turned the extremity of the range ; and leaving the Setlej behind, bent their course to the north, having the Li or Spiti on the left, about 5000 feet below, and almost a complete precipice. The road continued at a general height of 13,000 feet, upon granite, crumbling into sand, and pro- ducing a few bushes of juniper and furze. A fine prospect suddenly opened : a village (Nakd) in the heart of abundant cultivation already yellow, with a broad sheet of water, surrounded by tall poplar, juniper, and willow trees of prodigious size, and environed by massive rocks of granite. Separate measurements, at three different times (1818, 1820, and 1821,) by excellent barometers, and the boiling point of 32 Captain Gerard's Account of' a Survey water, determine the height of Ndk6 a little more than 12,000 feet above the level of the sea : yet there are produced most luxuriant crops of barley, wheat, phapur (polygonum ?) and turnips, rising by steps to nearly 700 feet higher, where is a Lama's residence, inhabited throughout the year. The fields are partitioned by dikes of granite. At Taz-hi-gang they are enclosed by barberry and gooseberry bushes. The seasons are similar to those of our northern latitudes, the grain being sown in March and April, and reaped in August and September. Snow generally falls towards the end of October. It seldom exceeds two feet in depth, but does not leave the ground for nearly six months. Want of moisture in the air prevents its earlier descent, since the be- ginning of October is winter, under a clear sky. In the middle of October 1818, the thermometer at sunrise was seldom above 20°; now (in August) the temperature was 75° at noon, and never below 52°. The effects of particular exposures and localities towards the developement of vegetation cannot be more strongly contrast- ed than between this and Namgia ; for, although here 3000 feet higher, the crops were much further advanced. Vast ex- tent of arid surface on every side reverberates a surprising warmth, and favours an early harvest. The leaves of poplar are given to cattle. Besides these, junipers and a few willows are the only trees at this elevation. Firewood is of furze (tama) alone, and it is scarce. Messrs Gerard were desirous of verifying by trigonometric measurement the elevation of their old high station on Par- geul, just above Ndko. In 1818, Captain G. made it 19,411 feet by three barometers, which agreed exactly (14.675 inches.) In 1820 two other barometers were taken to this spot, and they showed 14.67 inches. The result of the trigonometric measurement now gave 7^447 feet above the former camp, which being 11,995 feet, makes the extreme height of the peak 19,442 feet above the level of the sea, differing 31 feet from the barometric measurement. They proceeded along the banks of the Li to Chango. Part of the road traversed a plain studded wiih enormous masses of rock, seeming, as Captain G. remarks, to have been under of the Valley of the Setlej River. 33 water at no very distant period. The road then lay along the bank of a rivulet, over water- worn stones of many sorts, and crossing the stream, enters the plain of Chango. The village is fully 10,000 feet above the sea ; but this elevation does not prevent its enjoying a sultry summer, the temperature rising to 80° in August. The situation is pleasant, unlike the rude and sterile character of the country. The seasons are at least a month earlier than at Ndko: seed-time begins in March, and harvest in July and August. Snow falls from November to March,' but it is seldom a foot in depth ; and in April and May, rain is frequent. The grain crops are those noticed at Ndko, with ogal f millet, and fine fields of turnips, pease, and beans, all well tasted. There are likewise many apricots. The plain lies east and west, in a dell, through which flow two streams, that no sooner escape from their dark and wind- ing passages, which are bounded by lofty and inaccessible crags, nearly perpendicular, than they are conducted in tamer conduits, by the industry of man, to the fields, which rise one above another in terraces. This glen is terminated on the north and south by bare thirsty ridges, on which nothing ani- mate appears. On the west is the Li or Spiti river, flowing in a tranquil expanse of bed. On the east, at the head of the plain, is a high-peaked mountain, on whose summit rests snow. The next march was to Changrezhing by the Chdrang lama pass, of which the elevation is 1 2,600 feet. Here limestone was again met with, as well as clay-slate, &c. Pebbles im- bedded in clay, and small rounded stones are numerous, all having the appearance of having been acted upon by water, although the Spiti is nearly 3000 feet below this level, and no rivulet is near. The Chdld-dokpo, a considerable stream from the eastward, extremely muddy, and rushing with incon- ceivable rapidity between perpendicular cliffs of granite and mica-slate, at an altitude of 11,400 feet above the sea, was crossed by a wooden bridge. The breadth of the stream was 25 feet. Changrezhing is a dependency of Chango, where are a few ruinous houses, inhabited in summer. Its height is 12,500 feet above the sea. The grains cultivated are wheat, barley, VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN, 1827. C 34 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey phapur, and Siberian barley. The rocks in the vicinity are granite, gneiss, and mica. Having understood that Chinese were at a short distance in front to stop them, Messrs Gerard did not move their baggage* but advanced to meet the opposite party. They crossed two rivulets, near which they saw the black currant in the highest perfection, and larger than any which they had hitherto met with. They found fifty Tartars awaiting their arrival a mile S. W. of Churet, the first Chinese village. Not being able to prevail on them to allow of their proceeding, they returned to Changrezhing. In the afternoon they visited the confluence of the Spiti with the Zangcham or Pdrdti river, which comes from the N.E. The last is the larger river, being 98 feet broad ; the Spiti (from the N. W.) but 72 feet; the former rushing with great fury and noise, the latter flowing with a more gentle current. The elevation was found to be 10,200 feet above the sea. A mile from Changrezhing, proceeding towards the river, they got among the crags and water-worn passages, whence it was no easy matter to extricate themselves. Captain G. re- marks, that they were evidently on the former bank of the river : the whole bank was a concreted rubble, hardened by the air on the retiring of the waters. After descending a se- ries of difficult steps or ledges, each seeming to have once been the bank of the river, they arrived at its bed. The distance from Changrezhing was three miles and a half. They proceeded by the Chongbd pass (11,900 feet above the sea,) and crossing the Spiti by a good bridge of three fir trees planked over, to Sh'idlkhar, where there is a fort in a commanding situation, on the brink of the channel. The walls are of loose stones and unburnt bricks, with houses all around the inside. It is in the parallel of 32° N. lat. The river is here 10,000 feet above the sea. The climate resembles that of Chango. The grain crops are the same ; and apricots are plentiful, and of very superior flavour. Lari, the first village in Spiti, a dependency of Lddak, is distant about eleven miles to the N.W. Messrs Gerard wish- ed to visit it, but the Spiti intervened, and was then unford- of the Valley of the Setlej River. 35 able, and there are no bridges. For the same reason they could not see the hot wells between the Spiti and Zangchdm, four miles north of Sh'idlkhar. They are in great repute in this quarter, and diseased people resort thither from long dis- tances, either to bathe in them, or drink the waters. The travellers proceeded along the glen of the Spiti to Lakh, which is 12,900 feet above the sea, whence they de- scended into the bed of the Yulang river, a middling sized stream, rising among perpetual snow in the west. It is in- creased by rivulets from either side ; and above the fordj a stream gushes from the brow of the mountain, and is precipi- tated into it in a transparent cascade. Hence the angle of ascent was 34°, rising 2000 feet perpendicular, in a distance of one mile, over hard gravel. Difficulty and danger in a thousand forms attend the traveller's progress : when he clings to the bank, he frequently brings away a piece of it. In some places there are many large stones amongst the gravel, which it requires much caution to avoid setting in motion, for one displaces others, so that sometimes a space of 100 yards of gravel and stones moves downwards at once, and the larger stones, bounding over the slopes, are showered to the bottom amidst much confusion and noise. Now and then nitches for the point of the foot were cut ; and Messrs Gerard, not taking off their shoes, as their followers did, were often obliged to grasp the nearest person's hand. They reached the top with- out accident, much wearied with climbing, and rested upon the verge of the gulf, and enjoyed a refreshing breeze at the height of 12,700 feet, blowing over an extensive tract, which resembles a heath. Thence they descended to the village of Liu, which occupies a slip of land on the right bank and in the bed of the Spiti, embosomed by sterile masses, glowing under the ardor of a tropical sun. From this the climate ac- quires a delicious softness. On the east is a solitary rock 60 feet high, which was formerly the site of a fort now in ruins : southward, the plain is washed by a stream called Lipak, fall- ing into the Spiti a bowshot distance. They halted on the 15th August, on account of rain. In the evening, when it cleared, they visited the Spiti, which is here broad. It was measured 258 to 274 feet wide. The 36 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey river is rapid, and at this season appears to contain a greater body of water than the Setlej. The snow had within two days descended on the granite range of mountains across the Spiti, to 16,000 feet. At Ndko, judging from the heights before determined, it was certainly not under 18,500 feet. Crossing the Lipak under the village, by a firm and well raised sango, they resumed their journey, (16th August) and ascended, by a steep path over granite and mica slate, to the height of 11,600 feet above the sea, and proceeded at this level for a mile, winding round sharp projections of rocks into recesses, in and out again, where the pathway bordered upon precipices of 2000 and 3000 feet. They turned their backs upon the Li or Spiti, and its deep abyss, and entered the Ch6ling dell, which sends its waters to that river. The mountains have an extremely sterile and parched as- pect. No grass covers them ; and a few tufts of aromatic plants are all the vegetation they here present. The appear- ance of a village and green fields was singularly refreshing. Those of Chulang and Hara were passed, to encamp at Hango. This village is 11,400 feet above the sea, situate at the head of a dell in the bosom of cultivation. There are a few pop- lars, but no apricots. The luxuriance of the crops can scarce- ly be exceeded. The ear of the Siberian barley showed so large and full, that the average of eight picked casually was seventy-eight fold. Most of the fields were yellow, and a few had been cut The glen runs east and west, and has a nearly level surface. A stream flows on each side of it, and one through the middle ; and the supply of water never fails. The mountains around are limestone : the same had been observed at Choling. Those on the north are steep and na- ked ; on the south more gently inclined, and they are covered with grass and furze. The march of the next day was to Sungnam by the Han- grang pass (14,800 feet above the sea.) The limestone is broken by the action of the weather into a gravelly surface, thickly clad with furze, juniper, and short grass, the arid pas- of the Valley of the Setlej River. 37 turage of the cattle. Horses were seen loose, feeding at the height of 15,000 feet above the sea. From the pass the view extended to the elevated range be- tween the Setlej and Indus, from N. 15° E. to N. 10° W. It is most probably a continuation of the lofty range seen from Keubrang. It was so completely covered with snow, that not a rock could be distinguished by a telescope of large magnify- ing power. Limestone disappears/and clay-slate is frequent, near Sung- nam. This populous place, in the valley of the Darbung, had been already visited by Messrs Gerard (in 1818.) It is 9350 feet above the sea. At this place, where they halted for several days, (17th to 28th August) Captain Gerard re- marks : " The situation is fine, in a glen bounded on the north and south by lofty ranges of mountains, the passes through which are nearly 15,000 feet above the sea. On the N.W. up the course of the Darbung, is a high pass to Spiti ; and to the S.E., the Setlej, at the distance of several miles. For the space of five miles, this valley presents a sheet of cul- tivation. There are two crops here, and the grains are bar- ley, ogal f and phapur ? there is plenty of pease, beans, and turnips ; and wheat and Siberian barley thrive at great eleva- tions upon the slopes of the dell. Around the village are vineyards, and orchards of apples, apricots, and walnuts. " In this neighbourhood the pine, to which we had long been strangers, begins to raise its head ; it is stunted in growth, and thinly scattered upon the surrounding mountains. " We stopped here till the 28th August, and at times we were somewhat incommoded by the heat. During our halt the temperature of the open air ranged from 60° to 82°. For two or three hours after sunrise low clouds were seen hanging about the hills, but they dispersed as the day advanced. In the evening, and during the night, dark clouds charged with thunder appeared towards the N. W., but there was scarcely any rain. About 1 p. m. an easterly wind sprung up, and it increased in violence till 5, when it subsided till 9 p. m. " Snow falls in November, and covers the ground more or less until March ; but it is seldom two feet in depth." From Sdngnam the travellers proceeded to visit the Md- 38 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey nerang pass, and thence to Manes. I continue to transcribe Captain Gerard's account of this excursion, in his own words, unabridged, u The road from Sungnam to Ropd (four miles) lies in the dell along the bank of the Darbung. Fields and hamlets are scattered on either hand; and apricots and apples occur at every step. The glen is about a bowshot in breadth, and the mountains on each side are crumbling clay-slate and limestone, bearing a few dwarf pines. Near the village of Shibc is a copper mjne, which was formerly worked. The height of R6pd is 9800 feet : so the seasons and productions are similar to those at Sungnam. " We had with us twelve days1 supplies, which, from the goodness of the roads, were transported upon horses, mules, and asses. Here, however, we were obliged to exchange our carriage for sheep ; and the adjustment of the loads occupied so much time, that we found it necessary to halt for the night. ff The next day we proceeded to a resting-place for travel- lers, named Pamachin, (ten miles and three quarters.) At first the road was level for a short way, and it led through fields of beans and bowers of apricots : then there was an as- cent of two miles and a half, latterly steep ; but the path was good to Tomokeu pass, 13,400 feet high. The surrounding hills are slaty, and crumble away at the surface, which is al- most naked, a few dwarf pines and juniper bushes occurring now and then. " Below this the first branches of the Darbung are concen- trated. The streams are amongst perpetual snow, and rush down from different directions in clamour and foam to unite their waters. " The next four miles are of an extraordinary nature, scarce- ly to be described: rugged cliffs, banks of hard gravel much inclined to the river, mural precipices, and sharp pointed rocks succeed one another. " After a series of difficulties and dangers, we descended to a considerable stream, which we crossed by a wooden bridge, and proceeded upon level soil to Sumdo, a few huts occupied by the shepherds and their flocks. Hence to camp, a distance of the Valley of the Setlej River. 39 of two miles, the path was nearly plain, and we passed through a belt of birches at the immense elevation of 1 4000 feet. '* It is so named, after the species of juniper called Pdnia, (which is the only wood for fuel found in the vicinity) and is 13,700 feet above the sea. " This was a very fatiguing march for loaded persons. Sumdo is the usual stage, and the next does not cross the pass ; but it had been snowing for some days upon the heights around, and our guides preferred crossing the chain on the second day from Ropa for fear of bad weather. " Part of the baggage arrived during the night ; and from this time forward, the tent, with some other things, were lost sight of. " The Darbung is here much reduced in size. The cliffs rise from the water's edge in wild disorder, and every year marks them with decay. Their sharp summits crumble away by frost and snow, and large portions of rock are precipitated into the bed of the river. " The following day we marched to Sopona, sl halting-place for travellers, distant eight miles and three quarters. " The road lay upon the bank of the Darbung, which it crossed thrice by immense arches of snow, covered with heaps of stones that had fallen from above. " The mountains are of limestone, and end in peaked sum- mits of many curious forms, inclined to the north at various angles. Not a trace of vegetation meets nourishment there ; and the snow cannot find a rest, but is hurled down, together with the rock itself, and is exhibited at the bottom in accumu- lations of a frightful magnitude. " We had now come two miles and three quarters, and the dell was terminated, and close round. The Darbung is lost among the fields of snow where it is generated, and the whole space on every side is floored with ice and frozen snow, half hid under stones and rubbish. In some places the snow is of incredible depth) and lies in heaps. Having accumulated for years together, it separates by its gravity, and spreads deso- lation far and wide. " We had never before observed such enormous bodies of snow and ice, nor altogether so wonderful a scene. So rapid 40 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey and incessant is the progress of destruction here, that piles of stone are erected to guide the traveller, since the pathway is often obliterated in a few days by fresh showers of splinters. " Our elevation was now upwards of 15000 feet, although we had but ascended in company with the river, against its stream. Here only began our toils, and we scaled the slope of the mountain slowly ; respiration was laborious, and we felt exhausted at every step. , The crest of the pass was not visible, and we saw no limit to our exertions. u The road inclined at an angle of 30°, and passed under vast ledges of limestone. The projections frowned above us in new and horrid forms, and our situation was different from any thing we had yet experienced. " Long before we got up, we were troubled with severe headachs, and our respiration became so hurried and oppres- sive, that we were compelled to sit down every few yards, and even then we could scarcely inhale a sufficient supply of air. The least motion was accompanied with extreme debility and a depression of spirits, and thus we laboured for two miles. " The last half mile was over perpetual snow, sinking with the foot from three to twelve inches, the fresh covering of the former night. The direct road leads in the centre of the gap, but we made a circuit to avoid the danger of being swallowed up in one of the deep rents, which were now covered up with the new snow. " The day was cloudy, and a strong wind half froze us. The rocks were falling on every side, and we narrowly esca- ped destruction. We twice saw large blocks of stone pass with incredible velocity through the line of our people, and between two of them not four feet apart. " We reached the summit of the pass named Manerang at half past & p. m. Its elevation is 18,612 feet by barome- tric measurement. There is here a very circumscribed spot, where is a shaghar, or pile of stones, free from snow. " Leaving the pass, we travelled over snow, and descended gently for a mile. The wind blew with great violence, and benumbed us ; but the sun shone bright, and caused a reflex- ion that affected our eyes, but did not inflame them much, for at this season the snow is soft and somewhat soiled, but in of the Valley of the Setlej River. 41 winter, when it is frozen and sparkles like diamonds, the in- flammation is very distressing and painful. " After quitting the great snow-bed, the road became ex- tremely rough and difficult, leading over the scattered wrecks of the cliffs and patches of melting snow, and along the edge of a stream in a channel of solid ice. " The adjacent ridges are wholly limestone, without a ves- tige of vegetation ; they are even deserted by the snow, and exhibit an enormous extent of pure rock, and shoot into slen- der summits of a great variety of forms. " We encamped at the foot of the slope that stretches from the pass, where the glen takes a regular shape ; the stream spreads out and ripples upon sand and pebbles ; the moun- tains slant away, and some stunted vegetation appears at their bases. " The elevation of the camp was 15,200 feet above the sea. " At sunrise of the following day the thermometer was at 31° ; but the night must have been colder, for the dew which fell upon our bed-clothes (we had no tent) was so completely frozen, that in the morning our blankets were as tough as the hardest leather. " We proceeded towards Manes (distant six miles and a quarter) through the dell that leads to Manerang pass, along the bank of a rivulet which has its source amongst the snow- beds in that direction. There is a good deal of soil and bush- es, and we passed fine crops of wild leeks at the height of 15,000 feet. " Three miles and a half from camp we came to an open valley, being an expanse of sand and pebbles. We followed the stream till it entered a lake upwards of a mile wide ; and here, leaving it to the right, we proceeded to Manes, winding through low gravelly hills covered with tdma bushes. " Manes is a large village (of about fifty houses) in two divisions, separated by a stream. It is elevated 11,900 feet above the level of the sea, and lies on the right bank of the Spiti river, 400 or 500 feet above its bed. " Around the village is some level soil, bearing crops of wheat and barley, and (awd) Siberian barley, which do not 42 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey extend higher than 12,000 feet above the sea. The grains ■were almost ripe, and there were a few poplars in the vicinity.''* After a halt of a day at Manes, where the temperature va- ried (1st September) from 52° at sunrise to 81° at the hottest time of the day, Messrs Gerard proceeded to Tengdi> a small village in the district of Pinu, comprised in the province of Spiti. They kept along the right bank of the river, a little above the stream, and then descended into the bed of the Spiti river, to the village of Solak. The dell is frequently a mile across, and the river winds through it in many channels, among islands of sand and pebbles, which are covered with barberry and other bushes. The fort of Dankar, opposite this, is a considerable place, containing about forty houses, which, as at Stiidlkhar, are inside. The walls are partly stone, partly mud, and the position is among rugged projections of gravel. Its altitude is not less than 13,000 feet above the sea. Above the fort two rivers unite; the largest, which has a bridge of ropes over it, rises in the Pdrdldsd range on the N. W., and is called either Spiti or Kunjom ; the other, also a large stream, is named Pinu ; its principal branches have their sources near Tari pass, on the S. W. Near Solak, where a meridian altitude of the sun was taken, is the highest latitude Messrs Gerard reached in this journey, viz. m° 5' 34". The best road crosses the Pinu at this place, and proceeds on the other side ; but the stream was not fordable. It was attempted, but the current was found to be much too rapid. They had no choice but to encounter the difficulty of a most frightful descent. In one place is a notched tree from rock to rock, for the passage of a chasm : beyond this, a line of rocky ledges excavated for the toes to enter : above the crags overhang, and beneath is a precipice more than 100 feet deep. Unloaded people get over with the utmost difficulty ; the hag- gage therefore was lowered by ropes. Immediately beyond this they came to an inclined rock, 100 feet high, which they had to climb over : it was nearly smooth, and could scarcely be ascended barefooted. The path continued dangerous for a mile and a half farther, upon hard gravel sloping steeply to the river. The dell is from a quarter to half a mile wide, of the Valley of' the Setlej River. 43 and is occupied by sand and limestone pebbles : the moun- tains on either side are of limestone, sharp at the summits, but crumbling below. Tengdi is 12,000 feet above the level of the sea : the houses are two stories : the lower half built of stone ; the upper of unburnt bricks ; the roofs flat : and on them the firewood, collected with great labour, is piled. Not a single tree is near, and the few prickly bushes seldom exceed three inches in height. The climate here is cooler than at Manes. The temperature at sunrise was 45°, and in the middle of the day 78°. The district of Spiti, which comprises Pinu as well as Manes, is situate between Chinese Tartary, Ladak, Kulu, and Base- har, and pays tribute to each. The inhabitants are all Tar- tars, and follow the Lama religion. There are lead mines. The villages are from 12,000 to 12,500 feet above the level of the sea. Toward Ladak the habitations must be still more elevated, and the country very barren, and the climate inhos- pitable. It was the intention [of Messrs Gerard to have gone on to- wards Ladak, and returned by the Tari pass, which is the most direct road. But entreaties and the offer of a douceur of 150 rupees were unavailing : the Lafa, or chief person, would not hear of their proceeding onwards, or attempting the Tari pass. After a fruitless negociation, which lasted two days, they returned to Manes, and thence to Sopona ; and again (7th September) by the Maneramg pass to Pamachan, Sumdo, and Ropa. The barometric measurement was repeated with near- ly the same result. The Darbung river was only half its for- mer size, for a few days had brought on winter, and the stream was now but slowly and scantily supplied amongst the ice. The snow had not descended more than 400 feet lower, since they last crossed the pass, but the great fields had a new thick covering frozen hard. Shortly after leaving the pass it began to snow, and continued till they arrived at Pamachan. Upon the old snow-beds it lay at 14,500 feet; but what fell upon the ground, melted at 16,000 feet. . Sumdo is about 12,500 feet above the level of the sea. 44 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey They crossed the Darbung under the village of Geobung, and ascended the face of a thinly wooded hill to the elevation of 13,500, where they encamped at the distance of a mile from any kind of fire-wood ; but the spot afforded water. The up- per limit of the pines in this neighbourhood is 12,300 ; the juniper scarcely extends 100 feet higher. At sunrise the thermometer was 39°. Every thing around was covered with hoar frost. , They ascended the Hunting pass, 14,500 feet above the sea ; the mountains are of clay-slate ; and the creeping juniper, as if it had found a congenial soil, spreads its roots higher than the Descending from the zone of frost, they travelled several miles upon an undulating tract much indented, but preserv- ing a height above the limit of trees ; and leaving the popu- lous villages of Kanarn and Labrang at a profound depth be- low on their left, they descended into the dell in which Lipe or Lidang is situate. The village is considerable, the houses en- tirely built of KM pine, small, compact, and exactly resem- bling cisterns. The bottom of the dell stands 8700 feet above the sea ; the vine is cultivated ; and there are orchards of fruit trees around. A few of the grapes were now (10th September) ripe, and the apples, which are the largest observed in Kunawar, are of a delicious flavour. The mountains are clay-slate, granite, gneiss, and mica- slate. The travellers proceeded by the Werang pass, (13,000 feet above the sea) crossing the Keshang river (a large and very rapid torrent forming a series of waterfalls) by a good wooden bridge, to Pangpa or Pangi, 2500 feet above the Setlej, and 9200 feet above the sea. There is here very little soil or level ground : the houses are crowded together ; and the vine- yards, fields, and pasture lands, belonging to the village, are miles distant. The march was through a fine wood, large beds of juniper, and fine forests of pine, most part of the way. The upper limit of the pine was observed at 12,000 feet, the highest bir- ches at 12,500 feet, and the rhododendron at 12,700 feet. of the Valley of the Setlej River. 45 This day, (11th September,) Captain Gr. observes, termina- ted their adventures amidst frost and desolation. They bade farewell to the serenity of a Tartaric sky and its charms. " Before us," he says, " we beheld dark clouds; we already felt the moist warmth of the periodical rains, and wished our- selves back among the Tartars, their arid country, and vast solitudes." The rest of the journey follows the course of the Setlej, until it emerges from the mountains into the plains of Hin- du sth an. They now entered the lower Kunawar, and crossing, by a sango, the Malgun, a rapid torrent passing to the Setlej, they traversed a pine forest along a belt of highly cultivated land interspersed with orchards and the richest vineyards : in the midst of which is Chini, a large village, contiguous to which are seven or eight others. The soil slopes gently to the Setlej, and is loaded with fine crops. It is the most extensive plain in lower Kunawar, and forms a striking contrast with the heavy woods and rocky cliffs which overhang it. Just op- posite are the huge Raldang peaks. Here, on both sides of the river, grapes attain the greatest perfection. Some are dried on the tops of houses ; some made into spirits ; the rest eaten ripe. Eighteen varieties, distin- guished by separate names, derived from colour, shape, size, and flavour, are cultivated in Kunawar. From Chini, the road assumes very rugged features ; many rude balconies, flights of steps, and notched trees occur. The soil is crowded with countless varieties of gay flowers and many odoriferous plants. Cumin is plentiful, and forms an article of export to the plains. The height of this spot is 10,200 feet. The rocks are gra- nite and gneiss, forming a succession of precipices, with a so- litary tree here and there. The path is narrow, and skirts the brink of the abyss, looking down upon the Setlej, 4000 feet below. Rogi, where they halted, is 9100 feet above the level of the sea. Towards the Setlej there are vineyards, and around the village, apricots, peaches, and apples. Thence they ascended to the height of 10,900 feet through a 4G Captain Gerard's Act ount of a Survey forest of straggling pines, of the species called lii or Niora (Mr Elphinstone's Chilguza.) It does not here flourish to the west- ward of Wanghu. The road rises and falls upon sharp point- ed rocks, and now and then a flight of steps occurs. Opposite is the confluence of the Baspa with the Setlej. Its waters make a very considerable addition to this far-travelled river. The road descends precipitously (2600 feet) to Rungar, a small stream. The face of the hill is unwooded, but beautifully di- versified with wild flowers, and clothed with rich pastures for thousands of sheep. Hence to Miru or Mirting, a small vil- lage 8550 feet above the sea, the path ascends and descends amidst dwarf pines and oaks. The Yula, a considerable stream which rises amongst the snow in the N. W. and falls into the Setlej, was crossed 1200 feet below the village. On its banks are many fertile fields. Thence the road ascends through a wood of oak and holly, which af- fords shelter to many varieties of pheasants ; passes the village of Urni, and arrived at Tholang, a village containing fifty- five families, and agreeably situated on both banks of a rivu- let. It is 7300 feet above the level of the sea. The whole of the rocks in this tract are gneiss. In several spots the ground had been torn up by bears in search of the honey of the field-bee, which is here common. At a short distance from Chegaon, the road passes under a natural arch of granite formed by the contact of two im- mense blocks. The travellers then descended to the Setlej, and continued for several miles along its banks, sometimes a little elevated above it, more frequently dipping down to the edge of the stream, which is very rapid. The rocks on both sides are worn into many caves, which re-echo the roar of the Tiver with tenfold noise. A very dangerous ascent was next encountered along the face of smooth ledges of granite, very steeply inclined to the Setlej. In these the nitches for support scarce admitted half the foot, and were cut at very inconvenient distances. Arriving at the summit, the road again descended into an abyss 1200 feet deep. The distance was but half a mile, which shows the steepness of the slope. The Wangar, a mountain torrent, here tears its way amongst of' the Valley of the Set lej River. 47 vast masses of granite with frightful velocity and noise. The cascades formed by the rocks in its bed, throw up the spray to an amazing height, washing the crags which are loaded with a rank vegetation. In the dell of this torrent lies the secluded district of Wangpd, containing seven small villages. The Wangar is formed by two streams. One called Surch, rises amongst the snow ; the other, which retains the common name, proceeds from the foot of Tciri pass. Pinu is about four marches from Wangpo ; and it was by the Tari pass Messrs Gerard intended to return, could they have prevailed on the Lqfa to concede to their wishes. The pass is not reckoned so high as Manerung, and probably does not exceed 17,000 feet* After crossing the Wangar by a wooden bridge, the road continues along the edge of the Setlej for half a mile to Wang- to, where there is a bridge of ropes across the river. Its breadth within the banks (which are of granite) is here 92 feet. It is the narrowest point : the average breadth in this part is from 250 to 300 feet. The bed of the river is 5200 feet above the sea. Messrs Gerard stopped in a large natural cave till three o'clock, and having seen their baggage across, proceeded to JVangdneo, by a very steep and rugged ascent, and then along a well cultivated hill face. The journey was troublesome and fatiguing. It rained, slightly at first, but latterly poured down in torrents. Nanganeo is a tolerably sized village, 6900 feet high (above the sea.) A few grapes are cultivated in this district, but owing to the periodical rains, do not thrive. Pear-trees, bearing large and abundant fruit, are frequent near the vil- lages. The fruit is dried upon the tops of houses, and forms part of the winter stock. Proceeding towards Taranda, the travellers passed through a beautiful wood of stately pines, many of them from 20 to 27 feet in girth ; the pines are called Kelu by the natives. This timber is almost everlasting. It resists the attack of insects, and is therefore used in the construction of temples, houses, and granaries. It seldom occurs below 6000 feet, nor above 12,000 feet from the level of the sea. 48 Captain Gerard's Account of a Survey Leaving the forest, they descended by a narrow rocky path, among dark thickets of oaks, holly, yew, and horse-chesnut. They here crossed the Saildang torrent, by three rude alpine bridges, over as many large and very rapid streams, which flow, or rather rush from their sources in the Himalaya to the south- ward, descending, in a succession of cascades, to the Setlej, a couple of miles below the bridges. After crossing the Saildang, there was a mile and a half of very steep ascent, which required some agility to surmount, without slipping down the precipice. Rank grass, from 8 to 10 feet high, concealed the intricacies of the path, and render- ed it necessary to pick the way with the utmost caution. Thence to Taranda the road led through woods of pine. It rained heavily all day, and the baggage did not arrive till sunset. Taranda is 7100 feet above the sea. Gneiss and mica- slate appear to predominate here, and granite is not so fre- quent. Nearly opposite this, to the south, the Himalaya mountains may be said to end. The travellers halted for a day on account of rain, and pro- ceeded on the following (18th September) to Suran, a tiresome journey, made more disagreeable and fatiguing by incessant rain. They crossed the Chaunde, a large and impetuous stream, by a dangerous sango of two thin spars, one much lower than the other, and traversed a dark forest of oak and holly. In- clined rocks, and soil drenched with rain aggravated difficulty to danger. In fording a rapid stream, in which they were completely drenched, many of the loads were soaked with wa- ter. Some of the geological specimens were rendered useless by the writing on the paper envelopes being effaced ; and the whole of the botanical collection, with the exception of very few plants, was entirely destroyed. Maniati ghati, the ordinary stage between Taranda and Suran, parts Kunawar from Dasau, another of the great divi- sions of Basehar. The country westward assumes a more ci- vilized appearance : villages are more thickly studded, cultiva- tion more abundant, and not so circumscribed by huge masses of the Valley of the Setlej River. 49 of rock. Numerous rills trickle down from the mountains, and afford ample supplies for the fields, which are chiefly rice. Siirdn, 7250 feet above the level of the sea, is the summer residence of the Basehar Raja and his court. The climate is fine. Three miles from this, near the Setlej, are hot springs. Formerly human sacrifices were offered at a remarkable tem- ple sacred to Bhima Call, the patroness of Basehar. They have been disused since the British conquest. The travellers halted four days (19th to 22d Sept.) on ac- count of incessant rain, waiting for the reconstruction of a sango over the Manglad torrent, which had been washed away by the flood. The temperature was stationary at 50° during the rainy weather, but rose to 64° when the weather cleared. They now resumed their journey, crossed the Man- glad by a crazy bridge of two spars connected by twigs. The stream was frightfully rapid. The ascent from the dell, steep as the descent to it, was more difficult ; the path lying upon mica wet with rain, and slippery at every step. Next day (23d Sept.) brought the travellers to Rampur, the capital of Basehar. It is on the left bank of the Setlej, 3300 feet above the sea, in lat. 31° 27', and long. 77° 38'. The houses are of stone and slated, and some are very neat. The spot is hot and unhealthy in summer, and as cold in win- ter. Under the town is a rope bridge of 211 feet across the Setlej, leading to Rulu. On the opposite* summit of the range, which is lofty, are three forts, crowned with huge towers and battlements, which give them an imposing appearance. Following the banks of the Setlej, and crossing Nawagari, a large stream, by a well-constructed wooden bridge, they found the dell expand at Dattanagar. Hitherto the valley of the Setlej has been narrow, confined between abrupt moun- tains. It now forms a flat, three miles wide, well watered by canals, and bearing luxuriant crops. A few miles further they forded the Beari torrent, and finally emerged from the glen of the Setlej by a very fatiguing and steep descent of 4000 feet perpendicular height ; and, three miles further, by a winding road through woods of oak, yew, and horse-chesnuts ; and arrived at Kotgarh, where the survey terminates. VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. D 50 Mr Robison's Method of fixing Glass in painted Windows. Art. VII. — Account of a MeMd of fixing the Glass in paint- ed Windows without the interruption of Astragals. By John Robison, Esq. F.R.S. Edin. Communicated by the Author. » Dear Sir, — A method has occurred to me of fixing the glass of painted windows without the usual interruption of the as- tragals of the sash, which so disagreeably divide the picture. I subjoin a slight sketch and description, from which you will judge whether the thing be sufficiently deserving of notice to merit a place in your Journal.— I am, my Dear Sir, very truly yours, John Robison. I propose that there should be a cast iron frame or graU ing filling up the whole opening of the window ; that this frame should be mounted with a set of hammered iron studs, similar to one or other of those in Plate I. Fig. 6. ; these studs (projecting like the teeth of a harrow) to be so placed as to correspond with the corners of the panes ; their form to be as represented in the drawing, with a stout square or round shank ; their inner ends having a shoulder |, a neck J, and a screwed point with a circular nut |ths in dia- meter. The panes of glass should be prepared by having a small portion (J of an inch) cut off from each corner, so that if four of them, were laid close together on a table, there would be a square aperture (at the point where the four corners meet) just large enough to allow the passage of the neck of the stud. See Fig. 8. It will be evident, that with this preparation 'each pane would be firmly supported at its four corners, by means of the studs and the screwed nuts ; and that, to an eye placed inside the window, nothing of the support would appear on, the picture, excepting the small nuts at the intersections of the panes, many of which may be contrived by the painter to form parts of the subject. The edges of the panes would, of course, be in immediate uninterrupted contact. As the shadows of the outer frame would have the same disagreeable effect during sunshine as those of the wire guards, Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 51 which are sometimes placed outside, I should suggest, that be- tween the frame and the painted glass there should be a screen of ground-glass. In this case the form of the stud would re- quire to be as in Fig. 7, by which the panes of ground-glass would be fixed in the same manner as the painted ones, and the effect of the shadows so much dispersed as to be nearly invisible to an eye inside of the building. 9, Atholl Crescent, 20th November 1826. Art. VIII. — Account of a Voyage to Madeira, Brazil, Juan Fernandez, and the Gattipagos Islands, performed in 1824 and 1825, with a view of examining their Natural History. By Mr Scoulkr. Communicated by the Author. (Con- tinued from vol. v. p. 214.) Since leaving England we enjoyed an almost uninterrupted course of fine weather, but from the beginning of February, when we left the northern tropic, till our arrival in the Colum- bia River on the 8th of April, we were exposed to the N.W. gales, which at this season render the approach to the shores of New Albion extremely dangerous. During the stormy weather many albatrosses were seen near the vessel ; and on the 17th February we succeeded in procuring several individuals. It is a remarkable circumstance, that in works on Zoology this bird is always mentioned as peculiar to the southern hemisphere. Although the occurrence of the bird in the N. Pacific has attracted but little attention, it was ascer- tained long ago by Mr Menzies, and is recorded in Vancou- ver's Voyage. It is also worthy of notice, that though the al- batross is so common in both sides of the tropics in the Pacific, no one, as far as I am acquainted, has ever detected it in the Northern Atlantic Ocean. After repeated examina- tions and dissections, we could detect no difference either in its external appearance or internal structure, from that of the D.Juliginosa, taken off the coast of Tierra del Fuego. 5th March. — While off this coast, we had a further confirma- tion of the opinion of Peron, formerly mentioned, with regard to 52 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. the distribution of marine Zoophytes. While in lat. 43 N. E. the sea was covered with immense fleets of the Medusa velella of Gmelin, extending in every direction around us, a circum- stance which did not occur during any other period of our voyage; and the obstinacy with which these little animals continue in the same situation, is well illustrated by the fact, that they were seen by Captain Vancouver in the same latitude, more than thirty years since.* 3d April. — The sight of Cape Disappointment cheered us with the anticipation that our voyage would speedily be at an end, and the probability of coming to anchor before sunset threw an air of cheerfulness over every individual. But the object of our wishes was not yet to be gratified, and the gentle breeze which had carried us on, soon augmented into a severe gale, and we were obliged to give up the attempt, and wait for a more favourable opportunity. After experiencing another storm, in addition to the many we had already encountered, our next attempt was more fortunate, and on the Sth April we were securely anchored in Baker's Bay. On approaching the coast, Cape Disappointment is the most remarkable ob- ject, and its steep sides are seen at a great distance. On ad- vancing nearer the shore, similar rocks are seen to line the coast for a great way to the northward. The southern side of the coast consists of the low sandy beach of Point Adams, and is the usual residence of a tribe of Indians, distinguished for their hostility to all visitors. 9th. — Impatient to acquire some knowledge of the vegetable productions of the country, which was for some months to be the field of our labours, we proceeded to make a short ex- cursion along the banks of che river, but as we had as yet seen none of the natives, prudence required that we should not wander too far. On leaping from the boat, the first ob- ject which attracted our notice, was the Gualtheria shallon growing in abundance among the rocks, and covered with its beautiful roseate flowers. We then entered a forest of gigan- tic pine trees, among a brushwood of Menziesiajerruginea and • Vancouver saw these Zoophytes about the same period of the year, in lat. 35° 25' N., and we found them in the same parallel., but tfwy externa <1 as far north as lat. 43°. Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 53 different species of American currant, and the beautiful Tril- liams and Smilacinae were beginning to expand their blossoms, and the Mosses and Jungermanniae, nourished by the winter rains, were covered with capsules. On our return we collect- ed a few specimens of a small Polypodium, which is probably new to the American Flora. The appearance of vegetation differed considerably from that to which we had been previously accustomed. The whole country appeared one continued pine forest ; but on a closer examina- tion, we found many places, which, from their marshy nature, refused support to the larger trees. These were covered by various grasses, and abounded in willows, and various kinds of currant. In more open places, as along the banks of the river, different kinds of brambles abound, many of them pe- culiar to this part of America, and equally distinguished for the beauty of their flowers, and the flavour of their fruit. But nothing is more worthy of notice than the verdure which is found throughout the year under the shade of the pine trees. This appearance arises from the sallal (Gualtheria shallon) whose evergreen leaves ornament these otherwise sterile situa- tions, while they form the important article of support to the natives. At the time of our arrival there was no snow on the ground, and it is rarely seen even in winter. Vegetation at this time (April) was little more forward than in England at the same season, but it soon advanced with a rapidity unknown in England. 10th. — This morning we were called on deck by the agree- able intelligence that several canoes were approaching, and in a short time we had five of them around the vessel, containing several families of Indians. Our interesting visitors were of a light olive complexion, and small stature, seldom exceeding five feet six inches. Their long straight dark hair extending down their shoulders, and careful extirpation of their beards, made them appear much younger than they really were. Their foreheads were remarkably flat, and their cheek-bones rather prominent. Several of them were clothed in articles of Euro- pean manufacture, as shirts, blankets and stockings, which they wore without shoes ; others had only their native dresses. The individuals of this last class had only a robe made of the 54 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. skins of a species of marmot, (Arctomys) ill adapted either for the purposes of comfort or decency, and a broad sugar-loaf shaped hat, which protected their shoulders from the rain. In addition to the skin robe, the women had petticoats made and plaited, which reached to their knees. An old Indian, clothed in a large blanket, and his wife, were permitted to come on board. They were at much pains to give us some idea of their consequence, and for this purpose, they had a few En- glish words, which with them denoted every thing. They were well provided with arms of different kinds ; and in addi- tion to bows and arrows, every canoe possessed several fowl- ing-pieces and daggers of different shapes. We regaled these people with bread and molasses, with which they were highly delighted ; and after remaining three hours, during which they behaved in the most peaceable manner, they left us, and pro- ceeded up the river. 1 1th. — We landed this morning in Baker's Bay, with the in- tention of travelling across Cape Disappointment to the ocean, that we might have an opportunity of studying the marine productions of the N. Pacific. In this journey, we experienced much difficulty, not only from the steepness of the rocks, but also from the numerous pools of fresh water, which, being too deep, obliged us to take a most circuitous route. On arriving at the ocean, we found the primary object of our enterprise defeated, as the coast con- sisted of almost perpendicular rocks, against which the waves beat with great violence, and scarcely afforded a sea- weed or shell. In these rocks we saw many deep caverns, most of them filled by the tide at high water. Here the eagle (Falco leucocephalus,) takes up his retreat ; and the frequent appearance of these ani- mals devouring their prey augments the wildness of this dreary scene. Our excursion was not altogether useless, as we made a very considerable collection of acotyledonous plants, and ob- tained some curious species of land shells in the woods. From the great abundance of Musci and Jungermannioe on the north-west coast, we had been led to expect a corresponding variety of new species, but in this we were disappointed, and most of the species we found were common to Europe ; but, from the moisture and mildness of the climate, they acquired Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 55 their full developement ; and we found many of them in a state of fructification, whose capsules are but rarely seen in Europe. 12th. — To-day we landed at Fort-George, which is situated on the south side of the river about eight miles from the ocean, and werereceived with much kindness by the company's ser- vants who remained there ; but we were informed, that most of the people are at present employed in building another fort in a more convenient situation at Point Vancouver, about eighty miles farther up the river. At the same time we learned, that the different tribes that inhabit the banks of the Columbia were at present engaged in war, a circumstance which would oblige us to confine our excursions to the neighbourhood of the fort. The history of this commotion may be interesting, as it unfolds a very frequent cause of war among the Indians of the N. W. coast. The chief of the Chunooks, whose vil- lage is situated in the vicinity of the fort, had acquired much wealth and influence from his invariable kindness towards the settlers, was the leader of this war. This old chief, Comcom- by, had two sons, who, from their amiable conduct, and their desire to acquire such knowledge as would enable them to improve their countrymen, were much esteemed by the Euro- peans, and possessed in a high degree the affection of the In- dians. The youngest of them, named Schalachun, was the destined heir of his father, who had bestowed on him his own name, was affected with a pulmonary disease, and his brother was soon after seized with the same complaint. These young men he committed to the care of a neighbouring chief, who was thought to possess great skill in medicine, but in spite of all his knowledge, both the chiefs fell victims of an incurable disorder, and the ignorant natives thought the medical chief had procured their deaths by enchantments. Another son of Comcomby's resolved to punish the medical chief, and caused him to be assassinated as he was going to visit the fort ; and in consequence of this cruel deed, the different tribes took up arms, some to punish, and some to protect the murderers. The day on which we landed at the fort, friends of Comcom- by were preparing to attack the other party ; but in spite of their superior numbers, they were repulsed with disgrace. 56 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Although the people of the Company never interfere in the quarrels of the natives, except to recommend peaceful mea- sures, we did not like to venture much into the woods, as it would not be prudent to meet the Indians in their present ir- ritated state. Fort-George is a square Jbuilding, consisting entirely of wood, and situated about 100 yards from the river. It is sur- rounded by palisades, and furnished with bastions. The prin- cipal gate looks towards the river, and opens into a large court. On the west side are the stores and warehouses, and opposite to them the houses of the people, and the shops of the merchants. On the south side, is the mess-room, and the apartments of the gentlemen. They have cleared about eighty acres of land around the fort, on which they raise fine crops of potatoes, and the banks of the river afford plenty of pasture for their cattle. The hogs, which thrive remark- ably well, were brought from the Sandwich Islands, and the horned cattle from California. The Indian village is situated a little to the west of the fort, on a sandy beach, and may contain about twelve houses, each of them holding from fif- teen to thirty inmates. 14th. — While at the fort, we had an opportunity of seeing the war-dance of the Indians. About fifty of them paraded from a small hill in the vicinity of the fort, to the house of their chief. They were dressed and painted in a most hideous man- ner, and had many different kinds of arms, as fowling-pieces, pistols, bows, arrows, and daggers. Some had their faces painted black, and their hair powdered with the down of fowls ; others were painted with alternate lines of blue, red, and black. Their war-dress consisted of tanned elk skins, resembling a shirt without sleeves. The leader of the procession carried a stick, to which was suspended a number of large shells, (Pecten maxi- mus,) which he incessantly rattled. They moved one abreast, and in a most tortuous manner, occasionally firing a fowling- piece, and giving one of their war shouts. As they are by no means careful in what direction they fire, accidents frequently happen, and before this dance was finished, one of their own number was killed in consequence of their thoughtlessness Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 57 On reaching the shore, they formed a circle round their chief, and continued the dance for some time longer. 15th. — In this day's excursion, we met a number of Indians in the wood, chiefly women and children, who were employed in collecting vegetables, as the young shoots of different species of Rubus and Rosa, and, above all, the tender shoots of the horse-tail, (Equisetum arvense,) which attains a large size, and is much esteemed by the Indians. We saw plenty of Menziesiajerruginea> but not yet in flower ; we found various species of Trillium and Smilacina; but no plant we found gave us more pleasure than the Hoolteria lucens, not only on account of its beauty, but as it brought to mind our distin- guished botanical preceptor, to whose instructions we had been so much indebted. 16th. — We had the pleasure of being introduced to Mr Mac- loughlin the chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, in the west side of the rocky mountains; a gentleman who, during our stay in the Columbia, rendered us every assist- ance, and took a friendly interest in all our researches. As Mr Douglas was to set out next day for Fort Vaucouver, in company with Mr Macloughlin, we agreed to make an excur- sion to Tongue Point (six miles from the fort) before we part- ed. In this journey we had to penetrate through dense brush- wood, and climb over steep rocks, but we succeeded in ac- quiring many interesting plants and animals. We filled our boxes with various species of Claytonia and liliaceous plants ; our pockets and handkerchiefs were filled with mosses and land snells ; the number of ravens on the banks of the river showed there were specimens to be got there, and on examin- ing the pools we found fresh water Crustacea and shells. The appearance of the rocks we saw gave us some idea of the structure of the surrounding country. As our time was chiefly occupied with botany and zoology, we could only de- vote a short portion of our time to the other branch of natu- ral history ; but I may here mention the few geological facts we detected. There are no high mountains in the vicinity of Fort George ; and the country consists of sloping hills, of gra- dual ascent, and regular outlines. From the soft nature of the rocks of the Columbia, which are rapidly disintegrated by 58 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean the winter rains, and the great rise of the river during the summer months, great quantities of sand are deposited in dif- ferent situations. In this manner the islands of the Columbia are formed, and the numerous sand banks and shoals which render the navigation of this river exceedingly disagreeable. Some of the islands are from two to three miles in extent, and would afford the most favourable soil the Columbia possesses for agricultural purposes, if this were not inundated for two months every year. It is probable that all the mud and sand of the Columbia is not employed in forming islands and shoals, but that part of it is carried to the ocean, and by the efforts of the westerly winds, is deposited to the north of Cape Dis- appointment, there helping to protect the rocks from the fur- ther encroachment of the sea. The nature of the rocks in the vicinity of Fort George and Fort Vancouver appears to be calcareous, and rocks of this character seem to prevail from the cascades to the ocean. I have never been nearer than sixty miles to the cascades, but from the specimens of the rocks brought down by Mr Douglas, it is easy to ascertain that many of them are calcareous. In addition to the calca- reous rocks brought from the cascades, he also procured many beautiful specimens of petrified wood, retaining their fibrous texture in a very evident manner. The rocks in the vicinity of Fort George were more within the sphere of my observa- tion, and from that station I obtained a complete series of spe- cimens. They are generally of a dark bluish colour, and in some places, particularly to the north of Cape Disappoint- ment, very soft, and contain many caverns. Those between Tongue Point and the ocean are more hard, and consist of limestone, containing many masses of a spherical form and much harder consistence than the rock in which they are im- bedded. They vary in size, from that of a hazel nut, to the magnitude of a cannon-ball, and when broken do not exhibit any traces of a crystalline structure. The quantity of fossil shells was very great, although the species were not very nu- merous. The shells I obtained were all bivalves. The lar- gest was a species of Pecten in a good state of preservation, and by no means uncommon. Two other shells were very frequent, but it was difficult to ascertain to what genus they Mr Seouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 59 belonged. The occurrence of saline springs is not rare, and they are the favourite resort of the wild animals of the coun- try. Several of the rivulets which run through this limestone deposit a small portion of ferruginous matter, indicating that iron enters into the composition rocks. Numerous sandstone veins traverse the limestone, and it is of a coarse granular tex- ture, and very friable. The breadth of these veins is about three feet, and they resist the action of weather longer than the limestone, which is often v/orn away, while the veins re- main, having the appearance of small dikes. 29th. — Since the 16th I have been employed in exploring the vegetable and animal productions of the country in every direction ; but as the progress of spring did not keep pace with my wishes, I set out for Fort Vancouver, where the differ- ence of soil would produce a corresponding variety of plants. Our party consisted of about thirty Canadians and Iriquois, furnished with five canoes. As the wind was favourable, our little fleet made a prospjrous voyage, and when we landed in camp for the evening, we found ourselves at Cook Point, about thirty miles from Fort George. Next morning we were detained to gum our canoes, which gave some leisure for collecting plants, which was the more to be prized, as the marshy place where we were detained abound- ed in grasses and Cyperaceae. One of the men was so fortu- nate as to kill a beautiful species of water snake, which had wrandered too far from the river, and had the pleasure of ad- ding this rare animal to my collection. On dissecting him, after preparing the skin, I found a large bull frog, and many elytra of Dytiscus marginaMs in his stomach. During our first day's voyage the scenery was of little interest, consisting of low alluvial land, covered with willows and rushes, but as we advanced, the banks of the river became more steep, and were covered on both sides with gigantic pines and cedars, and on many of the most verdant spots the Indians had fixed their summer abodes, and were busily employed in the stur- geon and salmon fishery. As the sun was now set in the val- ley of the Columbia, and his last rays served to show us the snowy summits of Mount Saint Helens, we prepared our en- campment in the stillness of this immense forest, only enlivened 60 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. by one of those beautiful and plaintive Canadian songs, of -which the various dangers of a voyager's life affords so many interesting subjects. While in this situation, we were sur- prised at the arrival of a canoe from Fort Vancouver. It be- longed to a Canadian who was carrying his child to Fort George, where he heard there was a surgeon, to obtain some medicines. As the poor child was in the last stage of an in- flammation in the bowels, medical aid was of little advantage, and after giving him what assistance our circumstances would admit of, he continued his journey to the fort, where the child died a few hours after his arrival. 2d May. — On rejoining my botanical associate, we spent se- veral days in making excursions around the new fort. This establishment is constructed on the same plan as that of Fort George, already described, but the situation is much more de- lightful. The fort is built in the centre of a large and very level prairie, already covered with fields of potatoes and peas, and the produce of the farm would have been more varied, if the seeds which were sent from Canada had arrived in time. The margins of this prairie abounded in the beautiful Pha- langium esculentum, whose roots are so much used by the In- dians as a substitute for bread, while the tubers of a species of Sagittaria, which grows on the marshy banks of the river, affords an agreeable substitute for potatoes. In the neigh- bouring woods we found some of the choicest plants the N. W. coast can boast of. The Linnasa borealis, a plant always agreeable to the bo- tanist, grew here in great profusion, and I afterwards found it equally common in the woods of Observatory Inlet, the northern limit of our voyage. The subjoined list of the plants that were known to us may give the botanist some idea of one day's excursion, not above four miles from the fort.* In such a situation my time passed rapidly away with a constant, though pleasing uniformity. We usually spent the forenoon in botanising, and during the remainder of the day our time • Calypso borealis Collinsia verna Corallorhiza innata Phlox linearis Berberis aquifolia Myosotis, Nov. Sp. — - nervosa Sanicula, Nov. Sp* Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pdcific Ocean. 61 was fully occupied in arranging and drying the plants we had already obtained. On the 11th May, we set out on our return to the coast, as the ship was to sail in a few days to visit some of the islands to the north of Nootka. During our voyage down the river, we landed at a village where the inhabitants were employed in the salmon-fishery, and here I detected a curious custom, which I afterwards learned prevailed among all the Colum- bian tribes. In order to have some employment during our day's journey, I selected a few salmon and carp for dissec- tion, but of these the Indians quickly dispossessed me ; and, after extracting the hearts of all the fish they had caught, I was allowed to select as many as I pleased. Their reason for this practice was, that if their hearts were not extracted and laid aside, the other salmon would take offence, and leave the river. We encamped this evening on a fine dry beach, and while supper was preparing, we collected a few plants ; Dali- barda repens, Pyrola wmbeilata, and a species of Hevchera. 12th. — We arrived at Tongue Point early this afternoon, so that we were only about six miles from the place of our destination. The few minutes we spent here were not use- less, for we had scarce leaped ashore, when a beautiful and new species of Mimulus attracted our attention, growingamong mosses from the moist rock. This beautiful plant, perhaps the smallest of the genus, is not more than an inch and a half in height, and one solitary flower rises from the slender scape. On arriving at the fort, we heard of an accident of a melan- choly nature. Two Indians, who were crossing the river in a canoe, expired within a few minutes of each other, probably from apoplexy, and from the circumstance of all exertion in the canoe suddenly ceasing, the natives set out to ascertain the reason, and brought the bodies of their unfortunate coun- trymen ashore. Although it was an hour since the accident had happened, I was anxious to ascertain if medical interfer- ence could be of any service, but the diminished temperature of the bodies, and the absence of any indication of remaining life, soon convinced me that alt attempts would be useless. The frequency of such occurrences among the Indians is very remarkable, but it will be unnecessary to say more on this 62 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. subject at present, as I have reserved every thing relating to the history of the Indians as the subject of a future paper. From this period till the first of June, when we embarked on our voyage to the more northern parts of this coast, our botanical labours suffered little intermission ; and, as a good understanding had at last been restored among the Indian tribes, our excursions were more extensive, and we traversed the forests with little apprehension. Thus the time passed away amid constant occupation till the vessel sailed for the more northern parts of the coast, and Mr Douglas set out on a journey of several hundred miles to the interior. Previous to our leaving the Columbia, we hired an Indian, who, although at present residing near the fort, was a native of some place in the Gulf of Georgia, to act as an inter- preter among the natives of that part of the coast. He was proud of his office, and for several days before we sailed he was constantly on board the ship, as he was afraid he should be left behind, and lose so favourable an occasion of raising his consequence among the people with whom he re- sided. On the 1st of June we set out on this part of our voyage* and on the 8th we saw the mountains of Nootka about ten leagues distant ; but as we did not at present intend to visit that harbour, we continued our voyage for Queen Charlotte's Island, where, after a tedious passage, we arrived on the 23d. The well-known ferocity of the natives of this part of the coast required us to be much more cautious in landing than among the more timid natives of the Columbia. Off this part of the coast we caught great quantities of sea-weed, (Fucus pyrifor* mis,) which was continually floating past us, and a careful ex- amination of it afforded numerous specimens of corallines and other marine animals. 24th. — A canoe was seen paddling towards us from a small village, and they came on board with no signs of apprehen- sion or surprise. We learned that the name of the village was Skeedans. The contrast between these people and the Columbian Indians was astonishing ; they were tall, handsome, and of a much lighter complexion, and had strong mustaches. The superior size and weight of the paddles of their canoes Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 63 was alone sufficient to convince any one how superior they were to- the southern Indians in muscular power. Every ar- ticle they had with them indicated a high degree of ingenuity, and the number and distinctness of the figures carved on their clay pipes was admired by every one. Conscious of their su- periority, they treated our interpreter with the most decided contempt. None of their heads appeared to have been com- pressed, from which we inferred that that custom was un- known here. Their conduct was, on all occasions, bold and decided, often approaching to quarrelsome. Their language appeared to have no resemblance to that of the Columbian or Nootka Indians, at least our interpreter did not understand them. 26th. — We are off Skittegass, a harbour much frequented by the American traders, and where we saw many Indians, all of them clothed in European blankets, and well provided with fire arms. Many of them knew a number of English words, and a young man among them could carry on a con- versation in broken English with tolerable facility. This acute Indian cheerfully agreed to continue with us while we remained in this part of the country, and from him we derived much information. The chief of Skittegass, he told us, was called Eastacanna, and was by no means friendly to white peo- ple, and embraced every occasion of plundering them he could obtain. This hostile disposition is probably encouraged by the unreserved trade in spirituous liquors, which the private adventurers who visit this island carry on, and cannot fail to be productive of the worst effects. At the trading posts of the Hudson's Bay Company, a very different system is pursued. No rum is ever sold, the Indians are peaceable and friendly, and the traders traverse the country with safety. When they commence trading with the Indians, the demand is not for rum, but for that innocent luxury tobacco. At Queen Charlotte's Island, not only rum, but even wine was demand- ed, and they were offended when we refused to give them either. On the 29th we were becalmed off Dundas Island, which we took this opportunity of visiting. It was surrounded by steep rocks, which rendered landing rather difficult. We 64 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. were accompanied by our new friend, proud of the European clothes with which we had equipped him, and anxious to show his gratitude by rendering himself useful. The island appeared to be uninhabited, and abounded in pine trees, and our progress was disagreeable from the abundance of Aralia erinacea, * whose spines tore our hands. Among the rocks we found numbers of curious sea animals, particularly a Chiton of very large size, measuring six inches in length. I also found some curious species of Saxifraga and Potentilla. We had also the good fortune to kill a fine white-headed eagle, one of the most abundant of the accipitrine tribe on the north-west coast. After returning to the ship, a favourable breeze soon sprung up, and we continued our progress towards Observatory In- let. During our passage up the inlet, several canoes at- tempted to come to us ; but, as the wind was favourable, we did not wait for them, and they showed their displeasure by many angry and menacing gestures. On the approach of night, we had much difficulty in selecting a proper anchoring- place, on account of the excessive depth of the water, and were at last obliged to anchor in thirty fathoms water, and to secure ourselves still farther by a line fixed to one of the trees on shore. 30th. — At sunrise, wre landed to take a view of the country, which we expected to do without much hazard, as the news of our arrival would not yet be sufficiently spread among the Indians. On penetrating across a little point of land, we found a stream of excellent water descending from the moun- tains, and forming a little cascade, where it fell into the sea. We wandered about with little apprehension, as no traces of Indians could be detected. Under the shade of the pines, we found Corallorhiza odontorhiza, and the beautiful Pyrola tinrflora in great abundance. On the coast we found many marine plants, and among them the Glaux maritima, a plant • Aralia erinacca, Hooker's MSS. — A. caule spinosissimo, foliis subpal- matis acutissimis, lobis incisis, petiolis nervisque spinosis, umbellis glo- bis in racemis dispositis. This curious but undescribed plant was disco- vered by Mr Menzies, and there are fine specimens of it collected by him in Dr Hooker's herbarium, under the above-mentioned name. It is dis- agreeably plentiful in the woods about Queen Charlotte's Island, and those of Observatory Inlet. Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 6£ which appears to be very universally spread through the north- ern regions of Europe and America. Our dream of security was, however, speedily dissipated, and botanical researches were interrupted by the news, that several canoes were making for the ship, and, of course, prudence required that we should return. These people, our interpreter informed us, belonged to a powerful tribe called the Nass Indians, and were governed by five smokets or chiefs. Their language, manners, and dress were the same as those of Queen Charlotte islanders, with this limitation, that they were far from being so cleanly in their dress and persons. We saw here that strange method of deforming the women, long ago noticed by the early navi- gators. All the women above fourteen years had a large oval piece of wood introduced into a transverse incision made in their lower lip. At first the incision appears to be small, and is gradually enlarged, using larger pieces of wood, till, in many of the old people, the lower lip projected beyond the nose, and gave them a most ridiculous appearance when eat- ing. They readily sold us these pieces of wood, and when they saw the interest we took in examining them, they offered to supply us with any quantity we might require. These lip ornaments, as we called them, were of a somewhat oval shape, rounded and smooth at the extremities, and slightly hollow on their upper and lower surfaces. A specimen which I procured was two inches and a quarter in length, and three quar- ters of an inch in breadth, and was not above the average size. • 1st July. — We proceeded up Observatory Inlet, with the intention of anchoring in Salmon Cove, which Captain Vancouver formerly occupied, while his boats surveyed the neighbouring coast. Both sides of Observatory Inlet were bounded by mountains of remarkable steepness, and entirely of primitive formation. The valleys, or rather ravines, were often the channel of some mountain-torrent, which, after passing a number of cataracts, descended to the ocean. In most situa- tions, these mountains were covered by fir-trees of small size * Some tribes to the north of Queen Charlotte's Island are said to have a more disgusting modification of the custom, by introducing the lip orna- ment into the upper lip. VOL. VI. NO. I, JAN. 1887. E 66 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. and stunted growth, in others, the durable nature of the gra- nite refused support to the smallest vegetable. The little valley around Salmon Cove has a beautiful verdant appear- ance, and a small brook supplies it with abundance of excel- lent water. The channel of this stream is everywhere covered by aquatic mosses, particularly Fontinalis antipyretica and F. squamosa, and among them I found one of the rarest and most beautiful of the musci of America, which, from the re- markable structure of its capsule and operculum, will doubt- less form a new genus. * 2d. — Our excursions were very limited in this fine situa- tion, as our Skittegass interpreter, Tom, was at great pains to dissuade us from venturing too far ; and he assured us that we would soon be visited by all the canoes of the Nass In- dians, who were a treacherous people, and had killed many of the Americans who had incautiously ventured ashore on this coast. These circumstances, we afterwards learned from an American trader, were strictly correct, and that the natives of Queen Charlotte's Island and the neighbouring continent uni- formly attacked the ships which visited them whenever it was in their power. Next morning, the assertions of our friend Tom were verified, and about thirty canoes, containing about 200 Indians, visited the vessel. Being amply prepared against any attack, we endeavoured to gain their good will by treat- ing them kindly ; we purchased what goods they had to dispose off ; permitted the chiefs to come on board, and gave them presents of tobacco, and feasted them on bread and molasses, of all things the most delicious to an Indian palate. In re- turn for this usage, they behaved with great propriety, and even with some honesty, for some of the tin dishes in which we had given them molasses were returned next day, when we thought they had been stolen. However, with all this seem- ing good will on their part, they gave us a specimen of their dexterity, by stealing a heavy sounding-lead, and a few other articles of little importance. These Indians were remarkably acute traders, and extremely selfish, and never, in one instance, did they give any present in return for those we presented them ; while the natives of the Gulf of Georgia never vi- • Scoulcria, Hooker's MSS. Mr Scoukr's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 67 sited us without bringing a present of salmon or berries. As they had their families in their canoes, we had some op- portunity of examining their mode of living. They appear- ed to have a great predilection for all kinds of oily food, and to live principally on fish and marine animals. Seals are very common, and they were very fond of the fat of that animal. In their canoes we observed a kind of square cake which they eat after soaking it in oil. On procuring a few specimens, I found there were two distinct kinds. The one consisted of various species of dulse (Halymenia,) compressed into a cake, and probably used as a substitute for salt. The other cake was of a more firm consistence, and was made from the inner bark of some tree, beaten very fine and then dried. This cake was eaten after soaking it in oil. As this kind of bread is pro- bably similar to that used in times of scarcity in the northern parts of Europe, and prepared from the pine, it may serve to allay hunger without affording much nourishment, like the earth eaten by the Indians of the Orinoco, mentioned by Humboldt. It seems to be very generally used among these tribes, as it is mentioned by Mackenzie in his journey to the Pacific Ocean. 5th. — To-day we removed to a small harbour about five miles farther up the inlet than Salmon Cove, but the inces- sant rain and the presence of the Nass Indians detained us on board. As the weather improved, we made a boat excur- sion a few miles farther up the inlet. The country was more verdant and the land less precipitous, and afforded many cu- rious plants. I was particularly anxious to procure a species of lily, which must be very abundant in the woods, as the In- dians eat great quantities of its roots. After some search, I found a few specimens, but unfortunately the season of flower- ing was past, so that we had to rest satisfied with the capsules. From the time of this excursion till the 12th, the constant heavy rains and dense foggy weather confined us in our pre- sent situation, and prevented my wandering far into the woods. On the 12th, the weather became more settled, and on follow- ing the tract of an Indian path for half a mile, we arrived at a spacious bay, bounded on one side by granite rocks, on the other by a sandy beach, and abounding in aquatic fowls. I never was in a situation where more Acotyledonous plants were 68 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. to be collected with less trouble. The rocks, even to the wa- ter's edge, were covered with various species of lichens and mosses, and the scuta? of the Peltidceas had a beautiful ap- pearance when contrasted with the dark colours of the tripe de roche (Gyraphorae,) and without rising from the rock on which I was seated, I collected upwards of twenty species of cryptogamic plants. I quitted with regret this favoured cradle of cryptogamic vegetation, but found the phenogamous plants equally curious, though less abundant. On our return, we observed the remains of an Indian lodge, which consisted of a few poles, supporting a covering of dried branches, while the sides were open. There remained also a number of fish- hooks of a curious construction, which will be afterwards men- tioned. 18th.— We now returned to Salmon Cove, which well me- rits its name. The quantity of salmon around us was asto- nishing, so that it was not possible to let a stone fall from the vessel without it touching some of them. On landing, I pro- ceeded about three miles into the country, along the margins of the rivulet. Every pool was filled with salmon, and many of them were continuing their progress up the shallow water. On my return I killed a number, which I brought to the ship. Encouraged by my success, a party of the men were sent to procure more fish, which they easily did, and I availed my- self of the opportunity of going farther into the country, which abounded in marsh plants; but the most interesting specimen was two plants belonging to the natural order of Saxifrages, and on returning to the ship I found my prize was the Ro- manzowiaUnaloschensis of Chamisso. The salmon which we found on this coast were those named hunch-backed by Captain Vancouver. At the spawning season the difference of confi- guration between the male and female fish is so great, that at first sight they could scarcely be suspected to belong to the same species. The female had little remarkable in its appear- ance, being the usual shape of salmon. The body of the male was remarkably compressed, and the back very sharp, from the arched appearance of his dorsal swelling ; when cut into, it was found to be composed entirely of cellular matter. The snout was very long, and furnished with long teeth, the upper Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 6i) jaw curved down, and projected more than an inch beyond the lower. In almost every individual the colour was paler on one side than on the other. We remained in Observatory Inlet till the 24th ; and it is re- markable, that as soon as the Indians had disposed of the goods, they seldom returned to the vessel, and showed but little curi- osity, no doubt arising from the frequent opportunities they have of trading with other vessels. The natives of other parts of the coast were constant in their attendance on us, and much more tractable. On the afternoon of the 26th, we landed our interpreter near his native village, although this interesting Indian would cheerfully have accompanied us to England, and had often spoken to us about taking him there. From his friendly and ingenuous conduct, we had formed a high opinion of him, and in his manners we probably witnessed those of most of hisr countrymen, as there must be far less variety in the ha- bits of savage than of civilized life. He was remarkably clean- ly, and expressed on all occasions an unequivocal contempt for our Columbian Indian, and often wished us to punish him for being so inattentive to cleanliness. He eagerly adopted every thing civilized in the dress and manners of those about him ; and unlike his countrymen, he would never use tobacco, and had a happy aversion to rum. With all his good qualities, poor Tom had an unfortunate propensity for pilfering, a crime of which we have many extenuating circumstances, when an Indian is the culprit. No circumstance shows the superiority of those islanders over the Columbian and Nootkan Indians, than the facility with which they adopt the improvements of civilized life. Around Skittegass, the potato is now pretty ex- tensively cultivated, and they brought us plenty to sell. One cannot but rejoice at this symptom of commencing civilization, which, if persevered in, will limit their wanderings, and give them better ideas of property, and teach them that more is to be gained by cultivating their fertile soil, than in following sal- mon up every creek, or spending days in the uncertain support of the chase. The Indians of the Columbia, who enjoy far greater opportunities for improvement than those of Skittegass, have as yet steadily refused to cultivate the ground, in spite of the example and encouragement of the settlers, and have re- 70 Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. fused to grow the seeds that were offered them, while their pride urged, as an apology for their indolence, that it was the work of slaves to cultivate the ground. We now continued our voyage to the south, intending to visit Nootka and De Fuca's Straits previous to our return to the Co- lumbia. And, on the evening of the 30th, a Nootkan canoe came off to us, entreating us to visit their harbour ; but, as the night was approaching, we gave them some presents, informing them we would return next morning. Although the merit of making this part of the north-west coast known to Europeans undoubt- edly belongs to Captain Cook, it had been visited before his time by a Spanish navigator named Juan Perez ; but as this circumstance was unknown to Captain Cook and to the public, he is entitled to all the honour of the discovery. Perez, after leav- ing the coast of California, discovered Queen Charlotte's Island ; and, on the 9th August 1774, he landed at Nootka, which he called Port San Lorenzo. The name of Nootka, imposed by Captain Cook, has no affinity to any word employed by the na- tives ; and the Spanish naturalist Mozino, who remained a con- siderable time at this place along with Quadra, says, that the native name is Yucualt, which, I think, is in all probability the true name ; for the natives of the eastern side of Quadra and Vancouver's Island gave their part of the island the name of Yucualtatch. We had scarcely come to anchor in Friendly Cove when old Macuinna came on board with two of his sons, and we received with pleasure perhaps the only chief alive who remembers Captain Cook. He behaved in a friendly manner, and gave us a present of those beautiful shells which the north- west Indians value so much as an ornament. The natives call them hyaquass, and they are not only the jewels, but the cur- rency of the country ; and with a sufficient supply of these shells we may purchase any thing the country affords. The method of ascertaining their value is to string forty of them on a thread, and to measure off a fathom, and the number of shells that remain over this measurement fixes the value of the hya- quass. Macuinna was a stout old man, clothed in a robe made of racoon skins, and his hair had lost none of its original black- ness. His sons were young men of much more pleasing fea- tures than himself. The oldest, about twenty years of age, bore Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. *]l his father's name, a practice which seems to be general among these tribes, as the chief of the Cheenooks on the Columbia had also bestowed his name and authority on his favourite son. The second son of Macuinna was about eighteen, was called Soodoo, and was the most cheerful and amiable of the family. Notwithstanding all the apparent friendship of Macuinna, we could not but look with disgust on this wily savage, whose subjects murdered the crew of a merchant vessel not many years ago, in the place where we now were. He affected to speak with re- spect and gratitude of Quadra, Vancouver, and Mr Mears, and readily recognized the portrait of the last-named gentle- man. But all the kindness these enlightened men had shown him, has failed in taming his savage temper, and allowing the question of his anthropophagism to remain unsettled, enough remains to render his character disagreeable. I have seen the narrative of an unfortunate seaman, who spent several years of a dangerous captivity among the Indians of Yucualt. The ship to which this man belonged was captured by Macuinna, through the culpable negligence of the captain, and only two of the crew were spared, who afterwards made their escape on board another vessel which visited this harbour. From the narrative of these men, which contains many in- teresting facts, it appears that very little provocation was given on the part of the captain, and that the cause of the disaster was the desire of the Indians to possess the property of the vessel, encouraged by the success a neighbouring tribe had ex- perienced in cutting off the numerous crew of the Tonquin of Boston. The capture of two vessels within the space of ten years, has no doubt augmented the boldness of the In- dians, but, with a moderate degree of caution on the part of commanders of ships, no such catastrophe could possibly hap- pen. Although, during the earlier periods of the fur trade on the north-west coast, Nootka was much frequented by trad- ing vessels, it is at present but seldom visited. It produces but few beaver-skins, and the sea-otter is more plentiful far- ther north, so that there is but little inducement to visit it. Macuinna is not the miniature Montezuma that Humboldt sup- poses ; his authority, like that of every other tyee or chief, is confined to his own tribe, and his influence among his neigh- 7$ Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. bours depends solely on his wealth, and the number of his people. The ascendancy he formerly possessed, arose from the almost complete monopoly of European trade, which the fortu- nate situation of his tribe enabled him to maintain ; and even at present the canoes of strangers were allowed to visit us with much suspicion, and sometimes they were driven away. The only other people we saw at Nootka, were the Wickananish, the Cleyoquats, and Nittinats, who differed in nothing from Noot- kans. 31st. — To-day the whole village of Macuinna seemed in motion, preparing to visit the vessel, and we soon had upwards of twenty-five canoes around the ship, or, as they called it, tyee mamatly, and the chief and his sons remained on board the whole day. With the exception of old Macuinna, the Nootkans were in a state of happy ignorance with regard to rum and tobacco. The chief was perpetually teasing us in our turn for rum, an article which we were determined not to give him, believing such conduct one of the best ways of maintaining a good understanding between us. While in this situation, we obtained all the good fare Nootka could afford, salmon, flat-fish, venison, chamass, and sallal. * 1st August. — We landed near the ship, and as it was not safe to travel far among Indians of so suspicious a character, I contented myself with amassing such plants as the neigh- bouring rocks afforded. A short time after our return to the vessel, some hooks were stolen from the boat ; but on inform- ing Macuinna that we were resolved to procure the articles which were carried off, a canoe was dispatched, which quickly returned with the property My herborizing yesterday had attracted the notice of the natives, and several of them brought plants to sell in their ca- noes. To encourage this disposition, I bought them all, and, by this means, ascertained that some of the vegetables brought by the Spaniards still existed in a degenerate state. In this situation, I also obtained specimens of the Fucus pyriformis% a plant much more plentiful in the southern hemisphere. This * Chamass is the root of a plant resembling the wood hyacinth, and sal- lal is the berries of the Gualtheria sliallon, which are of the size of black currants, but have a much sweeter taste. Br Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread. *J§ plant, which had attracted the notice of the illustrious Cook, is probably the longest vegetable known, and is often many hundred feet in length. It is remarkable, that a slender sea- weed should exceed in length the tallest of the giants of the forest, — the pines of the north, and the palms of the tropics. All the Indians of Nootka have flat heads, rather more coni- cal in their shape than the sculls of the Columbians. They are extremely fond of painting, and draw lines of various co- lours over their eyebrows and cheeks, and then lay on a layer of powdered mica, which, gives them a fearful appearance. Their heads are powdered with the down of fowls. When unpainted, the higher ranks are very cleanly, and seem to be frequent in their ablutions. Our stay at Nootka was too short to enable us to acquire much knowledge of the customs of its inhabitants, and much of what we learned has been long known to the public. It is, however, interesting to know that their language is merely a dialect of that spoken on the Columbia, so that our interpre- ter could easily make himself understood. Their manners differ very little from those of the Columbians, and it is high- ly probable that they are the ramifications of a single nation. Although the knowledge of uncivilized tribes acquired by the short visits of navigators is highly curious, there are many facts which can only be acquired by a closer view, and a longer residence among them. In this manner, Mozino, the botanist who accompanied Quadra, obtained much interesting matter ; but my acquaintance with his researches is confined to a few extracts in different works. {To be continued.) Art. IX. — A Chemical Essay on the Art of Baking Bread. By Hugh Colquhoun, M. D.* Tke leading object of Dr Colquhoun in the chemical part of his interesting paper, is to determine the nature of what is termed the panary fermentation ; and of the three chief con- stituents of wheaten-flour, starch, gluten, and the saccharine * Extract from the Annah of Philosophy for September. 74 Dr Colquhoun on the Art oj baking Bread. principle, to ascertain which is essentially concerned in that process. The researches of Dr C. have led him to the opi- nion, that the fermentation in dough, so far as it is useful to the baker, is solely owing to the resolution of the saccharine principle of the flour into carbonic acid and alcohol, in conse- quence of its being brought into a situation predisposing it to pass into the vinous fermentation. If the saccharine fermentation be suffered to exhaust itself in any dough, a new fermentation of a different kind (the acetous) will succeed it ; but it is the latter which io injurious to the bread, while the former is the source of all the benefits which the best fermentation can confer. Dr Colquhoun proves, in the first instance, that the starch and gluten are not concerned in the fermentation. Starch, he observes, " evinces no tendency to undergo any decomposition by mere exposure for a few hours to the moderate temperature used in the preparation of dough ; and even moist gluten, in the short period necessary to commence and complete the fer- mentation of dough, would sustain no change in its appearance or chemical properties, though exposed either per se, or mixed with yeast, to the temperature just mentioned ; yet the fer- mentative process in dough is strong under these very circum- stances. Besides, it is certain, that if spontaneous decomposi- tion, either of the starch or the gluten, always of compara- tively tardy excitement, were once commenced and left un- checked in circumstances so favourable to decomposition as in the baking process, with respect both to moisture and tem- perature, it would of necessity continue with regular and un- abated energy, so long as a particle of either substance remained unaltered. But in dough, though the fermentation commences soon after the mixture of yeast and hot water with the flour, and goes on actively and in full vigour for a given period, vary- ing from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, it suddenly stops short, while yet it is quite obvious, that much of the starch and of the gluten remains untouched. In fine, it may be mentioned, as conclusive of this question, that when fermentation has thus ceased in dough, neither the addition of fresh yeast, nor of fresh starch, nor of fresh gluten, nor of all the three com- bined, has the smallest effect in renewing the process of fer- Dr Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread. 75 mentation. And it has been ascertained by M. Vogel, that in baked bread there exists pretty nearly the same quantity of gluten as in common wheaten-flour, and that of the starch, three-fourths remains entire ; while the other fourth is only converted into a gummy matter, similar in appearance and properties to torrefied starch, a change which could have no effect in infusing a gaseous body into the bread. It seems, therefore, to be a point scarcely admitting of additional proof, that it is neither the starch nor the gluten which is concerned in the ordinary fermentative process which takes place in dough ." The mucilaginous and albuminous principles of wheat-flour exist in such small proportion that they cannot be supposed capable of causing fermentation. The only remaining con- stituent, therefore, is the saccharine matter, a principle con- tained in wheat-flour to the amount of five per cent., and which, from its strong tendency to ferment, will readily account for the phenomena. In confirmation of this view, Dr C. made the following experiments. " After suffering the fer- mentative process to exhaust itself in a mass of dough, and the dough to be brought into that situation in which the addition neither of yeast, nor starch, nor gluten, had produced any effect on a similarly ex-fermented mass, I tried the renewal of a little yeast to* the dough, along with a small addition of the other constituent of the flour, the saccharine principle. On adding common refined sugar in these circumstances to the amount of four per cent., the process of fermentation immedi- ately recommenced, and in its appearance, activity, and duration, was just a repetition of the previously exhausted process of fermentation. After a lapse of about the same period, it, in the same manner, totally ceased" This experiment, taken in conjunction with the foregoing, seems to leave no doubt that the saccharine principle is the true and only cause of the fermentation. Dr C. mentions one fact, however, which at first sight appears contradictory; namely, that a loaf of well-baked bread contains nearly as much saccharine matter as is contained in wheaten-flour pre- viously to fermentation. Thus M. Vogel found 3.6 per cent of sugar in good bread. Dr C. explains this circumstance in 76 Dr Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread. two ways. In the first place, the baker never allows the whole sugar to be destroyed, lest the acetous fermentation should set in. As. soon as the fermentation has proceeded a certain length, and before all the sugar is decomposed, its progress is arrested by the heat of the oven. In the second place, Dr C. is of opinion, that some of the starch is converted into sugar during the baking. Pure dry starch does not indeed undergo this change ; but if any part of a loaf enters the oven in the state of gelatinous starch, then saccharine matter is actually formed at the expence of the starch. This was proved by an experiment, in which wheat-starch was gelatinized by hot water, and mixed with dough. The bread so formed had an unusually sweet taste. Dr C. thinks it probable, that, in the common process of making dough, a portion of starch is con- verted into the gelatinous state. Having established that the fermentation of bread is merely an instance of the vinous fermentation,, during which saccha- rine matter is resolved into alcohol and carbonic acid, Dr C. of course infers, that the production of an acid, when the pro- cess is allowed to continue too long, is owing to the acetous supervening on the vinous fermentation. He also suggests, as a probable circumstance, that a little lactic acid is produced as well as vinegar. Dr C. has also discovered an easy and certain method of de- stroying the acescency of dough, when the fermentation has accidentally proceeded too far, without giving any unpleasant flavour or noxious quality to the bread. A quantity of ordi- nary loaf-dough, when just fit for the oven, was put aside in a warm situation. The acetous fermentation was soon esta- blished, " and at the expiration of twenty-four hours, upon opening up the dough, which was still in a state of strong fer- mentation, a very acid odour was plainly perceptible. The taste was also distinctly, though weakly, acid. After taking two pieces, weighing five ounces each, from the general mass, it was once more set aside. Into one of the portions thus chosen were kneaded ten grains of the common carbonate of magnesia, and then both were, after the usual manner, baked in the oven. The difference between the two loaves, when baked, was most striking. The bread which had been made 11 Dr Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread, 77 from the sour dough alone had a taste distinctly perceptible of acidity, and a smell so sour as must have rendered it almost unsaleable, while that which contained the magnesia present- ed not the slightest indications of any kind of sourness, and appeared in all respects an excellent loaf." " To vary the experiment, an attempt was made to correct the acidity of the dough after standing twenty-four hours longer in a warm place, and when it had become strongly acid. " Four portions of this dough were now taken, all of which were baked after the usual form, but with this difference in their composition, that one was put into the oven made of the same dough just as it stood ; a second had four grains, and a third eight grains of the carbonate of magnesia kneaded up with them, and to the fourth was added sixteen grains of the com- mon crystallized carbonate of soda. The first loaf, when baked, possessed, in a very rank and strong degree, both a taste and smell of acidity. In the second, the acidity remained faintly perceptible, especially in the smell. In the third, the loaf had no acid or other disagreeable property whatever. In the fourth, there was no acid taste, but a slightly acid smell.1' " These results appear quite decisive. For thus the exhi- bition of eight grains of the carbonate of magnesia to five ounces of dough, or about thirty-two grains to the pound, which is about fifty-two grains to the pound of flour, proved amply sufficient to correct an acidity which had been allowed to pro- ceed to an extreme hardly ever known in practice. And in- deed in the great bulk of instances a much smaller quantity would be found completely sufficient ; so that, in all probabi- lity, three ounces of carbonate of magnesia to every 100 pounds of flour would be found to serve the purpose, pro- vided a due incorporation of the magnesia were effected though out the substance of the bread." In the second part of this interesting essay, published in the Annals of Philosophy for October, Dr Colquhoun makes some remarks on the processes for introducing an elastic fluid into dough, which has not undergone the panary fermentation. One of the methods which have been recommended for this purpose, namely, the use of water charged with carbonic acid gas, was found quite ineffectual as well for exciting fermenta- 78 Dr Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread. tion, as for causing the dough to expand, in the process of baking, into a light spongy bread. The subcarbonate of ammonia, on the contrary, a substance frequently employed by bakers for rendering dough porous, afforded very favour- able results; and the experiments made by mixing dough with an alkaline carbonate or the carbonate of magnesia, and then decomposing the salt by means of an acid, were likewise satisfactory. The bread made with the latter, though decid- edly inferior to common loaf-bread, was light and porous when compared to that made with unfermented dough. But the most novel facts contained in the second part of the essay regards the manufacture of gingerbread, the forma- tion of which is thus described : " The ingredients are flour, treacle, butter, common potashes, and alum. After the butter is melted, and the potashes and alum are dissolved in a little warm water, these three ingredients, along with the treacle, are poured among the flour which is to form the basis of the bread. The whole is then thoroughly incorporated together, by mixture and kneading, into a stiff' dough. Of these several constituents, the alum is found by the baker to be the least essential, although it is useful in having a decided tendency to make the bread lighter and crisper, and in accelerating the tardy period at which the dough is in the most advantageous condition for being baked into bread. For it is one of the most remarkable parts of the present system of manipulation, that gingerbread-dough, however thoroughly kneaded, almost inva- riably requires to stand over for the space of from three or four to eight or ten days, before it arrives at that state which is best adapted for its rising to the fullest extent, and becoming duly gasified in the oven. And experience has shown, that it may be allowed to stand over even for the period of several weeks, rather with advantage than loss in this respect. It is true, that, from causes not well understood by the baker, the dough of gingerbread becomes thus matured and ripe for the oven, on some occasions much more speedily than on others ; but, in general, if the dough were fired at an earlier period than has just been mentioned, the baked bread would more or less resemble in compactness a piece of wood, in proportion to the time by which its baking had been prematurely hastened."" Dr Colquhoun on the Art of' baking Bread. 79 Of the several ingredients which enter into the constitution of gingerbread, Dr Colquhoun has proved that the only ones which are essential for rendering it light and spongy are trea- cle and carbonate of potash, and there can be no doubt that their mutual action consists in the evolution of carbonic acid gas. But in order to establish this point with certainty, " the substitution of carbonate of soda, and of carbonate of magne- sia for carbonate of potash, was tried, and it invariably turned out that the bread in these cases expanded just as well in the oven, as when an equivalent quantity of carbonate of potash had been employed. And when, on the contrary, in place of these substances, there was mixed up with the dough either caustic potash or caustic magnesia, the bread never expanded in the slightest degree in the process of baking, whether the dough was baked when recent, or after being kept a consider- able time. From this it resulted, that the presence of an alka- line carbonate was clearly essential to the gasifying of the gin- gerbread-dough ; and it seemed almost a necessary inference, that the rising of the bread during the baking is produced by carbonic acid gas, and that this gas is developed in consequence of some mutual action which takes place between the treacle and the alkaline carbonate.,, The evolution of carbonic acid gas, under these circumstan- ces, can alone be attributed to the presence of a free acid in treacle. " That such an acid does, in a greater or less degree, always exist in treacle, seems proved by the fact, that, of many specimens which were examined in the course of the experi- ments just mentioned, all possessed distinct traces of acidity, and to an extent sufficient to enable them to communicate a red colour to vegetable blues ; but the amount of uncombined acid present in all these cases appeared to be very trifling, and it was difficult to ascribe to its sole agency the production of effects so striking. It cannot be doubted, however, that this uncombined acid must operate to a certain extent in produ- cing a decomposition of the alkaline carbonate ; and it may be conjectured also, that the superiority in the expanding power of old dough is occasioned either by the additional acidification of a small quantity of the treacle, to which it would be disposed during the keeping, by its state of mixture 80 Dr Colquhoun on the Art of' baking Bread. with the flour, or by the circumstance, that the carbonic acid gas, disengaged by the uncombined acid contained originally in the treacle, has thereby more leisure to penetrate into the system of the dough, and to produce a more complete separation of its particles. And it may be mentioned, as a circumstance in sup- port of this explanation, that though the period of keeping re- quisite in the preparation of gingerbread-dough is generally from five to ten days, it is sometimes materially less, and that without the manufacturer s being able to assign any cause for the variation. But this, of course, might be readily accounted for on the supposition, that treacle generally contains a variable quantity of uncombined acid, and that this ingredient is the true agent in developing carbonic acid gas within the dough, by its action upon the alkaline carbonate, Upon the whole, there- fore, it seems not improbable, that the mutual action of the potashes and treacle, out of which results the gasifying of gin- gerbread-dough, consists in the treacle containing a litle un- combined acid, which, uniting with the potashes, sets carbonic acid gas at liberty, and thereby renders gingerbread light and elastic."" " In the course of performing these experiments, the details of which have been subjoined in a note to p. 278, and the results of which have led to the above conclusions, it was impossible not to be impressed with a sense of the inconveniences that of- ten arise to the baker from the delay occurring in the process, and of the injury which may not unfrequently accrue to the con- sumer, from the deleterious nature of one of the ingredients which is essential in the present system. This is the carbonate of potash, which it is always necessary to use in such a quantity as gives a distinct disagreeable alkaline flavour to the bread, whenever this is not disguised by mixture with some aromatic ingredient. Nor can there be much doubt, that if gingerbread, as now made, were eaten in any considerable quantity, it would prove injurious to any delicate constitution, in consequence merely of the large amount which it contains of this alkaline substance ; and if such a consequence as this may follow, even in the case of the most carefully baked gingerbread, it is plain that, in the hands of a careless or unskilful mechanic, the em- ployment of such an ingredient is extremely inconvenient. It Dr Colquhouii on the Art of baking Bread. 81 appeared, therefore, to be a very desirable matter to procure some substitute, which, while it formed an equally well-raised bread, might save the delay of the baker, be less disagreeable to the palate, and quite harmless to the constitution ; and, accord- ingly, it was not without experiencing very considerable plea- sure, that after having made various trials, a mode of com- pounding and preparing the dough was actually found out, which appears to unite all these advantages. The substitute which proved the most perfectly successful was a mixture of common carbonate of magnesia and tartaric acid ; and in mixing up the dough, there will be found a practical expediency in employing a considerably larger quantity of the alkaline carbo- nate than is strictly necessary to neutralize the acid. But the shortest and simplest mode of explaining how this process is found to work, will be to quote an example of its use : the fol- lowing statement is therefore submitted, of the mode of preparing what will be found in practice to be a very good dough, parti- cularly for that kind of thin gingerbread, well known under the name of Parliament cakes. " Take a pound of flour, a quarter of an ounce of carbonate of magnesia, and one-eighth of an ounce of tartaric acid ; let the butter, treacle, and aromatic ingredients, be added in the same manner as at present. The use of alum; will not be found of any advantage, and will be better dispensed with ; as it is in itself an unwholesome substance, and any good effects which it can produce are in all probability completely supplied by the tartaric acid. It is necessary that the alkali employed, the magnesia, should be uniformly diffused throughout the whole mass of the dough, an object which will be always best effected by intermixing it, bruised to an impalpable powder, with the flour, previously to the addition of any other ingredient. After these have been well mingled, dissolve the tartaric acid in a small quantity of water, and, having melted the butter, pour it, the treacle, and the acid solution, into the mixture of flour and magnesia. Let the whole be incorporated into a mass of dough by kneading, and then set aside the dough, for a period varying from half an hour to an hour. It is then fit for being baked into bread. The delay of at least half an hour has the practical benefit of giving full time for the acid to act upon the VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. F 82 Dr Colquhoun on the Art of baking Bread. alkaline carbonate, so as to render the dough loose and short, or, as a baker would say, to bring it into a state of strong fer- mentation. The dough prepared in this manner, should never be kept longer than two or three hours before being put into the oven, from which it will in due time be obtained, in the state of a light, spongy, pleasant bread. " By the method now proposed, not only is the delay avoided which is so inconvenient in the system at present practised, but there is no unpleasant flavour discernible even when the bread is not at all confected with sugar or spices, and there is no ingre- dient in it at all injurious to the most delicate constitution. The expence of making gingerbread in the manner above stated is a trifle greater than that in which carbonate of potash is em- ployed. The difference, however, is so extremely small, as scarcely to make any sensible addition to the price of even the most ordinary kinds of gingerbread.* " As a matter of curiosity, the mode now mentioned as having been successfully employed in rapidly gasifying the dough of gingerbread, was tried upon the dough of plain bread, to see whether it might there have the effect of proving a complete substitute for the common yeast-fermentation. The result was in the highest degree favourable, and the biscuit which had been the subject of the experiment was as light and pleasant as if it had been prepared upon the fermentation-system. This experi- ment was more, however, a matter of curiosity, as already mentioned, than of much practical utility ; for although the present process of the baker is slow and somewhat tedious, yet it is also cheap, and simple, and sure ; and it is only in those comparatively rare cases, when, either from want of yeast, or from deficiency of time, it would be impossible to have recourse to fermentation, that the use of the process here suggested might be a matter of some advantage to the manufacturer. It should not be omitted to mention, that the presence of the neutral salt, the tartrate of magnesia, necessarily formed by that union of the acid and alkali which furnishes the supply of car- * th. — At 1 2h 0' mean time, the tail of the comet is 10° or 11° long, and about 2£° broad. The nucleus of the comet is sensibly nearer the preceding side of the head, and not in the centre, as I have formerly observed it. Oct. 5th. — At 9h 30' mean time, the comet is north following 417 Cetus, about one minute of R.A. in time, and about 20x north of the star ; the tail is about 10° in length, and perhaps 2° broad at the extremity. The tail is brightest in the middle and conti- nues for about 3° or 4° from the head, without very sensibly varying in breadth. It passes north following of g Ceti, where it begins suddenly to increase in breadth, and the 363 Ceti is involved near the preceding side of the tail, where the faintness commences ; but nearly in the direction of s Ceti, there is the ap- pearance of a second branch forming, which at present is not more than one fourth of a degree in length. (See Plate II. Fig. 1.) Oct. 7th. — At 11 h mean time, the tail of the comet is about 9° in length, and very faint towards the extremity, and is divided into five bars or branches, with a dark space between each. The principal branch is rather preceding the central line of the tail, and is considerably the longest and brightest ; the branch on the following side is longer than that on the preceding side; as about 7° to 3° from the head to where the branches separate is about one degree. The light of this space in the neck is nearly uniform, but not equal in brightness to the head. The head seems much more condensed than it was on Wednesday, (the 5th) and much brighter, but the tail, as a whole, is fainter and shorter. (See Fig. 2.) N. B. — The tail is nearly due north, probably rather pre- ceding. Oct. 9th. — At 12h mean time, the tail of the comet is north preceding. The branches do not exist, neither does the tail spread so much at the extremity ; as on the 7th, it is pretty bright for about two degrees from the head, then breaks off faint, suddenly. Oct. 10//*.— At 11" 37' mean time, the tail is fully 1 1° or 12* in length, diverging very suddenly for about 2 \° from the head ; the following side of the head is not so well-defined as the pre- 11 Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 1825. 87 ceding side, and the nucleus is not in the centre of the head, but certainly in the preceding side of it, which side is sharply defined. The broadest part of the tail is little more than one degree, and the position of the tail north rather preceding. At 12h 17/ mean time, the tail very gradually diminishes in brightness from the head to the faint extremity, which may be about 1 1° in length, and one degree broad ; the narrowest part of the tail is not immediately joining the head, but about one degree distant, where it diverges rather suddenly to about 2J° from the head, and remains nearly of the same breadth to the faint extremity ; the tail is north preceding. (See Fig. 3.) Oct. Iflth. — At llh 21' mean time, the tail of the comet is singularly curved concave towards the east, or following side, and fully 7° in length ; there is a considerable branch on the preceding side, about three degrees in length, and also a short branch about one degree in length on the following side ; the head is much condensed, more so indeed, than ever I have seen it ; the tail is about 7° or 8° long, and somewhat less than 2° broad. (See Fig. 4.) At 13h 27' mean time, the tail is certainly more suddenly curved close to the head, and the principal branch is divided into two ; the preceding branch is brighter, and considerably in- creased in length ; and the following short branch is more filled up towards the principal branch ; the tail seems rather broader, and is certainly shorter than it was at llh 21'. At 14h 17', the general appearance much the same as at 12h 27' ; the tail is about 3° broad at the extremity of the branch- es, and not more than 7° in length, the tail is evidently much broader than it was at llh 21', and shorter ; but the branch on the following side has increased considerably in length. (See Fig. 5.) Oct. 14ith. — At 8h 10' mean time, the tail of the comet is certainly much longer than it was on the 12th, and very differ- ent in appearance ; it is fully 10° in length. The head is less bright, and the nucleus or (condensed part) is neither so bright, nor so large. The preceding side of the tail is strongly marked, bright, and well-defined for about 3£° from the head, where a faint narrow branch strikes off at a considerable angle, and nearly equal in length with the principal branch ; also a very considerable nebulosity exists on the following side, shooting 88 Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet o/1825. out from the head about one degree in length. The tail is near- ly a straight line from the head to where the branches separate, when it curves off suddenly concave on the following side. (See Fig. 6.) At 9h 20' mean time, the general appearance much the same as at 8h 10'. The faint narrow branch preceding is rather fainter at the extremity, and the nebulosity or branch on the following side is much brighter, and about a degree and a half in length ; also on the preceding side of the head a new branch is growing out. This side of the tail is not so sharply denned as at last ob- servation ; the head is bright, but the tail is fainter towards the extremity. (See Fig. 7.) At 10h 25', the collecting matter has extended at least 2° on the following side, is considerably broader, and appears se- parating to form another branch ; also the formation of another branch on the preceding side is rapidly advancing, and the ne- bulosity is extending to a greater distance round the head. At 12h 0', the general appearance much the same as at last observation. The following new branch is about 3° in length, and the preceding fully 1 1° ; they are not yet separated from the principal branch or tail. The head is certainly not so much condensed, or so bright ; the tail, also, is fainter than it was early in the night ; it appears, as it increases in length and breadth, that the cometic matter becomes more thinly spread, and no new supply of luminous matter ; the head is larger, but sensibly less condensed near the centre. At 18h 0', the head and tail much broader and fainter, the branches shooting out on each side from the head, are evidently formed, and beginning to be detached from the body of the tail. The narrow and condensed tail from the head to where the original branches separate, is now a broad, faint, gradual light, about 25' broad. The tail is about 11° in length, and 3° broad at the extremity of the original branches, but it is not so much curved as it was early in the evening. (See Fig. 8.) Oct. 15th. — At 9h 5' mean time, the tail runs out straight from the head about 11° or 12° in length, with three branches on the following side, and a new branch is shooting out from the head on the preceding side. At 10h 15', general appearance much the same; the new" Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 1825. 89 branch is increased in length, but is yet much fainter than any of the others. At 10h 40', the new branch on the preceding side is fully 2° in length, and the nebulosity is extending to a greater distance round the head. (Fig. 9.) Oct. 18th. — At llh 13' mean time, the tail of the comet is about 12° in length ; the following side is slightly concave near the head ; there is a small branch about half a degree in length, shooting out on the following side from the head. The comet is pretty bright, although the moon is present. (Fig. 10.) Oct. 19th. — At 10h 40' mean time, although the moonlight is very considerable, I can trace the tail of the comet 8° or 9° in length. It is composed of a principal or central branch, with a smaller and fainter branch on each side, proceeding from the head ; the branch on the preceding side is brighter and longer than that on the following side, rather less than two degrees from the head. The rays of the tail seem to cross each other, and diverge much the same as the rays of light through a con- vex lens. Fig. 11. will better explain it. A note to the obser- vation says, — I have no doubt as to the apparent crossing of the rays near the head. Oct. 20th. — At 10h 36', the moonlight is too strong to per- mit satisfactory observations ; the tail appears really to be short- er than it was last night, and I am convinced it is. It appears pretty bright for about 3° from the head ; and for about 2° it is faint and difficult to trace its existence. Again, towards the extremity it appears brighter, and I am sensible of its exist- ence for about 7°> hut cannot trace it farther. There are also branches, about 3° long, shooting out on each side from the head, but cannot say which is the longest ; they are both very faint. (See Fig. 12.) Oct. 21st. — At 10h 32' the comet is pretty bright ; the head and tail of a regular figure ; but the clouds prevent me from making such observations as I could wish. See the figure. Oct. 24}th.—At 10h 40' the comet has decreased considera- bly. I cannot trace the tail above 3^° in length ; the head is pretty bright, and the nucleus is in the centre of the head ; and the tail is of a uniform figure, but cannot trace it more than 3° in length. At llh 15' the appearance much the same. 90 Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 1825. Nov. 1st — At 10h 33' the comet pretty bright ; the tail about 7° in length, and one half degree broad. About 1 \° from the centre of the head the rays of the tail cross each other, and diverge gradually to the extremity ; two branches shooting out from the head, one on each side of the tail, and about 2° in length. (See Fig. 13.) Nov. 2d. — At 10h 5(y the tail is very bright, and about 7° in length, with a branch on the preceding side, about 2° long, and another on the following side, about 1J°. The tail is more connected with the following side, which is the shortest ; also on the following side of the head there is a quantity of thin co- metic matter protuberant from the general round form of the head. (See Fig. 14.) Nov. *7th. — At 8h 5&, comet pretty bright ; can trace the tail for nearly 9° in length ; the nucleus is very bright. Between 2° and 3° from the head the tail becomes very narrow. (See Fig. 15.) The wing or branch on the following side is longer and more detached from the body of the tail than that on the preceding side. Nov. 8th. — At 9h 467 the comet is very different in appear- ance from last night, the head is not round, or at all formed, it only resembles a blunt point, from which the tail gradually spreads in breadth, and diminishes in density, but continues bright at the sides, and dark in the middle from the head through the whole length of the tail. A very faint cloudiness surrounds the head, and extends along the tail on each side about 2°. The length of the tail is about 10°, and 1° broad at the extremity. (See Fig. 16.) The preceding is a copy of my Journal of Observations on the comet, and also on the changes which I observed to take place in the figure of the tail. The different appearances which it presented are worthy of attention, and I trust these observations will be of service to compare with similar observations made in Europe, and also at the Cape of Good-Hope. By comparing the annexed figures, (which were drawn with care, and afterwards compared with the comet,) a periodic re- turn may at least be suspected. Figures 1, 6, and 10, are Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 1825. 91 very similar, and may be suspected to be returns of the same epoch ; and Figures 2, 5, and 9, together with that of October 21, which was hastily taken from a view of the comet through an opening of the clouds, may also be suspected to be returns of another epoch ; and also figures 8, 12, 14, 15 and 16, to be returns of another epoch , — and the singular appearances on October 19th and November 1st, or Figures 11 and 13, are very similar, and are probably returns of the same epoch. These four epochs agree to prove something like a rotation, or a regular succession of the same appearances ; and if we take the observations of the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 21st of October, or Figures 10, 11, 12, and October 21st, the period must be at least eight days, or less than one day. Or the observations of October the 5th and 10th, Figures 1 and 3, would give a period of somewhat more than five days, as Figure 3 is evidently short of the epoch of Figure first ; also the observations of the 7tn ant* l^th October, Figures 2 and 5, would give a period of more than five days, as Figure 5 is evi- dently not so far advanced as the epoch of Figure 2. But the observations of the 14th October show that the change of figure is very sensible in a short time, and the ob- servations of the 14th at 13 hours mean time, Figure 8 ; and the observations of the 15th at 9h 5' Figure 9, plainly show that the body must have made a revolution and somewhat more in 20h and 5' of time ; for it is very evident that Figure 9 is farther advanced from the epoch of Figure 6 than Figure 8 is, and consequently the period of a revolution must be less than 20h and 5', by a quantity equal to the difference between Figures 8 and 9- From October 5th, at 9h 30' to the 18th at llh 13' gives sixteen revolutions, and the time of revolution 19h and 36'. From October 5th at 9h 30' to the 14th at 8h 10' gives eleven revolutions, and the time of the revolution 19h and 31/. From October 7th, at llh 0', to the 15th at 10h 15', gives eleven revolutions, and the time of the revolution 19h and 35'. From October 14th, at 13h 0', to November 7th, at 8h 56', gives twenty-nine revolutions ; and the time of each revolution 19h 42/. From October 19th, at 10h 40', to November 1st, at 10h 33' 92 Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 1825. gives sixteen revolutions ; and the time of the revolution 1911 3(X. From October 20th, at 10h 36', to November 2d, at 10h 50' gives sixteen revolutions ; and the time of the revolution 19h 31'. From October 7th, at llh Q', to November 8th, at 9h 46' gives thirty-nine revolutions ; and the time of the revolution 19h and 39'. By taking a mean of all these, it gives 19h and S& for the approximate time of the rotation. General Remarks. The tail has been subject not only to continual, but (from the observations) to periodic changes of appearance, and also the changes about to take place first made their appearance at the head of the comet, sometimes shooting out from one side, and sometimes from both, but generally made their appearance first on the following side of the head. If these changes are occasioned by a rotation on its axis, the tail of the comet must be dependent on the nature of the materials of which the surface of the comet is composed, which must be very irregularly scattered on some parts of its surface to produce the different appearances which the tail has pre- sented ; and if such be the cause, the change of appearance in the tail may be more remarkable in some comets than in others of equal magnitude, from the position of its poles with respect to the earth, and the irregularity of its surface. But what may be the cause of these periodic changes in the figure of the tail I do not pretend to say. The observations are given in candour as they were made, and I leave it to those who may have made similar observations on the tail, and are better qualified to investigate the subject than myself. Similar appearances were observed by Le P. Cysat, in the tail of the comet of 1618 ; by Hevelius, in the tails of the comets of 1652 and 1661 ; and by Pingre, in the tail of the comet of 1769. As this will again appear about the latter end of 1835, or beginning of 1836, it will afford an opportunity, at no very distant period, of investigating more minutely the changes which take place in the tails of comets, which may lead, not only to suspect the cause of the change which takes Mr Dunlop's observations on the Comet of 182 5. 93 place, but to more satisfactory conclusions concerning the na- ture of the tail itself. James Dunlop. Paramatta, New South Wales, Feb. S, 1826. Observations on the Comet, made at Paramatta, New South Wales, in 1825. Sidereal Dirt', in No.oi Barome- 1825. Time. Comet. Diff. in AR. Declin. Obs. ter. Ther. h ' " i n i n Inch. July 21. I 54 20 South following 44 Taurus. + 7 30 0 — 1 6 24 1 22. 1 30 14 S. following 44 Taurus. + 8 2 0 — 3 58 01 2 23. 1 23 44 S. following 44 Taurus. + 8 33 65 — 12 34 12 6 30.088 39° 25. 1 45 19 N. preceding * Taurus. — 2 20 50 +26 3 04 3 30.113 43 26. 1 28 42 N. preceding * Taurus. — 1 55 93 4- 20 12 4C 10 30.065 36.5 27- 1 59 19 N. preceding u. Taurus. — 1 25 50 + 14 25 OS 2 Aug. 7- 2 47 11 N. preceding 62 Taurus. — 0 46 00 +, 6 49 32 1 10. 0 58 50 S. following 62 Taurus. + 1 15 96 — 7 8 02 11 29,830 42 14. I 43 3 N. preceding 2d v Taurus. — I 38 46 + 26 9 60 9 30.050 40 16. 2 14 34 N. preceding 2d v Taurus. — 1 33 60 +10 9 72 13 29.900 39 19. 3 7 57 S. preceding 2d v Taurus. — 0 38 545 — 14 46 50 10 30.230 39 Sept. 8. 1 11 17 5 S. preced. a star 7th mag. 1 JAR 46decl. 15°45'N. J — 2 32 33 — 2 34 60 10 29.960 47 9. 4 31 26 N. preceding 48 Taurus. — 2 56 25 + 11 39 40 2 29.970 43 9. 4 34 57 Preceding y Taurus. — 6 54 30 1 12. 2 42 39 N. preceding 184 Taurus. — 0 37 80 +34 3 60 13 30.100 44 15. 0 34 56 S. following x Taurus. + 2 25 56 — 26 23 26 15 29.860 50 17- 0 40 34 N. preceding 160 Taurus. — 0 59 687 + 11 45 0 16 30.080 43 19. 1 7 3 1 S. preced. a star 7th mag. ? 1 AR 3h 44' decl. 8° 34' £ — 1 8 585 — 22 31 80 14 29.685 52 22. 0 28 46 S- preceding 29 Taurus. — 0 55 76 — 9 14 60 22 29.812 48 24 2 19 12 N. preceding 12 Taurus. — 2 33 62 +28 9 50 10 29.220 52.2 Oct. 1. 22 50 12 S. following 84 Eridani. + 2 10 175 — 6 39 70 4 29.630 6J.3 2. 0 17 19 N. following » Eridani. + 1 15 36 +22 7 66 13 29.640 55.2 4. 0 12 4 S. following t Cetus. + 4 46 175 — 24 35 08 8 29.850 53 7- 23 32 19 S. preceding 369 Cetus. — 2 47 70 — 12 46 80 7 30.100 49 9. 1 8 32 S. following 292 Cetus. + 2 S 086 — 5 7 82 7 29.800 54 10. 0 13 16 N. following (T Electrica. + 5 50 345 + 1 1 00 O / If 7 29.840 52 18. 0 9 30 18 AR on the Meridian. Declination S. 40 24 49 76 ] 20. 23 44 35 70 AR on the Meridian. Declination S. 42 43 51 14 | Apparent place 25. 22 46 28 57 AR on the Meridian. Declination S. 46 14 54 58 y on the 27- 22 26 0 70 AR on the Meridian. Declination is. 46 55 56 71 Meridian. 2a 22 16 30 32 AR on the Meridian. Declination S. 47 9 56 65 1 30. 0 22 58 N. following th November 1826. » Art. XII. — On the Diamond Mines of Southern India. By H. W. Voysey, Esq.* Having lately visited some of the principal diamond mines of Southern India, the few facts I have been able to collect re- * Abridged from the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 120. VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. G 98 M. Voysey on the Diamond Mines' of Southern India. specting the geological relations of that gem, I take the liberty of laying before the Asiatic Society. A knowledge of the matrix of the diamond has long been a desideratum in mineralogy. It has been hitherto supposed that this mineral was only found in alluvial soils ; and a late writer infers, from some circumstances attending a particular diamond, which had passed under his examination, that the matrix of this precious stone was neither a rock of igneous origin, nor one of aqueous deposition, " but that it probably originates like amber, from the consolidation of perhaps vegeta- ble matter, which gradually acquires a crystalline form, by the influence of time, and the slow action of corpuscular forces.'1 * The reasoning may apply with justice to the particular spe- cimens which have fallen under the observation of Dr Brew- ster ; but as it is fully ascertained that diamonds have, for two centuries at least, been found in a rock generally supposed to owe its origin to deposition from water, the application will of course be limited to the case of diamonds found in alluvial soils. A considerable range of mountains called the Nalla Malla (Blue Mountains ?) lies between 77° and 80° of east longi- tude. Their highest points are situated between Cummum in the Cuddapah district, and Amrabad, a town in the province of Hyderabad, North of the Kistna, and vary in height from 2000 to 3500 feet above the level of the sea. The outline of these mountains is flat and rounded, very rarely peaked, and as they run N. E. and S. W., the ranges gradually diminish in height, until, in the former direction, they unite with the sandstone and clay-slate mountains of the Godavery, near Palunshah. Their union is certainly not very distinct, but is sufficiently so to entitle them to be considered geologically as the same range. In a southern and south-west direction, they probably extend considerably beyond the Pa- goda of Tripati. The most southern point that has fallen under my observation, is Naggery Nose, a well known sea- mark on the coast of Coromandel. Travellers to Hyderabad make a considerable detour for the purpose of crossing these mountains in their most accessible parts. Among the western * Edin. Phil Journ. vol. iii. p. 100. M. Voysey on the Diamond Mines of Southern India. 99 passes on the Cuddapah road, are those of Bakrapet and Moor- condah on the bank of the Kistna, and those of Nakrikul, and Warripalli on the Ongole road, are among the eastern. The breadth of the range varies, but never exceeds fifty miles. The geological structure of these mountains it is difficult to understand, and it cannot be easily explained by either the Huttonian or Wernerian theories ; the different rocks of which they are composed being so mixed together, without regard to order or position, each in its turn being uppermost, that it is not easy to give a name so definite, as to apply in all places. I once thought the term " shistose formation" would be the most simple and untheoretical term ; but as clay-slate is probably the most prevalent rock, I have determined on giving that name to the whole, observing, however, that by " clay- slate formation11 I do not mean the Wernerian Thousheiffer, the fourth in order of his enumeration of primary rocks, but merely a collection of rocks which I conceive to have been placed in their present situation at the same period of time. The " clay-slate formation,11 then, of the Nalla Malla moun- tains, consists of clay-slate ; of every variety of slaty lime- stone, between pure limestone and pure slate ; of quartz rock ; of sandstone ; of sandstone breccia ; of flinty-slate ; of horn- stone-slate, and of a limestone which I call tuffaceous, for want of a better name, containing imbedded in it rounded and an- gular masses of all these rocks. All these vary so much in their composition, and pass into each other by such insensi- ble gradations, as well as abrupt transitions, as to defy arrange- ment, and render a particular description useless. It is bounded on all sides by granite, which everywhere ap- pears to pass under it, and to form its basis. Some parts detached from the main range, such as Naggery Nose, Worramallipet, and Nandigaon, a town in the Hyderabad frontier, with many others, have only the upper third of their summits of sandstone and quartz rock, the basis or remaining two-thirds being of granite. This range of mountains is inter- sected by the rivers Kistna and Pennar, and both appear to pass through gaps or fissures in it, which have been produced by some great convulsion, which, at the same time that it 100 M. Voysey on the Diamond Mines of Southern India, formed the beds of these rivers, gave passage to the accumu- lated waters of some vast lakes situated near the outlets. The tortuous passage of the Kistna, for upwards of 70 miles, is bounded by lofty and precipitous banks, which, in some places, rise to 1000 feet above its bed ; the opposite sides of the chasm corresponding in an exact manner. Ravines of this description are not unfrequent all over the range, and the exact correspondence of their opposite salient and re-entering angles, together with the abruptness of their origin, totally preclude the supposition of their being hollowed out by the action of running water. Two of these remarkable chasms occur on the western road to the shrine of Maha Deo at Sri Sailam, and would be totally impassable to travellers, but for the once magnificent causeway and steps which wind down the precipice. The only rock of this formation in which the diamond is found is the sandstone breccia. I have as yet only visited the rock mines of Banganpalli, a village situated about twelve miles west of the town of Nandiala. The low range of hills in which these mines are situated appear distinct from the main range, but a junction of the north and south extremities may be traced with great facility. The breccia is here found under a compact sandstone rock, differing in no respect from that which is found in other parts of the main range. It is composed of a beautiful mixture of red and yellow jasper, quartz, chalcedony, and hornstone of various colours, cemented together by a quartz paste. It pas- ses into a pudding-stone composed of rounded pebbles of quartz, hornstone, &c. &c. cemented by an argillo-calcareous earth of a loose friable texture, in which the diamonds are most fre- quently found. Some writers have miscalled this rock amygdaloid or wacken, and have described these mines as being situated on conical summits of that rock. The truth is, that the conical summits are artificial, and owe their origin to the sifting of the pound- ed breccia and pudding-stone, for the purpose of separating the larger stones preparatory to their being wetted and exa- mined. The hill itself is quite flat, and not a single conical elevation M. Voysey an the Diamond M'mes of Southern India. 101 can be seen throughout its entire extent. In my journey from Nandiala on horseback, a view of the range for an ex- tent of twenty miles N. and S. was constantly before me, and in no instance did I observe a deviation from the continued flatness. I regret that, for many years previous to my visit to these mines, no fresh excavations had been made, so that I had no opportunity of ascertaining the mode in which the miners get at the breccia.v I saw many holes under large blocks of sand- stone, of about five feet average depth, most of them blocked up by rubbish. I was told that at that depth the diamond bed was found. The miners are now content to sift and examine the old rubbish of the mines, and they are the more bent in doing this, from an opinion which prevails among them, and which is also common to the searchers for diamonds in Hindustan, and to those on the banks of the Kistna, Parteala, Malavilly, &c. viz. that the diamond is always growing, and that the chips and small pieces rejected by former searchers actually increase in size, and in process of time become large diamonds. I saw at the time of my visit in January 1821 about a dozen parties at work, each composed of seven or eight people. Each party was on the top of one of the conical eminences, and actively employed in sifting and separating the dust from the larger stones : these were then laid in small heaps, spread out on a level surface, wetted, and examined when the sun was not more than 45 degrees above the horizon. A party of boys was engaged in collecting and pounding scattered pieces of breccia. All the labourers were dhers, or outcasts, and under no control or inspection. The misery of their appearance did not give favourable ideas of the productiveness of their labour. The sandstone breccia is frequently seen in all parts of these mountains, at various depths from the surface. In one instance I observed it at a depth of fifty feet, the upper strata being sandstone, clay-slate, and slaty limestone. The stratifi- cation of the whole face of the rocks is here remarkably dis- tinct, and may be traced through a semicircular area of 400 yards diameter. The stratum of breccia is two feet in thick- 102 M. Voysey on the Diamond Mines ofSoutliern India. ness, and immediately above it lies a stratum of pudding-stone, composed of quartz and hornstone pebbles, cemented by cal- careous clay and grains of sand. It is very likely that this stratum would be found productive in diamonds, and I have no doubt, that those found at present in the bed of the Kistna, have been washed down from these their native beds during the rainy season. In the alluvial soil of the plains, at the base of this range of mountains, and particularly on or near the banks of the river Kistna and Pennar, are situated the mines which have produced the largest diamonds in the world. Among them are the famous mines of Golcondah, so called from their being situated in the dominions of the sovereigns of Golcondah, although they are far distant from the hill fort of that name, from which the province and' Cootebshahi dynasty took their title. They were once very numerous, (at least twenty in number,) and Gani Parteala, situated about three miles from the left bank of the Kistna, was the most famous. They are now, with the exception of two or three, quite deserted ; and the names of several of those mentioned by Tavernier are forgotten. In none have fresh excavations been dug for many years; although much ground remains unopened, and many spots might be pointed out for new and productive mines. Even at Gani Parteala the search is confined to the rub- bish of the old mines. At Atcur, Chintapalli, Barthenypard, and at Oustapalli, all situated within two or three miles of each other, there are no labourers. The plain in which these villages are situated, is bounded on all sides by granitic rocks, which also form its basis. The average depth of the alluvial soil is about twenty feet.* Its upper portion is composed of that peculiar black earth which is called by Europeans " black-cotton soil,,,-(- and is identical with that found on the banks of the Kistna, in other parts of its course ; on the banks of the Godavery ; and the Manjera ; • The greatest extent of the alluvium from the river's bank is about six miles, and the change to the red and gray soil, from the decomposition of the granitic rocks, is very distinct. t This soil is easily fusible before the blowpipe- In 1820, I exposed it in a covered crucible to little more than a red heat, and it was converted into a light porous lava. Before the blowpipe it forms a vitreous globule. M. Voysey on the Diamond Mines of Southern India, 103 Baen Ganga, and in the plain of Nandiala, arising from the de- composition of the basaltic trap rocks, in which all these rivers or their tributary streams take their rise. Beneath this upper stratum, it is mixed with masses and rounded pebbles of sandstone, quartz rock, jasper, flinty-slate, granite, and large amorphous masses of a calcareous conglomerate, bearing no mark of attrition from the action of running water. In this stratum the diamond and other precious stones are found. The excavations are of various size, but from fifteen to twenty feet deep. The labourers are a little more under control than at Ban- ganpali ; and they pay a trifling duty to the Nizam's agent stationed in the village. The mode of search is precisely the same as that above described. The mines of Ovatampalli, and of Canparti on the right and left banks of the Pennar, near Cuddapet, are in an alluvial soil of nearly the same nature ; it is not quite so black, from the greater admixture of debris of sandstone and clay-slate. In marty parts of the plain of Nandiala, diamonds were formerly sought for, but the mines have for a long time ceased to be productive. The failure of the mines of the Dekhin may perhaps be principally attributed to the cheapness and plenty of Brazil diamonds ; otherwise, from the vast extent of the rock in which they are found in India, there are scarcely any limits to the search for them. It may be assumed then, 1st, That the matrix of the diamonds produced in southern India is the sandstone breccia of the clay-slate formation. 2d9 That those found in alluvial soil are produced from the debris of the above rock, and have been brought thither by some torrent or deluge, which could alone have transported such large masses and pebbles from the parent rock, and that no modern or traditional inundation has reached to such an extent. 3d, That the diamonds found at present in the beds of the rivers, are washed down by the annual rains. It will be an interesting point to ascertain if the diamonds of Hindostan can be traced to a similar rock. It may also be in the power of others more favourably situated than the writer, 104 Mr Christie on Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays. to ascertain if there be any foundation for the vulgar opinion of the continual growth of the diamond. Dr Brewster's opi- nion is rather in favour of it than otherwise. It is certain that in these hot climates crystallization goes on with wonder- ful rapidity, and I hope at some future period to produce un- deniable proofs of the recrystallization of amethyst, zeolite, and felspar in alluvial soil. Observations by the Editor. Science has sustained a great loss by the death of Mr Voy- sey since the preceding paper was printed. He was geologist to the trigonometrical survey in India, under the late Lieuten- ant Colonel Lambton, and thus enjoyed the best opportunities of studying the geology and mineralogy of that interesting re- gion. The undeniable proofs which, at the end of the above paper, he promises to produce, respecting the recrystallization of amethyst, zeolite, and felspar, in alluvial soils, will, we trust, be published by those who shall obtain possession of his papers. The information which Mr Voysey has given respect- ing the matrix of the diamond, is very important in reference to any theory of its origin ; but we do not see that it, in any way, affects the probability of the conjecture which we had hazarded, and which Mr Voysey quotes at the beginning of his paper. Art. XIII. — On Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays. By S. H. Christie, Esq. A. M. F. R. S. of Trinity College, Cambridge, Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical So- ciety, and of the Royal Military Academy. In a Letter to the Editor. Dear Sir, In the accompanying paper, which I think may be in- teresting to you,* I have given an account of some ex- * We intended to have laid before our readers an abstract of Mr Chris- tie's very able paper ; but the following letter, in addition to the new ex- periments which it describes, contains such a succinct and perspicuous sum- mary of the principal results in the original memoir, that it supersedes the abstract which we had proposed to give. This new discovery of Mr Chris- tie's must be regarded as one of very great value, and will no doubt lead to Mr Christie on Magnetic Influence in the Sola?' Rays* 105 periments, which led me to think, that the compound solar rays possessed magnetic influence, although it had not pre- viously been observed. As this influence is indicated by the arc of vibration of a magnetised needle being more rapidly di- minished when exposed to the sun than when in the shade ; these experiments are easily repeated ; I therefore, in the con- clusion of my paper, ventured to state my opinion that these experiments would tend considerably to remove the doubts which, in consequence of repeated failures, had been enter- tained respecting the magnetic influence of the violet ray in Morichini's experiment. As my paper was read a few meet- ings before that of Mrs Somerville, it was highly gratifying to me to learn, that this opinion in favour of the results obtained by Morichini, was fully confirmed by the brilliant success with which her method of making the experiment had been crowned. In making some additional observations in the spring of the present year, with an apparatus, iri constructing which I had scrupulously excluded metal, an account of which is subjoined to the paper ; I first noticed the singular fact, that, when a needle of copper or of glass, and I doubt not, of other sub- stances, is vibrated by the force of torsion, the arc of vibra- tion is also more rapidly diminished in the sun than in the shade ; the effect, however, of the sun's rays being consider- ably greater on a magnetised needle than on the others. The copper, glass, and magnetised needles which I in this case made use of, were not all of the same weight, and the times of vibration were somewhat different ; but supposing the ef- fects proportional to the times, the terminal excess, (that is, the excess of the terminal arc in the shade above that in the sun, after the same number of vibrations commencing from the same point in each case,) would be, for the magnetised needle 13*.75 ; for the copper needle 5°.24 ; and for the glass needle 4°.71 , showing a very decided difference in the effect of the sun's rays upon the magnetised needle. I afterwards, dur- ing the very hot weather of last summer, repeated these expe- riments with needles of magnetised steel, of unmagnetised steel, highly important conclusions. Mr Christie's memoir will appear in the Philosophical Transactions for 1826.— Ed. 106 Mr Christie on Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays. of copper, and of glass of precisely the same weight, the last three having been made to vibrate, by the force of torsion, in as nearly as possible the same time as the first, by the force of terrestrial magnetism. From these I obtained the terminal excess for the magnetised steel needle 11J°; for the unmagnetised steel needle 7^°; for the glass needle 6£ ; and for the copper needle 5°. The excess of the temperature in the sun above that in the shade, varied somewhat in the four cases, being in the first 63°, in the second 73°, in the third 58°, and in the fourth 62° ; and it is probable, that the effects might be slight- ly modified by this circumstance ; but that the excess of the temperature in which the needle vibrated when exposed to the sun, above that when it was screened, was not the cause of the terminal excess with the magnetised needle, among other cir- cumstances, appeared from this, that the terminal arc was con- siderably less; when the needle vibrated exposed to the sun, than when screened by blue glass from its concentrated rays, although the temperature in which it vibrated was some de- grees higher in the latter case than in the former. To what- ever cause we are to attribute the singular fact, that any needle will come sooner to rest when vibrated exposed to the sun than when screened, the great increase which is observed in the effect when a magnetised needle is made use of, proves, I think, decidedly, that the compound solar rays possess a very sensible magnetic influence. I have given you this short sketch of some of the observa- tions which I have made since my paper was read, as I consi- dered that you might feel a particular interest in this subject ; and when you have leisure, I shall be happy to have your opinion, or any conjectures you may form as to the nature of the influence, the effects of which I have observed. I am, Dear Sir, yours very truly, S. H. Christie. Royal Military Academy, 4ith November 1826. Account of Captain Franklin's Expedition. 107 Art, XIV. — Account of the Expedition under Captain Frank- tin, and of the Vegetation of North America, in Extracts of Letters from Dr Richardson, Mr Drummond, and Mr Douglas. Glasgow, Nov. 26, 1826. Extracts of letters from Captain Franklin and Dr Richardson, dated at their encampment at Fort Franklin, have already been laid before the public. In the communications that we have had from the latter gentle- man, we shall therefore confine ourselves to the relation of such matter as relates to the vegetation of the country. We have the pleasure also to be able to give copies of letters from Mr Drummond, and from Mr Doug- las, which we think will prove equally interesting to our readers. W. J. Hooker. w Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake, \0th Nov. 1825. C( Since I wrote to you last, we prosecuted our journey with little intermission, until we arrived in this quarter. Captain Franklin continued his way down to the sea, and had the gra- tifying view of a boundless horizon, clear of ice. This, of course, has raised our hopes of success, and we look forward with some impatience to the lapse of the eight months of win- ter that are yet to come, that we may resume our operations. The nature of our voyage down the stream permitting us to land only twice a-day, unless when we had portages, has pre- vented me from botanizing beyond the encamping or break- fasting places. The additions to my list, therefore, since we entered the district formerly traversed, have not exceeded fif- ty species. Could I visit the Rocky Mountains, (which, in several places, come within a day's journey of Mackenzie River,) in the summer, I could doubtless obtain some novel- ties ; but although I mean to make every exertion to ascend some of their ridges before I return, I am afraid it must ne- cessarily be at too early a season for botanizing. Drummond remained on the Saskatchewan, and notwithstanding that the Indians, in that quarter, have been a little turbulent this year, which will oblige him to make his excursions with caution, I trust that the plans adopted will enable him to ascend the mountains in that latitude with safety, and hope that he will reap an abundant harvest. He is my main stay in the bota- nical and entomological departments, my attention being much directed to other objects. Our collections, previous to reach- ing Cumberland-House, being through a line of country not 108 Account of Captain Franklin's Expedition, formerly visited by us, contain many plants, not in the pub- lished Florce of America, but perhaps not above two or three undescribed species. They are, principally, owing to the season of the year, early flowering plants ; and the violets are particularly abundant. I hope our specimens will illustrate that difficult genus, although I do not think we shall add to the number of its species. Drummond's mosses will probably be the most complete collection made in North America, and I hope nearly equal the British Muscologia in number of species. " The following list contains those not gathered on the former journey. " Sphagnum latifolium Andrea rupestris Phascum subulatum crispum Diphyscium foliosum Gymnostomum pyriforme truncatulum ? lapponicum rupestre Encalypta streptocarpa rhaptocarpa Weissia controversa curvirostra Grimmia affinis Tortula subulata convoluta Trichostomum pallidum microcarpum Pterogonium, duae species Lcucodon sciuroides alteram Dicranum longifolium montanum heteromallum rufescens Didymodon trifarium glaucescens inclinatum Orthotrichum clavellatum pumilum Ludwigii crispum ? Bartramia fontana pomifornis Bartramia crispa Funaria ? Cynontodium flexicaule Fontinalis capillacea, abundant fruit Azzhenopterum heterostichum Anomodon viticulosum Bryum roseum argenteum punctatum cuspidatum marginatum turbinatum Hypnum triquetrum abietinum, in fruit, both on Lake Superior and Bear Lake. Hypnum dimorphum polymorphum rutabulum cupressi forme illecebrum velutimim incurvatum prelongum Halleri ? aureum riparium alopecurum aduncum stellatum Silesianum pulchellum jilaccum palustre and of the Vegetation of North America. 109 "In the neighbourhood of Fort Franklin I have found Bryum squarrosum abundant in fruit. I suspect also a new species of Splachnum, with a very slender and long seta, a small capsule about the size of the apophysis, and scarcely any stems. There is also a small moss in abundance, agreeing with Wahlenberg's description of B. pulchellum atropurpu- reum, but very unlike Funck's specimen of B. pulchellum. It has a smaller capsule, strongly resembling, as Wahlenberg remarks, Weissia nigrita. The above list does not include the mosses gathered by Drummond since we parted. When added to the former collection, it raises the number of mosses in these countries to upwards of 150, &c. and I trust we shall detect nearly as many more by the time we meet again. " The Callitriche autumnalis of Wahlenberg grows in this lake, and is very unlike any I have seen in Britain, either in habit or fruit. It flowers under water. Captain Franklin has brought from Carey's Island, at the mouth of Mac- kenzie's River, some species described by you in Parry's Ap- pendix, particularly the Pyrethrum ? with a large flower. I have also found a curious little syngenesious plant on the top of a hill in this neighbourhood. It has a leaf like a Chrysanthemum, with a very obtuse or rounded terminal lobe, and a single flower with a calyx like an Erigeron. It was shedding its seeds when I gathered it, so that I have not seen the corolla. " List of the Seeds inclosed. " 1. Ribes lacustre. Gravelly loam. 12. A didynamous plant- Calcareous 2, Ranunculus lapponicus,rich moist soil. soil. 13. Ranunculus. 3. Viola in shady woods. 14. Polemonium ? Capsule three- 1. PotentHla pennsylvanica, rocky valved, many seeded.. Tube of places. corolla without valves, attenu- o. Draba dry situations. ating with the stamen. Deep 6. Ranunculus pennsylvanicus. Gra- sandy soil. velly. 15. Tetradynamous plant. On ar- 7. Aquilegia, in thickets, river gillaceous soil. banks. 16. Heracleum. 8. Ranunculus. 17. Linum sibiricum. On lime- 9. stone. !(). Ribes Hudsonianum. Woods. 18. Primula farinosa. Clayey loam. 11. Vesicaria arctica. Elevated barren 19. Sisymbrium brachycarpum. spots. Waste places. 110 Account of Captain Franklbts Expedition, 20. Tetradynamous plant. Dry 25. Rumex. Bear Lake. places. 2G. Xylosteum. Woods. 21. Anemone Hudsoniana. River 27. Gramen. Borders oflakes. banks. Seeds of the same plants have been 22. Primula pusilla. Clayey loam. sent to Mr Sabine and Dr 23. Carex? Borders of lakes. Graham." 24. Primula Egalikcensis. Moist clayey soil. From Mr Drcmmond. Dated Rocky Mountains, April 26, 1826. u I take the liberty of addressing you from this quarter of the world, not to communicate any new discoveries of import- ance, but; to inform you of my welfare, and to thank you for the opportunity you afforded me of exploring scenes so con- genial to my inclination. I will endeavour to give you a rude idea of the kind of country I have seen, as the way we travelled afforded very few opportunities of seeing the pro- ductions. On landing at New York, I was first struck by the novel appearance of the trees growing about the city, such as Platanus occidentalism and Catalpa 'syringifolia, with their curious seed vessels. The forests near New York consist most- ly of oaJcs and deciduous trees. The public roads are lined by poplars and willows, probably introduced, but attaining a very large size. In the shade of the forests, I observed the two umbellate species of Wintergreen very common, MitcheUa repens, &c. ; in the marshes, Pothos Jcetida, at that time in flower, with vestiges of numerous grasses and herbaceous plants new to me. Amongst the Musci, three or four species of Leskea were conspicuous ; Orthotrichum clavellatum, and a moss resembling Leucodon sciuroides, also were previously un- known to me. The swamps were covered by Juniperus Vir- giniana, and the Sarracenia purpurea was common, growing amongst the Sphagni. The pine barrens are covered by Pinus resinosa and remains of numerous interesting her- baceous plants. There was little variation in the general ap- pearance of the country, until we reached lakes Huron and Superior, where it becomes more mountainous, but the rocks appear very bare. It may be reckoned a subalpine country, by the cold caused by the lakes. On rocks near their shores* and of the Vegetation of North America. Ill I observed Grimmia ovata, and G. unicolor* in abundance ; Gymnostomum lapponicum, (rare) Pterogonhym Jiliforme, &c. Aspidium fragrans, Woodsia ilvense, &c. Orthotrichum ele- gans, Ludzvigii and crispum, common ; Pinus Banksiana, now made its appearance, and poplars in the more marshy grounds ; Primula pusilla was seen plentifully in flower along the shores. A little above Fort-William, I observed Woodsia glabella, and I think a new species of Pteris. The oaks, maples, and Acers still continue, but are gradually giving place to Pinus alba and Banksiana : the general mosses in their shade, are Hypnum crista-castrensis, Schreheri and abie- tinum. In the marshes H. nitens is common ; several species of Lycopodium, not found in Britain; Ledum latifolium, Gualtheria procumbens, Linncea borealis, are very plentiful. In the marshes, are Andromeda polifolia and calyculata. The country continues broken by low hills and lakes, with much the same vegetation, until we reached lake Winnipeg, where it becomes an universal marsh, affording little but willows and reeds. On the limestone-rocks I observed Gymnostomum tenue, and a new species, Weissia calcarea, &c. The marshes con- tinue past Cumberland-House, where I remarked Bryum triquetrum frequent. Although I remained there six weeks I collected very few plants, and those mostly common. The water of the lake, on which it is situated, rose unusually high, and overflowed the whole of the surrounding country. The wood now consisted entirely of the white spruce, poplar, and willows. I felt the effects of the high water severely in cross- ing the Saskatchewan, as the plants on its banks were entirely destroyed, and the haste with which we proceeded did not ad- mit of our visiting the interior. The level of the plains at Carlton-House is about fifty feet above the river, which had there risen about twenty-five feet perpendicular. I found most of the plants in the plain out of flower, but observed that the Diadelphous tribes were numerous. The plains are in general sandy, and unfavourable to the growth of mosses. As the Indians about Carlton were very troublesome, I deter- mined to proceed as far as Edmonton, about 400 miles farther * This it should be recollected was discovered by Mr Drummond in Scotland. — H. 112 Account of Captain Franklin* s Expedition . to the west ; the opportunity which was thus afforded me of seeing the plants, though not in flower, gave me the means of judging what I had to expect afterwards. I am sorry to say it continues much the same all the way. I now resolved upon going to the mountains, as I was able to accompany a party bound for the Columbia. We here left the Saskatchewan, and crossed through a district, wooded with white spruce and poplars, to the Assinaboyne River, which is about 100 miles N. W. of Edmonton. I merely guess at the distance by walking. Here I observed several plants that had never occur- red to me before, but nothing interesting. The party ascend- ed the Assinaboyne Riverin canoes to the mountains, which are about 300 miles distant, but as the canoes were much loaded, it became necessary for some of us to endeavour to go by land, and I agreed to be one of them, as it offered me a chance of seeing that part of the country. We set off on the 1st October, but unfortunately we had a heavy fall of snow on the 4th, which put an entire stop to botanical re- search. We succeeded in reaching the mountains in ten days, without any accident of importance. The country is closely wooded the whole way, but the ground becomes more broken when approaching the mountains. I here observed a species of Pinus that I had not seen before, probably P. taxifolius. P. Banksiana is the principal wood. I here found an Indian hunter, whom I agreed to accompany during the winter, as the snow effectually prevented me from doing any thing amongst the plants. I however observed, in some spots that were bare, a good many interesting ones, Menziesia coerulea, frequent, Arbutus alpina, with red berries, also common ; four or five species of Pedicularis, Juncus triglumis and spicatus, and two or three other species unknown to me ; a plant much resembling heath, probably a fitudsonia, undescribed by Nut- tall ; four or five Saxifrages, some nondescript ; several Poten- tillas, some of them new. Dry as integrifolia and octopetala, two or three kinds of Draba and Alyssum, not described ; a beautiful Pteris, two or three species of Artemisia, nonde- script. Among the mosses were few that were novelties to me, and none that I can consider alpine. Splachnum angus- tatum, and mnioides are plentiful, also a small Gymnostomum, and of the Vegetation of North America. 118 apparently new, resembling G. Donianum, but not half so large, growing on sandstone. I saw Bryum demissum, with a few capsules ; Cetraria nivalis and cucullata are common ; and I have also observed Dufourea arctica. Thus I hope to be able, in some measure, to make up for the loss of time past. The winter has been unusually severe ; the animals in conse- quence are poor and scarce, but I have always had enough to eat. I travelled along the foot of the mountains, for^ibout 300 miles to the northward of the Portage, and returned here a few days ago. I have been reconnoitring some spots of ground that are bare of snow, and find that a few flowers will soon appear, such as Saxjfraga oppositifblia, a Draba resem- bling aizoides, and a plant of which the genus is unknown to me, but it is perhaps a Globularia. I intend passing the sum- mer amongst the mountains, and if possible crossing them in the autumn to the Columbia or Frazer rivers, spending the winter there, and then returning with a party from the Co- lumbia in the spring as far as Carlton-House, where I would like to remain until the time I have to meet Dr Richardson at Cumberland-House, on the 5th of August 18^7- There are very few insects in this part, and they are mostly the same as in Britain. I am now busily engaged in killing birds ; but they do not appear to be numerous in this quarter, and during winter they totally desert it." From Mr Douglas, Dated Great Falls on the Columbia River, March 21, 1826- " Sir, — You will, already, by the return of Mr Scouler, have been made acquainted with the most interesting details respect- ing the north-west part of America. His departure I greatlv regretted, and felt very lonely for some weeks after he had sailed. The upper country appears to me an exceedingly in- teresting field, and differs so widely in its vegetation from that which prevails along the coast, that I have resolved to devote the whole of this year to its investigation. Though this mea- sure be hardly authorized by Mr Sabine, who had enjoined me not to remain in this country after the departure of the ship, which leaves the mouth of Columbia in 1826, yet I trust VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. H 114 Account of Captain Franklirts Expedition, that it will not incur his displeasure. I expect to be enabled to reach the rocky mountains in August, where, with what I can previously do, I hope to have a most splendid collection. Dur- ing the past winter, I have on every occasion been picking up Mosses and Jungermannice, forming a collection of birds and other animals. I could have made my way to Montreal this sea- son, and would gladly have embraced such an opportunity, but it waj impossible to overlook such tempting prospects as now seem before me. I rejoice to tell you of a new species of Pinus, the most princely of the genus, and probably the finest specimen of American vegetation. It attains the enormous size of 170 to 220 feet in height, and 20 to 50 in circumfe- rence. The cones are from 12 to 18 inches long ! I have one which is 16£ inches in length, and which measures 10 inches round the thickest part. The trunk is remarkably straight, and destitute of branches till within a short space of the top, which forms a perfect umbel. The wood is of fine quality, and yields a large portion of resin. Growing trees of this species, that have been partly burned by the natives, to save the trouble of cutting other fuel, (a custom to which they are greatly addicted,) produce a substance which, I am almost afraid to say, is sugar ; but as some of it, with the cones, will soon reach England, its real nature can be easily and correct- ly ascertained. The tree grows abundantly two degrees south of the Columbia, in the country inhabited by the Umptqun tribe of Indians. The seeds are gathered by the natives in autumn, pounded and baked into a sort of cake, which is con- sidered a luxury. The saccharine substance is used in season- ing dishes, in the same manner as sugar is in civilized coun- tries. I shall bring home such an assemblage of specimens of this Pinus, as will admit of a very correct figure being made ; and also a bag of its seeds. I am very desirous of procuring Phlox speciosa, and if in existence I trust to obtain it. There are very many curious liliaceous plants here. " I heard of Captain Franklin's party from Cumberland Lake, on their way to Bear Lake, which is to be their winter resi- dence. I learn that a Mr Drummond, probably the botanist of that name who has lived at Forfar, accompanies the expe- dition as a naturalist. He is on the opposite side of the moun- and of the Vegetation of South America. 115 tains, towards Pene river. There is here a Mr Macleod, who spent the last five years at Fort Good-Hope, on the Macken- zie River. He informs me that if the natives, with whom he is perfectly acquainted, arefc worthy of credit, there must be a north-west passage. They describe a very large river that runs parallel with the Mackenzie, and falls into the sea near Icy Cape, at the north of which there is an establishment on an island, where ships come to trade. They assert that the peo- ple there are very wicked, having hanged several of the na- tives to the rigging ; they wear their beards long. Some re- liance, I should think, may be laid on their statement, as Mr Macleod showed me some Russian coins, combs, and several articles of hardware, very different from those furnished by the British Company. Mr Macleod caused the natives to as- semble last summer, for the purpose of accompanying him in his departure for Hudson's Bay. The sea is said to be open after July. This gentleman^ conduct affords a striking ex- ample of the effects of perseverance. In the short space of eleven months he visited the Polar Sea, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, undergoing such hardships and dangers as per- haps were never experienced by any other individual. " I shall endeavour to cross the continent in the spring of 1827; but if I fail in my intention, I shall take the earliest opportunity of sailing for England. My stock of clothing is very small, being reduced to two shirts and handkerchiefs, a blanket and cloak, and no stockings. It was impracticable to carry more, since the paper for containing specimens and other necessary articles form a burthen of considerable bulk. " P. S. — Since writing the above, I have found Phlox spe- ciosa of Pursh, a most beautiful plant ; his description, how- ever, will require a little attention. Also a fine new species, near P. setacea9 and abundance of Tigarea tridentata with yellow flowers. I hardly know how to sit down to write, or upon what I shall first lay my hands. " I am now in latitude 47 J degrees north, and longitude 1 19° west. 116 Account of Captain Franklhi's Expedition. From Mr Douglas to Mr Scouler, Doled Priest's Rapid, on the Columbia River, lat. 48°. N. long. 117°. W., Aprils, 182G. " I regretted exceedingly the impracticability of seeing you before you sailed, which was owing to a hurt that I received on my knee when packing a box. This unfortunate accident has caused me some trouble ever since. Although unfitted by it for much exertion, I left Fort Vancouver on the 22d of October, for the purpose of seeing you on my way to Whitby's harbour, on the Cheecheelin river. On the evening of the following day, I put ashore at Oak Point in order to procure a little food, when an Indian gave me the letter from you, in which you stated your expectation of remaining a few days, and as the ship had been seen by some of the natives that very morning, I boiled my kettle and re-embarked with- out loss of time at eleven o'clock at night, expecting to reach the bay before day light. Unfortunately the wind was unfa- vourable, and my Indians so much fatigued, that we did not arrive till ten o'clock, when I learned, to my great disappoint- ment, that your vessel had left the river but one hour before. I found Tha-a-muxci, (or the Beard Com Comley's brother,) whom- you had seen and spoken to of me. He is a fine old man ; at his request I shaved him, that he " might look like one of King George's Chiefs." He accompanied me all the way along the coast, and sixty miles up the Cheecheelin river, where I crossed a tract of land near Mount St Helen's to the Cow-a-lidsk river, which I descended to its junction with the Columbia. This was the most unsuccessful trip I have made. The season being late, and my knee troublesome, I was com- pelled to lie for three days at Cape Foulweather, in a hut made of pine branches and grass ; and as I could not go out to shoot, I fared most scantily. However I killed during the excursion several species of Procellaria and Lams, and one Colymbus, but the excessive rain would not allow of my pre- serving any of them. The only plant which seemed worthy of notice was a new Eriogonum ; I obtained also some seeds, among which were Helonias tenaoc, and a fine large-fruited Carex. This trip took twenty-five days, and reduced me to such Dr Brewster on the Mean Temperature of the Equator. 117 a state of weakness that I could do hardly any thing more dur- ing the season. In the short interval of fair weather which now and then occurred in the course of the winter, I crawled to the woods in search of mosses, but my limited knowledge on that head does not allow me to say what they are. As nothing could be effected in the way of botany, I began forming a collection of birds ; but here I experienced a sad hindrance from the state of my eyes, which, always weak, have lately been much impaired ; and though I have felt no pain or inflammation, yet they have become so dim that I can hardly use the gun, which I could formerly do with consider- able advantage. However, I am in possession of a species of Pinus, the finest of the genus, and hope soon to obtain better specimens, and plenty of ripe seeds. This is unquestionably the most splendid specimen of transatlantic vegetation. I have another species of Mimulus, M. alba. I left the ocean in the middle of this month, but though I could have crossed the continent and returned to England, I thought it incom- patible with the interest of the Society which employs me, to neglect so interesting a field of discovery as that now before me, in the upper country towards the head waters of the river. Excuse this bad writing. I have little time, and less convenience for writing, my specimen board being the only substitute for desk and table ; but then it contains some most interesting plants under it. Art. XV. — Notice respecting the Mean Temperature of the Equator. By David Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. In the seventh Number of this Journal, (p. 180.) we laid be- fore our readers an abstract of the results obtained by Mr Atkinson, respecting the mean temperature of the equator. According to these results, which were deduced from the Ame- rican observations given by Humboldt, the mean temperature of the equator at the level of the sea is §6°.55 of Fahrenheit, while Humboldt himself made it only 81°.5. As the equatorial temperature must always be a fundamental 118 Dr Brewster on the Mean Temperature of the Equator. element in meteorological investigations, I have examined the evidence in favour of this new result, and I have no hesitation in expressing the conviction, that the result given by Hum- boldt is founded on just views of the observations which he possessed ; — that it is a near approximation to the truth, — and that the temperature of the equator cannot be placed higher than between 81° and 83° of Fahrenheit. When Humboldt, in his admirable paper on Isothermal Lines, fixed the mean temperature of the equator at 81 J°, he naturally gave a preference to observations made in the old world, where the distribution of temperature did not exhibit the same anomalies which occur in the New World. He ac- cordingly used the mean temperatures of Senegambia, Madras, Batavia, and Manilla,* whereas Mr Atkinson, neglecting en- tirely the temperatures of the Old World, deduces his results solely from the American observations. Mr Atkinson is there- fore not correct in stating, " that it appears, from data fur- nished by himself, that Humboldt has fallen into an error when he asserted that the mean temperature of the equator cannot be fixed beyond 81 J0." Having sometime ago received, through the kindness of Henry Harvey, Esq. a series of excellent meteorological obser- vations made in Ceylon, I felt myself in a situation to throw some light on this important point ; and in order to obtain still more general, results, I wrote to Professor Moll of Utrecht, for the purpose of obtaining some of the recent observations made in Java. The following are the Ceylon observations. Mean Temp. Trincomalee, - - 80°.56 Point de Galle, - - 81 .1 Colombo, - - - 80 .75 Kandy, f - 78 .5 Do. according to Dr Davy, - 79 .2 If we now deduce the equatorial temperature from these T * By the formula Eq. Temp.= T where T is the mean tempera- ture of any latitude L, the mean temperature of the equator, deduced from these four places, is exactly 81° .5. t A correction of 5°.7 is added for altitude, according to Mr Atkinson's formula. Dr Brewster on the Mean Temperature of' the Equator. 119 T observations, either by the* formula Eq. temp. =:• = — ac- COS. .Li. cording to the principle of my formula, or by the formula T Eq. temp.= ^-y- according to the principle of Mayer's for- mula, we shall obtain the following results :— Mean Temp, of Equator. „ „. T „ m T Cq. J.CUip.- — — — ^4. cos.L. "UJ*" COB.* L. Trincomalee, ■ 8l°.46 S2°.37 Point tie Galle, ■ 81 .55 82.02 Colombo, - 81 .34 81 .93 Xandy, - 79 .14 79.78 Do. according to Dr Davy, 79 .84 80 .49 Means, 80 .66 81 .32 Mean of both, 80°.99 It follows, therefore, from the Ceylon observations, that the mean temperature of the Equator is less than 81 \°. The Batavian observations give the following results :— Mean Temp. Batavia, as given by Humboldt, - 80°.42 Do. in 1758, Dr Kriel,* - 78 .5 Do. near the sea-shore, according to Professor Rein ward t, 82 Do at Buitenzoig, 737 feet high,t - 8U Hence, we obtain for the equatorial temperature, Mean Temp, of Equator. T T Eq. Temp.= ^r- * cos.2 L. 81°.37 79.43 82.97 82.4 Means, 81 .08 81 .56 Mean of both, 81°.32. It follows, therefore, from the Batavian observations, that the equatorial temperature is not beyond 81 J°. The observations made at the Sandwich Islands in 1821, give, Mean Temp. Hawaii, Lat. 19£° (See our last Number, p. 370.) 75°.l * See this Journal, vol. v. p. 269. t A correction of 24° i s added for altitude. ""*" cos. L. Batavia, 80°.90 Do. Kriel, 78.96 Do. Reinwardt, 82.48 Do. Do. 81 .98 120 Mr Haidinger's account of' the Specific Gravity from which we obtain, Eq. Temp.= =r- Eq, Terap.=* — ?~ ^ r cos. L. ^ v cos.2 L. Hawaii, - 79°.67 82°.40 Mean of both, 81° .04 Hence, it appears that the equatorial temperature is still be- low 81 J°. From these results we think there is reason to conclude, that the measure of the equatorial temperature, as given by Humboldt, is the best, taken as a general result, and that there is no occasion to modify any of the formulae which have been founded upon it, for determining the distribution of tempera- ture in different latitudes. Art. XVI. — On the Specific Gravity of several Minerals. By W. Haidingee, Esq. F. It. S. E. (Concluded from Vol. III. p. 246.) Ohder VII. Gem. 1. Gahnite, a crystal 4.232 2. Corundum, a red semi-transparent crystal, 3.909 3. Corundum, a brown nearly opaque prism, the adamantine spar of Werner, 3.921 4. Corundum, green, translucent fragments of crystals ; faces of composition distinct, giving the appearance of cleavage in the direc- tion of the fundamental rhombohedron, 3.949 5. Corundum, a white transparent crystal, 3.965 6. Corundum, green, translucent fragments of crystals, with a small conchoidal fracture, 3.966 7. Corundum, a blue transparent crystal, 3.979 8. Topaz, a large crystal from Mukla, 3.499 9. Topaz, from Altenberg in Saxony, (Pycnite,) 3.494 10. Euclase, a single crystal, 3.098 11. Cordierite, transparent, cut and polished, 2.583 12. Rock-crystal, found along with sapphire, in Ceylon, 2.690 13. Opal-jasper, cream-yellow, without lustre, and imbibing wa- ter, from Bohemia, 1.974 14. Opal-jasper, pale brown, with a faint lustre, and imbibing water, from Bohemia, 1 .982 15. Opal-jasper, blood-red and brownish-red tints intermixed, from Candia, 2.060 16. Opal-jasper, of an ash-grey colour, from Gleichenberg, in Stiria, , 2.075 Fiif.l M V \ Z 1 M PLATE V Fig. 2W/ \m '.3 Fdmr Jour . ,/t\?cteti*\ Ra. 4 Fin. 6. Fia 7. S"^^ r1*^ ^> 9' j**' 9'^ . .?' v s Fy.W. F,#.S. Ify.22. \ X f£ :..■ M /f / \ p 7i P \ P' \ fe ' *y \ * F-w.16- Fig. 18. M' JC Jfy. I9- I ,/' d V ^Fz I of Several Minerals. \%\ 17. Common opal, approaching to the precious opal, of a milk- white tint, 2.079 18. Common opal, milk-white, 2.091 19. Wood opal, brown, from Hungary, 2.114 20. Common opal, yellow, from Hungary, 2.119 21. Semi-opal, with dendritic delineations, from Moravia, 2.207 22. Opal-jasper, yellowish-brown, from Telkebanya in Hungary, the well-known ironshot variety, * 2.699 23. Pitchstone, of a brownish-red colour, from Meissen, 2.212 24. Pitchstone, dark leek-green, from Arran, » 2.340 25. Pitchstone, of a brownish olive-green, from Zwickau in Sax- ony; the variety often containing anthrazite, 2.354 26. Axinite, crystals from Cornwall, 3.271 2.7. Chrysolite, a single crystal, 3.441 28. Chondrodite, from Ersby, in the parish of Pargas, Finland, 3.199 29. Boracite, a single crystal, 2.973 30. Tourmaline, a fragment of a crystal, nearly black, 3.069 31. Idocrase, of a yellowish- white colour, from Fassa in the Tyrol, 3.287 32. Idocrase, fragment of a crystal of the variety called Egerane, 3.399 33. Helvine, a very small quantity of fragments of crystals, 3.100 34. Garnet, of a liver brown colour, (occurring along with wax- yellow pyroxene of a sp. gr. of 3.278,) from Schwarzenberg in Sax- ony, 3.402 35. Garnet, white, hardness = 7.5, from the valley of Zem in Salzburg, 3.594 36. Grossular, a single crystal, 3.615 37. Garnet, red, hardness == 7.5, occurring along with the green varieties of granular amphibole, and pyroxene in the Bacher moun- tain in Stiria, 3.648 38. Melanite, a single crystal, 3.701 39. Garnet, red, hardness = 7.5, from the Saualpe in Carinthia, where it is associated with the omphacite of Werner, 3.723 40. Garnet, oil-green, hardness = 6.5, 3 J 62 41. Garnet, of a brown colour, hardness = 6.5, 3.769 42. Pyrope, large grains, 3.788 43. Garnet, red crystals, from the Tyrol, 4.098 44. Garnet, red translucent grains from Ohlapian in Transylvania, 4.125 45. Almandine, several crystals, 4.179 46. Garnet, nearly blood-red, the variety which is found with the chrysoberyl of Haddam, 4.208 47. Staurotide, crystals from St Gothard, 3.725 48. Zircon, small flesh-red crystals, from the Saualpe in Carin- thia, 4.505 Order VIII. Ore. 1. Sphene, of a yellow colour, massive, from Arendal, 3.168 2. Anatase, a number of small crystals, 3.826 122 Mr Haidingcr's account of the Specific Gravity 3. Hut He, a cleavable variety, 4.209 4. Rut He, the variety in small pebbles called Nigrine from Ohla- pian, Transylvania, 4.249 5. Rutile, a dark-coloured fragment of a crystal, 4.277 6. Prismatic Zinc-ore, 5.432 7. Octahedral Copper-ore, a fragment of a crystal from Chessy, 6.052 8. Pyramidal Tin-ore, a large crystal from Cornwall, 6.960 9. Wood Tin, of a hair-brown colour from Cornwall, Hardness as 5.0... 5.5. 6.519 10. Tantalite, from Skogbohle, in the parish of Kimito, Finland, Hardness = 6.0 (equal to that of prismatic Felspar.) Streak be- tween hair-brown and clove-brown, 6.993 11. Tantalite, another specimen of the same, 7.075 12. Cerite, from Bastnaes, 4.912 13. Cerine, from Bastnaes, 4.173 14. Chrome-ore, massive, the variety from Unst, 4.575 15. Axotomous Iron-ore, from Gastein, in Salzburg, crystallized, 4.661 16. Magnetic Iron-ore, octahedrons, imbedded in chlorite, 5.094 17. Magnetic Iron-ore, octahedrons, imbedded in green talc, 5.128 18. Magnetic Iron- ore, cleavable masses, with a perfect conchoi- dal fracture, engaged in pale green talc, 5.170 19. Iron-sand, lustre imperfect metallic, fracture perfect con- choidal, 4.872 20. Titanitic Iron, from Egersund, in Norway, 4.779 21. Franklinite, 5.091 22. Rhombohedral Iron-ore, crystals from Elba, 5.229 23. Rhombohedral Iron-ore, bounded by the face of crystalliza- tion perpendicular to the axis of the crystals, and engaged in quartz. It presents smooth faces of composition, parallel to the faces of the fundamental rhombohedron, which are generally taken for cleavage. From Longbanshyttan, in Sweden, 5.251 24. Red Hematite, 4.921 The structure of this variety is very singular. It has a scaly appearance, but each of the particles consists of delicate fibres, diverging from one point, which in all is turned in the same direction. This is also the structure of the variety of prismatic iron-ore called Lepidokrokite, only that, in the lat- ter usually a general tendency remains towards a distribution of the single particles in concentric layers. 25. Brown Hematite, with crystalline terminations, 3.806 26. Brown Hematite, 3.922 27. Stilpnosiderite, 3.611 28. Lievrite, a crystal, 3.994 29. Pyramidal Manganese- ore, crystals, 4.722 4 of Several Minerals. 123 30. Black Hematite, (uncleavable manganese-ore,) 4.145 31. Black Hematite, from Wiesenthal, in Saxony, 4.150 32. Grey Manganese-ore, crystals, streak brown, 4.322 33. Grey Manganese-ore, soft, streak black, fragments of crys- tals, 4.452 34. Grey Manganese-ore, a massive variety, consisting of short fibres, 4.605 35. Grey Manganese-ore, crystals, from Jhelefeld, streak black, 4.626 36. Grey Manganese-ore, a massive variety, consisting of long delicate fibres, 4.787 Order IX. Metal. 1. Native Arsenic, in curved lamellar compositions, 5.766 2. Native Antimony, a massive variety, consisting of granular particles, 6.646 3. Native Antimony, cleavable masses, 6.667 4. Native Bismuth, from Altenberg, in Saxony, 9.737 5. Bismuth, melted, 9.612 6. Amalgam, a single crystal, from Moschellandsberg, 13.755 7. Native Gold, a rounded mass, of a fine gold yellow colour, 14.848 8. Native Platinum, large grains, 17.332 9. Meteoric Iron, part of the mass found at Elbogen, in Bohe- mia, 7.768 Order X. Pyrites. 1. Prismatic Arsenical-pyrites, a fibrous variety, from the Ban- nat, 5.960 2. Prismatic Arsenical-pyrites, thick columnar particles of com- position, 5.960 3. Prismatic Arsenical-pyrites, massive, composition granular, 6.023 4. Prismatic Arsenical-pyrites, thick columnar individuals, ex- tracted from a massive variety, 6.040 5. Prismatic Arsenical-pyrites, crystals, from Tunaberg, 6.208 6. Axotomous Arsenical-pyrites, disengaged from the serpentine, in which it is imbedded, from the same locality, 7.070 7. Axotomous Arsenical-pyrites, massive, from Reichenstein in Silesia, 7.228 8. Axotomous Arsenical-pyrites, crystalline, cleavable masses, from Schladming, in Stiria, 7.267 9. Octahedral Cobalts-pyrites, crystals, from Schneeberg, in Sax- ony, 6.340 10. Octahedral Cobalt-pyrites, the elongated crystals, usually im- bedded in quartz, 6.430 11. Octahedral Cobalt-pyrites, crystalline fragments, showing traces of cleavage, 6.466 12. The Grey Cobalt of Werner, fragments of a massive variety, consisting of very small individuals, 6.566 124 Mr Haidinger's account of the Specific Gravity 13. The fibrous White Cobalt of Werner, 6.968 14. The same, reduced to a smaller size, and showing, therefore, that there are many small cavities in tlse mass, 7.064 15. The fibrous White Cobalt of Werner, botryoidal shapes, ra- ther pure, 7.280 16. Hexahedral Cobalt-pyrites, crystallized in octahedrons, 6.29$ 17. Hexahedral Iron-pyrites, hexahedral crystals, from Littmitz, in Bohemia, 4.981 18. Hexahedral Iron-pyrites, the crystallized extremities of a globular imitative shape, 5.001 19. Hexahedral Iron-pyrites, admitting of a distinct cleavage in the direction of the planes of the hexahedron, from Freiberg, 5.010 20. Hexahedral Iron-pyrites, from the heap of the Donat mine near Freiberg. It is cleavable in the directions both of the hexahe* dron and of the octahedron, the latter, however, is more easily ob^ tained, 5.031 21. Prismatic Iron-pyrites, a single crystal, from Schemnitz, in Hungary, 4.678 22. Prismatic Iron-pyrites, the crystallized extremities of a glo- bular imitative shape, 4.787 23. Prismatic Iron-pyrites, twin-crystals, from Littmitz, in Bo- hemia, occurring with No. 17 on one specimen, 4.847 24. Magnetic Pyrites, a cleavable variety, from Bodenmais, 4.631 25. Copper Pyritts, massive, composition granular, 4.169 26. Variegated Copper, 5.006 27. Nickeliferous Grey Antimony, hexahedrons, bounded by planes of cleavage, 6. 45 1 Order XI. Glance* 1. Fahlerz, massive, from the mine of Kurprinz, near Freiberg, 4.663 2. Fahlerz, crystals, from Schwatz, in the Tyrol, 4.798 3. Fahlerz, from Kapnik, 4.950 4. Fahlerz, crystallized, from Kremnitz, in Hungary, 5.104 5. Frismatoidal Copper-glance from St Gertraud, Carinthia, 5.739 6. Bournonife, a massive variety, from Clausthal, in the Hartz, 5.705 7. Bournonite, fragment of a large crystal, from Neudorf, in the Hartz, 5.763 8. Vitreous Copper, a compact variety, with conchoidal fracture, from the Bannat, 5.695 9. Hexahedral Silver-glance, a single octahedral crystal, from the mine Neue Morgenstern, near Freiberg, 7.223 10. Lead-glance, a compound mass of individuals, elongated in one direction, and presenting a radiated fracture, 7.456 11. Lead-glance, large cleavable individuals, Przibram in Bo- hemia, 7.522 12. Lead-glance, cleavable masses from the mine Junghohebirke, 7.526 of Several Minerals. 125 13. Another variety of the same, 7.537 14. Lead-glance, hexahedrons obtained by cleavage, with striat- ed surfaces, 7.535 15. Lead-glance, in small granular composition, nearly compact, from the Prussian dominions on the Rhine, 7.557 16. Lead-glance, hexahedrons bounded by feces of cleavage, from Bleiberg, in Carinthia, 7.568 17. Lead-glance of the same description, from Alston-moor, 7.570 1 8. Lead-glance, from the Junghohebirke mine near Freiberg ; massive, composition granular, individuals somewhat larger than the preceding variety ; the difference in the specific gravity pro- bably depending upon a small admixture of copper pyrites, 7.417 19. Prismatic Tellurium-glance, laminae obtained by cleavage, 7.085 20. Rhombohedral Moly den a- glance, cleavable, 4.591 "21. Grey Antimony, crystalline masses from the Wolffsberg mine, in the county of Stolberg, 4.620 22. Jamesonite, from Cornwall, 5.564 23. Jamesonite, from Zinobanya, in Hungary, 5.717 24. Jamesonite, from Zinobanya, in Hungary, 5.798 25. Tin-pyrites, 4.463 26. Brittle Silver, a single crystal from Przibram, in Bohemia, 6.269 Order XII. Blende. 1. Hexahedral Glance-blende, a cleavable variety, 4.014 2. Blende, a massive variety, with a radiated fracture, from Przi- bram, in Bohemia, (the same which contains cadmium,) 4.027 3. Blende, a dodecahedron of a brown colour, obtained by clea- vage, 4.078 4. Red Silver, the hollow six-sided prisms having the colour of dark red silver, from the mine of Kurprinz, near Freiberg, 5.422 5. Light Red Silver, cleavable masses, 5.524 6. Dark Red Silver, a cleavable variety from the Hartz, 5.831 7. Dark Red Silver, crystals from Beschert Gliick, near Frei- berg, 5.846 8. Hemi-prismatic Ruby-blende, a group of crystals, 5.234 Several specimens of this rare species are at present in the Wernerian collection at Freiberg. They had lately been found at the mine of Braunsdorf, where they occur in the drusy cavities of the silver veins, accompanied chiefly with quartz. 9. Cinnabar, from Neumarktl in Carniola, 8.098 Order XIII. Sulphur. 1. Realgar, a single crystal, 3.556 126 On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. 2. Orpiment, small imbedded crystals, from Thajowa, in Hun- gary, , 3.460 3. Orpiment, a massive, cleavable variety, 3.480 4. Sulphur, of a pure sulphur-yellow colour, from Sicily, 2.072 Class III. Order I. Resin. 1. Mellite, several crystals, » 1.597 2. Amber, honey-yellow, 1.111 3. Retinite, a nearly transparent variety, with a strong peculiar odour, from Halle, in Prussia, 1.079 4. Bitumen, of the consistency of wax, 0.828 5. Bitumen, of a black colour, and a splendent conchoidal frac- ture. Its streak is pale brown, nearly yellow, 1.073 6. Bitumen, hyacinth red, 1.160 Class I. Order IV. 1. Hemi-prismatic Natron-salt, artificial crystals, 1.423 2. Another experiment gave 1.430 3. Another, 1.495 4. Prismatic Natron-salt, artificial crystals, 1.552 5. Another experiment gave 1.562 6. Sal ammoniac, fibrous masses, 1.528 7. Rock-salt, hexahedrons obtained by cleavage, from Aussee in Stiria, 2.257 8. Sulphate of Copper, artificial crystals, 2.213 9. Sulphate of Copper, a similar variety, 2.248 10. Sulphate of Iron, (the common iron vitriol,) with a slight admixture of sulphate of copper, 1.832 11. Sulphate of Zinc, artificial crystals of a reddish-white colour, from Goslar, in the Hartz, 2.036 12. Sulphate of Magnesia, 1.751 13. Sulphate of Potash, 1.731 14. Alum, artificial crystals, 1.753 15. Alum, artificial crystals, 1.778 16. Borax, artificial crystals, 1.716 17. Glauhente, fragment of a large crystal, 2.807 Art. XVII. — Additional Testimony respecting the Sea-Ser- pent of' the American Seas. Communicated by Dr Hooker. When we remember the numberless impositions concerning Natural History, which at various periods have been detect- On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. 127 ed, it is not surprising that doubt should be a principal, nay, a necessary, qualification of the student of Nature. Yet we cannot but think that the scientific world in general has been too incredulous concerning the sea-serpent, seeing the mass of concurrent testimony which has been adduced to prove its ex- istence. It is certainly true that vague reports had been spread abroad with regard to this enormous animal long ere any just foundation was afforded for them, and indeed before we had heard of any who professed to have seen it. This may have very far conduced to produce that scepticism which now is perfectly unwarrantable. We are so accustomed, whenever the subject is introduced in conversation, to couple it with the preposterous fables of the Kraken, that it would be extremely difficult to break down the barriers against be- lief which prejudice has so long assisted to support. The ac- counts of the most credible witnesses have thus been rejected, although, " to make assurance doubly sure,^ the generality of them have been taken upon oath. So many wonderful discoveries, both in the arts and sciences, have been made within the last century, that it is astonishing how the existence of the sea-serpent has been supposed either so marvellous or impossible. Time has satisfactorily proved the veracity of Bruce, and we must leave it to time to do the same office with regard to the beholders of this " wonder of the deep." Is this monster more disproportionate to the ex- tent of the sea than the elephant to that of the land ? or, it may be asked, has it a solid bulk, (even according to late most extravagant accounts,) nearly approaching in magnitude to that of the whale ? Geology has been infinitely more fortunate than zoology in many respects; theories only partially sus- tained have been received ; and while the recent discoveries of the Plesiosaurus and Megalosaurus have made demands upon our powers of credence far greater than the serpent^ the de- scriptions of the latter animal have received very little trust, and even much ridicule and contempt. In general, however, it must be confessed, that people do not object to the extra- ordinary proportions of such a creature, so much as to Avhat they consider the want of respectable and satisfactory evi- dence. We trust to advance, in the sequel, such additional v 128 On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. evidence to that already presented, and of such respectability, as to confirm entirely the truth of the existence of such an animal, — an animal concerning which so many contradictory opinions have been hazarded as to its more immediate nature and structure ; and which, from the mystery in which it has hitherto been wrapped, must be interesting to the most casual admirer of nature : — which must be interesting even from the element in which it lives ; so vast, so unexplored in its inmost recesses. We can have so little information with regard to an animal which has so mighty a habitation, that it acquires a grandeur in our estimation far surpassing those which inhabit the earth. The monsters of the deep appear so independent of our influence, and so far removed from any connection with lis, that any increase of our knowledge in reference to them ■must be highly gratifying. It was during the year 1817 that it began to be .correctly reported, that in the neighbourhood of Boston and Gloucester in America, an animal, in general construction nearly resem- bling a serpent, had been frequently seen. These rumours created a good deal of excitement, insomuch that, at a meet- ing of the Linnean Society of New England, it was deter- mined more fully to investigate the matter. The Honourable Lonson Nash of Gloucester was appointed by a committee to gather together all the information which might be obtained. It is unnecessary here to dwell at any length upon the evi- dence which his unremitting and meritorious exertions pro- cured. From different quarters, individuals of the highest respectability communicated all the information which it was in their power to proffer, and all declared themselves prepared to take an oath upon the accuracy of their narrations. No testimony was received, excepting from those who professed to have been personal witnesses of the monster : no weight was given to their accounts deduced from the reports which were everywhere circulated : — the unadorned and unexaggera- ted style in which their statements were worded is of itself per- fectly sufficient to win over all to unqualified trust. The wit- nesses, for the most part, unite in ascribing a vertical motion to the creature. Fifty or sixty yards was no uncommon dis- tance between it and the spectators, and it was never seen ex- On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. 129 cept in weather the most calm and bright. But these facts, along with the various depositions, have been long laid before the public in the " Report of the Committee of the Linnean Society of New England,1' and it is our part now merely to adduce some corroborative circumstances which have lately occurred, and which we think puts the matter for ever beyond the possibility of a doubt ; — facts which have already complete- ly satisfied some highly scientific gentlemen, who before were entirely sceptical. That which has been the principal inducement for us to present this imperfect paper to the public, is a letter which we have had the pleasure of seeing addressed to Robert Bar- clay Esq. of Bury Hill, Surry, from Mr Warburton, a gen- tleman belonging to the house of Barclay, Brothers, and Com- pany, London. That gentleman, proceeding in his passage to America, on board the Silas Richards, New York packet, Captain Holdrege, had an opportunity of beholding this sea monster on Friday the 16th of June off St George's Banks. But his own plain statement must be presumed far more satis- factory to every candid mind, than any account extracted from his letter. " Pentonvitte, 20th September 1826. " Dear Sir, " H avi:n g been informed by your grandson, Mr Robert Rey- nolds, that you were desirous of possessing a sketch of the sea-serpent as seen by me in crossing the Atlantic, and to have some account of the same ; in compliance with your wishes, I have inclosed a rough pencil drawing (see Plate I. Fig. 10.) of the monster as it appeared during the time when its head was elevated above the water, and I shall state the particulars at- tending this novel exhibition. u The captain and myself were standing on the starboard side of the vessel, looking over the bulwark, and remarking how perfectly smooth was the surface of the sea. It was about half-past six o'clock p. m., and a cloudless sky. On a sudden we heard a rushing in the water a-head of the ship. At first we imagined it to be a whale spouting, and turning to the quarter whence the sound proceeded, we observed the serpent vol. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. I 130 On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. in the position as it appears in the sketch, slowly approaching at not more than the rate of two miles an hour, in a straight direction. I suppose we were hardly going through the water so fast, for there was scarcely a breath of wind. I must pre- mise that I had never heard of the existence of such an ani- mal. I instantly exclaimed, why, there is a sea-snake ! ' That is the sea-serpent,' exclaimed the captain, ' and I would give my ship and cargo to catch the monster.' I im- mediately called to the passengers, who were all down below, but only five or six came up, among whom was Miss Magee, the daughter of a merchant in New York. The remainder refused to come up, saying there had been too many hoaxes of that kind already. I was too eager to stand parleying with them, and I returned to the captain. In the same slow style the serpent passed the vessel at about the distance of 50 yards from us, neither turning his head to the right or left. As soon as his head had reached the stern of the vessel, he gra- dually laid it down in a horizontal position with his body, and floated along like the mast of a vessel. That there was up- wards of 60 feet visible, is clearly shown by the circum- stance, that the length of the ship was upwards of 120 feet, and at the time his head was off the stern, the other end (as much as was above the surface) had not passed the main-mast. The time we saw him, as described in the drawing, was two minutes and a half. After he had declined his head, we saw him for about twenty minutes a-head, floating along like an enormous log of timber. His motion in the water was mean- dering like that of an eel, and the rake he left behind was like that occasioned by the passing of small craft through the wa- ter. We had but one harpoon on board, and the ship's long- boat was, for the time being, converted into a cow-house. We had two guns on board, but no ball. Two days after we saw him, he was seen by another vessel off Cape Cod, about 200 miles from where he made his appearance to us. This intel- ligence reached New York about four days after we arrived there, and the description given exactly corresponded with the foregoing. I dined one day at the hotel of New York with Sir Isaac Coffin, who discredited the existence of such an ani- mal, which was reported to have been seen by Captain Ben- On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas. 131 nett of Boston about five years back ; but as I assured him I had never heard previously even the report of such a monster, and that I was an Englishman, he gave full credit to it. The sketch I gave him also corresponded with the description that was circulated at that time. The humps on the back resem- bled in size and shape those of the dromedary. I remain, Dear Sir, yours respectfully, " Wtlliam Warburton." To the interesting facts above-mentioned, we are happy in having it in our power to add some extracts from a letter written by our excellent friend Dr Boott of Boston, now resi- dent in London, whose brother had an opportunity of witnes- sing this remarkable animal. After some general remarks, Dr Boott proceeds to express himself in the following terms : " All that I could collect upon the subject was sent to Sir Joseph Banks, with whom I had repeated conversations about the animal, and the respectability of the individvals who af- firmed to the sight of him. The great mass of evidence is to be found in the pamphlet published by the Linnean Society of New England. The question as to the real appearance of a large serpent off the coast of Massachusetts, was put to rest by that publication. There could be no doubt of the fact, and the testimony of thousands who saw the animaljfor one or two years afterwards, must have been sufficient to satisfy the most incredulous. " I believe I was one of the first who mentioned to Sir Joseph Banks, that a large serpent had been seen on the Ame- rican coast ; at all events, I distinctly remember that when I first spoke to him on the subject, he was incredulous, and showed me a plate of a similar animal in Pontopiddan's History of Norway. I myself had no doubt of the truth of the as- sertions of the early observers of it, for many of them were known to me, and I was anxious to convince Sir Joseph of the discovery of a new and remarkable animal. I therefore was in the habit of sending him every information I could collect respecting it. In one of my last visits to Boston, I gathered testimony from individuals, and from the public papers, and was happy to find, on my return to Europe, that Sir Joseph 132 On the Sea-Serpent of the American Seas, was satisfied of the existence of the serpent, though he con- tinued doubtful of the relationship between the small snake, (Fig. 1. of the Linnean pamphlet) and the large serpent. " During this visit I distinctly remember the news coming from Nahaut one morning, of the serpent being in the bay of that place, distant about sixteen miles from Boston. Many hurried down to see it, and among them my brother Mr James Boott. I was prevented from some cause leaving Boston. My brother reported that he distinctly saw a large serpent, about a mile from the shore ; and that thousands were watching its motion on the beach and rocks. The first idea that occurred to my brother was that it was a horse swimming, its head at the time bearing a resemblance to that of the latter creature. He afterwards saw the undulating line of its back, and remain- ed several hours watching the animal. Colonel Perkins of Boston, his wife, and family, were present at this time, as far as I recollect. I remember also that a letter appeared in the Boston Centinel soon after, published by an officer in the Ame- rican navy, who reported that, on his return from a survey of some part of the coast, he saw, when out of sight of land, a large serpent. He was so near that he drew an outline of it, and that outline accompanied the paragraph. When you showed me Mr Warburton's figure on the card, I at first thought it was a copy of that in the Centinel. I can only add, for your own satisfaction, that / have no doubt of the existence of this remarkable animal. " I remain yours affectionately, " Francis Boott. " Gower Street, Bedford Square, " London, Nov. 4, 1826." We sincerely hope that these few bare facts may satisfy all upon this much agitated question; at least we think they must remove the ideal connection between our serpent, and " That sea-snake, enormous curled, Whose monstrous circle girds the world." It can now no longer be considered in association with hy- dras and mermaids, for there has been nothing said with re- gard to it inconsistent with reason. It may at least be assum- Dr Buchanan's Description of an Instrument , fyc 133 ed as a sober fact in Natural History, quite unconnected with the gigantic exploits of the God Thor, or the fanciful absurdi- ties of the Scandinavian mythology. We cannot suppose, that the most ultra-sceptical can now continue to doubt with re- gard to facts attested by such highly respectable witnesses. Art. XVIII. — Description of an Instrument for Extracting and Condensing Air without the assistance of Valves or Stop-cocks. By Andrew Buchanan, M. D. Glasgow. In a Letter to the Editor. Dear Sir, Observing, in a recent number of one of the Philosophical Journals, an account of an air-pump -without artificial valves, by Mr Ritchie of Tain, it brought to my recollection a model of an instrument which I have had beside me for many years, and of which, if you can spare a corner in your next number, I shall be obliged by your inserting a description. The original form of the instrument, such as it has in the mo- del just mentioned, is represented by Plate I. Fig. 11. It consists of two cylinders of the same size, each furnished with a piston. They are both open at the top, while at the bottom the verti- cal one communicates by a small opening with the body of the horizontal one, and the horizontal one itself communicates with the receiver by means of a conduit pipe. The mode in which the instrument acts in extracting or condensing air is easily perceived by the inspection of the figure. Suppose both pistons at the bottom of their respective cylinders, — let the horizontal piston be drawn up, the air of the receiver will diffuse itself through the horizontal cylinder. Next, let the vertical piston be drawn up, and the air will in like manner diffuse itself through the vertical cylinder. The horizontal piston is now pushed down, and after it the vertical one. By this arrangement it is clear that the whole air con- tained in the vertical cylinder has been forced out and perma- nently excluded from the receiver ; for, on the descent of the vertical piston, the air is forced from the vertical into the hori- zontal cylinder, and being prevented from returning into the 1S4 Dr Buchanan's Description of an Instrument conduit pipe, by the interposition of the horizontal piston, it makes its escape by the only remaining passage at the top of the horizontal cylinder. The different parts of the instru- ment are now in the same position as at first ; the alternate motion of the pistons may therefore be repeated and continu- ed, till the exhaustion of the air in the receiver be as great as required. As the process of condensing air is the reverse of rarefying it, so it is performed by reversing the order of the motion of the two pistons. Supposing, as in the former case, both pis- tons at the bottom, the vertical one is first drawn up, and next the horizontal one. They are then made to descend in the same order, when it is obvious that a volume of air, equal to the capacity of the vertical cylinder, will be forced through the conduit pipe into the receiver. The pistons are now again at the bottom of the cylinders, so that the operation may be repeated as before. In the year 1817, in drawing up an account of this instru- ment, I slightly modified its form. It is clear that there is no necessity for the horizontal cylinder being so large as the ver- tical one ; on the contrary, the great size of the former is a disadvantage in working the instrument, without adding in any respect to its efficiency. I therefore diminished the hori- zontal cylinder both in length and diameter, and reduced the instrument to the form represented by Fig. 12. I have not been able to devise any farther simplification of the instrument itself. The process of working it, however, is somewhat operose. This practical inconvenience may be ob- viated in various ways. By the following apparatus, the successive strokes of the two pistons are effected in the com- mon air-pump by the partial revolutions of a wheel acting on the piston rods. Fig. 13. is a delineation of this apparatus. It consists of two simple instruments wrought by the same moving power. The wheel has two quadrants opposite each other, furnished with teeth acting on the corresponding teeth in the upper half of the vertical piston rods. By this means, on turning the wheel a quarter round, the two vertical pistons receive a si- multaneous motion in opposite directions. The two horizontal for Extracting and Condensing Air. 135 pistons have a common piston rod, which is moved by two belts or cords attached at one end to the cross bar a a, in the middle of the rod. From this point of attachment the belts pass in opposite directions to the bottom of the vertical cylin- ders, where each passing over a pulley, ascends to be buckled to the moving wheel. The two buckles are placed one on each side, about an inch from the lower end of the toothed quadrant. The length of the belt a b c is equal to G b d, that is, to the length of the vertical piston rod, plus the dis- tance between the bottom of the vertical cylinder, and d the point of nearest approach of the central bar a a, which point it occupies when the horizontal piston is depressed on that side. In the same manner the length of the belt a e k is equal to H ef. Knowing the length and attachment of the belts, it is easy to understand how the motion of the horizontal pistons is effected. In the position of the instrument repre- sented in the figure, the wheel is turning in the direction G ckH, the motion of the vertical pistons is just finished, the belt a b c is relaxed, while the belt a e k is newly put upon the stretch. By turning the wheel a little farther in the same direction till the point k comes to H9 the belt aek will assume the position /£ k, and the piston will be depressed in the hori- zontal cylinder on that side, while it is simultaneously raised in the opposite one. The wheel is now turned in the opposite direction ; the vertical pistons move first, and when their mo- tion is completed, the belt abc being put upon the stretch, the horizontal pistons are moved back into the position repre- sented in the figure. Thus are the two sets of pistons moved successively by turning the wheel a little more than a quarter round alternately, in opposite directions. If it be wished to use the instrument as a condenser, the only change to be made consists in lengthening the belts, and shifting them each to the buckle on the opposite side, which will plainly have the effect of reversing the order of succession in the movement of the pistons. As the ascending vertical piston has to contend with the whole atmospheric pressure, and does not, as in the common air-pump, receive any assistance from the descending piston, which is pressed equally in both directions, the force required 136 Baron Humboldt on the Mean Temperature to raise the vertical piston would be considerable when the ex- haustion of the receiver was carried to a great length. To obviate this inconvenience, the horizontal piston rod might be made to work in air-tight leather collars at the top of the two horizontal cylinders, while the air coming from the receiver, on each stroke of the descending piston, would pass off by a discharging valve in the same situation. This construction is represented by Fig. 14. The valves require to be permanently raised when the instrument is used as a condenser. Your most obedient Servant, Andrew Buchanan. 40, George's Square, Glasgow. Art. XIX. — Observations on the Mean Temperature of the Equatorial Regions. By Baron Alexander Hum- boldt. In an interesting memoir on the temperature of the different parts of the torrid zone at the level of the sea, just published by Baron Humboldt in the Annates de Chimie, fyc. for Sep- tember last, he has entered into an examination of the equa- torial temperature, in reply to the observations of Mr Atkin- son, to which we have already referred in a former article.- The importance of this part of his paper is such as to merit the particular attention of our meteorological readers. "The question," says he, "of the equatorial temperature has been recently discussed in a memoir published by Mr Atkinson, in the second volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Socie- ty of London (p. 137-183,) and which contains very judicious considerations on several important points of meteorology. The learned author endeavours to deduce from my own observations, by employing the artifices of the most rigorous calculus, that the mean temperature of the equator is not less than 84°.5 Fahr. and not 81°.5, as I have supposed in my essay on isothermal lines. Kirwan made it 84°, and Dr Brewster in his Climateric Formulae has adopted 82°.8. * (Edinburgh Journal of Sci- ence, 1825, No. vii. p. 180.) • We have adopted 82°.8 as the equatorial temperature in the warm meridian passing through Africa; but have retained 81°.5, Humboldt's of the Equatorial Regions. 137 If the equatorial temperature under consideration were that of the equatorial zone surrounding the whole globe, and bound- ed by the parallel of '3° north and 3° south, we must first ex- amine the temperature of the equatorial ocean, for there is only one-sixth of the circumference of the globe which in that zone belongs to terra firma. But the mean temperature of the ocean between the limits we have mentioned, varies in general between 80°.24, and 82°. 4. I say in general, for we sometimes find between these limits maxima restricted to zones scarcely a degree wide, and whose temperature rises in different longitudes from 83°.7, to 84°. 7. I have observed this last temperature, which may be regarded as very high in the Pacific ocean, to the east of the Galapagos Islands, and recently M. Baron Dirckinck of Holm- feldt, a well-informed officer of the Danish navy, who, at my request, made a great number of thermometrical observations, has found (in lat. 2°.5' N., long. 81.°54' W.) almost in the parallel of Punta Guascama, the surface of the water at87n.l. These maxima do not belong to the equator itself. They oc- cur sometimes to the north, and sometimes to the south of it, and often between the latitude of 2J°, and 6°. The great circle which passes through the points where the waters of the sea are the warmest, cuts the equator at an angle which seems to vary with the sun's declination. In the Atlantic ocean, we may sometimes even pass from the northern to the southern temperate zone, in the zone of the warmest waters, without observing the thermometer rise above 82Q.4. The maxima are According to Perrins - 82° 76' Churrucca - Quevedo - Rodman - Dr Davy - Mean, 83° 26' The air which rests upon these equatorial waters is from 1°.8 to 2°.7, colder than the ocean. It results from these facts, measure for the temperature of the equator in America and Asia. This double measure is a necessary result of the isothermal lines being regulated by two poles of maximum cold. — Ed. 138 Baron Humboldt on the Mean Temperature that over 5-6ths of the circumference of the globe, the equato- rial aqueous zone, instead of presenting a mean temperature of 84°.5, has probably not one of 83°.3. Mr Atkinson himself admits, p. 171, that the union of the aqueous and continental parts tends to diminish the mean temperature of the equator. But in confining himself to the continental plains of south America, this philosopher adopts for the equatorial zone from 1° to 3° south, and upon different theoretical suppositions, 84°.56, or 87°.8. He founds this conclusion on the fact, that at Cumana, in lat. 10°.27, the mean temperature is 81°.68, and that, by the law of the increase of heat from the pole to the equator, an increase which depends on the square of the cosine of the latitude,* the mean temperature ought to be at least above 84°.56. Mr Atkinson finds a confirmation of this re- sult, by reducing to the level of the equatorial seas several temperatures which I had observed on the declivity of the Cordilleras, to a height of 500 toises ; and in employing cor- rections, which he believes to be due to the latitude, and to the progressive diminution of heat in a vertical plane, he does not dissemble how much a part of these corrections is rendered uncertain by the position of places in vast plains, or in narrow vallies,— Mem. Astr. Soc. Vol. ii. p. 149, 158, 171, 172, 182, and 183. In studying in all its generality the problem of the distri- bution of heat on the surface of the globe, and in freeing it of the accessory consideration of localities, (for example of the effects of the configuration, the colour and the geographic re- lation of the soil ; of those of the predominance of certain winds, of the proximity of seas, of the frequency of clouds and fogs, and, of the nocturnal radiation towards a sky more or less serene,) we shall find that the mean temperature of a station depends on the different ways in which the influence of the meridian altitude of the sun manifests itself. This altitude determines at once the duration of the semidiurnal arcs, the length and the transparency of the portion of the atmosphere which the rays traverse before reaching the horizon ; the * The law of increase approaches much more nearly to that of the simple cosines of the latitude— Ed. of the Equatorial Regions. 139 quantity of the absorbed or heating rays (a quantity which augments rapidly when the angle of incidence, reckoned from the level of the surface, increases ;) and lastly, the number of solar rays which a given horizon embraces. The law of Mayer, with all the modifications which have been introduced into it for thirty years, is an empirical law, „which represents the generality of the phenomena by approximation, and often in a satisfactory manner ; but it cannot be employed against the testimony of direct observations. If the surface of the globe, from the equator to the parallel of Cumana, was a desert like that of Sahara, or a savanna uniformly covered with grasses like the Llanos of Calobozo or of Apure, there would undoubtedly be an increment of mean temperature from 10^°. of latitude to the equator, but it is very probable that this increase does not amount to 2J° of Fahrenheit. M. Arago, whose important and ingenious researches extend to all the branches of meteorology, has found, from direct experiments, that from a perpendicular incidence to 20° of zenith distance the quantity of reflected light is nearly the same. He has found also that the photrometrical effect of solar light varies extremely little at Paris in the month of August, from noon to three o'clock, in spite of the changes in the length of the path described by the rays which traverse the atmosphere. If I have fixed the mean temperature of the equator in round numbers at 81 J0., it was to attribute to the equatorial zone, properly so called, from 8° N. to 3° S., the mean tem- perature of Cumana, 81°.86. This city, surrounded with arid sands, situated under a sky always serene, and whose thin vapours almost never resolve themselves into rains, pos- sesses a more burning climate than all the places which sur- round it, and which are like it on the level of the sea. In advancing southward in America, and to the equator, by the Orinoco and Rio Negro, the heat diminishes, not on account of the elevation of the soil, which from the Fort of St Carlos is very little, but on account of the forests, the frequency of rains, and the transparency of the atmosphere. It is to be regretted that travellers, even the most laborious, should be so little in a state to advance the progress of meteorology, by adding to our knowledge of mean temperatures. They do 140 Baron Humboldt on the Mean Temperature not remain a sufficient time in the countries whose climate they desire to know, and they collect for the annual means only observations which others have made, and most frequent- ly at hours and with instruments which are far from giving correct results. Owing to the constancy of the atmospheric phenomena under the zone nearest to the equator, a short space of time is without doubt sufficient to give approximate- ly the mean temperature at different heights above the level of the sea. I have always pursued this class of researches ; but the on- ly precise result which I have been able to obtain, and which is deduced from observations made twice a-day, is that of Cu- mana. (Compare with respect to the degree of confidence which the mean temperatures merit, Relat Hist. torn. i. p. 41 1, 547, 631-637, 584 ; torn. ii. p. 73, 418, 463 ; torn. iii. p. 314-320, 371-382.) The true numerical elements of climatology can only be fix- ed by skilful persons established for a great number of years in different parts of the earth ; and, in this respect, the intel- lectual generation which is preparing itself in the free part of equatorial America, from the coast to 2000 toises of altitude on the back and on the declivity of the Cordilleras, between the parallels of the Isle of Chiloe and San Francisco in New California, will have the happiest influence on the physical sciences. In comparing what has been known for forty years on the mean temperature of the equatorial regions with what we now know, we must be astonished at the slow progress of positive climatology. I do not know, at the present day, more than one mean temperature observed with any appearance of precision, between 3° north and 3° south lat, and it is that of St Louis de Maranham in Brazil, 2°.29' S. lat., which Colonel Antonio Pereira found from observations made in 1821, three times a-day, (at 8h a. m., 4h p. m., and llh p. m.) to be 81°.32. (Annaes das Sciences das Artes e das Letras, 1822, torn. xvi. Plate II. p. 55-80.) This is still 0° 54 less than the mean temperature of Cumana.* Below 10J° of lat. we know only the mean temperature of * See a preceding notice on this subject in p. 117 of this Number* of the Equatorial Regions. 141 Batavia, Cumana, Lat. Fahr. 6° 12' S. 80° 42 10 27 81 86 tremity of the torrid zc Lat. Fahr. 11°55' N 85°28 13 4 80 42 14 36 T8 08 15 53 79 70 18 56 80 06 22 12 73 94 22 54 S. 74 30 23 9 N. 78 26 we have Pondicherry, Madras, Manilla, - - Senegal, Bombay, Macao, Rio Janeiro, The Havanna, And after the observations of Pereira, Maranham, - 2° 29' S. 81° 32 It appears to result from these data, that the only place in the equinoctial region whose mean temperature exceeds 81° 86, is situated in 1&° latitude. This is Pondicherry, whose climate can no more serve to characterise the equatorial re- gion than the Oasis of Mourzouk, where the unfortunate Ritchie and Captain Lyon assure us that they saw, during whole months, (perhaps from the sand disseminated in the air,) the thermometer at 117° and 128°, can characterise the climate of the temperate zone in the north of Africa. The greatest mass of tropical land is situated between 18° and £8° of north lat., and it is in that zone also, thanks to the esta- blishment of so many rich commercial towns, that we possess most meteorological knowledge. The three or four degrees nearest to the equator are a terra incognita for climatology. We are still ignorant of the mean temperatures of Grand Para, Guayaquil, and even Cayenne. When we consider only the heat attained in a particular part of the year, we find in the northern hemisphere the most scorching climates under the tropic itself, and a little beyond it. At Abusheer, for example, in lat. 28 J°, the mean temperature of the month of July is 93° % In the Red Sea we find the thermometer at noon at 131°, and in the night at 109°. At Benares, lat. 25° 20', the heat reaches in summer 1 31°, whilst it descends in winter to 46° 96. These observations in India 142 Baron Humboldt on the Mean Temperature were made with an excellent thermometer for maxima, by Six. The mean temperature of Benares is 77° 36. * The extreme heat which occurs in the southern portion of the temperate zone, between Egypt, Arabia, and the Gulf of Persia, is the simultaneous effect of the configuration of the surrounding lands, of the state of the surface, of the constant transparency of the air deprived of aqueous vapours, and the length of the days, which increase with the latitudes. Between the tropics, even great heats are rare, and generally do not exceed at Bombay 91° and at Vera Cruz 95°. It is almost needless to state, that in this note we have referred only to ob- servations made in the shade, and far from the reflection of the ground. At the equator, where the two solstitial heights reach 66° &W, the times of the sun's passing the zenith are distant from one another 186 days. At Cumana, the height at the summer solstice is 76° 59, and that of the winter sol- stice 56° 5f9 and the times of passing the zenith, 17th April and 26th August, are distant 131 days. Farther to the north, at the Havanna, we find the solstitial height in summer 89° 41', and of winter 43° 237, and the distance of the passage (12th June and 1st July) 19 days. If these passages are not recognized with the same evidence in the curve of the month, it is because their influence is marked in some places by the occurrence of the rainy season, and other electrical phenomena. The sun is at Cumana during 109 days, or more exactly dur- ing 1275 hours, (from the 28th October till the 14th Febru- ary,) lower than under the equator, but in this interval its maximum of zenith distance does not exceed 33°.55. The retardation in the sun's progress, in approaching the tropics, increases the heat of places situated farther from the equator, particularly towards the confines of the torrid and temperate zones. Near the tropics, for example at the Havanna, lat. 23° 9/, the sun employs twenty-four days to describe a degree on each side of the zenith ; under the equator it requires on- * Mr Prinsep makes the mean temperature of Benares in 1822 76°.81 1823 76 .40 and the greatest range from 1 1 H° to 45° ; the mean heat of a well thirty- six feet deep was 79°.71c.— -Ed. of the Equatorial Regions. 143 ly five days. Near the tropics, for example at the Havanna, (lat. 23°29,) the sun employs twenty-four days to describe a degree on each side of the zenith ; under the equator it em- ploys only five days. At Paris, lat. 48° 5CK, where the sun descends to the winter solstice, as far as 17° 42' ; the solstitial height in summer is 64°38\ The sun is consequently from the 1st of May till the 12th August, during the interval of 103 days, or 1422 hours, as high at Paris as at Cumana at an- other epoch in the year. In comparing Paris to the Havanna, we find, in the first place, from the 26th March to the 17th September, during 175 days, or 2407 hours, the sun as high as it is in any other season under the tropic of Cancer. But in this interval of 175 days, the warmest month (July) has, from the register kept in the royal observatory from 180b' to 1820, a mean temperature of 65°. 48, whilst at Cumana, and at the Havanna, where the sun descends, in the first place, to 56°5\ in the second, to 43°23', the coldest month still gives, in spite of the long nights at Cumana, 79°.16, and at the Ha- vanna 70°. 16 of mean heat. Under all zones, the temperature of a part of the year is modified by the temperature of the seasons which precede it. Under the tropics the diminution of the temperatures is very inconsiderable, because the earth has received in the foregoing months a mass of mean heat, which is equivalent at Cumana to 80°.6, and at Havanna to From the considerations which I have now explained, it does not appear to me probable that the equatorial tempera- ture ever reaches 84°.56, as is supposed by the learned and estimable author of the Memoir on Astronomical Refractions. Father Beza, who was the first traveller who recommended observations at the coldest and warmest hours of the day, be- lieved that he had found in 1686 and 1699, in comparing Siam, Malacca, and Batavia, " that the heat is not greater under the equator than under 14° of latitude." I am of opi- nion that there is a difference, but that it is very small, and masked by the effect of so many causes, which act simulta- neously on the mean temperature of a place. The observa- tions hitherto collected do not afford us any measure of a pro- 144j Hourly Meteorological Observations. gressive increase between the equator and the latitude of Cu- mana." Paeis, September 1826. Aut. XX. — 'Notice respecting the hourly Meteorological Ob- servations proposed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, to be made twice every year, on the 17th July and 15th Ja- nuary. In obedience to the request of several correspondents, we pro- pose, in the present notice, to explain more fully than was done in the printed schedules, the method of making the meteorolo- gical observations proposed by the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, and to subjoin a copy of one of the sets of observations made on the Ifoh July 1826. the days of the year which have been fixed for these ob- servations are the 17th July and 15th January, and it would be extremely desirable to have these observations repeated on the same days of these months for some years. 1. The first column of the schedule is intended for register- ing the state of the thermometer every hour of the day, from 1 o'clock a. m. to 12 p. m. of the 17th July, or the 15th Ja- nuary. The thermometer should be placed in a northern ex- posure, sheltered from the direct rays of the sun, and at some height above the ground. The times of the highest and lowest state of the thermometer should also be marked, if they do not occur at any of the hours of observation. 2. The second column is intended for registering the tem- perature of springs and deep wells, or tjie temperature of a river, or of the sea. 8. In order to obtain the force of radiation, a mercurial thermometer, having its bulb covered with black woollen cloth, or simply blackened with China ink, should be exposed on an open spot of ground, and a few folds of paper may be inter- posed betwen the soil and the instrument. The same result will be obtained by taking the temperature of an exposed patch of bare soil. 4. The barometer or sympiesometer, whose indications are to 11 Hourly Meteorological Observations. 145 be recorded in the fourth column, should not be placed in a hall or passage where it is exposed to a draught or current of air. 5. The best electrometer is Bonnet's gold-leaf electrometer. The observations with it should be made in an open field, at a distance from trees and chimneys, Besides the tension of the electricity, as indicated by the extent of the divergence of the gold leaves, it is of importance to ascertain at what height above the soil it first becomes sensible, and in what space of time it acquires a fresh charge, after being touched by the finger or by a piece of metal. The galvanometer may be employed in these observations, as explained in this Number, p. 150. In the observations made in the Royal Observatory at Halle, on the 17th July, by Professor Gartz, Dr Weber, and Mr Hugel, an electrometer was employed, consisting of a gold- leaf freely suspended between two of Zamboni's columns, which could be placed at different distances, so that a lesser oragreater electrical force is necessary to move the gold-leaf, the nature of the electricity being determined by the leaf approaching to the column which had its positive or negative pole turned to- wards it. The electric force was measured by the distance of the Zambonic column which moved it. — See this Journal, No. vii. p. 124-127. 6. In order to observe the hygrometrical state of the air, cover the bulb of a thermometer with a piece of muslin or soft paper, and having wetted the bulb thus covered, observe, by comparing it with another thermometer, the descent of the mercury arising from the cold produced by evaporation. If the dry thermometer, for example, stands at 50°, and the wet one at 45°, the difference of these indications, or 5°, is the number to be inserted in the appropriate column. Observa- tions with Saussure's and DanielPs hygrometer would also be desirable. — See this Journal, No. vii. p. 127. 7. If rain should fall, the quantity of it may be measured without a rain-gauge, merely by exposing a circular vessel to the shower, measuring the diameter of its aperture, and noting the depth of rain in inches, if the vessel is equally cylindrical, or the weight of the rain, if the lower part of the vessel is of an irregular shape. VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827- tf 146 Hourly Meteorological Observations. 8. The velocity of the wind may be easily ascertained by measuring the distance to which a light body, such as a fea- ther or a piece of paper, is carried in any number of seconds. Its direction may be found by a wind-vane, or by the smoke of a chimney. The existence and direction of currents in the higher regions may be detected by the motions of the clouds. The remaining columns of the table must be filled up ac- cording to the judgment and knowledge of the observer. Mr Howard's nomenclature of clouds should be used by those who are acquainted with it. Halos, rainbows, the Aurora Bo- realis, the depth of the blue colour of the sky, and the colour of the clouds at sunrise and sunset, will naturally attract the notice of every observer. To those meteorologists who have sufficient leisure, and the means of performing such experiments, we would recommend the use of kites or of balloons for ascertaining the temperature and state of the upper atmosphere. The Earl of Minto has ob- 1 tained several very interesting results by the use of balloons, and by proper precautions has found them perfectly manage- able. The following is an alphabetical list of the observations on the 17th July which have already been received, and there is reason to expect as many more, as few of the foreign ones have yet arrived. It is greatly to be desired, that those who have so well be- gun this interesting series of experiments, will continue them on the 15th January, and also in subsequent years. List of the Hourly Registers of the Weather kept on the Ytth July 1826, that have been received. Scotland. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire, - George Fairholme, Esq. Castle Kennedy, Ayrshire, - Peter Burnet, Esq. Dundee, Johnfield, Forfarshire, - Rev. Mr Macvicar. Allerly, Roxburghshire, - Dr Brewster. Eckford, Roxburghshire, Rev. Mr Gray. Edinburgh, Caltonhill, Mid-Lothian, Mr John Foggo. Canaan Cottage, do. - - Mr Adie. Forres, Sanquhar House, Morayshire, Mr J. Christison. Garvock, Kincardineshire, - Mr Murray. Hourly Meteorological Observations. 147 Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Glenfinart, Argyllshire, Gordon Castle, Banffshire, Huntly Lodge, Aberdeenshire, Inchbonny, Roxburghshire, Kelso, do. Leith, Mid-Lothian, Minto House, Roxburghshire, Shetland, Uga Sound, H. M. S. Woodlark, West Sandwich Yell, Lerwick, Tweedsrauir, Peebles-shire, Wemyss Castle, Fifeshire, Whim, Peebles-shire, England. Kendall, Westmoreland, Newcastle, Northumberland, - Pitmaston, Worcestershire, Plymouth, Devonshire, Sfwaffam Balbeck, Cambridgeshire, Wallington, Northumberland, Mr John Weir. James Skene, Esq. The Duke of Gordon. Mr Alexander Murdoch. Mr James Veitch. Mr W. Mein. Mr Coldstream. Earl of Minto. Mr J. Frembly. Mr Mathewson. Mr Fairlie. Captain Wemyss, M. P. Arch. Montgomery, Esq. Mr S. Marshall. Rev. Mr Turner. J, Williams, Esq. W. Snow Harris, Esq. W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. Castlebar, Mayo County, Edgeworthstown, Longford, Ireland. W. Bald, Esq. Mr and Miss Edgeworth. Gotha Observatory, Halle Royal Observatory, Leipzig Observatory, Seeberg Observatory, Zehmen, near Leipzig, Germany. M. HoiF. MM. Gartz, Weber, and Hugel. - Moebius. C A. Hansen. MM. Smiedeh and Brandes. The following register, which we give as a specimen of those received, was kept at Tweedsmuir in Peebles-shire, by Mr William Fairlie, schoolmaster there, who has, at the request of the Royal Society, kept very regular, and highly interest- ing registers of the weather at that place for six years. The great elevation of Tweedsmuir above the level of the sea, (about 1200 feet,) gives great value to these observations. 148 Hourly Meteorological Observations. O «* CO c V w £ g £ 1? 8 * Be 2 bi 22 '5 Is? B • If o ,S c ° S * IT'S 6 M3>°5^ V doo6>-o6<5 S 5 oS ,;=;ooe>©>ooo | -J[ £ | Q Q Q P £P Q Q o _ £j T! PP T3 O S 71 £ .2 ~ M 5 S M M £p« 3 5L 3§ > o CO Fair, with Clouds, and a fine breeze throughout. d c3 P _Q P © ■ 2 4] to . . .^n . . 2 .-d . . . QQflQQQQQ3QPQ.*'gQQQQ6QfiflflQ I II J 44 CO ll rt O .2 6 5 1 t^cd-HCoi^t^o6c4oicd«5 © 00 © co © © "^ »o O *© o t^o © © © *© o »o © © CO t>» © t>» © »© 00 co -sf •«* m © © © © co © © co t- »o "* co co © 0i = • © © © t^. ©ei © © * CO ■*+ CO ©©©© © ©©©©©©©oi©© © s 4G\5 without variation during the day. H 5 ^kOiO©©iOCN©©0©©CO© 1j©©©-* — CO-"*©^©©^""* © «©©t"»©©©»Oi©i©io (N©— ©W3o co *• 10 © t*eo © © M. Colladon on the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle.. 149 We cannot conclude this notice, without expressing a wish, that those gentlemen who have not sufficient experience in making meteorological observations, or who may not feel it convenient to devote a whole day to science, will at least en- courage and assist those in their neighbourhood who have the inclination and ability to make them, but who want only the requisite instruments. Those who have not yet sent in their schedules of the 17th July, are requested to transmit them as speedily as possible to Dr Brewster, Secretary to the Royal Society, 10, Coates Crescent, Edinburgh. Art. XXI. — On the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle pro- duced by a common Electrical Machine *. By M. D. Col- ladon of Geneva. All attempts having hitherto failed to produce a deviation of the magnetic needle by the electrical machine, M. Colladon supposed that this was owing to the employment of too small a charge of electricity, or to imperfectly insulated galvanome- ters. He therefore repeated this experiment with a galvano- meter of 100 turns with two needles, such as that contrived by M. Nobili. The wire of it, says he, is doubly covered with silk, and in order to have a considerable quantity of electricity, I employed a battery of thirty jars, and having a square surface of 4000 square inches. The galvanometer was placed in a separate chamber, and communicated with the battery by two copper wires covered with silk, and suspended by insulating cords. At the end of each wire was soldered a very fine point for drawing off electricity. These two points are the extre- mities of the galvanometer. After having charged the battery till its electroscope began to diverge, I put one of the extremities of the galvanometer in contact with the exterior armour of the battery, and hold- ing the other extremity by a glass-handle, I approached the point of it to the bottom of one of the jars. When this was done at four or five centimetres distance, the needle of the * This is a brief abstract of the original memoir which was read at the Academy of Sciences on the 21st August, and which is printed in the Ann. de Chim. Tom. xxxiii. p. 62. 150 M. Colladon on the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle. galvanometer began to deviate. At a distance of one or two centimetres, the deviation became 23°. It then grew weak- er, and vanished after a duration of five seconds. The direc- tion of the deviation was in the direction of the current, and the direction was changed by presenting to the battery the same extremity of the galvanometer. Opposite directions were also obtained, by charging the battery alternately with posi- tive and negative electricity. In dry weather, M. Colladon obtained deviations of three or four degrees, by using the simple electrical machine, and also Nairne's machine for two electricities, or a plate machine of five feet. M. Colladon next soldered to the extremities of his galvano- meter a platina wire, and when one of the soldered pieces was kept at the temperature of 32°, while the other was heated in a mercurial bath to the temperature of 313° Fahr. a devia- tion of 45° took place. Hence it follows, that the electricity which may be accumulated in a given time in a battery, or even in a conductor, is a finite portion of that which circulates during the same time in a closed electromotive circle. M. Colladon then proposes to use the galvanometer in place of an electrometer, for measuring small quantities of electricity accumulated in batteries, or drawn off by points. With this view he prepared a galvanometer with 500 turns, having its wire not only doubly covered with silk, but each series of turns covered with gummed taffetas. With the plate glass machine with which he obtained a deviation of 3° or 4°, he now ob- tained At 1 decimetre of distance a deviation of - 18° 2 - - 10 4 - 5\ 8 - - 8 1 metre, - - - 2 5 centimetres, - - 19 24 cent. - 20 1 cent. - 20 A single Leyden phial, with two square feet of surface made the needle deviate 32° when it was fully charged. In another section of his paper, M. Colladon treats of at- mospheric electricity, and he shows that the galvanometer is Mr Ellis's Description of the Volcano of Kirauea. 151 a precise means of measuring the quantity of electricity which passes along conductors. " On the 4th of August," says he, " about mid-day, when the electrical clouds announced a storm, I raised a metallic point on the observatory of the College of France. A pole of nine metres was placed near the highest paratonnerre, which it surpassed by about a metre. It carried a conducting wire terminated by two needles, very fine and slightly divergent. This con- ducting wire, covered with silk, traversed a glass tube, and de- scended into the chamber where the galvanometer was placed. It was fixed to one of the extremities of the galvanometer, whilst the other extremity communicated with the rod of the paratonnerre, and consequently with the ground. When it began to thunder, the needle of the galvanometer deviated be- tween 34° and 32°, and the electricity was negative." Art. XXII. — Description of the Volcano of Kirauea, in Ha- waii, one of tlie Sandwich Islands. By the Reverend William Ellis. With a Plate.* In our last Number, p. 303, we had occasion to lay before our readers Mr Ellis's interesting account of the burning chasms of Ponohohoa, and we propose at present to give an account of the active volcano of Kirauea, as described by the same author. The plain through which it is necessary to pass to the mountain was an extensive waste of ancient lava, which re- sembled an inland sea bounded by different mountains. It seems to havejbeen once in a fluid state, but has now the ap- pearance of having been suddenly petrified while its waves had been in a state of tumultuous agitation. Not only were the large swells and hollows distinctly marked, but the surface was covered by a smaller ripple like that which precedes the springing up of a breeze. Before the crater suddenly burst upon our view, we expected to have seen a mountain with a broad base, and rough indented sides, composed of loose slags * * Sec last Number, Plate III. 152 Mr Ellis's Description of the Volcano of Kirauea. or indurated streams of lava, and whose summit might have resembled the rim of a huge cauldron formed by a rugged wall of scoria. Instead of this, however, we found ourselves on the edge of a steep precipice, with a vast plain before us fifteen or sixteen miles in circumference, and sunk from 200 to 400 feet below its original level. The surface of this plain was uneven, and strewed over with huge stones and volcanic rocks, and in the centre of it was the great crater at the dis- tance of one mile and a half from the spot where we stood. Walking on to the north end of the ridge, a place was found where the descent to the plain seemed practicable, but it was difficult and dangerous. After walking some distance over the sunken plain, which often sounded hollow beneath our feet, we at last came to the edge of the great crater, where a most sublime and appalling spectacle presented itself. Before us yawned an immense gulf like a crescent about two miles in length from N. E. to S. W., and the northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning matter boiling with tremendous agi- tation. Fifty-one conical islands, varying in form and size, and with each a crater, rose either round the edge, or from the surface of the burning lake. Twenty-two emitted co- lumns of grey smoke, or pyramids of brilliant flame, and se- veral of those, at the same time, vomited streams of lava, which rolled in blazing torrents down their black indented sides into the boiling mass below. These conical craters led us to infer that the cauldron of lava before us did not form the focus of the volcano ; — that the mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow, and that the basin in which it was con- tained was separated by a stratum of solid matter from the great volcanic abyss, which discharged its contents through these craters into the upper reservoir. The sides of the gulf before us, though composed of ancient lava, were perpendicu- lar for about 400 feet, and rose from a wide horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregular breadth, but extending com- pletely round. Beneath this ledge the sides sloped gradually towards the burning lake, which was, as nearly as we could judge, 300 or 400 feet lower. It was evident that, the large crater had been recently filled with liquid lava up to this black ledge, and had by some subterraneous canal emptied it- On Subterranean Sounds heard at Nakous. 153 self into the sea, or under the low land on the shore. The grey, and in some places apparently calcined sides of the great crater before us, the fissures which intersected the sur- face of the plain on which we stood, — the long banks of sul- phur on the opposite side of the abyss ; — the vigorous action of the numerous small craters on its borders ; the dense co- lumns of vapours and smoke that rose at the north and south ends of the plain, together with the ridge of steep rocks by which it was surrounded, rising perpendicularly in some places 300 or 400 feet, presented an immense volcanic panora- ma, the effect of which was greatly increased by the constant roaring of the vast furnaces below. Beside the volcano now described, there are several extinct ones in Owhyhee. * Captain King makes one of these, viz. Mouna Roa 16,020 feet high, while he makes Mouna Kaa, whose peaks are constantly covered with snow, 18,400 feet. Mr Ellis reckons the height of this at between 15,000 or 16,000 feet. Mr Ellis regards the whole Island of Owhyhee, (of about 4000 square miles,) as one complete mass of lava. " Perfo- rated,"" says he, " with innumerable apertures in the shape of craters, the island forms a hollow cone over one vast fur- nace, situated in the heart of a stupendous marine mountain rising from the bottom of the sea ; or possibly the fires may rage with augmented force beneath the bed of the ocean, rearing through the superincumbent weight of water the base of Hawaii, and at the same time forming a pyramidal funnel from the furnace to the atmosphere." Art. XXIII. — On the Subterranean Sounds heard at Na- kous, on the Red Sea. Baron Humboldt informs us, on the authority of most credible witnesses, that subterranean sounds like those of an organ are heard towards sunrise, by those who sleep upon the granite rocks on the banks of the Orinoco. Messrs Jomard, Jollois, and Devilliers, three of the naturalists who accompanied Bonaparte * See the Scientific Intelligence under General Science in this Num- ber. 154 On the Subterranean Sounds heard at Nakous. to Egypt, heard at sunrise a noise like that of a string break- ing in a granite monument placed at the centre of the spot on which the palace of Carnac stands. Sounds of a nature analogous to these have been heard by Mr Gray of University College, Oxford, at a place called Nakous, (which signifies a bell,) at three leagues from Tor, on the Red Sea. This place, which is covered with sand, and surrounded with low rocks in the form of an amphitheatre, presents a steep declivity towards the sea, from which it is half a mile distant. It has a height of about 300 feet upon 80 feet of width. It has received the name of a bell, because it emits sounds, not as the statue of Memnon formerly did at sunrise, but at every hour of the day and night, and at all sea- sons. The first time that Mr Gray visited this place, he heard at the end of a quarter of an hour a low continuous murmur- ing sound beneath his feet, which gradually changed into pul- sations as it became louder, so as to resemble the striking of a clock. In five minutes it became so strong as to resemble the striking of a clock, and even to detach the sand. * Anxious to discover the cause of this phenomenon, which no preceding traveller had mentioned, Mr Gray returned to the spot next day, and remained an hour to hear the sound, which was on that occasion heard much louder than before. As the sky was serene, and the air calm, he was satisfied that the sound could not be attributed to the introduction of the external air,-)* and in addition to this, he could not observe any crevices by which the external air could penetrate. The Arabs of the desert ascribe these sounds to a convent of monks preserved miraculously under ground, and they are of opinion that the sound is that of their bell. Others think that it arises from volcanic causes, and they found this opinion on the fact that the hot baths of Pharaoh are on the same coast. * The people of Tor declare that the camels are frightened and rendered furious by these sounds. t M. Humboldt ascribes the sound in the granite rocks to the difference of temperature between the external air and the air in the narrow and deep crevices of the shelves of rocks. These crevices, he informs us, are often heated to 48° or 50° during the day, and the temperature of their sur- face was often 39°, when that of the external air was only 28°. Humboldt's Personal Narrative, vol. iv— Ed. Dr Brewster on the New Fluid in Sapphire. ' 155 M. Seetzen has given a similar account of Nakous, in Zach's Ephemerides for October 1812. — See Daubeny's Description of Active and Extinct Volcanoes. Lond. 1826. p. 437. Art. XXIV. — Notice respecting the existence of the New Fluid in a large cavity in a specimen of Sapphire. By David Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. and Sec. R. S. Edin. In two papers which are printed in this Journal, I have fully described the physical properties of the two new fluids which occur in mineral bodies. These fluids having been found only in the precious stones, — in quartz, amethyst, topaz, and chry- soberyl, it became interesting to detect them in other minerals, not only with the view of establishing their general prevalence at the formation of this class of bodies, but of ascertaining if they experienced any change in their properties from the mi- neral in which they are found. Mr Sanderson lately put into my hands a specimen of sap- phire, containing a very large fluid cavity, which, from the expansible nature of the fluid, seemed to resemble that which occurs in topaz. The cavity itself is regularly crystallized, and is about one-third of an inch in length. The fluid occu- pies about two-thirds of its length, and fills the cavity at a temperature of 82° of Fahrenheit. It seems to be more viscid and more dense than I have usually observed it, and in con- sequence of this property, the capillary margin of the fluid re- mains distinct and well marked, even at the instant when it fills the cavity. When the temperature descends below 82°, the contraction of the fluid is not accompanied with that vio- lent effervescence which takes place in the deep cavities in topaz. In the specimen under consideration, the fluid seems to have exerted a high expansive force upon the sides of the cavity, which it has succeeded in opening on both sides. The sur- faces of the fissures thus occasioned, are covered with specks of a gelatinous-looking matter, like portions of the second fluid, when in a state of induration. The force, however, was not sufficient to burst the specimen, and the only effect of it seems to have been to expel into the fissures the second fluid, which always occupies the angular and narrow parts of the 156 Mr Audubon's Account of the Carrion Crow. cavity. This opinion seems to be confirmed by the fact, that none of the second fluid can be seen within the cavity, although this may arise from the difficulty of examining the angular portions of the cavity in the present state of the specimen. There is another very interesting peculiarity in this speci- men of sapphire. It contains at one extremity of the fluid cavity distinct groupes of transparent crystals, which haye, no doubt, been deposited by the fluid. What these crystals are, we are not entitled to conjecture, but if the cavity were opened, it might be practicable to ascertain whether or not they are sapphire. Art. XXV. — Account of the Carrion Crow, or Vultur atratus. By Mr John James Audubon, Member of the Lyceum of New York. Communicated by the Author. Although this bird is closely connected with the Turkey- Buzzard (Vultur aura,) in many material points, yet the dif- ference in their appearance and habits is sufficient to esta- blish a difference of species. The first view of the carrion crow is disgusting, when compared with that of the Vultur aura ; its head and neck re- sembling in colour that of putrid matter. Its relative short- ness, squareness, and clumsiness, together with its gait and manner of flying, are characteristic of an individual less pow- erful, and less deserving the high station which the carrion crow possesses in the order of birds, which naturalists place before eagles and falcons, so much its superior in every point of view. Like the turkey-buzzard, the carrion crow doess not pos- sess the power of smelling, a fact which 1 have ascertained by numerous observations. It is not common for these birds to extend their flight over the Alleghany Mountains. I have seldom seen them as far as Cincinnati on the Ohio, though the Vultur aura is by no means a scarce bird in the country around, and far above that place, yet at particular times I have met with flocks of twenty, or more in the neighbourhood of Louisville, Kentucky, not, how- ever, with the true habits which they display in the south, Mr Audubon's Account of the Carrion Crow* 157 but so remarkably wary, that no person can approach within gunshot of them without great difficulty. On the Mississippi, Missouri, and adjacent countries, the carrion crow abounds, even sometimes during winter. The cold is less troublesome to them than the turkey-buzzard, and I have often seen them near St Genevieve, and also on the upper parts of the Wabash river during severe frosts, and when much snow lay on the ground. In all these places they are quite shy, a fact which I can only ascribe to the scarcity of food in colder countries, and to the little regard which is paid to them on account of their utility. In the states where they are suffered to remain without molestation, and have become ac- customed to the society of man, they will suffer one to walk within a few feet of them ; but yet they keep an eye on every passenger, and know so well their intentions from their move- ments, that if a boy has an Indian bow, a gun, a bow and ar- row, or a pebble in his hand, the crow will instantaneously take wing, or hop off sideways at a quick rate, uttering a hissing noise much coarser than that of the turkey-buzzard. In the cities where they are protected they enter the very kitchen, and feed on whatever is thrown to them, even on vegetables. If unmolested, they will remain in the same pre- mises for months, flying to the roof at dusk to spend the night. Six or seven are often seen standing in cotd weather round the funnel of a chimney, apparently enjoying the heat from the smoke. Notwithstanding the penalties imposed by law, a number of those birds are destroyed on account of their audacious pilfering. They seize young pigs as great dainties. They watch the cackling hen in order to get the fresh egg from her nest, and they will not hesitate to swallow a brood of young ducks. In order to keep them from the roofs of houses where their dung is detrimental, the inhabitants guard the top with broken pieces of glass fastened in mortar, and they often kill them by throwing boiling water upon them. No fewer than 200 of these birds are daily fed by the city of Natchez. In following the carrion crow to its haunts in the woods* I discovered that they remained nearer the plantations than the buzzards, and were more addicted to wait there for the 11 158 Mr Audubon's Account of the Carrion Crow. entrails of slaughtered animals, dead dogs, rotten eggs, &c. than to hunt in the fields like the Vultur aura. Early in February they make choice of a companion in the air, and this is the only season when they exhibit any thing like activity. The males chase each other furiously for great distances, going through the air with a rumbling noise. The conqueror rejoins the female, flies a considerable length by her side, and alighting on a tall dead tree, they ratify the con- tract of annual union by many caresses. Unlike the buzzards, the carrion crows do not seek to de- posit their eggs in low damp retired swamps. They search for situations on high ridges ; and the neighbourhood of a vil- lage or a plantation is by no means rejected. In this state (Louisiana,) you can easily find their eggs by examining the standing hollowed trees, and in some of them, on the bare earth, their two large eggs are deposited, and are hatched after twenty-eight days incubation. I found a nest of these birds where the hole of entrance was near four feet from the earth, and just large enough to admit the owner. Out of that dark abode the young did not make their escape until fully fledged, and they had been so seldom fed by their fatigued parents, that they were scarcely able to fly, though they were nearly full grown. In different instances I have found bits of earthen-ware with the eggs, and I might have become superstitious on this head, had I not been told by a planter that they had probably been left by runaway negroes, who had rested and hid themselves in these hollow trees. The moment the carrion crow hears any person approach- ing their nest they fly off, and if the tree has a double entrance, they sneak off on the opposite side, and hopping away twenty or thirty steps, they watch the movements of the intruder. If this happens during incubation they and some other species void themselves on such occasions. They are not the least discomposed on touching the eggs. I once, indeed, carried two eggs home, drew one of them and blew out the contents of the other to keep the shell, and having replaced one, and substi- tuted for the other that of a tame turkey, I found both the birds hatched, though at different times. In another instance, I made a female lay five eggs successively, by removing every Mr Audubon's Account of the Carrion Crow. 159 other day the one last laid ; but upon putting back the whole number, the bird left her nest and never returned. The male and female take by turns the labours of incuba- tion, and they also feed each other. It is not unusual to see young carrion crows, when yet all over down, leave the site of their nativity to meet the parent coming with food many yards from the spot ; but if they are surprised in the act by a hunter, they squat immediately close to the ground as a setting spaniel, and lie there till all danger is over. The young ac- company their parents (who have only one brood each season) till October. This is perceived when a flock is disturbed, on which occasion the old and young pair single off by themselves, and they alight nearer to each other than those of a different family. While the turkey- buzzard rises from the ground with great ease, and with four or five flaps of their large wings, the car- rion crows are seen labouring hard to assist their slower ascent. They give a few flaps that are so powerful as to occasion a rustling through the air, and having failed after they have got on a very few yards, they are again forced to flap to enable them to keep at least on the same horizontal line. Their wings are squared with the body, the neck extending to its full length before, whilst the legs and feet are stretched under the tail be- hind. In ascending, the inclination of their body upwards is very apparent, and their labour is extreme till they are suffi- ciently high to form large circles, and force themselves towards the sky by imitating the easier movements of the buzzard. Like the buzzards they rise very high, and they at last dis- appear, following each other in a straight line. When so high they seldom launch themselves obliquely for pleasure, for to re-ascend is too irksome, but when they are observed to incline to the earth, or to alight on a tree, they suffer their legs and thighs to hang perpendicularly under them, even although they are at a great distance from the place, as if they were afraid to come in contact with it unprepared. Hawks of different species are frequently found sailing among them, and also buzzards, more particularly the great ibis, which the carrion crow follows to the lakes in autumn, to feed on the fish killed and abandoned by these extraordi- nary birds. The fish thus killed are often so numerous, that 160 Mr Audubon's Account of the Carrion Crow. hundreds of carrion crows may be supported by them for weeks. I have often looked with wonder upon the great number of vultures that had alighted on very large cypress- trees, bordering on lakes of some extent covered with thou- sands of floating dead fishes of different kinds, waiting till the water retreated to allow the crows to feast upon them. The manner of flight of both these birds is precisely the same, and on the discharge of a gun, they will both rise from a lake with a violent quick heavy motion, and ascend until out of sight in such astonishing numbers, as to render it impos- sible to follow the course of any single individual intersecting so often their circling lines. I may again remark, that the buzzards and carrion crows cannot be suspected of smelling the fish alive under water, and only to be killed by the Ibises, who, with the assistance of their long legs, chase them through the lakes, the water being generally from one to two feet deep. The vultures have to wait with extreme patience till nearly all of it is dry, before they can alight to seize their prey, which they swallow with avidity. When hawks are sailing among the carrion crows, the for- mer will sometimes, as if for amusement, charge upon them, and produce such dismay, that every crow will launch to the earth in angular lines, not unlike these of forked lightning, while the exulting hawks announce their victory with reiter- ated cries, as they rise again to a high station in the air to re- commence their circles. Like all other cowards these birds only fight violently when urged on by hunger or imminent danger, gradually augment- ed to a high pitch ; but then they make amends by beating their conquered adversary to death if in their power. When busily engaged with a dead carcase, they often jump against one another with bill and legs striking like a common fowl, and if in the attack one overthrows the other, the victor will, without scruple, and in the most unmerciful manner, pick his naked head till it becomes clotted with blood. When any crow gains such an advantage, the victor is assisted by several others, who appear to engage in the conflict solely because there seems to be no danger. These birds are subject to a particular disease that I never History of Mechanical Inventions, §c. 161 remarked in the Vultur aura. It consists of a kind of itching wart, which often covers the whole of the skin of their head and back of the neck, having a reddish appearance, and suppu- rating with a very fetid greenish humour. The bird thus af- flicted, scratches these warts almost constantly, and the more irritated the larger they grow. In every one of these warts I have found fastened, as a common leech to the real skin, a small worm very like some of those which torment certain quadrupeds, particularly, in this country, the common grey squirrel. I never could ascertain if these parasites killed the birds, but I am certain that many die during winter, or through some means to me unknown. These worms are killed by the bird, as 1 have found many of the warts dried, although large, but without any tenant, after a continuance of cold weather. It is not improbable that the continued filth attached to the head of these birds, after being immersed in the decayed flesh of the animals they feed on, occasions their birth. I have observed this to take place generally with the younger car- rion crows, who, from the tenderness of their skin, are pro- bably more liable to these vermin, and the older ones probably clear themselves of them more easily, as their skulls and skins become tougher. Besides these troublesome settlers, the car- rion crows are troubled with lice and tick-flies of a large size, that never leave them unless they are killed, or the bird dies. The unexpected sight of a powerful enemy always makes these birds instantly disgorge a part of the contents of their stomachs. The object of this is supposed to be to disgust the stranger and make him desist from advancing nearer, but in my opinion it is done to lighten the bird of an extra load, with which it is difficult for it to fly off quickly. This is more probable, as immediately after this discharge the bird takes to its wings. i ' Art. XXVI.— HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 1. Account of a New Method of Drawing upon Stone* By M* Laurent, Painter, Paris. X he ingenious process which we propose at present to describe, is taken from the report laid before the Institute by Messrs Thenard and De Blainville. VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. I 1G2 History of Mechanical Inventions and Having taken the outline of the original design upon transparent paper, by tracing all the lines of the original with a dry point, more or less fine, the outline is then glued by its edges upon a board, and there is spread over it with a piece of fine linen, a sufficiently hard paste, formed with lithographic ink dissolved in essence of turpentine, which may be made in a spoon, exposed to the heat of a candle. The outline is then rubbed hard with a pitce of clean linen, till the linen ceases to have a black tint. The outline is then transferred to the stone by means of a press. For this pur- pose M. Laurent places in a vertical paper press the stone and the outline in contact, taking care to place above the latter from twenty to twenty-five sheets of paper wetted in water, and adding in solution some calcined mu- riate o£ lime. Upon these last sheets is put a stone, and to prevent any injury, two large plates of paper about an inch thick are interposed. The pressure is then applied for an hour, and upon separating the stones it will be found that-the transparent outline adheres more or less to the stone. The paper is then removed by hot water, and the design is left upon the stone, which is now washed with cold water till no trace of the transparent paper remains. There is no fear of the outline dissolving, as the base of the muriate of lime forms with the oil of the soap an insoluble soap, while the soda is combined with the hydrochloric acid, and composes a soluble salt, which has been carried away by the washing. MM. Thenard and Blainville, who commend highly this process, pro- pose the following lithographic ink as superior to any other, viz. soap one- fourth, mutton suet one-half, yellow wax one part, mastic in tears one- half, and as much lamp black as is necessary. The whole being melted on a gentle fire, and well mixed, is reduced to the consistency of a thick cream, by mixing with it equal parts of turpentine and lavender. The commissioners also recommend a thick and strait plank in place of the second stone, and they regard the process as a very valuable one in the arts. — Abstract from the Ann. de Chim. September 1826, torn, xxxiii. p. 89-93. 2. Experiments on the Discharge of Air by different Orifices. M. D'Aubuisson was recently led to make some interesting experiments on the discharge of air by orifices of different forms, on the occasion of his establishing a ventilator at the mines of Rancie (Arriege.) The gasometer which he used was 0.65 metres in diameter, and 0.80 high. It carried a water manometer. At an aperture in the upper he put on nineteen different orifices. By means of weights by which the gasometer was load- ed, he caused it to descend more or less quickly. These weights brought the manometer from 0.028 to 0.144 above zero, and consequently they im- pressed on the current of air, which issued from the orifices, velocities of from twenty-one to forty-eight metres. The section of the gasometer, 0.331 square metres, multiplied by the height which this instrument descended in unity of time, gave the real discharge. The theoretical discharge is obtained by the following for- mula : q2 /1+0.004* +/■ 13.6 b + h Processes in the Useful Arts. lf>S where d represents the diameter of the orifice, h the height of the mano- meter, b that of the barometer, and t that of the thermometer. From the experiments of M. D'Aubuisson which it is unnecessary to repeat more particularly, it follows, — That the conical has little advantage over the cylindrical form of the aperture, which is not the case with incompressible fluids. That when air issues from a reservoir under any pressure, the ratio be- tween the real and the theoretic discharge will be 0.65 if the discharge is made by an orifice pierced in a thin plate ; 0.93 if we employ a short cylin- drical ajutage ; 0.95 if a short conical ajutage is used ; and, referring to the case which is most interesting in practice, M. D'Aubuisson adds, t]»at, by employing ajutages or bases slightly conical, the real will be six per cent, less than the theoretical discharge. — Ann. de Chim. torn, xxxii. p. 327. 3. Method of restoring Wine that has been turned. A method has been in practice for some years to restore wine that has been turned. The process consists in adding from half an ounce to two ounces of tartaric acid of the shops, to a hectolitre of wine, according to its state of decomposition. The tartaric acid reproduces the tartar, dis- engages the carbonic acid, and consequently destroys the alkaline charac- ter given to the wine by the sub-carbonates. The Agricultural Society of Bourges has frequently repeated this ex- periment ; but it has not always succeeded. They, however, ascribe this uncertainty to the impossibility of determining the exact quantity for every case. — Bull, des Sc. Technol. Sept. 1826. p. 145. •1. Method of preventing, by means of Galvanism, the formation of calca- reous deposits in Leaden Pipes. By M. Dumas. Most of the springs which rise in the hills in the neighbourhood of the Seine are charged with carbonate of lime dissolved in carbonic acid. By considering this product as a solution of the bi-carbonate of lime, M. Dumas conceived the idea that it might be decomposed into carbonate, and into acid by a weak galvanic pile. He found that the calcareous deposits in leaden pipes were formed principally at the soldered joints, upon the bars of iron and the copper cock which met at these places. He there- fore placed a galvanic pair in a vessel filled with water from a spring which supplied the manufactory at Sevres, and at the end of two days the surface of the copper only was covered with a flocculent deposit. A plate of silver, soldered to a bar of lead, was placed in a reservoir of the same water, and at the end of six months the silver was found covered with a thick stratum of deposit, whilst the lead was perfectly clean. M. Dumas therefore proposes to prevent these calcareous deposits, by placing at different distances along a leaden pipe, other small pipes, perpendicu- lar to the first, and communicating with it, and into which might be in- troduced at pleasure bars of iron, for the iron being more electro-nega- tive than the lead, will have the calcareous deposit form :d upon it. — Bull, des Sc. Technol. Sept. 1826. p. 155. . 164? Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 6. An Improved method of working Water Wheels. By Mr William Moult. This method, which is secured by patent, consists in immersing a bucket- wheel in water, and in throwing a current of air under the buckets at the lower part of the wheel, for the purpose of displacing the water and filling them with air. One side of the wheel being thus rendered specifi- cally lighter than the other, it revolves. — See Newton's Journal of Arts, Sept. 1826, p. 76, where this contrivance is more fully explained. Art. XXVII.— ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND ME- MOIRS. I. — Journal of a Third Voyage for the Discovery of a North-west Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, performed in the years 1824-5, in his Majesty's Ships Hecla and Fury, under the orders of Captain William Edward Parry, R. N. F. R. S. 1826. 4to. In a preceding article of this work we have already made our readers acquainted with the leading particulars of the narrative of this expedition. We shall therefore not touch again upon this part of Captain Parry's work, but shall proceed to the more appropriate object of this article, viz. to give an analysis of the scientific results obtained by the expedition. 1. Magnetical Observations. After the ships were secured, and the observatory erected on shore, Cap- tain Parry directed his attention in an especial manner to magnetical in- quiries. The first observations on the magnetic needle on the arrival at Port Bowen, discovered to them the interesting fact of an increase in the variation since 1819, amounting to about 9°, viz. from 114° to 123°. To the northward Lieutenant Sherer found the increase to be only 5° A3, and Lieutenant Ross to be southward only 1°15. By using needles delicately suspended, he discovered a very remarkable diurnal variation. The maxi- mum westerly variation was observed to occur between 10h a. m. and lh r. m., and the minimum betwen 8h p. m. and 2h a. m. The exact time of the maximum, as deduced from a mean of 120 days, was llh 49' a. m. and that of the minimum 10h 1' p. m. The amount of the diurnal variation was seldom less than l£° or 2°, and it sometimes amounted to 5°, 6°, and even to 7°. Captain Parry likewise discovered a diurnal change in the magnetic in- tensity, which, excepting occasional anomalies, exhibited an increaseof inten- sity from the morning to the afternoon, and a decrease from the afternoon to the morning. " It also appeared that the sun, and, as we had reason to believe, the relative position of the sun and moon with reference to the magnetic sphere, had a considerable influence both on the intensity and di- urnal vnriation." In n peating the experiments of Messrs Barlow and Christie on a needle PLATF. Ill /•„/■//:>/,,,/ /■!■ ir. /;/„,/.».;■./ tags. Captain Parry's Third Voyage. 165 having its position modified, and its directive power reduced by the appli- cation of artificial magnets, Lieutenant Foster found, that the true bear- ing upon which a needle exhibits its minimum variations is the same at Port Bowen as at Woolwich, or about S. 38° E, (or S. 85 W. at Port Bowen, magnetic,) which would almost lead to a conclusion that this is a constant line over all the world. A similar coincidence seemed to obtain with re- spect to the magnetic bearing of the line of maximum variation, which ap- peared to be at Port Bowen N. 66 E., agreeing very nearly with that de- termined in England by Mr Barlow. The effect of Mr Barlow's Plate, for correcting the effect of local attrac- tion on board ship, occupied the particular attention of Captain Parry, and it is with much satisfaction that we quote the following high and well merited eulogium on this great invention. ts The plate thus placed was now to undergo a severe trial on the ship's arrival in Barrow's Straits and Prince Regent's Inlet, where, from the ex- traordinary increase of dip, and the consequently augmented effect of the ship's iron upon the magnetic needle, the compass had before been ren- dered wholly useless on board ship. Never had an invention a more com- plete and satisfactory triumph ; for, to the last moment of our operations at sea, did the compass indicate the true magnetic direction, requiring of course at times a considerable degree of tapping with the hand merely to relieve the needle from friction. And even at Port Bowen, where the dip is eighty-eight degrees, and the magnetic intensity acting on a horizontal needle extremely weak in consequence, the azimuth compass on board ac- tually gave the same variation as that observed on shore, within the fair and reasonable limits of error of observation under such circumstances. Such an invention as this, so sound in principle, so easy of application, and so universally beneficial in practice, needs no testimony of mine to establish its merits ; but when I consider the many anxious days and sleep- less nights which the uselessness of the compass in these seas had formerly occasioned me, I really should esteem it a kind of personal ingratitude to Mr Barlow, as well as great injustice to so memorable a discovery, not to have stated my opinion of its merits, under circumstances so well calculat- ed to put them to a satisfactory trial." The following Table contains some of the principal results respecting the variation and dip of the needle :— <- Table of Variations and Dips of the Needle in 1824-5. VARIATION. DIP. N. Lat. West Long. Variation W. N. Lat. West Long. Dip N. [ptensity. 68°59 53° 13 70°24/ Woolwich Common. 70°9' 1.00 71 2 60 36 77 42 68°59' 53° 13' 82 54 1.148 72 34 62 8 83 26 70 56 60 52 84 9 74 28 81 51 104 49 Mean at Port Bowen in ) 73 a 89 1 118 48 73°14 88 55 J 88 I 1.297 72 45 89 27 122 27 73 6 91 20 88 2 73 23 90 53 125 35 73 9 89 1 88 8 72 46 91 50 129 25 Woolwich Common Mean at Fort Bowen in ) 123 22 when hrought back, . j 70 0 73°14 88°55 f 166 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. It is obvious from the preceding observations, computed with those for- merly made by Captain Parry, that the magnetic pole is somewhere about 70° west latitude, and 90° west longitude ; but what is of more importance, it is obvious, that, since 1819, the magnetic pole has moved consider ably to- wards the east, according to the ingenious theory of Professor Hansteen, which supposes a motion of 11' eastward every year, which would give a motion of 1°6 in six years. — See this Journal, No. ix. p. 67. 2. Meteorological Observations. The determination of the mean temperature of the arctic regions in a me- ridian nearly at right angles to that which passes through the coast of Eu- rope, has, in our apprehension, been one of the most important results of the voyages under Captain Parry, and, in a scientific point of view, well worthy of all the labour and expence which the expedition has cost. * The year 1824 was considered by Captain Parry as more severe than former years, in proportion to the latitude of the station. The following are the mean temperatures of the months in 1824 and 1825 : 1824. 1325. Mean Temp, of year at Port Bowen. + 4*.034 By comparing this with the results formerly obtained by Captain Parry and Dr Richardson, we have Lat. Mean Temp. • Lat. Mean Temp. Melville Island, 75'45 — 1°.7 Igloolik, 66 + 6°.5 Port Bowen, 73 15 +4 .04 Fort Enterprise, 64 + 14 .21 Winter Island, 69 19 +2.6 At Port Bowen the coldest month was January, and the difference in the mean temperature of January, February, and March, was little more than a degree. The thermometer did not rise above zero till the 11th of April, having remained below that point of the scale for 131 successive days, the only instance of this kind which Captain Parry ever knew. This severity of weather, however, was compensated by the unusual mildness of the early part of the winter. i The Aurora Borealis, one of the principal meteors which enliven an arctic winter, occurred frequently at Port Bowen, viz. Twice in October 1824. Fifteen times in January 1825. Five times November Thirteen do. February Six do. December Five do. March in all 47 times. They assumed one general character, and occupied near* Mean Temp. Mean Temp. September, + 25°.883 1825. April, — 6*.496 October, + 10.85 May, + 17 .65 November, — 4.996 June, + 36 .12 December, — 19 .05 July, + 37 .29 January, — 28.914 August, + 35 .77 February, — 27.32 March, — 28 .375 Captain Parry's Third Voyage. 167 ly the same position. The Aurora usually consisted of an arch sometimes tolerably continuous, but more frequently broken into detached irregular masses, or nebula? of light stretching generally from about W. to S. E. but sometimes a few points beyond these bearings. Its termination to the S. E. was never exactly visible from the height of the land, but the arch was more frequently bisected by the plane of the magnetic than by that of the true meridian. The height of the upper margin of a permanent arch sel- dom exceeded 10° or 15° and coruscations generally shot from this towards the zenith. Sometimes the arch itself passed as high as the zenith, and on one occasion, 28th January, its direction was N. and S. The lower edge of the arch was generally well defined and unbroken, and the sky beneath it appeared by contrast so exactly like a dark cloud, that nothing but the stars shining in it removed the deception. There were few brilliant displays of the Aurora during the winter. A fine Aurora appeared on the 21st December 1824, but a very remarkable and instructive one showed itself on the 27th January 1825. It broke out at midnight in a single compact mass of brilliant yellow light, situated in about a south east bearing, and appearing only a short distance above the land. Though generally continuous, it sometimes seemed composed of numerous pencils of rays compressed as it were laterally into one, being well defined on both sides, and nearly vertical. Though at times bright, its intensity unceasingly varied, and it seemed produced by one volume of light over- laying another as in clouds of smoke. While Captain Parry and Lieute- nants Sherer and Ross were admiring the phenomenon, they simultaneously uttered an exclamation of surprise at seeing- a bright ray of the Aurora shoot suddenly downward from the general mass of light, and between them and the land, which ivas then distant only three thousand yards. This we conceive to be one of the most important facts respecting the Aurora Borealis which has ever been published, and extinguishes at once many of the absurd explanations of it, which have been given to the world. Captain Parry frequently listened for any sound proceeding from this phenomenon, but never heard any. He likewise endeavoured in vain to observe any influence upon the electrometer. One of the most important observations of Captain Parry, however, re- lates to the circumstance which he seems to have completely established, that the Aurora Borealis exercises no action whatever on the magnetic needle. " Our variation needles," says Captain Parry, " which were extremely light, suspended in the most delicate manner, and from the weak directive ener- gy, susceptible of being acted upon by a very slight disturbing force, were never in a single instance visibly affected by the Aurora, which could scarce- ly fail to have been observed at sometime or other, had any such distur- bance taken place, the needles being visited every hour for several months, and oftener when anything occurred to make it desirable." The scientific reader will feel considerable surprise when he compares the preceding distinct statement, with the statements published in the Annates de Chimie by M. Arago, who not only finds that his magnetic needle in Paris is affected by the Aurora? which are seen to the north of J 68 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. Leitli in Scotland, but who even ventures to predict the occurrence of Au- rora? at Leith, from the indications of his magnetic needles in Paris. As the extraordinary Aurora of the 27th January 1825, whose distance from Captain Parry's needle could not exceed one mile and a half, did not in the least degree affect his delicately suspended needles, we must ascribe the influence of the Leith Aurora? to some ethereal delicacy in the Pari- sian needles, one of which we hope Captain Parry will take out with him in his approaching journey to the Pole. If the English needles shall be found as delicate as the French ones, which, with our nationality, we may suppose to be the case, we must then conclude, that the Leith Aurora; pos- sess physical properties totally different from those which enliven pur arc- tic winters ! In Davis's Straits on the 15th September 1825, Captain Parry encoun- tered, in latitude 69£°, a very brilliant Aurora in the S. E., and on the 20th there was a bright arch across the zenith from S. E. to N.-E., which seem.' ed to be very close to the ship, and which threw the shadow of objects on the deck. The most brilliant display, however, of the Aurora, and which surpass- ed all that be had seen at Port Bowen, occurred on the 24th September in latitude 58*°, and longitude 44£°. " It first appeared," says he, " in a (true) east direction, in detached masses like luminous clouds of yellow or sul- phur-coloured light, about 3° above the horizon. When the appearance had continued for about an hour, it began at 9 p. m. to spread upwards, and gradually extended into a narrow band of light passing through the zenith, and again downwards to the westward horizon. Soon after this the stream seemed no longer to emanate from the eastward, but from a fix- ed point one degree above the horizon on a true west bearing. From this point, as from the narrow point of a pencil, streams of light resembling brightly illuminated vapour or smoke appeared to be incessantly issuing, increasing in breadth as they proceeded, and darting with inconceivable velocity, such as the eye could scarcely keep pace with, upwards towards the zenith, and in the same easterly direction which the former arch had taken. The sky immediately under the spot from which the light issued, appeared, by a deception very common in this phenomenon, to be covered with a daik cloud, whose outline the imagination might at times convert into that of the summit of a mountain, from which the light proceeded like the flame of a volcano. The streams of light, as they were projected upwards, did not consist of continuous vertical columns or streamers, but almost entirely of separate, though constantly renewed masses, which seemed to roll themselves laterally onward with a sort of undulatory mo- tion, constituting what I have understood to be meant by that modification of the Aurora called the " merry dancers," which is seen in beautiful per- fection at the Shetland Islands. The general column of the light was yellow, but an orange and a greenish tinge rose at times very distinctly perceptible, the intensity of the light and colours being always the great- est when occupying the smallest space. Thus the lateral margins of the OTxt+^'.X-.'-^ + ^-.Z*, or since from the nature of the elementary triangle x2 -f y2 = % 2, we have 3*: 7 : : a2-fz2 : *2> whence x =. •/(«2+*2) and taking the fluent k = ^/(a2 -f z*) — a, which is the first equation of condition. Again, since x'y : : z : a, we have y aej a x • Substituting in this last * The depth of curvature here alluded to cannot be too particularly attended to by engineers. In some plans of suspension bridges that have been proposed for erection, the strength which a proper versed sine for the catenary affords, in propor- tion to the horizontal interval between the points of suspension, appears to have been entirely lost sight of. To diminish the expence as much as possible, the towers abofc the road-way have been proposed much too low, thus sacrificing strength in no inconsiderable degree. We beg earnestly to call the attention of engineers to this important subject. 4 Mr D. Gilbert's Theory of' Suspension Bridges. 171 found equation, the value of a? before deduced, we have , = -^t-y and taking the fluent y = a X nat. log. — , which is the se- cond equation of condition. By assuming also N for the number of which - is the natural loga- rithm, supposing a and y to be given, and afterwards adopting M as the re- presentative of a N — a, Mr Gilbert deduces the equation M2 * - 2M+2a' which determines the value of the abscissa of the catenary. And from the first equation of condition he obtains which determines the length, and consequently the weight of the chain. The tension also at the point of suspension P being equal to ij{a2j{-z^), becomes in the present case equivalent to a+x, and which furnishes, since the value of x is known, the absolute value of the tension at P. From the analogy also which exists between the parts of the elementary triangle, and of the forces corresponding with it, the angle of suspension becomes known. To render the subject accessible to practical men, Mr Gilbert has, as be- fore mentioned, constructed, from the preceding theorems, his first and se- cond tables, and the application of which he has explained by the follow- ing example. Suppose the span of a suspension bridge to be 800 feet, and the adjunct- weight of suspension rods, road-way, &c. one-half the weight of the chains. Then if the full tenacity of iron be represented by the modulus of 14,800 feet, the virtual modulus for the whole weight must be reduced in the proportion of 3 to 2, or to 9867. Let it also be determined to load the chains at the point of their greatest strain, which is at the point of sus- pension, with one sixth-part of the weight they are theoretically capable of sustaining. Then since the semi-span is by the hypothesis 400 feet, and that y in the first of Mr Gilbert's tables is taken at 100 measures, each of these measures must in the present instance be 4 feet, and the weight expressed in the same measures to be sustained at the points of suspension ; or, in other words, the value of T, must be 9867-f-6 X 4, or 411.125. Entering, therefore, with this value of T in the proper column of the table, we ob- tain, with the greatest ease, the following values ; viz. a = 400 measures or 1600 feet. x = 12.563 measures or 50.26 feet. z = 101.045 measures or 404.18 feet, and the angle of suspension 75° 49'. 172 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. This example is sufficient to explain the great practical utility of tlie table. In the catenary of equal strength, Mr Gilbert introduces the symbol £ as the representative of the mass of the chain. Then, since the forces operating on this peculiar catenary, may be represented as in the ordinary curve, by the same incremental triangle as before, we shall have *:#::£: a, and which will produce by a repetition of the former steps, the fluxional nation i=_|£_. But on the principle of equal strength, Consequently * = h/f Sf ^ and which by taking the fluents, produces By substituting also the value of 2 just determined, in the equation x = if "j. 1 *t*V we shall have x = - — 4 . iu » and which taking the fluents, produces • * == T na s 1 — ' From the first analogy also, we derive y = — — , and which by substituting for x its value before derived, produces the equation y = T^TH* or by taking the fluents y = Circ. arc of which { is the tangent to the radius a, From these theorems Mr Gilbert constructs his third and fourth tables, the application of which he also illustrates by an example. Assuming in the ordinary catenary, that x = 65.85 measures, is the height of the attachment to give a maximum extent of span, with any vir- tual tenacity of material, a will be 85 measures, and a + .r =85 + 65.85, or 150.85 measures, equal the given virtual tenacity. This taken as before at I of 4- of 14800 feet, will give 10875 feet for each measure, and the whole span at 2y = 2175 feet. Chains merely supporting themselves, and at the utmost of their tenacity, will extend nine times further, or to 19575 feet. In the catenary of equal strength, the semispan being equal to the cir- cular arc, of which £ is the tangent, to radius a, it is obvious that a X semi- circular arc, must be the limit of the span. Therefore, if a = g of j, of 14,800 feet, or 1641.44, we shall have a X J 2 5154 feet. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 173 And if the chains merely sustain themselves at their utmost tenacity, 5154 X 9 will give 46,385 feet, or somewhat more than eight miles and three quarters. But this case, Mr Gilbert remarks, is purely hypothetical, for the pur- pose of ascertaining a limit, since £, the mass or weight of the chain, must be infinite, and consequently its length : the figure approaching indefi- nitely near to that of a chain sustaining itself from an infinite height, which figure is identical with that of a building, capable, so far as pressure and the strength of materials are alone concerned, of being carried to any elevation whatever. This figure may be determined as follows : Let a = the section of such a building at its base, y = the section at any height, and x = that height. Then, since the section and the superincumbent pressure must always be in the same proportion to each other, x and V. are in a constant ratio. y Let then — = — ^, where m is the modulus of pressure in the given ma- — m y terial. But when x = o, y = a, and therefore - = nat. log. - ; or . — m y A.m zrztab. log. -, A being 2.3025851. If, however, < and y be the homologous y sides or diameters of these sections, then will — — = tab. log.-. 2i A.'7Tl y Mr Gilbert in conclusion observes, that in the event of suspension bridges wanting stability to counteract and restrain undulatory motion, the balus- trades may be carried to any required height, and rendered inflexible by diagonal braces ; and if further means were required for imparting stabili- ty, such braces might be adjusted with screws to the suspension rods them- selves, after these rods had acquired their exact positions, on the comple- tion of the work. We recommend the entire paper to the particular attention of the en- gineer. Art. XXVIIL— PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. November 27. — At a General Meeting of the Society held this day, the following Office-Bearers were elected : President. — Sir Walter Scott, Baronet. Vice-Presidents.— Right Hon. Lord Chief-Baron. Lord Glenlee. Dr T. C. Hope. Professor Russell. Secretary. — Dr Brewster. Treasurer. — Thomas Allan, Esq. Curator or the Museum. — James Skene, Esq. Physical Class. — Lord Newton, President John Robison, Esq. Secretary, 1^4 Scientific Intelligence. Counsellors. — Sir William Forbes, Bart. Dr Turner. Dr Home. Sir Thomas M. Brisbane. Professor Wallace. Dr Graham. Literary Class. — Henry Mackenzie, Esq. President* P. F. Tytler, Esq, Secretary. Counsellors. — Right Hon. the Lord Advocate. Dr Hibbert. Sir Henry Jardine. Lord Meadowbank. Sir John Hay, Bart. Thomas Kinnear, Esq. The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members : — George Moir, Esq. Advocate. John Stark, Esq. December 4. — A Notice by Dr Brewster was read respecting the ex- istence of one of the New Fluids in a specimen of Sapphire. See this number, p. 155. A Paper communicated by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C. B. was read, entitled " Observations on the Comet of 1825," made at Paramatta. By Mr James Dunlop. This paper is printed in this Number. Captain Basil Hall exhibited and described a Pocket Azimuth and Altitude Circle, recently devised by Captain Kater. A Paper on Sternbergite, a New Mineral, by Mr Haidinger, was also read. Art. XXIX— .SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. ASTRONOMY. i. Struve's Observations on the Ring and Satellites of Saturn. — The fine telescope at the observatory of Dorpat, which we have described in a pre- ceding number, has been applied by Professor Struve to the measurement of the ring of Saturn. The following results are suited to the mean dis- tance of the planet. The power was 54. External diameter of external ring, - - 40".215 Internal diameter of external ring, 35 .395 External do of internal ring, - - 34 .579 Internal do of do, 26.748 Equatorial diameter of Saturn, - - - ,18 .045 Breadth of the external ring, - - - 2 .410 Breadth of chasm between rings, 0 .408 Breadth of internal ring, - - - 3 .915 Distance of ring from Saturn, 4 .352 Equatorial radius of Saturn, 9 .022 The mean inclination of the ring to the ecliptic is 28° 5'. 9, the error of which probably does not exceed 6'9. Professor Struve was unable to dis- Astronomy. 175 cover any. marks of a division of the ring into many parts. He remarked, however, that the outer ring is much less brilliant than the inner. Professor Struve has never seen the seventh satellite. The fourth has a diameter of 0.75, and resembles a small disc. The five old satellites are easily seen, and the sixth has been observed several times by M. Struve. Professor Struve's paper was read at the Astronomical Society of London on the 9th June 1826. 2. Struve s Observations on Jupiter and his Satellites. — Professor Struve has also applied Fraunhofer's telescope to Jupiter, with a power from 540 to 600. The mean results suited to the planet's mean distance are, Jupiter's major axis, - 38".442 -minor axis, - - 35.645 Compression at the Poles, 0 .0728 or ■ - Mean Diameter of 1st Sat. - - I .018 2d - -' 0.914 3d 1 .492 4th - - 1 .277 It had been supposed by preceding astronomers, and even by M. Struve himself, that the figure of Jupiter deviated from the elliptical form. On March 7 1826, he believed that the diameter passing through 61° 4' lat. preceding south, and 61° 4' lat. preceding north, was smaller than the ellipse allowed ; but upon measuring it with great care he found this to be an illusion, the length of this diameter being 42".34 by measurement, and 42".38 by calculation. 3. Royal Observatory of Edinburgh.— -The friends of astronomy will be gratified to hear that his Majesty has granted the sum of L. 2000 for the purchase of instruments, &c. for the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh. This observatory, which some foreigners suppose to be attached to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and others to the University of Edinburgh, belongs to an Association of 183 individuals, who, by subscriptions of twen- ty-five Guineas each, have raised about L. 4800 for the promotion of as- tronomy. A plan, elevation, and description of the very handsome build- ing which they have erected on the Calton Hill, will be found in the ar- ticle Observatory, in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 443. 4. New Observatory at Brussels.— -The King of the Netherlands has given directions for the erection of an Observatory at Brussels. The site of it will probably be between the gates of Louvaine and Schaerbeck, in the vicinity of one of the promenades of the city. 5. Mr Dunlops Observations on Encke's Comet in 1825. — The observa- tions on Encke's comet are scarce worth transmitting, this latitude having been very unfavourable for peeing it. I find, on the 14th of August, I discovered it near star t Gemini, but was prevented by haze from making observations on it. 176 Scientific Intelligence — Optics, $c. On the 16th, 2h 50' sidereal time, it is north, following r Gemini abont 12' 30" in AR in time, and about 6' 40" north of the star. This observa- tion was made by the equatorial instrument, and is not to be depended on to great accuracy. On the 17th August, at 3h 9' 55", the comet followed t Gemini = 19' 26" in time, and south of the star, as 8' 27" 36, bar. 30.300, ther. 35°. This observation was made within two degrees of the horizon. I ob- served t Gemini, and waited till the comet passed through the field. Comet very faint. I searched diligently for it coming out from the sun, but could not find it. — Letter from Mr Bunlop to Sir Thomas Brisbane. optics. 6. Nature of the light emitted by lime, in a high state of incandescence. Mr Herschel upon examining the light from lime obtained by Lieutenant Drummond, and described in No. x. p. 319, found that it contains all the usual rays, and three of those remarkable in quantity and quality, viz. the red, the yellow, and the green. The red is intermediate between the red and orange of the solar spectrum, but is nearer to the latter. It is re- markable, as Mr Herschel mentions, that a red of the above character is yielded by lime itself, whilst the colour given to burning bodies by the combinations of that earth is a brick red. 7. On the light developed at the separation of Boracic Acid into frag" ments. — M. Dumas has observed that the boracic acid, when melted, pre- sents a particular phenomenon at the moment of its cooling. When it is cooled in a platina dish, at the instant when the contractions of the two substances becomes unequal, the boracic acid splits and discharges a bright light, which follows the direction of the cracks. This light, which is pro- bably owing to the cause which developes the opposite electricities in plates of mica quickly separated, is sufficiently strong to be seen in the day-time. The experiment is a remarkable one in the dark. — Ann. de Chim. p. 324, 335. HYDRODYNAMICS. 8. On the Periodical Fountain of the Jura, called the Round Foun- tain,— On the 26th June 1826, M. Dutrochet read a memoir on this foun- tain to the Academy of Sciences. This fountain is periodical, and not in- termitting. The quantity of water which it discharges increases every three minutes, so that the entire period is six minutes. The general ex- planation given of these fountains is, that they are supplied by subterra- nean reservoirs communicating with one another by channels which per- form the office of syphons. This explanation, however, M. Dutrochet conceives to be inapplicable to the round fountain. Here, indeed, the time of the period is not constant, as the period is sometimes four minutes in place of six, viz. two minutes of intermittence, and two of increase. Oh the hypothesis of a syphon, the time of intefmittence ought to have no influence- M. Dutrochet is of opinion that the periodicity, and all the phenomena Meteorology— Chemistry. 177 of this fountain may be explained by the periodical admission of a current of gas directed obliquely towards the current of water which supplies the fountain, and traversing its course during regular intervals. It is, he con- ceives, a confirmation of this opinion, that there is a very sensible disen- gagement of carbonic acid gas during the period of intermittence. M. Dutrochet does not inquire into the cause of this disengagement of gas, but he considers it sufficient for his purpose, that carbonic acid gas is dis- engaged in all the springs of Jura. — Le Globe, torn. iii. No. 82, July 1st 1826. METEOKOLOGY. 9. Meteoric Stone containing many substances — There was laid be- fore the Academy of Sciences a. meteoric stone which fell in the principali- ty of Ferrara on the 19th January 1824. This fragment is remarkable from the diversity of substances which the eye can discern in it. It will be examined microscopically by M. Cordier, and chemically by M. Lau- gier. 10. Great Variation of the Barometer in 1822. — On the 3d July 1836, M. Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences some of the details which he obtained respecting this phenomenon. It took place over a very considerable extent ; but, contrary to the general opinion, it did not show itself simultaneously in every direction. There was no sensible interval, it is true, over an immense line extending from east south east, to west north west, but, in the direction perpendicular to this, the phenomenon was transmitted at intervals very appreciable, and even of such length, that a day and a half elapsed between the time when it took place at Paris, and the time when it happened at Moscow and St Petersburgh.— Le Globe, torn. iii. No. 84, July 6th 1826, II. CHEMISTRY. 11. Brome, a neio substance, supposed to be simple, contained in sea water. (Extract from the Annates de Chimie et de Physique, for August 1826.) — As M. Balard has published his memoir on the new substance Brome, (from ^eefAot a bad odour) of which we gave a short notice in the last number of the Journal under the name of Muride, we lose no time in laying before our readers a more complete account of this interesting body. At common temperatures brome is a liquid, the colour of which is black- ish-red when viewed in mass and by reflected light, but appears hyacinth- red when a thin stratum is interposed between the light and the observer. Its odour, which somewhat resembles that of chlorine, is very disagreeable, and its taste powerful. It acts with energy on organic matters, such as wood or cork, and corrodes the animal texture ; but if applied to the skin for a short time only, it communicates a yellow stain, which is less intense than that produced by iodine, and soon disappears. It is highly destruc- tive to animals, one drop of it placed on the beak of a bird having proved fatal. Its specific gravity is about 3. Its volatility is very considerable , for at common temperatures it emits red coloured vapours, which are very VOL. VI. NO. I. JAN. 1827. M 178 Scientific Intelligence. similar in appearance to those of nitrous acid, and at 116.5° F. it enters in- to ebullition. It retains its liquid form at the temperature of zero of Fah- renheit's thermometer. • Brome is a non-conductor of electricity, and undergoes no chemical change from the agency of the imponderables. It was transmitted through a red-hot glass tube, and exposed to the action of a voltaic pile, sufficiently powerful for disuniting the elements of water, without evincing the least trace of decomposition. It supports combustion in a very feeble manner :— alighted taper immersed in the vapour of brome is soon extinguished ; but before going out, it burns a few seconds with a flame which is green at its base and red at its upper part, as in an atmosphere of chlorine. Brome is soluble in water, in alcohol, and particularly in ether. It does not redden litmus paper, but bleaches it rapidly like chlorine ; and it like- wise discharges the blue colour from a solution of indigo. From these points of close resemblance between brome and chlorine, M. Balard was led to examine its relations with hydrogen. No chemical ac- tion takes place between the vapour of brome and hydrogen gas at com- mon temperatures, not even by the agency of the direct solar rays ; but on introducing a lighted candle or a piece of red-hot iron into the mixture, combination ensues in the vicinity of the heated body, though without ex- tending to the whole mixture, and without explosion. The union is rea- dily effected by the action of brome on some of the gaseous compounds of hydrogen. Thus on mixing the vapour of brome with hydriodic acid, sul- phuretted hydrogen, or phosphuretted hydrogen gases, decomposition fol- lows, and a colourless gas, possessed of acid properties, is generated. The hydro-bromic acid gas may be conveniently procured for experimental pur- poses by a process similar to that for forming hydriodic acid. A mixture of brome and phosphorus, slightly moistened, yields a large quantity of pure hydro-bromic acid gas, which may be collected over mercury. The hydro-bromic acid gas is colourless, has an acid taste, and a pun- gent odour. It irritates the glottis powerfully, so as to excite cough, and when mixed with moist air, yields white vapours, which are denser than those occasioned under the same circumstances by muriatic acid gas. It undergoes no decomposition when transmitted through a red-hot tube, either alone, or mixed with oxygen. It is not affected by iodine; but chlorine decomposes it instantly, with production of muriatic acid gas, and deposition of brome. It may be preserved without change over mer- cury ; but potassium and tin decompose it with facility, the first at com- mon temperatures, and the last by the aid of heat. The hydro-bromic acid is very soluble in water. The aqueous solution, may be made by treating brome with sulphuretted hydrogen dissolved in water, or still better, by transmitting a current of hydro-bromic acid gas through pure water. The liquid becomes hot during the condensation, acquires a great density, increases in volume, and emits white fumes when exposed to the air. This acid solution is colourless when pure, but pos- sesses the property of dissolving a large quantity of brome, and then re- ceives the tint of that substance. Chemistry, 1 79 Chlorine decomposes the solution of hydro-bromic acid in an instant. Nitric acid likewise acts upon it, though less suddenly, occasioning the disengagement of brome, and probably the formation of water and nitrous acid. The nitro-hydro-bromic acid is analogous to aqua regia, and pos- sesses the property of dissolving gold. The elements of sulphuric and hydro-bromic acids react on each other in a slight degree ; and hence on decomposing the hydro-bromate of potassa by sulphuric acid, the hydro-bromic is generally mixed with a little sul- phurous acid gas. The metallic oxides, as might be expected, do not act in an uniform manner on the hydrc-bromic acid. The alkalies, earths, the oxides of iron, and the peroxides of copper and mercury, form compounds which may be regarded as hydro-bromates ; whereas the oxide of silver, and the protoxide of lead, give rise to double decomposition, in consequence of which water and a metallic bromuret result. The composition of hydro-bromic acid gas is easily inferred from the two following facts. 1. On decomposing hydro-bromic acid by potassium, a quan- tity of hydrogen remains precisely equal to half the volume of the gas em- ployed ; and 2. when hydriodic acid gas is decomposed by brome, the re- sulting hydro-bromic acid occupies the very same space as the gas which is decomposed. It is hence apparent that the hydro-bromic is analogous to hydriodic and muriatic acid gases ; or, in other words, that 100 measures of hydro-bromic acid gas contains fifty measures of the vapour of brome, and fifty of hydrogen. Since brome decomposes the hydriodic, and chlorine the hydro-bromic acid, it is obvious that brome, in relation to hydrogen, is intermediate be- tween chlorine and iodine, its affinity for that substance being weaker than the first, and stronger than the second. The affinity of brome and oxygen for hydrogen appears nearly similar, for while oxygen cannot detach hy- drogen from brome, brome does not decompose watery vapour. The action of brome on the metals presents the closest resemblance to that which chlorine exerts on the same substances. Antimony and tin take fire by contact with brome ; and its union with potassium is attended with such intense disengagement of heat as to cause a vivid flash of light, and to burst the vessel in which the experiment is performed. M. Balard is of opinion, that the soluble metallic bromurets are converted, like the similar compounds of chlorine and iodine, into neutral hydro-bromates, and reciprocally, that the hydro-bromates are frequently converted into bromurets in passing into the solid state. All the bromurets are decomposed by chlorine with evolution of brome ; and the hydro-bromates are not only attacked by chlorine, but by all substances, such as the chloric or nitric acids, which have a strong tendency to deprive other bodies of hydrogen. The bromuret of potassium, which may be obtained in cubic crystals from the hydro-bromate of potassa by evaporation, was found by M. Balard to consist of Brome - - 65.56 Potassium - - 34.44 180 Scientific Intelligence. And hence, supposing it to contain one atom of each element, the weight of an atom of brome will be represented by 9.326, that of oxygen being re- garded as unity. Ammoniacal gas unites with its own volume of hydro-bromic acid gas, forming a white, solid, volatile salt, which is soluble in water, and crystal- lizes in long prisms by evaporation. The hydro-bromate of baryta is very soluble in water, and is also dis- solved by alcohol. It forms opaque mamillated crystals, which have no resemblance to the transparent scales of the muriate of bary tes. The hydro-bromate of magnesia is deliquescent and uncrystallizable, and, like the muriate of that base, is decomposed by an elevated temperature. On mixing a soluble hydro-bromate with the nitrate of lead, silver, and the protoxide of mercury, white precipitates are obtained, which are very si- milar to the chlorides of those metals, and which appear to be metallic bro- murets. By the action of brome on metallic mercury, a compound results which yields the peroxide of mercury when decomposed by alkalies, and must therefore be a bi-bromuret. It may be sublimed by heat, is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, particularly in the last, and presents a close analogy to corrosive sublimate. It is distinguished from that substance, however, by yielding the red vapours of brome when treated by the nitric, and still better by the sulphuric acid. The bromuret of silver has the same curdy appearance as the chloride, blackens by exposure to light, is soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in nitric acid; which does not decompose it even at a boiling temperature. Boil- ing sulphuric acid, on the contrary, detaches some vapours of brome. The bromuret of silver is decomposed by hydrogen in a nascent state, and was found by M. Balard to consist of Silver, - - 589 Brome, - - 411 1000 The atomic weight of brome, estimated from these data, is 9.429. Brome acts upon metallic oxides much in the same manner as chlorine. On passing the vapour of brome over potassa, soda, baryta, or lime, a vivid incandescence ensues, oxygen is disengaged, and a metallic bromuret re- sults. Magnesia and zirconia are not decomposed by this treatment. When brome acts on the solution of an alkali or alkaline earth, consi- derably diluted with water, the bromuret of an oxide is produced, which possesses bleaching properties, and from which acetic acid causes the dis- engagement of brome. But when this substance acts upon a concentrated solution of potassa, or when solid potassa is agitated with the ethereal solu- tion of brome, two salts are generated, the hydro-bromate and bromate of potassa ; and on evaporating the solution, the former is obtained in cubic, and the latter in acicular crystals. The bromate of potassa is separated from the hydro-bromate by being very sparingly soluble in cold water. The alkaline earths likewise cause the formation of the two acids, but magnesia does not appear to possess that property. 1 Chemistry, 181 The bromates are analogous to the chlorates and iodates. Thus the bro- mate of potassa is converted by heat into the brorauret of potassium, with disengagement of pure oxygen, deflagrates when thrown on burning char- coal, and forms with sulphur a mixture which detonates by percussion. The acid of the bromates is decomposed by deoxidizing agents, such as the sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, in the same manner as the acid of the iodates. The bromates likewise suffer decomposition from the ac- tion of hydro- bromic and muriatic acids. The bromate of potassa does not precipitate the salts of lead ; but occa- sions a white precipitate with the nitrate of silver, and a yellowish-white with the proto-nitrate of mercury ; — characters which, if correctly observed, distinguish the bromate from the iodate and chlorate of potassa in a very satisfactory manner. The bromic acid may be procured in a separate state by decomposing a dilute solution of the bromate of baryta with sulphuric acid. From the analysis of the bromate of potassa, it appears to consist of one atom of brome and five atoms of oxygen, and is consequently similar in constitu- tion to the iodic, chloric, and nitric acids. Brome unites with chlorine at common temperatures, forming a very volatile liquid of a reddish-yellow colour, penetrating odour, and exceed- ingly disagreeable taste. It is soluble in water, and dissolves in that li- quid apparently without decomposition ; for the solution bleaches litmus paper without previously reddening it, and has the characteristic odour and colour of the compound. By the action of alkalies it is resolved into muriatic and bromic acids. M. Balard has also described compounds of brome with iodine, phosphorus, and sulphur. With olefiant gas it pro- duces an oily fluid, denser than water, and of a mild ethereal odour. This substance, when transmitted through a red hot tube, suffers decomposi- tion, charcoal being deposited, and hydro-bromic acid gas evolved. It is therefore very analogous to the hydro-caiburet of chlorine. Brome exists in sea water in the form of hydro-bromic acid, combined, in the opinion of M. Balard, with magnesia. It is present, however, in very small quantity ; and even the uncrystallizable residue called bittern, left after the muriate of soda has been separated from sea water by evaporation, contains but little of it. On adding chlorine to this liquid, an orange- yellow tint appears ; and on heating the solution to the boiling point, the red vapours of brome are expelled, which may be condensed by a freezing mixture. A better process for preparing brome is to transmit a current of chlorine gas through the bittern, and then to agitate a portion of ether with the liquid. The ether dissolves the whole of the brome, from which it receives a beautiful hyacinth red tint, and, on standing, rises to the surface. When the ethereal solution is agitated with caustic potash, its colour entirely disappears, and, on evaporation, cubic crystals of the hydro-bromate of potash are deposited. M. Balard has ascertained that brome exists in marine plants which grow on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and has procured it in ap- preciable quantity from the ashes of the sea-weeds that furnish iodine. 182 Scientific Intelligence. He has likewise detected its presence in the ashes of some animals, espe- cially in those of the Janthina violacea, one of the testaceous mollusca. From the circumstance of brome being intermediate between chlorine and iodine in some of its more important chemical relations, M. Balard at first suspected it to be some unknown compound of these bodies ; but as, on further examination, he failed in obtaining the least trace of de- composition, he was induced to adopt the opinion that it is an elementary substance. The facts which have been related are greatly in favour of this view. They have not, however, as yet, been confirmed by other che- mists, and therefore it would be premature to form a decided opinion on the subject. We may observe, however, that MM. Vauquelin, Thenard, and Gay-Lussac, in their report to the Parisian Academy of Sciences, speak in the most flattering terms of the memoir of M. Balard, and re- gard his opinion as highly probable, though they express themselves in a very guarded manner. 'ill. NATURAL HISTORY. MINERALOGY. 12. Thenardite, a new mineral species. — The mineralogical characters of this substance were ascertained by M. Cordier, from specimens sent to him for the purpose by Professor J. L. Casaseca of Madrid, a pupil of M. The- nard, in compliment to whom it is denominated. According to M. Cordier, it possesses the following characters. Form, a scalene four-sided pyramid, whose base is a rhomb of nearly 125° and 55°, the ratio between the axis and a side of this rhomb being = 7.3 nearly. Crystals frequently have the apex of the pyramid taken off by a plane. It cleaves readily in a. direc- tion perpendicular to the axis of this pyramid, and likewise parallel to planes replacing its lateral edges. It is not transparent, and its specific gravity ap- proaches to that of glauberite, which is 2.73. From the details given by M. Casaseca, it appears that Thenardite is one of those substances, whose formation and decomposition is continually go- ing on in the grand chemical laboratory of nature, and which hence forms one of those links by which minerals, commonly so called, are connected with the substances produced by nature with the assistance of chemical art, and arbitrarily excluded in the usual definitions from the mineral kingdom. It was dicovered nearly nine years ago by M. Rodas five leagues from Ma- drid, and two and a half from Aranjuez, in a place called the salt-mines of Espartines, and considered by him as a sulphate of soda, mixed with a small quantity of subcarbonate of soda. During the winter season water impregnated with particles of the salt exudes from the sides and the bottom of a hollow, and when sufficiently concentrated, it deposits part of its con- tents in more or less regularly formed crystals. Mr Casaseca states, that, when exposed to the action of the atmosphere, it is changed into powder, the change beginning from the surface, upon which the powder forms a coat- ing. This is not however owing to the same cause upon which de- pends the decomposition of common glauber-salt, which loses water, whereas Thenardite attracts a portion of it, and forms a hydrous salt, Mineralogy. -183 which is again immediately decomposed. In a dry atmosphere they pre- serve their original appearance. No matter is disengaged from it by the application of heat. It is perfectly soluble in water. When reduced to powder, and brought in contact with a small portion of water, it imme- diately combines with it and crystallizes, during which some heat is dis- engaged. It consists of Sulphate of soda 99.78 Subcarbonate of soda 0.22 The analysis was conducted in the following manner. The sulphuric and carbonic acids were precipitated by nitrate of baryta, the precipitate ignited, and then digested in nitro-muriatic acid, to reduce entirely to the state of sulphate whatever might have been changed into sulphuret by the contact with the filter at an elevated temperature, and to dissolve the caus- tic baryta arising from the decomposition of the carbonate. This portion of baryta was afterwards precipitated by sulphuric acid. Thenardite has been employed by M. Rodas in manufacturing soap, but it is worked like- wise and sold in its natural state — (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, torn, xxxii. p. 308.) This substance was for the first time mentioned as a new species in Professor Mohs mineralogy, * and described likewise by Mr Haidin- ger, t though these descriptions were drawn up not from specimens oc- curring in nature, but from crystals obtained from solutions. The natural crystals are frequently much larger than the artificial ones. Those in M- Cordier's possession, and some that were presented to the school of mines in Paris by M. Casaseca, are about half an inch in diameter. They will therefore allow of a much more accurate determination of the specific gra- vity than the crystalline coats whose weight is given in Mohs = 2.462. Their colour is a yellowish-white ; that of the artificial crystal is a pure white, but their transparency is always inconsiderable. Their hardness is = 2.5 of the scale of Mohs, between gypsum and' calcareous spar. M. Gay-Lussac has observed that the capacity of water for dissolving sulphate of soda is greatest at 33° Centigr. (106i° Fahr.) Above this tem- perature crystals of Thenardite are deposited, and this is perhaps the con- dition upon which its formation at Espartines depends. 13. Halloysite, a new mineral species. — Occurs in more or less regular globular masses, sometimes larger than the fist, in those aggregated masses of ores of iron, zinc, and lead, which frequently are found filling the cavi- ties in the neighbourhood of Liege and Namur. It was first observed by M. Omalius d'Halloy, in compliment to whom it has been named by M. Berthier. It is always compact, with a conchoidal fracture some- what resembling wax; it yields to the nail, and is polished by it; its colour is white, generally with a slight bluish-grey tint ; it is translu- cent on the edges ; it adheres to the tongue. It imbibes water like the hydrophane. If exposed to an elevated temperature, it loses in weight, but acquires much hardness, and its colour turns milk-white. * Grundriss. vol. i. Translation, vol. ii. p, 33. f Edin. Phil. J own. vol. x. p. 314. 184 Scientific Intelligence. Sulphuric acid decomposes it readily, even at the ordinary temperature of our atmosphere ; it dissolves the alumina, and leaves the silica in a gelatinous state, which is then soluble in alkalies. It was thus found by M. Berthier to contain Silica, 0.395 Alumina, 0.340 Water, 0.265 It does not contain either phosphoric or fluoric acid, lime, magnesia, glucina, or oxide of copper; but it contains a small quantity of iron, which, together with the bluish-colour of the mineral, makes M. Berthier sup- pose a little phosphate of iron to be the cause of this colour. Dried in a stove and then analyzed, it gave only 16 per cent, of water. It is difficult to say how much water should be considered as being chemically combin- ed, and how much only adherent by capillary attraction. — (Annates de Chimie et de Physique, torn, xxxii. p. 332. J 14. Artificial cold produced by mixing metals. — M. Dobereiner dissolved 207 gr. of lead, 118 gr. of tin, and 284 gr. of bismuth in 1617 gr. of mer- cury, at a temperature of 64.5 degrees of Fahrenheit. The mixture im- mediately fell to 14° Fahr. — (Annates de Chimie et de Physique, torn, xxxii p. 334,. J ZOOLOGY. 15. Mr Audubon's Ornithology of the United States of America,-— The Ornithology of the United States of America, from drawings by Mr John James Audubon, made during a residence of twenty-five years in those countries, and now on view at the Rooms of the Royal Institution here, is, we understand, about to be published. These drawings exceed 400 in number, amongst which upwards of eighty are undescribed birds; and as the projected work will appear in parts, at moderate intervals, he has promised to give one nondescript specimen in each fasciculus. The book will consist of three volumes, double-elephant folio, coloured like the author's beautiful drawings, and in every instance the engravings will be the natural size of the birds, or, in other words, of the same dimensions as the drawings themselves. We have seen two of the engravings at the Royal Institution, which, for execution, give the greatest promise. Both as works of art and as drawings elucidatory of natural history, we highly applaud Mr Audubon's system of representing his figures in all at- titudes, because by doing so he has not only made most pleasing pictures, but has exhibited all the important varieties in the plumage, and other cha- racterestic points in the species represented. His fine taste in the arrange- ment of the groups of flowers, plants, and water, where the feathered tribes are represented employing themselves in their varied natural habits and pursuits, marks a new era in the delineation of objects of natural history. Mr Audubon's graphic illustrations will be described afterwards, in a Eeries of letters, in a separate work. BOTANY. 16. Icones Filicum. — The tribe of ferns, universally celebrated as amongst Bolany. % 185 the most elegant and graceful of vegetable productions, and which an emi- nent French author has lately elevated to the rank of a distinct Class among plants, does not appear hitherto to have been illustrated in the de- gree that it deserves. Besides that beauty of external appearance in the Ferns, which must strike even the most casual observer ; the power and wisdom of the Creator are nowhere more evident, than in the curious and varied forms of their fructification. They seem to hold a middle rank be- tween the Cotyledonous and Acotyledonous plants, with somewhat the habit of the former, though possessing the simpler organization for the produc- tion of their seeds which characterizes the latter. The largest of them emulate the Palms in their stature and mode of growth, while the smallest are hardly discernible at first view from some of the Hepaticee, especially from the genera Marchantia and Jungermannia. The ferns are not without their obvious use in the arts, and in domestic economy. In the East Indies and New Zealand several species are em- ployed as food by the natives. In our own country, and in the north of" Europe, potash is procured from them after combustion, and this sub- stance is so combined in the Pteris aquilina, or common brake, with resinous extractive matter, as to allow of its being used as a substitute for soap. Tannin, again, is another product of Ferns, and gallic acid of the Scolo- pendrium officinale, and Polypodium vulgare. Many of our most abun- dant species are employed medicinally, and one already mentioned, the Pteris aquilina, affords, in its stalk, an excellent covering for the roofs of houses, and as such is very commonly used in the countries where it grows. For a long time, the exotic kinds of fern were almost wholly excluded from our stoves and greenhouses, in consequence of an erroneous opinion that their culture was attended with so much difficulty as to be nearly impracticable. The reverse is now found to be the case, and the Messrs Shepherd of the Liverpool Botanic Garden were the first to prove that these plants might be raised from seed, even after that seed had, for many years, been attached to specimens in the herbarium. It was thus that Willdenow enriched the Berlin Garden with numerous species that existed in the Hortus Siccus of the German botanist ; and to confine ourselves to instances in our own country, we need only mention the Liverpool Gar- den, the Royal Garden at Kew, that of Messrs Loddiges at Hackney, and those of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and of the late Mr Hasell at Ipswich, to prove the facility with which the ferns may now be cultivated, and what a valuable addition they make to our collections. In the herbarium, too, no plants retain their form and colour so well. Few, indeed, are the works which have, by means of faithful represen- tation, aided the study of this tribe of plants. Professor Raddi of Flo- rence, has lately published a book with numerous plates, entirely confined to the ferns of Brazil, and Schkuhr's Filices contains sufficiently accurate representations of many, and especially the more common kinds. To compensate, in some measure, for what is wanting in these and other similar publications of less note, Dr Hooker and Dr Greville have under- 186 Scientific Intelligence. taken the editing of a work on the new, or rare and little known species of the family, under the title of " Icones Filieum, ad eas potissimum species illustrandas destinatcc, qua? hactenus, vel in Herbariis delituerunt prorms incognita*, vel saltern nondum per icones botanicis innotuerunt ; Auctoribus Gulielrao Jackson Hooker, LL.D. Botanices in Academia Glasguensi Pro- fessore Regio, et Regiae, Antiquarise, et Linnaeanae Societatum Londini Sodali, et Roberto Kaye Greville, LL.D. Regjse Societatis et Antiquarian Edinae Sodali." The herbaria of the authors are enriched by the contributions of their correspondents in various parts of the world, and they have received the promise of still farther assistance from their friends, both at home and abroad. The work will be concluded in twelve parts, each consisting of twenty plates, accompanied with as many leaves of description, to appear quarter- ly. The descriptions will be written entirely in Latin, and a few remarks * added in English ; and the plates will be executed with the greatest at- tention to accuracy, and in the best style of the art, especially in the dis- sections of the fructification, from drawings made by the authors. The engravings which adorn Humboldt and Bonpland's Nova Genera, and De Lessert's Icones, may be considered as the models for those which will illustrate the present work. The price of the work will be twenty-five shillings each part. A few copies will be coloured in a superior style, price two guineas each. The work will be published in London by Messrs Truttel and Wurtz, 30, Soho Square ; and Rue de Bourbon, Paris ; and Rue des Saruriers, Strasburg. 17. Hooker and Taylors Muscologia Britannica. — The second edition of this work is just ready for publication, and will contain, besides many new mosses and six supplementary tables and many additions and correc- tions, generic and specific characters of all the British Hepaticai, with re- ferences to the figures in English Botany, and in the Monograph of the British Jungermannia? of Dr Hooker. 18. Exotic Flora and Botanical Magazine. — The Exotic Flora, we are in- formed, will be terminated with the two next numbers, which, with the title- pages and indexes, will complete the third volume. The author, however, Dr Hooker, has but relinquished one botanical work to undertake another of a similar nature. The advanced age and indifferent state of health of Dr Sims, has compelled him to discontinue the direction of the Botanical Magazine, and Dr Hooker has already succeeded to the superintending the continuation ; the drawings, as well as the descriptions, being entirely ex- ecuted by himself. Of this extensive work, which has now reached to 58 volumes, including above 2700 plates, a New Series will be commenced on the 1st of January 1827, with improved paper, plates, &c. New subscri- bers can therefore commence with it as with a new work, and those sub- scribers, who already possess the old series, will be secure in not having a recurrence of figures of the same plants as appeared in the former numbers. General Science — List of' Scottish Patents. 187 IV. GENERAL SCIENCE. 19. Large Extinct Volcano in Hawaii. — The varied and strongly mark- ed volcanic surface of the higher parts of the mountain called Mouna Huararai, in the immediate vicinity of Kairua ; the traditional accounts given by the natives of the eruptions which, from craters on its summit, had, in different ages, deluged the low land along the coast, rendered it an interesting object. About 8 o'clock in the morning Messrs Hurston and Gardner left Kairua, accompanied by three men whom they had engag- ed to conduct them to the summit. Having rested all night in a tent, they next morning ascended the hardened surface of an ancient stream of lava. Between nine and ten in the forenoon they arrived at a large extinguished crater about a mile in circumference, and apparently 400 feet deep, the sides sloped regularly, and at the bottom was a small mound, with an aper- ture in its centre. By the side of this large crater, divided from it by a narrow ridge of volcanic rocks, was another fifty-six feet in circumference, from which volumes of sulphureous smoke and vapour continually ascend- ed. The bottom could be seen, and on throwing stones into it, they were heard to strike against its sides after eight seconds, but not to reach its bot- tom. There were two other apertures near this, nine feet in diameter, and apparently about 200 feet deep. As the party walked along the gid- dy verge of the large crater, they could distinguish the course of two prin- cipal streams that had issued from it in the great eruption about the year 1810. One had taken a direction nearly N. E., the other had flowed to the N. W. in broad irresistible torrents, for a distance of twelve or fifteen miles to the sea, where, driving back the water, it had extended the bounda- ries of the island. They attempted to descend this crater, but the steep- ness of its sides prevented their examining it so fully as they desired. After spending some time there, they walked along the ridge between three and four miles, and examined sixteen different craters, similar in con- struction to the first they had met with, though generally of smaller dimen- sions. The whole ridge upon which they walked seemed little else than a con- tinued line of craters, which, in different ages, had deluged the valleys be- low with floods of lava, or showers of burning cinders. Some of these craters appeared to have reposed for ages, as trees of considerable size were growing upon their sides, and many of them were covered with earth and clothed with verdure. They continued ascending till 3 p. m., when, having suffered much from thirst, and finding they should not be able to reach the highest part before dark, they judged it best to return to Kairua without having reached the summit of Mouna Huararai. — Ellis's Mission- ary Tour through Hawaii. Art. XXX.— LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND SINCE SEPTEMBER 9, 1826. 37. Oct. 10. For certain Improvements in Steam-Engine Boilers, or Steam Generators. To John Poole of Sheffield, in the County of York. 188 Celestial Phenomena, January — April 1827. 38. Nov. 2. For a New process in Painting for producing the appear- ance of Damask. To David Ramsay Hay, Edinburgh. 39. Nov. 8. For an Improvement or Improvements on Wheels for Car- riages. To Theodore Jones of Coleman Street, London. Art. XXXI.— CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, From January 1st to April 1st 1827. Adapted to the Meridian of Green- wick, Apparent Time, excepting the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites, which are given in Mean Time. N. B.— The day begins at noon, and the conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right Ascension. D. 1 4 4 4 5 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 19 •19 19 19 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 28 29 H. M. 17 12 42 0 15 17 18 17 4 0 15 21 23 14 29 6 44 6 48 14 12 55 9 12 15 16 5 12 23 17 54 16 14 19 14 59 18 10 22 4 48 6 9 3 13 14 17 59 26 12 14 11 48 12 27 14 27 10 42 11 16 11 37 21 46 21 11 D 43' S. P 21' S. P 21' S. Sat. % JANUARY. 6 g e oph. P First Quarter. 6 Greatest Elong. % in Quad, with 0 Em. III. Sat. 11 25 Im. I. Sat. % 15 Im. II. Sat. % 6(**~ 0 3 JM 8 £8 » n Q Full Moon. *jT Stationary. 6 Tl n II a near App. 43 c5 jl«£2$D314'N. 38 6 j) 2 « ss ]) T N. (4 ft and 0 49 Im. I. Sat. % 26 6 D * SI P 67' s. 18 lm. II. Sat. 7/ 6 6 *«» 55 6 P * ^ ]) 27-4' s. 30 6 J) * ^ D 544' N- 33 Im. III. Sat. 7/ ((Last Quarter. 0 enters CSS 25 6 ]) 2 65'N. 22 6 ) 2 a* £)47'N. 8 Sup. 6© 6?<* / 37 6 ) d t ) 60' N. 6 ) and $ occult. 44 lm. I. Sat. % 16 6 ) 0 ft ) 14' N. 6 9*~ # New Moon. Celestial Phenomena, January— April 1827. 189 D. H. M. s. D. H. M. s. 27 14 36 2 ■£££•■** 17 14 39 11 Im. I. Sat 7/ 27 15 18 •17 15 40 40 A ) * ^ ) 61' N. H6 )l/3Hl)20'N. 34<3 ) 2 0 J\\ ) 20' N. 39 A ) »nv ) io's. 27 15 A $$» 17 20 30 17 20 31 MARCH. 17 23 8 1 f> Stationary. 18 4 1 6 d^KM 18 ^Greatest Elong. 1 if; 23 20 1m. I. Sat. % 19 2 26 20 c5 ) p Oph. ) 46' N. 3 10 51 43 1m. I. Sat. % 19 9 7 40 Im. I. Sat 7/ 4 13 28 55 A ) « tf ) 52' N. 19 20 22 ( Last Quarter. 5 6 27 ) fcirst Quarter. 20 0 5 13 4)2,* f )601'N. J-) in Quad, with 0 5 22 25 20 A ) K 8 ) 47' S. 9 Greatest Elong. 20 9 30 5 20 16 59 27 Im. II. Sat. % 6 11 50 2 Im. II. Sat % 20 21 3 (•) enters Aries. 6 22 46 39 ^ ) ' H ) 43' S. 21 1 36 4 6 M t ) W N. 59 <3 ) £ ft ) 24' N. 9 21 4 38 g ) 1 « 25 ) 26' N. 22 4 35 9 22 17 42 g ) 2 a 25 ) lj' N. 24 16 33 3 lm. I. Sat. # 10 12 45 24 Im. I. Sat. % 26 £ Stationary. 11 3 56 17 6 ) * Q ) 65' S. 26 11 1 39 Im. I. Sat % 13 0 9 O Full Moon. 27 0 2 % New Moon. A ) and $ 6 ) and d 13 1 41 34 6 ) » £ ) 62' S. 28 1 13 14 24 37 Im. II. Sat. % 29 14 15 2 20 34 A ) * T1J ) 3' S. 30 12 15 S £© 16 14 28 8 g ) 2 * ^ ) 36' S. 31 11 32 51 Em. II. Sat. 2/ 17 11 7 39 A ) * — ) 53' N. *31 21 44 8 d ) • 8 ) 41' N. Times of the Planets passing the Meridian. JANUARY. Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. Georgian D. h. ' h / h ' h / h ' h ' 1 22 22 22 57 3 35 18 2 11 21 0 56 f7 22 21 22 23 3 26 17 38 10 53 0 36 13 22 27 21 55 3 17 17 13 10 25 23 59 19 22 37 21 33 3 8 16 48 9 58 23 38 25 22 50 21 17 3 0 16 24 9 31 22 58 FEBRUARY. 1 23 7 21 4 2 50 15 55 9 0 22 48 7 23 24 20 57 2 42 15 31 8 35 22 26 13 23 42 20 53 2 35 15 6 8 10 22 3 19 0 0 20 51 2 28 14 42 7 47 21 41 25 0 16 20 52 2 21 14 17 7 24 21 20 MARCH. 1 0 29 20 53 2 17 14 1 7 8 21 5 7 0 47 20 56 2 11 13 36 6 46 20 44 13 1 0 21 0 2 6 13 12 6 25 20 23 19 1 4 21 4 2 O 12 48 6 4 20 2 25 0 53 21 9 1 55 12 23 5 43 19 40 Declination of the Planets. JANUARY. Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupit er. Saturn Georgian. o / o > o t o / o / o / 1 20 34 S. 18 57 S. 11 24 S. 4 US. 22 31 S. 21 55 S. 7 21 50 18 3 9 38 4 10 22 32 21 51 13 22 53 17 33 7 49 4 16 22 34 21 47 19 23 25 17 27 5 58 4 21 22 35 21 43 25 23 16 17 37 4 6 4 22 22 36 21 39 190 Mr Marshall's Meteorological Observations FEBRUARY. 1 22 6S. 18 OS. 1 54 S. 4 21 S. 22 37 N. 21 36 S. 7 20 13 18 21 0 2 S 4 17 22 3» 21 32 13 17 28 18 36 I 50 N 4 10 22 39 21 28 19 13 51 18 43 3 41 4 1 22 40 21 24 25 9 24 18 36 5 30 3 49 22 41 21 20 MARCH. I 6 IS. 18 24 9. 6 41N. 3 418. 22 42N. 21 20S. 7 0 36 9. 17 51 8 26 3 26 22 43 21 16 13 4 37N. 17 2 10 7 3 10 22 44 21 14 19 8 42 15 55 11 45 2 52 22 45 21 11 25 10 46 14 31 13 18 2 34 22 46 21 8 The preceding numbers will enable any person to find the positions of the planets, to lay them down upon a globe, and determine their times of rising and setting. Art. XXXII. — Summary of Meteorological Observations made at Kendal, in September, October, and November 1826. By Mr Samuel Mar- shall. Communicated by the Author in a Letter to the Editor. Previous to the summary of Meteorological Observations which I send for insertion in the Journal of Science, it appears needful to make a few remarks on the situation of Kendal, as they may serve to throw some light on the results of these observations. This place has long been a point of considerable interest in meteorologi- cal observations, from the accounts which have been regularly kept for a series of years, and published in many of the literary periodical works which this country produces. Its locality suggests important considera- tions, which may perhaps tend to elicit conclusions, and throw some light on the science of meteorology. The height of the town from the sea is little more than forty-two yards, calculating from the canal which is cut between the town and Lancaster. Kendal is situated on the W. side of a valley, bounded on each side by a chain of hills, running from N. E. to S. W. and is at the southern extremi- ty of the mountainous district of "Westmorland and Cumberland. It is subject to an uncommon quantity of rain. The average annual quantity taken for twenty years may be stated at 51.8 inches, an average equalled by few places in England. The prevalent winds in this district are S. W. and W. The vapours carried in these directions from the Atlantic Ocean, and the Irish Sea will be interrupted in their progress by the hills which bound theN. of the town and neighbourhood ; hence the deposit of aqueous vapour will be greater than in places further S. which is the fact. In Manchester, for instance, the annual average quantity of rain is but thirty- four inches. The lowness of the situation of Kendal may also contribute to this circumstance, as it is a fact proved by experiment, that on the top of a hill a less quantity of rain falls than in its surrounding valleys. But little dependence can be placed on observations on the winds in this valley ; and this remark will probably apply to most places situated in mountain- ous districts, as the eminences will most likely give a direction differing from its original one, to any current of the atmosphere. made at Kendal in Sept. Oct and Nov. 1826. 191 The chain of hills which has received the appellation of the Back Bone of England, and the English Apennines) and which rune in a S. W. direc- tion from Cross Fell, through Yorkshire to Derbyshire, appears very ma- terially to influence the weather on the N. Western shores of England. It has been frequently remarked that on the W. side of this chain, torrents of rain have deluged the countries adjacent, whilst on the eastern, the neighbourhood, within a few miles, has been nearly free from them. This circumstance may be accounted for on the supposition that S. W. winds, which are here the most prevalent, being loaded with vapours from the At- lantic and the Irish Sea, are arrested in their progress before they pass this natural boundary, and occasion an extraordinary deposit of rain. On the E. side of this ridge, falls of snow are much more numerous and deep- er than on the W. side, snow showers here being generally accompanied with an E. or S. E. wind, and for the same reason are principally deposit- ed before they reach the western parts. The fear of prolixity prevents my making other remarks respecting the peculiarities of this interesting district. — I am, very respectfully, &c. Sam. Marshall. Abstract of Meteorological Observations made at Kendal. September 1826. Inches. Maximum of the barometer on the 15th, - - 30.03 Minimum of do on the 7th, - - - 29.10 Mean height of do 29.68 Maximum of the thermometer on the 3d, - - 68° Minimum of do on the 15th, - - 33° Mean height of do 53.68* Quantity of rain, 3.452 inches. Number of rainy days, 13. Prevalent wind West. October 1826. Inches. Maximum of the barometer on the 14th, - - - 29.99 Minimum of do on the 25th, - - 29. 02 Mean height of do 29.63 Maximum of the thermometer on the 1st, - - 65° Minimum of do on the 6th, - - 29° Mean height of do ... 48.69° Quantity of rain, 4.362 inches. Number of rainy days, 19. Prevalent wind, S. W. November 1826. Inches. Maximum of the barometer on the 21st, - - 30.31 Minimum of do on the 25th, - - - 28.69 Mean height of do - 29.61 Maximum of the thermometer on the 12th, - - 50° Minimum of do on the 28th, - - 21* Mean height of do - . - - 37.15* Quantity of rain, 4296 inches. Number of rainy days, 11. W. M •UIBU * S & a ?* t« _T to 5 «*s * C» © © © CO l~30 © 00 V rH © ©©©©©©©©©©©©00©© "MMOIfOWOP'jpopoOOOiOri NCMCMtOtOtOtOtOtOCMCMCMCMCMI tO*0'OCO'0'-<©>03C — ' »0 I— tO aOOJUJ -OWOHOlOOjIOVOrtOM iooo©©©t~r-©or-^©©©-?o ^"j "l1^"? "J "? "5 "J "5 • "J « »o "5 >p »o ooowdiflh" ^ioC50io?oodcot-«r-ir--'0&'~ Tfi^«,^,ri.0«(OtOtOtOtO,9<OT>«'OSNtO00'»«©COCMCO©©eNCO»O*«tO»OCO to i4 K3 5 O tf5 "5 MJ >C »0 »C >0 >0 »C «5 >C «5 »0 >C "J 10 ic iO «5 1 ■HeJo5*"2S"*'to oo"t~-oo 9* o'«) t? •#• 00 00 o t^3»*to *< co'to HShHI e< tj< to ■ci "J" to to to to —1 ,j« ^. to to to to 10 10 -AU0,q I ^Hh'tBwaV^HfeaaoiSH^HfaOTCBgHBiHfecpwShgiH •urea § &gg n § S 8 w S « S .S 2 . 2 -2 ■§ _§ 3 8>s.aS « .s 2 a £ 33-3,5* *1I H S3 UOMT IO TT I '-' CM to T "O CO t-0C©O r-. CM IOTP ^O COt— 00© CrtStl «'.«GOCN^^COtO©^Tf«00a0>O ©©C3©ooc3,c3'c3C3©C3' 3^CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM3^ •XtCHDu^oN : I ?) : ;\ 3-1 CM CM CM 34 ON CM ! 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It would appear that this part then vibrates either not at all, or very little, and that n becomes, as it were, the extremity of the membrane ; at last the sound always descending, n" coincides with B, and the mem- brane is found divided only by two nodal lines, as in No. 2, Fig. 17. This way, however, of passing from one mode of division to another, seems very imperfect, and nature employs many others which accompany it with great regularity, and in which the continuity is constantly observed. For example, I suppose that the membrane has six nodal lines, as Fig. 18, No. 1. if the sound becomes more acute, these lines will incline alternately and oppositely, as in No. 2, and at last their nearest extremities will join in an angle, which will by degrees round itself, so as to form the sinuous lines in No. 3 ; then they will become straighter, and again sinuous, but in presenting an inflexion, or a semi-inflexion more. In the last case, there will be produced seven nodal lines parallel to the small sides of the rectangle, and in the last case eight. We may conceive, that this mode of transformation is applicable to every case whatever in the primitive number of parallel lines. Rigid rods which are long, and very narrow, present phe- nomena of the same kind, which are still more easily examin- ed. All the transformations which they present, are gradual passages from lines perpendicular to the length of the rod to other systems of lines, some of which are perpendicular, Division of' Vibrating Bodies. 209 and others parallel to that dimension. Several examples of this are shown in Fig. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24. We may here remark, that the character of the successive modifications depends here, as in membranes, on the manner in which the disunion is effected at the intersection of the lines which at first cut one another. It would appear then, that thin and narrow bodies, and even strings, may, like plates and membranes, affect an infinity of modes of division, which transform themselves into one ano- ther by insensible gradations, — for strings are also susceptible of these modes of motion, where there is a longitudinal nodal line cut at right angles by one or more lines of rest ; and we do not see why this mode of division should not pass gradually to that where there are only nodal lines perpendicular to the length. From these results we may deduce this general conclusion, that the modes of motion of sounding bodies are much more varied than has hitherto been believed, and that we ought not to admit the existence of determinate series of sounds for each body of a given form, unless with this important restriction, that the proper character of the modes of subdivision ought to remain the same. Art. VI. — Contributions to Physical Geography. Among the various subjects of popular science, there are few so instructive as those which relate to the physical condition of the globe. The scientific acquirements, and the habits of correct observation which distinguish modern travellers, has enabled them to enrich their works with accurate descriptions of this class of natural phenomena ; but, however interesting they may be, they often escape the notice of scientific readers, and remain buried among the ordinary details of general scenery, or national peculiarities. A collection of such descriptions cannot fail to interest and amuse the general reader, while it furnishes topics of speculation to the physical geographer. Under this impression we shall present our readers with a series of papers on this class of subjects. VOL. VI. NO. IT. APRIL 1827- O 210 Contributions to Physical Geography. 1 . Account of the Conflagration in the Quicksilver Mines of Idriain 1803.* In 1803, on the night between the 15th and 16th of March, the workmen observed a thick smoke issuing from some of the lower galleries. It ascended and spread itself through the higher. No fire was seen, no sound of flames was heard ; but it was too evident that the mine was on fire below. Some of the workmen, with great intrepidity, endeavoured to reach the scene of the conflagration. It was in vain ; they were forced to retreat from one gallery to another, flying before an enemy whom they could not discover, for the smoke, which continued to make its way upwards to the open air, was not merely so dense and suffocating, but so loaded with noxious fumes, and particles let loose from the fossils among which the flames were raging in the bowels of the earth, that no living creature could safely meet it, much less penetrate it. They were fortunate enough to save themselves above ground, and the idea was adopted of extinguishing the fire by excluding the air. All the passages were closed as near to the supposed scene of the conflagration as they could be reached. The two shafts which lead immediately above ground were stopped up outside, and plastered over with clay. Five weeks the mine remained thus sealed up, but without effect. Twice, during this period, the coverings above were removed ; each time the enemy was found more furious than before. The flames were heard raging be- low with a sound at which the miner still trembles when he relates it ; the smoke, burdened with mercurial and sulphur- ous exhalations, rolled forth from the mouth of the pit, like streams from the jaws of Acheron, striking down every one that came within its reach. It was apprehended that the fire had attacked the upper works, and was thus threatening the final destruction of the mine. As a last resource, the director resolved to hazard the experiment of laying the mine under water. A stream was turned into the perpendicular shaft, and allowed to flow two days and three nights. During the first * A very complete account of the Quicksilver Mines of Itlria will be found in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Idria, vol. xi. p. 720, The following account of the conflagration, which is not given in that work, is taken from Russell's Tow in Gertnant/, vol. ii. Conflagration of the Quicksilver Mines of Idria. 211 day it produced no effect. In the course of the second day, whether it was that steam, generated by the meeting of the fire and water, was struggling for escape, or that an inflamma- ble air had been produced and kindled by the glowing fossils, of a sudden a subterraneous explosion shook the mountain with the noise and violence of an earthquake. The huts of the miners situated near the entrance were rent ; houses far- ther off, but standing on the slope or near the skirts of the hill, started from their foundations ; and the panic-struck inhabitants were flying in dismay from the ruin that seemed to threaten their valley. The whole thing must have been splendid ; accidental as it was, art could go no farther in imi- tating nature. In the mine itself, as was afterwards found, the explosion had rent the galleries, thrown down the arched roofs, and torn up the stairs. But the victory was gained ; the vapours began to diminish, and at the end of some weeks it was possible to venture into the mine. It cost two years to prepare an apparatus and pump out the water. It was carried off into the Idria, and was found to contain only a small quan- tity of mercury, but a large proportion of vitriolic acid, and so much iron, that the bed and banks of the river were encrusted with iron ochre throughout its whole course, from Idria to where it falls into the Lisonzo. At the same time, every fish disappeared from the stream except the eel, which seems to bid defiance to every thing except actual broiling or roasting. Even when the galleries had been cleared of the water, it was impossible to work in them, partly from the heat which they still retained, but still more from the fumes of sublimated mercury, which produced in the miners a violent salivation, accompanied with convulsions and trembling of the limbs. To produce an almost inhuman zeal, high wages were offered to such as would venture into places reckoned the most dan- gerous, to explore the consequences of the disaster, and collect the quicksilver which had been deposited in large quantities in the galleries. Many purchased this additional pittance with their lives ; and altogether the atmosphere, which con- tinued for months to infect the mine, was so baneful, that it 212 Contributions to Physical Geography. was difficult to muster a sufficient number of healthy men for ordinary operations. 2. Account of the Journey of the American Missionaries to the Volcano of Kirauea.* In our last Number, we gave a very interesting description of the crater of Kirauea, in order to illustrate the drawing of it which accompanied the preceding number. The journey of Mr Ellis, and the American Missionaries, to examine the vol- cano, is too interesting to be withheld from our readers. After examining the crater, as described in our last Num- ber, our travellers walked along the western side of it in search of water, which they had been informed was to be found in the neighbourhood, and succeeded in finding three pools, where the water was perfectly fresh and sweet. These pools appeared great natural curiosities. The surface of the ground in the vicinity was perceptibly warm, and rent by several deep, irregular chasms, from which steam and thick vapours continually arose. In some places these chasms were two feet wide. From thence a dense volume of steam ascended, which was immediately condensed into small drops of water by the cool mountain air, and driven like drizzling rain into hollows in the lava, at the leeward side of the chasms. The pools, which were six or eight feet from the chasms, were surround- ed and covered by flags, rushes, and tall grass. Nourished by the moisture of the vapours, these plants flourished luxu- riantly, and, in their turn, sheltered the pools from the heat of the sun, and prevented evaporation. We expected to find the water warm ; but in this respect we were also agreeably disappointed. When we had quenched our thirst with water thus distilled by nature, we directed the natives to build a hut for us to pass the night in, in such a situation as to com- mand a view of the burning lava ; and while they were thus employed, we prepared to examine the many interesting ob- jects around us. Mr Thurston visited the eastern side of the great crater ; and Messrs Ellis and Goodrich went to examine * From the Journal of Professor Silliman, who received some particulars from Mr Goodrich, which are not given in Mr Ellis's Work. Volcanic Character of the Inland of Hawaii. %\$ some extensive beds of sulphur at the north-east end. After walking about three quarters of a mile over a tract of decom- posed lava, covered with ohelo bushes, they came to a bank about 150 yards long, and in some places upwards of 30 feet high, formed of volcanic sulphur, with a small proportion of red clay. The ground was hot, its surface rent by fissures ; and they were sometimes completely enveloped in the thick vapours that continually ascended. A number of apertures were visible along the whole extent of the bank of sulphur ; smoke and vapours arose from these fissures ; and the heat around them was more intense than in any other part. They climbed about half way up the bank, and endeavoured to de- tach some parts of the crust, but soon found it too hot to be handled. However, by means of their walking sticks, they broke off some curious specimens. Those procured near the surface were crystallized in beautiful circular prisms of a light yellow colour, while those found three or four inches deep in the bank, were of an orange yellow, generally in single or double tetrahedral pyramids, and full an inch in length. A singular hissing and cracking noise was heard among the crystals, whenever the outside crust of sulphur was broken, and the atmospheric air admitted. The same noise was pro- duced among the fragments broken off, until they were quite cold. The adjacent stones and pieces of clay were frequently encrusted, either with sulphate of ammonia, or volcanic sal ammoniac. A considerable quantity was also found in the crevices of some of the neighbouring rocks, which was much more pungent than that exposed to the air. Along the bot- tom of the sulphur bank, they found a number of pieces of tufa, extremely cellular and light. A thick fog now came on, which being followed by a shower of rain, obliged them to leave this interesting laboratory of nature, and return to their companions. They saw flocks of wild geese, which came down from the mountains, and settled among the ohelo bushes : they were in- formed that they were numerous in the interior, but were never seen on the coast. At sun-setting, although the thermometer was as 69% ex- pecting a cold night upon the mountain, they collected fuel, £14 Contributions to Physical Geography. and removed from a dangerous place, which the natives had superstitiously chosen for them, upon the very edge of the crater. The ground sounded hollow in every direction, fre- quently cracked, and in two instances, actually gave way as they were passing over it, and exposed the persons, whose limbs sunk through the lava, to great danger, and to some injury. Mr Thurston, who had been benighted at some distance, found his way back, directed by the fire, but not without ex- periencing great difficulty from the " unevenness of the path, and the numerous wide fissures in the lava.'1 They now par- took with cheerfulness of their evening repast, and afterwards, amidst the whistling of the winds around, and the roaring of the furnace beneath, offered up their evening sacrifice of praise. " Between nine and ten, the dark clouds and heavy fog, that, since the setting of the sun, had hung over the vol- cano, gradually cleared away, and the fires of Kirauea, dart- ing their fierce light across the midnight gloom, unfolded a sight terrible and sublime beyond all they had yet seen." " The agitated mass of liquid lava, like a flood of melted metal, raged with tumultuous whirl. The lively flame that danced over its undulating surface, tinged with sulphureous blue, or glowing with mineral red, cast a broad glare of daz- zling light on the indented sides of the insulated craters, whose bellowing mouths, amidst rising flames and eddying streams of fire, shot up at frequent intervals, with loudest detonations, spherical masses of fusing lava, of bright ignited stones. The dark, bold outline of the perpendicular and jutting rocks around, formed a striking contrast with the luminous lake be- low, whose vivid rays, thrown on the rugged promontories, and reflected by the overhanging clouds, combined to complete the awful grandeur of the imposing scene." They sat " gazing at the magnificent phenomenon for seve- ral hours, when they laid themselves down on mats, to observe more leisurely its varying aspect ; for, although they had tra- velled upwards of twenty miles since the morning, and were both weary and cold, they felt little inclination to sleep. The natives, who probably viewed the scene with thoughts and feelings somewhat different from theirs, seemed however equal- Volcanic Character of the Island of Hawaii. 215 ly interested. They sat most of the night, talking of the achievements of Pele, and regarding with a superstitious fear, (at which we were not surprised,) the brilliant exhibition. They considered it the primeval abode of their volcanic deities. The conical craters, they said, were their houses, where they frequently amused themselves by playing at konane. The waving of the furnaces and the crackling of the flames, were the Jcaui of their fiura, (music of their dance,) and the red flaming surge was the surf wherein they played, sportively swimming on the rolling wave." The natives said, that, according to tradition, the volcano had been burning from chaos, or night, till now — for they re- fer the origin of the world, and even of their gods, to chaos, or night ; and the creation was, in their view, a transition from darkness to light. They stated that, in earlier ages, the volcano " used to boil up, to overflow its banks, and inundate the adjacent country ; but that, for many kings' reigns past, it had kept below the level of the surrounding plain, con- tinually extending its surface, and increasing its depth, and occasionally throwing up, with violent explosion, huge rocks, or red hot stones. These eruptions, they said, were always accompanied by dreadful earthquakes, loud claps of thunder, and vivid and quick succeeding lightning. No great explo- sion, they added, had taken place since the days of Keona, but many places near the sea-shore had been overflowed, on which occasions, they supposed that Pele went, by a road un- der ground, from her house in the crater to the shore. The mythology of Hawaii is much interwoven with the phenomena of their volcanoes and earthquakes, and with the thunder and lightning by which they are accompanied. It is easy to trace in their absurd and extravagant fables respecting the contests of Pele, the goddess of volcanoes, with opposing powers, the physical conflict of fire and water, and of the va- rious elemental agents, and certainly these fables are recom- mended to a poetical imagination, by much that is splendid and grand. Whenever the natives spoke of those gods of fire, it was as " dreadful beings.,, They reside in all the volcanoes, but chiefly in that of Kirauea. They never travelled on journies 216 Contributions to Physical Geography. of mercy, but always on those of wrath. Earthquakes, thun- der, and lightning, announced their approach : sacrifices were made to appease their anger. Hundreds of hogs, both cook- ed and living, were thrown into the craters, when they threat- ened an eruption ; and during an inundation, multitudes were thrown into the rolling torrent of lava, to stay its progress. When these infernal gods were enraged, " they filled Ki- rauea with lava, and spouted it out ; or taking a subterrane- ous passage, marched to some one of their houses (craters) in the neighbourhood, and thence came down upon the delin- quents, with all their dreadful scourges.,, On the 2d of August, the provisions of the party being ex- hausted, they prepared for an immediate return ; but they endeavoured previously to ascertain, in the best manner they could, the size of the crater. They estimated it at five miles, or five and a half in circumference, but the more accurate measurement of Mr Goodrich, mentioned in his letter, makes it seven and a half. The depth of the crater, they estimated at 700 or 800 feet ; but Mr Goodrich fixes it at more than 1000. The travellers " threw down several large stones, which, after several seconds, struck on the sides, and then bounded to the bottom, where they were lost in the lava. Some of them were as large as they could lift ; yet, when they reached the bottom, they appeared like pebbles, and they were obliged to watch their course very steadily to perceive them at all.*1* The party separated into two divisions ,• one pursued the path along the edge of the crater, towards the sea-shore. The path was in many places dangerous, lying along narrow ridges, with fearful precipices on each side ; or across deep chasms and hollows, that required the utmost care to avoid falling into them, and where a fall would have been certain death, as several of the chasms seemed narrowest at the sur- face. In one place they passed along for a considerable dis- tance under a high precipice, where the impending rocks towered some hundred feet above them on their left, and the appalling flood of lava rolled almost beneath on the right. On this side they descended to small craters on the declivity, and also to the black ledge, where they collected a number of Volcanic Character of the Islan d cf Hawaii, 2YI beautiful specimens of lava, generally of a black or red co- Jour, light, cellular, brittle, and shining. They also found a quantity of volcanic glass, drawn out into filaments as fine as human hair, and called by the natives rouoho o Pele, (hair of Pele.) It was of a dark olive colour, semi-transparent, and brittle, though some of the filaments were several inches long. Probably it was produced by the bursting of igneous masses of lava, thrown out from the craters, or separated in fine spun thread, from the boiling fluid, when in a state of perfect fu- sion, borne by the smoke above the edges of the crater, and thence wafted by the winds over the adjacent plain, for they also found quantities of it at least seven miles distant from the crater. They " entered several small craters that had been in vigorous action but a short period before, marks of very re- cent fusion presenting themselves on every side. Their size and height were various, and many, which, from the top, had appeared insignificant as mole-hills, they now found twelve or twenty feet high. The outsides were composed of bright shining lava, heaped up in piles of most singular form. The lava on the inside was of a light or dark red colour, with a glazed surface, and in several places, where the heat had evi- dently been intense, they saw a deposit of small and beauti- fully white crystals. They also entered several covered chan- nels, down which the lava had flowed into the large abyss. They were formed by the cooling of the lava, on the sides and surface of the stream, while it continued to flow on un- derneath. As the size of the current diminished, it had left a hard crust of lava of various thicknesses over the top, sup- ported by walls of the same materials on each side. The in- terior was beautiful beyond description. In many places they were ten or twelve feet high, and as many wide at the bot- tom. The roofs formed a regular arch, hung with red and brown stalactitic lava, in every imaginable shape ; while the bottom presented one continued glassy stream. The winding of its current, and the ripple of its surface were so entire, that it seemed as if, while in rapid motion, the stream had sudden- ly stopped and petrified, even before its undulated surface could subside. They travelled along one of these volcanic chambers to the edge of the precipice, that bounds the great 218 Contributions to Physical Geography. crater, and looked over the fearful steep down which the fiery cascade had rushed. In the space where it had fallen, the la- va had formed a spacious basin, which, hardening as it cool- ed, had retained all those forms, which a torrent of lava, fal- ling several hundred feet, might be expected to produce on the viscid mass below.'" Large rocks were scattered around, of four or five tons weight, which appeared to have been thrown out in the vol- canic eruptions. Within one hundred yards of the great crater, is another of about half the size, called little Kirauea. " Its sides were covered with trees and shrubs, but the bottom was filled with lava, either fluid or scarcely cold, and probably supplied by the great crater, as the trees, &c. on its sides, showed that it had remained many years in a state of quiescence.,, It was stated that there were many others in the neighbourhood. So hot are the ground and the air and vapours issuing from it, that the natives formerly coqked, by these means, (and it would have been considered as impious to do it by any other,) the various sacrifices offered to Pele ; and even food for or- dinary purposes is always cooked here, simply by burying it in the ground. This is done by the wood-cutters and by the bird-catchers. 3. Account of the Effects of the Earthquake of the Vbth No- vember 1822, in the Gold Mine of El Bronce. I visited the gold mines of El Bronce de Petorca, accom- panied by a very intelligent Chilian miner, who, with several of his comrades, was in a mine on this lode a hundred fa- thoms deep, when the great earthquake of the 19th of No- vember 1822, which almost destroyed Valparaiso, took place. He told me, that several of his comrades were killed, and that nothing could equal the horror of their situation. He said, that the mountain shook so, that he could scarcely ascend ; large pieces of the lode were falling down, and every instant they expected the walls of the lode would come to- gether, and either crush them, or shut them up in a prison from which no human power could liberate them. He add- Azara's Account of the Lake of Ybera. 219 ed, that when he got to the mouth of the mine, the scene was very little better ; there was such a dust, that he could not see his hand before him ; large masses of rock were rolling down the side of the mountain on which he stood, and he heard them coming, and rushing past him, without being able to see how to avoid them, and be therefore stood his ground, afraid to move. In almost all the mines which we visited in Chili, we witnessed the awful effects of these earthquakes, and it was astonishing to observe how severely the mountains had been shaken. — Captain Head's Rough Notes on the Pampas. Lon- don, 1826. 4. Account of the Lake of Ybera, formed by infiltration from the River Parana. By M. Azara. On the river Parana, there is a chain of rocks situated in 27° £7' 10" of north lat. and 59° of west long. ; but the passage is always free for small boats, when the river is large, so that the Parana is navigable from the confluence of the Ygazu to the sea. Near this is the Lake Ybera. It is thirty leagues wide to the north, parallel to the Parana, to which it closely approaches, without having any visible communication with this river. It extends thirty leagues to the south, where it forms what is called the gorge of Yuquicua, and afterwards, widening in proportion as it advances to the south, it termi- nates by forming the river Miriuay, which is a considerable one, and which throws itself into the Uruquay. From Yu- quicua the banks of the Ybera have a westerly direction for thirty leagues, and there issue from it three rivers, viz. that of St Lucie, the Corrientes, and the Bateles, which one can never pass, and which throws itself into the Parana. The lake of Ybera receives neither river, nor brook, nor spring. It subsists the whole year without almost any variation ; and it is in a great measure filled with aquatic plants, and even with some trees. It is kept up, however, by the simple fil- tration of the waters of the Parana, which is without example in any other part of the world. This filtration furnishes not only the water of four large rivers, but also that which is carried off by evaporation from a surface of at least 4000 220 Contributions to Physical Geography. square sea miles, and which cannot be estimated below 70,000 tons a-day, according to Halley. I have read in some manuscript historians of the Jesuits, that in the interior of the lake Ybera, there lived an Indian nation of pigmies, and a very detailed description of it is given. But all this is false, and has no more reality than that empire which is supposed to exist in the middle of the lake of Jarages. The Ybera is a great extent of water, which in some places forms a true lake ; but the larger portion of it is filled with plants, so that it is impossible to explore the inte- rior of it either on foot or on horseback, or in a boat. Its situation, and the general disposition of the country, indicate, that the river Parana formerly traversed this lake, and that it afterwards divided itself into the four rivers which now flow but of it. — Voyages dans VAmerique Meridionale, par Don Felix de Azara, torn. i. p. 80 — 82. 3. Account of the Cavern qfPla?iina9 in Carniola. For about a quarter of a mile we followed the course of the stream upwards through the narrow dell, bounded on both sides by bold rocks, and tufted with luxuriant underwood. A long array of corn and saw-mills succeeded. Above the last of them, the dell is terminated by a semicircle of bold and lofty precipices, in the middle of which an enormous archway, almost as regularly formed as if hewn out by the hand of art, opens a way into the entrails of the mountains. Through this majestic portal, the river Laybach pours itself forth at once from the bosom of the earth, and spreads out its waters to the day in an ample basin, which extends on both sides to the walls of rocks that bound the dell. The stem of a huge fir, hollowed out like a canoe, furnishes the only means of reach- ing the entrance, for the waters of the basin not only wash the precipices, but, as was evident from the hollow sound of the waves, have undermined them. A miller's man guided this frail bark with a wooden shovel. The whole passage to the opening does not exceed a hundred feet, and if one sits quiet- ly, danger is out of the question. This natural gateway is about twenty feet wide, and twice as high. It is regularly curved. A few steps forward, and Account of the Cavern of "Pianino, 221 it enlarges itself into a cavern of magnificent dimensions and wonderful regularity of form. There are not many traces of stalactitic ornament. The gigantic walls and vaulted roof stand in their natural grandeur, unadorned and overpowering. No- thing seems to support the enormous weight of mountain above ; it rises from the earth gradually and regularly, bend- ing itself into a majestic natural cupola. The effect is aided by the circumstance, that, owing to the spaciousness of the entrance, no part of the dome remains in darkness ; the eye takes in the whole at once. Except during inundations, the river does not occupy the whole of the floor of the cavern. The bottom is irregular, sloping down from the one side to the other. The upper part was now dry, in consequence of the long continuance of dry weather, and consisted entirely of sand, a deposition from the overflowings of the stream, which, when inundated, occupies the whole width of the portal. The course of the river can- not be followed far into the bowels of the mountain. At the extremity of the cavern ii suddenly turns round to the left. The cavern itself is no longer a vault, but a narrow passage ; the roof sinks down ; light disappears ; and the sound of .the water announces that it is flowing over an uneven and inter- rupted channel. From the moment it enters the cavern its course is slow and tranquil, and it pours itself without noise into the deep sunk mountain basin, which, imbedded among precipices, varies in depth from 12 to 25 feet. But its troubles are not yet past. Flowing from the basin over the artificial embankment erected to raise its waters to the necessary elevation for the mills, it continues its course northwards through the valley. Scarcely, however, has it reached the northern extremity, when the earth again gapes for it, and swallows it up, not through a bold aperture like that which it has quitted, but through numerous small in- sidious rents and crevices. It is lost for nearly nine miles, pursuing its course under ground. It finally bursts forth again at Upper Laybach, where the hilly country sinks down into the wide plain which surrounds Laybach itself; and in the neighbourhood of the latter, it takes refuge from all its 222 Contributions to Physical Geography. subterranean foes, by joining its waters to those of the more formidable Save. The origin of this subterraneous river, which during the thaws in the beginning of summer, and the rains of autumn, pours forth from the jaws of the cavern at Planina a mass of water so much superior to the capacity of the apertures which drink it up at the northern extremity, that the whole valley, bounded as it is on both sides by rocky eminences, is convert- ed into a romantic lake, has not yet been satisfactorily ascer- tained. The more general opinion holds it to be the Poick, a river which throws itself into the mountain at Adelsberg, about nine miles south of Planina, and at a considerably high- er elevation. This is likewise the more probable hypothesis. The body of water in both, at the time I saw them, was alike, and its somewhat muddy colour was the same. The course of the Poick, where it disappears in the mountain at Adels- berg, is to the north ; Planina lies in the same direction, and much lower. According to the other hypothesis, which has been started of late years, the Poick, instead of reappearing through the portal of Planina, and sending its waters by the Save and the Danube to the Black Sea, turns to the westward beneath ground ; reappears, after a subterraneous course of twenty miles, in the sources of the Wippach, on the western confines of Carniola ; pours itself under this name into the Lisonzo, and is thus finally lost in the Adriatic. The Poick being thus disposed of, the river of Planina is declared to be a subterraneous outlet of the neighbouring lake of Zirknitz. The hypothesis is entirely gratuitous. The Wippach, it is true, has a similar origin ; but we have the Idria, the Jersen, and various other streams in every corner of these calcareous hills. It is said, that pieces of wood and other light bodies, which have been thrown into the Poick at Adelsberg, have reappeared in the AVippach, but such on dits are always of doubtful credibility. It is said, for instance, that a travelling cooper, who had suffered shipwreck in the Strudel, or whirl- pool of the Danube, above Vienna, afterwards found part of his equipage floating on the lake of Neusiedel in Hungary, and the people of the country still believe that a subterraneous communication exists between the river and the lake. If the Account of the Lake of Zirknitz. 223 cavern of Planhia be an outlet of the lake of Zirknitz, its waters ought to disappear when the lake is dry ; but the wa- ters of the Laybach never fail entirely. — RusselVs Tour in Germany, vol. ii. 6. Account of the Lake of Zirknitz supplied by Subterranean Streams. The lake of Zirknitz lies in a higher ridge of eminences, about eight miles to the eastward of Planina. It is not remark- able either for its size or beauty. When full, it is just like any other large piece of water ; and the rocks which surround it are too bare and uniform to be picturesque. Its celebrity is due solely to the periodical flux and reflux of its waters from and into the breach of the mountain. It is scarcely worth vi- siting except when the departure of its waters has left unco- vered the orifices of the conduits from which they issue, and through which they disappear ; for it is only then that any idea can be formed of the natural machinery by which its phe- nomena are produced. It is about six English miles long, and three broad. It is imbedded among ridges of limestone, the predominating fossil in the mountains of this part of Car- niola. On the approach of midsummer, in ordinarily dry sea- sons, when the snow has disappeared from the neighbouring mountains, its waters begin to decrease. If the weather con- tinues dry, the diminution proceeds rapidly, and in a few weeks the whole mass is drained off. A rank vegetation springs up from the mud which remains behind. The peasants, if the summer promises well, sow grass, or perhaps rye, on the exterior part of the abandoned bed. In a couple of months they are mow- ing grass where the dark waters of the lake were formerly spread out ; and the sportsman shoots game where, but a short time before, he was fishing pike. When the lake is entirely gone, the caverns through which it has fled become visible, sinking into the mountains, some on the side, and others in the bottom of its bed. They all lie towards the northern bank ; they vary in size. Though some of them can be entered, they are not practicable to any extent. Water, or the narrowness and lowness of the passage, uniformly arrests your progress* So far as they have been traced, they all descend. 224 Contributions to Physical Geography. On the southern side, the bottom and bank of the lake yawn into a similar set of apertures, through which, as the rains set in towards the end of autumn, water begins to rise. It con- tinues increasing in quantity, and gradually fills the deeper hollows of the deserted bed. Even some of the openings on the northern side, which had assisted to drain the lake, now send forth their stores from beneath to fill it. As the rains continue, the waters issue from these apertures with such im- petuosity, that pike are said to have been frequently taken, wounded and disfigured in a manner which could only be ex- plained on the supposition, that the violence of the subterra- nean streams had dashed them to and fro against the rocks of the hidden passage, through which it hurries them upfrom deep- er reservoirs, before they emerge into the lake. So soon as the waters begin to appear, the birds which had nestled in the long grass seek another refuge ; the peasant removes in haste what of his hazardous crop may still remain within the margin of the basin ; and within as short a time as that in which it had retired, the lake is again there in all its former extent, and stocked with its former inhabitants. The length of the time in which it remains dry, depends en- tirely on the comparative dryness of the season. The waters ran off in the summer of 1821, returned toward the end of No- vember, and ran off a second time in the end of February 1822, not, indeed, an ordinary occurrence, but perfectly natural ; be- cause no rain had fallen from the beginning of January, and the snow on the higher mountains still continued to be frozen. Sometimes, again, when the summer is decidedly what may be called a wet one, the lake does not retire at all ; all proofs that the sources of its waters are not subterranean, although the channels which conduct them into this basin are subterranean. The phenomena of this lake, therefore, do not seem either to be of very difficult explanation, or to deserve the astonish- ment with which many travellers, and some naturalists have re- garded them. The whole ridge of mountains consists of a very porous calcareous rock, through which the rains and melted snow easily penetrate. It is traversed, likewise, internally by innumerable suites of galleries and caverns, in which the wa- ters unite themselves into streams, and pursue their subterra- Mr Nasmyth's Description of an Instrument, $c. 225 ncous course, till they issue from the mountain into some lower open hollow, as in the valley of Planina, or here in the lake of Zirknitz. The quantity and size of the fish, which retire with the lake into the caverns beneath, and return with the return- ing stream, prove that there must be capacious reservoirs with- in the bosom of the mountain, in which they can exist and pros- per. Where the outlets of the lake finally discharge their waters cannot, of course, be easily traced, because their subterrane- ous channels cannot be followed ; but the whole country, from the northern limits of Carniola to the shores of the Adriatic, from the caverns of Planina to the sources of the Timavus, is so full of streams, whose first appearance above ground implies a previous subterranean course, that there is no difficulty in accounting for the disappearance of the lake. The Jersero is- suing from the cave of St Cantian, the Idria bursting from the mountains not far from the mines, the Wippach rising in the same manner farther to the westward, are, in all likelihood, outlets of the Zirknitz. And what is there improbable in the supposition, that even the Timavus itself draws part of its stores from this alternating reservoir ? — RusseVs Tour in Ger- many. Art. VII. — Description of an Instrument for Measuring the Comparative Expansibility of Metals and other Solid Bo- dies. By Mr James Nasmyth. Communicated by the Author. This instrument consists of a glass tube, about one inch in diameter, and about four inches long, sealed at one end. To this tube is cemented a brass cap, the top of which is made to screw off. To this top or cover is cemented a glass tube, about three feet long, (such as that used for thermometers,) open at each end. A scale of inches and tenths is attached to this tube. In order to operate with this instrument, equal bulks of each of the metals to be operated upon is to be procured, of such dimensions as just to fill the glass tube A, Plate IV. Fig. 3, but not tightly. The tube A is then to be filled with water at VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827- P 226 Sir Thomas Brisbane's Observations on the temperature 50°. One of the pieces of metal is then to be in- troduced (lead for instance ;) the cover D, with its tube and scale, is now to be screwed on, and the water that remains in the tube A is to be made to stand at the beginning of the scale, by screwing the small screw C into it The tube A and its contents being at temperature 50°, the apparatus is then ready for an experiment. The tube A and its contents is then to be heated to 100°, by immersing it in water at that temper- ature. The lead will now expand and force the water up the tube E, for example, to twelve inches. The lead is now to be removed, and the next piece to be introduced, (tin.) All things being in the same state as at the commencement of the former experiment, the apparatus is again to be heated to 100° ; the tin and water will now expand to six inches. From this we may in- fer, that lead is twice as expansible as tin. The same opera- tion is to be repeated with each of the other metals or solid bodies under trial. By knowing, also, the contents of each inch of the bore of the tube E, by deducting from the expansion of both the wa- ter and metal, that of the water alone, which must be previous- ly ascertained, we may be able to tell the total expansion of each of the substances in parts of cubic inches. Art. VIII. — Observations on the Mean Temperature of the Earth at Sydney > made in the year 1824 and 1825. Com- municated to the Editor by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C. B. F. R. S. London and Edinburgh. Among the numerous and important scientific inquiries insti- tuted by Sir Thomas Brisbane in New South Wales, those relative to the mean temperature of the earth hold an impor- tant place. The following annual series of observations on the temperature of deep wells, is doubtless the most complete that has ever been made, and affords interesting data for va- rious scientific speculations. The mean temperature of the earth at Sydney, as obtained from the last column, is 63°.8, differing only the fraction of Mean Temperature of the Earth at Sydney. %%7 a degree from 6S#, the temperature deduced from Dr Brew- sters formula. By another set of observations, Sir Thomas had found that the mean temperature of the earth at Paramatta was only 61 °9, though almost in the same latitude ; and though the depth of the thermometer in the bores was at an average not above 14 feet. The observations at Sydney are on the other hand made at depths of eighty-four feet, and hence there is reason to believe, that this excess of the temperature of the earth at Sydney over that at Paramatta, viz. 2° nearly, is owing to the depth at which the observation was made, and consequently to the same cause which occasions a rise of tem- perature as we descend into deep mines. We are aware, that there is a great difference between the mean temperature of the atmosphere at Paramatta, and at Sydney, but this cannot explain the increase of heat at Syd- ney, at a depth of 84 feet. Register of the Temperature of the Well at the Prisoners* Barrack, Sydney, from March 12, 1 824, to March 14, 1825. Date. Number of Depth Thermometer. Tempera- Tempera- feet to the of Before im- ture of Wa- ture of Wa 1824. Water. Water. mersion. ter at the Surface. ter at the Bottom. Remarks. March 12. 32. 52 66°. 64. 6 4° 7 A. M. 13. 34. 50. 67. 64. 64. 6 15. 34. 50. 70. 64. 64. 1 7 22. 33. 51. 61. 64. 64. 6 24. 33. 51. 60. 63.8 64. 7 25. 33. 51. 56. 63.5 64. 7 1 28. 33. 51. 56. 63.5 64. 6 29. 33. 51. 56. 63.5 64. 7 April 4. 59. 25. 60. 63.5 64. 7 12. 56. 28. 60. 63.6 64. 7 15. 51. 33. 59. 63.7 64. 7 19. 47. 37. 55. 63.6 64. 7 26. 45. 39. 65. 4. 64. 7 May 3. 40.6 43.6 57, 63.6 64. 7 8. 38.6 45.6 49. 63.2 64. 7 13. 36.6 47.6 56. 63.6 64. 7 June 22. 22.6 61.6 54. 63.2 64. 10 25. 22. 62. 47. 62.9 64. 8 29. 22. 62. 50. 62.9 64. 7 July 9. 17.6 66.6 46. 62.8 64. 8 14. 17.6 66.6 52. 63. 64. n 1 228 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Thermometer. Date. Number of Depth Tempera- Tempera- feet to the of Before im- ture of Wa- ture of Wa- Remarks. 1824. Water. Water. mersion. ter at the Surface. ter at the Bottom. July, 21. 18.6 65.6 53°. 63°. 63.9° 8 A. M. 24. 18.6 65.6 8. 63. 63.8 8 28. 19. 65. 46. 63. 63.8 lh Aug. 7. 19.6 64.6 44. 62.8 63.7 8 18. 20.6 63.6 56. 63. 63.6 8 23. 21.6 62.6 54. 63. 63.6 8 25. 22. 62. 47. 62.8 63.6 8 28. 22.9 61.3 45. 62.6 63.6 8 31. 23.2 60.10 51. 62.8 63.6 7i Sept. 7. 23.6 60.6 48. 62.6 63.6 8 16. 22. 52. 58. 63. 63.5 8 18. 22.8 61.4 59. 63. 63.5 n 25. 22. 62. 51. 63. 63.5 7 Oct. 1 . 22. 62. 50. 62-8 63.5 7 7. 22. 62. 62. 63.6 63.6 7 19. 21.8 62.4 65. 63.8 63.8 7 29. 21. 63. 70. 63.9 63.8 7 Nov. 7. 12. | 24. 20.4 63.8 62. 64. 63.9 7 20.4 63.8 68. 64. 63.9 7 20. 64. 69. 64. 63.9 7 Dec. 7. 19.8 64.4 67. 64. 63.9 7 22. 20. 64, 66. 64. 63.9 7 1825. Jan. 1 7. 19.11 64.1 71. 64.2 64. 7 22. 20.5 63.7 66. 64. 64. 6 27. 20-8 63.4 70. 64.3 64. 7 Feb. 2. 22.5 61.7 62. 64. 64* 7 16. 25.5 58.7 68. ' 64.5 64. 7 March 14. 24.7 59.5 65. 65. 64.4' 7 Art. IX. — Account of a Voyage to Madeira, Brazil, Juan Fernandez, and the Gallipagos Islands, performed in 1824 and 1825, with a view of examining their Natural History. By Mr Scoulee. Communicated by the Author. (Con- tinued from Number xi. p. 73.) On the 6th August we left Nootka, and directed our course for the Straits of Juan de Fuca, concerning whose existence there has been so much discussion. , On the southern side of the straits, we saw the village of Tatoach, and many canoes came off to the vessel. Some of these people had been at Fort George, and seen some of the people we had on board, Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 229 so that friendship was soon established between us. They were, however, very uneasy, as they did not wish to venture far from their own coast, on account of the Clayoquats and Nithnats of the opposite coast, with whom they were at war, for the purpose of obtaining slaves. One remarkable circumstance, with regard to these Nichases, is, that many of them were cloth- ed in blankets of their own manufacture. The wool they em- ployed was obtained from their dogs, but we could not learn by what method they succeeded in weaving them. They seemed sufficiently comfortable in their dog's-wool blankets, and had dyed them of various colours. They said they kept all their white dogs in a small island about two miles from the main land, and fed them regularly every morning ; and by this means they preserved their breed of dogs producing white wool. Their dogs differed much in their appearance from those of the other Indian tribes ; the ears were more pen- dulous, and they had more the appearance of spaniels than of the native dogs of America. 9th. — The country, on both sides of the straits, had the most beautiful appearance of any part of the coast we had ever seen. It abounded in beautiful towns, interspersed with trees, and in some of the finest shrubs of American growth ; and the numerous villages we saw, showed that the country abound- ed in the necessaries of life. In the afternoon, we anchored in Port Discovery, where we were visited, by many canoes from the Indian village. This tribe was named the Klallums, and were superintended by an old chief called Squastin ; and be- cause some of his people had been kindly received at Fort George, he behaved in the most friendly manner. During the five days we remained here, the old chief visited us every morn- ing, bringing with him a present of berries of the Gualtheria shallon, salmon, and shell-fish. In return for his hospitality, he was very anxious we should assist him in making war on the tribes farther up the straits, and was at great pains to per- suade us, that we would meet with a people who would prove extremely hostile, and would poison all the provisions they sold us. To these representations of the chief we paid little at- tention. In the neighbourhood of their village, we saw many of those poles, so well described by Captain Vancouver. They 230 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. i were about eighteen or twenty feet in height, and were sup- ported by three shorter ones. We were at a loss to conjecture the use of these sticks, and our inquiries among the Indians produced but little information on this subject. The most probable opinion is, that they expose the heads of their van- quished enemies on them. This opinion is supported by Cap- tain Vancouver, who saw human heads affixed to them near Port Townshend ; and I think it is probable, that these people, notwithstanding their peaceable and friendly conduct towards us, are extremely revengeful. In most of the canoes, we saw spears about ten feet long, furnished with iron points, and or- namented with the hairs of their enemies. If these poles be the monuments of savage vengeance, it is at least pleasant to know, that the practice is confined to a very limited district, and that a motive of avarice will generally prevent these tribes from using their prisoners cruelly, as slaves constitute their principal source of wealth. The Klallums of Port Discovery were much less covetous than the people of Nootka, and the numerous presents of provisions they gave us, supported the ship's crew, and they were grateful for every thing we chose to give them in return. When we consider the abundance of provisions this beautiful country affords, we shall not be sur- prised at the great population it maintains ; and, probably, no Indians in North America have less difficulty in procuring their food than the tribes from the Gulf of Georgia to the Columbia River. The sea yields an abundant supply of fish- es of the most delicious kinds, as various^ species of mullet, turbot, and cod ; every rivulet teems with myriads of salmon ; and the meadows and forests produce an endless variety of berries and esculent roots. The collection of the latter forms the occupation of the women and children, while the men are occupied in procuring the former, and both are carefully dried for winter stores. About the end of September, they quit their summer residence on the coast, and retreat into the interior of the country, where, in addition to their winter stock, they kill abundance of otters, beavers, and elks, whose skins afford them clothing, or the means of obtaining European articles. They return to the coast again in the beginning of April. 14th. — We left the friendly Klallums of Port Discovery, and Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 231 coasted along this fine country. As we approached the Noot- ka side, two canoes came off to us belonging to a famous chief named Wascalatchy, who, from his propensity to travelling, was well known over a great extent of country. He often travelled from his residence on De Fucas Straits to visit the fort, as he did not wish to sell his skins through any of his countrymen, in whose honesty he placed little confidence. His journeys did not always terminate when his buisness was con- cluded ; but he had ascended the Columbia as far as the falls, and visited tribes whose language and manners differed entire- ly from those of his own people. Probably no Indian inha- biting De Fucas Straits, had ever been nearer the Rocky Moun- tains. 15th. — We anchored in Strawberry cove of Vancouver,- and, as the country here was uninhabited, employed the time in wandering through the woods and collecting plants. Next day we proceeded down the Gulf of Georgia, and remained two days near an Indian village. As the people were on terms of friendship with the natives of Port Discovery, we were kind- ly received, and they presented us with two newly killed bea- vers, which afforded us an agreable repast after living so long on salmon. These poor fpeople received our presents so thank- fully, and a good understanding was so well established, that we resolved to venture ashore among them. On landing, some children which had been amusing themselves scampered away on our approach. I hastened to a saline marsh near the vil- lage which afforded some interesting plants ; and in dry situa- tions we found plenty of the yellow-flowered myosotis which grows so sparingly on the Columbia. During the time we were ashore the Indians examined our conduct with the most eager curiosity; but the astronomical instruments surprised them most, and they inquired if we gained information in the sun of the friendly or hostile dispositions of the tribes we were next to visit, or performed these enchantments to cure some sick person. On leaving this peaceable tribe, (the Summus) we proceeded to Point Roberts. In this situation the coast is low and marshy, and covered with rushes and willows, but we had been inform- ed that there was a very numerous clan in this place. Before *rb 23$ Mr Scolder's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. saw any of them a canoe arrived from Squastin and his allies to warn us against the insidious Indians we would soon see. This only convinced us of the inveterate enmity that subsisted between the different tribes, and of course the advice was little regarded, and the plausible story they invented, that these In- dians were preparing to attack the vessel, wasequally unsuccessful. 20th. — These Indians arrived to day, and we were on friend- ly terms with them, notwithstanding the tales which had been told us to their disadvantage. They belonged to the allied tribes of the Cowitchen and Yucualtah. The name last mention- ed bears a strong affinity to the Indian name of Nootka. The chief Chassia came on board ; he behaved in a very friendly manner, and informed us that he had once seen white men in the interior, and in the canoe of this chief we saw a man deep- ly marked with the small pox, the only Indian we had seen on the north-west coast with marks of this disease. The rarity of such an occurrence proves how fatal this disease must have been among them. This disorder broke out among the tribes in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, and spread in every di- rection among the Indians, depopulating the country in its progress. Even the Indians behind the rocky mountains were not secure from its entrance ; and its ravages were only ar- rested at the shores of the Pacific. The natives of the Colum- bia remember it with terror ; and the name of the disease has been sufficient to deter hostile tribes from plundering the traders. The disease must have been extremely fatal among the Indians ; and it accounts for the depopulated state of the coast, which did not escape the acuteness of Captain Vancouver. He found in several places great quantities of bones, and many canoes containing five or six skeletons, which were no doubt in- terred at that unfortunate period. 26tn. — While near Point Roberts, I made several excur- sions, and as we were under no apprehension from the Indians, we did not hesitate to venture among them, and to employ one of them in carrying my box, an office which they were eag- er to do, as they always expected some little present to reward their diligence. As our business in the Gulf of Georgia was now completed, we left the Yucualthas and anchored in the afternoon near the village of our old friends the Summus. We Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 233 then landed at their village but found the chief was absent ; his people however received us with much kindness. The village is finely situated on a small dry plain, surrounded on the north and east by a forest of pine and cedar trees, and exposed to the genial influence of the westerly breezes. The number of houses amounted to twenty, but they were very large. The vil- lage might contain about 250 inhabitants. The houses had sloping roofs of fir and cedar planks, and thatched with mats of Typha latifolia. Nearer the shore there were several large shades for drying fish, and from the immense quantities of dried salmon we saw, there was little probability they would have to encounter the horrors of famine the ensuing winter. The method of preparing the salmon was very simple. The ver- tebrae and intestines are taken out, and the fish is split into four thin slices, which are dried in the sun. To preserve the salmon roe they make bags of the fish's skin, and then fill it with roe and preserve it for winter use. When opened the smell is most disgusting, but this species of caviar is keenly relished by the Indians. After satisfying our curiosity, I wandered through the woods, attended by the little children. It was with satisfac- tion we reflected, that through mild treatment we had gained the good-will of every tribe we had visited. On embarking we found the Indians busy in removing the planks of their houses to their winter abode. While continuing our voyage through the straits, canoes came off from every quarter, bringing plenty of salmon and holibut, and eager to obtain in return, needles, fish-hooks, and small knives. The different tribes who inhabit De Fucas Straits, and the Gulf of Georgia differ very little in their habits from the Co- lumbian aborigines. The practice of flattening the heads of their children is universal. They are much addicted to paint- ing themselves, and the paints they use are red ochre, charcoal, and pulverized mica. They make regular lines on their faces with these articles, which gives them a most disagreeable ap- pearance. They apply great quantities of grease to their hair. Their dresses are very various. Some had blankets of dog's- wool, others had robes made of raccoons and elk skins, and very few had English blankets. The women, as in all other places, wore petticoats of straw, or of the prepared bark of the cedar. 244 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, As iron is very scarce among them, their arrows are generally pointed with bone or with pieces of muscle shells. On the 3d September we crossed the bar of the Columbia, and again anchored in Baker's Bay. Next morning I set out for Fort Vancouver to join my old associate Mr Douglas. As we passed Cheenook Point we saw the burying ground of Comcomly, where, within two years, this unfortunate old chief has deposited the bodies of eight individuals of his once nu- merous family. The canoes in which the bodies were deposited were cover- ed with the laced coats, silks, blankets, and other articles the deceased possessed, and had a remarkably melancholy appear- ance. The Indians, like the ancient inhabitants of Britain, de- posited the arms of the dead along with their body. Each of Comcomly's sons had a fowling piece by his side, and a loaded pistol in each hand. The bodies are annually uncovered by the old chief, and if necessary, wrapped in new blankets. For- merly the Cheenooks used to live in this place, but since it be- came a burying-place, it has been abandoned by the Indians As it was sunset before we left the ship, we had to travel all night, and in the morning we breakfasted on a small alluvial island, about twenty miles from the ship. At this place I had a few minutes to botanize, and, although the season was far ad- vanced, we found some curious plants. The wapito or Indian potato grew in abundance. Valisneria grew in the mud of the river, and I also found a beautiful Sisyrinchium with yel- low flowers. On arriving at Fort Vancouver we were kindly received by all the gentlemen. Mr Douglas was just return- ed from a short excursion he had made to the interior. While I had botanized along the coast, from the Columbia in lat. 45. N. to Queen Charlotte's island in 52, Mr Douglas had taken a most extensive range in a different direction, and through a very different country, so that our respective herbariums contained entirely different sets of plants. His first excursion had been up the Multuoma or Wilhamut river, which takes a southerly course from the Columbia. He followed this river for about fifty miles- in a country abounding in salt springs, and where the Indians cultivate the Nicotiana rustica. His next journey was to the falls of the Columbia, where he found a 11 Mr Scouler's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 235 rich country for the botanist, and saw a race of Indians who differ entirely in language and habits from the Indians of this coast. They inhabit the immense plains of the interior, and their principal wealth consists in their numerous herds of horses, so that, in some respects, they may be called a pastoral people, analogous to the inhabitants of the plains of northern Asia, though inferior in civilization. D uring my stay at the fort, our time past pleasantly away in making excursions, arranging our collections, and procur- ing specimens of the animals of the country. While thus em- ployed, one of the most respectable of the Indian chiefs re- quested our medical aid to his brother who was sick. The sick chief was named Tutilliham, and had the reputation of being the greatest warrior on the Columbia ; he was unfortu- nately in the last stage of an enteritic affection, and, after ex- plaining this to his friends, we gave such medicines as might palliate his complaint ; but he died in a few days. One of the symptoms he had, was a small tumour situated on the right side, hejow the liver. This circumstance afterwards led to se- rious consequences, for it was recollected that three months ago he had eaten at the house of a neighbouring chief, who pretended to great knowledge of medicine, a quantity of cha- mass roots, * which they now blamed as the cause of his death. In consequence of this opinion, the unfortunate chief was as- sassinated by the friends of the deceased chief. 20th September. — I left Fort Vancouver to return to the ship, which was soon to sail, and on this occasion I cannot but mention the kind reception I had ever experienced there from Mr M'Loughlin, and the other gentlemen of the establishment. I saw with pleasure that the canoe I was to sail in was man- ned by Sandwich Islanders in the Company's service, and as they were less superstitious than the Canadians, I could exa- mine Mount Coffin with more freedom. Our arrival at this famous Indian cemetery, called by the Canadians Rocher des Morts, was under favourable circumstances ; the day was stor- my, so that there was less risk of being interrupted by canoes. This hill is about 150 feet above the level of the river, and only covered by a few shrubs in some places. On its steep Bulbs of Phalangiujn cscukntum. 236 Dr Brewster on the separation of and naked summit no canoes were deposited, but they were all placed on the side towards the river, and in such a manner, that I suspect it was intended they should fall into the water when they became decayed. Near some canoes there were large boards painted with various figures, but generally that of the human face ; to the boards were affixed little bunches of feathers, and in some cases narrow slips of red cloth. On the top of many of the canoes they had placed wooden dishes such as they use in cooking their fish, and other domestic uten- sils. The bodies with their ornaments were enveloped in mats of Typlia latifblia, and the canoes covered with boards, and secured by having stones placed on them. On opening one of these canoes of the dead, a large snake issued out as if to repel all intruders on these melancholy abodes, and many of these reptiles were seen around the other canoes. The occur- rence of serpents around the abodes of the dead is known in all countries, and sometimes attracted the attention of the poets. This method of depositing the dead is peculiarly affecting. Every exertion of Indian ingenuity is exerted to show their re- spect to deceased friends. Their most valuable property is deposited along with them, and the solitude and wildness of the places they select, add much to these impressions. When once the body is placed in the place of the dead, the name of the deceased is never mentioned on any occasion, but they allude to him as the relation of some surviving friend. The feeling that makes them refuse to pronounce the name of their dead friends, prevents them from visiting their cemeteries unless on some very important occasion. The stormy weather that fa- voured my purpose of examining this curious spot continued without interruption till we left the Columbia, where we ex- changed its dense fogs and constant showers for a brighter sky and a more pleasing climate. Art. X. — On the separation of Epistilbite Jrom Heulandite, as demonstrated by optical characters. By David Brews- ter, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. In the eighth Number of this Journal we had the satisfaction Epistilbite from Heulandite. 237 of printing a communication from Dr Gustavus Rose of Berlin, " on Epistilbite, a new mineral species of the Zeolite family." This distinguished chemist, whose crystallographic and chemi- cal knowledge is well known, had separated the Epistilbite from Heulandite on the authority of certain differences in their chemical composition, their hardness and specific gra- vity, and their crystallographic form. Professor Weiss too, in whose practised eye and theoretic skill every confidence may be placed, had previously regarded the Epistilbite as a new variety of foliated Zeolite ; and Count Bournon, one of the fa- thers of mineralogical science, had likewise considered it as something new. With all this evidence in favour of the separation of these two species, we were not a little surprised at an ingenious and elaborate memoir, published by Mr Levy in the Philosophical Magazine for January 1827, in which he considers the iden- tity of the two minerals as almost demonstrated. In order that the nature of his arguments may be understood, we shall give the following comparative tables of the properties of the two minerals. Heulandite. Epistilbite. Specific gravity, - 2.211 2.249 Hardness, a little greater than Heulandite. Blowpipe, - - the same as Heulandite. r Silex, j Alumine, 59.95 16.87 58.59 17.52 Analysis,* ■{ Lime, - 7.19 | Water, - 15.10 7.56 14.48 I Soda, - 1.78 In order to compare the crystallographic structure of the two minerals, Mr Levy assumes that the crystals of Epistilbite may be derived from the primitive form of Heulandite ; and he then shows that this primitive form may be so modified as to give a secondary form very like that of Epistilbite. In this way he obtains the following angles : * In this comparison, taken from Dr Rose's paper, the soda is wanting in the Heulandite. Dr Rose's second analysis of Epistilbite contains, how- ever, no soda ; but we think it has been omitted in the manuscript by mistake. Dr Brewster on the separation of Calculated angles of the molli- fication of Heulandite. Angles of Epistilbite, ac- cording to Dr G. Rose. 147°40' 40' - . 147°40' 135 52 - . 135 10 122 15 I 123 19 J — - I 122 9 108 29 - 109 46 154 31 I 154 11 S - - 154 51 It is not our intention to examine this ingenious resuk of Mr Levy's. We leave this task to Dr Rose, who will no doubt remove some of the objections at least, which have been brought against the separation of Epistilbite from Heulandite. Our object is to take advantage of the perplexity into which the crystallographer and the chemist are respectively thrown ; — to direct the attention of the -philosophical mineralogist to the di- lemma in which his science is thus placed, and to point out the influence of optical characters, and the singular facility of their application, in extricating a doubtful species from the arena of contending opinions, and establishing it upon the basis of unquestionable physical principles. I have long ago shown that Heulandite has two axes of double refraction ; that the principal axis is perpendicular to the planes of most eminent cleavage, and that the two systems of polarized rings are easily seen through a plate bounded by the cleavage planes. If we now take a plate of Epistilbite comprehended be- tween its planes of most eminent cleavage, and examine its structure by polarized light, we shall look in vain for the two systems of coloured rings. If the two plates are of equal thickness, it will be seen that the double refraction of the Epistilbite, in directions perpendicular to the cleavage planes, is enormously greater than that of Heulandite, the latter at a certain thickness giving the colours of the third order, while the former gives the white light of fixed polarization, and ex- hibits at its edges many orders of colours. This experiment, which can be made by the merest tyro in science, establishes between Heulandite and Epistilbite a dif- ference of structure of such a decided character, as to settle for ever the question at issue. Had we merely shown that the two Kpistilbitejrom Hetdandite. 239 minerals were separated by certain constant differences in their refractive power, or in their double refraction, or in the incli- nation of their resultant axes, we might have expected that some mineralogists would not appreciate the value of such phy- sical distinctions ; but when we have shown that the physical structure of the two bodies has entirely different relations to the single cleavage which so strikingly characterizes both, we an- ticipate the ready acquiescence of all classes of mineralogists. From this result, we may now return to consider the influ- ence of Mr Levy's process on the union of mineral species. It is obvious that the secondary form of one species may be de- rived by calculation from the primary form of another species which never exhibits the same modifications, and yet the two species may be perfectly distinct ; and, consequently, the as- similation of a real to a calculated secondary form can never be held as a proof of identity of species. To this it may be replied, that, in the case of Epistilbite and Heulandite, the as- similation is not perfect, and that the principle may still be sound, though its failure may, in the present case, be admit- ted. This argument is plausible ; and we should certainly at- tach some value to the principle, if all the other characters of the two species put in comparison concurred in establishing their identity ; but r the difference in the general appearance of Epistilbite from the ordinary crystals of Heulandite," ad- mitted by Mr Levy, — the existence of soda in the former, and its superior hardness and specific gravity, — are points of dissi- milarity which cannot be overlooked in estimating the present application of the principle. Before concluding this notice, I cannot avoid directing the attention of mineralogists to the singular perplexity into which the crystallographer is thrown, by the discovery of Haytorite, a substance found in Devonshire, possessing a distinct crystal- line form, and exhibiting bright planes capable of having their inclination measured by the reflecting goniometer. These forms are considered by Mr W. Phillips and Mr Levy, two of our ablest mineralogists, to be pseudomofyrfious, and the latter re- gards it as probable that they have had these forms impressed upon them in moulds, made either by crystals of Humboldtite, 240 Mr Robison's Account of the Failure of the a mineral not even found in England, or by some unknown species.* If we admit this probability, which is inferred from the ab- sence of cleavage in Haytorite, then we are entitled to suspect that many of the old species, particularly those which have only one locality, and which are destitute of cleavage, such as Wagnerite and others, may also be pseudomorphous crystals, deriving their form from that of an unknown species. When the forms of cleavage correspond with the external forms of the mineral, all perplexity is removed ; but if there should be no such correspondence, or no cleavage, the crystallographer is left in utter darkness. That which is merely external, and which, therefore, may be impressed by external causes, can never of itself be regarded as a secure ground for discrimina- ting mineral species. Those properties which are internal, which have their origin in the nature of the molecules of the body itself, or in their mode of aggregation, and which are, therefore, incommunicable, and independent of all external circumstances, form the only secure basis of mineralogical clas- sification. Art. XI. — Account of the Failure of the Suspension Bridge at Paris. By John Robison, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. In a Letter to the Editor. Dkae Sir, I regret that I am unable to give more than a very superficial reply to your inquiries relative to the failure of the Suspension Bridge at Paris, as I did not visit it after that event. On viewing it a few days before the accident happened, I saw enough to make me fear that it could not stand long ; the greatest resistance which the supports could oppose to the pull of the chains having already begun to yield to the load of the unfinished roadway. To explain this it is necessary to describe the mode of attachment adopted in this bridge, as it differs essentially from any other which I have seen or heard of. The supporting chains in this case, instead of proceeding in the direction DE, Plate IV. Fig 4. to be inserted in a mass of * This curious subject will be treated in a subsequent article in this Number. Suspension Bridge at Paris. 241 masonry, 01 other immoveable fixture, were deflected perpen- dicularly downward at A, through hollow masses of building, at the bottoms of which they were made fast. In order to prevent these masses from being pulled inward, their sides next the bridge were supported by buttresses of masonry, which in their turn were sustained by platforms (as at C) resting on piles. If this construction had been executed in strict consonance with the theory which indicated it, the platform C would have been at right angles, and the piles parallel to a line bisecting the angle DAB formed by the chain, but the difficulty of driv- ing piles when they deviate much from the perpendicular, pro- bably prevented this from being done, and the masses as exe- cuted had a tendency to a movement of rotation round the point C. It could hardly be expected, under such circum- stances, that this point should have remained fixed, even in dry weather ; and, accordingly, it appears to have been from this part of the structure yielding inwards, that the whole gave way ; fortunately the scaffolding on which the roadway had been formed, was still standing a few inches below it, and im- mediately relieved the chains of a great portion of their load, so that little damage was done to any part of the materials. The indication of approaching failure which struck me dur- ing my short visit to the works of the bridge, was a vertical fissure which had taken place in the masses AJB, the sides on which the chains pressed having receded about an inch from the opposite ones. This showed, that though the bridge had not been fully loaded, the pull of the chains had overcome both the resistance of the mass AC, and the adhesion of the mason- ry in AB. This had happened although the season had been remarkably dry, and it occurred to me that wet weather, by softening the ground, would cause a complete subversion. I understood afterwards (from report) that the great water main from Chaillot, which passed between the masses and the bridge about F, (and had perhaps contributed materially to their sup- port) had been broken across by their pressure, and that the escape of its water hastened the work of destruction. I may add, that considerable inconvenience seemed to have been experienced from the triple ranks of chains having been VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827. (4 242 Dr Buckland on the Bones of Hyenas, tyc. conducted so close to each other. The uppermost rank being most exposed to the direct influence of the sun, acted as a shade to the lower ones ; it therefore expanded more than them, and subsided so as to lay both its own weight, and its share of that of the roadway, on the second rank. The workmanship of the chains and the whole detail of the bridge seemed excellent, and it appears certain that, if the usual methods of securing the ends of the chains had not been de- parted from, this bridge would have continued to ornament its beautiful site, and to be an honourable monument to the learned engineer who planned it. Length of the bridge from pillar to pillar, 170 metres = 557 ft. nearly. The width 9\ - = 31 ft. — Height of pillars above the roadway - 14 - = 46 ft.—— I am, Dear Sir, Your very obedient servant, John Robison 9 Athol Crescent, Feb. 1827. P. S. — A detailed account of this bridge, and much valuable information, will be found in the interesting " Memoire sur les Ponts suspendus, par M. Navier, Ingenieur en chef au Corps Royal des Ponts et Chaussees" — Paris, 1823. Art. XII. — Observations on the Bones of Hyenas and other Animals in the Cavern of Lunel, near Montpellier, and in the adjacent Strata of Marine formation* By the Rev. W. Buckland, D. D. Professor of Mineralogy and Geolo- gy, Oxford. The cave of Lunel is situated in compact calcaire grossier, with subordinate beds of globular calcareous concretions, and the whole of the rock having something of an oolitic structure. In working a freestone quarry of this calcaire grossier, the * Having already (No. viii. p. 378) published a short description of this interesting cavern, as examined by M. Marcel de Serres, we are glad to be able to give an abstract of Professor Buckland's account of it, which was read at the Geological Society on the 17th November last. This abstract is taken from the Phil. Mag. No. i. p. 66, Jan. 1827. Professor Buckland visited the cave in March 182G, and has established nearly a perfect identity between the cavern of Lunel and those of England. in the Cavern qf'Lunel. 243 side of the present cavern was accidentally laid open, and con- siderable excavations have since been made in it, at the expence of the present government, for the purpose of extracting its animal remains, which lie buried in mud and gravel, and of searching for the aperture through which all these extraneous substances have been introduced. These operations have ex- posed a long rectilinear vault of nearly 1 00 yards in length, and of from ten to twelve feet in width and height. The floor is covered with a thick bed of diluvial mud and pebbles, oc- casionally reaching almost to the roof, and composed at one extremity chiefly of mud, whilst at the other end pebbles pre- dominate. Some vertical fissures in another quarry of calcaire grossier a few miles distant, are filled with similar materials to those within the cavern, and containing occasionally a few bones, sometimes cemented by calcareous infiltrations to a breccia like that of Gibraltar, Cette, and Nice. These materials are simi- lar in substance to, and are uninterruptedly connected with, a superficial bed of diluvium that covers the surface of these quarries, and are identical with the general mass of diluvial detritus of the neighbourhood. Stalactite and stalagmite are of rare occurrence in the cavern of Lunel ; hence neither its bones nor earthy contents are cemented with a breccia., On examining the bones collected in the cavern by M. Mar- cel de Serres and his associate M. Cristol, Dr Buckland found many of them to bear the marks of gnawing by the teeth of ossivorous animals ; he also discovered in the cave an extraor- dinary abundance of balls of album grcBcum in a high state of preservation. Both these circumstances, so important to esta- blish the fact of the cave of Lunel having been inhabited, like that of Kirkdale, as a den of hyenas, had been overlooked by the French geologists. The more scanty occurrence of stalac- tite, and the greater supply of album groecum in that cavern than in those of England, are referred to one and the same cause, viz. the introduction of less rain water into the cave by infiltration than into that of Kirkdale ; in the latter cave a large proportion of the fecal balls of the hyenas appears to have been trod upon and crushed at the bottom of a wet and narrow cave, whilst at Lunel they have been preserved by the greater size and dryness of the chamber in which they lay. 24:4; Dr Buckland on the Bones of Hyenas, $c. M. Marcel de Serres has published a list of the animal re- mains contained in this cavern, which differ but little from those of Kirkdale. The most remarkable addition is that of the beaver and the badger, together with the smaller shaped or Abyssinian hyenas. For these discoveries we are indebted to the exertions of M. Cristol, a young naturalist of Montpellier. With respect to the bones of camels said to have been found in the cavern, Dr Buckland proved that the bono referred to does not belong to the camel. In some few parts of the dilu- vial mud there occur the bones of rabbits and rats ; and M. Cristol also discovered the leg of a domestic cock. All these were found by Dr Buckland to be of recent origin, not adher- ing to the tongue when dry like the antediluvian bones. The rats and rabbits are supposed to have entered the cave spon- taneously, and died in the holes which they had burrowed in the soft diluvial mud, and the cock's bone to have been intro- duced by a fox through a small hole in the side of the cavern, which had been long known as a retreat of foxes, in the bottom of an ancient quarry. Some shells, similar to those which hybernate in the soil or fissures of the neighbouring rocks, are also found in the mud that filled the cave. The author considers that this may either be the shells of animals that in modern times have entered some small crevices in the side of the cavern to hybernate there, and have buried themselves in the mud ; or that they entered in more ancient times, and died while the cave was inhabited by hyenas, and lay mixed by the bones before the introduc- tion of the mud and pebbles ; or that they were washed in by the same diluvial water which imported there the alluvial de- tritus in which they are now imbedded. Dr Buckland draws a strong line of distinction between the mud and gravel of the caves and fissures, which he considers to be part of the general diluvium so widely spread over the adjacent country, and the local fresh water formations occur- ring also in the same neighbourhood of Montpellier ; and which differ as decidedly from them, and bear to them the same rela- tion, that the gravel on the summit of the Headen Hill in the Isle of Wight bears to the strata of fresh water limestone that lie beneath it. The author next proceeds to consider the epoch of the de- in the Cavern of Lunel. 245 position of the remains of quadrupeds that have been found in some extensive quarries of stone and sand in the Fauxbourg St Dominique at Montpellier, imbedded in a very recent marine formation, which has been described by M. Marcel de Serres in the fourth volume of the Linn. Trans, of Paris. >In the central beds of this deposit the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, mastodon, ox, and stag, are found intermingled with those of cetacea, dugong, or lamantins ; they are more or less rolled, and are occasionally covered with ma- rine shells. Beds of oysters also, (ostrea crassissima of La- marck,) and barnacles, occur in horizontal and nearly parallel strata, amid the marine sand, and show that this deposition has taken place gradually, and at successive though short intervals, rather than to have resulted from a sudden marine eruption. The period of the deposition is supposed to have been that which immediately preceded, and was terminated by, the last grand aqueous revolution which formed the diluvium. To a similar and contemporaneous period with this upper marine formation of Montpellier, he refers the bones of the ele- phant, rhinoceros, he. with marine shells, (oysters and adher- ing barnacles,) that have been found in certain parts of the Sub- Apennine Hills, and also the bones of similar quadrupeds and shells that occur in the crags of Norfolk and Suffolk. To the same period also he assigns the bones of the osseous breccia of Gibraltar, Cette, and other fissures in caves along the north coast of the Mediterranean ; and the accumulation of the remains of bears, hyenas, &c. in the caves of Germany, England, and France. He also attributes the same date to the bones of similar animals found bedded in the sediments of the antediluvian fresh water lake of the upper Val D'Arno. Observations on another Cavern at Lunel and one at Cadillac. We have been indebted to John Robison, Esq. for the fol- lowing recent information respecting another cavern at Lunel, and a new one discovered at Cadillac. A wine proprietor in Lunel, while enlarging his cellar, has broken into a cavern containing many bones, and I believe entire skeletons, some of lions I hear. A box of them will be 246 Observations made at Port Macquarie. here soon, which my friend Mr Exshaw has procured for me. I have a letter from him, dated the 30th January, in which he says, " A discovery somewhat similar has been made at Cadillac, fifteen miles above Bordeaux. It differs from the Lu- nel cavern,1' (that of the proprietaire,) " by the size being much smaller, and by the species of bones found in it. With the ex- ception of those of the hyena, (which are in great quantity,) the others are of the herbivorous species, all bearing the evident marks of being partly devoured by the hyena.'" Art. XIII. — Observations made at Port Macquarie, Van Dieman's Land^for the purpose qf determining the Decrease of Heat in Ascending in the Atmosphere. Communicated to the Editor by Sir Thomas Brisbane, K. C. B. F. R. S. Lond. & Edin. and Corresponding Member of the Acade- my of Sciences of Paris. There is no department of meteorology less understood, and at the same time more important, than that which relates to the law of variation in the temperature of the atmosphere at different heights. It is closely connected with the difficult subject of astronomical refractions, and without its aid we can- not reduce to the level of the sea the annual mean tempera- tures of different points upon the earth's surface. It is generally assumed that the temperature decreases 1° of Fahrenheit for every 300 feet that we ascend in the atmo- sphere ; but this must vary not only with the mean tempera- ture of the place, but with various circumstances in the rela- tive situation of the two heights at which the observations are made. If the lowest point is on a level plain, and the highest in the free air, the decrease must be very different from what it will be if the lowest point is the bottom, and the highest the top of a mountain ; or if the observations are made at the low- est and highest points of a great city ; or at the sea side, and on the summit of a hill in the interior. In these different cases a different law must prevail, and this law can only be deduced from numerous and accurate sets of observations. Even in the first case, where the highest point is in the free Observations made at Port Macquarie. 247 air, no decrease of heat was observed in the arctic regions. This curious experiment was made by Captain Parry and the Reverend George Fisher. " This was done by means of a paper kite, to which was attached an excellent register ther- mometer, in a horizontal position. Its height above the level of the frozen sea, upon which the experiment was made, was determined by two observers, in the same vertical plane, taking its altitude, at the same time, above the distant horizon ; and from thence its height was computed. The greatest height observed was 379 feet, at which height it was nearly stationary for about a quarter of an hour. It probably, however, had been more than 400 feet above the sea. After an unsuccess- ful attempt, the experiment was made under very favourable circumstances, the kite being sent up, and caught in coming down, without the slightest shake. The indices had not alter- ed their position in the slightest degree, and they would have indicated any variation of temperature, had it existed to less than a quarter of a degree of Fahrenheit. The temperature at the time was — 24° Fahrenheit.'" Upon this experiment Dr Young * remarks, " The theory is greatly illustrated by Mr Fisher's very valuable experiment with the kite, which shows that the law of decrease of temperature must be sup- posed to be very different in the arctic regions from that which prevails in more moderate latitudes ; but it serves fully to prove the impossibility of forming any hypothesis respecting the constitution of the atmosphere which shall be universally correct.'" The observations contained in the following table possess great interest, especially as they were made Jive times a day. The following are the means for an altitude of 65 — 13 = 52 feet. Fahr. Mean Difference of temperature at Sunrise, — 6.° at 9h a. m. — 9. 01 Noon, —7. 55 3h p. m. — 5, 5 Sunset, — 3. 5 General Mean, — 6.° 31 * Quarterly Journal, No. xlii. p 364. 848 Observations made at Port Macquarie Maximum Difference Minimum Difference Fahr. at Sunrise, — 13°. 9h A. M. — 25 Noon, — 18 3h P. M. — 11 Sunset, - H at Sunrise, 0 9h A. M. + H Noon, + 4 3h P. M. 0 Sunset, + 3 Out of the 108 observations recorded, there were only four in which the temperature at the highest station exceeded that of the lowest station, and the excess in these cases was \°, 1°, 1J°, and 3°. Diary of a Thermometer kept at Port Macquarie, 13 Feet above the level of the Sea, and at the Barrack Hill, at an elevation of 65 Feet above the Sea. Sunrise 9 o'Clock. Noon. 3 o'Clock. Sunset. 1824. Thermome tor. Dif. Thermometer. Thermometer. Thermometer. Thermometer. , 13ft 62ft 1 3ft 62ft Dif. 13ft 62ft Dif. 13ft 62ft Dif. 13ft 62ft Dif. June 1. 581° 584< 0 67' 604° 64° 744° 7040 4e 74° 71° 3° 70- 644° 540 2. 58 52 6 73 714 H 80 72 8 75 714 34 704 61 94 3. 634 50h 13 654 58 74 73 65 8 75 69 6 69 624 64 4. 57 51 0 68 524 154 754 70 54 71 67 4 694 65 44 5. 57 60 7 76 51 25 77 684 »4 70 654 4| 71 674 34 6. 62 514 101 634 54 94 724 67 54 72 694 24 69 65 4 7 GO 521 74 65 58 7 734 70 34 70 67 3 68 674 04 8. 61 494 U4 71 63 8 73 64 9 704 65 44 69 68 1 9. 58 47 11 71 58 3 82 67 15 72 68 4 70 67 3 10. 54 474 «l 74 57 17 82 664 154 73 674 54 72 644 74 11. 59 524 H 66 58 8 83 65 18 734 66 74 64 65 + 1 12. 53 48 5 71 574 131 704 654 5 75 69 6 66 614 44 13. 59 56 s 62 59 3 72 64 8 76 674 H 65 62 3 14. 62 58 4 64 524 114 65 64 1 67 67 0 664 634 3 15. 60 504 H 70 60 10 784 654 13 68 57 11 68 67 1 16. 524 46 6| 6T 554 84 7H 67 44 644 574 7 61 55 6 17- 52 474 <1 66 55| 104 72 674 44 67 59 8 64 614 24 18. 54 52| M 724 57i 15} 76 69 7 70 644 H 64 624 14 19. 56 534 H 64 52| 114 674 65 24 71 «7 4 67 614 54 20. 56 53 8 60 56 4 75 714 34 72 684 34 «74 63 44 21. 544 50 H 51 524 + 14 55 55| +4 70 67 3 62 65+3 22. 51 47 4 604 54 54 67 504 I64 -6 °.oo — 9°.01 — 7.55 — 5°.J — 3°.5. Means, ' General Mean, = — 6°.37 Pres. Caldwell on the Mean Temperature of Chapel Hill. 249 Abstract of Calculations of thejirst 20 * days of a Meteorologi- cal Diary kept at Port Macquarie,for June 1824. Bar. Ther. Ther. f Inches. Fahr. Fahr. Maximum, 30.40 83° 72° Minimum, - 29.3 L 52 46 Mean, - 30.12 - 67.44 61.15 Art. XIV. — On th& Mean Temperature of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, as determined by President Caldwell. In determining the laws of the distribution of heat on the earth's surface, there is a particular interest attached to obser- vations made on the American continent, and that interest in- creases, if the observations are made either near the arctic cir- cle, or towards the tropics. We were therefore, much gratified with the following ob- servations, made at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, in lat. 35° 54', which are published in the American Journal qfScience9 vol. x. part ii. 1820. 1821. 1828. Mean Temp. Mean Temp. Mean Temp January, 36°.86 35°.32 36°.65 February, 56. 80 49. 17 43.93 March, 60. 80 47.95 53. 71 April, 63. 50 57.20 61. 29 May, 66.36 68. 01 69.24 June, 78.00 77.00 78. 00 July, 78.16 76. 00 79.88 August, 76.03 77.33 75.90 September, 71. 20 75. 44 72.14 October, 56.81 61.86 64.76 November, 50.52 45.91 59.56 December, 44.76 39. 19 43.33 Mean, 59°.89 59°.19 61°.53 * As the original tables contain nearly 22 days' observations, we have retained them in our averages. — Ed. f This thermometer was kept on the Barrack Hill, at an elevation of 65 feet above the level of the sea, and 52 feet above the other thermometer. 250 Dr Brewster's Improvement on the Nautical Eye Tube. From the average of these three years, the mean annual range is 87°.5. The mean annual temperature was found to occur nearly at 10h a. m. President Caldwell remarks, " that the annual mean from the observations of 1820 and 1821 is 59° 54. The observa- tions of 1822, he adds, would carry it a little higher, but the accuracy of this last is doubtful." Assuming, therefore, with President Caldwell, that the mean temperature of Chapel Hill is 59°.54 We have the temperature calcu- lated by Dr Brewster's formula, viz. - - T=86.3 sin. D-— 3^-57°. 7 Difference between the formula and observation, 1°.84 Art. XV. — Account of an Improvement on the Nautical Eye- Tube* By David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Ed. A description of Mr Adams's nautical eye-tube was com- municated to this society last winter, and was accompanied by certificates of its excellent performance on board the Clio. Mr Adams was not able to illustrate by one of the instruments themselves ; but I have now the satisfaction of submitting to the society a perfect instrument, through the kindness of Mr Copland and Mr Park, of his Majesty's ship the Diamond, by both of whom it has been frequently used in their voyages across the Atlantic. This instrument was ordered by Lord Na- pier for the purpose of submitting Mr Adams's invention to a fair trial. The principle of Mr Adams's construction will be under- stood from Plate IV. Fig. 5, where ACBD is the field of view of the sextant telescope, to which the eye-piece is applied. A piece of mirror glass GH, is placed obliquely above a small level at L, so as to reflect the image of the bubble up to EF, immediately above the field of view. Two marks, M, N, are * Read before the Society of Arts for Scotland, February 6, 1827. Mr Adams's invention is fully described in this Journal, No. vii. p. 95. 1 Mr Scouler on the Temperature of N. W. America. 251 made upon the mirror, and the parts are so adjusted, that when the wire AB is in contact with the upper limb of the sun and the image of the bubble EF exactly between the marks M and N, the axis of the telescope is in a true horizontal line. In making this observation, the eye sees by direct vision the contact of the sun with the wire AB, and by oblique vi- sion, the contact of the bubble with one or both of the marks M, N. This double and simultaneous observation is difficult to make ; but, independent of this difficulty, there is a pro- perty of vision, in virtue of which an object seen obliquely disappears as if it had been completely annihilated. On this and other grounds Mr Adams's eye-tube has al- ways appeared to me susceptible of improvement. The first idea of this kind which occurred to me is shown in Fig. 6, where the field of view ACBD is contracted, and consists of a perforation in the reflecting mirror. The parts are then ad- justed, so that when the wire AB touches the sun, the bub- ble AMBN is concentric with the field of view ACBD. This approximation of the bubble to the observed limb of the sun is an obvious advantage, but as it is liable to the objection formerly stated against oblique vision, I thought of the me- thod shown in Fig. 7. In this method I dispense entirely with a metallic reflector, and I form the image of the bubble by a plate of parallel glass PD, lying between the eye and the field CD, and inclined 45° to the axis of the tube. By this means the bubble may be brought in contact with the wire AB ; and the parts are adjusted, so that the axis of the telescope is ho- rizontal when the wire AB is in contact with the lower end of the bubble, and the upper surface of the sun. The only ob- jection to this construction is, that the glass plate PD reflects little light ; but this may be completely remedied by placing the darkening glass anterior to the field of view, or by throw- ing an additional light upon the bubble of the level. Art. XVI.— On the Temperature of the North West Coast of America. By Mr Scouler. Communicated by the Author. Every traveller who has visited the N. W. coast of America 252 Mr Scouler on the Temperature of N. W. America. has remarked the uncommon mildness of its climate when com- pared with that of the eastern side of the continent in the same parallel of latitude. While the inhabitants of Quebec are sub- jected, during the winter months, to all the severity of the most intense cold, the natives of the Columbia, in nearly the same latitude, are almost strangers to the phenomena of frost and snow, and go about during the coldest season of the year in a state little different from nudity.* The most obvious cause of this remarkable difference of temperature between the two coasts of North America, arises from the N. W. winds which pass over a great extent of the Pacific Ocean, bringing a supply of heat and moisture along with them. The moisture of the country is however excessive, so that from November till March the Indians rarely travel far, on account of the almost incessant showers. The most correct idea of the climate of Columbia will be obtained from the following tables, constructed from the observations made by a gentleman who resided for several years at Fort George. These tables, however, can only be regarded as approximations to accuracy, as the observations were made at the same period of the day during every season of the year, and I am afraid sufficient attention was not paid to the situation of the thermometer. The observations were made at 6 a. m., Noon, and at 6 p. m., and the thermometer was placed in a northern situation. In the two following tables the first and second columns give the observed extremes of temperature, and the third gives the mean of all the observations made during each month. Table of the Temperature of Fort George, Columbia, Lat, 46° 18' Long. 123° W.from June 1821 to June 1822. 1821, 1822. Max. Min. Mean. June, 72° 53° 60f° July, 72 52 61J August, 69 58 6*J September, 65 48 59£ October, 66 44 57 * Notwithstanding this mildness of temperature, the Linncca borealis, which usually prefers a cold climate, is found in abundance on the N. W. coast so far south as lat. 46°. Mr Scouler on the Temperature of N. W, America. 253 1821, 1822. Max. Min. Mean. November, 56° 38° 45g° December, 48 19 34 January, 53 32 34| February, 55 33 43J March, 63 31 464 April, 1 61 38 50 May, 1 62 41 1 50J Mean Annual Temp. 50.°5 Table of the Temperature of Fort George, from April 1823 to April 1824. 1823, 1824. Max. Min. Mean. April, May, June, 60° 76 79 33° 46 47 4ffi° 57J 58J July, August, September, October, 73 88 79 68 53 52 49 40 61 1 63 59| 55\ November, 62 40 49£ December, 56 31 45^ January, February, March, 49 55 65 25 29 23 37J 43J Mean Annu al Temp. 51.°7 The following table contains the results of observations made for two years. Mean Mean Annual Mean Mean Mean Mean Temp. Temp. Mean Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp. hottest coldest Temp. Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Month. Month. 1821-2 50.°5 38.° 46° 57.° 59.° 61.° 34.° 1823-4 51. 7 *6>6 44 59.6 59.3 63.1 37.5 254 M. Duperrey's Observations Art. XVII. — Magnetical Observations on the Variation and Dip of the Needle, made during the Voyage of the Coquille from Toulon to Port Jaclcson, in 1822, 3, and 4. By M. Duperrey, Commander of the Expedition. Communicated by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C. B. F. R. S. London and Edinburgh. When M. Duperrey, the distinguished commander of the Coquille, which performed the last voyage of discovery fitted out by the French government, visited Port Jackson on his return home, he communicated to Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of New South Wales, the complete series of his magnetical observations. In order to promote the interests of science, Sir Thomas has kindly given us the use of this MS. for the purpose of publishing an abstract of its leading results. The scientific reader will not fail to observe the great im- portance of these observations, in reference to the determina- tion of the form of the magnetic curves, and of the position of the magnetic equator, and the magnetic poles of the earth. The two dipping compasses employed by M. Duperrey were the same which were used by Captain Freycinet on board the Uranie. One of these was intended to be used only on shore, while the other, which was mounted with a double suspension, was particularly destined for being used at sea. The first of these compasses had four needles, and the second two, and wherever they were observed, either at land or at sea, their poles were changed by twenty frictions given upon each of their faces by means of strongly magnetised bars. The recorded in- clination or dip of the needle is the mean of the observed in- clinations taken before and after the change of poles. In order to understand the following tables, it may be remark- ed that the north point of the needle is the one which is di- rected freely to the pole of the same denomination. The inclinations which have no sign, indicate that the north point of the needle is below the horizontal line, so that the observation is made to the north of the magnetic equator ; while those that have the sign — indicate that the north point o/i the Variation and Dip of the Needle. 255 is above the horizontal line ; and, consequently, that the ob- servation is made to the south of the magnetic equator. The declination of the needle was observed on shore by means of a small compass, with a telescope, which had been previously employed in hydrographical voyages by M. Gautier, Captain of the Coquille. When the azimuth of a terrestrial object had been deter- mined by numerous observations taken with a geodetic circle, the object was observed with the compasses above mentioned, and the definitive declination was that which resulted from the read- ings taken at the two extremities of the needle, before and af- ter the return of the instrument, and before and after the re- versing of the needle in its case. The magnetic power of the Coquille was measured with every possible accuracy, and presented nothing that was re- markable. Before the expedition sailed the dip was observed at Tou- lon in June 1822. Lat. 43° r 9". Long. 6° 0' 41". Mean Dip. 63° 57' 9" The following observations were made in the voyage from Toulon to St Catherine's, in Brazil, in August, September, and October 1822. Mean Lat Long. Variation. Mean Dip. 29° 43' ON. 14° 30' 9"W. 21° 0' N. 57° 40' 3 28 28 47 16 13 15 21 0.6 57 6 2 24 24 0 20 8 45 16 33 55 22 7 15 50 12 25 29 12 15 15 47 21 13 44 47 25 30 37 15 15 45 6 3 6 56 39 20 38 5 12 0 33 10 5 2 49 35 21 58 52 12 51 26 36 7 1 18 19 N. 23 58 49 12 57£ 23 49 5 0 13 SOS. 24 16 37 13 40 19 41 9 1 40 9S. 23 37 15 12 45 18 35 1 2 47 37 23 49 16 11 30 18 13 6 4 34 52 24 4 36 12 30 15 15 5 6 20 19 24 17 9 11 30 11 7 11 13 56 24 33 55 8 0 2 9 4 11 42 31 24 41 13 8 0 1 37 3 12 27 11 24 58 7 8 0 0 0 12 55 12 25 10 14 8 0 — 0 11 12 24 40 25 20 15 8 0 — 0 51 | 14 42 30 25 51 5 9 0 — 3 13 2 256 M. Duperrey's Magiietical Observations, &c. Mean Lat. Long. Variation. Mean Dip. 16° 43' 10 26° 19' 45 8° 0' — 6° 28' 8 19 30 29 27 15 43 7 56 —11 1 2 21 11 27 30 18 15 3 20 —12 42 25 33 12 41 23 55 5 10 —20 25 5 27 18 0 46 11 45 6 30 —23 7 2 At St Catherine's, in south lat. 27° 25y 36" and west long. 48° 29/ 15.4, the dip was — 22° 47' 7, and the variation 6° 2# 14" 7 N. E. In the expedition of M. Roussin in 1819, the variation was 7° 29' 26". The following observations were made during the voyage from St Catherine's to the Malouine Islands in October 1822L Mean Lat Long. Variation. Mean Dip. • 40° 0 OS. 37° 39' 45 W. 11° 22 E. — 41° 34' 1 46 44 0 S. 44 23 45 17 21 — 50 58 2 At the Malouine Isles in November 1 822, in lat. 51° 31' 4&% and long. 58° 3' 54" 7, the variation was 19°^ 19" 7 N. E. and the dip 54° 43/ 3. During the voyage from the Malouines to Conception, in Chili, in lat. 57° 52' 17' S., and long. 76° 47' 52" west, the variation was 27° & 22" east, and the dip— 65° 35' 19. At Conception, in lat. 36° 42' 18", 48 S. and long. 73° 11' 45" west, the variation was 16° 16' 23 N.E.,and the dip.— 44° 42/ The following observations were made during the voyage from Conception to Lima, in February 1823 : Lat. Long. Variation. Dip. 28* 30' OS. 74# 39' 45" W. 11° 37' 13" N.E. — 33° 38', 1 26 12 25 75 17 52 13 19 — 30 5,1 23 56 59 75 46 0 13 0 — 27 11,6 21 53 0 76 25 1 11 23 30 — 26 17,2 19 41 0 76 37 6 9 47 24 — 20 11,5 16 56 0 76 38 35 9 15 47 — 14 50,2 14 5 0 76 39 45 9 33 — 9 54,6 13 0 0 76 47 35 8 2 — 8 25,6 12 3 20 Callao 77 1 45 9 30 — 8 33,3 The following observations were made in the voyage from Lima to Bayta. Mr Audubon on the Habits of the Wild Pigeon. 257 Lat Long. Variation. Dip. 11° 15' 20 S. 78° 20' I" W. 8° 27' 38" N.E. — 7° 5',9 10 5 21 79 12 36 8 31 48 — 4 7,6 8 54 0 80 11 SO 7 42 0 — 2 19,3 8 24 4 60 34 41 7 42 0 — 1 41,3 7 45' 0 81 17 45 \ 8 23 35 — 0 11,4 6 53 0 81 10 45 8 23 35 + 1 50,8 At Bayta, between the terrestrial and the magnetic equator, in March 1823, in lat. 5*5' 50". 6 S. and long. 80° 58' 5" W. the variation was 8° 55' 37" N.E. and the dip. + 4* 6'.8. (To be concluded in next Number.) Art. XVIII. — Notes on the Habits of the Wild Pigeon of America, Columba migratoria. * By John James Audu- bon, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. M. W. S., &c. &c. and Member of the Lyceum of New York. Communicated by the Author. The most important facts connected with the habits of these birds relate to their extraordinary associations and migrations. No other species known to naturalists is more calculated to attract the attention of either the citizen or the stranger, as he has opportunities of viewing both of these characteristic habits while they are passing from north to south, east and west, and vice versa over and across the whole extent of the United States of America. These remarkable migrations are owing entirely to the dire necessity of providing food, and not merely to escape the se- verity of a northern latitude, or seek a southern one for the purpose of breeding. They consequently do not take place at any fixed 'period or season of the year. Indeed, it happens sometimes that a continuance of a sufficient supply of food in one district will keep those birds absent from another for years. I know at least to a certainty, that in Kentucky they re- mained for several years constantly, and were nowhere else to be found. They all disappeared one season suddenly when the mast was exhausted, and thus did not return for a long period. The same facts have been observed in other states. Their great power of flight enables them when in need to survey and pass over an astonishing extent of country in a * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Feb. 19, 1827. VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827. R 258 Mr Audubon on the Habits of very short time. This is proved by facts known to the greater number of observers in America. Pigeons, for example, have been killed in the neighbourhood of New York, with their crops still filled with rice, collected by them in the fields of Georgia and Carolina, the nearest point at which this supply could possibly have been obtained ; and as it is well ascer- tained, that, owing to their great power of digestion, they will decompose food entirely in twelve hours, they must have tra- velled between 300 and 400 miles in six hours, making their speed at an average about one mile in a minute, and this would enable one of these birds, if so inclined, to visit the European continent, as swallows undoubtedly are able to do, in a couple of days. * This great power of flight is seconded by as great a power of vision, which enables them, as they travel at that swift rate, to view objects below, to discover their food with facility, and thus put an immediate end to their journey. This I have also proved to be the case, by having observed the pigeons, when passing over a destitute part of the country, keep high in air, and in such an extensive front, as to enable them to survey hundreds of acres at once. But if, on the contrary, the land is richly covered with food, or the trees with mast, they will fly low in order to discover the portion most plenti- fully supplied, and upon these they alight progressively. The form of the bodies of these swift travellers is an elon- gated oval, steered by a long well-plumed tail, furnished with extremely well set and very muscular wings for the size of the individual. If a single bird is seen gliding through the woods and close by, it passes apparently like a thought ; and on try- ing to see him again, the eye searches in vain — the bird is gone ! Their multitudes in our woods are astonishing ; and, in- deed, after having viewed them so often, and under so many circumstances, for years, and, I may add, in many different climates, I even now feel inclined to pause, and assure myself afresh that what I am going to relate is fact. That I have • A specimen of the Columba migratoria was shot in Fifeshire in January 1826. See this Journal, vol. iv. p. 276. the Wild Pigeon of America. 259 seen it is most certain ; and I have seen it all in the company of hundreds of other persons looking on, like myself, amazed, and wondering if what we saw was really true. In the autumn of 1813, I left my house at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio, on my way to Louisville. Having met the pigeons flying from north-east to south-west, in the barrens or natural wastes a few miles beyond Hardensburgh, in greater apparent numbers than I thought I had ever seen them before, I felt an inclination to enumerate the flocks that would pass within the reach of my eye in one hour. I dismounted, and, seating myself on a tolerable eminence, took my pencil to mark down what I saw going by and over me, and made a dot for every flock which passed Finding, however, that this was next to impossible, and feeling unable to record the flocks, as they multiplied constant- ly, I rose, and counting the dots then put down, discovered that 163 had been made in twenty-one minutes. I travelled on, and still met more the farther I went. The air was lite- rally filled with pigeons ;' the light of noon-day became dim, as during an eclipse ; the pigeons' dung fell in spots, not un- like melting flakes of snow ; and the continued buz of their wings over me, had a tendency to incline my senses to repose. Whilst waiting for my dinner at Young's Inn, at the con- fluence of Salt River with the Ohio, I saw, at my leisure, immense legions still going by, with a front reaching far be- yond the Ohio on the west, and the beech wood forests directly on the east of me. Yet not a single bird would alight ; for not a nut or acorn was that year to be seen in the neighbourhood. They consequently flew so high, that different trials to reach them with a capital rifle proved ineffectual, and not even the report disturbed them in the least. But I cannot describe how beautiful their aerial evolutions were, if a black hawk appeared in their rear. At once, like a torrent, and with a thunder-like noise, they formed themselves into almost a solid compact mass, pressing each on each towards the centre ; and when in such solid bodies, they zig-zagged to escape the murderous falcon, now down close over the earth sweeping with inconceivable velocity, then ascending perpendicularly, like a vast monu- 260 Mr Audubon on tlbe Habits of meiit ; and when high were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, resembling the coils of a gigantic serpent. Before sunset I reached Louisville, distant from Hardens- burgh fifty-five miles, where the pigeons were still passing, and this continued for three days in succession. The people were indeed all up in arms, and shooting on all sides at the passing flocks. The banks of the river were crowd- ed with men and children, for here the pigeons flew rather low as they passed the Ohio. This gave a fair opportunity to de- stroy them in great numbers. For a week or more the popu- lation spoke of nothing but pigeons, and fed on no other flesh but that of pigeons. The whole atmosphere during this time was strongly impregnated with the smell appertaining to their species. It is extremely curious to see flocks after flocks follow exact- ly the very evolutions performed by a preceding one, when they arrived at the place where these manoeuvres were displayed. If a hawk, for instance, has chanced to charge on a portion at a certain spot, no matter what the zigzags, curved lines, or un- dulations of lines might have been during the affray, all the following birds always keep the same track ; so that if the tra- veller happens to see one of those attacks, and feels a wish to have it repeated, he may do so by waiting for a short time. It may not, perhaps, be out of place to attempt an estimate of the number of pigeons contained in one of those mighty flocks, and the quantity of food daily consumed by its members. The inquiry will show the astonishing bounty of the Creator in his works, and how universally this bounty has been granted to every living thing on that vast continent of America. We shall take, for example, a column of one mile in breadth, which is far below the average size, and suppose it passing over us without interruption for three hours, at the rate mentioned above, of one mile per minute. This will give us a parallelogram of 180 miles by 1, covering 180 square miles, and allowing two pigeons to the square yard, we have one billion one hundred and fifteen millions one hundred and thirty-six thousand pigeons in one flock ; and as every pigeon consumes fully half a pint of food per day, the quantity must be eight millions seven the Wild Pigeon of America. 261 hundred and twelve thousand bushels per day which is requir- ed to feed such a flock. As soon as these birds discover a sufficiency of food to en- tice them to alight, they fly round in circles, reviewing the country below, and at this time exhibit their phalanx in all the beauties of their plumage ; now displaying a large glisten- ing sheet of bright azure, by exposing their backs to view, and suddenly veering, exhibit a mass of rich deep purple. They then pass lower, over the woods, and are lost among the foliage for a moment, but they reappear as suddenly above ; after which they alight, and, as if affrighted, the whole again take to wing with a roar equal to loud thun- der, and wander swiftly through the forest to see if danger is near. Impelling hunger, however, soon brings them all to the ground, and then they are seen industriously throwing up the fallen leaves to seek for the last beech-nut or acorn ; the rear ranks continually rising, passing over, and alighting in front in such quick succession, that the whole still bears the appearance of being on the wing. The quantity of ground thus swept up, or, to use a French expression, moissonee, is astonishing, and so clean is this work, that gleaners never find it worth their while to follow where the pigeons have been. On such occasions, when the woods are thus filled with them, they are killed in immense numbers, yet without any apparent diminution. During the middle of the day, after their repast is finished, the whole settle on the trees to enjoy rest, and di- gest their food ; but as the sun sinks in the horizon, they de- part en masse for the roosting-place, not unfrequently hun- dreds of miles off, as has been ascertained by persons keeping account of their arrival and of their departure from their curious roosting-places, to which I must now conduct the reader. To one of those general nightly rendezvous, not far from the banks of Green River in Kentucky, I paid repeated visits. It was, as is almost always the case, pitched in a portion of the forest where the trees were of great magnitude of growth, but with little underwood. I rode through it lengthwise upwards of forty miles, and crossed it in different parts, as- certaining its average width to be rather more than three 262 Mr Audubon on the Habits of miles. My first view of it was about a fortnight subsequent to the period when they had chosen this spot, and I arrived there nearly two hours before the setting of the sun. Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of per- sons with horses and waggons, guns, and ammunition, had already established different camps on the borders. Two farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more than 100 miles, had driven upwards of 300 hogs to be fatten- ed on pigeon-meat; and here and there the people, em- ployed in picking and salting what had already been pro- cured, were seen sitting in the centre of large piles of those birds, all proving to me that the number resorting there at night must be immense, and probably consisting of all those then feeding in Indiana, some distance beyond JefFerson- ville, not less than 150 miles off. The dung of the birds was several inches deep, covering the whole extent of the roosting-place like a bed of snow. Many trees, two feet in diameter, I observed, were broken at no great distance from the ground, and the branches of many of the largest and tall- est so much so, that the desolation , already exhibited equal- led that performed by a furious tornado. As the time elapsed, I saw each of the anxious persons about to prepare for action ; some with sulphur in iron pots, others with torches of pine knots, .many with poles, and the rest with guns double and treble charged. The sun was lost to our view, yet not a pigeon had yet arrived, — but all of a sudden I heard a general cry of " Here they come f The noise which they made, though distant, reminded me of a hard gale at sea, passing through the rigging of a close reefed vessel. As the birds arrived, and passed over me, I felt a current of air that sur- prised me. Thousands were soon knocked down by the pole- men. The current of birds, however, kept still increasing. The fires were lighted, and a most magnificent, as. well as wonderful and terrifying, sight was before me. The pigeons, coming in by millions, alighted everywhere, one on the top of another, until masses of them resembling hanging swarms of bees as large as hogsheads, were formed on every tree in all directions. These heavy clusters were seen to give way, as the supporting branches, breaking down with a crash, came to the Wild Pigeon of America. 263 the ground, killing hundreds of those which obstructed their fall, forcing down other equally large and heavy groupes, and rendering the whole a scene of uproar and of distressing confusion. I found it quite useless to speak, or even to shout to those persons nearest me. The reports even of the differ- ent guns were seldom heard, and I knew only of their going off by seeing the owners re-load them. No person dared venture within the line of devastation, and the hogs had been penned up in due time, the picking up of the dead and wounded sufferers being left for the next morn- ing's operation. Still the pigeons were constantly coming, and it was past midnight before I perceived a decrease in the number of those that arrived. The uproar continued, how- ever, the whole night ; and as I was anxious to know to what distance the sound reached, I sent off a man, who, by his habits in the woods, was able to tell me, two hours after- wards, that at three miles he heard it distinctly. Towards the approach of day the noise rather subsided ; but long ere objects were at all distinguishable, the pigeons began to move off in a direction quite different from that in which they had arrived the day before, and at sunrise none that were able to fly remained. The howlings of the wolves now reached our ears, and the foxes, the lynx, the cougars, bears, rackoons, opossums, and pole-cats, were seen sneaking off the spot, whilst the eagles and hawks of different species, supported by a horde of buzzards and carrion, crows, came to supplant them, and reap the benefits of this night of destruction. It was then that I, and all those present, began our entry amongst the dead and wounded sufferers. They were picked up in great numbers, until each had as many as could pos- sibly be disposed of ; and afterwards the hogs and dogs were let loose to feed on the remainder. Persons unacquainted with these birds must naturally con- clude, that such dreadful havoc must soon put an end to the species ; but this is very far from being the case, for, by long observation, I have satisfied myself, that, as they not unfre- quently quadruple their numbers yearly, and always at least double it, nothing but the gradual diminution of our forests can accomplish their decrease. In 1805 I have seen schoon- 264 Mr Audubon on tlw Habits of the Wild Pigeon. ers loaded in bulk with pigeons caught up the Hudson river, coming in to the wharf at New York, and those birds sold for a cent a-piece. I knew a man in Pennsylvania, who caught and killed upwards of 500 dozens in a clap-net in a day, sweeping sometimes twenty dozens or more at one haul. I have also seen the negroes at the United States Salines, or salt-works of Shawanee Town, wearied with killing pigeons, as they alighted to drink the water issuing from the leading pipes, for weeks at times ; and yet in 1826, in Louisiana, I saw congregated flocks of those birds as numerous as ever I had seen them before, during a residence of nearly thirty years in the United States. The greater portion of the time alluded to has been em- ployed in studying, with the greatest care, the particular ha- bits of each feathered individual in North America, with a view to publish at last its complete Ornithology ; — but to return to our more immediate subject. The breeding of the wild pigeons, and the places chosen for that purpose, are points of great interest. As I have said be- fore, the time set apart for this is not influenced by climate or season, but generally takes place where and when food is most plentiful and most attainable, and always at a convenient dis- tance from the water, and in high timbered forests. The spot ge- nerally chosen is not, like that above described, a scene of con- fusion and death, but one where, it is no exaggeration to say, the tenderest affection seems ^o prevail. To this place these countless myriads of pigeons fly, and settle to coo, and, with parental care, begin their nests in general peace and harmony. On the same tree, from 50 to 100 nests may be seen, form- ed of slight material?, being only composed of a few dried twigs, crossed in different ways, supported by suitable forks in the branches, from the lowest to the highest, and each mate partakes in the task of incubation. The females lay two white eggs each, proportioned to the size of the bird, and as they sit the greater portion of this precious time, the males feed them from bill to bill, with amorous tenderness and care. The young are hatched, and would grow and leave the nest in course of time, did not man discover the place, and commence his work of devastation. Armed with axes, their Mr Barlow on the Developement of Magnetism, and w, each = 125° 07. Every one of the faces visible in this groupe, those marked c, as well as those marked g and w, are parallel to the axis of the fundamental pyramid. This yields a remark- of Crystallized Bodies. 283 able difference between compositions like Fig. 16, and such as are formed from Fig. 7, by the filling up of the re-entering an- gles, in the last of which the whole is bounded by the faces of the original horizontal prisms, which are all inclined upon the same axis. The faces of composition in the first case pass through the edges, in the second through the centres of the faces of the compound groupe. The regular forms of both these substances are considered as belonging to the rhombohedral system, in the last edition of Hauy's Traite. Professor Fuchs first ascertained the actual forms of the strontianite of Leogang. The four species, described above, not only agree in their mode of being joined in regular compositions, but they likewise show nearly the same secondary faces. In every general crys- tallographic consideration these four species are inseparable. Even their history coincides in this important point, that — with the exception of the first only — they have all been taken for rhombohedral. They form a curious instance likewise of the isomorphism of lead, calcium, baryum, and strontium. One of the most curious substances, particularly for its near resemblance to certain rhombohedral species, is the prismatic copper-glance, the grey copper of Cornish miners. By far the greater number even of first rate mineralogists to this day con- sider its form as connected with the regular six-sided prism, or belonging to the rhombohedral system of Mohs ; and yet these forms are derived from a rhombic prism of 11 9° 35', which is usu- ally found in regular compositions of three individuals, crossing each other at angles of nearly 60° and 120°. The 17th Figure, the projection of a crystal in the cabinet of Mr Allan, would be scarcely recognizable for what in fact it is, were we not led to it by the re-entering angles or evasures along some of its edges, and by the stria?, which, as in chrysoberyl and other species, are pa- rallel to the intersection of the face s with the faces of the vertical prisms. Such striae are usually met with, and though the entire groupes are not always so well defined as in the case represented, yet this peculiarity will be sufficient to mark out the extent of each individual, and to ascertain the law by which it is joined to another. This substance, however, occurs also in several other kinds of regular composition, which, though they render it more 284 Mr Haidinger on the Regular Composition complicated, greatly enhance the interest attached to the consi- deration of the crystalline forms of the species. Dr Gustavus Rose assigns a regular composition also to the crystals of zinkenite, a species which he first described. (See this Journal) p. 17.) One of them is represented in Fig. 18. The planes of junction here, as in the preceding case, pass through the centres, or nearly so, of the faces, which limit the prism whose angles approach to 120°. This is therefore, properly speaking, the complementary law to the original one ; the axis of revolution is perpendicular to a face of Pr, the plane of com- position also perpendicular to it, and, at the same time, to an acute edge of P. The faces P and M bounding the crystal, are remnants of those of the horizontal prisms. The reverse, that is to say, the original law, takes place in prismatic melane-glance, Fig. 19. The planes of junction pass through the edges, and are parallel to the faces of Pr. The crystal lographic sign, therefore, will be ... Pr-f- oo. (Pr-f go)3 Pr+oo, 2{pr}. Four of the angles are =115° 39', equal to the angle of the horizontal prism, and two =128° 42;. Not- withstanding this great difference of the angles from 120°, the crystals of the substance were long taken for rhombohedral ; nay, the substance itself was confounded with red silver, with which it agrees almost in none of its properties, except that it likewise contains silver. The antimonial silver of the Hartz sometimes occurs in acute six-sided pyramids, Fig. 20, imbedded in, or rather enveloped by, coats of native arsenic. These are compound groupes, formed exactly in the manner described of the preceding spe- cies. There is a distinct, though not very bright cleavage perpendicular to the axis of the supposed pyramid ; but there are also two directions of cleavage, which produce a prism, parallel to the one, whose faces are d and d, with an angle of about 95 J°, contiguous to the apex of that pyramid. The want of continuity of these faces of cleavage immediately be- trays the compound state of the mineral. I have seen at Clausthal, in the Hartz, a groupe nearly similar to Fig. 21, of two crystals, leaving between them re-entering angles, the axes of the prisms forming an angle of about 60°. I could not obtain an exact measurement of any of the forms, and more of Crystallized Bodies. 285 particularly not of that prism, parallel to the faces of which the composition takes place, to decide whether the obtuse edge of it is greater or less than 120°. But so much is indubitable, that the crystals neither are modifications of the cube, as is supposed by Count Bournon, nor can be comprehended in the rhombohedral system, as is taken for granted by others. I shall not enlarge here on the regular compositions met with in Sternbergite, a new species, an account of which I have laid before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. They near- ly resemble Fig. 3. in their projection. No very remarkable observations can be attached to them, and, besides, it would require more particulars than I should properly indulge my- self in, in the present place. Among the saline substances, occurring in compound crys- tals after this law, the sulphate of potash deserves our notice. The angle of the original prism being 120° 29', and regular composition of three individuals very frequent, the forms were long taken for rhombohedral ones, till Messrs Mohs, Brooke, and Levy gave a more accurate description of them. Mr Brooke, in particular, describes a composition resembling Fig. 6 in its transverse section, which he obtained from a solu- tion of the salt in distilled water. This is not, however, the manner in which the usual apparently isosceles six-sided pyra- mids are formed. This mode of junction is namely that of Figs. 15 and 16, the planes passing through the edges of the prisms, and producing a six-sided transverse section of the compound group with four angles of 120° 29', and two of 119° 2', a kind of composition demonstrated likewise by the optical discovery of it by Dr Brewster. As in the prismatic melane-glance, all the faces bounding the compound crystal, are such as are parallel to the principal axis of the fundamen- tal form. Saltpetre presents the same phenomenon, as is evident from its action on light, as observed by Dr Brewster. The crystal- lographic properties have not yet been sufficiently ascertained. Dr Forchhammer, however, informed me, that he actually found a difference to exist in the angles of the six-sided prism, hitherto supposed to be a regular one. The figure of snow is so nearly allied in its shape to some 286 Mr Haidinger on the Regular Composition of the results of regular composition here described, that I must add a few remarks on this subject, by which it will appear, that, though one of the most common substances, we are sadly in want of an exact knowledge of the forms of crystallized water. Except in the treatise of Mohs, these forms are uniformly described as belonging to the rhombohe- dral system, an opinion rendered highly probable by Dr Brewster's experiments on ice, a substance which shows a re- gular crystalline structure, when examined in polarized light, even in plates several inches thick, and exhibits the single sys- tem of coloured rings, characteristic of the structure of rhom- bohedral and pyramidal forms. There is not, however, in the whole compass of rhombohedral forms one example of a similar formation as the stars with six radii of snow, while it is common enough in those species whose forms belong to the prismatic system. The low degree of temperature has prevented natu- ralists from examining them more closely, the observer him- self being one of the chief causes of their speedy destruction by the action of heat. Their size is often much more con- siderable than that of the crystals of many a species exactly described in our days. On a clear frosty day, when accompany- ing Mr Mohs in a walk from Freiberg to Dresden, I have seen thin six-sided plates of ice nearly half an inch in diameter, which were deposited as hoar-frost on the stalks of reeds in a marshy place, in the forest of Tharand. But from the exertion of the walk, the temperature of our bodies had so much increased, that the delicate flakes would melt on being brought so near the eye as the use of the magnifying lens required. These six- sided plates were striated parallel to their sides ; the reflection of the sun from the broad faces showed a difference of level, in the por- tions t, t, . . u, Fig. 9, seemingly belonging to different indivi- duals. During the intense cold of last winter, I had an opportu- nity of seeing a curious example of crystals of ice, in Berlin in one of Professor Mitscherlich's rooms, which had been the whole winter without a fire. The flowery deposit, formed by a kind of sublimation, on the windows, had considerably in- creased in thickness, and presented all over, when attentively examined, multitudes of crystalline plates, rectangular, and of Crystallized Bodies. 287 in a parallel position, where longitudinal delineations appear- ed, whereas they were six-sided in the spaces, formed by the meeting of them, and wherever the delineation appeared exe- cuted on a smaller scale. I have attempted to express some- thing of this kind in Fig. 22. The ice had much more accu- mulated, where the six-sided' plates were visible,- so as con- siderably to obstruct the passage of light. There were even crystals, like the one marked a, with a distinct geniculated appearance. The explanation of these phenomena can be scarcely given but upon the supposition of prismatic crystals. There might exist two species, characterized by different forms, with the same constituents of hydrogen and oxygen, as we have analogous cases in calcareous spar and arragonite, or in the hexahedral and prismatic iron-pyrites ; but so imperfect is our positive information in this respect, that we are not entitled to consider such a hypothesis as plausible. There is one hypothesis, indeed, which might suffice for explain- ing all the appearances hitherto observed. The forms of ice might belong to the pyramidal system. The individuals forming on the surface of stagnant water would have all their axes parallel, and consequently show the single system of rings in polarized light equally well as if they did constitute one single individual. For the six-sided prisms, or six-sided plates, as produced by regular composition, and the star-like figures of snow, we find many analogous cases in the pyramidal sys- tem, for instance in tin ore and in rutile. The latter particular- ly often shows compressed prisms, and reticulated aggrega- tions disposed upon a plane. Actual observations, however, and measurements of angles, are required to show whether this opinion be borne out by fact. Rome de ITsle,* Bosc d,Antic,-f- and Scoresby,J have each observed four-sided pyramids, which would add to the probability of the forms of ice belonging to the pyramidal system. (To be continued.) * CrystuUographie, t. i. p. 4. + Journal de Physique, 1788, t. xxxiii. p. 57. $ Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. ii. part 2(1. 288 Mr Harvey on the effect of a magnet on a Pendulum. Art. XXV. — On a Remarkable Effect of a Magnet on the Oscillations of the Pendulum of a Clock. By George Harvev, Esq. F. R. S. Lond. and Edin. F. L. S. &c. Communicated by the Author. In the latter end of the year 1822, my attention was drawn to an experiment mentioned by Professor Cumming, in his paper " on the connection of galvanism and magnetism," in- serted in the second part of the first volume of the Transac- tions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; viz. that the application of a horse-shoe magnet, beneath the iron pendu- lum of a small clock, occasioned an acceleration of the daily rate. Desirous of repeating the experiment, I applied a power- ful horse-shoe magnet as near as possible to the steel-spill or index attached to the lower part of the weight of a compen- sation pendulum composed of three bars of steel, and two of a mixture of zinc and silver. The magnet was applied about nine p. m., and, not anticipating any immediate effect, I left ft to attend to some other pursuits. Having occasion, however, to enter the room again about midnight, 1 found, to my great astonishment, that the clock had stopped. The first impres- sion on my mind was, that I had accidentally stopped it while adjusting the position of the magnet ; but, on looking at the minute hand, which indicated eighteen minutes after nine, and recollecting that I had quitted the room about four or five minutes after that hour, I began to suspect, that the action of the magnet had suspended the oscillations of the pendulum. To determine this interesting point, I communicated mo- tion to the pendulum, and, after the lapse of a few minutes, observed a sensible diminution in the amplitude of its vibra- tion ; and, at the end of twelve minutes after the oscillations commenced, the arc of vibration was so much reduced, as to suspend the beats of the clock ; and, in a short time after, the continually diminishing arcs of vibration vanished altogether, the pendulum being reduced by the action of the magnet to a perfect state of rest. Feeling now perfectly satisfied, that the stopping of the clock was due entirely to the action of the magnet, I proceed- Dr Wollner on the different Forms of Salts , $c. 289 ed to communicate motion to the pendulum in smaller arcs of vibration, and found the beats of the clock to be suspended in times proportionally less ; so that, in the last experiment, the beating of the clock was stopped in the short space of fifty-nine seconds. On examining the spill or index, to the reciprocal influence of which and the horse-shoe magnet I attributed the pheno- menon, I found it to display the most decided marks of pola- rity. A small pocket compass, placed below its extremity, had the direction of its needle completely inverted at every oscilla- tion of the pendulum. The south pole being attracted by it when quiescent, indicated the kind of polarity it possessed, and which might have been anticipated from the necessary position of the pendulum. Plymouth, February 17, 1827. Art. XXVI. — On the different Primitive Forms of the same Salt produced by a Change in the Nature of the Solvent.* By Dr Christian Wollner. With Observations by the Editor. In the manufactory of alum at Putchen, near Bonn, Dr Wollner had occasion to observe, that in the tubs which con- tained the mother waters there were formed crystals of sul- phate of iron, which had exactly the same form as alum, that is, which had the form of the regular octohedron. Having analysed these crystals, he found them to be composed, like the common copperas, as follows : Wollner. Berzelius. Mitscherlich. Protoxide of iron, 25.36 25.7 25.19 Sulphuric acid, 28.93 28.9 29.89 Water, 45.50 45.4 43.92 Loss, 0.21 He made several attempts to obtain similar crystals from a * Kastner's Archiv. fur die gesarnmte Naturlshre, torn. vi. p. 364-, or Ferrussac's Bull, des Sc. Nat. Dec. 1826, p. 392. VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827- T 290 Dr Wollner on the different Primitive Forms of Salts solution of ordinary copperas, and also from the octohedral sulphate, by sometimes plunging into it a crystal of alum, and sometimes a crystal of sulphate of iron, but he could not suc- ceed. He now directed his attention to the nature of the mother waters, in which this sulphate had crystallized, in order that he might find a method of reproducing this solvent at pleasure. The specific gravity of these waters was 1.358, and they were composed as follows : Sulphate of magnesia, with traces of gypsum, 6.635 Sulphate of alumine, - - 6.295 Sulphate of the protoxide of iron, - 12.000 Muriate of the protoxide of iron, - 9-975 Free muriatic acid, - - 0.570 Water, - - - 64.525 From this result Dr Wollner was able to reproduce arti- ficially a solution capable of yielding octohedral crystals of sulphate of iron, by dissolving in water the following salts. Sulphate of magnesia, - - - 11.5 Sulphate of alumine, ... 6.3 Sulphate of iron, - 22.0 Crystallized muride of iron, - - 18.0 Muriatic acid, sp. grav. 1.167, - - 2.3 If we now concentrate this solution to a density of 1.358, and dissolve in a 1000 parts of weight of the liquid 125 parts of ordinary copperas, and leave the solution to itself for twelve hours, we shall obtain crystals of the sulphate of iron, having the octohedral form of alum. OBSERVATIONS BY THE EDITOR. The subject of the preceding observations is one of the most interesting in crystallography. Several facts analogous to those mentioned by Dr Wollner have been long known, but he is the first person who has investigated with care the cir- cumstances of the experiment, and pointed out the method of reproducing the crystals at pleasure. We do not allude to the mere change of crystalline forms, which is produced by produced by a change in the solvent. 291 various causes, such as the influence of mechanical mixtures, the nature of the liquid in which the solution is made, and the influence of substances which combine with the solution at the instant of crystallization ; but to those cases in which there is a complete change in the crystalline system, or a pas- sage from one form to another which is entirely incompatible with it. M. Beudant made an interesting experiment of this kind with nitrate of potash, which commonly crystallizes in a right rhom- boidal prism, and nitrate of soda, which crystallizes in the form of an obtuse rhombohedron. When the two salts are dissolved together, the nitrate of soda will crystallize first, if it exists in sufficient quantity, and the nitrate of potash will afterwards crystallize in prismatic needles. In a short time, however, rhombohedral crystals of the nitrate of potash are deposited, and though these were found to contain only small and vari- able quantities of nitrate of soda, yet M. Beudant has observed them perfectly free of nitrate of soda. On another occasion M. Beudant obtained a result the re- verse of this. Having made an aqueous solution, containing more nitrate of potash than nitrate of soda, there were first formed prismatic crystals of nitrate of potash, then rhombohe- dral crystals of nitrate of soda, upon which were found pris- matic rhomboidal needles of the same nitrate of soda, con- taining some traces of nitrate of potash. Hence, M. Beudant concludes, that the change of form in the first instance was owing to the presence of the nitrate of soda in the solution, and, in the second, to the presence of nitrate of potash. Other examples of change of system in crystallized substan- ces I have had occasion frequently to point out. In 1816, I was led to examine crystals of nitrate of strontian crystallized in prisms and also in regular octohedrons. But upon sub- mitting these salts to M. Berzelius, he assured me that the one was a hydrous and the other an anhydrous salt. In like manner, I found single crystals of sulphate of potash in regu- lar six-sided prisms, (not the compound bi-pyramidal crystals,) and in rhomboidal prisms ; but upon transmitting them to M. Berzelius for analysis, I learned that the former was a double salt, containing one atom of sulphate of potash, and one atom 292 Dr Wollner on the forms of Salts, $c. of proto-sulphate of iron. I found also the sulphate of nickel in rliomboidal prisms, and mprisins with a square base,h\it these crystals turned out by Dr Fyfe^ analysis to be a new triple salt, viz. a sulphate of nickel and copper. These cases, with several others which might be mentioned, seemed to show that, in all cases where a change of crystalline system took place, there was a change in chemical composi- tion. This opinion, however, is discountenanced by M. Woll- ner's result, and also by Professor Mitscherlich's experiments on sulphur, in which he washable to procure prismatic crys- tals by allowing masses of sulphur of fifty pounds weight to cool slowly after being melted in an earthen-ware pot, while he obtained hemi-prismatic crystals like those of native sulphur, by dissolving sulphur in the carburet, chloruret, and phosphuret of sulphur. If it shall be found strictly true that the same substance can crystallize in two different forms belonging to different systems of crystallization, while under each form it consists of the same ingredients combined in the same proportion, there arises a puzzle of no ordinary kind in mineralogy. Many ac- cordant analyses, however, obtained by the first chemists, will be necessary to establish such a result, and, after all, the mi- neralogist may pause and consider whether he will believe a doctrine contrary to many general principles, or suppose that some volatile ingredient may have escaped the penetration of the chemist. Since this notice was drawn up, Mr Haidinger has inform- ed us that he has seen in the hands of Dr Gustavus Rose of Berlin, some of the octohedral crystals of sulphate of iron ob- tained by Mr Wollner. The crystals, he assures us, are not regular octohedrons, but irregular octohedrons, which are mere modifications of the common secondary forms of that salt. There is, therefore, in this case, no change in the system of cry- stallization, but merely a change of secondary form. Mr Scoresby's Description of Unequal Refraction, fyc. 293 Art, XXVII. — A Description of some remarkable Effects of unequal Refraction observed at Bridlington Quay in the Summer of 1826. By the Rev. W. Scoresby, F. R. SS. Lond. and Edin. M. W. S. &c. This interesting paper, of which we propose to give a brief ab- stract, was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 22d of January 1827. Mr Scoresby had frequent opportuni- ties of observing this class of phenomena during his voyages in the Greenland seas, and in one of the latest, he saw in the lower part of the atmosphere the inverted image of a ship, so distinctly and beautifully defined, that he pronounced it to be his father's ship, which was then about twenty-eight miles dis- tant, and some leagues beyond the limit of direct vision. In this paper Mr Scoresby describes various phenomena of unequal refraction which took place in the summer of 1826 about Bridlington Bay, and which he saw from his residence at Bridlington Quay. These phenomena he has represented in minute drawings, and therefore we must refer the reader for an account of them to the original memoir, which will be speed- ily published. On the 26th June, which was distinguished by unequal re- fraction, Mr Scoresby made a sketch of the appearance of the Holderness coast from the window of his sitting-room, which was forty feet above the level of the sea at low water, the state of the tide at the time. It then occurred to him that there might be a difference of appearance at another level, and on ascending to the attic story, about sixty feet above the sea, he was astonished to find the phenomena altogether changed, the coast now presenting almost its ordinary appearance. Upon returning to his sitting-room he found the appearance exactly the same as when he had first drawn it. He then descended to the cellar flat, about twenty feet above the sea, where, on a level platform by the side of the house, there was a clear view of the same coast. In this new position scarcely any remains of the refractive influence were seen, al- though in the middle position, viz. in the sitting-room, all the phenomena of unequal refraction remained unchanged. The phenomena continued to preserve their character, as 294 On the Elements of the Four New Planets seen from the three different levels, for above an hour, when the phenomena seen from the middle position began to descend, so that, as the heat of the day increased, or rather became more general and uniform, the view from the sitting-room became nearly the same as that seen from the attic story ; while the view from the cellar-flat became that which was seen from the sitting-room. Shortly after mid-day the phenomena of un- equal refraction became so striking from the level of the street, that they attracted the attention of all the inhabitants in the neighbourhood. From two till five p. m. the phenomena were more indistinct and less interesting ; but, as the heat began to abate towards six p. m. the appearances observed in the morning were in a great measure repeated. " The occasion," says Mr Scoresby, " of the frequency of these phenomena during the last summer, and of their extra- ordinary character, may perhaps be accounted for from a re- markable and sudden change in the temperature of the air. The cool weather of the preceding spring had continued down to the beginning of June. The sea, even near the coast, was, in consequence, at its winter temperature, whilst the air became greatly heated by the fervent glare of an unclouded sun. When, therefore, the air near the surface of the earth became greatly warmed, the stratum immediately in contact with the sea was chilled by its coldness, whereby media of unequal density and refractive power were produced. And through these unequal media, the rays of light, both from the shipping and the Hol- derness coast, had to pass, to the eye of the observer, an un- interrupted surface of water, in all cases lying between the ob- jects and myself. The passing of the rays of light at an ex- tremely small angle through the different strata of different re- fractive powers would sufficiently account for most of the phe- nomena observed." Art. XXVIII. — On the Elements of the Four Nezv Planets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. The following elements of the four new planets have been col- lected by Francis Baily, Esq. the learned president of the As- Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. 295 tronomical Society of London, who has given them in his As- tronomical Tables and Formulce, a work which, with his usual liberality, he has printed for the use of his scientific friends. The planets are arranged in the order of their dis- tance from the sun. Vesta. This planet was discovered by Dr Olbers on March 29, 1807. Its mean distance from the sun is 2,367,870 ; that of the earth being considered as unity. It performs its sidereal revolution in 1325.7431 mean solar days ; and its mean synodical revolution is 503,41 days. The mean longitude at mean noon at Greenwich, on Janu- ary 1, 1820, was in 278° 30' 0" 4. Its mean motion in its orbit in a mean solar day is 16' 17", 9516. Its mean motion in 365 days, is consequently 99° 9' 15", 33. The longitude of its perihelion in Jan. 1, 1820, was in 249° 33' 24", 4. According to M. Santini, it has an apparent an- nual motion of + 1' 34", 24. Its orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, in an angle of 7° 8' 9", which, according to M. Santini, has an annual de- crease of 0", 12. Its ascending node was, on January 1, 1820, in 103° 13 18", 2, which, according to M. Santini, has an apparent annual motion of + 15", 63. The eccentricity of its orbit is 0.089,130; half the major axis being considered as unity : subject to an annual increase, according to M. Santini, of 0.000004009. The greatest equation of the centre is 10° 13' 22". Juno. This planet was first discovered by M. Harding on Sep- tember 1, 1804. Its mean distance from the Sun is 2.669009, that of the sun being considered as unity. It performs its sidereal revolution in 1592,6608 mean solar days ; and its mean synodical revolution in 473,95 days. Its mean longitude at mean noon at Greenwich, on January 1, 1820, was in 200° 16' 19", 1. 296 On the Elements of the Four New Planets, 6?c. Its mean motion in its orbit, in a mean solar day, is 13' 32", 9304 ; its mean motion in 365 days is consequently 82° 25' 19", 60. The longitude of hs perihelion, on January 1, 1820, was in 53# 33' 46". Its orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic in an angle of 13° 4' 9", 7. Its ascending node was on January 1, 1 820, in 171° 7' 40", 4. The eccentricity of its orbit is 0.257848 ; half the major axis being considered as unity. The greatest equation of the centre is 29° 46' 19". ^ Cekes. This planet was first discovered by M. Piazzi, on January 1, 1801. Its mean distance from the sun is 2767245, that of the earth being considered as unity. It performs its mean sidereal revolution in 1681.3931 mean solar days, and its mean synodical revolution is 466.62 days. Its mean longitude at mean noon at Greenwich, on January 1, 1820, was in 123° 16' 11", 9. Its mean motion in its orbit, in a mean solar day, is 12' 50", 9230 ; its mean motion in 365 days is consequently 78° 9' 46", 89. The longitude of its 'perihelion, on January 1, 1820, was in 147° 7' 31", 5 ; which, according to M. Gauss, is subject to an apparent annual motion of + ^ 1"? 3. Its orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic in an angle of 10° 37' 26", 2 ; which, according to Mr Gauss, has an an- nual decrease of 0", 44. Its ascending node was, on January 1, 1820, in 80° 41 ' 24". According to M. Gauss, it has an apparent annual motion of + 1" 48. The eccentricity of its orbit is 0.078439, half the major axis being considered as unity; which, according to M. Gauss, is subject to an annual decrease of 0.00000583. The greatest equation of the centre is 8° 59' 42". Pallas. This planet was discovered by Dr Olbers on March 28, Description of a New Mineral called Haytorite. 297 1802 : its mean distance from the sun is 2.772886 ; that of the earth being considered as unity. It performs its sidereal revolutions in 1686.5388 mean solar days ; and its mean synodical revolution in 466.22 days. Its mean longitude, at mean noon, at Greenwich, on January 1, 1820, was in 108° 24' 57",9. Its mean motion in its orbit, in a mean solar day, is 1 2' 48", 3934 : its mean motion in 365 days is consequently 77° 54' 25",59- The longitude of its perihelion on January 1, 1820, was in 121° 7' 4",3. Its orbit is inclined to the plane of th6 ecliptic in an angle of 34* 34' 55". Its ascending node was, on January 1, 1820, in 172° 39' 26",8. The eccentricity of its orbit is 0.241648 ; half the major axis being considered as unity. The greatest equation of the centre is 27° 49' 19". This planet appears to be subject to very considerable per- turbations. Akt. XXIX. — Description of the New Mineral called Hay- torite, drawn up from the Observations of Mr Tripe, Mr Cole, Mr Phillips, and Mr Levy.* This very remarkable mineral, which has already called forth the ingenuity of some of our ablest mineralogists, was first de- scribed by Cornelius Tripe, Esq. who transmitted crystals of it to William Phillips, Esq. for measurement. " It was found,"" says Mr Tripe, " in detached pieces, ac- companied by small masses of chalcedony, garnet, actynolite, talc, and very splendent octohedral oxidulated iron. These sub- stances altogether formed a single bunch of considerable size, enveloped by a ferruginous clay in a large lode of very pure oxidulated iron, in an iron mine adjacent to the Hay Tor gra- nite quarries, Devonshire. * The observations of these gentlemen form three successive articles in the Philosophical Magazine, No i. p. 38, Jan. 1827. 298 Description of a New Mineral called Haytorite. " The crystals, which are generally large and well defined, are of a brownish-red ferruginous yellow, and delicate white colour. Every crystal has certain planes, smooth and splendent, while the others are rough and dull, and is either semi-tran- sparent or translucent. The substance scratches rock crystal, and in lustre, colour, fracture, and general appearance, closely resembles chalcedony." Mr Robert Cole, who examined the mineral along with Mr Tripe, agrees with him in regarding it as crystallized chalce- dony, but considering it probable that it may be a new sub- stance, they contemplated calling it Haytorite, in honour of its birth-place. Mr Phillips has made the following observations upon Hay- torite : " It has only been found in regular crystals, which in ge- neral are well defined, the edges being sharp, and the planes for the most part brilliant. In dimension they vary from the size of a pin's head to an inch in diameter; three or four minute crystals are colourless and almost perfectly transparent ; but in general their colour passes from pale brownish-yellow, in which case they are translucent, to deep brown and opaque. The crystals, however, have rarely been found isolated, be- ing commonly grouped together in such a manner as to show only about one half of the crystal, but they are easily separa- ble ; the planes of separation are bright, and frequently some- what iridescent on the surface. I have in vain attempted to discover a regular cleavage which rarely is absent in crystallized minerals, and it is re- markable, that the surface produced by breaking a crystal in any direction, is almost totally devoid of lustre, having com- pletely the aspect and fracture of chalcedony, and this takes place even in the almost perfectly transparent crystals, which lose immediately that character, assuming the same degree of translucency as is commonly possessed by chalcedony when viewed on the fractured surface. Spec. grav. of two crystals taken by Mr S. L. Kent 2.5628, 2.5862. It scratches quartz. The characters detailed in the preceding sentence induced the suspicion that it is only a pseudomorphous mineral. Whether such be its real character, or whether it is to be Description of a New Mineral called Haytorite. 299 considered a new mineral, its primary form (assuming the planes P and k, k' as primary. Plate IV. Fig. 9.) is an oblique rhombic prism, differing less than 1° from the proportions of a right rhombic prism, and of which the lateral planes meet at the angles of 77° and 103°, the terminal plane declining from one acute angle to the other. Some of the crystals forming one large groupe in my possession are opaque; in others translucency exists ; and others again seem to have suffered a partial decomposition, having the appearance of being carious internally ; but to what extent soever that ap- pearance has taken place, it is remarkable, that the portion remaining of the external plane, however small, is not de- prived of its ordinary lustre, and often is even brilliant. Now, if this apparent injury had been the real effect of de- composition, we might expect that the agent producing it would, in the first place, have acted externally, and thus have deprived the external planes of their natural brilliancy ; and this consideration again tempted the farther examination, as to whether there existed in the crystals thus partially hollow- ed, any stalactitic appearance of chalcedonic matter. This certainly does appear, on a close examination by the help of a glass, a circumstance amounting almost to proof that the crystals are in reality pseudomorphous, and that their sub- stance is chalcedony. The smaller crystals were sometimes enveloped by it.1' Mr Phillips has given the following measurements in refer- ence to Fig. 9. of Plate IV. Pond 135* 5' g' on g2 160° 38 — e 134 55 g — h 15? 30 g 147 38 1 156 50 n* 128 22 v 139 42 & h 141 20 g*-l 150 8 i 90 3 k —k1 77 0 k 90 20 k — m 128 30 — 1 141 25 1 — * 162 25 — m 90 14 v — v' 130 22 n 116 42 m«— o 157 20 X) 130 5 i 147 40 d on h 140 32 300 Description of a New Mineral called Haytorite. " The forms," says Mr Levy, " and mere inspection of the ensemble of the measurements of Haytorite prove that we may assume for the primitive form an oblique rhombic prism, the lateral planes of which would correspond to the planes ^, Fig. 9, and the base to the plane m, this base being inclined upon the lateral planes at an angle very little greater than a right angle." By comparing the angles of the secondary form, calculated from the above primitive form, with those obtained by Mr Phillips, Mr Levy remarks, that the differences are so small, that it may be inferred at once, that the crystals of Haytorite are perfectly regular, and that one of the forms, which may be taken as their primitive, can differ but very little from an oblique rhombic prism, the incidence of the lateral planes of which is 115° 16', the incidence of the base in each of them 90° 8' 30", and the lateral edge equal to the oblique diagonal of the base.'" " When I first saw," continues Mr Levy, " the drawings and measurements of Haytorite, I thought they might be consi- dered as pseudomorphic crystals of sphene, because some of the angles are not very far from those of that substance ; but the preceding investigation proves, that an almost perfect equa- lity must be established between the angles of Haytorite, and those of any other mineral, before it can be reasonably sus- pected that the crystals of the first have only borrowed the form of the other ; and therefore, the above suggestion must be abandoned. The only substance between the angles of which and those of Haytorite there seems to be a great ana- logy, is Humboldtite. First, by inverting the drawings of Mr Phillips, the similitude of the forms of Haytorite with those of Humboldtite, represented by Mr Phillips in his Mineralogy, \ p. 380, becomes apparent. The planes P, gl9 d, h, k, i, n, v, of Haytorite, correspond to the planes h, m, a,f, e, e, ax>gx> of Humboldtite, and have the following inclinations, according to Mr Phillips : Haytorite. Humboldtite. P on g1 147°38/ m on h 147°50 P — d 135 5 h — a* 133 56 g*-h 157 30 m — f 156 50 Dr Brewster on the Structure, #c. of Haytorite. 301 Haytorite- Huraboldtite. k — k 77 ea — eQ 77 28 k — i 160 50 ei--e2 16120 P — n 116 42 h —a! 116 20 g*—v 139 42 m—g1 138 5 P — n 141 20 h-f 140 50 Mr Levy concludes his observations in the following words : " There is not, therefore, sufficient evidence, perhaps, to say- that the crystals of Haytorite are pseudomorphic of Humbold- tite. The repositories of the two substances seem to be dif- ferent ; for, besides the already known localities of Humbold- tite, the Seisser Alp in the Tyrol, and Salisbury Craigs, near Edinburgh, I know only of another, which is Utoe in Sweden, where, to judge by the specimen in Mr Heuland's collection, it occurs in macled crystals, and accompanied by apophyllite, carbonate of lime, sulphate of barytes, and bitumen. ie In conclusion, it may be said, that if the reasons for sup- posing the crystals of Haytorite appear conclusive, there is some not unreasonable ground to think they may owe their form to Humboldtite, but have been modelled upon crystals of that substance, larger, and of a different variety than those which have been met with hitherto, or otherwise they must be considered as pseudomorphic crystals of an unknown species." Art. XXX. — Observations on the Structure and Crystalline Forms of Haytorite. In a letter from Dr Brewster to Cornelius Tripe, Esq. Devonport. Sir, As you were so kind as to send me specimens of the new mine- ral recently found in Devonshire, to which you have given the suitable name of Haytorite, I need not make any apology for addressing to you the results of the observations which 1 have thus been enabled to make upon its structure and crystalline forms. It was impossible to peruse the ingenious observations of Mr Phillips and Mr Levy without being impressed with the opi- 302 Dr Brewster on the Structure and nion, that there was in this case a real difficulty worthy of be- ing solved, and I had sufficient confidence in the powers of optical analysis, to believe that it was peculiarly fitted for con- ducting us to the required solution. As Mr Phillips had de- scribed some of the crystals as almost perfectly transparent, a character which does not belong to chalcedony, I confidently expected that the determination of the axes of double refrac- tion, and of their relation to the primary or secondary planes, would settle at once the question, whether the crystals of Hay- torite were modelled upon those of any other substance, as Mr Levy expresses it, or derived their form from their own pro- per laws of crystallization. As the crystals, however, are not transparent, in the proper sense of the word, but disperse all the light which passes through them like chalcedony, or ground glass, I was disap- pointed in this expectation ; but other modes of observation presented themselves, which I have no doubt will be regarded as sufficient to remove all ambiguity from the results to which they lead. Having long ago had occasion to examine the structure of chalcedony, and to study the way in which it passes through agate into perfectly crystallized quartz, I was somewhat pre- pared for this examination. If we take a thin splinter of chal- cedony, and examine it with a powerful microscope and polar- ized light, we shall observe that it is composed of minute par- ticles possessing double refraction, but having their axes lying in every possible direction. When the splinter is very thin, we perceive even the polarized colours of some of the indivi- dual particles of quartz. Hence it is manifest that chalcedony is an aggregation of particles of quartz, having the axes of the primitive rhombohedron lying in every possible direction ; and as the specific gravity of chalcedony is exactly the same as that of quartz, it is obvious that the particles must be cemented by a substance of the same density, or agglutinated by the fusion of their surfaces, or held together by molecular attraction. If the particles thus combined had been particles of glass, or of any singly refracting body, the mass would possess that homogeneous transparency, through which objects can be dis- Crystalline Forms of Hay tor tie. 308 tinctly seen, and in which there is no dispersion of the passing light ; but as they are particles possessing double refraction, and as the double refraction varies at different parts of the crystal, a ray of light emerging from one part of a particle will not enter the corresponding part of the adjacent particle ; and therefore there must be that dispersion and reflection of the light which takes place in chalcedony. Upon submitting the Haytorite to the same scrutiny, I could not discover the slightest difference between its optical struc- ture and that of chalcedony. It consists of particles posses- sing double refraction, but having their axes lying in all possi- ble directions. Hence arises the dull fracture observed by Mr Phillips, and also the want of regular cleavage, which cannot possibly take place in a mineral so constituted. The cleavage, therefore, which you mention as having been observed by Mr Cole, cannot be a regular one, but must be one of those acci- dental planes of separation, which are often observed in granu- lar rocks, where the mass has no crystalline form. This opinion of the perfect identity of Haytorite and chal- cedony, in so far as their internal structure is concerned, is confirmed by the similarity of their fracture and specific gra- vity, as stated by Mr Phillips, but this result only adds to the difficulty of explaining the origin of the crystalline forms of Haytorite. For as chalcedony has been found in so many localities, and in such a great diversity of forms, without ever exhibiting the slightest trace of crystalline faces, we are natu- rally predisposed in favour of the opinion, that the crystalline forms of Haytorite are pseudomorphous, or derived from some other mineral. We shall therefore proceed to discuss the question, and a most important one in mineralogy, whether the forms of Hay- torite can be derived from any other mineral. It will be seen from the preceding description of this mineral, that the crys- tals of Haytorite are of the most perfect kind, and that the faces are derivable, by the laws of crystallization, from an oblique rhombic prism, as their primitive form. Hence it is clear, that the faces could not have been imprinted upon fluid chalcedony, by the faces of a number of other crystals sur- rounding it. If such a thing were within the limits of possi- 804 Dr Brewster on the Structure and bility, the edges of the crystal thus formed would readily be- tray its unnatural origin. The only supposition, therefore, which can be for a mo- ment admitted, is, that crystals of Humboldtite, (or some un- known mineral of the same form as Haytorite,) were imbed- ded in some matrix or substance capable of receiving smooth and perfect impressions from their crystalline faces ; that these crystals of Humboldtite have been subsequently decomposed ; that their ingredients had escaped so entirely, as to leave their moulds free of any material substance ; and that fluid chal- cedony, or chalcedony in a state of solution, had found its way by injection, infiltration, or otherwise, into these moulds, and filled them up. In this way there might be formed crystals of chalcedony like Haytorite, having the form of Humboldtite, or some unknown mineral. But as the chalcedony must have been introduced into the mould by some orifice of sensible magnitude, through which also the Humboldtite had escaped, it is obvious that this imperfection ought to appear at some point of the crystal. We shall not, however, avail ourselves of this objection, nor of other difficulties which very readily present themselves. We shall freely admit that the Humboldt- ite escaped from the small orifice, and entirely disappeared ; that the chalcedony insinuated itself, without leaving any tra- ces of its passage ; that Humboldtite, or some unknown mi- neral of the requisite form, though now extinct in Devonshire, had once existed, and, consequently, that isolated crystals of Haytorite may thus have been modelled on the forms of de- parted minerals. But how will this admission, ample and liberal as it is, ac- count for the formation of the crystals of Haytorite as they actually occur in nature ? In the specimens which you have sent me, the crystals of Haytorite do not exist in an insulated state, surrounded by any matrix in which the Humboldtite could have formed a mould. They are actually aggregated closely together, and when they are detached, the faces which Jiave been in contact are perfectly crystallized, without a trace of the interposition of any foreign matter. Such crystals could not possibly be formed in the manner above-mentioned, nor, indeed, upon any hypothesis however extravagant ; and Crystalline Forms of Haytorite. 305 I cannot but express my surprise, how any person who has seen the crystals which are now before me in their combined and in their separated state, could for one moment suppose that they were pseudomorphous ones, modelled upon any other mineral. There is yet one supposition which remains to be made, namely, that the boracic acid, the characteristic ingredient of Humboldtite, may have somehow or other been present with the chalcedony, and determined it to assume corresponding crys- talline forms, in the same way as M. Beudant (see this Num- ber, page 291,) found that the presence of nitrate of soda determined nitrate of potash to assume its crystalline form. Without asking what has become of the boracic acid, we may state that the crystalline structure which it superinduced would appear in the interior of the crystal, as well as in its exterior ; and that the crystal could, in no sense of the word, be called a pseudomorphous one, because it is formed by the usual laws of crystallization. Such a crystal would also have physical properties different from those of chalcedony, in the same man- ner as the nitrate of potash, altered by the presence of nitrate of soda, has its physical properties changed along with its form. But as no such variation of character appears in the chalcedony, and as no circumstances whatever render such a supposition pro- bable, we must abandon it as untenable. Although I trust I have now established to your satisfaction, what indeed was your own idea as well as that of Mr Cole, that Haytorite has not been modelled upon any other mineral body, whether known or unknown, yet we have only increased the dif- ficulty of accounting for its crystalline forms by the exclusion of that hypothesis. The existence of perfect crystalline forms, without any trace of internal crystallization, nay with an internal structure, in which the axes of the elementary crystals have every possible direction, seems a paradox in mineralogy. The subject there- fore deserves the minutest investigation, and will amply reward the labours of those who have time and talents for such an in- quiry. It may not be unimportant, however, to mention, that I have observed in many crystallized minerals a deviation from parallelism in the axes of their elementary crystals; andit remains VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827- U 306 Dr Brewster on the Structure of Haytorite. to be seen whether this deviation is most common in crystallized minerals, which have either no cleavage or an imperfect one, and to what extent it can go without affecting the external form of the crystal. When we consider what curious composite structures exist in apophyllite, analcime, amethyst, chabasie, mesolite, &c. &c. without any corresponding indication of it in their external crystallization, the anomalous structure of Hay- torite will cease to excite our astonishment. I conceive indeed that it may belong to the same class of facts, with this differ- ence only, that, in the case of the former, the combined indivi- duals have a perceptible magnitude, whereas in the Haytorite they are minute particles or granular crystals. In order to illustrate this view of the matter, which is pro- posed merely as an hypothesis, let us suppose a compound crystal such as the Sulphato-tri-carbonate of lead, which, as Mr Haidinger has proved, is composed of three individual crystals forming what appears to be a regular rhombohedron. If we expose this crystal to polarized light, we shall see that the axes of double refraction, or of crystallization, are lying in three different directions. If the size of the crystal is con- ceived to be reduced so that the three individual crystals be- come small grains, and if we also conceive that each of these grains unites with another grain according to the same law of composition, the crystallization filling up any vacuities that may be left, we shall then have a mass really granular, and which may, without any violation of probability, be supposed to possess a regular external structure. A crystal thus com- posed can have no regular cleavage, and would exhibit the fracture, the imperfect transparency, and the optical structure of Haytorite. Although this is a mere supposition with respect to Hayto- rite, yet the smallest crystal of analcime is actually compos- ed of twenty-four different solids ; and I possess crystals of amethyst with perfect crystalline forms which are composed of many hundreds of individual crystals, one half of which have the direct, and the other the retrograde structure of plagiedral quartz. Nay, in some crystals of this extraordinary mineral, the combined individual crystals are so numerous that they re- quire a microscope to be seen, and there are other crystals in Prof. Decandolle on a New Species of Oscillatoria. 307 which their existence can be determined only by the total de- struction of the circular polarization, which is possessed in an opposite manner by each pair of the combined crystals. I am, Sir, Yours most faithfully, D. Brewster. Edinburgh, 10, Coates Crescent, March 1, 1827. Art. XXXI.- — Account of a New Animal, which occurred in such quantities as to dye Red the Lake of Morat in the Spring o/*1825.* By Professor Decandolle. About the end of the winter of 1825, the Lake of Morat pre- sented the remarkable phenomenon of being covered in several places with a red substance, which coloured it in a manner so extraordinary that all the inhabitants on the banks of the river were struck with astonishment. Although this phenomenon has only now attracted particular notice, yet it is said to happen every spring, and the fishermen express the fact by saying, that the lake is in Jlower. In 1825 it lasted from November till March, April, and even May, — a circumstance which is ascribed to the mildness of the winter, and to the low state of the waters, which favours the developement of the organic matter which produces the red colour. During the first hours of the day nothing particular is ob- served in the lake, but soon afterwards there are seen long red lines, very regular and parallel, along the margin of the lake, and at some distance from its banks. The winds push this matter into the small bays, and heap it round the reeds, where it covers the surface of the lake with a fine reddish foam, form- ing strata of colour varying from a greenish black to the most beautiful red. Sometimes yellow, red, and grey colours of all kinds are seen, sometimes they are seen marbled, and sometimes they present figures like those produced by positive electricity on the electrophorus. During the day this mass exhales a * Abridged from the Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et D'Hist Nat. de Ge~ neve, torn. iii. part ii. 308 Prof. DecandolJe on a new Animal which dyed putrid smell, and during the night the whole disappears, to re- appear again the next day. When the lake is agitated by high winds the phenomenon disappears, and presents itself again when a calm returns. Several species of fish, such as the perch and the pike, pro- bably from having eaten of this matter, had their outline, and even their flesh, tinged red as if they had been fed upon mad- der, but without experiencing any inconvenience. Several small fish, however, (as Dr Engelhart and M. Treschel both mention) which came to the surface to breath and to catch flies, died with convulsions in passing through this matter, an effect which is as- cribed by some to their having swallowed a portion of it, and by others to the putrid air which existed at the surface. MM. Engelhart and Treschel, to whom we owe these in- teresting details, first directed the attention of naturalists to this subject, and, in consequence of this, several bottles, filled with the different substances, were forwarded to Geneva. These substances were examined by Professor Decandolle in so far as they were connected with natural history, and by MM. Col- ladon-Martin, and Macaire Princep, in their chemical rela- tions. When the bottles were opened a»t the end of twenty-four hours, they exhaled an extremely fetid odour. When the contents were poured out, there appeared two substances very distinct, viz. a red and very minute matter of a brownish-red colour, and another in irregular plates of a dirty green colour. By filtering the mass there was obtained a great quantity of the reddish- brown substance. When placed in water this sub- stance swam on its surface ; but if it was obtained without fil- tration, and if it was mixed with water, the fluid presented three zones, an upper one which contained the substance almost pure, a middle one which was water, and an under one which was a mass of different fragments and mud which had been mixed with the brown matter. On the first day, the water which separated these two zones was perfectly clear and colourless ; but at the end of two or three days it had a rose lilac colour, and afterwards a very bril- liant red lilac. This colour begins always on the upper part. It continues to descend in the liquid ; and it is evident that it Red the Lake of Morat in 1925. 309 proceeds from the brownish matter which swims above. When the vessel is agitated, all the zones are mixed together, and the fluid appears of a dirty lilac, more or less brownish or reddish. Hence it is certain that the colour of the water depends essen- tially on the reddish-brown matter which forms the upper and floating zone. This matter requires to be examined with more attention. When we examine it through a lens, there is seen only a mass of very minute cylindrical filaments, which seem to be what Haller has described as a purple coivferva swimming in water. By using a powerful microscope, however, the filaments are seen marked with transverse stripes, which are often entire, and in rings sometimes interrupted. These rings are often very near each other, and tolerably regular. This state of the rings rendered it probable that the filaments were not conferva?, but belonged to the genus oscillatoria of M. Vaucher. This suppo- sition was confirmed by their own proper motions, as they were seen to bend and twist themselves, sometimes in one direction, and sometimes in another, and with such rapidity as to leave no doubt of their being animals. The matter which dyed the lake of Morat red, is a new spe- cies of oscillatoria, having its rings less near each other, and less thick than in the oscillatoria subfusca found in the Rhone, and described by M. Vaucher. The rings appear to be situated in the interior of a mem- branous tube, at least we often see tubular portions of the fila- ment deprived of rings, and fragments of rings more or less complete floating on the liquid. The colouring matter appears to be contained either in the rings or between the rings. It is probable that, by the fermentation or "putrefaction of these sub- stances, which takes place either at their death, or perhaps when they are in a diseased state, this colouring matter is dis- solved in the water, and forms that fine lilac rose-colour which terminates by developing itself in the water upon which *the oscillatoria swim. The shreds of dirty yellow, which were often mixed with this reddish matter, were considered to resemble fragments of the thallus of some foliaceous lichen. They are fetid, and a little soft, having nearly the specific gravity of water, and are 310 Prof. Decandolle on a New Species of Oscillator ia. almost all irregular and slashed at the margin. On one side they are whitish, and on the other of a dirty green, from half an inch to three inches long, and from half an inch to an inch wide. Under the microscope they show no distinct trace of organization. It is possible that they may be the debris of large vegetables which live in the lake, such as the Nenuphars and Scirpes. It is possible that they may be substances analogous to some species of ulva or rivalia half decomposed ; or it is possible that they may be the debris of the skins of the oscilla- toria^ and be analogous to the body which Professor Vaucher has figured in his oscillatoria vaginata, and in all the Nostochs. If this last hypothesis is verified, it will tend to confirm the idea that the oscillatoria of Morat is different from the oscilla- toria mbfusca. When the oscillatoria of Morat are placed in water, they ar- range themselves on the margin of the vessel in long filaments, of a colour which is brown in their lower part, and green in the upper part. Does this green part form an integral part of the other ? Is it the beginning of the formation of a skin ? Is it a particular age of the oscillatoria ? or is it a formation foreign to its essence ? All these questions have not yet been com- pletely answered. Analogy with the other species of the ge- nus seems to confirm the opinion, that this green production actually makes a part of the developement of the oscillatoria, and is perhaps the commencement of the formation of a skin. This new animal may be described as follows, in the lan- guage of natural history : — Oscillatoria rubescens. 0. fjlis cylindricis tenuissimis (yJ5 lin. diam.) fusco-ru- bescentibus, confertissime annulatis. Conferva purpurea aquis innatans. — Haller, Helv. No. 2109? Hab. in Lacu Morattensi ; precipue hyeme et vere ; inter- dum temperie favente valde multiplicata ad superficiem flui- tans, et aquam rubram efficiens. The gentlemen who undertook the chemical examination of the substances above described, found that the red matter was composed of 1, A resinous red colouring matter. M. Nobili on New Electro-Chemical Phenomena. 311 2. A green resin. 3. A great proportion of gelatine. . 4. Some earthy and alkaline salts, oxide of iron, &c. This analysis demonstrates the existence of an organized animal substance, and confirms the opinion of some naturalists respecting the origin of products of animal nature which have been lately met with by several chemists in a great num- ber of mineral waters. Aiit. XXXII. — On a New Class of Electro-Chemical Pheno- mena. * By M. Leopold Nobili. In the very curious experiments which we are about to de- scribe, M. Nobili makes use of a pile of twelve small elements, having a surface of an inch square. He concentrates the cur- rent which proceeds from one of the poles in a platina wire with a sharp point, which is immersed in the liquid to be de- composed. He then conveys the current of the other pole into a conductor terminating in a disc, or flat surface of metal, which is placed in the liquid within half a line of the point of the platinum wire, and perpendicular to the current. The phenomena which M. Nobili observed, showed themselves on the surface of the metallic plane. They depend on the na- ture of that plane, and have their origin precisely opposite the point of the platina conductor. The liquids employed were "generally strong solutions of the salts mentioned. Sulphate of Copper. — The platinum point communicating with the negative or copper end of the pile, and a silver disc with the positive end, they are both plunged in a solution of sulphate of copper in the manner already mentioned. Oppo- site the platinum point, there is then found on the silver Jour or Jive concentric circles, alternately bright and dark. When the silver communicated with the negative end of the pile, there was commonly formed three small concentric circles, by the deposition of copper proceeding from the de- composition of the sulphate. The smallest and the largest circle were of a deep red colour, and the intermediate circle * Abridged from the Bibl. Universelle, Dec. 1826. p. 302. 312 M. Nobili on New Electro-Chemical Phenomena. was of a clearer tint. These colours are those of the copper in the state of oxide, and in the metallic state. A stratum of nitric acid passed slightly over the disc, attacked these differ- ent circles. Those formed by the oxide of copper disappear- ed almost entirely, and that which was formed by the copper remained. Four or Jive circles were sometimes formed instead of three, and the tints alternated as in the preceding case. Upon a disc of Brass Positive, (that is communicating with the positive end of the pile,) there are several different concen- tric figures, which, when they are wiped with linen, leave upon it traces oi five concentric circles of a clear brass yellow co- lour, Some are clearer than others, and alternate with them. Upon Brass Negative there is a deposit of copper, and circles of two alternating shades, as in silver. No distinct effects were obtained either with discs of platina, tin, or bismuth. Sulphate of Zinc. — Upon Silver Positive there was a spot dark at the centre ; then a clear yellow circle ; then a circle of light blue ; and then a fine zone, approaching to yel- low. Upon Brass Positive there were four small circles proceed- ing from the copper. They have two tints, one clearer than the other, and alternating. These tints seem to be those which distinguish copper in the state of oxide from copper in the metallic state. Sulphate of Manganese. — Upon Silver Positive there ap- pear five concentric circles, alternately bright and dark. The fifth is more distinct than the rest, and is surrounded with an area of a pale yellow, which terminates in a violet tint. Upon Brass Positive there are five small circles, alternate- ly bright and dark. On Bismuth Positive there are four circles. The smallest is white, the second darker, the third a pale yellow, and the fourth black. Nitrate of Bismuth. — On Gold and Silver Negative there are four or five concentric circles differently coloured, but not distinct. The tints of these circles appear to be those through which the bismuth passes in its oxidation. Acetate of Lead. — On Gold and Platina Positive. In M. Nobili on Nezv Electro-Chemical Phenomena. 313 a few seconds there are formed different concentric circles as brilliantly coloured as the Newtonian rings. These rings rise the one out of the other, propagating themselves like waves. Their vivacity and distinctness depend in a great measure upon the polish of the metallic disc, being weak and confused on imperfectly polished surfaces. They resist the action of a moderate heat, but they disappear entirely with nitric acid. From this and other circumstances there can be doubt that these rings are thin plates deposited by the action of the elec- tric current on the metallic surface. This phenomenon becomes more precise and more varied when we multiply the points on the negative side, and ar- range them in regular figures, as a triangle, square, &c. There are formed on the disc as many systems of concentric rings as there are points, but in place of intersecting each other as they expand, like waves, they extend outwards when they come in contact, so as to form only a single outline. This appearance reminds us of the figures formed by sand upon vi- brating plates, as described by Chladni, Paradisi, and Savart. A disc of Silver Positive presents also the coloured rings, but with less distinctness. No remarkable effect is produced by lead, tin, copper, bismuth, and antimony. Acetic Acid. — On Gold and Platina Positive there is on- ly an uncertain colour, as with acetate of lead. Acetate of Copper. — >On Platina, Gold and Silver Po- sitive nothing remarkable is observed, but it is otherwise when they communicate with the negative pole. On Silver there is often formed Jour concentric circles, which, when exposed to the air, become a deep blue at the centre, then a yellowish- red, then a less deep blue, and lastly, a yellowish-red shade, forming a ring wider than the first. Nitric acid makes the exterior circle disappear, but the three interior circles remain, leaving the ordinary colour of copper in its two states of ox- ide and metal. In the centre is the oxide, and then the pure metal, surrounded with another circle of oxide. Platinum and gold present analogous phenomena. Acetate of Potash, on Silver Positive, exhibits a dark circle in the middle of other three which are four lines in diameter, and surrounded with a very brilliant fillet of silver, 314 M. Nobili on New Electro-Chemical Phenomena. which is surrounded by an area of different colours which are feeble. The dark circle does not acquire its proper tint till the instant that we interrupt the circuit. One would say that the veil which covers the exterior circle is folded back from the centre, at the moment when the action of the current ceases. As I have seen this phenomenon only with acetate of potash, it merits the attention of philosophers. Acetate of Copper and Lead mixed together. — On Gold and Platina Positive there appears the finest coloured rings, as with acetate of lead alone. Is this salt, therefore, the only one which enjoys the property of colouring, in this manner, these two metals which are the most difficultly oxida- ble ? But if these coloured rings proceed, as they appear to do, from some of the electro-negative substances in the solu- tion which deposit themselves in thin films on the surface of these two metals, why does it not happen with other metals ? ; Upon Silver Negative there is formed a great number of concentric circles, which are generally arranged as follows : Jn the centre is a dark circle, then a yellow circle bordering upon red, then a deep black circle, then a fine ring of pure copper, then a circle less black than the third ; and, lastly, a zone of a light coppery tint. A stratum of nitric acid passed over this series of circles, discovers in the centre a spot having the lustre of silver surrounded with four circles of copper in the state of oxide and metal, alternating in the ordinary man- ner, and becoming more distinct by a second wash of nitric acid. Antimoniated Tartrate of Potash, or tartar emetic. — On Silver Positive there appears five coloured circles. The first in the centre is dark, the second is a silvery white, the third is azure .bordering upon violet, the fourth is silvery white, and the fifth is violet, but light without. Upon Silver Negative there are five other circles. The first is black, the second reddish-yellow, the third black, the fourth a bright blue, and the fifth slightly deep. Chlorate of Platina. — On Silver Positive there is a black spot in the centre, then a circle of an ash colour, then a slight iris. On silver negative there is a black spot in the centre, surrounded with a bright circle, then a circle more M. Nobili on New Electro-Chemical Phenomena. 315 deep, surrounded with a slight iris, and, lastly, another circle almost black. On platina positive there is no appearance, but on the same metal negative there are two small circles bor- dering on black round a white circle. Nitrates of Copper and Silver mixed together. — On Silver Positive there is in the centre a brilliant circle of silver,, then a dark circle, then a second circle of silver, and, lastly, another darkish circle. Phosphoric Acid. — On Silver Positive there is in the cen- tre a small yellow circle, then a reddish circle, then a silvery white circle ; and lastly, a wide area of different colours, be- ginning with yellow and ending with violet. Oxalic Acid. — On Silver Positive there are three distinct circles, the first yellow, the second reddish, and the third like the first, but larger. Subcarbonate of Potash. — Upon Silver Positive there is an elegant arrangement of concentric circles, which dilate before the eye, and finish by exhibiting a fine degradation of tints. I covered the piece of silver with a piece of muslin, to see if the phenomenon would be altered by it, but it suffered no change. There was no appearance upon gold or tin posi- tive. Common Salt. — Upon Silver Positive there was a series of concentric circles surrounded with various irises. The phe- nomenon is here more vague than in the preceding cases, and it retains its lustre only during a short time. The contact of air weakens and confounds a little the tints which are in perfect harmony. When the silver disc is suddenly heated, all the rings assume a fine red colour, whose intensity varies in the different circles ; after which the tints acquire a certain permanence. By the action of heat, some of the exterior zones disappear, and also part of the central zones. This ac- cident does not appear difficult to explain. The arrangement in thin plates, of the electro-magnetic substances, begins at the centre of the disc of silver, and goes on diminishing to its cir- cumference. The exterior strata are of great tenuity, * and * Ihis we do' not understand. If the colours are those of thin plates, as the author believes, the thickness of the plates must increase from the centre to the circumference. — En. 316 M. Nobili on New Electro-Chemical Phenomena. are easily dissipated by the action of heat ; while, towards the centre, the deposit is much more considerable, but from its very abundance there is formed a species of crust, which splits by the heat, and is easily detached from the metal. On Copper Positive there is an alternation of clear and dark circles. On Brass Positive there are different concentric circles, which, when cleaned with linen, exhibit three or four rings al- ternately red and yellow. The red ones proceed from the cop- per in the brass, which then loses the zinc in its composition. There was no appearance upon tin and platina positive. Sulphate of Soda. — On Silver Positive there are five small concentric circles ; in the centre there is a black point, then a bright blue circle, then two dark circles, separated by a bright one. Urine. — Upon Silver Positive there are different orders of very brilliant coloured rings round a dark centre. When dried, they are permanent, in contact with the air. Urea acts like the preceding, but produces colours more definite. Urine and Common Salt. — Upon Silver Positive the phe- nomenon is the same as in the preceding case, But the colour- ed rings, being more numerous, are also more delicate. When exposed to heat, they take a fine red colour, without produ- cing any confusion among their shades. On platina positive there is no effect, and on brass and copper positive there is a small number of insignificant circles. • These experiments, which have not been pushed farther, lead to two results. The first is the property, which certain electro-negative substances possess, of attaching themselves, in certain determinate circumstances, to the surface of some of the less oxidable metals, in films so thin and regular, as to pro- duce, in a thousand varied forms, the elegant phenomenon of coloured rings. The arts will probably avail themselves of this new colouring process, and may perhaps succeed in apply- ing it to the ornament of some objects of luxury. When the electro-negative substances are not deposited on the metals in their films, they generally attack their surface, not in a uni- form manner, or, as we might at first suppose, by a continued Dr Turner on Haidingerite, a new Mineral Species. 317 and decreasing gradation of intensity reckoning from the centre, but at regular intervals, following, so to speak, a law analogous to that of interference. At the negative pole, where the electro -positive substances appear, we observe the same phenomenon, namely an alternation of circles of oxide and of pure metal. This alternation constitutes the second result which I have announced. May we suppose that the radia- tion of electric currents follows a law of interference ? There exists, without doubt, certain alternations, but new experi- ments are necessary to discover their true origin. Reggio, November 20, 1826. Art. XXX I IT. — On Haidingerite, a new Mineral Species. By Edward Turner, M. D. F. R. S. E. Lecturer on Che- mistry, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author. In an account of the analysis of two newly discovered minerals described by Mr Haidinger in the third volume of this Jour- nal, it was my intention to have proposed for the second spe- cies, the Diatomous Gypsum-Haloide, the name of Haidin- gerite, in honour of the distinguished mineralogist who first noticed its existence. In this wish I had the pleasure to con- cur with Mr Ferguson of Raith, in whose cabinet the mine- rals were discovered ; but as Mr Haidinger was not at that time in Britain, it was thought advisable to make no allusion to the subject until after his return. Having now gained his assent, I propose to employ the name of Haidingerite to de- signate the species above-mentioned, and have no doubt that this proposition will be favourably received by mineralogists. In a recent scientific tour through the continent, made in company with Mr Robert Allan, Mr Haidinger hoped to meet with specimens of Haidingerite, and ascertain its locality. But in this he was unsuccessful. He could not discover it in any of the cabinets which he had an opportunity of inspect- ing, not even at Carlsruhe, among the numerous and superb specimens of the arseniates of lime and other products of the mines of Wittichen in the Black Forest, collected by the Ber- 31 8 Captain Wilson's experiments in China and St Helena, grath Selb, and now in the possession of the Grand Duke of Baden. He ascertained, however, that the hemiprismatic gypsum-haloide agrees exactly in form with pharmacolite. He saw distinct crystals of the latter, having the shape of Figure 4 of the paper above referred to. They are four-sided and eight-sided prisms, with an inclined base, and exhibit the same disproportionate enlargement of one of the faces of the prism^' Like other species which consist of arsenic acid, lime, and water, their origin depends on the oxidation of arsenical py- rites, or other minerals containing arsenic, and on the reac- tion of the arsenic acid so formed on calcareous spar. The crystallized specimens of pharmacolite from St Marie aux mines, in Alsace, which have been lately found in con- siderable number, do not possess any very distinct forms ; but in some of the more regular crystals the faces peculiar to the prismatic gypsum-haloide are perceptible. The single dis- tinct cleavage, and the slight degree of flexibility of the lami- nae, two characteristic properties of the same species, may like- wise be observed. The third species was recognized by Mr Haidinger in se- veral crystalline fragments in the Royal Museum of Berlin ; but their locality is unknown. Art. XXXIV. — An Account of Magnetical Experiments made in China and St Helena, with a view of determining the Position of the Plarte of no deviation in those places. By Captain J. P. Wilson of the H. E. I. C. Ship Hythe. Communicated by Peter Barlow, Esq. F. R. S. Mem. Imp. Ac. Petrop. &c. It is known, that, in the commencement of my experiments, I had conceived (for the purpose of generalizing and simplifying magnetic results) an ideal sphere to circumscribe the iron ball or shell on which the experiments were performed ; and, ac- cording to my deductions, it seemed to follow that this sphere would occupy different positions on different parts of the globe. I also expressed a hope that the truth of this deduc- tion might be verified by experiments. To meet my views on the Plane of no Deviation in those places. 319 on this point, Captain Wilson provided himself with an appa- ratus like that which I employed at Woolwich ; and the fol- lowing is his own account of these experiments, from which it appears, that, abstracting from the errors of his dipping nee- dle, the accuracy of the deduction is ascertained ; the discre- pance between the observed and the inferred position of the plane differing very little more than the known error of the needle in London, although the experiments were made in places having dips of contrary denominations, viz. north and south. Besides these results, it will be seen that Captain Wilson detected in his needle in China a very curious anomaly, depending upon the unequal distribution of magnetism in its two branches ; and these having been since examined on the same apparatus in England by Captain Beaufort, R. N. F.R. S. by Captain Wilson, and by myself, they have been found to possess a greater importance in the theory of magnetism than Captain Wilson supposed, and a paper is at present before the Royal Society on these experiments. It would therefore be improper to enter upon the subject in this communication, but you will probably (should they appear in the Transac- tions) make them the subject of a future article. The follow^ ing is Captain Wilson's account of his experiments on the plane of no deviation. Having provided myself with a stout deal table, the surface of which was planed perfectly true, and also with a dipping needle made by Nairne and Blount, with several light hori- zontal needles, and with some powerful magnets, on my ar- rival in Calcutta I procured a 13 inch mortar shell from the arsenal, with the intention of ascertaining the plane of no at- traction, which, according to Mr Barlow, should be at right angles to the dip in all latitudes. Some defects, however, in the apparatus, and other circum- stances, prevented my obtaining any satisfactory results before the ship's departure. On our arrival in China, my attempts to repeat Mr Bar- low's experiments were again unsuccessful, till at length it oc- curred to me, that, if the poles of the needle were not equally distant from the pivot on which it turned, all the inconsisten- cies would be accounted for which had defeated my former 320 Captain Wilson's experiments in China and St Helena, trials ; for although, when within the influence of the ball, the needle would be materially affected, it would, when left to it- self, take its natural direction in the true magnetic meridian. I therefore placed the needle on the east or west point of the table, and lowered the shell, so that its centre was level with the pivot of the needle, in which position the shell, according to Mr Barlow's experiments, ought not to have any effect. In this position I found, that, by rubbing the needle in different parts with the magnet, I could cause a greater, less, or con- trary deviation at pleasure, that is, if the south end of the needle was attracted by applying the north pole of the magnet to the south point, it would cause it to take its true direction ; or, if it failed to do so completely, by applying the south pole of the magnet between the north end of the needle and the centre, it would be accomplished, and vice versa. I am not aware that Mr Barlow experienced the same devia- tions in his needle, probably not, as the less the angle that the plane of no attraction makes with the horizon, the less the needle would be inclined to deviate. Having discovered the mode of rectifying the needle, if I may so call it, I proceeded with the experiments, confining myself to the 75th, 80th, and 85th degrees of the circle, from the north and south towards the east and west, as they were, from the difficulty of getting the shell in the exact centre of the circle, the most convenient, frequently placing the needle on the east or west points to cor- rect it, and found the angle that the plane of no attraction makes with the horizon to be, as in the annexed table, the dip, as found by my dipping needle, being 31° 20' north. Distance from North to- North or wards North to- South to- South to- Inclina- South East be- wards wards wards Mean. tion of Points. low the West East West the Table. below. above. above. Plane. 90° 85 1.23 1.32 1.41 1.29 1.31 54*56 80 2.56 2.69 2.65 2.57 2.62 55 2 75 5.88 3.83 3.92 3.86 3.87 54 48 Mean, 54°55 Radius of the circle, 10.55 inches. Diameter of the shell, 12.68 inches. II Zoology of the Falkland Islands. m\ As the shell is above the table on the south side of the east and west points, the plane of no attraction dips to the south. At St Helena, the dip of the needle being south, I deter* mined on following the same process which had succeeded in China, but contenting myself with the 80th and 85th degrees, as on the 75th degree it became difficult to place the shell ac- curately in the centre of the table. I found the inclination of the plane to be as follows. The dip of the needle being 16° 32' south, Distance from North or South Points. North towards East above. North towards. West above. South towards East below. South towards West below. Mean. Inclination of the Plane. 90° 85 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 72.52 80 5.93 5.93 5.78 6.03 5.92 72.48 Radius of the circle 10.55 inches. Diameter of the shell 12-68 inches. As the shell is below the table on the south side of the east and west points, the plane of no attraction dips to the north. My various duties prevented the repetition of the experi- ments a second time, either at China or St Helena ; and it is necessary to remark, that I cannot depend on the accuracy of my dipping needle, as in London, previous to our sailing, it showed the dip 68°54' north, which was 1° 36' less than the truth. The vibrations of the needles entered in the journal, were for the purpose of calculating the dip by the method mention- ed in Mr Barlow*s work, but little reliance can be placed on them, from the difficulty of keeping the magnetic power always the same, although, when not in use, the needles were always attached to strong magnets. Art. XXXV. — Notice respecting the Zoology of the Falkland Islands. * By M. Garnot. In the course of the circumnavigation of the globe by the corvette la Cuquille from 1822 to 1825, the natural history * Translated From the Annates des Sciences Naturelks. VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827- X 32g M. Garnot on the Zoology of the Falkland Islands, (the hies Malouines of the French,) hitherto so little known, received very careful investigation. A short account of the Zoological department has been pub- lished by M. Garnot, surgeon and naturalist to the expedi- tion. The two principal islands of the group are named Soledad and Falkland. The former, indented with a vast number of bays, has two principal ones, those of des Francais and de THuile. It was at the extremity of a reef of rocks at the en- trance of the bay des Francais that the Urania was unfortu- nately shipwrecked. Near this bay the remains of the estab- lishment formed by Bougainville in 1 765 were still visible ; and, on the south of it, the shipwrecked mariners of the Ura- nia formed their camp, of which scarcely a trace remained. The Island of Soledad offers scenery but little attractive. Its mountains are destitute of large vegetables. The deep valleys and some plains are covered here and there with spots of verdure ; but the vegetation is scarcely elevated above the surface of the ground, except where the shrub Veronica de- cussata, and the grass, Festuca Jlabettata, 4 — 5 feet in height occur. It is remarkable that the horses, the cattle, and pigs, with which Soledad was stocked by the French and Spaniards, have not degenerated, though exposed to great vicissitudes of the atmosphere. The horses are the most numerous, and are met with in troops of fifteen to twenty. They are extremely shy, and can only be approached by stratagem ; their flesh in the wild state is good, certainly as delicate as that of the oxen. The oxen are generally found in pairs, and are obtained with difficulty. The pigs are less diffused, having chosen for their retreat the shrubby cover in the neighbourhood of the bay de VHuile. The quadruped, however, which exists in the greatest num- ber is the rabbit ; burrowing principally on the sea shore, and in some of the valleys. They abounded so much in one spot that the sailors took them with their hands. Some of a violet-brown colour, interspersed with white hairs, and having brown ears, is considered a distinct species, and named I.epus magettanicus. The Canis antarcticus of Shaw, and mention- of the Falkland Islands. 3^) ed by Bougainville, the expedition did not see. About the 15th of December they were visited by many Pltocce, and ob- tained an undescribed species. The Balcena mysticetus also made its appearance. In birds these islands are more prolific. I. Of Birds of Prey, the expedition found the Vultur aura^ Falco polysoma, Quoy et Gaim. F. histrionicw, do. F. Novce-zcelandice. F. brasilien- sis. A singular instance is given of the boldness of this last species. Messrs Blois and Garnot having shot a pair of geese, male and female, one of their young ones was pounced upon, and carried off from before their eyes. A species of owl, with a short tuft, terminates the list of birds of prey. II. Passereaux. — In this division were discovered seven species. Of two species of thrush, one was new, and has been named Turdus Falklandiac. There are also two species of Sylvia, S. machviana, Gam. sp. nov. and the other resembling S. cisticola, native of Sicily and Sardinia. A new Emberiza. E. melanodera, Quoy and Gaim., the Stemus ?nilitaris, and the new Certhia antarctica, Garn. conclude this division. The Stemus is the only bird with splendid plumage, and is called by Bougainville the Oiseauoo rouge. III. Echassiers. — A pretty new species of plover, Chara- drius pyroceplialus, Garn. and Tringa Urvillii, Garn. sp. nov. are the first mentioned. The latter is said to be generally perched upon Hydrocotyle gurnrnifera. Lam. Two species of oyster-catchers were seen, the Hcsmatopus niger of Quoy and Gaimard, and a distinct one, the //. leucopodus, Garn ; remark- able for the pale colour of the feet. The heron " Bihoreau pouacre" was extremely rare. The Scolopax longirostris, and the Charadrius calidris did not differ from those of Eu- rope. Of Chionis vaginalis, Viell. known by navigators un- der the name of the white pigeon, a single specimen only could be procured. A few days before, another had been shot far out at sea, about eighty leagues from land. IV. Palmipedes.— Belonging to this extensive order, the expedition observed several very interesting species. The birds composing it were more numerous than any other, as might be anticipated. A new species of grebe has been de- 324 M. Garnot on the Zoology of the Falkland Islands. scribed by Messrs Quoy and Gaimard, (Podiceps Rollandii) * and another by M. Garnot, (P. occipitalis,) The most extraordinary birds of this order, seeming to be almost intermediate between birds and fishes, are the Penguins. They cover the shores of the islands in the bay des Francais. It is truly amusing to see crowds of them marching quite erect, and in regular files. When approached, a signal of alarm is given by some one of the company, and they imme- diately throw themselves upon their bellies to escape the more speedily. If their retreat to the sea be cut off, they are taken without difficulty. Their nests, which may be rather termed deep burrows in the earth, are large enough to contain the whole family, of father, mother, and two young ones. Various navigators have remarked the peculiar dissonance of their cry, which somewhat resembles the braying of an ass. In the pre- sent expedition, the noise produced by them on calm evenings put the hearers in mind of the sound of a populace on a day of rejoicing. Aptenodytes demersa was the most common, but two others were noticed. The petrels were exceedingly numerous ; above all, the stormy petrel, P. pelagica and P. Berardi, Quoy and Gaim. Specimens were also procured of the P. gigantea, P. vittata, P. cwrulea, Gm. and a new species named P. Lessonii by M. Garnot, and figured in the Atlas to the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1826. Gulls abound almost as much as the petrels, exhibiting the following species : — Larus marinus, L. niveus, L. glatieus, L. argentatvis, and L. ridibundus. The beautiful Sterna hirundo was not unfrequent ; a second spe- cies was observed with a grey head, a specimen of which could not be procured. Three distinct species of cormorant inhabit the islands. Pe- lecanus fiber, Gmel. Carbo leucotis, Cuv. and one with a tuft of feathers two inches in length, a white belly and neck, with the remainder of the plumage of a slate blue colour. The Carbo gracidus of Meyer, it is supposed is a mere variety of Pelecanus fiber. Only two species of goose presented themselves, Anser leu>- copterus, (of which the female is called A. magellanica, by Mr Gordon on the Decomposition of Oil Gas. 325 Gmelin,) and A. antarcticus, Garn. The former runs so fast that it is easier to procure a specimen which is flying. Of the genus Anas four species are recorded ; Anas cinerea, Gmel. (J. brachyptera, Lath.) has short wings, and it is easy by firing upon a group of them to drive them upon the land, when they become an easy prey, from not being able to fly. The sailors thus killed numbers of them with sticks. It is this species which was called race-horses by the sailors in the voyages of Wallis and Cook. The second species is the " Mi- louin des Malouines jT the third the i( Canard a bee jaune et noir d'Azara f? and the fourth the Anas superciliosa of La- tham. The flesh of the last is said to be delicious. Art. XXXVI. — On a Remarkable Decomposition of' Carbu- retted Hydrogen by its Rapid Escape from a Portable Gas Lamp. By David Gordon, Esq. Engineer to the Lon- don Portable Gas Light Company. In a Letter to the Editor. My Dear Sir, I think it may be interesting to you to be informed of an ac- cidental discovery which my son Alexander and I made when starting the portable gas works at Manchester. You are aware that the portable gas lamps are usually fill- ed with compressed gas to the extent of thirty atmospheres. When proceeding to do so the first time at Manchester, the safety valve of the compressing machinery happened to blow at about twenty-seven atmospheres. Most of the attendants were unacquainted with the operation, and as the valve made to them> an alarming noise, it was some little time before the steam-engine, which works the condensing pumps, could be stopped. When we went to examine the safety valve, we were surprised to observe that all the metallic part of the valve, upon which the gas had rushed, was covered with a black moist carbonaceous substance, and the contiguous brick wall with dry black carbon, the moisture in this latter case having been absorbed by the brick. Since that time, my son has repeatedly exhibited the dis 326 If. Bory de Saint-Vincent on the covery, by allowing the gas to rush out with very great vio- lence from a portable gas lamp' against a piece of white paper, which becomes immediately covered with a black carbonaceous deposit. The discovery has confirmed in my mind what I have long suspected, that in carbonated hydrogen there is little more than a mechanical union between the hydrogen and the car- bon, and that during the sudden expansion of the gas the carbon is deposited. I should like to see it ascertained if there are any and what electric phenomena developed during the operation. — I am, My dear Sir, 38, Cornhill, London, Yours very sincerely, 28^ Feb. 1827. David Gordon. Art. XXXVII. — Notice regarding the naturalization of the Cochineal Insect in Spain. Communicated to the Academy of Sciences by M. Bory de Saint-Vincent. I have received from Madrid, says M. Bory de Saint Vin- cent, by the hands of the excellent botanist, M. Pavon, the subsequent note, which I conceive to merit the attention of the Academy. " Since the publication of the edict of the 29th of March 1826, by the Consulate Royal of Malaga, the environs of this city have exhibited a spectacle exciting both interest and ad- miration— the complete naturalization of the Cochineal insect. W Dr Joseph Presas, known in Europe from having served as private secretary to the Queen of Portugal during her resi- dence in Brazil, drew up minute instructions for the cultiva- tion of the Nopal, as well as for the breeding of the Cochineal itself. These instructions were published in Malaga at the commencement of the year 1825. To secure a portion of one of the greatest sources of the riches of the New World became at once an important object. Plantations of Cacti were made, the insect was obtained, and the instructions having been scru- pulously followed, the result has been favourable beyond the most sanguine expectations. Spain has secured a source of Naturalization of the Cochineal Insect in Spain. 327 riches which no other country in Europe possesses, and pro- bably never will possess. " Dr Presas has not only shown an intimate knowledge of natural history, by the publication of his Memoir, but also his patriotism, by the zeal and activity with which he himself has superintended an experiment, already productive of a liberal harvest." Having been many times at Malaga at different seasons, I have it in my power to bring forward some facts which will prove to the Academy, that it is not without reason this emi- nent Spanish botanist considers the acclimation of so precious an insect to be permanently secured in his own country. The temperature of Malaga is one of the most uniform in Spain. Frost is unknown. The thermometer never falls, under any circumstances, below eight degrees of Reaumur. The sugar- cane is cultivated in the open air, as well as the cotton-plant, from which large revenues have been derived during the last fifteen years. I have seen the Schi?ius Molle (the Peruvian mastic-tree) produce its fruit, and the custard apple and plan- tain trees ripen theirs everywhere without protection. There are few plants of the Flora Atlantica of Desfontaines that I have not found there, and Cactus covers naturally all the mari- time rocks. The quantity of the latter plant is so consider- able, that trouble was never taken to cultivate it, though the fruit under the common name of Figues de Thunas, was, dur- ing its season, the principal support of a large proportion of the poor population. It is the employment of women and children to gather it and convey it to the market. If we con- sider that it scarcely ever rains in Malaga, and never at the period when moisture would be injurious to the cochineal, it is clear that no country could be better chosen to rival Mexico in this production. Another proof of the favourable nature of climate is, that my friend M. Zea and myself planted cof- fee-trees in the open ground, and sowed a bed of the Indigo- fera Anil, which passed two winters without injury, and was in abundant fructification when we left the place. — Annates des Sciences Naturelles. 328 Zoological Collections. Art. XXXVIII.— ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. 1. Professor Harlan on the Mammalia of North America. * Professor Harlan enumerates 14-7 species of Mammalia as inhabiting North America. Of these, several are entirely new, and not before described : eleven species are fossil, and no longer exist in a living state, in this, or any other country ; many were imperfectly noticed, or erroneously described ; others merely indicated. In several instances species, and in three or four cases, genera, have been confounded. With regard to the distribution of the North American mammalia, they are thus divided — 119 are Quadrupeds, 28 Cetacea. To the order Primates belong, 1 species. Pachydermata, 2 Carnivora, - 60 Ruminantia, 13 Glires, - 37 Cetacea, - 28 Edentata, - 6 147 Twenty-five species are common to both Continents, without including the cetaceous animals, viz :— Of the Mole, - 1 species Shrew, - 2 Bear, - 1 Glutton, - I Otter, - I Wolf, - 2 Fox, - 2 Seal, - 2 Weasel, 2 Beaver, 1 Field Mouse, - 1 Campagnol, - Squirrel, Deer, 1 1 9 Sheep, Fossil, 1 4 Total, - 25 2. Account of a remarkable Extinct species of Beaver. Osteopera, Harlan. CHARACTERS. {Incisor 2. Canine 0. -"- ""'»- — - "~\ f Er * ^inferior 10. < Canine 0. C Molar 8. Inferior incisors, slender, laterally compressed, nearly pointed, not ap- proximate, convex anteriorly ; molars nearly similar to those of the beaver ; head very broad and flat ; snout rapidly attenuated ; eyes widely separat- ed ; zygomatic arches exceedingly large, descending beneath the inferior molars, scabrous and convex externally, forming within large osseous pouches communicating with the mouth, anterior to the molars ; lower jaw proportionably small and slender; the condyloid extending above the coronoid process. • From Harlan's Fauna Americana. Inches 6 0 5 0 2 5 1 5 ■ 1 8 1 0 3 0 1 7 - 2 3 1 (> - 3 6 3 0 - 2 0 1 2 • 4- X) 4 0 rs, - 0 4 0 8 - 1 7 2 3 1 2 1 0 visors, 4 0 4 0 . 1 3 1 5 Professor Harlan on the Fossil Beaver. Species. 1 . Osteopera platycephala. Char, Essent. Head flat, ventricose at the sides ; snout obtuse ; eyes widely separated. Dimensions of the cranium compared with that of the full grown Canadian beaver : (the extremity of the snout of the Osteopera, together with the upper incisors, have been destroyed.) New Genus. Castor fiber. Total length of the skull, Length of the frontal bone, Breadth of do. Length of the parietal bone, Breadth of do. - * Length of the zygomatic arch, Breadth of do. Width across from one zygoma to the other Breadth of the palate bones between the molars, Length of the zygomatic fossa, Breadth of do. Length of the lower jaw not including the incisors. Breadth of the same including the molars, From the top of the coronoid process to the base of the jaw, • - 1 2 2 4 Description. Frontal bone nearly double the length and breadth of that of the common beaver, flat and scabrous, forming on each side a semilunar ridge, projecting into the orbits ; orbit of the eye small, and nearly circular, which is due, principally, to the extraordinary develope- nient of the zygomatic processes of the temporal and jugal bones, which are produced downward and backward, so as to conceal the posterior half of the lower jaw, together with the teeth, anteriorly arched, scabrous, and ventricose ; the jugal portions being developed anteriorly and inferiorly, so as to form on each side a bony antrum, or cavity, capable of containing in all two or three ounces of fluid, and communicating with the mouth by large oblong openings, immediately anterior to the molar teeth ; the cavity projecting posteriorly into the orbit, with which it has no communication ; anterior to the orbit, above the cavity, is a bony canal, capable of admit- ting the little finger, somewhat analogous to the infra orbitar foramen ob- served in the skull of the genus Cavia. The structure of the inferior jaw is equally remarkable, and adapted in every respect to the peculiarities of the upper jaw ; the whole of the lower jaw is more slender and narrower than that of the beaver. In order to admit a free passage from the bony cavities into the mouth, the molar teeth and alveolar processes of the lower jaw are elevated, and the latter are separated from each other anteriorly, so as to leave a capacious open- ing, of an oval form, from the sack into the mouth ; the coronoid process very small, and not projecting so high as the condyloid ; the latter also small, rounded above and compressed ; angles of the lower jaw rounded ; the inferior incisors slender in proportion to those of the beaver, arched on 330 Zoological Collection*. the anterior surface, not approximate, slightly divergent at their extremi- ty, somewhat analogous to the incisors of the squirrel ; the crowns of the molars are plain, though they do not appear to have been much worn, and are traversed by three, sometimes four folds of enamel, which, in several of the teeth, have no connection with the enamel which encircles them ; in others they consist of re-entering folds, as in the teeth of the beaver ; thus displaying, in a remarkable manner, the extent to which this portion of the structure of the teeth may differ in the same individual : in those instances, where the transverse plates of enamel are distinct from the en- circling enamel, there are no grooves on the side of the tooth ; in other instances, the sides are grooved, as in the teeth of the beaver, except that portion buried in the socket, which is smooth in most instances. In all other details, this skull bears the closest analogy to that of the beaver. The animal was full grown, as is evinced by the teeth, and other particu- lars. Habit and Locality. — Nothing further is known concerning the his- tory of this animal, than that its skull was found more than thirty years ago on the shore of the river Delaware, and presented to the Philadelphia Museum ; when first discovered, it was nearly perfect ; by rough usage it has since lost the upper incisors, and part of their alveoles. This cranium has been frequently examined by the curious, and by them regarded as a lusus natures ; the characters which it presents are certainly unique of their kind ; the bony cavities communicating with the mouth, which must Tiave served as receptacles for provision, &c. distinguish this skull from that of all other animals, and particularly the beavers, to which, in other respects, it bears so near a resemblance. That it is not a monstrous pro- duction of nature, is fully demonstrated by the well-defined characters of the jaws and teeth, as well as by the harmonious adaptation of its various parts. It is further, not in the least degree fossilized, nor does it appear to have been totally buried in the ground, inasmuch as one side of the jaw has been bleached by exposure to the sun. The first question which presents itself for solution is, from whence came the animal ? are we to consider it as the type of a genus which has become extinct and yet not fossil ? or does it owe its present locality to accident, having been brought from some distant and unexplored country, and here- tofore escaped the eye of the naturalist ? The present existing genera to which it is most nearly allied, being known to inhabit only Europe and America, would militate against the latter opinion, and induce us to believe, that this animal did inhabit the countries near which its remains were first discovered, its residence, like that of the beaver, being on the banks of rivers. The skull being recent, and not in the least decomposed, the animal could not have been long dead when first discovered. It is most probable, that, in the instance before us, we are presented with the remains of the type of a genus, which has become extinct since the settlement of North America; or, if it still exists, has retreated to the most inaccessible and unexplored forests, which is at least very uncertain. It is more than pro- Professor Harlan on the Rocky Mountain Sheep. 381 bable that many species have disappeared, and are entirely lost, since the present state of the surface of our globe. Suppose an animal to inhabit the shores of the great rivers of America previous to the discovery of this continent, and not to be endowed with the instinct of emigration, to become surrounded by the habitations of ci- vilized man — hemmed in, and cut off from all resources by the march of civilization, the natural consequences would be destruction. It may be necessary further to remark, that all the fossil beavers hitherto discovered resemble the recent species. 3. Account of the Rocky Mountain Sheep. Genus, Capra. Sp. C. montana. Ovis montana, Ord, Jour. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol. i. part 1, p. 8, 1816. Rupicapra americana, Blain. Antilope americana, Ejus. Nouv. Bull. Soc. Phil. 1816, p. 80. Mazama sericea, Rafin. Amer. Mon. Mag. 1817, p. 44. Antilope lanigera, C. H. Smith, Trans. Linn. Soc. p. 38. 1822, Tab. 4, vol. xiii. Rocky Mountain Goat. Char. Essent. Horns short, conical, slightly curved backwards, black, and slightly annulated in the old animal ; the colour of the animal en- tirely white, furnished with long silky hairs, and a fine wool beneath the hair ; no mane. Dimensions. In bulk it exceeds the sheep. Description. Body elongated, but little elevated on the legs; facial line straight ; ears rather long and pointed, covered on the inside with long hairs ; the neck short ; the tail stumpy and directed upwards ; the whole structure of the animal robust ; the colour is entirely white ; the bulk of the animal is considerably increased by a thick coat of long straight hair, of a yellowish tinge ; side of the lower jaw, and beneath the throat, furnished with a long beard; beneath the long hair, the skin is covered with a close downy wool, of a clear white colour, and in young animals feeling like unspun cotton ; on the face and legs the hair is short and close, similar to that of the sheep and goat; the eye-lashes are white ; the horns are about five inches long, above an inch in diameter at base, bending slightly backwards, having two or three annuli, and ter- minating in a point not always obtuse ; the legs exceed in thickness those of a calf ; the fetlocks are short and perpendicular, and the hoofs are of a jet black, high, broad, and with deep grooves in the soles. Remarks. Like the Goat, the facial line is nearly straight in the C. montana, this line being more or less arched in the sheep and antelope. Like the goat, the C. montana is furnished with a long beard ; the sheep and the antelopes being destitute of this appendage. In the form and size of the hoofs ; in the direction of the tail ; in the form of the snout ; in the strength and proportion of the limbs in particu- lar and of the body in general, our animal resembles the goat, and is un- like the sheep and antelopes ; the latter animals have, besides, never been known to possess a covering consisting of fine long hair, and wool of exceedingly delicate texture, whilst, in this respect, our animal bears a striking analogy to the Cashmere Goat. Though the horns are at best 332 Zoological Collections. uncertain characters, varying as they do in form, in similar species, yet, even in this respect, our animal offers stronger analogy to the goat than to the nearest allied congenera. The horns of the young male goat are very similar to those of the Capra montana. Habit and Country. For the following information concerning this highly interesting animal, we are under many obligations to Major S. H. Long, being chiefly the copy of a letter addressed by him to the Philadel- phia Agricultural Society. " The information I am able to furnish, was obtained on the late expe- dition to the sources of St Peter's River, &c. and was procured principally from Donald M'Kinzie, Esq. (of the family of Sir Alexander M'Kinzie,) stationed at the junction of the Assiniboin and Red Rivers, in the capacity of chief factor for the Hon. H. B. Company on that station ; the intelli- gence furnished by this gentleman was from personal observation. " The Rocky Mountain sheep inhabit the elevated region comprised in that portion of the mountain range from which its name is derived, si- tuate between the forty-eighth and sixtieth parallels of north latitude.* They are found in great numbers near the head waters of the north fork of Columbia River, where their flesh constitutes the principal food of the natives. The country at the sources of Muddy River, (Marais River of Lewis and Clark,) Saskatchawin and Athabaska Rivers, are also inhabited by them ; but they are said to be less numerous on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains than upon the western ; they are seldom or never seen at a distance from the mountains, the climate and productions of ■which appear best adapted to their nature and mode of life. In summer, they resort to the peaks and ridges in quest of pasture, but retire to the val- leys in winter. The size of the animal is nearly the same as that of the com- mon sheep ; their fleece is white, interspersed with long hair, protruding beyond the wool, and standing erect on the surface of the body, which gives them a shaggy appearance ; their horns are short, merely projecting beyond the wool of the head, and slightly arcuated backwards ; these, to- gether with their hoofs, are black, while the other parts of their bodies are uniformly white ; their flesh has a musky flavour, and is, at best, un- savoury. " They are of easy access to the hunter, who seldom pursues them un- less compelled by hunger. Their fleece is esteemed of little value by the traders, and is used only as a covering to the feet during winter ; their skin is of a remarkably thick and spongy texture. It has been asserted by good judges, that the silky fineness of the wool is not surpassed by that of the Cashmere Goat." * Lewis and Clarke observed this animal as low as forty-five degrees of north latitude. Vid. Exped. up the Missouri, vol. ii. pp. 35, 49. Capt. Say's Stereometer revived by Professor Leslie. 333 Art. XXXIX.— DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. Professor Leslie's Apparatus for Ascertaining the Specific Gravity of ' Pow* ders, not invented by him in 1826; but by H. Say, Captain of Engineers, in France in 1797. In the year 1826 there appeared in the Annals of Philosophy, No. 64, and in the Journal of the Royal Institution, No. 42, a drawing and descrip- tion of an apparatus for ascertaining the specific gravity of powders said to be invented by Professor Leslie. The editor of the Annals considers it as a great boon to philosophers, and after its description, he adds : " Such is the professor's process, which appears to us remarkably in- genious as well as beautifully simple, and we shall see from some of the results which it has already afforded, that it must furnish important aid to the natural philosopher in his researches." Although we should have been disposed to welcome such an auxiliary from any part of the world, but particularly from our own good city, yet, as the invention thus highly lauded, has been known in England and France, and published in English and French, thirty years ago, without having furnished any aid to the natural philosopher, we fear that its re- vival, without one single improvement, or even change, is not likely to give any new impulse to scientific inquiry. The preceding fact has been made known to the scientific world by Ba- ron Ferrussac in his Bulletin des Sciences Math. Phys. et Chim. for De- cember 1826, in the following notice. " On the Pretended Invention of Mr Leslie." — " From the Bull, des Sc. Math, of September 1826, No. 117, we learn that Mr Leslie has invented an instrument for measuring the density of powders. As the description of this instrument agrees perfectly with that of the stereometer invented twenty-nine years ago by a French engineer of great merit, who unfortu- nately fell in Egypt, M. H. Say, it is proper to announce to Mr Leslie that he has made a mistake in attributing to himself the honour of this discovery, which he will find published, with drawings, and a complete de- scription, in vol. xxiii. p. I of the Annales de Chimie for 1797. This in- strument, too, having been actually executed, was often used in measuring specific gravities, particularly that of gunpowder, and it still exists in the collection of the Polytechnic School." After reading the preceding passage, we turned up the 23d volume of the Annales de Chimie, and found that the invention published by Mi- Leslie is perfectly identical with that described and drawn by Captain Say, Mr Leslie's drawing is indeed an exact section of Fig. 3 of Captain Say's paper, the tripod which contains the instrument and the frame which sup- ports the pully for raising the lid, being left out in the professor's sketch. Captain Say remarks, that his instrument furnishes us with the means of measuring the volume of liquid bodies, soft bodies, porous bodies, and powders, as well as that of solids. His description of it occupies twenty- 334 History of Mechanical Inventions and seven pages, and contains not only the fullest practical details, but a learn- ed mathematical investigation of the theory of the instrument. This instrument was too ingenious not to excite attention in England, and Mr Nicholson, one of our most learned and ingenious editors, published a full account of it, with all Captain Say's figures, in the first volume of his quarto Journal of Natural Philosophy , a work to the third volume of which Professor Leslie was himself a contributor. We hope that those who, without happening to know of the invention of Captain Say, have ascribed it to another person, will yet do justice to the memory and talents of that able, but unfortunate soldier. art. xl—history of mechanical inventions and processes in the useful arts. 1. Mode of Heating Water for a Bath. By Edward Deas Thomson, Esq. By means of the following contrivance, Mr Thomson has obtained a bath, containing forty gallons of water, at a temperature of 98° Fahr., in half an hour from the time of lighting the fire, and with only 7 lbs. of coal. The whole expence was 2£d. or 3d., exclusive of the tear and wear of the apparatus. A cylinder cc, Plate IV. Fig. 8, eighteen inches high, and nine inches in diameter, is surrounded by a spiral pipe at least an inch distant from it. This pipe communicates with the cistern a above the apparatus by the pipe bb, whose other end descends into the cylinder at c, The water con- sequently passes from the cistern through bb into the cylinder, and thence through the pipe d into the bath. When the cock/ is opened, hot water will flow from the cylinder through d into the bath, and its place will be instantly supplied by cold water through bb, a constant current of water being thus kept up through the boiler cc, which becomes heated in its passage. The degree of heat may be regulated by partially shutting or opening the cock/. An open safety-pipe e rising above the level of the wa- ter in the cistern, allows the steam to escape in 6ase of the water boiling when the cock/ is shut. If we suppose the pipe b to terminate in the bath, and the bath to rise a little above the level of the pipe/ the cistern maybe dispensed with. In this case cold water must be poured into the bath till it rise above the level of the pipe/ The water heated in the boiler will then flow into the bath, and its place be supplied by cold water, thus forming a continued current till the whole is heated to the required temperature. — Phil. Man;, No. i. p. 10G. 2. Process of Separating Elaine from Oils.* By M. Pechet. This process is founded on the property which a strong solution of soda possesses of saponifying stearine in the cold without acting upon elaine. * See this Journal, No. vi. p. 350. Processes in the Useful Arts. 335 Shake the alkaline solution with the oil, then heat it slightly in order to se- parate the elaine from the soap of stearine. After it is passed through a cloth, the elaine is separated from the alkaline solution by decantation. — Ann. de Ghim. 3. On the Steam Navigation of India. In a former Number (No. vi. p. 377) we gave an account of the Enterprize, the first steam-vessel which sailed to India. This vessel was purchased by the Government, and seems to have given a power- ful impulse to steam navigation in that part of the globe. " Besides this vessel (says a writer in the Col. Press Gazette of June 9,) which is employed between Calcutta and Rangoon, we have the Diana in Ran- goon river, and the Comet, one of the two small vessels here of twenty- four horse power, fitted up as packets, to carry passengers up and down the river. Two other vessels of this description will be soon ready, and both of them, by their light draught of water, are admirably fitted for carrying passengers to the upper provinces during the rains, when the rivers are full. Besides these vessels, which we owe to private enterprize, two armed steam- vessels of Government will be ready in August. Singapore too will soon boast of a steam- vessel from the Cape, and there can be no <3oubt that each of the Residences will have one or two in the service of the Company. For these purposes deposits of coals are about to be provided at Madras, Ceylon, and Penang. There is another vessel wrought by steam (we presume a dredg- ing-machine) which is now in progress, for clearing away the obstruction to the navigation of the small rivers which communicate with the Hoogly. By this vessel it is hoped that a water communication with the upper pro- vinces may be kept open at all seasons of the year, and a journey to the most distant situations, which now occupies four months, may perhaps be per- formed in as many weeks. 4. On the Bursting of Steam- Boilers. By John Taylor, Esq. F. R. S. In the last number of the Philosophical Magazine, this important subject has been treated with great ability by Mr Taylor, whose theoretical and practical knowledge must give great weight to his opinions. Mr Taylor begins by stating, that the most fatal and distressing accidents have arisen from the bursting of one sort of boiler. This boiler consists of two tubes, an inner one from three to four feet in diameter, and an outer one from five feet and a half to six feet and a half or seven feet in diameter. These tubes are generally made of wrought iron or rolled plates, the inner one being half an inch thick, and the outer one three-eighths. The ends of the boiler fix the tubes together, so that the interior tube is open at both ends, at one of which is placed the fire grate, and at the other the smoke and flame escape, and are conveyed to the stack or chimney most common- ly by flues passing under and along the ends of the outer tube. These boil- ers are usually from twenty to thirty-five feet long. In boilers of this kind no fewer than four accidents have happened. They were mostly new, and were each furnished with a safety valve and gauge- cocks. Theirs* of these was in Wheal Fortune, the boiler alone being in- jured. The second, which happened at Polgoath tin-mine, was remarkable 336 History of Mechanical Inventions and from one of the boilers exploding a little while before the other. In this case it seemed clear after the accident, that the steam had not acquired any formi- dable degree of pressure, and that the water had not been so low as to en- danger the tube being improperly heated. One man was killed, and the in- terior tubes of the boilers were much contorted and rent. The third explo- sion took place at East Crennis mine. The inner tube was compressed as if the fire had softened the part above it, though there did not appear to be any other reason to think that the water was too low. The ends were torn to pieces, and the tube was thrown out of the outer tube and out of the boiler, while the inner tribe remained in its place, and was scarcely injured. No per- son was materially injured. The last accident happened in the Pen-y-fron Engine, at the Mold mines in Flintshire, to a boiler of a similar construc- tion. The outer tube remained in its seat uninjured, and even the weight on the lever of the safety valves was not disturbed. The inner tube was not moved from its place, but was flattened for a great part of its length, the ends having been squeezed together, and not the top and bottom, as at East Crennis. It seemed certain that the pressure of the steam did not ex- ceed 30lbs an inch, and that the water was at its proper height. When the engine-man had put down the damper in the flue, he observed a gust of flame rushing from the fire place, and almost immediately after an explo- sion. This made him jump from a door very considerably above the level of the ground below, as the engine stands on the side of a steep hill. He alighted on the heap of ashes which were always discharged at the door, and got out of the way before the hot water rushed out. Other two men in the boiler house were killed instantly by the boiling water, no other injury being observed on their bodies. Prom this case Mr Taylor is led, very ingeniously, to ascribe the bursting of the boiler to an explosion of an explosive mixture of coal gas and atmo- spheric air. When the fire door was thrown open, and the current of air up the flue stopped by closing the damper, the interior of the inner tube con- tains a mixture of coal gas and atmospheric air. The coal gas is increased by the distillatory action of the fire, until the mixture reaches the explosive point. It then takes fire, occasions the observed rush of flame, which would be followed by a sudden vacuum in the tube, while the other side of the tube, pressed by the steam, gives way to this sudden impulse. In support of this opinion, Mr Taylor adds, that bursts of flame are often observed from the chimneys of steam-engines illuminating the sur- rounding scene. These bursts of flame often rise above the summit of the stalk, and are seen to emerge, diminishing and retiring into the flue after a blaze of some minutes, and leaving all in perfect darkness. It is generally supposed that high-pressure boilers are most liable to accidents, but this is not the case. About twelve months ago, a boiler of the old spherical construction burst at a mine in Flintshire, about seven miles from the Mold mines, and occasioned the death of sixteen persons. 5. Account of a New Method of Bleaching and Preparing Flax and Tow. By the Rev. T. B. Emmett. This process, which is said to be simple, easy, and cheap, and to reduce the material to a beautiful degree of whiteness, is as follows: Processes in the Useful Arts. 337 Steep or boil the flax or tow in a weak solution of subcarbonate of potash or soda, in order to extract the colouring matter, rosin, &c. and wash it thoroughly from the alkali. In order to prepare the bleaching liquor, re- duce perfectly fresh burnt charcoal of soft porous wood, as willow or fir, to a very fine powder ; tie up the powder in a bag made of cloth of a close texture, immerse it in cold soft water, and wash it by pressing it with the hands, till such a quantity is diffused through the water, that, on rinsing a little flax through it for a few minutes, and then withdrawing it, it shall be lightly blackened. Put into it the flax to be bleached, taking care that each parcel shall imbibe it to its middle. When the whole is in the li- quid, the water should appear clouded by the charcoal upon being well shaken. Mr Emmett always used about half an ounce of charcoal to six or seven pounds of flax. In order to bring the charcoal in contact with it, the flax should be pressed under it several times a-day, and the liquid well agitated. After about twenty or twenty-four hours, the flax, when taken from the liquid, should be well wrung, and then put into a second vessel of water containing less charcoal, agitated and pressed down as before. If this process is well conducted, two or three days will be found sufficient. It should then be spread thinly on the grass, taking care to turn it fre- quently for a few days. The flax must then be rinsed in river water, and washed thoroughly with soap in hot water, till it is quite clean. The soap must then be washed out with cold water, and the flax dried, ex- posed to the sun and air. Mr Emmett very liberally offers to supply any person with samples perfectly prepared, by addressing him (post paid) at Great Ouseburn, near Boroughbridge, Yorkshire. Abridged from the Phil. Mag. No. ii. p. 119. 6. Dr Zimmerman's Safety Gun. Several of the German Journals contain high eulogiums upon an inven- tion by Dr Zimmerman, by which fire-arms are prevented from the possi- bility of going off either by accident or carelessness, or in any way, without the positive will of the person using them ; at the same time that it does not impede or delay for an instant the use of the arm when required to act. Dr Zimmerman has obtained a patent for his contrivance in some of the German States. Although we do not know the details of this invention, we have no he- sitation in informing our readers, that Dr Zimmerman has been anticipated in the accomplishment of this object, by our ingenious countryman the Reverend Mr Somerville of Currie, who, upwards of two years ago, obtain- ed a patent for several beautiful methods of preventing the accidental dis- charge of fire-arms. We have no doubt that Mr Somerville has exhausted the subject, as will be seen from the description which we have given of his contrivances in this Journal, No. iv. p. 316. We are glad to find that these safety guns are in great demand, and that the sale of them is likely to defray the great expence at which they have been brought to their present state of perfection by the inventor. The guns thus fitted up may be seen at Mr William Maclachlan's, gunmaker, 39 Nicholson's Street, and at Messrs Robert Wheeler's and Son, gun-manufacturers, Birmingham, VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827. Y 338 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 7. Perkins's Steam- Engine. Mr Perkins has now completed an engine, which he considers as em- bracing the ultimatum of his present intentions, and which is designed to show the absolute realization of his anticipated hopes, or their decided failure. The possibility of the latter Mr P. has never for a moment ad- mitted, and he now considers that he has only perfected those plans he contemplated from the first, and which required but patience and time to bring to maturity. The very transient view of the engine which we have been enabled to take, precludes the possibility of our describing its construction ; besides we should, by so doing, anticipate a more perfect account, which we hope to give hereafter. There are many parts which exhibit considerable no- velty and ingenuity, and the whole is comprised in a very compact form. The power of the engine, which stands upon a base of about four feet square, is said to be capable of variation, from fifteen to thirty horses, ac- cording to circumstances, connected with the economisation of fuel. It has not yet been exhibited in operation, but that is expected to take place in a few days. — Newton's Journal of the Arts, Feb. 1827, p. 367. 6. Method of producing1 a fine Black Colour. By M. Peticolas of Nash- ville. Having set fire to some camphor, there will arise from the flame a very dense smoke, which may be collected on a common saucer held above the flame. This black, mixed with gum-arabic, is stated to be far superior to any India ink. After giving the above process, Mr Newton adds, that minature painters, who use colours in small quantities, sometimes obtain a most beautiful and perfect black, by using the buttons which form on the snuff of a candle when allowed to burn undisturbed. These are made to fall into a small thimble, or any other convenient vessel, which can be im- mediately covered with the thumb to exclude the air. This is found to be perfectly free from grease, and to possess every desirable quality. — Newton's Journal of the Arts, Feb. 1827, p. 371. Art. XLI.-ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND ME- MOIRS. Elements of Chemistry, including the recent discoveries and doctrines of the Science. By Edward Turner, M.D. F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh. In one large volume 8vo, pp. 723. Edinburgh, 1827. With two plates. It is impossible to survey the present state of our elementary literature, without the most painful reflections. The field of scientific instruction, which was once occupied by men of taste and genius, has been lately trod- den down by herds of authors, and the discoveries of Newton, and of Black, have been expounded by men who never read their works, and who arc in- Dr Turner's Elements of Chemistry. 339 capable of understanding their doctrines. The press literally teems with treatises on natural philosophy and chemistry of all varieties of pretension, some insinuating themselves by their evanescent size ; others by the num- ber of letters which they can compress into a page ; others by the slight demand which they make upon our pockets ; while a fourth class with a magic wand points out to us short and royal roads through all the myste- ries of science. The authors of these works are as various as their pre- tensions : Some are ushered into the world without any acknowledging parent ; others are hatched beneath the expanded wings of learned com- mittees and associations ; and others are ornamented with the fictitious names of clergymen and foreigners, — while all of them are the mere exuviae of our own classical writers, prematurely detached by the instrumentality of a pair of scissors. When the cultivators of letters erected their com- munity into a republic, their sole care was to exclude a throne and a so- vereign, but they unfortunately forgot to provide against the irruption of the mob.* In making these observations, we trust it will not be supposed that we are unfriendly to the extension of science among all classes of society. On the contrary, our most ardent wish is, that knowledge should be as free as the air which we breathe, for we believe it to be as salubrious : We wish to see it glowing in the cottage, as well as dazzling on the throne, because we know that it will render happier the tenant of the one, and the posses- sor of the other : We wish to see it wherever there is a human form to re- ceive it, and clasping in its wide and gentle embrace our universal spe- cies, because we know that it will be the precursor of those nobler truths, to which it is but the handmaid ; and that it is essential to the develope- ment of that spiritual nature which must always be viewed as our highest and latest attainment. The knowledge, however, which can produce such effects is very differ- ent from that with which we are now so copiously supplied. It must be elaborated by genius, — it must be refined by taste and sentiment, — it must be exalted by piety, — and it must be administered to us by men of edu- cation and experience. We have no objections to be instructed by the mul- titude in the useful arts — in that which they have studied and practised ; but we protest against their becoming our teachers in what they do not know, and what they can never comprehend — the refinements and appli- cations of science. We do not object to their acquiring all that they can; but we demur against their returning it again to us. Let them study po- litical economy, since they choose it, or medicine, or even controversial theology ; but God forbid that they should either legislate for us, or bleed us, or preach to us. Under impressions like these it is most agreeable to see an elementary work on one of the most important of the sciences, from the pen of a gen- * Opinions, analogous to these, have been given in able reviews of some of the works above referred to in the Journal of the Royal Institution, the Annals of Phi- losophy, and the Dublin Philosophical Journal ; and we believe there is only one opinion on the subject among all well educated men of science. 340 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. tleman who possesses every qualification for the task. To the readers of this Journal, who already know Dr Turner from his original researches and able analyses, it is unnecessary to state, that to a knowledge of all the re- finements of modern chemistry, he adds a thorough acquaintance with the difficult art of chemical analysis1 — an art which he had the good fortune to study under the celebrated Stromeyer. His experience, too, as a lecturer on chemistry, has familiarized him with the methods of communicating in- struction, and completed his qualifications for composing an elementary work on chemistry. A work like the present, embracing the whole range of chemical science, is not a proper subject of minute analysis, and therefore we shall content ourselves with giving a general outline of its contents. Works of elemen- tary instruction should be so composed as to present the facts and doctrines of a science in as concise and condensed a form as is consistent with clear- ness and precision; and we must admit that almost every page of the pre- sent volume bears internal evidence that its author has never lost sight of this principle. We cannot do better, in order to convey an exact idea of the views which have guided Dr Turner in the composition of this work, than let him speak for himself. *' The following pages comprehend a condensed view of the present state of chemical science. The chief purpose of the work is to make the student intimately acquainted with the theory at the same time that he is acquiring a knowledge of the facts of chemistry ; so that, by the es- tablishment of fixed principles, the details may more easily be impressed on the memory, and excite an interest which they would not otherwise possess. Every one who is acquainted with modern chemistry, will admit that the study of the laws of combination is fitted in a peculiar manner for promoting these objects ; and hence, 1 have treated at length of the atomic theory, and the subjects connected with it, at an early part of the volume. " To this arrangement, I am aware, it may be objected, that many of the facts adduced as illustrations must necessarily be unknown to the be- ginner. I do not anticipate, however, any serious inconvenience from that source ; on the contrary, some experience in teaching the theoretical and practical details of the science, gives me reason to think that the disadvan- tages of my plan will be very far outweighed by its advantages. I may ob- serve, indeed, that this work is chiefly designed for persons who have ei- ther attended or are attending lectures on chemistry ; and to such readers the objection to which I allude does not apply." Dr Turner appears to us to have accomplished this part of his undertak- ing in a way which cannot fail to facilitate the study of chemistry in a very material degree. We are acquainted with no work, not excepting our best systems of chemistry, which communicates such a clear and complete ac- count of the doctrine of combining proportions, and gives the atomic expla- nation of individual facts in so full and intelligible a form, as will be found in the volume before us. Dr Turner has divided his work into four parts. Theirs* is on the imponderables, and comprehends an account of calo- ric, light, electricity, galvanism, and electro-magnetism. Dr Turner's Elements of Chemistry. 341 In the second part he has treated of inorganic chemistry. The first sec- tion of this part is on affinity. In discussing this subject the author admits with Berthollet, that the result of chemical action is not always solely de- termined by affinity. He proves that the order in which substances decom- pose one another, cannot in every case be ascribed to the agency of chemical attraction. He points out the mode by which cohesion, elasticity, and the like, may act as modifying causes ; but, at the same time, contends that Berthollet, in denying the existence of elective affinity, pushed his favour- ite doctrine further than is justified by observation. In the following section Dr Turner treats of the proportions in which bodies unite, and on the laws of combination, of the atomic theory of Mr Dalton, of Gay Lussac's theory of volumes, and of the atomic views of Berzelius. Without entering upon a detail of this extensive department, we may give our readers an idea of the manner in which it is treated by the following quotation. In commencing an account of the atomic theory, Dr Turner observes, " The brief sketch which has been given of the laws of combination will, I trust, serve to set the importance of this department of chemical science in its true light. It is founded, as will have been seen, on experiment alone, and the laws which have been stated are the pure expression of fact. It is not necessarily connected with any speculation, and may be kept wholly free from it." ff The reason why persons, partially acquainted with the subject, have supposed it to be of a hypothetical nature, is sufficiently obvious. It was impossible to reflect on the regularity and constancy with which bodies obey the laws of proportion, without speculating about the cause of that regu- larity ; and consequently the facts themselves were no sooner noticed than an attempt was made to explain them. Accordingly when Mr Dalton pub- lished his discovery of these laws, heat once incorporated his description of them with his notion of their physical cause ; and even expressed the former in language suggested by the latter. Since that period, though several Bri- tish chemists of eminence, and in particular Dr Wollaston and Sir H. Davy have recommended and practised an opposite course, both subjects have been but too commonly comprised under the name of atomic theory ; and hence it has often happened that beginners have rejected the whole as hy- pothetical, because they could not satisfactorily distinguish between what was founded on fact, and what was conjectural. All such perplexity would have been avoided, and this department of the science far better under- stood, had the discussion concerning the atomic constitution of bodies been always kept distinct from what it was intended to explain. When employ- ed in this limited sense, the atomic theory may be discussed in a few words." The individual chemical substances are divided into the metallic and non-metallic. They are not arranged according to any particular theory, but are described in the order which the author conceives to be most con- venient for the purpose of instruction. The only circumstance which we s.-iall particularize in this department, is the mode of giving the tests. Dr Turner states, that they are such as he employs in his own practice. The 342 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. directions are short, clear, and precise, and cannot fail of being highly useful to the student of chemistry. The third part of the work contains a description of the compounds de- rived from the animal and vegetable kingdoms. We shall only observe, that in this, as in other departments of the work, the author has given the most recent information on the subject. Of the fourth part, which is on Analytical Chemistry, the author ob- serves, " To enter into a detailed account of experimental and analytical chemistry, is altogether inconsistent with the design and limits of the pre- sent work. My sole object in this department is to give a few concise di- rections for conducting some of the more common analytical processes ; and in order to render them more generally useful, I shall give examples of the analysis of mixed gases, of minerals, and of mineral waters." In an appendix Dr Turner has given an account of a new and curious substance called Bromine, the only discovery of importance which was made during the printing of his work. He has added also a complete table of atomic weights, and various other tables of great use to the chemist. Having thus given a general view of the work before us, we have no he- sitation in recommending it in the strongest manner to our readers. Those who are entering upon the study of chemistry will find it an invaluable auxiliary, and those who are already versed in this branch of knowledge, will find in it all the recent discoveries and refinements of modern che- mistry. The work is written with much elegance and perspicuity, and its external embellishments correspond with its other qualities. As the author has published the work at his own expence, he has been enabled to make it one of the cheapest works which has for a long time been given to the public. Art. XLII.— PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. December 18. — Professor Dunbar read a Paper on the " Origin of Lan- guage, but particularly on the formation of the Greek Alphabet." January 4, 1827. — Captain Basil Hall read a Notice on the Trade Winds. January 23. — A Paper by the Reverend William Scoresby was read, entitled M A Description of some Remarkable Effects of Unequal Refrac- tion observed at Bridlington Quay in the Summer of 1826." An abstract of this Paper will be found in this Number, page 293. At the same meeting there was read, a " Sketch of the Manners and Customs of the Eboe Nations," by John Reddie, Esq. LL. D. February 5. — A Paper by P. F. Tytler, Esq. was read, " On the Ear- liest Introduction of the Greek Language and Literature into England af- ter the Dark Ages." The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members : — James Weddell, Esq. R.'N. John Gardiner Kinnear, Esq. William Burn, Esq. Architect. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 343 There was presented to the Museum of the Society, by George Swin- ton, Esq. of Calcutta, the snout of the Saw Fish. This is one of the largest and finest specimens that has been seen. The same gentleman also presented to the Society, the skeleton of a Boa Constrictor, sixteen feet long, the mother of the young brood of Boa Con- strictors described in this Journal, No. viii. p. 221, accompanied by one of the brood preserved in spirits. Mr Swinton likewise presented various snakes from Arracan and Sumatra. February 19. — There was read a Paper by John James Audubon, Esq. entitled Notes on the Habits of the Wild Pigeon of America, Columba migratoria. — This Paper is printed in the present Number, p. 257. There was presented by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C.B. to the Museum of the Society various interesting objects of Natural His- tory from New South Wales, and various specimens of the Cloth, Ropes, &c. &c. of the Natives. March 5 — There was read a Paper by Thomas Allan, Esq. entitled, " Notice respecting the Tusk of a Mastodon, with some Bones and Fossils found in tirring Woodhill Quarry, near Kilmarnock." Mr Allan presented this Tusk and the other Fossils to the Museum of the Society. There was read at the same meeting, a Paper by Dr Brewster, en- titled, " Report on the Hourly Meteorological Register kept at Leith Fort during the year 1826/' The following Gentlemen were elected Members :— Honorary. Jacob Berzelius, M. D. F. R. S. Stockholm. Foreign. John James Audubon, Esq. M. W. S. &c« Ordinary. Dr James Russell. John Reddie, Esq. LL. D. Prideaux John Selby, Esq. Rev. Dr Robert Gordon. Henry Witham, Esq. James Wilson, Esq. 2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. November 13. — Professor Sedgwick exhibited to the Society a very large pair of fossil horns, found near Walton, in Essex, and stated the grounds on which it appeared that they had belonged to an animal of the species Bos Taurus. Mr Whewell read to the Society a paper " on the classification of crys- talline combinations, and the causes of deviation by which their laws may be investigated." The object of this paper was to exhibit tables of the forms of crystals, classed according to geometrical properties, which are in most cases easily recognized by the eye ; and from this arrangement to obtain, without calculation or knowledge of the angles, the relation between the secondary faces which offer themselves, and the primary forms from which they are derivable* November 27. — A memoir was read by Professor Airy " on the motion of a pendulum disturbed by any small force, and on the application of this 344 Proceedings of the Society for 'promoting method to the theory of escapements." It was shown, that, by the me- thod here proposed, the variation from the law of a cycloidal pendulum might be determined with great ease and simplicity, whether produced by resistance, friction, impulse, or any other cause. By taking, as examples of the method, the different escapements of clocks and watches which have been invented, it appeared that the relative goodness of them, as resulting from the calculation, was very nearly that which they are found to possess in practice. Professor Airy also proposed a clock-escapement which would possess the advantages of the detached escapement in watches, and could never be out of beat. Mr Whewell gave a short account of the experiments undertaken by Mr Airy and himself in Cornwall, for the purpose of discovering the earth's density. The process employed consisted in determining the re- lative rate of a detached pendulum of Kater's construction at the earth's surface, and at a point 1200 feet below it, in the mine of Dolcoath. The undertaking was left incomplete in consequence of the destruction of one of the pendulums employed during its conveyance from the bottom of the mine to the top. December 11. — A paper was read by Mr Peacock " on the numerals of the South American languages." The most complete of these systems of numerals proceed according to the vicenary scale, which has, generally, the denary and quinary subordinate to it. Others of these languages are remarkable for not having more than three or four words properly expres- sing numbers ; and one instance was given in which the name for one is the only independent numeral. Professor Airy gave an account, illustrated by drawings, of the steam- engine as it is used in Cornwall, describing some artifices in its employ- ment which are peculiar to that district, and in particular the machinery by which it is applied to the drainage of the mines. 3. Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotland. December 1, 1825. — Dr Hibbert read a Paper " on the productiveness of the Cod Bank to the west of the Shetland Isles." At the same meeting there was read a Paper by Mr John Henderson, Brechin Don, " on the Burning of Smoke, with plans of improved furnaces for that purpose." January 18, 1826. — The following Papers were read : — 1. Account of a New Life Boat by Mr John Henderson. 2. Observations on the History of Life Boats by Professor Wallace. 3. Description of a Simple Punt Boat for saving time and labour, by Andrew Waddell, Esq. See this Journal, No. viii. p. 338. January 24. — There was read M An Account of a New Eye-tube for a Sextant by Mr Adams, A. M." See this Journal, No. vii. p. 95. February 21. — The following Papers were read:— 1. A notice of an Improved Furnace Chimney, by Robert Bald, Esq. was read. 2. Notice of a method of producing an Intense Heat from Gas for va« rious purposes in the Arts, by Dr Brewster. 3. Dr Duncan jun. exhibited the method which he had long used of obtaining great heat from coal gas. the Useful Arts in Scotland. 345 April 4. — A Paper " On Vertical Windmills, by Mr James Brodie, Aberdeen, was read. Mr Whitela w exhibited an Apparatus for converting a Rectilineal into a Rotatory Motion, and the Rev. Mr Somerville exhibited one of his Patent Safety Guns. See this Journal, No. iv. p. 316, and this Number, p. 337. April 18. — The following Communications were made to the Society: — 1. Practical Observations on Percussion by Mr James Brodie. 2. A Model of a Railway Carriage by Mr Alexander Adie Junior. 3. An Idea of a Gunpoioder Engine, by Mr John Henderson. 4. Plan of an Improved Capillary Steam Boiler by Mr J. Henderson. March 7. — Major Alston read a Notice on the Construction of Chim- neys. Dr Brew ster exhibited a Portable Gas Lamp fitted up to produce In- tense Heats. Mr James Brodie communicated a description of an Eccentric Com- bination for Obtaining Rotato?y Motion from the Piston Rod of a Steam Engine . March 21. — G. S. Menteith, Esq. of Closeburn, read a notice of an Improvement on Limekilns. Mr James Brodie communicated a description of a Double Jointed Parallel Motion. Dec. 5. — A method of fixing the Glass in Painted Windows, by John Ro bison, Esq. was read. See this Journal, No. xi. p. 50. Mr James Nasmyth gave a description of an Improved Pulley. Dr Hibbert read a notice respecting the Iron Ore found at Glengary. Mr James Nasmyth read a description of a Safety High Pressure Boiler. Mr James Nasmyth was admitted an associate member. Dec. 19. — Mr Johnson of Hull read a description of a New Steam Coach, and exhibited the model of one in operation. Mr Robert Taylor communicated a method of restoring the damaged Canvas of Paintings. Dr Hibbert read a notice respecting the native Copper of Shetland. Mr James Nasmyth exhibited a model of a High Pressure Steam En- gine in action, with a method of applying the waste steam to increase the temperature of the furnace. Mr George Nasymth was admitted an associate member. Jan. 9, 1827. — Mr Brown exhibited and explained to the Society his New Weighing Machine. Mr Johnson exhibited an Air Gun of a new construction. Jan. 24. — Mr Johnson read an account of a machine for navigating the air. Mr James Nasmyth gave an account of a method of preventing the water in steam boilers from becoming too high or too low. Feb. 6. — Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, K. C. B. was admit- ted a Member of the Society. Mr Nimmo gave a description of a High Pressure Engine with a valve on a new construction. The engine was exhibited in operation. There was read an account of an Improvement on Mr Adam's Nautical 346 Scientific Intelligence. Eye-Tube by Dr Brewster. Mr Adams's Eye-Tube was exhibited to the Society. Mr James Nasmyth described a method of checking accelerated velo- cities by the Conical Pendulum. There were exhibited to the Society various specimens of the workman- ship of the Russians in leather in the possession of Dr Rogerson of Dum- crieff. The following Gentlemen were admitted Members of the Society. Sir Samuel Stirling, Bart, of Glorat. Sir William Molesworth, Bart. Dr Francis Home, Professor of the Practice of Physic. Dr Rogerson of Dumcrieff. Mr Henderson, Architect. Feb. 20. — Mr John Robison read an account of the Failure of the Sus- pension Bridge at Paris. See this Number, p. 240. Mr Robison exhibited a cock used in the south of France for drawing off wines and acid liquors. There was read a Botanical survey of part of the county of Aberdeen, by Mr Alex. Murray, A. M. Surgeon, Alford. Mr Johnson was admitted an associate member. March 6. — Messrs George and James Nasmyth exhibited a model of a Locomotive Steam Carriage in operation. There was read a description of the New Safety Gas Burner by Mr Warden, Engineer to the Portable Gas Company. The Burner was exhibited in operation to the Society. The Buccleugh Lamp was exhibited, in which oil is burned in capillary tubes without wicks. Captain Watson, R. N. was admitted an ordinary member. Art. XLIIL— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. ASTRONOMY. 1. Fifth Comet of 1825 in Eridanus. — This interesting"comet, of which we have given the elliptical elements by Clausen, in No. ix. p. 178, has been observed in March and April 1826; but as Clausen's elliptic elements are no longer accordant with observation, he has computed the following para- bolic ones : Passage of Perihelion mean time at Altona, d 1826, April 21. 98905 Log. Perihelion distance, ... 0.3034430 Long. Perihelion — Long. Node, - - 279° 16' 31".l Long of Node, J Mean Equinox, ) - 1 97 38 9 3 Inclination of Orbit, \ Jan. 1826, / - 40 2 33 1 Motion Direct. 2. Gambard's Elements of the Comet of 1826, in the Whale.— This comet supposed to be that of 1772 and 1805, has already been noticed in No. ix. p. 179, § 6. The following are the elements given by M. Gambard : Astronomy. 347 Passage of Perihelion, time reckoned from mid- night, 1826, March 18. 94 Perihelion distance, - 0.9.61 Long, of Perihelion, - 3.s 14° 20' 00" Long of ascending Node, - - 8 7 54 10 Inclination, - - - 14 39 15 Motion Direct. 3. Return of the brilliant Comet of Taurus from the Southern Hemisphere. — This comet, which was discovered by M. Pons, on the 15th July 1825, was rediscovered by If* Pons on the 4th April 1826, and has been observed at Florence, Nimes, and Palermo. The parabolic and elliptical elements of MM. Capocci and Hansen deviate considerably from the new observa- tions. 4. Comet of August 1826. — This comet was discovered by M. Gambard at Marseilles, on the 1 5th August. The elements are as follows : Passage of Perihelion, 1828, } D. October 10. 025 Mean time at Marseilles, Perihelion distance, . . 0.845 Long, of Perihelion, . - 59° I' 24" Long of ascending Node, - - 43 24 35 Inclination of Orbit, - - 26 29 52 Motion Direct. 5. Comet of October 1 826, and its passage across the Sun's .Owe.— This comet was discovered by M. Gambard of Marseilles, on the 28th October 1826. Its corrected elements are as follows : Passage of Perihelion, mean time reckoned from midnight, - November, 18. 8083 Perihelion distance, - - 0.02314 Long, of Perihelion, - - 314° 57' 28" Long, of Asc. Node, - - 236 9 54 Inclination of Orbit, - - 89 59 24 Motion, Retrograde. From these elements it follows, that the comet must have entered upon the disc of the sun at - - 5h 25 a. m. Passage of its Node, at - - ?h 1 Shortest distance from Sun's centre, - 2' 40" Emersion from Sun's disc, - - 8b 38 M. Gambard is quite certain, from observations made on the 10th No- vember, when the error of the elements was only —2" in long, and — 5" in lat. that the comet should have passed over the sun's disc. He did not succeed, however, in observing it at Marseilles, as the sun did not ap- pear till 8h 35', when there was nothing upon his disc but the spots seen the day before. The weather was not favourable either at London, Geneva, or Paris. Bibl. Univ* November 1826, p. 251. 6. Observations on the Solar Eclipse of November 29M, 1826.— This eclipse was observed at Bushey Heath, by Lieut. Beaufoy, in west long. 1' 20" 93 time, and north lat- 51° 37' 44" 3. 348 Scientific Intelligence. Beginning, - 21 h 46' .4" M. time. End, - 23 58 19 Mr T. Squires observed it at Epping, in long. 27" of time, east of Green- wich, and north lat. 61° 41' 41" 6. End, - - 12* 0' 54 M. Solar time. 7. Mr Herschel and Captain Sabine's determination of the difference of Meridians of London and Paris. — These able astronomers have deter- mined, by means of signals, that the difference of longitude of London and Paris is 9' 2i".6 in time, or 2° 20' 24" in space. Mr Herschel is of opinion that this result is not likely to be altered a whole tenth of a second in time, and very unlikely to be altered to twice that extent by future observations. An elaborate account of these observations by Mr Herschel will be found in the Phil. Trans. 1826, part ii. p. 127. 8. Fraunhofer on Halos and Parhelia. — A theory of Halos and Parhelia has been recently published in Professor Shumacher's Astronomische Abhand- lungen, by the late distinguished M. Fraunhofer. He ascribes the small halos round the sun and moon to the inflexion of light by the particles of vapour in the atmosphere, and the halo of 45° to the refraction of the light through hexagonal prisms of ice. From the abstract of this paper, which we have seen, there does not appear to be much novelty in it. Dr Young and others seem to have anticipated the author in all his general results. — See Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, article Halos. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 9. Effect of a moving disc on a Voltaic conductor, — M. Ampere has com- municated to the Academy of Sciences an experiment, which proves that a disc in motion exercises a certain action on a yoltaic conductor. The de- tails of the discovery are not published. 10. On the conducting power of Metals for Electricity,— The following results have been obtained by M. Becquerel. Metals. Conducting Power. Metals. Conducting Power. Copper, - 100 Platina, 16.40 Gold, - 93.60 Iron, 15.80 Silver, . 73.60 Lead, 8.30 Zinc, - 28.50 Mercury 3.45 Tin, " 15.50 Potassium, Ann. Chim. 1.33 Aout 1826, p. 420. METEOROLOGY. 11. Noise of the Aurora Borcalis observed by Hearne.— -Having stated in No. ix. p. 74, various authorities for believing that a sound sometimes accompanied the Aurora Borealis, we give the following statement made by Hearne, as an additional argument in favour of that opinion. " I do not remember to have met with any travellers into high northern latitudes who remarked their having heard the northern lights make any Chemistry. » 349 noise in the air as they vary their colours or position, which may probably be owing to the want of perfect silence at the time they made their obser- vations on these meteors. I can positively affirm, that, in still nights, I have frequently heard them making a rustling and crackling noise, like the wav- ing of a large flag in a fresh gale of wind." It is probable that these lights are sometimes much nearer the earth than at others, and this may have an effect on the sound. — Quoted in the Dublin Phil. Journal, No. v. p. 419. GALVANISM. 12. Galvani's First Experiment on the Frog; made in 1700.— The fol- lowing curious fact is recorded in the History of the Academy of Sciences for 1700, p. 40. " M. Verney showed, upon a frog newly dead, that, by irritating a little with the scalpel, the nerves which go to the thighs and legs, those parts make a noise, and suffer a species of convulsion. He af- terwards cut the same nerves in the belly, and keeping them a little stretch- ed with his hand, he made them produce the same effect by the same mo- tion of the scalpel. This did not happen if the frog had been long dead." — Zach's Corr. Astron. vol. xiv. p. 379. PNEUMATICS. 13. Mr Ivory on the Heat extricated from Compressed Air. — From an ingenious analysis, Mr Ivory has deduced the following proposition. " The heat extricated from air, when it undergoes a given condensation, is equal to three-eighths of the diminution of temperature required to produce the same condensation, the pressure being constant. Air, under a constant pressure, diminishes r^th of its volume for every degree of depression on Fahrenheit's scale ; and, therefore, one degree of heat will be extricated from air when it undergoes a condensation equal to 480 8 480 If a mass of air were suddenly reduced to half its bulk, the heat evolved would be - -f- ^ = 90°.— Phil. Mag. No. ii. p. 74. II. CHEMISTRY. 14. Letter of M. Gaultier de Claubry to M. Gay-Lussac on the mode in which Alkaline Chlorides act in purifying an Infections Atmosphere, The object of this letter is to prove experimentally, that the explanation given by M. Gay-Lussac in the 26th volume, page 165, of the Annates de Chimie et de Physique, is correct. M. Labarraque, who has paid par- ticular attention to the subject, supposes that the putrid miasms them- selves are absorbed by the solution of the chloride, and then decompos- ed by the chlorine which is present. M. Gay-Lussac, on the contrary, conceives that the chlorine is disengaged by the carbonic acid of the air or by that emitted by the putrefying substances. In this way, a carbo- nate of the alkali is gradually generated, chlorine is set free, and then pro- duces its effect, by being mixed with the atmosphere. M. Gaultier de 350 Scientific Intelligence. Claubry has shown, what was known previously, that a solution of the chloride of lime, or of soda, is completely decomposed by a current of car- bonic acid ; and his observations leave no doubt, we conceive, of the accu- racy of the views of Iff. Gay-Lussac. — Abstract from the Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxxiii. 15. On a new mode of preparing Carbonic Oxide Gas. By M. Dumas. — This method is founded on a fact originally noticed by Dobereiner, that oxalic acid is converted into carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases by digestion in strong sulphuric acid, which unites with the water of crystal- lization. The process of M. Dumas consists in mixing the binoxalate of potash with five or six times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid. The mixture placed in a glass vessel and heated, yields a considerable quantity of a gas composed of equal measures of carbonic acid and carbo- nic oxide ; and by absorbing the former by means of potash, the latter is procured in a state of perfect purity. The theory of the process is ob- vious. The sulphuric acid unites both with the water and base of the salt ; and the free oxalic acid being unable to exist in the anhydrous state, is decomposed. M. Dumas proposes this process for testing the purity of the binoxalate of potash. In fact, the bitartrate yields by similar treat- ment carbonic oxide, sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, and the residual liquid becomes black, from the deposition of charcoal. The pure binoxa- late, on the contrary, never gives sulphurous acid, and the solution re- mains colourless, and perfectly limpid. — Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, vol. 16. New Theory of Nitrification. By M. Longchamp. — It is well known that animal matters form a constituent part of the nitre beds employed in France and other parts of the continent for the production of saltpetre ; and it is commonly supposed that the nitric acid so formed, proceeds from the nitrogen of the organic bodies uniting with the oxygen of the atmo- sphere. This is the theory embraced by Lavoisier, and which has for many years been adopted without question. M. Longchamp, however, has succeeded in throwing a doubt on the accuracy of this doctrine. He has adduced a considerable variety of facts, which prove that nitric acid is generated under circumstances when its production cannot be attributed to the presence of organic remains ; that it is formed spontaneously in sub- stances in which neither animal or vegetable matter is present. He finds that the sole conditions necessary for the formation of nitric acid, are po- rous earthy substances containing carbonate of lime, moisture, and access of air. M. Longchamp maintains, as can scarcely be doubted in such instances, that both the elements of the acid are derived from the air, and that water favours the union of the gases by dissolving them, and thus presenting them to each other in a fluid state. Tufa, chalk, and porous carbonate of lime in general, favour the action in two ways, first, by absorbing air and water ; and secondly, by presenting a base which solicits the formation of nitric acid. M. Longchamp believes that similar changes occur in the ordinary nitre beds. — Ann. de Chimie et Physique, vol. xxxiii. An ingenious extension of this theory has been made by Mr Graham Chemistry. 351 (Phil. Mag. for March.) He is of opinion that the process of nitrifica- tion is promoted by the water containing carbonic acid, by the aid of which carbonate of lime is dissolved, and thus presented in a state more favourable to chemical action. He supposes putrefying organic remains to be of use by yielding an abundant supply of carbonic acid. 17. Alcohol derived from the Fermentation of Bread.-— In the last Number of this Journal we gave an extract from Dr Colquhoun's Es- say on the art of baking bread, and in confirmation of the views there stated, we insert the following letter addressed by Mr Thomas Gra- ham to the editors of the Annals of Philosophy. " Two facts of consider- able importance in determining the nature of the pannary fermentation have been made known by your very ingenious correspondent on the art of baking bread. He has shown that the fermentation depends upon the saccharine ingredient of the flour, by renewing it when exhausted by the addition of sugar; and provided for the little alteration in the proportion of sugar existing in the flour, before and after fermentation, by exhibiting the influence of the baking in converting a portion of starch into sugar. From the known laws of the decomposition of sugar, it is presumed, with considerable reason, that the fermentation is the vinous. The production of alcohol in the course of the fermentation of bread in baking, which we have found to take place, and rendered appreciable, is perhaps a most irre- fragable proof of which this theory is susceptible. " To avoid the use of yeast, which might introduce alcohol, a small quan- tity of flour was kneaded, and allowed to ferment in the usual way, to serve as leaven. By means of the leaven, a considerable quantity of flour was fermented ; and when the fermentation had arrived at the proper point, formed into a loaf. The loaf was carefully inclosed in a distillatory apparatus, and subjected for a considerable time to the baking tempera- ture. Upon examining the condensed liquid, the taste and smell of alco- hol were quite perceptible, and by repeatedly rectifying it, a small quanti- ty of alcohol was obtained of strength sufficient to burn, and to ignite gun- powder by its combustion. " The experiment was frequently repeated, and in different bakings the amount of alcohol obtained, of the above strength, found to vary from 0.3 to 1 per cent, by weight of the flour employed. When the fermented flour was allowed to sour before baking, the amount of alcohol rapidly di- minished ; and in all cases, the disagreeable empyreuma completely dis- guised the peculiar smell of the alcohol, when in its first diluted state, and in vapour." 18. On the confinement of Dry Gases over Mercury. — The results of an experiment made by Mr Faraday, and quoted as such, having been deem- ed of sufficient interest to be doubted, he has been induced to repeat it and though the original experiment was not published by him, he is in- clined to put the latter and more careful one upon record, because of the strong illustration it affords of the difficulty of confining dry gases over mer- cury alone. Two volumes of hydrogen gas were mixed with one volume 352 Scientific Intelligence. of oxygen gas, in a jar over a mercurial trough, and fused chloride of lim»» introduced, for the purpose of removing hygrometric water. Three glass bottles, of about three ounces capacity each, were selected for the accuracy with which their glass-stoppers had been ground into them. They were well cleaned and dried, no grease being allowed upon the stopper. The mixture of gases was transferred into these bottles over the mercurial trough, until they were about four-fifths full, the rest of the space being occupied by the mercury. . The stoppers were then replaosed as tightly as could be, the bottles put into glasses in an inverted position, and mercury poured round the stoppers and necks, until it rose considerably above them, though not quite so high as the level of the mercury within. Thus ar- ranged, they were put into a cupboard, which happened to be dark, and were sealed up. This was done on June 28, 1825 ; and on September the 15th, 1826, after a lapse of fifteen months, they were examined. The seals were unbroken, and the bottles were found exactly as they were left, the mercury still being higher on the inside than the outside. One of them was taken to the mercurial trough, and parts of its gaseous contents trans- ferred. Upon examination it proved to be common air, no traces of the original mixture of oxygen and hydrogen remaining in the bottle. A second was examined in the same manner; it proved to contain an explo- sive mixture. A portion of the gas introduced into a tube with a piece of spongy platina, caused dull ignition of the platina. No explosion took place, but a diminution to rather less than one half. The residue support- ed combustion a little better than common air. It would appear, therefore, that nearly a half of the mixture of oxygen and hydrogen had escaped from it, and been replaced by common air. The third bottle, examined in a similar manner, yielded also an explosive mixture, and upon trial, was found to contain nearly two-fifths of a mixture of oxygen and hydro- gen, the rest being very little better in oxygen than common air. There is no good reason for supposing that this capability of escape be- tween glass and mercury is confined to the mixture here experimented with ; probably every other gas, having no other action on the mercury or the glass, would have made its way out in the same manner. There is every reason for believing that a small quantity of grease round the stop- pers would have made them perfectly tight. — Quarterly Journal of Science. 19. On Sementims lodous Acid. By F. Wohler. — From a recent examination of the iodous acid of M. Semen tini, prepared by distill- ing iodine with an equal weight of the chlorate of potassa, M. Wohler finds that this compound does not consist of iodine and oxygen, but of iodine and chlorine; that it is a chloride of iodine similar to that de- scribed by Gay-Lussac. In order to demonstrate the presence of chlo- rine, M. Wohler saturated the liquid obtained by Sementini's method with carbonate of soda, during which a quantity of iodine was separated. The solution was evaporated to dryness, the saline mass heated to redness, taken up in water, and then allowed to crystallize. A number of crystals , were thus procured, which had all the characters of those of common salt. On dissolving them in water, and adding the nitrate of silver, the yellow Chemistry. . 353 iodide of silver at first formed, and then the white thick flocks of the chlo- ride subsided. The mixed precipitate was then treated with pure ammo- nia, which dissolved the chloride, and left the iodine as a pale yellow powder. The matter dissolved by the ammonia had all the properties of the chloride of silver, and appeared to exceed the iodide in quantity. The saline mass remaining in the retort after the formation of the chlo- ride of iodine consists of the chloride of potassium, and the chlorate and iodate of potassa, provided the distillation is arrested as soon as the chlo- ride of iodine ceases to be formed. The iodine is present only in the form of iodate, and does not strike a blue with starch except by the addition of the protomuriate of tin, or some other deoxidizing agent. M. Wflhler is of opinion, that the production of the chloride of iodine in Sementini's process depends on the formation of iodic acid, a portion of chloric acid being decomposed, and its elements uniting with separate portions of iodine. — Poggendorff's Annalen. 20. On Bromine, By M. Just. Liebig, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Giessen. — On receiving the memoir of M. Balard on a new simple substance contained in the mother water of salt-works, I hastened to make some trials of similar solutions which I was able to obtain, and I have been fortunate enough to find this remarkable body in considerable quantity in the mother water of the salt-pit of Theodorshalle, near Kreutsz- nach. From thirty pounds of the mother water I obtained nearly twenty grammes of bromine. Having transmitted chlorine through this mother water, the liquid ac- quired a yellow tint ; and on agitating it strongly, red vapours appeared upon its surface. On following the process of M. Balard, which appears the most simple, I separated the bromine by means of ether, and then by caustic potash. The distillation of the bromuret of potassium with per- oxide of manganese and sulphuric acid afforded a sufficient quantity of bromine for enabling me to repeat a great number of the experiments of M. Balard ; but I have not observed any phenomenon which leads to a con- clusion contrary to that which he has deduced from his researches. M. Balard, in taking for his guide the essays of M. Gay-Lussac on iodine and cyanogen, has left very little to be added to his own memoir. I may add, however, a few experiments in support of the opinion, that bromine, like chlorine and iodine, is to be regarded as a simple substance. I heated to redness in a glass tube some iron wire formed into a spiral, and the vapour of bromine well dried by chloride of calcium was transmit- ted through it. The iron, at the moment of contact, became red hot, and fused, without disengaging any gaseous substance. The fused mass was of a bright yellow like Naples yellow, presented a crystalline lamellar structure, and was soluble in water without colouring it. The solution was precipi- tated of a bright yellow by the nitrate of silver, and chlorine disengaged from it the vapours of bromine. The compound was proto-bromuret of iron. In another experiment I substituted platinum wire for the iron ; but VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827- Z 354 Scientific Intelligence. ,that metal was not attacked, and the bromine retained its properties. Lamp- black, under the same circumstances, had no effect on this body. On bringing together iron filings, water, and bromine, the mixture ac- quires an increase of temperature, and proto or deuto-bromuret of iron is formed according to the proportions employed. A very pure bromuret of potassium may be procured by pouring a solu- tion of caustic potash into the alcoholic solution of bromine until the alco- hol begins to lose its colour. This salt, evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness, becomes dark. The bromuret of silver dissolves easily in ammonia. This solution, on standing for some time, yields white brilliant crystals, which give out am~ monia when heated, and leaves bromuret of silver as a residue. 2.521 grains of very pure bromuret of potassium yielded by decomposi- tion, with nitrate of silver, 4.041 grains of the bromuret of silver. This result makes the weight of an atom of bromine 94.11, oxygen being taken as 10. Nature of Bromine.'— Though the facts stated in the preceding paper, as well as those observed by M. Balard, are favourable to the supposition of bromine being elementary, the real nature of this curious substance is as yet by no means ascertained. M. Chevreul is said to have announced to the Academy of Sciences on the 10th of October, that M. Dumas had dis- covered a chloride of iodine which has all the properties of bromine. — Ferussac's Bulletin des Sciences for December 1826. 21. On an Analytic Process for separating Iron and Manganese. By M. Quesneville Junior. — The process of M. Quesneville, described in the Journal de Pharmacie for September 1826, consists in bringing the iron, by means of a current of chlorine, to its maximum of oxidation, render- ing the liquid exactly neutral, and precipitating the iron by the arseniate of potassa. The arseniate of the peroxide of iron subsides, while the whole of the manganese is held in solution. The oxide of manganese may then be precipitated by caustic potash. We agree with M. Ques- neville, that the separation of the metals may be effected in this way, pro- vided no free acid is present; but we do not believe his process is at all preferable to that in common use by succinic acid. The per- succinate of iron is indeed decomposed by hot water ; but if cold water only is em- ployed, the whole of the iron will be separated. 22. Proto- Ferrocyanate of Iron. — Mr Phillips states, that a solution of the protoxide of iron, without any admixture of peroxide, may be obtained by putting the metal into an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, and suffer- ing the mixture to remain for a short time, without the contact of atmo- spheric air. When a solution of the ferrocyanate of potash is added, a per- fectly white precipitate is formed, which is the proto-ferrocyanate of iron. The action of sulphurous acid upon iron is also remarkable on another ac- count, viz. that no gas is evolved during the solution of the metal, if made to take place in closely stopped bottles. It appears that a part of the sul- phurous acid is decomposed by the nascent hydrogen of the water, and Natural History — Mineralogy. 855 the sulphuretted hydrogen which results, remains in solution. — Phil. Magazine, January 1827. 23. Discovery of a substance which inflames by contact with water. — The following details have been communicated to us, which it would be desirable to have verified. At Doulens, near Amiens, is a large manu- factory for spinning cotton, which is lighted with oil gas. This gas, upon passing from the iron retort, filled with coke, where it is formed, traver- ses a reservoir of oil, and there deposits a white liquid matter, which may be drawn off by means of a spigot situated at the lower part of the reser- voir. Some of this matter being accidentally dropped into water, inflamed spontaneously, and having run into a neighbouring rivulet, it there spread itself over the surface of the water, which appeared to be on fire. The proprietor of the factory intends to send a bottle of this singular substance to M. Gay-Lussac for analysis.— Bull. Un. 24. New Acids. — MM. Chevreul and Gay Lussac, while treating animal matters by alcalis, have obtained different acids, having the remarkable pro- perty of neutralizing bases, and into which azote enters as an element. They are occupied in studying these acids, and will soon publish the re- sults of their labours.— Ann. Chim, Nov. 1826, p. 335. III. NATURAL HISTORY. 25. Elementary Work on Natural History.— Mr Stark is preparing for publication Elements of Natural History, adapted to the present state of the science, and including the characters of all the Genera and the principal Species of the Animal Kingdom described since the publication of the Sys- tema Natural of Linnaeus. This work, intended equally for the scientific student and the general reader, will contain a view of all the departments of Nature methodically arranged according to the most approved systems. Besides the scientific descriptions of the Classes, Orders, and Genera, sufficient to enable any one to acquire a competent knowledge of the leading arrangements and prin- cipal facts in Natural History, the more generally interesting details of the habits of the principal species, and their use in the economy of nature will be given, — lists of the best books in each department, — explanations of the scientific terms, — and the species natives of Britain will be particularly no- ticed. MINERALOGY. 26. Kerstens Cohalto-Bismuthic Ore> — Mr Charles Kersten of Gottingen gives a description and chemical examination of this mineral, which he dis- covered among some specimens of ores of cobalt from Schneeberg in Saxony. Its colour is lead-grey, inclining a little to steel-grey ; its lustre nearly metallic. The substance itself is of an imperfect radiated texture, and rather porous; but in other respects resembling the nickeliferous grey antimony. Its hardness could not be ascertained on account of its being intimately mixed with quartz. The specific gravity of the pure mineral, the intermixture of 356 Scientific Intelligence. quartz being duly attended to, appears to be between 6.0 and 6.7. Nitro- muriatic acid dissolves the whole, when reduced to powder, with the excep- tion of from 27 to 32 per cent, of quartz. The following process was adop- ted to ascertain the relative proportions of the substances previously found to be contained in it, viz. arsenic, cobalt, iron, bismuth, nickel, copper, and sulphur, with a trace of manganese. A. From the solution in nitro-mu- riatic acid which remained clear when diluted by twelve times its volume of water, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by nitrate of baryta. The pre- cipitate obtained was washed with hot water, and then digested in muriatic acid, and again washed. B. The muriatic acid used in A for digesting the sulphate of baryta contained a little oxide of-bismuth, and was added to the remaining fluid, freed afterwards from the superfluous baryta by sulphuric acid. C. Liquid hydro-sulphuric acid successively added in small quan- tities, till no more change ensued, precipitated a blackish-brown powder, consisting of sulphurets of copper and bismuth. Nitric acid dissolved the precipitate, with the exception of sulphur, and assumed a green colour. It was evaporated, then a great quantity of water added, and the white resi- due collected, repeating the process as long as a precipitate was obtained. D. Caustic ammonia added to the fluid gave an additional minute quantity of a precipitate, which was likewise oxide of bismuth. The result was ig- nited and weighed. E. From the ammoniacal liquid, copper was precipi- tated by caustic potash. The blue precipitate became brown on the solu- tion being heated long enough to expel all the ammonia. The alcaline fluid, treated with hydro-sulphuric acid, gave, after the lapse of several days, a slight quantity of sulphuret of copper. F. From the remaining liquid sulphuretted hydrogen gas orpiment was precipitated. The li- quid was afterwards heated to the boiling point, and the small quantity of orpiment obtained was added to the former. The orpiment was washed several days with boiling water, till the liquid was left colourless by hydro- sulphuret of ammonia. Caustic ammonia left some sulphur undissolved. G. The liquid was concentrated, and nitric acid was added to convert the protoxide of iron into peroxide. The solution rendered neutral by evaporation was diluted, and while hot precipitated by carbonate of soda with excess of base. The precipitate obtained had a brown colour, near- ly like oxide of iron. It was washed with boiling water, and at last dis- solved in oxalic acid. Effervescence ensued, and a yellow fluid was form- ed, while a pale rose-red powder remained undissolved. The liquid, filter- ed off, and warmed, gave, with caustic ammonia, a precipitate of pure ox- ide of iron. H. A slight portion of cobalt dissolved in the liquid was ob- tained on the addition of hydro-sulphuret of potash. A method, simi- lar to that proposed by Laugier, was employed for the determination of the relative quantities of nickel and cobalt ; on the pale red powder of G caustic ammonia was poured, which then assumed a deep mahogany tint, leaving a slight residue undissolved, which proved to be chiefly manganese. K. A portion of cobalt which it contained, and which was dissolved in the carbonate of ammonia, was added to the ammoniacal liquid of O, and al- lowed to stand undisturbed for a fortnight in a flat open vessel. It as- sumed a paler colour, and deposited greenish-blue granular crystals. This Mineralogy. 357 salt was dissolved in caustic ammonia ; the solution formed was of a violet- blue colour. After some time it yielded a green precipitate, the colour of the solution being at the same time changed into a peach-blossom red. The precipitate gave a pure blue solution with caustic ammonia ; and, ex- posed to air, it deposited a verdigris-green salt. This salt was repeated- ly dissolved in caustic ammonia to obtain a pure salt of nickel, which was completely precipitated, so as to leave the liquid perfectly colourless when the blue ammoniacal solution was exposed to the air. L. The ammonia- cal solutions of cobalt were evaporated to dryness, and yielded pure oxide of cobalt. The results of two analyses, conducted in this manner, were Arsenic, 78.449 77-530 Cobalt, 9.860 9.876 Iron, 4.776 4.760 Bismuth. 3.865 3.851 Copper, 1.269 1.338 Nickel, 1.103 1.106 Sulphur, 1.287 0.745 Manganese, a trace a trace 100-609 99.206 The chemical composition of this mineral appears to be quite peculiar, and it is likely to belong to a new species. A good description of the species itself is therefore now a desideratum, as would be also the analysis of a well- defined crystalline variety, from which it might appear which of the nu- merous ingredients are essential, and which of them must be considered as accidental. f 27. Selenium discovered in Cupriferous Minerals. — Mr Charles Kersten of Gottingen observed the peculiar disagreeable odour characteristic of selenium, when exposing the capillary red copper ore from Rheinbreit- bach to the action of the blowpipe. The red ring, which forms another character of it, likewise appeared when the mineral was heated in a glass tube. He afterwards subjected the capillary crystals to a chemical exami- nation in the humid way, and succeeded in separating the selenium from the other ingredients. Two specimens of an earthy substance, from the same locality, chiefly consisting of oxide of copper, showed likewise traces of selenium, which was not the case in similar varieties from the Bannat. 28. Silicate of Cerium. — Dr Wollaston examined this substance in June 1825. A perfect crystal of it, in the form of a regular hexagonal prism, is contained in the cabinet of Sir Alexander Crichton, which is to be sold by auction in the ensuing months of April and May. Cleavage parallel to the axis of the prism. Colour pale yellowish-brown. Translucent. Occurs along with magnesian carbonate of lime and emerald. Locality Santa Fe de Bogota, in Peru. Fragments of this substance, associated with the Peruvian emeralds, are preserved also in the British Museum. It is not mentioned whether this be a species of its own, or whether it be the same 358 Scientific Intelligence. as the cerite from Bastnaes in Sweden. — {Notice of Sir Alexander Crick* ton' 8 Cabinet, p. 22.) 29. Analysis of Zinkenite and Jamesonite. — Professor Henry Rose of Berlin gives the results of one analysis of Zinkenite, and three of Jameson- ite, as follows : Zinkenite. Jaraesonite. Sulphur, Lead, Lead, containing traces of zinc and iron, Copper, Iron, - - - Antimony, rr- ■ '■■ ■— "\ 22.58 22.15 22.53 31.84 40.75 38.71 40.35 - 0.74 _ __ 0.42 0.13 0.19 0.21 2.30 2.65 2.96 44.39 34.40 34.90 33.47 99.23 99.73 99.72 The material of the Zinkenite was communicated to him by Professor Gus- tavus Rose, who described the species ; with the specimens of Jamesonite, first described by Mr Mohs, he was furnished by Mr Haidinger. Pro- fessor Henry Rose considers the first to be a compound of one atom of sulphuret of lead, and two atoms of sulphuret of antimony, expressed by the formula Pb S2 + 2 SbS^, while the second is a compound of three atoms of the sulphuret of lead, and four of the sulphuret of antimony, the formula being 3 Pb S2 + 4 SbS3. The contents of iron, zinc, and copper, he considers accidental, there being no example of iron and lead forming ingredients of the same chemical mixture, neither as oxides nor as sulphu- rets. Professor Rose did not find sulphuret of lead in any of those grey copper ores which contained sulphuret of iron, even though they were im- bedded in lead-glance. The analysis of the two species, mentioned above, form part of an extensive series of analytical researches on the minerals usually named Fahlerz, or Grey Copper, with which Professor Henry Rose has been occupied for several years past. An account of them is in a con- siderable state of forwardness for publication. — (Poggendorf s Annalen der Physik.) 30. Professor Mohs. — We feel particular gratification in announcing to our readers, the appointment of Professor Mohs to a mineralogical chair at Vienna. The chair has been established for the occasion in consequence of the peculiar interest evinced by the present Emperor of Austria for promoting the useful sciences. In order to render the lectures more ef- fectual, the professor has been entrusted with the care of arranging sys- tematically the Imperial cabinet, and to adapt it, at the same time, to the purpose of lecturing. For many years every occasion was seized, and con- siderable sums expended to enrich this collection. Under the management of Professor Mohs, it now bids fair to become an ample source of minera- logical information. 31. Pyrochhre, a New Mineral Species.— Jts forms belong to the tes« Mineralogy. 359 sular system, being regular octahedrons, according to the measurements by Professor Gustavus Rose. It presents no cleavage, but a rather perfect conchoidal fracture, with a considerable degree of a kind of lustre interme- diate between the resinous and vitreous. The surface of the crystals is less bright. It is of a reddish-brown colour, often very dark, and resembling brown sphene, a substance which it is very nearly allied to in respect to simila- rity. It is slightly translucent only on its sharp edges. Larger fragments appear entirely opaque. It affords a pale brown streak. Its hardness is in- termediate between that of fluor and felspar, or = 5.0. Its specific gra- vity = 4.206 — 4.216, according to G. Rose. It occurs in the zircon-syenite of Fredriksvarn and Laurvig in Norway almost always in crystals of the size of a pea and smaller, often so firmly attached to the surrounding felspar, or elaolite, that they cannot be sepa- rated from them in their faces of crystallization. It was first noticed in the rocks near Fredriksvarn as a particular substance by Mr Tank, who likewise discovered the polymignite and the phosphate of yttria, and it was found also near Laurvig by Messrs Berzelius, Brongniart, and Woehler, during a journey which they made through Norway. The name of pyro- chlore was proposed by Berzelius in allusion to its property of turning yellow when exposed to the blast of the blowpipe, a property not found in polymignite, with which it often is associated. The above description was given by Dr Woehler, who examined the chemical constitution of the substance, and therefore has the merit of having established, both as a mineralogical species and a peculiar chemical compound, a substance which had long ago been noticed by mineralogists under erroneous names, or confounded with other bodies. It shows the following phenomena when treated with the blowpipe. Heated alone it becomes pale brownish-yellow, but retains its lustre, and melts with great difficulty into a blackish-brown scoria. It is perfectly dissolved by borax. The globule obtained in the oxida- ting flame is reddish-yellow and transparent, but becomes easily opaque and yellow by flaming. The globule turns opaque and white on cooling, if a large quantity of the mineral has been employed. In the reducing flame the globule is deep red, similar to the colour produced by titanium containing iron, but by flaming it forms a pale bluish-grey enamel, often with stripes of a pure blue colour. It effervesces with salt of phosphorus, but is likewise perfectly soluble in it. In the oxidating flame the globule is yellow while hot, but gene- rally becomes grass-green on cooling. In the reducing flame this green colour soon disappears, and is superseded by a deep red one, inclining to violet-blue, as from titanic acid mixed with a little iron. If again expos- ed to the oxidating flame, the green tint returns, which is like that from uranium.* With soda on a platinum leaf the green colour produced by manganese is visible. • There is a mineral occurring along with pyrochlore nearly resembling it. but giving before the blowpipe only the reactions of uranium. From the want of ajsuf- ticient supply of mineral it was not analyzed. 360 Scientific Intelligence. As the kind of substances were almost the same as those in polymignite, JDr Woehler followed nearly the same plan which Berzelius had adopted in the analysis of that mineral. . In order to ascertain the quantity of volatile ingredients it was heated in a glass tube, enlarging into a ball in its centre, over the argand spirit lamp. Some only of the small fragments showed the phenomenon of in- candescence like gadolinite, though they were all alike afterwards in ap- pearance. Water and fluoric acid, to the extent of 4.2 per cent, were dis- engaged. A. The mineral reduced to an impalpable powder was decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid, with which it was digested for some time. A glass plate, with which it was covered, became corroded by the disengagement of fluoric acid. The pulpy mass, obtained by evaporating most of the wa- ter, was white, only a little inclining to bluish-green. It was again mixed with much water to precipitate entirely the titanic acid, and to dis- solve the gypsum. B. The solution filtered off the white residue was precipitated by pure ammonia. It yielded a pale brownish-yellow precipitate, which became brown on being washed. The remaining fluid was precipitated with oxa- late of ammonia. The oxalate of lime thus obtained was ignited, then melted with carbonate of ammonia, and again slightly heated, to reduce it to the state of carbonate. C. The liquid from which the lime had been precipitated, left, by eva- poration, a residue which contained traees of magnesia, but principally proved to consist of sulphate of manganese. D. The residue in A chiefly consisted of titanic acid. While yet in its humid state it was digested in hydrosulphuret of ammonia, which im- mediately turned leek-green, but so slightly, that the quantity of iron it contained can be but very inconsiderable. The hepatic fluid evaporated, Jeft a small quantity of a dirty yellowish powder, which allowed with great facility globules of tin to be reduced before the blowpipe. The re- maining powder was pure titanic acid, assuming a fine lemon-yellow tint when heated, which it again lost on cooling. With salt of phosphorus it gave the well known amethystine colour in the reducing flame, and with soda an opaque globule, which disengaged much light on becoming solid. It did not show any traces of silica, of tantalic acid, or of zirconia. E. The precipitate obtained in B by pure ammonia was digested in cau- stic potash. The liquid thus obtained was supersaturated with muriatic acid, but did not give any precipitate by ammonia. It contained, there- fore, no alumina. The residue was digested in a concentrated solution of carbonate of am* monia. Its brown tint became still darker, and the liquid assumed a yel- low colour. This liquid filtered off, on being diluted with the washings of the brown residue, became turbid, and a yellowish-white precipitate ap- peared when it was heated to drive away the carbonate of ammonia. When dried, it had a greyish-brown colour, and gave reactions only of tin and cerium. The remaining yellow ammoniacal solution being evaporated to dry- Mineralogy. 361 ness, left some yellow oxide of uranium. From a solution of the latter in nitric acid, which was of a fine yellow, ammonia gave a yellow precipi- tate, and the cyanuret of iron and potassium a fine blood-red one. F. That part of the brown precipitate in B, which was not soluble in car- bonate of ammonia, was soluble in dilute muriatic acid, with the exception of a small quantity of a dark-brown substance, which proved to be oxide of manganese. The solution was neutralized with ammonia, and then a crystalline coat of pure sulphate of potash introduced. A white pulveru- lent precipitate began to form one hour afterwards. At the end of twen- ty-four hours it was separated by filtration, washed with a saturated solu- tion of sulphate of potash, and then digested in a solution of caustic po- tash. A dirty white precipitate was left, which became darker on the fil- ter, and proved to be oxide of cerium. On being treated with concentrat- ed muriatic acid, chlorine was disengaged in a higher temperature, and a trace of a white substance was left undissolved, which might be zirconia. G. The liquid left after the separation of the oxide of cerium, on being mixed with caustic ammonia, gave a little iron, still containing some man- ganese ; a trace of the latter wa§ also discovered in the liquid remaining after separating the oxide of iron. The result of the analysis was, Titanic acid, - - - - 62.75 Lime, ..... 12.85 Protoxide of uranium, - - - 5.18 Oxide of cerium, (impure) - - - 6.80 Protoxide of manganese, ... 2.75 Oxide of iron, - - - - 2.16 Oxide of tin, ..... n.61 Water, - 4.20 97.30 Besides a trace of magnesia, and much fluoric acid. Dr Woehler does not give any formula to represent the chemical con- stitution of the species. He could not determine the quantity of fluoric acid, which he believes to be very considerable, and as two per cent, of fluoric acid will combine with seven per cent, of lime, the quantity of it must necessarily affect the computation. There might be also some zirconia in the precipitate, deposited in E from the carbonate ammonia, in which, on account of the small quantity of it, only tin and cerium were discovered. 32. Native Gold in Vermont. — A fine piece of native gold, of nearly ten ounces was lately picked up by a boy near a small brook in Newfort, Ver- mont. It was studded with quartz crystals. It strikingly resembles the N. Carolina gold. Its specific gravity is 16.5, and it is considered worth 89 cent, per pennyweight. — Newton's Journal of the Arts, Feb. 1827, p. 375. 33. Dr Brewster s Treatise on Mineralogy.— This work, in which the author has been engaged for many years, will be published early next win- 362 Scientific Intelligence. ter. It is intended to form a popular treatise, embracing all the Chemical, Physical, and Natural History properties of Mineral Bodies, with an ac- count of the various purposes in the fine and useful arts to which they are applied. It will occupy one large volume 8vo. and will be illustrated with numerous plates, representing the internal structure, and the external form of crystallized bodies. In the introduction it is proposed to give a popu- lar account of all the discoveries" 'that have been made during the last ten years respecting the optical and physical structure of minerals, and a de- scription of various new methods and instruments for examining and dis- tinguishing the precious stones and other mineral bodies. 34. Mohsite, a New Mineral Species. — Form rhombohedral. One of its crystals is represented in Fig. 10 of Plate IV. . The terminal edges of the fundamental rhombohedrons R, or the incidence of P on P over b' are = 73°43'. The other measurements are, b on a' = 112°30 b' on b' === 96°22' b' — a' = 129°39 e' — e' = 64°0' e' — a'= 101°42 d? — d? — 142°14 P — d2 = 157°10 d? — d1 = 99°22 The surface is brilliant, with the exception of d' and d2, which are less shining ; cleavage apparently none ; fracture conchoidal ; opaque ; colour iron-black; lustre bright metallic; no action on the magnetic needle; brittle ; scratches glass very easily. The crystals are flattened between the faces a' and its opposite, so as to produce a tabular appearance. They are small and implanted on quartz, mixed with a little chlorite, probably from Dauphiny. Mr Levy, to whom mineralogy is already so much indebted for the establishment of new species, has given the above description of one which he discovered among Mr Heuland's rare minerals, and called it, at his sug- gestion, Mohsite, in honour of Professor Mohs. Mr Levy observes that this new species has almost identically the same form as Eudialyte, as de- scribed by him in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for Jan. 1825, the fundamental form of the latter being a rhombohedron of 73°40'. He de- scribes likewise twin-crystals, which are said to be formed by two indivi- duals with parallel axes, but not reversed for 180°, but only for 30° or 90°. No figure being given, it would be unavailing to attempt here any expla- nation of the fact stated, upon the supposition that the otherwise general law also takes place in the present instance. Mohsite very much resembles Crichtonite, and axotomous iron-ore, but is distinguished immediately by its greater hardness, and want of cleavage perpendicular to the axis. 35. Analysis of Hctepozite* This mineral was found at Thoreaux, in Haut Vienne, in France. Part of it was tender, and part hard. The tender part gave a fine violet powder, and the hard part a greyish and sometimes a yellowish powder. The specific gravity of the violet part was 3, and in a slight portion M. Vauquelin found it to consist of— Mineralogy. 363 Iron, - - 35.5 Manganese, - 16.5 Phosphoric acid, - 48 10.0 Ann. de Chim* vol. xxx. p. 130. 36. Analysis of Huraulite, a new Mineral. This mineral was found in Haut Vienne, by M. Alluau. M. Vauquelin found it to consist of— Iron of manganese, - 47.2 Phosphoric acid, - 32.8 Water, - 20 Ann. de Chim. vol. xxx. p. 307. 37. Analysis of the Fer Oxide Resinite of Hauy. This mineral, called also Fer Piciforme, is from the mine of Kust. near Freyberg. M. Lau- gier found it to consist of— Peroxide of Iron, Arsenic acid, Sulphuric acid, Water, 99 Ann. de Chim. vol. xxx. p. 331. 38. Analysis of a new variety of Wolfram. — This mineral, from Haut Vienne, has been found by M. Vauquelin to be composed as follows,— Atoms- 35 1 20 1 14 1 30 9 Old variety. New variety. Berzelius. Vauquelin. Tungstic acid, 74666 73.2 Oxide of Iron, 17-599 13.8 Oxide of manganese, - 5.670 13.0 97.930 100.0 Ann. de Chim. vol. xxx. p. 1 39. New Crystalline form of Apophyllite in America. — This new form of apophyllite was found in a geode imbedded in the amygdaloidof Port Marmouze, on Lake Superior, 44 miles N. W. of the straits of St Mary The geode found by Dr Bigsby was presented by him to Dr G. Troost. This apophyllite exfoliates, like the European variety, before the blowpipe and melts into a white enamel, which, by a prolonged application of heat changes into a semi-transparent glass. It does not require so much heat for its fusion as the European variety, but coincides with it in its other characters. One of the crystals of the apophyllite exceeds half an inch in length. It has the appearance of an elongated octohedron, with the angles of the base truncated, and its edges emarginated. Dr Troost gave it the name of Apophyllite Mixtunitaire. The angles are M upon M 90° ; M upon the faces of the pyramid 127? 59 ; M upon the emarginated edges 149° 29' 30".— See Journal Nat. Soc. Philadelph. vol. v. p. 52. 364 Scientific Intelligence. 40. New Crystalline form of Laumonite.— This mineral was found by Dr Bigsby at three different places on Lake Superior. The crystallized variety was discovered in a small vein of white calcareous spar and red feldspar. Its form is a rhomboidal prism, acuminated with a dihedral sum- mit.— Id. p. 53. 41. Farther Observations relative to Kupffhers Law in Mineralogy. —In vol. iv. pp. 186—188 of this Journal, we laid before our readers an account of the remarkable law in mineralogy, announced by M. Kupffner. The following consequences of this law have been deduced by M. Vincent : 1. The cubes of the axes of primitive forms, which contain the same number of atoms, are in the inverse ratio of the squares of their specific weights. 2. In crystalline substances, of the same primitive form, the specific weights are in the inverse ratio of the weights of the atoms. 3. The squares of the weights of the atoms are proportional to the cubes of the axes of the primitive form. 4. The cubes of the respective distances of the atoms, in two substances of the same primitive form, are proportional to the squares of the weights of these atoms, or in the inverse ratio of the squares of these specific weights. — See Ann. de Chim. torn. xxxi. p. 104. 42. Pholerite, or Silicate of Alumina. — This substance frequently occurs in the coal formations of Fins, (dep. of Allier,) in fissures in the ironstone. It occurs in small convex nacreous scales : It is soft and friable, and adhe- sive to the tongue, and is of a pure white colour. It is composed of Silica, - - 41.775 Alumina, - - 43.104 Water, - - 15.121 100.000 Ann. des Mines, vol. xi. p. 489. geology. 43. Bowlders exhibiting Scratches and Furrows on their lower surfaces. — " I have had occasion, says Mr P. Dobson of Vernon, Connecticut, to dig up a great number of bowlders of red sandstone, and of the conglome- rate kind, in erecting a cotton manufactory ; and it was not uncommon to find them worn smooth on the under side, as if done by their having been dragged over rocks of gravelly earth, in one steady position. On examina- tion, they exhibit scratches and furrows on the abraded part; and if, among the minerals composing the rock, there happen to be pebbles of feld- spar or quartz, (which was not uncommon,) they usually appeared not to be worn so much as the rest of the stone, preserving their more tender parts in a ridge, extending some inches. When several of these pebbles happen to be in one block, the preserved ridges were on the same side of the peb- bles, so that it is easy to determine which part of the stone moved forward, in the act of wearing." Some of these blocks weighed fifteen and even thirty tons. These curious facts confirm the ingenious speculations and Geology. 365. views of Sir James Hall, Bart, respecting the revolutions on the earth's sur- face.— See Edin. Transactions, vol. vii. p. 169. 44. Mr Poulett Scrope's arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. — As we be- lieve there are few of the geologists of the present clay who have studied the volcanic phenomena, and examined the volcanic districts with so much- attention as Mr Poulett Scrope, we shall lay before our readers his new arrangement of volcanic rocks, of which he has given an account in a late Number of the Quarterly Journal. GENUS I. TRACHYTE. Species A, Compound trachyte, with mica, hornblende, or augite, sometimes both, and grains of titaniferous iron. B, Simple trachyte, without any visible ingredient but felspar. C, Quartziferous trachyte, when containing numerous crystals of quartz. D, Siliceous trachyte, when there appears to have been introduced a great deal of silex into its composition. ) GENUS II.— GRAYSTONE. Species A, Common gray stone, consisting of felspar, augite, or hornblende and iron. B, Leucitic gray stone, when leucite supplants the felspar. C, Melilitic gray stone, when melilite is substituted for felspar, &c. GENUS III. BASALT. > Species A, Common basalt, composed of felspar, augite, ^and iron. B, Leucitic basalt, when leucite replaces the felspar. C, Basalt with olivine, in place of felspar. D, Basalt with Hauyne, in place of felspar. E, Ferruginous basalt, when iron is the predominant ingredient. F, Augite basalt, when pyroxene or hornblende compose nearly the whole of the rock. The colour of the rocks of the graystone genus is universally of some tint of gray, generally lead-gray, greenish iron, purplish, or slate-gray, with the exception only of the vitrified varieties, some of which have assumed a black colour, which, however, passes away under the blowpipe, and is suc- ceeded by the usual gray tint. In general the colour of the mass is deeper in proportion to the quan- tity of augite matter in its composition, the felspar being always of a light colour, the augite of a darkish green or black hue, and the iron of a dark- brown or black. The proportion of felspar, or its substitutes in trachyte, may be reck- oned at or above 90 per cent, the remainder being composed of augite, or the ferruginous minerals. In graystone, felspar or its substitutes composes more than 75 per cent. "When these minerals are in less proportion than 75 per cent, the rock should be classed as basalt. Another auxiliary test is the specific gravity of the substance reduced 366 Scientific Intelligence. to powder. The specific gravity of trachyte does not exceed 2.7, that of graystone 3.0 ; while basalt occasionally reaches 3.50. A third test is the colour of the glass before the blowpipe. That from trachyte is light- coloured, and nearly transparent. That from graystone is darker, and having numerous green or black specks, often of a green co- lour. Basalt swells into a dark-green or black enamel. Leucite has not been found in trachyte, rarely in graystone ; but qftener in basalt. Olivine has never been found but in basalt, and it appears to replace the felspar in part, or wholly, but only when the augite is in excess. 45. South African Botany, 6;c.~ It is well known, that Mr James Bowie, an excellent botanist and general naturalist, has been for many years em- ployed in collecting plants for his Majesty's gardens of Kew, in the inte- rior of Southern Africa ; and that, in consequence of the late system of retrenchment in the government expenditure, he has, to the great regret of every one attached to botany, and alive to the interest of the Royal Gardens, been recalled. Mr Bowie had already travelled to the distance of 200 miles from the Cape of Good Hope ; and of the exceeding value of the collections sent to Kew, the writer of this article can bear ample testimony. He now pro- poses to return to the Cape, and again explore the interior at his own risk, relying for a remuneration for his great expenditure, upon the prospect of disposing of what he may collect to the naturalists of this country. Under this impression, he offers to collect plants, and other subjects of natural history, for those who may be inclined to favour him with their commissions, upon the following terms : — Dried Plants, well preserved specimens, at L.2, 10s. the hundred species. Seeds, L.5 per hundred do. s Bulbs, (Ixiae, &c.) 10s. per hundred, larger ones, Is. to 2s. 6d. each. Living Plants, 2s. 6d. each species. N.B. — If small succulents, three or more kinds will reckon as one. Strelitzice, Zamioz, &c. and plants of similar size, 5s. each. New Species will be charged somewhat higher. Birds.— For small birds' skins, and to the size of doves, one shilling each specimen. From that size, and upwards, in proportion, to that of a vul- ture or eagle, 7s. as the highest price. Birds for dissection, preserved in spirits, (cask included,) L.5 per hundred, without regard to size. We think we are doing, a service to men of science in this country, in recommending so deserving a naturalist to their attention ; and we heartily wish him success in his undertaking. Mr Bowie's address is Kew Green, Surry. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 46. Professor Decandolle on the Lenticello?.-— Professor De Candolle of Geneva, has lately published a valuable memoir in the " Annales des Scien- Vegetable Physiology. 367 ces Naiurelles" " sur les Lenticelles des Arbres et le developpement des racines qui en sortent" It has been supposed that, from a cutting of a tree, for example, the roots appear indifferently from all points of the bark: but this assertion M. De Candolle declares to be incorrect; they are all, without exception, protruded from small reddish, oval spots, which M. Guettard has named " glandes lenticulairesj" but of which the functions were never known ? To these spots our author has given the name of Lenticelloe, (or iea- ticelles.) The experiments were made principally, but not solely upon the Wil- low, in which the following facts were observed. A branch of the Salix bicolor, cut from the parent plant, was placed in a bottle of water, and ex- posed in a stove to a heat of 12 or 13 degrees of Reaumur. The water was presently visibly absorbed, and this absorption was the more rapid, in proportion as the roots were developed. The first sign of vegetation was apparent in the gemmae, or leaf-buds, which became slightly swollen : — soon after, the little oval spots above alluded to began to swell; — the roots were protruded, and then the developement of the gemmae became more decided. The gemmae of the lower part of the branch, and which were consequently nearest to the water, and those at the summit, which of course were farthest from the water, were those which showed the ear- liest signs of vegetation. These appeared in two fixed situations. One set, and that the first to be developed, have their origin from the axils of the old leaves ; they are always solitary, and are the only ones where the branch is uninjured, and when there only remains the scar of the old leaf. The other set, which vegetate more readily, appear when some small lateral branch has been cut away, or that of the original gemmae is cutout or destroyed. Then these develope themselves regularly, two in number, one on each side of the point or scar where the injury has occurred. All the gemmae have, in the beginning, a decidedly ascending direction, and a green colour ; they originate in the woody body, but less distinctly so than the root Their form is that of a sharp and slightly compressed cone ; they divide in two, as it were the covering formed by the epidermis, and present to the eye at once the rudiments of the branch and of the leaves. The developement of the roots takes place in the following manner. The lenticular disc, which, in a state of repose, was almost flat, swells and bursts, often into four irregular lobes, and the epidermis is carried up at the extremity of the root. Beneath this, a white, apparently amylaceous matter is seen, from beneath or from the side of which the cylindrical fili- form root is protruded, spongy and soft at the extremity, itself always of a pure white, never becoming green by the action of the solar rays. From these observations upon the nature of the lenticellae, and from tracing the more complete developement of the roots, our author has come to the fol- lowing conclusions upon this interesting subject :■— \stly, That the lenticelloe {glandes lenticulaires of Guettard) bear the same relation to the roots which the gemmae or leaf-buds do to the young branches,— that is to say, that they are points upon the stem, where pre- 368 Scientific Intelligence. paration is made before-hand for the developement of the roots, and whence originate those which are developed along the branches of trees, whether in the air, in the water, or when buried in the earth. %dly, The young root communicates with the ligneous body of the branch by its axis, which visibly proceeds from it ; and its bark appears also to be a continuation of that of the branch. 3dly, It pierces the epidermis of the branch in its developement, and carries with it some portion of the cellular covering. \>thly, The root increases only at its extremity, which part alone, of the whole root, is capable of becoming green by the action of the light. 6thly, The developement of the roots is generally more rapid in the dark than in the light, although experiments produce very varied results. 6thly, Branches immersed in water do not sensibly imbibe the fluid by the bark, but by the exposed parts of the woody body, whether in conse- quence of a transverse section, or upon the external surface simply deprived of the bark. Ithly, Water absorbed by the woody body has a tendency naturally up- wards, towards the upper parts from which it has entered ; because the leaf-buds, when they are excited by heat, attract towards them the water absorbed by the roots or the exposed wood, and it is by a similar process that the trees are enabled to produce leaves in spring. Sthly, Water penetrates more slowly in branches which are inverted, than in those in a natural position. 9ihly, Water absorbed by the cut base of a branch, unites with the co- louring matters with which it may be charged in the branches which are developed by this action. 10th, The roots which are put forth in coloured water, imbibe from it the colouring matter, which they transmit to those roots which are above them, but which are themselves not immersed in the coloured liquid. 11th, The length and ttye form even of the roots may be much modified by the nature of the medium in which they grow. 47. New plan of grafting- Pear trees. — A very interesting paper on the cultivation of an early and a late variety of the pear on the same wall-tree, by Mr D. Montgomery, gardener to the Duke of Montrose, is printed in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. vi. p. 367. He proposes to graft the half of the late pear-trees with the early sorts, and half the early trees with the late sorts; for example, every alternate branch of the crassane with the jargonelle, and of the jargonelle with one of the best late pears. In this way there are two chances of success. Should the jargonelle, which is very early in blossom, fail, from unfavourable weather, the late sort, which flowers at another time, may succeed. Another advantage arises from the crop coming at different times. The jar- gonelle ripens off before much effort is required from the tree to support the late sorts, so that the tree is more capable of supplying nourishment to half a crop of jargonelles, than if the crop were all of that sort ; and as the early pears are all gathered before the late sort begins to swell to size, the tree is at once relieved from half its crop, and is better able to mature in General Science. 369 greater perfection its late produce. Mr Montgomery states, that the trees produce finer fruit in this way than if they were all of one sort. Mr Sa- bine, the able secretary to the society, recommends the adoption of this plan in England, on the ground that, " as few families can consume the entire produce of a full-sized, well-managed pear-tree of any one kind, much waste would be avoided, as well as more variety for the table secured, if every tree on a wall were worked with two or more kinds." IV. GENERAL SCIENCE. 48. Effect of Moonlight on the Eyes.— The effect of the moonlight on the eyes in Egypt is singularly injurious ; the natives tell you, as I found afterwards they also did in Arabia, to cover your eyes when you sleep in the open air. The moon in Egypt strikes and affects the sight, when you sleep exposed to it, much more than the sun ; a fact of which I had a very unpleasant proof one night, and took care to guard against it after- wards ; indeed, the sight of a person who should sleep with his face ex- posed at night would soon be utterly impaired or destroyed. — Carne's Letters from the East. 49. The Royal Medals for 1826 adjudged to Mr Dalton and Mr Ivory. — The Royal Society of London, on the 30th November 1826, ad- judged one of the Royal Medals to Mr John Dalton " for his develope- ment of the chemical theory of definite proportions, and for his various other labours in chemical science ; and the other to James Ivory, Esq. for his papers on the figures of the planets, on astronomical refractions, and other mathematical illustrations of important parts of astronomy." In announcing these adjudications, we cannot avoid expressing our doubts of the propriety of the principle which the Society has adopted. Of the illustrious individuals on whom that honour has been conferred, we have the most exalted opinion. They are the proudest ornaments of English science, and ought to have received from a grateful country re- wards much more substantial than honorary laurels. Fame has long since consigned their names to immortality, and it seems to us to be an anti- climax in honour to place at this late period a disc of gold upon their shrine. We had imagined that the royal medals were granted as a stimulus to new discoveries, and not as a reward for old ones, and we are sure that, while the existing principle continues to be recognized, no young philosopher will, under the influence of these honours, make any great effort at discovery. Dr Wollaston and Dr Young must receive the royal medals for 1827; the Bishop of Cloyne and Mr Pond must receive them for 1828 ; Mr Herscheland Mr Babbage for 1829 ; Mr Troughton and Captain Kater for 1830, Dr Thomson and Dr Henry for 1831 ; and Mr Barlow and Mr Christie for 1832. These gifted individuals, who are placed at the head of English science, merit every honour that the Royal Society can bestow ; but every aspirant after scientific fame would thus be struck out of the list of com- petitors for the royal prize, till all the veterans of science had received that distinguished honour. VOL. VI. NO. II. APRIL 1827. a a 370 Scientific Intelligence. 60. The Copley Medal of 1826 adjudged to Mr South.— The Royal Society lias adjudged the Copley Medal to James South, Esq. F. 11. S. London and Edinburgh, for his paper on the apparent distance and posi- tions of 458 double and triple stars, a work which well merits this high re- .ward. 51. Diamond Mines of Bundelkhund.— These mines are situated on the table-land, between the first and second ranges of hills near Panna, and extend from the Ken River, eastward as far as the Chila Nadi, and no diamonds are found beyond these limits. They are the exclusive property of the Rajah of Panna ; but adventurers may dig for them, if they choose to pay the expences, and a tax of one-fourth of the produce to the rajah. The mines, however, are so much exhausted, that this privilege is rarely accepted. The diamonds are found in a red gravelly soil, at various depths below the surface, from three to fifteen feet, but generally at three or four feet ; and they are separated from the soil by washing and sifting it. The diamond is of the table or flat kind, and is rarely found perfect. — Captain Franklin's Memoir on Bundelkhund, Trans. Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 277. 52. Destructive Earthquake at St Jago de Cuba. — This earthquake, the most tremendous which has been experienced for fifty years, took place on the 18th September, between three and four o'clock, and destroy- ed nearly one-half of the town. The second shock was more severe than the first, and each lasted one minute. The earthquake began with a noise like that of heavily laden waggons dragged over a paved archway, and ended with a tremendous explosion, like the simultaneous discharge of a great number of cannon. Men, women, and children left their beds, and fled to the cathedral, amidst the most distressing cries and shrieks, where they plunged into the water of the baths, which had been blessed by the priests, and remained there up to the neck for hours. The earthquake was felt at Kingston, Jamaica, at the same day and hour. 53. Earthquakes at St Brieux. — An earthquake was felt at St Brieux (Dep. Cotes du Nord) at 5h p. m. The thermometer stood at 53° 6', and the baro- meter at 29 inches. The shock lasted from twelve to fifteen seconds, and seemed directed from east to west. During that time a noise was heard like that of chariots moving over a pavement. — Le Globe, No. 84. Another earthquake seems to have been felt at St Brieux on the 24th June, on the same day that it was felt at Inspruck. 54. Earthquake at Arran, in Scotland. — An earthquake was felt and heard in the island on the 26th November 1826 about 4 p. m. The fur- niture in the room rattled, and the chairs moved as if the floor had been in motion. This motion continued three or four seconds. A rattling noise, like that of heavy carts, or of a thrashing mill, was heard in other quarters of the island. The sky was serene and pretty clear, with scarcely any wind. General Science. 371 55. Professor Gmelin's Analysis of the Water of the Dead Sea. — Pro- fessor C. G. Gmelin of Tubingen has just communicated to us the follow- ing analysis of the water of the Dead Sea, the specific gravity of which, at a temperature of 6lJ° Fahrenheit, he had found to be = 1.21223. He obtained the following result : — Chloride of Calcium, Chloride of Magnium, Bromide of Magnium, Chloride of Sodium, Chloride of Potassium, Chloride of Aluminium, Chloride of Manganese, Muriate of Ammonia, Sulphate of Lime, Water, 3.2141 11.7734 0.4393 7.0777 1.6738 0.0896 0.2117 0.0075 0.0527 24.5398 75.4602 100.0000 56. Eruption of one of the large Craters of Mount Huararai in 1803.— This eruption inundated several villages, destroyed a number of planta- tions and extensive fish-ponds, filled up a deep bay about twenty miles in length, and formed the present coast. An Englishman who resided thirty years here, told us he was astonished at the irresistible impetuosity of the torrent. Stone walls, trees, and houses, all gave way before it; even large masses of rocks of hard ancient lava, when surrounded by the fiery stream, soon split into small fragments, and falling into the burning mass, appeared to melt again as borne by it down the mountain's side. The lava continued to flow for two or three days. In several places on the coast, the sea rushes with violence twenty or thirty yards along the cavities beneath the lava, and then forcing its waters through the aperture on the surface, forms a number of beautiful jet d'eaux, which, falling again on the rocks, roll rapidly back to the ocean. — Ellis's Missionary Tour through Hawaii. 57. Celebrated Lava Cavern ofRaniakea. — This cavern is near Kairua, on the west coast of Hawaii. After entering it by a small aperture, the mission- aries passed on in a direction nearly parallel to the surface, sometimes along a spacious archway, not less than 25 feet high and 20 wide, at other times by a passage so narrow that they could with difficulty press through, till they had proceeded about 1200 feet, where their progress was arrested by a pool of water, wide, deep, and as salt as that in the bottom of the lava, a few yards from the sea. More than thirty natives, most of them carry- ing torches, accompanied us in the descent, and on coming to the water, simultaneously plunged in, extending the torches with the one hand, and swimming about with the other. The partially illuminated heads of the 372 Scientific Intelligence. natives splashing about in the subterranean liycej the reflection of the torch light on its gilded surface; the frowning s'les and lofty arch of the black vault hung with lava that had cooled, witU Java in every imaginable shape ; the deep gloom of the cavern beyond the water ; the hollow sound of the footsteps, and the varied reverberation of the voices, produced a sin- gular effect. The mouth of the cave is about half a mile from the sea, and the perpendicular depth of the water probably not less than 50 or 60 feet. Its water is cool and refreshing. From its ebbing and flowing with the tide, it has probably a direct communication with the sea. — Ellis's Missionary Tour through Hawaii. 58. On the Length of the Ancient Stadium.— A very accurate map of Turkey in Europe, and of Greece, has just been published by M. Le Chevalier Lapie, from materials collected by Count Guilleminot, the French ambassador at Constantinople, and Lieutenant-General Baron Tre- melin ; a very important result for understanding ancient geography, and which, from the accuracy of the new map, has been obtained by its editors. The learned differed with respect to the value of the stadium ■which Strabo and the ancient geographers used for indicating the distances between different places. It is evident that, in order to determine its value, we ought to ascertain the real distances between different points, "whose position has not changed ; and to deduce from this the true length of the ancient measure. The precision with which M. Lapie has drawn his map, has completely resolved the problem, and has demonstrated that the stadia of ancient geographers were, according to the opinion adopted by M. Gosselin, and rejected by D'Anville, 700 to a degree. Strabo, for example, reckons it 200 stadia from Corinth to Argos, and Pausanias 660 from Sparta to Olym- pia. These are the exact distances found on the new map on stadia of 700 to a degree, which proves at once the accuracy of the ancient geogra- phers, and that of the modern maps — Le Globe, 10th June 1 826, torn, iii., No. 73, p. 391. 59. Miniature Volcanoes in America. — The late Dr Dwight {Travels, vol. ii. p- 203,) in his description of Stafford in Connecticut, mentions a volcanic eruption, reported to have taken place in that town. The spot alluded to is a high rock, forming the western bank of the valley of the Willimantic, and distant nearly a mile from the Springs. Similar erup- tions are said to have taken place in the Soapstone mountains of Somers county. After a long continued rain, it is said by some of the inhabitants, living near the place, that reports have been heard from the mountains in frequent succession, louder than that of musketry. On examining this rock not long since, a small hole, about 1^ inch in diameter, was found, which extended to a considerable depth into a bed of the sulphuretof iron. The mouth of this hole was extended in the form of a funnel, and was filled with leaves, earth, and a mixture of the sulphate of iron. In Monson county also, it is said that, some years ago, a similar eruption took place in LL of' Scottish Patents. 373 a spot which abounds with sulphuret of iron, and there are not wanting indications of the truth f the story. 60. Effects of the Inspiration of Hydrogen. Signor Giamoco Cardone in- haled, at two inspirations, SO cubical inches of hydrogen* The effects were, great difficulty of respiration, constriction at the mouth of the stomach, copious perspiration, a general tremor, an extraordinary sense of heat, slight nausea, and violent headach. Vision was impaired, and the ears rung. All these effects soon ceased, except that of heat, which increas- ed in an alarming manner. M- Cardone's health was restored by the abundant use of cold drinks. Giornale di Fisica, viii. 295. Art. XLIV.— LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND SINCE NOVEMBER 8, 1826. 40. Dec. 13. For certain Improvements in Apparatus for Cooling and Heating Fluids. To James Yandell, of Broad Wall, Surrey. 41. Dec. 14. For a New Apparatus on which to Suspend Carriage Bo- dies. To Henry Charles Lacy, Manchester. 42. Dec. 14. For certain Improvements on Apparatus applicable to the Burning of Oil and other Inflammable Substances. To Thomas Ma- chell, County of Middlesex. 43. Dec. 20. For an Apparatus adapted to Cool Wort or Must, and for Condensing the Steam. To Dominique Pierre Deurbroucq, Esq County of Middlesex, 44. Dec. 29. For a New Engine for communicating Power to answer the purposes of a Steam-Engine. To Count Adolphe Eugene de Rosen, County of Middlesex. 45. Dec. 29. For certain Improvements in propelling Boats and Ships and other Vessels or Floating Bodies. To William Busk, Esq. London. 1. 182T. Jan. 15. For an Improved Winding Machine. To Henry Richardson Fanshawe, London. 2. Jan. 15. For certain Improvements in the Machines used for card- ing, slubbing, slivering, roving, or spinning wool, cotton, waste silk, short staples, hemp, and flax, or any other fibrous materials or mixtures thereof. To Mose Poole, County of Middlesex. 3. Feb. 2. For certain Improvements in the Manufacture of Gas for the purposes of Illumination. To John Frederick Daniell, Esq. County of Middlesex. 4. Feb. 2. For certain Improvements in Machinery or Apparatus for preparing Rovings, and for spinning, twisting, and winding fibrous sub- stances. To Maurice de Jongh. 5. Feb. 7. For a new method of constructing Steam-Boilers. To James Fraser, London. 6. Feb. 13. For certain Improvements in Air-Engines for the moving of Machinery. To the Rev. Robert Stirling, County of Ayr. 374 Celestial Phenomena, April — July 1827. 7. Feb. 16. For an Improved method of constructing Capstans and Windlasses. To James Fraser, London. 8. Feb. 24. For certain Improvements in Machinery for heckling or dressing, and for breaking, scutching, or cleaning hemp, flax, or other fibrous substances. To Kohert Busk and William King West ley, County of York. » Art. XL V.~ CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, From April 1st to July 1st 1827. Adapted to the Meridian of Green- wich, Apparent Time, excepting- the Eclipses of' Jupiter's Satellites which are given in Mean Time. N. B. — The day begins at noon, and the conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right Ascension. D. H. M. 1 12 28 2 6 32 2 15 5 3 7 4 2 25 9 34 6 45 6 23 7 37 13 14 14 8 16 25 4 11 37 11 23 11 11 28 26 APRIL. s. 33 Em. III. Sat. % 49 6 1) K « D 59' S. 38 Em. I. Sat. % 39 6 ' II- D 55' s- ]) First Quarter. 5 Em. I. Sat. % $ Inf. 6 © 32 3 J) 1 * 25 J) 17' N. 44 3 V 2 * 25 J 8' S. 33 6 ]» * ft D 72' S. 18 Em. II. Sat. % 54 Em. IV. Sat. % c5 J) " ft Dcs's. O Full Moon. 4 Em. I. Sat. If. " l'S. * ±2= ]) 31' S. /c =2= I 59' N. /? 1TL ]) 27' N 2y8TT\ 27' N. » n\ ]) 3' S, 6- n ]) S Oph. ]) 54' N. J) enters Last Quarter in Quad, with 0 9 Km. I. Sat. % ty Stationary. 42 Em. I. Sat." % 0 enters # 41 Em. II. Sat. % 80 0 Eel. Invisible. > Km. I. Sat. % A New Moon. 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VI. Acids, new ones, 355. Adie, Mr, his meteorological observa- tions, 192, 379. Air, on its discharge by different orifices, 162. Air pump, on a new one without valves or stopcocks, 133. Alcohol derived from the fermentation of bread, 351. America, north-west coast of described, 51. Apophyllite, on a new form of, 363. Arts, society of for Scotland, proceedings of the, 344. Audubon, J. J. Esq. on the carrion crow, 15G — on the wild pigeon of Ame- rica, 257 — his ornithology of the Unit- ed States, 189. Aurora boreahs has no effect on the needle, 167 — remarkable one described, 168 — Noise of observed by Hearne, 348. Baking, on the theory of, 73, 351. Balard, M. on brome, 177, 353. Barlow, Professor, on the effect of the rotation of solid and hollow balls on the needle, 6 — on the developement of magnetism by rotation, 265 — on the position of the plane of no deviation in China, &c. 318. Barometer, on its great variation in 1822, 177. Baumgartner, M. on magnetising steel needles by the sun's white light, 202. Beaver, on a remarkable extinct species of, 328. Black colour, how to produce a fine one, 338. Blindness cured by an artificial pupil, 20. Boott, Dr, on the sea-serpent, 126. Boracic acid, on the light it emits when separated into fragments, 1 76. Bory de St- Vincent, M. on the cochineal insect in Spain, 326. Botany of South Africa, 366. Bowie, Mr James, on the botany of South Africa, 366. Bowlders in America, with scratches and iurrows, 364. Bread, on the art of baking it, 73, 351. Brewster, Dr, on the new fluid in sap- phire, 155 — on the separation of epistil- bite from Heulandite, 236 — on an im- provement of the nautical eye-tube, 250 — on the peculiar lustre of pearls * 277 — on the different crystalline forms of the same body, 290 — on the struc- ture of haytorite, 301 — his treatise on mineralogy announced, 361. Brisbane, Sir Thomas, on the tempera- ture of the earth at Sydney, 226 — his meteorological observations at Tort Macquarie, 246. Brome, a new substance described, 177, 354. Buchanan, Dr, on a new air-pump, 133 Buckland, Professor, on the cavern of Lunel, 242. Calcareous deposits in pipes, how to pre- vent them, 1 63. Caldwell, Professor, on the mean tern > perature of Chapelhill, 249. Cambridge Philosophical Society, pro- ceedings of, 343. Carbonic oxide gas, mode of preparing it, 350. Carburetted hydrogen, on a remarkable decomposition of, 325. Carrion crow, on the habits of the, 1 56. Cavern of Planina described, 220 — of Lunel, 242. Celestial Phenomena, 1 88, 375. Cerium, silicate of, 357. Chemistry, elements of, by Dr Turner, analyzed and recommended, 338. Chlorides, alkaline, on their disinfecting properties, 349. Christie, S. H. Esq. on the history of the developement of magnetism by rotation, 95, — on magnetic influence in the solar rays, 104. Cobalto- bismuth ic ore, 355. Cochineal insect, on its naturalization in Spain, 326. Cold produced by mixing metals, 284. Colquhoun, Dr, on the art of baking bread, 73, 351. Coloured rings produced by electro-chemi- cal action, 313. Colladon, M. on the action of an electrical machine on the needle, 149. Comets of 1825 and 1826, 175, 346— on the rotation of one about its axis, 85. Compressibility of different fluids, 201. Compression of water with high degrees of force, 267. Crystalline forms, notation for, 1. Crystals, on their regular composition, 278. 380 INDEX. D'Aubuisson on the discharge of air from orifices, 162. Dead Sea, analysis of its waters, 374. Decandolle, Professor, on the animal which dyed red the Lake of Morat, 307, —on the Lenticellae, 367. Diamond mines of Southern India, 97 —of Bundelkhund, 370. Douglas, Mr, on the Botany of Columbia, 113. Drawing upon stone, on a new method of, 161. Drummond, Mr, on the botany of the rocky mountains, 1 10. Dry Gases, how to confine them over mercury, 351. Dumas, M. on preventing the deposits in pipes, 163— on carbonic oxide, 350 — on chloride of iodine, 354. Dunlop on the probable rotation of the comet of 1825, 84 — on Encke's comet, 175. Duperrey, M. his magnetical observations during his voyage round the globe, 254. Earthquake, on the effects of one in a gold mine, 218 — various ones described, 370. Elaine, how to separate it from oils, 334. Electro- chemical phenomena, some new ones described, 34. Ellis, Rev. W. on the volcano of Kirauea, 151,212. Emmett, Rev. Mr, on bleaching Flax, &c. 336. Epistilbite separated from Heulandite, 236. Equator, on the mean temperature of 117, 136. Expansibilities of different metals, how to measure them, 225. Falkland Islands, on the Zoology of, 321. Ferns, notice of Dr Hooker and Dr Gre- ville's new work on, 184 Flax, on a new method of bleaching it, 336. Fossil remains at Harberough, 199. Fountain, Periodical, in the Jura, 1 76. Franklin, Captain, notice of his expedi- tion, 107. Galvani's first experiment made in 1700, 349. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, on the plumage of pheasants, 9. Gerard, Captain, his survey of the Val- ley of the Setlej River, 28. Gilbert Davies, Esq. on the theory of suspension bridges, 169. Glass, painted, method of fixing it, 50. Gmelin, Professor C G. his analysis of the waters of the Dead Sea, 374. Gold, native of Vermont, 361 Gordon, David, on a singular decomposi- tion of oil gas, 325 Graham, Thomas Esq. on nitrification, 350 — on the fermentation of bread 351. Grafting pear trees, on a new method of. 368. Gray Mr on the subterraneous sounds at Nakous, 153. Greville, Dr, his work on ferns announ- ced, 184. Gun, notice respecting Zimmerman's safe- ty one, 337 Haidinger, Mr, on the specific gravity of minerals, 120 — on the regular compo- sition of crystals, 278. Haidingerite, a new mineral species, 317. Halloysite, a new mineral, 183. Halos and Parhelia, Memoir on, by M. Fraunhofer, 348. Harlan, Professor, on the mammalia of North America, 328. Harvey, George, Esq. on the effect of a magnet on a pendulum, 288. Hawaii, on the volcanic character of, 212. Haytorite, a new mineral species, 297. Heat extricated from compressed air, 349. Herschel, J. F. W. Esq. on the light emitted by lime, 176. Hetepozite, analysis of, 362. Heulandite and Epistilbite separated, 236. Home, Sir Everard, on the formation of pearls, 275. Hooker, Dr, his work on ferns announ- ced, 184. Humboldt, Baron, on the mean tempera- ture of the equator, 136. Huraulite, analysis of, 363. Hydrogen, on the effects of its inspiration, OJO. Iodous acid, on Sementini's, 352. Iron and manganese, process for separat- ing them, 350. Ivory, Mr, on heat from compressed air, 358. Jamesonite, analysis of, 358. Jupiter, observations on his satellites, &c 175. Kendal, meteorological observations made at, 190. Kersten, Mr C. on cobalto-bismuthic ore, 355 — on Selenium in cupriferous mine- rals, 357. Kirauea, the volcano of described 151, 212. Kupffner's law in mineralogy, consequen- ces of, 364. Laumonite, on a new form of, 364. Laurent, M. his method of drawing on stone, 161. Lava cavern of Raniakea, 372. Layton, Rev. James, on the fossil re- mains near Harborough, 199. Levy, Mr, on Haytorite, 297« INDEX. 381 Liebig, M. on Bromine, 363. Light, on the nature of that emitted by lime. 176— on that developed at the separation of Boracic acid into frag- ments, 176. Longchamp, M. on nitrification, 350. Lunel cavern described, 242. •Magnet, on the effect of one on the pen- dulum of a clock, 288. Magnetic needle, on the deviation of by a common electiical machine, 149. Magnetic influence of the solar rays, 104 Magnetic needle, on the effect of revolv- ing hollow and solid bodies on it, 6 — variation and dip of the, 254. Magnetism by rotation, on its develope- ment, 6, 95. Mammalia of North America, 328. Marine animals that burrow and bore de- scribed, 270. Marshall, Mr Samuel, his meteorologi- cal observations at Kendal, 190, 274, 377- Mean temperature of Chapel Hill, 249 — of North W. Coast of America, 251. Mechanical Inventions, history of, 161, 334. Medals Royal, adjudged, 369 — Copley Medal, 370. Meteoric Stone of many substances, 177- Meteorological observations, made every hour on January 1 5th, and July 17th, 144 — in the Arctic Regions, 66. Minerals, table of their specific gravity, 120. Mohs, Professor, appointed to the Mi- neralogical chair in Vienna, 358. Mohsite, a new mineral species, 362. Morat, lake of, dyed red with animals of the genus oscillatoria, 307* Muscologia Britannica, Dr Hooker and Dr Taylor's, 186. Nasmyth, Mr James, his instrument for measuring metallic expansions, 225. Nitrification, new theory of, 350. Nobili, M., on some new electro-chemical phenomena, 311. Observatory of Edinburgh, 175 — of Brus- sels, 178. Oersted, Professor, on the compressibili- ties of different fluids, 201. Oscillatoria rubescens, a new species which dyed red the lake of Morat, 307. Osier, Mr, on burrowing and boring ma- rine animals, 270. Parry, Captain, his third voyage analyzed, 165. Patents, Scottish, 187, 374. Pearls, on their production and formation, 275. Pear-trees, new method of grafting, 368. Perkins, Mr, on the compression of wa- ter, 267.— his steam-engine, 338. Pheasants, on the change in their plum- age, 9. Phillips, Mr, on Haytorite, 297. Physical Geography, contributions to, 209. Piazzi, M. sketch of his life and writ- ings, 193. Pigeon, wild, on its habits, 257. Pine, on a new and singular variety of, which produees sugar, 114. Pitchy iron-ore, analysis of, 363. Planets, elements of the four new, 294. Planina, the cavern of, 210. Port Macquarie, meteorological observa- tions at, 246. Processes in the useful arts, history of, 161 —334. Proto-Ferrocyanate of Iron, 354. Pyrochlore, a new mineral species, 358. Quesneville, M., his process for separat- ing iron and manganese, 354. Refraction, unequal, curious case of at Bridlington Quay, 293. Richardson, Ur, on the botany about Fort Franklin, 107. Robison, John, Esq. on a method of fix- ing glass in painted windows, 50 — on the failure of the suspension bridge at Paris, 240. Rose, Dr G. on zinkenite, 17 — on py- rochlore, 358. Rose, Ur H. his analysis of zinkenite and Jamesonite, 358 Royal Society of Edinburgh, its proceed- ings, 173, 342. Salts, on their different primitive forms by changing the solvent, 289. Sapphire, on the new fluid in, 155. Saturn, observations on its ring and satel- lites, 174. Savart, M. on vibrating bodies, 204. Say, Captain, his stereometer, 333. Scoresby, Rev. W. on some remarkable effects of unequal refraction, 293. Scouler, Mr, account of his voyage to the N. W. of America, 228 — on the cli- mate of Colombia, 251. Scrope, Poulett G. Esq. his arrangement of volcanic rocks, 365. Selenium in cupriferous minerals, 357- Sementini, on his iodous acid, 352. Serpent of the American seas, 126. Setlej river, on the valley of the, 28. Sheep, rocky mountain described, 328. Societies, proceedings of, 1 73, 342. Solar eclipse of November 1826 observ- ed, 347. Solar rays, on their magnetic influence, 104, 202. Sounds, subterraneous, at Nakous, 153. Stadium, on the length of the ancient, 372. Stark, John, Esq. his elements of natural history announced, 355. :38J^ INDEX. Sunm-cngine, notice of Perkins's, 338. Steam navigation, on its progress in In- dia, 335. : .Steam-boilers, on the bursting of, 335. Stereometer, Captain Say's, revived by Professor Leslie, 333. Struve, M. on Saturn and Jupiter, 17«r>. Sugar produced by a pine in North Ame- rica, 1 1 4. Suspension bridges, on the- mathematical theory of, 169 — failure of one at Paris, 260. Sydney, on the mean temperature of, 226. Taylor, Mr, on the bursting of steam. boilers, 335 Temperature, mean, of the equator, 117, 1 38. Thenardite, a new mineral, 182. Tripe, Mr, on Haytorite, 297- Turner, Dr, on Haidingerite, a new mine- ral, 317— his Elements of Chemistry analyzed, 338. Warburton, Mr, on the sea serpent, 126. Wardrop, Mr on the recovery of sight by an artificial pupil, 20. Water, on a substance which inflames in contact with it, 355. Water wheels, on a new method of work- ing them, 164. Whewell, Kev. W. on a notation for crystalline forms, 1. Wilson, Capt. J. P. his magnetical expe- riments at China, and St Helena, 3 IK. Wine, how to restore it when turned, 163. Wohler, Dr, his analysis of pyrochlore, 359. Wolfram, analysis of a variety of, 363. Wollner, l)r, on the different primitive forms of salts with different solvents 289. Vibrating bodies, on their modes of divi- sion, 204. Volcano on a large extinct one at Hawaii, 187 — Eruption of one in Huararai, 373 — Miniature ones in America, 373. Voltaic conductor, effect of a moving disc on one, 348. Voysey H. N. Esq. on the diamond mines of Southern India, 97. Ybera, the lake of described, 219 Zimmerman's safety gun, 337. Zinkenite, a new mineral, 17 — analysis of, 358. Zirknitz, on the lake of, 223. Zoology of the Falkland Islands, 321. Zoological collections, 328. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IN VOL. VI. PLATE I. Fig. 1. Illustrates Mr WhewelTs paper on the analysis of Crystalline Forms. Fig. 2 Is Professor Barlow's apparatus for the experiments on the Magnetism of Rotation. Figs. 3, 4, 5, Represent the Crystals of Zinkenite. Figs. 6, 7, 8, Represent Mr Robison's method of fixing Painted Glass. Fig 9. Is a diagram illustrative of Mr D. Gilbert's paper on Suspen- sion Bridges. Fig. 10. Represents the Sea Serpent. Fig. 11, 12, 13, 11, Represent Dr Buchanan's new Air-Pump. PLATE II. Represents the Phenomena of the Comet which is supposed to revolve on its axis, as observed by Mr Dunlop. PLATE III. The Map of the recent discoveries of Captain Parry and Captain Franklin. PLATE IV. Figs. I, 2, Are Fossil Horns found near Harborough. Fig. 3. Shows Mr James Nasmyth's Instrument for measuring ex. pansions. Fig. 4. Illustrates Mr Robison's account of the failure of the Suspen- 4 sion Bridge at Paris. Figs. 5, 6, 7, Represent Dr Brewster's Improvement on the Nautical Eye- tube. Fig. 8. Shows Mr Deas Thomson's method of heating a Bath. Fig. 9. Is a Crystal of Haytorite. Fig. 10. Is a Crystal of Mohsite. PLATE V. Illustrates M. Savart's paper on the modes of division of Vibrating Bodies. PLATE VI. Illustrates M. Haidinger's paper on the regular composition of Crys- tallized Bodies. 1 mi 1 (j lift 11 ff 1 111 1 1)11 III 11 iVHl ill! fiUti inji