=) 2 wa. etal) So ty ee a 8 hi ee ee ees Se ee | bo p> WOR ick TO) EM my Lene rnie ten erie PMcteteScaruiniabmined intact mo anee ction, tf WED AAA Mean a OaGR i Roe Wa ease” pss vee Aas ; 4 Ginick a a mf sirariitenays i Mane pe eeatrein hd Se a : . : e Ge " er Py: : es ” sada A TAT ate f ak i rf tev teks ye vis * ba bes score ee 3 €: oped Wty] tacky a FESS ek re 54 ser hatictiect Rise tote peo SLT ST ANAT Bq at Be PEA Sse ty sae Pig ee x! 3 say nen y = eters 4 ee Sos%e Mowe eg don im x pe Oho she Ie rea Pa Fe Becet Aas Se pat age a, Be type (mrt viegti a Miaseatet ke a Bo Teas i ieee: TeeNE: a DLS 7 i Mig dae Nae ty ERY ; ¥ 4 : pts Fimo ex : ne oe : ta ot an Pep re hee eee eb oe ate aur st beh chy ste aher bn Be DF bt ayer sacra 29 Pye yy ¥ art + ae a ‘ = eG ye cheertihat 4 ba sath) baie $i8e eau lariat ink) wiht eds ee i Lo Sty me eet AD anes Cg] Pate sah #F: oh ee 7 Cs o i pe Fs vie geen. feelers pee Ae ety t+ Bee ae 2355 te 250 b CL Cnet baa whe) +o on BPR. oe Sadek a as Sehr bey BA baie ek et - sae | ; Re. sy eter ap tae WRI és Ai iogerd & os 4 BSR EAs peep aches ae mn Fe Th Bee, +2 F pat asiew: : ned oes item pe rh Sig OF ee am ; re teh ee, LY ae ¥4 22 ¥ Biss x sf td ae een bohees kt gi A ATE 8 % PEAR Hrueneetr a straes (9! ge THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. wr aaist yeobant to sstiedinis levigednast hes waond? ats te many : a tame aie! w pied era orioube ade ber § Cure bai liar Ge ' Oy gaan alee $b > bc f= we re . eg ~ ' s, _ y wo se te durguaMes. a OCT THAGOH a peers. TM RBA ML secre LAWITSR ea. mamas, mr au nee ee ent 4 omerineces” ess. 8 . ST CMA BoD) per iar | 20 Wiiew#a ten AWE ‘ Swen #a a tinbiol icustailt plan ies adi pis t a ater te Cte Tome tena aft Yo: dguuterstst Teg ered Lesion levodt od: ic ced We ie Th. L AXMOTIO A 4A PANLEVOORIG 3 Sur er Set, ty eehot stliencttae tl aut Do: weet! tne” Ge siahed 4 wcima: i " IN Jee Ee Bee Lith! Se WS ware yeah Tye BERS OF. oS feiaiei he © ee x 4 K ees rs Rooted iit: Asia bo aoe See ; 0 +? ve) Jee to gabed 4 ™ oe rte SRR OR ce Z ry - . . air eo = aa ae 5 : ‘ -t - < P € A ae Recess ota Se . VO1LL1O THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. CONDUCTED BY ROBERT JAMESON, REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; ¥ellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian and Horti- cultural Societies of Edinburgh; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Dublin Society; Fellow of the Linnean and Geological Societies of London; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle; of the Royal So- ciety of Sciences of Denmark; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin; of the Royal Aca- demy of Naples; of the Imperial Natural History Society of Moscow; of the Imperial Phar- maceutical Society of Petersburgh; of the Natural History Society of Wetterau; of the Mine- ralogical Society of Jena; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of Dresden; of the Natural His- tory Society of Paris; of the Philomathic Society of Paris; of the Natural History Society of Calvados; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences and Medicine of Heidelberg; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York; of the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society; of the Aca- demy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York; of the Natural History Society of Montreal, $c. Sc. OCTOBER 1830...APRIL 1831. EE; TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY. 2 b ¢ 7 / EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH ; AND LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, & GREEN, LONDON. 1831. UeEAy bak 7 ee i Coes &D ye Siar co «omen ay ay meadte tip), ah 2a GC: ¢ Re t i" | ‘ant wt i) ‘Aveta. aT ak C, ty i 20 ARYRER GL ‘vedaatee we PATE i RoAVAeIOR a0 wrasarie -itwH Dar unin? stebrcopligs, aft to ikgeudal love oil to bin -roltwbans vial banat okt Rs, ditt” Ts talline ymotol) 1 dehend te anlishoe, Rasetayy © 9 HD Matt Yo bein EhivigIOD Ya. tolsoR Letgahood) . Eenoda that Wied). hing treads Ye matstctee® Sopwite, hye ‘302 legos! adele coitan ev Aigo plata (ality Eesti sis Yo. po inks Yo sonaalbé Ya gobs, gost Se sd" intoeint of to Cranb to yb wedlth edn hoot “ak adi iy 2 uineneW" Yo. yinbad peyilt feustaX allt Yo, “SE fernitall act Jo mebeatt Ya vinko® letlyeilerante dayett je pebok Gomit Tews gr to peas pay aetna oy Higas sapnigh? hiateXi Y Cislan® ad} to ; rrosetM inate Ye. wala - wo To polae@ Inityonte Pt bie yimekl ods to eagle eremnell 1 — teeACe Ig 1 tebe? ache aati odd Yo fhe Ln W nao wot to coset Dey Yo cusboyt salt te, 4 ert arene fea < _ i, a i ‘ $ ‘ ene or ee FANATALUD GNGUITMOD 2S OS “;HDsUanIaa a aA: mls avai TAO WISE CONTENTS. Arr. I. On the Diluvial Theory, and on the Origin of the Valleys of Auvergne. By Cuarites Dauseny, M.D. F. R. S. Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of Oxford, &c. &c. Ina Letter to Profes- sor JAMESON, - - - - 201 II. On the Characters and Affinities of certain Genera, chiefly belonging to the Flora Peruviana. By Mr Daviv Don, Librarian to the Linnean Society, Member of the Imperial Academy Nature Curioso- rum, of the Royal Botanical Society of Ratisbon, and of the Wernerian Society of ra tes &e. (Concluded from p. 122.) ~ 229 III. On the adaptation of the Fly-wheel and Pulley of the Turning-lathe to a given Lengthof Band. By Mr Epwarp Sane, Teacher of Mathematics, Edin- burgh, - - . - 239 IV. On the Development of the Vaseliti System in the _ Foetus of Vertebrated Animals. Part II. By At- LEN Tuomson, M.D. late President of the Royal Medical Society. Communicated by the Author. (Concluded from p. 111.)— Development of the Respiratory ee, in the Ophidia, Chelonia and Sauria,'- - - 251 Development of the Respiratory Onginai in Birds, 255 Development of the entrees Sc in the Foetus of Mammalia, - 262 V. Analysis of a powerful Chalybeate Water Sime Vi- car's Bridge, near Dollar in Clackmannanshire. By ArtTuurR ConneELL, Esq. F.R.S,E. Communi- cated by the Author, “ - , 284 VIII. . Remarks on Avupuson’s “ Birds of America,” and XII. XIII. XIV. XVI. XVII, XVIII. . On Indian Hail-storms. . Observations on the Glaciers of the Alps. CONTENTS. . Observations on the History and Progress of Com- parative Anatomy. By Davin Craraiz, M.D. &e. (Continued from p. 162.) - By A. Turnsuti Culé TIE, M.D. Communicated by the Author, On the Form of the Ark of Noah, - " « Ornithological Biography,” - * By F. J. Huai, Professor at Soleure, “ “a . New Observations 6n the Blood-like Phenomena observed in Egypt, Arabia, and Siberia; with a View and Critique of the Early Accounts of ‘si- milar Appearances. By Mr C. G. Enrensenc. (Concluded from p. 136.), . ‘. Outlines of a Plan for combining Machinery 341 352 with the Manual Printing-Press.. By Joun Cierk MaxwetL, Esq, of Middlebie, (Witha — Plate), — = - . - - Mr Fraser’s Remarks thereon, . - Account of a Platina Lamp. By Greorcrt Merry- WEATHER, Esq. of Whitby. . In a Letter to Pro- fessor Jamuson. (With a Plate), m Observations on the Fossil Trees of Van Dieman’s Land, By Wituiam Nico, Esq. Lecturer, on, Natural Philosophy, - - i . Account of the Discovery of Bone Caves in Welling- ton Valley, about 210 miles west from Sydney in New Holland, Additional, Information illustrative of; the iadesial History of the Australian Bone-Caves and. Osse- ous Breccia. Communicated by Dr Lane, 357 359 361 364 368 Description of several New or Rare, Plants which — have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal. Botanic Gar- den. _ By Dr‘ Granam, ‘Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, - - Celestial Phenomena from April 1. to July. 1. 1831, 371 calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean — Time. By Mr Geonce Innes, Astronomical Cal- ‘culator, Aberdeen, . - - CONTENTS. iii Art. XIX. Proceedirigs: of ‘the Wernerian ‘Natural’ History - Society, - - - - 377 XX. ScrentiFic INTELLIGENCE, * -- “ 379 METEOROLOGY. 1. Meteorological Table ; extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Britain, Lat. 56°23’ 30” : above the level of the'sea 150 feet: ° 2. Thunder-Storms in France. 3. Sudden ‘agitation‘of the Sea. 4. Aurora Borealis at Paris; i a ‘ : ‘ 379-381 GEOLOGY, 5. Gold Mines in the Uralian Mountains. 6. Lightning Tubes. 7. Temperature of some Mines in Cornwall. 8. Volcano in New Zealand. 9. Map of the Puyde Dome. 10. Dia- mond in the Coal-formation. 11. Splendid Specimen of Megatherium. 12. Slates of the Tarentaise belonging to the Jura Formation. 13. Decrepitation of Common Salt ; Condensation of Gas init. 14. Interesting discovery of Fossil Animals. 15. Dr Turnbull Christie. 16. New President of the Geological Society, = ae 381-385 MINERALOGY. 17. Recent Formation of Zeolite. 18. A New Metal disco- - -vered, ~ - - - - 385, 38 ZOOLOGY. 19. Four-spined Stickleback. 20. Himala Ornithology, 386 BOTANY. 21. Crystals in Living Vegetables. 22. Native Country of Maize, or Indian Corn, - - 1 II. Observations in Answer to a Memoir by Messrs Szpe- wick and Murcuison on the Austrian Alps. By Amt Bou, M.D. F.G.S. M.W.S. &c. &. Com- municated by the Author, - - - 14 III. On the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. By Artuur ConnELL, Esq. F.R.S.E. Communi- cated by the Author, - - - 35 IV. A Series of Barometric Observations. By W. Gat- BRAITH, Esq. A.M. Communicated by the Au- thor, ~ - - - 40 V. On the Luxury of the ents - - 49 VI. An Account of a peculiarity, not hitherto described, in the Ankle or Hock-joint of the Horse; with Re- marks on the Structure of the Vertebrz in the spe- cies of Whale entitled Delphinus Diodon. By Ro- BERT J. Graves, M. D. M.R.I. A. King’s Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, Honorary Member of the Royal Medical Society of Berlin; of the Medical Association of Hamburgh, &c. &c. mire tha 59 VII. On the Lacustrine Basins of Baza and Alhama, in the Province of Grenada in Spain. By Colonel Cuar.zEs Sitvertrorp, M.G.S.L. Communicated by the Au- thor. (Concluded from former Volume, p. 439.) With a Plate, - - 65 VIII. On the Development of the Mansi hax pai in the . Feetus of Vertebrated Animals. Part II. By Ar- LEN THomson, M.D. late President of the Royal Medical Society. Communicated by the Author. (Continued from former Volume, p. 327.), - 88 ii CONTENTS. Art. IX. On the Characters and Affinities of certain Genera chiefly belonging to the Flora Peruviana. By Mr Davip Don, Librarian to the Linnean Society, Member of the Imperial Academy Nature Curio- sorum, of the Royal Botanical Society of Ratis- bon, and of thle Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, &e. - - - 112 X. New Observations on the Blood-like Preieines ob- served in Egypt, Arabia, and Siberia, with a View and Critique of the early Accounts of Similar Ap- pearances. By Mr C. G. Enrenzene, - 122 XI. Observations on the Greenland Sea, as connected with the late Disasters in Baflin’s Bay. By Tuo- mas Larra, M. D. Member of the Wernerian So- ciety. With a Pia: Communicated by the Au- thor, - - 136 . XII. Observations on the History, and a of Com- parative Anatomy. By Davip Crarcrz, M.D- &e. Communicated by the Author, - 146 XIII. On the occurrence of Chalk and Chalk-flint in Banff- shire. By James Curistiz, Esq. Secretary to the Banff. Communicated by the Author, 163 XIV. Account of Aérial Shadows seen from the Cairngorm Mountains. By Joun Macpnerson Grant, Esq. jun. of Ballindalloch. In a Letter to the Editor, 165 XV. Description of several New or Rare Plants which have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Grauam, Professor of eae in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, - 166 XVI. Celestial Phenomena from January 1. to April 1. 1831, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr Grorer Innes, Astrono-— mical Calculator, Aberdeen, - 172 XVII. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History So- ciety, - - “ ae 3 175 XVIUL ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, z bali, 176 METEOROLOGY. 1. Heavy fall of Rain, and frequent appearance of pauls bo- realis, in September 1830. 2. Water Spout in the Lake ‘~_— ee * CONTENTS. .. of Neufchatel. 3. Polar Lights in Shetland. 4. Ni- trous Atmosphere of Tirhoot, - - 176-177 | GEOLOGY. 5. Heights of Table Lands. 6. Lake Aral. 7. Fossil Shells in the Snowy Mountains of Thibet. 8. Bone Caves dis- “covered in New Holland. 9. Leonhard on the Basaltic Formation, = - - -- 178, 179 ZOOLOGY. 10. On the Existence of Animalcula in Snow. 11. Mr Mar- shall on a Heifer which yielded Milk. 12. Frog and Insect Plague of Mullye. 13. Further notice of Ehren- berg’s Observations on the Infusoria. 14. Flying of Man and Birds, - - - . ° 180-184 BOTANY, HORTICULTURE, &c. 15. Erica mediterranea found native in Ireland. 16. Hybrid Azaleas. 17. Preservation of Fruit-Trees from Hares. 18. Cure of Wounds in Elm-Trees. 19. Preservation of Frozen Potatoes. 20. Precautions in the Planting of Potatoes, - . - . 185-186 GEOGRAPHY. : 21. Notice regarding Lost Greenland. 22. Major Rennel’s Chart of the Atlantic. 23. Intelligence of Captain Ross, R. N. . - - - - 187 STATISTICS. 24. Commerce of Great Britain. 25. Cholera Morbus, 187, 188 ARTS. 26. Size for Lluminators, Artists, &c. 27. Manufacture of Charcoal. 28. Potash obtained commercially from Fel- spar. 29. Improvements in Printing, - - 189 NEW PUBLICATIONS. 1. Edinburgh Cabinet Library.—Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in the Polar Regions and Seas. Vol. I. Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in Africa. Vol. II. Pub- lished by Oliver and Boyd, ~ - - 192 2. Wilson’s American Ornithology, _—- - - Tb. iv CONTENTS. 3. Observations on Fossil Vegetables} accompanied by Repre- sentations of their Internal Structure, as seen through the Microscope. By Henry Wiruam, Esq. M. W.S. F.G.S. &c. to. 4. The Aberdeen, Dundee, Leith, and London Tide Tables for the year 1831. By Gzores Innes, Astronomical Cal- culator, Aberdeen. Arr. XIX. List of Patents granted in England, from 27th February to 14th September 1830, = 193 ~ XX. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 16th Sep- tember to 30th November 1830, - 199 Oe THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. By Baron Cuvier *. M. Dunamet was one of those philosophers of the old stock, if we may be allowed to use the expression, whereof many are recorded in the history of the Academy; men who, labouring in retirement for their own pleasure, and for the benefit of their fellow creatures, regardless of fame, knew little of the world, and eared as little to be known by it; whose works the public read with advantage, unaware almost whether the authors themselves were still living, or without informing themselves at what period they lived. So great was his modesty, that notwithstand- ing the undoubted title which he had to speak with authority ‘in the Academy, during a long academic career, his voice was scarcely heard among us. Many of his fellow members, perhaps, did not know him by sight, and yet he was one of the benefac-. tors of his country ; he diffused a knowledge of many useful processes ; he was one of the first who introduced among us the true principles of metallurgy. All those who at the present day practise the art of mining, either derived their knowledge from him or from those whom he instructed ; and the entire body of men attached to this branch of the administration, professes to recognise him as its venerable patriareh. These circumstances are surely more than sufficient to incite us all to cherish his * Read to the Royal Academy of Science of the Institute of France on the 8th April 1822. OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. A 2 Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. memory with that care which he himself too much neglected, and to influence you in paying towards him the debt of his con- temporaries. JEAN PreRRE-F Rancots-GuiLLot DuuameE., Inspector-Ge- neral of the Mines, and member of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute, was born on the 31st August 1730, at Nicorps near Coutances, in the Department de La Manche, and was descended from an old family in the province. From his earliest years, he was mild and reserved in his manners, but manifested great steadiness in his undertakings. His father, who intended him for the bar, placed him under the care of an attorney, according to the practice which had become necessary at that period, when, through the negligence and.sel- fishness of the professors, the instruction .in law to be ob- tained in the public schools. had become utterly inefficient.. _ Placing him with an attorney, and at the extremity, of Lower Normandy, was less likely to enable him to learn jurisprudence, than to shew him chicanery in all its deformity... Nor had the profession..any charm. for him., A. young man of his character required. another object. of study ; an, irresistible presentiment, made him. think there existed more worthy eccupations,;, and in, order to seek them-unrestrained, without apprising any one, he commenced making his escape from, the sort of prison in which he. felt that his intellect could never be expanded. He hada grand- uncle, who, after having long served as an engineer, without ob- taining advancement, and. after, having in. vain tried several, other professions, resolved to put an end to his disappointments, by becoming:a capuchin friar. More fortunate under the frock, than in the world, he had arrived at the dignities of his order—. for there is no society of men, however humble, that has not dig-, nities and baits for ambition—and at this time he was,guardian. of: the capuchins of the city of Caen, and superior of those.of the provinces. It was with him that the young Dehamel, sought, a refuge. , A man such as:he. sini not be insensible. to. snail sbich he had himself experienced, nor to that restlessness so common in youth of energetic minds, so long as they have not obtained the true place assigned them by nature. He not only received his Biographical. Memoir of M. Duhamel. 3 grand-nephew with a fatherly affection, but judging mental employment in the highest degree necessary, he undertook to teach him what he had formerly known of mathematics... Like those platonic souls: that seek out each other as. soon as they are cast into the actual world, the young attorney’s clerk: at length found the food that agreed with him, and seized /it with avidity. . Henceforth absorbed in his retreat, by this sole object of study, he soon became a more expert mathematician than his uncle. It may well: be judged, that in thus directing the attention of his nephew, the good guardian of capuchins did. not.intend to condemn him to his own profession. On the contrary, he busied himself in renewing his connexions with his old compa~ nions.. M. Peyronnet, under the authority of M. Trudaine the elder, at that time founded the School of Bridges and Highways, which has since become so.useful and so honourable to France. _M. Duhamel was introduced to him, and gave such decisive proofs of capacity, that he immediately admitted him among his pupils. With, unrelaxed. assiduity he added: to. his acquirements, and he was upon the point of leaving the school and of entering with distinction into the Corps of Engineers of Bridges and High- ways, whena new project of M..'Trudaine’s called him to another branch of service. M. Trudaine, a distinguished member of this Academy, and one of those who have contributed much to spread enlighten- ed principles of administration in France, satisfied with the impulse which he had given to the act of facilitating conveyance. by founding the School of Bridges and Highways, thought that a similar procedure might operate beneficially upon a much more neglected part of administration, that of Mines. Fortunately for France, her mineral riches will always re-) main the least part of those with which nature has favoured her. Her vast and fertile fields, her rich pasture grounds, her vine~: yards so remarkable for the variety and excellence of their pro- ductions, are. an ample equivalent for the rareness of those metallic veins which are almost always indicated by the aridity: and barrenness of the lands they traverse. But since we have some such lands too, it might be important to examine whether | A2 4 Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. in all this sterility were uncompensated, or at least whether every thing had been done to determine this question, Now, a brief examination of the preceding acts of the go- vernment, will presently shew that the mines, when they were not sacrificed to the cupidity of men of influence, had been given up to the empiricism of ignorant adventurers. The | languid state in which they remained, was therefore by no means either necessary or irremediable; but to restore them to life, the first step to be taken was evidently to instruct those who were to work them. M. de Seychelles, then minister of fi- nances, was fully capable of appreciating such enlightened views when proposed, and readily obtained for them the royal sane- tion. | To teach the art of mining, however, it was necessary to have instructors, and this country did not furnish so much as a single individual qualified, in a practical point of view, to undertake the office. . . In fact, this art, which received its birth in Germany during the middle ages, had remained almost confined to working people. Scarcely had even a few treatises on Metallurgy and Assaying, founded on a rude system of chemistry, begun to be spread in France in the form of imperfect translations. It was only on the spot itself, from the mouth of these workmen, and in the view of their labours, that notions could be acquired regarding the rock formations which contained the mines, the laws of their situation, the best means of mining them, tracing them, and purifying their productions. art But if the workmen alone possessed all these secrets, it was necessary that those who were to wrest them from them should be more than mere workmen ; enlightened minds could alone: collect into.a system that mass of scattered facts, the aggregate of which those who knew them were very far from being able to: apprehend, or even to form a conception of their relations. _ It was therefore resolved to take into the school of Bridges and Highways, some young persons already versed in mecha- nics and physics, and for the purpose of their being educated in the art of mining, to send them into the districts where the greatest progress had been made in that art, namely the Hartz in Saxony, Austria, and Hungary. Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. 5 M. Trudaine’s choice, as directed by M. Peyronnet, fell on M. Jars and on M. Duhamel, whose history we are relating. As a preparation for their journey, they were sent to inspect the most important mines which France then possessed. From 1754 to 1'756, they visited those of the Ardennes, of the Vosges, and of the Pyrenees ; and, in 1757, they set out for Germany. The diligence with which they applied to their researches, may be judged of by the collection published under the title Voyages Metallurgiques, which bears the name of M. Jars, but which is in a great measure the result of their united labours. All the memoirs regarding the forges of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia, and those of Bohemia and Saxony, are the work of the two young authors, and several of these memoirs were com- posed by M. Duhamel alone. It would be unjust to estimate this work according to the present state of our knowledge. In the period of more than 60 years which has elapsed since it was published, the theory’of all the sciences which treat of minerals has undergone two or three revoltitions ; and it must be remembered, that, at the time we allude to, the masters whom our young inquirers could consult were not theoretical men. The ideas which the directors and proprietors of mines then possessed, were scarcely more elevated than those of the workmen whom they employed. Every thing seemed mysterious in the purely empirical results on which their procedures were founded. ‘The birth and maturity of metals were believed in; nature, it was said, required to be aided in bringing them to perfection. Mercury, sulphur, and salt, vari- ously modified, formed their elements.’ In a word, metallurgy spoke almost entirely the language of alchymy. Geology was still farther from having attained a scientific form. As yet, Lehman had scarcely distinguished with pre- cision the secondary from the primitive mountains. The nu- merous circumstances relating to the superposition of minerals were not even imagined. Desaussure had not travelled, Deluc had not written, nor had Werner yet, by the power of his supe- rior genius, in some measure reduced to order the mineral world. i It is a reflection which we are frequently obliged to make, when we have to retrace the history of our fellow-members 6 Biographical Memoir of M: Duhamel. whose career has: been long ;—the ideas and the language adopted’ in the ‘sciences during their youth again occur to us, and ‘we feel as if we'were engaged with some nation of antiquity. Half a century has sufficed to metamorphose all ; and probably, inthe same period of time we also shall have become ancient to the generation that will'succeed us. ‘These considerations teach us never to forget‘the respectful gratitude which we owe to our predecessors, and *never, without examination, to reject the new ideas* which an’ ardent youth ‘conceives, and which, if they are just, will prevail in’ spite of all the efforts which the present age may make to repress them. - This’ much ‘is certain; the facts which MM. Jars and Du- hamel collected’ are-very numerous ; that at that period they were almost entirely new to France; and the perspicuity and ~ arrangement of their descriptions rendered: them intelligible to all who might ‘give them a perusal. ‘The work ‘in which they are embodied contributed essentially to that improvement in the art of mining, the fabrication of iron, steel, and tinned iron, and the digging for coal, which has of late years taken place in France. ‘Their work also led tothe increase of establishments devoted to'the preparation and manufacture of these productions of the mineral ‘kingdom. It was not less honourable to the authors, that there prevail- ed a constant friendship between them both during their long researches, and when they were engaged in giving them to the public. ‘Their connexion exposed them to become jealous rivals, but their character preserved them from that evil. “Even abroad, their conduct was uniformly regular and’ respectable. 'They gained the friendship of several of the distinguished:men whom they visited, and more than once proposals were made to them to accept of situations from the princes through whose countries they passed. M. Duhamel especially, whose modesty formed a sevikienern trast to the generality of travellers from his own country, was held in very great esteem. ''The Austrian Government wished to attach him to their service, but’ he was called home, both by the official situation which had been promised him, and by another desire still dearer to his heart. Since his flight from the attorney, he had not seen his father, and the idea of having left Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. . 7 tracés of displeasure'in the mind of the good old man weigh- ed heavily ‘on him. '' He hastened to implore ‘his pardon. But it was not the prodigal child returning, miserable and humiliat- ed; to his paternal mansion: ‘it was’a'man of education; respect- able for his conduct; and who had probably opened a surer path to fortune than that which he had been desired to follow. It will easily be conceived that the father’s anger was appeased beforehand. _ M. Duhamel the son, therefore, now expected to be in- stalled in the functions for'which he had been prepared by so longa’ trial.“ He went in haste to Paris, and made inquiries respecting the accomplishment of the preparations that had been’ announced. ‘But a total change had taken place in the administration. A’ most unfortunate war had exhausted the finances. .M.de Seychelles, the enlightened minister who had despatched 'the‘young people on their journey, had no longer the direction of affairs. Three other ministers had succeeded him in the short space of two years, without contributing any thing to public credit or prosperity, and M.. Silhouette, the one who was then in office, had been ‘more unfortunate than all the rest. An eternal’ ridicule has been attached’ to his name from the paltry dark likenesses at that time in vogue *, and which afford in some measure’an emblem of his operations. It was not either to him or to almost any of those who succeeded him, each for a few months, still less tothe Abbé Terray, of formidable memory, who governed: the finances until the death of Louis XV., that any thing could be proposed with a view: to future prosperity. M: Trudaine, therefore, gave up his intentions for the present, and M. Duhamel remained without employment. He did not murmur, however, nor did he endeavour to obtain by solicitations _ what had been refused to his labours. ‘As during all the rest of his life, he remained quiet, and ‘sought for resources in himself. His'leisure was occupied, and his existence supported by giving advice to mining companies. ‘He even wrought for individuals, and, in 1764, he entered into the service of a rich proprietor as director of a great foundery, to which were joined several forges. . * Black profiles are termed silhouettes. 8 Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. In this establishment it was quickly seen to what extent knowledge may contribute to the acquisition of wealth. In a few months the expense was diminished, and the produce doubled. An entirely new art was also introduced.» From the year 1767, steel was manufactured of such excellent quality that it was bought up by certain Englishmen to be sold again as English steel, so much did they dread the loss of a reputation which they then exclusively possessed, and more than 800,000 hundred weights of it were annually manufactured. Many years after this period the manufacture was pretended to have been imported into France, and a large reward was de- manded for it. M. Duhamel acted with more disinterestedness, In 1777, he published his mode of procedure. On this occa- sion he added, as he always did, modesty to disinterestedness, and did not even take the trouble of claiming his right to priority that would have secured him wealth and indepen- dence. . , A less dependent situation might have given a more extensive influence to his talents, and he conceived a plan that would have secured his wealth and independence. He formed a scheme of establishing founderies and forges in the barren grounds which it would have been easy to supply with fuel by means of the pines so abundant, and at that time so useless, in that sandy country. The articles of agreement were made out, the success of the undertaking did not seem doubtful, but it- was necessary to leave the establishment over which he presided ; and it seemed that a proprietor whom he had so effectually aided in becoming rich, could not withhold his consent to grant that freedom which in its turn might aid the fortune of the man who had served him so well. ; | | et It was quite the contrary, however. Duhamel’s master, who was of a violent character, and was at this period in the highest credit, so far abused his power as to cause him to be apprehend- ed by soldiers, and guarded in sight of his establishment. Scarcely would one of the great vassals of the crown have, at the height of the feudal system, attempted such violence. It proved at least the value that was attached to the services of M. Duhamel, and brought to mind those times when the al- Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. 9 chemists were imprisoned, in the hope of forcing them to make gold. 6 Fortunately we were no longer in the 12th century ; the King, to whom M. Duhamel’s friends were obliged to make direct ap- plication, gave him all justice, and the circumstance having recalled him to the remembrance of the minister, contributed in the end to his withdrawing himself from the precarious situa- tion to which he had been reduced. In 1775, he was named commissary of the council for the in- spection of forges and. furnaces, which opened up anew the path to employment. However, he always regretted that this event broke up his plans with regard to the barren grounds, so firmly persuaded was he that they would not only be a new source of public prosperity, but also a certain basis to his own private fortune. While he was connected. with his great foundery, he had begun to make known his own discoveries and observations. In 1772, he made a journey to the Pyrenees, and shewed the advan- tages of the Catalonian method of manufacturing iron, and the possibility of applying it to the mines of the interior of the king- dom. It is well known that this method consists in making the ore pass immediately into a state of semi-fluidity, in a crucible, where it is preserved from the contact of air, and in submitting it immediately after to the action of the hammer. In this man- ner the great outlay required for the construction of furnaces is saved, much fuel is economised, and less is lost by combus- tion ; the iron is separated and refined in the same crucible, and by a single operation, To prove that the rock ores of the Pyrenees were not the only kinds that might be thus treated, he had ores transported from the Angoumois and reduced at the Pyrenees... The operation succeeded perfectly. | Once free from all. engagements. with individuals, he set no bounds to his zeal, and _his,writings and experiments. became more numerous. In 1775, he visited the mines of Huelgoat in Lower Bretagne, and discovered to the great. benefit of the proprietors, that a substance of an earthy appearance, which they rejected as useless, was very rich in lead and silver. In 1777, he improved the forges in the same country, as well 10 Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. as the founderies of carron and iron balls at Lanoue, and pub- lished, as we have already mentioned, his secret with respect to the cementation of steel. In 1779, he projected great improvements m the refining’ of silver, that is to say in the art of separating that metal from copper by means of lead. In 1783, he invented an instrument calculated for followmg better the direction of veins, and for determining the points at which they cross. In 1784 especially, the period of a great competition for a place in the Academy, he presented still more numerous memoirs than formerly. He furnished a means of extracting metal from the poorest galenas ; taught’ how to treat without loss the ores rich in iron, by add-~ ing to them in suitable proportions earths caleulated to produce a sufficient laitier, and’thus prevent their combustion ;' shewed that most of the scoriz of lead may still be turned to account ; and pointed out the surest means of extracting gold and silver from goldsmith’s ashes. These last works procured him successively in the Academy the places of correspondent and associate, and at length obtained for him from the government the recompense so ee to his first efforts. The minister of Louis X VI. resumed the old projects’ of M. Trudaine. In 1781, M. Necker laid the’ first foundation’ of their realization, and, in 1783, M. de Calonne completed it. A school of mines was established at Paris, and after more than twenty years expectation, M. Duhamel was ‘nominated to the chair of mining and metallurgy. Undertaking such an office was devoting himself somewhat late to an occupation for which he was designed from ‘his youth, and which should have been commenced with the active vigour of that age. Not only was it difficult for’ M. Duhamel to ‘ae- quire all of a sudden the elocution which’ could alone fix 'the at- tention of his pupils; he had also'to learn in detail the theories whose progress the exercise of art, and a life passed in forges and manufactories had not permitted him to follow, and to en- ter anew upon the meditations necessary for arranging them so as'that they might be brought forward in a manner worthy of his office. He had to inform himself in short of all that science 3 Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. il and time had recently added to the “art. His devotion to his duties, and his love to his pupils, supplied all; from the begin- ning he shewed himself worthy of his situation, and during the thirty years he filled it, the affection and gratitude of those whom he taught continually rewarded his labours. The gra- titude of many others also was due to him, could he have re- claimed it from all those whom he has enriched. In fact, if it be desired to know what effect a well arranged institution, however inconsiderable it may be, what a public pro- fessorship, for example, may produce in a great kingdom, let it be considered what our mines then were, and what they have since become. Our workings of iron and coal are quadrupled; the iron mines which have been opened near the Loire, in the coal district, and in the midst of fuel, will produce metal at the same price as in England. Antimony and manganese, which we formerly imported, we now export largely. Chrome, which was discovered by one of our chemists, is also now the very useful production of one of our mines. Already very fine tin has been’ extracted from the mines of the coast of Bretagne. Alum and vitriol, formerly unknown in France, are collected there in abundance. An immense deposit of rock-salt has lately been discovered in Lorraine, and there is every reason to believe that these operations will not stop there. It is not undoubtedly to a single individual, nor to the erection of a single chair, that all this good can be attributed ; but it is not the less true, that this man and this chair gave the first impulse. It was for his pupils that M. Duhamel composed his princi- pal work, of which a volume appeared in 1787, under the title of Geometrie souterraine. It is well known that the metals, and especially the more pre- cious metals, have not been distributed by nature in homogeneous and extended masses. Dispersed in small parcels among rocks, it is only by great labour that man has been able to become pos- sessed of them. Nor have they anywhere been scattered at ran- dom. Their position, like all the other relations of natural objects to each other, is subjected to laws. It might be said that the old- est mountains have been broken or split to afford them asylums. Those immense fissures which traverse rocks in all directions, 12 Bugraphical Memoir ofeM, Duhamel. look as if they had been subsequently filled with the foreign materials at the bases of the mountain, and it is in the intervals of these foreign rocks, in these veins, that the precious mole- cules, often of very varied composition, are deposited. From them the successive discoveries of chemistry have enabled us to extract the metals in their pure state. | The art of the miner consists in discovering principal veins, in following them, in finding them again hide they are inter- rupted, in allowing none of the accessory veins which may in- tersect them to escape; lastly, in raising all the parts that may contain metal, and in raising none else. He must therefore know the general laws of the distribution of veins, of their in- flections and intersections; and when he has wrought out a part, when he has perforated the mountain in every direction in which veins have presented themselves to him ; when he has scooped out a second time this labyrinth, which seems to have existed since the original disruption of the rocks, and before the substances which fill up the fissures were deposited ; he must be able at all times to find his way through those gloomy recesses, he must even retain an accurate knowledge of the galleries, of the veins which he has abandoned, that he may not be annoyed by the waters, on coming imprudently upon them again bya different route. Such is the object of subtedtatiean geometry ; it finds out the direction of ‘the veins toward the cardinal points, and their in- clination to the horizon; it fixes the three dimensions of the works; it follows them, and verifies their progress by clear and distinct images. Its means are such as they might be in those narrow cavities, where the view extends only a few feet, and where the light of day does not penetrate. Some lamps, a compass, and an instrument to measure the inclination, are ail that can be used. It cannot, like common geodesy, either con- nect its operations with those of astronomy, or establish great triangles, to rectify its small errors. It therefore requires par- ticular methods, which supply by their accuracy of detail those grand means of rectification ;. and these methods must be such as men of the class who pass their melancholy lives in those depths, may comprehend and execute with sufficient accuracy. These operations are what M. Duhamel teaches in his book. Biographical Memoir of M. Duhamel. 13 It is not a work of an elevated order of geometry, nor one that ‘had the pretension of offering new mathematical truths: it is a purely practical treatise, a sort of surveying of a particular kind, but which the art of mining could want, and which every miner would have been obliged to make out for himself, had not the author spared him the trouble. This work is at the present day the manual of all who practise the art of mining in France ; and as if the light of improved science ought to re- flect toward the focus from which it had issued, it has been trans- lated into German, and is very generally diffused mere the miners of that country. — * In the subsequent part of his work, M. Duhamel siteniibel to treat of the other processes of the art, of the various modes of digging, incasing, walling, ventilating, and drying mines, of transporting the ore, picking, washing, stamping, melting, and refining it. The police of mines, their administration, the ques- tions of law which refer to them, and the regulations to which they are subjected in different countries, were equally to be ex- plained. But the events which involved the country in confu- sion a short time after the publication of his first volume, arrest- ed the progress of the work, and we can form no idea of it excepting from the fragments which he has inserted in the En- cyclopedie Methodique. During these events, M. Duhamel himself was much dis- tressed ; but he acted as on all other. occsions, he took precau- tions without complaining. At the first appearance of danger, he purchased some lands in America, and formed the resolution of carrying his talents to that country. When on the point of embarking, he still granted some mo- ments to the tears of his family: but in the few days which this delay occupied, the men who menaced every kind of merit were thrust down, and immediately the proposals of the government,. which had been restored to some degree of moderation, fixed him anew in his country. After this period, he discharged the duties of professor and inspector-general of mines, and in the latter quality performed important missions, always with zeal, and always without ostentation.. At length his age, and loss of strength, forced him in 1811 toretire. He was then 81 years old. The remaining part of his life was passed in calm re- 14 Dr Boué's Observations on the tirement among a beloved family... ‘The pains of the gout alone sometimes interrupted his tranquillity, and caused, him the greatest of .his disappointments, by preventing him from going regularly, as he had been accustomed, to hear his fellow-members at the Academy, for there he was as constant as he was silent. In his: family he. was as.modest and mild as in the world. At length he slept the sleep of the just, on the 19th February 1816, aged somewhat less than 86 years. A son, one of his most _ distinguished pupils, and inspector-general of the mines, revives his name in the career on which he first entered, and in which this son has already made not less remarkable progress than his father. Observations in Answer to a Memoir by Messrs Sedgwick and — Murchison on the Austrian Alps*. By Amr Bourn’, M. DV F. G. S. M. W. S. &c. &c.. Communicated by the Author: Iw the memoir. of the two active members of the Geological Society of London, we were pleased to observe, that they had. described and classified the various alpine deposites nearly in the: order which we pointed out in.our papers in the Edinburgh, New Philosophical Journal for 1830, and in the Zeitschrift: fiir Mineralogie von Leonhard, for 1829, and in, the Journal de Geologie, Nos, I. & II. for 1830. Nevertheless, they have omitted some parts of the geological history of the Alps; or, at least, they hardly notice some of the prominent subdivisions of these formations, which certainly would not have escaped them. had they allowed, themselves sufficient time to take a more ex- tensive view of that immense chain. As we are of opinion that: the structure of the calcareous arenacevus chain of the Northern, Alps presents peculiarities unknown on the southern side of the Alps, we could have wished that. the authors in question had separated entirely the descriptions of each of these chains, be- cause the intermixture of local details, sometimes from the one. side, sometimes from the other side, are apt to deceive the read-. er, and induce him to believe that if a complete identity does: * * The memoir appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for August 1830. _ Geology of the Austrian Alps. 15 not exist, yet that. there reigns a great similarity between the succession of the southern and northern alpine deposites. It has been long known, that, in Carinthia, especially near to Bleiberg, true transition rocks, even, with their characteristic fossil shells, make their appearance. _ Our authors ‘have add- ed new and interesting details. to those already. known, in re- gard to this isolated occurrence among the Alps, and excite the wish that these ancient rocks: may be farther traced, with the view of ascertaining whether or not. they do not actually extend under the secondary rocks, in the direction of» Idria. Now, as these rocks are entirely unknown along the whole. of the northern alpine chain, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Carpathians, and as they do not occur in the Italian Alps, it would have been better to have presented this fact as an isolated accident, rather than endeavour to join these rocks with other cal~ careous and arenaceous rocks, without, or nearly without, organic remains, which some may be disposed to call transition, while others will refer them to the secondary class. . Besides, if these crystalline masses, containing encrinal beds, described as occur. ring on the northern side, are truly transition, certainly their characters differ from those of the rocks of Carinthia, containing shells., On the other hand, we see the term greywacke applied to rocks on the northern side of the Alps, which make a transi- . tion from the micaceous or chloritose quartzose rocks, to others with.a still more arenaceous character, We confess that these. last mentioned, conglomerated masses cannot be compared with, or referred to, the greywacke of the Hartz or the south of Scot-. land, but to us appear mere varieties of quartzose talcose rocks, deposites also well known in Scotland, which are, in our opi- nion, less. affected and altered by igneous agents than the other. primary, but formerly arenaceous rocks. . After these general observations on our authors’ mode of treating the subject, we shall now take the liberty of examining, the divisions. which. they propose. They distinguish, in the» Alps, 1. With all geologists, a central primary axis... 2. Crys-. talline. rocks,. with limestone beds, containing few organic re- mains, the system graduating into rocks agreeing with the or- dinary transition type. 3. Red marl, sandstone, gypsum, &c. . containing, in parts of their range, large subordinate masses of 16 Dr Boue’s Observationg on the magnesian limestone. 4. Older alpine limestone. 5. Alpine limestone, with subordinate saliferous deposites. 6. Younger alpine limestone. '"{. Tertiary formations. | In regard to the central primary axis, we have but one re- mark to make, viz. that its termination is not distinctly given by our authors. The primary Alps, that appear to sink out of sight between Wien-Neustadt and Oedenburg, in Hungary, actually continue under the tertiary soil, and the valley of the Danube, and crop out again in the Neitra Comitat, to the east and west of that town. From this point, they extend to the NW. and NE. of Neusohl; and, lastly, they unite with the chain of Prassiva, Kralova, Hola, &c. The granitic group north of Presburg, as that of the Tatra, are only isolated portions of this chain. The central alpine chain would thus terminate geographically near to Vienna, but geologically in Northern Hungary. It is separated from the Carpathian primary chain, either because one part may not have been elevated to the same height as the rest, or because a partial sinking down has buried that portion... On the other hand, the.primary chains of the Marmarosh and Transylvania, are evidently not in the same direction as the similar Alpine chain, and owe their origin to up- heavings that have taken place in totally different lines of direction. This is the opportunity to defend myself against a reproach of Messrs Murchison and Sedgwick. They accuse me of pushing the spirit of generalization too far, of bringing under comparison formations widely separated from each other in the Alpine and Carpathian chains, sometimes by the help of minera- logical characters, and almost unassisted by a single organic re- main. If I am not mistaken, we might retort, and with more justice, on these gentlemen, when we find them intermingling the geology of Carinthia and Salzburg; but our defence will not rest on such criticisms. We have already proved, that the primary Alpine chains do continue in the northern Carpathians ; and hence it is quite natural to expect in these last named’ - mountains also, the continuation of the Alpine calcareous chain. This last fact is generally acknowledged ; and I doubt not if these gentlemen had visited the Carpathians, they would have been the first to assent to it. It is to be understood that we do not mean to say that small calcareous deposites are placed along — Geology of the Austrian Alps. 17 the primary Carpathian chain ; for this is by no means the fact ; but we repeat it, that, as in the Alps, from Vienna and Pres- burg, to the east of the Tatra, there is an uninterrupted calca- reous band, which is often separated from the primary hills by a system of reddish arenaceous rocks. Besides, this alpine lime- stone is not much covered by more recent calcareous deposites, nor has it been so much thrown up, as to shew, as in the Alps, its whole body, and to allow us to see, in this calcareous chain, also the subordinate arenaceous beds or masses. Our adversaries seem to imagine, not only that all our opi- nions in regard to the Carpathians are more fanciful than cor- rect, but they also appear to insinuate, that we may have mis- taken for alpine limestone some other calcareous deposite, which we could only have examined in a few spots, and that we af- terwards united the whole according to our fancy. Happily, however, our map of the north-east part of Hungary, presented last April to the Geological Society of London, affords proofs of our local observations, united with those of Messrs Lill and Beudant, and which can at any time be verified. The calca- reous alpine zone, which is coloured on the map, exists really in nature, aud extends uninterruptedly from Vienna to Tatra. Every one will be able, on inspecting a good map, to see that the numerous localities where we studied the formation, and which we shall enumerate, were sufficient to allow us, even with- out the aid of organic remains, to decide that alpine limestone exists equally in Tatra as in the Alps. If it is ever allow- able to make use of the witticism of Mohs, viz. that, as we cannot determine the species or genus of a tree from the birds that sit on it, consequently fossils cannot shew the age of a deposite, which must be determined by position and mi- neral contents, it is in this case. Indeed, if there be a conti- nuation of the limestone ridges of the Alps and that of the Ta- tra, what necessity is there for taking into consideration the fossil organic remains? even if ‘Trilobites occur in the Tatra al- pine limestone, and Bacculites in that of Vienna, if both rocks form one single continuous mass, if they have the same position, they, in our opinion, are of the same age. Now, the Vienna or Baden alpine limestone reappears on the eastern side of the ter- tiary plain of that city, viz. at the distance of six or eight miles, OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. B is | Dr Boué’s Observattons on the at Wimpassing, afterwards between Teusch-Altenberg, Edels- thal, and Hainburg, from where it crosses the Danube to The- ben, and, lying along the granitic ridge, it is found again at Ballenstein, at Borostyanko, at Pernek, at Breitenbrunn, at Blasenstein, Elesko, and to the east of Hradystie. From that village, and from Nadas, it extends to Csejta and Neustadt, ' upon the borders of the Wag near Bohuslariez, around Beczko and Trentschin, at Orecho, Sztrezezenitz, and between Hraboo- ka and Pucho. It forms the highest hills between the valleys of the. Wag and the Nyitra, and is covered partly by secon- dary and tertiary rocks, a fact well known from the obser- vations of Beudant, and confirmed by those of Lill. After having followed this formation, step by step, we had still an opportunity of studying it more to the north at Preeven, Hiova, Warin, Bela, and Tyrhova. We saw it also extending behind Kubin, Chlebna, and Habowka; and a branch ter- ‘minates on the northern side of the Tatra, from the west of Koscielisko to Zifjar; in the mean time another unites itself with the limestone south of the Tatra, and of the superior val- ley of the Wag, and extends to Newsohl, where we saw it on a former tour, and where others have described it. It is true that, in this extensive calcareous chain, we observed fossil organic remains only between Warin and 'Tishova, around ' the Tatra, and in the country of Neusohl; but the same is the ease with the Austrian Alps; and the magnesian rocks, full of small rents, seem far less favourable to the preservation of petri- factions than the complete dolomites. On the other hand, these fossils correspond with those of the limestone of the Alps, being belemnites, certain ammonites, certain smooth or folded terebra- tulites, encrinites, and zoophytes. In this way. we have the identity and continuance of the same formation with the same fossils, and that from Vienna to the Tatra. Now, we ask (Mr Lill and I), are not we entitled to compare some sections of the Carpathian limestone ridge with others taken among the calcareous alpine chain, and to use in this way Carpathian lo- calities, or sections where the strata have been but slightly de- ranged, to clear up in the Alps the nature of tracts, where great catastrophes or upheavings have disturbed and confused the true series of deposites ? The answer to our question cannot be Geology of the Austrian Alps. 19 doubtful. If our adversaries, ignorant of the Carpathians, refuse to adopt our opinion, we beg them first to visit the country in question, for, without a knowledge of the country from exami- nation, if they continue to deny what is obvious to us and others, they must not be astonished if we retort against their conviction and our own also, that the magnesian limestone, and the red marl of Durham, is not the same deposite as that which receives the same names in Nottinghamshire and Somersetshire. In both cases the reasoning would be absurd. We rejoice, on the other hand, to agree fully with our au- thors respecting their mode of considering the arenaceous red- dish system below the alpine limestone. It is well known that we, and also Professor Buckland and these gentlemen, compared it with the red marl, and even with the keuper, and that we endea- ‘youred to find out in the thick beds of limestone, which are “sometimes ferriferous, in the gypsum and the rauchwacke, some representations of the ancient secondary formations which are “so well exposed in the southern Alps, and so well characterised from the Lago Majore to the Cadore. There is a great dif- ference in the composition of the Alps on opposite sides. Upon the one side, the secondary formations, nearly unaltered, support the colossus of Jura limestone and chalk ; while, on the other, the latter formations, with many peculiarities, and often with apparently strange fossils for such deposites, rest upon a series of aggregates, almost unknown elsewhere in Europe, and which are connected with the primary system. .That union of lime- stone, containing immense masses of sparry iron-ore, with are- naceous talco-quartzose slates, is a Gordian knot, which can only be cut by our theory of igneous subterranean alterations. In regard to the inferior alpine limestone, these gentlemen have been very fortunate in discovering in Carinthia the Gry- phea incurva in the dolomite of Bleiberg, thus rendering it a lias limestone. Notwithstanding the singularity of this fact, and that not more than two or three casts of the shells were found, we admit it. As this characteristic fossil of the lias is not men- tioned by them as occurring on the opposite side of the Alps, we question.if they are right in admitting the lias in the Salz- burg Alps. If this deposite exists in the Alps of Dauphiny and Savoy, and even perhaps of Western Switzerland, the dark B2 > 20 Dr Boué’s Observations on the limestone so classified terminates in the Voralberg, and from thence to Tatra we observed nothing like it. Further, we find only predominating varieties of light coloured alpine limestone, which also exist in the Western Alps, or the magnesian lime- stones and the dolomites. Here and there at Werfen, between Abtenau and Radstadt, the undermost alpine limestone hides some small masses of dark coloured limestone, or of greyish magnesian limestone, which also exist as subordinate beds in the arenaceous red-coloured system; but it is by no means certain that these masses represent the lias. On the other hand, we, as has been done by our authors, com- pared the whole alpine limestone with the oolite series, and even with the uppermost members of the series, and its saliferous sub- ordinate masses appeared to be nothing more than accidents of the Jurassic subdivisions, not far from the Oxford and Kimmeridge clay. Their descriptions of the salt of Hall, Hallein, and Ischel are correct, and correspond with what has been very often pub- lished by others. Nevertheless, the peculiar cellular rawchwacke- like limestone near the salt of Hall escaped their notice; and the valley of Lavatsch behind these masses would have fully repaid, by its fossils, the trouble of a visit. At Hallein they appear not to have sufficiently distinguished the two or three great bodies of rock, where sandstone or limestone alternately predo- minate, and they have neglected to give the exact place of the orthoceratite limestone. We observe with pleasure, in their article on the newer alpine limestone, that they place the saliferous arenaceous fucoidal de- posite of Hallein under that kind of limestone which forms the Untersberg ; this position, and the transition of these two rocks into each other, is the discovery of our excellent friend Mr Lill von Lilienbach. This same formation underlies, according to our authors, the hippurite limestone, covered by gypseous marls, nummulite rocks, sandstones and marls, with Gossau fossils. It is already known that they make the Gossau marls tertiary, and that the Untersberg would offer an isolated, or, if they choose, a second example of the transition from the chalk formation to the tertiary. This is the great point of controversy, which we . shall consider in a subsequent part of this communication. On the other hand, they misplace the coal mines of the Alps of Geology of the Austrian Alps. «A Lower Austria, for they are not all in newer alpine limestone, as has been shewn long since in the writings of Stutz, Riepel, Constant. Prevost, and our own papers, where it is made plain that these coal beds are in the inferior part of an arenaceous de- posite, superior to that limestone, viz. in the Vienna sandstone, which they indeed mention shortly as a deposite, separating the newer alpine limestone from the tertiary rocks. Notwithstand- ing they acknowledge, in that sandstone, all the paleological characters of the secondary period, they do not inform us of the position which that sandstone occupies in relation to the hip- purite and nummulite rocks; they rest satisfied in placing it above the newer alpine limestone. Besides, they annex to that sandstone, rocks belonging to the greensand, as, for example, the locality of Sonthhofen ; but they do not venture to pronounce that greensand includes our Vienna sandstone. Still further, in speaking of the Kressenberg sandstone, which they believe to be tertiary, they describe Mount Kaschelstein, which is com- posed of Vienna sandstone, with ammonites and belemnites ; and they separate carefully, by a fault, this deposite from that of the Kressenberg. Indeed, this is also our opinion; and they tacitly adopt it, by placing the Vienna sandstone between the superior alpine limestone and the greensand. Why, then, do they not mark the Kaschelstein in their section, Fig. 2 ? The section on the Tertiary formations is that which most concerns me. They reproach me for not understanding their classification of Sonthhofen, a locality which they could not pos- sibly place in the tertiary class, but in the secondary. We ac- knowledge our error here, but do not understand how they can separate the Kressenberg from it, which they describe as identi- cal in a mineralogical point of view. The fossils alone remain their guide in this violent separation. Of 172 species of fossils of the Kressenberg, 42 have been considered tertiary by Count Munster, and no miner, they say, ever saw secondary fossils in this locality. This is their sole argument. We would first beg the Count to determine all the fossils of Sonthhofen, and then we would see if these crustacea (craw-fishes), belemnites, ammonites, are not associated with or covered,by an aggregate of shells, partly of species still considered as tertiary. Until that be done, an important part for the solution of the problem by its fossils alone 22 Dr Boué’s Observations on the is wanting, for the presence of petrifactions is only accidental. AS it is hot necessary for the characterizing of every chalk de- posite that it contain Crania parisiensis, may not the locality of Kiessenberg have been unfit for the habitation of the animals Whodse remains are searched for in vain? Besides, why are the ‘erustacea (craw-fishés) so abundant at Sonthhofen, and so scarce at Kressenberg ? Why are the terebratulites more numerous in the first than in the second place? Why are more univalves in the latter than in the former, while the large oyster and the Echinidea seem ‘equally distributed? Sonthhofen is acknow- ledged to ‘be greensand, ‘as. also the Mount Fis, but turrelites occur only in Fis. If the ferriferous deposite of the Kressenberg was isolated at a distance of 300 ‘miles from Sénthhofén, and if such a deposite had been observed elsewhere in the tertiary series, the conclusion of our adversaries would be of some ‘value. But this instance of pisiform iron-ore would be the only one Known ih tertiary for- mations ; and further, this deposite is not isolated, but, on the contrary, it is connected with that of Sonthhofen by means of Similar rocks which crop out here and there, on the foot of the Alps between Adeholzen and Anzig, behind Bérgen, between Aschau and Rottau, ‘especially near Branenberg, New-Baiern, and Heilbrunn. On the ‘other hand, these géntlémen ‘could - easily have visited, from Salzburg, ‘a similar déposite on the Haunsberg group north of that city; and if they had visited, as Lill and T did, the northern foot of Mout Traveénstein near Gmund in Austria, they would ‘have seen there also the rocks’ and fossils of ‘the Kressenberg, and those ‘of Gossau, as they haye erroneously marked in the section; Fig. 1. “The nummu- lite iron-sandstone is there interposed between the Vienna sand: stone and the alpine limestone ; and the fossils of Gossau exist’ only on the southern side of ‘Mount Trauenstein, in the small valley of the Eisenbach, and ‘in another deposite. Now, we ask, can a more evident connexion be desired ? ‘Is it not evident that the deposite extends along ‘the foot of the Alps,’ from Mount Trauenstein to Sonthhofen, from whence it passes through the whole Voralberg to Switzerland, as these gentlemen also mention to be the case? ~We ask them, if they will not find it very difficult to classify all these localities between Sonthhofen Geology of the Austrian Alps. 23 and Kressenberg, and serving as connecting parts, and as yet unknown to them? They will themselves confess the small im- portance of the more isolated position of the Kressenberg com- pared with that of Sonthhofen, of which the hills are united to the alpine limestone chain ; for this is only an accident resulting from a total {bouleversement) overturn which affected these mountains, of which some remained connected with the Alps, while others have been separated from them. At the Kressen- berg, the inferior beds, which at Sonthhofen contain the inoce- ramus, the belemnites, &c., are buried under tertiary and allu- vial rocks, or have been hidden by a falling down. Lastly, we ask our opponents what opinion they would entertain of our logical reasoning, if, on examining, at two distant points, their ‘magnesian limestone which runs through England, and being unacquainted with the whole extent of its distribution, we should classify one peint of it with the secondary limestone, and the other with the transition, in conformity with the fossils we had seen in each locality? Would they not say to us that the age of a deposite must be characterised by the whole of its fossils, and not by the shells of one or two localities ; and notwithstand- ing the identity of many fossils of the magnesian limestone and transition. limestone, they would remind us that, in the first, other fossils peculiar to this deposite may occur, which, however, may be wanting in different places, without changing the true state of things. I trust this example is quite in its place. Our authors attack -us also in regard to our classification of the tertiary deposites of the basins of Bavaria, Austria, and Styria, and they reproach us for laying too much stress on mi- neralogical characters, {p. 109). We thought we were as well aware as they of the insufficiency of this last argument. But are we right in saying that in the basins just mentioned, as in Switzerland, there are only tertiary subappennine deposites, or formations superior to the tertiary nummulite limestone of Paris. Our opponents contend that they have recognised, by — means of the fossils in the basin of Gratz, rocks of the same age as the London clay. If they are of opinion that they have a sufficiency of fossil shells for establishing such an identity at such a distance, we-would not be so foolish as to contest this con- clusion, which, besides, is conformable with our own ideas, for 24 Dr Boué’s Observatiogs on the we do not see any reason for considering the London clay as an. equivalent of the whole mass of the Paris tertiary limestone; . and, as we reject the plastic clay as a distinct formation, arran- ging it as subordinate to the limestone, we do not see the neces- sity of a plastic clay in England. No one in England would have thought of separating the plastic clay and the London clay, if that formation had not been proposed and established at Paris; now, however, as that opinion is admitted to be errone- ous, it is plain that there is no longer any necessity for search- ing for it in England. In short, the London basin seems to us to be only a portion of that vast basin of Northern Europe, where the superior deposites predominate, and not at all an equi- valent of the Parisian one. At page 109, on the locality of Haring in the Tyrol, our au- thors reproach me with having overlooked the marine shells ; if, however, they turn to my work on Germany (Geognostiches Gemiilde Deutchlands mit rucksicht auf den benachbarten, Landern 1829), they will find, at page 403, that we discuss what genera of marine fossils are to be found there. Hiring appears to have been a kind of lagune in a longitudinal valley, which, communicated by some rents with the Bavarian tertiary sea, but the rest of the valley of the Inn was formed by far later fissures, for it does not contain tertiary rocks. On the other hand, it is well known that Hiring presents some dubious cha- racters which have induced some observers to place it in the green ‘sand, although still the most plausible arrangement is with the tertiary lignites. In regard to the Nagelfluh (p. 109), they i not. to be completely acquainted with 11; but they lay much stress upon the opinion that it is a tertiary deposite. It cannot be doubted that there are nagelfluh or calcareous conglomerates in the true molasse. Other similar beds occur also in the upper- most tertiary formation, as at Vienna; and even the alluvial soil contains great deposites of nagelfluh, as at Salzburg, and in the Austrian alpine valleys. But there is also another conglo- merate, a very thick deposite, which borders some parts of the Alps, especially in Switzerland, which, according to every well- informed geologist, has very peculiar characters, viz. that it con- tains not only debrisof all the different secondary alpine limestones —_——_—- ~ 7 ‘Geology of the Austrian Alps. 25 and sandstones, but also rounded fragments of primary and secondary crystalline or slaty rocks, which are foreign to the alpine geology. No one but will at once see the high interest of such a composition; and he will find, without surprise, frag- ments of this rock in the more recent nagelfluhs. Now, these peculiar rocks appear as if dipping under the alpine limestone, while, on the contrary, as along the Lake of Zug and else- where, the molasse appears to dip under the first deposite ; but no one has been able to confirm the truth of this double position, and nobody ever found in the ancient nagelfluhs any of the shelly beds of the tertiary molasse. For these rea- sons, we still remain persuaded that it is a secondary deposite, and that its peculiar position in regard to the neighbouring masses of rocks is only an accident, caused by the upheaving, which affected not only the calcareous chain, but also the hori- zontal tertiary beds, ‘The same peculiar nagelfluh rocks have been found under the greensand of the Voralberg and the Allgau, and again north of Salzburg, and even to the south-east of that town. Lastly, in the middle of the Austrian Alps, the alpine lime- stone appeared to us to support here and there chalky deposites, at the base of which limestone were seen naglefluh rocks asso- ciated with molasse-like rocks. In this last case, as to the north of Salzburg, they contained rolled masses foreign to the moun- tains composing the Alps. In those places where these foreign boulders were wanting, the chalky deposites were so isolated amongst lofty limestone hills, or surrounded by them as in basin, a situation which sufficiently explains the absence of such boul- ders or transported rocks, which no force could have brought into such hollows. All these facts brought to our recollection the rocks in the vicinity of the Swiss nagelfluh, and we ima- gined that we saw there the same connexion of these problema- - tical masses with greensand rocks, as to the south of the Rigi, at the foot of the Pilatus, at Thun, at Saarnen, at the Voirons, &ec. We wait now for the dissent or assent of alpine geologists to this statement. | Lastly, We come to our controversy in regard to the age of the Gossau deposite. In their section (Fig. 1.) they have well expressed its unconformable and overlying position upon the alpine limestone, and in a deep and large cavity of that forma- 26 Dr Boué’s Observations on the tion. We grant them that similar beds are to be found in some points at the foot of the northern alpine chain. On the other hand, we shall be careful not to compare, as they have done, the position of the Gossau rocks with that of the molasses in the longitudinal valleys of the eastern Alps, and conclude from this false view that rocks of the same age can exist also im the Salzburg alpine valleys, (112). Indeed, most of the valleys of Salzburg are transverse; that of Gossau is of this description ; the longitudinal valleys of that country are occupied ‘by lakes, but these do not, any more than the transverse, offer traces of ter- tiary rocks. ‘These transverse valleys have been formed gene- rally during a period posterior to the tertiary rocks, and thelakes have perhaps occupied more ancient cavities, without directly communicating with the tertiary sea covering the existing flat country. In the same manner, it is acknowledged that the lon- gitudinal valleys.of the eastern Alps are far more ancient rents than those which conduct the traveller through the alpine lime- stone chains. ‘The comparison of our opponents seems so erro- neous, and the case of Hiring, again brought forward, appears so much of the same description, that we cannot help express- ing our astonishment that sets of rocks, so different as those of Hiring and Gossau, should be compared together. Lastly, If the valley of Gossau has been filled up by tertiary rocks depo- sited by an arm of the tertiary sea of the flat country, Why do these same beds not occur throughout the space between ‘Gossau, Gmund, and Saltzburg, in all these great transversal and longitudinal valleys? Hence we cannot see the probability, with our adversaries, that tertiary deposites may have been formed in the valley under examination (112). | On the other hand, they remark, that there is a great break be~ tween the chalk and the calcaire grossiere or tertiary inferior Jimestone (182), and that a deposite somewhere fills up the inter- val, and connects the tertiary soil with the chalk. The hill of St Peter, at Maestricht, owing to its containing a mixture of secon- dary and tertiary fossils, is proposed as an example of this kind. First, after reproaching me with comparisons taken in distant countries, it seems that my critics expose themselves still more than I to this objection, for Maestricht is very far from Gossau, and that limestone bears but little resemblance to that of Gossau, Geology of the Austrian Alps. 27 in its position, nature, and fossils. Besides, the small number of similar petrifactions is of no consequence, because this accident can be explained by placing both deposites in the chalk, as well as by classifying both in the’tertiary soil. But most concholo- gists and geologists still consider the bacculite limestone of Maestricht and of V alognes, which resembles that of the Danish Isles, as a part of the chalk formation. After having considered the deposite of Maestricht, we re- turn to the reasoning, apparently fair, that the tertiary soil ap- pears always to be separated from the chalk by a break. Our adversaries forget that there are a good many similar cases in geology. Thus, in certain basins, the old alluvium (diluvium of some English geologists) occupies a higher level than the modern alluvium; the two deposites are not intermixed either by transition or alternation; because, probably, sudden rup- tures, various catastrophes, have occasioned a sudden sinking of the level of the water during the alluvial period. Besides, how many formations, deposites, and even beds, are not placed in un. conformable and overlying stratification, the one upon the other, in consequence of accidents occasioned by upheaving, slipping down, and total overturning, which have affected the inferior masses, before the dopouitaof the superior ones? The case of the chalk seems to us a very simple one, for we do not see the ne- cessity of its being connected, at least in Europe, with the tertiary soil; at the same time, we do not deny that such may be the case in other parts of the world: allowing such a possibility, we do not see the necessity for a new and unknown formation to effect such an insensible transition. We agree with many eminent geo- logists in thinking that, in Europe, ‘the termination of the chalk period was characterized by tremendous catastrophes; whole chains of mountains have been heaved up, immense lines of volcanic eruptions first made their appearance, and in conse- quence most dreadful and great ruptures took place, and whole continents were thrown up. In this way, the sea would leave dry a great part of the countries it formerly covered, and the deposites formed under its ‘surface, or along the shores, would naturally occur in unconformable and overlying stratification, sometimes in gulfs surrounded by steep chalk-cliffs, sometimes in primary or secondary creeks. The immense changes that took 28 Dr Boué’s Observatiens on the place ‘at that period are fully adequate to explain whiy whole’ classes of animals, as belemnites, &c. and even of vegetables, disappeared from Europe, and that other animals and plants took their origin, or sprang into existence from this new state of things. In pursuing our examination of the reasoning of our wisi saries, we were startled with the following remark,—* that if the Eastern Alps have been elevated at so recent a period, there must be on their flanks a continuous succession of deposites be- tween the new secondary, and the older tertiary periods,” (112). We really do not see the force or meaning of this observation, for we cannot see what an upheaving, may it even be alluvial, has to do with the existence of certain deposites, for very few formations, and especially the more recent ones, are generally distributed over the whole surface of the globe. The deposites wished for may, or may not, have existed along the Alps; but the fact is, that no one, excepting our authors, have found a trace of them. | We agree with our authors “ that the age of the Gossau beds must be determined by their relations, structures, and fossils, and that there is nothing in their relations and structure which proves them to be older than the chalk (including the greensand ). Besides, we confess that the appearance of many, and even of the greater number of the Gossau fossils, is tertiary, from their state of preservation, the great preponderance of univalves over bivalves, and the incredible abundance of shells of certain genera, seldom found except in the newest formations,” (p. 112). But, on the other hand, we find ourselves brought back to the secondary class by the gryphites, catillus, inoceramus, neritina, trigonia, plicatula, the pecten quinquecostatus, &c. If, contrary to acknowledged geological principles, we neglect thedifficulty oc- casioned by the presence of secondary chalk fossils, andattend only to the tertiary shells, shall we be right or wrong in maintaining that the deposite is newer than chalk? We do not believe that this mode of proceeding is allowed ; and we are gratified to find our opinion agree with that of men well fitted for judging of such difficulties. First, if Mr Alexander Brongniart classifies, as do our opponents, the greensand of the Kressenberg in the tertiary class, it is because he has been shewn only the tertiary genera ; Geology of the Austrian Alps. 29 but when he finds at Gossau inoceramus, and all the other se- condary genera, he does not hesitate to be of our opinion. If we consult geologists the most intimately connected with the recent secondary deposites in the Alps and in the Pyrenees, we find their opinion in conformity with ours. Thus, M. Beau- mont agrees with us in regard to Gossau and Kressenberg, for he found, during his journeys through Eastern France, similar anomalies. M. Dufresnoy, at present occupied with the geo- logical map of Southern France and the Pyrenees, is still more in our favour, for he acknowledged many fossils in our. collec- tion to be identical with those which he found in greensand. Af- ter a careful study of all the fossils from the chalk formation of the countries under examination, he concludes, that out of 240 species, 40 are species that, until now, were considered as ter- tiary, a case similar to that of Gossau. Still, not satisfied with the high testimonies in our favour of the opinion of Messrs Partsch, Kefferstein, Lill, and ourselves, we consulted choncholo- gists. M. Deshayes, who saw the collection of Messrs Sedg- wick and Murchison, as well as mine, cannot admit their con- clusion; and even dares not pronounce the perfect identity of any of the pretended tertiary species of Gossau with those spe- cies known in various tertiary basins in Europe. In London, Mr Sowerby seems to have-been less cautious, for he named at least some species. M. de Roissy was also astonished with the ideas emitted by our adversaries. M. de France, assu- redly the most learned man in this department of natural history at present alive, also did me the favour of examining my fossils from Gossau. His opinion also is against the view of Messrs Sedgwick.and Murchison. This excellent man said to me, “‘ T have collected fossils for a long time, and hence you would conceive that the species in my cabinet would increase ; but this is not the case. On the contrary, the more individuals I receive, the more transitions of one species into another I observe; and, consequently, the number of species become less and less. Each locality appears to possess not so much its own species, as more frequently its own varieties of every where nearly the same spe- cies. ‘This circumstance, too much neglected, makes the best works on fossils only applicable to certain localities. If, on the other hand, we could get together from all parts of the earth, 30 Dr Boué’s Observations on the all the series of fossils, we would see a great many species from one locality, identify themselves with those of others, because the connecting links would be present. In short, conchologists do not possess the means of fixing the specific characters, and sometimes not even those of the genera; this can only be done by the study of the animals, without which no one can trace a strict line of separation between the accidental and specific cha- racters of the species of fossils or of shells.” But we must now return to the petrifactions or fossils of Gos- sau. ‘The state of preservation of the fossils, as Brongniart well observes, is a character of no importance ; for, according to this character, we could classify, in the tertiary class, certain fossils from the Lavatsch Alpine Valley in the Tyrol, from Raibel in Carinthia and even sometimes transition shells, or place in’secon- dary formations some tertiary shells. The learned gentlemen ad- mit that “* owt of more than 100 different species, there are from — 30 to 40 bivalves, and of those capable of being identified, near- ly equal numbers are referable to the youngest secondary, and the oldest tertiary, formations. The wnivalves are much more numerous, especially in the quantity of each species, a fact sel- — dom remarked in secondary deposites. Among upwards of 50 species, 3 only are found in the chalk or greensand, whilst 7 species are identified with known tertiary fossils ; and several of the genera, such as Volvaria, Pleurotoma, and Voluta, are seldom, if ever, found in any deposite below the surface of the chalk.” They admit, in this way, at Gossau, more than 50 new fossils, which geognostical classification they do not give us; be- sides, in their conclusions, they do not exclude any of the fossils from the recent secondary formations ; but remain satisfied that, heretofore, certain fossils had not been found, or were very searce, in those secondary formations, which have been well studied only in England, and in a few placesin France. The greensand fossils have much greater affinity with tertiary fossils, than with those of older secondary rocks. They admit hippurites in the Gossau rocks, but we suspect that this fossil is only accidental, and is a rolled mass of hippurite limestone taken up and enclosed in the rock, forming the base of the deposite. On the other hand, they are not willing to believe that the Gryphea columba may be found at Gossau, at least they do not speak of the fact adduced 3 Se eC eC el Geology of the Austrian Alps. $31 by us. If we alone were to support this accident, we would have a strong party to combat, and our assertion might be more than counterbalanced by their complete denial; but we have fortunately an arbiter in this case they cannot refuse, hav- ing formerly accepted his evidence. Count Munster wrote, March 1828, to Kefferstein, that he had observed among the Gossau fossils, young specimens of the Gryphaa columba of the greensand, and his letter was published ia the Geological Gazette, page 99 of the 6th vol. part 2d, of the Teutchland Geognostisch-Geologisch dargestellt.. published in 1829 by Kef- ferstein. In my collection, I have that fossil in the state de- scribed by Count Munster, and Mr Lill has it also. Thisis a case in which we may apply the judicious observations of De France, upon the variations which a species may undergo, or upon the different states in which a fossil may have been petri- . fied'in various localities. . We trust that this explanation will dissipate every doubt regarding this point, and that my oppo- nents will also be forced to place in the tertiary formation this fossil, so characteristic for the greensand, or they must. change their opinion. Besides, M. de France recognised in my collec- tion another small species of gryphite, which he has from other chalk localities. Lastly, we come to the singular reproach made to us, that, in order to determine the age of the Gossau deposite, we had recourse to the characters presented by similar patches Jound here and there in the Austrian Alps.. Our mode of pro- ceeding, whatever our authors may say to the contrary, is strictly lugical. It was only necessary to be certain that the localities we compared were. geologically identical, on which point there remains not a shadow of doubt in the minds of those geologists acquainted with the country, viz. Messrs Partsch and Kefferstein. Unfortunately our authors visited only Gossau, but they are not from this circumstance to deny that similar depo- sites may not exist elsewhere.. Indeed, such an assumption would be in opposition to their. own theory, according to which, this formation should have been pretty generally distributed and divided into isolated masses by the upheaving of the Alps. If they had seen, as our excellent friends, Mess. Partsch and Kef- _ ferstem, and we also, the localities of Grimbach, Hieflau, Gams, 3a Dr Boue’s Observations on the Hinter Laussa, Launz, &c., they would not have written that “we had no right to transport the reader. over 150 miles of alpine limestone, and then to.assert, that at Griinbach, Piesting, &c., the same deposite as that at Gussau contains belemnites and certain other secondary fossils.” —(P. 111.) When we find again at Griinbach, at Piesting, Xc., the same rocks as at Gossau ; when we see these rocks in a similar posi- tion; and when three geologists recognise in these beds a great many of the same fossils as at Gossau ; does it not seem that we have a right to speak of that deposite when we are endeavouring to classify the problematic deposite of Gossau ? and we ask if it be allowed to say, as those gentlemen do, that such an argument is nothing better than a direct inversion os the rules eo anduction ? (p. 111.) The hurry of writing is the only excuse we can offer for aah an expression of opinion; for what would our critics say, if we, in their classification of the patches of greensand in the southern parts of England, would deprive them of the liberty of placing under one head all the fossils of the greensand of the Isle of Wight, Dorsetshire, Hampshire, and Kent? They would cer- tainly consider me a strange logician, | Besides, in the case of Griinbach, these gentlemen are the more to blame,as M. Keffer- stein had already, in 1828, in the 5th vol. p. 446, of his T’eutchs- land Geognostisch-geologisch dargestelit., well described the loca- lity of the Wand, and had well identified by means of the fos- sils the deposites of Griinbach and Gossau.. If we find belem- nites, litulites, anachites, &c., at. Griinbach, it appears: to us, after this long discussion, that we should mention the fact, and make use of it to establish more certainly that the Gossau rocks are not tertiary, but secondary... We do not see any thing ex- traordinary in the circumstance, that, in the same formation, some fossils may be awanting in one locality, but presentin an- — other, as is the case at Sonthhofen and the Kressenberg. The | deposite of Gossau also offers similar and striking examples; thus, at Gossau, there is a pretty large and abundant ampullaria or natica, the place of which at Gams appears to be replaced by a pretty large species of tornatella, and at viene sie fossils oe- cur in great abundance. | _ We have now finished our examination of the memoir of Messrs —_o ' se ~ Geology of the Austrian Alps. ' 33 Sedgewick and Murchison, and we hope it has been shewn that no tertiary deposites (at least as they are understood at present) exist in the northern Austrian Alps, and that the tertiary rocks of the Austrian flat land do not ascend into the transverse val- leys of the Alps. Besides, we think we have shewn that the Ju- ra limestone, composing the alpine calcareous chain, is covered in different places, as in the French and Swiss Jura and in the Ger- man Alps, by isolated patches of rocks belonging to the green- sand and the chalk. If these last deposites do exist on the bor- ders of the Alps, we positively deny that there is a transition from that formation to the tertiary;one, and we defy any one to prove this, if we admit the totai absence of tertiary rocks in the -middle of the Alps. We might’ conclude here, and await the answer of our opponents ; but we feel it right, as some ob- servers, not aware of the extent of our investigations, might sup- pose that our statements were founded on few facts, to state the extent of our travels, which were continued for several years in the Alps. Messrs Sedgwick and Murchison also felt it ne- cessary to enumerate on how many excursions and sections their ideas were based. Since 1821, we have visited in our various journeys, first the whole of the northern calcareous and primary chains of the Alps from Feldkirch in the Voralberg to Eisenerz and Somering in Styria; the country south of the Lofer in the Tyrol alone remain- ed unexplored by us. On the other hand, we madea journey for the sole purpose of following step by step the northern foot of the calcareous secondary chain, in order to study thoroughly the range of the secondary sandstone, and its contact with the alpine limestone and the molasse. That journey was performed with- out interruption from Sonthhofen in Bavaria to Vienna in Aus- tria, and during it we entered in succession a great number of the valleys. Since that time, we have added to this survey a fortnight’s stay at two different times in the Alleau, an excur- sion in the Voralberg, and we have been so circumstanced as to continue similar observations in various places in Savoy and Switzerland. In order to become well acquainted with the al- Pine structure, sections throughout the whole chain were neces- sary ; and hence we made it our business to examine, at various times, nearly the whole of the passes that cross the range. Be- OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. c 34 On the Geology of the Austrian Alps. ginning on the west and proceeding to thé east, we crossed the Alps successively in the valley of the Rhine, in the Voralberg, in the Allgau, along the Lech, between Fussen and Nassereit ; between Seefeldt and Amergau ; between Seefeldt and Benedict- beuren; along the Inn, to the southern Tyrol over the Brenner ; partly to the south of the Chiemsee lake, in the valley of the Bavarian Traun, of the Saal, and the Achenbach ; along the Salza from Salzburg to Werfen; from Salzburg to Liezen ; from that place to St Gallen; from Steyer to Eisenerz ; from Waidhofen to Eisenerz; from Gaming by Neuhaus, Palfau, and Gams, to Eisenerz ; from Neuhaus to Mariazell ; from St Polten to Seewiesen by Maviazell; from St Polten to Baden and Vienna; and from Vienna to Gratz and to Croatia, through the Matzegebirge. The collections of rocks made at all these and. the following localities I have preserved, and will be delight- ed to explain them to geologists. In the southern Alps, we have visited in the same way all the southern border of the calcareous alpine chain from Berga- mo to Conegliano. We have ascended along the valleys of the Brenta, seen those of Fassa, of the Cordevole, of the Piave, of the Fella, and of the Drave. Lastly, we crossed the Leo- ben ; we visited Bleiberg, Raibel, Laibach, Idria, the valley be-: tween Idria and Lack, Trieste, and Fiume. We went over the greatest part of Istria to its southern termination. We entered into Dalmatia, crossed the Capellen-Gebirge from Buccari to Carlstadt, and, after an excursion farther east, we followed the - road from that town to Laibach. We may add, that, well in- formed of all the difficulties in classifying the Gossau deposite, we last year made a journey through the Austrian Alps, for the sole purpose of studying thoroughly all the well known localities where such rocks occur, and of establishing a reasonable classifi-. cation, and ‘describing each locality. After these journeys, con- tinued during nine years; for the study of the alpine limestone chain in Germany, we thought that we might, assisted by our friends, attempt to lay before the geological public the conclu- sions explained in this paper and elsewhere. In what relates to the difference of our opinion from that of Messrs Sedgwick and) Murchison, the public will now. be able: to judge; and, we trust, that they will ere long favour us with an answer, written with that calmness and spirit of concord which ought always to accompany scientific discussions. | ( 35) On the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. By Arruur ConnELL, Esq. F. R. S. E. Communicated by the Author. "Tuts mineral was first characterized, from its crystalline form, as a distinct species by Mr Brooke, who also gave it its pre- sent name *. : It would appear that, some years ago, a specimen of the mi- neral was sent by Dr Brewster to Berzelius, for the purpose of being analyzed; and that Berzelius wrote back in answer, that it had been already analyzed by Retzius, conformably to the formula = S* + 4A 8? + 8 Ag, and called by him Prehniti- form Stilbite+. This formula, or the corresponding chemical one, has been retained by Berzelius{; and I am not aware that any other statement respecting the ge OR of the mineral has been given to the public. The locality of the mineral ana- lyzed by Retzius is not stated. ‘The formula of Berzelius gives §, Silica; ©...’ ©. 87285 Alumina, . . . . 17-011 Soda, , Lame f oso oat 7764 Lia. eater nett y 872 99-932 In a former notice on this subject ||, I shewed, from an ex- amination of some pure crystals of Brewsterite from Strontian in Argyllshire, that it contained strontia and baryta, and no notable quantity of lime. I also shewed that it contained no alkali, and coneluded that the formula of Berzelius did not ap- ply to the mineral, at least when derived from the above loca- lity, unless the formula and composition could be accommodated to one another by the aid of the doctrine of replacement. It became a matter of some interest to establish by a regular * Edin. Phil. Journal, vol. vi. p. 112. + Edinb. Jour. of Science, vol. iv. p. 316. ~ Die Anwendung des Léthrohrs, 2te Auf. S. 168. § This,calculation is made by the atomic weights of Berzelius. All the subsequent calculations of formulze are made by those of Dr Thomson. || Edinb. New Phil. Jour. No. 16. p. 355. c2 36 Mr Connell on the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. analysis that the strontia occurs in the mineral as a silicate, and in such quantity as to constitute an essential constituent; be- cause that earth had not hitherto been found in nature, except as a sulphate, or carbonate *. The specimen of Brewsterite whicli was the subject of the following researches, consisted of a kind of concretion of the mineral, partly in crystals, and partly in an amorphous state. Previous to analysis, it was submitted, in the condition of frag- ments, to the action of water, acidulated with muriatic acid, for the purpose of removing any soluble foreign matter. 25:15 grains of the mineral, in the state of fragments, lost, by ignition, in a platinum crucible, and charcoal fire, 3°16 grains, equivalent to 12-584 per cent. — 48:34 grains, in impalpable powder, were f nocd over the spirit lamp, with about three times their weight of a mixture of 5 parts of carbonate of potassa and 4 parts of carbonate of soda, care being taken to employ carbonates free from any sulphate. ° The mass, after being softened. by water, was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, and the silica separated in the usual manner. The silica, after being ignited and. weighed, was dissolved in boiling potash-ley, and left a little residue, which appeared to be undecomposed mineral, and was subtracted from the quan- tity under analysis. | 7 The residual solution, separated from the silica, was precipi- tated by ammonia... From the precipitate thus,obtained, a little silica and oxide of iron were separated by the agency of muria- tic acid, and subsequently of caustic potash im excess. A quan- tity of alumina was then. got, by supersaturating the alkaline solution with muriatic acid, and precipitating by carbonate of ammonia. ‘The alumina was ignited, and weighed...) 9 « The liquid which had been precipitated by ammonia was concentrated by evaporation, and. carbonate of ammonia was added to it whilst hot. A. white precipitate fell, which, after being collected and washed, was dissolved in dilute nitric acid. The solution by evaporation gave a crystalline residue, showing “ Baryta, besides occurring in its usual-natural states, and as a silicate in some varieties of harmotome, occurs apparently in combination with oxide of manganese in some of the ores of that metal, as has been shewn by Kla~ proth and Dr Turner. : ents ee Mr Connell on the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. 37 chiefly small octahedrons, and mixed with some deliquescen matter. The deliquescent matter was taken‘ up by alcohol, which left the crystals undissolved. The alcoholic solution was de- canted, and converted to a watery solution, to which oxalate of ammonia was added. A white precipitate fell, and the whole was evaporated to dryness. The dry mass was then ignited, a little solution of carbonate of ammonia added, and heat again applied. Some carbonate of lime was thus got, — a trace of iron. The nitric eryutale left ty the alocied were now ignited in a silver crucible, to drive off the acid. The caustic residue was dissolved in very dilute muriatie acid. The muriatic solution was evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass ignited, and weighed. Redissolved in water, a little residue was left, the weight of which was subtracted from the ignited mass. ‘The solution by evaporation gave a mixture of long prismatic, and tabular crystals, having all the appearance of muriate of strontia and muriate of baryta. The former were taken up’ by hot al- cohol, to which a few drops of muriatic acid were added. The latter were left undissolved ; and after being separated from the alcoholic solution, and washed with alcohol, were ignited and weighed, and their weight subtracted from the joint weights of the ignited chlorides, by which means the amount of the chlo- ride of strontium was determined. The amount of the chlorides gave by computation that of the strontia and baryta respective- ly. From the small quantity of matter left undissolved on the solution of the chlorides in water, after their joint ignition, a little silica, and also a little carbonate of strontia, were inane which were both duly taken into account. On recrystallizing the chlorides from watery sslntion the salts obtained had. the crystalline form, and all the properties of muriate of strontia and muriate of baryta.. The former gave to flame a fine red colour, and the latter a slight greenish tinge. The solution of both afforded white precipitates with sulphuric acid. Another analysis of 47:37 grains of the mineral was executed in a manner not materially differing from the preceding process, the principal distinction being, that the proportions of the alka- 38 Mr Connell on the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. line earths were determined on a separate quantity of the mine- ral of 25°62 grains, a portion of them from the original quantity shaving been accidentally lost. The manner in which the analytic process was conducted af- forded sufficient evidence that the alkaline earths did not exist in the mineral in combination with sulphuric acid. But to as- certain with still greater precision whether the mineral contained any traces of sulphates, a little of it, in powder, was fused with carbonated alkalis, the mass treated with hot water, the solution deprived of silica and alumina by carbonate of ammonia, and saturated with muriatic acid. No precipitate was } then got with muriate of baryta. On treating a similar solution, to which ammonia had been added, to take off the excess of muriatic acid, with muriate of lime, and keeping it for a few days in a close vessel, some pre- cipitate which had formed seemed to be carbonate of lime, with traces perhaps of silica or alumina. ‘There was thus no evidence of phosphoric or fluoric acids. To ascertain whether the mineral contained any alkali, 33-11 grains in fine powder were strongly ignited with six times their weight of carbonate of baryta. The usual steps were taken to separate silica; and the earthy contents of the muriatic solution were thrown down by carbonate of ammonia, its action being aided by heat ; the whole evaporated to dryness; the residue re- peatedly redissolved; and new additions made of carbonate of ammonia. The muriate of ammonia was then driven off by heat. No trace of an alkaline chloride could be found. The two analyses which have been mentioned corresponded perfectly with one another, in respect of the nature of the con- stituents of the mineral; and, although in the one, some loss, and in the other, some excess, was got *, yet they did not differ essentially in the proportions of ‘the constituents in relation to one another. By taking a mean of the two analyses, the excess * The excess was, I believe, owing to the circumstance, that, in heating the mineral, after being reduced to powder, and before weighing, with the view of expelling any hygrometric moisture, the heat was raised a little too high, by which means, some of the chemically combined water was expelled. The loss in the other analysis, was partly owing to the circumstance that se- parate portions of the mineral were used in the course of it. Mr Connell on the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. 39 and loss are nearly neutralized, and we obtain nearly the same proportions of the constituents in relation to one another, as is afforded by either of the actual results. 'The mean of the twe analyses i is as follows :— Silica, . «. « sie. 53°666 Alumina, 17-492 Le er aa 8-325 Baryta, ep, era0t Loss Bimejrr 0 hl ettasl ot 29-346 Oxide of Iron,. -... 292 Water, - +» » + +, 12584 100-454 When we endeavour to ascertain in what atomic. proportions _these constituents are combined, we find that. the formula of Berzelius, in so far as respects the solid contents of the mine- ral, comes near its constitution, if we substitute. strontia and baryta for lime and soda. The relative proportions of water, however, afford a considerable obstacle to their accommodation. In the above analysis, it will be observed that the proportions of the baryta and strentia to one another, approach the ratio of 1 atom of the former to 2 of the latter. For, 9°75 [atom baryta] : 13 [2 atoms strontia] :: 65 : 8-666. —In one of my analyses, the proportions obtained bore almost exactly that ratio to one another. If we substitute strontia and baryta for lime and soda in Berzelius’ are we get i S4+4AS9°+8Aq; and if we multiply the wholg by 3, we get 2SrS? + BS + WAS + MAG If we calculate this latter formula, or the preceding one, taking Sr. 2 at. Stron. + at. Bar. B — 3 b we get 40 Mr Connell on the Chemical Constitution of Brewsterite. Which comes near ‘the preceding analysis, with the exception of the water. With respect to this constituent, I may observe, that, on igniting a portion of the mineral containing a larger proportion of crystals than the specimen analysed, I got 13-359 per cent.; so that, if nothing but crystals were analyzed, the proportion might be still greater, although it is not likely that it would beso great as shewn by Berzelius’ formula. If we could suppose that the mineral analyzed by Retzius really dif. fered from the Brewsterite from Strontian, only in lime and soda being replaced by strontia and baryta, this mineral would afford a good illustration of the doctrine of replacement.» — According to the results of my own researches, however, the formula which best expresses the constitution of ‘Brewsterite from Strontian, is Had adt side al +4AS9° 464g; which BivES sil tical Silicay st Te 54°58 Alumina; 2. 00% 17543 Strontia 4 Bitritiaet Sapibbs | weziy: Wier, iw ey 8 13-16 100: Or, if we suppose the proportion of the strontia and baryta to be 2 atoms of the former to 1 of the latter, the constitution will then be, 2 atoms bisilicate of strontia + 1 atom bisilicate of baryta + 12 atoms tersilicate of alumina + 6 atoms of water. The title of this mineral to be viewed as the first instance of strontia occurring as a silicate, seems to be established. _ 9 | A Series of Barometric Observations... By W. GALBRAITH, Esq-, A.M. Communicated: by the Author... | I 2uxc leave to communicate to you a few more barometric ob- servations, to which I alluded in.a former paper about two years ago. In that I calculated the height of Benlomond by a process depending on several tables which I had computed for the purpose, involving the dew-points,at.the two places of ob- Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometric Observations. 41 servation, and some other, minor. considerations, for purposes of extreme accuracy, as far as could by that method be obtained. Indeed: there is: no method; where great precision is required, that does not involve difficulties and sources of error in a greater or less degree. . The variable nature of terrestrial refraction, the distance of the objects observed from the situation of the instruments in trigonometrical surveying on a grand scale, as that of the British Islands by the Board of Ordnance, all tend to involve circumstances that produce error. The- barometric method is not, therefor | more liable to error than the geome- trical when performed trigonometrically, even with the best. in- ‘struments, whith are much more expensive, while the method of levelling, in the usual acceptation of the term, is seldom, prac- ticable for considerable heights. In the barometric method, the instruments are of moderate expense, especially the sym- piesometer ; and it will be seen, that, so far as my experience extends, the results derived from it are nearly of equal accu- racy with those of the best mountain barometers, while its cheap- ness and portability are additional recommendations. It ap- pears to me, however, that the sympiesometer requires rather more care in its use than the mountain barometer, on account of its being more rapidly su-ceptible of receiving impressions from a change of pressure from currents of air, from changes of ‘temperature, and even, I am not sure that it does not occasion- ally suffer changes difficult to be accounted for from photome- trical influence. All these circumstances require the observer . to bestow great care in the use of it, soas to prevent any irre- gular influence to affect it unequally during the time of obser- vation, on account of its extreme susceptibility. Though the mercurial barometer is a less suddenly susceptible instrument, yet the same care, nearly, must be employed when it is used, otherwise accurate results will not be obtained. Hasty obser- vations should never be made, except from necessity, or where great precision is not required. I have repeatedly found, that when the observations are made too hurriedly, little confidence can be placed in them. To procure the utmost accuracy, good weather should be chosen, when the barometer is steady; two barometers should be used, one at the top of the height to be measured, and the other at the bottom, and the observations 42 Mr W. Galbraith’s Baromeffic Observations. should be made at the same time, either by signal, or by watches set together at times previously agreed upon. The instruments should be protected from the sun, wind, and rain, or snow, in a tent, if circumstances and convenience permit, and they should be properly adjusted before making any observations. . From my experience, I am of opinion, that the attached and detached thermometers, in circumstances that permit, should be allowed to come to the same temperature before any observa- tions from which computations are to be made, should be re- gistered, though it would be right to note them, to know whether the barometer attained a state tolerably stationary. This ap- pears to me necessary, for circumstances have occurred which I could not explain on any other principle than that, though the attached thermometer was nearly the same as the detached, yet I was persuaded that the comparatively large mass of mercury in the barometer tube and basin which communicated with it, had not attained the same temperature, which, of course, caused small variations in the height of the column, difficult to be accounted for on any other principle. I may also remark, that when different barometers are em- ployed, they should be carefully compared, to obtain their in- dex errors, both at the commencement and termination of the operations, to detect any alterations which might. possibly have taken place. On repeating the operations on different days, it would be useful for the observers to change their stations alter- nately from the top to the bottom. Indeed other precautions will occur to the experienced observer which the circumstances of the case and the nature of the situation seem to demand. It sometimes happens, that the observer would think it. con- venient to obtain the height of objects when he has not access to tables or books, and in this case the sympiesometer would be most convenient, since the instrument performs the whole operation itself, with the exception of a simple multiplica- tion. On the instruments now made, a small table is engraved, from which the factor answering to the sum of the tem- peratures at the top and bottom is immediately taken, by which the approximate height from the sliding scale is to say multi- plied to produce the true height. | I shall endeavour here to investigate an easy formula, which Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometric Observations. 43 will be readily recollected, to procure the same advantage nearly from the mercurial barometer, and then make a comparison of the results derived from these two instruments, from heights, where I have had an opportunity of employing them ;—the first example, where they were used at different times,—the other, where they were used conjointly, and read simultaneous- ly. tht Since heights determined geometrically, are proportional to the differences of the logarithms of the altitudes of the mercu- rial columns, a formula may be derived from the usual series, for the computation of logarithms, thus :— Let B be the altitude of the mercury at the lower station, and 6 that at the upper; then, 3 mot 3 Log. B — log. b = 2M {7—=? 4 z Ras) tkeh.. (1) To apply this to the purpose required here, it will be necessary to obtain a constant factor, by which the difference of the log- arithms must be multiplied, to give the heights in some known measure, such as English fathoms, or rather feet, which are now generally preferred. ‘This number, from the observations of-Ramond and the experiments of Biot, is 60155 English feet at the freezing point, or 32° of Fahrenheit’s scale, and 2M is 086858896, or twice the logarithmetic modulus; conse- quently 60,155 x 086858896 = 52,250, the constant co-effi- cient at the freezing point. In this country, as Fahrenhcit’s thermometer is very gene- rally used, it would therefore be more simple, if reduced to zero of its scale. Now, the expansion or contraction of air in its ordinary state, for 1° of Fahrenheit, is about 0-0024, whence 52250 x 00024 x 32 = 4013. Hence 52250 — 4013 = 48237, the co-efficient at zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. In practice, the mean of the temperatures of the air at the top and bottom is employed, wherefore, the result derived from the logarithmic series must be multiplied by the factor depend- ing upon the product of the mean temperature, and the varia- tion of the bulk of air for 1° increased by unity; or it must be multiplied by 1 + 0-0024 (4 id )=+ 0-0012 (t+ #), being 44 Mr W. Galbraith’s Baromet¥ic Observations. the temperature at the bottom, and ¢ that at the top; where- fore, 48237 { 1 + 00012 (¢ +7’) = 48237 + 58 (¢+ 7’). Or, to render the numbers more easily recollected, without much affecting the accuracy of the result, if H be the height required, f= [iso +0 o} zh (Bt) 4 so} This is correct only on the supposition that B and 6 are re- duced by calculation, or approximate tables, to the same tem-_ perature. But it is known from experience, that the height varies about 3 feet for every degree of difference of the attached thermometers at top and bottom. Now, if + denote the tem- perature of the attached thermometer at the bottom, and 7’ that at the top, then —3 (r— +’) must be the correction which is to be subtracted, when 7 is greater than «’, otherwise added. Hence, finally, | Fhe Fanooos-aoteanys (sb a +3(G53 a ” 4.&c.}-8(r—1') .».(B). The term = >) will always be very small, except in 3 (iq great heights, and need seldom be attended to, as the error for heights of about 5,000 feet, it will be nearly z,'55 of the whole. 10,060 Seer eee eee ee er eee eee ereeer a0 eeeee @eeoceeeeee This term. may therefore be safely rejected for any height usually measured barometrically ; whence formula (B) becomes H= {48000 + 60.¢ 4 ey} B= 7 — 8 —#)..-. viii se assist the memory, if 48000 + 60 (¢ + #’) be denoted by ¢, ° by. d, and —3(*—+7) by e, formula (C) becomes HL =.-6 d — Cu. ccccceces (c). The whole of the numerical co-efficients are multiples of the number 3, the Jast of them; the second is twenty times the last, or 20 x 3 = 60; and the first is eight hundred times the second, or 800 x 60 = 48000, which is 16000 times the last, or B— B+ 6 Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometric Obser ditions. 45 16000 x 3 = 48000; which will afford some facility in recover- ing them when indistinctly remembered *. We shall now proceed to the application of this formula. Exampete I. To determine the height of Allermuir, one of the Pentland Hills, the following mean of a number of observations, with ex- celient barometers, were taken after the manner of those em- ployed to obtain the height of Benlomond, given in a former Number of this Journal. — The observations were made on the Calton Hill, of known height, 355 feet, with the Observatory barometer, by Mr Tho- mas Henderson, and on the summit of Allermuir, by myself, on the 26th of July 1828. Inches. 29.549 y io — 65°. 4 28.187 7 = 52 4 bd | La Ill 1.362 r—7 = 13.0 110..0 57.736 3 -- 39 6600 Constant Ccdcrccdeccdedsccccccesooes 48000 Correct co-efficient .........cccccsceccevcrsseccees .. 54600 Iai ROW WET oe Vis oavccncus ubabecconesebhonaeasaee +. | 269-1 BS FB pies c con enon vases sce ovep eb eee vevencens 57.736 ) 74365 ( 1288 57736 — 39 * It may be observed, that the number 60 is ten times the number of working days in a week, that the number 48000 is eight hundred times 60, and —3 is the twentieth part of 60, so that the whole of the co-efficients are derived from one number (6), the number of work days in a week, and by that means can hardly be forgotten. 46 Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometric Observations. By introducing a more refined calculation with logarithms, the height would have been about 10 or 12 feet more, though it is obtained at considerable risk of error, from errors either in the ordinary tables, or oversights in the steps of the calculation, which to unpractised persons frequently occur; whereas the — foregoing requires only a very simple arithmetical computation, where no figure of real utility is suppressed, which is fre- quently done, to make the operation look simpler than it real- ly is. Exampte II. On the 12th of September 1829, the following observations were made with Mr Adie’s sympiesometer. At Edinburgh, 270 feet above the sea. S’ = 272 fathoms, and ¢ = 57°-7 Fahrenheit ; At the top of Allermuir, on the same day, S = 490 fathoms, and # = 50°3 Fahrenheit ; Hence S—S’ = 490 — 272 = 218 fathoms ; And ¢t + ¢ = 57-7 + 50°°3 = 108°, which, from the engraved scale on the instrument, gives the factor m = 1-053; Whence 218 x 1:053 = 229°5 fathoms, or 1377 feet. If to this, 2'70 feet be added, for the height of the lower sta- tion, at Edinburgh, above the sea, we shall have 1647 feet for the height of Allermuir, above mean-tide at Leith. This ex- ceeds the former by about 43 feet, which must be partly ascribed to the unfavourable state of the weather at the time, and partly to a small error in the foregoing formula. On the whole, I consider the mean of these results, or 1625 feet, to be nearly the true height, as I have found it from other observa- tions. - Exampte III. In the month of August 1830, with a mountain-barometer of the best construction, the following. observations. were made at Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometric Observations. 4G Fort-William, and on the top of Ben Nevis, to determine its height above the sea. & = 25.466 T B—b = 4534 T—7r = 1 B+ = 55.466 3 oil . cachdns ioede ws widies Eade deal de 55.466 ) 241870 ( 4360.9 221864 © — 41.4 + 50.8 20006 16640 4370.3 = H 3376 3327 49 49 ExameE.e LY, The same by the sympiesometer. S’ = 155 fath. ¢ = 54 S = 858 fath. = 38 ee S—S’ = 703 fath. t+ ¢’ — 92 and m — 1:033. Whence 703 x 1-033 x 6 ....... — 4357 feet. Correction for height above ' the sea, at Fort-William, \ eal ae Height of Ben Nevis.............. = 4408 feet above the sea. Former height .onssneadsbieeciseces = 4370 Difference......... 38 A small quantity in so considerable a height, considering: the simplicity of the last method. : 48 Mr W. Galbraith’s Barometrtc Observations. As the weather was unfavourable, and the barometer change- able, with only one observer, who took the observations, first, at the bottom in the morning, then at the top about mid-day, and again at the bottom in the evening,—of which the mean of the first and last was reckoned the true height of the mercurial column at the bottom, there might have been some error arising from this cause. As the barometer continued to rise somewhat gradually, the error from this source must likely be small. At all events, whatever error attends the use of the one instrument likewise affects the other, since they accord so well when used together with equal care. I have likewise calculated the height of Ben Nevis more ri- gorously by employing logarithms, and using the. dew-points, besides other refinements, which would increase the height to about 4430 feet. As this exceeds all the heights I have ever met with attributed to it by at least 50 feet, I cannot say what confidence is to be placed in it, more especially, as I have been informed the Ordnance Surveyors make it only about 4360 feet, or 70 feet less. . From the great distances of their stations, a very slight error in the angle of elevation, arising from the variable nature of terrestrial refraction, will produce a consider- able error in their results in feet. Indeed, accordingito Mr B. — Bevan’s paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Part I., there are errors in the altitudes of some of the stations in England, of from 50 to 100 feet, in heights of between 700 and 900 feet! In this case I cannot say what confidence may be placed in that of Ben Nevis, though, in our measurement of Benlomond, the correspondence was as close as could be desired. From the present measurements, too, it appears that the sympiesometer is an instrument which, when in good order, | may be confidently trusted as giving results, when carefully used, very near the truth. The formula now investigated, ap- pears to give results rather too small by about one-hundredth of the whole, and this is the reason why those by the sympieso- — meter seem to be, on comparison, too great. If one-hundredth of the height by the formula be added to itself, the final result would agree very closely with the af ae Spiny eI 54. Sours Briner, Epinsureu. 2 (49) On the Luaury of the Romans. ‘Tux Roman writers who flourished during the Republic say little about Natural History. It is more treated of by the wri- ters under the Empire. But the works they have left us on such subjects contain few original remarks, and are little else than compilations, a circumstance which must appear very strange, since no nation had ever greater opportunities of observing. In the earliest ages of the republic, besides that the Roman institutions were in general adverse to every kind of study, the simplicity of manners that prevailed was especially unfavourable to the progress of natural history, a science of luxury, expen- sive, and not to be carried on without many previous arrange- ments. Lie Indeed the relations among the beings that form the subject of natural history, cannot be established without bringing toge- ther a great number. Much assistance is therefore derived from commerce, drawing, as it does, towards a central point, the productions of foreign countries. Now, the Romans, during a very long period were not commercial. By the first treaty made with the Carthaginians, they bound themselves not to sail beyond the strait that separates Sicily from Africa. Still later, in the year of Rome 405, they gave up altogether their trade with Sardinia, and with the coast of Africa. Commerce was checked, not through ignorance, but from the policy of their government, in order to withstand the introduc- tion of luxury. Rome had no silver money till the 472d year from the foundation of the city; 268 years before Christ. At .— the date of the last Macedonian War, a senator was degraded from his rank for having ten pounds of silver plate. Gold plate was seen for the first time at the end of this war, in the triumph of Paulus Aimilius. But luxury was the speedy con- sequence of victory, and the luxury of individuals was carried to the utmost extravagance. » We shall notice it in so far as re- gards natural history. The luxury of the table, for example, caused to be imported into Rome from foreign countries a multitude of animals; of OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. D 50 On the Luxury of the Romans. which several had no other recommendation but rarity, and be- ing excessively dear. The luxury of dress also is interesting, with respect to pre- cious stones and dyes. That of buildings, on account of the marbles brought from different parts of Italy, from Greece, and even from Gaul. And the luxury of furniture is a from the valuable woods employed. Of the Luxury of the Table. Quadrupeds.—During the second Punic War, Fulvius Hir- pinus devised the mode of retaining quadrupeds in parks. ‘These parks were named Leporaria, because three sorts of hares were reared in them, the common.hare, the original Spanish rabbit, and the variegated or alpine hare, a species now almost entirely destroyed. In lke manner, nearly all the native animals of our forests were bred in these parks, besides the wild sheep and the moufion. ‘These animals were almost domesticated, and were taught te unite at a signal. One day,.when Hortensius was entertaining his friends at dinner in one of his parks, at the sound of a trumpet, stags, goats, and wild boars were seen run- ning up, and gathered round his tent, to the no small dismay of. some of the guests. Servius Rullus was the first who had a whole boar served on his table.. Anthony, during his triumvi-~ rate, displayed eight at one feast. 'The Romans considered as a great delicacy the grey dormouse, a little animal that dwells in the woods, and in the holes of oak trees.. ‘They reared them in enclosures, and lodged them in jars.of earthen-ware, of a par- ticular form, fattening them with worms and chesnuts. | Birds:—Lenius Strabo of Brundusium invented aviaries for confining such birds, destined for the table, as could not be k within the walls of a poultry-yard. ‘It is he, says Pliny, that: taught us to imprison animals whose ‘abode is the sky. Alex.’ ander had introduced peacocks into Greece, where they were ré=" garded.only as objects of curiosity. Hortensius was the first who: had one served at a’ banquet, when he was pean to the: office of augur. 5 These birds soon multiplied, and Ptolemy Phocion was asto- nished at the great number of them he found in Rome. Aufi- dius Lucro made about L. 600 a-year by fattening peacocks. On the Luxury of the Table. “51 _ ‘The peacock was a constant ‘dish at all the great entertainments. It was the truffied turkey of those days. Hirtius Pansa; who had. the ill luck to give a fensk where this indispensable article did not appear, was reckoned a niggard, a man without taste, and was ever after:scorned by delicate feed- ers. In those aviaries thrushes and pigeons were bred. — It seems, too, there ‘were then the same fancies as there are at-pre- sent. Certain varieties were much sought after. Varro relates that a couple of pigeons brought 2000 sesterces, about £19 of our money. Sempronius Lucius: first ‘had: served on his. table young storks. Geese were crammed in the same manner as now to enlarge their livers; but it’ was a dish too easily obtained, and ‘soon those who wished to distinguish themselves invented new sorts of meat. They dressed the brains of ostriches, and the tongues of flamingos. Wild geese were sent for from Phry- gia; cranes from Melos; and. pheasants from Colchis. Fishes. —As to fish, luxury went even farther than in birds and quadrupeds. - At one period of the republic, a man eating a fish would have been thought shamefully dainty. But the severity of mamners disappeared on the introduction of riches; and Cato coniplains, that in his time, a fish sold as dear as an ox. Yet, even then, Gallonius was publicly accused in the senate, and was nearly deprived of his rank, on account of the luxury of his' table, having had sturgeons on it. The inventor of fish- ponds was Lucinius Murcna, and thence came the surname which was afterwards borne by this family. | Hortensius followed his example, and even went beyond it. Very soon, it was not enough to have fresh-water fish, for salt- water ponds were formed, in which were bred sea-trouts, soles, John Dories, and shell-fish of different kinds. Lucullus, in or- der to let in sea-water to one of his preserves, had a mountain cut through, and from this extravagance was deservedly called Xerxes Togatus. At his death there were so many fish in his ponds, that Cato of Utica, who was trustee on the succession, having ordered them to be sold, received for them the sum of £32,000 Sterling: The sale of the fish-ponds of Irrius yielded the same price. Czesar wishing on a particular occa- sion to give a feast to the Roman people, applied to this Irrius: for some lampreys. Irrius refused to sell any, but, according D 2 52 On the Luxury of the Romans. to Pliny, agreed.to lend him six thousand. Varro says only two thousand. The object then was, who should be most absurd about lampreys. Hortensius had some of which he was more careful than of his slaves, and not for the purpose of eating them. Those served on his table were bought in the market. He is said to have wept on the death of one of these fish. Crassus, the orator, in a like case, went farther,—he put on mourning. . His colleague Domitius chid him for it in the senate; but all this was nothing compared to the deeds of Ve- dius Pollio. He more than once threw in living men to be de- voured by his lampreys. Other fish were equally the objects of a prodigality of whieh we can hardly form a conception. 'The accipenser was gene- rally sold for more than a thousand drachme.. It was never set on the table without a flourish of trumpets. 'The accipenser was not, as it would seem, the ordinary sturgeon, but the ster- let, a small species with a pointed snout, caught in the rivers that fall into the Black Sea. The mullet, or roach of Pro. vence, called in Paris the swn-mullet, was also sold excessively dear. A mullet weighing 4 pounds fetched £37; another £62. Three together, in the reign of Tiberius, were sold so high as £250. ‘These fish used even to be brought alive to the dining-room, by canals filled with salt-water, which passed under the table. The fact is undoubted, and is attested by the invectives of Seneca. | Snails and Oysters. ~Singilar attention was likewise paid to snails. The same Fulvius Hirpinus, who had thought of parks for quadrupeds, contrived parks for them too. As snails could not be retained by inclosures, the places in which they were kept were surrounded with water. Jars of earthen-ware were set for them, to retire into, and they were fattened with mulled wine and flour. Pliny says there were some of the weight of 25 lb. Those that grew to this size were certainly not Italian’ snails. But we know that snails were likewise brought from ~~ countries, as Africa and Illyria. The man who first shewed the way'of making yet ie was Sergius Aurata. He, like Licinius, derived his surname from a fish, the John Dory. The preserver of the Lucrine : 1 ; On the Luxury in Dress, Furniture, &c. 53 Lake had for a long time the character of producing the best oysters. Next to them were those of Brundusium. At last re- finement was carried farther; and the oysters of Brundusium were taken to be parked in the Lucrine Lake. . Fruits.—It appears that fruits were less sought after then than they have been since. The only new fruit introduced at. this time was the cherry, which Lucullus brought from Cera- sus, a town in Asia Minor, sixty-nine years before Christ. Perfumes and Dress.—The luxury in perfwmes was beyond measure, and drew to Rome the most costly aromatics of the East. The luxury of dress was equally great, and made known purple, pearls, and precious stones. At one time there was quite a rage for opals; and one individual, rather let himself be prosecuted, than give up to Sylla a very fine one the dicta- tor desired to have. Furniture-—The dominion of fashion extended equally to furniture, and raised the value of certain kinds of wood to an enormous amount. . For a while the citrus was preferred. The tree thus named was not the citrus of Theophrastus, the orange- tree of our time; but seems to have been a species of Thuya, brought from Cyrenaica. ‘They made use not only of the trunk, but of some knots that grew out near the root. When such pieces could be got of a large size, they were sold excessively dear. Ce- thegus paid for a table 1,400,000 sesterces, about £11,000. Even Seneca, with all his outcry against luxury, had some tables that costa most exorbitant sum. ‘These pieces were distinguished by their colour, and by the way they were veined. Each va- riety had a different name. Ebony also was employed, a kind of wood first introduced into Italy by Pompey, after his victo- - vies over the pirates. Building.—A. great deal of marble was used in building. It was brought from the most distant countries, and there were even several of which the quarries are now lost. Thus the marbles denoted by the names of vert antique and rouge an- tique, are so termed because they are found: only in ancient structures. It was in searching for such fragments among some ruins that Pompeii was discovered. -. Luxury of the Empire.—If from the luxury of individuals we turn to the luxury displayed in public festivals, we find 54 _» On the Luxury of the Romans: still greater matter of astonishment.’ One would hardly venture to repeat what is stated in ancient writers, yet there appears no ground for supposing that they exaggerated, seeing how closely their accounts agree; when we reflect, too, that they’ were nearly all eye-witnessesof what they relate, and. that they would nothave attempted to bring forward assertions opposed to the knowledge of all their contemporaries. Messrs Beckman, Mongez, and Cuvier, have made very extensive inquiries about the dnimals exhibited or slain in the circus. Such inquiries ought not to: be regarded as merely curious. “In fact, it is of importance to the naturalist, and for several -reasons, to know the date of the first appearance of these animals, the countries of which they were natives, and their numbers. For example, without ascertaining these points, a naturalist would often be apt to mistake the bones of foreign quadrupeds for true: fossil remains, and thus to mistake transported soil for regular forma- tions. | | “are Curius Dentatus first shewed foreign animals at Rome in the year 273 before Christ. It will be recollected, that elephants were first brought to Greece during the conquests of Alexander: Aristotle saw them, and wrote about them a great deal better than Buffon has since done. These elephants, and some others sent afterwards, came into the possession of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had taken them from Demetrius Poliorcetes: Pyrrhus having been himself defeated: by the Romans, four of his war-elephants fell into the power of the conquerors. These elephants, after having been led in the triumphal procession of Curius, were slain before the people. Four-and-twenty years later; Metellus, having gained a great victory over the Cartha- ginians, captured a hundred and forty-two elephants, which - were all slain with arrows in the circus. It was evidently: good policy, in the time of Curius Dentatus, to put to death some of these animals, in order to lessen the fear the sight of them had at first produced. ‘There were not*the same reasons for the second massacre; but, without doubt, the Romans had no de- sire to introduce elephants into their armies, and thus oblige themselves to alter tactics of which they had proved the excel: lence. As little were they inclined to make a present of these elephants. to any of the kings their allies, from an apprehension Displays of Wild Beasts in the Amphitheatre. 55 of. adding too much to: their force. Sixty-six years after the triumph. of Metellus, in the year before Christ 186, Marcus Fulvius,: to absolve himself from a vow he had made in the AXtolian war, exhibited panthers and lions. These animals might have come from Africa; but perhaps he had obtained them from Asia Minor, where, at this time, some were still to be found. .The people getting a taste for these shows, Scipio Nasica and Publius Lentulus gave them a sight of several ele- phants, forty bears, and fifty-three panthers. Quintus Sczevola had several. lions fighting against men. Sylla had more tian a hundred male lions. In the year 58. before Christ, A‘ milius Scaurus, during his zedileship, distinguished himself not only by the number of animals he brought out, but also by presenting several that had never before been seen in Rome. In these spectacles the first hippopotamus appeared. There were also five live crocodiles, five hundred panthers, and, more strange still, the bones’ of the animal to which, it was said, Andro- meda had been exposed. These bones had been brought from the town of Joppa (Jaffa), on the coast of Palestine. - There were among them vertebrae a foot and a half long, and a bone not. under six-and-thirty feet in length, probably the un- der jaw of a whale. In the year 55 before Christ, Pompey, at the inauguration of his theatre, displayed a lynx, a cephus, from Ethiopia (a species of ape), a one-horned ‘rhinoceros, twenty elephants fighting with men, four hundred and ten pan.. thers, and six hundred lions, whereof three hundred and fifteen had manes. All the sovereigns of ‘Europe together could. not now produce such a number. . Cicero, who was present at these games, speaks of them with great disdain, and says the people at last took pity.on the elephants.. In the 48th year before Christ, Anthony exhibited lions harnessed to a chariot ; it was the first time these animals had been seen so employed, but they were not the first that. had been tamed. A Carthaginian, named Hanno, had a lion that followed him through that city dike a dog. His trouble was ill rewarded, for his countrymen banished him, judging that a man who had been able to subdue _a ferocicus beast, must have been gifted with some secret power by, which he might perhaps have overcome themselves. In the year 46 before Christ, Caesar put forth, in an amphi- 56 On the Luxury of the Romans. theatre covered over with a purple awning, four hundred maned lions, several wild bulls fighting with men, and twenty elephants which were attacked by five hundred infantry.. On the evening of his triumph, he returned home preceded by elephants carry- ing torches. We may imagine the unbounded opulence of the men who could afford such spectacles—the eagerness of allied kings to gratify them—the crowds of human beings employed in obtain- ing the animals exhibited to the people! It is not less astonish- ing that it was possible to collect such a multitude of large ani- mals and beasts of prey. Yet in this kind of munificence the great Romans of the re- public were afterwards outdone by the emperors. From an inscription, in honour of Augustus, found at Ancyra, we learn that this prince caused three thousand five hundred wild beasts to be slain before the people. On one occasion he had water brought into the circus of Flaminius, and shewed thirty-six live crocodiles torn to pieces by other savage animals. Two hundred and sixty-eight lions were killed at this entertainment. ‘There was besides, a serpent fifty cubits long, a python from Africa, and a royal tiger confined in a cage, the first that had been seen in Rome. Augustus, before he became emperor, at his triumph over Cleopatra, had a reindeer and a hippopotamus slain in the circus. Germanicus, at his triumph over the Ger- mans, brought out elephants that had been taught to dance. Caligula gave four hundred bears and four hundred panthers to be killed. Claudius, at the dedication of the Pantheon, dis- played four live royal tigers. A. mosaic pavement, which has lasted till our time, represents these animals of their natural size. ‘The same emperor, having been informed that a whale was stranded in the harbour of Ostia, repaired thither, and en- gaged the monster with his galleys. ‘The animal was probably a large species of dolphin, the orca. Galba shewed an elephant that went up on a tight rope to the summit of the theatre, with a Roman horseman on his back. These elephants were in- structed when they were young, for they were born in Rome. A®lian says so positively, in speaking of the elephants of Ger- manicus. Mr Corse Scott has shewn, in opposition to the opi- nion of Buffon, that elephants, by taking certain precautions, Extraordinary Exhibitions in the Circus. 57 will breed in a state of domestication. But the fact was known in Italy from the time of Columella. . _ This lavish expenditure continued during the four first cen- turies of the Roman empire. ‘Titus, at the dedication of his baths, placed in the circus nine thousand animals, and exhibit- ed cranes fighting together. Domitian gave hunts by torch- light, where the two-horned rhinoceros appeared,—an animal with which Sparrman has made us acquainted only within the last sixty years, though it is engraved on the medals of Domi- tian: In these games a woman fought with a lion. An ele- phant, after having trampled to death a bull, went and knelt to the emperor; a royal tiger killed a lion; and wild cattle dragged chariots. Martial has occupied a whole book with the description of the games of Domitian. In his epigrams natural- ists will find many curious hints. Trajan, after his victory over Deceballus, king of Parthia, gave entertainments that lasted three-and-twenty days. Accord- ing to Dio Cassius, eleven thousand animals perished at them. But the accounts of historians are much less interesting, than a mosaic, executed by order of that emperor. In this valuable fragment, which was discovered at Palestrina, the ancient Prae- neste, the animals of Egypt and Ethiopia are figured with the names under each of them. 'The lower part represents the inundation of the Nile. The forms of the ibis, the crocodile, and the hippopotamus, are very exactly given. But the hippo- potamus has been very ill described by the Roman naturalists, who have only copied from Herodotus. On the upper part of the mosaic there appear among the mountains of Ethiopia the giraffe, under the name of mabis; apes, and various reptiles; in all thirty animals, easily recognised, and whose nomencla- ture is thus determined. 145308 Antoninus, the successor of Adrian, conforming to the esta- blished usage, likewise exhibited games. He had crocodiles, hippopotamuses, strepsiceroses (antelopes), and hyzenas different from those described by Agatarchis. Marcus Aurelius abhorred such spectacles, but his son Com- modus resumed them with fury; with his own hand he slew a — tiger, a hippopotamus, and an elephant. THe sent into the cir- cus a great number of ostriches, and as they ran about cut off 58 On the Luaury of the Romans. their heads with crescent-shaped blades, fixed on the points of arrows. Herodian, who relates the fact, says, that the birds, after being decapitated, ran about for some time. The experi- ment has been successfully repeated on ducks. ‘Septimius Se- verus, in the tenth year of his reign, at the rejoicings; on the marriage of Caracalla, made four hundred animals come out of a machine, and among them some wild asses and bisons. At the marriage of Heliogabalus, there were chariots drawn by all kinds of wild beasts. The most expensive and most curious assemblages of animals were those of the Gordians. The first emperor of this name in one day exposed to view a thousand panthers. Probus, one of their successors, had trees planted in the circus. More thania thousand ostriches, and a countless throng of various panies were seen running about in this artificial forest. So long as the Roman empire existed in the west, inliai dis- plays were continued. In spite of the prohibitions of Constan- tine, there were some even under Christian emperors.. Theo- dosius gave fights of animals in the circus ; and Justinian himself exhibited in the amphitheatre twenty lions and thirty panthers. : Such sights, repeated without interruption for more ‘than four hundred. years, must have afforded the Roman naturalists opportunities of) making: numerous observations on the forms, habits, and interior organization of foreign animals; yet science was little improved by their labours. It seems, that the animals being once killed, nobody derived any further benefit from their slaughter. The proof is,.that all the writers of the first, second, and third centuries of the Christian era, who have treated “of such animals, have borrowed every thing they have said about them from Greek authors who lived before the Roman conquest. Pliny himself is but a compiler—F rom a Lecture delivered by Baron Cuvier. | a (59>) An Account of a Peculiarity not hitherto described. in the Ankle, or Hock-joint of the Horse ; with Remarks on the Structure of the Vertebre in the Species of Whale, entitled Delphinus Diodon*. By Rozsert J. Graves, M. D., M1 R. TA, King’s Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, Honorary Member of the Royal Medical Society of Berlin, of the Me- dical Association of Hamburgh, &c. &c. Berxe engaged in the dissection of the nerieoine on examining the hock-joint, I found that any effort to flex or bend the limb at that joint, was counteracted by a considerable’ resistance, which continued until the limb was bent to a certain extent ; after which, suddenly and without the aid of any external force, it attained to its extreme degree of flexion. In attempting to restore the extended position of the limb, I found that a similar impediment existed to its extension, until the same point was passed, when. the limb suddenly, as it were, snapped into its ex- treme degree of extension at this joint. At first I conceived that this phenomenon depended on the tendons of the flexor and extensor muscles of this joint; but on removing all these muscles and their tendons, it was not dimi- nished, and it therefore became clear that it depended on some peculiar mechanism within the joint itself. Before I enter into the details of this mechanism, it is neces- sary to remark, that it is evidently connected with the power this animal possesses, of sleeping standing, for it serves the purpose — of keeping the hock-joint in the extended position, so far as to counteract the oscillations of the body, without the aid of mus- cular exertion; and in this respect it resembles the provision made to effect a similar purpose in certain birds, as the stork, and some others of the grallz, which sleep standing on one foot. It will appear, also, in the sequel, that not only is the effect produced the same,. but the mechanism isin many respects «si- milar, if the account given by Cuvier, and also by Dr. Ma- cartney, in Rees’ Cyclopedia, article Birds, be correct. * Read 5th July 1830, before Royal Irish Academy, and just published in the Memoirs. 4 60 Dr Graves on a Peculiarity in Sheep and cows are not provided with ankle-joints of a simi- lar structure, and it is well known that these animals do not possess the power of sleeping standing. Another circumstance which adds additional interest to this peculiarity of structure, is, that it may possibly be connected with the disease termed String-halt, in which the limb is at each step suddenly flexed, to a degree far beyond that required in ordinary progression. Whether this is owing to a sudden and jerking flexion of the whole limb, or to flexion of the hock-joint alone, I have had no opportunity lately of determining. If the latter be the case, it is probably connected with the structure of the hock-joint, which I am about to describe. It may be right to observe, that not even a probable conjecture has been advanced, con- cerning the nature and cause of string-halt, a disease to which the sheep and cow are not subject, and we have already observ- ed, that in these animals the structure of this joint presents no- thing remarkable. | The hock-joint is a good example of what is termed the hinge-like articulation, and is formed between the tibia and as- tragalus, which latter bone presents an articulating surface, with a nearly semicircular outline, and divided into two ridges, including between them a deep fossa. The tibia is furnished with depressions which ride upon the ridges of the astragalus, and has anterior and posterior projections, which, moving in the fossa, are received into corresponding depressions in the astra- galus, at the moment the limb arrives at the greatest degree either of flexion or of extension. The shape of the surfaces of the astragalus concerned. in the articulation, is not that.of a given circle throughout, for to- wards either extremity, the descent is more rapid, or, in other - words, answers to an are of a smaller circle. Hence, when one of the projections of the tibia has arrived at its corresponding cavity in the astragalus, which happens when the limb is either completely flexed or completely extended, the rapid curve of the articulating surface presents a considerable obstruction to change of position. ‘Thus, the form of the articulating surfaces, in itself, to a certain degree, explains the phenomenon ; but its chief cause is to be found in the disposition and arrangement of the ligaments. the Ankle or Hock-joint of the Horse. - oi ' The external malleolus of the tibia is divided by a deep groove, for the passage of a tendon, into an anterior and poste- rior tubercle ; from the latter of which, and close to the edge of the articulating surface, arises a streng and broad ligament, that is inserted into the os calcis. Under this lies another liga- ment, which, arising from the anterior tubercle, is also inserted into the os calcis. It is to be observed, that the origin of the latter is anterior to that of the former, but its insertion poste- rior, so that these lateral ligaments cross each other in the form of an x. The external articulating protuberance of the astra- galus on which the tibia revolves, has, as has been already stated, a nearly circular outline, and the attachments of the li- gaments just described, are at points on the outside of the os calcis, which would lie nearly in the circumference of that cir- cle, were it continued from. the articulating surface; so that each of these ligaments has one of its extremities fixed in a cer~ tain point of the circumference, while its opposite extremity re- volves during the motion of the joint, nearly in the circumfe- rence of the same circle. This observation applies likewise to the two lateral ligaments on the inner side of the joint, which have nearly the same relation to each other, and to the general contour of the joint, as that just described ; so it is obvious, that during the rotation of the joint, as the origins of these liga- ments move along the same circumference in which their attach- ments are fixed, the ligaments will be most stretched when they correspond to diameters of that circle. : Now it is so'arranged that this happens at the same time for all, and consequently the ligaments on each side correspond not merely as to direction, but as to the point of time they become most stretched, which is nearly at the moment that the joint has no tendency to move either way, and at that moment, it is to be observed, that although the ligaments are most tense, and of course react on their points of attachment with greatest ferce, yet this produces no motion, as the force is exerted in a direc- tion perpendicular to the circumference ; but as soon as the tibia is moved beyond this point of inaction for the ligaments, the latter; no longer representing diameters, by their contractile force evidently tend toaccelerate the motion ; and as they all act in the same direction, and are assisted by the shape of the aru- ° 62 Dr Graves on the Structure of’ culating ‘surfaces, a’ sudden motion of flexion or extension is -thus' produced.’ . The’ preceding explanation supposes’ the” ligaments of this joint to possess, contrary to the nature of ligaments in general, -a certain degree of ’clasticity, which was evidently the case in all, but particularly in the most deep-seated of those on’ the in- ner side of the joint, which, therefore, appears most concerned in producing the ~— motion, whether of flexion or exten- sion. : In the autumn of 1829, two of the species of whale called Delphinus diodon, by Hunter, Hyperoodon, by La-Cepede, and -Cetodiodon, by Dr Jacob, were captured near Dublin, one of which, measuring about sixteen feet in length, I procured for the purpose of preparing its skeleton. After the spinal column had undergone maceration for a few days, I found that the intervertebral substance could be easily detached from the bodies of the vertebrae, and that it carried with it, firmly attached to each of its extremities, a flat circular bone; about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and exactly cor- responding in the extent and shape of its surface, to the sur- face of the body of the vertebra, from which it had been io rated. The ‘separation was effected with facility, and took ‘place spontaneously and completely when the maceration had been continued some time longer. The surface of the flat bone, where it had been adherent to the body of: the vertebra, was of a spongy texture, afforded a passage to many bloodvessels, and was marked by numerous sharp projections and deep furrows, diverging from its centre, and answering to similar projections and furrows on the denuded extremity of the vertebra ; of course the surface of these bones varied in shape and’ size with the extremities of the vertebree to which they were attached, being’ from five to six inches in dia- meter at the dorsal, and not more than one inch at the last cau- dal vertebra. © The substance of these bones towards the intervertebral sub- stance was of much harder and closer texture than that of the bodies of the vertebre themselves, and where it was adherent to — the Vertebre in the Whale... —«63 the intervertebral substance, it had.a smooth surface, marked with a great number of concentric lines,’ answering to the ar- rangement of the fibres in the intervertebral tissue, which adher- ed to this face of the bone with great strength. . This marking was deficient towards the centre where: the intervertebral. nie stance is fluid. . The facility with which these. bones are: detached; is the rea- son why we never find them adhering to the vertebre of those young whales which have been wrecked. on our coast, and whose skeletons have been exposed to the action of the waves and the weather. Their flat shape, too, renders them liable to be cover- ed by the sand, and hence I have never known them to be found separately, even when the vertebrae and other bones of this spe cies of whale were scattered along the coast in great numbers, as happened at Dungarvan some years after several of these animals had. been captured and iandget ashore by the fisher- men *, The bones I have described must evidently be considered in the light of terminal epiphyses of the bodies of the vertebra, and are deserving of notice on account of the facility with which they can be detached, even in very large, and.of course not very young, animals of this species, as I observed in the two skele- tons preserved in the College of Surgeons, one of which mea- sures thirty feet in length; so that when the skeleton: has’ been artificially prepared, they resemble separate intervertebral bones rather than vertebral epiphyses... In, the land mammalia the consolidation takes place much more rapidly, and a few years are sufficient to efface all traces of former separation between the epiphysis and the body of the vertebra; the comparative slowness of this process in the whale, is probably referrible to the longevity of the animal, and the greater length of time ne- cessary to complete its growth. A knowledge of this fact puts us in possession ofa new and useful mark of the animal's age, independent of its size, and it is for this purpose I have. brought. it forward, for although not natiaed by any author I have seen * Many years ago we picked up several of these intervertebral looking’ bones, upwards of a foot in diameter, on the shoreof the island of Yell, one of the Shetlands. In their neighbourhood: was a-skeleton of a: whale, about 40 feet long, part of which we brought to Leith —Enrr.. 64 Dr Graves on the Vertebr® of the Whale. on the Anatomy of Whales, it must, nevertheless, have been known to several. If we find that the terminal epiphysis has become completely united to the body of the vertebra, we may be assured that the bone, whether large or small, belonged to an animal arrived at maturity; but if not, we may conclude that it had not yet attained to its greatest size... To facilitate this inquiry, I may remark, that a very slight examination of a vertebra is sufficient to determine, whether the epiphysis has or has not been detached; as in the former case the surface is marked by deep ridges and furrows diverging from the centre towards the circumference ; whereas in the latter, if the animal was of moderate size, the marking consists of concentric lines, answering to the attachments of the intervertebral substance ; and if the individual was very large, these concentric lines are exaggerated into concentric furrows; and whether the attach- ments of the intervertebral substance be marked by concentric: lines or by concentric furrows, a considerable portion of the central part of the bone, where it had been in contact with the internal substance of the intervertebral ligaments, is quite des- titute of this marking, and presents a striking contrast to the rest of the surface. | I am not aware that the true cause of this remarkable differ- ence between the markings on the extremities of the venteneet of the cetacea has been before explained. It may not be uninteresting to add, that the cranium of the Delphinus diodon in my possession, and both those in the Mu- seum of the College of Surgeons, present, in a very remarkable manner, the want of symmetry between the right and the left sides of the cranium, which was first observed by Meckel m the skulls of the cetacea. Note.—Since the preceding notice concerning the hock-joint of the horse, was submitted to the Academy, I have had an opportunity of examining two horses affected with string-halt, and am inclined to attribute the disease to a spasmodic affection of the flexors of the limb generally, rather than to any derangement in the structure of the hock-joint. It may be right to mention, that the following authors on Comparative Anatomy, and the Anatomy of the Horse, have been searched, but they contain no notice of the peculiarity in the structure of the hock-joint, above described :—Macartney, Cuvier, Carus, Blumenbach, Meckel, Clater, Blaine, Stubbs, Percivall, Boardman, White, Lawrence, Osmer, Home, Bourgelat. - te or VAS - NVANVEUALIAIW DHL LO eae rt | :. eee o : SSS Oe ee ee bod : . 2 a ae a ‘ a nhaDpy 72 P 0974So? ie ate Re mee i a = i v = : zombinpy 9p ope tg . SS = a = eo a < * FP ia ao @ ; SS a aepmsoraaane gs 4 nee eZ : , Wisi ce tgys _— sh asVTCoT Moy anogn soyobeg ap nusns aye swonfy $e oboyyy syghe mpounig wody i sees | ben ed YMON OGL ISRY PPOUL 1B DUBY IY WILT LTS OE Yasoy Maron nun y zy 0g zoubunpy yap op1gs vg ody : ; DPVUDL JO AYLI BY SO YZLOU SOQIUL LIS gnogn 80q70b07 ap wasarg 242 04 UWS fo ISVOI UDIUDLLIZIPIW ULIYINOS 243 Us DbUywYy zajJaj.LvaU zaubDopy Jap 07)18D) P1209 JLOJ V ULOLf U0 249 25° GANT UOAMOL py rMouuapy | ee | ie | ee: S be Ie Sut et ne ™ : x oS Pe Oe eee ee eae See ee ‘; ae ( 65) On the Lacustrine Basins of Baza and Alhama, in the Pro- vince of Granada in Spain. By Colonel Strverror, M.G. S. I. Communicated by the Author.—( Concluded from former volume, p. 349.) With a Plate. . BASIN OF ALHAMA. Tur geographical position of this basin was alluded to in general terms at the commencement of my last communication. It occupies a large circular area, at the distance of about fifty miles to the south-west of that near Baza, on the northern side of the primitive and transition chain of mountains which border ‘the Mediterranean ; and it is chiefly surrounded by primary rocks towards the south and east, and by ridges of ‘secondary limestone towards the north and west *. -In the latter, close to a town called Loja, at the western extremity of the basin, there is a chasm through which the river Genil+, rising in the Sierra Nevada tc the east of Granada, is enabled to escape, and to pur- sue its course to the Guadalquivir; but beyond this chasm the secondary limestone is continued, and, circling round towards the east north-east, forms the boundary of the basin towards the north. A considerable portion of this ridge is known by the name of Sierra de Cogollos, and the distance from it to the op- posite ridge near Alhama, may be taken as the greatest length of the basin ; that from a village called Escuzar, on its eastern side, to the town of Loja, as its greatest breadth ; the former be- ing equal to about thirty-six, the latter to about thirty miles. One insulated group of transition limestone, named .La Sierra de * In the southern boundary of this basin, a junction between the primary and secondary rocks occurs between a pass called El] Puerto de Zafarraya and the western flank of a high mountain, well known to botanists, and called La Sierra de Tejeda: in the northern boundary a similar junction takes place, near a village called Huetor de Santillana, about four miles from Granada, on the road to Guadiz. At neither of these points, however, is there any interruption of continuity in the bounding ridges, the secondary limestone in both instances appearing to come in contact with, and to rest upon, primary rocks of a similar composition or basis; that near Huetor being a granular, that of Tejeda a lamellar limestone, and both highly crystalline. + The classic vale, the Vega de Granada, watered by the Genil, has been immortalized in song and in prose, as the theatre of many a chivalrous deed in the olden times. OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. E 66 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins of Elvira, near Granada, is seen within this area: with this ex- ception, the whole of its superficies is occupied by conglomerates, marl, gypsum, and other. tertiary beds; the conglomerates pre- dominating to the north and east of Granada, and forming a high tract of waving hilly ground between this city and the Sierra Nevada ; the latter prevailing to its south, or from the left bank of the river Genil to the ridge which confines the basin in the latter direction. The upper stratum of the valley of the Genil, which occupies the lowest relative tract in this basin, is generally composed, near Granada, of a disintegrated conglomerate, an argillacéous marly deposit, with mnumerable rounded fragments of the neighbouring primary and: transition rocks ; but lower down it often consists of a sandy loam: The rising ground from this valley in the direetion of a village’called Cogollos, situated’ at’ the base of the ridge which: bounds» the basin towards the north, exhibits a high, broken, irregular tract; consisting of a calcareous marly deposit, with some beds» of marly sandstone two’ or three inches thick, and containing, as ¥ was informed, some beds of lignite *. Near Alfacar, another vile lage upon this slope, there is’ an extensive formation of | calcax reous tufa, which is quarried, and has furnished the material with which several of the churches in Granada have been built: it passes in some places into beautiful alabaster, which receives the most brilliant polish, and is worked: into slabs, vases, and: —_ ornamental figures. There is one circumstance: perhaps worthy of being’ oti connectéd with the conglomerate hills between Granada and the Sierra Nevada. A stream called El Daro, taking” its rise neat the village of Huetor de Santillana; and entering the Genil-at Granada; winds its intervéning course between high hills of this deposit: After heavy raivis havé increased the volume aid rat | pidity of its waters, and transported to its bed the loose mate- rials of the adjoining hills, it is not unusual to find particles of gold disseminated in the sand and mud: deposited.after the tom *T had no opportunity to examine this tract, but presume it to be peated + Extensive deposits of calcdréous tufa ate Oliservablein miany parts'of the south of Spain, generally along the: bases of limestone ridges... Natural’ exca- vations in these constitute caverns, often of singular beauty ; that: called St Michael’s at . is well known. Basa and Alhama, 67 rent ; and the labourers. also. occasionally discover. them in. ploughing the disintegrated surface of the contiguous tract. Having stated these general and preliminary observations, I shall proceed to: notice, first, the appearances presented along the line of road:* from Granada to Alhama ; and, 2dly, offer a more minute detail of the tertiary beds, displayed in the neigh- bourhood of the latter village. 1. From Granada to Alhama +. After. crossing, the. Genil, which flows by the side of the beautiful Alameda {of Granada, the road. proceeds for about four miles over a horizontal plain in a fine state of cultivation, the upper stratum. of which. consists of a disintegrated earthy conglomerate, although in. some places it exhibits a sandy. loam.. Beyond_ the little village-of Gavia, the ground. begins to. rise and assumes a marly character. In. several hillocks adjoining the line of road, white granular gypsum is observed alternating. with. thin strata of indurated marl, and, indeed, generally comes to: day-on: each. side of the’ road, and at times constitutes. its foundation, during the gradual ascent to the summit of a consi-. derable hill it crosses before reaching. the village of La Mala. From the west: of: the hill to this village, which is about eight miles distant from Granada, there is a long descent, during which the road passes. over three different beds of gypsum identical in structure and colour to that last mentioned, the. intervening spaces exhibiting light earthy marl which separates strata of in- — durated marly sandstone abounding in small shining particles of mica, and from. one to: four inches thick., The latter alternate with layers of fibrous. gypsum half an inch. thick, and with other laminz not. two lines in. thickness, whose cross fracture dis- plays:minute almost microscopic leaves, if I may, be allowed.so.to — call them, of this mineral, accompanied by others equally delicate of arenaceous marl, the surface of which is generally resplendent with a confused. crystalline investment of the same mineral. There is great. variety. and. apparent confusion in the dip of all these strata and their alternating lamin, most of which, how. ever, incline at a considerable angle towards the south-west, but A This i is the horse road from Granada to, Malaga. + See section from Mediterranean to Granada. . ’ + Public walk. E 2 68 - Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins of many of them dip in an opposite direction, the latter being the. case on the Granada side of the hill, the former in the subse- quent descent towards La Mala; but in a hill at a short distance from the road, and only separated from that it crosses by adeep ravine, a series of these strata was observed in a nearly horizon- tal position, jutting out beyond the earthy marl that separates them. In the bed of the little stream which passes by La Mala, there is a brine spring, the water of which, by means of a Noria or Moorish pump, is elevated into a series of reservoirs or quadrangular basins, where it is evaporated by the heat of the sun during the summer months, and the salt sold by the government to the neighbouring villages *. Beyond La Mala, there isa gentle ascent where gypsum is seen in considerable abundance, the road passing over a series of its inclined laminated strata from one to three inches thick, and in structure and colour identical with that which was before ob- served. | Hence to a public-house, called La Venta de Heckel four leagues from Granada (about 16 miles), there is an undulating cultivated tract of a light marly nature, where gypsum rarely comes to day, but close to the Venta some insulated masses of it are observed ; and near a village called Escuzar, about three miles distant in an easterly direction, this mineral, of a beautiful whiteness, is met with in abundance, quarried and worked into various ornaments connected with the religious ceremonies of Spain. From this house onwards towards Alhama, the country becomes more hilly, and the road, after passing over a bed of stratified gypsum in the first ascent beyond the Venta, traverses a higher undulating tract, a sort of southern heath, covered with wild thyme, esparto +, and evergreen shrubs. At the commence- ment of this tract, a few insulated strata of a calcareous nature ' “About six hundred thousand pounds of salt are annually made here. This article is a monopoly of the government, and each householder in the villages is obliged to receive every year the quantity of it portioned out to them by the ast a or magistracy at the government price, which is exor- _ bitant. ++ The Esparto is a grass of the rush tribe, whose botanical name is, I be- ‘lieve, Stipa tenacissima. It is a* great object of industryin the south of Spain, from which all sorts of ropes and cordage, as well as mats of various qualities and beauty, are made. Baza and Athama. 63 are first observed to cap some of the low hills and emimences at a little distance from the road towards the left, whose nature will be soon more fully explained. On reaching the highest part of the tract between the Venta and a village called Cacin, distant from the former about six miles, a portion of its summit is ob- served to be crowned by a bed of compact limestone, containing moulds of paludinz, superimposed to which, irregular masses are seen of a marly limestone, almost entirely composed of com- minuted shells, amongst which paludine, lymneee, and planor- bes, are distinctly visible. But here this calcareous mass has little thickness, not exceeding, I should think, thirty feet’; and, from the irregularity in position of some of the strata, which are from four inches to three feet thick, as well as from the’ state of decomposition of the rock, it has the appearance of having been considerably broken up and affected by external agents.’ From this point to the little village of Cacin, situated upon the right bank of a stream bearing the same name, there isa long descent, in the first part of which, immediately below the calcareous bed just alluded to, the road for a considerable space passes over a bed of white finely granular gypsum, in strata about an inch thick. The ‘subsequent part of the descent exhibits a marly earthy mass, whose surface is strewed with fragments from the limestone capping the hill; but gypsum is again observed, and has been worked by perpendicular cuts, along the immediate bank of the rivulet. The bed of this is nearly a quarter of a mile in breadth, a small portion of which only is occupied by two little channels in which the rivulet flows, the remaining portion being partly under cultivation and partly planted with willows and poplars. A low cliff of conglomerate bordering the right bank, and in places abutting against the contiguous gypsum, attests the powerful body of water which in some ancieut time has rushed down this little valley of denudation. The frequent, almost continued appearance of gypsum, from the rising ground near the village of Gavia to this point, and the similarity in physical character and aspect of the intervening — tract, appear to countenance the presumption, that the whole of it is occupied by a deposit of the above-mentioned substance, as- sociated with various proportions of marl in an earthy or indu- rated state. No other rock is seen, until a few strata of fresh- : ° 70 Colonel Silvertop on the -Lacustrine Basins of water limestone begin to cap one or two eminences near the Ven- ta de Huelma, and again, in a more considerable but insulated mass, crown a portion of the hill previous to the descent to Ca- cin. Immediately under this mass, on the Cacin side, ‘as also along the right bank of the rivulet at the bottom of the descent, gypsum is observed in great abundance, as has been already no- ticed. It would, therefore, appear that this gypsum formation is immediately subjacent to the fresh-water or compact paludinze limestone, which, as will shortly be seen, becomes the predomi- nating and superior * rock in the southern portion of the basin, and constitutes a ridge of considerable elevation oer eameer Cacin and Alhama. | At the commencement of the ascent: beyond Cacin to: this ridge, gypsum imbedded in marl is again observed ; ' but higher up it is succeeded by horizontal strata of compact, somewhat vesicular limestone, of a dingy whitish colour, containing here and there casts or moulds of paludinge. ‘Still higher up’ the ascent, and subsequently crowning in a partial manner its sum- mit, the marly limestone, formed of broken shells, and distin- guished by the presence of planorbes, as well ‘as of lymmese and paludinz, makes its appearance, overlying the former. These two limestones continue to be observed in the same order of superposition nearly to the bottom of a broad denuded hollow in the ridge, and during the subsequent ascent. The highest part of the ridge presents an irregular sort of table-land, covered with wild plants and shrubs. Its total width is between seven and eight miles. In the long gradual descent to the -rivulet of Alhama, cultivation generally prevents the subjacent beds from being seen until near its termination, when a few horizontal strata of calcareous sandstone are observed, whose geognostical relations will soon be made evident. ‘The road then passes a bridge over the last mentioned’ stream, which has worked “its way or pene- trated at this point through a little insulated mass of ‘secondary nummulite limestone, mianifesting in some places, as I have fre- _-quently observed in this rock, a semblance of brecciated structure, ‘and following up its left bank for about a:mile, winds tothe right, and, between escarpments of calcareous sandstone; whose -hori- * A more modern-marly limestone partially overlies it, as will be imme- diately noticed. _ Baza and Alhama. | pe zontal strata alternate with others of coral limestone, -ascends: the rising ground upon which the large and populous village of Alhama is situated. _Such.arethe appearances presented in :tra- versing this:basin along the line of road from:Granada to Alha- ma,.a distance. of about 30. miles. from NE. to: SW. 2. Neighbourhood of Athama, isbdslamaa stands upon the left bank. of .a rivulet, of the.same Sdinailandeat: the bottom of along. cultivated.slope;to the latter, from the ridge of secondary nummulite limestone which:forms.the southern boundary of this. portion of the basin. The horse-road from.Granada:to. Malaga: by Alhama.passes over. this ridge, be- tween which and. the. coast. it .subsequently.traverses the ,prima- ry and transition chain stated to border the Mediterranean,: reaching. the latter near .a,town called;Velez~-Malaga. Conse- quently, in. proceeding from Velez-Malaga.to Alhama, the road descends the cultivated slope Jast.alluded. to, and. in the latter part.of the descent, a limestone. composed. of a congeries of coral remains ‘is observed occasionally to make its appearance in broken discontinuous escarpments, partially covered, and often nearly -surrounded., by fine diluvium,. which in great depth constitutes the general upper stratum and. yegetable soil. Immediately be- fore entering Alhama by this road, a similar limestone is again observed.in thick horizontal strata, and, in different open spaces within the precincts of the village,. horizontal strata of calcareous sandstone and fine conglomerates may be:seen. The latter beds constitute, indeed, the foundation upon. which it hasbeen built, and. immediately below the village form the high escarped banks which confine the stream bearing its name. Similar strata were noticed on the opposite, bank, in the last part of the descent to the same, stream.in approaching Alhama. by the Granada road, as, well as inthe short subsequent ascent to. the former, alterna- ting, in the latter instance, with others of coral limestone. ‘This marine formation, first observable on the line of road sketched. in the immediate vicinity.of Alhama, rests upon secondary num- mulite limestone, which, fortunately comes to day in a few: in- stances -in this. neighbourhood, and .establishes this interesting fact. An inspection of the physical appearances presented by this 72 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins of southern portion of the basin, shews that it has been broken through or furrowed in different places by currents descending from the primitive district to its south, and the streams now flowing through the consequent fissures, taking a north-westerly direction, finally terminate, before leaving its area, in the river Genil. These fissures, of which one of the boldest and most characteristic is seen close to Alhama, contracted in the vicinity of the mountains, subsequently expand into little valleys of de- nudation. In one of these, beginning to open out immediately: below Alhama, the observations were made which belong to the section A; those referrible to B were partly made in the last mentioned fissure or ravine which confines the rivulet above Al- hama, and partly in the neighbourhood of the villages of Arenas and Jayena. A. The horse-road from alhoaa to the town of Susi dee scends the little valley of denudation which commences near the former village, and is watered by the rivulet of the same name; and, at the distance of about two miles, crosses a small . ravine * whose bed and banks are formed of secondary num- mulite limestone. This rock is divided into strata from two inches to a foot thick, dipping at a small angle towards the W.NW.., and is no doubt connected below with the great mass of the same limestone which constitutes the boundary of this part of the basin towards the south. These strata are succeeded in immediate superposition, on the left: bank of the ravine, by a few strata of calcareous sandstone, identical with that observed at the entrance into Alhama by the Velez-Malaga road. Ina subsequent short ascent no rock is seen, but it is crowned by’a low escarpment of coral limestone in thick horizontal strata, bor: dering a little flat upon which a farm-house and a few cottages — have been built. From this point the road begins to ascend ‘a hill of considerable elevation, named El] Majar de en Medio,’ which intervenes between the left bank of the rivulet of Alhama and the bounding ridge of secondary limestone towards'the south. The rising undulating surface presents a light soil; which, after rain, becomes what is termed sticky, the whole’of it being under cultivation, and producing. great crops of wheat and bar- * This ravine terminates in the rivulet of Alhama, at about two miles distance from the point in it alluded to in the text. Baza and Alhama. "3 ley. Continuing to ascend, numerous little shining pieces of laminar gypsum are observed, interspersed in this soil. ‘The ac- clivity gradually becoming steeper, cultivation ceases, except here and there in small patches ; the tract begins to assume a mountainous character, and. the line of road inclining towards the left or south, approaches the confines of this eminence with the bounding ridge of the basin. Several esearpments, looking - like perpendicular sections in a quarry, were observed along the higher part of the acclivity, and beyond these'a long irregular low parapet, bordering and circulating around the summit of the hill. On approaching the former, they were found to ori- ginate in workings for gypsum, and to consist of a series of ho- rizontal layers or strata of this mineral, accompanied by marl. These layers, or little strata, are from one to three inches thick, and the escarpments from twenty to forty feet high. » The gyp- sum is of a laminar structure, and: confusedly crystallized, seve- ral separate pieces of it bemg often joined together in all sorts _ of directions, and imbedded in an argillaceous marl, which seems to form about one-fourth of the mass of each layer or stratum. On reaching the summit of the hill, about a hundred yards be- yond these quarries, the little escarpment which runs along its crest, was observed to be formed of thick horizontal strata of compact limestone, in which moulds of paludinge are occasionally seen, It isof a.whitish colour, frequently marked by little den- dritic sprigs: its fracture compact andeven, sometimes ob- scurely conchoidal. A considerable: tract of table-land; where this rock is every now and then seen to come to day, arid-co- vered with a short herbage; underwood, and a few evergreetr oaks, extends as far as the eye can reach, in the: direction of Loja, and, towards the south, appears to abut against the higher ridge of secondary limestone, which, as Pagieeete stated, ene this portion of the basin: In the ascent from the bed of the ravine to the summit ‘of : this hill, beds of four distinct characters:have therefore been ob- served, viz. 1. The nummulite secondary limestone ; 2. Strata of calcareous sandstone and coral limestone’; 8.°A powerful bed of gypsum ; 4. Compact paludina limestone ; and the ho- rizontality* according to which they are arranged. seems to * The slight dip of the secondary nummulite limestone would conduct it under the tertiary strata of the hill. 74 Colonel Silvertop on ihe Lacustrine Basins of put'beyond doubt their respective superposition*. Facing the hill, »whose -geological structure I have attempted to sketch, there is a tract of high ground. on the opposite or right bank of the ‘rivulet, or Rio de Alhama, which is a continuation of «the table-land along the summit of the ridge between: the-villages:of. Cacin-and Alhama noticed in describing the line of read from Granada to Alhama. In: proceeding from: the hill of ‘El Majar de:enMedio to this high ground, a ford was:crossed:in the rivulet, at a point about two miles below the:mineral-baths of Alhama, which take:their rise in an insulated mass. of secondary nummulite+ limestone, confining there for a short space :its banks, and at about: the same distance above the little village of Santa Cruz, situated. up- on the same stream. The valley here becomes more expanded, anda horizontal flat of some extent borders the right bank of the rivulet. A long cultivated slope succeeds{. At about two-thirds of the ascent, the.compact limestone, with its usual paludinze, makes its appearance in thick horizontal -strata, and continues to manifest itself.in low irregularescarpments to the summit of the hill. Here there.is an extensive tract of level ground, varied by some undulations and hollows, and covered with short herbage, wild plants and shrubs, analogous, both in — physical character and geological relations, to the eminence on the opposite side of the valley. During three hours which Iwas: riding in various directions over this table-land tract, spread over with a scanty covering of vegetable soil, I constantly ob- served the compact limestone, and no other rock ; but, at about: the distance of three miles in an easterly direction, and towards the line of road from Cacin to Alhama, the shelly marly pla- * The shelly marly planorbis limestone, observed to rest upon linten stone 4, near the village of Cacin, and in the ridge between Cacin and Al- hama, was not observed here. + I believe these mineral waters take their origin in a red sandstone, upon which the secondary nummulite limestone rests. tts + Although I did not observe any beds of gypsum here, I was assured by different peasants, that it is met with in several places, but not worked, as the neighbouring villages are supplied abundantly with this mineral, from the quarries noticed in the hill of El Major de en Medio, on the opposite side of the rivulet. 3 Baza and Alhama. 15 norbis limestone makes its appearance in .the form of ‘swelling undulations, which: constitute-some-of the:highest: points in:the ridge. It does:not, however, extend equally over the. surface of the compact limestone :upon which it rests: from its friable nature it has been much affected :by various -external : causes, and in many places has disappeared. It is:in ; horizontal:strata often several feet thick. ‘B.Ravine above Alhama, anda Portion of the Basin ‘to its ‘south-east, in the neighbourhood ‘of the Villages of Arenas and Jayena. ‘The coral limestone seen immediately ‘before entering .Al- hama by the Velez~Malaga road,—the little: escarpments of cal- careous sandstone and fine conglomerates of .a similar base within the precincts of the village,—the alternating beds of the two, in the descent from the latter to the bridge, andthe appearance of sandstone strata‘at the commencement of the succeeding ascent on the road: to Granada, have been already mentioned; and it has also been stated that a part of the village extends along the left bank of the ravine, which confines the stream: known by the same name, for about two miles above, and: which opens. out in- to a valley of denudation immediately below it. This ravine affords the greatest. facility for ‘Mackie, and the finest example of this ‘marine formation. Here the rivulet flows between perpendicular escarpments nearly two hundred feet high, which are entirely composed of the two rocks just al- luded to, in horizontal alternating beds from: three to nme feet thick. ‘The limestone is made up of what--appear to be: small coral fragments, agglutinated together by'a calcareous cement. A small fragment of a shell, an accidental little pebble, or a mi- nute piece of schist, are rarely imbedded in its mass. It is tena- cious, offering considerable resistance to the hammer, and is of a dull whitish colour, with»a slight tmge,imsome places approach- ing to red, in others to yellow. The fracture is uneven, ‘coarse- ly and‘largely granular, exhibiting rarely the section: ofa coral branch, spines of echini converted into carbonate of lime, a few shining crystalline facettes, and some minute superficial cavities. 76 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins of The sandstone is formed of small quartz grains, consolidated ins to a mass by an arenaceous calcareous cement. Remains, appa-_ rently of corals, are ‘seen rarely imbedded in it; but different species of pectens, one of which is almost identical with a species found in the London clay, are sufficiently abundant. It is of a yellowish colour ; and the fine conglomerates, as I have termed them, into which it sometimes passes, only differ from it by the size of the quartzose grains, and by the occasional interposition of small fragments of schist, and of some other rocks. .The se- condary subjacent limestone, noticed in the little ravine on the road to Loja, at the bottom of the hill of El Major de en Medio, is not visible here, the whole of the escarpment, from its base to its summit, being formed of the two varieties of rock just de- scribed, the coral limestone occupying the superior part of the section. It-is in the interval between this and the bed of the ravine, that alternations of the two members of this formation are seen; and it is observable, that near the contact of the lime- stone with the sandstone strata, the former becomes gradually less calcareous, and appears to be an admixture of quartzose par- ticles, to pass gradually into the latter: In one instance I ob- served a bed of loose unconsolidated quartzose sand, under up- wards of one hundred feet of superior indurated strata. All the strata, in their natural position, are horizontal ; but in the higher part. of the escarpments, large masses of them are how and then seen variously inclined, probably by subsidence, and contribute powerfully to enhance the picturesque scenery of this fissure. The road from Alhama to Arenas (de Alhama), proceeds for about one and a-half or two miles along the bed of this ra- vine, and, after leaving it, enters upon a narrow cultivated flat, , contiguous to its right bank, and bordered, at a little distance on the left-hand side, by a low escarpment of coral limestone, from under which an insulated mass of older nummulite limestone protrudes and intersects the line of road, rising but a few feet -above the general level of the ground. This is the second in-’ stance me presented in this neighbourhood of such superpo- sition... After subsequently ascending some hilly ground. where no rock appears, mica-slate of a reddish tinge, due to the de- composition of its numerous imbedded garnets, projects above Baza and Alhama. "7 the surface, in several little low groups, close to a spring of beautiful water called La Fuente de Jos Alamillos, and forms a considerable undulating tract, covered with vineyards, between this point, a village called Hator, and the high primary moun- tain of Tejeda, which now forms the southern boundary of the basin, at the distance of about three miles from the line of road. This elevated mountain, indeed, composed of white and light- -blue crystalline limestone, constitutes the marked geographical limit of the basin towards the south, all the way from Alhama to Arenas, and the mica-slate, forming the low tract just alluded to along its base, dips under it * ? and is again met with or reap- pears at the base of its opposite slope, and may thence be fol- lowed to the Mediterranean shore. About half a mile before arriving at Arenas, an insulated mass of darkish-coloured earthy limestone, containing numerous shells of the genera Paludina, Lymnea, and Planorbis, was ob- served, in horizontal strata, and yielding on fracture a fetid odour. In the remaining part of the descent to the stream, on whose right bank Arenas is situated, no rock is seen, a whitish mar! constituting the upper stratum. This little stream, rising in the adjoining primitive district, and passing by the village of Hator, standing at the base of its northern slope, joins, below Arenas, another stream, which, at the distance of two or three miles towards the east, issues out of the same mountains. Between the two there is a low ridge which will be the immediate subject’ of consideration. Its length, from the base of the primitive district to Arenas, is — about four miles ; its medium breadth about three quarters of a mile, increasing a little as it approaches the former. It is com- posed principally of a lacustrine deposit; but in the vicinity of the primitive district, of a mass of gravel and conglomerate. Close to Arenas there is a small transversal ravine in this ridge, where the nature of the former is well exposed. The lower part of its banks is formed of alternating strata of earthy marly limestone, of a dirty whitish hue, and of thin layers of a similar substance, coloured blackish by a carbonaceous matter, and so P fmhis limestone may perhaps be considered as an immense bed in the mica-slate. I am, however, inclined to believe that it is of a subsequent date, and rests upon it. 78 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacusttine Basins of charged with the latter in:some places, as to pass into an imperfect lignite. With these layers, which may be followed for a consi- derable distance by the eye, until they successively become concealed by the intersection of the rising bed of the ravine, there is associated a remarkably fine white sand, formed of mi- nute grains of transparent quartz; the layers are from one to - two inches thick, of a leafy structure, and so extremely friable, that it is nearly impossible to detach an entire specimen, as it falls to pieces between the fingers. They are full of planorbes lying horizontally upon the surface of each successive leaf or plate of the layer ; but the shells, although frequently retaining a nacreous lustre, are in a decomposing state, and rarely entire, so that every new exposed surface is studded _ pepe frag- ments, or marked by their impressions. ‘The associated sand forms no regular stratum or continuous bed, but it is generally seen in more or less abundance, loosely attached to the ‘surface of each layer. A bed of brown coal; of unknown depth, immediately succeeds in a descending series, and in its superior part, or that’ contiguous to the former, I also observed quartzose sand under’ similar’ circumstances. This brown coal is of a dullish-black colour, and in horizontal divi- sions, from one’ to four inches thick. The thinner ones, how- ever, both superficially and in a cross fracture, sometimes exhi- bit a shining and even surface; but in the thicker strata or di- visions; the fracture is uneven, and dull. On the surface of a specimen of the latter'in my possession, taken from the superior part of the bed, there are imumerable fragments of planorbes. As it is'in'the lowest part of the banks of the ravine that. this bed of brown coal begins to take a decided character, no means are afforded of examining the interior of the mass; and the workings: undertaken here some years ago, under the idea that ' it was the real coal, by the proprietors of a sugar manufactory at 'Torroz, on the Mediterranean coast, are: e unfortunately obli- terated. . The ravine im which the appearances just: skatthedc may. be seen, only penetrates: the ridge for about. two: hundred. yards; but as some strata of a similar nature are observed on the banks of the stream, on its opposite side, it see probable t that this bed occupies its whole breadth. ah Baza and: Alhama. 19 The superior part of the ridge consists of earthy marl and. horizontal strata of soft. marly limestone, which hardens on ex- posure to the atmosphere, and is used for building, alternating with others of a more sandy nature; and one stratum was ob- served of a hard compact sandstone, a foot thick. Other strata of the marly limestone intervening between the above and the bed. of brown coal, are coloured by carbonaceous matter, and full of paludine. There appears to be a direct. analogy, with respect.to orga- nic remains, between this.deposit and the superior marly lime-_ stone observed along the summit of the ridge between Cacin and Alhama. . The carbonaceous matter in the former is of course of local occurrence. In proceeding from Arenas up this ridge, to its sentiniention _ the primitive district, by the road which leads to the Puerto de Competa *, the first part of the ascent consists of earthy marl, with horizontal strata ef the same ‘substance, or between this and a coarse limestone, in an indurated state. I also observed some masses of fine quartzose sand, similar to that above no- ticed, but no appearance of the brown coal. The line of road crosses the ridge diagonally ; near the mountainous: district it becomes entirely formed of a mass of gravel, crowned at times by a thick stratum of reddish-coloured indurated. conglomerate, and this deposit + is observed to extend for a considerable dis. tance in the form of an: inclined band, covered with a forest of pines, between the line of the primary rocks and that part of the basin under consideration between Arenas and Jayena - _. The, few remaining observations refer to this tract. The road from Arenas to Jayena crosses over the little ndge last al- luded to, at a short distance above the point where the two streams, which may be said to bound it, unite, and descends to that whose banks were stated to exhibit a series of strata simi- * This is the entrance into the primitive district, whence a.mountain- road leads to the Mediterranean coast. . | 7 + Similar masses of gravel, but upon-a much. larger scale, are observed to form an extensive tract between the northern slope of the Samosierra moun- tains, to the north of Madrid, and a formation of compact limestone met with before arriving at Aranda del Duero, on the. road from Madrid to. Burgos. In both instances the gravel and conglomerate has been formed from the de- vris of the primitive rocks in the contiguous chains. 80 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacutrine Basins of lar to those immediately overlying the bed of brown coal. Ano- ther stream escaping from the primitive districts towards the south, through a fissure called El Puerto Blanco, a few miles in an easterly direction is soon after crossed ; between which and a fourth stream passing by the villages of Jayena and Fornes, there is an undulating marly tract partially under cul- tivation, and rising into a low ridge, in part of its area crowned by a few strata of conglomerate. All these streams last men- tioned unite in one a few miles towards the north-west, and form the rivulet crossed at Cacin, on the road from Gra-— nada to Alhama. Descending the slope from this little tract to the stream last alluded to, a long slip of ground is perceived to border its right bank, immediately beyond which the country begins to rise, and subsequently takes an elevated table-land form, stretching northwards towards Agron, a village on the road from Arenas to Granada. Horizontal beds of gypsum are observed along the first part’ of the ascent, and a low escarp- ment, which I had not time to examine, but which probably is formed of the compact paludina limestone, borders its summit. Following this stream upwards to Jayena, several low escarp- ments along its banks exhibit horizontal strata of a semi- indurated whitish marly limestone, and the slip of land just no- ticed opens out into a richly cultivated little valley, in the i im- mediate vicinity of this neat and chearful village. In the low ridge, composed of horizontal strata, of whitish soft marly limestone, in places full of paludine, which’ borders this narrow valley towards the north, near and above Jayena, there is a ravine close to the latter village, in whose banks a bed of brown * coal has lately been discovered. et ‘The valley extends three or four miles above Jayena, pre- senting in every little escarpment the same marly limestone.: Here I terminated my excursion, and traversing the primitive chain which confines it towards the south, proceeded by a moun- — tain road over the magnificent pass called Las Vueltas +, or * The scarcity of fuel in the mining district along the Southern Mediter- ranean coast of Spain, and the prohibition of English coal, bas induced a great commercial and mining house in pra to make catevanions here, in order to employ it as a substitute. , + The fine alpine scenery here, and along the slope of a high mountain- 2 Baza and Alhama. 81 Puerto del Rey, to Almunecar on the Mediterranean coast. (See section 13.) From the above slight and most isipevhect sketch of the ba- sins of Baza and Alhama, it appears that a deposit of gypsife- rous marl, with a superjacent bed of compact paludina limestone are common to each of them; but that the latter basin is dis- tinguished from. the former, by a superior bed of shelly lime- stone, in which the planorbis first. makes its appearance,—by two deposits of brown coal. in the neighbourhood of Arenas and Jayena,—and by a tertiary marine formation, consisting of al- ternating beds of calcareous sandstone and coral limestone, which intervenes between the gypsiferous marl and the secondary num- mulite limestone. _ The tertiary and lacustrine beds in each of these two basins are in a horizontal position, and do not therefore appear to have been disturbed by any causes similar to those which have ele- vated the older rocks, upon whose inclined strata they have been deposited. But causes of a different nature have, either gradually and in the progress of ages, or with sudden and irresistible fury, swept over them with no unsparing hand, carried away, in the basin of Baza, the greatest part of the superior deposite, and left extensive vestiges of destruction upon its western and east~ ern flanks. Nor are the effects less conspicuous in the basin of Alhama. At the present Jenws streams of inconsiderable magnitude flow quietly along their respective areas; and, instead of directing their course to the nearer. Mediterranean, from which they are intercepted by the elevated. chain which. borders its shores, de- scend the great hydrographical valley of the Guadalquiver, and join the. waters of this river, which terminates in the Atlantic Ocean. Such, I believe, are the sone Pato that may be oesies Sein observations confined to certain portions of the areas I have as- signed to these two basins. A detailed and scientific examina- ridge near El Convento de los Nieves, about. two miles from a village called El Borgo de Ronda, nine leagues distant from Malaga, fomatda the north. west, is worthy of the pencil of a Salvator Rosa. — OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. F 82 Colonel Silvertep on the Lactistrine Basins tion of their whole surface will, no doubt, bring to light gee new and tae facts. Mo ~ Mr Sowerby had the gvodnes to name the lowing shells :— “9s \Basin of Baza. ~~ aS LOREEN i) . Paludinz in superior compact limestone. Cypris in errr ment | Basin of Alhama. 1. Planorbis rotundatus. 2. Planorbis rotundatus vel davies 3, “Plans orbis nova species anfrectibus numerosis compressis. 4. Bulimus pu- sillus of Brard; Paludina fey of Deshayes.” 5. Paludina Desma- restii. 6. Paludina pyramidalis, 7. Ancylus. 8. Cypris. 9. Unknown pack ihe Bulimus decollatus? 10. Lymnea. These are found in the mpact and superior shelly limestone beds. 11. Pecten reconditus ? like that at Hordwell and in London clay. 12. Fragments of Corals. and spines of Echini. ‘These are found in the marine bed, composed of alternating strata of calcareous sandstone and coral limestone, which rest upon secondary nummulite limestone. Basin of Teruel. 1, Planorbis rotundatus. 2. Lymnea pyramidalis. : Vestiges of Tertiary and Lacustrine Beds, in the South pose ye other Parts of Spain. }. In the neighbourhood of a village called Partaloba, about eight miles distant from the transition limestone mountains of Oria, which partially bound, towards the east, the basin of Baza, a compact vesicular limestone, of a whitish-grey colour, and containing a few shells which appear to be of fresh-water origin, is quarried. It is in thick i a and forms an ayn 2 building stone. 2. Near Montesa*, on the road from Almanza + to Valencia, a low hill has been cut through, composed of thin fissil strata of a limestone identical in colour and fracture to the compact paludina limestone near Alhama, and containing 7, moulds and casts of lymnez and paludine. ‘8. On leaving Albaceté, a town on the royal road from Va- lencia to Madrid, ‘for the capital of Spain, a continued ascent of several miles, where no rock comes to day, leads to a high * Montesa gives its name to one of the four military orders of Spain. + Almanza, celebrated for the battle won by the Duke of Berwick, in fa vour of Philip, during the Spanish War of Succession. of Baza and Alhama. 83 plateau, which belongs, in physical geography, to the elevated plain of La Mancha. The upper stratum here consists ofa bed of reddish gravel, probably of diluvian. origin, which con- céals the: subjacent limestone; the latter,» however, is well dis- played in a quarry near, but before arriving at, the village of La Gineta. It is of a compact texture, somewhat vesicular, of a whitish-grey colour, and contains a few:paludine. . From this point to Ocana; nine: leagues from Madrid, the plateaw maintains nearly the same general level, with occasional undulations, with the exception of a narrow low ridge of second- ary (?) limestone near the village of La Mota, and an insulated, outlying hill of red sandstone near a village called Molar *, a name probably derived from the grinding-stones which the lat- ter rock usually produces. . With these two exceptions, no rock is seen in situ from La Gineta to Ocana... The superior stra- tum is almost universally of a marly or gravelly nature; but now and then a low eminence, or little hillock of puddingstone, or a few thin discontinuous strata, of an earthy whitish marly limestone, are observed by the side of the road. In passing through the village of Roda, I remarked that. several. of the houses were built of a compact whitish-grey vesicular limestone, which is; no doubt, met with in the immediate neighbourhood, as it would be a rare occurrence in this part of the country to bring such materials from any distant, point. At Ocana, which may be considered as the northern. termi- nation of the plateau of a Mancha on this line of road, a simi- lar limestone, in the form of an irregular low escarpment, bor- ders the crust of the long slope from this elevated plain to the river Tagus; and in the descent to the latter, a powerful bed ‘of gypsum) is observed in horizontal strata, accompanied. by varying proportions of marl. Between the Tagus and the river Jarama, which enters the former a little below Aranjuez, the road to Madrid passes over a level.tract, occupied, by the plan- tations, gardens, and pleasure grounds, belonging to the royal palace at Aranjtez,—and_then,. crossing the latter river by a handsome bridge, called Puenté de la Reyna, and traversing a little flat on the opposite ‘or right bank, ascends a considerable * Piedra de Molar, is the Spanish expression for a grinding-stone. ~ FR 84 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins hill, in the lower part of which gypsum is again observed. It then enters upon a high plateau-formed district, corresponding in physical character to that which constitutes the plain of La Mancha to the south of the Tagus, which extends northwards to the base of the Guadarama Mountains. Madrid is situated in this district, at the distance of seven leagues from.Aranjuez. Between the summit of the last ascent and a village named Valdemoro, several low escarpments of gypsiferous marl strata, in a horizontal position, are seen near the road; but the general superstratum of this tract is of an argillaceous marly character. In the remaining distance to Madrid, or rather to the banks of the Manzanares, no gypsum was observed ; but the road has in places been cut through a little hillock or low eminence, and the consequent escarpments exhibit a few thin strata of a whit- ish compact limestone, which, for short spaces, occasionally as- sumes a siliceous character, where its surface is sometimes ma- millonated by concentric spheres of chalcedony, minute veins of which also penetrate its mass. These strata, often marked by blackish dendritic sprigs or stars, alternate with earthy layers of friable marl. On each side of the road there is an open undulating cultivated plain, whose upper stratum is com- posed of fine diluvial detritus, amongst which immumerable sili- ceous semi-opaline fragments are observed, identical.with seve- ral varieties of a similar substance imbedded in the well-known hill of magnesite near Vallejas, about 2 miles E.SE. from Madrid. From this ground there is a long gradual descent to the Manza- nares; and the right bank of this stream exhibits an extensive mass of gypsiferous mari, in horizontal laminz or little strata, the gypsum being generally of a laminar, but in some places of a fibrous, structure. The hill of magnesite, or carbonate of mag- | nesia, at Vallejas, rests upon this bed of gypsum. In the im- mediate neighbourhood of Madrid, a compact vesicular whitish limestone is quarried, whose mineralogical character would seem to identify it with that to which allusion has been so frequently made. It would be interesting to ascertain whether or no it contains fresh-water shells, and overlies the gypsum formation along the bank of the Manzanares. The Professor of Geology and Mineralogy to the Royal Museum, in Madrid, had the goodness to shew me a fragment of the magnesite rock, with a of Baza and Alhama. 85 beautiful impression or mould of a large planorbis: now, as this univalve is not met with in the compact limestone, but first makes its appearance in the coarse marly limestone, almost en- tirely composed of comminuted shells of this genus, which over- lies the former near Alhama, and is the superior rock seen in that basin, this circumstance leads to the conclusion, that the magnesite of Ballejas, like the superior marly limestone near Alhama, is of lacustrine origin, and amongst the most modern rocks in Spain,—as a similar one has already been shewn to be so in France, by, Messrs Brongniart, Marcel de Serres, and other writers. | 4. The last instance of a lacustrine’ formation which I have had an opportunity of meeting with in Spain, is presented over an extensive tract in the neighbourhood of Teruel, a town upon the frontier of Arragon, towards the province of Valencia, and upon the road from the city of Valencia to Zaragoza. The an- nexed rough sketch may give a general idea of this lacustrine deposite, and of the older rocks which bound it towards the east and west. : Lacustrine Basin of Teruel, Province of Arragon. a aa is a coarse, in places vesicular limestone full of lymneze and planorbes. bb b is a thick bed of reddish gravelly marl, occasionally containing gypsum. 3. Secondary nummulite limestone. 2. Red sandstone,—old ? 1. Greywacke ridge. Z. A dark blue semi-crystalline limestone. The superior fresh-water limestone a @ a, would appear to have originally prevailed, as represented in the sketch, over the whole width of the basin from y to y, a distance of about 16 miles ; but causes, whose violence or prolonged duration is ma- nifest in the valleys of denudation and deep ravines which ac- tually intersect this area, have swept it away over the greater portion of the basin. Where it remains sufficiently entire, it forms patchs of table-land, and the slopes from these to adjoin- ing fissures exhibit an irregular talus of the subjacent marly de- | . 86 Colonel Silvertop on the Lacustrine Basins of posite; and where its horizontal strata have been removed, the surface of the ground: presents an earthy calcareous mass; con- taining the two cited univalves in great abundance, The latter may be collected in any quantity in the earthy’ mass of the hill, upon which a’ ‘hermita or little chapel stands, about half a mile from ‘Teruel, beyond the arcos ‘or aqueduct, as also in the higher. part of the first ascent on the road from Teruel to a village called Campillo; and, on the summit’ of ‘botli these hills, they are found imbedded in thin strata of the limestone. -.‘The planorbis is the most abundant shell, and, as well as the lymnea,' of a larger size than what were observed in the basin of Alhama. They are, generally speaking, in the form’of casts or moulds, although a part of the inci se. whitened shell is emnally ob- servable. This limestone forms an excellent and most Suited balding stone, as is well exemplified in the’ beautiful arcos or aqnedian at ‘Teruel, of whose construction no record exists. | In the subjacent bed of marl, which is more or less’ argil- laceous, I observed, on approaching Teruel, by the Valen- cia road, veins of laminar gypsum, and was informed that this mineral is extensively quarried in the neighbourhood, but whe- ther or not it belongs to this. deposite, I cannot certify. _Du- ring my short visit to Teruel, I was unable to discover any organic remains which might elucidate the geological relations of this bed. The gypsum. accompanying it, and its position be- low the fresh-water limestone a aa, and aboye the secondary limestone 3, present analogies with the gypsiferous marl me. sites in the basins of Baza and Alhama. At the points y y, the transversal extremities of the basin of Teruel, according to the line of the section sketch, the road crosses over two bands, which, from the innumerable rounded fragments of older rocks spread over the surface, as well as from the lateral position of the former with respect to the basin, would seem to indicate the action of some great body of water which has swept along this area from north to south. ot} ER It was in the first week of May 1828, I visited. Teruel. The summits of the higher hills in the elevated: mountain tract, de- signated Z, were covered with snow, as well as’many of those in the transition ridge 1;:beyond the tertiary basin towards. the — Baza and Alhama. 87 west, and until the sun was much above the horizon, the cold was considerable. From this circumstance, and the continual ascent from’ Murviedro, upon the eastern mediterranean coast of Spain, to a point -in the tract. Z, called El Puerto, about three leagues beyond Segorvé, on the line of road from Valencia to Teruel, it appears evident that this lacustrine deposite has taken place at a very considerable elevation above the level of the sea; and the same remark may be made with respect to those in the vicinity of Baza and Alhama, as well as the compact limestone observed near LaGineta and Ocdna in‘La Mancha: nor shall I be far from the truth in calculating the surface of the superior beds in the respective basins of Teruel, Alhama, and Baza, at about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. aly ground near La Gineta and Ocana is still more elevated. - It has been stated, that within the area of each of the hac trine basins near Baza and Alhama, springs or streams impreg- nated with muriate of soda existed, the former being called Las Salinas de Vacor, the latter Las Salinas de Mala ‘Contiguous to the gypsum tract near Aranjuez, which, together with the superjacent compact limestone’ seen at Ocana, are, from identity in ‘composition ‘and geological position, presumed to be. lacus- trine like the same two formations near Baza and Alhama, sul- phate of soda has been'discovered in sufficient abundance to be employed advantageously in the arts *; and a couple of miles higher up the same bank of the Tagus, muriate of soda, in the form of rock+salt, is ‘met with at Villa Rubia, ‘a village whose name is well known to it ipl as the locality of the glau- berite. The analogies thus rain ie out, auld saat real Sohlemeenh rela- tions of these deposites of salt, I leave to future observers, who may pethaps discover that the high elevation of the plateau of La Mancha is partly owing to a thick and extensive formation ‘of tertiary beds. | * This sulphate of soda was first discovered by a Spanish gentleman of the name of Rodas, who, in consequence, erected a large manufactory at Aran- juez, where it is converted into a carbonate, and sold to soap-makers as a substitute for barilla. ( 88) On the Development of the Vascular System in the Fetus of Vertebrated Animals. Part II. By Aten Tuomson, M. D. late President of the Royal Medical Society. Communicated by the Author. (Continued from former volume, p. 27.) Havinc in the former part of this essay considered the mode of formation of the Heart in the different orders of vertebrated animals, I shall now give some account of that of the other parts of the vascular system ; viz. of the Bloodvessels of the body. There seem to be two modes principally in which bloodvessels are developed ; the one, by isolated points and vessels, has been already alluded to, in the account given of the commencement of the circulation, as it occurs on the vascular area of the yolk ; the other, taking place after the commencement of the circula- tion, by the prolongation of loops or folds from vessels already formed, is most easily seen on the transparent parts of. the Batrachian reptiles. The sac of the yolk, or covering which the yolk receives ia the layers of the germinal membrane, is the part on which, in all vertebrated animals, the blood and vessels appear to origi- nate, and it is the only part in which, in healthy animals, the formation of bloodvessels has been observed to take place inde- pendently of the heart or general circulation. During the de- velopment of the vascular area (to the detail of which it is now unnecessary to recur), no difference has as yet been observed between the mode of the formation of arteries and veins. The blood appears to circulate sooner in the veins than in the arteries of the area, but, in the early stages of development, these vessels are to be distinguished from one another only by their distri- bution, and the direction of the currents. of blood, in. them. About the fourth or fifth day of incubation, the coats of the arteries begin to appear thicker than those of the veins, and very soon the external appearance of these yessels affords a character sufficiently distinctive. As far as has been ascer- tained, there does not appear to be any immediate connexion between the formation of vessels in the area, and that of the heart itself: these processes seem, for a time at first, to go on simultaneously, but independently of one another ; and, in- Dr Allen Thomson on the Vascular System, &c. 89 _ deed, the origin of the heart may not inaptly be compared to that of some of the larger bloodvessels. Even when that organ begins to move, no blood enters it from the area: according to -Baer, its motion is undulating for a few hours, until it sucks, from the veins immediately adjacent, a portion of their contents, and soon, by a regular contraction of its parietes, propels the blood through its anterior part and the arteries connected with it. At the same time that the vascular area is formed, some ves- sels are likewise developed in the body of the embryo, in which also the blood and vessels containing it appear to be simulta- neously produced. But after the circulation has commenced, the second process to which I have alluded, viz. the prolongation of loops from vessels already existing, seems to be more frequently resorted to for the development of new vessels in the foetus. This process has been described by Spallanzani *, Fontana +, and Déllinger +, as it occurs in the finny tail and etter gills of the common frog and water newt. In these animals, the course of the blood is at first very simple. In the early stages of development, there is no capillary network on the tail ; but an arterial vessel, continued from the descending aorta, runs below the caudal vertebrze to the end of the tail, where it joins at an acute angle with a returning vein, which, in the abdomen, be- comes the vena cavainferior. At a later period, it is well known that the tail of these animals is covered by a network of mi- nute vessels, which communicate with the primary artery and vein. Through this network the blood is spread over the whole _ surface of the tail. The development of these vessels has been shewn to be owing, not to their formation separately in the parenchyma of the tail, but to the prolongation of communicat- ing vessels formed between the primary trunks. The commu- nicating branches at first pass directly from the artery to the vein, but in the progress of development I have observed them to become gradually longer, and extend themselves from the middle to the lateral expanded parts of the tail: other loops are formed in succession from the newly generated vessels, and new ones again from them, till, in the course of ten or more * Experiments on the Circulation of the Blood, &c. + Reil’s Archiv fiir die Physiologie, B. ii. $ 480. _ $Denkschriften der Kénigl. Akad. Minchen. B. vii. : . 90 Dr Allen Thomson on the Vascular System days, the whole of the finny part of the tail is covered by beauti- fuland minute arteries and veins. ‘The loop of vessel when short and newly formed, has at first more the appearance of artery than vein, as the blood passes through it in jerks: as the loop elongates, however, and new branches proceed from it, the blood moves in jerks only in that part of the loop which com- municates with the arterial trunk, while in the part connected with the returning went the motion of the stream of blood’ be- comes uniform. Rusconi * has shewn very ‘beantifully, that vessels are thus looped out during the development of the gills of the aquatic salamander. I find that nearly the same appearances present themselves in the gills of the frog, as well as in the extremities of the salamander. ‘The anterior extremities of the salamander, when they first begin to sprout, form two small tubercles sittia- ted behind the head, altogether destitute of circulating blood. Shortly after the appearance of these tubercles, a single vessel is seen winding round their extremities, which returns to the body without giving off any branches. The parenchyma of each of the toes, as it buds out from the end of the limb, receives a small loop from the original vessel. Communicating branches are likewise thrown across at the joints, and, as the limb becomes larger, numerous capillary vessels are formed in the same pee as the primitive trunks. ae Spallanzani, and some other observers, have noticed similar appearances in the extremities of the chick, when they begin to be formed ; and the same may be seen in those of the rab- bit, and of some other mammiferous animals; from which there appears every reason to believe that, after the circulation of the blood has commenced, the development of new vessels from those already formed, takes place principally by means of loops in Warm as well as in Cold blooded animals. I ought now, in conformity with the plan previously lai down, to proceed to treat of the development of the individual parts of the vascular system in vertebrated animals; but it must appear obvious, that a detailed account of the development of * Amours des Salamandres Aquatiques, et dereloppeneen &c. See Plate II. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 13, Hh. ¥: yet tee \ ie : CC q ' pt Fave sii i Ll yy, didi ON —— ; <~ AThomson Fe in the Foetus of Vertebrated Animals. 91 all, or: even of the more important bloodvessels of the body, besides being too extensive a subject for our present limits, would prove uninteresting from the want of connexion ettnting between the facts already ascertained. I shall therefore coniine: myself for thé present to one branch of the subject only, viz. the De- velopment of the Bloodvessels more immediately connected with Respiration in the foetal or adult animal... This branch of the subject, besides being the most nearly allied to that treated of in the first part of the essay, is rendered one of the most interesting to comparative anatomists, not only by the diversity of the form and by the number of the organs which appear to carry on’the respiratory function in the foetus of vertebrated animals, but also by the singular analogies in the structure of these animals which the study of the development of their respiratory organs points out both in-their transitory and permanent condition. The principal organs which appear to perform a respiratory function in the foetus, or which, being formed ‘before birth, are destined for the respiration of the adult animal, may be enume- rated: in the following order, being that in which they succeed one another, ‘either in individual animals, or in the different orders of the class Vertebrata. 1. The sac of the Yolk ; 2. The External Gills; 3. The Internal Gills; 4. ‘The’ Allantois; 5. The Placenta; 6. The Lungs *. f * Some of these, as well as other parts of the ovum, have received so many different names, from the various authors who have described them, that it appears necessary to anticipate a little, and to give a few of the synonymes by which they are generally known in the different orders of vertebrated ani- _.1. The sac of the yolk is generally known by this. name in Fishes, Rep- tiles, and Birds. We have only in these animals to guard against confound- ing the sac of the yolk or covering given to this part by’the layers of the germinal membrane, with the proper envelope of the yolk which exists before development commences, and encloses it while in the ovarium. In Mammalia, this part is most frequently called the Umbilical Vesicle, and sometimes the tunica erythroides. The distinctive character of the sac of the yolk is, that it remains connected or communicating with the intestine during some period of foetal life, and has mesenteric arteries or veins, or both, ramified’on its surface. 2. The Allantvis, (a name derived originally from the vesicular: ext of mammalia) dves not exist in the foetus of aquatic animals, such as that of fishes and batrachia. In adult batrachia it forms the urinary bladder, » | 92 Dr Allen ‘Lhomson on the Vascular System In proceeding to describe these organs, I shall endeavour to shew the manner in which they contribute to perform the func- tion of respiration in each of the four orders of vertebrated ani- mals, beginning with fishes, in which they appear to be simplest ; and I shall confine myself principally to the relation of those facts which have been most lately ascertained, and which ap- pear to establish most clearly the analogy existing between the organs under consideration. It is from the study of the structure of the respiratory or- gans, and of the arteries distributed upon them, that the chief part of our knowledge regarding the mode in which the func- tion of respiration is performed by them has been obtained, as little or no direct or strictly physiological evidence has hitherto been procured from the observation of their mode of action: The description of these organs indeed might be considered as a subject merely anatomical, were it not that in observing their development during foetal life, their variation in size, and alte- ration in form at different periods, and the changes in the dis- tribution of the vessels supplying them with blood, we are en- abled to perceive certain ends to which these changes of struc- ture are directed, and thus acquire some insight into the mode of operation of each of them. It is now well known that the constant presence of oxygen in some form or other is absolutely necessary for the development — of the embryo of all animals. The evolution of those rudi- mentary parts even, the formation of which precedes that of the as well as in the tortuise. It is called Chorion by Emmert in the lizard, and by Pander in the bird; Umbilical vesicle by Haller in the bird, in which he was the first to shew its connection with the funis of the urachus. In Mammalia it has been called Endochorion, from its lining the chorion. This part is always formed by the expansion of the cloacal part of the intes- tine, and carries upon it the ramifications’of the umbilical arteries and veins. 3. The internal gills are those formed in the course of _ branchial plates or hoops which surround the pharynx. 4. The external gills are appendages of the rovegeenig, 8 connected generally with the outer part of the branchial plates, and receiving a covering from the integuments. 5. The Amnios, a covering proper to the foetus, connected with its inte- guments, and formed by a reflection of the serous layers of the germinal membrane. 6. The Chorion, the external envelope of the whole ovum. +4 morngada inca gira Ee a Ay wife nog heady Dae, Fae 2 shel iat Serie Gebses « ari} adi: 2 alae Sper. ao. Bolin ro sibs wd " re zeus | agi birt to vise ae a 3 fed Gr UE ‘ode ie Yokes ras ° tes eh dicks -, Ba Lets ioe bak @45< ee Aires - 116 Mr D. Don on the Characters and Affinities analogy between them and Parnassia, because I consider their number as indefinite in the latter genus; and I am fully con- vinced that no one, who examines the subject with that atten- tion it deserves, will be disposed to question the accuracy of the views here adopted; for, except the difference in_ habit, there is no other character hy which Parnassia can be separat- ed from the Hypericine.. In conclusion, I may observe, that a comparison of the structure and nervation of the leaves, calyx, petals, and even the anthers and capsule, in this genus, affords a beautiful illustration of the origin and nature of these parts. “PINEDA, Ruiz et Pavon. Homattit sp., Pers. Syst. Linn. POLYANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. HOMALIN/E, Brown. Decand. Perianthium patens, 8- v. 10-partitum, persistens, calycinum: segmeniis du- plici ordine digestis, ovato-oblongis, acutiusculis, coriaceis, zstivatione imbricatis ; evterioribus partum majoribus. Petala-o. Faux annulo pore elevato densé piloso aucta: stamina multiplici ordine copiosissima, auci perianthii inserta: filamenta capillaria, glabra, arcuata: anthere subrotunde, extrorse, biloculares: loculis gibbosis, longitudinaliter de- hiscentibus. Ovariwn uniloculare: ovulis indefinitis, funiculis umbilica- libus stipitatis, adscendentibus. Styli plerumque 4, rariis 3 v. 5, in unum 3-5-angulum connati, singuli e vasorum fasciculis duobus consti- tuentes, medio depressi, aded subinde sulcato-carinati. Stigmata totidem, simplicia, obtusa, pruinosa. Capsula (Bacca ex R. et P.) libera, crusta- cea, unilocularis, evalvis! apice intra stylos fissura dehiscens. Placente plerumque 4, rarits 3 v. 5, ry yteee parietales, stigmatibus numero zequales, iisdemque alternantes, é confluentia vasorum primariorum ra- mulorum lateralium ortum ducentes, perianthii segmentis collateralibus interioribus opposite. Semina ad maturitatem pauca, pedicellata, ad- scendentia, subrotundo-obovata, apice depressa, fusca, latere interiore raphe dilataté nuda instructa, arillata! arillo crassiusculo, celluloso, vix succulento : testa exterior subcrustacea ; interior exteriori adhzerens, tenu- issimé membranacea, pulcherrimé cellularis, pallidé fuscescens, apice areola (chalaz&) subrotundé fusca notata, basi foraminulo usque ad em- bryonem perforata! albwmen copiosum, carnosum, album. Embryo erectus: cotyledones reniformes, planze, subfoliaceze : radicula teres, crassa, obtusissima, cotyledonibus brevior, umbilico prona. Plumula incon- spicua. 4 6 entee (Peruvianus) erectus, ramossimus, biorgyalis. Rami teretes. Folia undique sparsa, petiolata, elliptico-oblonga, mucronulata, v. rariis obovata, retusa ac sepe manifeste emarginata, plana, ad apicem subserrata, inferné in- tegerrima, utringue ramulisque pube simplici brevissimaé incano-tomentosa, subtis magis canescentia, cost prominula, venis subimmersis arcuatis, longi- tudine valdé variabilia, sepe & semuncid ad bipollicem. Petioli tomentosi supré leviter canaliculati, subtus convexri, 2-lineares, bast ramulis articulati. Stipule 2, parve, subulate, tomentose, lineam longe, decidua. Flores plures (3 v. 5) terminales, corymbosi. Pedunculi jiliformes, uniflori, tomentosi, semipollicares, apice vix incrassati, basi, ut petioli, similiter articulati. Peri. — anthium undique tomentosum. Stamina plurima, flava. of certain Genera in the Flora Peruviana. 117 Oss. Perianthium quandoque 11-partitum, addita lacinia minore semper ad seriem interiorem, sed non ad exteriorem. Glandulz ad laciniarum bases mihi nondiim detectze. 1. P. incana. , Pineda incana, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. 1. p. 133. Gen. p. 76. t. 14. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 428. Decand. Prod. 2. p. 54. ; Homalium incanum, Pers. Syn. 2. p. 82. rf Hab. in Peruviz preruptis versus Huariaca et D. Raphaélis Tarme vicos. Ruiz et Pavon. hh. Floret Februario et Martio. Vuilgd _ Lloqui. (V..s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Oxs. Lignum ad baculos conficiendos optimum. Ruiz et Pavon. |. c. AZARA, Ruiz et Pavon. Syst. Linn. POLYANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. HOMALIN, Brown. Decand. Perianthium persistens, calycinum, 4—7-partitum. Petala 0. Stamina basi calycis inserta, definité numerosa v. indefinite numerosissima, incurvata : Jilamenia capillaria, glabra, persistentia: anthere subrotunde, extrorsze, biloculares, duplici rima longitudinali dehiscentes. Ovarium globosum,,. uniloculare: ovulis indefinitis, adscendentibus. Stylus (€ 3 conflatus) subtrigonus, trisulcus. Stigma tubercula 3, minuté papillosa. Bacca globosa, unilocularis, oligosperma, apice fissura in styli basi dehiscens. Placente 3, parietales, stigmatibus alternantes, é ramulorum lateralium vasorum primariorum confluentia constitute. Semina ad maturitatem paucissima, szpé solitaria, adscendentia, angulata, fusca, arillo spongioso vestita (an sub ta?); testa exterior crustacea; interior membranacea : _ vaphis dilatata: chalaza dilatata, areolata: umbilicus basilaris, perforatus : albumen copiosum, carnosum, basi umbilicali perforatum ! Embryo erec- tus: cotyledones reniformes, subfoliaceze: radicula teres, cotyledonibus brevior, obtusissima, umbilico obversa. Arbores (Chilenses) frondose. Folia alterna, simplicia, petiolata, stipulata, sa- pore amarissino. Flores corymbosi v. spicati, albi, fragrantes. — Sect. J. Perianthium 5-7-partitum, patens: Jaciniis cestivatione subimbre- catis, basi inappendiculatis. Stamina indefinité et inordinate numero- sissima. Filamenia plurima sterilia. Felia dentata. Stipule foliacee, inequales ; altera maxima, subpersistente. 1. A. dentata, foliis ovatis serratis scabris subtiis tomentosis, corymbis ses- silibus paucifloris. Azara dentata, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. 1. p. 138. Fi. Peruv. et Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 465. fi a. Hab. in nemoribus Conceptionis Chili. Ruiz et Pavon. hh. Vulgd Corcolen. Fl. 4 Junio ad Septembrem. (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Frutex biorgyalis, cortice spadiceo. Ramuli teretes, tomentosi. Folia copi- osa, alterna, undique versa, petiolata, ovata v. elliptica, mucronulata, serrata, subcoriacea, margine partum reflectentia, costa venisque promi- nulis, supra nitidula, setulis minutissimis callosis scabra, subtis pube simplici copiosissim& canescentia, pollicaria v. sesquipollicaria. Petiolé semicylindrici, tomentosi, ramulo articulati, sesquilineam longi. Stipule 2, stipitatze, foliaceze, subrotundo-ovate, consistentia aliisque foliis simil- lime ; alteré minima, seepitisque caduca. Corymbi axillares, axi (ramulo) brevissimo folioso, 3- v. 5-flori. Pedunculi teretes, vix semunciales, ut et perianthium, densé tomentosi. Perianthium persistens, calycinum, simplici ordine 5- v. 7-partitum: Jaciniis lanceolatis, acuminatis. Sva- 118 Mr D. Don on the Characters*and Affinities mina inordinaté numerosa, incurvata, disco villosissimo inserta ; plurima sterilia: jfilamentia capillaria, glabra, persistentia ; anthere subrotunde, extrorsze, biloculares, duplici rim& longitudinaliter dehiscentes. Ovarium globosum, uniloculare. Stylus subtrigonus, trisulcus. Stigma tubercula 3, minuté papillosa. Bacca globosa, unilocularis, oligosperma, nunc spe monosperma, apice in styli basi fissura dehiscens. Placente 3, parietales. Semina ad maturitatem paucissima, angulata. Cetera omnind ut in genere. Oxs. Perianthium quandocunque ultra 5-partitum laciniz additze sunt 2. semper minores. An villi disci. stamina sterilia ? A. ir ae foliis oblongis serratis levibus, corymbis pedunculatis mul. tifloris. Azara serrata, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. 1. p. 137. Gen. t. 36. Fil. Peruv. et Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 465. f. 6. Hab. in Chili nemoribus provinciarum Conceptionis, Puchacay, Itatee, Cauquenes et Rere. Ruiz et Pavon. h. Floret Septembri et Octobri. Vulgo Corcolen. (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Frutex biorgyalis, com& feré globosé. Ramuli teretes, hirsutissimi. Folia sparsa, petiolata, oblonga, v. lanceolata, mucronulata, grossé serrata, membranacea, utrinque pilis sparsis ornata, levia tamen et pellucido- punctata ! basi szepits acutiuscula, pollicaria v. bipollicaria, aut nunc ultra. Petioli vix semipollicares, densé hirsuti. Stipule foliacez, inee- qualissimee, subrotundz, serrate, petiolate, foliis propriis simillime ; altero minimo, stg caduco, aut omnind abortivo. Flores tripld minores, corymbosi. Corymbi axillares, pedunculati, multi (10-15)-flori. Pedunculus poet. teres, pubescens, squamulis (foliorum rudimentis) sparsis membranaceis hirsutis caducis munitus. Pedicelli capillares, pu- bescentes, 4 lineas longi. Perianthium persistens, pubescens, simplici ordine 5-7-partitum : segmentis lanceolatis, obtusis, membranaceis. Sta- mina plurima, disco villosissimo inserta: filamenta capillaria, incurvata, glabra: anthere subrotunde, biloculares: Joculis gibbosis, extrorstiim rim4 longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Stylus trigonus, trisulcus. Stigma tubercula 3, minuté papillosa. Ovarium uniloculare: ovulis indefinitis. Bacca unilocularis, in styli basi dehiscens. Placente 3, parietales. Semina ad maturitatem pauca, adscendentia, angulata. Czetera omnind ut in genere. Ozs. Vidi ramulos floribus majoribus, staminibus paucioribus instructos ; alios floribus minoribus, staminibus numerosis, entis sterilibus plu- rimis atque ovario minimo. Anne flores hi sunt masculi; illi herma- phroditi, et ideoque frutex polygamus ? Sect. II. ALMEJA. Perianthium limbo connivens, 4-fidum: Jodis basi in- teriore squamula auctis! sestivatione valvatis. Stamina definite nume- rosa, in fasciculis laciniis perianthii alternis; omnia fertilia. Folia plerumque integerrima. Stipulee subequales, persistentes, Flores spicati. 3. A. integrifolia, foliis obovatis oblongisve integerrimis glabris, stipulis cordatis subsequalibus, floribus spicatis. Azara integrifolia, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. 1, p. 138. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 466. f. a. + FOES Hab. in Chili nemoribus ad Conceptionem. Ruiz et Pavon. hh. Floret Julio et Augusto., Vulgd Corcolen (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Arbor 3-orgyalis, erectus, ramosissimus, frondosus. Ramuli teretes, densé pubescentes. Folia sparsa, petiolata, obovata v. oblongo-elliptica, mu- - cronulata, integerrima, v. nunc raritis dentata, coriacea, utrinque plana, glaberrima, margine partum reflexa, basi attenuata, pollicaria v. bipolli- caria. Petioli suprd canaliculati, subtis convexi, puberuli, vix. 4 lineas longi. Stipule 2, subsequales, persistentes, stipitatee, subrotundo-cor- datz, integerrimee, v. nunc rard dentate, retusee cum mucronulo, basi of certain Genera in the Flora Peruviana. 119 seepe obliquze, semunciales. Fores spicati, fragrantissimi, minores, ex- cavationibus racheos inserti. Spice axillares, multiflora, pedunculate, pendulz, plerumque solitariz, longitudine seepé unciales. Pedunculus eylindricus, tomentosus. Bracteole ovato-lanceolatze, acute, intis pilose, basi concave, caduce, floribus zestivantibus longiores. Perianthiwm sub- globosum, substantia crassum, coriaceum, 4-fidum: Jodis ovatis, acutius- culis, intus densé barbatis, zestivatione valvatis, basi interiore squamula brevissima truncata crassiuscula subcarnos4 auctis! Stamina definité nu- merosa (12 v. 16), in 4 phalanges cum lobis perianthii et squamulis (serie perianthii interiore) alternantia, approximata, disco piloso impo- sita: filamenta capillaria, ea anthere parve, reniformes, biloculares : loculis gibbosis, exteritis longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ovarium globo- sum, uniloculare: ovulis plurimis, adscendentibus, placentis 3 parietali- bus insertis. Stylus subtrigonus, trisulcus. Stigmata tubercula 3, minuté papillosa. Czetera mihi ignota. 7 * * * Species Dubia. _ 4. A? celastrina, foliis subrotundo-ovalibus subserratis glabris, stipulis mi- nimis zequalibus, floribus axillaribus fasciculato-paniculatis. Hab. in Chili. Caldcleugh. hh. (V.s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Frutez ramosissimus, Celastri facie. Rami teretes, flexuesi, cortice scabro transverse rimoso. Ramuli tenuissimé velutini. Folia alterna, petiolata, subrotundo-ovalia, subserrata, nunc rarilis feré integerrima, coriacea, utrinque glabra, supra nitida, subttis opaca, venisque prominulis reticu- lata, atque in earum axillis pilosa, margine obtuso, calloso, parim revo- luto ; pollicaria v. sesquipollicaria, unciam vy. minis lata. Petioli simpli- cissimi, semicylindrici, 2~3 lineas longi, tenuissimeé velutini. Stipule 2, minutz, oblengze, squameeformes, canaliculate, subité caducee.. Flores axillares, paniculati, parvi. Panicule solitariz, parvee, axi abbreviatis- simo fasciculate, tomentosz. Pedicelli brevissimi. Bracteole squamz- formes, minute, caducze. Perianthium densé tomentosum, 4—5-partitum : laciniis ovatis, margine obtusis, muticis, patentibus. Petala nulla. Sta- mina definite numerosa (12 v. 15); omnia fertilia: flamenta capillaria, glabra, perianthio longiera: anthere subrotundz, basi insertze, extrorse : loculis connatis, longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ovarium uniloculare: ovulis plurimis, placentis 3 parietalibus insertis. Stylus trigonus. Stig- mata puncta 3, minuté papillosa. Czetera mihi ignota. Oss. Anne flores dioici ? The Homaline may be regarded as occupying, in the series of natural affinities, an intermediate station between Rosacee and Prockiacee, to each of which, respectively, they approach, both in habit: and characters. The stamens, like those of Ro- sacew, are inserted in the calyx, whose segments are also fre« quently disposed in a double series; and to Prockiacee they ap- proach in their unilocular ovarium, and in the structure and m- sertion of their seeds. The close relationship of Prockiacee and Tiliacee, 1 consider as clearly established ; the chief distine- tion of the latter family, consisting m the valvular estivation of their calyx, and in their multilocular ovarium. I am aware that Azara and Pineda have hitherto been considered as be- 120 Mr Don on the Characters tnd Affinities longing to separate families; but, I trust, the above description will establish their intimate affinity, and prove that they belong to one and the same family. Persoon had referred Pineda to Homalium, and M. Decandolle has adopted this indication of affinity, but has very properly retained it as a separate genus. In the arrangement of Azara, however, he has been less fortu- nate, as he has followed the suggestion of M. Kunth, who had proposed to place it among the Bixine, or Prockiacew, a name which I greatly prefer, as being derived from a genus that af- fords a much better idea of that order than Biaa, which may be considered as an aberrant member of it. The valvular zs- tivation of calyx is not general throughout T%liacea, for in some plants, clearly referable to that family, the margin of the lobes is folded inwards, and in Sloanea dentata and emarginata the lobes are slightly imbricated, and certainly decidedly so in the genus T'richocarpus. The large rough prickly capsule of Bixa, and the entire habit of the genus, correspond so exactly with Sloanea, that they may very properly be considered as forming the connecting links of the two families; and as a further proof of their close relationship, I may adduce the thickening of the petioles near the insertion of the leaf in both genera,—a circum- stance which is not found in any of the other genera that have been referred to the Prockiacee, although frequent in T%liacee. Some analogies in structure might be pointed out between Proc- kiacee and Cistinee, on the one hand, and between Homahne and Passiflorea, on the other, but in neither case amounting to an indication of affinity. Neillia, formerly referred by me to the Spirceacee, may be regarded as forming the rudiment of a distinct group, more intimately allied to Homaline, being chief- ly distinguished from the former by the presence of petals, and by the very reduced number of its pistilla, which are uniformly’ solitary. The Abatia of Ruiz and Pavon, which M. Kunth has doubtfully referred to his Bixine, appears to me clearly to be- long to Salicarie, with which family it corresponds, in the seeds being destitute of albumen, and in its opposite leaves clothed. with tufted pubescence, as is often the case in Cuphea, and some other genera of the same natural family. The following de- scription of this curious genus will show these affinities in a clearer point of view. of certain Genera in the Flora Peruviana. 121 ABATIA, Ruiz et Pavon. Syst. Linn. POLYANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. SALICARIA, Nobis. Calyx monophyllus: tubus brevissimus, subturbinatus : faur pilis muticis fila- -mentosis numerosissimis (vix tamen stamina sterilia) munita: limbus 4.partitus : Jaciniis lanceolatis, zestivatione valvatis. Petala nulla. Sta- mina definité numerosa (20) simplici ordine ! prope tubi calycis basin in- serta: filamenta complanata, glabra: anthere obtuse, introrsze, bilocula- res, basi insertze: Joculis elis, longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ova- rium liberum, globosum, uniloculare, villosissimum. Stylus teres, glaber. Stigma parvum, truncatum, pruinosum. Capsula unilocularis, bivalvis, polysperma, apice dehiscens: valvis sublignosis, concavis, medio placen- tiferis. Placente nunc demim solutz, basi connate. Semina parva, an- gulata, atrofusca, adscendentia, hinc convexa, inde planiuscula, apice al exigua cristata, basi umbilico prominenti instructa ; éesta exterior crus- tacea, superficie reticulata; interior membranacea, pallidior : albumen nullum. Z£mbryo erectus, teres, lacteus: radiculé cotyledonibus semicy- lindricis partim longiore, obtusa, centrifuga. Frutices (Peruviani) pubescentié fasciculata cinereo-tomentosi. Folia opposita, petiolata, exstipulata, simplicia, crenata. Flores racemosi. Pedicelli unifiori, bractea suffulti, solitarii v. fasciculati. 1. rugosa, foliis supra rugosis, antheris oblongis: connectivo dilatato ! Abatia rugosa, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. 1. p. 136. Gen. t. 14. Fl. Peruv. et, Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 463. Hab. in Peruvie collibus frigidis ad Rondos, Pillao, et Nauyan.— Ruiz et Pavon. hh. Floret a Maio ad Octobrem. Vudgo in Pillao Taucca-Taucca, id est, Acervus-Acervus. (V* s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) 2. A parviflora, foliis suprd planis, antheris subrotundis : connectivo angus- tissimo. Abatia parviflora, Ruiz et Pavon |. c. 1. p. 136. Fi. Peruv. et Chil. tom. 5. ined. t. 464. Hab. in Peruvize runcationibus circa Muna vicum.—Ruiz et Pavon. hh. Floret a Maioad Augustum. Vulgo 'Taucca-Taucca. (V.s. sp. in Herb. Lam.) Folia magis canescentia, supra planiora. Flores dupld minores. La- cinie calycine ovato-oblonge. Situs racemorum in utraque idem. Species Bogotensis ab amicissimo Kunthio descripta videtur dis- tincta. Oss. Stamina quadruplum laciniarum calycinarum efficiunt, sed modo unusitato in simplici ordine disposita. Pili faucis ob forme struc- turzeque differentiam vix pro staminibus sterilibus desumpti. There is another genus, which M. De Candolle has placed in Homaline, namely Aristotelea, on which I beg to offer a few observations. . The comparison of this genus with 7'7i- cuspidaria leaves no doubt of its being a legitimate member of the family Elaocarpew. In both genera the calyx is five- lobed; the petals five, and alternating with the lobes of the ca- 122 M. C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the lyx; the stamens are inserted in the calyx; the anthers long, and opening at the top by two fissures; the leaves in both are generally opposite, of precisely the same structure, serrated at the margin, and furnished with innumerable minute pellucid dots ; the stipules are small and deciduous; the fruit in both is three-celled ; and the flowers are white and pendulous. The structure of the seeds in both genera is precisely similar, having a flat embryo placed in the centre of very copious fleshy albu- men. ‘The stigmata in 7'ricuspidaria are distinct, but united in Aristotelea, which has been hitherto considered as possessing a simple stigma. The leaves may more correctly be regarded as approximated in pairs than as decidedly opposite, and they are found often alternate, as might be expected, in both genera. ( T9 be concluded in our next. ) New Observations on the Blood-like Phenomena observed in Egypt, Arabia, and Siberia, with a View and Critique of the Early Accounts of Similar Appearances. By Mr C. G. EHRENBERG. Te blood-red colour of waters, and the scattered blood- coloured spots which have sometimes appeared so suddenly as to excite the wonder, and often the alarm, of the people of all ages, however much the scientific investigations of these things may have been gradually refined and confirmed, are still objects of much ambiguity ; and, even among learned men, the knowledge of the causes of this phenomenon is capable of farther extension, and of stricter demonstration. In my travels, I have had an, opportunity of collecting many facts regarding these appearances, that is, on the red éolout:éf ‘the Red Sea, on the blood spots in Egypt ; and, during the last journey which I, in company with Baron Humboldt, made to Siberia, on a very intense blood colour in a lake of the Steppe of Platow. I shall attempt to arrange these facts along with the appearances already known, so as to counteract the present disposition, created by Chladni, to refer all the historical accounts of blood-coloured masses to meteoric and cosmical appearances. As it is of consequence to - Blood-red Colour of Water. 123 distinguish, by the most accurate investigation, the appearances of this kind, which are indisputably meteoric; so, on the other hand, for the sake of comparison, it must be of consequence to know the genuine characteristics of such appearances as are not meteoric; and, although Chladni was so much inclined to en- large his catalogue of meteoric masses by including in it blood- like appearances on the earth’s surface, it is no easy matter to prove that even a single one of his examples are really meteoric. The explanation of the appearances of blood is historically divided into four periods, which may be called, 1st, The theo- cratic or period of miracles ; 2d, ‘The period of the Hippocratic school ; 3d, The physical or natural-historical ; and, 4¢h, The atmospherical or cosmical. The first period extends from the commencement of history till the time of Cicero. In the second, the admissibility of miracles was questioned, and a belief in a crude and boiled con- dition of atmospherical and terrestrial moisture was prevalent. Peiresc of Aix commenced the third period; and Chladni, who strongly reprehended the encroachments of natural historians in these matters, established the fourth. - We have the most ancient account of blood-coloured water from Egypt, in the books of Moses. That was an immediate operation of the Almighty, and one of the miracles which Moses performed in the presence of Pharaoh. The Nile was red, and stank ; the fishes died, and all the water in Egypt was changed in the same manner *. | After this, the poems of Homer mention the earliest appear- ance of a similar kind, or the poet took advantage of, at least repeated, the natural appearance of blood rain, known at that * Exodus, chap vii. ver. 19.—And the Lord spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all their pools of water, that they may become blood; and ¢hat there may be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels of wood, and in vessels of stone. Verse 20. And Moses and Aaron did so, as the Lord commanded : and he lift up the rod, and smote the waters that were in the river, in the sight of Pharaoh, and in the sight of his servants; and all the waters that were in the river were turned to blood. Verse 21. And the fish that was in the river died ; and the river stank, and the Egyptians could not drink of the water of the river ; and there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt. 124 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the time, for the purpose of enlivening his poetical representations, and considered it as a direct encroachment of the gods on the established laws of nature. : If the Red Sea really has its name from the colour, this would be the third historical notice, and is to be placed after that of Homer; but the old Jewish records do not call the Arabian Gulf the Red Sea; and it is called so only by the later translators of them from the Alexandrian. I have myself ob- served and examined the periodical appearance of blood-red sea- water in the Red Sea, and shall here briefly explain myself, but in another place more circumstantially. | This appearance is also frequently mentioned in the Greek and Roman classics; and, till those times, these phenomena were generally considered as immediate operations of supernatural power, and violatzons of the established laws of nature. Cicero was perhaps historically the first who expressed his doubts re- garding the preternaturality of the appearances of blood at that time, and attempted to connect these appearances with physical phenomena, by directing his attention to the error of confound- ing the expresss traces of blood, and of the bloody colouring of moisture; and he found the latter to depend on a mixture of coloured earthy ingredients. From this time till the commencement of the seventeenth century, historians have recorded many such natural phenomena, though we cannot discover that any one has taken the trouble of comprehensively and accurately investigating cases of this kind. | The Hippocratic school gave an absurd explanation; thus the physician Garczeus, in 1568, says, blood-rain is rain boiled by the sun, and compared it with red urine in fever. To introduce into this article Chladni’s important aim of ad- vancing tlie knowledge of truly cosmical and atmospherical ho- dies, it may be of advantage to bring together the notices he collected of appearances of blood, previous to the commencement of the seventeenth century, according to the following scheme, in which I take advantage not only of the work of Chladni, but also of the spirited labours of Nees von Esenbeck, to which I make some additions of my own. Blood-red Colour of Water. 125 -I. Rivers flowed suddenly with red or bloody water, with- out any previous rain of that colour. In 323 A. C. in Picenum ; in 787 P. C. in Italy. As no account is given of the locality of these rivers, it is doubtful whether both these instances may not be referred to the third rubric. Similar doubts exist regarding modern in- stances of this kind. Accurate investigations are every where awanting. | II. Lakes and stagnant waters were suddenly or gradually coloured, without previous blood-rain. Two such cases are found among the notices of early periods, collected by Chladni. The bloody colour of the Volsinian Lake, in 208 A. C., recorded by Livy. — The similar colour of a Venetian lake, in summer of the year 586 A.C. I find in Pliny, that there was a lake near Babylon, which had a red colour during eleven days of summer. The colouring of Lake Wan, in A. D. 1110, may perhaps belong toe this department, though it was considered to be caused by a fiery meteor falling into it. | Every appearance of this kind requires rigid examination, in regard to the very small cryptogamous plants, which, singly, are imperceptible to the naked eye, and whose colouring is visi- ble only when a great many of them are together, and also in regard to equally minute water animalcula. As the foregoing instances were not examined in these respects, they cannot with certainty, nay‘even with probability, be considered as atmosphe- rical productions. III. Meteoric substances, which are usually colourless, dew, rain, snow, hail, and what are called shot stars, fall from the air red coloured, as blood-dew, blood-rain, and clot- ted blood, without the atmosphere being obscured by red dust. (a) Blood-dew. - To this belong the two passages of Homer, which, however - poetical, are still applicable to rain, and some accounts of bloody sweat on the statues of the gods, and on warlike “armour, which I find mentioned in Livy. > 126 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the The want of accurate investigation of the cases mentioned, along with the predilection, in every age, for the marvellous, induce us rather to direct our attention to the red excrement of insects, than to local atmospherical depositions, so rare in our time. (5) Blood-rains, by which rivers simultaneously do or do not assume a red colour. Appearances of this description have at all times been abun- dantly observed, but very erroneously investigated. Many ac- counts of this kind have been related as prodigies in the Roman History, before Christ. Dio Cassius, in particular, considers that the blood-rain which fell in Egypt, in the time of Octavian, must be recorded as a thing very remarkable, because it never rained in Egypt, which is a mistake. In the year A. D. 65, during the reign of Nero, blood-rain fell, which tinged the rivers with a red colour. Two instances are recorded of blood-rain in the sixth century. In the eleventh century, one; in the twelfth, two; in the - thirteenth, one; in the fourteenth; two; in the fifteenth, one; and in the sixteenth, five. The chief difficulty m deciding these single instances, lies in this,—that the circumstances under which they happened are not related. Whether it rained from clouds or without clouds, whether the rain was intentionally caught, and thus proved to have fallen from the atmosphere; or whether, from red spots that were seen without or after rain, on objects of different kinds ; they merely concluded them to be drops of rain that had fallen. The accounts are so brief and inconclusive, sometimes accompanied with superstitious and manifestly false additions, that we may venture to refer the cases to terrestrial phenomena . quite within our reach. Whoever reflects how strange and trivial the cause of popular alarm is, in regard to any thing marvellous, may well hesitate in his inclination to draw any conclusive theory from such cases. Since Peirese, during a public alarm at Aix, directed his attention to them, every body knows that bees and butterflies, the one while extricating them- selves from the pupa, the other in their first flying forth. in spring, or after a long continuance of bad weather, let fall many drops of a red fluid, often in surprising quantities, and storms Blood-red Colour of Water. 127 uniformly favour the extrication of butterflies. ‘Though single instances may belong to the class of atmospheric phenomena, it is highly probable that others may be referred to the facts just stated ; and, as regards the former, there must always be, from a want of circumstantiality in the relation, a doubt whether they happened without red atmospherical dust, and do not perhaps belong to the fourth rubric. (c) Red snow and hail have been observed only in modern times. The latter is unquestionably atmospherical, but opinion is divided as to the former. ‘They are not of a blood colour, and may be easily referred to the fourth rubric. (d) Blood-jelly. Red gelatinous matter, like coagulated blood, scattered on the surface of the earth in spots or masses. Four instances of this kind have been recorded. The blood- rain at Balch; in 860; at Lucerne, in 1406; in Mannsfeld, in 1548 ; in Schlage, in Pomerania, in 1557. These cases were first observed some time after they were believed to have fallen from the atmosphere upon the earth ; and it hence remains doubtful whether they were ever in the atmosphere. Meteoric stones, indeed, suggest indications of atmospherical formation, but these gelatinous masses point out no indications of the kind. Indeed botanists themselvés are at variance with philosophers about the matter of shot-stars, which is commonly colourless, and the Tremella meteorica, which Meyen recently described as Actinomyce, may be readily taken for a shot-star, if both are generally capable of being discrimi- nated. It may be conceived that this is not necessary, and that the meteoric mass might assume the organic and vegetable struc- ture. To this it may be objected, that the specimens of Tremella meteorica, are frequently found of different sizes, without it being probable that they are remains of a shot-star, especially where they are small, and, as is commonly the case, occur attached to animal bodies, and even incorporated with them. It is therefore improbable that it is sometimes formed terrestrially and some- times meteorically, because the body exhibits too little charac- teristic peculiarity to owe its origin to circumstances so very 128 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the dissimilar. Besides, this supposes that the sudden origin of organic bodies from unorganized materials may be proved. As to the two cases of Lucerne and Mannsfeld, it is to be remembered, that, in the latter case, the blood-spots found on the soil, on the morning after the appearance and explosion of a fire-ball, admit of a very simple explanation, that, in search- ing for something extraordinary, as the sign of a mass that had fallen, another fungus was found, the 'Telephora sanguinea, which Agardh calls Palmella cruenta; and which, on account of its entirely superficial extension on moist ground, and from its striking colour, exhibited completely the appearance of spots of blood. The thick gelatinous masses of both the other cases is distin- guished from the usual matter of shot-stars, the Tremella me- teorica, by their red colour. It would therefore be of import- ance to examine whether similar appearances are any thing else than this, with a particular difference of colour; whether they are definitely marked by a peculiar structure ; or whether, in the absence of any structure, it can be perceived to be an inorganic meteoric concrement,—a matter hitherto undecided. These considerations do not indeed account for every case, but may contribute to a comprehensive conception of such ap- pearances, a multitude of uncertain accounts being of no value; while single cases, rigidly investigated, give a distinct and satise factory form to their connection. | IV. The atmosphere is loaded with red dust, by which the rain accidentally assumes the appearance of blood-rain, in consequence of which rivers and stagnant waters abs pear of a red colour. ' This red dust has been five times observed, viz. 1. In the time of the Emperor Michael III. at Brixen, 869 A. D.; 2. At Bagdat, 929 A. D.; 3. In the Crusades, 1096 A. D.; 4, By a - meteor falling into the Lake Van, 1110 A. D.; 5. At Rome, during the blood-rain which fell at Viterbo, 1222 A. D. | This kind of appearance belongs more probably to inorganic than to organic nature; and it is to be regretted that the ac- counts are so very unsatisfactory. So much for animadversion on the meritorious Chladni’s pi 4 Blood-red Colour of Water. Mg lected accounts of meteors from ancient times till the seventeenth century. As has been already observed, Peiresc of Aix was very much celebrated, in his time, for his various knowledge, he being the ~ first who, at the commencement of the seventeenth century, by judicious investigation, removed a great portion of the supersti- tion and error which existed regarding the appearances of blood. When, in the year 1608, what was supposed to be a shower of blood, gave great alarm to the inhabitants of Aix, in France, and the clergy increased the alarm, Peiresc took the trouble of searching out the real cause of the appearance, when he found that butterflies, which at that time appeared in vast numbers, after their escape from their pupa tegument, let fall some drops of a red liquid, which caused the bloody spots. As these spots were - observed in covered places, not accessible to rain, but accessible to butterflies, there can be no doubt about the correct concep- tion and explanation of the phenomenon, and a comparison of similar and earlier accounts affords the satisfactory result, that they also happened at a season of the year that countenances this explanation. The observation of Peiresc has lately found _ Its way into all schools and compendiums ; and hence arose the erroneous opinion of less observant philosophers, that every ap- pearance of blood-rain was caused by the sloughing of insects. In the middle of the same century, Swammerdam (who died in 1685), in a journey near Vincennes, in France, saw a kind of bloody water, at the sight of which he was astonished. He was naturally led to examine it more minutely, when he found that it was coloured by innumerable multitudes of small red water- fleas (Daphnia pulex); and, on this occasion, related that an appearance, which owed its origin to the same cause, and which greatly alarmed the inhabitants of Leyden, had been observed and known by the professor of medicine, M. Schuyl. Bibl. der Natur. s. 40. In the eighteenth century, the knowledge of these appearances has been extended by similar careful investigations. Romberg, Dr Westphal of Delitzch, the missionary Gonsay, who was in California in 1746, Linnzeus, De Saussure, Girod Chantran, and others, have partly become the inventors of new methods of explanation, partly the influential corroborators and promoters OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. I 130 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the of the mode of explanation already known. In 1'700, Romberg observed a shower of blood, that excited universal attention, and which he could the more satisfactorily show to be produced by the first flying forth, and the casting of bees, the more evidently that the phenomenon in the place around the bee-hives themselves was remarkably striking. In 1711, the Rev. Mr Hildebrandt found insects in red rain- water, at Orsice, in Sweden. In 1716, Dr Westphal, of Delitzch, observed red spots on the leaves of plants at Grafenhainchen, not far from Delitzch and Wittenberg. He was not inclined to consider them the produe- tion of insects, but real red dew, coloured by a combination of sulphur. The missionary Gonsag, by observation in 1'746, bedaphe forward a new method of explaining the appearance of red wa- ter, which Klaproth introduced, but seems to have misunder- stood it. According to the Spanish original, Gonsag saw at California, hot springs in the sea, which were visible at the ebb of the tide, but covered at full flood by the sea. During full tide, the sea at that place appeared, to the extent of two miles and a half, of a bluish-red colour. Here there was evidently a chemical operation of the sea-water mingling with the —— water. Linneus also observed, that water, with a red soled like blood, may be produced by an immense increase of small red aquatic animals, which he, with Swammerdam, takes to be the Monoculus pulex. Agardh, however, has recently dissented from this opinion, believing the animal to be the Cyclops qua- dricornis, which is a similar, but yet a very different animal, and which he himself observed in Sweden, under similar ‘cir. cumstances ; while the Monoculus pulex is never of a lively red colour. Schceffer, in his Treatise on the Water-flea (s. 53), takes it for the Monoculus pulex ; therefore both animals must be referred to, as it is not to be supposed that a number of na- turalists, of close observation, should have committed the sanie error. I have never myself, indeed, had an opportunity of seeing the Monoculus (Daphnia) pulex of a lively red colour, though _T have yearly observed blood-red marsh-water coloured by the Cyclops.—Agardh, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. xii. 2, p. 738. Blood-red Colour of Waiter. 131 Linnzus also, in his journey through West Gotha, appears to have first observed the colouring substance, which, in red snow, has recently caused so much investigation. As the red rain at Brussels in 1646 had been tested by a dis- tillation of the water, Dr Thomas Rau, in the same manner, made chemical experiments on the bloody rain-water at Ulm, of 15th November 1755. He indeed believed that the then fa- vourite mechanical mixture of sulphur with water might be in- ferred from his experiments; but, from them, it is more probable that the colour was caused by organic corpuscula in the water. Both cases appear very similar, and, by a more rigid. and. com- prehensive investigation, might have afforded a very different result.—Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. i. p. 85, seq. The blood-rain at Lucarno, in the south of Switzerland, of 14th October 1755, was connected with red atmospheric dust, and is hence of great importance to Meteorology.—Jbid. At the same time there fell remarkable blood-coloured water, caused by volcanic operations. The springs near the city of Mequinez, west of Fez, after a great volcanic explosion, flowed - alternately with red coloured water.—ZJbid. p. 90. In seamen’s journals that treat of appearances of blood in sea- water, we must take into consideration the possibility of very large marine animals actually shedding blood, that may colour a calm sea to a considerable extent. Johnson, de Piscibus, takes notice of this appearance im a unicorn fish, whence it is quoted by Baeck, in his treatise on the sword-fish (Istiophorus) —Acta. Nat. Cur. viii. p. 212. De Saussure, in 1760, first examined, ahenhollyy the colour- ing matter of the red snow, and found it to be a vegetable mass, on which account he was erroneously inclined to take it for the pollen of flowers.—Voyage dans les Alpes, ii. § 646. © Towards the conclusion of the 18th century, observers wit- nessed other causes of blood colours. In 1790, a pond at Gie- bichenstein, not far from Halle, exhibited a blood-red colour. On this occasion Weber observed that the colour was caused. by very small microscopic animals, whose figure resembles that of Miiller’s Cercaria viridis. Wagner, Naturkunde & Lander- merkw, 1. Th. p. 143. In 1797 Girod Chantran, who observed an entirely sémilar ap. 12 - 132 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the pearance in France, examined it more accurately, and thereby opened a new field for investigation. He observed the water of a pond to be of a brilliant red colour (rouge eclatant), the shade of which was between cinnabar and carmine. It fortunately oc- curred to him, not only to prove the colour of the water chemi- cally, but also to observe it with the microscope; and, as. We- ber discovered, he found that the cause of the colour was, in animalculz, not visible to the naked eye.’ He took them for a species of the volvox, having some affinity to the Volvox glo- bator, but still very different. These are the first facts by which we are informed that real infusoria could, in early times, cause alarm among whole districts and communities. Girod Chantran attempted to colour the magnified delineations of these animalculee with their own bodies, using them as a pigment, and was so enthusiastic about the beautiful and vivid colour, that he recommended the preparation of them as a very lucrative specu- lation, proposing that artificial lakes should be formed, capable of being dried at pleasure, to obtain the valuable colouring matter. Noone had before raised the infusoria to so high a political value. He calls this red infusory animal Volvox lacustris, but has not described it more minutely.—Bullet. des. Sc. Nat. de la Soc. Philomatique. a. 6. Ww As every department of science has made great progress in the 19th century, the knowledge of these appearances, and me their various causes, has been greatly extended. Persoon examined a matter entirely similar to coagditdd blood, that appeared on damp soil on road sides, and found that it had a vegetable structure, and belonged to the species of mushroom called Thelephora, on which account he, in 1801, described it under the name of Thelephora sanguinea. Fries has lately joined it with the (Thelephora) Phylacteria crustacea, and Agardh has more recently described it as an Alga, under the name Palmella cruenta. The reddish salt-beds which Andreossy observed in the na- tron lakes of Upper Egypt, are not so closely related to these appearances, though I find them brought forward by Linck as an instance of blood-red water. In my journey with Humboldt, I saw a similar rose-red colour in the salt lake Elton, in the steppe of Astracan; it did not apparently belong to the water, Blood-red Colour of Water. 133 but to the salt, and faded on being dried.—Descr. de Eq. H.. Etat. Moderne, t. i. p. 279; Linck, Phys. Erdbeschreib. 1. s. 328. Science, in this respect, cacapnied very important additions in 1815, when an appearance of this kind in a lake near to Lubo- tin, in the south of Prussia, excited the attention of the people. Red, violet or grass-green spots were observed in the lake. It was the end of harvest. In winter the ice was coloured with it three lines in thickness on the surface, while beneath it was colourless. The inhabitants in the neighbourhood, like the Greeks in Homer, and the Arabians at Kaswini, prognosticated great misfortunes from the appearance. It fortunately happened during the active labours of the chemist Klaproth, who took an opportunity of as- certaining the chemical ingredients of the colour... He found that an albuminous vegetable matter, with a particular colouring matter very similar to indigo, produced the appearance, and concluded the decomposition of vegetables in harvest to be the cause of the appearance, which could therefore only take place in harvest... The transition of colour, from green to violet and red, Klaproth explained by the absorption of more or less oxy- gen. This fact shows how a chemist of accurate observation may be able to discern the real nature of organic matter, and where the investigations of the botanist must cease. It is very probable, that, in locality and position, a botanist, practised i in the examination of microscopic bodies, would: not have disco- vered decayed vegetable matter, but perfect vegetables. The transportation of the water to Berlin in close vessels, must indeed have entirely destroyed them, and their colour may thereby have mingled more intimately with the water. Scoresby mentions _that, in 1820, he observed the water of the Greenland sea striped. alternately ‘with green and blue, and that the particular colours were produced by small animalcule. He reckoned in a single drop of water 26,450 animalcules; hence reckoning 60 drops toa drachm, there would be in a gallon a number one half of the population of the globe. - This coloured water, to an extent of 6° of latitude, formed one-fourth of the surface of the Greenland sea. The animalcule observed by Scoresby, were small medusa- like creatures, from one-third to two-thirds of a line in length. The water had the smell of oysters.—Scoresby’s Acc. of the _ 134 Mr C. G. Ehrenberg’s Observations on the Arctic Regions, vol. i. This observation does not indeed im- mediately belong to the bloody colour of water ; but,'as it clearly indicates the abundance of microscopic organization in the sea, it was thought advisable to attend to it. Though a variety of observations had been made at an earlier period on red snow, the voyage of the English Captain Ross in 1818 and 1820, afforded particular facilities for a varied and fundamental examination of this subject... The red moun- tains in Baffin’s Bay, of 6 English miles long and 600 feet high, showed that their colour was caused by large flakes of red snow scattered upon them; and this phenomenon has not merely been noticed, but the colourmg substance has been ‘col- lected for examination. It was. at first taken for birds’ mute. Francis’ Bauer, a microscopic and botanical investigator, «and the chemists Wollaston and Thenard, kept the substance for examination. Robert Brown, Hooker, Sprengel,» Agardh, De Candolle, and Chladni, have given their opinions concerning: it, and, more recently, many other naturalists and philosophers. All, with the exception of Chladni, agree that the. colouring matter is a vegetable substance; and botanists unanimously declare it to be not a decomposed dead substance, but a livmg vegetable organization. It has been variously arranged by au- thors, hence have arisen the following synonyms for the colours ing body. “Is the Uredo nivalis of Bauer a genus of Alga? By what affinity is it connected with the Confervis’ simplicissimis, and. the Tremella cruenta ?) Robert Brown : Palmella nivalisy Hooker: Lepraria kermesina, Wrangel: Protococcus kermesi- nus, Agardh : Chlorococcwm, Fries: Vaucheriee radicate aflinis,, Sprengel: Alga, Ulvis et Nostoc affinis, De Candolle: Spherella nivalis, Sommerfield : Protococcus nivalis, Agardh. 'The -last mentioned name must be distinguished from that of ‘the: more complicated Protococcus nivalis, which Greville received) from Captain Carmichael from the shores of the island of Lismore, which Agardh ‘considers as an anil, genus, and calls it Hee- matacoceus Grevillii. We cannot admit the phantastie opinions, ‘that :these' Bodies are formed in ‘the’ snow through the influence of-the solar rays, but consider them as foreign bodies brought from:atiother situa- tion ‘and deposited on the snow; and, by'tlie melting of which, Blood-red Colour of Water. 135 they collect in masses, and thus produce the red-coloured patches. In melting snow, we in general observe, every year, that al- though it appears dazzlingly white before it melts, yet it may soon be perceived during its melting, to disclose traces of dust which has been mixed with it by the motion of the atmosphere, and which gradually assumes a darker earthy hue, and at length produces a spotted black surface. It is very probable that the snow-plant, during sunshine, may still farther develope itself and increase. Most botanists agree in this, that these bodies belong to a kind of Alga. Bauer alone says that they are of a mushroom form, of the genus Uredo; and Wrangel, that they are of the lichen form, of the genus Lepraria. The observations of Wrangel are too convincing to be overlooked. Agardh has looked upon the matter in the same light ; but it appears to me that with these must be conjoined the observations.of the Prior Biselx of St Bernhard, Charpentier, Meisner and Chladni, and which throw into the back ground the doctrine of equivocal generation. The idea of infusory animals is to be entirely re- jected. The preservation of these red bodies in snow-water for the space of five years, according to the testimony of Agardh, seems to me opposed to the nature of alga, and would rather prove that they are bodies which do not belong to the element of alge, and which do not develope themselves in it. As land vegetables, they belong either to the lichen or the mushroom. The sim- plicity of the structure ranks them closely with the mushrooms, and no good reason appears why they may not be denominated Lepraria nivalis. In my Silvis Mycologicis I proposed this arrangement, and I have, after frequent repeated ‘observation, still the same idea. At the commencement of the year 1819, Chladni wrote his celebrated work on fiery meteors, which I here particularly re- fer to. He was at that time acquainted with the-chemical: ana- lysis of the substance in Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, J anuary 1819, and with Bauer’s botanical explanation of the colouring body. . The former, which proceeded from the con- jecture that the substance might be bird’s mute, to which the om 1386 Dr Latta’s Observations on the Greenland Sea, experiments were always directed, but which terminated in the result that it was a vegetable mass, and probably a cryptoga- mous plant, had irritated Chladni to sucha degree, that he complained, sect. 383, of the valuable meteoric dust being thus wasted by the absurd interference of chemists. Insect. .885, he says that chemists and physicians pretend to know the qua- lities and origin of this material better than naturalists. + (To be concluded in next Number:) Observations on the Greenland Sea as connected with the late Disasters in Baffin's Bay*. By Tuomas Latra, M.D. ~ Member of the Wernerian Society, with a Map... Commu- nicated by the Author. nihsabeiol Ir is only thirteen years since the higher latitudes of Baffin’s Bay have become famous in the annals of the whale-fishery, and, during that short period, no less than seventy sail, .em- ployed by our own countrymen in that trade, have been de- stroyed, causing not only a national loss in the destruction of much valuable property, but great misery to the numerous families who were dependent on.the success of the various en- terprises.. The frequency of these disasters may be considered as a sufficient apology for our presuming to suggest such means as may tend to diminish the chance of their recurrence. It is true we cannot form any plan, consistent with the prosperity of the voyage, by which the dangers may be entirely averted, be- cause these, for the most part, depend on the movements of the ice, which are very irregular, being controlled by every. wind that blows; yet, on viewing the peculiarities of the track, pur- sued by the navigator, and considering the changes. effected in these by the advances of the season, we may be able to propose some changes, calculated to diminish the. risks inseparable from the present system. * Dr Latta having visited the Greenland Seas, as our conn will ‘Teool. lect from his former papers in this Journal, his observations may be received as those of one experienced in the nature of arctic regions. us PLATE Iv. Edin? new Phil Jour-N°XIX p43 6 % s S s Map shewing the distribution of the Ice in Davis Straits and Baffin s Bay with the Routes of the Whale fishers. Oy Biue colour represents open Sea 96 Brown D? Land z 3° White D2Ice as tt apearsingeneral in the $a Sept 80 month of Aug.” & Sep ,,° \ 70 60 50 ' : / schssrafse. f fee As ats pae\ > . Ungava bay ya wey : oe: \ > . ae \ | s. \ e = | Rey 4k . | - 55 Ey 1e spilt Wee ~es fying caw ‘cielo abe ia a | POET a ph ay ings ge: eh ain ; oe) Bs - f y | , coy pea deh “She Fy es ‘ ay (Shh . = is 4 ’ +i : BUS jae i. fe ; ia ide wuteae: ti, eg’ ‘a i# rae S52P AR 4 Oo a a ee A 7453 so ae oa * eel oy re a ; je “iio. id aaa re yy ar pe be tite A Wines oe cae ce ye oy Me vs i ae a fda ie os ji as connected with the late Disasters in Baffin’s Bay. 187 - In the history of the whale-fishery, there are mentioned three different quarters in and adjoming Baffin’s Bay, which are visited for the capture of whales. The first of these lies along the east side of the bay, extending from the entrance of Davis’ Straits northward by Disco, to about the 73d parallel of lati- tude. ‘The southern half of this tract is generally open early in the season; whilst its more northern extremity is seldom navi- gable till late in July, and is even then very hazardous. It was in former yéars numerously frequented by whales, but is now entirely deserted by them. ‘The second station, usually called the “ South-west Fishing-ground,” lies along the coast of Lab- _ rador, and about the entrance of Hudson’s Straits. 'Though this, from its position, is accessible at all times, yet the whale- fishery is prosecuted there under many disadvantages, and not a few dangers ; for not only have the whales become very scarce, but they are to be seen only in spring, when the weather is ex- tremely cold, and the nights long and dark, and are to be pur- sued occasionally among heavy-washed lumps of ice, exposed to all the fury of the waves from the Atlantic. This station'was the chief source whence blubber was derived this season. Fisher- men, however, seldom do more than call at this quarter on their way northward. Indeed, during the present ‘season, some of our most enterprising fishermen considered such a visit as'a waste of time, and, on doubling Cape Farewell, took their course directly northward. From the scarcity of ‘ fish” on the coast of Labrador, and the absence of them along the eastern shores © of Baffin’s Bay, whale-hunters are now constrained to seek their prey in higher latitudes, pursuing it even to the regions adjoin- ing Lancaster Sound, which is the ¢hird station we have to no- tice. Whales are found there in great abundance, but they are yearly becoming more scarce, and much more shy than when first fished. ‘Though this station was discovered by Baffin up- wards of 200 years ago, it did not become famous for its whales till 181'7, when Mr Muirhead, master of the Larkins of Bor- rowstounness, penetrated these unfrequented regions. Encour- aged by a “clean ship” and a navigable sea, he sailed north- ward, at what, in those days, was considered a late season,—the beginning of August, much to the terror of the crew, who, nevertheless, filled the ship with blubber in ten days! In the . 138 Dr Latta’s Observations on the Greenland Sea, . following year (1818) the Discovery Ships, commanded by Cap- tain Ross, penetrated the deeper parts of Baffin’s Bay, and found them swarming with whales. Since that discovery this fishing- ground has been annually resorted to by our whalers, notwith- standing the manyfold perils of the voyage, of which we shall now endeavour to give a general view. The whaler of the present day generally reaches the ice at the entrance of Davis’ Straits about the end of March or begin- ning of April, amidst fogs and tempests, extreme cold, and long dark nights. He immediately commences his search after whales, hoping to find them in their ancient haunts, but seldom meeting with any thing to encourage his delay; he, through the inju- dicious orders of his employers, or his own misguided. zeal, im- mediately stretches northward towards the regions where whales are abundant. ~Two routes lead thither, the one along the eastern, the other along the western side of Baffin’s Bay, the sea in the middle being, at this: early season, totally unnavigable,, from the vast quantity of ice formed during winter. Being aware of the great advantage of an unimpeded western passage, his first business is to seek it out. There the sea is sometimes opened by the south-west wind, which, as in the Spitzbergen seas, prevails during spring and summer, driving the ice off the land. He very seldom succeeds so early in the: season, and: in the attempt is in great hazard. of being ‘ beset,” for unless) the wind prevents it, he will always find the western. shores of the sea, in the frozen regions, more hampered with ice than the eastern. Besides, the irregularities of the coast of the west land, and the course of the great southerly current, which is only sensibly felt there, are very inimical to such an attempt... From Home Bay, in Latitude 68° N., down to the Arctic Circle, the. land stretches out into the bay, forming a promontory, which is opposed to the course of the current. ‘This promontory, assisted by the many icebergs ‘stranded on its shallows, arrests the drifts ing ice, to the hinderance of the navigator’s farther progress, who, anxious to reach: the waters where whales: abound,)is in- duced to try the more dangerous eastern passage, which, though pregnant throughout» with difficulties, does not. become _emi~ nently perilous until-he gets beyond what, constituted the north- ern limits of the station’ frequented by the ‘old. fishermen, who as connécted with the late Disasters in Baffin’s Bay. 189 had always a superstitious dread of the latitude of The Devil's Thumb. Beyond this he has daily to contend with increasing dangers, compared with which the hazards of the Spitzbergen fishery are very insignificant, and, as he nears Melville Bay, hg gets into a region, bearing both on sea and land, the most fright- ful impress of the terrible power of the dismal winter in those forlorn regions. ‘Throughout several hundred miles of coast, the soil is buried under mountains of ice, which must have been accumulating for ages; the seaward limits of this tract terminate - ina terrible precipice, from one to two thousand feet high, frag- ments from which, weighing thousands of millions of tons, con- stitute the icebergs seen drifting about in the sea, and often aground in water some hundred of fathoms deep.. From the cavernous base of this frozen shore, an icy plain in many places takes its origin, stretching ten or twenty leagues out to'sea, re- taining its site unmoved, till subdued by the warmth of advan- cing summer. Field-ice of this description, studded with ice-. bergs aground, which assist in its formation, is common on the shores of Baffin’s Bay, and the coast of Old Greenland, whence it is called “ Land Ice,” to distinguish it from the fields, floes, icebergs, &c., which are seen drifting about in the sea, and are called ‘‘ Sea-Ice.” The former is fixed, the latter is de- tached, differences on. which depends the possibility of. navi- gating these regions in spring, for all along the: eastern shore, unless prevented by adverse winds, the separated ice recedes from that which is fixed ; thus, a channel is formed along the seaward limits of the land portion, increasing in width as the ice is dissolved. It is through this channel that the whale-fisher pushes his way northward ; but, in early months, the ice con- tinuing uninfluenced by the season, this opening is at best but narrow, often partially obstructed, affording only a tedious and intricate’ navigation 5 frequently it is entirely obliterated, caus- ing a most irksome detention for weeks, and even months. - Nor, is this all, for in proportion to the strength of the gale, so is the force with which the ice is hurried towards the shore, then the situation of the mariner caught in the drift becomes one of ex- treme ‘anxiety. While yet a little “* open water” remains, he seeks. the lee of some iceberg aground, or ‘some ‘creek: in ‘the margin of ‘the land-ice, or of the big field or floe which drifts 140 Dr Latta’s Observations on the Greenland Sea, down upon him, into which he may thrust his ship. If no situation is found, the crew ply their ice-saws, and cut out a dock, where they may safely remain till the ice recedes. . Such a situation in the land-ice, if it is sufficiently strong, is prefer- able, being free from the revolving movements of the detached masses. Often, however, their labour 1s unavailing, their re- treat, obtained by so much exertion, being unable to sustain the tremendous pressure, is rent in pieces, and the ship it contains destroyed. Melville Bay, the vortex in which our ships are usually engulfed, is very formidable, on account of the occur- rence there of such phenomena. It is quite unsheltered from the prevailing winds of the season, which fill it with the ice of the neighbouring sea; it is at the same time protected by the form of the land, from the influence of the currents, which, in the open sea and along the western shores, are ever in opera- tion, carrying off the ice to the southward. . In this bay, hope- less indeed is the case of the ship, pent up among accumulating ice, and caught by the tempest. Seamanship is utterly un- ayailing, the destruction of the stoutest ship is the work of a moment, and the crew is abandoned to all the miseries of a fearful climate and a snow-covered region. It was in this bay that the Isabella and Alexander, dane ships, were frequently in great jeopardy. Particularly, on one occasion, during a south-westerly gale, the ice was forced in upon the ships with such violence, that every support threatened to give way. The beams in the hold. began to bend, the iron tanks settled together, and the Isabella was lifted up several feet ; fortunately the ice receded, and she was liberated ; but so violent was the gale, that her anchors and cables broke one after another, and she ran foul of the Alexander with a tremendous crash, breaking anchors and tearing away their chain-plates. In this dilemma, they perceived a field of ice, bearing down on them, and a reef .of icebergs fast aground on the lee... They endeavoured. to saw docks in the field, but fortunately it was too thick for their longest saws, for the ships had scarce escaped when the part of the field chosen for the dock came in contact with a berg with such violence, that, notwithstanding its great thickness, it rose more than fifty feet up the icy precipice, then suddenly broke, the elevated part tumbling back with a tre- as connected with the late Disasters in Baffin’s Bay. 14) mendous crash, and overwhelming with its ruins the very spot previously chosen for safety. During the present season, our whaling fleet encountered un- paralled disasters in this bay. The storm blew furiously from the south, driving before it congregated fields, floes and jice- bergs. The mariner viewed the coming evil with dismay, and placed his frail bark in the ice-haven he had cut’ in the field that was fixed on his lee, beneath the further verge of which the waves lay in slumber in the dark icy caves that skirt Melville Bay. ‘The ice was urged onward in wild disorder, with fear- ful grinding noises, until the frozen masses coalescing, the pres- sure became so great as to overcome every resistance. In the midst of such agitations, many an unfortunate whaler was destroyed: some were fairly pressed out of the water, the ice piercing their sides, then recoiling, the vessel sank into the deep. One ship was pushed under the bottom of another, yet they both righted when the pressure subsided. In another case, the ship was thrown on her beam ends, and the field in motion went right over her—she was abandoned as a wreck, and, according to the laws for regulating the whale-fishery, became the property of any one. A gang of plunderers sawed her out, and, in de- fiance of the authority of their masters, possessed themselves of therum casks. They revelled in all the gloriés of inebriation; in defiance of the rigour of a Greenland climate, until an end was put to the strange scene by a change of weather and want’of rum. | There can be little doubt that Melville Bay is never free from ice ; nay, it is highly probable that it is at all seasons as much in- cumbered with it as any quarter of Baffin’s Bay—a supposition which is not only favoured by its geographical position, but is also corroborated by the experience of our mariners. It will also be remembered, that poor Sacheuse, who accompanied Captain Ross, on being interrogated hy the Arctic Highlanders who in- habit the regions north of Melville Bay, informed them he came from the south, they disbelieved the assertion, saying there was nothing but ice there. The ice in this bay was unusually abundant during the present season ; and it is more than pro- bable, that the southerly wind had prevailed for many months previous, because the ice of last winter’s formation was much 142 Dr Latta’s Observations on the Greenland Sea, lighter than usual, in consequence of the atmosphere having been rendered more temperate by the currents of warmer: air coming up from the south. If the wind really did prevail from that quarter, it follows that no ice could escape from Baffin’s Bay, but would accumulate there, completely covering the sea, which might have been the cause why so many whales were seen in the open sea to the south-westward. We may also mention, in corroboration of this supposition, that when our shipwrecked mariners, having travelled over the ice, reached the shore, they found, in the huts, the unburied bodies of the native families, who had apparently all perished from famine, having, in all pro- bability, been deprived of the opportunity ‘of catching those sea animals on which they live, by the drifting in of ei ice on ‘the coast by the continued southerly wind. _ The whale-fisher seldom spends less than three, ill four, tedious months in “ boring, warping, and’ sawing” his ‘way through the entanglements of this’ icy channel, ‘and: if he escapes shipwreck or permanent detention, ‘he arrives at'an open sea to the westward, entering’ on the scene of his-whaling opera- tions about the end of July. The whales commonly remain in these regions till August‘is well advanced, when they take their departure southwards. Adjoining Lancaster Sound, as had been noticed by Baffin himself, the Jand-ice under the sea li mits, of which whales take refuge, is commonly’ still fast’ to the shore,—there the whaler commences a brisk attack on his prey, —soon completes his cargo,—and in a few weeks, with a merry heart, prepares to return home. © The masses of ice which cause so much embarrassment in his outward passage, have now yield- ed to the benign influence of the ‘season, and the ease of his voyage homewards forms a pleasing’ ‘contrast with his: former toils, and the same navigation which cost him months of anxious labour before, is now effected in a few days. Now, what does such’a view suggest? Our ships: sail aboiit the end of February or beginning of March; reach: the: ice early in April, and: generally’ do nothing till the beginning of August.’ They are détained “all “that time by the ice, which every hour threatens them with destruction, and which is reduc- ed to an atom of what’ it was" by the time they are clear of it. Very little of the ice is destroyed ‘during March, April, and 4 as connected with the late Disasters in Baffin’s Bay. 148 May; it is the warmth of June, and especially of July and August, that melts and breaks it up; so that a vessel entering Davis’ Straits early in July, will probably reach Lancaster - Sound as soon as if she had followed the present plan, and _ started three or four months earlier. By such arrangement, the tract through Melville Bay, by this time rendered much less dangerous, might, in most seasons, be altogether avoided ; for, at this advanced period of the year, much of the ice having been drifted out into the Atlantic, and the remainder reduced. by the warmth of the atmosphere, and spread abroad upon the surface of the sea, may very probably permit a passage across to the west land -in a lower latitude *. This arrangement evidently possesses great advantages over that at present pursued. By it the period of the voyage might be shortened one-third, pro- ducing the saving of an equal proportion of wages and provi- sions, and perhaps a reduction of premium of assurance would be the consequence, because the gales, fogs, heavy ice, and long dark nights of spring, would be avoided, much tear and wear would be saved, and the risk of loosing the vessel much dimi- nished. ) _ Tam aware that there are arguments in favour of early voy- ages of no trifling importance ; thus, there is a ‘chance of falling in with a few of the scattered fish which may sometimes haunt the south-west fishery ground, and as these are to be met with only in the beginning of spring, an early voyage becomes indis- pensable. But it must be kept in view, that whales are’ ge- nerally very scarce in that quarter; that they often desert it entirely, and are numerous only on rare occasions, or when the sea to the northward is not open. Thisstation is also disadvan- tageous, by being exposed to the storms of the Atlantic; with heavy and washed ice, circumstances unfavourable fer the * Such a course was followed by Captain Parry with little opposition, though it must be mentioned, that the Dundee of London three or four years ago, attempting such in a still lower latitude, got endocked in a floe during a gale, where she was frozen fast and detained through the winter; the crew were supplied with provision from the wreck of a Dutchman who, under si. milar circumstances, had been abandoned. The Dundee was carried by the drifting ice through Davis’ Straits, and was not liberated till the spring of the following year. . ; 144 Dr Latta’s Observations on the Greenland Sea, whale-fishery. It thus rests with those who engage in this but - siness, to judge whether the advantages of an early voyage more than counterbalance the numerous disadvantages attending it. Very few captures of late years have been made on the south- west fishing-ground ; so few, indeed, that some of our experi- — enced fishermen consider it a waste of time to visit it. Indeed, on mature deliberation, we doubt not but every one who knows any thing of the business will condemn the present disastrous system. Every year our fleets make hair-breadth escapes,— every year one or two vessels are lost, but such evil being small in proportion to the risk, is actually little thought of. It is on- ly when the calamity becomes general, as has been the case this season,—when ten, a dozen, or a score of vessels are crushed to pieces,—when fifty or a hundred thousand pounds’ worth of property is sent to the bottom of the sea,—when we have eight hundred or a thousand families thrown destitute for the winter, some bereft of a father, a brother, or a son,—and when oil rises to fifty or sixty pounds a ton: It is only after such complicated misfortune that we hear of it, and that too with a vengeance. Having thus given a brief sketch of the prominent peculia- rities of this perilous voyage, and adduced ample reasons why the present plan of conducting it should be abandoned, we shall conclude our remarks for the present, by recommending to the enterprising, a method by which the valuable produce of Baffin’s Bay may probably be obtained with comparatively little risk. It is the opinion of experienced fishermen, who have spent half their lives in Greenland, that the sea in the higher lati- tudes of Baffin’s Bay, if it freezes at all, is covered with ice late, — and is very early broken up. Adjoining Lancaster Sound, across to the Arctic Highlands, and down along the. western shores of the bay, towards the 68° of latitude, they find it always free from ice. In the above opinion, they are supported by the ex- istence of tribes of Esquimaux inhabiting the head of the bay, who are dependent on an.open sea for subsistence, who told Sacheuse, that they were the only people in the world, and that the water adjoining their territory, was the only place free from ice, rendered it necessary in their opinion, that Sacheuse and 2 as connected with the late Disasters in Baffin’s Bay. 145 his friends. must have come from the moon. Indeed, if we re- flect on the direction of the currents in the bay, and that there, as in Spitzbergen sea, northerly gales may prevail during the more inclement months, we may conclude, that, notwithstand- ing the lowness of the temperature of the water, it should be nearly free from ice *. Now this open space has been found most abundantly frequented by whales, and is perfectly habit- able. If so, a number of men suitably equipped might establish themselves on the coast, passing the winter, and during the pro- per season might secure abundance of blubber, as they were wont in former times, on the shores of Spitzbergen, and so fur- nish cargoes for vessels visiting the country at a safe season of the year, manned with no more hands than what would be suf- ficient for their navigation. Independent of the wealth pro- duced by the sea, the land abounds in black, white and red foxes, whose skins are valuable, being covered with a soft fur. No doubt such an establishment could not flourish over a few years, as the whale, wise beast! soon deserts the scene of persecution. Nevertheless, at present it might be a speculation of importance, not only to those who engage in it, but might prove useful also to the miserable natives, who, amidst the most severe privations, have continued so long in this forlorn part of the earth as to have outlived even the tradition of their origin. Acquaintance with Europeans might be the means of contributing to their comforts, and of rendering their residence in the Arctic Highlands more human. But these poor creatures, abandoned to their fate in this corner of the frozen north, if not destined to die out, can never in such a situation be otherwise than low in the scale of civilization. The whale-fishery has not yet been, prosecuted in Hudson’s * “« That these north-east gales are sometimes very severe, is demonstrated by a discovery made by Captain Ross, whilst exploring the west side of the entrance to Lancaster Sound,—there we found the skeleton of a whale full 500 yards above high water mark. It had doubtless been thrown dead on the beach, and when the storm blew from the north-east, the train of ice-fields was drifted on the shore, and by the violence of the pressure, the ice-ledge was slid over the land, shoving before it the whale’s carcass. We have wit- nessed similar phenomena on the shores of Spitzbergen.”—This we consider to be an important geological fact.—EnirT. ; OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. K 146 Dr-Craigie’s Observations on the Straits, a circumstance rather to be wondered at, as the voy- age must necessarily be less hazardous than that to ‘Lancaster Sound, since, according to Captain Parry, Fox Channel at the head of the Straits is not only free from ice during summer, but swarming with whales, unconscious of danger. ‘This is certain- ly arich field for future adventure. The entrance to the Straits is for the most part inaccessible. till August, being hampered with icebergs driven about by the waves of the ocean ; these be- come less numerous, and more insignificant, with the progress to the westward, until they entirely disappear, when the chief ob- struction lies in the floe ice, which had been formed in vane, then in a state of rapid solution. | rey LeitTH, Nov. 30. 1830. y ‘th 4 ey Observations on the History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. By Davip Cratcrz, M.D. &c. Communicated “by the Author *. £46? Aton , of Few sciences have undergone greater vitiseitadestt in their pro- gressive advancement, than that of comparative or animal ana+ tomy. Originating at an earlier period than that of the human frame, and cultivated as a substitute for it, both by the ancients and also by some of the moderns, it fell under the contempt and degradation which all misapplied departments of knowledge are destined to incur. When at length prejudice began to subside, and reflection taught anatomists that the knowledge of the struc. ture of the lower animals, if kept in its proper place, and made subsidiary to, but not substituted for, that of the human body, may be not only free from harm, but productive of the greatest benefits, it began to attract the attention of physiologists, and to) assume something. like a definite rank among _ the ae sciences. resets It may be observed, nevertheless, that on this subject a con~ siderable degree of misconception prevails, both generally, and also amongst those whose. pursuits require some knowledge of * Dr Craigie is author of Elements of General and Pathological Anatomy, 1827; joint Editor of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, and con. ductor of the Anatomical departihent of the Encyclopeedia Britannica.—Eprrt. History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 147 the structure of the human frame. Whatever be the cause, it requires little penetration to perceive, that, with the exception of those eminent and intelligent persons who have devoted their lives almost to the cultivation of this branch of natural. know- ledge, very indistinct and inaccurate notions of the nature and _ Objects of comparative'anatomy are entertained: Regarded as an appendage to human anatomy, or as the occasional source of comparative illustrations, animal anatomy has been appealed to chiefly when it’ promised to explain obscure’ and anomalous points in the structure of the human body ; and its:cultivation has’ ‘consequently been’ too exclusively confined to those who were known as mere human anatomists. That this is a sufficiently legitimate application of Hap lights of comparative anatomy, I donot deny. But while it is defective in giving a very limited view of the nature and objects'of the science, it has had the bad effect of giving currency to the opi- nion, that comparative anatomy is merely a subordinate depart- ment of human knowledge, occupying only an inferior rank in the scale of natural science. ‘The very name also by which it has been distinguished, has contributed in no ordinary degree to: convey an erroneous impression ofits objects. Though one of the principal objects of all human inquiry is, im one sense, comparison of different objects, and the formation of general conclusions from these comparisons ; yet, so long as the structure of animal bodies is studied merely in reference to the standard.or type; furnished» by theorgans of the human frame, it maybe safely asserted; that it can derive neither advantage nor*illus- tration fromthe “géneral principles’ of philosophical research. Animal anatomy, or zootomy, as it may be more justly:deno- minated, instead of being regarded as a subordinate ‘appendage of human anatomy, is itself a comprehensive science, embracing the knowledge of all the’ varieties of structure exhibited by the classes, orders, and tribes of the animal world; and:of*which that’ also'of the human subject forms only’a constituent part. The latter, indeed; has ‘justly acquired pre-eminent interest; from its connexion with the artof preserving life and healing disease. But these circumstances cannot give it, as a branch of science, a rank higher than that of the organic constitution of animal bodies’ generally, or erect the structure of the human frame into | K2 148 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the a general standard of reference; and while the importance of correct knowledge of the latter is readily admitted, that of the animal tribes generally is not less valuable, in reference to the great purpose of illustrating the nature and characters of animal structure and living actions. The soundness of these principles it would be easy to ‘ine. trate and enforce, in different modes. But perhaps by no me- thod can they be placed in so clear a point of view as. by the history of the science itself, and of the successive stages through which it has passed. In this manner we shall be enabled to appreciate the estimation in which it has at different periods been held, to understand the objects with which it has been cultivated, to distinguish the impediments by which its progress has at. different periods been obstructed, and to forma just idea of its utility and applications when cultivated, without reference to temporary, local, or particular purposes, and on the general principles of philosophical inquiry. Sect. I.— Aristotle and Ancients. The first person who can be said to have cultivated compara- tive anatomy systematically, and in a scientific manner, is Aris- totle; and it is an interesting circumstance in the history of science, that the same individual who distinguished himself by, the depth and accuracy of his views on the political constitution of society, and the acuteness of his analytical powers in inyesti- gating the history of the human mind, and applying it to. morals and literature, was also the first to explain the structure of ani-~ mal bodies... It 1s further important to remark, that it was to the peculiar construction of his mental faculties, and_his_ turn for generalization, that the success and the failures of the philo-. sopher of Stagira, may be traced in both these opposite, depart- ments of science; and while most. of his political and metaphy-. sical opinions are erroneous, in being founded on too-limited a series of observations, the results,of, his zootomical. researches, in, which he was less likely to .be misled by mere. speculation, : constitute a. collection, of facts, of which, the value has been re-. cognised by the most distinguished modern, anatomists, _Aris-, totle is almost a solitary example.of an individual, who, finding. History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 149 the natural sciences in general, and zoology and zootomy in particular, quite in their infancy, collected by personal observa- tion a great number of facts, classified them in systematic order, and derived from them useful general conclusions ; and while to these efforts comparative anatomy may be said to have owed its existence entirely, he further rendered the substantial service of being the first to apply its facts to the elucidation and distinc- tions of zoology. Generalization, indeed, distinction and classi- fication, were the predominant features of the mind of the Sta- girite; and while to these objects all his individual observations were directed, they appear to have afforded the principal incen- tive to diligence in observing and collecting. The works of this ardent naturalist shew that his zootomical knowledge was ex- tensive and often accurate ; and from several of his descriptions, it is impossible to doubt that his information was frei bb i from personal dissection. Aristotle, who was born at Stagira, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, or 684 years before the Christian era, was, at the age of 39, requested. by Philip. of Macedon to undertake the education of his son Alexander; and during this period he is believed to have composed several works on anatomy which are now lost. The military expedition of his royal pupil into Asia, by laying open the forests and wilds of that vast and little known continent, furnished Aristotle with the means of extend- ing his knowledge of the history and structure of the animal tribes, and of communicating to the world more accurate and. distinct notions than were yet accessible. A sum of 800 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous intelligent assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended to facilitate his researches in composing a system of zoological knowledge; but it has been observed, that the number of instances in which he was thus compelled to trust to the testimony of other's, led him to commit errors in description, which personal observation might have enabled him to avoid. The three first books of the History of Animals (Meg Zuas ‘Iorogias), a treatise consisting of ten books, and the four books on the Parts of Animals (Tig: Zwav Mogiwy), constitute the prin- cipal memorials of the Aristotelian Anatomy. From these we find, that Aristotle had already recognised the distinctions of animals into viviparous (fwerex«), oviparous (worex«), and ver- 150 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the miparous (cxazxeroxa). Of the viviparous, he adduces as exam- ples, man,-the horse, the sea-cow (?wn), andithose covered. by; hair ;-and among marine. animals, the cetaceous, as the dol- phin and the: sartilupinous fishes (vcawyn), and of these he af. terwards states that some are oviparous.- oe Hd, In some interesting observations in thé Yegtvtii of ania ‘se. cond' book, on the common characters of animals, and on those proper to certain tribes and genera, he distinguishes accurately: the five toes of the elephant; the great strength, mobility,-and flexibility of the trunk ; ‘the: peculiar’ power -of stooping on the hind legs ; and the small quantity of shag on his hide... He dis- tinguishes also the Bactrian fromthe Arabian camel, by the two protuberances; and’ mentions the -single-hoofed hogs of ' Illyria’ and Paeonia, a’ peculiarity which was afterwards observed. by Linneeus in those of Sweden. The lower extremities of the human subject, he observes, are distinguished by the disposi- tion of the muscles, which render: the hips, thighs and legs much more fleshy in comparison ‘than in quadrupeds.;. and in. man alone, he remarks, is the foot muscular. ‘In speaking of the teeth, he observed, that horned animals are void of incisors in the upper jaw, a character connected: with the manner of life: and the kind of food. He corrected the erroneous statements: of Polybus, Syennesis, and Diogenes, regarding the bloodves- sels, which they asserted to proceed from the head and brain, and of others who contended they issued: from the liver, but. which he demonstrated arose from the: heart. »\His description of this organ contains a singular mixture of truth and error. While he accurately distinguishes the site and position of the human heart from that of quadrupeds, as inclined obliquely to the left side of the chest, he represents it to contain three cham- bers> (ee peey eels xoimes), a large one on the right - conneeted with the large vein (4 pevara prs8s), the-vena cava, a small one on the left, and-one of middle size in the middle, connected with the aorta; while he states also, that these chambers « are 5, berate to- eseseuie from oe heart to the lung, which accompany the ramifications of the wind-pipe (agrag), he shews that he knew the pulmonary artery, and perhaps the pulmonary veins. It is further remarkable, that though he repeatedly. represents the heart as the origin of the bloodvessels, as full of blood, and History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 151 the source of that fluid, and even speaks of the blood flowing from it to the veins, and to all parts of the body, he says no- thing of the circular motion of the blood. The bloodvessels he represents to be two in number, placed before the vertebral column, the large on the right (ges zs{aan) the vena cava, the small on the left, named. aorta (aogrn), the first time, I may observe, that. this epithet occurs,—both_pro- ceeding from the chambers of the heart. _ He distinguishes the thick, firm and tendinous texture of the aorta, which he repre- sents to be a nervous or tendinous vein (sgu3us 9258s), from the thin. membranous tissue of the vein. In describing the distri - bution of the latter, however, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary artery ;_ and, as might be expected, he confounds the ramificatioas of the former with those of the arterial tubes in general; and, in short, applies the term veins (9r<8%) to the distributing tubes proceeding from the heart. The course and distribution of the aorta, which he regards as a small blood- tube, he describes with some accuracy. Though . he omits the celiac, and remarks that no. vessel proceeds directly from the aorta to the liver or spleen, he had observed the mesenteric, the renal, two tubes proceeding towards the bladder, evidently the spermatics, and the common iliac arteries. The brain he describes as an organ sparingly supplied with blood, but of greater proportional size in man than in any other animal, and larger also in males than in females, a re- mark which is either a very fortunate conjecture, or the result of much observation *, In opposition to the majority of an- cient anatomists, he denied the brain to consist of marrow, because, while the former i is ‘cold, ‘the latter is hot, as appears from its adipose and unctuous characters. The spinal chord, however, he allows to be medullary. ‘On the nerves his ideas are indistinct and confused. Making them rise from the heart in the large chamber of which here are nerves (vvga) ten- dons, he confounds them with. the branches of the aorta, which he denominates a tendinous vein (ssvgedus sss). By afterwards saying, that all the articulated bones are connected by _ nerves, he makes them the same as ligaments, while the property PPE be ray Caw "syxeharey wriorov “arbowres, “ws xara pstytles; nas Tay evdeumroy ts’ agotvss twy Ondemv- legs Zawv Mogiwy- Lib. ii. cap. vii. 152 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the of divisibility in the long direction identifies them with’ ten- dons; and the assertion, that no part’ destitute of nerves has sensation, makes them equivalent to the nervous chords of the modern anatomist. The opinion of Sprengel, that he was the first to recognise this remarkable property in these chords I would willingly adopt, were I not satisfied that he had not form- ed any definite idea on these functions. He distinguishes the air-holder or windpipe abun as the tube for conveying air to the lungs, and the organ of voice, re- marks its position anterior to the cesophagus, and refutes the er- ror of those who assert that it receives drink, which causes cough and suffocation, and because he observes there is no passage from the lung to the stomach, as there is by the cesophagus. To obviate this inconvenience, he remarks, nature has placed in its upper extremity a small lingual appendage (ws yews), the epiglottis, and not in all viviparous animals, but only in those which breathe by lungs. His account of the latter is more physiological than anatomical ; and the treatise on Respi- ration, in which more is said, appears to be the factitious ~— duct of a later age. The limitrophic, or alimentary organs, are the parts with which Aristotle appears to be most familiar. The diaphragm or midriff he distinguishes by the names %aGopn and bmegaua, as the great partition between the heart and lungs or noble: or- gans, from the abdominal viscera (+« owawyye) or ignoble. With the position of the liver and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, he shews intimate acquaintance. He recognizes the pe- culiarities of the stomach in different tribes of animals, and distinguishes by name the several parts of the quadruple sto- mach of the ruminating animals in the following order : xoAsd, penula, inghuvies, the paunch ; xeguParos, reticulum, the kings- hood ; ix, omasum, the manyplies; xa serge, abomasum, the red. | He distinguishes between the membranous ‘stomachs of the carnivorous animals and birds, and the muscular ones of the granivorous. He remarks the numerous appendages or ceca connected with the dwodenum of fishes, and he even traces the relation between the teeth and the several forms of stomach ; and - the length or brevity, the simplicity or complexity, and the direct or circuitous course of the intestinal tube, and the kind of food History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 158 used by the animal. On the same principle he distinguishes the jejunum (i merc), or the empty portion of the small intestines, TO EvTegoy AgwToy 5 the cecum (FuProv te xcs oynadss) 3 ‘the colon (v0 xwrov) ; and the sigmoid flexure (erswregor re xa srvyyervov). ‘The modern epithet of rectwm, is the literal translation of his de- scription of the straight progress (sv) of that bowel to the anus (xgwxres). The mesentery he describes as a membrane full of bloodvessels, continued from the attachment of the intestinal canal. Aristotle had dissected the elephant, and the general accu- racy of his description is verified by Camper. ‘The intestine of this animal the Stagirite represents as consisting of united por- tions or cells (erregoy cTumPuceis sxov, wore Dasverbas terragas xorrsces exes), so as to exhibit the aspect of the quadruple stomach; but he takes care to remark, that in this cavity the food was deposited, and that there was no other receptacle. He also remarks the simi- larity of the intestinal canal of the elephant to that of the hog, thus anticipating the arrangements of the best modern zoolo- gists. | Fishes he had distinguished by the peculiarity of having gills (Geeyzses), and scaly or rough bodies. Of the gills, he re- marks, some have covers, others are uncovered, to the latter of which all the cartilaginous fishes (ssazyn) belong. He remarks their serrated teeth (x«eyaegoderrss), disposed in’ manifold rows, (woaverayevs), and the hard thorny tongue; and he further dis- tinguishes them into oviparous and viviparous. In these dis- tinctions, Aristotle has displayed more philosophical precision than even Linnzeus. No subject perhaps has Aristotle studied more attentively in the different classes and orders of the animal world, than that of reproduction; and in general his observations are accurate, and he labours to refute the vulgar errors then current on this obscure topic. His researches on this subject, however, are rather phy- siological than anatomical ; and the mistakes into which he has fallen, may always be traced to bpapestics ariptisie of the functions. Aristotle was followed by Diocles of Carystus, ‘and Praxa: goras of Cos, the last of the family of the Asclepiade. To the latter belongs the merit of rectifying one of the great errors 7 154 .~. “Dr Craigie’s Observations on the © of the Stagirite, by distinguishing the arteries from the veins. By teaching that the former were air-vessels, however, he con- tributed to perpetuate an error, which has had more influence than any other; in-retarding the progress of accurate anatomical knowledge... From this eireumstance, it is not unlikely that the book on Respiration, ascribed to Aristotle, is the production ei- ther of Praxagoras or of some of his disciples. It is further a singular circumstance, that Praxagoras is the first who regard- ed the brain as an efflorescence or expansion of the spinal chord, an opinion which might have ‘been suffered to rest in undis- turbed tranquillity, had it not been made the basis of a very elaborate theory by MM. Gall and Spurzheim. Erasistratus, -a- pupil of ,Chrisippus and Aristotle, distine tinguished. himself by dissecting, not only the bodies of the lower animals but that of the human race. He recognised the lac- teals in the mesentery of the kid; he described the semilunar valves-at the beginning ofthe aorta, and the tricuspid or triglo- chin (rgeyawyms) at the base of the right ventricle; he demon- strated the brain, and compared that of man with ae of the lower animals; he shewed the nerves proceed from the brain ; and he distinguished them ‘into two classes, those of sensation and those. of motion. ,. ‘: Herophilus, the pupil of Praxagoras, and contemporary ‘of Erasistratus, has-been distinguished among the ancients as the great cultivator of the anatomy of the human. body... Of these he probabl y dissected. more than any of his predecessors or con- temporaries. «But the exaggerated. statement of Tertullian has been absurdly repeated by almost every author, to prove. that he dissected 600 corpses *. The classical reader is aware that the term 600 is invariably used by the Roman. authors, in a ge- neral hyperbolical sense to signify many, but by.no means an exact number, and may as likely signify 16,,as 600... With his dissection of the human body, however, we have at. present * Herophilus ille, medicus aut lanius, qui sexcentos exsecuit ut’ naturam scrutaretur, qui hominem odit ut nosset, nescio an omnia interna ejus liquido explorarit, ipsa morte mutante quz vixerant, et morte non simplici, sed ipsa inter artificia exsectionis errante. Tertullian de Anima, c. 10. P 757. Bal- nea sementis, de pluris portuus, i a qua Gestetur dominus quoties pluit. J aver. Sat. vii. 178. History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. “55 little concern. As,a cultivator of animal, anatomy, he appears to have understood perfectly the.configuration of the brain; he described the posterior end of the vault or fornia as the principal seat of the sensations; he, knew the cerebellic or fourth ven- tricle ; and we learn from Galen, that he was the first who ap- plied tothe, linea furrow, at its inferior region, the name of calamus scriptorius, or writing pen... He described. well the choroid or vascular membrane, and. he distinguished the fourth or: straight sinus which, still bears his name, (Ans), torcular Herophili. Though, in imitation of Aristotle, he denominates the nerves *#go: (port) or tubes, he maintains that all of them proceed from the brain, and he distinguishes them into those of sensation - and those of motion... He. first. applied the name..of 12 inch bowel or duodenum (Dade duxrverc) to that part of the alimentary canal (sx@vric) which is next the stomach. He gives a good de- scription of the liver, which Galen has thought deserving of pre- servation ; and an important discovery is the distinction which he establishes between the mesenteric vessels which proceed to the liver-.and vena porte, and those which, going to the mesen- teric.glands, were manifestly the lacteals. . Of these, however, he appears.to have formed .less distinct notions. than, Erasistratus. To .Galen. also we are indebted for a description.of. the organs of the hare by Herophilus.. By giving the. pulmonary: artery the denomination of arterious vein, it may be inferred that he had distinguished the kind of blood which that vessel conveys ;. but though he studied attentively the beats of the arteries in the liv- _ - ing .body, he appears to. have framed:no distinct conception of the circular motion of the blood. .'The:organs of generation he appears to have studied attentively in both sexes. He has an- ticipated the moderns, in finding the epididymis to be.a cluster of vessels, and he had seen the vas deferens, at least in the dog, and probably the vesicule seminales and prostate gland. » He appears also to have seen the ovaries in the female.. hit These two. distinguished anatomists.had given to the tai of Alexandria a degree of celebrity, which appears to have been fatal to their successors. . For neither among them, nor.among any of the subsequent philosophical authors, do we find any name entitled to mention in the history of animal anatomy. Cicero, indeed, in his treatise de Natura Deorum, gives some 156 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the anatomical sketches from the Timcus of Plato, and labours to shew the proofs of design in the construction of the animal ma- chine. Little, however, can be expected from an author who evidently labours under the prejudice common to the Romans, of regarding dissection as a degrading and contaminating occu- pation, and who informs his readers, that, from motives of deli- cacy, he omits the description of the alimentary canal. From this ‘censure I am happy to except the elegant and philosophical Celsus, who has left an accurate description of the relative posi- tion of the windpipe and lungs, and the heart, the windpipe and cesophagus (stomachus), which leads to the stomach (ventricu- lus), the intestinal canal in general, the diaphragm, liver, spleen and kidneys. In osteology his information i is minute, and 1 in vt neral accurate. The Romans, however, were never distinguished for the sail vation of science; and if their literature cannot justly be said to be of indigenous growth, the few scientific treatises which they possessed, were either the production of some Grecian scholar, or copied from’ the works of some of the Greek authors. ‘The Greek language, which was not confined to Greece, but spoken over the whole of Asia Minor, was diffused after the conquests of Alexandria over Egypt and much of the south of Africa; and even by the successive extension of the Roman dominion, the general prevalence of the language, literature, and science of the Greeks was promoted. In this manner, many learned Greeks, and others speaking the Greek language, or what are de- nominated Hellenizing foreigners, found their way to Rome, the great centre of enterprize, and the only place where their learn- ing was likely to be employed or appreciated. It is a curious fact, indeed, that most of those who were distinguished among the Romans for the cultivation of literature, and especially science, after the Augustan age, were either native Greeks or. foreigners who wrote in the Greek language; and, among other sciences, medicine and anatomy had its full share of these votaries. With the single exception of Pliny, to whom, a’ a servile copyist of Aristotle, “I ¢an’ scarcely’ assign a place in this sketch, all those whose names are recorded as naturalists, physicians, or anatomists, belong’ to the class now defined. Such were Are- teeus arn — Agathinus, Soranus of Ephesus, Mos- History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 157 chion, Archigenes, Dioscorides, Marinus, Ruffus of Behan Galen, and Oribasius. Of these, Aretzeus is commemorated for describing with some accuracy the vena cava, the round and broad ligaments of the womb, the pelvis of the kidney, and the proper: muscle of the tongue; and for teaching the glandular nature of the liver, kidneys, and female breast. Soranus of Ephesus, who must be distinguished from the physician of the same name, made some accurate observations on the bladder, testicles, and womb. Ruffus. recognised the ramifications of the olfactory nerves in the ethmoid bone, and the lower termination of the middle cere- bral ventricle named the infundibulum. He shewed that the emi- nences injthe liver of the lower animals observed by the Harus- pices, are indistinct in that of man, and he knew the biliary duct. He describes the testes as pulpy bodies, two seminal glands, apparently the prostate, and two varicose bodies, apparently the seminal vesicles. ‘The Fallopian or uterine tubes he de- scribes from the sheep ; and from his account of the allantois or urinary membrane, and speaking of two. umbilical veins, it is manifest that he had dissected chiefly, if not,entirely, the lower animals. He describes also the genital, organs of the she-goat. Ruffus farther distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion. _He knew the recurrent nerve... He made experiments on living animals, and his name is associated, with that of compressing, in the situation of the carotid arteries, the pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility and. loss of voice. : | Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none possesses so just. a claim to the title of anatomist, as Claudius. Galenus, the celebrated physician of Pergamus. For the particulars of his life and. edu- cation, I refer to his biographers... It; is sufficient to say,; that he was born about the 131st year of the Christianera, and lived under the reigns of Trajan, Antonine, .Commodus,..and Aelius; and that he was trained by his father. Nicon, .whose memory he embalms as an.eminent mathematician,. architect, and astronomer, to all the learning of the day, and initiated particu. larly in the mysteries of the Aristotelian philosophy. ... After.de- voting his attention to various medical studies, under. different teachers, in different cities, for several years, and studying ana- 158 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the tomy particularly at Alexandria, under Heraclianus, till his 28th year, he appears to have regarded himself as possessed of all the knowledge then attainable through the medium of teach- ers. A seditious tumult at Pergamus where he had settled, made him form the resolution of quitting that place and proceed- ing to Rome, where he remained five years, and-after visiting his native place, and travelling some time, he finally fixed his: resi- dence in the imperial city, as ee tothe Fee Com- modus. erie oan The anatomical writings ascribed to: Galen, which are-nume- rous, are to be viewed, not merely as the result of 'personalre- search and information, but as the common depository of :the anatomical knowledge of the day, and as combining all that he had learnt from the several teachers under whom he successively studied, with whatever personal ‘study had enabled him to ac- quire. It is'on this account ‘not:always: easy to distinguish what Galen had himself ascertained by personal research,from that which was known’ by other anatomists. This, “however, though of moment to the history of Galen as an anatomist, is of little consequence to the science itself’; and, from the:anato- mical remains of this author, a pretty just idea may be formed, both of the progress and # -_ ere ‘state nid ‘the science at that time. et te nweebioks Though various aniatonittal writingsare ascribieh to Galenjthoss : entitled Anatomical Administrations, in nine books; must-be re- garded as the best.’ His treatise on the Uses of the Parts; though much more frequently mentioned, and apparently better-known, is more physiological ; and the anatomical descriptions are much: corrupted by speculations on final causes, and ultimate purposes. Though his osteology is derived from the human: skeletons,’ which he informs us were preserved at Alexandria, itis evident: that in general his descriptions of the ‘soft parts were derived from the bodies of the ‘lower animals; and of ‘their structure his knowledge was extensive and accurate.© (8) pee The osteology of Galen is the most perfect ofthe depart- ments of the anatomy of’ the ancients: He names and distin- guishes the bones and sutures of the cranium nearly in the same manner as at present. ’ Thus:he notices’ the quadrilateral shape of the parietal bones: he distinguishes the cag the sty-_ History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 159° loid, and the mastoid portions, and the lithoid or petrous por- tions of the temporal bones; and he remarks the peculiar situa- tion and shape of the wedge-like or sphenoid bone. Of the eth- moid, which he -omits-at first, he afterwards speaks more at large in another treatise. The malar he notices under the name of zygomatic bone; and he describes at length the upper maxil- lary and nasal bones, and the connection of the former with the sphenoid. He gives the first clear account of the number and situation of the vertebrae, which he divides into cervical, dor- sal, and lumbar, and distinguishes from the sacrum and coccyz. Under the head Bones of the Thorax, he enumerates the ster- num, the ribs (ai mrevea!), and the dorsal vertebree, the. connee- tion of which with the former he designates asa variety of di- arthrosis. The description of the bones of the extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise. Though in myology Galen appears to less’ alniavdyy thaud in osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of anatomical knowledge to greater perfection than any of his predecessors. He describes a frontal muscle, the six muscles of the eye, and a seventh proper to animals; a muscle to each ala nasi, four muscles of the lips, the thin cutaneous muscle of the neck, which he first termed platysma myoides, or muscular expansion, two muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw, the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal. pte- rygoid muscles. After speaking of the muscles which move the head and the scapula, he adverts to those by which the windpipe is opened and shut, and the intrinsic or proper muscles of the larynx and hyoid bone. Then follow those of the tongue, pharynx, and neck, those of the upper extremities, the trunk, and the lower extremities successively; and in the course. of this description he swerves so little from the actual facts, that most of the names by which he distinguishes the principal muscles have been retained by the best modern anatomists. . It is chiefly in the minute account of these organs, and especially in refe- rence to the minuter muscles, that he appears inferior to.the moderns. The angiological knowledge of Galen, though vitleted: by, the 160 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the erroneous physiology of the times, and ignorance of the separate uses of the arteries and veins, exhibits, nevertheless, some accu- rate facts which shew the diligence of the author in dissection. Though, in opposition to the opinions of Praxagoras and Era- sistratus, he proved that the arteries in the living animal. con- tain not air, but blood, it does not appear to have occurred to him to determine in what direction the blood flows, or whether it was movable or stationary *. Representing the left ventricle of the heart as the common origin of all the arteries,, though, he is misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy. The vena azygos, also, and the jugular veins, have contributed to add to the confusion of his description, and to render his an- giology the most imperfect of his works. In neurology, we find him to be the author of the deman, that the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation, and the spinal chord of those of motion; and he distinguishes the for- mer from the latter by their greater softness or less consistence. Though he admits only seven cerebral pairs, he has the merit of distinguishing and tracing the distribution of the greater part of both classes of nerves with great accuracy. His description of the brain, though derived from diceaitian of the lower animals, is accurate; and his distinctions of the several parts of the organ have been retained by modern ana- tomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ, which indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps. In, the first, the bisecting membrane, @. ¢. the falx (unmy% diyorououce), and the connecting bloodvessels are removed; and the dis- sector, commencing at the anterior extremity of the great fis- sure, separates the hemispheres gently as far as the torcular, and exposes a smooth surface (sa xwgay tvAwdn wos oveay), the mesolobe of the moderns, or the middle band. In the second, he exposes, by successive sections, the ventricles, the choroid plexus, and the middle partition. The third exhibits the conoid body (came xwveade) Or conarium, or pineal gland of the modern anatomists, concealed by a membrane with numerous ~ veins, meaning that part of the plexus which is now known by the name of velum interpositum, and a complete view of the * Tleg: Averousnwy Eyxtigncewy, lib. viie History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 161 ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third ventricle (s¢ zaay reirn xed), the communication between the two latter ones, the psal- loid or arch-like body (capes Parideede), fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth ventricle. In the fifth, he gives an accurate description of the relations of the third and fourth ven- tricle, of the situation of the two pairs of eminences, nates, (yrovre) and testes (d:dvpua vel opysis), the scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior, the tendons or processes, and, lastly, the linear furrow, called by Herophilus calamus scripto- rius *. He appears not to have known the inferior recesses. Morgagni however concludes, from a passage of the 7th book meg: Aoyneray, that he did; but after accurately examining this and others of his anatomical writings, I cannot see any good reason for admitting the inference. | In the account of the thoracic organs, ruin accuracy may be recognised. He distinguishes the pleura. by the: name of in- closing membrane (inn ixGaxws, membrana succingens), and remarks its similitude in structure to that of the peritoneum, and the covering which it affords to all the organs... The pericar- dium, also, he describes as a membranous sac with a circular basis corresponding to the base of the heart; and. a conical apex; and after an account of the tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks shortly of the lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, he takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is incessant, whereas that of muscle. alternates with the state of rest. In the particular:description of the parts of the organ he ascribes to the auriclesa more cuticular structure than to the other parts; he gives a good account of the valves and of the vessels ; and notices especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the horse, elephant, and other large animals, The description of the abdominal organs, and of the kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and in general very accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit us to give any abstract of them; and it is sufficient in general to says that Ga- ae Tlegs Avaropiney Eyxsignosay, lib. ix. ches bien: f AAD’ é SareQunos obrws rortiveras rari Tois tvdov Tov buenos wisitin Os o-me- girovecios trex bn, nas edeixydn ras xarw cur Oorvay. Ibid, OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1829. \G L 162 On the History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. len gives correct views of the. structure and distribution of | the peritoneum and omentum, and distinguishes accurately the se- veral divisions of the alimentary canal, and the internal struc- ture of;its component tissues. In the liver, which he allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he admits,in imitation of Erasistratus, a. proper.substance or .parenchyma, mterposed between the vessels, and capable of removal by suitable dissection, His .description of the organs of . generation is rather brief, and is, like most'of his anatomical sketches, too much blended with physiological dogmas. © | } This short sketch may communicate some idea of the condi- tion of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, who indeed is justly entitled to the character of rectifying and digesting, if not of creating, the science of anatomy among the ancients. Though evidently confined, perhaps entirely, by the circum- stances of the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so inde- fatigable and. judicious was.he in the mode of acquiring know- ledge, that many of his names.and distinctions are still retained with advantage in the writings of the.moderns... Galen was a practical anatomist, and not.only describes the: organs of) the animal body from actual dissection, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode of exposition... His language is in general clear, his style as correct as in most of: the authors of the same period, and his manner is animated. He appears,to have been the first anatomist who can be said, on authentic .grounds, to have attempted to discover the uses of organs by vivisection and experiments.on living animals. In this manner, he determined the position, and demonstrated the action, of the heart; and he mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease or in- jury, he had an opportunity of observing the motions»of this or- gan im the human body. In short, without eulogizing:an ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or commending his ana- tomical descriptions as superior to those of the moderns, it must be admitted )that. the anatomical writings of .the physician, of Pergamus form a remarkable era in the history of the science ; and that, by diligence in dissection, and accuracy 1 in description, he gave it a degree of stability and pe which it oe re- tained through the lapse of many uigipricens: pA tg (To be continued: ) « ( 163 ) On the occurrence of Chalkjlints in Banffshire. By James Crristie, Esq. Secretary to the Banff Institution. Com- municated by the Author.*. Some time ago I.took the-liberty of submitting for your in- spection specimens of a quantity of flints found scattered and mixed with the water-worn stones and shingle along the shore of Boyndie Bay +, to-the westward of Banff, and to state, that flints of a similar. description are occasionally found to the east- ward as far as Peterhead. I had not seen any organic remains in the flints of this part of Scotland, to enable me to form an opi- nion as to their being of the chalk-formation ¢. Since that time, I have met with abundance of flints on the hill or rising ground be- tween Turiff and Delgaty Castle. The surface of the ground there is irregular, rising occasionally into hillocks, and sinking in- to hollows, filled with bogs and swamps. These hillocks are com- posed. of a conglomerate or pebbly mass, having a_ base. or ground of white or grey colour, and apparently composed of de- cayed felspar, and very minute scales of mica or talc, or both, in which are imbedded rounded pebbles of greyish-white translu- cent quartz-rock. The quartz-pebbles are from the. size of a pea to that of a hen’s egg. ‘This conglomerated mass is here and there alternated with or traversed by a white quartzy sand, with scales of mica. The whole conglomerated mass is mixed up with flints, of various sizes and forms. The flints are yellow, * At p. 381. of last volume of this Journal, we noticed Mr Christie's discovery of flints on the shore near Banff.—En1r. + The flints sent me from Boyndie Bay, are of the same description with those found near Delgaty. They contain traces of zoophytic organic remains.—ED1T. + Some years ago, while examining the geognosy of the vicinity of Pe- terhead, our attention was directed to the chalk-flints found in that neigh- bourhood, by previous information. We traced them extending over several miles of country, and frequently imbedded in a reddish clay, resting on the granite of the district. These flints contain sponges, alcyonia, echini, and other fossils of the chalk-flint, thus proving them to belong to the chalk for- mation, which itself will probably be found in some of the hollows in this part of Scotland.—Enrr. L3 > 164 Mr Christie on the Occurrence of Flint in Banffshire. brown, and grey, more or less translucent, often enveloped in a white siliceous opaque crust, and containing organic remains principally of sponges or alcyonia. In some flints the centre is hollow, and the walls of the cavity lined with caleedony. One of the hillocks has been opened to the depth of about fifteen or eighteen feet. The quartz-pebbles become more translucent the deeper the pit is opened ; and the flints, which, at the sur- face of the ground, are generally of a brown colour, exhibit other tints in the interior of the bed. The hollows between the hillocks are destitute of pebbles and gravel, and have a clayey bottom. The direction of the hollows appears in general to run east and west. ‘These hollows may perhaps have been scooped out, and the beds containing flints and pebbles of quartz carried off by some of those mighty imundations which have more than once swept over the face of nature. As to the extent of the deposite, I can say but little: in one direction, I have traced it for nearly a mile, occasionally inter- rupted by the hollows. The point where the specimens were taken up, is about half a mile distant from another patch, through which the ditch I formerly mentioned has been cast. At that point, also, the flints and quartz-pebbles, and other de- posites, are the same as those already mentioned. The spot where these deposites are found is in the interior of the country, about ten miles from the sea, and is the highest ground in the neighbourhood. I have not been able to ascertairi the depth of the bed, as the pit filled with water on digging down, and the water became thick with the clayey or chalky matter. The workmen, however, told me, that farther down the hill they had met with a bed of white clay, and they believed the depo-. site of pebbles, flints, &e. rested on it. I have never seen the chalk formation, but, as I understate it, this deposite has many features of its upper strata. The flints are abundant throughout the whole, and I found them on the surface at a mile distant from the hillock where the speci. mens were taken from *, b biesiene * We trust Mr Christie, and other members of the Banff Institution, will continue their researches in regard to these flints, for possibly the chalk. formation itself may be found in situ in this part of Scotland.—Eprr. (165) Aérial Shadows seen from the Cairngorm Mountains. By JoHn Macrnerson Grant, Esq. jun. of Ballindalloch. In a Letter to the Editor. As you expressed a wish to have some account, in writing, of the atmospheric appearance seen by Sir Thomas Dick Lauder and myself, in our late ramble among the Cairngorms, I have © transcribed the following passage from my note-book, and at- tempted to give, by the accompanying diagram, some idea of the beautiful phenomenon which we witnessed *. “© On the 10th October 1830, at 3 p.m. we reached the sum- mit of Ben-mac-dhuie. A thick mist enveloped the mountain, like a curtain, concealing from view the whole of the surround- ing range of the Cairngorms, with the exception of the giant hill on which we stood, and the scarce less elevated tops of Cairentoul and Breriach. The upper bounding line of the mist was so perfectly horizontal, and the apparent undulations on its surface resembled so closely the waves of the sea, that it was extremely difficult to divest one’s-self of the idea that we stood on some desert rock in a vast ocean, with two others of similar character in sight. The day was fine; and the sun, though fast declining to the west, shone so bright and power- fully on the huge masses of granite around us, that we sat down for more than half an hour to rest from our fatigues, and to prolong, as far as might be, the satisfaction of being on the highest ground in Britain. ** On descending from the top, at about half past three p. m., an interesting optical appearance presented itself to our view. We had turned towards the east, and the sun shone on our backs, when we saw a very bright rainbow described on the mist before us. The bow, of beautifully distinct prismatic colours, formed about two-thirds of a circle, the extremities of which appeared to rest on the lower portion of the mountain. In the centre of this incomplete circle, there was described a luminous disc, surrounded by the prismatic colours displayed in concentric rings. On the disc itself, each of the party (three in number), as they stood at about fifty yards apart, saw his own figure most distinctly delineated, although those of the other two * The diagram will be given in next Number of Journal, having been received too late for the present. ° 166 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare: Plants. were invisible to him. The representation appeared of the natural size, and the outline of the whole person of the spectator was most correctly pourtrayed. To prove that the shadow seen by each individual was that of himself, we resorted to various gestures, such as waving our hats, flapping our plaids, &c. all which motions were exactly followed by the airy figure. We then collected together, and stood as close to one another as possible, when each could see three shadows on the disc; his ‘own, as distinctly as before, while those of his two companions were but faintly discernible. ‘* As the autumnal day was fast declining, and we had a long walk before us to Braemar, we were forced to hurry down the rugged. sides of Loch. Etichan; and, being consequently soon enveloped in the mist, we lost sight of the atmospheric pheno- menon, but. not until it had been distinctly, visible to us said eabout a quarter of an hour.” Epinsuren, 4th Dec. 1830. Description of several New or Rare Plants which have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh; and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Grauam, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. i 10th Dec. 1830. Banksia speciosa. B. speciosa; foliis linearibus, pinnatifidis, lobis ‘Hii Siet stlaadelial mucronatis, subtus niveis, obsolete nervosis; calycis laminis _lanatis ; stylo pubescente ; folliculis tomentosis.—Brown. Banksia speciosa, Br. Trans. Linn. Soc. 10, 210... Description.—Trunk erect, branched ; branches spreading, towards their extremities densely covered with snowy tomentum. Leaves (14 foot long, 14 inches broad) scattered, linear, attenuated at the base, and very slig tly at the apex, truncated, pinnatifid, nerved and reticulated, co. vered on both sides, when young, with short dense white tomentum, which is beautifully snowy below, when old naked bright green and shining above; se segm ments alternate, triangular, ovate along their upper edge, mucronate, the mucro projecting forwards, Spike (44 inches long, 34 broad tu the extremities of the styles) terminal. Flowers in pairs along the rachis, forming double lines, which are much crowded together, ex- panding from below upwards, every where yellow, except the stigma, which is red. Calyx (14 inch long) 4-parted, woolly on the outside, the woolliness increasing upwards. Anthers subsessile, in the oblong hollow extremities of the calyx, linear-lanceolate. Style longer than the calyx, curved upwards, pubescent, filiform, tumid near the extremity, tipped with the red subacute somewhat angled Stigma. This very handsome species produced a fine head of flowers in the green- house of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden in October 1830, the plant be- ing about five feet high. Dr' Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. 67 Bolivaria.—Diandria, Monogynia. Jasminee—Calyx 5-10- partitus, persistens. Corolla inferior, mfundibuliformis, 5- ‘fida, staminifera. Capsula gemina, circumcissa. B. trifida; foliis linearibus, trisecto-pinnatifidis, integrisve.—Schlechtendal. _. Bolivaria trifida, Schlecht. in Linnzea, 1826, p. 209. “DEscRIPTION.—Stem erect, slender, woody, with long, lax, slender, strag- -gling, green, subglabrous, furrowed branches, which are opposite below, but ‘dichotomous at the extremities. Leaves lanceclato-linear, glabrous, mucronate, entire or trifid at the apex, opposite; sessile, semiamplexicaul _eand*subdecurrent, deep. green, and, as well as the branches, sprinkled with minute, white, slightly elevated scales.. Flowers solitary, terminal, or solitary in the terminal cleft of the branches. Calyx 5-]-parted, per- -sisting, green, segments erect, subulate, ciliated at the base. . Corolla 46 lines long, above 8 lines across when fully expanded) yellow, funnel- shaped, shining and rather paler on the outside, tube cylindrical, scarcely so long as the calyx, limb 5-7-parted, longer than the tube, segments el- _ liptical, imbricated, reticulato-nerved, naked, but not shining on the in- ‘ner surface, throat and inside of the tube hairy. Stamens 2, adhering to the inside of the tube, free above the throat, and projecting in the centre _. of the flower, shorter than the corolla; filaments yellow, glabrous; an- thers yellow, incumbent, oblong, attenuated at both extremities, slight- ly notched at both, especially the lower, attached to the filaments to- wards one end, lobes bursting along the edges, rather distant from each other, the intervening space being green; pollen globular, yellow. Pistit single ; style as long as the stamens, compressed laterally, slightly cla- vate, nearly colourless, glabrous; stigma green, capitate, large, grooved in the ferm of a cross on its upper surface ;:germen superior, smooth, ebovate, channelled on both sides. Capsule didymous, large, membra- nous, thin and dry, smooth and shining, lobes obovate, circumcised, uni- ~ locular, each 4-sided. | Seeds erect, 3-gonous, rounded on the back, flat by mutual impression en the two sides, covered with a thick cellular arillus, nucleus white, compressed, obovate, exalbuminous, covered with a thick colourless testa, radicle inferior, projecting, straight, blunt... -Mr Cruckshanks obligingly communicated seeds of this plant several years ago from the ieighbogr hood of Mendoza. ‘It flowered for the first time in the greenhouse in July last, and has continued to flawer almost con- stantly ever since. , aye x The genus was named by Schlechtendal, with the following observation : * Genus in honoerem Liberatoris, qui scientiis, omnibus, scientizeque nos- tre amabili Americam aperuit, diximus.”. He describes. two species, Bolivaria iniegrifolia and B. trifida. . Dr Gillies has among his specimens what he considers a third. The flowers are,much larger than either in B. integrifolia or our plant ; but it seems tv me doubtful whether it is really specifically distinct from this last... Dr Gillies has distributed specimens under the name of B. decemfida. From what I have vbserved in B. trifida,and in Dr Gillies’s specimens of B. decemfida, I suspect the divisions of the, calyx and corolla vary considerably. I fear we are all apt to erect.varieties inte new species, im genera in which we.have not long had many species in cultivation, and with the tendencies of which, therefore, we are but imperfectly acquainted. Calceolaria bicolor has ei- ther an erect nearly simple stem, with narrow pointed leaves, or a procum- bent. greatly branched stem with broad blunt leaves, according to the po- verty or richness of the soil in which it is made to grow. These two forms are exhibited in the Botanical Magazine and Botanical Register of this month, and may be seen in twenty examples at the Botanic Gar- - den; but my acute friend Professor Lindley, not adverting to this cir- cumstance, nor to the fact that the specimens of Ruiz and Pavon grew in dry stony ground, in the very spot from whence the plants now in cultivation were obtained, has unfortunately described the latter form as a new species, under the name of C. diffusa. ra 168 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. Browallia grandiflora. B. grandifiora; caule diffuso, ramoso; foliis ovatis, acutis; pedunculis axillaribus unifloris, vel in racemis terminalibus dispositis ; ramulis calycibusque adultis glabris. | Descrirption.—Annual. Stem herbaceous, diffused, branched, smooth, green, purplish below; branches spreading, smooth and shining, scat- tered. Leaves ovate, acuminate, attenuated into a petiole, smooth and. shining, the middle rib and converging veins prominent below, and chan- nelled above. Peduneles straight,-single-flowered, axillary, and longer than the diminished leaves near the termination of the branches, or collected into lax terminal racemes, when young glanduloso-pubescent. Calyx 5-cleft, smooth, or, when young, glanduloso-villous, many-nerved, nerves branching; segments ivadvale spreading, linear, channelled. Corolla hypocrateriform ; tube longer than the calyx, slightly inflated towards the top, and compressed vertically, tandtilonssvillouN een- ish-yellow, marked, as wa: as the calyx, with dark streaks; limb pli- cate in the bud, when expanded flat, white, or very pale lilac, with a yellow throat, yellow on the outside, bilabiate, the upper lip linear and emarginate, the lower much larger, semicircular, formed of four united obcordato-cuneate lobes, each smaller than the upper lip. Stamens di- dynamous, adhering to the inside of the tube, the two longer cl the throat of the corolla with the upper part of their filaments, whic is bent down, flattened and hairy above, their anthers included, having one perfect and one abortive lobe, divaricated, compressed, and open- ing along their upper edge; filaments of the shorter stamens flexuose © at the top, filiform and smooth, their anthers bilobular, both the lobes perfect, divaricated and compressed, bursting along their upper edges ; pollen and anthers of all the stamens yellow. Germen ovate, and slightly compressed, pubescent, bilocular, bivalvular, the dissepiment proceeding from the centre of the valves across the shorter diameter of the germen ; seminal receptacle large, central, covered with numerous ovules. Style filiform, glabrous, longer than the shorter, shorter than the longer sta- mens, tortuose at the top. Stigma quadrangular, peltate, green, ob- scurely 4-lobed, having two depressions or cells in the upper margin, where the anthers of the longer stamens are lodged, and two obscure de- pressions on the lower side, where the anthers of the shorter stamens ap- ° pear to be placed. I am indebted to Dr Hooker for the description of the style and stigma, and for some observations regarding the anthers, for the style was lost in the only flower which I reserved for dissection, when the specimen was sent to him to be figured in the Botanical Magazine. The anthers on the longer and shorter stamens appeared to him to be alike, reniform, _ and 1-celled; but I am quite certain that the above description of what I saw is accurate: the appearance probably varies from abortion, and in different stages of evolution. ) , We received this plant from the Botanic Garden, Glasgow, in October last, having been raised there from seeds collected by Mr Cruckshanks near Yazo, in the valley of Canta in Peru. It is now (December) flower- ing very freely in the greenhouse, and probably will be found to bear cultivation as a very ornamental annual in the open border. Conobea alata. C. alata; caule erecto, alato; foliis lanceolatis, amplexicaulibus, serru- latis, breve pubescentibus, pedunculo axillari solitario subcymoso multo longioribus. DeEscripTion.—Root creeping. Stem (24 feet high) erect, glabrous, shining, 4-sided, 4-winged, wings undulate, and sparingly ciliated. Branches de- cussating, spreading wide, similar to the stem. Leaves (10 inches long, 2 broad) opposite, spreading horizontally, acutely serrulate, lanceolate, attenuated and entire towards the base, at their origin dilated, and stem clasping, much veined and reticulated, soft, and on both sides covered Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. 169 with very short pubescence, bright green above, somewhat glaucous be- low, middle rib very strong, and with the veins prominent below. Pe. duncles axillary, opposite, 4-sided, closely applied to the upper surface of the leaves, and (including the pedicels) about a fifth of their length, pubescent, bracteate, trifid, the lateral branches again dividing in the same way; pedicels like the peduncle, but less distinctly angled. Bractee lanceolate, entire, acuminate. Calyx green, oblique, 5-ribbed, 5-toothed, pubescent on the outside, persisting. Corolla (8 lines long, 44 across) yellow, bilabiate; tube ge 1 compressed laterally in its lower, vertically in its MPD EF half, nearly thrice the length of the calyx ; upper lip bifid, revolute, lower lip spreading forwards, plicate, trifid, re- volute at the apices, all the lobes rounded ; two very prominent ridges, very hairy, and somewhat orange-coloured, extend backwards into the corolla from the central lobe of the lower lip. Stamens didynamous, in- cluded ; filaments glabrous, yellow, adhering to the corolla for about half their length, connivent; anthers bilobular, lobes divergent ; pollen white. Pistil as long as the stamens; stigma bifid, white, lode broad, revolute, upper surface pubescent; style straight, white, filiform, gla- brous, marcescent ; germen ovate, green, glabrous, 4-valved, bilocular ; ovules very numerous, attached toa large central receptacle, a trans- verse section of which presents a kidney-shaped surface in each locula- ment. This plant was raised in the garden of P. Neill, Esq. at Canonmills, from Mexican seeds communicated by Mr D. Don asa species of Conobea, and flowered in the greenhouse in September. Loasa incana. L. incana; suffruticosa, suburens; caule suberecto, ramoso, foliisque sparsis, petiolatis ovato-lanceolatis, inciso-serratis, incano, scabro ; pe- dunculis simplicibus oppositifoliis. a Description.—Suffruticose. Whole plant, particularly the stem, densely covered with harsh barbed white hairs, and a few stinging hairs inter- spersed. Stem round, much branched, branches scattered, pnleroan| Cuticle papery, and peeling off in the dried specimen. Leaves scattered, petioled, spreading, ovate, acute, hispid on both sides, veined, incise-ser- rated, veins and -midrib prominent below, channelled above. Flowers Sppnei the leaves, solitary, peduncled. Peduneles spreading, about half the length of the leaves, round. Calyx green, spread wide, segments ovato-acuminate, 3-ribbed, undulate, reflected in their sides, persisting. Corolla white, 10-parted, uniseriate, alternate, segments alike, the larger segments spreading, cucullate, nerved and veined, longer than the ca- lyx; the smaller segments nearly glabrous, slightly ciliated, concave within, nectariferous, each having near its rounded apex three erect dorsal filaments as long as itself. Stamens numerous, nearly as long as the longer segments of” the corolla, and lodged within them till the pol- len is ripe, Hon they become erect, free, unconnected with each other, mostly perfect, with simple, colourless, slightly flattened, glabrous fila- ments, and greenish-yellow, oblong, bilocular anthers, erect, bursting along the sides; 10 barren, 2 within each of the shorter petals, spread- ing and flattened at the base, there ciliated, each having a reflected lip at the apex of the petal within which it is placed, and above this ex- tended into an erect filament, nearly as long as the fertile stamens. Style erect, simple, shorter than the stamens, tapering, nearly smooth towards the top. Stigma capitate, small, lobed, smooth. Germen. top-shaped, inferior, green, unilocular, with 3-4 parietal receptacles, alternate with the teeth, covered along their edge with numerous ovules. Capsule open- ing by 3-4 teeth above the level of the calyx, Seeds obovato-oblong, _ minute, brown, pitted, embryo straight. This plant was raised from seeds communicated in spring last from Yazo, valley of Canta, in Peru. Mr Cruckshanks only observed. one plant, low and branching, with the branches much entangled. From this he also most kindly presented me with a well dried specimen, from which, > 170 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. rather than from our plant (we raised but one), which is still small, it ‘appears to flower:very freely. With us it flowered, in the greenhouse during October and November, and even now (7th December) there are buds:which may possibly expand. Lophospermum erubescens. | ‘L. erubescens ;' foliis triangulari-cordatis, grosse inzequaliterque “serratis ‘(melius, ineequaliter'inciso-dentatis), pubescentibus, calycis‘segmentis -oblongis mucronulatis, filamentis simplicibus.—D. Don. Lophospermum erubescens, D. Don, Sweet's Brit. Fl. Gard. N. 8. fol. 75. (on Helianthus petiolaris), Note. Lophospermum scandens, Bot. Mag. 3037-8.—Sweet’s Brit. Fl, Gard. N. S. t. 68. DescrirTion.—Plant herbaceous, scandent. chiefly by the petioles. Stem round, brownish-green, in a very luxuriant state pushing roots from near. the base, cuticle smooth, or somewhat cracked. Branches round, op- posite, villous, purple at the base, young shoots n. Leaves (54 inches from the base to the apex, rather more across) numerous, opposite, pe« tioled, deltoideo-cordate, acute, incise-toothed, villous on both sides, bright green above, paler below, 3-nerved, the lateral nerves branched, slightly reticulated chiefly at the margins, teeth mucronate. . Petioles purple, villous, as long asthe leaf, stout, round, scarcely channelled above, twisting. Peduncles axillary; solitary, single-flowered, ebrac- teate, as long as the petioles, erect, straight, green, villous. Flowers spreading horizontally. Calya foliaceous, 5-parted, persisting, segments (1 inch long, 4 inch broad) subequal, the upper rather the shortest and broadest, ovate, acute, prominent at the edges, veined, pubescent within and without, sometimes becoming purple, entire or rarely auricled at the base. Corolla (nearly 3 inches Nina, 2 inches across) rose-coloured, pu- bescent every where on the outside, campznulate, slightly turgid below ; tube elongated, slightly curved downwards, dilated, nectariferous, and nearly colourless at the base, darkest on the upper side, within freckled with rose-colour, and having yellow pubescence towards the insertion of the stamens; limb spreading, 5-parted, segments rounded, subequal, the lowest the smallest, the two upper the largest; from the base of the lower segment upon each side, a straight ridge, covered with erect yel- lowish hairs, extends to the insertion of the two longer stamens. Sta- mens 4, didynamous, as long as the tube, from the base of which they arise ; filaments nevednal ine | and adhering for a little way to the corolla, and there closing the tube, coarsely pubescent where they become free, at this part purple on the back, beautifully sprinkled with rose-coloured ~ ge or streaks, from which springs glandular pubescence, especially on the sides of their upper half, straight, diverging ii connivent to- wards their extremities ; anthers large, bilobular, glabrous, lobes paral. lel in the bud, afterwards divaricated, bursting along their sides; pollen white, granules small. ‘There isa minute, abortive, fifth stamen, be- tween the two shorter perfect ones at their origin. Pistil as long as the stamens; stigma simple, bent nearly at a right angle with the style, colourless, pointed; style straight, filiform, smooth above, sparingly provided with glandular pubescence in its lower half,-base persisting ; babu seated upon a prominent white glabrous and shining receptacle, ensely covered with erect colourless glandular hairs, bilocular. Unripe capsule crown-shaped, green, colourless at the base, somewhat compressed and furrowed laterally, covered with glandular pubescence, undulate, ‘terminated with the persisting base of the style, included within the ca- lyx. Ovules numerous, imbricated, tubercled, stipitate, erect on two large central receptacles, winged all round; wing radiated, emarginate, somewhat ragged in its edge; nucleus pendulous, pointed below, albu- - men large, embryo straight, central, This beautiful creeper was raised by P. Neill, Esq. in his garden at Canon- mills, from Mexican seed last spring. It flowered in his stove in the Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare Plants. 171 beginning, and in the greenhouse of the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, ‘in the middle of September. Plants were also exposed in the open bor- der, and flower-buds formed freely there, but too late in the season to be expanded. If turned out earlier, it is possible we may see it forming a noble addition. to our half hardy plants. It was upon Mr Don’s authority that in the Botanical Magazine I gave to this plant the MS. specific name of Sesse and. Mocinno. ‘The reasons sub- sequently assigned by him (loc. cit.) for considering it a new species seem ‘perfectly paiae ora -I however find the pubescence always articulate. Michauxia levigata. , ‘ \M. devigata; caule elato, glaberrimo, nitido; foliis duplicato-dentatis, hispidis, radicalibus ovatis longe petiolatis, caulinis sessilibus oblongis, inferioribus base attenuatis, superioribus cordatis ; floribus decandris ; stigma, calyce, corollaque 10-partitis. Michauxia levigata, Vent. Hort. Cels. p. 81. t. 81.—Persoon, Synop. 1. 418.—Sprengel, Syst. Veget. 2. 213. Michauxia decandra, Fischer, MS. Description.—Root perennial. Svem (11 feet high) herbaceous, smooth, shining, tapering, subsimple, upright, straight. Leaves sprinkled on both sides with harsh erect hairs, duplicato-dentate, coarsely veined and reticulate ; root-leaves ovate, decurrent along petioles longer than them- selves, and on the upper part of which there are a few small pinne; stem-leaves sessile, the lower ones oblong, and somewhat attenuated at the base, higher up cordate, and more acute, and gradually passing into cordate, acute bractee, with reflected aculei on fie ware and on the back of the middle rib. Flowers scattered along nearly the whole length of the stem, on short peduncles in the axils of the bracteze, expand in succession, and slowly, from below upwards. Peduneles solitary, bearing ‘three flowers, of which the terminal only expands with us. Calyx of ten segments, which are acute, at first erect, afterwards spreading at ww iy angles, reflected in the sides, and fringed with reflected aculei, and of ten other segments, which extend backwards along the pedicel, flat and shorter, but in other respects similar to the first ten, and alternating with them. Corolla white, much longer than the calyx, 10-parted, seg- ments (1 inch long, 1 line broad) linear, revolute, reflected in their edges, and ciliated with reflected aculei along the middle rib. Stamens 10; fi- laments connivent, subulate, winged, wings reflected villous; anthers - as long as the filaments, linear, yellow, bursting along the sides; pollen yellow. Germen top-shaped, inferior, ribbed, 10-locular. Style stout, straight, longer than the stamens, pubescent. Stigma 10-parted, revolute. Ovules very numerous, attached to a large central receptacle. ‘The whole plant yields, on the slightest injury, a large quantity of milky juice. — Seeds of this plant, which is a native of the north of Persia, were commu- nicated to the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, by Dr Fischer in March 1829, and the same specimen has been in flower with us for about two months after the middle of August. Even yet (16th October), the flowers have not expanded much above half-way up the stem, and I have no doubt it would have continued in blossom till the frost cut it down, but for an injury which it has received. I had hoped to have received Ven- tenat’s work before this description was printed, but as T have not, the identity of our plant with his may admit of some doubt ; but I cannot believe that they are different. Phalangium longifolium. P. longifolium ; caule simplice, folioso; floribus laxe racemosis, nutanti- bus; pedunculis congestis, medio articulatis, bracteam acuminatam z- quantibus ; petalis acutis ; filamentis medio tumidis; foliis linearibus, glabris, denticulatis, caulem subsequantibus. Description.—Root fascicled, drawn out into long fibres, swelling into oblong, white, villous tubers. Stem (2} feet high) simple, round, gla- é 7 172 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. brous, leafy. Root-leaves numerous, lanceolato-linear, channelled, gla- brous, ciliato-denticulate, flaccid, about as long as the stem. Stem-leaves similar to the others, but gradually smaller, and passing into bracteze upwards, scattered, and stem clasping, acuminate. Bractee dilated at the base, membranous at the edges, acute; secondary smaller ones with- in the larger. Flowers in long, lax, terminal racemes, nodding. Pe- duncles clustered, glabrous, jointed in the middle, dark green in their lower half, paler in the upper. Corolla (14 inch across, when fully ex- panded) white, of six, wide spread, 3-nerved, oblong, acute, petals, of which the three outer are narrowest. Stamens half the length of the corolla; filaments tumid above the middle, glabrous; anthers oran yellow, as long as the filaments, emarginate at the apex, notched at the base, bursting along the sides; pollen very abundant, orange-yellow. Pistil rather longer than the stamens; stigma pubescent; style declined ; germen linear, trigonous, trivalvular, trilocular, dissepiments arising from the centre of the valves. Ovules attached to a central receptacle, and arranged in two rows in each cell. Bulbs of this species were brought from Lima last spring by Mr Cruck- shanks, under the generic name of Ornithogalum, and flowered in the stove of the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in September. Celestial Phenomena from January 1. to April 1. 1831, calcu- lated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr Georce Innes, Astronomical Calculator, Aberdeen. The tithe Conjuncsions of the Moon with the Stars ara giventa Rightasensions JANUARY. ; D. FEES 42136 SjpaeQ 20. 173135 @©enterses 115940 «66 ) 20° 1997 g)p»rX 146 8 S)yeN 20. 222837 djs 151310 o)cQ 21. 72659 _) First Quarter. 221523 ddtx 21. 154931 4 ).2& Ceti. 82453. g¢)ly 21. 23 441 6) pu Ceti. 22.47 24 ( Last Quarter. | 22, 1550 ~ <4OH 25152 d¢)yx 22. 183922 d)jfy 141543 ¢)ys 23. 030 - 468? 626 6 5) Oph. 23. 1453 5° ¢)y 8 114 - 9 greatest elong. | 23 16 TOO Sits 103216 ¢6%oH 23. 163545 d6)238 62041 497 23, 212851 df OI 12 656 o)aft 23. 213628 d)jyare 133 9 @ New Moon 26. Ty 42 Inf. ¢ © 845 - dss 28. 2 33 26 © Full Moon. 122340 6) 7 22. 142038 g¢)jyeQ 151045 ¢)@ 22. 191220 S)h 92045 ¢)H 30. 13618 }fg)eN 1423 - fo) 30 45317 497K 134050 g)jase 31. 038 - 6OH 23 4227 d)ose 31. 03958 d¢)cQ 1130 6.) 16.9 ‘Celestial Phenomena from Jan. \. to April 1.1831. 173 FEBRUARY. MARCH. Bee phy D ane 23531 423% 1 15611. ¢)lyty 17614 g)ly™] 4 1926 f6)y=s 2014 2 (Last Quarter. | 5 Se Qe gee 10 52 21 Sd Drv 5. 448 —~ 46 $3 22 16 27 oa) 5. 4 56 33 Em. ITI. sat. 2/ 14 3214. =) g Oph. Be 62319 d)v= 20026 7 d)j)dft 5. . 2247 21 d& ) ¢ Oph. 18:32.- 46% 6. 75634. gdheQ 8 54 42 fg) 6. 17 9 51 ( Last Quarter. 2001933 ¢)H 9. 53243 djdft 17 026 @ New Moon 9. 8 55 55 Em. IIL. sat. 2/ 18.834 ¢)Q le 54141 fp py 204830 d)ase ll. 82947 ¢)H 63535 d)ose x re se yee a a ik Be aC Ts. 412 7 fYxYXIV 039 4 d pv 13. 6 8 3l dda ce 44826 dHdV 14. 5 45 56 @ New Moon. 14617 - §OR 15. 155334 6)? 21 9 3 d y 2 & Ceti. 16. 811 1 dg)» 423 8 6) «Ceti. 17. 41422 \ 6°) 22 Ceti 83343 g¢)é 17 11 559 6) wu Ceti. 20 57 21 Em. 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Dr Scot of Corstorphine read:a-learned essay on the ‘* giants” mentioned in the Sacred Writings... ._The Secretary read a communication from James Wilson, Esq: giving an ac- count of the great Orang-outang of Sumatra, illustrated by figures of the hand and foot, of the natural size. Professor Jameson then gave an account of Dr Gregory’s analysis of the compact ferruginous marl of the old red sandstone of Salisbury ‘Crags; and also of the same gentleman’s analysis: of the lime- — stone of the Red Burn near Seafield' Tower in Fife, which is magnesian, but only where in contact with the trap.. The Pro- fessor. also communicated some details in regard to Captain Ross’s expedition, and the splendid display of polar lights ob- served in the Shetland Islands in the month of November last. A sketch of the magnificent fossil tree, at present seen in situ in Craigleith Quarry, with a cross-section of a portion of the stem, exhibiting very nearly the structure of a coniferous tree; was exhibited to the meeting. At this meeting, the following gentlemen were elected office- bearers of the Society for 1831. Rosert Jameson, Esq. President. Vickr-PRESIDENTS. R. K. Greville, LL. D. John Boggie, M.D. David Falconar, Esq. Alex. Brunton, D. D. Secretary, Pat. Neill, Esq. Librarian, James Wilson, Esq. Treasurer, A. G. Ellis, Esq. Painter, P. Syme, Esq. Councit. John Stark, Esq. Charles Anderson, M. D. Sir Arthur Nicholson, Bart. - W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. John Gillies, M.D. Mark Watt, Esq. . Rey. David Scot, M. D. Die: Yee a SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. METEOROLOGY. 1. Heavy fall of Rain, and frequent appearance of Aurora Borealis, in September 1830.—At the Calf of Man Low Light- house, on the morning of the 16th September, there was a re- markably heavy fall of rain. ‘ In the course of little moré than four hours (says Mr James Macintosh, the light-keeper), I found ninety parts in the gauge. At a quarter past eleven o'clock p.m. it began lightly, and it gradually increased till twelve, when it came down in torrents. This continued till near four o’clock in the morning, when the rain entirely ceased. Although it blew a gale that day, there was not a breath of wind during the fall of rain, but the wind rose immediately afterwards. ‘The Edinburgh Chronicle takes notice of floods in several places in Scotland, of the same date; so I presume we had the first of the heavy rain here, as the direction of the wind, both before and after the rain, was from the 8. W. Du- ring the course of this September (adds Mr Macintosh), I have to record no fewer than nine appearances of the aurora borealis, the dates being the 7th, 10th, 12th, 13th, 17th, 19th, 20th, Zist, and 25th.” | | 2. Water Spout in the Lake of Neufthatel.—On the 9th June, at nine o'clock in the morning, the weather being moist, and the thermometer at 64° Fahr. a water-spout was seen at Neufchatel, on the other side of the lake, about a league from the fort. From a fixed black cloud, about eighty feet above the surface, descended perpendicularly a dark-grey cylindrical column, touching the surface of the lake. Much agitation was seen at the foot and top of the column, a dull heavy sound was heard, and the waters of the lake were seen to mount rapidly along this sort of syphon to the cloud, which gradually became white as it received them. After seven or eight minutes had elapsed, a north-east wind pressed upon the column, so that it bent in the middle, still however raising water, until at last it separated. At the same moment, the cloud above, agitated and compressed by the wind, burst and let fall a deluge of rain. Scientific Intelligence.— Meteorology. 77 This appearance was neither preceded nor followed by any lightning or explosion ; the column was vertical and motionless, | no rotary motion being observed.— Bib. Univ. June 1830. 8. Polar Lights in Shetland.—W e are informed by our former pupil Mr Mouat Cameron, that the Polar lights had been un- commonly frequent and brilliant during the latter part of last summer and during the whole of autumn. On the 15th of No- vember they were most splendid, exhibiting an appearance which the oldest man in the country had never witnessed.“ I can compare it,” says Mr Cameron, “ to nothing but the light thrown out from a foundry at work, supposing the horizon to represent the mouth of the furnace—and even this conveys but a feeble idea of its appearance.” The Polar lights, we may add, have been very frequent and brilliant in this neighbourhood. This atmospheric luminous meteor appears, for these some years past, to be running through one of its maximum periods. 4. Nitrous Atmosphere of Tirhoot.—Tirhoot is one of the principal districts in India for the manufacture of saltpetre ; the soil is every where abundantly impregnated with this sub- stance, and it: floats in the atmosphere in suche quantities, that, during the rains and cold weather, it is attracted from thence by the lime on the damp walls of houses, and fixes there in shape of long downy crystals of exceeding deli- cacy. From damp spots it may be brushed off every two or three days almost*in basketsful. In consequence of all this, the ground, even in hot weather, is so damp, that it is extremely difficult either to get earth of sufficient te- nacity to make bricks (the country being quite destitute of stones), or, when made, to find a spot sufficiently solid to sus- tain the weight of a house. Even with the greatest care the ground at last yields, and the saltpetre corrodes the best of the bricks to such a degree, that the whole house gradually sinks several inches below its original level. Houses built of inferior materials, of course suffer much more ;.one, of which the inner foundations were of unburnt bricks, absolutely fell down whilst I was at Mullye, and the family in it escaped almost by miracle. My own house, which was not much better, sank so much, and the walls were at bottom so evidently giving way, that I OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. M 178 . Scientific Intelligence.—M. eteorology. was compelled, with extreme expense and inconvenience, to pull down the whole inner walls, and build them afresh in a more secure manner. From the same cause, a new magazine which government directed to be built, with an arched roof of brick- work, was, when complete, found so very unsafe, that it was ne- cessary to demolish it entirely, and rebuild it on a new plan, with a roof of tiles. In such a soil, it will easily be concluded that swamps and lagoons prevail very much, of course, mostly during the rains, and till the sun gathers power in the hot weather; and, in fact, what has been above so much insisted on, as to the two contrary aspects of the country with respect to vege- tation, may, by a conversion of terms, be equally applied to the water on its surface. In the cold and dry weather it is compa- ratively scanty, in the rains it is superabundant; and as the rivers in this district are frequently found to change their situa. tions, so, through a long course of time, it has resulted that hollow beds, being deserted by their streams, become transform- ed: into what, during the rains, assume the appearance of exten- sive lakes, but in dry weather degenerate into mere muddy swamps, overgrown with a profusion of rank aquatic vegetations, particularly the gigantic leaves of the lotus, and swarming with every tribe. of loathsome cold-blooded animals. Some of these lakes, during the height of the rains, communicate with their original streams, and thus undergo a temporary purification ; but others receive no fresh supply except from the clouds, and of course their condition is by much the worse. Some of the conversions of a river-bed into a lake, have occurred in the me- mory of the present inhabitants, or at least within one descent from their ancestors. —T'ytler, on the Climate of’ Mullye, in Trans. Med. & Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, vol. iv. ui GEOLOGY. 5. Heights of Table Lands. Toises above the sea. The table land of Iran in Persia, - - 650. _ Table land in which Moscow is situated, - 67 The plain of Lombardy, : aed - = 80 Table land of Swabia, - - oo. 150 Auvergne, - - - 174 Schweitz, " - - 220 Bavaria, - - - 260 a Spain % G - - 350 Scientific Intelligence — Geology. 179 These table lands are not longitudinal valleys between ranges of moutitains. The bottom of a longitudinal valley, which is from — 1500 to 2000 toises above the sea, as is the case in the. Andes, is caused by the elevation of a whole mountain chain. 'True table lands, such as those of Spain and Bavaria, were probably formed by the upraising of a whole continental mass. Both epochas are geognostically considered different.— Humboldt. 6. Lake Aral—The surface of the lake Aral is 117 feet higher than that of the Caspian —Humboldt. 7. Fossil Shells in the Snowy Mountains of Thibet.—At a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, on 5th May last, ex- ‘tracts from Mr Gerard’s letters, relative to the fossil shells collect- ed by him in his late tour over the snowy mountains of the Thi- bet frontier, were read. The loftiest altitude at which he picked up some of them, was on the crest of a pass, elevated 17,000 feet ; and here also were fragments of rock, bearing the impres- sions uf shells, which must have been detached from the conti- guous peaks rising far above the elevated level. Generally, however, the rocks fornied of these shells are at an altitude of 16,000 feet, and one chiff was a mile in perpendicular height above the nearest level. Mr Gerard farther states, “‘ Just before crossing the boundary of Ludak into Bussahir, I was exceeding- ly gratified by the discovery of a bed of fossil oysters, clinging to the rock as if they had been alive.” In whatever point of view we are to consider the subject, it is sublime to think of millions of organic remains lying at such an extraordinary altitude, and of vast cliffs of rocks formed out of them, frowning over these illimitable and desolate wastes, bh the ocean once rolled.— Asiatic Register. 8. Bone Caves discovered in New Holland.—Colonel Lindsay of the 39th Regiment, a very active and intelligent inquirer, informs us of the discovery of great quantities of fossil bones of animals, imbedded in marl and other substances, in caves in New Holland. Some of these animals (quadrupeds), judg- ing from the size of the bones, must have been very large,—a circumstance the more remarkable, because hitherto no large quadrupeds have been found in Australia. 9. Leonhard on the Basaltic Formation.—Professor Leonhard of Heidelberg informs us, that he has now in the press a work M 2 180 Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. on Basaltic or Trap rocks, which will appear in two volumes oc- tavo, with numerous sections and maps. It will, from a printed prospectus sent to us, be the most complete work on this very interesting subject which has hitherto been presented to the public. It will appear during the course of 1831. ZOOLOGY. 10. On the Existence of Animalcula in Snow.—The follow- ing account was sent by Dr J. E. Mure, in a letter to Dr Silliman.—When the winter had made considerable progress, without much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow. Ap- prehending that I might not have an opportunity of filling my house with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps enough to fill it. There was afterwards severely cold weather, and I filled the re. mainder with ice. About August, the waste and consumption of the ice brought us down to the snow, when it was discovered that a glass of water which was cooled with it, contained hun- dreds of animalcules. I then examined another glass of water out of the same pitcher, and, with the aid of a microscope, be-. fore the snow was put into it, found it perfectly clear and pure; the snow was then thrown into it, and, on solution, the water again exhibited the same phenomenon, hundreds of animalcules, visible to the naked eye with acute attention, and, when viewed. through the microscope, resembling most diminutive shrimps, and wholly unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in the full enjoyment of animated nature. I caused holes - to be dug in several parts of the mass of snow in the ice-house, © and to the centre of it, and, in the most unequivocal and repeated experiments, had similar results ; so that my family did not again venture to introduce the snow-ice into the water they drank, which had been a favourite method, but used it as an external refrigerant for the pitcher. These little animals may class with the amphibia which have cold blood, and are generally capable, in a low temperature, of a torpid state of existence. Hence their icy immersion did no violence to their constitution, and the possibility of their revival by heat is well sustained by ana- logy ; but their generation, their parentage, and their extraor- dinary transmigration, are to me subjects of profound astonish- ment. ‘ Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. 181 11. Mr Marshall on a Heifer which yielded Milk.—Edring- ton, by Berwick, June 16. 1830.—Srr, As I believe the following fact, which I shall have the honour of narrating to you, to be a very uncommon one, I have from that consideration been induced to trouble you with its communication. I have two two-years- old heifers, one of which has been observed for several months to suck the other, and evidently to draw a certain portion of milk. This circumstance rendering it necessary to separate them, cu- riosity suggested the trial whether the heifer which had played nurse would yield milk to the hand. On the experiment being made, she gave a full English quart of genuine milk ; and on the milk being kept for thirty hours, it was covered with a coat of very good cream. The cream being churned in a bottle, afforded as much, and as good, butter, as the same quantity of any other cream would have done, under similar management. The singu- lar part of the story is, that the heifer in question has never seen the bull. I am aware that a bitch kept up from the dog will, at the time she should have produced puppies, have milk in her dugs, but I do not know of any other female that secretes milk without being impregnated. I have the honour to be, &c. Jos. Marsuaty. T'o Professor Jameson. 12. Frog and Insect Plague of Mullye—As a further il- lustration of the nature of the atmosphere and climate in ge- neral, I shall add the following observations, which may be of some use-in a medical point of view. During the rains, the vast abundance of cold-blooded animals is really astonish- ing. Of these, frogs are the most numerous. No place is free from this plague; every hole and every corner, both of the most retired and most public rooms, are equally infested. If a table, a chest of drawers, or a box be moved, or a carpet be lifted, they are found nestled underneath by fifteen or twenty in each corner; and thus through our halls, our bed-rooms, and our sitting rooms. There they remain during the day; and ‘towards sunset, they begin to issue from their ambuscades, and traverse the whole house in quest of prey. The following anec. . dotes may give some idea of the number of insects. One morn- ing at sunrise, I was awakened by a loud humming in my bed- room, resembling that of a market or fair held at a distance. On examination, my window was darkened, and my bed covered . 182 Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. with an Egyptian swarm of gigantic winged ants, about 1} inches long,’ and. of a dark red colour, and the thickness of a crow-quill, issuing, in an uninterrupted stream, from a hole be- tween the square tiles of the floor. Such swarms are very com- mon, and the air is then crowded with crows and hawks. that come to devour. One day, about an hour after sunset, we were alarmed from without, by what seemed an excessively heavy fall of rain pouring in torrents. On inquiry, the night was per- fectly clear. Curiosity led me to go out with a light to examine the cause. I found it proceeded from an almost inconceivable number of black beetles issuing from the ground: they were somewhat larger than the first phalanx of the thumb, and their aggregated hum was the sound we had heard. To say they were © coming from the earth in thousands, or tens of thousands, scarcely gives an adequate idea of their production. They must be conceived as issuing in a continued torrent from every inch over the ground, and filling the atmosphere with their flight.—I shall give one other instance, which to me was pecu- liarly interesting, and on that account, perhaps, more observed by myself than by others: Mullye produces above all other places those insects which are destructive to books and papers. Notwithstanding the utmost care, exposure, and cleanliness, the outside of books appears perforated with small holes, as if by a pin, and apparently made for the entrance of a small species of white worms, about a quarter of an inch long; colonies of which, having thus got entrance among the leaves, there revel in destruction. They eat in serpentine labyrinths, till the whole book is traversed through and through, and destroyed. Happily they seem to have a dislike to ink, and seldom attack the printed part of the leaves till they have previously feasted on the margin. At other stations, occasional examination of the shelves, and opening the velumes, was sufficient to stop the in- vaders; but at Mullye, no precaution whatever had any influ- ence in restraining their ravages. I may also add, that it was invariably necessary to alter the disposition of my library m the dry and rainy weather. It is no exaggeration to say that books of all kinds became, in the latter season, so swelled with mois- ture, that a shelf cannot then hold more than three volumes out of the four that it easily contains in the dry part of the Scientific Intelligence,— Zoology. 183 year; books bound with ill-seasoned, particularly with Hindoo- stanee, leather, and still more especially, if left to lie neglected ona table for a day or two, become covered with a stratum of white mould, at least an eighth of an inch thick; and an. ap- proach to this takes place even in the best European leather. The boards are then soaked through with moisture, whilst, in the hot winds, they are parched and rolled, as if held before a fire. Of course, all this renders their preservation extremely difficult. After this, I leave it to be imagined, that the moths among cloths, and the omnivorous white ants among almost every thing, but particularly the timber of buildings, are fully proportioned in numbers to their kindred plagues. The last thing I have to mention, though it may appear in some degree ridiculous, may yet serve to illustrate the nature of the climate. Small mushrooms grow in every corner that is the least neglect- ed, even in the most frequented rooms: left to themselves, they would attain the height of about two inches, witha top rather larger than a shilling; but they are generally discovered and brushed away before they reach maturity. inept in Trans. of Med. & Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, vol. iv. ~ 13: Further notice of Ehrenberg’s Observations on the Infu- soria.—One of our late pupils, in a letter to Dr Duncan, says, ‘¢. As you may well suppose, I prized highly the kindness with which Professor Ehrenberg of Berlin explained to me his diffe- rent discoveries and researches. He spent nearly a whole fore- noon in showing me the structure of the infusory animals ; his investigations and drawings are what excited so much interest at the meeting of naturalists in Hamburgh. In these minute creatures, placed at the extremity of the animal scale, the deter- mination of whose existence merely has hitherto formed the limit of zoological research, he has succeeded in developing a complete system of organs, by using one of Chevalier’s micro- scopes, of 2000 powers. These animals are quite transparent ; so that the whole internal structure is visible externally. They have one or more stomachs, mouth, cesophagus, intestinal canal, anus, eyes, muscular fibres, division into head and trunk. Thus far I saw distinctly ; but Ehrenberg goes further; he gives to certain white striz which are seen traversing the body of the animal, in different directions, but for the most transversely, the _ 184 Scientific Intelligence.—Zoology. denomination of bloodvessels or nerves. These strie I saw distinctly, but whether they are either vessels or. nerves, I can- not tell. . The motions of the animals are rapid and vigorous; and they are particularly remarkable for a large longitudinal muscle, extending nearly the whole length of the body, which enables them to bend their body into various contortions, and to: alter its form in a very remarkable manner*.” 14. Flying of Man and Birds.—M. Navier read to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, the report of a committee, to whom was referred the memoir of ®M. Chabrier, wherein is proposed a method of flying, and of directing one’s flight in the air! The apparatus consists of huge wings; the cavities of which are filled with hydrogen gas, arid which the flying man is to move with his arms. The report states‘ the com- mittee’s opinion to be, not only that the apparatus proposed by M. Chabrier is incapable of effecting the object in view, but that every machine constructed upon the same principle must be equally ineffectual. To demonstrate this, M. Navier en- deavours to calculate the muscular exertions made by birds in flying, in order to compare it with what man is capable of. According to his calculations, a bird, to sustain itself in the air merely, without ascending or descending, employs in a second a quantity of action equal to that which would be neces- sary to raise his own weight to a height of 26 feet 3 inches ; but if this bird desired to move horizontally with great speed, at the rate, for example, of 49 feet 2 inches ina second, which is often the case with birds that migrate, in their annual j journeys, the quantity of action which it would have to expend in a second, would be equal to that which would be required to raise its own weight to the height of 1,280 feet, or thereabouts. Thus, in this case, it would employ a force nearly fifty times greater than it required merely to sustain itself in the air. It is therefore evident, that, in order to support itself on wing, a bird. must be less sensible of fatigue than a man in supporting himself on his legs, if we have respect to the quantity ‘of fatigue which the one and the other are capable of enduring. It is * We have before us a more detailed account of Ehrenberg’s discoveries, sent from Hamburgh, but too late for insertion in the present number pars _ J pummel. s Sa Scientific Intelligence.— Botany. | 185 calculated that a man who is employed 8 hours a-day in turning a‘crane or wheel, raises at an average rate, in every second of time, a weight equal to 15 pounds troy, 393 inches high. ‘Supposing that the weight be 175 |b. troy, the same quantity of action is capable of raising his own weight to a height of about 33 inches ; so that, ceteris paribus, it is not the ninety-second part of that which is exerted by the bird to sustain itself in the air. Ifthe man was capable of expending, in a space of time as short as he pleased, the quantity of action which he exerts ordinarily in the course of 8 hours, it appears that he might — sustain himself in the air, each day, for the space of 5 minutes. BOTANY, HORTICULTURE, &e. 15. Erica mediterranea found native in Ireland.—Mr James Townsend Mackay, curator of the College Botanic Garden at Dublin, having made a botanical excursion to the mountainous district of Cunnemara, during the past autumn, was fortunate enough to find Erica mediterranea “ growing in prodigious abundance.” This is the most important addition which has of late ‘years been made to the Irish Flora. The plant has long been cultivated in the gardens of the curious ; it withstands our Scottish winters in the open border, with difficulty, and only in sheltered situations; or near the sea-shore. It was regarded as being indigenous only to the countries bordering on the Medi- _terranean, and to Portugal; and certainly British botanists little expected to be able to claim it as a native of the sister island. 16. Hybrid Azaleas—Mr Gowan at Highclere, the seat of the Earl of Caernarvon, has of late years raised many new sorts of American azaleas, by means of cross impregnation, chiefly be- tween the high-coloured and late-flowering varieties. Fér mo- ther plants, the different fine varieties of A. coccinea, were selected, major, minor, and rubescens, the anthers of which very seldom produce pollen. The two former were dusted for seve- ral successive mornings with the pollen of a late-flowering A. pon- tica. Many pods swelled, and produced perfect seed. The pods were gathered at the approach of winter, kept in a drawer for some weeks, and sown in the beginning of January. Of these about 400 seedlings were raised. The rubescens was impreg- nated with the pollen of 4. calendulacea, or Lee’s triumphans, _ 186 Scientific Intelligence.—Geography. and about 100 seedlings were raised. Of the first-mentioned 400 seedlings, three-fourths closely resembled the male parent, A. pontica, in foliage, inflorescence, and general habit. Some were very beautiful, and highly fragrant. The remaining fourth part resembled the female parent in habit, but the foliage was rather on a larger scale. The colours of the blossoms were very rich, various tints of crimson, vivid pink or scarlet; and most of these will form beautiful acquisitions to our shrubbery borders. | 17. Preservation of Fruit-Trees from Hares. — According | to M. Bas, young fruit-trees may be preserved from the bites of hares, by rubbing them with fat, and especially hogs-lard. Apple and pear trees thus protected, give no signs of the attacks of these animals, though their feet-marks were abundant in the snow beneath them.—Budll. Univ. D. xiv. 881. 18. Cure of Wounds in Elm-Trees.—Those elms: which ~ have running places or ulcers, may be cured in the following manner. Each wound is to have a hole bored in it with an auger, and then a tube, penetrating an inch or less, is to be fixed in each.» Healthy trees, which are thus pierced, give no | fluid; but those which are unhealthy yield fluid, which in- creases in abundance with the serenity of the sky, and exposure to the south. Stormy and windy weather mterrupts the effect. It has been remarked, that in from 24 to 48 hours the running stops ; the place dries up; and is cured.—Journal des Forets, 1829. 19. Preservation of Frozen Potatoes.—In time of frost, the only precaution necessary is to retain the potatoes in a perfectly dark place for some days after the thaw has commenced. In America, where they are sometimes frozen as hard as stones, they rot if thawed in open day; but if thawed in darkness they do not rot, and lose very little of their natural odour and pro- perties.— Recueil Indust. xiv. 81. 20. Precautions in the planting of Potatoes.—It itr ap- pear from experiments made in Holland, that when potatoes are planted, the germs of which are developed, as happens occasionally in late. operations, or rather after mild winters, the produce differs in quantity by more than a third to what it Scientific Intelligence.—Statistics. 187 would be if potatoes which had not advanced had been used ; and farther, that besides this diminished product, the quality is also very inferior. GEOGRAPHY. 21. Notice Regarding Lost Greenland.—The Indicateur of Calais has the following :—We learn from Copenhagen, that an expedition which sailed from that port in May last, suc- ceeded in reaching the eastern coast of Greenland, where some Norwegian colonists settled eight centuries ago, and to which all access had since been prevented by the ice. The expedition found there the descendants of the primitive colonists, who still profess Christianity. Their language is that of the Norwegians of the tenth century. 22. Major Rennell’s Chart of the Atlantic. —We understand, from the editor of the lately published edition of “ The Geo- graphical System of Herodotus,” there are preparing for press, from the manuscript of the late Major Rennell, a memoir on the general currents of the Atlantic ocean, accompanied by a series of charts, shewing their force and direction ; and also a work on the ancient and modern geography of certain parts of Asia, with twelve maps. 23. Intelligence of Captain Ross, R.N.—Two accounts of the progress of Captain Ross's exploratory voyage have reached us. We give them as communicated to us. According to the _ one account, Captain Ross was met with in Baffin’s Bay in August 1829, where, having suffered damage during hard weather, he fortunately was enabled, from the wreck of a Greenland ship, to refit. He afterwards steered northward, and has not since been heard of. The other account represents our adventurous commander and his brave crew as having been forced back to Lively Bay, in Bakiin’s Bay, where they spent last winter. STATISTICS. 24. Commerce of Great Britain.—At a’ time when the com- mercial distress of this country is so great, and the utmost anxi- ety is everywhere shewn for effecting its relief, it will be inte- a 188 Scientific Intelligence. — Statistics. resting. to know the relation in which the various countries of: the world stand to us with respect to the value and importance of the commerce which we carry on with them. The following table, for the year from January 1828 to January 1829, and derived from an official return laid before Parliament, will shew the state and value of our commerce with all countries, the first. column of which exhibits the value of Imports for one year; and the second, the value of Exports. If we are to judge of the relative value or importance of the commerce of countries by the quantity of commodities with which they supply us, we shall find this shown in the first column of the table. But if we are to judge of the value of their commerce by the quantity of our native or colonial produce which they consume, this we shall find indicated in. the second column. Countries in the order of the Value of || Countries. in the order of the Value the Imports from them into Great of the Exports to them from Great Britain. Britain. 1. British West Indies, . . L. 8,908,672 a S, . L. 9,467, 9. East Indies and China, . . 8,348,767 |} 2. United Statesof America, .° 6,843, 3. United States of America, . 5,820,581 || 3. East Indies and C . ° 6. 4: Ru . . . . . 3,442,653 4. Brazil, . . . . * 6,1 5. France, ° . 3,159,307 |} 5. United Netherlands, . . 4,956,116 - 6. United. Netherlands, Sil Oe 1,978,110 || 6. deals. ‘ oi els 4,642,331. . Germany, ‘ Ap He 1,669,365 |} 7. British West Indies, ° ° 4,049,856 8. Brazil, 1,488,271 |} 8. South American Pipabliets . 212 9. Africa, comprehending - Egypt, 9. Russia. . + 2,753,887 Ports in the Mediterranean, 10. British Northern Colonies of Ame- Cape of Good Hope, Mauri- rica, 0 Oe VR Ae eeere jo Nae Eee OS : 175,813 1 ee ‘ai + e« 2,078,693 10. I Vs . . . . . 1; ’ 9. ortugal, zores, "Madeira, iy 033 £ 1l. Prussia, es 1,027,368 | 13. Foreign West Indies, - « 1,450,562 - 12. Spain and the Canaries,. _. 978,612 }| 14. Africa, comprehending 13. British Northern Colonies of Ame- Ports in the Mediterranean, rica 838,991 Cape Good Hope, Mauri- 14. Turkey and Continental Greece, 731,943 tius, &c. ora See 1,148,828 15. Portugal, Azores, and Madeira, . 584,818 || 15. Prussia, oe, ec eee FORBIS 16. South American 1 Mipeaa . ,085 || 16. France, . + eh es eee 17. The Whale-Fisheries, . . «+ 428,591 | 17. —. «xe 624,351 18. Denmark, . -« 371,929 | 18. S "and the “Canaries, o - 613,615 19. et meee $ Jersey, Aldern ney 19. New South Wales, &c. e - 611 5: and ab oe $16,615 20. ae and Continental q\ irae? 525,148 | 20. Foreign West Indies, er ’ 21 rag peek 4 Alderney, 7 Sweden, = . . . 146,181 . _* . 440. » " Tonian Islands, - «143,592 | 29. beaut? oS ae * New South Wales, &e. : ; 84,812 || 23. Norway. asi ee " - « 131,665 24, Norway, 7 . . . - 62,897 24, Sweden, . . . a7 129,611 25. Gibraltar, . . « eer 29,768 || 25. Ionian Islands, ‘ » e . » 69,520 . 26. Malta, . . ’ ¥ . . 16,329 26. The Whale-Fisheries. . a 1,694 ‘ 27. Morea and Greek Islands, . .« 260 || 27. Morea and Greek Islands, . . 425 — The sums are erate according to the official sidtaéceadl'? 25. Cholera Morbus.—There was read at a late ecinly of the French Institute, an interesting paper on the epidemic cho- lera at present raging in Russia. ‘The author said that its pro. gress can be traced from India through Persia; that the majority. of those attacked were carried off within twenty-four hours; that. Scientific Intelligence—Arts. ~ —-189 its propagation was entirely checked by intense cold, ceasing each year about the 15th of October, and breaking out again in the month of April. Humboldt, who made some observations on the paper, said that he was of opinion it was not imported into Europe by caravans, which are all subjected to a strict quarantine; and that the Russian army brought it back with them from Persia; and that its extension into southern Europe is very probable from the movements of large bodies of men to the western frontier of the Russian empire. To those interested in the nature of this terrible disease, we recommend, as the best treatise on the subject, that published by Dr Alexander Turn- bull Christie. ARTS. 26. Size for Illuminators, Artists, &c.—Four ounces of Flanders glue, and four ounces of white soap, are to be dis- solved on the fire in a pint of water, two ounces of powdered alum added, the whole stirred and left to cool. It is to be spread cold with a sponge or pencil on the paper to be prepared, and is much used by those who have to colour unsized paper, as artists, topographers, &c.—Bull. Univ. 27. Manufacture of Charcoal.—A new process, recommend- ed in the Journal des Foréts, for this purpose, is to fill all the interstices in the heap of wood to be charred, with powdered charcoal. | 28. Potash obtained commercially from Felspar.xAccording to M. Fuchs, this important alkali may be extracted from mi- nerals containing it, by the following method :—They are to be calcined with lime, then left some time in contact with water, and the liquor filtered and evaporated. M. Fuchs says, he has thus obtained from nineteen to twenty parts of potash from felspar, and from fifteen to sixteen from mica, per cent.—Brand’s Jour- nal, No. 1. New Series. 29. Improvements in Printing—It is well known that of late years a vast additional-power has been given to the art of letter- press printing, by means of machinery. For speed, the newly- invented printing machines, when compared with the manual presses, are to printing what the power-loom is to weaving; and, accordingly, they are of great utility in all establishments 190 Scientific Intelligence.—Arts. where newspapers and other periodical works having a large cir- culation are printed, and of course where the greatest number of impressions is required in the shortest possible time. Although the machines have been very much simplified since their first intro- duction, and much neater work is now accomplished with them than at first, yet they are still so expensive, and the manual presses so superior to them for the purposes of fine printing and general economy in the case of small impressions, that it is doubtful if the present kind of machines will ever comé into general use. In confirmation of this opinion,.it may just be stated, that long as these machines have been used in London, only two offices in Edinburgh have as yet obtained them, and we are not aware of there being a single machine elsewhere in Scotland. The machines, however, possess in their inking apparatus, one decided advantage over the common presses, for by it the ink is applied to the types with the utmost regu- larity and equality ; while, at the common press, it is laid on in greater or less quantity, and with more or less regularity, | according to the care or judgment of the pressman. Hence it frequently happens, in the latter case, that no two sheets, nor even both sides of the same sheet, are perfectly uniform in colour, though printed at the same press, and at all events seldom or never if printed at different presses.—In printing each sheet at the old press, two men are employed, the one for applying the ink, and the other for laying on the paper; and within the last 25 years a subsequertt process of pressing or smoothing the printed sheets has been introduced, likewise requiring the labour of other two individuals. ‘This last operation is performed by placing a printed sheet and a thin glazed pasteboard alternately above each other, till a sufficient number be obtained for filling a large screw-press or hydraulic-press. This being done, a very power- ful pressure is applied, and the whole then allowed to stand consolidated for some hours, by which means the printed sur- face is completely flattened, and a glaze at the same time im- parted to the paper. A book is thus much improved in appear- ance, but it is at a great additional expense to the printer, and fer which he receives no extra remuneration. It would there- fore be of no slight advantage to him could the labour of print- ing and pressing be diminished, and the inequality of inking at 3 Scientific Inteligence—Arts. 191 the press remedied ; and it is conceived that both of these objects may be accomplished by the following or some similar means, to which the attention of engineers or of others acquainted with the subject is requested. 1st, As to the inking apparatus, that attached to the machines of Messrs Cowper and Applegath, ~ might be placed immediately behind the tympans of the Stan- hope or Columbian presses, and be worked by steam-power as at present. Were the tympans and carriage of the press in separate pieces, but made so as exactly to fit into each other, the carriage might, after each impression, be taken from the hand, upon reaching a certain point, by the inking apparatus, and, upon the types being rolled, returned to the same point. In the interim the pressman could be laying on and off his sheets, and by the time he had done so, the form would be again stationed at his hand, and ready for his taking another impres- sion. It is obvious that the great difficulty to be overcome here will be the construction of the machinery for receiving and re- turning. the carriage, and making the carriage ‘so nicely to fit the frame-work of the tympans as to preserve register, as it is called ; but, after the ingenious contrivance of Mr Napier in his machine for receiving and giving off the paper, there can be little doubt of these difficulties being soon obviated. In this way the great desideratum of securing an equality of cclour would be supplied ; and the expense of an apparatus for each press, with an engine-power for the whole, would be compensated, by only one half of the men being required. 2d, We have lately seen _ a cylindrical machine by Mr A. Moir of Glasgow, used. for pressing and glazing white paper, and, although this machine, in its present state, is not altogether suited for the pressing of printed sheets of books, yet it may also be easily adapted to this purpose. ‘The labour of turning it, however, is perhaps such as to prevent its adoption, unless where steam-power is at hand ; but, were every printing-office supplied with this power, the cylindrical pressing machine would probably soon supersede the tedious operation and expense of the glazed boards and hy- draulic press.—It will thus be perceived that the object sought to be attained is a still farther combination of manual labour _ and mechanical power ; and could the above, or similar sugges- tions, be carried into effect, another great step would undoubt- edly be gained in the art of printing. ( 192 ) NEW PUBLICATIONS. 1. Eprysuren Casiner Lisrary.—Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in the Polar Regions and Seas. Vol. I. Narrative of Disconery and Adventure in Africa. Vol. 11. Pub- lished by Oliver & Boyd. 1830. Tuts we consider one of the best, and certainly the most ele- gantly got up, and the cheapest too, of the series of similar works at present in progress of publication in this country, on the Con- tinent of Europe, and in the New World. The narrative is writ- ten with spirit and in good taste, by Mr Hugh Murray; the scientific department, by Professors Jameson and Leslie, and Mr James Wilson. Professor Leslie’s estimate of the climate of the Arctic Regions is interesting ; Professor Jameson’s memoirs contain the first connected views hitherto published of the de- scriptive and speculative geology of the Arctic Regions, and of central and southern Africa ; and Mr Wilson, in his zoological sketch, makes us agreeably acquainted with the more remark- able animals of the African Continent. 2. Wilson’s American Ornithology. Or this very delightful and fascinating book, an edition, un- der the superintendence of the Regius Professor of Natural His- tory of our University, is in progress of publication for “ Con- stable’s “Miscellany *.” The plates which accompany the expen- sive original work will not be engraved for the Edinburgh edi- tion, Professor Jameson being of opinion that the publication of these would so much increase its price, as to prevent its be- coming a household book throughout the country; which, we doubt not, will be the case in its present form. Illustrations of Wilson’s Ornithology” are announced ; but with these, neither Professor Jameson nor the proprietors of Constable’s Miscellany _ have any connexion., * It may interest our readers to know that the present system of popular and cheap works on science and literature, originated with the late Archibald Constable, Esq. The scheme was considered absurd by all his friends; but he appears to have known the public taste better than they; for Constable’s Miscellany, an excellent work, has served, in some degree, as a general mo- del for the popular works now publishing by all the great booksellers not only in Britain, but also in France, Germany, and Italy. New Publications. 193 3. Observations on Fossil Vegetables, accompanied by Representations of their Internal Structure, as seen through the ,Microscope. By H. Wrrnam, Esq. M.W-S:, F.G.S. &c. 4to. Blackwood, Edinburgh. Tue geological public will, feel indebted to our active and intelligent friend for this interesting and handsome volume. It is ornamented and illustrated with six neatly drawn, and well engraved, magnified representations of fossil and of recent woods, in which the structures are more correctly exhibited than is gene- rally the case in similar works. The method of shewing the fossil structures, by cutting the woods into thin slices, and ex- amining them by the microscope, is adopted; and although of late years less employed than it ought to have been, will now, we trust, from the interesting displays of internal arrangement which it displays, be more generally followed. The geological details in regard to the distribution and kinds of fossil wood, are also deserving the attention of naturalists. 4. The Aberdeen, Dundee, Leith, and London Tide Tables for the -year 1831. By Gzorce Innzs, Astronomical Calculator, Aber- deen. We have carefully examined this very useful annual, and find it, as heretofore, remarkable for precision and accuracy. It is the best work of the kind with which we are acquainted. List of Patents granted in England from 27th February to 14th September 1830. 1830. ; Feb. 27. To R. W. Srevresx, London, for “ certain improvements in the construction of rudders in navigating vessels.” To S. THompson, Great Yarmouth, “ for certain improvements in _ piano-fortes.” To P. C. De la Garpe, Exeter, for “ certain improvements in ap- paratus for fidding and unfidding masts, and in masting and rig- ging vessels.” To W. Howarp, Surrey, for “ certain improvements in the con- struction of wheels for carriages.” To T. Prosser, Worcester, for “‘ for certain improvements in the construction of window-sashes.” OCTOBER—DECEMBER 1830. N > 194 List of Englsh Patents. Feb. 27. To T. R. Gupry, Bristol, for “a new apparatus for granulating sugar.” ToR. STEVENSON, Stafford, potter, for “ improvements in machi- nery for making bricks, tiles, and other articles.” To J. Ramsay and A. Ramsay, and M. Orr, Greenock, for “ an improvement in the manufacture of canvas and sail-cloth for the making of sails.” Mar. 20. To G. Scott, London, for “ certain improvements on, or addi- tions to, windlasses and relative machinery applicable to naval purposes.” To J. A. Furton Lawrence, London, for “ improvement in the preparation of pepper.” To W. E. Cocurane, Middlesex, for “an improvment or im pyre ments on his patent cooking apparatus.” , To B. Rorcn, Furnival’s, Middlesex, barrister-at-law, for improved , guards, or protections of horses’ legs and feet, under certain cir- cumstances.” 30. To J. Rawe, jun., Middlesex, and J. Bouse, of the same place, for “certain improvments in steam-boilers, and of quickening the — draft for furnaces connected with the same.” To W. ArrxeEn, Carron Vale, Scotland, for “ certain improvements in the keeping or preserving ale, beer, and other fermented _ liquors.” 3 31. To D. T. SHears, Southwark, Surrey, for certain additions to, and improvements in, the apparatus used in distilling, and also in the process of distilling and rectifying.” April 5. To T. J. Corxier, civil engineer, and H. ee London, for “ an improved method and apparatus for generating gas for illu- mination.” 13. To T. W. A. Summers, Middlesex, engineer, and N.. Ocie of Mill-brook, Hampshire, Esq. for “ certain improvements in the construction of steam-engines and other boilers or generators, ap- plicable to propelling vessels, locomotive carriages, and other purposes.” 24. To J. Perry, et oe London, for an improvement or improve- ments in or on pens.” ; To J. M. Innes, North Britain, for “ the manufacture or prepara. tion of certain substances which he denominates the British Ta- pioca, and the cakes and flour to be made from.” To Commander §. Brown, London, for “ certain improvements in making or manufacturing bolts and chains.” To T. J. Cocnaux, London, for “ an apparatus calculated to pre- vent, or render less frequent, the explosion of boilers in iss ting steam.” »To P. Descror1z1LLEs, London, for certain inajtivesdeki in appa- ratus for economizing fuel in heating water and air, applicable to various purposes.” . To Lieutenant T. Coox, Blackheath Road, Kent, for “ certain im List of English Patents. 195 provements in the construction and fitting up of boats of various descriptions.” April 28. To J. Wirks, Surrey, for “ an improvment in a part or parts of the apparatus for making paper by machinery.” To T. Petuerick, Penfullick, in the parish of Tywardreath, Corn- wall, for “ machinery for separating copper, lead, and other ores from earthy and other substances with which they are and may be mixed, and which is more particularly intended to supersede the operation now practised or used for that purpose, commonly called Jigging. May 4. To J. Walker, Middlesex, for “ an improved cock for fluids.” 8. To H. R. 8S. DEvENorye, Middlesex, for “ certain improvements in machinery for making bricks, communicated by a foreigner.” 24. To M. Busx, printfield near Bonhill, by Dunbarton, North Britain, calico-printer, for “ certain improvements in machinery or appa- ratus for printing calicoes and other fabries.” June 3. To J. H. Bass, Middlesex, for “certain improvements in machi- nery for cutting corks and bungs.” 8. To J. Levers, New Radford Works, near the town of Nottingham, for “‘ certain improvements in machinery for making lace, com- monly called Bobin-net.” ll. To Dr W. T. Haycrart, Greenwich, for “* certain improvements in steam-engines.” To G. V. Palmer, Worcester, for ‘* a machine to cut and excavate earth.” 17. To T. Brunton, and T. J. Futter, Middlesex, for “ an improv- ed mechanical power, applicable to machinery of different de- scriptions.” 29. To R. Hicxs, surgeon, London, for “an economical apparatus or machine to be applied in the process of baking, for the purpose of saving materials.” To Dr E. Turner, Middlesex, and W. Suayp, Esq. of the Burn, in Kincardineshire, for “a new method of purifying and whiten- ing sugar, or other saccharine matter.” To T. M. Poors, London, for “ certain improvements in the appa- ratus used for certain processes of extracting molasses or syrup from sugar.” To 8S. Parxer, London, bronzist, for “ certain improvements in producing the mechanical power from chemical agents, partly communicated by a foreigner.” To S. Parxer, London, bronzist, for “ an iapravet lamp, partly communicated by a foreigner.” July 1. To R. Rozerts, Manchester, for “ certain improvements in _ ning cotton or other fibrous substances.” To J. Hative, Chell-house, Staffordshire, for “ certain improve- ments in the construction of, and machinery for, locomotive ploughs, harrows, and other machines and carriages.” To J. H. Sapier, London, for “ certain improvements in looms.” . 196° List of English Patents. July 6. To M. Uzre111, London, for “improvements in the preparation of certain metallic substances, and the bes Sprempine thereof to the sheathing of ships and other purposes.” To Lieutenant J. Surman, Middlesex, for “ certain improvements on bits for horses and other animals.” To W. W. Toxrorp, Boston, Lincolnshire, miller, for “ machine or apparatus for cleaning or purifying wheat, grain, or other sub- stances.” 19. To Epwarp Cowprr, and Esen. Cowrrer, Westminster, en- gineers, for “‘ certain improvements in printing machines.” To J. Rawe junior, and J. Boase, of Middlesex, for “‘ certain im- provements in steam carriages and in boilers, and a method of producing increase of draught.” . . To Dr J. Burxerey, Middlesex, for “‘ certain improvements in pro- pelling en which improvements are also applicable to other purposes.” To W. Taytor, Wednesbury, Staffordshire, engineer, for “ certain improvements on boilers, and apparatus connected therewith, ap- plicable to steam-engines and other purposes.” To E. Ritey, London, brewer, for certain improvements in the process and apparatus for fermenting malt and other liquors.” 22. To G. OtptanpD, Hilsely, in the parish of Hawkesbury, Glouces. tershire, clothworker, for “ certain improvements in the machi- nery or apparatus for shearing and dressing woollen cloths and other fabrics.” 24. To J. Ericsson, Middlesex, engineer, for “‘ an improved engine for communicating power for mechanical purposes.” To A. Garnet, Esq. Denerae, for “ certain improvements " manufacturing sugar,” To S. Roserts, Park Grange, near Sheffield, silvér-plater, pe “ certain improvements in plating or coating of copper or brass, or mixture of the same, with other metals or materials, or with two metals or substances upon each other; as also a method of making such kind of articles or utensils with the said metals, when so plated, as have hitherto been made either of silver, or of copper or brass, or a mixture of copper and brass, plated or coated with silver solely.” To R. Isotson, Poyle, Middlesex, pice ehabiectectibve, for “ an improvement in the method or apparatus for separating the knots from paper stuff or pulp used in the manufacture of paper.” 29. To J. Ruruven, Edinburgh, engineer and manufacturer, for “an 5 improvement in art ap be for the navigating of vessels and pro- pelling of carriages.” To J. Down, Leicester, surgeon, for “ eertett improvements in ~ making gas for illumination, and in the apparatus for the same.” To J. Srreet, Esq. Clifton, Gloucestershire, for “a new mode of obtaining a rotatory motion by water, steam, or gas, or other va- List of English Patents. 197 pour; also to the giving blast to furnaces, forges, and other pur- poses, where a constant blast is requir July 29. To W. DosreEE, Fulham, Middlesex, for “ an independent safety- boat of novel construction.” To W. Laxe, Stockport, for “ certain improvements in machines which are commonly known among cotton-spinners by the names of the roving-frames, or otherwise called cove-frames, or bobbin-and-fly-frames, or jack-frames.” Aug. 5. To T. Hancock, Middlesex, for “ improvements in the manufac- _ ture of certain articles of dress or wearing apparel, fancy orna- ments and figures; and in the method of rendering certain ma- nufactures and substances, in a degree or entirely, impervious to air and water; and of protecting certain manufactures and sub- stances from being injured by air, water, or moisture.” To W. Mattet, Dublin, iron-manufacturer, for “ certain improve- ments in making or pte certain descriptions of wheel- barrows.” To J. Pearse, Tavistock, Se ironmonger, for “ an improved method of making and constructing wheels, and in the applica- tion thereof to carriages.” To C. Sutets, Liverpool, for certain improvements in the process of preparing and cleansing rice, communicated by a foreigner.” To O. Corrrey; Dock Distillery, Dublin, distiller, for “ certain im- provements in the machinery used in the process of brewing and distilling.” To M. Rozrnson, Westminster, for “ certain improvements in the process of making and purifying sugars ; communicated by a per- son residing abroad.” To R. Croucn, Liverpool, for “ an improved supporting block to be used in graving docks, and for other purposes.” To Sir C.. W. Dance, Hertfordshire, for “certain improvements _ in packing and transporting goods.” 7. ToS. Smrru, London, for “a new nipple ¢ or touch-hole to be ap. plied to fire-arms, for the purpose of firing the same by percussion ; and a new cap or primer for containing the priming, by which such fire-arms are to be fired.” 10. To W. Patmer, London, for “improvements in making candles.” Tou J. Lawrence, Birmingham, and W. RuppeEr, Edge, Glouces- tershire, for an improvement in saddles and girths, by an appara- tus affixed to either of them. 12. To T. Forp, Canonbury Square, Middlesex, for “‘ certain improve- ments in the medicine for the cure of coughs, colds, asthmas, and consumptions, known by the name of Ford’s Balsam of Hore- hound.” 13. To J. Knowrzs, Farnham, Surrey, hop-planter, for “ a certain in- strument or machine for drawing up hop poles out of the ground previous to picking the hops; and which, by drawing the poles perpendicularly, will greatly save them, as well as prevent the 198 List of English Patents. hops from being bruised, called a “ hop-pole drawer by lever and fulcrum.’” Aug. 18. To M. Towcoopn, Dartford, Kent, and L. Smrru, stationer, for an improved mode of applying size to paper.” To Major-General J. Gunsins, Southampton, for “ certain im- provements in propelling and giving motion to machinery.” 16. To S. R. BaxEewet1, Middlesex, for “certain improvements in machinery, apparatus, or implements to be used in the manufac- ture of bricks, tiles, and other articles to be formed or made of clay, or other plastic materials; part of which machinery is al- so applicable to other useful purposes.” 24. To W. Mason, Léndon, for “certain improvements in axletrees, and also the boxes applicable thereto.” 31. To T. Barrat, London, paper-maker, for “ certain improvements in machinery for making paper.” To A. AprpLecatn, Crayford, Kent, printer, for certain improve- ments in printing-machines.” To W. Losn, Esq. of Benton-house, Notthumbeskind, for “certain improvements in the construction of wheels for carriages tu be — used on railways.” To E. Buppine, parish of Stroud, Gloucestershire, for “ anew combination and application of machinery for the purpose of crop- ping or shearing the vegetable surface of lawns, grass-plats, and pleasure-grounds, constituting a machine which may be used with advantage, instead of a scythe for that purpose.” To J. Hanson, Huddersfield, for “ certain improvements on loco- motive carriages.” To E. Crayton, Nottingham, for “ an improved mode of manu- facturing dough or paste for the purpose of baking into bread.” Sept. 7. To T. Tuacuer, Birmingham, for “an elastic self-adapting saddle.” To P. Witt1ams, Holywell, Flintshire, surgeon, fur “ an appa- ratus or contrivance for preventing accidents in carriages, gigs, and other vehicles, instantly and effectually liberating horses or other animals from the same, when in danger or otherwise; and for locking and securing the wheels thereof, in case of danger, emergency, or otherwise.” To C. B. Vienores and J. Ertcsson, London, for “ certain addi- tions to the engines commonly called locomotive engines.” To W. Coox, London, for “ certain improvements on cocks for supplying kitchen ranges and cooking apparatus with water, and for other purposes, to be called fountain cocks.” To H. G. Pearce, Liverpool, R. Garpner, and J. Garpyes, of the same place, merchants, for “ an improved fid.” 13. To J. Cuapiey, London, for “ certain improvements in making or forming bricks, tiles, and chimney bars, reins to the building or erecting the flues of chimneys.” 14. To S. Smiru, London, builder, for “ certain ieadegeegernts in chim. neys for dwelling houses, and other buildings.” ( 199 ) List of Patents granted in Scotland from 16th September to 30th November 1830. 1830. Sept. 16. To Witt1am Dosree of Fulham, in the county of Middlesex, Gent., for an invention of “ an independent safety boat of novel construction.” To Wiit14m Suanp of the Burn, in the county of Kincardine, Scotland, for an invention of “ certain improvements in distilla- tion and evaporation.” To CuartEs Bracker Vienotes of Furnival’s tah London, and Joun Ericsson of Brook Street, Fitzroy Square, in county of Middlesex, civil engineers, for an invention of “certain additions to the engines commonly called locomotive engines.” j To Josern Cocuavux of Fenchurch Street, in the city of London, merchant, for “an invention” (communicated to him by a fo- reigner residing abroad) “ of an apparatus calculated to prevent or render less frequent the explosion of boilers in generating steam.” 17. To ALEXANDER Crate of Ann Street, St Bernard’s, in parish of St Cuthbert’s, Midlothian, for an invention of “ certain improve- ments in machines or machinery, for cutting timber into veneers or other useful forms.” To MarmapvukeE Rosinson junior of Great George Street, West- ’ minister, Navy agent, for an invention communicated by a fo- reigner residing abroad, of “‘ certain improvements in the process of making and purifying sugars.” 22. To Henry Grorce Pearce of Liverpvol, master mariner, R1- CHARD GaRDNER, and JosrEPpH GaRrDNER, of the same place, merchants, for an invention of “ an improved fid.”’ To Wiru1am Losx of Benton House, county of Northumberland, for an invention of “ certain improvements in the construction of wheels for carriages to be used on railways.” Oct. 16. To TrmotHy Mason, 56. Great Portland Street, Middlesex, brush- maker, for an invention of “an improvement in the manufacture of painting-brushes, and other brushes applicable to various pur-— poses.” To Wit1tiam AvucustTus ARcuBoLp of Vere Street, Cavendish Square, Middlesex, lieutenant in the Royal Navy, for an inven- tion of “an improvement in the preparing or making of certain sugars.” ; 21. To Hneas Correy of the Dock Distillery, Dublin, distiller, for an invention of “ certain improvements in the apparatus or ma- chinery used in the processes of brewing and distilling.” To MicnarEt Donovan of the city of Dublin, for an invention of “an improved method of lighting places with gas.” 200 List of Scottish Patents. Nov. 11..To Rozert Hriexs of Conduit Street, parish of St George, Hano- ver Square, Middlesex, surgeon, for an invention of “ an econo- mical apparatus or machine to be applied in the process of bak- ing, for the purpose of saving materials.” 23. To Jonn Heaton, Wittiam Heaton, Grorce Heaton, and Revusen Heaton of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, manufacturers and co-partners, for an invention of “certain ma- chinery, and the application thereof to steam-engines, | for the pur- pose of propelling and drawing carriages on turnpike roads and other roads and railways.” To Aucustus AprpLrecatH of Crayford, in the county of Kent printer, for an invention of “certain improvements in printing’ machines.” To Samvet CrarxeE of South Down, Ritwwich in the county of Devon, Gent., for an invention of “ certain improvements in making or preparing saddle lining, saddle cloth, and girths, for keeping saddles in place on horses or other animals of burden.” To Joseru Grszs of Crayford, in the county of Kent, engineer, for an invention of “ improvements in evaporating fluids, appli- cable to various purposes.” To Mattruew Busu of Dalmarnock printfield, in the neighbour- hood of Dunbarton, for an invention of “ certain improvements ‘in machinery or apparatus for printing calicoes and other fabrics.” To Tuomas -Bramtey, Gent., and Rosert Parker, lieutenant Royal Navy, both of Moulsey Priory, in the county of Surrey, for an invention of “certain improvements on locomotive and other carriages or machines applicable to rail and other roads which improvements or part or parts thereof are also applicable to moving bodies on water, and working other machinery.” © 30. To James Cuesterman of Sheffield, in the county of York, me- chanic, for an invention of ‘certain improvements on machines or apparatus for measuring land and other purposes.” TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Editor has to apologise to correspondents for the non-appearance of papers sent for insertion. They will appear in next Number of Journal. THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. ~ On the Diluvial Theory, and on the Origin of the Valleys of Auvergne. By C. Dausreny, M.D., F. R. S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford, &c. &c._ In a Letter ‘to Professor JAMESON. Dear Sir, Ir is now more than ten years since I published in your Jour- nal a brief and general account of the volcanos of Auvergne, which, in spite of its many imperfections, of which no one can be more sensible than its author, will perhaps be allowed. the humble merit of having contributed to direct the attention of British naturalists to this interesting field of continental geo- logy. Since the appearance of my memoir, Auvergne has been vi- sited by Mr Scrope, Professor Buckland, Messrs Lyell and Murchison, and sundry other scientific travellers; and through their collective exertions such a mass of information has been brought together, with reference to the phenomena therein ex- hibited, that there is probably no volcanic district in the world now more fully explored, nor perhaps any country out of Great Britain with the geological relations of which we are more fa- miliar. You will easily believe, that I have been far more gratified at seeing so many distinguished naturalists following in my track, than mortified at finding them sometimes arrive at con- clusions different from my own; and that, under this feeling, I should be the more inclined, even where my confidence in my_ original views remained unshaken, to waive controversy, and JANUARY—MARCH 1831. o 202 » Dr Daubeny on the Diluvial Theory, wait with patience for the slow but sure judgment of the public, to pronounce upon the points at issue between us. I have been induced, however, to depart from this my ori- ginal purpose, chiefly in consequence of the perusal of my friend Mr Lyell’s work, entitled, ‘Principles. of Geology ;” not from any ambition on my part to contend generally against the views he has put forth, but from, an anxiety toyexplainymy- self more fully than I have hitherto had occasion to do on a question much agitated in his volume, I mean the causes.to which the excavation of valleys is to. be referred—seeing that the nomenclature, as well as to a certain degree the theoretical views I'have adopted in my Description’ of Voleanos *, with re- ference to this subject, are those of writers to whom bad — _ alluded to seems directly opposed. Nevertheless, I am inclined to, think that the sietey be- tween his opinions and my own on this particular point, reduces itself almost to a question of degree ; for I, observe that in more than one passage of his, work, the probability of extensive floods having from time:to time occurred. in consequenée of the burst- ing) of vast Jakes, is distinctly admitted, and it, canhardly be doubted; but that from.such catastrophes would result.effects of a ‘similar ‘nature |to:those commonly, ascribed ‘to -that; diluvial! action ‘so-insisted on by geologists ofa different! school.» sorted It is, however, no less true, that, in accounting for this class of ‘phenomena, much greater stress is laid in his treatise. on, the long continued: operation of ,causes.of daily occurrence, than,on, the consequences of such oce¢asional catastrophes, and that many! might rise from: its’ perusal under an» imipression, /that» geo-; logists of the. present day, who.take a different: view? of such! phenomena, still adhere to the doctrine maintained: by.their.pre~! decessors, who, to use Mr ‘Lyell’s words, supposed: that, the monuments which they endeavoured: to decipher: relate toa pe-. riod when the physical constitution of the earth differed entire-. ly from the present, and that even after the creation. of living beings there have been causes in action, distinct..in kind or de-. gree from ‘those: forming: a’ 5 et of the a ie ee, ture.” eA Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos. Bis Charles mi M.D. F.R.S, &c. &e. Syo, London, 1826. PGi BIG and on the Origin of the Valleys of Auvergne. 203 ‘Such ‘a notion, indeed, would be quite at variance with the general tenor of my work on Volcanos, the express object of which was to shew, that the same’causes which produce volcanic phenomena at the present moment, operating at some former period on a greater scale, but always agreeably to the same sys- tem, have had an important share in preparing the earth’s sur- face for the abode of the existing races of animals *. It is, however, true, that certain writers, -whose opinions I have quoted rather than adopted at the commencement of the work in question, embarrassed by the difficulties they encoun- tered in’ their attempts to explain the phenomena alluded ‘to by the operation ‘of present agents, and perhaps not. sufficiently considering ‘the ‘still greater objections to the supposition of ‘a change having taken ‘place in the course of nature, may have laid themselves open to Mr Lyell’s criticisms, by adopting: the opinions of earlier ‘naturalists with respectto'a want of ‘con- formity inthe Lig“swe constitution of the earth: iia ancient and“modern' times?) ) we may reply, that the ‘part’ of Asia which’ must be supposed to’ have been the principal scene of ‘its ravages, is as: yet too little’ ex- plored to allow of our ‘determining the pomt*.) ras ) Of this, however, at least ‘we are certain, that the period ex- tending from the formation ‘of the chalk to the more recent ter- tiary deposites, was of all others with which we are acquainted most fruitful in volcanic operations. It was within this interval that the whole of the extinct volcanos in Europe began to burst forth, and from whence the ‘origin of those which we oe now in action appears to date. That extensive inundations should have occurred inti this period is therefore not surprising, and that the Mosaic Deluge was one of many cases of the kind, is a fact which seems con- firmed, not only by the universal occurrence of beds of gravel, but:also by those enormous deposits of conglomerate and ‘sand which are so common in many tertiary formations. If it be objected, that we have no experience of volcanic ope- rations giving rise to deluges in the present day, and_ therefore have no right to attribute to them such consequences in periods antecedent ; we may reply, that the first elevation of a volcanic range of hills might be expected to occasion ‘more formidable saianictcee te of nature than follow after a suitable sie) has been i+ Perhaps t the memoir lately published bs Humboldt; on sibs i li of mountains and other evidences of volcanic action in.central Asia, may throw some light upon this subject.. It seems more reasonable at least to connect this event with the appearance of a chain of mountains in that quarter of the globe, than, as Elie de Beaumont, seems inclined to do, with the elevation of the Andes.—Annales des Sciences Natur, tom. xix. p, 232, 208 4. DrDaubeny on the Diluvial Theory, established; and that'in many instances one of the first effects of the igneous agency seems to have been ‘the or cone sometimes many thousand feet in eb cee ee tionate diameter. » deol da oe /This latter notion, however, sa bse sianinceaiaaigilh Scrope,) and after him by Mr Lyell, both of whom»appear ‘to regard every sort of volcanic mountain as occasioned merely (by the accumulation of the products of many successive eruptions. Now, I must allow, that the latter geologist has succeeded iin removing one of the strongest objections I had formerly’enter- tained against the theory originally proposed by Mons. Necker, and adopted by himself and Mr Scrope, which arose fromthe difficulty of imagining the brim of'a crater to continue through- out so uniformly level, as to allow the lava to flow at once ‘over all its sides. |. This supposition he seemsto have shewn' not to be necessary, since the beds which ‘constitute a volcanic! cone} when carefully examined, do not appéar to. be continuous belts extending round the mountain*, but-a sort of compensation ex- isting between the matters ejected from the several sides*of the instance, ‘that’ of Chaluzet, he has “been Tess successful in making out hisease 3 for although the lavaswhich ‘overhangs the river at this point'is seen-at the height of 240 feetonits right bank, not a trace’of\itis discoverable on its left, ‘so that all we are entitled in’ this place to attribute to: the aetion of:the river since the date‘of the lava, is the wearing away of the‘subjacent gneiss, and probably the undermining and-eeme val of the extreme portion of the current,:which, |as it: restsowp- ona bed:of pebbles, might have been-effected without difficulty: +o Butwhat, afterall, is the date» of. the lava’ ‘here alluded: te? The crater from which it is supposed to have ‘préveededicer- tainly affords, in its. imperfect condition, satisfactory proof of the extreme: antiquity of the :coul¢e, but it supplied: ime y with no/data from: whence to determine the post-diluvial origin of the voleanowhich ejected it. The materials composing its summit, now:called: the: Puy Rouge, -possess by 0: means that want of coherence which we have noticed in some of! the »more! modern Puys, as inconsistent’ with the idea of their ante-diluvial origin “They: are; on the contrary, bound together; at least externally, in sucha manner, by the soil resulting from their decompésie tidn, and by the ‘turf which covers them, that they appearedoto meas. capable of resisting the: violence of gg “a eatastrophe peop TIT: in their neighbourhood. «8 wis) cent ul Ecamnot; therefore, ‘admit, that! Mr- Gokopditd warranted in pronouncing such{a‘crater'as that of Chaluzet to be necessarily post-diluvial, uiless, indeed, he is also prepared 'tomaintainy that’ the éxisfence of vhills'iniany part of the world, whose’ summits’ consist‘of sandétone or the looser kinds of ‘eonglomerate; is‘irre- concilable with the’ notion “of ‘a deluge having swept over thé! Meee ingen they acquired their present formi) “197 10 woloe - On'the other side of Pont Gibaud, many geologists; and mys self among the rest, notice’ the machine heres: et rectly described by Montlosier, in which a’kind ‘of lake; ealled” ew de‘Fung, would ‘appear to’ inaveotboett formed’ by a sh OC ith and on the Origine the Valleysiof Auvergne. 228 witeence lava, which,blecked up.the.course of ;the river, and compelled, it to flow in.quite.a different direction... jak bystt soiftetThe: bafiled.waters of the Sioule;” says Mr: Seon & here as at Pont Gibaud, obstructed: bythe rocky. dike thrown: across their, channel, must, have given: rise to a lake by. their |stagna- tion,,aud. would probably haye ended, as in the other instance, ibywearing away a passage parallel to their formerone, had not the hill, forming, their western, bank, not in this, instance.com posed of granite, but of .a,seft alluvial tufa, yielded, at,some distance up the stream, to the excessive pressure of the dammed up waters. . An immense excavation, still subsisting, was broken across this hill, through which the lake emptied itself into the bed. of the Monges. at-no great distance, and through which the Sioule still, joins this Jatter stream, raphe ipa ieee Somtnbeniniptal: oj}, poeog que ef je fio 1» Now, that: dhiioneiscantialiod weseeiviak alin Sieniteicihe wali oli by this barrier, should have undermined, and thereby forced a passage through a rock of so very soft and. yielding a nature as that.-of| the angillaceous hill alluded to, is by no means.sur- prising; neither need we doubt that the river may have worma channel through the subjacent gneiss to the: tse 12 om since the period at which its direction was changed... - But when, the same conclusion is extended, as some. pees gists, seem. disposed to do, to the gorge of gneiss or the valley excavated in the plateau of ancient basalt, through which the river, afterwards flows, I would ask, what proof have we, that, in these latter cases, the valley was mot of anterior date, .and whether, if it had. not been already in existence, the river ought not, to. have,.surmounted the impediment opposed by the lava current of Céme, rather than to have worked its way through the. more elevated and. equally unyielding barrier to-its left? .° The: mest, therefore, we. are entitled: to. conclude from. the phenomena, exhibited, near Pont \Gibaud, with respect to the action of rivers upon the,compacter kinds.of, rocks, is, that one recent laya-stream,,.namely that portion jof,,the:.coulée from the Puy -de.Céme which, is.seen near the town, has, since an.epoch: more remote than, that of the earliest records. of the country, been worn by the,action of the-stream to bapa of about 50 feet. 994 = DF Dauibeiiy dn ‘the Dihevtal Theory “Other instatices are, howevér, sivens|in Which’ the aminit of thé excavation ‘has" been‘as ‘tuch’‘as?70 feet, ‘atid in the! Viva Yai’ it is Stated a8 still moré ‘considérables | Yet even here there Wwtist bé-allowéd ‘to be ‘a wide distanée between what'the rivers aie proved to’ have effected, and the depth to which many valleys, attribtited on’ all hands °to ‘the’ operation of a ate! seen'to penétrate into the roeks’which bownd’them)!) 0! sorosjdo bebis ‘° ‘Not ought we to leave entirely otit“of ‘the account the fact, that no &xcavation’ bearing ‘any gréat! resemblance to theweneral form and width’ of our valleys; Has'beén'shewn to» have résulted from the action’ of ‘the present ‘rivers in Auvergne, All then étances adduced seem to be of narrow and abrept ravinésywhich aré strikingly distinguished ‘from’ the easy and: gradual islope.of the valleys, at the bottom of which they*are found’s'and though it may be contended; that, when the ravine had*been'worked to a ¢értain depth, vatying according to thenature f thetock; \it ‘Would ‘become anderniined, and in this’ manner ‘be “gradually widened, ‘itil it‘ acquired the shape'and dimensions of »an ordi: ew: “yet it seems singular’ that, if the ‘post-diluvialelavas of Auvergne are of ‘the antiquity supposed,and if'the ordinary effect of rivers is to produce in course of’ tine such valleyssino instance should have been’ pointed out ‘presenting ‘a nearér re- “sertiblance to ‘those of other countries, than'the ravines depieted “th Mr Scrope’s ‘volume: WME ts » 207 Jsdt>.esistiak “DOP his geologist; however, goes onto sein that the -vidlleys'in (Auvergne cannot have been formed by the ‘action of “a deluge, “‘pedause' the ancient, or;'as have called them, the antediluvial ‘currents, aré’not ‘all found neatly about the same genbraleléwel. (OMe Had the valleys,” He" éiitetids, “been exedvatéd (by any one simultaneous cause, thé ‘lava-eurrentsy which: hadofldwed nto the’ fresh watér basin; would be found” ‘nearly,-if) not lalto- -péther, at dne uniform Kady atid suchas had’ flowed’ sineebat another neatly wniforny evel “Now; instead of this;thelseur- ‘yents ‘are ‘found “at all elevations, pec wits to 15 feetabove the present waterchannél”on>: iq 9xi3 of zovioemerls simel onw” ©? Bur Serdpe si elo tiere ‘er eaveotin teens tie had “Riniself before'establishied “in ‘his section’ of Gergoviay namely, that the. fresh-water limestone, went, on, forming — the vol. canos had begun their eruptions. | and onthe Origin of \the Vudleys.of, Auvergne. 225 ta Hence it is evident, that, the level. of the bottom, of the lake would-be gradually.rising, ..so that the. lavas. of latest. ejection would-naturally occupy an higher,position than the rest, and a body. of | water, which, should. have swept away in, certain cases the wpper: beds, whilst it-spared jthem in, others, would. apn se precisely: that irregularity of Jeyel,) which: is. picks as, &.de- cided objection to the,possibility of, a deluge. 1) G30) steric oWWith regard.-to, the post-diluvial lavas; I am not, ‘aware of any:case ‘which: lends, support to Mr, Scrope’s position, . It is true; that, they: have’ -not, in..every, instance» descended to. the Jowest jlevel ofthe valley in, which, they.are:situated ;., but, this éirdwmstance; maybe seen. explained by Messrs, Murchison and ‘Lyellj-im- theirs judicious remarkson- ‘the. Cheires of, Auvergne * 4 and) may, have;very,-naturally, arisen from, the, cooling of the dava having,been, completed, before it had,.time to.continue its sluggish course.to the, extreme ipoint. . In,a,considerable num- ber of instances, however, where any, stream lay in, the direction they ‘took, they: haye (actually reached, its. bed,; and jin,, these -eases|as:we have seen, the depth to which the river/has since vworked its way is.an, index of the amount of destruction, effected osinee-that remote period. . 5711 YO's6oRS? sy The other; arguments of Mr Santina: which. appear to. have othe:saine-drift, need. not perhaps, detain us so. long, ..'Thus, he states, that the strips of the fresh water formation, which rise from) the plain of Limagne in long tabular hills,. owe. theirpre-_ -servation from denuding forces, to, the cappings.of, basalt, they (sposséss./, Now, such a,capping, he contends, although. it might defend.the,subjacent stratum, from rains, frost, &c,.would form yas Very insufficient .protection., against; the force of, any;violent h.dehige or general current of watery; seue9 enosnetlumie see) ojicBut this. argument,. if of any force;-isjapplicable.in.an equal iodegree to-alliother countries,in. which basaltic or,other compact --nocks'soceur, iand..comes ,therefore,.under, the consideration .of » those who' take up: the, question, gener ally, rather, than of those who limit themselves to the phenomena,of' AYETENEr 20-46 Siles:x beti The: existence,of\a,crater; ina, tolerable, state of integrity, es- vipeeialiy when-composed of loose scorian,. is; Iam.ready to,admit, onsiti iis 2a (iW egiiburgh Journal Fuly VAs!" - -destt odj darit ator safit mafood bed eons 226 =. DieDaubeny on the Diluviial Fheory, | a strong presumption that no delugecan have swept over the country since the origin of the voleanotowhich it belongsy and én this principle, I vhave already given: Mr Scrope: credit» for poiiting out’ ‘to us the effects produced: by rivers: wpomdavas currents, which, having descended .from such craters, wepres: Sime to be:post-diluvial.. But, is. the great mass of the \voleani¢ products of Mont Dor or Cantal m:this:predicament ?) Has-any: geologist pretended to trace the:vast sheets:of ‘basalt and trachyte: whieh here cover the greater: part of) two-departments, tocanys thing like ‘a crater, or connect them with cones of scoria? »:\So! far from this having been done, it seems to me quite impossible’ to determine in ‘what ‘direction they: began to flow, or to avoid: suspecting that the circumstances under which they were ejected> essentially differed’ from those which exist at present. \«:)) 9°) - The examples, therefore, brought forward by Mr Scrope cans not ‘affect the question concerning ‘the origi of ‘such valleys.as* these; which every one must allow to differ widely:from the ravines he has poimted out to us,’and which, from their) perfect: sithilarity to the valleys of denudation found in other countries, we are ‘bound, m: consistency, to | ‘attribute pantie gare cateepive 2i Ji 13 to eeusloe siaegeat 1 astiehapioiveivniia lay but little Pair sions Gitte of volcanic products, were it not true, that the distinction in their ages is found generally to be accompanied with corresponding: | variations in the characters belonging to them: “That suchas»! the case ‘most geologists appear to admit, and even Mr Scrope, although’ he ie sa it in heesiede penndeg to the ere in-practice. | 3 donc codwi alfipioeq ‘That there’are iain caiatilin Geinheconioy of this ‘remarky» I have'in many places of my work admitted, ‘but, generally”! speaking, it'iseertain ‘that those ‘lavas, which 1 have termed © postdihivial, and’ whieh ave’ posterior to’ the: valleys” of! the: country, put on the appearance of such melted matters as have flowed ‘m ‘the open ‘air’; whilst those -to which’ I havegiven’ the name of ‘antedihvotal, seem, forthe most part, to‘ have ‘been pros’ duced wider @ certain degree of pressure: Tf, as’'we may infer” from Mr Serope’s'own statements, ‘the ancient lavas'of Auvergne: were ejected at the bottom of a fresh water-lake, and if that lake chanced to be’ of'a certain depth,’the compactness which in and on thé Origin of the Vatieys-of Auvergne. 224 gencralccharacterizes these products may be accounted) for by the: pressure’ of the superincumbent ‘water but, as: the ‘same effect: might result from the: weight of a considerable bed-of tuff or scorias, the occasionaboceurrence of compact. lava beds, even amongst .subaérial. voleands, 'need»not ‘so much» surprise: us, When, therefore, I: remarked, that'\no genuine basalt had, te my:knowledge, been found amongst the lavas of those volcanos which are.at: present in activity,-and that their ejections. do not appear ito-exiibit: the same columnar arrangement which belongs to'the igneous iproducts ofan earlier age, I by no means meant to!deny the possibility of such occurring, but only teawaken at tention to the polit, in the yim that. mpasionimiias eet certain its truth or falsehood... fe The distinction, however, whieh I ined siatiaidins mitintain® ; between that irregular, prismatic structure, which is the mere result of contraction, and. isso well exhibitedin.the modern lava of Niedermennig, and that of articulated columns which is de- rived apparently from the mutual pressure of spheroidal. cons eretions, be it true or false, will not be overturned, by the obser. vation, that»in some instances.a void. space exists between the respective columns of the last mentioned kind. For it is evident, . that the»compression which converted the spheres into polygons would: take place whilst the material was. yet ‘soft, and that a further degree of shrinking might nee to sts before it became perfectly cold... | - Dhis,d conceive, ‘furnishes a. jollaiegpentinnial Mr heenits : hjpaitintis:tb pele 149.-of his Memoir on Central France, s+: pecially when backed by the ingenious observations of Mr Gre- gory Watt, published in the Philesophical Transactions for 188, framicwhich it appears, that, after a melted.mass has become in» a great. degree consolidated, chemical affinities continue to de. velop themselves, and crystalline ii nets mitigation re i 2g aistinge deilsit noua t isisoqy 5Hi HD tHe : Bu L irust Ihave already. saidianatishgo pines srinanditilen, ? tionyin-ease J.should- in any subsequent, treatise, in. which it might be-inconvenient to,introduce remarks, of,;,. controversial: nature, ouiyhous to. adhere to.these views. ve gr sa pl jgdied: bar .odsicwiswodaiivs tb wa Sei Ge Deets if daide , See Remiviion.ol Volemnen te 4 embate Bos 998 Dr “Daubeniy' bi de \Ditudead Theory, up previously to the publication, of the writings I have been ‘ obliged here to allude to. If T stood alone in these pia I might perhaps bow to the authority of individuals more exclu- sivel} ‘devoted: to the study of geology than myself, who. have aitived at opposite conclusions ; but when TI see the best. natu- rilists divided, and even some'of those who adopt, toa ‘cerfai, degree, the'views proposed to be substituted for the ‘diluvia . theory, compelled to call in the assistance of something of ane same kind to explain certain refractory phenomena, IT’ think it best for the present to retain my original views on these. points, which are still espoused by the individuals who first gave them currency in this country, and which, whether true or false,’ wo" at least to convey a clear conception of" the relation ‘existin, tween the volcanic products of the districts T have’ deseribs “i I ought not, however, to: conclude this long epistle, without bearing my huinble ‘testimony to the merits of the work which first induced me to address you, and expressing the éatisfaction. I have experienced i in perusing a treatise on, Geology, which, unlike some of those which preceded it, is distinguished. no less for,the.number,and general. accuracy of its ane rie _— for the philosophical spirit. in which it is: conceivedsiis) sme game »-l,.am, quite prepared to admit, that the aiiimting foil the phenomena. exhibited on the earth’s surface, not only consistent’ ly, with.the present laws:of nature (for on that point:I:suppose! we,are alliagreed), but also without having recourse’ to any“opés rations ‘but those. we are, eye-witnesses: of, constitutes in a man ner the beau ideal at which our researches should aim); aid would, if successful, elevaté geology to the rank of the exact sciences. But we,must.be\on-our guard, nevertheless, not to be led away by the charm of simplicity, :so as: to-overlook'the:diffi2 culties which seem=4it "present to: stand in’ the way “of” f siach’ an explanation, and imagine: ‘the object within our. reach, when it is séen only perhaps in. ‘distant. and, doubtful, ccmmmatell ihgte Whether, too, the. anodifeationsswhith: the:author has choseii to. introduce. in-the Huttonian Theory: be én tiny ment iH it, seems to me questionable ; ‘but be that as it may, ‘the surviving supporters..of. that y hypothesis wills: weleome: with” acclamation a disciple who has maintained, with so mich skill, and research, the leading positions of their system’; and Ivam’sure that) if its and on the Origin of the Valleys of Auvergne. 229: illustrious . founder. were now alive, he would testify as much, delight as at. the discovery of the, _ granite , dikes of Glen Tilt,. when, he saw the conclusions, which he had deduced from amore per es, survey ¢ of geological SPB rendered. popular j iD the south by. the Mas us Teasonings of one, whom,, though he Le: 3G ae ot, certainly be be said to belong to the “ Oxford, School of 2 at somewhere called, Alma Mater will, Tam. sure, be alway } ud tonu Br bea way s proud sis ie “rs ng, her : sons, OF pslisaqmos eYIOsas i RIP, ded AAAL igi aistise oielqxe of batt sma z2iniog 3 92911 + os vOly WFIVBliO vitt cisiot of 7a52 4 oti tot — Shi SVSo fe! on the. a isi and. Ties of, pati acta chiefly ae oe eneging, tothe, Flora, Peruvigna... By. Mr, Daysp,-Don, "Librarian to the Linnean, Society, Member. of the Imperial svorAgademy, Nature, Curiosorum, of the, Royal Botanical So- __ giety of Ratishon, and of the Wernerian Society, of. »Edin- burgh, Xe. 2 (Concluded, from p... 122.) . oi.om booubai jeit QUILLATA 2 and -KAGENECKIA. re coe sifu Tobe generals together re Vauquelinia, ¥ consider" as’ con- stituting a small family, differing essentially both fren Rosacee and Spirceacece in their erect ovula, and from ‘the latter, also, in»the-valvular xstivation of their calyx. °'The “habit of the plants:composing it is likewise abundantly different, and they are mostly inhabitants of the southern hemisphere: "= ‘This’ fami- ly, ne - bores maseeiaionne it may? ‘be characterised as po lows :; a icsfi2 ; TO. Moltiw Is Ww DE 4933 96 sci FORKS ad to olaet od QUILLAJER. |» -lusieasooua Ti ‘bie ow ' 4 a } . : ‘ : ; ai P| Sa yrTwarcoG? 90 OF JON .z ->\o Sprmp#acEarum Paursii0Kuni et Dey 20 = Boo T9892 CALEX, Le Racey SO 8 ag GR to. masdo: 903 Yd. Ysws bs! peritbhe’ » laciniis calycinis alterna squandogue pullass1952 floidw boii! aie oe ple % XP sina Nae, styli 53° goa vee una tohasd stot eqsiits my une a Fauctvus; foliiculi 5¢ineirculuny anatspanaeadt oot. tenis W SEMINA. < saute? dismal = eg ple em inserta,adsceridén tia, sidteuie od} -ysardr es ist od 100 + SdSHO eon Se On ete 7 ; he x0 ereotus si emtydadones felines eontrisidyeon volutie : adit Cty le. e onibus brevior, teres, umbilico a siirig er aed ow siqiceb s Arbores” (precipud ‘Anier Au str.) ‘fom a ler Stipul +}; \eadued.. ¥ loresterminates, divivi.iey2 1190) i sronizo aa minima, 280 MD. Don ondlie Gharacters baka 2itros eltslo 996! aiiloke, Lorhapsiny Re > pt (alrne,1 4 QUILLAgA.2 Solis. apt at Anh t Numi ~ .2acbinon " Saredaavenor The dePolo 9q otogt vedas nisloosns! eile ido fi x Bt et nap edu P8Ist 2h4Q9 + Aupildo OM peil Smecmarra, Wild., Upt AEG SRDIRS IDS: Calye SHAS: ‘actats ovatis, obtu is, om tunis ome fat trititeatis, ‘eestivationé miavate tol cag Lt 5, 8 se ashen éarnosus; glaber, 'coloratus, | aniforus? & bas ‘basibus' di “8 gienterum | ernoruin co | ue] s acalyce pa a ee tis! holed Saline apo is subrotundis, emargi . tlrulata,” un aie u wt? isetra 10," ie 9s BOOP argiirat ufis, ét hin Plier rst ine ' aanad ubataee ute anthere ripe tig bi area eb eens + \foculis apice confluentibus, rita ‘Pongitudi de ntibus. ‘Ovarid 5, tomentosa, in ‘untin’ Svangulim “quast Connata:! “Sili"s, dis. _ tincti, compressi, glabriusculi, terminales, subindé itiatu fructu pre ak yh totidem, unilateralia, recurvato-patentia, minu- tissime. pa rs luctus : ntes, stylo a "vali, persistent ‘instructi, er an Ly hese. sort >>», utrinque dehiscentes : ,,vadvis wentrivosis, cru _-@ basi interiori loeulorum inserta,, sivecnsqutia apioe alt oe ald oblige sen brapacea. punctatissima instructa + ,wmbilico basilaxi - tacea,., Cretera Ub AB OFGNEd pi: toh, oovanee Selle ere viloieg Atbore (Chil. et: Bras.) eee age ome y ‘Folia alterna, petiolata, i Sti- AG 2 eG arm nee act: ems PPh Ape nia cet sid Qala saponara, Mal Hist. Wat. Chit Pp 102 ed. 2, 298 Poin Diets OL Ai Yo@sps BB easpistislin) che ligsg SQe saenianelecneahinneniisired: kaichllas ’ . Smegmadermos emarginatus, Ruiz et Paven Syst. Vege FL Pow. et olorote Chik dpe 288: “Gen. p. 141. t8hdo ig Sinizhert(eiredxs, 208 ©, otni of i inata, Willd. Sp. Pl. & 1123—— st Veg. 2. aes aa rR a IE i me gs ef 91 : pe “in Chili ‘sylyis copios® in Rere et Puchacay Lehi rp . Floret a Decembre ad vente st soit ‘Quillai s, “eunlay. V.'s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) ag eee procera (60-pedalis), frondosissima, semp tere hy pubescentes Folia alterna, egies. ovalia ue Nas .¢ seepilisque emarginata, erumque sect = men sito ootnine covaieal§ vedi ener woNe as sie ang ut scene "opidia, Tucidula, costa subtts’ prominula venisque ‘obli transversis vix conspicuis, sesquipollicaria, Ee vissimiy-vix lineam longix« Stipule?,) et es branaceze, canaliculatee, puberulz, fuscescen ‘weuique adnatee vix longiores. Flores albi' ? plerumque teraninilo subsolitarii, i:semuncia © ©) gut! plumes. (3,vs-5), corymabosi, » , brewiasteals ti, densé velutini, ineani. » Bractecle oblotige:;: eb. wi ne icu ant ene SLANT: SEES » .fetala xix calyce oy.) 0 .] ~' | Sal is Seecom x) OO tn Fes de tortol’t ‘Ons. 2 Folaendleutelouh: eolorem ae minis, embryone increscente saepe Daal dana! aileygo-d wi ig Planta a Motind possi? desert eb .sdaluriee ‘.cenide ats A $ A Soraya ee ee of certain Genera inthe Flora Peruviunat (231° 2 Q. lancifolia, foliis lanceolatis acutis. Hab. in Brasilia. Selle.’ (¥.'s: 8p! in Herb. Lamb.) Arbor facie peculiari.feré,ad,Persoonias quibusdam accidens. Ramuli te- retes, pube tenerrima vestiti,. Folia alterna, petiolata, lanceolata, acuta, amsaagitans niet , costa venisque obliqué rectis, cash yts _ prominulis, ramos ructa, supra viridia, lucida, subtis, pallidiora, opaca, basi attenuata, 2 ailicar Ng erm rae 4 velit of De allt paruum, inerassato,. integerrimo, y..rard nonnullis ale a minentiis absoletis), ornato. Petioli. 2-3 lineas longi, su- sariodig PE Haniusal Stipule 2,.parvee, vblonge, cartilaginese, fuscescentes, ‘iss 2 SP lores. 5. y- 7, corymbosi,, terminales. et, axillares; sed ple- rotsinikes agile. A Pedunculi vix semipollicares, angt “sit, + aMense, velutini, incani. . Ovaria 5, dens? tomentosa, .coalitas..Petala “ai obor€alyeelongiora, Disci lobi crassiores, magisque elevati.;,, Stamina lon-. audits Filamenta alterna partim: infra. loborum disci . apices,-inserta. "oth & Fe ge Lagu Heit nda ev crassiores. ¢ Gaia om- us sil nino ut in eather ~s81 Fi itcsdnils 25 i857 best pom isliaw ones - KAGENECKIA, Ruiz ef "Danii be Ri gt se A anu “Calys crateriformis, extis 10-costatus, fructu mapanaaseiis! aceguis 3: persis: -colntens’: limbo S-fido, intts annulo partum elevato, vix membranaceo, ovaria “. eireumcingenti instructo’> dodis ovatis, acuminatis v. obtusis, recurvato- patulis. Petala nulla? Stamina definité numerosa (15); quorum’s lobis » calycinis alterna; cetera per paria lobis iisdem opposita: filamenta subu- lata compressa, persistentia, basi dilatata, et in annulum conferraminata, atque subinde totum indumentum faucis et cavitatis calycis constituunt : anthere cordato-oblongz, introrse ; Joculis basi solutis, divergentibus, ad apicem usque distinctis, nee confluentibus, longitudinaliter dehiscenti- \ bas. .Ovaria in circulum digesta, unilocularia: | ovudis-pluribus) erectis. Styli compressi, glabri, terminales. Stigma complicatum, feréiut in Del- phinio, disco cucullato, demim marginibus reflexis convexo, densé papil- seleso. | Capsule 5, folliculares, omnind ut in Peonié, dense sericeo-tomen- sane exterilis maximé producte, et subinde stylas. quasi unilateralis, ze. Semina apice membranaceo-alata, samaroidea, angulo inte- Dr oculi inserta, imbricata, declinato-horizontalia ; wmdbilico basilari : sta slenples. ob interiorem exteriori intimé adhzrentem, membranacea : men nullum. Embryo erectus, lutescens.: gotyledones subrotundo-cor- gui Arnage costa prominenti subcarinatz, contrarié convolutee ! ina- uilineam late ; Jobo altero minore, accumbenti :, radicula ca ota cotyledonibus tripld brevior, eentripeta. Plu- ; rr ae Se git st », alin oerhas teplii tphosite, irl denti- supe a8 aediiihe aieneulelaemets: nee Flores ters -S1Td ; > polygami. 4QBsw:Dubito anne. ace vert comtaiiak. apetali, catqne! ani ealinkicts diversa oupiserbore sexe distineti RET see p190ng . wistusilsn BS -SSobi Asie ited ilozdue .zsisaim7s 256s 4 2ST rm tro} “iy: “te Ks oblong fis oblongis: obtusis covineis: denticorum glandulis de- cua aie eis gensb Jislygns ais ik & minis® i990 wth Bike FSB 1S. sf ai on ‘oblonga, “Ruiz 2 et Pavon Syst. Veg. ali Fh Pern eh Chit. 1. Pp. 28 + 5553 Oo | 210 fecitraytycs Chita. &. 30002 great, ° Hab. in ott mon tio pegene a! a Floret ab Peri tt a Concae loa uayo alo 0, et om oe ato) MolindLyday dicitars (Vee. pit Hele Eambi Gf 200 prea 6-orgyalis, sempervirens. Folia pétiolata, 6b1dn v4.” ¥: ‘Ta¥its obo- vata, nv serrulata, denticulis apicéuglanduld: asta, edeniee i ins BOSE! Oring 282. Mr D. Don on thé Characters and Affinities structis, hine quasi obtusis, et subinde folia obtuse serrata ab auctori- bus supra citatis dicata; coriacea, rigida, glabra, subtis. pallidivra feréque glauca, basi attenuata, costa valida utrinque prominenti, venis transverse arcuatis, ramosissimis reticulata, pollicaria v. tripollicaria, ; vix pollicem lata. Petioli brevissimi, vix 3 lineas longi, costa utrin elevata, marginati, denticulis obsoletis. Flores in apice reenedar eat solitarii. Pedunculi semunciales, angulati, brevissimé pubescentes, apice in calycem dilatati. Czetera ut in genere. Ons. Ex truncis optimze trabes ad sedificia construenda extrahuntur. — Folia amarissima et ad febres intermittentes depellendas “4 sunt, ad quem usum speciem sequentem incolze Peruviani a Bs Ruiz et Pavon, 1. c. lca a 2. K. lanceolata, foliis lanceolatis obovatisve membranaceis : glandulis den- . ticulorum persistentibus, floribus cory mbosis. Kageneckia lanceolata, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fil. Peruv. et Chik 1. p- 290. Gen. p. 145. t. 37. | Hab. in Cant Provincie Peruvianorum epliibmassibale et ‘tesa. h- Floret Novembri et Decembri. (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) | or Arbor 3-orgyalis. Folia alterna, petiolata, obuvata v. lanceolata, acuta, rard obtusa, eleganter crebréque serrulata, serraturis antrorsis : dula persistenti terminatis; membranacea, utrinque glabra, a ma, supra viridia, vix polita, subtiis pallidiora et venulosa, | pollicem v. tripollicem longa, semi v. sesquipellicem lata; a Salice . myrsiniti ad 8. triandram forma. variantia. Pedioli supra concavi, sub. tiis convexi, lineam v. sesquilineam longi, margine obsolet’ denticulati. Stipule 2, minime, 3-4-dentate, glunduleeformes. Flores 3- v. 5, sub- corymbosi, unculati. Pedunculi sesquipollicares, glabri, angulati, apice sub calyce incrassati. Calyx craterv ormis : Jaciniis ovatis, acu- minatis, acumine recurvato, exttis parce puberulis, inthis dense tomen- tosis. Csetera ut in genere. THEOPHRASTA and CLAVIJA. Mr Lindley has already defined the limits of these two gene- ra in a most satisfactory manner, and I have nothing to add to the descriptions of them by that eminent botanist, except | find the ovarium to be uniformly one-celled in both, a nished with a central placenta, originating solely froca. hi fluence of the umbilical cords with the pistillary column, having no trace whatever of a partition. A close. relationship. et yeen these two genera and Jacquinia, being clearly established by thei unilocular ovarium, alternate leaves, peltate seeds, and. copious horny albumen, with an erect embryo, there cannot, IT think, be | any question as to the propriety of referring them to. tyrs ; of the correctness of which arrangement Mr Lindley seems Gow fully aware, although, in his excellent Collectanea Botanica, he referred them to Sérychnew, to which, no doubt, “they both bear also very considerable affinity in their peltate ‘seeds, copious horny albumen, and foliaceous embryo, and im the form and » Oe ee eee of certain genera in, the flova,Perusgians.», — 233 structure of their ripe pe but they differ essentially in their ar Ové and in having ‘alterr até leaves. “As ‘to the ition ar to be only of. generic importance ‘Sirychnea, for.in Sirychnos” at is valvular, while in Carissa we have the twisted “and: imbricate estivation of Apocinee. I consider the s Sales as forming an “osculant group between Myrsinee, but abundantly distinct, from either, it is > - Apocines: an to entitle ite to tank asa separate family. The ate Sir James Edward Smith has a4 ae in 4 s ies Cyclopedia, a suspicion of J acquin’ s Theophrasta longifolia, being ‘identical with the, Eresia. of Plumier, the Theophrasta americana of Linnzus ; but this last having: a large, polysper- mous s berry, and the 1 former having seldom more than two seeds in: each, completely sets the question at rest as to their. specific difference. at least. For ripe fruit of the former, namely T. longifolia of Sacquin, Iam indebted to Mr Fanning, who col. Eee} lected Shea, in fetece a ribsiet G foes iti gizy.: SS Ft fig esp | $j py ip THEOPHRASTA, ae o Seep a CP ulatus, 5-partitu -vascularis, cartilagineo-coriacens’: : Jaciniis Cale ean ares arplae” erosé denticulatis, stivatiéne’ Wibiicatis. Corolla campanulata, vascularis: tubus” previssimus : ‘faue dilatata; pen- tagona : limbo patulo, 5-lobo : Jobis rotundatis, margine erosé crenulatis, zestivatione imbricatis. _ Corona annulus elevatus, angulato-lobatus, car- nosus, fornicatus, faucem cireumcingens.. Stamina 5, tubo inserta : fila menta compressa, inferné oon ad heal tubo bs ear connata: anthere ovato-oblongze, biloculares, ext & longitudinaliter. hiscentes, Beton dt ice rostelliform aici filanonti tbise S. Raina: og one, ort& coronatz! Pollen farinaceum : Pistillum 1 >,ovarium li- - - .berum, subrotundum, uniloculare : ovulis numérossimis : i dephnsted paiaetieae sub.. poe toga etna reg OR Seo arse aig crustacea, uwnilocu 4g ma feng central cs succulents Reve wabiiuoeres, fra prope basin. ches aliaten. age wil um. id et papi es crn se . © dones foliacese + pp eT TE) Shi si Ate 4 a toltnoes ont TH fone eee tay mel? oh, T. Juss EES Oa) 7 Sab oS aie PEN VERT AAR COrkve S85 TRS ee Oe. S.. RRSAUS TOME: OL CERES Seer es pkg: ere fees eth nee. yots eae _ 234 Mr 'D. Don on the Characters and Affinities Theophrasta Taaia: ‘Lindl. Coll: Bot. ti 26. na bis) Res T. americana, Linn. Sp. Pl. i. p. 212? re Obs. ‘P- 58. T. Henrici, Ham. Prod. Fl. Ind. Occid. p > SRA, _. Eresia foliis aquifolii longissimis, Plum. Coh. 8. t. 25? pay t. 136 = eee. a Hispaniola montibus. D. Lahaye, Gulielmus Hamilton, ‘Ae Pulgd Le Petit Coco. ¢V. vy. cum flore, et s. sp. cum fruetu in Tyee Herb. Lamb.) , ” T's am still disposed to consider the Theophrasta of Eisele as identically the same genus, if not the same species with. that of Jussieu. Plumier states the corolla of his Evesia to be cam- panulate, and so it is represented in the figure, an expression which could not apply to the corolla of any species of Clavija, nor would so accurate an observer as Plumier have overlooked eg the remarkable union of the stamens in the latter genus; an although the rude representation published by Burmann has the flowers very much smaller, and in longer racemes, yet the figure of the fruit, and the general outline of the leaves, accord precisely with the plant of Jussieu. “The disposition of the fruit in the figure itself, shows that the spike of flowers is in- debted to the imagination of the engraver for part of its length. No mention is made of the place whence Plumier obtained his — Eresia, but as it is known that he only visited Martinique and St Domingo, it is very probable that he found it in ‘ fae island. CLAVIJA,; Ruiz et Pavon. THEOPHRASTZ Sp. Auct. cis 5-partitus : Jaciniis suborbiculatis, concavis, tenuissimé et mn ser tis, zestivatione imbricatis. Corolla rotata: tubus brevissimus : . &lobus : Jodis. subrotundis, carnosis,, een tenuissimé crenulatis, zsti- vatione imbricatis. Corona faucis 10-lo lobis obtusis, carnosis, s seepé sulcis antheris impressis exaratis ! conniventibus, faucem o operientibus, Stamina 5, tubo inserte : filamenta in’ tubum P tum oninind connata ! anthera trigonie, biloculares, in discum stellatum cohzerentes : looulis. subtas adnatis, cartilagineis, bivalvibus,: agin longitudinaliter dehiscentibus, apice confluentibus, basibu: is, .vix produetis ; deforatis profundé bisulcatis, hinc posticé quadrilobis!, Pis- tillum 1: ovarium liberum, uniloculare:, ovulis numero i atis : a eae attenuatus: Stigma exiguum, truncatum, ante "papillo ca Lag reson pr sors tour perm 8 ta i so ata atk mono v. disperma! Czetera ut in precedente. Frutices (Amer. ASquin.) non lactescentes. Caulis simplicissimus, more Palma. rum apice frondosus. Folia alternatim conferta, undigue patentia, ¢ coriacea, glabra, reticulato a, margine dentato-spinosa v»| integerrima. tioli basi callosi. Flores terminales, racemosi, albi aut aurantiaci. of certain Genera im the Flora Peruviana. 235 Flores in omnibus exemplaribus ame visis hermaphroditi, et nunquam dioici sunt, ut dicant auctorés Flore Peruvians. ~ Ons. 1. Annulus corollze faucis ry plicis loborum. limbi ejusdem certé ortum .., ducens. ‘Jacquinia cum Theophrastd et Clavija oftinin’d congruit esse et corolla zestivatione imbricatis, fauce corollz coronata, crustaceé unilocu- \. | lati evalvi, seminibus peltatis placentze centrali insertisy testa. simplici superficie mucilaginosa, embryone erecto feré in axi albuminis _ cornei, cotyledonibus foliaceis, radicula cylindraceé yagi; atque foliis =i oS maging eallogis,. in.apice ramorum. confertis, petiolisque basi, incras- ’ “On, re Flores et Semina Facquinize et Clavijee exsiccata, aqua tepida ma. .» dida odorem Primule veris maximé redolent! 3 : kin * Foliis margine integerrimis. 4o1..C. macrocarpa, foliis spathulato-oblongis acutis rigidis subtus punctatis, politi s vix cepa, fi racemis ae pendulis. He ° _ Clavija macrocarpa, Ruiz et Pavon. Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. i i. p. 284. Gen. #. 30. Hab. in Cuchero et Munz Peruviz nemoribus. Ruiz, et Pavon, h- Vulgs Lucuma de Monte. Floret Augusto et Septembri. (V. s. sp. : )-in Herb. Lamb.) Frutex biorgyalis. Folia spathulato-oblonga, acuta, integerrima, margine seaphote latiusculo, acuto, subreflexo, yaldé coriacea, rigida, reticu- lato-venosissima, pedalia v. sesquipedalia, subtis punctis impressis, nu- merosis, costa media validissina. Petiola yix unciales, crassi, callosi. Racemi numerosi, penduli, spithamzi v. pedales, glabri. Flores quam in © eeeteris dupld majores. Bacea globosa, polysperma, pomi sylvestris mag- 7 nitudine, in Fl. Peruy. Gen. t. 30. depicta. . longifolia, foliis spathulato-lanceolatis acuminatis nineniiannentie peat tripollicaribus, racemis erectis pubescentibus. Clavija longifolia, Ruiz et Pavon. Syst. Veg. Fl. Peruv. et Chil. i. p. 284. Hab. in Pati et Macore Peruvize runcationibus. Ruiz et Pavon. hy. Fl. Augusto et Septembri. (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Frutex 8-pedalis. Folia sesqui v- bipedalia, inferné attenuata, quam in pre cedente Pes uatadcere tenuiora, feré membranacea, latitudine palma. Fla et, seepé ultra. Racemi erecti, subspicati, puberuli. Flores sparsi, aol multd, minores. Bacca polysperma, Cerasi magnitudine. igs C. spathulata, foliis oe thulatis obtusis, iolis ses Hicari bus be ats quipo “Clavija Sian ld a Pegs eS RPO TEE eal hoor > im Puzuzo et. Mune Peruvize sylvis. ) Ruis et Pavon. he Fl. Septembri-et Octobri., (V.s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Fritee Sammars Folia pedalia, v. ultra, latitudine 5-pollicaria, siopwenitire- 9 nacea. | Petioli nune bipollicares. Racemi- Pee ighscmes er aetna tec pot prect Cerasi magnitudine.. rey oi a Caspendehin folityBomteslatios -Tacemis longis pendulis. Rui aiken c. i. p ‘ » Hab. in Pozuzo’ Peruvise’nemoribus imis. Reis et Pavan he Fi. ees at _Septembri-et, Octobris: (son) sweetest e car! o Wo Lesedbax Oke! itp 1 Prutee A-pedalis et ultra oi cops _ 236 | Mr D. Don on the Characters and Affinities «« Folis margine dentato-spinosis. 5. C. ornata, foliis a, ih acutis spinoso-dentatis, petiolis un- guicularibus, racemis lis, baccis subdispermis. Theophrasta longifolia, Jacg. Coll. iv. p. 136. Hort. Schenb. i. t. 116. _ Spreng. Syst. i. p. 670 é Hab. ad Chiba Jacquin, D. Faning.” th. (¥. ssp. in Herb. Lamb.) - Caulis simplicissimus, 12-pedalis. Folia sesquipedalia, basi acuta. a- / cemé $-9-pollicares. Flores aurantiaci, Bacea magnitudine Cerasi mi- -noris, subglobosa, crustacea, lateribus partum compressa, unilocula- tis, evalvis, pleruioaue disperma, raro mono v. trisperma, basivcalyce et. apice stylo persistentibus instructa: erusta intis virens, nervis venisque plurimis peragrata. .Semina peltata, connata, substantia pulposa copiosa tecta, subinde drupacea ! aqua tepida madida pulpa . -exiit voluminosa, basi chalazi ampla.concaviuscula. orbiculaté no- tata: testa es os spiel albumen magnum, corneum, pelliculé mem- branacea arcté adherenti vestitum. Embryo erectus, axilis, lacteus : cotyledones ovales, subfoliaceze : radiculé cylindracea, sree: cotyle- donibus subsequalis. 6. C. undulata, foliis cuneato-lanceolatis acuminatis spinoso-dentatis, petio- lis semipollicaribus. Clavija sp. nova, Herb. Ruiz et Pavon. * Hab. in Guayaquilé. Joannes Tafalla. hh. (V.s. sp. in Herb. b» Lambs) Folia vix pedalia, spathulato-oblonga, acuminata, basi acuta, ma sinuato-dentata, undulata: dentibus spinosis: Petioli semuncial Flores nondtim vidi. RAUVOLFIA.—F7. Perwo. With the professed object of giving an amended chiepcter of Rawvolfia, Ruiz and Pavon have described and figured a genus of plants possessing no affinity whatever with that of Linnzeus. It is difficult to.account for the reasons which led them to com- mit so grave an error, as the habit and characters of the two genera are so widely different. A careful examination. of au- thentic specimens, both in flower and fruit,. of the species de- scribed and figured in the Flora Peruviana, has satisfied me that they are referable to the Verbenacea, and that they are not generically distinct from Cithareaylum, a genus which appears to have been destined to be confounded with Rawvolfia,: for Willdenow, as we find from M. Kunth, in‘the Nova Genera’ et Species. Plantarum, had referred certain species of the former to the latter genus. All the species of Cithareaylum agree in ‘having the limb and’throat ‘of the corolla thickly bearded, and the leaves simple, with their footstalks thickened and articulated at the base to the stem, indicating thereby another close analogy to the Jasminee, forming part of the same natural class, which likewise comprises Selaginea, Olena, and Columelhacee. of certain Gencra in the Flora Pervdiana. 237 . CITHAREXYLUM, Linn. } RAUVOLFIA, Ruiz et Pavon. Syst. Linn. DIDYNAMIA peocierennnee: aly: campanulatus, 5u7-dentatus.. Corolla calyce wit oe tobehdtn : limbo “6-lobo, patenti, supra cum fauce densé barbato : lobis es ee retu- sis, eestivatione imbricatis. Stamina 5 v. 4, subzequalia, inserta : -- filamenta brevissima, glabra: anthere lineares, obtuse, biloculares: locu- dis interné longitudinaliter dhiscentibaa.” bas basi solutis, tandem subdiver- 8 gentibus.-- Pistillum 1 : ‘ovarium 4-loculare : ovulis solitariis: stigma ca- “)> pitatum, minuté papillosum. Drupa dipyrena: nuculis osseis, bilocula- -\" yibus, hinc -convexis, sulcatis, inde planiusculis :' Joewlis mon “asi interiore fossul4 cum stylo cummunicanti, substantia cellulosa farcta, instructis ; test4 interiori Linear cellulosa: albumen nullum. Em- . -Bryo erectus, lacteus: cotyledones obl , plano-convexee :. radiculé in- fera, cylindracea, parim attenuata, cotyledonibus ter breviori. ig: sage Frutices (Amer. Calid.). Ramuli sepé abortivi, spinescentes. F o- lia opposita, indivisa. Petioli basi Oo re artiowlant.: eee ter- minales, racemosi V- solitarii. Tc ‘flezuvim, spinosum ; {foliis alli ptico-oblongis mucronulatis integerti- mis subtts tomentosis, racemis pauc ina ean cibus 5-dentatis. —— flexuosa, Ruiz et Pavon Fi. Peruv. et Chile, ii. pe 26. | t. 152. Hab. in Peruvise fruticetis ad Huanuci urbem, et in Provinciis Huama- lies et Tarmze. Ruiz et Pavon. }. Vulgd Turucasa, i. e. spina obtusa. (VY. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Frutex biorgyalis, ramosissimus, spinosus. Folia pollicaria, v. sesqui- . pollicaria, supra rugosa. i Mi ep 9 gl _...>_Drupa atropurpurea. aTF ' . 2. Cy retusum, spinosum ; folie obovatoblongsretusis ntegervimis subtis _tomentosis, racemis paucifloris, calycibus 5-dentatis. .. 7 ., Rauvolfia macrophylla, Ruiz et-Pavon |. c. 2. p. 26, t. 152, fb. “Hab. in Peruviz collibus arenosis versus Atiquipa tractus. ‘Joannes Ta- kee eg Vulgd oe et ssa de Cruzes:\ athanonp 5) Ries. »rt “ii bio SOE ’ Folia sesqui v. évipolliearia, rugosissima. ; is ies oneal Racemi nunc maultiflori. bite aaa aa9quh Jores.. Drupa nigra. aivD snot donijerbvylls ai $%2 ~ 3..C,\dentatum, inerme ; foliis’ mene ean dentate gs racemiis _multifloris,. calycibus-angulatis multidentatis.., he ten ill ade Os "at dentata, Tafalla MSS. we ne ae sitke Ro nein ahha “Toannes et iat 8. 8 “in ~ Herb. Lamb.) : he » |, ruler inennis, i go Ue Folia. pe ee lem ~ tata, v- rarils se acest valde | coriacea, rigida, utrinque = ultra. Racemus multiflorus.. Calyx ‘bra; mitida; ‘pollicaria ~ angulis Premera Rabe, acuté 6~7-dentatus. : sd sri je lois de Ce Lycioides, : pl | A Mi inhannenene - bris, racemis-paucifloris, calycibus integris.... aoeiene a Rauvolfia sp. nova, Pavon. MSS. ra 238 Mr D. Don on certain Genera in the Flora Peruviana., Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno. h. (V-s. sp. in Herb. Lamb. Frutex inermis, virgatus. _ Ramuli cortice cinereo-albicanti. Folia margine integertima, partim revoluta, vix uncialia. Drupa nigra. 5. C. lucidum, inerme ; foliis elliptico-oblongis obtusis basi acutis utringue glabris, spicis elongatis nutantibus.; | . Citharexylum cinereum, Sesse et Mocinno MSS. non L. . Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno. hh. (V. s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Folia 3-4-pollicaria, supra lucida, subtis reticulato-venosissima, apice mucronulo perbrevi instructa. Petioli unciales. Spice ee 4 ‘C. Sessei, inerme ; foliis ovatis acuminatis subtiis pubescent sp q steel nutantibus, ramis tetr; S16 WS PE AoA quadrangy alate. Sesse "4 Mocinno MSS. . - in Mexico. ‘Seose of M. “(Y. s. sp. in Herb! Lamb!) eo ui v. Mics Riba aN bescen Tan pinnaté nervosa, basi Ubtudueents. Splar pala ii Oxzs. A C. pulverulento et quadrangulo omnind diversum, STE 7. C. affine, inerme; foliis ovato-lanceolatis acutis menibranacels glabris, bo ae ao tis nutantibus. Wi Fro o} Mexico. Sesse et ‘Moottino. h- (V-s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) voile 2-Acuncialia, acuta, aan glabra, hast acuta, pinnil ate nervosa. Spice 5-pollicares, nutan asrina ved 8. C. Mocinni, inerme ; foliis mc acuminatis subtis tomen. tosis basi rotundatis, spicis elonga.is pendulis. Citharexylum tomentosum, esse et Mocinno MSS. non Kunth. « nag VF Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno.. fh. (V's. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) .. Folia ampla, ovato-lanceolata, acuminata, integerrima, coriacea, su ebhit labra, nitida, subtis ramulisque densé: fulvescenti-tomentosa, ene talia. Spice tomentose, pendule, pedales et ultra. Calyx pen- tagonus: denticulis prominentibus. 9. C. scariosum, inerme ; foliis ellipticis mucronatis coriacels glabris, ‘spicis erectis paniculatis. Mf 90 Wait Citharexylum scariosum, Sesse et ‘Mosmew: MSS. Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno. h. (V. ssp. in Herb. Lamb.) Folia 2-3-pollicaria, venis prominulis. Petioli breves. )Spie@ erectee, 3—5-unciales. bragrad 10. C. ellipticum, inerme ; foliis subsessilibus obovatis obloneurte retusis mucronulatisque costatis scabris, spicis erectis multifloris, ramis. ee _ Citharexylum ellipticum, Sesse et Mocinno MSS. . ‘ ont Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno. kh. (V.s. sp. in Herb Lamb) Folia pollicaria, subsessilia, scabra, apice ReLUBR is ad -muer Spice erectze, 3-unciales. ise seial 11. C. incanwm, inerme ; foliis ovatis serratis ote pnuliggan p bil tibus, spicis erectis, dentibus calycinis inzequalibus. bi a Citharexylum incanum, Sesse et Mocinno MSS. Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinno. a (V. s. sp. in Herb, Lam Folia ovata, acutiuscula, serrata, ra A pe sae ' einereo-pubescentia, basi attenua Petioli erecte, pang Vv. tripollicares. algops paper is vis, inzequalibus ; antico et postico majoribus. 12. C. scabrum, inerme ; foliis elli ticis mucronulatis: subtiss estas mentosis scabris, spicis erectis scnsetdle, dentibus calycinis ineequalibus. a Citharexylum scabrum, Sesse et Mocinno MSS. fi Hab. in Mexico. Sesse et Mocinne. fh. {V.s. sp.in Herb. Lamb.) © Folia 2-3-uncialia, supra scabra, subtiis densé cinereo-pubescen basi acuta. Petioli semunciales. Spice erectee, 6-pollicares. Calyces 5-dentati: dentibus recurvis: antico productiore. rhs i esi (289...) On the adaptation of the Fly-wheel and Pulley of the Turning. lathe to a given Length of Band. “By Mr Epwarp ~ SANG, ‘Teacher of Mathematics, Edinburgh. PSO Every one accustomed to the use of the cbse lathe, is aware of the necessity for frequent changes in the velocity, of the spindle. Each different material that is wrought,—each diameter of the various parts of the work,—and almost every different tool that is employed to cut it,—requires a particular velocity. ‘The most ready means for effecting these changes, is to cut two series of grooves, one series in the edge of the fly- wheel, and a corresponding one in that of the pulley; and to have these grooves so arranged that the same band reg fit i on any one pair of them: When the band is crossed, the formation of these grooves is attended with no difficulty; for, while the sum of the diameters of the wheel and pulley is kept the same, the length of the band is unaltered. We have thus only to increase the diameter of the pulley as much as we diminish that of the fly-wheel ; and it may be noticed, that the same band will pass over any. pair, of grooves formed agreeably to this rule, whatever be the thick- ness of that band. When the band is plain, the arrangement of the grooves is — much more troublesome, and needs the aid of calculations too long and too intricate to be performed by the generality of those who are engaged in the construction of turning-lathes; on this account, the adjustment is most frequently effected after re- peated trials. My object is to render these requisite calcula- tions so simple as to offer no serious difficulty to practical men ; for this end, I will avoid every appeal to the complex operations of trigonometry, aud will use such cies ei only'as may be intelligible in the workshop. By no artifice can the actual performance of the calculations be avoided; but, by entering the results in tables, the labour of one ‘person may be made available to others. A complete able, to answer our present purpose, one which would only 240 Mr Sang on the adaptation of the Fly-wheel and Pulley _ give to the-artist the trouble of inspection, would need: torexhi-: bit the lengths of the bands which would. pass:oyer all pulleys andwheels placed at’ various distances from each other... ‘The’ ineonveniencé attending all tables of triple entry, and the exces sive labour of constructing such a one, forbid) the hopevof sever, seeing it:completed. Some mode must be devised which: abridge the labour of the caleulator, without adding too: to that of: the inspector; and: I -have now to explain: those-con siderations ‘which may becsupposedto have led me ito, that abridgment which I have used: among: these will:be found ial the principles which are necessary to the nightly: —— and using of the subjoined: able: i110 iocnoansdih odalidlo: When we have a table of: therdengsheraf pated Sitting: on va- rious wheels and pulleys, placed at one fixed distance fromeeach other, it is not very difficult ‘thence ‘to: compute the lengthiof band for any lathe whose axes are placed;at a: different distance: Conveive'all the parts ofthe lathe last mentioned to:be altered in proportion, untilthe distance between its axes is equal:to:the distance’ between the axes of the former, and. its parts,will be found among those entered in the table. The length of; band found for this size has only to be altered in: the proper: ratio; to give the length wanted, and the same might-be a of ee dimension. Let’ the diameters of the wheel and pulley. be sajutl gain ereased:: a little reflection will satisfy any one that the length of the band, the circumference of the wheel, and the circumference - ofthe pulley will, all three, be equally increased ; and that:thus, as long as the difference between the’diameters of the wheel and pulley is kept the same, the excess of the band above the, cireums ference of the: fly-wheel, ‘as wellcas its excess above the! cir¢um- ference of the: pulley; is also unchanged. . Now itis an:easy matter to conipute the circumference of a. wheel-wlien: its.dia- meter is known ;.'so that we require only a table of the: of the band above the circumference ofthe pulley, and, above the circumference of. the fly-wheel, gp es: each diffe- rence between the:diameters of these wheels:,/ » Set pm et! » A table of these excesses, in the foi radtichan ofawhich. I took every precaution to insure. accuracyy is - subjoined.., The first 3 of the Turning-lathe to a given Length of Band: 241 column ‘contains the differences between the diameters of the fly-wheel and pulley, estimated in decimal parts of the distance between their axes, which is, throughout, regarded as the wnit. Inthe second column, are: inserted: the corresponding excesses of the length of the band above that of the circumference of the pulley ; these excesses being, for the:sake of interpolation, ac- companied ‘by their differences... And the third column exhibits. the excesses of the length of thé band above the circumference of the fly-wheel, with their differences. . The numbers;in: the first and second columns g on. neh but thetier’ in-the mers All the dimensions of any teicailstlathe must ba divided: “ the number whichexpresses the distance between the axes, be- fore any of them cam be sought for in this table ; and the results obtained from the table must again be multiplied by the number formerly used a3 a divisor, in order to obtain) the. quantities sought for. But» this caleulation maybe avoided, by forming a scale of the tenth, hundredth and. theusandth parts of the distance between) the: axes, and by using. this: scale-in all,.the measurements. ©The latter method will, in all) probability; :be found the most convenient.. As singh of the: use’ a the Table, I will propose two questions. ated od icterins ati ODL “I. On the pulley of a turning-lathe are already two grooves, one of 2.4, and the other of 5.0 inches diameter. The centre — of the fly-wheel is distant 30 inches from that of the pulley, and ‘te larger groove to be made on the fly is 25 inches in diame- Required the diameter as the other groove to be made on oa wheel ? Dividing all these-dimensions by 30, we obtain unit for the _ distance between the axes, which is the distance assumed in: the table; 0.08 for the diameter of the lesser, 0.1666 for that of the greater groove on the pulley, and 0.833:for that of | the eae groove on the fly-wheel. 2a These numbers: are just what woeekie heve fees found on Aen the dimensions with the scale above described. In order to find: the length of the band, we take. the diffe. rence between 0.8333 and 0.08, which is 0.75333, and enter, 242 Mr Sang on the adaptation of the Fly-wheel and Pulley with ‘this number, the first column of the table. The nearest number which we can find is 0.75, opposite to which, in the se- cond column, is found 3.32044, To correct» this, for, the we- maining figures 333, we multiply by these the tabular» diffe. rence: 1958, cutting off as many figures from the right of the product as there are figures in the multiplier: this done, we ob- tain the correction 653, which, added to 3.32044, gives 3.32697 for the correct excess of the band above the circumference of the pulley. But, if we multiply 3.1415926 by .08, the diame- ter of the pulley, we have .25133 for its circumference; so that the whole length of the band,:the sum of 3, rasan and 25133, must be 3.57830. ay Omsas} In order to compute the size of dee new sieiaitn to be.cutdn the wheel, we observe, that, as the band now passes overa pul- ley whose diameter is 0.16666, its excess above the circumfe: rence of that pulley, which circumference is 52360, is 3.05470, Entering the second column of the table in search of ; this num- ber, and taking that which is immediately less, we find 8.05195, which has 0.61 opposite to it in the first column; to obtain the correction for this number, we divide 275, the error, by 1884, the tabular difference, affixing as many ciphers to 275 as we wish to obtain new decimal places: the result of this division is 146, whence the true difference between the diameters,of, the fly-wheel and. pulley is 0.61146; but the diameter of the pul. ley is 0.16667, wherefore that of the fly-wheel is 0.'77813;.... . These two results, multiplied by 30, give, for the. length of the band, 107.349 inches; for the diameter of the new erie 23,344 inches. Karolinath ine AY biKe II. The distance between the axes of a turning-lathe: being. $2 inches; and two grooves on the fly-wheel having 38 and 34 inches for their diameters: the lesser groove on the pulley is to be 3 inches in diameter; required the size of the other? Dividing all the dimensions by 32, we obtain, for the diame- ters of the wheels 1.1875 and 1.0625, and for that of the lesser groove on the pulley .09375. Entering the first column of the table for 1.09375, which is the difference between the diameters of the first pair of grooves, of the Turning-lathe\tova given Length of Band. 248 we find in the third column, opposite 1.09, the number 0.59297: ‘To correct for the remaining: figures, multiply 992, the tabular difference, by 875, and cut off three places 5 these operations give 872, which has to be stébiracted from 0.59297, because the numbers in the third colamn grow less. The true excess of the band above the circumference of the wheel, is thus 0.58925. But the diameter of the wheel is 1.1875, therefore _ its citteumference is 8. 713064, wed the whole eee of the me arver: “The cireumferenive of the Bebaa groove on’ the Aysivheek is 3.93794, wherefore the excess of the band above that circum- ference is 0.98195. Entering the third column for this num- ber, and taking the one immediately greater, we find, opposite to 0.98809, 0.73' in the first column. Dividing the error 614 by 1195, the tabular difference, we obtain 514, which, annexed to 0.73, gives 0.73514 for the true difference between the dia- meters. But the diameter me sbe wheel is 1. pena wherefore that of the pulley is 82736. 7 | : - These results, multiplied a 82, give, | te , For the length of the Band,......,.... .138,2365 inches. _For the diameter of the New Groove, 10,4755 inches. If it be wished to allow for the thickness of the band, we have only to add to the calculated lengths, the circumference of a cirele which has the thickness of the band for its diameter: — the diameters of the grooves will be in no way affected by it. With regard to the accuracy of the calculations, it may be mentioned, that there is no probability of an error of the thou- sandth part of an inch in. any of the diameters. To this de- gree of exactness few will pretend to work. © joeQT) rents 2k Mr Sang on the adaptation of the Fly-whe el and Pulley Dineen ” Witiobed of the s Bactosinnece te centre the Pulley. xcs of the length of Band ove ici of Fly-wheel. cm | som | ame | ama | .O1 2.01 1573" -001 i a 0.02 wovtne 1579 1.98432 1568 0.03 2.04735 1583 1.96868 64 0:04 2.06323 1588 myn i ERE Se } 0.05 2107916 Se 757 1548 0.06 2.09515 1599 1.92209 DRQ~ « 0.07 2.11118 1603. 1.90665 |. tins 0.08 2.12726 1608 1.89127 1538 0.09 2.14340 1614 1.87594 a 0.10 1618 1.86065 529. 2 2.15958 ; | 15 -} O11 2.17581 1628 1.84542 | oy $8 2.19210 1629) 1.83024 |, iat 0.13 2.20843 1633 ieisit |) Ae 0.14 2.22481 1638 we j 150 1 0.15 adsbees 1644. 774899 | Pi | 0-16 2.25778 1648. 177000 |. | O17 2.27426 1653" 176508 |). } : 0.18 2.29085 1659 1.74019 |. i 0.19 2.30748 1663 1.72580 pte 0.20 2 82417 1669 oe rie 0:21 2.34090 1673: 1.69585 |. )4 0.22 2.35769 1679 1.68117 | +6 0.23 2.37452 1683 1.66654 | 1463 0.24 2.39141 1689 1.65196 |. ae rs) 1694 1.63743 1453 i}. O89 2.40835 >. |) 1448. 0.26 2.42533 1698 1.62295 | 0.27 2.44237 1704 1.60852 |. 0.28 2.45946 1709 1.59414 (0.29 2.47659 1713 1.57981 |. 0.30 | 1719 1.565538 | ; 2.49378 0.31 2.51102 1724 1.55130 |. 4 0.82 2.52831 1729 1.58713 | 0.33 2.54565 1734 1.52300 | 0.34 2.56804 1739 1.50893 | : | 1744 1.49490 | 2.99 2.58048 | 0.36 2159797 1749 1.48093 | 0.37 261552 1755 1.46700 | 0.38 263811 1759 1.45318 | R89 meso76 | 1765 eg r ep 2.66845 Zid ere ly $39: 2168620 1775 147182 | 0.42 270400 £780: 1.99815 | 0.43 Q\72185 i785 18458 | Ott a73975 | 1790 1.87096 | 1795 1.35745 i & _ of the Turning-lathe to.a given length of Bandi, 246 _Excess of ‘the length of Band i Band above yn eoed Praia Ail") .. Circumference of Fly-wheel. = "1.84898 1341 0.45 2.75770 1900: a 1st 0.46 2.77570 1806 a 183¢ 0.47 2.79376 10) soso | 183! 0.48 2.81186 1816 ee 1926 0.49 2.83002 an a ~ a 286649 lags) 1.26428 1310 0.51 2.86649 1831 — 1310 0,52 2.88480 1837 2a5n8 1306 0.53 2.90317 thee saeae 1300 0.54 2.92158 1847 aa a 0.55 2.94005 1988 manana 1890 0.56 2.95857 1837 —e 1284 0.57 2.97714 ante nai 1280 0.58 2.99577 1867 ne 1274 0:59 3.01444 ape | 6090 6 : 1:14822 ia 0.60 3.03317 1878 meh 1264 0.61 3.05195 1884 — 1298 0.62 3.07079 1888 aoe 1288 0.63 3.08967 1894 — 1248 0.64 3.10861 i=9 : 0.65 3.12760 1905 soe a 1297 0.66 3.14665 1910 ape ne 1202 0.67 3.16575 1915 ee 1227 pe Saenre mas 1.03640 1216 0.69 3.20410 1926 — ~~ 0.70 3.22336 1981 nanan 1210 0.71 3.24267 1936 newts 1200 0.72 3.26203 1942 — 1199 0.73 3.28145 1947 — 1195 0.74 3.30092 1952 sa “nx 0.75 3.82044 an sates 1184 0.76 3.84002 1964 > 1178 0.77 3.35966 1968 Sores ue 0.78 3.37934 1974 — et 0.79 3.39908 1980 = 162 0.80 3.41888 1985 0.9085 1157 0.81 3.43873 1991. pe 1151 vias pre 1996 0.87107 1140 0.83 3.47860 aie aga? 1140 0.84 3.49861 2007: ! : . 0.84833 1129 6:86 Same pina 0.83704. | ji54 6.86 3.53881 ‘anes moeens 1124 at Reena a 0.81462 1112 0.88 3.57922 2029 an 1112 0.89 3.59951 pay | 246 Mr Sangion the adaptation of the Fly-wheel and Pulley nd a De (0.90. 3.61986 20s 0.7998S* | | Ube! oat 3.64027 2046" 0.78142. | | | 0.92. 3.6607 3 one 0.77046. 0.9.4. 3.68124 poe 0.75956 0.95. 3.72244 2069!" 0.73793 0.96.-| 3.74313 207405 | 0.72720 O.9%- | S768BE° | Ooaa, 0.71653 0.98 3.78467 2086 4 «070591 0.99 3.80553 2092 0.69535 1.00 3.82645 2097" 0.68485 1.01 3.84742 2108% 0.67441 1.02 3.86845 2109 0.66403 — 1.03 3.88954 o11s' 0.65370 1.04 3.91069 2120: 0.64843" 1.05 3.93189 2197 0.63322 1.06 3.95316 21389 0.62307 1.07 3.97448 2138 0.61297 1.08 3.99586 ona 0.60294 1.09 4.01730 oma 0.59297 | 1.10 4.03881 _— 0.58305 1.11 4.06087 orb 0.57820" 1.12. 4.08199 2168 0.56341 1.13. 4.10367 o1Th 0.55367 1.14. 4.12541 2188! 0.54400 1.15, 4.14722 0.53439 116 4.16908 a 0 52483 | hee 4.19101 2199 0.51534 1.18 4.21300 pone: 0.50592 1.19. 4.23505 arya 0.49655 1.20 4.25716 0917) 0.48725 Lat 4.27933 0984. 0.47800 — 1,22. 4.30157) 0930 | 0.46883 7 (1.24 4. 34623: 2049: 0.45066" | «1.25 4.36866) 2949" 0.44167° L | 12a. 4.39115) Congo 0.43274 tt eZ 440370} Dogg) 0.42388 1.28. 448683) | Sogge | 0.41509" 1.29, 4.459009} porgev 0.40636 | 68. | : | «1.3L, 858 | 1.32. S47. 1.33. 839. . | 184, 834 | Eo ~ of the Turning-lathe to a given Length of Band, QAF 135 || | 4596510 | loos] 095586- 1 | oof 136°‘ | 461966. | (2225°°] o.ga710 ar 0 1.37 4.64288. | 2252 || 0.83890 arg 1.38] | 466617. | SocB | 0.88077 Boe: 1.39 — >| asag.. | 082272 a 1.40 4.71296 | 0.88478 vy, 141°'| | 4.736455 | S599 | 0.80681 1a r 1.42 4.76002 © 2364... | 229896 veo 1.43°'| 4.78366. | Fo | o.gg1is rae 1.44 4.80737 2378) 0.28348 - “Be: 1.45_ 4.83115 0.27584 | 1.46 ||| 4.85501 ee “| 0.26828 i) 1.47°'| 4.87898 res 0.26079 = 1.48 ‘| 4.902940 | Dio9 0.25388 i; Bul Ee bewnmed 0.24604: | 734 . 1.50 4.95110. © ox 0.23877 | , ‘i151 4.97589. - pe “| 0.28158: Ti «1.52 ‘| 4.999690] Sas. 0.22447 ibs | 1.58 5.02407 5] aye ogtT4e | boe | 1.55 _ 5.07307 0.20360 Oo 1.560 5.09768. a 0.19680 yas 1.57] | 5.12887 awe 0.19007, | Bae 1.58" 5.14715 abe 0.18348 ond! , I. -17201 ; ‘ : 1 five 5 rie 2494 2 nicy i 647 i 3- -19695 0.17040 » r ) | 1.61" - §.22197 1 0.16401 © i on 1.62" || 5.24708 e519 0.15770 » | Bae , EEE Slo ERAT bctieyeg vege . 1.89 5.96200 2816 0.02439 . 1.90 5.99016 2832 0.02113. 1.91 6.01848 seta, || 0.01804 » 1.92 6.04697 9867 0.01512 | 1.93 6.07564 2886 0.01237 - 1.94 6.10450 3907 0.00981 1.95 6.13357 2929 - 0.00746 1.96 6.16286 2054 0.00534: 1.97 e920, | S058 | 0.00847 | 1.88 6.22224 3020 0.00189 1.99 6.25244 ee 0.00067 2.00 6.28319 0.00000 Toh Having given an account sufficiently clear, as I hope, ito be understood by all practical people, of the nature and uses of the preceding Table, I have now to exhibit to such as would - examine the matter more deeply; the prcceser which were used in its formation. <0 | aD. Let w and p be the diameters of the wtiesh and pulley, d the difference between them, and 6 the inclination of the free part: of the band to the plane - the two-axes. Then, we have sin b= os ; ; and the ipa of each free part of the band fruit S. But the length of that portion of the band ri in contact with the wheel, is w (E+ + ‘), and of that in contact / with the pulley, p (§—"): The whole length of the band i is thus Via—e) + 05 +) +25 — "> which eT ive ther to claw 4 (= 4 Va— aetiiyame ae oe : ‘ the + OIE toa given Length of Band. :249 oF to Oe Sd 51) = a | Wherefore, the excess of the length of the band above the cir. eumference of the pulley, BS. UPS od | beck ah | Meeps aty i. fi keh 4 and its its excess above that of the fly-wheel, is ae ' | | a cote : Each of these expressions is dependent only ¢ on the diference between the diameters w and p. : In the actual computation, we observe that 4— 2 — (2 ++ a) 2—d); and also that }3¢==sec 6.3. siné@ when 9. sin?é is yery small. | 1 One samme of the entire calaptetion I subjoin. : - 1.77 55. sin ‘= 885, wae error Ta4. , ; Log sec 69° we 88197. Oe eee ee 1.082104] Log 124 - bs = 2.09342 15’ ; ect - 48633 | 2.42539. = Log corr, i 266 F xa st a9 vi f 210861940 gad ‘= 93" = | = 1.5707963 bb ae Bi = 8671 “216572908. let gli , 866761 =.9317 - a, +m 1.7601082..». 18621 TBagoo ROOT OR ) 18622.8. 152790 een 8390116" 7 [148982 839012 "ggos. ae ¢0) “47081088 © s PRI 1g SA RGs yEFS) Cart An ly eit ie Bue SfRY * AZ — 0) = 08572151 a ove pulley. RRB AOR: ‘ Excess of band length in contact with, i w ( + ~ ; wherefore the whole ee of band is e210 NG—#)+5(S +4) | ila which is exactly the formula, changing s into d, for the nu’ bers‘entered in the second column. ; If, then, we’enter the first column with ‘the sum of the aia meters of the wheel and pulley (plus twice’the thickness of the’ band), the opposite number in the second column will give the length of the band when crossed. | tit ess » eft amivrorvis a peat iQ} SomSoT I iy : = . f ae pe brine docks of the’ Vascilar “pti in the Foetus y °° Vertebrated Animals. Part Tl. By ArueN Tuomson, M. D. ©9até’ President of the’ Royal Medical Society. Communi- °* cated by the Author. (Concluded from. peda) Soa sr, Prado of tia: Biespicntory, Onaons ts. the Oph, Jegisad: Sil OF » Chelonia and Sauria. [ Typ jceeding to consider the development of ihe respiratory or anh oF the higher orders of ‘reptiles, we pass from those ani- He which are aquatic, either during the whole or some period Weehia existence, to those which are entirely aérial during ika and adult life. . | "The ova of the serpents, turtles, and sel i are deponited and become developed i in the same medium in which the adult animal respires ; ; but in these animals, as well as in birds and mammalia, ¢ a proper envelope for the foetus or ainnios is formed by the reflection of the serous layer of the germinal membrane *, and the foetus is thus kept constantly immersed in a fluid till the period when it begins t to inspire air into the lungs, Tt is Well known that the respiration of the foetal lizard, like that of other animals, is first carried on by the distribution of thé blood’ over the surface of the sac of the yolk. In the former part of this essay; it was stated that the observations of Dutrochet, Emmert, Hochstetter and Baer, had shown .that the embryo of cue aA becomes developed on the surface of the yolk, and that the blood and vessels are first produced in the form of a network, on the surface of the area surrounding the foetus. ‘This net- work, like that in: the. ova,of cartilaginous’ fishes, birds, ‘and mammalia, is composed of the minute ramifications of the omphalo-mesenteric arteries, and of corresponding veins, which carry,,tothe,vena porte the blood that.has passed through the network. ‘The sac of the yolk, over.which.the,vascular, network: spreads itself. morejand, more. widely. as.development ,proceeds, is,at ‘first. situated. near.the internal, surface of the,shell, or other, covering of the, oyum, sand. the; blood, contained. in its vessels. is: arterialized by the transmission of, oxygen. from. the air bitin * See Fig. 21 of amnios in birds. 2. r 2 REQ Dr Allen Thomson 6n the Vascular System After the first half of foetal life has passed, the yolk sac is re- moved from the inside of the chorion, and its place is supplied by another vesicular membrane coming from the foetus, which gra- dually expanding, entirely encompasses the foetus, and re the blood is now exposed, in order that it may undergo the necessary respiratory changes. ‘The sac of the yolk still remains, however, covered by its network of vessels, ‘which probabl serve to absorb the substance of the yolk for the nourishment’ of the foetus, or being now less exposed to the air, perform sortie ‘subordinate part in respiration (Fig. 17, a y). | tae ‘The vesicular membrane which supplies the place’ of | yolk sac-as a respiratory organ, is the same part in a more éx- panded condition, which becomes developed in the ‘batrachian © tribes at the commencement of their aérial existence. a to the observations of the authors already quoted, the allantois of the Lacerta agilis appears, at the earliest period. at which it has been seen, in the form of a small vesicle hanging from the lower part of the abdomen, projecting like a process from the cloacal part of the intestine, and resembling in its form ‘and position the urinary bladder (See Fig. 19, Part I.). At this time the allantois is covered by a network of minute ‘vessels, ‘which become more obvious as the vesicle expands. “Conti- ‘nuing to enlarge, it insinuates itself between the foetus and the covering of the ovum (See Diagram, Fig. 18), and its farther progress outwards being impeded, it expands laterally till, it envelopes the foetus in its amnios, and the yolk, med double layer of a vascular membrane (Fig. 17, 2). The vessels distributed on this membrane are the umbilical arteries and. yeins ; the outermost layer is the most vascular, and is ap- plied close to the inner side of the envelope of the egg, where it receives the full influence of the air transmitted to it from with. out. The allantois continues to act as a respiratory organ ‘till the foetus breaks the shell, or tears the covering of the ego, and comes out fitted for receiving air into its lungs, and) respiting solely by these organs, The greater part of the allantois” re- mains in the egg, in the Lacerta agilis, andthe urmary bladder of the adult is formed by a part at its root separated from it, by. the urachus; on each’ side of which the umbilical, vessels: previ- » ously proceeded to gain the expanded part of the vesicle. in the Foetus of Vertebrated Animals. 253 The respiration, therefore, of the foetus of the fara! as well as that of all oviparous animals higher in the scale, is entirely performed by the two membranes to which we have just alluded, viz. the sac of the yolk and the eT TET of the Juninary bladder or allantois *.. Many lizards and serpents, newcuell are not truly oviparous, but retain their ova till the development of the foetus has pro- ceeded some way, in general till the allantois becomes sufficiently expanded to be fitted to carry on respiration ; and some serpents, such as the Coluber berus, are almost entirely ovo-viviparous. In this last it is curious to observe that the arterialization of the feetal blood is effected, though by a simpler apparatus, in nearly the same manner as that of mammalia, or truly viviparous arii- mals. The allantois of the viper, after expanding so as’ to enclose the foetus and yolk, comes into contact with a vascular lining of the oviduct, and is closely united with it, so that the venous blood of the foetus is exposed to the intluence of the. oxygenized arterial blood of the parent. It is an interesting fact also, that in some of the Testudines, the allantois, or at least a part of it, remains permanently in the - adult, and that the umbilical vein continues as in the batrachia to carry off its blood to the liver. In the Testudo orbicularis, according to Townson, water is introduced into this sac, and it appears not improbable that the large urinary bladder, or per- manent allantois of the turtles and of some serpents, serves as an auxiliary in the function of respiration during the whole of life +. Although respiration by means of gills is rendered unneces- _ gary, by the perfect state of the allantois in these reptiles, yet it appears, from some late observations, that at a period of the development of these, as well as of all the more perfect animals which have been examined, corresponding with that at which the branchize of fishes and batrachia begin to be formed, the . ™ The connexion of the sac of the yolk with the inteatizie has been demon- strated also in the Coluber natrix by Bojanus, J ournal de Physique, 1829 ; and Dutrochet has shown very clearly the mode of development of the allantoid in the viper, in the Memoires dela Societé Medicale d’*Emulation, tom. :viii. Several preparations in the College:of Surgeons’ Museum, London, illustrate these facts extremely well, and some/the sac of the yolk of the turtle, +' See Carus’ Compar. Anat., vol. ii. p- 249, 254 Dr Allen ‘Thomson on the Vasciilar System existencé of gills in ‘a rudimentary ‘state, is indicated bythe structure of the pharynx and ‘surrounding’ parts)’ In'the’early periods of dev clopment, the distribution of the arteries especially, ‘which take their origin from thé bulb of the:aorta, bears‘a stri- king’ tesémblance to the primitive ‘simple ‘state in’ which “thése ‘vesséls have been observed to’ exist in fishes and batrachia before ‘their gills‘até formed.” ‘Inthe’ embryo'of the Lacertaagilis, while’ the cavities of the heart! are’ yet'single; Baer has’obsetved that the’ aorta is divided into ive pairs of vascular archés, which, after winding round the ‘sides of the pharynx, ‘reunite ~withtonhe another above it to form the descending aorta: Baer and Rathke have also observed, that while these subdivisions of ‘the aortas— which may very properly be called branchial arteries—exist,jthe sides of the ‘pharynx “are penetrated by transverse: fissuresyion each side of which runs one of the vessels:rising from the bulbwof the aorta. .. The same appearances | have been observed by Baer in the foetus of the Coluber sega at a a correopoaaen period uf its development. "°° ©" 19. Ids. 108 ‘In these animals, however; ‘the’ esioodlons pitas of the neck, and ‘the! branchial arteries passing along them, do) not-undergo farther subdivision, or become more fully developed; likerthe gills of fishes or batrachia ; on the contrary, the plates are:gradually incorporated with the parietes of the pharynx, the aperturesmre entirely closed, and the vascular arches: are convertedy:by»the 'Obliteration of some’ parts and the enlargement of othersy into ‘the arteries, which, in the adult animal, take _ aig hie the right and left ventricles’or cells of the heart. 0° 4 90) «- ’ Unfortunately, the manner in which the fadelnee! develdpastint of these parts'takes ‘place ‘has ‘not been observed, owing:to the difficulty of procuring ‘the ova of the saurian/and ophidian’ rep- tilés at many different’ stages ‘of foetal life: Fromothe many varieties in the distribution of the arteries risme from theheart in these reptiles, it appears probable that this would provea very interesting’ stibject for mvestigation’;: and- it: nay be»remarked, that ‘no animals are bettér suited for observation, fronrthe length of time that the blood continues’ fe it the foetus aftet?it has been taken from'the’ovum. | 2nolssv19ed0 ont Tedd Sint Two of the branchial arches appear’ to eel permanent in ‘order to fori the tight ‘and left ‘roots“of the’ aorta’ in thesadult inthe Factus of Vertebrated Animals. 955 lizard and tortoise. The anterior parts only. of three other. pairs . of branchial arches, also remain to.convey.blood into, the essatil _subclavian and pulmonary. arteries (See. Fig..19), ..... 3 The development of the lungs has, been little attended, to, in 7 a higher reptiles... In lizards.and tortoises the lungs are double, and. the, pulmonary arteries.are derived from the pulmonary arch _on-each-side (See Kig..19)...In,serpents, on the other, hand, the lungs, aswell asthe pulmonary artery, are generally single ; but. _in.the Anguis fragilis, in-the adult of which the lungs are double, Rathke has observed, that in the foetus they are at first, single ; they consist. of -a mass.of dense, gelatinous substance, in which a _cayity is. gradually formed ; in this animal the left.is gradually separated from: the right lung in the progress of development, and: the cavities of the two lungs continue to communicate freely with one dnother.for,some: time. no aiwr Heise tolabiaal “Development of the Respiratory Organs i in Birds. For the development of the ova of birds,. the application, of external heat, as well-as.the direct. agency of air, is. required, anda respiratory change of the blood of the foetus, comparatively as) extensive as that in the adult bird, seems to be necessary. This ichange is produced by means of the same membranes, viz. the-sac of the yolk and: allantois, as those on which the, blood. of the: foetal. lizard. is exposed, and though these parts are consider- ably more developed in birds, their relations, as well as,the,mode in’ Which: they are:supplied with vessels, are nearly the same as in the higher reptiles.) But the facts relative to the structure of these, membranes appear. to. be so, well, known, as,,to,render it unnecessary for me to-enter into any.detailed,account of them.. _»*While the respiration of the foetal bird is almost, entirely car- ried on by. the membranes of .the. yolk, ,and:allantois, the struc- ture of the parietes.of the neck and, pharynx, as well as of the adjoining arteries, exhibits certain, traces of branchiz similar to those already alluded. to in the.embryo ofthe lizard.,, These ap- ' pearances were first discovered by Rathke, and an account of them was published by him jin the Isis, in,1825 5, it is since this time that the observations of this author haye been extended, and the same appearances) discovered, in. the lizards, serpents, and mammalia by himself, and, by ,Huschke,, Baer and, others ;, by = 256° Dr Alléi'fhomson on the Vascular System “ which'a'series of analogies of the most interesting nature has been” established between air-breathing animals, and ‘those which ‘ares aquatic ‘during the whole or some part of their existence *.: 1 ‘rom the'manner in which’ the rudimentary intestinal edad is formed, °it has been shewn ‘that the anterior and ‘posterior! parts'of the’ intestine constitute‘at first-two shut’ ‘sacs, into which’ thd only entrance is bya large opening in ‘the middle between! them, by ‘which they communicate with the sac°of theyolkjo Neither mouth nor anus, therefore; at first exist; but both these: apertures are afterwards formed by a wastingaway or absorption’ of the substance of the germinal membrane; at the two‘extremivi ties of the rudimentary intestine.” The opening of the mouth (Fig: 21, e) appears towards the end of ‘the second day of*ins cubation, some days’ before that of the anus’ is’ perforatedy The mouth, or anterior opening “into the | intestinal! ‘canaly has‘at first the appearance of a transverse’ slit, or cleft, on the lower ‘part of the head! On’ the third day," the part of the in= testife into’ which’ this opening ‘leads becomes wider’ anteriorly, andassumes the form of a cone, the apex of which is directed) towards the’ tail of the embryo. The walls of this ‘eavity;:whicly corresponds 'in many respects with the branchial cavity of cartix laginous fishes, and with part of what is afterwards converted into the pharynx of the'bird, become thicker andof a firmer consistence at the same period. Towards the end of the’ third day six clefts; or transverse slits, make their appearance behind the mouth, three on ‘each side of the intestine. The foremost pair of ‘these clefts appears first, and the’second and third after it gradually. The walbof the’ pharyngeal cavity projects slightly at the parts ‘bes tween the clefts on each’ side; it is hereof a ‘firmer consistence — than elsewhere, and has the appearance of being formed of trans: verse bands, united anteriorly on the mesial line, like the branchial ‘@' gée'tne Memoirs’ of ‘Rathke in the Répert. Génér- d’Anat. et de Physiol, tom. vii., in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1830; andin the Isis, 1825, No. 6, and 1828, No.1; those of Huschke in the Isis, 1827, Nov 1; and) 1828, No. 2; and those of Baer'in Meckel’s Archiv. vol. ii, No, 4,;.and in Breschet’s Repertoire; 1829 ; also Baer, de ovi mammalium et hominis engesi Episfola. : ) 300) ont ¢ IE % The ‘opening alluded to. can n scarcely with, “correctness be called ie taduth’ ‘at this period, this cavity being afterwards formed before it, by | _ SiOWwth UF the superior dnd Wnferior maxillées 07) OVS O bitones in the Fatus.of Vertebrated Animals. — 257. hoops of the foetus of the batrachiaor of ane before the leaflets of the’ gills are formed. ret The aorta, in the: mean. salen hepa to divides itself into vessels which correspond’ with branchial vascular arches. © At the end of the second day, the aorta rising from the bulb be- hindi the pharyngeal portion of the intestine, runs forward along. the-middle and. lower part of this cavity, till it approaches the opéning of the mouth ; here it divides into two branches, which: separating from one another, proceed round the sides of the-in- testine close to the angle of the opening of the mouth, and. join. again near the.vertebral column to form the descending aorta, - During the first half.of the third day, a second pair of vascu ar arches is formed behind the first, which encompasses the pharynx ina similar manner, and towards the end of the third day, two other pairs of vascular arches being formed, the anterior part of the intestine is surrounded. by four pairs of vascular arches, rising successively from the aorta on the lower side, and joining into the two roots of the aorta on the upper side of the intestine. On the third day, according to Baer, the foremost of these pairs of vessels which may be called branchial, the one first produced is the largest, and makes the widest sweep ; the fourth, or pees per is-very small and scarcely perceptible. _ oo ach,of these vascular arches, in winding round the side of the china passes along one of the parts which correspond to the branchial hoops; so that each of the three-clefts or apertures on each side of the pharynx is situated between two of the vascular arches. _ At the end of the third and beginning of the fourth — day, all, the arches, and more especially the fourth, become larger and fuller of blood, and, at the same time, the branchial hoops become thicker, and the apertures between them. wider; but.in the course of this day the first vascular arch, having at- tained its full size, soon begins to be less visible, both on account of its, own diminution or partial obliteration, and. of the enlarge- ment and increased opacity of the branchial hoop along which it’ passes. ‘Towards the end of the fourth day, this arch is wholly obliterated, and no longer allows of the passage of blood into the root of the descending aorta. A vessel proceeding to the head and neighbouring parts, which afterwards becomes the carotid, has, however, taken its origin from its most anterior part, 258 Dr Allen}Thomson.on the Vascular System into; which the'blood jis:still propelled fromthe bulb of the aorta Bers the communicating vessel of the second arch.(Fig..30).. »o While: the-first pair of vascular arches,is obliterated, ..a;fifth ; sir isiformed behind. the four which previously existed, .pro- yeeeding in the same manner from the ascending to the aorta. At the same time, the first branchial.aperture, situated “between the:firstiand second vascular arches, is graduallysclosed, and: a fourth appears between the fourth and fifth arches..../Thus theresexist:in. the:neck ofthe. embryo of. the-chick five yvaseular arches and. four branchial.clefts, corresponding with, the appear- ances,in the: neck. of the salamander and fish, and, the, analogy between these animals and the foetal chick before referred: to,be- comes apparent. (Fig. 20, m. 0). Rathke. has.,obseryed,;,that the. distribution: of the arteries, as, well,as the structure of the branchial hoops,, in the. feetus, of the, Blennius vivip., resemble almost. exactly, those in..the chick on; the fourth and fifth days. Baer remarks, that he has never,.seen more. than, four vascular arches co-existent, in the embryo of the chick... In.the embryo of the duck of four days and a half, I have observed four,aper- tures co-existing, and four vascular arches very apparent; from which it appears probable that a fifth also,existed,, though not easily seen from the small quantity of blood it,contained. ., . » On, the fourth day, the second arch also becomes . less,.and the fifth day, is, wholly obliterated, while the third, ‘calamaan now become stronger... Towards. the end of the fifth; day, (See Fig. 22, 0), the three remaining clefts on each side of. the, pha- rynx, become, gradually. Jess, perceptible, and are, soon closed; by the union of the integuments on each side of the.cleft,... Thean- terion clefts remain open longer than the posterior, and while.they are closed on the outside, they are still visible on. the inside,of the pharynx, in the form.of, small cavities opening into, it) (Fig. 23). The:third arch, now the most, anterior of those remaining, forms the brachial. arteries. .The,vessels, of the anterior,extre- mities spring from the. place where the third yascular arch joins the root of the aorta (Hig. 30,2), "They, may.be-perceived. with ease on the eighth day, and after this period, the branch (z)..by which the third arch joins the fourth in the root of the. aorta shrinks and gradually, becomes smaller, till it t entirely disappears before the 13th or 14th day. sat which:time:the whole ofthe blood in the Foetus of Vertebrated' Animals: 259 sent through the anterior branches from’the bulbof the aorta, is carried to’ the carotid atid: brachialarteries exclusively, and: no Jonger reaches the'root of the aorta. ‘There now remain, there’ fore, only four vascular ‘arches, viz. the fourth and fifth pairs (pr), from which: AR trunks of thea aorta and eeeneaadl> —— are formed, ': i eUs oi 1108 --Tt has already been ale ‘that, seid fife aad the ‘septum “ef the ventricles is’completed, and separates ‘entirely the: right ‘from ‘the left arterial cavity of the heart. These cavities daring “their contraction propel their contents into the bulb of the:aorta, ‘which’ remains a single cavity for some time after the ventricles ~are distinct. Towards the end of the fifth or beginning of the ‘sixth day, according to Baer, the bulb of the aorta becomes flat- tened, and the opposite sides of the tube adhere together along the central part, so ‘as to separate it into two vessels,’ situated side by side, and enclosed’ within the same sheath.» The vessel situated on the left side, becoming ‘considerably shorter, after- wards forms the’ root of the pulmonary arteries; that ‘onthe ‘right side forms the commencement of the aorta. | As'these ves- ‘sels join their respective ventricles, they Psa to. — ‘or'to be twisted round one another. Le As development proceeds, the root ‘of the aorta ts more‘com. ‘pletely: separated from that of the pulmonary artery, “and’a re- ‘markable change, at the same time, takes place in the ‘direction of the blood through the vessels into which’ they leade« The blood, propelled by the contraction of the left ventricle through the aortic root (R), instead _of going as before'into‘all the’ vas- cular branches rising on the fore part of the ‘neck, now passes only into the fourth vascular arch‘on the right side, and the two artetiz: innominate which arise from ‘it’ (¢ w, 7's); while the blood from the right ventricle is'sent’ through ‘the: pulmonary root’ (P)’ exclusively into ‘the fourth arch-on ‘the’ left-side, and the two fifth or posterior arches (p. p)'*. The fourth ‘arch now becomes gradually larger, and becomes’ the ‘freest'mode of communication between the ascending ‘and descending aorte it forms, in fact, the proper arch of the aorta.” Inthe meat time, _* Baer explains this change by. supposing ‘that, when the 1 roots of the fui. monary artery and aorta are separated, the blvod’ rere a nid heer and is thus driven into their respective vessels.) (J) | yi0isd 260... Dr Allen Thomson on the Vascular System aie a RG qj the fifth mdi on. Abie left..side becomes. less gradually carries a smaller quantity of blood,.and soon after the separation of the aortic and pulmonary roots is. entirely obliterated. Three arches ouly, therefore, now remain, viz, the fourth on the right side or, the:trunk ofthe aorta itself, its corresponding arch on the. left side,,and the fifth on the right, the two last of which soon after ; give;rise to the pulmonary arteries. of Uhr o» On the fifth.and. sixth days, the parictes.of the income 5 branchial cavity of the chick. also undergo a transformation. , Ag- cording to Rathke, the part intervening between the mouth.and the first. pair of branchial apertures becomes thicker and firmers and is divided by a transverse groove into two. portions, (Figs, 24 and, 25.) ‘The anterior of these (s), bulging out at the sides, forms by its farther development the inferior maxilla ; _ the pos- terior (4), smooth and projecting less, gives rise toa pendulous fold which overlaps. the first.branchial, slit, ;and which, this au- thor, compares’ to-the operculum. of fishes,*. When the. branchi- al. apertures have closed, the neck. begins to become much long: and narrower in proportion to the head and_body.of. the chick. The part immediately before the opercular covering, or between it and |the maxilla infer., seems especially to be expanded in pro~ ducing this elongation; while the opercular covering itself, and the part in which the posterior branchial apertures were situated, remain, adhering. to the fore part of the thorax. At. the same time, the carotid. arteries are lengthened out, and the other vas, eular arches in the fore part.of the thorax become straighter, and assume. more nearly the position er afterwards have in, the adult bird (Fig. 31, t, 75,8, p). tna ee: While these changes take ‘place, 1 in the branchial. aa vascular.arches, the Lungs. begin. to be formed, , The rudiments of these organs-may, be, perceived.as early, as.on the fourth day, The researches, of,,Rathke +,have shown that the lungs and,air ® Fyom the drawitigs which Rathke has given of the fvetal:fish;) there can be no doubt.of the correctness,,of} this. comparison ;, but; bei neers FERS omitted to ;obserye, that, before. the, formation of the, efeorr a4 Bit 7 me foetus of the chick, the most anterior branchial aperture is clo Hid OF VTER: “yo dati Bot e Sur i Developpement dee Organes Respiratoires, in Breschet’ s J per, toire d’Anat. et de Physiol. 5 and translated i in Edinburgh Medical an d' Sur- gical Journal, Jan. 1830. online oA? Deted a in the Fi actus of Vertebrated Animals. 261 passages are developed on the anterior side of the cesophagus, but ‘they tender it improbable that these organs are’ produced, as some’ have supposed; like a processor diverticulum of the intestinal canal. “According to Rathke, the‘lungs are formed:a short time before’ the’ trachea’ or ‘bronchi; ‘they consist, on the fourth and fifth days,’ of 'two'small mucus-like masses’ (Fig: 26, A. B.)'situated above the pericardium, and before the stomach. The trachea and bronchi (/’) appear ‘at first like’a thickening of thelower side of the cesdphagus: the trachea is'lat'first so short,’ proportionally to’ the bronchi, as to be scarcely perceptible. Othe fifth day these’ parts are increased in sizé (Fig) 27), and have become more distinct, but’ they are as yet quite solid; and without any internal cavity. “On the sixth day, the'tracheais — elongated proportionally to the’ bronchi; and a ‘cavity is evident in‘ the interior of the limgs:' This cavity, however;-is confined to the posterior and “lower part/of the Jungs only; and’Rathke has shown that this part (Fig. 28, 1) shlériaede ‘becomes the cellular part of the respiratory organs of the birds: \ ‘The ante- rior part (L), corresponding to the bronchial’ part of thedung; ‘still remains quite solid. On the seventh day;'the cavityin the cellular part of ‘the Jung’ is increased, and» the trachea ‘and bronchi are become quite hollow; minute’ air-tubes ‘radiating fiém the extremities of the bronchi, at the’same time; appear in the anterior solid part. After this period the whole lung'grows rapidly, and approaching the vertebral column and ribs, becomes firmly united to these parts. The bronchial part of the lung re- mains closely united’ with the air-saes till the 12th day (Fig. 29); when the vesicular part begins to increase with’ great ‘rapidity, and envelopes all the viscera of\ the ‘chest and- prmernaees a few days ‘before the chick comes out of theeges 6 9 eo ~The communication of these air-sacs “with the’ trancant is ‘not established till some days after the end of incubation.’ “Each of the lungs, shortly after its’ formation, ‘receives’ an arterial branch from the pulmonary:arches (the fourth left and the fifth right branchial arches), (Fig:30,°p). »These branches gradually become larger as the lungs aré developed’; but as the blood which they carry to the lungs is returned to the left auricle by. proper veins, the parts of the: arches leading into the aofta behind the pulmonary arteries gradually ernie less. These 262 Dr Allen'Phomson' on the Vaserlar System communicating! vessels (Figs) 29, 30 and’'81;'p p' 9), forming’ the ducetis botalli of the bird, still retain a’ considerablesize, ‘till ’ the period’ when’ the inspiration of air into the’ lungs takes place, when “thé “whole ‘of the blood ‘enteriig’ the —pulmonary” arches ’ frotiP the right ventricle, is carried into the pulmonary arteries; and’ the ‘branches ne with the arti are entirely obliterated *: avid: dieing aT ¥unoge 8 23.4 189! dice ‘Depelopment of, the Respiratory Ores inthe Fagus GHasrg Mammalia... wrt de. 3 1d di a0 As the ova of mammiferous animals. anentiocyitantapnls the-uterus, the blood of :the foetus is supplied with air.entirely» through themedium of ‘the parent, and: the: respiratory'change': which it undergoes is comparatively much ‘less perfect: in» these! animals than in birds. » During’ the earlier periods of ‘foetal its left side towards thevyolkx; The ‘intestine of the foetus: necessarily’ communicates with the yolkusac,as‘bothothese parts: are‘ formed:by folds of :the same: layers; and the vascular network of the yolk is formed as instheis chick, by the‘omphalo-mesenteric: arteries and. veins.’ ‘oii of The yolk-sac differs:very much: in its relations in the different: families of. the, order, Mammalia}. . In the common ruminating... See! ‘Baer’s Entwitkelunigsgeschichte ds der Thiére,’ ‘and the ‘Rep . Genétale, baht. Vill: q i DUK us me b VETOED A & isxod Mi ree gusjou, Bins * See: Introductiomto ‘this Essay.:See'Baer de OviMammalium et) Ho6- minis genesi=Cuvier' aiid Diitrochet in Mémoires; dui Museum,>vol. iis | in the Fotus.of Vertebrated. Animals... 263 animals, ‘such as the sheep, or‘eowsand also in the pig and. horse, . the:-yolk ceases to increase at a very ‘early, period; the partiby. which it communicates with the intestine is lengthened out, and the sac of the yolk, collapsed sand empty,*remains. hanging for some. time from ‘the funis of the umbilicus, .attached..by.along. and.narrow cord. to a.projecting fold of intestine (Fig..82, i y). . The yolk at this period has generally received the :name; of. Umbilical Vesicle ; it still retains a yellowish colour, a spongy granular consistence, and the ramifications of vessels ‘are visible on it till it at length disappears. ° > Emearnivorous animals the umbilical vesicle, or sacof the'yolk, resembles," more ‘than in any others that “have been:examined, © the-sac'of the -yolk:m: birds. “In the cat it is filled:with asub- stance of'a dark. yellow colour. vesicle;:is very small-and globular, and: disappears:shortly»after « theend of the second: month. But im the rodentiayas:in the rabbit» or hare, the umbilical vesicle is highly developed,-and the: bloods». vessels.distributed on it comparatively numerous and large: At first this: vesicle resembles much the yolk-sac of birds (Fig.:3.4), but-in the later’ stages of development,’ itis expanded ‘so as:to\- form a vascular covering oyer nearly all the parts of the ovum. “The Allantoid Membrane, or expanded portion:of the urinary _ bladder, ‘becomes developed in the foetus of mammalia,«in «the » same: manner as in that of lizards, serpents, and birds: «The umbilical vessels are ramified on: it, and for some time after its PAR LSI ‘it “ge ‘the. same: eseatiocie as in 088 | animals. ¢« > asl In ruminating atid snilepAianlabesiie niall eckich bie um- | bilical: vesicle: is small, the allantois 1s very: highly developed. and Bthme?t’ in ‘Réil’s Atchiv., B. x. h- 3. Blumehbach’ and’ Cartis’ Comp. s! Anat.—Dutrochet in yol. viii.of the Mémoires de la Soe. Méd. d’Emulation.; and Bojanus in Meckel’s Archiv. B. iy., and in Nov. Act. Phys. Med. tom. x, _, * ‘See the description of the membranes in‘the!human /embryo,; inothé Traité dAccoucheméns by Velpeau. « Paris; 1829) > Volediv p230ecne9 einin 264 Dr. Allen Thomson on the Vascular System In the horse, pig, cow and sheep, its growth is very rapid imme- diately after its first appearance ; it fills the whole of the cornua of the uterus, or of the compartment which each ovum occupies (Fig. 32, z 2’). Itconsists of two layers, the external being most vascular, and is filled with a transparent and sometimes gelatin- ous substance. th In the cat and dog, again, the allantois cuiticina’ the foetus in its amnios, and the yolk, much in the same way asin the eggs of birds (Fig. 33), leaving the yolk free on one ince rai: ever, during a considerable part of foetal life. In the Redcanias the umbilical vesicle is so much develonad; that it appears to have taken the place of the allantois; this lat- ter membrane is proportionally much less extended; it re- tains its vesicular form for a considerable time, and is enclosed - between the folds of the umbilical vesicle (Fig. 34). The outer layer of the allantois, from its forming a lining to the envelope of the ovum, has been called Endochorion: The umbilical vessels are ramified principally on this part of the allantois, and being brought near into contact with the arte- rial vessels distributed on the lining of the uterus, the respi- ratory change of the’ blood in the umbilical arteries is thus for some time performed. | Very soon, however, after the allantois has expanded, so as to fill the cavity of the uterus, or of the different compartments occupied by the ova, and comes into contact with its parietes, the Placenta, or principal respiratory organ of the foetal:mam- miferous animal begins to be formed. The structure of this part may be most easily examined in the ova of ruminating animals, as in the cow. In this animal, when the vascular or external layer of the allantois lines the chorion, the extremities of the umbilical vessels ramified on the allantois, leave that membrane at particular parts, and join the chorion. This latter membrane then becomes uneven at the places where these vessels join it ; and as development proceeds, numerous little processes (Fig. 82, B) project from its external surface, upon which the capillary vessels of the umbilical arteries are minutely ramified. These processes gradually. prolong themselves outwards, and carry along with them. the umbilical vessels, which gradually become : 1 " in the Foetus of Vertebrated Animals. ~ 265. larger and more numerous *. At the same time, the projections’ situated on the inner membrane of the uterus, corresponding: in position and form with those on the chorion of the ovum, be- come enlarged ; into these processes of the uterus the projecting parts of the chorion are gradually inserted. ‘These placental processes of the mother are also very vascular, so that the umbi- lical arteries of the foetus carrying venous blood, are brought. into contact with those carrying the arterial blood of the uterus, : by the influence of which the necessary change or arterialization: - seems to be effected +. . After a little more than a sixth of the time of uterine gesta-' tion has elapsed, at which period the foetus of the mammi- ferous animal corresponds in its structure to the chick in ovo! en the third and fourth days, rudiments of a branchial appara tus, analogous to those already alluded to in the higher reptiles and in birds, are to be found. We are indebted chiefly to: Rathke, Baer, and Burdach for the discovery and elucidation of these interesting facts. The observations of these authors: have principally been made on the embryoes of the cow, pig,’ sheep, dog, rabbit, and of the human species, and the appear-’ ances they have observed in all of these animals have been so* similar, as to warrant the conclusion, that they are common to all or most of the mammiferous families. The general features” in the structure of the neck and pharynx, which assimilate the: embryo of the mammiferous animal to that of the aquatic ani- mal in the early stages of their development, are the same as those already mentioned in birds. ‘They consist in the> shortness and thickness of the neck, the width of the pharyn-* geal portion of the intestine, the penetration of its sides by’ clefts, and the subdivision of the aorta into vessels corresponding in number and distribution with the primitive branchial arteries. : «Four openings on each side of the cesophagus have been ‘ observed in the embryo of the dog, between three and four : “® See a paper by Sir E. Home, Phil. Trans. ‘vol. exii. ; and Burdach’s Physiol., B. ii. S. 534. . + For an account of the varieties of the form and nature of the placket in > different classes of animals; see another paper by Sir E. Home in the Phil, ’ Trans.—Carus’ Comparative Anatomy, 2d vol.—Jeffray de Placenta, &c, JANUARY—MARCH 1831. s 266 Dr Allen’ Thomson on the Vascular System : weeks old *;'Gn that of the sheep of three weeks >of: thexpig’ at three weeks (Fig. 9. part I. and Fig. 37.), and-of the rabbit: onthe’ twelfth day; “and in’ the» human-embryovof:six, weeks (Fig. $6.):“in\ the embryo of ‘the dog,some little: time before: that“ méntioned’ above, only three apertures: are-founds oThep bacéal opening ‘situated: anteriorly ‘to’ ther branchialiclefts;:the: inferior tnaxilla, the hyoid bone, and the opercular fold of>intes guments, which closes’ the ‘anterior: clefts; are developediin thé: same matiner asin the bird: While:three pairs: of) clefts! exist; in the’sides of the pharynx, there are in the dog (Pig. 35.'m);as» in’ the chick, only four pairs of vascular arches; -but before the: first of these becomes obliterated, a posterior|.or fifth:pairids: produced, while, at the same: time, ‘the fourth: branchial clefts) formed; so that in the mammiferous animal five pairs of vaseu- lar'arehes, and four ‘pairs of ‘clefts, exist’ for some tigen neously it the sides of the neck ti) 5s say 2 LB ~& few days after the appearance of the fifth valid the neck: - begins to elongate, the apertures are closed gradually on the outs: side, and the lower jaw becomes more developed ;) while) the; vascular arches undergo those changes by which the permanent» arterial branches, arising from the heart, are formed. /i:e9 » iris The first and. third pair of vascular arches. form: the carotid _ andsubelavian arteries in’ Mammalia (Fig. 39. ¢, w), as in birdsyy and, the’ second: pair seems to be wholly obliterated, or at least! gives only a small branch ; im-mammalia, however, the arch ofy the.aorta, or permanent communicating vessel between: thes as cending and descending aorta, is formed from the fourth branchiaks: areh on ‘the left side (7) of the cesophagus ;:so that the order dim: which the vessels of the head and superior extremities arise dg ) “# See Fig. $5. the head of the ftetal dog represented by Bact, and given iii” the first part of the’ Essay, which I ‘have again inserted; in’ order! that this interesting: point of structure may ts brought. SAN a” ssn. ; eyes of the reader,,,, lou hi ‘xo tornsias’ Das ches +. The,vascular ihe of senempiion are ndehctibed by, Rathke and,Baer in, the “eo jl number, of embryoes i in which they have. been. me apa) tubes ; but, in one instance, the latter author observed, tts hier mee conta Whine UP eb! watbslitas a aitother small vessel, 0 ‘he bays,” “« je n'ai pas pu saisir Jes rapports.” Couldthis have been the latetal vessel which, in the er off bonabiobmcnie ys Keteesv iil faniuot, he 52 abe hea 4 Ninth Feetuscof Vertebrated;Aniriats.s 28% réversed ; the rightinnoniliniata taking its origin before, FORM of thedeft ‘side *:. fT ore has .T F728 ef ie oft) 3 rit 45 e#Phe pulnionary |vessels;appear to bb given, off by the feptt tl. | archion the! right! and>-thefifth ‘orf the-left side! (p/p), the fifth » onthe right Being wholly obliterated; ' Whiley however; the,caro- tid! and ibranchidlvarteries: become developed. from. the,anterior. arches}thépulthonary. archés:do-not! continue. to, carry -blood.to: the!root of: the-dorta; as’takes. place:in those-of|-the: birde:n'Eheo parts by!which these arelies comthnunicate with ‘the -root.of the» descénditig aorta (forming: in» birds! the ductus. botalli), become,; erddually obliterated, so that-of all the-five ipairs, of ,wascular,; arches‘in'the embryo of the mammiferotus animal,/only one, the? fourthoof the left side, remains: prominento:! te sith Asouhorg -JWhilethese:chan ges take-placé: im the: ulti arches, the} bulb of the aortay from’ thersingle cavity of which the pulmona~ ry and systemic vessels arise for‘soéme timéoin ‘common, is: dis vided, so'as to-form’ the rdots-of the aorta’ proper and pulmo- naty arteries. According to Meckel+; the septum. which has ses’ parated ‘the: left; ventricle:entirely from the right, appears to be « continued: onwards into the bulb of the aorta, and thus separates. this cavity longitudinally: into: two:compartments. > ~The’ divis. sioticof ‘the bulb is,»showever, imperfect for a time; it advances gradually from the’ ‘part. fiext' the ventricle to that: from whieh » the:vascular arches*rise; sd that, while the posterior partis dis «: vided; the anterior. yet: Femains single, a communication :being » lefts at:'this part between the aortic and pulmonary roots, which: adimitsrof ‘the: passage of ‘the-blood from the right) ventricle» inito :thes aorta; when. the pulmonary arches. are: obliterated»: (Bige'$9A).:0 When the division of the aortic bulb has just-taby ken, place, the, arch and descending, part of the aorta appear to be.# continuation’of the pulmonary rather. than. of, the. aortic; root, the: latter appearing’ to’ lead’ only “ito: the vessels: of: the” head and anterior extremities. The ductus arteriost’ Yematis” for sottie tintey' as at first, short ‘and wide, “and” has ‘the appeat- Deifig’att ti A A of domithanieation ‘between, or a dete pis in, the paricte tes of ‘the juxtaposed d tubes 5, 5, it afte erwatds be. : comes, lengthened. gut, and narrowed; and. appears. dusing. Fa short. wT pAaS thie Tete stihominata Comes “off Tron! the dovtalarst: 98 ON “+ Meckel’s Archiv. B. ii. h. 3; and Journal Complémentairé, fed i, s 2 268 Dr Allen\Thomson ‘on the Vascular System period: to:pass from the aorta’ to the: pulmonary root aid aoita continuous with: it';cbut about the: tenth week’ in the hunian' ‘em. bryos this:parvis dilated, and/forms' a ‘more direct corimtiniea- tion’ between; the ascending andthe descending” aorta, and ‘the ductus botalli‘is now Pensmeed by another ‘part; ‘viz.’ the aad! ad the pulmonary root leading into the arch of the aorta (Fig. ot Dhedungs of «mammiferous ‘animals ‘are developed anda the ‘same manner ’as those of birds,-at least in the: earlier’ stages of their:growth. ‘They do not appear to be visible before’ the period when the branchial apertures begin to close. According to Rathke both lungs are simultaneously produced ; they form at: first-one'mass, which is’ soon divided into the +udiments of the right and left lung by a longitudinal groove’ (Figs. 40, 41, 42,°L). The apertures or tubes of the bronchi and trachea seem to begin in the same way as in birds ; but the cellular part — of the lesie does not become ‘so ‘highly developed as in’ thems and is intimately united with the bronchial tubes: throughout the whole lung: (See the: figures taken from Rathke). "As the ‘lungs become larger, ‘they receive vessels from the pulmonary ‘arches, which gradually enlarging as the faitus becomes’ ‘dé. veloped; divert the stream of’ blood from the arterial duct of the aorta, ‘This latter opening’ now diminishes in size, and, at birth, when the efflux of blood to ete mia is suddenly, seep itis i up. 13X92 ‘bos. »» Having now given a short sketch of the petiekal a 4tiabidiens which manifest themselves during the development of ‘the ‘rudi- mentary organs: in the embryo of vertebrated animals)’ ‘and ha- ving |\traced)in- detail the progress of the heart, bloodvessels, and respiratory organs, during their formation and early growth, it«may be propery in conclusion, to ‘recapitulate ‘the’ more T2- markable facts, or general principles, relating’ to’ these stibjeets, which the puaaemthe that. aye al gegatc under review 4 ito: establish. - x3 234, to eggsia ylise odd, ads. Beninctite nbisrorasiandaachblch iad give it i cortege. ment of the Essay; of the formation or’ origi ih PHe earliest stages of -fcetal development, it-¢anfiot a4 apparent that, whatever’ opinion iis‘ formed: respecting the lataie bE germ, or speck round which’ the commencing parts of the em ao 0 the Fetus of Vertebrated: Animals. | 269 Aryo appear, to arrange themselves, there.is nothing:im the ap- ‘pearance or structure,of the germinating spot, so far at least:as has been, ascertained by the accurate investigations of the most eminent physiologists, which’ assimilates any of its parts to’ those -of the. foetus or, perfect animal, the formation of which it precedes. We seem entitled, therefore,| in. the present state of our :know- ledge, to regard these germs as. wholly. ‘invisible—perhaps étitire- Ay imaginary, since their existence is only inferred. cen ae sagan which occur during the development of the embryos) ‘co II. We have had an opportunity also of observing how very ‘different the parts.of the embryo are on their first appearance in the ovum, from thuse. parts which they represent, and into which they are transformed at a later stage of foetal life, or after birth ; and we have seen. how wi the pays cos is — which this transition is effected. - ILL. From the important tails wibiek thie sisahiigh side circu Jating organs occupy in the perfectly formed animal, many have believed that the formation of the brain and-heart precedes that of all other parts ; but it has been shown that, though these are among, the organs which appear: to. be most. highly developed or perfected soonest, ‘yet before,'the commencement of their for- ‘mation, and certainly. before any parts, which may. with justice ‘ be compared, in function or.structure, to, these. organs, are pro= duced, the substance is deposited from which the head, housils and extremities are formed. _-_- .»,-'Lhe heart has.also'been Jesmond to aren its origin in ete: ‘one of some. influence derived from the brain and ‘spinal’ cord,; and many have imagined that: the development ‘ofthe’ greater, number of organs inthe body, follows:necessarily ‘the: presence of..the heart, or of certain: bloodvessels ;-but:the phe-> nomena of the development of these parts:appear:to prove:such: ideas to be.erroneous, and. to, show, that we-are as: yet ignorant: of any particular_influence which the pre-existence.of oné part in the early stages of its advancement exerts on the formation ve » 270 — Dr “Alle "hiotiison’da' she Vuseillarisyatem “TV. "The “general reseriblande “whielr the: changes of det velopment in' the ova or foetuses of véertebrated' animals’ bear to one ‘another, is very striking’; it illustrates’ the’analogy (of struct — ture in the different animals of this class when arrived.-atctheiv state of maturity, ‘and seems: to’ indicate very clearly; thatithé general*plati ‘upon which ‘their systems and organs are:construct ed anid atranged is the'samé. °This correspondence, indecdy in the relations of organs ‘to one another; and similarity which enters it is:propelled througha singlevessel.’ 8th; In lizards, serpents, and turtles, while the same’ or analogous changes ‘take place in the general structure of the heart, in the'streneth’ and thickness of its parietes, or in the relative position of its parts, the _ ‘cavities of this organ are more or less completely divided;'so as to ' separate the blood which passes through it into more’ than’one stream ;: the auricle being divided by the formation of a‘ sep- ~ tum advancing from above downwards, the ventricle, by‘a_parti- tion which rises from the apex towards the base. 9th, The heart » of birds:and:mammalia is seen to undergo the same subdivision, - and the right and left cavities: communicate for‘some periéd of _ foetal life with one another; but, in’ these’ animals, the pattitions — by. whichtheauricles and ventricles are separated becomé!¢om- plete, and’no ‘longer leave any opening from the cavities 6n’one » usideof the heart into those of the other.: 10th; In mammalias the growth'of the septum, in the interior of: the ventricle; isaééom- . panied»by the formation of a*noteh ‘or constriction on ‘the outs side, by. which.the apex of ther heart is-rendered-double for a time. llth, At the sametime,in-the higher reptiles, birdsyand 274 Dr Allen Phomsomon theVasculan\System mainmalia; ‘the"bulb of the aorta is also divided, ‘so as toenable— each of the ventricles to communicate’ with’ those vessels only into which'they' propel the blood during’ the whole of lifeio:1od 4 VIEIo We have ‘seen, that; in’ the early’stages of developments thére is‘a uniform disposition of the greater arterial trunks an all*the orders of vertebrated ‘animals, though the distribution of thes¢ vessels is by no nieans the same as that which: exists pers manently. ‘The arteries arising from the bulb of the aorta, and connected with the respiratory organs of the neck, have*beem chiefly ‘referred to, as affording one of the most remarkable exw atiiples Of this uniformity of disposition inthe vessels of the foe- tus, and of’ the variety of transformation which ‘they undergo durmg their conversion into the permanent structure. 9 )6> SLX... We have seen that, in all-vertebrated animals, the anterior intestinal part of the tube is encompassed: by four or five* pairs of arterial vessels, formed by the subdivision of the as# cending aorta, and that these vessels, after passing round: the cesophagus, unite again with one another above this tube, and below the vertebral column, to form the dorsal aorta. = 9 0 OX. It has been ‘seen, that;'in the lower aquatic animals, gills — become developed along the course of parts of ‘these vessels,’ while'in the higher or air-breathing’ atvimals, after being ‘so:dis+ posed as to indicate slightly the appearance of gills, these vessels are gradually converted into’ the systemic and pulmonic arteries by the processes of enlargement, partial obliteration, separationy’ &e.'/'Phough the general phenomena occurring during ‘this’ transformation of the arteries in the neck, are analogous’ in: all ‘wertebrated animals, there are certain remarkable ‘differ’ ences ‘respecting the obliteration of some, ‘and the perma’ nence of others of these vessels, in various species of ‘animalsso — 1.° In cartilaginous’ fishes, all ‘the branchial \ divisions “of: the aorta‘remain permanent to form gills, undergoing very (minute! subdivision ‘in these organs, so as to’ be converted! into brane chial “arteriescand’ eins.) 2. In» osseous ‘fishes, ‘five pairs of! branchial arches are also observed in the foetus, butonly:fourvof: “# Te appeatls probable’ that Thete ‘are ‘five ia’ all’ Vertebrata niinlalgy éxl? cepting the lamprey; ‘myxifies aid’ some others: ‘Baer has endeavoured tom demonstrate this in, his-essay on this! subject an, the 7th vols of the Réperte Gener oi\) ylison .silsiiosor 11.0 cab)108 efit: af. cioinl dov. care ee ee ee oostin the RectuS of Vertebrated Animals. 275 these remain to form the-gills, the anterior being -partly obliter- ated, gives rise to) the roots of: the:carotid or head. artery. |.3/ In batrachia; we-have seen, there is.a\ gradual, transition |from | the structure.of, fishes. to,that. of, the jhigher.reptiles.; .‘Phe igills in the batrachia are; during. some’ period. of. their, existence,, de- veloped along the course, or from.particular parts of | the-brait- chial arches, in‘ which, .as_in;fishes, minutely subdivided, bran chial arteriesiand yeins are formed.;-but these last gradually, dis- appear, and more.or fewer of the primitive, branchial, vessels, re- main. |. @ In; the-batrachia, with permanent, tails,..the.-aorta: is formed, as in,the foetus, by, the. union, of the: whole | four. bran- chial arches on each,side, the pulmonary artery arising from the posterior arch;).6., while in the. batrachia, without tails, .as,in the frog, only one branchial vessel remains on each side, sojas to form, the right and left roots of the aorta; and the pulmonary artery, which in the foetus was given off. from. the posterior. branchial arch, appears to spring from the aortic root itself, in, consequence of the obliteration of.the posterior part of the\arch communicating with, the descending aorta.. 4, We have seen! that. two branchial arches also,remain entire in the saurian and chelonian, reptiles ; -but \in.these, -as well asin all the. other: animals in which the ventricular part, of the heart is more or. less divided inthe progress.of development, the pulmonary arteries. —formed, as in batrachia, by the posterior branchial arch—are separated from the aorta and its branches; each-of these sets of vessels communicating, directly, with its proper ventricular'cavity~: 5x: In. birds, the, second pair of arches, and the fifth,.arch,.of. the tight, side, .are.wholly obliterated without: giving rise, to any, branches. >, The first. and third form the.arteria,innominate,or., carotid and. subclavian arteries on both sides, ‘the comantunicat<. ing ‘branches: between these arches and- the roots of ithe,aonta,? being obliterated at. an: early: period... Thesfourth archon:the; right side alone remains. entirely pervious: during the whole.of- life,-and forms.-theproper trunk of the aorta fromiwhich the., innominate: springs: /The: fourth, arch on-the left, and. the fifth, on_the right,side, united in a common root, give rise to the pul- monary..arteries... .These...arches.. remain peryious. till, birth. 3 forming the! ductus ‘botalli ‘or ‘arterial: ducts:leading from=the! right ventricle into the aorta. 6. In mammalia, nearly the same 276 Dr Allen Thomson on the Vascular System rest. stor "L BANS Tes changes take place whey the transformation! of the anterior are. 6% biit! the aorta is'formed in them’ ‘bythe fourth ‘arch onthe: silté) this’ Vessel descending on the left ‘side’ of the'ce -sopha The fourth arch on the right, and ‘fifth | on the eft side, apy ear td give tise to the’ punisHaly arteries. In the’ ‘mammalia, the diréti's botalli is formed, not'as in birds or lizards,’ by the, pers rhahente of the posterior part of the pulmonary arches, ‘but by a ‘communication which remains in the bulb of the aorta between, thé rots ‘of the pulmonic and systemic trunks *. ‘Thus it is explained how the aorta of birds corresponds with the right root of this vessel in lizards, and that of mammalia with the left the artétia innominata of the left side being first given off in birds, while, | in mapaniiny that on the right springs fret from the aorta. “XI. From these Peon mT: it appears that it, is erroneous to ‘compare the single heart of fishes or batrachia with the right | side or pulmonary cavities of the heart of higher animals. They are similar, it is true, in this respect, that they both ) prow pel the blood ‘into a respiratory organ ; but the relation of the Bills differs widely from that of the lungs to the heart ; and. it it would be more correct to compare the OF heart of fishes with the’ whole heart of the’ higher animals though divided, ons this organ in the early stages of their feetal development. ey RIT Wehave had an opportunity of observing, that as tas as cend in the series of vertebrated animals, the processes Kiiban respiration is carried on ‘in the foetus, become gradua ye aiitlmore ¢omiplicated: 1.’ The ova of fishes are ¢ deposited and dévéloped in the same medium in which the adult animal « conti. nities to” live ¢ ‘ad. in osseous fishes, the blood is exposed t to the. influence ‘of! the respiratory ‘medium on the sac of ‘the | yolk 5 band tadartilaginous fishes both on the yolk sac, ‘and in Babee! r- wal gills?" "the ba! of batrachian reptiles are deposited, an in sf become developed:s in water; while the animal, in its adult sta breathes ai#/° “Lhe blvod in the larva or foetus of aoe anima is artérialized ‘By means of a yolk little’ ‘developed, and yy ex- terial and ‘jriternal gills: andi in ‘the animal arrived af matu me $8818) Zis0 ‘al lant g o 4 hy" aifeatds of” ‘Tut > “anda a large | urinary ‘bladder or allantois. e} 2 1990 2Bfi ifr .2Qa! 1 Of I5G (KI9s356, 11990 10 I9F oe "There i is an esiprcaehy to this form in ‘the structuré of the vessels tin ad fromthe li¢art iv soute of the sfuéian Peptiest? sa ae ae are atl INSTBG SHI TO Yuoo nt nr be olavs pon an the 5 ee oF Vertebrated Animals. wT iis the saurian,, ophidian, a and “enctopian. reptiles, “the oyum: g generally, deposited, in the medium | which the animal pers manently breathes * an. amnios. or_coyering for. the, foetus,jis formed, by» means of which it is ‘kepti immersed i in a fluid, till the. time when it ig enabled to Fespire air 3 SSP HAROR being carried. and allantoid vesicle highly developed. heme of these r reptiles, however, seem to be allied in some respects with, the, batrachie, as in them part, or whole of ‘the allantois remains permanent, in, the adult state. 4 In birds, the. application of a considerable. external heat is necessary to induce. the proper, respiratory alk teration of the blood, which is exposed, as in the previous classy on the yolk and allantois, membranes very highly developed i in birds. In these animals, a very small pedicle only of . the allan= tuis, the urachus, remains in the foetus after birth. 5. In. mam; malia, again, the ovum being. retained in, the bodyzof the mos ther, the respiratory changes are effected by. the intervention of the maternal blood ; and another organ, formed -by,an exten- sion of the. umbilical vessels, i is superadded in mammalia to. the yolk and allantoid, which exist as in birds. This is the pla, centa, ‘by means of which vessels, containing the venous blood of the foetus, are brought closely into contact with: the yessels lining the uterus, and containing blood’ more highly agraed, by. which contact their respiration is effected. Ue XIUL It has also been shewn in the preceding sation that the gills are invariably formed on. processes of the hyoid. bone; which are either permanent, as. in fishes, or exist, only, during the larval state, as in batrachia. . The operculum is developed from the posterior part of the lower jaw, and this part, as. well as the branchiostegous membrane, appears to be: intimately cone nected with the lingual bone: or the: lateral. sppenches of, the hy roid. Aas 5 3m eee “Sq. The obscrvations meted above, seem, ene ae that. the lungs, though they receive their vessels. from branchial; arches, or outa parts, cannot wil accuracy, be - compared, to these late ter organs, as has been attempted. The lungs, i it has been shewn, ie Siti fol J of 6 ; Ls Making exception in ‘these, as well 2s, other Salata, of such: a: become developed in the body of the parent. 278 = Dr Allén’'Phoinson on the Vascular System : are developed ‘on the lower side of the esophagus) but they ‘do not appear to'bé formed by a process or diverticuliin from the’ intestinal tube, as observation shews that they’ are fiét"hollow® when ‘first’*formed, ‘and that a cavity ‘exists “for ‘some tine int theirinterior; without its communicating with the hollow Of the” senadnbe ei. to. sgn vito os in silemersor bas ebsid, to.euten Yo evebi0_toowhih ot ai AGids * 9200 £t _ oer ‘In conclusion, I may state, that, in the preceding pages, ‘I’ havé "endeavoured to’ give as short, and at the same time as ac- cifate, ari account of the subjects treated of as their difficulty,” anil the ‘obscurity which still hangs over many facts connected” with them, have enabled me to do. Ae POaeS, Lee In many parts IT have stated only those of thé facts which ap.” péar'to be most probable, judging of them either from the rela” tions of others to which I havé had access, or by observations which I have myself made in ‘confirmation of them. Tit sélect-” ing the drawings which have been given, I have always chosen to dopiy the delineation of dthers, when T found that they repre. ” setited sufficiently accurately the ‘appeararices related. . : +f i. 3 te ins ef By }! _— 54 ¢ i(tj 4 ' 3k p (Rha 33 2S | ; fr 2 a. 3 | nom Dol ; rag Anti w ‘Since writing the above,I/have ‘had ‘an ‘opportunity of séés* ing;\in the Number of the*Annales des Sciences Naturelles for’ September last, the: fourth memoir by’ M. Serres’on "Transeen-"* dental Anatomy, in which ‘this author treats of the Law of Sym=' © metry and Conjunction in the Vascular system of vertebrated | anintalgeds 40, d1ag-ons ooxt 2 brides bds wuridoliey 2ad.49 i ce A In that-memoir';\M. ‘Serres relates some minute observations’ which he has made on the development of: several parts of *the’’ vastular Jsystem, from which “he: has’ been “led ‘to’ deséribe the origih f ‘some of: the principal: arteries of ‘the body, in a infant” ner different» from: that generally received ‘by those who Have’ written’ om ithis*‘subject, ‘and to form ' the ‘conclusion, that’ alt! single iarteries\>situated in the media plane of the*body, are-at™ first’ double+:that they ‘are'formed' by the wniotiof ‘two’ Vessels, © and: that the * (Dualityof sarteriés tends to Unity’ frori without ™® inwards, by the laws ‘of forthation froiti thie! dirumiféretic® tothe '° centre;or of symmetry and conjunction?” 16 ington T9S9TQ She, vosin the Factus of Vertebrated Animals... 279 » (The) principal..arteries which, M, Serres describes,as formed and united,in;the manner. alluded to are:the Aorta, the Arteria basilaris,and. Arteria callosa. cerebri, and the Umbilical arteries. in. the.funis of .the allantois ;. and he adduces in.support of his conclusion observations on the structure of these arteries in. the foetus of birds and mammalia at an early stage of -its advance- ment, in cases of malformation, and in the different orders of vertebrated_ animals in their adult state. —.. y nha isnes nl In speaking of the formation of the aorta, M, oot, iors to. the observation made by the greater number of those. who have attended minutely to the development of the chick (more espe-. cially by Pander, Beitrige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte,. &c. § 13. pl. viii.), that, towards the 60th hour of incubation, the aorta of the chick consists of two vessels quite separate from. one another, in the abdominal part of the vessel where it belie off the arteries of the vascular area. > At this period, the abdominal part of. the Saher copesisea,: simply of the rudimentary vertebral column inclosing the spinal cord, of the lateral thickened parts of. the serous layer of the, germinal membrane which form the plates of the abdomen, and of the commencing intestinal folds on the lower surface,—~ which parts are situated nearly in the same plane with the hori- zontal part of the, germinal membrane. . About the middle of this part.of the embryo, the two arteries of the vascular area are. seen proceeding from it to. the transparent and vascular areas ; while the aortic branches, with which they communicates form, two, parallel vessels, situated one on each side of) the rudis::: ments of the vertebrae, and extending from the part of the:baeki« opposite to the ventricle of the heart, where’ they are:joined ii- to. one trunk, to the end of the tail. shanr end orf doidw Both Pander and M. Serres have given the bame of Umbilix - cal.to.the arteries of the vascular area, a circumstanee whith thas: in..some, measure, tended. to. obscure their, description of them; Pander, indeed, forgetting that the proper umbilical arteries; dis«; tributed on, the.allantois, are, produced) from: the: pelvic portions: > of the aorta,at’a period considerably. later than the vessels ofthe: areas, supposes) that, the; only, difference’ between ithe structure: - of the aorta inthe, foetus; and, that, in, the'adult, abinial, consists \ in the greater height at whieh the division of this vessel into-the-. 280 Dr, Allen Thomson on the Vascular System iliac,.arteries takes.place ; but this, it is-obvious, affords nosex- planation of the circumstance, that the pewter ee of the vascular area of the yolk, (forming as their more recent.and.appropriate name of Omphalo-mesenteric implies), continuations of the imtes- inal. arteries, are each of. teen given. off by rar hemes of the aorta. a 4 wis Fag Serres has also vaste that net ee 40th and 50th lonste or immediately after the circulation of the bleod has:coms menced, the trunk of the aorta is double in its whole extent, from the place at which its branches spring from the bulb of the heart to the end of the tail; and he affirms that it is by the gredual union of these two vessels on the median “ that the single aorta of the adult is formed. | yall yaa Baer, the accuracy of whose researches on ee et we have so often had occasion to admire, had also directed his attention to the state of the aorta in the early stages of incubation, but appa rently without the same success.. In his history of the develop- ment of the chick (Répert. Génér. d’Anat. et de Physiol. tom.82 p- 72.),,he informs us, that the two vessels into which the ven tricle of the heart propels its contents, towards the 40th hour; having passed round the. anterior part-of the intestinal tube, and proceeded some way along the inferior surface of the vers tebral column, probably reunite after having been separated) for a.certain space. He says,, that this. union, cannot, however,-be easily shown. at this. period, because .these vessels, on arriving: below. the vertebral column, appear to lose their. parietes, and) their) contents are too transparent to enable. us to. trace) their course. He. adds, that their union can, Bavanety ae easily de-) : monstrated before the end of the second day...) » 4% wehee ./These remarks of Baer, and the circumstance that M. Serres: makes no allusion in his description of. the. primitive. double, state.of the aorta, to the existence of the ten branchial subdi~ visions of this vessel discovered by Huschke, Rathke and.Baery: and described at p. 64. of this essay, and that he:has, prided no information on the means he employed in making thi aa the Fetus of Vertebrated brated Animals. 981 dorsal iseragareatingi sone gus ne baetihard the hacseien se enipenn ans verges: ‘state of eine watts nt thie, time I ii these observations, I found it very difficult to keep the chick alive on the field of the microscope, and to observe the circula- tion of the blood going on, at the early stage of advancement necessary in this investigation, and I was obliged to have re- course'to the plan of making transverse sections of the foetus in the whole length of its body, in order to ascertain the structure of its vessels,—a mode of observation by no means easy, but one which ‘affords most certain and satisfactory results. “In‘this — manner, I have been enabled to confirm the general results stated by M. Serres in regard to the double state of the aorta, in the early stages of the development of the foetal’bird. ~~ - In the chick, at the 36th and at the 40th hours of ineuba- tion *, or a little before and immediately after the circulation of the blood. commences, I have seen two vessels rising from the bulb of the heart, winding round the anterior portion of the in: testine, and continuing to descend along the body of the feetus; parallel to but separate from one another in their whole length. These vessels are situated below the spinal marrow, and on each side of the chorda dorsalis +, or part afterwards occupied by the bodies of the vertebree. [he omphalo-mesenteric arte- ries.are given off from’ these vessels considerably higher at this than at’a later period, and-at first sight appear to be the only branches continued from the aortic vessels ; but’ on minute’exa~ mination, two other smaller vessels may be séen, ‘situated be tween the omphalo-mesenterics, and’ descending ‘some little*way’ below the place where these latter arteries pass‘off *into the vas" cular area: towards the tail of the embryo, these’ two conti- nuations of the aortic vessels seem to lose themselves in a large vacant space left between the pesmi 4h of: me germinal’ membrane and the chorda dorsalis. b taeegy ong be encaary edn thie ¢ chiek at ‘the 48th-or 50th diccies, te at the period lin ‘SW fa ment Atloning the 3 PS pais Ta uD Bra sce! ing to whe ew | st , ae eat fT rege grt ai a ei BY the primitive streak of the’ cicatricula » mediately below the spinal marrow. _ JANUARY—MARCH 1831. T 282 Dr Allen. Thomson. on the Vascular, System the circulation of the blood is now completely established ion: the vascular area; but before the second ‘set of veins have-appeaited; Ihave ‘found the two aortic ‘vessels united for a considerable space in thedorsal region: ‘This union | seems to commence: in the back, ‘nearly opposite to the ‘auricle, but I have not been able to‘ascertam ‘the precise period at which this’ process begins it gradually extends backwards towards the tail, so’ that, atthe 60th or 65th hour, the whole of the dorsal and part of the ab- dominal aorta is one tube, as far as the place where the omphalo- mesenteric arteries are given off. The omphalo-mesenteri¢’ar- teries, being’ shortly after this partially united, appear to arise from one’ stem. On the fourth day, the whole of the two stidiiaiienah dala of the aorta becomes united, as far as the region where the per- manent division of this vessel takes place: here the vessels re- main separate, and farnish the umbilical arteries or vessels of the allantoid membrane, which now begins to be developed,— these being the first considerable branches of the iliac arteries which are formed: 1 GY ~ While this union of the dorsal’ and abdominal portions of ‘the double aorta takes place, the two vessels arising ftom the bulb of the heart, of which the ‘aorte formed at first the continua- tion, do not, like these, become united into one trunk;-as the observations of M. Serres would lead us to believe. IT haveval- ready described these two vessels * as the first~ pair of bran- chial arches, the posterior. parts of which form the separate roots of the aorta to be found in the chick on the third and fourth days of incubation ; these roots: being also joined at this period by the four other branchial arches which appear succes. sively on each side of the pharynx. "These roots of the aorta and branchial arches, we have already remarked, do not become united to°one another, but undergo other very remarkable changes, by: their partial enlargement or obliteration. Parts of the first branchial arches give rise to the carotid: arteries i in all vertebrated animals : “while the proper, trunk of the ‘aorta, ‘Or at least its ascending’ portion and arch, is produced 1 from other “branchial vessels, and the roots into Pena Lae ‘are jo ; i ‘or'moré of these’ serving to’ form’ the: aorta, Avcor ae ot the bio ASTB Isic: »fts'td tit od'T nie Re tare: td Sil3- ta Jessi g es von * See page 257, &e. and figs. 20, 21 and.30, i in. the last. P ‘ha 4 beret eat) Gn the Fetus of Vertebrated' Animals. 283 class of animals’ in which ‘the transformation occurs. | In. Mam- malia;(the° aorta: 'isy formed \ bythe permanence! ofthe: fourth branchial arch and the aortic:-root of the left side} :in Birds by that.on:the- right; im the greater number of Reptiles:by: one on each side; in’ the tailed: Batrachia by three or four arches-on each side and by both reots 5m Qsseous, Fishes:by»foun; .and inthe Sharks, Skates) &c::by»all the five pairs of branchialxyes- séls and ‘the:two roots which: are to be found in the early stages oc anne in'the foetus'*. >» oe! nitods isdimob -'The'discovery of the double: state of shi dorsal: and, abdomi- i aorta’ in the very young foetus, made by M. Serres, must, however, be regarded as very interesting, not only as.it,peints out a very smngular change, little attended to before it was inves- tigated’ by this author, taking place in: the median: arteries; but also as it seems to afford an explanation of some: yarieties:in: the place of junction of the roots of the aorta; and in the origin of the'cceliac, mesenteric and other sansa which occur in several tribes of reptiles. | i Jamo ai rgd aaons ~ The observations of this iateni in joni to the union of; the ‘double:arteriz Basilares and Callosee; will: be read with: équal in- ‘terest, as well as several curious facts mentioned: by him respect- ing the union of the principal venous trunks, and the varieties of distribution of the vessels im the umbilical; cord: im) some mammiferous animals. wifil.si biadw psec) to ermiAededo Dee: 30) 1830. © Abia ® elsezowrp wr 9e9 sia: dad tioasbeybadt he sok we 9 11. 14) 15.19 20230.-35.'392 in the Na 6s bea poh BF iowa : Siototet nt onitos -91i7.-10-21001 BRBATA-. coupd uot eyab diuol cheetahs. Sa ci 8S gl ig ay eens eee ee 320,. cee Dérsiin 20. ya (ene Re lovie sap ees oon ane 5269 we i, wee ean i ath fyi IRON aia (from asid bes “Ztt ts i? alle dy econ tere Sepaets Pars on of babahal oO ne poviaes a. ae aa Raye ominen PFI nevi erate ao «ere Ab cokijiiidiomigamsorad note: 29 ashe int , the formation of Ca REE pe meme PME 2H er ae t since ' cel the manne Ty hate poe ‘some ; eee: foetus of the sow a sac Stncnsip toot aang ith Banta ineor and t e single ductus arteri “ormed a thes : the ral ae m nence of one oe the ee re aw The meen ane! 9y on the iat side, - (marked W in fig. 39’of ‘last Plate), is the ony eat ‘sppeate tv giv6'risé’to this communicating vessél in mathmialia? -° 359 <2 ow Sinadyslost yy I84 pooch, aTisarod 1M h viev an vietsibommi ovee dasiog to. steizesiqeoriel oad iE won orw bas ¢-9daHG poo td. oulal Analy, lysig of a a ‘powerful, C. halybeate. Water from. Vicar: "3, Bridge, near Dollar in Clackmannanshire, By, Anrpun. CONNELL, sq F..R.S. E. Communicated by the jie 1ja909H. > & SiOtTRS lite 7 tan didtend water was first, " Titbehiove,éi Tniatind in the course of last summer, and has’ excited ‘considerable interest” in’ the neighbourhood of the place where it) is found. It hasbeen much used’ medicinally by the common people of the vicinity’; mall probability m many complaints for which it was very il adapted. « It has, however, been found beneficial, when em- ployed with a due regard to its great strength, in some of those diseases for which iron is of advantage; and it has now nd its way to other places. SAS «The water is described by my friend Mr Tait, ore sent to me-a portion of it for analysis, as being found in those. mines or excavations from which clay ironstone is obtained at Vicar’s Bridge. | The excavations are:worked out in beds of a kind of shale which contains the iron-ore; and the water forms separate’ pools on the floor or pavement of the several compartments of the mines... The beds of shale probably form a part of ‘the coal-strata of the neighbourhood, although I have not ‘had. any opportunity of examining them. The general appearance’ of the water of these several pools is described as being much ‘the same, although the solutions are supposed to differ somewhat in strength... That sent to me was conceived to noua the: strongest impregnation. VSR hls gui The colour of the water was a dark red. Its taste strongly’ astringent; with: some acidity. It reddened litmus papers / Its specific 'gravity at 62°F, was 1.04893. This high state*of con! centration constitutes its principal peculiarity. ‘The above spe? cific gravity is considerably greater than that of sea water;:and exceeds that of any other natural saline impregnation of »which’ L have read, either in Great Brita or in foreign eT the exception of the water of the Dead Sea. ‘The action of reagents was as follows: With respec reactions, showing the presence of i iron, I shall bea fae par- ticular, with the view of determining the state. of . oxidation of the iron. oe Mr Connell’s Analysis of a Chalybeate Waiter. 285 _ The ferro-prussiate of potash gave immediately a very dark blue precipitate ; and when much diluted, the sulpho-cyanate of potash produced a red precipitate. These reactions ‘ie course were due to the presence of peroxide of iron. Recently after the water had come into my possession, it gave with ammonia a dark olive precipitate, becoming reddish by ex- posure to the air. .This reaction showed that ssomenprotoxide of iron accompanied the peroxide. . After it had been: kept:some weeks in a corked bottle, it gave a precipitate with: ammonia which was. reddish-yellow on first falling. With the red eya+ nuret of iren and potassium, a blue or. greenish-blue precipitate fell, either immediately or after a short time... The action with this reagent continued much the same, even after the water had ceased to give a dark-coloured precipitate with ammonia. These appearances also showed the presence of protoxide of iron.» © The infusion of nutgalls produced a very fine deep blue, in- dicating the presence of peroxide of i see, or rather a mixture of the peroxide and protoxide*.. i _When the precipitate by ammonia was: boiled sinha caustic potash ley, the alkaline solution, examined: by — means, showed the presence of alumina. a , After precipitating by ammonia, filtering and Goneuutiantinl cmsblatilele by heat, oxalate of ammonia indicated a little lime. When the oxalate of lime had been separated, and the liquid again concentrated, carbonate of ammonia and 26 of soda showed the presence of magnesia. » Wath muriate of baryta, the water, even when Sonsidemaby diluted, gave a precipitate ; Pro abundance of ce acid. “When. a little. of the water was precipitated bey ammonia,’ ie the, clear liquid considerably concentrated, sulphate’ of” silver caused a slight muddiness, and. after a time a very slight pre- cipitate collected, :, which was dissolved ‘by ammonia ; Lapras the presence of :a:minute quantity of muriati¢ acid. al Phe constituents of wane we: have thus found eevnanias ah .” So great is. the aaeettyation of the HPht that the eaadinars wikEire is of sufficient consistency to constitute a writing ink; and_it has been.used by several persons for this purpose, at least when a little gum-arabic has been, added to the mixture. ~ 286 i Mr Connell’ Analysis ofa a pesnnidaands protoxide. of. iron, alumina, magnésia, dime, “sul- ‘phuric and»muriatic, acids. In the course. of ‘the followit y ana- ysis, minute,quantities of one or more alkalies , will also, ear. ot The. proportions of . these, constituents were determi ined in folipwing; maaner: ».. lo o€@)-3, cubic, inches of the eatin were ct Oe to @ryness i in Sbsianen aramid’ ‘The, reddish-grey residue weighed 4°; a BRAINS 32 fre w : io (8) saidaiiiele were measles Sid ammonia. The pre- cipitate was dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution’ digested with exeess\of potash. The oxide of iron, after being separated »by ‘filtration and ignited, weighed 16.64 grains*,.__ (c) The alkaline. solution, by supersaturation with muriatic acid, and precipitation by carbonate of ammonia, rg omte $06 ~ oe of alumina. ‘oi(d) ‘The liquid which had been precipitated by ammonia i in | (b)eas concentrated by heat, and oxalate of ammonia then ai othe: precipitate was collected, calcined, and heated with “ailanbhe -sof ammonia; .85 grain of carbonate of lime was thus obtained, equivalent ‘to .195 of lime. (e) The liquid separated from oxalate of lime was evaporated to dryness, and the residue calcined. A white saline mass was. obtained, i which weighed 8.05 grains... It dissolved in water, except ‘a'few flocks, which, after ignition, weighed .02. | (7) The filtered solution was precipitated by acetateiof baryta, and after the sulphate of baryta had been separated by filtration, the solution was evaporated to dryness, and the residue ignited. The ignited mass was treated with water. To. the liquid, after beingseparated from the undissolved matter, muriatic acid ‘was added. It was then evaporated to ee, and the matter ob- tamed redissolved in water... ~“»(@)"Phis solution, by spontaneous enageietia, gare a errs exhibiting a very small quantity of minute cubes or square ta- “bles, evidently ‘either “common salt or chloride’ 6f *potassitim. After the removal by alcohol of a minute quantity of deliques- cent matter iy ny it, and spbecanee ignition, it t' Ho teh ih it ned? * It retained avery iiand trace of sated: b which hades roma dom by the ammonia. ee Chalybeate Water from Vicar’s Bridge. 287 weighed .03 grains. On examining its solution in water by muriate of platinum, it appeared to contain both soda and potash. A ‘The matter left undissolved by the water inf was treated “dilute sul Iphurie acid, ‘the solution filtered’ and’ ‘€vaporated to sy teticd and the estiflig ignited. Redissolved’m ‘water, the solution gave, by spontaneous evaporation, a quantity of ‘pris- matic crystals, having the appearance and all ‘the’ properties of sulphate of magnesia. By subtracting from the weight of°the saline mass in (e), that of the substances afterwards separated from it, we get 3 grains for the amount oP _ —— uf 7 magnesia*. eats (i) 8 cubic inches of the water were eden by ndetite of baryta. The sulphate of baryta after ignition’ as C162 grains, equivalent to 22.82 grains of sulphuric acid. ; (k) 3 cubic inches of the water were precipitated by ammo- nia, and the liquid filtered'and concentrated by ‘heat to nearly one- third of the original bulk. Sulphate of silver was then added, which caused a slight muddineés, btit no immediate precipitate. In two or three days a little chloride of ‘silver had fallen, which was collected and ignited. It ‘then weighed .05 grain, ‘equiva- lent to .0126 of muriatic acid. Tn 3 cubic inches of the Vicar's Bridge water we — 8 have, Oxide of iron, (6) and (ee), . ~ : : 16.66. - Alumina, (¢) er d f 3 1.95 Magnesia, (h) : . ° : L Lime,(d)__.- - . . ; _ 195 Soda and potash, (g) 2 NESTS Tipe DM ~~ Sulphuric acid, (i). f Nave, 22.82) _ © Muriatic acid, (#) . + x ann sole ron AEBEEO iod * I have thought it unnecessary in making the sinbactions to ovbijeli on residue of .03-in (g) a8 a sulphate, because it. still retained a trace of deli- _quescent matter; and also a minute quantity of aiksling sulphate, which had -eseaped decomposition by the barytic salt. ’ » For the reason stated in the above note, I have thought it better’ to cor pute the amount of the soda and potash from the quantities’ necessary to ' Saturate the muriatic ‘acid, With w sey ‘were plainly in’ combination, ‘than from the residue of a He taken as chlorides. The variation is not “greater than about .005. | Of these, constituents the, muriatic -acidus) saturated, bythe alkalies. «Phe other bases are therefore united.to sulphuric, acid);) and:afier saturating the alumina; magnesia and;lime, there,re. main:16.209-of sulphuric acid, which must be. united with’ oxide of iron. » Lhis.quantity, it will be observed,, is nearly. equal to thatiof the oxide of iron itself... The, iron, it-appears from the action.of ‘reagents which I have detailed in a former part ofthe memoir, must; be partly in the state of peroxide, and _ partly in that.of protexide; the former, however, constituting considerably the Jarger:proportion, as is evident from the colour of the water and fromthe effects of these reagents. I think it most probable, _ thats when the water is in.a quite fresh state, the base is the black oxide of iron, or, more correctly speaking, the constituent atoms of that oxide, which are 2 atoms of peroxide + 1, atom of. protoxide; and that the salt has arisen from the gradual and partial peroxidation of a protosulphate of iron. , Indeed, many of the leading characters of the water are those, given by Gay Lussac* and Berzeliust as belonging to a solution of the black oxide in sulphuric acid... Such are the dark. precipitate with,ammonia, the fine blue with nutgalls and. ferro-prussiate of potash, and even the natural colour of the water. Supposing this oxide to exist in the water, the ratio‘of the base to the acid, it would appear, ought to be as 14.5 rs at tae Bab wd = pro- tox) : bie (3 at sulphuric acid).* 2 Annales de Chimie, lxxx, 166. + Lichrbuch der Chemie, ii. 735. t+ Berzelius (Lehrbuch der Chemie, ii. 736) has described a red salt found in ‘the copper-mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, the constitution of which, both as regards the nature of the base, and the relative proportions of base and acid, seenis to have been analogous to that of the salt of iron ‘contained’ im the Vicar’s Bridge water. It occurred in the form of large stalactites, composed of small transparent crystals, and mechanically mixed with sulphate of mag- _ nesia, » Berzelius states, that he found the base of this salt to be the black oxide of iron (eisen oxyd oxydul), and. the acid to contain, twice the. oxygen of the base. -It would seem, however, that the combination, could. not have been in, atomie proportion, if the base was. strictly the ferrosoferric -oxide and if the oxygen of the acid was exactly twice that of the base... _ The nearest approach to,that ratio in an atomic combination would be.9:.4. . This»is: the ratio: of the oxygen of 3..atoms. sulphuric acid, to the oxygen. of; 1 atom , pro- toxide, +1 atom peroxide, which. is Berzelius’ view of the sconstitution, of te Chalybeate« Water’ from Vicars Bridge. 289 In this*view, therefore, the oxide ‘of ‘iron actaally-found is a little ‘in excess,’ a'circumstance which may, to a'cerfain extent, be'owing to” partial peroxidisement of the ammoniacal » precipi- tate;° by exposure to ‘air.’ In proportion: as we asstithe the re~ lative quantity of protoxide in the’water/to ‘be 'Jess‘than that in the black oxide, *the ratio of the base ‘and acid: wilbapproach more ‘nearly ‘that of equality. When the water ‘was evaporated to the consistence of a sirup, I found that alcohol took up ‘hardly any of. the residue. Neither did it cause, when added ‘to'the water, any precipitation of protosalt,—circumstances which may perhaps arise from ‘some degree of chemical“ union® existing’ be: tween the salt of iron and the sulphate of alumina, ‘and inter- fering with the solubility of the persalt in alcohol. 9 9 >.%0 #0816 Were we to assume the peroxide to be the true base, and’the protoxide to be accidental or insignificant in quantity, the salt would then be a persulphate, composed of 1 atom base + 1 atom acid.’ But the common red persulphate of iron is well- — to be a sesquisalt. . } I shall content myself in the circumstances, with simply uniting the quantities of oxide and acid actually found, which aur in any view, give a result very far from the truth. } | foie 3 cubic inches of the water we ‘thus is have 2 ASTeS ticxrar 3 Ww Peschbats inal pcinlhtiplit oftis iron, _ “- 932869 7.5 Sulphate of alumina ; d : ¢ ; - 6.283 Sulphate of magnesia sek we gy Beh ony Sulphateoflime, . . Stat Ji Aull te, lareegBe Common salt and muriate of potest rah doucoRe] or RE AT to sain 142,651", =e oe oe, An, imperial pint of 34.659.cubie inches of the veal S —, ates therefore: Tomes jew oobi e‘ss0k ¥ lismys to the eisen oryd ‘ody his atom of ete being twice the weight of that ¢ of “Pr Thomson. ‘The salt contained water of crystallization, and was solublé in that liquid’; and’as it was ‘accompanied by sulphate of magnesia, its solution would, in that respect, also resemble the water under consideration. Te’ of : course proceedéd from the decémposition of pyrités of the imes 7) 8° “/® Scubic ‘inches’ of thé Water ‘weigh’ about 814’ grains. Herice’ about 19 palitsof it contain 1 of solid niatter’; ‘or it’ contains’ more than 5 per « cent. ’ of solid matter. Sea water contains about 3 per cent. saline constituents. | 290 Mr Connell on a Chalybeate Water. Persulphate and protosulphate of iron, . ; 379.73 Sulphate of alumina, , . . . 72.58 ; Sulphate of magnesia, ‘ a - ob. 800, 250AAB 09240 Sulphate of lime, ; . HN wR a i fh . Common salt and muriate of pitan,” ps be a ‘i yogC cot} | 492.72 And an imperial gallon contains,— ‘Peérsulphate and protosulphate ofiron, : 3037.84 T “oo! Sulphate ofalumina, — . ‘ : 580.64 |, Sulphate of magnesia, . : . : (277.20 __ Sulphate of lime, ' : 43.68 Common salt and muriateof potaih! : , 2.4 3941.76 There seems little doubt that this water proceeds from the decomposition of some description of shale in the vicinity of its site. Whether the shale in which it is actually found is capable of affording its constituents by disintegration, I do not know, * not having yet obtained any specimens of it. Both proper alum-slate, and various shales of the coal-formation, afford, as is well known by decomposition, saline products appearmg some- times as solutions, and sometimes as crystallized salts.* | * Dr Thomson has analyzed a chalybeate from the neighbourhood of Moffat, somewhat analogous to the present in composition, although greatly inferior in strength, and which he conceives to proceed from decomposed alum-slate (Glase. Med. Jour. i, 129). Its specific gravity was 1.00965, Its seus red. In an imperial gallon it contained, Persesquisulphate of iron, ; 591.025 Sulphate of alumina, ‘ : 112.756 . Sulphuric acid in excess, - i 5.202 Sere ae iat i Sw {9 7 19a M90 708.953... heplstua “The ‘hair salt of the coal-strata of the neighbourhood hae saith was found sh Di Thoinson (Hist. of Chemistry, p. 104) to consist of, oibent bas “pie oes atom protosulphate of iron, 9. “esti slda. , ‘| 1: |datoms sulphate of alumina, 6) 6 pens) ies 15 atoms water f tod acd: us alow: daolt: ‘iQeilalientingsa kindof, alum...Its solution i in, 1 water seul por. en. sl nous chalybeate, which by exposure to air would become more or less. oxidized, unless the chemical union of Sag adits of iron and lumina shoul prevent that eae seemed. . : y . bt PLD es be eile , ; ; Ne RET 1 @e ey » 3 Observations on the History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. By Davip Craiciz, pa. De &ee (Continued rho. n page 162.) di Seite Il.—The Middle Ages to the Revival of Literature, Tue death of Galen, which took place at Pergamus in the 90th year of his age, and 193d year of the Christian’era, may be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient times: “After this period are recognised scarcely more than three names deserv- ing mention in the history of anatomical science, those of Ori- basius, the friend and physician of the Emperor Juhan the apostate, Theophilus, chief of the imperial guard of Heraclius, and Meletius a’ monk, the author of a treatise De Natura et Structura Hominis. ~The unsettled state of society during the latter ages of the Roman Empire, was extremely unfavourable to the cultivation of science. The weakness and. decrepitude of the imperial ad- ministration after its transference to the East, demonstrated by the formation of turbulent factions, diverted the attention of mankind from literature and philosophy to the more brilliant game of ambition and political intrigue. Even the introduction of Christianity, by condemning to execration all the monuments _ of pagan genius, appears to have exercised a pernicious influ: ence on the progress of science; and the sanguinary persecu- tions of which it was made the pretext, tended in the most re- markable manner to extinguish science, and embitter the exist- ence of its few-remaining votaries. The Christian sect distin- guished by the name of Nestorians, had signalized themselves ‘in the course of the Sth century by the cultivation of philosophy and medicine ; and had founded‘a school at- Edessa, taught by able instructors, and among others a physician named Stephen, well known as the medicaladviser of Haroun al Raschid. To these unlucky enthusiasts, however, the rigid orthodoxy of Theodosius II., Zeno the Isaurian, and’ Justinian; proved fatal ; and. they were compelled, after much persecution, to abandon Edessa. From the 5th to the 8th century, the empite, divided by internal discord, and assailed on every side by the rude bar- 292 Dr. Craigie’s Observations on. the.....\\ barians, of ;the east and, north, presents | a scene ‘of ignorance, crime,. and, barbarism, utterly, incompatible, with the cultivation of science; and the knowledge possessed by a.few scholars was. scarcely sufficient. to enable them to write bad,,.memoirs of the, passing events. In such a state of society, when the ‘art of healing professed. by, ecclesiastics and. itinerant practitioners, was degraded by the grossest ignorance and superstition, it / is; not, wonderful that. anatomy. was, entirely neglected, and that, no, name. of, anatomical celebrity occurs to diversify the long and uninteresting period commonly distinguished as the middle ages:. Nor can the anatomists look to the Arabian physicians) and naturalists during this period with better hopes. -of . success, Though several of the learned Saracens eagerly cultivated the. knowledge of natural history, though they were anxious. to dis-, cover the virtues of yarious plants, studied alchemy, and made; several bold experiments on the human frame by the earthy or, metallic salts, anatomy was never cultivated practically by them, ; and the little knowledge which they, possessed was derived from. the writings of Aristotle and.Galen. .The Koran denounces as, unclean. the person who touches a, corpse, human or. animal);, the precepts of Islamism, forbid dissection ; and. however dis-; tinguished in medicine were Al-Rasi,; Ibn-Sina and Ibn-Rosch,, the Razes,..Avicenna, and, Averrhoes, of European authors, these prejudices prevented them from, acquiring the most, im. portant and fundamental, principles of their science... " tiph,alone, the annalist of Egyptian affairs, admits. the neces-,. sity, of personal. dissection. But the influence of .a single, indi-., vidual is.of Jittle avail in stemming the torrent of. national, pre-.. judice,.,. It,is.a singular proof of the pernicious. influence of re-»; putation, nevertheless, that the nomenclature and distinctions of, the,,Arabians were long retained by European. anatomists, till, the*revival. of ancient learning restored those of the Greek :phy-,.. sicians..Chus; the. cervia. or nape of the neck, is, denominated, nucha ; the diaphragm.is. named. meri.;,.theumbilical..region,,, sumenor -sumach ; the),abdomen,, myrach éj ithe beri 1eum, »j siphac;,and the, omentum zibus. .. dil to senzoh ‘The, Saracens were indebted for aie Jiterany, and, oaieaiiien celebrity not.to their merit, but tothe ignorance. and. ;compara-,., tive rudeness of the Europeans. , As,soon as the wealth and_in-,\; History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 293 dependence of ‘thé Italian States created’'a love of knowled’ ge. s¢hools! and” academies rosé amiong' them in rapid succession ; and the Arabian’ teachers “and -writers, though long after quoted, began gradually to be neglected and forgotten. Among the new European Institutions, that of Bologna, already cele- brated “as a school of literature and law, became no less distin- guished in:the thirteenth century for its medical teachers.’ At the commencement of the fourteenth century especially, it was forturiate enough to possess in Mondino de Luzzi a teacher’un- der whose auspicious zeal anatomical science was destined to rise from the ashes in which it had been buried. . By demon- strating the_parts of the human body in two female subjects in the year 1315, and repeating this course of instruction on the body of a single female in the course of the following year, Mondino,has obtained the distinction of being the founder of true anatomical knowledge in modern times. Though his name is more closely connected with human than with animal anatomy, it is nevertheless important in marking an-era in the history of the science. The greatest defect which he shews in. common with the writers of these times, is his servile attachment to Ga- len and the Arabians, by whose exotic nomenclature his deserip- tions are defaced. He died, according to Tiraboschi, in 1325. “Mondino divides the’ body into three cavities (ventres), the upper containing the animal members, as the head ; the lower containing the natural members; and the middle containing the — spiritual members. | He first delivers the anatomy of the lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds to the middle or’ thoracic organs, and concludes with the upper, comprising the head, and its contents and appendages. His manner is. to notice shortly . the situation and shape or distribution of organs, and then to’! mention the disorders to which they are subject. © The perito- neum he describes under the name of siphac, in imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under that of zirbus, and the mesentery © . or euchards as distinct from both. In speaking of the intestines,” he treats first of the rectum) then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure of which, as well as the transverse arch’ and its: connec. tion with the stomach, he particularly remarks ; then the cecum or ‘monoculus'; after this the small intestines in general, under the heads of ilewm and jejunum ; and latterly, the duodenum ; making in all six bowels. _'The liver and its vessels are minutely, 294. ASANTE DrCraigie’s Observations om theso\0\> 4 q ifnot: aceurately examined ; and:the:cavaunder the name chilis a corruption from the Greek: xox, is treatedhatyléngth, awith the emulgents:and) kidneys. His anatomy of» thesheart iis acturates and it\is a: remarkable fact, which seems to-beomitted; bynall: subsequent authors, that his description:eontains:the! rudiments of the circulation-of the blood: “ Postea.vero versus:pulmoném est aliud orificium venee' arterialis, quae portat sanguinem»ath pulmonem; a corde ; quia cum. pulmo deserviat cordi secundum modum dictum ut ei recompenset, cor ei ¢ransmittit sanguinen? per hane venam, quee vocatur: vena arterialis, et vena: quae por- tat sanguinem, et arterialis, quia habet duas tunicas ; et habet duas tunicas, primo quia vadit ad membrum quod existit»in continuo motu, et secundo quia portat sanguinem valde subtilem et cholericum.” The merit of these distinctions, however, he afs terwards destroys by repeating the old assertion, that. the left ventricle-ought to contain spirit, which it generates from the.blood,. His osteology of the skull is: erroneous: In his, account, of the cerebral membranes, though short,. he notices the. principal characters of the dura mater.. He describes shortly the. lateral. ventricles, with their anterior and: posterior cornua, and the cho- roid plexus as a blood-red: substance; like along’ worm... He therspeaks of the third or middle ventricle, and..one posterior; which seems'to correspond with the fourth ; and deseribes;the. infundibulum under the names of dacuwna and emboton.,, The inv ferior recesses he appears to have:omitted. | In. the base ofthe organ he remarks, first, two mammillary: caruneles,. the origins, of the olfactory nerves, which, however, he:overlooks; the,optic, nerves, which he: reckons the first: pair; the: oculo-muscular;; which he:accounts’ the’ second ; the: third; which, appears. to-be: the: sixth of the moderns; the fourth ; the fifth,, evidently! the seventh ;\a sixth, the: ean 9 and stinintncnt;.ewhlelbdedeti nintly of the*moderns: 9 > > jal! evade \jnolop bas Notwithstanding: the» silitiiedileiabein ist charkishicaiidaelae anatomist was betrayed, his:book,, which:has been- illustrated: by, the successive commentaries: of» Achillini,: Berenger; and, Dry} ander, is valuable, and’ formed’ for at least.a century’ the|text- book of ‘all the anatomicalschoolsive >2 6°) eos vy oleibsaral. ' Mathew de Gradibus;y «a nativevofGradi,ia town, iny Friuli) near Milan; and Proféssor‘of «Medicine! at:Pavia,. distinguished. himself’ by: composing: a series“ oft treatisesron the! anatomy, of History and Progress.of Comparative Anaiomy. 295 various parts,of the: humanobody. He is ‘the first who.applies _ the name. of Ovaries to»the ovoidal bodies placed in the: folds of the broad ligaments of the female uterus, and considers. them as:receptacles of ova.- This sire Steno: ree aes without acknowledgment... Sumilar objections to those decaiin ekpedti in senchiciesd, Mois dines apply to another anatomist of these times. Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona towards the conclusion :ofithe fifteenth century, is the author of a system, in which he is:more anxious to astonish his readers, by the wonders of a verbose and complicated style, than to instruct by precise.and faithful descrip- tion. He recommends the dissection of animals, and especially the monkey. He is superior to Mondino in knowing the olfacient nerves, and he recognises the vascular structure of the testicles. Eminent in the history of the science, Alexander Achillini of Bologna, the pupil and commentator of Mondino, appeared at the close of the fifteenth century, and, as Professor of Medi- cine in that University, attracted by his. celebrity numerous stu- dents from every part of the world. Though a follower of the Arabian school, the assiduity with which he cultivated anatomy has rescued his name from the inglorious obscurity in which the Arabesque doctors have im general slumbered. He is:known in the history of anatomical discovery as the first who described the two tympanal bones termed malleus and incus.. In 1503, he shewed that the tarsus consists of seven bones;: he redis- covered the fornix and infundibulum; and, he was. fortunate enough to.observe the course of the cerebral. cavities into: the inferior cornua, and to remark. peculiarities.to which.the anatos mists of a future age did nct advert. He, mentions the;orifices of the. ducts.afterwards described by Wharton. | He knew the ileo-czeeal valve; and. his. description. of. the. duodenum, ileum: and. colon, shews that he was better acquaimted. with the site and: dispositionyof: these: bowels than any of his predecessors) or contemporaries. By. representing the. uzachus.to be hollow, he: shews that een oars ‘eee in. the. foetus. aft abe sical animals: (66/9 © tee pEEFTO i, groban Immediately afier; vith science. belaaticalica one: of elute dis- tinguished. founders.» James. Berenger. of Carpi, in the: Mode- nese territory, was, professor of anatomy. and: surgery. in. the university,of Bologna. His: first. course, heis represented. by 296 — Dr Craigie’ 8 Observations on the Sprengel to have delivered, in 1502, in the: fpilnatenle “Albert Pio, lord of Carpi, on the body of a pig. From the’ testimony of 'Tiraboschi, however, it appears that this could scarcely be denominated a course of anatomical lectures.. Albert’ Pio; who was at once one of the most learned men, and the most Jiberal patrons of science of the day, had formed the resolution of istudy- ing.anatomy ; and as this could be done, in these times, onthe bodies of pigs only, he availed himself of the assistance of Ber- enger, who, as the son of a surgeon of Bologna, was known:to be adequate to the task. It appears, therefore, to have been merely a course of private demonstrations to Pio and some»of his friends. Afterwards, however, Berenger, who. appears to have had a decided taste for anatomy, cultivated the art:with extreme assiduity ; and though professor of surgery in the Uni versity of Bologna, occupied himself mostly with ‘dissection. Though unlike his predecesscrs and contemporaries he dissected few animals, he was most assiduous in the study of the struc ture of the human frame, and he declares that he dissected above an hundred bodies. He is the author of a compendium, of several treatises which he names introductions (Jsagogae), and of commentaries on the treatise of Mondino. Like him, he is tinged with the mysticism of the Arabian doctrines; and though he employs the Grecian nomenclature in general, he never forgets to give the Arabian terms, and often uses them exclusively. In his commentaries on Mondino; which constitute the most perspicuous and complete of his works, he not only ‘rectifies the mistakes of that anatomist, but delivers. minute; and, in general, accurate anatomical descriptions. we Poe “He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the sever ral textures of which the human body is composed, and ina preliminary commentary he treats successively of the anatomi- cal characters and properties of fat, of membrane in genera (panniculus), of flesh, of nerve, of villus or fibre (filum), of ligament, of sinew or tendon, and of muscle in general, — then proceeds to describe with considerable precision the 1 of the abdomen, and illustrates their site and connectic wooden cuts, which, though rude, are ‘spirited, and. show that anatomical drawing was in that early age beginning to b un- derstood. Th his account ‘of the peritoneum, he: di s only the intestinal division of that membrane, and is at some pains 2 History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. . 2971 to prove the error of Gentilis, who justly admits the muscular division also: In his account of the’ intestines, he states the elength of the canal to be 13 Bologna ells: he is the first who mentions the vermiform process of the caecum ; he remarks the yellow tint communicated to the jejunum by the gall-bladder ; and he recognises the opening of the common biliary duct into the duodenum (guwidam porus portans choleram).. In the ac- count of the stomach, he describes the several tissues of which that organ is composed, and which, after Almansor, he repre- sents to be three, and a fourth from the peritoneum ; and after- wards notices the ruge of its villous surface. He is at consi- derable pains to explain the organs of generation, and recog- nises the communication of the arteries and veins in the body of the testicle. In his account of the anatomy of the foetus, which is long and minute, he allows only one umbilical vein, and re- presents the wrachus as an impervious chord, evident proofs that he had compared them with the foetus of the lower animals, He was the first who recognised the larger proportional size of the chest in the male than in the female, and conversely the greater capacity of the female than of the male pelvis. In the larynx he discovered the two arytenoid cartilages. He gives the first good description of the thymus, distinguishes the oblique situation of the heart, describes the era ae uy and maintains the uniform presence of pericardial liquor. He then describes the cavities of the heart; but perplexes himself, as all the anato- mists of that age, about the spirit supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes to arise from the left ventricle; but confuses himself with the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein) and the vena arterialis, the pulmonary artery ; and he further demonstrates the existence and operation of the tricuspid valyes in the right ventricle, and of the sigmoid valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and aorta, and allows only two ventricles se= parated by a solid impervious septum. His account of the brain is ; good. He gives a minute and clear description of the ventricles, remarks the corpus striatum, and has the sagacity to perceive that the choroid plexus consists of veins and arteries; he then describes the middle and third ventricle, the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, -and_ the pituitary gland ; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle, the conarium or need gland, x JANUARY —MARCH ‘1831 . 298 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the and the fourth or posterior ventricle itself, the relations of which he studied ‘accurately. He rectifies the mistake of Mondino as to the olfactory or first pair of nerves, gives a good account of the optic and others, and is entitled to the praise of originality’ in being the first observer who contradicts the fiction of the wonderful net (rete mirabile), and indicates the principal divi-- sions of the carotid arteries. He enumerates the tunics and humours of the eye, and gives ‘an account of the internal ear,’ im which he notices the malleus and incus. suis While Berenger was thus advancing the interests of true ana- tomical knowledge in Italy, it is a singular example of the slow- ness with which knowledge was diffused at that time, that the naturalists and physicians of France and other countries, were inthe most profound ignorance of the progress of the Italian. anatomists, and betrayed’ the most supine indifference to the brilliant career of their Cisalpine neighbours. Paris indeed ap- pears at this time to have possessed one anatomist, who, with suitable means, had both the capacity and the desire to improve the science. But the prejudices against the dissection of the human body prevented him from availing himself fully of the information which he derived from the animals which he’ dis- sected ; and John Gonthier of Andernach is chiefly distinguish- ed as a teacher, in whose school some of the first anatomists of the succeeding age had acquired the elements of the sciende. In this school Vesalius, Eustachius, and Fallopius, afterwards so celebrated in the history of Italian anatomy, studied; it is’ believed, with some probability, that from Gonthier, Rondélet’ derived his taste for animal anatomy; and the circumstance of his being the instructor of Michael Servet, whom he ranked next to Vesalius as an anatomist, is sufficient to entitle him to. an honourable place in the history of anatomy. He seems to have dissected few human bodies, and to have confined his te searches chiefly to those of the lower animals; and in the coutsé! of these ‘he appears to have recognised the glandular body placed in the middle of the mesentery of carnivorous’ animals, and which he erroneously named pancreas. It has been since distinguished by the name of pancreas Asellit, © From the ‘time’ of Mondino, Achillini, and Berenger, “Who. were professors’ in the University of Bologna, the fie OP PH History and Progressof Comparative Anatomy. 299 Italian school of anatomy may be dated.. The celebrity of their teachers gave Bologna a degree of pre-eminence which she re- tained for ages, and which was well supported by the talents of Vesalius, Arantius, and Varoli. ‘The appearance of Mondino and Berenger ilad a most favourable influence on anatomy, both human and animal.. Pre- vious to their time, the practice of teachers was to deliver obscure, unintelligible, and often imaginary accounts of the parts.of the human body, with commentaries on the descriptions of Galen, and illustrations derived from the bodies of dogs, pigs, aud _ the common domestic animals, . Even Berenger, as we have seen, though professor at Bologna, is recorded to have delivered his first course of anatomy on the body of a pig, in the house of Albert Pio, lord of Carpi. Of this unpropitious system of instruction, the effect was to distort and misrepresent human anatomy, while animal anatomy was cultivated on so limited a scale, and with such perverted objects, that, instead of utility, it was productive of much injury. By removing the superstitious prejudice against dissecting human bodies, the true structure of the human frame began to be better understood and more dili- | gently studied ; and curiosity prompted anatomists to enlarge their conceptions of animal structure by the comparative inspec- tion of the same organs in the lower animals. In this manner Michael Angelo Buonarotti, the celebrated: painter, dissected both human and animal bodies, and compared the position and relations of the muscles in both; and, ata subsequent: period,, we shall find that Rondelet, Coiter, Aldrovandus, and: Fabri- -cius ab Aquapendente, applied it in this manner with the sia est effects. id In France, the prejudices against the Faaiticik, of the asthe body were so strong, that although permission to dissect the hus: man subject had been granted at Montpellier in.1376, there is no’ proof that it had come into general use for.more than.a century’ and a; half after that period. It is,indeed, one of the charges of Vesalius against. Dubois, that a human .body was never seen in» his theatre ;_ that the carcasses of dogs, and other animals, were’ _ the materials from which he, taught; and, that, unless Vesalius: and his fellow-students, had, assiduously collected human. boties from the Innocents and other.cemeteries, they must haye been un- age a 300 Dr Craigie’s Observations on the able to acquire the first principles of the science. Thoiigli Dubois is represented by Riolan to have the merit of being the first. to dissect the human body in France, his conduct and ge- neral character give confirmation to several of the charges of Vesalius. A bigoted and indiscriminate admiration of the works of Galen made him substitute the interpretation of the descrip- tions of that author for actual demonstration ; and it is easy to trace some of the bold contradictions with which he wished to everwhelm Vesalius to his confidence in Galen, in opposition to truth; and to his jealousy of the rising talents of that anatomist. This conduct was extremely pernicious both to human and to ani- mal anatomy ; and when it was afterwards-seen that Vesalius was in the right, the reputation of Dubois suffered, and the dissec- tion of dogs and pigs became the subject of ridieule and contempt: On this account, the few observations which Dubois made on the ligaments of the colon im the ape and other animals, possess little value. A much more honourable character is due to Charles ‘Biseae, a younger brother of the celebrated printer, and son to Henry, who latinized the family name by the classical appellation of Stephen (=rsQavs). Though sprung of a family. whose classical taste has been their greatest distinction, Etienne cannot be charged with the servile imitation of the Galenian anatomy which Dubois betrays. This originality enabled him to recognise the interarticular fibro-cartilages of the temporo-mammillary and fe. moro-tibial articulations, several of the ligaments, the valves of the. veins, which he denominates apophyses venarwm, and to distinguish the pneumogastric. nerve from the great sympathe- tic. Though his knowledge of the brain is inferior. to ‘that of Achillini, his researches into the structure of the nervous + tem are neither unprofitable nor inglorious ;.and the circumstance of demonstrating a canal through the spinal chord, which has eseaped t the notice not only of his contemporaries, but his ; pie sors,, till M, Senac made it known, i is sufficient to entitle him a respectable place among the list of anatomical observers, “| de is not much known as an animal anatomist ; but the fact ne mentioned shows that he dissected the lower animals, i in high only, and in the human foetus, this canal is distinct.» AN It is painfi ul to think that s so o much merit was unable te to ‘afford History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 301 Etienne immunity from the fanatical severity of the times. His tranquillity, was disturbed, and his pursuits interrupted by the oppressive persecutions in which their religious opinions involved the family ; and Charles Etienne drew the last PAGaHE Os of a mi- serable life in a dungeon i in 1564. — 7 While. anatomical science was in this languid state in France, a great revolution was effected in its favour by the exertions’ of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a conspicuous era in. its history. Andrew Vesalius, a native of Brussels, after acquir- ing at Louvain the ordinary classical attainnients of the day, began at the age of 16 tostudy anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Common sense quickly taught him that little anatomical know- ledge was to be obtained from the commentaries of Galen, and the dissection of dogs and pigs only; and the difficulties with which the cultivation of human anatomy was encompassed in France, made him look to Italy, which Mondino, Achillini, and Berenger had already rendered distinguished ; and in 1536 we find him at once zealously pursuing the study of human and animal anatomy, and requested, ere he had attained his 22d year, .to demonstrate publicly in the University of Padua. After re- maining here about seven years, he went by invitation to Bolog- na, and soon after to Pisa; and Vesalius, thus professor in three universities, appears to have carried on his anatomical investiga- tions and _ instructions alternately at Padua, Bologna, and’ Pisa, ‘in the course of the same season. On this account Vesalius, though a Fleming by birth, and trained very early in'the French school, belongs as an anatomist to the Italian, and forms one of that illustrious line of teachers, by whom the anatomical reputa-. tion of that country was in the sixteenth century taised to the reatest eminence. "a OR. the services of this distinguished anatomist it is impossible in this short sketch to communicate an accurate idea. Though Mondino. and Berenger preceded him in teaching anatomy from the human subject, : and in publishing treatises derived from per- _ sonal observation, Vesalius is entitled to the merit of composing ‘4 the first comprehensive and systematic view of human anatomy. | By his enemies he was accused of undue reverence to’Galen, and _ departing most widely from the’ method and description of. that “anatomist. But at present we are ‘rather sorry that ‘He departed 3H2 ‘Dr Craigie’s Observations on the so little, and that on every occasion he finds it requisite to make apologies for dissenting from the oracle of antiquity. donee Besides the general accuracy which he has introduced into ana- tomical description, he verified the observation of Etienne on the valves of the hepatic veins, described the vena azygos, and disco- vered the canal which passes in the foetus between the ‘umbilical vein and vena cava, since named the ductus venosus. ‘He de- scribed the omentum, and its connexion with the stomach, spleen, and colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus ; remarked the small size of the cecal appendix in man; gave a good account of the mediastinum and pleura ; and the most complete description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced. He appears, however, not to have understood the inferior recesses ; and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the fifth or trigeminal as the third, and confounding the seventh or lateral facial, and the eighth or auditory, under one head as the fifth. | Though the efforts of Vesalius were in the highest degree fi vourable to the cultivation of human anatomy, they tended to throw discredit and contempt for some time on animal anatomy, which was henceforward either abandoned or pursued only in'a languid and ineffectual manner. ‘The example of Vesalius was indeed followed by numerous emulous competitors for distinction, some in Italy, others in France. In 1543, Cannani of Ferrara published his valuable engravings, and contributed to rectify the notions of anatomists on the muscles. Osteology at the same time found an assiduous cultivator in John Philip Ingrassias, a Sicilian physician, who, in a learned commentary on the’ 0s: teology of Galen im 1546, corrected numerous mistakes,’ and gave several accurate descriptions from the natural objects. ~ OF these his accounts of the sphenoid and ethmoid bones aré eXdel- lent examples ; and if Eustachius and Fallopius at the same time described the third tympanal bone termed stapes, the latter can didly allows to Ingrassias the merit of discovery. He knéw al80 the mastoid cells, the two fenestre, the chorda tympani, ‘the $6 micireular canals, and the cochlea, For this minute acquaint- ance with the organ of hearing, and especially for the discovery of the stapes, Ingrassias acknowledges he was indebted to his dissection of the heads of oxen and other large animals. “After History and Progress of Comparative Anatomy. 303 he had discovered the bone in these, he recognised it in the tym- panum of the human body... _In the mean time, the city of Montpellier had the honour of possessing a. physician who set the first example of the systema- tic application, of zootomy in modern times to illustrate and rec- tify zoological. knowledge: . Trained in the school of Gonthier, from whom probably he imbibed his love of animal anatomy, and deeply read in the writings of Aristotle, Athenseus, and Oppian, William. Rondelet, though bred to the profession, of medicine, manifested the greatest zeal for acquiring an accurate knowledge of the structure and peculiarities of animals. Yet the philosophical reader may be surprised. to find that the in- dividual who had judgment enough to undertake to illustrate zoology by means of zootomy, and. who is further distinguished as. the founder of the anatomical theatre of the University of Montpellier, could be deemed a meet subject for the buffoonery of Rabelais: Axistophanes had.the talent. te exhibit to the ri- dicule of the Athenians, the only individual to whose _philoso- phical instructions they were indebted for forming two of the ablest characters of whom their history can boast. The Aristo- phanes.of the sixteenth century, though endowed with a coarser vein, had ingenuity enough to amuse his readers, by exhibiting, under the fictitious name of Rondibilis, an anatomist, and zoolo- whose services to science must convey a very contemptible opinion both of the author of this foolish piece of humour, and of those. to whose amusement it contributed. What rendered this ridicule so much less justifiable, if ridicule can im any cir- cumstances be defended, is, that Roadelet appears to have been a quiet inoffensive person, too assiduously and exclusively de- voted to his professional and scientific pursuits, to provoke the spleen or displeasure of any one. Rondelet appears to have been rather. unsuccessful in early life; and itis recorded that Botegari, a wealthy Italian, who had married the sister of his wife, and whose marriage was childless, shared with him his property during life, and bequeath. ed to him the residue after death. A more honourable, if not more desirable circumstance was, that the Cardinal de Tournon soon after appointed him his physician ; and. the frequent jour- neys which Rondelet had in this capacity occasion to perform 304 soo Dr Craigie’s Observations onthe: ov into Italy; enabled-himto spend much ‘of his tine in'that:coung' try, and to procure much of the zootomicaland zoological infor: mation with which his History of Fishes abounds.°oIt-appears’ even’ that his subsequent ‘appointment (1565) ‘to! the professor.’ ship of medicine in the University of Montpellier;:did not'pres vent him from attending the Cardinal, = re materials for:zoology and zootomy. © iw ceoct uni dens The ‘principal work of. Rondelet' is his Natural ‘History of Fishes, published at Lyons in 1554, in eighteen books ; ‘and On the Form of the Ark of Noah. Wer have a description of the Ark in the 6th chapter of Gene- sis; and our common translation, which is acknowledged to have given, with comparatively few exceptions, the true sense of the Hebrew and Greek originals of the Scriptures, has the follow- ing rendering of this particular passage: “ Make thee an ark of gopher wood: rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of : the length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height, of it thirty cubits. A window shalt thou make to the ark, and j a cubit shalt thou finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof: with lower, second, and third” stories shalt thou make it.” : _ AS, 1 in this translation, there i is no modification of the ‘dimen we are by it atuaally led to conceive the form of the ark i have been a parallelopiped, of which the opposite planes are Ter e Ter spectively equal and similar. ; But there is a word in the Hebrew text, of which, ‘there is reason to think the English translators have not ap ae da the true meaning. The word is that which they have transla ot ing, gf window, (in Hebrew ‘ tzohar”), a different. understand which will lead us to important modifications of our ur conception | of the form of the ark. ” Several commentators have stipposed that this’ word ref fers i rather to the peculiar form of the ark, than to any opening t analogous to a window, without bowever indicating fs in wee at On the Form of the Ark of Noah. 311 manner it does so; and as the word, in its singular form at least, does not again occur in'the Hebrew text, to enable us to deter- mine its true meaning by its connection with other words, it must be acknowledged there is some pry in investigating that meaning. The word, in what appears to be its plural form, eccurs in- deed in several passages; as in Genesis xlii. 16, Ist Kings xviii. 26, and others, where its connection determines the sense to be, as it is rendered in these passages in the English Bible, moon or noonday ; and as other two words have been formed from the root “ tzohar” by the assumption of servile letters to it, the one signifying oil, as im Deuteronomy vii. 13, and the other to make oil, as in Job xxiv. 11, the lexicographers have there- fore assumed, that the radical idea expressed by the word is, to send out or admit clear light. It was, no doubt, with an impression of the accuracy of this assumption, that “ tzohar” was translated window. : The employment of the plural form of the word, however, in the sense moon or noonday, leads naturally to the inference that this use of it is only figurative ; and so the literal meaning of the singular noun may have been something different. ‘There is a condition of the text which goes to prove that window is not the proper meaning in the passage under con- sideration. Neither a window nor a door could, with propriety, be referred to as any thing added to a building. With regard - to the door mentioned in the text, this circumstance is correctly attended to in the expressions referring to it,— the door shalt thou set i the side,”"—where in is the correct sense of the Hebrew. Had the word “ tzohar” expressed a window or simi- lar opening, no doubt a like form of expression would have been used regarding it; but we find a different one,—“a window | shalt thou make éo the ark,”—-where fo is the correct sense of. | the Hebrew. : In fact, the Hebrew tongue has another word for iain (chalun), occurring in this very history of the flood (Genesis | viii. 6), and of which the literal meaning. is accurately fixed in other passages, by its connexion, ,as in Genesis xxvl. 8, J biti vy. 28, and others *, * There is another word translated bindions in this history of the flood 312 On the Form of the Ark of Noah. _ What has now been said, renders it more than probable.that “tzohar” was not meant to express a window. dit:is, aux arte ness, then, to look out for the true meaning... Happily the Greek translation of the Sajitnagias siecranen important light upon the question; and as the sense,.in which it is obvious the translators understood the word,..makes the whole passage under consideration highly intelligible,.and invall respects consistent with itself, we can have no hesitation in ad- mitting it as the right one. ; ci The words which the English translators have rendered, ‘‘.a@ window shalt thou make to the ark,” the translators of the Sep- tuagint have rendered “ sxiruveyar roimces ra» xxBarer,” where exi- cvyeywr can obviously bear no other meaning than “ bringing» or gathering together, upwards, or towards the top.” It is evident from this, that the Greek translators understood the word “ tzohar” to imply the peculiar form of the ark itself, and not to express a window or opening; and their interpreta- tion of it must have been “‘ a narrowing or contracting top,” finishmg above in a narrow ridge, like the pavilioned roof of.a cottage. With this sense, the sentence of the Hebrew complete- ly accords with the following one, and both sentences make an intelligible and consistent whole,—and are, “a narrowing top shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish a above ;” to which the literal translation of the Greek is entirely equivalent,—“ gathering it together upwards shalt thow make the ark, aud in a culit shalt thou finish it above” =) Having obtained this light on the subject, we can return to the Hebrew language, where we find, although not the word ‘‘tzohar,” yet a word (tzor) containing its only two radical let- ters, used (when we view what it implies in respect tothe form, and not the material) in a sense analogous to that whichowe now give to it; as in Exodus iv. 25, and Joshua v. 2, 3, -wherewit means a sharp-edged or wedge-formed stone, or other instri- ment; and this, again, may furnish us with a key to the origin of the employment of the ag form of “ tzohar ” in the ‘sense coveted, ‘Genesis vii. 11,.0nd Ss ceanti viii, 25 in the margin “floodgate. The me is found in many other passages; and in Hosea xiii. 3, the connexion’ d mines its meaning to be, cfienarity or vertical Opens ‘it is’ iprenr oogm figuratively in’ ee Yate itygpate ‘On the Form of the Ark of Noah. 313 noon or noon-day, expressing the arrival of the sun at the ridge of the ‘heavens, as we now say that he culminates when at noon. There is, indeedyif'we. confine our attention solely tothe “Hebrew text, :a difficulty remaining in the position of the ser- vile letter he, which, in the practice of the Hebrew tongue, is ‘not interposed between: the letters of a root to vary it, though often added:to-them. But surely this difficulty is not: of suffi- ‘cient importance to hinder our adoption of the consistent, mean- ing of the word, to which the early Greek translators haye. di- ‘rected us,’ when’ we reflect what setiansagee they. POP: for wee the'true meaning. » In fact, even independently of the redole of this atic we hice find it the most) consistent, mtelligible and simple .ex- planation, to deduce the form of the ark, now indicated,. from that sentence in the passage, in which there is no obscurity, ‘ in a cubit shalt thow finish it. above ;” for the verbal affix,..trans- dated it, obviously refers to the:ark itself, and not to ‘ tzohar ;’ and ‘so sensible of this have the commentators been, that, while they have conceived the ark itself to bea parallelopiped, they have at the same time felt it necessary to suppose that there was a sloping covering inde to ity to meet. the FOnAIGAR eX- rae in this sentence. | The result of our inquiry is, saat the ark of Noah y was formed ob a rectangular base, haying’ sides springing up from its. edges, »and inclining inwards, till they met. over its.middle ;. the coyer- ings at the ends inclining inwards and. upwards. likewise....A seross section of the ark would. thus form an, isosceles triangle, “nesting on: its longest side, and the two equal sides forming each an angle of about fifty degrees, with the base. . -A vessel: constructed in this form would.be. duuniios wit hor carrying sail. . But this-was not the purpose of the ark, . I ~was.intended only. for. floating on the surface ; and, bearing. | this _im-mind, let us enquire what. advantages the form. secured, -» It was-obviously possessed. of great.strength. In the triangu- Jav-form,, every. beam like those of an anchor roof, formed a _ brace, longitudinally directed to resist any tendency to change ‘fori. ~The partitions dividing the rooms within, running tot only. across, but lengthwise. also, as. the large. dimensions of. the structure evidently admit and imply, and the internal, horizontal JANUARY—MARCH 1831. x 314 On the Form of the Ark of Noah, floors, supporting both these again, furnished numerous braces to strengthen every part of the fabric. But this was not the only advantage. Its outward form was that which is of all others the best adapted to elude the force of the waves inastormy sea. The most ample experience has proved, that an inclined plane, such as it presented on all sides to the waves, renders their stroke harmless. We shall not refer for evidence to the dikes of Holland and Denmark, where a slight covering of straw ropes is found sufficient to protect their sloping surfaces. from the effects of the heaviest seas, as it may be said the incli- nation of the planes there is much lower than in the figure we have described, But we may refer to the extremities of our own piers and breakwaters, which are found liable to little in- jury from the heaviest seas, when they are made to meet them in an inclined form; and also to the tapering bases, which our engineers have employed with so much success in our light- houses, built, some of them, in the midst of the waters. Above all, we may refer to the judgment of a person who had perhaps — more experience than any other individual, of the effects produ- ced by the waves on ships at sea, and who remarked the efficacy of even a comparatively slight inclination of the sides to prevent injury. In the Letters of the late Lord Collingwood, we find it stated by him, that the old ships of his fleet, built, according to a former practice, with the upper decks narrower than the lower, and consequently having their sides inclined inwardly, suffered comparatively little, during their long cruizes under his com- mand ; while the new ones, built with vertical sides, an intended improvement, to give more room on the decks, were exposed to much injury from this form of structure, the waves beating upoh them with greatly increased violence. es By the peculiar form of the ark now pointed out, its contents are necessarily reduced to a little less than one-half of what the parallelopiped affords. According to Dr Arbuthnot, the, best, authority on such questions, the burden, granting. the form , to have been. a parallelopiped, amounted to about 81, 000. ‘tons. The triangular form will still leave a eapacity of aot than 35,000 tons, allowing Dr Arbithnot's S estimate oft forming yet a vessel so large, in comparison with any t ta ay ; are accustomed to build, that we can easily conceive, 2 as a On the Form of the Ark of Noah. 315 of particulars would shew, it was sufficiently ample for the pur- pose for which it was intended. Into that detail we need not enter, as it is found fairly enough exhibited by several com- mentators on the passage. It-will be objected to our investigation, by some persons to whom, from respect to the very feeling whence the objection arises, we would not willingly give offence,—that, to enter into any proof that the structure of the ark was the best which we can conceive for fitting it to encounter the shocks and hazards to which it was exposed, is unnecessary, when we reflect, that He who warned Noah of the approaching catastrophe against which it was provided, and commanded it to be built, could also preserve it from every danger. This last position no reflect- ing mind will controyert. But the answer to the objection lies within narrow compass. He was pleased to employ human agency and ordinary means for the preservation of Noah and -his family, and the living creatures that were saved with them ; and if it be delightful to the contemplative mind to observe the numberless wise contrivances, the uses and ends displayed, the infinity of wisdom, in short, poured over the immensity of his creation, it is also highly gratifying to it to find an analo- gous proof of wisdom in its admirable adaptation to its end, in this structure, fabricated by his express directions. So long as we depended on the use of masts and sails to effect the movements of our ships, we could not haye attempted - in their construction, any approach to that form which. we have means te movement within the vessels themselves, it ‘may not, perhaps, be hazarding too much to predict, that we shall speedi- iy take a lesson, from the first vessel of which we have any ,ac- count, for the improvement of the forms of our own. A pre- vious desideratum is indeed necessary to be accomplished,— the placing the whole of the machinery below the surface of the water, to protect it from the hurtful stroke of the waves; and of obtaining this we have no reason to despair, having, before our eyes in nature, mea displayed, analogous to those which, may the form of the ark, with the modifications necessary | to fit it for making way through the water, would be the best and x 2 316 On the Form of the Ark of Noah. strongest form of a steam-ship. In this case we should be io pelled to decline all aid from masts and sails, but the priv would be compensated, by the greater facility with whieh’ nie ship would make its way against a head wind and sea; ‘we should want, too, the advantage of a large open deck for dhibie on board; but this would be compensated by their greater safety in the storm. 8 a ', : Wah) P It having been deemed necessary by the author of the above inquiry, to investigate the stability of equilibrium of a floating body, of the form there ani 9 to the Ark, he finds the result quite satisfactory. The rule, given by Laplace, for determining the stability of equilibrium of a floating body is, “* That the equines will be stable in every direction, when the sum of the prodwets of each element of the section of the floating body, at the level of the fluid, into the square of its distance from that ‘horizontal divas Wout the centre of gravity of the section, in relation to which the sumof the products is a minimum,—is greater than the produet of the vo- lume of the displaced fluid, into the height of the centre of gravity of the floating body above the centre of gravity of the volume.” Supposing now a vessel of the form of the Ark to’ be'im- mersed, by the weight of its materials and lading, to the depth of 6 cubits, which is rather more than one-third of its whole tonnage, and that the weight is so uniformly distributed, ‘that the centre of gravity is the same as if the body were homoge- neous, in that case the former sum would be to the latter in'the proportion of 18 to 7 nearly. CORRS gm Were the centre of gravity to continue thd same, the ratio of the stability would decrease with a deeper lading, owing’ to’ the rapid decrease of the section of flotation. "Were the body im- mersed to the depth of 9° cubits, which is very nearly oneshalf of its tonnage, the former sum would be to the latter only in the proportion of about'8 to 5, and were it immersed to the ‘depth of 12 cubits, ‘or somewhat less than’ two-thirds ‘of ‘its ae the ratio of the former and latter sums would’be only as’'?'to But it is quite evident, that, in arranging the lading, the centre of gravity of the floating body may be brought’ below that of a homogeneous body, and that the facility of doing this On the Form of the Ark. of Noah. 317 increases, with the depth of lading, insomuch that, in very deep ladings, the centre of gravity of the floating body may be very easily brought below that of ‘the displaced fluid, in which case the stability would be absolute in every rate of lading. _ A remark. may be added in regard to another point; and that is, the means of obtaining ventilation. It would be diffi- cult to conceive any form of vessel better fitted for securing this, in safety from the influx of the waves, above which the ridge of the ark would still be greatly elevated at very consi- derable depths of lading. Remarks on Audubon’s “ Birds of America *,” and ** Ornitholo- gical Biography Tt. " Act objects of nature are capable of exciting mtense interest in the mind of man, the moment he begins to lock upon them as fragments of the vast and wondrous machinery of which he himself forms a part. It were difficult to say what collec- tive portion of this magnificent system ought most to attract our attention, for all its parts are so mutually connected, that it is impossible to obtain any just conception of one, without extending our view to others. \ Different minds are differently organized, or are differently biassed, one preferring this, another that, branch of study; and as no mind is capable of grasping the whole, the arrangement is obviously beneficial both to the individual and tothe mass. Setting aside the silly and short-sighted spirit,. that, induces one to extol the department to which he has devoted himself, the man ‘of truly philosophic mind views with pleasure the labours of all who-endeavour to catch a glimpse of the order that has prevailed in the collocation and arrangement of the mundane objects, which, being the. only realities. from. which; the unaided efforts of n man can derive knowledge fitted for enabling him to attain the ab- stractions alone. suited to the gratification of his intellectual powers, are to’ him. the only. legitimate. objects; of study. Whether it'be the resplendent..gem;, buried deep. in the. solid “* The Birds ‘of “Aimetica;! from eel or bp: Fei Sis i aeiten; BL Rs SE. and L., &e., folio i ge ino! oe oP Ornithological Biograpliy, or dn Account of tha Habits of the Binds of the United States, by J. J. Audubon, F. R. §. E. and L., &c. one vol. royal 8vo. 318 Remarks on Audubon’s Birds of America, mass of the globe, or the flower glowing in the delicately pen-. cilled hues of its summer splendour, or the animal instinct with life, and impelled to action by passions and emotions excited ‘by the communication of external existences through the medium of his senses, that is to him the magnet of his versatile mind, it matters not. ‘The universe is full of objects, ‘the entire nature of any one of which no man has éver comptchended, and of which, no one is unworthy of the most intense regard ‘of the Brightest intellect, seeing it is the manifestation of an infinitely brighter. But of the numerous groups of objects that consti- tute the garniture of our planet, none is a more general favour- ite than the class of birds. The school-boy, when his irksome task is over, hies him to the greenwood to search for the cu- riously constructed nest in which the mellow-piped blackbird, or the gaudy finch, or the little cheerful wren, has deposited its cluster of painted eggs. The young savage views with delight the airy forms that flutter and flit on the forest boughs, ‘and prepares his pop-gun and tiny arrows. Man immured in cities, seeks to bring around him the freshness of nature; and, while he decorates his habitation with the flowers of distant climes, forgets not to hang up‘a gilded prison for the little warbler of the woods, that it may delight his ear with its music, or his eye with the brilliancy of its varied plumage. Man roaming the ‘wilds, decorates his person with the spoils of the aerial wanderers ; and’. vain woman, gliding along in the gay saloon, loves the graceful waving of the costly plume, with which she seeks to add: to her attractive powers. But enough :—every body knows sag i are universal favourites. In every department of natural history, knowledge has wale slow progress, For ages, men have been contented with a ‘ste perficial idea of its. objects. Unfortunately, as some might say, for its progress, it seems to most people so simple a ‘science, that they imagine they have nothing more to do, in contributing to its advancement, than to see and describe. Hence, Ornithos logy has too often been in the hands of men ill qualified for the” task which they had undertaken. One is fond of! birds, “as every body is, and fond of shooting them, as many persons are; and he fancies, that an account of the colours of their feathers, however vague, may betiefit the world.’ So he- prepares: his book, and is forthwith immortalized. Another is fond of draw and. Ornithological Biography. . — 319 ing, as well as of birds, , He is fonder, still of his own glory, and he resolves to perpetuate, the results of his. labours, by having them engraved. . Then is the world gratified by the sight of birds, which, in form and attitude, resemble nothing in existence, but which are made known. by the excellent expe- dient of engraving their names beside them; and this man also passes into immortality. Another, fond of the fireside, and of reading books, gathers around him the aggregated wisdom. of ages; and studying the productions of the forests of the Wa- bash, or the ranges of the Himmaleh, as delineated, not.in the book.of nature, but in the books of men, perhaps little better qualified than himself, and who have described birds from skins and feathers, with a bill stuck at the one end, and two withered legs near the other, comes upon the astonished world in all the glory of authorship. Others are fond of marshalling birds into classes, orders, tribes, divisions, subdivisions, groups, genera, subgenera, &c., or of wheeling them into circles, or extending them in lines; or they may make them diverge from types, or set them a marching in pairs, or in fives;—and many other fool- eries are played off for the benefit of science. _ But every now and. then does there appear a man, who sees hives not as other men see them; and he, communing with Nature in the wilderness, or scrutinizing her productions in the silence of. his closet, elicits the elements that are one day to accumulate: into the stable basis ef a system which shall form a temple, dedicated to the genius of the universe. Of one of these men there is somewhat here to be said. Joun JAMES AUDUBON, a native of Louisiana, has been from early youth addicted to the admiration of nature. In a beauti- ful country, teeming with animal and vegetable life, the pro- fusion of which at.first tended to render him undecided as to the particular, path which he ought to pursue; he at length, struck /by the beauty and variety of the. feathered tribes, their manners and occupations, their wonderful migrations and their mysterious instincts, resolved to make them the principal object. of his;study.. A pure passion gave energy to his mind. He studied nature, not with the view of immortalizing his name by his discoveries, nor even with a desire of infusing a portion of his spirit into his fellow men, much.less with the hope of in- creasing his pecuniary stores, but, simply from, an instinctive 320 Remarks on Audubow's Birds of America, impulse; “an admiration ‘of, a love for, the objects that mani- fested to him the attributes of their Divine Author, ''To per- petuate their remembrance, and render them ever present. to his wind, he ‘first tried to preserve their skins, But ‘their faded tints, the stiffness which could not be avoided in restoring them to shape, and the consequent want of seeming animation, de- termined him to'represent them by the pencil. | Numberless drawings were made, but year after year they were. consigned to the flames. At length, beginning to be somewhat pleased with his attempts to imitate nature, he commenced a collection of drawings, which, after more than: twenty years of almost un- remitted observation of the habits of birds, and after he had shot and examined specimens of all the forms that hecould find in the vast regions of the United States, at length amounted, to several hundreds. Still he had no other object in view than that of studying and depicting nature. Finally, after a visit to Philadelphia, which had opened his eyes to the ways of »men, ‘he began, in the solitude of the forest, to commune with him- self as to the possibility of laying his labours before. the world. ‘‘ Happy days, and nights of pleasing dreams !” says he, ‘¢ whom the wise men of the west had denounced as a wild woodsman, and whom, even his friend, the Prince of Musignano designates as a ‘ painter-naturalist.’ “I read over the catalogue ofimy collection, and thought how it might be possible for an uncon- nected and unaided individual, like myself, to accomplish,the grand scheme. I arranged my drawings,- improved them as much as was in my power; and, as I daily retired farther from the haunts of men, determined to leave nothing undone, which my labour, my time, or my purse could accomplish.” _ The «grand scheme,’ however, was destined to be accomplished, — at least it is in progress. Mr Audubon left America and ;came ‘to England. His native country was either unable to jappre- ciate his genius, or unable to aid his efforts, and Englandydid ‘both. The’ Americans may justly be proud of. their ;achieve- ments, and no! people can be: more disposed to, boast of their good qualities ; but, although they may boast.of an Audubon, they must leave to England the merit of having fostered him. ‘¢ As'I approached the coast of England,” says, he, ‘‘,and for the first time beheld ‘her fertile shores, the despondency of my spirits became very great. I knew not an individual in the Na . = Ce re . - © sand Ornithological Biography... 321 country, and although I was the bearer of letters from Ameri- can friends, and Statesmen of great eminence, my situation ap- peared precarious in the extreme. I imagined that every indi- vidual whom I was about to meet might be possessed of talents ‘superior to those of any on our side the Atlantic! Indeed, as I for the first’ time walked on the streets of Liverpool, my heart nearly failed me, for not a glance of sympathy did I meet with in my wanderings for two days. 'To the woods I could not be- take myself, for there were none near. But how soon did_all around me assume a-different aspect! How fresh is. the recol- lection of the change! The very first letter which. I tendered procured me a world of friends. My drawings were publicly exhibited, and publicly praised. Joy swelled my heart: the first difficulty was surmounted. Honours which, on application ‘being made through my friends, Philadelphia had refused to ‘grant, Liverpool freely accorded.” It is unnecessary to follow Mr Audubon in his progress through England. Suffice it to say, that, in Edinburgh, he commenced the publication of his ‘* Birds of America.” After ‘a few plates had been presented to the world difficulties oceur- red. The engraver, Mr W. H. Lizars, expressed. his. satisfac- tion at being relieved of the work, which was transferred to Mr R. Havell jun., a Londom artist, who has continued the en- ‘gravings. The work commenced in 1827, and already the first - volume, consisting of 100 plates, is completed. It will oni lowed ‘by ‘at least three of equal size. : * In estimating the merits of a book, it may in some fey a cases be necessary to employ the carpenter’s rule... Without, mea- suring with as much accuracy as. Mr, Audubon would em- ploy in transferring to his paper the claw..of a Humming ‘bird, or the nasal plumelet of a Regulus, we find the pages of his work to be three feet three inches in length, and_,two feet two inches in breadth. This gigantic volume, in.a_battle of the books, would doubtless play its part to,astonishment, ‘and, by mere weight, overthrow a whole battalion. of. the,.mul- titudinous romances, novels, poems, and nondescript skirmish- ers, with which the Jand is overrun. But. in. modern, war- fare, thanks to gunpowder and wit, a. stripling may level a giant, and a duodecimo: may) display better generalship than $22 Remarks, on, Audubon’s Birds of America, a double»-elephant. folio. . “. Incidit, ingens), ictus .ad ter- ram.” ‘The reason which our author assigns for these .extend- ed dimensions, is his desire of representing, the objects which have occupied his pencil, of the size which Nature gave them: » «As other authors have proffered a like excuse for, the ampli- tude of their sheets, the delineations on which, nevertheless, hardly convey so accurate an idea of the originals as the dimi- nutive wood-cuts' of Bewick, let us see how Mr Audubon ac- quits himself... The first object presented to us is. the Wild Turkey, and, in this instance, the paper is barely large enough, The female Turkey, the Bird of Washington, the, White- tailed Eagle, and a few others, fill their respective plates. . The most beautiful groups, biographical scenes, representations of maidenly coyness, maternal affection, lordly misrule, republican sociality, and, in one instance, conjugal strife, occupy others to the very edges. On the other hand, we sometimes finda single bird, not much bigger than a Tomtit, claiming to itself the whole space of a sheet. Between these extremes there are various means. | On inspecting the plates in succession, one cannot fail to ae struck by the peculiarities which they present. The most un- practised eye must instantly discover something m the aspect and attitudes of the birds, which he has never seen in art, and to ‘obtain which recourse must be had to nature... The cause of this is to be found in the circumstance of the author’s. having borrowed from living nature. Others draw not from birds but from dried skins. Their representations are as. stiff and dis- torted as it has pleased the bird-stuffer to make the originals. Mr Audubon’s method of representing birds is as fellows. Finding in the woods, the prairies, or the fields, a bird which he is desirous ‘of figuring, he follows it, steals upon it_unper- ceived, as the Indian ‘steals upon the white man in his encamp- ment, observes its motions and attitudes, studies its peculiarities, and then shoots it. He restores it to its favourite or charac- ‘teristic attitude, ‘bya method which, some years ago, he exhi- bited to the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, and while it’ yét.retains unimpaired the rapidly evanescent hues of its eyes; bill, and feet, he transfers its semblance to his paper. The bill, the claws, the scales of the tarsi.and. toes, the feathers; and Ornithological Biography. 323 and every other part of its exterior, are carefully measured, and ‘the drawing becomes a fac-simile. Even this’ method, precise ‘as it is beyond any other, will not necessarily lead to perfection. We know persons, who, although they are acquainted with it, blunder on as they have been wont to do, producing birds: with three joints in their hind toes; legs, the origin of which is any where but in the right place; necks like a distaff enveloped. in tow, and feathers formed of hogs’ bristles. _ There must. be. an intimate knowledge of the habits and peculiarities, of the whole family history of the different species, together with a proper acquaintance, not merely with the rules, but with the resources, of art, before perfect representations of birds can be produced. As no mere naturalist can represent a bird; so can. no mere painter; we have witnessed the attempts of both, and. the. re- sults were wretched caricatures. ‘He who would Agure animals must be indeed a “ painter-naturalist.” EY Let any man-conversant with birds lay before him» any num- ber of these plates selected at random, and he will instantly and unhesitatingly pronounce them true representations of nature. The characteristics of the species are present, the forms and at- ‘titudes are copies, the occupations are disclosed, the imagination of a poet has presided over the arrangement. From. these plates, there is more to be learned by the student than he may at first imagine. A few examples will suffice to make good the — assertion. But before we select afew plates for particular exa- mination, let us remember that we must look upon them: as scenes from nature, not merely as representations of birds. In criticising a work of this kind, every one has a way of his own. One, without any real knowledge of nature, but having gathered ideas’ from museums, and technical descrip- tions :—bill brown, iris hazel, back umber, rump red, foreneck ciiereous, breast and belly dirty-white, feet horn-colour, &e.— points out to you the beauties and blemishes which he perceives. Another, totally unacquainted with birds or books, trusts. to his eloquence; that is, his faculty of uttering nonsense with a, good grace. Another, knowing enough, but dull as a Dutchman, applies, in his criticism, rules adapted. for the mensuration of planes ‘and solids, tells you that-a:bill.is too. long, a. feather too short, or a pupil oval when it should be round. foak, chi’ 324 Remarks on: Audubon's Birds of America, Plate LXXVI. Virginian Partridges surprised bya Hawk. —The ‘savage ferocity of the bird of prey, manifested in the glare of his eye, the bill half open in anticipation of carnage, ‘and the outstretched talons with which he is about to seize his’ terrified prey, seemingly perplexed in his choice by the number’ of birds which have in their terror become heaped upon. each: other, is a subject repugnant perhaps in itself, but rendered in- tensely interesting by the skill with which it has been managed. Almost every possible attitude is exhibited in the group. Some of the partridges are flying off with palpitating hearts; others are endeavouring to evade the murderer’s grasp by dashing side- _long along the ground ; some are beaten'down and hampered by the rest ; one upset, and desperate, meets the foe with its power- less claws and open bill. Terror and dismay are depicted. in every countenance. Never before did we imagine that the pas- sions of birds could be expressed in a manner so intelligible.» Plate XI. The Bird of Washington.—Powerful, sedate, and in an imposing attitude, whether this bird bears any resem- ‘blance to him after whom it is named or not, it is one of the most magnificent of the feathered race. As the colours are sim- ple, and the parts large, one might imagine it no difficult task to represent an eagle; yet we nave never seen one a before. roth ve antert Plate XVI. Peregrine Peildonie Menditiie their. prey picture like this can hardly be called pleasing, yet this is one, ‘which has justly attracted the notice, and elicited the praises, of all who have seen Mr Audubon’s splendid collection:of draw- ings. "The attitudes are highly characteristic. The getieral position of the female falcon, and especially that of its left leg, are finely managed, as is the: sii of — neck of the male.')° 9-9)" dw bed Shsenst ‘Plate XVIL. Carolina Tiirtles Dis is: one of ihe most ‘pleasing ‘pictures’ in the work. In a cluster of Stuartia:Mala- codendron a dove has:made her nest. Seated:on cher eggs, she is receiving from her ever kind and. attentive mate;:the: food: which he has been ‘collecting for her. On atwig ‘abovesis@ love-scene in its commencement, »The female, coy.andtimorous,’ ‘has, in her sidelong‘retveat from the male,: reached:the extremity: of the branch, and has already:half: ‘opened her wings and: tail and Ornithological Biwgraphy. ~ 325. to fly to another perch, whither her ardent admirer. will doubt- less follow her. : The) beautiful white flowers, and delicately tinted leaves, overshadow the pair whose nuptials have already. been celebrated: One almost fancies he hears the coomg: which has come softly, in the solitude of the’ forest; onthe ear of the painter, and inspired him with gentle and pleasing thoughts. “Plate VII. Purple Grakles.—Maize-thieves, as theyare not inaptly called. -T'wo of these birds are perched: on:a stalkof Indian corn; they have attacked an unripe ear, tormoff the husk, and devoured a large portion of the seeds. \'Themale is calling to his fellows to jom him. The female; already sati= ated, is flying off with a supply to her young: Theattitudes are graceful and easy. The birds are evidently enjoying:all the vigour resulting from abundant food and agreeable occupations. From this group we learn, in the first place, all that two stuffed skins could disclose to us, namely, that. the beak, the feet, the head, the wings, and the tail, have certain peculiarities of form ; and, secondly, that in summer the bird feeds upon the maize, and conveys the green and juicy seeds to its young. In ha- bit and attitude, we see that the Purple Grakle approaches the ‘crows, as well as the genus Icterus. © We have, moreover, a representation of the maize, of which so much has lately been heard under the name of Cobbet’s corn. The grouping is beauti- ful, the colouring accurate, and the engraving excellent. A more perfect and characteristic representation could not be made. ~ Plate XXI. Mocking-Birds.—The famed songstress of the American woods has formed: her nest in a bush overgrown with ‘the Virginian jessamine. A rattlesnake has made his way tosit. Twisted around the stem, his tail raised in the air, the horrible reptile is stretching forward his distended jaws, hissing at the female bird, which, in her agony, almost suffers:herself to: bes come a prey tothe monster... The male, full of cousage, has erept upon the foe, and is aiming a blow at his eye.» A-pair-of neighbours, attracted by the cries of the mocking-birds, are'eye- ing the snake from the tops of the twigs, and meditating a descent. The engraving of this plate is not in the best. style; the female mocking-bird in particular, perhaps the finest figure which ‘has come from the pencil of Avitiett 2 is omen injured by the coarseness of thecerigiiningts ip eeal Dee eid sity i: 326 Remarks on Audubows Birds of America, Plate IT: The grace and elegance of the Yellow-billed Cuc-: koos gliding’ amongst the foliage of the papaw-tree in pursiit of” insects, are unrivalled, ‘although the execution of -_ jm is’ inferior to that of some others. | ‘Plate LX XXITI. 'The House-wren is not bey nice in “he lecting a place for its nest. A pair of these birds have nestled in‘an old hat stuck upon a twig. The male, perched on the | edge of the hat, is commencing ‘a little ditty, while the female, just arrived with a large spider, is delivering it to one of the ~ young, which are eagerly squeezing piomselves through a A ee in the crown. Plate LXXXVII. Florida Jays.—These beautiful bitds; although they have no tale to tell, forma splendid picture. They are perched on the branches of the persimon, pete avant clusters of fruit. | In short, the general character of the work may be expressed as follows :—The birds are represented such as nature created them, of their full dimensions, glowing in all the beauty of their unsullied plumage, and presenting the forms, attitudes and motions peculiar to the species. In no case do they appear before us in the stiff and formal attitudes in which we find them in other works, perched upon ah unmeaning stump or stone. On the contrary, they are seen im all imaginable posi- tions, pursuing their usual avocations. ‘ The foreshortenings and’ varieties of attitude which induce painters generally to present’ side views only, seem to have been accounted as nothing out of the’ ordinary course of drawing; with so much delicacy, grace” and vigour, have the most difficult positions been managed! A’ peculiar charm is given to these representations, by the cireuim-"” stance that the trees, plants, and flowers of the districts in whieh | they occur, are all represented, generally with surprising ‘aceus” racy, and always with ‘great taste. The flowing’ festoons of | climbing shrubs and creepers, hung with broad leaves, ‘gatlands © of flowers, and ‘clustered berries, the lichen-crusted hianéhiedat” the forest’ trees, and ‘the decayed stumps on Which the wood. © 3 peckers' ‘seek’ their’ food; aré ‘in Ceres 463 ects” “of —— . tion. CER HT tt SIS US oa It'is not’ enough ‘to say that’ our ‘author has “invented anew 5 BIS style in the representation of natural’ objects ; ‘for 80 true ial and Ornithological Biography. S27. his pictures, that he who has once seen and examined them, can neyer again look with pleasure on the finest productions of other | artists. 'To paint like Audubon, will henceforth mean to re- present Nature as she is. Nevertheless, there are faults in an wens as doubtless psi must ever be in the most successful imitations of nature. ..A very few of the figures, if not positively bad, are poor, and must have been taken from drawings made long before the artist. acquired the taste, or at least the facility which he now. pos-, sesses. The Black-and-white Creeper may be instanced, although the plant on which it hangs redeems the character of the artist. In some cases, where the species is small, we might: naturally expect a whole group, and are disappointed in finding only a single individual, generally a male. When only a solitary speci~: men of a rare or a new species had ever occurred to the author, this might well be pardoned; but eyen then, the individual might be represented in at least two different: positions, so as to. disclose all its parts. To be truly useful to the naturalist, the representations of species ought to include the male, the female, the young, and in some cases the bird in different, stages. In the subsequent volumes we may expect to find the deficiencies, supplied ; and in the mean time may enjoy the pleasure which, the contemplation of the wonders of nature and art, combined in. this splendid work, cannot fail to awaken in the mind of any. one alive to either. It now only remains to say a few words of the eseanhints Some of the plates at the commencement. are by Lizars,. the, rest by Havell, the former dine, the latter line and aquatint. combined. Some of the first plates are rather coarse, but a:. progressive imprevement is perceptible. Many. of. those. to-. wards the end, and indeed throughout, are extremely beauti- ful. Nothing more perfect than the last twenty engravings, for. example, could be desired. Mr Havell has evidently mas~. tered his subject, and is worthy . of being asseciated. with the, great American naturalist in the production of a work, which, as Cuvier has justly said, is the most splendid: monument:that, has yet been raised to ornithology. Accompanying the first volume. of the ‘* Birds of America,” appears another of smaller dimensions, but still somewhat on the grand scale,” to which is given the title of « Omitho. 328: ee emarks.on Audubow's. Birds of, America, - logicalsBiography; “or an Account of the habits of the Birds of? the United’ States ‘of America.” It contains; as its title-page” iiformis us)" “descriptions ‘of the objects ‘represented in»the’ work entitled 'The Birds of America, interspersed with delinea=* tiong’of “American Scenery and Manners.” 9) aad ihrreieh hod ¢qRor*our: past and ‘present state of knowledge,’ we ‘have enough of systems. It. were better that they who would: ens lighten us on’ the subject of nature’s productions, should exas* mine them in the®woods than in=the closet. Great \as isthe’ light:that has ‘been’ thrown “upon the anatomical ‘structure of birds;and many as have ‘been the ‘enthusiasts, who in: forest and marsh ‘have ‘collected objects for description, little; very © little, «do we know of the ‘habits and)amanners“of birds, their's pursuits, their migrations, and their diversified relations: jal sitigle’ work, written by a Scottish emigrant, presents: us with the history, beautifully and accurately told, of many of thew bitds of a very interesting portion of the globe; but few have followed in the footsteps of Wrison*, ‘and it would appear few® are qualified either to observe or to describe as he has‘d thes objects of which men now begin generally to profess admiration; ! the living productions of nature. © He who has read the beau-0' tiful biographies of Wilson, will hardly find pleasure:in the-uns animated details of most other ornithologists.) All the ends off: the earth have: been ‘searched ‘for new ‘birds, as we callithose which have never yet been presented to the eye of? civilized man,"and daily are ‘prepared’ skins pouring in from the:most si refiote islands of ‘the ocean and the central deserts of the conti nents; but«the time will be when pilgrimages will be under~ # taken’ forthe purpose of bringing home, not the knowledgewf:« the existence, but that of the peculia habits and actions of birdsi» _ Observing nature with the eye of an enthusiastic admirety:t Mr: Audubon has ‘traversed the dark: forests’ of America, folsee lowing the track of the-discomfited and disconsolate Indian, asst penetrated her ‘cane-brakes and cypress-swamps; teeming withr: the loathsome ‘and dangerous forms of reptile life, visited: hers” oceantlakes, ‘wandered by the-verdant margins of ‘her magi 27T% >: bauob reer ark) 1Oain ead aay pa ® An edition of Wilson’s delightful work, including also that of Charles Bonaparte, on the, Birds of America, in four volumes, is,at present printing in Edinburgh, under the superintendence of Professor Jameson, i | a | cent rivers, and paddled. sasiialtiads canoe over the floods that have spread consternation. and terror among the inhabitants of the alluvial plains of her midland regions. This, then, is the man, and not he who, seated in comfort by his table, fancies how things should be, from whom might be expected. the com- pletion of the descriptions of others who have pursued. the same method. ‘ It is greatly to be wished,” says Charles Lucien Bonaparte, speaking of our author, in his Continuation. of Wilson’s Ornithology, the production of a learned, most accu-.. rate, and enthusiastic naturalist, ‘ that whilst his work is pre- paring, a scientific abstract of his discoveries should be drawn. up without delay.” Here, then, is not indeed * a scientific ab- stract;” but a detailed account of Mr Audubon’s discoveries and observations. As, in painting, our author has a style of his own, so also in. writing. His biographies do not consist of the observations of others, eked out and distorted, so as to seem original. He pro-. fesses to write only of what he has seen. Nor are they always conducted with that strict regard to method which characterizes . the writings of the naturalists of the Linnzan school. Thus, in his.deseription of the Wood Thrush. (T'urdus mustelinus), he:commences: neither with bill nor claw, but with the follows ing beautiful apostrophe. “ Kind reader, you now see before you my greatest favours ite of the feathered tribes. To it I owe much. How often has. it revived my drooping spirits, when I have listened to its wild, , notesin the forest, after passing a restless night in my slender. shed, so feebly secured against the violence of the storm, as to, shew me the futility of my best efforts to rekindle my. little firey,., - whose uncertain. and vacillating light had gradually died away, , under the-destructive weight of the dense torrents of rain that seemed to involve the heavens and the earth in one mass of}, fearful murkiness,.save when the red streaks of the flashing... thunderbolt burst-on the dazzled eye, and, glancing along. the... huge trunk of the stateliest and noblest tree in my immediate, neighbourhood, were: instantly followed. by an uproar of jerack-, _ ling, crashing, and deafening sounds, rolling their volumes in tumultuous eddies far and near, as if snisilennt: the. very pili JANUARY —MARCH acer. wa at Y 380 Remarks:on Audubon's Birds of America, > ings of :the unformed thought !. How often, .after sucha night,: when far from my dear home, and deprived of the presence of those nearest to my heart, wearied, hungry,- drenched, and ::so, lonely'and desolate, as almost. to. question »myself:why. Iwas, thus situated, when I have seen the fruit..of my labours onthe eve of ‘being destroyed, as the water, collected, into: streamy rushed through my little camp, and forced me to 'stand:ereety shivering ina cold fit like that of a:severe ague, ‘when Ishavé been obliged to wait, with the:patience of a martyr, for:the re-! turn of day, trying in vain to destroy the tormenting moschettoes, silently counting over the years of my youth, doubting, pers haps, if ever again I’ should return to my home and embrace my family ;—how often, as the first glimpses of morning glvamed doubtfully amongst the dusky masses of the forest»treesy:has there come upon my ear, thrilling along: the sensitive: chords which connect that organ with the heart, the delightful musi¢ of this harbinger of day! And. how fervently, on such oceas sions, have I blessed the Being who formed the Wood Thrush, and placed it in those solitary forests, as if to console me amidst my privations ; to cheer my depressed mind; and to. make me feel, as I did, that never ought man to despair, whatever may be his situation, as he never can be assured that aid:and:de- liverance are not at hand.” to. hemede onal The biographies of the birds are simple, as they ought, to be; animated and interesting. The peculiar mode: of flight: is jal- ways given in detail; and the information which our authorsaf: fords on this subject, which has as yet: received little investigas tion, is entirely new. The pursuits of the. birds, their food;: their migrations, their nidification, and the other details of their history, are described. Then follows. a technical. descriptions: including the form of the bill, the head, the feet, and ) other parts’; the texture and form of the feathers; the colours of the' various parts, and, lastly, the dimensions.,:The numerous BeveROry" ee ee im ‘the: ait are. also jbriefly»de~ stribed. ' hodarort ova domly: “To ‘relieve, as Mr dial ‘bays, sai tedium of those» who may have imposed upon themselves: the: task) of following an author —e thie: mazes of seis on — ‘he shas vs wide ort hems sd i Rei ou oorvend. Ornithological: sBiog raphy: eHsessh 331 interspersed’ descriptionse of American: scenery. and» manners. Gloomy: forests, tangledeane-brakes; dismal, swamps, immense: prairies, majestic rivers; floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes ;.. the: migrations of the white men, the retreat of the red-;, the charac- ter'and “pursuits of the back) wood’s-men; ‘the extensive inland. navigations, andother subjects, form the materials of; these in~ structiveand amusing sketches. Surely, if ornithology so treated: does not’excite as-much interest as a novel or a romance; | it eavitle be‘owing to the utter perversity of the human race. o-fibod The greatest objection: to a work: like the Birds of iAjiee _ yica” is;'thatyon account of its great price, it: can be seen: and examined by few students of nature. But surely nature de- serves a monument like this, which will remain a model for the imitation of her admirers.’ ‘To complete the work: for which he has been destined, its:author intimates his intention of laying before the world a systematic and methodical account of all the birds of the United States. The observations of a whole life of unremitted labour ought not'to be lost to the world ; and their essence ‘will form a worthy companion tothe Manualof the Omithology of Europe by the celebrated’ Temminck.. The study of the habits of birds is as likely to: throw light on their natural — affinitiesas is thatof their forms» and structure; and. withsa knowledge of both, our author will confer the greatest. benefit on science by promulgating his ideas on’ classification. ‘eIn the deseriptive work which he has already published, there isccontained a mass of facts:which must be highly useful.to the ornithologist, as being the result of personal observation, under circumstances singularly favourable. It, moreover,, contains sixteen’ species not before described. | Perhaps a little: more: me. | thod in the arrangement of the details, in the subsequent ae might render them more easily consulted... Loa ibulons io Interesting ‘as the birds of America, or.of. any then petice of the globe, must ‘prove to the ornithologist, of: all countries, when treated inthe manner exhibited by, the: splendid. works which have furnished the subject of the above remarks; ; still moreso 'to the: British: ornithologist:would:bé those of ,hisjown country: Tt is trae! welhave lalready adargé,if;mot aysplendid ework; from the pencil of Mr Selby5 butpagainst that,workzight be urged the objection’ that has been made to Mr Audubon’ 8, x¥ 2 382 Remarks on’ Hiudhudonts' Birdy Wp annerica , NS ys BA namely, its great. price, while, at the same time; Ft brid such as to approach in any striking degrée ‘to the’ perfection which mi ght ph desired. Much, therefore, ‘is’ it ‘to’ be’ ‘wished that. Mr sis 2c should undertake the delineation ’of* the bids of Great Britain, which, with his’ matchless’ talents, ‘aided "By , those of Mr Havell, would eclipse, not ily all’ other yepresen- j tations of these birds, but éven ‘the * Birds “of “Ameriéa”un- | -tivalled as that work now is. Sure, the *« Imperial’ ‘Te the ss Empress of the nations,” ought to possess a work of thigtlihd suited to her rank in the political and” ‘moral!’ bi pare of ‘dar beautiful and mysterious world. OUEsTaS : mt * Onsrriorsites.) slg onls 110." of siealasin ‘BVI OOO 2eS0oaTIes | ~8IBG 9 i loan ott Jou Liv. ainsemsob » Observations on, the Glaciers of the Alps *,.. By . F, . Hust, Professor at Soleure. l-vel cient re a sod iit : ree ro Ohi: “A Journey devoted exclusively to geography or méteo executed by a man well versed in physical ‘and natural dale affords a rich store of important observations, which aic 1s power- fully m unveiling the secrets of nature. ‘The narratives. of De ‘Saussure and Humboldt prove what advantage a superior mind may obtain from inspecting these particular regions. ‘The ‘Alps, although situated in the centre of the most ‘civilized | ontinen t : have remained a long time without being studied ; it is yaad own what. science owes to the particular attention wit Bose | “Mountains were studied by one of these learn 7 Tine ra we have mentioned. Other naturalists have trodden tn bis iO 21I9VII SUts footsteps, and notwithstanding, there are yet man ny points n which new observations are useful and often’ necessar sii _ Situated i in_a, temperate climate, the Alps, b oy sian “above. the, level of the” sea, afford a ated ¥. phenomena "which belong - to polar, regions, ‘and which, “noctath ne “hibit the peculiar characters which Nina elevation impresses. Mr Hugi, already known by; many yaluable.works,relating to physics.and natural history, having, in, 1828 and:1829,. made ex- éursions amotig thé Bernese:A lps, lias:collected the observations NDT Lo * Translated by the Rev. William Ettershank, M. A. iy te a Observations on the Glaciers of the Alps. 838. which -he,had made-on that interesting country, in a memoir ewhich, at first had. been, read to. the Society of Natural History pof Soleure, of. which. Mr Hugi i is, President, and which had af- -terwards been; printed. _ The excursions of the author have been yprincipally, in the eastern part of. the chain which separates 1 the _Canton, of Berne from the Vallais, and farther from. the Grisons. _Dhey reach to the summitof the Finsteraarhorn, the most televated . peak.of; the chain, and. which..does not yield to any among ‘the Alps:except Mont Blanc and Mont Rosa. The narrative of this » attempt and some others analogous, will furnish matter for an i in- teresting article in another nuwber of this J ournal ; _but_we shall confine ourselves for the present to record some observations on the glaciers. The subject has been treated by Saussure in the first volume * of his Travels among the Alps, with the perspicuity and ~ correctness which always distinguish this celebrated geologist; but new documents will not be useless. The attention of De Saus- “gure, at the period when he published this part of his work, had been particularly directed to the chain of Mont Blanc, and con- sequently to the Glaciers of Savoy, The observations of -Mr Hugi have been made concerning a different region, perhaps still richer in glaciers. It is interesting to compare the latter -with the former. : -. The author established at first, as had been done by De “Saussure, a distinction between two kinds of glaciers, for which “ ‘the German language possesses two different expressions (firn “and gletscher), and which, in French, are confounded under the denomination of glacierst. The former i is that stratum of { ; _pular and permanent snow, which covers the summits “and the “'declivities of very high mountains ; the Jatter 1 is that of those large rivers of 7 ice, more or less opaque, which: descend from “those mountains by lateral valleys, and often. over “ati “extent ‘of _ many. leagues, even to the heart of the inhabited valleys 5’ ‘they _ are also sometimes named mers de elace.. Among the latter, “the most remarkable are those which surround Mont Blanc, “Mont Cervin, and Finsteraarhorn. All ‘the others, from Savoy i Eaition in'# Vols. quarto, Netichatél. 1/0! + Having had fréquent’ opportiinitiés Of examining’ the asi of the 2pBernese Alps, we can. vouch for thé Accuracy-of Prof..Hugi’s statements. — Trans. tye rOBS! i wot Ntwa & 334 Professor’ Hog?’ 3 Observittions on the fo’ the Tyrol, are ‘of: ‘Yess extent ; “the greater number bélorig! rather to the first kind, ‘that is to Say, “present: ‘frozen’ suminits 5’ which é a little lower Bade true glaciers of the ‘second’ ahngsoron “Mr Hu, ugi has particularly studied the ‘vast! sea 6f ice “eoind prised betiveen Grendelwold, the Vallais, Pash" ‘and: ‘the'va of Lotch,’ a desert region, above which’ ‘there arise five oF colosses, of which’ the elevation | exceeds’ 12;000 feet, | “and front whence issué, in all difections, a great ‘numberof Pisaene ° The whole’ of the glaciers, of the different kinds of grotips’ on this tegion, afford an extent that may be estimated at 43 leagues from south to north, and at 8} from east’ to wer" which gives a surface of about 38 square leagues." ’ PP “In general,” says the author; “they assign too préat a thickness to the mass of glaciers. It is between 30 and 80 feet at its extremity. Having met in the inferior glacier Uf the ‘Aar, about a league uBdve its extremity, a crevice which reach- ed to the soil, I sounded it, and’ found a depth ‘of 120° feet, There is on the great glacier of Aletch, at two leagues’ above " its extremity, a little lake (Moriler See), often empty, of which the border affords a vertical cut of ‘the ‘glacier, ‘which i8 ‘nidt more than 100 feet; two leagues still higher,’ thé Spall: ‘Fises on the rocks between the peak of Aletch and’ the’ Faulhorn, ‘and at this place it cannot be estimated ‘at more ‘than | ‘vated A deep crevice in the glacier of Viesch behind the’ Finsteraai horn, does not indicate a gieater thickness of ice.” Oftéil’ {he glaciers of both kinds glide over the rock, aad’ break vertieallys and their anterior part is precipitated into an abyss} in Hes cases, the cut formed never exceeds 100 feet. ‘During 20 the inferior glacier of the Aar has advanced about one-fourth'of & league. | "The shepherds who frequent its environs; and’ WHO now the depth of the valley which it has filled, affired SHA Ue ‘Blacier« cannot be more in this place than 80'feet thick?’ "0" “"'@'On ‘the ‘high peaks the frozen-mass dimi ihishies evento ‘Hie thickness of only somé feet. - “The peak of the ‘Pitter horn ‘was ‘completely bare in. 1829 5" “even its bases were séén in places. “The covering is equally ‘thin ‘on ‘the Sdiréckth he dunpttan the ake ane greeks nett thee of ‘the Alps.”* e980 ol oi ylleJnobiooa. dsdj alond? of dud ‘¢ If, moreover, we yoimse ae connexion that étude a _ Glaciers of the Alps. piel 335 the.,mountains:and.the glaciers which cover them ; if, in par- ticular, we consider the disappearance under the ice of certain formations.or strata of rocks, and their reappearance in other places ;-if we attend to the course of the acclivity of the valleys from .the extremity of .a glacier to its commencement, &c. ; we obtain the following conclusions :—The mean thickness of the glaciers of the.second kind, which descend into the inferior yal- leys, is from 80 to 100 feet :*. the thickness of those glaciers which. are more-elevated, and which fill the deeper valleys, may be considered as ranging from 100,to 180 feet. .The glaciers of the first. kind, . which cover the summits, or extend over the declivities, scarcely attain 40 feet in thickness. Doubtless, there are deep holes:in the rocks, where the thickness of the ice is much. more :considerable;..the thickness likewise diminishes at the limits of its:extent. . Besides, it is often formed after ava- Janches in extraordinary heaps in certain places. In like manner, a winter very abundant in snow may augment, for a short time, the thickness. of the covering of the peaks,” ~The ice of a glacier of the second kind, is almost as hard as rocks; the sun, the rain, and the warm winds, slightly melt its surface, but never soften the mass. If we travel on one of these glaciers, even to more elevated regions, ave see it, at a height of about 7600 feet above the level of the sea, pass rapid. ly into the condition of ice of the first kind. ~ It is composed of round grains, about the size of a pea; the sun softens it’to such a degree, that. we often sink init to the knees ; but. a moderate cold restores it to its former hardness. The “she of separation of the.glaciers of the two kinds, is no other than the limit of perpetual snow, that is to say, the height above which snow. does not melt in summer... It.is customary to place. this limit in our mountains, between 6000. and. 9000 feet ; but, if we consider more accutately the melting of the snow, we shall be obliged. to assign to this limit a rae greater range. It does not appear that they have sufficiently distinguished, in this determination, each of the two kinds of slsiach and the snow properly ; so called; they haye not observed correctly the different manner * De Saussure obtained precisely the same result at the glacier of Bois, but he thinks that accidentally he met with much thicker’ ice. LAVSH: i, B+ 440 and 523, beacst uote, nit I9GHM(4TIO} SY ae Prokeonog Hyer S. Oberoations on nthe OTT! Sontenied ee viewing coer sich the: bottom: ‘ofathe alien The inferior limit of glaciers of the. second, kind. descends: even, to $200. feet. above the level.of the sea, and wavies-accorditig™to the. situation of the glacier, its, declivity,,the, rocks; which sure round it, the depth, and. the, steepness.of the ravine which) en» closes it, to.a height,of 7400 feet, that. is, to' say,,to, the lower; : limit of glaciers of the first, kind. The.limit of the snow\.spet cially. considered as to its melting, is still. much more .unceftaing While, on. the southern; declivities, it.rises even to, 10,000-feet 3) it descends, on. the northern extremitiesjeven tothe ‘lower: limit: of glaciers of the second kind ; it varies considerably: in:the same: place, according to seasons, the insulated nature of) :the/ peaks, the connection of the declivities, their respective ‘position. inclination, the nature.and stratification of the rocks, thejaccus) mulations of debris, the interior beat of the earthy the vegetas> tion, and, above all, the prevailing direction, the force, and the} temperature of, the, winds; all these cirunistances exert:such ane influence upon the height of this line, that it.is.impossible to dews termine it, precisely:,.:‘Thexe, where avalanches and. violentitem- pests have not formed extraordinary accumulations; it may hap=2 pen. in the month of August, that, at a height.of- 12,000 feetjo there is not, a trace of snow,.to be,found,”, .0:)« {ip ovode s2evlse Concerning the lower. limit,of the\glaciers| of the yinst: hind,w the, alpine excursions, made, by, Mr. Hugi. during. many, |years:s have, shown, that it mot only does not vary in the same -placey! but, that; it varies Jittle.from one place to-another, and that ates! but.little, affected by the situation of the declivities: and: others: cirgumstances;which.have been mentioned.,, Observations :madeéio in.different \parts, of the: Bernese. chain, show. that tains sanintti at the easterm sen tbae ii vthe, chainoof ‘the Valeic laid... MRE! ciiw ,cousivoIs to CHIL x 1NOWe & gow The i tation iaiadnasinens of the iée, in: dor pladieed of the twos kinds, offers materials for numerous observations. The fol- Glaciers of the Alps. ~~ 337 lowing” are thdde which "have been collected, when, ‘going’ from the inferior extremity of ‘a glacier of the second kind, we rise gradually to those of the first kind, even to the highest peaks. o' Often,” savs Mr Hugi, “ blocks of ice detach themselves from the extremity, or even from more elevated parts of a gla- cier of the second, ‘and rest'upon the soil. - These blocks, ex- posed to’ the rays of the sun, and at”an elevated temperature, do not melt, as is the case with ice in genéral ; but’ if they are” not of very large dimensions, they first break into many pieces. I have often examined these detached’ blocks, particularly on the glacier of Aletch, in the Lake of Morile, which has been al. ready mentioned. © This little lake being completely empty, the glacier which formed one of its sides broke through all its thickness, and filled the bottom of the lake with its debris ; some of the blocks had a diameter of 40 feet, but the greater number were from 4 to 12° - feet. An examination of these fragments is particularly neces- sary to enable us to know the constitution of the ice, and the stratification of the glacier. ~The mass is formed of oni imbedded in each other, ‘in salads a manner as to be moveable not only in the broken blocks’ of which we speak, but upon the borders of the glaciers them- selves; above all, where protuberances and ridges are found. Not- withstanding this mobility, these crystals do not separate from each other ; a certain force is even necessary to detach one of them from the mass, and they are seldom detached without breaking. These crystals, of which the larger have a diameter: of‘ two” inches, and the smaller of one inch, are articulated into’ each’ other in‘all positions and directions, and each of them aids to enclose its neighbour in the mass. But if only one‘of 'théem' be” detached, it is easy to detach all the rest successively with the’ fingers, and thus destroy a whole block. | A’ mass’is often?des'” composed. of ‘itself into a heap of crystals, when some of? its’! crystals are separated. It is scarcely possible to assign to‘ these” crystals: adeterminate form: | They are rather oblong than‘eu2”’ bical ; and they have very often from one side, and rarely from’: two, a strong jutting out of articulation, with surfaces and'© angles imperfectly defined. Their ‘surface is rough and fur $38 Professor, Hugi’s Observations on the sowed,!;sTyhave) never. been. able to discover at the interior a regular crystalline contexture. Itis to be remarked, that it:is only.in ‘detached blocks,*or on water sheds, and never. in the ins ‘terior of|a compact glacier, that the crystals popenent of them- — and fall into a heap.” eel) Ree oS Ihave had an opportunity of examining the anfericns sur- ohne: of, many ‘glaciers of the second kind, such. as: those.of Wraz, of Viesch,. of Munster,. the superior’ glaciers..of the _Aar;\.andof Grindelwald..'This surface is continually. melt- ing; it exhibits sorts of domes or vaults, and the glacier rests en the rock only by some insulated feet.. The ice is very smooth; traces of the joints of crystals marking it like net« work on the exterior; the ice is melted more deeply on these traces than elsewhere. As to the superior surface, it is, on the contrary, very rough, the fusion is, in this case, deeper at. the junction of the erystals, so that they form many protuberances. The ice at the interior and exterior, where there is.‘a:low tem- perature,.or after a very cold night, exhibits but-in an imperfect manner the forms of crystals which we are describing ;\ and. its ‘aspect again approaches that of compact ice. But if some co- loured acids be poured on it, or alcohol, there appears instantly acellular tissue delineated ‘on its surface, which makes the out- dine of. each'crystal appear... If a salt be employed, the: mass commences to decrepitate, andthe form of the hoa diac is bet- ter defined. + He? SO The ice of the glaciers ‘of the second kind contain like ordi- Nary: ice,,a great number of vesicles. When those. vesicles:are terminated in a sharp point, I have found, in. melting the ice | yunder! water, that they do not contain air; whilst, if they. are -rounded, which rarely happens when they are. opened, with a “needle, or, melted under water, they disengage air, /The ice of a glacier of the first kind is much richer in gaseous: ‘matters, | which are probably nothing else than atmospheric air, whichap- spears to be, in this case, the agent of transformation; the air and the ice. have'a reciprocal action, from which it; results, that;the _ice, after haying decomposed: and. solidified the air, passes itself into that state wherein it constitutes glaciers of, the second, kind- line ee eve logs have always the aD Sneath tes al kO DaAhi.k SH Tl .99@ SVE 2 MIS rios3 tc soit, Si aleix asl $0.88 Claciers of the Alpsesior 839 wards. ° Tt is possible’ ‘that'they contain air much ct disappears when “it is liberated under’ water. We have nét oe niadé exact and decisive experiments on this subject.10 "Phe érystals; or rather the: grains of the glaciers of the second kind, attain their greatest dimensions at the extremity of these ‘pliciers.” The nore thé glaciers are prolonged and ‘extended ‘into ‘the inferior valleys, the grains’ are the larger: °'Thus;\ thoseovof the glacier of Aletsch are greater than those ‘ofthe glacier 6f ‘Rosenlaui ;’ at the base of the former, the crystals haveva'dianie- ‘ter of more than two inches. Two leagues higher, nearthe Lake ‘Morile, they are only the’size of a walnut ; in ascending’ two © leagues farther, at the foot of Faulhorn, they are muchless ‘still ; and, finally, the glacier re to ce state - ane ‘iret ‘kind. 2o3Bi2 At the bottom of glaciers, the grain is ‘almost of sles ‘same ‘size at the superior and inferior surfaces, and’ im the interior ‘of “the mass; but if they approach the superior limit, or, stilb bet- ‘ter, if they ascend on a glacier of the’ first kind, even tothe ‘highest peaks, they find’ that the grain increases in dimensions, ‘from ‘the superior surface even to the bottom: © 'Thus’ alittle above the inferior limit of a glacier of the first kind, atthe depth “of some feet, they find the ice inthe condition of the ‘second ‘kind ; ‘at a height of 2000 feet this change only:shows itself:in “the lowest." These important facts will serve farther to confirm the opinion, that every glacier of the second kind commences in the upper regions, under the form of the first; that this trans- “formation commences at the surface, and that afterwards; in’the ‘lapse of years, the mass descends into: the valley, andy ‘at? the ‘same time, approaches the soil by the mere act'of the melting of “the inferior surface.” With time, each grain augments immagni- “tudé ;'and so’ explains, to a ‘certain — a ricmmrsivl ethe elaciers, which is an incontestible fact.) ©) 0 ‘os g B “iS The shooting bf! crystals into’ each other’ sale not unite’all “fhe tiass of the glacier from’ the superior’to’ the inferior surface. Phe blocks’ Of" ite which ‘we have ‘observed, “in the same titite “that they are decomposed in’ their crystalline elements,’ alsorsé- ‘parate’ very regularly into'strata; whieb, as long’as the cold does “not umité’ them; ‘do not shi arly trace of? that eomexion whieh exists in the mass of each stratum. —I have seen, in the Lake of . 340 Professor Hhigi’s Observations on the Motile, blocks ‘Gf iée more than twenty’ feet! bigh placed’ so that their strata were vertical. When the exterior stratiim’ began ‘to be decomposed by the action of the solar’ rays, Bi easily detached a whole’stratim by tears of a hammer, ‘or with’ my’ ‘mountdine poll: it shook like a wall and fell ‘into pieces‘; T'was" it danger of Being’ crashed’ by the’ unexpected ‘fall Of this mass. UA Fe wards, in proportion ‘as each of the consecutive strata begitito be decomposed, at the same ‘time it begin to bend) dnd s6dh afterwards it fell)’ At the extremity of some glaciers, the duist aind earthy’ matters form blackish lines, which trace the litiits OF the ‘strata.’ When this is not the case, the arrangement, which is‘ most frequently horizontal, is easily discovered” by means ‘of the hammer. © The’ superior strata are ‘generally from ‘half’a foot ‘to a foot in thickness; this thickness increases: with ‘the. depth, so that in'the ‘great glaciers, the’ thickness of ‘the lower strata’ may amount’ to about eight feet: The only” glaciets which form ati &xception, are those which are’ broken’ ‘onthe rocks; and are formed ‘again lower down; these are subjéct ‘to no'rule. In’ the small glaciers, which extend less towards the base; the inferior strata differ less from the superior. "These facts agree with the increase of the crystals, and with the’ “gra dual extension of the glaciers... In ‘general, - the strata ‘dre pal rallel to’ the superior surface of the’ glacier; they only' deviate from it in rare cases, where the inferior vaults havé fallen; ‘and where the melting at the bottom has taken place in an’ unequal manner.” __ © The colour of ahs inal detached fragments of a glacier, or of an isolated crystal, is decidedly white and clear; we never perceive, any, trace:of other colours. But.if “we examineva greater,.mass, as. the. thickness increases, it becomes of a.“blue colour gradually more. deep:.it-is .at-first a\sky-blue scarcely discernible, then ‘a)'fine-enamel-blue, and, ‘finally; sa wery: deep azure-blue. In certain glaciers, there is associated with azure-blie a small tint of sea-green, whicli sometimes’ pred nates.” In“some places) aiid especially in “the” ‘fissures’ and “ete. vices formed beneath by mélting, the gradation of éolours Which we late” pointing ‘uit “is “so' pute aiid clear; that ‘we adinive "it, without? being able iter '‘to'“describe or imitate it: “Thus we | salsaniee! what is ‘of ita Portative, the mass of the glaciers ck h©ST asov afi al zelsmicr ontism siuoIm of W996 yo? ponds. to..the. sshiiieliiag in, an hassle manner...:It is:only the, whole.mass,of, the,atmosphere:which presents this, beautiful colour, to; which we. have, assigned the characteristic name of sky-blue,.and,to,which different circumstances give a different tint,..the enamel-blue, the azure and the sea-green, .. It i is re; marked that. certaim glaciers exhibit certain particular tints,.ana, logous. to. those which. the atmosphere presents in its. different : modifications... The same parallel which we have shewn, between the, atmospheric, fluid. and.water in a: solid state, may, be, far- ‘ther-established with water in a liquid state. . -Proportionally, as we.ascend, passing from a glacier-of the second kind to,that, of the first, these varied tints disappear, and this latter assumes.a dull. white, which has sometimes .a.feeble. bluish. tint... This comparison of. the two. kinds of glaciers, under the: relation, of tints, is not without use; it demonstrates to us that.the colour increases. from intenseness, when we.,pass, from .a. glacier of, the first..kind, where. the substance is. strongly mixed with atmo- spheric air, to thatof the second kind, where it i is more homoge- neous.. It is, then, to the presence’ of air.in, the ice that we.may attribute. these modifications ;, and: it, is, not difficult to: under: stand. how the ice, which contains much, airj;does not. exhibit that.transparency, that clearness, and, that azure tint, which are peculiar, to. that, of. the second ‘kind, of -which the formation) is more regular, and where the globules of.air are either, papain ior decomposed.” ; tS 'eahite (To be continue © sonnei FO ,TSI9kIT & Pe TT : A ff F 7 FOOD oT = 19 bsiéloei as Yo Noui baer vatitins on the Blood-like: pale cabal oka Egypt, Arabia, and Siberia; with a View and Critique of the vioHarly: Accounts of similar’ Appearances. + or py Cole ae ee ee ee oe Page mnie ly -aldiarsoeth Ssuld-sitss Tasse,m memoirs, on red, snow. induced Nees side Esenheck to a. communication, to. ‘Brofessan + stn in the, Edinburgh. Phi. losophigal. Journal,,informs,us that he.obseryed orange-coloured snow, in Greenland, which, he considers.as.a different species from that described, by, Captains, Ross andParry. jHe_attributes,the colour to minute marine animals. In the year 1824, a report $42 © M. C, G. Blitetiberg’s. Observations on the was general throughout the province of Paduaythat blood-red!) spots were observed on all kinds of food. ;.Mr Sette ascertained!) that this appearance was owing to a small red-coloured muster room;‘belonging to the genus Mycoderma: of: Persoons «De Candolle, in: 1825, observed the surface of the:Mnurten. Lake sina' southern Switzerland of a red colour. \'This)-beautifuh appean<) ante’ he ascertained to be caused by.a-minute:plant, a speciessofio Oscillatoria, which he: named from its colour riébescens:)/ Tb8 was'chemically examined, and found to contain,» 1, A:red resis! nous matter; 2..A green resinous matter; 3..A large, propor-» tion of jelly; and, 4. some earthy salts.and oxide-of irone/Theg chemists concluded’ that the colouring matter of the»Murten» Lake was.an organic’animal matter; and as)it- was an oscillai toria, they concluded that the oscillatoriz were to be consideredi as belonging to the animal kingdom. i some Here we have only to reflect that the larger diembahedaah and) even more highly organized plants themselves, contain whatiis) called animal matter in their composition’; that Alexanders Vom! Humboldt long before, by means.of nitric acid, changed them» into a fatty substance ; and that many aquatic plants asiwellias» animals produce calcareous. deposits, a fact circumstantially ress lated by Schweigger, in his observations on natural history:‘mades during his travels.’ It does not, therefore, seem»consonant .withi experience, unconditionally to determine the: nature*of/ any body by its chemical quality; and how far the infusion mays have been blended with the oscillatoriz:: during the -chemic¢ab process, may, moreover, have escaped observation, ©:) 0) soljoo% Further,» I have in another place proved that’ the-simplén animals/are distinguished from plants by more determinate. chax: racters than the chemical composition, OUI sxorods noulst olin» addition: ‘to. this, it. is remarked: that: sivas -appchuomaitati sunshine causes the oscillatoriz to rise to the surface ofithe: water, ‘and its’disappearance causes them tovreturni andsink ito the ‘bottom—Mem: de la Soe. Physi et:@ Hist. Nat.iGenevé, iii p80. The-cause-of the latter appearancesmay, indeeds) be a disengagement of gas. MOtA e loniwa ont dsidw bas nod Bory, de: St Vincent, cim Dicty Classy alls these: :dscillatetiae Ose. Pharaonis'; ‘but the reasonoforssuppressing:thesoldanamey because there is another red kind of the same species which has a different name, is just as untenable as the reason for assigning a : 00 Blood-red Colourcof Water) > i S488 the new name, ‘which: is grounded on the erroneous r that ‘the: oe ee is the same with: ‘that: refer | red ton “An extensive series of iaboviGus Sibi on sai sbitmiedl ingredients’ of ‘meteoric masses, by Professor Zimmerman. of » ,»Giessen, are connected with our present subjects: ; These were» occasioned by the occurrence of a red shower that fell.in Giesseng . 3d’ May 1821. «Its owater was ofa peach-red»colour,.\and) flakes of a hyacinth colour floated on its surface... It; was‘only., chemically analyzed, but had it been botanically and: microsco-; pically examined, which it was not, it might easily have afford-; ed an interesting and satisfactory result..'The collective result. of this investigation was, as is well known, that therevis in’ meteoric water a peculiar animal and: vegetable. substance, chemically different, from the extractive matter and: the glu- ten of plants and animals, and this substance, on account: of) its uniform yellowish-brown colour, is called pyrhine, that. is, yel- low matter. Among the different volatile substances formed. near the surface of the earth, this may be taken up. by the’ clouds in an aériform state, and again precipitated in rain waters. as a stimulant and nutritive material for plants. and the lower. animals, Jt may form the first thin covering of soil on. naked: rocks, and by decomposition produce ammonium. | G. Nees of Esenbeck’s spirited treatise on the Meteoric organiza tions, published in 1825, as an Appendix to Robert Brown’s mis-/ cellaneous botanical writings, vol. i., has given a more definite, div) rection to the examination of this subject... The principal object, of this essay was, to place a copious collection of facts.im-oppo- sition to Chladni’s hypothesis, which comprehended only. mine-, ral or chemical formations, and which referred toa fancied for mation of organic existences in the a spat of the. atmo- sphere. iirlec G2 ~ In 1826, Professor Fr. Nees Von Esenbeck, ‘iad ere the president, observed. an. infusory animal. as. the, colouring materiabof red:water;'inya\ vessel of) the -botanical garden at Bonn, and which, in Kartner’s Arch. vii. ‘p. )£16,:he, along, with Goldfuss,° his fellow-observer, ‘called: Enchelys sanguinea. It appeared: that: the jcelour: = the: ras sg the: apa was i} to Dalat bot torijons 21 sieds seugo5d t soeRoT Sofi) 2R Sissies an jeuy et .eman tasiotith 2 ‘844 = M. C. GeEhrenberg’s Observations on the produced by an internal brown-red granular mass; that’ the extremities’ of body were transparent, the hinder pointed) ‘and the fore part rounded. ‘These-accounts ‘sufficiently*shew that “the animal has a similar form with the-Cercuria viridis of “Miiller, though the observers Say nothing either-of the»pte- sence or absence of the important ‘dark’ point inthe fore- rtf the animal; which Nitsch ‘correctly ‘con ‘owhich” constitutes’ the specific character’ obothis conker at Halle’ found this point ‘in his. red)-animals, “hetite there remains no doubt as to the genus. * Whether thevolvox ‘of Girod:Chantran ‘be one:‘and the: same; “withthe Ene _ sanguinea has not been determined.» aaare’. 4. alt wo rd gay. The colouring of water by means of Oscillatoria-major, or‘by va’ species having’a close affinity to it, has beeen very recently made known to me; and that’species: has received from Boi St Vincent the name of Osciliatoria Mougeotii. >) Laon aanid »<) To the series of observations: now concluded, I ie -servation which: I madein 182b ands1828, at Cairo.in Dgypt. In the months of January and February, I found, inthe garden of Mr de Rosetti, on the soil ofa place,exposed: to the morning ‘sun, large spots of. from) 4 to.6,inches, and of» different: ishapes. These ‘spots: seemed: so very like clotted, blood, «that: I.sfre- quently passed them without.,being tempted torexaminesthem ymore closely. ,\ The remarkable circumstance of blood being an this part,of the garden, at length excited my attention byats -abundance, and looking at it again, I. took up some:of;itrom the ground with my. knife, and soon perceived/on: the, delicately wrinkled surface, that it was not blood, but»a fungus«\9/Phe Thelephora sanguinea was not known to me; therefore! I, sepa- rated a,portion of the mass.from ‘the soil, to.add.it;to,our jeol- ection/ of, plants, ,, On, the following day, had leisure ; mieros- -copically to examine, and. delineate the. fresh plants -whichi collected, from the originals, and. will publish; inothe ,Symboli Physiei. x The Thelephora. sanguinea, which,is,accurately, dis- tinguished from the other, ‘Thelephorae,.as)a, Palmellay,but-has YF Me HN the, Algae, is distinguished. Joyya wal: eras rm_-epidermis) which ..1s,entirely awanting-4n ey « hw DEB 6 Ys +e CHa $0! [ APOE ROBIGLS he vassal [Gdl ng AM—ZEADESE SS _ Blood-red Colour of Water. 0 B45 ec form, , which. consequently ore to. be ofa _ gelatinous nature. - Rhgreroguabat tions a pasthe Ben eau it Sarcoderma sanguinea. » Sancopsama—Char. Gen, Thallus gelatinosus st _granulis discretis repletus nec fibris. inrenieignich (anit) _instructus. "The Nostocinen Algz have a-peridium. . «Another. kind, the: Geocharis-nilotica,.rather,of a: couse ‘ama blood-red, though of avery lively colour,, is universally prevalent in. Egypt, on the wet banks of the Nile, where Riceta glauca grows. It is a very remarkable kind of small.mushroom, having: a. very close: affinity to. the. Vaucheria. granulata of Lyngby, or the V. radicata of Agardh.; . buts notwithstanding _Athis, it-certainly belongs to the fungi and not to the alge. © .\--Ggocuarts. Char. gen... Thallus tubulosus:continuus teres filiformis, (radiciformis)... Vesicule. fructus. externa. mflate (Coniocyste) sporangiis, sporangiis sporidia colorata includen- tibus replete. In thersame year, I found at Siut'in Upper Egypt, after the . inundation of the Nile, a stagnant water.of a very red colour. “Phe colouring body was’ eeiraynenraensinrriy eee of ya well-known. alga of fresh water. »ooln 1823, I was:for a number of siandi at’ Tory on. tbinand Sea, incthe vicinity of Mount Sinai. On ‘the 10th December “D:there« observed the: striking phenomenon of the whole bay ewhich forms the harbour of ‘Tor ‘of a bloody colour. » ‘The amain ‘sea beyond: the:coral reef that encloses the harbour, was sas usual colourless. The short’ waves of the calm.‘sea’ duritig \sunshine, carried to the shore a blood-coloured: slimy mass, owhich it deposited on the sands, so that the whole bay;‘fully half a league in length at the ebb of the tide, exhibited a blood- -red border of more than a foot broad. I took up some of tlie water itself with glasses, and carried it to my tent’ at haridvon ‘the'sea-shore.| It was immediately discovered that the coléur- ‘ing was caused’ by small flakes: scarcely distinguishable, ”often “greenish, sometimes of a lively green, but’for the most partofia ‘dark-red colour, although the water’ itself was not staiied by them. ~ This very interésting appearance attracted my attention -as explanatory of the namie of the Red Sea, ‘a name hitherto so difficult of explanation. I for many days, and with perfect let JANUARY—MARCH 1831, Z 346° Mr C. G. Ehrenherg’s Ob sexvations on the sures accurately..examined: the appearance, and. ;made,.mi pical obseryationson the colouring massi,, The.lakes consisted nf small spiral,.or longish irregular bunches. of oscillatontg,threads, , which were enclosed in; ,a..gelatinous sheath, and, the flakes, nei, ther ;resembled.one another nor the, threads, in eachjflake,, Any thejglasses placed beside;me, I observed thatthe flakes, the ;heat of, the ;day.and.,in sunshine, floated, together onjthe., surface ,of; the water,,,; During. the night, and. when..the glasses, were shaken, they descended.to..the; bottom, After some, time,, they, returned.to the surface,,..The observation made; by Diy rina on Lake Murten, was yery, similar, to. this appearn., ance, and. the delineation of the single threads by De Candolle,.. exhibits. Be very, close relation, to it. . De, Candolle informs. , me he, has preserved:, no. dried specimen, of, that. substance, for, which reason, no comparison can be made,., ./The gelatinous, covering, and the union of many. threads into, very, small, spiral, groups, give to the substance of the Red Sea a peculiar, charac, ter, which entitles it, to form a particular genas of algae «..$.. jo “TRi¢HODESMIUM ERY THREUM., Char, gen, Kila septata FAS clinslatey nec oscillantia, fasciculi, disereti,muco involuti. so libere natantes.. 1 know.a.very similar, green body, which often observed at Leipsic and Berlin, and. which, entirely fil. the water, giving it a greenish hue,..I call) it, Trichodesmiuam.. flo, aqua; becanse,.L..dq not;find, dniennmsaned ARS Wi _ commonly. mentioned forms of, this. kind... of oc Sik “Bswerle. ‘The appearance: of the Red Sea was not permanent, but, pes, riodical.,...k observed it four. times,,,viz,..on the,,25th,andy30th.,, December 1823,.and_on.,the 5th, January. 1824. Misrbeane on along with.us for the: Royal, Collections, speci the sea shore,.and: dried, on, paper and sand. ‘More partigular, details in, regard. to.it will be-found in, the Symbol Khasi 0f. Dr. Hemprich’s journey and my, own. 1.5) ciyo14 only sobweulil In, 1829,.1 had an opportunity, in Siberia of making my most 12 recent, observations..on,bleod-red. waters. ...In thesteppe, of Plas,

wes <8, Great numbets ~~. ‘Vot'Astasia (Volvox) tactastiiae! 10. Great numbers A of Astasia haematodes. 800% 9. Del sodepid.yd 10% a Astasia: (Enchelys) »sangui+ peas res pe _Bleedings offs ae only to be kept in mind for examina. or tion- Mi ' Red water-spiders (Hydrachna). and Naidess) have pice heen so deceptive as.not to be‘immediately recognized, so gael >. and have never excited the attention of mankind. ; ; t ‘ ~rird > f — SDFG tej 25 weieite Ovi ; Ssopagn. elg2 anolscbe Vegetable Bodies. ADINEITD,, * . i ee ii. By Trichodesmium aoe rt in he Red Sea." & nsigor SY 12 > Oscillatoria Fubedcens, oor Bt [2 18.as Oscillatoria subfscas - t onli eilagsroynn -naod Yeo ao Oscillatoria, Mougeotii, (Bory, sis the Ose, Moo ne ot .tedencs dana of Agardh. 110/009 rd fh pp ae sd 15, ine Sphzroplea anniina Ghich is of a cinnabe ar col - ur) at mrioik is € S229 Sy aie $15 xD of oles db <5 ee : y neo: Inorganic Bodies.) a 5 non f99TS tain ye 2 319635 16. ie Wed tnibphéve dust i SEW loidy eli Gloo 9ti3 aslq Te “Are looked upon as a chemical effect ‘prodiiéed by - ; to Yilsst Horiep & mhixing ¢ of different kinds’ of ‘Water, ‘the’ thar. bas eraisw * HO aaa of which have hot ‘been sesame caret mast HT. “Ate looked upon : as the’ ‘opétation” “Of Volcanic’ ne sate oe “meg o-wab-bo$h wweb-bodlal fio ot iw: fie ii “ C. Red ‘moi paler pa he he ground aut on "Ether bodies (blood spots), are Bait fh an illusion caused by 193 sh mee hid ee seh Abasibeenorita BOLE OF -egeasootd isdién By Palme sanguinen Tey gine, ss 18, = Sarcoderma SSE spat muboag se - My coderma (z id RinsDaL HEB cdtan Toa 2 3 bros) oct amo yas vd bsoub oe aged ovad loos ies GD IBG on 350 Mr C. @iuldhrenberg’s) Obser'valkéns on the Lig hole ae “abe aoe nivalis, (brick réd-) 0, y 2A bonsgels Pe |: 22. >, Geocharis nilotica, (cinnabar red.) enivisedo of reey) e t ie a mga Seles im oD ‘Blood.jellies are conjectured, to. be : in illus lusion ca ca used bY 2g ir OD ab Bown ado. 0 so si ted} Bol q iran es " Palmela sanguinea, C291 , By Actinomyce is ns oe at I} beoniv ~ Besides these twenty-three. terrestrial: substarices poe ‘organic thodied; theré. are, indeed, many other masses,and: bodies remark- able for red colours, and. which might, producesimilar »appear- ances; but -here we have only to, do with,.such | as) haye , been viewed as. meteoric or blood. masses, or whose. dense, dist ri _tion;: together’ with.the invisibility of their form, and. the strik xed colour, which has\ power to arrest. the attention on pit ing /a district, and. assigns a peculiar character .to those sub- stances, | which, taken ,singly,, are, wholly overlooked, , and, thus seem of no consequence. Let! us keep, in mind what..are,,the 60 called colourless organic, meteoric! Substanren 4 5 saute which are x z290bed 2A .niesy is followsé bis: sitoeutit Io eit his oustoura | Vegetable Bodiees. Nuoifib yey Hse pe ena mitsaotled alba: becieah me matter of f common fling | star. —— 3 Spumaria mucilago, or pe tian flavum, sag comes within ‘this ad aoe “a the observations that are known to me regarding’ oe es- by pecially: the first: two, excepting the Pa one faim nate by Men- 1949 OV never vy unsatisfactory. , tite, b, Animal Bodies. : A lod jtom odd oF Fi uc gta said about infusoria ay about in thé atinds. J te é existence of meteoric infusoria , assimed: as tre. i ie rego been ‘made the foundation of diel ‘by Jarome ried iby no direct observations, a know idly’ threeob- ety ites bat oe .foodennue _fetyers W ho maintain this o op inion. re Bisco ” Oaeher found’ infusoria ir in snow" which hé'm sn inelted in hiv toon ‘and Miiller ¢ quotes ‘the represen ntation of Kolpoda p Lp yrinh (Gi chen Ss. ‘150, k, ay, fr 1880)" ‘Whether the snow Dae Abe: it fell, or somewhere froin the ‘grou Gs notine tioned; “Hor whether the ‘vessel vse the ’ object glass) enothigreny 0 gle ihe all lo dlseor ond caw potiom odd Jedd ogo!!. Joa bib igd ish olurtie io eng al) eo 2wBlood= ‘Réd) Colour: of Water. bill B51 cleayed. As it is probable':that» Gleichen -was- interested only in observing the influence’ of cold’ on ‘these’ animaleule, and in this respect alone found the observation worthy of attention, the ne ids of its being a meteoric production falls to the ground. “Bory de St len mentions in Diet. ‘Classiqte) art. Enchelys, p- 158, that he often observed infusoria in snow atid ‘drops of rain. As he does not name ‘them, ‘however, we may feel con- vinced that he did not observé' them ‘with particular acuteness. “nlProfessor Schultze; in: his: work, sentitled,:Microscopic:Exa- éminations of Robert Brown's discovery of Living Animalsinall ‘Bodies*, ‘&e!' 1828, expresses himself very decidedly; indeed the ‘Most decidedly of all.” He does not, indeed, speak ‘of! meteoric propagation, but supposes; ‘he observed, that the dust:hovering ‘every where in the’atmosphere was’mixed with dried infusoria, “among which he perceived the Furcularia: redivivoa (Rotifer “pidgaris) and Monades. “These ‘examinations. are certainly “founded on error. | That dried “infusoria ‘seattered and floating “about'as atmospheric dust; or dust from books; can resuscitate, owe ‘ean tho longer’ believey being now better acquainted with the structure and peculiar properties of infusoria; and it would:be very difficult to, recognize’ shrivelled rotifera, and particularly “to discern its species. -I-refrain-from:a full refutation.:: T.make the remark only, that I may, on the contrary, receive instruc- tions from, more accurate observations. >» To.avoid, illusion, I have,..myself, with, uncommon, perseve- watice, and ‘the -greatest care, examined upwards. of -a thousand single flakes of snow and drops of rain and dew, thelast two even in the north of Africa; but.inno.one.of them have I, at any time, observed, living. infusoria. From more accurate observati on the organization of infusoria, I have ascertained, j that Oe Ro- .tatoria possess all the organic systems of the higher animals, large REBSs.. and also, nerves; that they are supplied with, organs of nourishment, and repeatedly | evacuate a granular mass, which gannot, be taken for any thing else than LBBB. The eggs of t the “fotatoria, are so large, that they. cannot escape observation if they _ are looked for ; but it is otherwise, with the. eggs of the gastric uaa (Polygastrica), a as, I call, the, rest. ) These eggs, have vio Mx Brown, only professed to have discovered stole atonts in all bodies, but did not allege that the motion was the result of lifeEp, 352° Mr J. Clerk’ Maxwell's ' Plan for'combining' bbi\ ae probably: “udu nok a line-in diameter. . Theixaminuteness and ‘transparency’ place ‘thet! beyorid” thé power of the micro- rae Tt is probable’ that ‘these eggs, raised “by: wurrdnts: of air and the’ evaporation of Water ‘may fill ‘the atmospherey/and stistaii little ‘injuty from ‘aridity, because ‘theyappear to settle | ahd’ develope’ themsélvés every’ where,and/are perliaps perceps tiblé ‘in the organized’ matter, the pyrrhine ofthe atmosphére ‘observed by’chemists. ““But'as to living’ infusoria and meteorie animals; or what are called “Atmospheric Zoophytes,' found'in iste of air, we cannot beliéve ‘in“their existence untilbetter evidence ‘than’ thé present’ is’ Brotight forward." The*forms ‘not hitherto satisfactorily observed are) © 1 ybeor bie basd id Kolpodapyrum; Miller, according to Gleichen, '0!! voir “2 Indeterminate eevee worsen to weed ¥ DORK urvteno : ‘3: a irae ah 02 rao} ger hain hens ogeiaIEe 4. “Monas termo, ! “© ¢ According’ to Profesor Schult “S. “Mois létis, emi mae sisiae ¥) ° 10 rian HOE noi out eoerinhy ~Peiggcndong's i No. 4 fiir 1830.°° spisbiesh teowt odd auld ube | ad esrtluoitib Dearth SITIO 10 VIlne la 1 DEhiiooe | tO Mas one iF Plan’ o combining: “Machinery ‘ith the° Maniial Printing=Press.” By TouN' CiEak MaxwEit, Esq! of Mid dlebie®. (With a Plate). : ete pert ako scree scroen § bormsoa treed gash: Bicattoriece evening of this session; (Jan. oes by Mr Fra- ser, suggesting various improvements on the’ Art of Printing, was read ‘before the Society; in which, after pointing out therexcel leticy’of the! Printing Machines, ‘invented: by MessrssCowper and Appleeath, | and-by Mr Napier, for the’ spurpose iof:publit ¢ations’ of large numbers of copies,.and where expedition wasnes quired, he noticed, that, forfine printing; they werecinferior:lto themaiiual press, although! they excelled im one point,iivizothe uniformityin inking; and ‘consequent equality. of icolourofithe printed sheets, “He also observed, that, for econoniy ini thease of small publications, the!manualpresses chad :theoadvantage: — And concluded by stating, that contrivance whichishould give the manual press’ the’ benefit’ of> uniform linking, «with adiminu: Slee of labour, ‘was 'a desideratuin in the art of printing. sbseog W Reha batore the souiety or Arts! lop Bédtland, ed March’ 1831. ods * Machinery with dhe Manual Printing Press. = 358 2M Fraser says, “© \Asitothe inking apparatus, that attached tothe smachines,of; Messts, Cowper, and Applegath might. be placed:immediately behind the tympans of the Stanhope or, Col- umbian, ‘presses, and be worked ‘by steam-power.as.at present. Were the tympans and carriage of the pressin separate pieces, but made.so-as:to fit very exactly into each other, the carriage might, after,-each: inipression,’.be taken from the hand,,.on reaching; | certain: point, by- the: inking apparatus, and, upon; the, types being rolled, returned, to, the same point. In the interim, , the pressmian could be laying on and off his sheets; and_by.the time he had done so, the form would again be;stationed at his hand, and ready for his taking another impression... It. is ob- vious, that the great difficulty to be overcome here, willbe the construction of the machinery for receiving and. returning the carriage, and making the carriage so nicely, to fit the frame-work of the. tympans, as, to preserve register, as it is called ; but after the i ingenious contrivance of Mr Napier, in his machine, for. re- ceiving and giving off the paper; there can be little doubt of these difficulties being soon obviated. In this way, the great desidera- tum of securing an equality of colour would be supplied, and the.expense of an. apparatus for each. press, with an engine-power for the, whole, would be compensated by only one-half’ of. the men being required.” Having been named a member of the Committee appointed to Gonsider and:report on Mr Fraser’s suggestions, my, attention dhas been: turned to. this subject, and: some contrivances have oc- éurred-to me, which seem fitted, in some degree, to. aceomplish what. has:-beén considered to be desirable. Ihave new.the honour'of Jaying them before the Society, as they. occurred to me, thinking, that the shewing of the original conception is: better adapted’ to-elucidate the principles, of the; contrivance, than a déscription of; a'more’ perfect form,of machine, ..with, its. parts mioreé:compactly arranged, and, onthat.account, more; difficult tocbe:described:;:besides; I conceive, the. principles of |a:cons trivance more! interésting than the:details. 2eojieoiidiy \ieme Ww If /aay hint’ contained: in, *the | sequel: should prove of .use'to those:who ‘may make; trials} to: effect) what.Mr,Fraser has,.pros posed, it»would be a:proof of :the walue-of :this, Society; and.of the benefits to be, derived from .statements like Mr Fraser’s, 854 —MrVJ.Clerk\Maxwell’s Plan for combining oe attention to what is felt. to be wanting: toimprove;any rt,—for if my humble endeavours ‘contribute any”! thing 'toé the si of printing, it is owing to Mr Fraser’s paper that. a thoughts were. turned. to the aiaate et Lal a3 meorired ei ov Iyinquiring into. what had been dene ‘by oshevad: in n regard. to inking, I learned that there have been contrivances for this’ “pose, | “but that they had ‘not answered expectations, and fo i cause, besides others, that, although the inking was done. by ‘ar chinery, the constant pulling the press was too severe labour for the workman, if the usual number of impressions in a given time were demanded, In the common way, two men work together, and relieve each other, by taking in turns the duties of inking and of pulling. I have therefore attempted .aplan.to save the labour of the pull, as well.as to ink the types by machinery. © Explanation of the Sketch. (Plate V.) In this sketch, ‘which is intended merely to give a general notion of the plan without details, no part of the necessary frame-work is represented, ex- cept the cheeks of the press, and the range of the frame-work of the inking apparatus, which are slightly shaded. The inking apparatus is arranged on ‘the plan of Messrs Cowper and Applegath, with an sain table, er is understood to produce the best ‘work..0° >" ay a The drawing represents the press in astate of rest. A the coffin and forme, with tympan open, B the inking table, C the inking rollers, D the distri- buting rollers, E the ink-trough, witli its rollers, tobe put in motion by the pulleys and bands (both dotted in the sketch); but the proper rates. of motion ‘are not’attempted to be shown,—only the mode of communication, and ‘where ‘am alternate motionis improper, the pulleys would be furnished with ratchet and’spring, so that they would revolve in one way only. F is the supplying -roller,‘which is-raised to touch the ink-trough rollers, on the advance of the jnk-table by the wedge H, on the carriage of the ink-table actingon “ : Under these parts is an oblong rack-work, connected bya hinge with difider Gide Of the! iik-tabley at the ‘rght’hand énd of this'there 48" 1 ‘supposed: to! be in'constant motion, connected with the ‘moving power, 'On theend of the rack is.a. projecting pin I, intended to slide along the/bar, K, and fall over the end 9 of it, when) the lower corner of the rack would: test on, the bar L, on its return. Phe tympan'has a carriage of its own, separate from the chtin' drat Yorme, civlanseisiahn be called an outér coffin); which is made with three sides} the trite coffin, and forme in it)being intended to slide out, in order.to be carriedto,beink- ed. This is sheyn.at fig, 2, where the shaded part marks the outer coffin, wwith marks. for the hinges. ¢ of the tympean, @ and wit in if the true coffin and aaa be- side these, ‘is drawn the ink-table 3 this has two pegs $ with notches aw into corresponding holés ‘in thé! soffin, attaching and'lécking them ine in the same way ae the:bitoina carpentet’s brace.) Onvthe FM 12°Y0N' — OSA TIM XV MEAT NHOL Ad 88 ANd ONTLNIWA ae | T ZZ , . EZ Zi LOD JO PUOMAY YO JUD O10 ING YOM4 IY JOUOIIOU 244 ZI ZZ ZZ ge qusque 2g oq yonbe ss 79.4 sung rus jo ygbury oy, Zi) i, ory z “—_* iz ; . FZ oe a Z Leis ” Lng : Za ie i g EAE a y a Z AA ZB Zz ; GEA N EZ LL 4 CZ oe ZB a ZB 3 BAG > Ze 1 er > AA J AA ‘ B, tp t) ny “ig ae Be Ay « hi BY . * . ayy 1 Ma ch. ee a i we ee eee le ee ee a ae ee ee ea eee Ree a Ah g aah x uct iad Hie ii ; Weg | Fae 2K ya ‘onpart fh on al top sald ah: i at % sae a? ono B Srrrarg ot fis ao ¢ ust ast ¢ tase ay #8 OM Agate atta ibvidve eis ged: eacay calnbeh GI o. egies, oxi ota e Gt toy, Osan ae i a | ellal guider okie # ell: aii nat oi bite Sebgptaae 20 orga hovers Lith Weed 4c . Ci eile volun ai Joy od OF ef noidw VF Soasiw Siti: | usa! ot Fo bie ei aio poleeeny eit va ey ‘gil Ai Sitio iit Abigour' of dried O.ohee to Saale ‘orld! acidaw Cink sang: ahh es crak? ang ont T. lasdge (hh a xd aniston, 1st, If shortness: be an» object ‘of importance, “it can ‘best’ be'obtained by applying’ those contrivances for’ inking which do not require. the inking table for if the ‘distribution of the ink, be. ‘done. entirely, by. rollers, for. example such, as those) used in: Napier's machine; :then:these'could be’ placed!‘un- ‘Joo th 356 Mr J. Clerk Maxw rell’s elles jor combining A? o}-nonibbs. ai” der the gallows. of the tympan, ‘and the forme would’ ¥: moved littlé more than its own breadth. ‘Qd, ‘Supposing ‘the elt Bi JOH inking t table retained,, as the method. best. suited for fine ne print. ing, the. Jong rack-work may be. superseded by as § rt one an the necessary extent of movement effected i by the 1 use of wheels s and pinions, or by pulleys and bands,—the diameters of th the p ul- leys being so proportioned a as to increase ‘the ‘motion ; a Hee it, may be observed, that it may, probably. be found visa lei all cases to interpose pulley and band between the toothed aoe and the inking table, to free it as much as possible from tremor. Sil, Tustedd’ of the long rack-work,” circular work’ et be" used, either by using alternately the outside and the inside. of a toothed circumference, as is done in the Patent. Mangle, or by using two wheels, moving in opposite direetions, - having teeth'on one half of their circumference, acting on two lines of rack-work ; and if multiplying pulley and band.work. were interposed. between these wheels and racks and the inking table, they might be reduced to a very moderate size. With regard to the contrivance for working the press, 1 oe ma observe, that the excentric wheel has the advantage of a motion slow and powerful in proportion, at. the first, in gor to_over- come the vis.inertie of the apparatus of the press, ‘and also at the point of greatest pressure ; while it is quicker i in the mi parts of the action, both in ‘the rising and. the falling. 0 : of 1e press; and the resistance of the wiper in throwing the work out of gear, would serve to exhaust the momentum of the excentric wheel, its axles, &c. &c. In the Sketch, the shaft for putting the press in motion is supposed to pass right ‘over the press, ‘and the excentric wheel to act, directly on the spindle of the press; but it is evident t the effect.may. be, obtained. by. the intervention: of .a, lever -at,.whats ever distance, the ‘shaft.may -be;:.and so the contrivance: ee suited ‘to any situation, and, instead of ‘acting on’ laa ark ee might be arranged to move the bar of a aha press. Ont Pa When a few. impressions, or proofs mere] y are wanted ing apparatusneed not be used,, the, hand-roller, used in the come mon way; serving instead ; and ‘asthe imking apparatus: pg that for working the press have’ ‘no cotinéetion, ‘one or other, ‘or both, may_be,used at ‘pleasure 5. ‘and if the press were fitted with z a bar 03 hobul! au Machinery with the Manual Pr rinting: Press, | oT BKHKsHIsGy WY MOV BI an addition to the pee wheel appara, the press might be cl Peas re 9al 4 pas WOline used in n the n ‘the en ne movin power was ‘9 ; aneoqqire 5 ac n wae. or IG 23; gi —an) NS not in USC a , a Smt wili2 - Tt may be. proper, to state the supposed rate of execution of the ° press I have described. “The shaft for the’ excentri¢ wheel is sty pposed to revolve ¢ nce in two seconds, an inc ‘the wheel of the pest I oO 29 TSaNIBED 4 a if HT HiC h a -wor once in eac secon : ‘and. that eight revolutions ¢ ae te | the operation of inking. The time nec ess sary to run ike coffin into the press two seconds, and the same ‘time to run it i=, 2) out—Then, POITL OF 2S92BS Lik ped Vik ivi vt; et [Rift orld bas bas time of inking, during which “a the hoe ten out, anda sit one __ Placed i in the tympan, is ae A’ hundred presses at’ this ‘rate, could supply every fainily on the! earth witha Bible in three years.”)\(0)99 jo \hioy bas .qeast Jmiqe 8 le Fax the printing of publications having. a Inge creation, ing abvay been obvious that the machines possess a decided superiori aie ce om rao Qa ‘but work-of this kind is wholly confined to’ even in these tocomparatively few printing-offices. By far thé greatés tion of the printing business everywhere consists: of ‘work of :a miscellanedus seep Pe mia ea mtn Saree very few in u ; ant eta wére it’ otherwise iets é ap pi fe ‘to such work, wth ‘ Speen neral eéetnieneens toh hey Wiesel idiotersindaiealipallietanaae 10'be) Besides, six, good presses can. be obtained forthe price of one machinepandor) the great majority of printers throughout the!kingdom have'seldony onnéver © occasion. for. so many.» ‘These, too can -be aipplieds tein vatiety:of purposes ato the same time, and one or more only be used as circumstances may require, Machinery, with the Manual Printing, Presss 959. Should a press be at any;time unemployed, there is comparatively. little loss, for the first. cost, is not great, and there;are.no men’s wages to pay inthe ins . terim.; but.the-very reverse is the case with a printing machine, the original. outa: one, independently, of that for the engine, &c., being from L.400.to L.. 700, and a_.considerable; subsequent, expense, of keeping in. repair, anda, stated rate of wages to ene svanee oP boys at; least... Hence. it,is evident. eee peret ushiot necessity continue.to.be in much, more general... t upon. She greeninebeiiats effect, there is no doubt. of their yalue mt en heing very greatly increased... By. it, not only.would the labour,;.. of one,man ; at each press be entirely saved, but that.of the other be also, re-.,, duced. to little more than supplying the sheets of paper,, -‘The quality, of the.;, work, too, from the regularity of inking and pressure, would.be, —- proved, : and means would. undoubtedly soon be. fallen: upon for increasing. or ; diminishing the quantity, i in a given time, according to the nature ofthe work... in hand. There, would certainly be the additional, expense. attendant upon. . an engine, &e.. for each printing office, which. there. is not, at present :. but... surely if the same kind of. mechanical. power be found. more economical and_;, advantageous than manual labour for coffee-grinding, and. similar purposes, it would be much more so if it could be rendered applicable to, the important... operations of miscellaneous letter-press printing. . an short, it is. very evident... that the demand for printing presses and self-i apparatuses of the, Kind: contemplated would be every where very, great,.and would.soon amply remus nerate any one, ‘whether in Europe or.in America, who might be. so. Aagtenth nfl Ph Sen eran se epee meni io Sonoda ¢ Be eae bE x ten} H cs —" — . a ne = _ee te eee , : : trite! A lasik ok awilias . —— tecenan’ of, a . Platina. pei aes ‘xeaans Mennvwearsien, Esq. of: Whitby. et a nieniond to phere’ Jameson. “Qwith * a ‘Plate. ) | ' | Pa ¥ 7 > . IST 20K ed" 6 a ee | t inv oF Sir A YEW years ago, Sir eet Pa amare, i ra that, if a coil of .small platina wire be placedaround' the wiek «« of a. spirit lamp, an and rendered red-hot; the wire would conitiniie* ° ignited for'a length of time, after ‘the flame was blowi out, Tn bis mse consequence of having lately witnessed this singular ht at t Pro or, Hope's: lectures, and. that:it was.generally. viewed.» as nothing: more than af-amusing:experiment, ‘I was'induced t6° give: the stibjéct some attention, ast felt convinced that d Ying eo of ViIs¥ might'b ‘be devised of turning it to. some use useful purpose. phone Onithe ad off ast-monthiyI contrived'an apparatus; but: not meeting with” the ‘success Iexpected with platina' wire; Immadevuse of spongy platina, which? I found to answer the object'Ehai-in views:IIn order-that a correct ded tay’ be ee elias gle wedge pe npn ee, SIC ifiG SIC! 360 Mr G. Merryweather’s Account of a Platina Lamp. structed of tin, in the body of which is thé reservoir, large enough to contain a quart-of alcohols the bottom of the interior of the reservoir is cor order that the cotton-wick may take up the last. drop of the spirit. Afte wick has been spread in the form of a coronet at the top of the lam platina wire cage, containing one piece of spongy platina, is to be pricked in. to the centre of the wick, and to be kept nearly in contact, but not. to touch it. -After the reservoir has been filled with alcohol, the wick is to bei and a minute afterwards, the spongy platina will have become . when the flame is to be suddenly blown out, and the glass cover to be “diately placed over the platina. Without any further care or attention, the platina ball will keep ignited for thirteen or fourteen days and, nightse. A _ similar apparatus has been kept ignited for this period in the University of this city. If a tube is connected with a reservoir (containing a sufficient quantity of alcohol), and the bottom of the reservoir of the lamp, I have no hesitation in saying that the platina ball may be kept ignited for years, as the spongy platina does not appear to be in the least deteriorated —s kept in a state of constant ignition. —_. iin I had a similar lamp made, on a small scale, to keep ignited: from. to ten hours, which affords sufficient light to shew the face of a w: ™ the dark of night. It causes no ansoyance from a glare of light. ‘Ifa light is required, the glass cover is to be elevated, and the platina, gently touched with a match of oxy-muriate of potassa, which will be instantly in- flamed ; and it is no small recommendation, that there is not the least sneer to be apprehended from fire. There have been two objections to this lamp, which were formidable ides, namely, the expense of the alcohol, and the odour which is diffused through the apartment in which it is placed. As a remedy for the first, I find by ex- periment, that equal parts of alcohol and whisky answer quite as well as pure alcohol; or every one-third of alcohol and two-thirds of whisky do very, inal which I find, on calculation, to cost about one penny for eight hours. remedy for the second objection, I have coritrived an apparatus for ec the vapour, of which I have made a drawing. In order that it may be’ cor- rectly understood, I have represented it as transparent ; but the apparatus is made of tin, which is to be suspended from a nail in the wally Fig. 4; G. glass tube of the lamp is to be inserted into the tin tube of the condensing appa- ratus, which will completely destroy the strong odour of the vapour "the liquid is drawn off by the stop-cock at the side of’ the condenser, be found a compound of water, acetic acid, and some other peculiar ingres _ dients given to it by the platinae on gate ae: "We may add, that this lamp may prove very useful in all mining districts, as a constant light that may be depended upon, if the reservoir is replenished. If this should be the tesult, ih shall hone, um amply repaid for all the pains I have taken. ane sie Fo de Epinwunon, March 5. 1831. Sr cant a f sak “yr “4, Explanation of Figure of Platina iy in Plate pri Fig: 3. A, Vent for the vapour. B, ponte Cc,’ Plating Da », Cotton wick. E, Holes-for admission of air. F, Reservoir. PHS #3 Dean Sim, Se ge See ot 18 : sy “As. compliance’ with eit’ ‘ete, rise ‘give yo you ow the result ~.of-the,examination I haye made of. the specime ~-wood.-you:-have lately: received. from your friend. Cc lor é . ae present in New Holland}. oy pss 1 Une wmitaig ‘Thin transverse sections of each were formed. on the method I “have ‘adopted,. and. which ei have “described minitely in a work »» lately published by. Mr Witham on the Structure of Fossil Wood. Onwiewing these sections, by help, of .a microscope,.or,,even a , common pocket lens, it is puficmeltiys phydems that ‘fixes of the a9 of. true Rh ty ‘Four. of the py are ‘common. hie. Usa Ry ‘the, fifth is. weod-opal. - One. of, the. dicotyledonous, speci- ‘mens is wood: stone, and shews the organic structure through- ‘out the whole mass; but’ the ‘other® Specimen, which is in the » State, of opal,, shews the organic, structure ‘only 1 in certain parts yf ithewmass... In such, parts,,.there is a peculiarity which Ido not) recdllect to have»seen in anyother specimen. of. petrified “wood 3° and which is, that *the’ potes‘or vessels, instead of: bemg Ji ied' with petrifying matter, are perfectly empty; ‘Throughout nedhaagroatet part.of this magnificent specimen, th the vascul: lar struc 34) . ae # S 3 “* Read to ‘the Wererian Society, $th | “March est. att r 6 In examining the structure of petrified woods, it has been the practice ey to shew it either by simply cutting and polishing the surface, and.exan in >it by reflected light, or by cutting thin slices, and examining them m by 1 trans- \ “mitted light... This,latter, although the best mode, has hitherto afford ~-esatisfactory: results than it ought to have done, owing to the ees the cutting and polishing process. Mr Nicol, after. much. boat Aas succe ee saneeows a Sheas ee as. to enable us by.it it. to shay, An aaa eS? | used by botanists in their examination of. the structure of recent woods ; for, as well remarked by Mr Nicol, this structure may ‘afford méans “al iingement of plants hitherto but little attended to. We. have: always maintained that the internal structure of plants might, to a-certain extent, afford the means of scientific arrangement of the groups of the vegetable kingdom,—Enrr. JANUARY MFA RCH SOS eta Mieke J Awe est y may be effected by this process. “We doubt not, that. it will. also be aes 362 Mr W. Nicol’s' Observations on the Fossil Trees of ture is quite obliterated, and the ligtedt origi can barely be inferred from very slight traces of annual rings, | Some parts have'a fibrous structure, and are white and opaqué.” 'The fibres cohere so slightly in some portions, that they may be reducedto powder between the finger and thumb. In general, however, the fibres coheré more firmly as they approach the translucent part, and then the vegetable structure becomes very apparent: In addition to the above ‘specimens, I have in ‘my possession other two from Van Dieman’s Land. ‘These aré both Conifers, so that out of nine specimens seven are Conifers, and only two true Dicotyledons. ‘As far as these nine specimens go, we may therefore infer, that in Van Dieman’s Land the growth of ‘coni- ferous trees at a period antecedent tothe present state of things, was more fréquent than that of the Dicotyledonous kinds. "The same may be ‘said with regard to the Coal and Lias formations of this island. In these deposits numerous specimens ‘of petri- fied wood have been found, and, from a careful examination '6f these, I will Ny an to assert that the whole CERNE to the ie tionéd to you, Mr Witham, and others, ‘in the course oP ait summer, and I was then led to speak on the subject ‘with some degree of confidétice, from a recent investigation of the structiize of the different kinds ‘of trees at present growing in all the diffe. rent climatés of ‘the globe. In order to obtain the requisite know. ledge, I found it ‘iecessary to cut transverse sections’of ‘a great number of trees, and of such a degree of thinness, that the cel- lular, as well-as the vascular, system might be distinctly seen. This labour I was obliged to submit to, in consequence of find. ing all the séctions of wood figured in such works ‘onvegetable anatomy as T could lay my hands on ‘so imperfect, peach! ; hered to the limestone rock forming: the sides, .and, appeared: Se- parated from the loose, earth of the lower :part, by three/layers} (like strata) of limestone, about an inch in thickness, and three} inches apart between, and. in which the bones were: in. greatest. abundance, and generally upright, or ening one end, mean layer) | 3 _ The peculiar texture of the cement, tad to pis fonikdes other parts of the surface above limestone, and in other. parts,of the country, and it was found precisely under the same water stances as at. Wellington Valley. J pitas 1..Six miles north-east, on the opposite side of, ‘the Ma. quarrie. KORN ob 2. At Buree, fifty miles south-east ; and, on leokaigan at some denuded -limestone-rock - similarly situated in another—place (Molong), a small quantity was also detected in a crevice a like an oven ; which also when broken contained small bones) °° '2\. ‘The most remarkable facts eonnected with these les, and this breccia, seem to be, (~ youl oat lst, That it occurs only in: the seid onsihaia of caves,’ but yet distinct from those of the most open and permanent deserip- tion. oil sede 2Qdly, That.although always reaching to the ouxtaonil it 1s dis: tributed deeply and extensively in the crevices of the limestone. 8dly, That this particular substance never occurs,: “but i in, combination-with bony fragments; that bones occur ‘in‘such quantity in this cement only ; that those of small and. large ani- mals are rr mixed ; and that, Aegon much. broken, ny porary to the cement which’ is, by its ae, aad o¢hreouse. 6) rua youd: we Athly, "That in one ease, mere this pone was traced to the surface, a large fragment or rock of-it, as hard as limestone, | the: Australian Bone Caves.» STL lay above, having deeply embedded in it several bones apparently huian } this rock indicating’ an antiquity almost as high as the limestorie ‘rock! itself, forthe breccia is so’ combined’ in parts, that'its' removal would occasion the rocks to collapse, so as ma- terially' to alter the external surface and form of the hills. “It is proper to add, that some fragments of bones have been found by digging inthe loose earth of most ‘of the caves, but: from their imperfect state, and the vicinity of the breccia out- sides itis ‘difficult to determine whether they mee not have: originally belonged to it or not.) | brads It appears from the description by Major rae of As red. ochreous cement containing bones which occurs: at Gibraltar, and along the northern shores of the Mediterranean; that this’ breccia is of the same kind both én sit¢w and character, and that’ its antiquity is at least equal to, if not much higher, than’ the bones found under stalagmite in caves, in different porch of ae Description of several New-or., Rare, Plants which have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Granam,, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 10th March 1831. a Banksia littoralis. '- B. Rttoralis ; foliis elongato-linearibus, spinuloso-dentatis, hasi attorhia- _.tis, Subtus aveniis ; calycibus deciduis; folliculis compressis bracteis- que strobuli apice tomentogis ¢ caule arboreo, rammiilis tomentosis.— Brown. - ~ i Banksia littoralis; Br. in Linn.’ Soc. Trans. 10. 204. ?—fd. Prodi FL Nov. Holl. 392. ?—Rem. et Schulies, 3. 438 ?—Sprengel, a Aisi 1. 485. P excl. syn.—Bot. Reg. 1363. ‘) DescrirTron:—Shrub erect. “Branches ascending, purple, villous.) rai scattered, pubescent when young, naked and dark green APRS, W: densely covered with snowy tomentum below, on panels erect Remit _- linear, truncated, : spinuloso-serrate, avenous, slightly torelsieia da mth _edges. Amentum (4 inches long, 3 inches broad to the extremit the styles) terminal, upon’a short leafy peduncle, the branches’ risibas above it from a whorl at its base. .F/awers in’ pairs, fo dou ther distant lines along the rachis, with which, when rs ty expand they form nearly right angles, expanding from above downwards. ', fee tomentous, green where vith th yellow where included, ei 0 litary, Hiombow, subacute, wit the apex turned uP, when’ ‘th abe are gy Q Dr Graham's Description of New or ‘Rare Plants. Cea placed between the pairs of flowers, or geminate and rounded, and placed above or below. them.» Calyx 4-parted, covered with adpressed pubes- cence; claws linear, yellow, the spoon-shaped Soa of joa de dish, nodding. Anthers elliptical, subsessile in the’ cavities of Style twice as long as the calyx, shining, of deep) purple. colour:except “Yat the base and apex, where it is yellow, deciduous, rigid, apex nodding. “| Stigma an abrupt glandular scarcely. swollen termination to ithe style, re« tained for some time within the calyx, and, when-liberated, covered with “+ “the yellow pase 9 pollen, which gives it a capitate formedi) o> 0 This species wered in the greenhouse of the Botanie,Garden,in Noyem- -‘otbér 1830, immediately after B, speciosa, and remained in flower, form \! a good contrast with this in its colours and manner of flowering.; It seems quite different from Banksia microstachya of Cavan, and B. atte. ' nuata of Brown, with both of which Sprengel unites his B. littoralis. have assigned the specific name to this plant doubtfully, and have quoted. all the authorities cited above with hesitation, except the Botanical, Re- ‘\gister, because I have some reason to doubt its identity with the plant sent from New Holland by Mr Brown, and cultivated at. Kew under the’ name of B. littoralis.. ‘The specimen which flowered with us we re- ~ ; 7? ORT Tussilago scapo unifloro, foliis lyrato-ovatis, Plum. Plant. Amer. fase. 2. t. 41. fig. 1. DeEscripTron.—Root perennial. Leaves (3 inches long, 1} broad) all radit- cal, spreading, recurved, runcinato-lyrate, undulate, veined, toothed, — and nearly naked above, densely covered with snowy tomentum elow, contracted in the middle, below which they are very narrow and much sinuated ; above the middle they are cordato-oblong, and more en- tire. _ Scape (6 inches high) lateral, erect, single-flowered, covered with snowy tomentum, especially above, destitute of scales. lower nodding, white, or with a slight shade of purple. Anthodium imbricated, subey- lindrical, scales subulate-linear, with a strong green middle rib, and to- mentous membranous edges. Receptacle naked. Floreis of the ray slen- der, female, ligulate, trifid, longer than the styles, which are bifid, paving the stigmatic surface along the inside of the segments. FJorets of the di shorter than the ray, slender, 5-toothed, sub-bilabiate, the throat being slightly gibbous, and the division of the limb less deep on one side ; sta- mens as long as the corolla. Style and stigma exserted, their structure asin the ray. Germen pubescent. Pappus stipitate, slightly rough. This plant was raised at the Botanic Garden from seeds obtained by Cap - tain Bennet, R. N. from the West Indies in 1827. It has flowered the stove in March last year_and this. It has no beauty, nor can it be 3 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. 373 attractive in cultivation, though Sloan attributes to it many virtues in _.. wery different cases, concluding the whole by stating, that “itis a re- _. medy against all sorts of cold, for it is hot and bitter.”, | so E. sericeus ; caule piloso ; foliis ovato-oblongis, subacutis, base attenuatis, | berenato-serratis, supra leviusculis, glabriusculis, subtus mollissime pi- loso-sericeis ; paniculo diffuso ;\ bracteis subcordato ovatis, acutis; in« »volucri. foliolis exterioribus subulatis, interioribus tubam, corolli 2- quantibuss: 9/8 eo 8 CP, DEscriPrion.—Root perennial. Stem (2 inches high) erect, short, branch- uted, leafy, covered with white erect hairs.. Leaves (5 inches long, 14 - broad) ovato-oblong, spreading, Seatelly crenato-serrate, attenuated at » ‘the base, and at the insertion stem-clasping, dark green, and slightly co- vered with soft down above, below thickly covered, especially on ‘the »S)weins (which are numerous ahd prominent) and their primary divisions, ‘with coarse yet soft somewhat silky hairs; middle rib very strong.and-pro- minent on both sides, especially below; leaves on the flower-stalk few, seattered, gradually smaller upwards. Flower-sialk (14 foot high) terminal, erect, slightly flexuose, leafy, tapering, panicled, pubescent... Paniele loose, _ the branches rising from the axils of the diminished leaves, erect. Bractee ‘ subcordato-ovate, acuminate, single, except frum the confluence of several capitula at the extremities of the branches. . Involucre about. 4-flowered, of few leafets, the four inner subequal, lanceclate, 3-nerved, membranous. ‘atthe edges, very slightly pubescent on the outside, hard and chaffy, outer leafets much shorter-than these four, subulate. Corolla small, white, glabrous; tube equal in length to the involucre, curved, very slender, slightly dilated at the throat ; limb 5-parted, segments,.secund, slightly salou at the apices. Pistil subexserted; germen. green, ob- ovate. Pappus of & simple hairs, very slightly dilated at the base. This species was raised from seed sent to the Botanic Garden by Dr Krous of Dominica in 1829. It has been added to Dr Hooker’s herbarium from St Vincent and Trinidad. Itis ae omg from E. Martii by the form of its leaves; by its.much less pany ower-stalk; by the form of inflo. * rescence; by the greater length of the involucra; and by the narrow more acuminate bractez. [think it is distinguished from E. mollis of Kunth, by the form of the bractez, and of the outer leafets of the invo. lucre; by its leaves being nearly even on the upper surface; and by ‘their being only moderately attenuated at the base, certainly less so _ than in some other species of the genus. Boe os ay real >i z vg . - 3 > z’ 1558 FA aegis NM Soronesay belesls } : Celestial Phenomena from April.1. to July 1. 1831, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. Grorcr Innes, Astronomical Calculator, ‘Aberdech. ~ big poten g a Rae Rae Rt thn noe fd ge 3} aT ac : 2 TED eon KE | Bes & OE ccm naa eer eG ee D. tere: 4 i D. RE Sap seg 1 9 243300 gd )pye 2 EBC gi Be 1 8 A4lo20 S)pys (3 6 0 & greatest clong. 2° “627-21 Gg) gOph “| 3% 18-4390 OOY'Y K 1) 5. “415252 ( Last Quarter. | 4. 17 4026 86¢') HL se 5s i95835 gpd pt ‘| & °° 31834 Last Quarter. 6° 7 35 - = Supp. BOY 5 6 6 lous 6S yPy * 7 22313 ¢)H iy 1 tp ip ae * 8. = ourd gy y” 7 193518 S)ocs * 8 22856 ¢os18 9 —-44355 P)prKe- © 9% 622015 d)ace {ii O'R BP: oF Pega © Ww 2-sR PC) in. 66 eBSP Ch) PW Ce 12° 11316 g 23H } 11." 23 44°28 @ New Moon.” 12. 15 4854 @New Moon 112 191735 212 By 1% (127 ©. fd )D@eCeti. “12 2018'8 Ppyyer~ —* 13 83> P)Y ji. stage ep T ey ST 13. ed «6S DLC “Yi2 a5337 g)asy% * 14 Wsb50 ¢) | 13. 218. SPP rer 14 144853 O)TS {13 22426 S)as Ke 15 01030 d)jys | 2a: + pas 56 ee: 1. 1122 7 gS DIIB. Jd 12620. SDeD Ww. 14940 S)j23B {lo 22213 SPS wy 1s 163031 S¢)ae 415% 182831 Q¢e 16 113 8 pd 18. V4 0 “9rsidicgh hel 17, 125510. 6) 18... 17 12 . O.comhdie D 19. 61344 ) FirstQuarter.} 19. 442 8 S)eQ - 20. °° 20 35 50 ~° © enters’ & 19.° 15 55°55 °° /~ First Quatter. 21. 72640 d¢)h 0. @17'8 “Soe 21. 112233" ‘6 pan 21. 204944 °° ‘@)énters 21. 23 210 S)eH 21. -.21.28°S2-° SYiy, my 2.16 918 Aon & 23. 33136 Pnears 22. 1644 —~ Gneard / 24, S18” CeIn 22. 2248 4 d)jcQ 2. 1534 7. d)gs’ 2. 1557 7 gylym 26. 3.017 “he 25. 331 16° Tm. I. sat. 2/ 26. 1222 ~° Ine g@Y 25. 15,38, 37). 43d 5482) .Bi) oof 26.5) 915,44 45); .. O Full Moony 26.5 AT, 25.5 Toy GP B dori $26 y.19 19, 20,9 GDP OpBe ie: oshces 27. 0 355° ©. Full Moon, .},29-)5) . 443 852 oodsdiPdlbsuoris one 7. 2 SAE MSIE 30. 11822 Im. IIL. sat. 7/ 2. 92948 d¢jyx 30. 3014 dg)jdf 982i) Wide btn U Sl. 19.1851, Boe 22. 205437 d)y=s 29. 1313 0 4) Oph. Mr Celestial Phenomena from*April 1. to July 1. 1831. 375 bsinuwains .f84i i gh: Oo} JUNEL ~ y wsrsenosaG. tosh pf a , apt sol, sompgnl ao gospel: sil >. ae 55/9 Dom sO (fas 36 16, (BD Re) 2 wey spy 16 915 0 YQ2ya 3 Se Im ay | 16. 10 56.57 SD e N 3. 855 0. d)j)acss 17. 3°17 2. __) First Quarter 3 15 424 ( Last Quarter. | 17 1955 = Shes 3 Wi4e gloss 18. 332.2 ?¢?)dleM 6... 14.2519 6)» i 1934 = $8138 7 21026 Im. IL. sat. 2/ 19 6.12.5 Im. Lsat. 7 7 10,2240 .),2€Ceti. . | 19, 4.5.—- 6§23% Foy MAVIL db) oe Ceti. 20. 1043-- dOded 8. Il 56 30 dg Df s 20. - 2334 = & greatest elong. 9. 1l6 - o)% 2. 213455 ¢)y7x 9. 71.3 8 fd)xs 22. 5 2649 © enters op 9. 81358 fd)138 22. 9313. ¢)¥=a 9. ...8.3957 ¢)23.8 23. 12350 4) Oph. 9% 131350 ep eT | 8102 8 9t | 0° k “| St re] Ge st | ~09 BL] gr et (gp ett Be St ety 8t Lt] red Sh bl | 6E 0Z 2 9t | 8 8 0 2] eb St | ge ot] BF et S16 | St at jort 12 L1| s1 8 OF FL | 62 02 9¢ 91 | 928 Le ¢%| 19 St gre 66 eI | a I a ¢ See f1 | 66.8 Niog YI FUT | Sr or | 96.8 | NOL es} 99st ont ee i Nga | ” : TL “suvyu005 z= "ainyeg woudag ‘se ‘SAU A Pp = chp "T1UaV : i. ws 2s > ‘wonDuyaTT 49Y) pun ‘urrpray ay} Sussnd spumg oy) fo sou = 2 SS © EP TEER CNT i FE d : a sa sien oot AH ( em ) “Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society. 1831, Tan. 22D Honeat Kaye. _GREYILLE, VY. P. in hy the chair.—Mr John James “Audubon (who has spent the win- ‘ter in Edinburgh) read an account of the White-headed Eagle ~ of America, Aquila leucocephala, and exhibited a splendid en- ~ -graving of the bird, prepared for his great work, entitled, The Birds of America. The Rey. Dr David Scot then read an essay on the Selavim or Quails of the Bible. After which there was 4 read a letter from an intelligent settler at Swan River, in New Holland, giving a description of the soil and general aspect of the country, which appear nowise so inviting to. emigrants as had at first been represented. Feb. 5—Henry Wiruam, Esq. lately V. P. in the obi. ‘The Secretary read an account, communicated by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding of St Vincents, of a new and beautiful species of West Indian Moth, called by him Atticus Wilsonii, (in honour of Mr James Wilson, Librarian of the Society, and | | a distinguished entomologist). A fine coloured drawing of the "perfect insect of both sexes, with the larva and cocoon, was ex- hibited to the meeting. - Professor Jameson then made a com- «munication regarding the Flints found in Banffshire by Mr James Christie, Secretary of the Banff Institution. Nodules . -were exhibited imbedded ina kind of felspar-clay. The flint _ has not yet been detected in situ; but Professor Jameson _- thought it not improbable that a portion of the chalk formation * “yay be observed in some of the hollows-in that district of coun. ~ “try. [See the present Volume of this Journal, p. 163, &c.] The ~=Professor next read a learned essay, by a Fellow of the Royal ... Societies of London and Edinburgh, on the form of the Ark of ~~-Noah,.as described in the Pentateuch; shewing that the word tzohar, rendered window in our translation, rather means taper- = ing upwards ; and that, with this modification, the form of the © Sack was not only admirably adapted for floating, but also for _ ewithstanding the shock of waves, although this last quality has ~~ been generally denied to it by unscientific commentators: f'This paper is printed in the present Number of this Journal, supra p- 310, &e.]. At the same meeting, the Rev. D. Scot read a paper on the Alabaster of the ancients. JANUARY—-MARCH 1831. Bb 378 Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society. Feb. 19.—Rosert Jameson, Esq. P. in the chair. There, was read..an essay on the Beacon,,lights of ‘remote ,antiquity,! communicated by Mr Robert, Stevenson, civil engineer... Likes wise.a paper on the influence of rocks on the, nature. of the veges tation which covers them, communicated by Dr Alexander Murray of Aberdeenshire. “At the same meeting, Mr John James Audubon commoni cated an interesting and graphic description of a: flood of the Mississippi, which he had witnessed during his residence in the western parts of America. March 5.—Rozert Jameson, Esq. P., in the chaie.. “the first paper read was Dr Turnbull Christie’s account of the: oceur-, rence of hailstorms within the torrid zone, in the. peninsula of te dia. The Rey. Dr David Scot read a learned essay on the Zebi of the Bible, which he proved to be the Mountain Gazelle, ; and not the Roe, as in our authorised translation. Dr Grevitir, V. P., having taken the chair, Professor Jameson stated the general results of accurately kept meteoroloz | gical tables, shewing the nature of the weather in the Isle of Man from: 1824 to 1830. He also communicated a copy: of the meteorological register for 1830, kept at Kinfauns one under the direction of ‘Lord-Gray'; and a’ similar aap at. Aberdeen by Mr George Innes. "The Professor then laid the table a copy of areturn to an address of the House of ont mons relating to sums of money granted for mineralogical pur pu poses in Scotland; from which it appeared, that no part of of the money had been granted to this Society, nor to-the-. Museum,—although the printed Parliamentary votes had men- tioned the Mineralogical Society’ of Scotland, and the news~ papers had stated, that part of the money was for ‘the _Edin- burgh ‘Museum; but that the whole sum, amounting tos‘aper wards of 'L.. '7000, had been ‘paid to Dr Fos ‘MacCullo¢of! Woolwich, for a Mineralogical Survey of Scotland, never wntit note heard of by men of'science in Scotland. “It was remarked}’ that it would be desi¥able in Government to cause to be" pub! lished forthwith the results’of this rg: and it omamentes* * partial survey of Scotland.” ~ mien nae At the same meeting, Professor Jameson connenicif adele a notice in regard to the istructure of,certain fossil woods from Van Dieman’s Land, shewing, that the ancient vegetation had resembled that of the old world, or differed greatly from the Scientific Intelligence.— Meteorology. 379 present ; and read an interesting letter from Mr William Nicol, lecturer on natural philosophy, on the subject of illustrating the’ structure of woods, fossil and “recent, by means of extremely thin slices placed upon glass, and ha it - (See the a Number, p. 361.) | SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. °°" Pig: METEOROLOGY. 1. Meteorological Table.—Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Britain, Lat. 56° 23’ 30”. —Above the level of the sea 150 feet. Morning 9, |} Evening, ; No. of Days. | Mean Bieignt of Mean ene 4 Mean med - Temp. _ Barom. | Therm. ‘Therm. den. Snow, | Fair} March,......... 29.698 | 45.710 || 29.687 | 43.582 || 45.355|| 1.20} 11 | 20 Apel, -sic...... 29.451°| 48.400 || 29.442 | 45.733 | 46.800] 2.90] 15 | 15 May;...« 29.663 | 53,839 || 29.655 | 50.258 |) 51.645/|, 3.70|15 | 16] ; June., 29,603 | 56.767 || 29.626 | 52.933 | 54.400|| 250| 17 | 13 “fs 29.670 | 61.226 || 29.671 | 57.903 |/'59.581||" 5.20) 17° | 14 . August,...:.... 29.595 | 55.903, 29.618. 52.839 || 54.839}). 5.00} 20. ALi. September, ...| 29.435 | 53.833 | 29.475 | 51.867 | 53.667]! 5.00] 18 | 12 ; October,.......| 29.926 | 49.581 |/ 29.942 | 48.323} 50.129] 0:35)" 64-1 (27) Navewmbers 29.465 | 43.667 |, 29.483, | 42.367 | 43.867)) 3.00]. 15 }.154, December,. ...| 29.468 | 36.419 29. 468 | 35.903 | 36.645) 4.00!" 17] 1 ; : 3 raat 1G) webriony Mie yea, 4 29.624 | 48.281 | 29.629 | 46.169 || 47.626]|. 36.85 1172. |193)} os ANNUAL, RESULTS,i3. oncxhilo-chdesen q pee Le MORNING. ; f Sita 12: Heanor BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. 9 oo | ~ Observat rations. “Wind. Inch. | pe AEN SS Eo hy SEG SG mn 2 Reus dst Jan....Niis.30.53 | 28th July,..ca...clushwilggerd! Lowest, »...:..).16th Noy, 'S.....28.73 | 26th Distelahér.ia0) LBS ck Wio-dbl@n 3255?) 97 SiR . ~ EVENING. : 1s io WieD WV Highest, ;... ad NE. 30.50 | 28th eee ae Lowesty.oo:nn:-16th N Nov. SW. 28.66 24th December, ... i NW, 21%), -. 6 Weathers Days. | Wind) 0°) ctewelivol frames! Bait, .......-+--seeereeeees a SED 193 N. & NEJ5 5-34, pm soit Ry pe Ee eee eee 172 FF) ee pels rd gan i pitt aes ea Fee absiie Sines “Sey ag 365 PWS NWO SST Ae somige 365 ~ ; Net ryko WE oro. Tt) sW $80.00) 1 id Seientific Intelligence = Meteorologyes.\ (09 82 7ahs WDliRableie ere orn Thermometer. ye 18h ay Coldest) 26th Décembery. 1.0... 0. 20... Wind, Wiis bake* is 4 Hottest, 28th July, ;. Pre dis d dade vupicce w+ eae lOne SV ae oF fils |Mean Temperature for the year 1830,.. stagnate enepeatere ema 7” 626. Busafia ef Two Rain Pirie i aise 31992 , beac ide *¥. (Céntre of Kinfauns Garden, About 20 feet above the = ofthe sea, 85 2) Sqaare Tower, Kinfauns Castle, 180 feet,...., ae 12 236:85 902, Phiunder-Storms in Prtinsdioctup eail ide ‘eeu made observations on the direction of the thunder-storms which have devastated ‘the department of the Lorich for the last; six- teen years. The following general inferences have been. made by him, respecting the progress and intensity of thunder-storms in plain countries, intersected by shallow valleys. Thunder storms are attracted by forests. When one arrives: at:a:forest, if it be obliquely, it glides along it; if directly, or if the forest be narrow, it is turned from its direction ; if the forest be broad, the tempest may be totally arrested. “Whenever a forest, bein in the path of a thunder-storm, tends to turn it aside, reac locity of the storm seems retarded, and its intensity is eegeie ed. A thunder cloud, which ‘is arrested by a forest, exhausts itself along it, or, if it pass over, is greatly weakened. When’ large river or valley is nearly parallel to the course of a thundér ‘storin, the latter follows its direction’; ‘but the approach’ of wood, or the somewhat abrupt turn of the’river or valley, , niakés it pass off. A thunder cloud attracts another which is at no great distance, and causes it to déviate from its course. id ds, reason. to-belieye, that the action is reciprocal. « AL tracted by a.larger, accelerates its motion, as it. ARRAS ay re principal cloud. When there is an affluent cloud, . which hi “ _committing ravages, it sometimes suspends. them ‘on. app 2ach- ing the principal mass, which is perhaps a consequence of | acceleration of its course; but after the union the evil gener \ “ial increases, , Twenty-one thunder-storms, whose coed distinctly traced, have extended from N. NW.. cise No destructive thunder-storm has come from any neg | of the horizon. _ Lastly, the position. and form of the forest t of Orleans, Blois, &e., satisfactorily ¢ accounts for the frequency « hail-storms in certain communes, and their rare occurrence m others. 2VI88 Speers Re ee a with the mmenetie needle. : rite Sela: bobs Scientific Intelligence.—Meteorology 381 3. Sudden agitation of the Sea:—His Majesty’s ship Hotspur, in 1813, whilst»cruising in the Bay.of.Biscay,.under easy sail, with ‘moderate weather, was in a moment. nearly: overwhelmed by three successive seas... The quarter-deck bulwarks were carried ‘away, one gun ‘washéd- overboard, the wheel un- shipped, several mem ost, and the ship rendered unmanageable, and in. imminent.danger of foundering, in consequence. of the ‘quantity of water shipped... Immediately. after,..all: appeared alm, as if nothing happened ; and it. was the opinionsof those ;who witnessed this, that it was occasioned by a.momentary,and very partial agitation of the sea. —Mr Drummond, Surgeon, R.N. .»4. Aurora Borealis at Paris—The following are the magnetic observations made atthe Paris Observatory. on, the aurora, which was visible here on the night of the 7th January..; The aurora caused a deviation of the magnetic needle in wanletieniee A declination equal to. 1° -6/ 47” » In inclination equal to 0° 28’ 00” | _N, B.—The variations of the. Magnetic needle, i in decking: tion, can be appreciated to, 5 seconds. at the Paris Observatory. ‘Throughout. Scotland ; the. Polar lights, . from_ their brillianey, hhaye excited intense. interest among the populace 3 but, strange to, sayy the natural philosophers of ‘Scotland, who are well pro- vided with magnetical apparatus, sleep on without once thinking of tracing out. the, connection. of these mnbereatng phenomena GEOLOGY, Pet caljatb tso1a “ B. Gold Mines in the Uralian Mountains. _The'p duce “of the Ural mines amounted, in 1827, to L. 651,420 3 7 in ies to L.672,416. Gold is also found ‘in ‘the Rhine ; Loni" te quantity is sO scanty, that the washer considers it 4 ‘good ‘day’s | qarst if he succeed in collecting to the value of five oF six’ shil. “From the official accounts of the’ yearly . prodiice Ob- ‘he from that , stream in the Grand Duchy of Baden, We Ob- serve ‘that the value was, in 1821-2, ‘L. 603 ; 1826-7, Lr 808’; are - 1824-8, L. 943." "The last produce, ‘small as it may ap beet for it scarcely exceeded I 17 pounds i in weight, orgs ag} derable ai an increase upon ‘preceding y years, that A great sip 32-lisn 2D A 3¢ ; 382 Scientifie Iutelligence Geology. “was given to this branch of industry 3 in eam and pe — has become still more productive. RG: Lightning Tubes.—In the Seth of the’ old castle: of Remstein, near Blenhenburg, which stands on a picturesque ‘series of rocks, belonging to the greensand ‘or quadersandstone formation, in a loam land, there have been found, this’ suim- “mer, very firm and long vitreous tubes (Blitershren). From‘a ‘branch in the upper part, two branches go off, some of which’are “ten feet long, and from these: proceed three small branches— Literary Gazette, January 15. 183i. ; “ 7. Temperature of some Mines in Cornwall~—The follow. ing interesting observations were made by Robert Were Fox, Esq. of Falmouth, and communicated ‘to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall :—At Tingtang copper-mine, inthe parish of Gwennap, at the bottom of the engine-shaft, which is in Kil- las (clayslate), and 178 fathoms deep, the water, two months ago, was at the temperature of 82°.°° In’ 1820, when the shaft _ ‘was 105 fathoms deep, thé temperattire of the water was 68°; thus an increase of 14° has been observed in sinking '73'fathoms, which is equal to 1° in 5 fathoms. At Huel Vor tin-mine, near Helston, the water was 69°, at the bottom ofa shaft 199 fa- thoms deep, in the year 1819. It is now 209 fathoms deep. and the temperature is '79, which gives an increase of 1° in sink- ing 7 fathoms. This part of the mine is in Killas. "The high- est temperature of the water, at the bottom of Poldice copper and tin mine, in the parish of Gwennap, in 1820, which was then 144 fathoms under the surface, was 80°. It is now ‘L76 fathoms deep, and the temperature is 99° ; and, in a cross level, ‘90 fathoms further north, the water is 100. The two Test mentioned temperatures are the highest hitherto observed in any of the mines of Cornwall; and the increase is equal’ to 19° in one case, and 20° in another, in sinking 32 fathoms, or “1° for Wy fathom. Three persons only were employed. at the time near each of these stations, and the water pumped up from this part of the mine was estimated at 1,800,000 gallons in twer four hours ; and it was found to contain a considerable quan. tity of common salt in solution. : 8. Volcano in New setorgton racer ergs a specimen = ce a a ee oe, ee Scientific Intellagence.— Geology. 383 ,xeleanic ashes sent..to me. by, Colonel Lindsay,of Sydney, is a notice to the following effect :. This substance is found on what rds called White Isiand, from the ashes that continually fall from volcano, at present.in a.state of activity, and which has been dong: in the same. condition... It is about three miles round, and dies opposite to» the.Bay of Plenty, between. the river Thames and, the East, Cape;-and, from twenty to thirty miles from the mainland: of New-Zealand. . When this island was; last visited, _it presented: a frightful.display of flame and smoke from the crater of its voleano. At the foot of the bill in which. the, vol- ¢ano is situated, there is a lake of boiling sulphur,,and all around the lake the ground is encrusted with sulphur,~. The natives ‘say. the volcano runs under the sea, and bursts out again in the interior of New Zealand, about twenty miles from the shore, in a district. where there is a large hot. Jake. im, the waters, of which the natives cook their provisions.—EpIT.. __. ». 9. Map of the Puy de Dome.—A_map of the famous mountain he Puy de Dome, in twelve. sheets, is now in TARTAN by Bussy. of Paris. -—5 40. Diamond in the Coal fccontinn The diatond:s is said to have been found in the coal formation in India. . eh 11. Splendid Specimen of Mi egatherium —A-perfect decletin of the megatherium, exceeding in size the splendid specimen pre- served.in the Cabinet of Natural History in Madrid, has, been Jately discovered 126.miles south of Buenos. Ayres. This, re- any specimen of antediluvian zoology is now in the posses- ssion..of. Woodbine: Parish, Esq., Consul-General at. Buenos uines who intends to bring it with him to Europe.) ... 5,» 12. Slatesof the. Tarentaisebelong’ to the JuraFormation,—Alb the slates, conglomerates, and sandstones of the Tarentaise,, for- merly considered as transition, are now arranged with. the oolite or Jura formation. = 18, Decrepitating Common Salt. ‘Condiisitiee: of Gas in it,— M. Dumas, has. examined. and described. a very,curious, effect which, occurred when. some rock-salt obtained from the mine of Wieliczka.in Poland,.and given to, him by M. Boué, was put into water. It decrepitated as it dissolved. in the water, and gradually evolved a:sensible portion of gas. ..The bubbles of. gas were sensibly larger when the decrepitations were stronger, and 384 Scientific Intelligence: Geology. the: latter frequently: made the’ gla8s)trembleso This saltiowes! its property-of decrepitating: to ‘a> gas whichoit: from . the lacustrine..deposits .of .Argenton (Indre),,,consisting of five.or six species of Lophiodon, from. the size of a-large.rab-}o bit to that of a horse; also species of the genus Anthrocotheriuntyy« of the, Trionyx, and.Crocodile,; , Some recent discoveries in: they « diluyian ossiferous deposite of Chevilly (Loiret)iof, the bones of: the; extremities of the animal called Gigantic Tapir oeceety shews. that_this,.animal, by the. test. of \its osteology, is closely; allied to the living tapir, although equalling, if not exceedingyien the rhinoceros. The Indriand Loiret are two depres ie the central districts of France. : jesl vraatde Ao 15. Dr. Turnbull. Christie —Dr Turnbull ‘hsiatied swho has!ox been; appointed: to examine .the geology of the, Presidencyldf yd Madras, by. the India. Company,, has‘ left Edinburgh for-cur}/, Eastern Empire... He travels through France and Italy, embarks +0: for Alexandria, —from thence he: visits.the Holy, Land,: Mounty;/:) Sinai,—sails, down the ‘Red, Sea, for, Bombay, and from theneeys'> by land: or sea to. “Madras. >from the. varied. talent and infor-" Scientefic, Intelligence.—-M ineralogry. 385 mation of this jaccomplished:individual, his indomitable zeal and activity, and experience of» eastern= climate: and ‘travelling, we anticipate great accessions to/our knowledge ‘of the natural his- tory.of the -various; countries yhe :visits«,» He takes with hinva painter for the purposes.of zoology, comparative anatomy, bo- tany and geology, and a.complete set of instruments for/ascer- taining, the ‘nature »of the, meteorological and ‘hydrographical: phenomena that,» may present themselves to his:attention. 96) 9°) ~ 16. New, President..of the. Geological sSociety..We (are> hasipy.so learn that Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq: has been’ unanimously chosen President.of the Geological Society of Tone don. . This gentleman, from his experience, skill, -zealand aco tivity in geology, will, we are confident, prove: himself:a worthy successor to such men as Gaachnjen ean pathiaials ene wick, .&c. 6. a21uNo'ad? a pitwor MINE RALOGY!, MW. Recent Formation of Zeolite a guitbita, siesegpil and” apophyllite,’ appear almost ‘always asa newer formation in’ the? cavities of amygdaloid, and along with these calcareous spar. , The formation of zeolite through this action of atmospheric wa- ter’on-dolerite, seems still’to be going on!’ We observe it form- ing ‘in ‘hollows of a conglomerate, in which zeolite plays the part of ealeareous'sinter. Springs deposite’a similar zeolite sinter ; 3 and“when, in the ‘summer, the brooks dry up, their whole ‘bed ‘ appéars white: ‘In deep’ caves, where, during’ lower’ tempéra- © ture and greater humidity of the air, scarcely any evaporation » takes’ place; I found a matter partly gelatinous, partly ‘erystal-" a line, wields —— the saerranvaeee cise Mi, del Rio, Professor in the School of Mines of Mexico, had vex- tracted from that ore asubstance, which, to his apprehension, re- sembled a new metal, to which he gave the name of Erythroniwm. M. Collet Descotils, to whom he sent aspecimen, could not agree ‘in erythronium being a simple substance, ‘and believed he had demonstrated that ‘it was an impure chrome. It would ‘appear that Professor del Rio agreed in this opinion, and there ‘was not longer any idea of its being a new metal. But ‘since’ the’ dis- covery of Sestrom was known to Voller, he, struck withthe resemblances which exist between the properties ‘of vanadium and that which the Mexican chemist attributes to his’ erythro: hium, has) repeated the analysis of the brown ‘ore of Jeadiof Zimapan, and from which he has obtained a simple body, per- fectly identical. with that of the iron ore of .d’Esterholm.’. It is worthy of remark that so rare a metal should: have: been» dis= canbted: in two acmeen so far. asunder as Scandinavia and Mexico: ZOOLOGY. oc ll Wt ol a "i old, Rownlagied Stickleback. A variety. of the Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) with four spines on the back, was odise covered inva pond in the Meadows .by Mr: John» Starkjsin September 1830. The common three-.spined. stickleback was: numerous in the same pond; and, of a number taken ‘in ‘annet at random, about one in ten or twelve proved to becof the four-' spined.warietys, .This variety (or perhaps species), doesnot'ap»’ pear to have been previously,noticed.': It issomewhatsmaller than the. common three-spined stickleback: when. fullkgrownj the specimens procured not exceeding one-fourth of aninchin length. The arrangement of the spines is also different, being placed: in’ twos.at regular. distances; ‘corresponding to the length’ of: the spines... The two anterior spines are pre 90) a two; the second-longest—-Stark.... © Noss ym 20. Himala Ornithology.—W e amy in pe to the ashi. CO a en +r Orit < Scientific Intelligence. —Botany. $87 logy of the Himala, that its: principal features‘are the brilliancy of splumage of the Gallina—the size and power ofthe ri | tres and. the eR infinite number of the Pies. , a “BOTANY. . ‘oi “Crystals: im Living Vegetables. + Vatious naturaliéts hide ales notice of the appearance of crystals in the internal parts of vegetable tissues, but nothing very explicit and,certain has been: stated respecting them. : M. Turpin has discovered, in the cellular tissue of an old trunk of the Cereus Pernvianus, in the Garden of Plants at Paris, where it had been growing one hun- dred-and thirty years, an immense quantity of agglomerations of crystals of oxalate of lime. They are found in. the cellular tissue of the pith and bark. They are white, transparent, four- sided prisms, with pyramidal terminations, collected in patton groups. (22. Native Countess of Maize, or Indian Corn. —This grain, so important to the agricultural-interests of the United States, appears to be of uncertain origin. Fuchs very early maintained that it came from the east ; and Mathioli affirmed that it was from America. Regmir and Gregory have presented fresh ar- guments in favour of its eastern origin. Among them is the name by which it has been long known in Europe, Blé de:Tur- quie; and varieties, it is said, have been brought from the Isle of France, or from China. Moreau de Jonnés, on the contrary, has-recently maintained, in a memoir read before the Academy of Sciences, that its origin was in America. The name Bié de Turquie no more proves it to be of Turkish origin, than the name of the Italian Poplar proves that that tree grew wildvin’ Italy: »_It-can only signify that it spread from Turkey:into the neighbouring countries. Its general cultivation in southern Eu- rope, andthe production of some new varieties, proves nothing with, regard to the-country of the species.» In favour of ‘its: American-origin, is the fact that it was found in a’state of cul. tivation, in every place where the first navigators landed. In Mexico. according to. Hernandez, and in Brazil according to Zeri; and that in the yarious countries it had proper’ names, such as Maize, Flaolli, &c. ; while, in the Old World, ‘its names were either all of American origin, or names..of the neighbour. : 388 ing region, whence it was immediately derived; and that, im- mediately after the discovery of America, it spread rapidly in the Old. World, and.soon became. common, a fact_not_reconcile- ablé. with ‘the ‘idea of its former’ existence*thiere. .'To these proofs Aug: de Saint Hilaire has added: another... He has:xe- ceived from M. de Larranhaga of Monte Video, a new w vatiety of maize, distinguished by the name‘of Tunicatas' \ becausey))in- stead of having the grains naked, they are entirely covered. by the glumes: 'This' variety is from | Paraguay, where’ ‘itis eulti- vated by the Guaycurus Indians,.a people in the, lowest seale of civilization, and where, according to the direct testimony « of one of (Saas it grows in the humid forests:as a native Sead tion. pooeeyTa ? yal Scientific Intelligence —Geography. MiLigt GEOGRAPHY. 23. Tables for Converting French Torses and Metres into English Feet, and the contrary. —Readers of philosophical works and foreign journals frequently meet with dimensions expressed in French -measures.;'Lo enable such to convert them readily into English measures, the following Tables have been computed. * The lengths'of a Toise and:a-Metre in-English measure, which are the foundation of the Tables; have:been ta- ken from Baily’s Astronomical Tables and Formule, and, he deduced them from their lengths, as given in the Base, du Sys-; téme Métrique, yol.iii. and Captain Kater’s paper on the Length, of the French Metre in the Phil. Trans. for 1818.. TABLE ‘I. 1 French Toise = 1.949036 French Metres == 6.394950 —— Feet. _.1 French Metre =. .513074 Toise = 3.280899 English Feet. 1 English Foot = .156373 Toise = .304794 French Metre. a bas =, : tor veal. Se oe FE = of 1000 | 6394.95 |) 100 | 639.5010] 63.95] 1 | 6.39||.1} .64]|.01 2000: 12789.90 || 200. } 1278.99 }20) 127.90} 2 }12.79:)):.2')1.284/ 0272, 137 , 3000. | 19184.85 |}. 300. |-1918.49.}}30,}191,85,) 3.| 19,18.||.3)1,92)) 03} .19 4000 | 25579.80 ||. 400 | 2557.98 | 40| 255.80] 4 | 25.58. 4 |2.56]|.04) .26 "$000 131974.75 | 500. | 3197.48 |150/319.75|| 5 | 31.97 || .5 |3.20]|.05] .32 6000 |38369.70|| 600 | 3836. ot 60 | 383.70 : 38.37 . ? eo = 8000 | 51159. 60}| 800 5115.96 | 0/511. 60 s 116 RAAL K 8} 51 ‘9000 hr ae “9004 re 45 po ‘ '9'/'5 7.55 || 9 15.76} .09| .58 aes WN De OM $$? i Coto Ve ra TABLE Ill. FOR CONVERTING 1 Pelee METRES INTO ENGLISH FEET. Tosa te Bw io ett teats t 2. serie) Bae aatt Hie sili i Kita : Mettes. |. Spe Metres.) 7h co | Me Angee | ME Bg M Ree a 1000 | 3280.90 ||> 100°}: 328.09 }10} 32.81} 1} 3.28}f.1)>.33/).01 | 3) 2000 | 6561.80 200} 656.18 |} 20) 65.62 | 2 | 656 || .2)..66].02 | .07]. ©3000 | 9842.70 | 300 | 984.271130| 98.43| 3 | 9.84.3] .98].03] 10 4000: | b3123.60 |} 400: 1) 1312.36 }40)131.24 |. 4 | 13.121) .4:) 3b) 047.13 [> _ 5000 | 16404.50 |} 500 1640. 45. 50} 164.04 | 5.| 16.40: 5 [1.64 305 7164 (6000 }19685.40|| 600 [1968.54 | 60} 196.86 | 6 |19.69 || 611.971 .06| 20° 7000 |22966.29)| 700 |. 2296.63 || 70} 229.66 | 7, |-22:97 || -7 |2.304 07)| «234° 8000 | 26247.19}} 800 | 2624.72 || 80 | 262.47 | 8 | 26.25 || .8 12.62) .08| 26] 9000 |29528.09|| 900 | 2952.81 | 90) 295.28 | 9 | 29.53 }| .9-|2.95| .09 | 30} 10000 32808.99 La : Peon gg! 2 AB. L.—Convert 2205.23 Toises” EXAMPLE of’ TAB. III.—Gay Liussac ascended me oh Mont Bis Blanc above the Lake of Gene- | with a balloon to the height of 7028.3 Metres, as se to English Feet. determined by a barometer,—convert this into Toises. Eng. Feet. English Feet. 2000 = 12789.90 Metres. Eng. Feet. 200 = 1278.99 7000 = 22966.29 5 = 31.97 20 = 65.62 2.=> 1.28 8 = 26.25 eee 1 +03 = 19 b. J 3 = 0.98 "9205.93 = 14102.38 7028.3 = a == 4Miles 1939 Feet. 1e¥ai09,.09. tho NEW PUBLICATION: yn: keeamngya Sgidesibiis: and Views! Mlastvaive of TeiiebadlP Pikes By Henry peta Becue, F. B.S. F.G.S.: London, 1830. 4to.: Wi recommend to the particular attention of the numerous cultivators of geology throughout Britain, these valuable sec-. tidus and views. “They are selected with judgnient from may expensive works, which féw have an fh ecm ‘of purchasing, | and papi: i never Ce at talks tas ¢ St pn he ‘eS — Sich noi ft iis demerll beME. = be EVERGIs wa ctood dailgad I pais Patents Sranted in England from adi ‘November™t6 (ana | ayn | oa 13th December 1830; Se a a j nad . ri s aozZio s ; 80. ae) eS, ea . 2. = = = — > ——— —_—-—— a Se Nov. 27: Ty cy Revers, Weybridge, Surrey, M. Ds for “a mew! ure itn| ef. | £0 proved: “method of protecting” iron chain-cables, iron-boilers, and ped ron. iron. tanks, from the corrosion peer upon them ig the seven : ker. ” Ss > wer; ‘ 29. To W. Cuonex,’ Heidel? ads Watwickthire, for “ cpa _ provements in apparatus, applicable to. propelling boats and driving _. machinery-by_the-agency-of-steam,-part-of-which..improvements are also applicable to the purposes of evaporation,” 390° List of Scottish’ Patents. 1830. Dec. 6. To H. BrunpeEttz, Rost Tl for “ ‘nipietidhangets ina machine for grinding or crushing seeds, and other’ oleaginous sub- - stances, for the purpose of abstracting oil therefrom, ‘and which machine, with certain improvements or alterathcis, is applicable to other useful purposes.” To R. Datetisu, Glasgow, calico-printer, for “ ito in ma- chinery or apparatus, for printing calicoes and other fabrics.” To R. Epwarps, Deusbury, Yorkshire, for “ an improvement on, or substitute for, glass, sand and emery, and other rape. paper or substances.” To Captain S. Brown, Biliter Square, London, for “ certain im- : provements in the means of drawing up ships and other vessels from the water on land, and for transporting or mooring ships, vessels, and other bodies, on land, from one place to another.” To J. G. Lacy, Camomile Street, London, gun manufacturer, and S. Davis, East Smithfield, gun-lock maker, for “a certain im- provement or improvements in the construction of guns and fire- arms.” ) f 13. To J. Dickson, Wolverhampton, and J. Varpy of the same place, for “ certain improvements in cocks for drawing off liquids.” Dec. 6. To T. WatmstEy, Manchester, manufacturer, for “ improvements in the manufacture of cotton, linen, silk, and other fibrous sub- stances, into a fabric or fabrics applicable to various useful pur- To W. Nreepuay, Loiigout, ‘Staffordshire, for “ certain. {mmprove- ments in machinery for spinning, doubling, and twisting silk and other fibrous substances.” + otf eS Bee To 8, Partour, Croydon, Surrey, for “ certain improvements on lamps,” which he denominates “ _ Parlour’ s pS Table Lamp. ” 7 a ¥ 13. To J. L. Bennam, Wigmore Street, Middlesex, ironmonger, for “ certain improvements on shower and other baths, communicated by a foreigner. To R. Witty, Basford, in the parish of Wolstanton, ‘Staffordshire, engineer, for “ certain improvements in apparatus : for propelling carriages, boats, or vessels for other purposes, PY. the: power of eG 4, je mw .saerd 2 of} rould i et sf: ito 5 List Anes granted in Scotland from 20th Decne 180, 7 ‘to 4th March 1831. °°" es 1830. «BI se Co Dec. 20, To Tuomas Wanmsiky of Manchester, manufacturer, for the in- vention of “ improvements i in’ the 1 manufacture | of cotton, linen, silk, and other fibrous substances, ‘into a fabric or fabrics appli- cable to various useful purposes.” Ui i mary List. of Scottish Patents. 39}: To CuarLEs Stuart CocHraneE of Great George Street, West- _ minster, Esq, a Commander in the Royal Navy, for the invention; _ communicated,to him bya foreigner residing abroad, of “ certam _. improyements,in the preparing and spinning of cashmere wools.” _To Rosert.Daxexisy,.jun. of Glasgow, calico-printer, for the in- vention of “ improvements in machinery; or, a for of ag .. ». ing calicoes.and, other fabrics... at To Joun. Hatt, jun. of Dartford, in Sapa of Kent, engineer, _»- for. the invention,,.communicated to him by a foreigner residing i _. abroad, of ‘a machine, upon a new-and sonapenhisscexs aT for the manufacture of paper.” Jan. 14.. To. 5 NEEDHAM ¢ of Longour, in.the county of Stafford, gen- tleman, for the invention of “ certain improvements in machinery for spinning, donblings and twisting silk,.and other fibrous sub- stances.” 18. To aie 17 Riad of Hampstead, i in the spupiy: of Middlesex, gentleman, and, Witt1am, Bunpy of Kentish ‘Town, in the same county, engineer, for the invention of “ certain improvements in machierny, for spinning and twisting silk.and wool, .and for roving, spinning, and twisting cotton, flax,. ROD and other fibrous sub- stances.” ~ (In place,of.a-former one).'To Joux. Enjoxson, ‘of the New eat, London, engineer, for the invention.of “an Jmproved, engine for communicating power for mechanical purposes.” 19. To Samuret Crece of No.,16. Gi inde nkiagy Geum Inn Lane, in the county of Middles¢ _civilengincer, for the inyention of “ an improved gas meter.” Feb. 2. To Tuomas BuLKELEY of Upper fv: ect Street, ow Road, _ in the county of Middlesex, doctor of medicine, for the invention of “a method of making or manufacturing candles,” _ ean Feb. 18. To James Tuomson of Spencer Street, Goswell Street Road, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, for the invention, of “ cer- tain improvements in making or producing printing-types.” _To Ricnarp Rogents of Manchester, in the county of. : Lancaster, civil. -engineer, for the invention of “ a certain improvement, or certain improvements, in the mechanism employed to render self. acting machines, known by the name of’ ‘Mull-Billy-Je y-Jack Frame, or stretching frame, and all machines of that | whe- _ther the said machines be used to rove, slub, or spin cotton, or other fibrous substances.” » To Aucustus Granam; citizen. of the United States of Amtiericay |. __ but now residing in West Street, Finsbury, in the city of London, gentleman, for an invention, communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad, of “ certain scab nga in dees application Of springs to carriages.” wo To WittraM Wepp Taxrorp of Boston, in oe county of Lin- ~ . 892 List of Scottish Patents. coln, miller, for the invention of “ a machine or apparatus for cleansing or purifying wheat, grain, or other substances.” To Ricnarp Epwarps of Dewsbury, in the county of York, leather and flock seller, for the invention of “an improvement on, or a substitute for glass, sand, emery, and other scouring paper or substances.” 18. To Jort Benepicr Nort, of Schenectady, in the State of New York, now of Barry Street, St James’s, in the county of Middle. sex, for the invention, communicated to him by a foreigner re- ' siding abroad, of “ certain improvements in the construction of a furnace or furnaces for generating heat, and in the apparatus for the application of heat to various useful purposes.” 21. To Bartuotomew Reprery of Birminghan, in the county of War- wick, gun-maker, for the invention of “ a lock, break-off, and trig- ger, upon a new and improved principle, for fowling-pieces, mus- kets, rifles, pistils, and small fire-arms of all descriptions.” 23. To Joun Watuace, brassfounder in Leith, for the invention of san improvement or improvements upon the safety-hearths for the use of vessels. Mar. 2. To Jonn Macpowatt of Johnston, near Paisley, for the invention of “ certain improvements on the pistons, valves, and boilers of ‘ steam. ~engines.” To Wit1t1am Morean of York Terrace, Regent’s Park, in the county of Middlesex, Esq., for the invention of “ certain improve- ments in steam-engines.” > 8. To Jeremran Grime junior, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, copper-plate engraver, for the invention of. “ a certain method of dissolving snow and ice on the trams or railways, in order that locomotive steam engines and carriages, and other carriages, may pass over railroads, without any obstruction or ee from such snow or ice.” re | The Editor hopes to get all the Memoirs and Registers of the Weather, still unpublished, inserted in next number of Journal. SS, oo he ee ee st Bee : ADDENDUM. [The Report regarding the New. Holland Fossil. Bones not having reached us in time for insertion along with the ac- count of the Caves, we, rather than’ delay i it until next Num- ber, place it here, although somewhat out of place, consider- ing its a euned as a sufficient t apology for this apagslanty. ] On the Fossil Bones found in the Bone-Caves and Bone-Breccia of New Holland. By Professor JamMEson. My friend and former pupil Dr Adam, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, having, after*much labour, cleared the teeth and bones from the stony and earthy matter in which they were enveloped, we endeavoured to determine the animals to which they belonged. The general result of. our. examination was, that some of the teeth were those of the wombat, some be- longed to the kangaroo, others we could not refer, from want of means of comparison. One bone, from its great size, particu- larly arrested our attention, from its appearing to belong to an animal larger than any of the living species in the Australian world. It appeared, on comparing it with the splendid skele- ton of the hippopotamus in the Museum, to resemble the radial bone of that animal. That every justice. might be done to the interesting collection sent to me from New Holland, I had it conveyed to London to my friend Dr Turnbull Christie, requesting him to submit the specimens to a distinguished and experienced anatomist, Mr Clift, of the College of Surgeons. That gentleman, with the utmost readiness, undertook to give me his opinion in regard to the bones and teeth, and we have just received from him the fol- lowing very interesting notice in regard to them. JANUARY—MARCH 18381. ce $94 On the Fossil Bones th de the Bone-Caves and eH on a Clee m pee the Cited Ps emp gard to the Fossil, Roses townie in, net Caves and Bone-Breeeia vides omnes gan A dieing . ral wcau lo shie stot ai off | Aol suai redqu Yo molto" No. I. “pecans very any in form’ to ere Sind ein ox, but much larger. It al86°bears'a great resemblance ‘to the Pal of Hippopotamus. (It ‘does not fates ‘to’ “the elephant, 2, being too large for its length). No. 2. Right side of the lower jaw of a Duar dishwsy Anterior part of left ‘side, upper jaw,— Wombat. - Bh om Extremity of canine tooth, left side of lower jaw,- ~p, sy vn oe No. 3. Left side, lower jaw;—Wombat.” (Box B.)) No. 4. Two lower extremities of femora Feira aparently ‘and other cylindrical bones, uncertain. Box A. Right incisor, upper jaw,— Wombat. +7 AS . Right incisor, lower jaw,—Young Kangargo. ht tate Portion of incisor,— Wombat. Se a | ae Portion of incisor, upper jaw,—Do. 7 ne e Molaris, upper jaw,—Do. ie ong " be te Right incisor, lower jaw,— Kangaroo. ine (oh UNORS m Portion of base of incisor, lower jaw,—Do. tuovench’ Be ow Molaris, right side, lower jaw,— Wombat. | apt wn ve ... Two-thirds of a molaris, upper jaw,—Do. i au ‘A molaris, left side, upper jaw,—Do. vig BS olf 1A portion of a molaris,—-Do, = sil od fas rae Seetinaee j Probably portion of an incisor, —Do., Hib ii ote sods entonriseqe Probably a portion of the anterior extremity of lower jaw,=-K: garoo. Apparently a portion of incisor, and of upper jaw,— Wombat. Apparently a posterior molaris, of “upper Mayme aatk ate % ‘ No.’ 5; Elbow-joint of Wombat,—(Humerus and ulna). as “0 0 Heid of Tibia and fibula,—apparently: young kangaro. boar ors Portion of the pelvis, —Of theisames 900 206 Jao) O99 Jo oust Upper portion of the left femur ofa Wombat?-—(is very, like it.) Other Specimens doubtful. .. aod -orft Jann ‘® wd. 6. Portion of the pelvis of a very large Kangaroo. 8 AS ER ‘No:'7. ‘Two portions of femur apparently Wombat. "They rap exactly with the femur of that animal. .200.9 ei D868 IM9aM G09 opie: yPortion ofthe upper,end of the fibula of a! lero Kangaroo; © ., Portion of probably the femur, of ditto, 1. oie conto oft mot bi Other specie doubtful. * PR Wes main ARMUNS &i 10, DODBSINBRIO ogi * The Dasyurus (the animal called Devil by the early settlers) is éaid to beat present a ‘native of Van Diemen’s. Land only. Bone-Breccia,of NewHolland: 895 No. 8 Apparently part of the tibia of a Kangaroo. No. 9. Breccia with fragments of bones. One portion contains what are .. .... « probably portions of the supernumerary. or PPO metatarsal ee PS SOR Ones and: $ofa Kangaroo. < ~ No. Th. Portion of upper jaw, probably of a Dasyurus:) No. 15. Left side of upper jaw of an adult Kangaroo.) 2.00. as Portion of upper jaw, left side, with the 2d pone 2: . Left side, lower jaw, Kangaroo. ixson yisv dodobotggé. ; + No. 16. 2, Part of right side lower jaw, Pita. etal . doin SRS oRAe8, AG PIA ei) ainmedoqoqatlt 4. Two molares upper jaw,—Do. Stone! eff adt-gutal 5. Upper jaw left side-—Do..* 6 ayo) 8) do chile td aii @ oVi No. 18. 3 portions of jaws: _(Viverra ? uncertain), . rAG No. 19. The terminal phalanx of the toe of a Kangaroo, (the. claw). _ First dorsal vertebra, Wombat ? apparently. of £ oF Right os calcis wanting the epiphysis.—Kangaroo?... «7 . Rib portion of 4th or 5th, ‘ie «¢ Dead} No. 20. Box C. Two posterior molares, right side upper jaw,—Dasyurus. No. 21. Antepenultimate caudal vertebra of a Kangaroo, Another caudal vertebra, nearer ‘sacrum,—Do. Another, about the tenth from the sacrum,—Do. No. 22. Portion of apparently lower j jaw with the fang of an incisor, Kanga- roo ? No. 26. Apparently the middle of the os femoris of a Wombat. Other doubtful fragments. No. 2%. Apparenily a portion of the right tibia near its middle,—Kangaroo. I believe there can be little or no doubt raspeiting the identity of all the specimens that are in Italics, having- pig them all _— ences that time and circumstances permitted.» Ws: Cur T. From the geological characters of the cayes and FEE acai the mode of.distribution.of the bones in the caves, ie the na- ture of the teeth and bones themselves, it follows, « 1. That'these-caves agree in character with those i meas 2. That the bone-breccia exhibits the same character as the varieties of that rock found in different parts. of the European continent and islands. - 3. That’ New Holland was, at a fannie period, distinguished from the other parts of the world, by the same peculiarities in the organization of its animals, which so strikingly ee it at, the-present day. - 29 orld yo Weve belieg inutias ‘ : viao bite rf 3}. c3ettr ges 296 On the Fossil. Bones, c. of New Holland. 4, That the large bone resembling the radial bone of the hip- popotamus, shews that Australia formerly possessed animals much larger than any of the present existing species, equalling or even exceeding in magnitude the hippopotamus: a fact of high importance, when we recollect that the quadruped —_ tion of New Holland is at present but sr a the largest spe- cies being the kangaroo. engl 5. That the bone caves and bone-breccia dbnidai edi with animals at present known, others that appear to a is the case with the caves and breccia of Europe. 6. That the same agent or agents that brought togettiarthe remains of animals met with in bone-caves and bone-breccia i in Europe, operated on New Holland, 7. Lastly, that the animals in the Australian caves and brec- cia were destroyed and became fossil, if not at the same precise time as the European, during a similar series of one changes. bey ae ( 897.) INDE X. Aérial shadows on be al described, 165 Africa, narrative of discovery and adventures in, noticed, 192 Alhama, lacustrine basins of, described, 65 Anatomy, comparative history of, 146,291 Animalcules, on the existence of, in snow, 180 Ankle or Hock-joint of the horse, a peculiarity of, described, 59 _ Ark of Noah described, 310 Arts, notices of, 189 Atmospheres, nitrous, of Tirhoot, 177 Audubon, his “ Birds of America” and “ Ornithological Biography ” considered, 317 Auvergne, on the diluvial theory and valleys of, 201 4 Baffin’s Bay, disasters in, described, 136 Barometrical series of observations, by Galbraith, 40 Biographical memoir of M. Duhamel by Cuvier, 1 Bone Caves, discovery of, in Wellington Valley in New Holland, 364, 368. Botany, notices of, 185, 387 Boué, Ami, his answer to Murchison and Sedgwick, in regard to the structure of the Alps of Austria, 14 Brewsterite, analysis of, by — Connell, 35 Caves in New Holland, account of; 364. _ Celestial phenomena from January 1. to April 1. 1881, 172 ;— from April 1. to July 1. 1831, 374 Chalk-flints in Banffshire, account of, 146 Cholera Morbus, 188 Christie, Dr, on Indian hail-storms, 308 James, on the commerce of Great Britain, 187 James, on the chalk-flints of Banffshire, 146 Clift, Mr, on the fossil bones found in New Holland, 394 Comparative History of Anatomy, 146, 291 Connell, Arthur, on Brewsterite, 35; his analysis of the mineral water of Vicar’s Bridge, 284 Craigie, Dr David, history of comparative anatomy, 146, 291 398 | IN nee Cuvier, Baron, his biography of M. Dultupel, 1; his observations on the luxury of the ae ees “0” < a aoe Daubeny, €.;:M.D., Pié fessor’ in Oxford, on he odd ol a and ¥alleysiof Auvergne, 208°) 9°) © sono apes mien Diluvial theory, examined by Dr Daubeny, 201 fi one 10 Don, David, on the characters and affinities of conten ger he: volonging to the Flora’ Pertiviana, 112, 229! * eps nats. Duhamel, M., his biography, by. Cortes, 2 SB aang ganar rand asdieowrrs Ml Erica ate found in Irelands 185 af positon ynoiotosteml Ehrenberg, C..G., on the blood-red colour pat 122, 2, 84} oi infusoria, 183 wei Fs [se pot Flying of man and birds, 184 Fossil-shells in the snowy mountains of Thibet;179 ‘ox o)) wo” Fossil-trees of Van Dieman’s Land, notice of, 361 b3€ Fraser, William, on the printing press, 189; 887 o “ ~ ge AC Seen t tee hehe’ ¥ > ; a } ¢ : ; ur 4 Rice Tere f oe; } eeee Fruit Nh eh etrh id y te, i y (ek ‘ ; « : 5% n 3 eEtis aah f+ Ps ee x rt aul ay pbs e wRG ts veel) eg PSR RCW a CScURRS TL Somat NS BY SSAC AS urciatt Weta : * baht ley aay 4 IVeeMarGenlsnee] mae ‘ Vekumeresane ast meine teaser cot SMES v ASHE eta ees Ppa eens 3 Sy } 1 Kayh » ans eee a RINUTRGLISS Res eee ieee : ( ca a Rhy vse Seng " Cee Pons mate salma ates Meru edg arenes FLEE RE MENA MOREY LM EBS ds Mie eb it a ites cea tari iaat Usage FALSE os i s eptnettes aeagy yee 3 Lert WPA geste sth ‘at ase raha eae POU BON SF cipsaech daiet 5