Ae hiya teeth ase Cel ne ete gia =i » reiiks ey aS handed Scheel . Atta Pt fo Se 9 eit ve +? faba . aa tetes > Se at ALES Seca ate oh See! iaeeeye est Besa nahy pS peethi? hy 78 ah be Bats dada sa: Seoeeage Bin hats iret a Ay: Bes} 44 isa beyaty ae prs BN Ri sheets! & ST et ak * Beata Ras ey) Relist 4 ae a BS Bath Santer Sear AL beets & add! SY uns ; ainar ys nS te Aap ss See At as Hass gets Braces +h \y m)ar shi ane a 75 Fa Rass bP Rhea st ERENT He bab as fl pis oars vn ge i it gett ‘4 WT 44 re oon 14 AMD er el § U4 RH hae He ith er) fd a itt My di metyl Dy hveeteres a ret) very on Litety sek is ci pantie an Ay rite ty oi ao “hil eee Vast Pe frees nit A 1 ‘ 1s 19 ’ aT 9) 1 p y ’ f f ’ 4 rere bl Ws | fi ky C$! “THE EDINBURGH NEW PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. BS nit oe Sway Hi: A NaMIGs P AAT FO a 7 Lat "ART IO WAIY 4 DUTHIL ae ae SDE VORIME (KA ea HAO. IG avieeaai pa . SHT “Ye ‘ eTHA THT GUA erOymIoe | : . Pst ¥8 GATIUAKO® VMOCHMAL THAPOR NG RABABAH GMA «PAOLA RAHI no ausrtrokd Sagan 1anut4An Fo AOBBABORT 2YIAT A ;HOMMEKENS BO YTIZSR VIVE BHT KC UMA MRT)” i ; inwk bine natowrs ¥ (anheuptiad od} to ptguntilb® dae mohmt to calialooe laqot silt 10 wolis’t ‘beqott arf lo bras gatheoe Agia legos weet ene iyrudaibt to astloino? Iatutiee a * eH i notin to eto dh hd i foe folbvotta's i qtatvoe alld Ap ated «llewinw "> ko qigina® leatgoloae? on oft an abbey Ao rionu% sttaleh, off to 19d ora! yusrant He Me — trradtnoY yal 7 yniniedow’) joie oY odd Yo ; yisinad Inoiiqonolitt, opbivhon wit Ss ; ‘ owe! betes .orachisth pes phe Yo yisino? yroictH leucsl4 odd to meron wed 9 ban el! enihed toenasiod Yo xe a ne logsoagine tala? Invge Se pee REd Go mobile el Olen hel a quseie B Hott Hi fart 4 Tdyundarstet 42 t- aneh tk ‘na Pal, odd to: mabeord. pide tmatgalerant Leyost ant to snot to ‘iotooe ite elen ut oh na ; vsosat Lirsintn oft to pare Y yrouh2 otftswalldd oft to zatisT to Gein® om leunell tennis! Yo viene? a3 Yo ¢ viomiH lense Yo ziyino® gradmodns? od? Yo (aobevind To “‘paine® qoaboe ineidgoentiagy tars yutotit seit to satan gaerontett jestobisll toonbibeM baw esomabye Fo vyisno? osbteopitet, ngtreanA vly bn 4 pisio# isshiotai ll oY wot ads to pao wal, te WoW to yromil erwin! Yo muse! sit to :aidgisbatid to moni? Iswie% Yo yonshtod: er wmf? Te comets Ke visit Imigotosd oz to sisgumaolé te yiehod wrdetlt lewite ott te phot Ye ated atid to cotnatisenl alidiner'S sets to 9qoH ood fo ays’) ovis to coisutiiaal dapitté diwoR Bae ho we ob erth, inate od? Yorvaivormar aft sat Aleem a ' 4 2 * * $881 A4AOTIO.. LATA MARATHI GROVER KT) AS Oe THE EDINBURGH NEW | aaa PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, : EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE | PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. CONDUCTED BY ROBERT JAMESON, REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH; Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian and Horti- cultural Societies of Edinburgh; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Dublin Society; Fellow of the Royal Linnean and Royal Geological Societies of London; Ho- norary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cotk Institutions; of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and New- castle; of the Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of Naples; of the Imperial Natural History Society of Moscow; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of St Petersburgh ; of the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of Dresden; of the Natural History Society of Paris; of the Philomathic Society of Paris; of the Natural History Society of Calvados; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History; of the Society of Natural Sciences and Medicine of Heidelberg; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York; of the New York Historical Society; of the American Antiquarian Society; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York; of the Natural History Society of Montreal; of the Geological Society of France; of the South African Institution of the Cape of Good Hope; of the Franklin Institution of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotiow of the Mechanic Arts, §c. &e. voli tS APRIL...OCTOBER 1832. 2, 6 4 oT 26 TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY, . | EDINBURGH: FRINTED FOR ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH ; AND LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, & GREEN, LONDON. 1832. ¢ AUR wow t ‘4 it i) 5 Ys bit | i Rds, of UE OME OMT TEARE ee ee nny urowtiony AMA BAL TODEE cermeona te i M ! os 4uT WI i ; i a s * er bf ren ag iM eran ai a estou ves | ey aeeneuenba o Pe i ; . | v1 a , a he Peary _ MORLMAL height { a & : KES, > ov ; MTT PH, PUT Aces eb ow a ean LOL eee gti AG enenieys auto ty Lt 4 aver gv ae i nik i ei ein ceatiwioens 4 jee 8 ante tes jay Sed firta rt Mai ‘ages se Cente: M8: ART bd in arcan t ant - pes ‘i Trina brnsie ee or thd. toe ‘ae bet i Oe as Warwieers'2 se 48Me ie ‘ : i: r £ esttettiny i qa = fail wy E 37 C «wat frk aes OF Abatins wut rs ei ag k epeitiat Wem rake tor yada ipod oret Wo ph ee ee ele ty = a ‘i ‘ ders y ; = re th we res wb beugbOnit thio Kertplanoniae 14s %0 Late Se Poolqon: a ny -ywonaiet Lapitayt pit to. ‘etal to en ae serene onsale ened : a ‘ th, . } : mentee wea YW talaowiodt to sp erotelht Ippttssust : sparen) ce vets das fomat PS ea i ick att oe hs hati en's i ee ay, rita a rom th, oft, to 5 pelo svn at é wa alt to “ao, wor paren “as ee Messe ites {to cman aj to «stele eg te oan ad pe A we oeebaate att, abe lovee setpsnionr dike > niinieae ol ntuiell add to vatle: tgild te Pantano ena" ne deus: 298 Aq iaelpudiiont agit A Neca - lk opie iar be oft Yo weal? 288 toh a Ms { * Bo ee iE, / * At Bo. : Metin dent > oats et unt. ee ay ee eet he ; + gabe ‘i x ¥ “ set bigs ot ™ a | Ne Po eer taht ow Beni sitisie sie CY ve 7 a ie 5 et AS i eaeanbisiaig se Ory: ; eat: be nee ace PaaS he ee shi cx: ae oe sm tye: yi ‘ ‘ Ly : vy - Pars Se ny CONTENTS. Arr. I. An Estimate of the Philosophical Character of Dr Priestley. By Wittiam Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &e. &e. - - - - II. Account of the Russian Vapour-Bath. ByT. Ss. ‘Teas, M.D. Communicated by the Author, - - III. On the Breeding . ints of Binds. By Freperick Faper, - je IV. Analysis of the Pena Didone of the hikeusoien officinale. By Captain Cuartes Le Hunts. Com- municated by the Author, - 20 24 V, .On the Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. - _By the Reverend W. Bucxuanp, F.R.S., F. L.S., F.G. S., and Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Universit of Oxford. Communicated by the Author, . | |- - VI. On ie ie coho Cid tatinn of Kemteatesen cn teas stone. By Artuur Conne ty, Esq. F. R.S. E. _ Communicated by the Author, — - - - VII. On the History of the Natural Sciences, in reference to the Scientific Knowledge of the Egyptians of the source from whence Moses derived his Cosmogony, and Sealer aeemmesat tesCaamageey with || Modern Geology, . . - VIII. On the Fundamental Types of Yt ater By G. . R. Trevinanus, M. D., &e. e:) a IX. Analysis of the Labradorite Felspar found in the ar. Rocks of Scotland. By Captain Le Hunte. Com- municated by the Author, . - - 33 41 75 86 ii _ CONTENTS. Arr. X, Physiological Investigations arising from the Mecha- nical Effects of Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. By Joun Datrton, F.R. S. XI.. On the Uniform Permeability of all known Substances to the Magnetic Influence, and the Application of the fact in Engineering and Mining, for the Determination of the Thickness of Solid Sub- stances not otherwise Measurable. By the Rev. WituiaM Scoressy, F’, R.S. L, & Ed., Correspon- dent of the Institute of France, &c. &c. Com- municated by the Author, - - - - XII. A Register of the date of various Natural Appear- ; ances, kept at Treveroux Farm, in the Parish of Limpsfield in Surrey. By Henry Cox, Esq. Communicated by W. Jacos, Esq. F. R.S. - X11. Earliest Knowledge of Gold and. Silver—Hesiod.— Scandinavian Museum:—The Patriarchs.—The Book of Job.—Accumulation of Wealth with the Hebrew Nation.—Accumulations in Syria and Persia; in Greece; in Rome, - . - - XIV. On the Origin and Composition of Basalt, - - XV. On the Cholera Animalcule, - - - XVI. On the Crystallization of Tee, and of Veins of Ice in Ice. By Professor Hmsset, - - ~ XVIf. Account of the Introduction of the Wood-Grouse or : Capercailzie (Tetrao Urogallus) to the Forest of Braemar. By James Witson, Esq. F. R. S. E., M. W.S., &c. | Communicated by the Author, XVHI. Catrine Works Meteorological Register for 1831, - XIX. Description of several New or Rare Plants which have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Granam, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, - - XX. Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1. 1832, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr Georce Innes, Astronomical Cal- culator, Aberdeen, - “ ud I XXI. Scientific Intelligence, - - “ - METEOROLOGY. 1. First View of Sierra Leone. 2. Description of an African Page _ 97 138 136 150 155 158 160 166 167 174 177 CONTENTS. dar Page Tornado. 3. ee en Spray of the Sea may be" carried, —- é 2 : 177-181 ZOOLOGY. 4, ‘. Wild Awad” in the Illinois Country, in North America, 5. Entomology i in Scotland, - Uae Na, 181-187 J GEOLOGY. 6. Heights of hcp and Lakes in North America, - 188 MINERALOGY. 7. On the Gold, Silver, and Platina of Russia, = - - 189 . BOTANY. 8. Zygophyllum arboreum of Jacquin, - - 191 Art. XXII. List of Patents granted in England from 2d Au- gust to 30th August 1831, —- - ib. XXIIL. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 15th to 28th March 1832, + - 192 / ay \ ” 1 4) 7 : HATA Pp yt 2 oy F 1a As My J id j i . . ne ee sd vig Lig : Yn: in ee LY rime * Yeh ety IH ¢% i hone ‘ Re YROLO J ‘ fa Bid s2 wi ny ht oD MD 4 f p sabe Oh AD BO Me? yy PF uf 8 ra C ’ ; ‘ ‘ > F S3i » * ’ am . 4 4 { iy BRM OS f fa ( 5 ee ¥nt 4 f i ¥ b AQ SAR b x t | : 5 Kid : Wey ea 7#1 rye) + “e +4 Pit . rear : pe vt ee" ae des fry tong ete RI St Pee FO Ts PRO hin ian y 7 dep? Bits ¢ De ar sia olid has 9 * a1 4 F, a + i‘, / : intial surtte £ : ; sme iy! ~ ~ - Pa Yt met 4 “payeg et PA tar} > Kags $54) OE nalts ts T ano) ee ed Lane “4 y A: 4, todtet st? ne eVttTnys ? aratat has NY Avite mica ad Jetset regent” ail isrtier repro’ nt ie laa Hit Ht 2 " x a at is “aarti ort 7 rind Wi AM oily { FATE: we F9IIB ny 13 tr fA TE: a8t 7a ayia ey is sirnas tf: aD eis rivanolad vigils’ nol ani eimin yipal Hey BO iqaeporrd ant ‘to * odesoW ia! yes 2) sire le ny AQvaaeyh ‘ F ast > ied § ei e igiep' fics ef ¢ ihe od ri “an btiloriteA to Gierg0e Ineroniid od¥ Qo aniston’ wrtell to whole Veattetod is voit ont to decor 0 yipwot neat fF ed? To We 4) ei a Oh y sare : 4 COKE 4 ‘ efytty As wy onos Al ve 394 tO STAAL ry - woieolh * brite avd tarts erp yh Shes anne ys pele} erent ah {ibira! i nee ii mod o4 ; , ¥ “ eyeraren! " " el fit i , ie zr CFTC pad Ht eee | yt ts tis Ah NAL Tatat bu a ie Be Ghideat SIL \y Tahin past] rae bt i tye: eee fd eee et * 4 Te] es eg man TAMA I I Ky vy Ried: A i ed eotyy », 3 oh " “ 44 PIT NS Pe Tere ire F ER Mie ae is ai Cyattoter reer 7 Heyy ae ee a | ‘ ' bile ‘ : ' Lids 2 BY PAIN : wt 7 ice ot pee ean ay ¢ ‘ / - . } ‘ a bb ry yt ,. CONTENTS. ' Page Art. I. Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. By Dr Tuomas Srewart Trait, F.R.S.E., &c. Communicated by the Author, =- / T93 IT. On the Mode of determining Fossil Plants. By Pro- fessor LinDLEY, - 92} IIL. On the Vitality of Toads. By the Rev. Svein Srantey. F.L.S., F. G. S., &c, Communicated by the Author, - 228 1V. On a Production of Naphthaline in an Oil-Gas owas ratus. By A. Conneti, Esq. F.R.S.E. Com- municated by the Author, = - - 231 V. On the Character and Affinities of certain Citi chiefly belonging to the Flora Peruviana. By Mr Davin Don, Librarian of the Linnean Society ; Member of the Imperial Academy Nature Curio- sorum; of the Imperial Society of Naturalists at Moscow ; of the Royal Botanical Society of Ratis- bon ; and of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, &c. (Continued from No. for Oct. 1831, p. 280.) 233 _ VI. Observations on the Structure and Development of the Infusoria. By Dr Rupotepn Wacner, of Er- langen, - - - . 245 VII. An Exposition of some of the Laws and Phenomena of Magnetic Induction, with original Illustrative Experiments. By the Rev. Witt1am Scorespy, F. R.S. Lond. & Edin., Correspondent of the Insti- tute of France, &c. &c. Communicated by the Author, - - 257 VII. Additional Observations on the Relation of Nitric and Nitrous Acids to Bromine and Iodine. By Artuur Convey, Esq. F.R.S.E., &e. Commu- nicated by the Author, - - 283 ii ‘ CONTENTS. Arv. IX. Major-General Sir Howarp Dovetas, Bart. &c. Ps Military Bridges, and the Passage of Rivers in Mi- litary Operations, _ - “ X. Experiments on the Expansion and Contraction of Building Stones, by Variations of Temperature. By Witiiam H. C. Bartierr, Lieutenant United States Engineers, © - - - - XI. Observations on Saline Crystallization. By Henry Oapen, M. D., Extraordinary Member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. Comme wniaeee by the Author, - ° XII. On the Magnitude of the Ultimate Particles of Bodies ; Infusory Animals not formed immediately dove Dead Matter; Extraordinary Minuteness of the Infusoria; Improved Arrangement of the Infuso- ria; Marvellous Multiplication of the Infusoria ; _Estimate of the relative Value of the Microscopes of Chevalier, Ploessel, and Schiek... By Prof. C. . G. Eurensere of Berlin, - - XII. Outline of the Geology of the Bhurtpoor District. By James Harpig, Esq. Bengal Medical Esta- blishment. Communicated by the Author, « XIV. Meteorological Tables, deduced'from a Register of the Weather, kept at Bancoorah in the East Indies, during the Years 1827 and 1828, - XV. On the Graphite or Black-Lead of Ceylon, -. . - XVI. Analysis of several Indian, Chinese, and New Hol- land Coals. By J. Prinsep, Esq. Secretary to the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, XVII. On the Fossil Flora, - - | a - XVIII. Notice by Dr Grauam of Botanical Excursions into the Highlands of Scotland from Edinburgh this season, ~ - - - - - XIX. Description of several New or Rare Plants which have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Grauam, Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, . - - XX. Celestial Phenomena from October 1. 1832 to January 1. 1833, calculated for the Meridian of Edin- burgh, Mean Time. By Mr George Innes, As- tronomical Calculator, Aberdeen, - - 285 304 309 819 328 337 346. 347 349 350 361 365 —— — CONTENTS. A ili ’ aa Page Arr. XXI. Scientific Intelligence; - - . - 368 ‘ieoabiae METEOROLOGY. | 1. Unctuous Dew, - © - - - - =~. ee CHEMISTRY. 2. The New Vacuum Sugar. 3. On the Grease of Wine, 368-371 ZOOLOGY. 4. Obesity: .5. Portable Milk. 6. Quantity of Eggs con- sumed in London. 7. Destruction of Fresh-water Fish by the admission of the Sea into a Lake, - 871-378 GEOLOGY. 8, Elevations in Australia New South Wales. 9. On Subter- raneous and Ominous Sounds. 10. Fossil Frogs, &c. 11. On the Permanence of the Earth’s Axis of Rotation, 373-376 BOTANY. ‘12. Indian Coffee, _ - . - - - + 377 STATISTICS. ‘YS. Academy of St P pees quid afi - + ib. Arr. XXII. List of Patents granted in England from 31st August to 16th September 1831, - - 378 XXIII. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 3d April to 4th September 1832, ~ = 879 INDEX, - - . - 881 ah ¢ " ‘ en arbi : aly wre ii ile ound gs co ieee wre EAM, iad ren lspcaiaie estas i alae d righ =F ee be > an BE oa dé Fs ey 2 PT aly Shite at ASE PAB 2 a el Hare tear yigweans en? tt ne 0 babes SM see ce com ighag = ae .B Mee has inwnag i yaa aah Airs | he Sane ‘eee FHS ee c agitil CUE Ma ARE 2 cs nie FOS ye! oplece Via, te ac eed tle sha ae, wobehael ery ee te ne Mi “hai Leake thdore Hi imap torerabaude. nad eltagag 68 or ATBAETE Pe seein thee abel ts eines wine ould ‘tb (obraigebicomeibaydie phe 08 ade dihyy, becbbaes HE: Mea | tee ‘wid opppeaharagh sat hts se 5 l - : ' Fi ae vie AAR Ee | ee th Mee Mist etna ooo: ha ad eS tee eae Haart tay Yate hho trial HB ae his ea a ‘ 4 Ati" ean 4s ect an vi Aiko bt sabhe ietresrth & tah ae FEEL | Tas i uid @ i elt ‘ i ihe Sth Yi Ch eis i \-\ ar eet ’ if ' Rare S| aes ‘gu A aot) M ey He a = Wn :a pnreedie an’ Ab gan i Aig nih sooner oy err ae 50 ig gaan gy RP UU HE a liye A etd ARE ry gst | iy dius. fits ore elite mart Sn ae) SR ae ae lpi oe eae teak it ey, fs} aa Sat Wh Hagen lp cera = obigovons A ais a Asi bins pines ire sft) | = eae ae § oa ty v EDINBURGH NEW - PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. An Estimate .of the Philosophical. Character of Dr Priestley. By Wittiam Henry, M. D., F. B.S, &e. &c.* "Tue principal source of ‘the materials of the following sketch, is the work in which.the discoveries of Dr Priestley were origi- nally announced to the public. It consists of six volumes in octavo, which were published by him at intervals between the years 1774 and 1786 ; the first three under the title of “* Expe- riments and Observations on different kinds of Air ;” and the last three under that of “ Experiments and Observations rela- ting to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, with a continua- tion of the Observations on Air.” These volumes were after- wards methodized by himself, and compressed into three octavos, which were printed in 1790. Asa record of facts, and as a book of reference, the systematized work is to be preferred ; but as affording materials for the history of that department of science which Dr Priestley cultivated with such extraordinary success, and, still more, for estimating the value of his discove- ries, and adjusting his station as an experimental philosopher, the simple narrative, which he originally gave in the order of time, supplies the amplest and the firmest ground-work. In every thing that respects the history of this branch of ex- perimental philosophy, the writings and researches of Dr Priest- ley, to which I have alluded, are peculiarly instructive. ‘They * Read to the first meeting of the British Association for the Promotion of Science, at York, September 28. 1831. A beautiful Biographical Memoir of Dr Priestley, by Baron Cuvier, is printed in the Number for July 1827 of this Journal. VOL, XIII, NO. XXV.—JULY 1832. A 2 Dr Henry’s Estimate of are distinguished by great merits, and by great defects ; the lat- ter of which are wholly undisguised by their author. He un- veils, with perfect frankness, the whole process of reasoning, which led to his. discoveries; he pretends to no more sagacity than belonged to him, and sometimes disclaims even that to which he was fairly entitled ;, he freely acknowledges his mis- takes, and candidly confesses when his success was the result of accident, rather than of judicious anticipation ; and by writing historically and analytically, he exhibits the progressive improve- ment of his views, from their first dawnings to their final and dis- tinct development. Now, with whatever delight we may con- template a systematic arrangement, the materials of which have been judiciously selected, and from which every thing has been excluded that is not essential to the harmony of the general de- sign, yet there can be no question that, as elucidating the opera- tions of the human mind, and enabling us to trace and appreci- ate its powers of invention and discovery, the analytic method of writing has decided advantages. | To estimate, justly, the extent of Dr Priestley’s claim to philo- sophical reputation, it is necessary to take into account the state of our knowledge of gaseous chemistry at the time he began his inquiries. Without underrating what had been already done by Van Helmont, Ray, Hooke, Mayow, Boyle, Hales, Macbride, Black, Cavendish, and some others, Priestley may be safely af- firmed to have entered upon a field, which, though not altoge- ther untilled, had yet been very imperfectly prepared to yield the rich harvest, which he afterwards gathered from it. ‘The very implements with which he was to work were for the most part to be invented ; and of the merits of those which he did in- vent, it is a sufficient proof that they continue in use to this day, with no very important modifications. All his contrivances for collecting, transferring, and preserving different kinds of air, and for submitting those airs to the action of solid and liquid sub- stances, were exceedingly simple, beautiful, and effectual.' They were chiefly, too, the work of his own hands, or were construct- _ ed under his directions by unskilled persons; for the class of in- genious artists, from whom the chemical philosopher now derives such valuable aid, had not then been called into existence by the demands of the science. With a very limited knowledge of the Philosophical Character of Dir Priestley. 8 the general principles of chemistry, and almost without practice in its most common manipulations ;—restricted by a narrow in- come; and at first with little pecuniary assistance from others ;— compelled, ‘too, to devote a large: portion of his time to other pressing occupations,” he nevertheless: ‘surmounted all obstacles ; and in the career of discovery outstripped many shal dieng been exclusively devoted to ‘science, and were richly provided with all appliances and means for its advancement.) 60:0 -"It is’ wellknown ‘that the accident of ‘living near a pekabs brewery at Leeds, first directed the attention of Dr Priestley to pneumatic chemistry, by castally presenting to his) observation the appearances attending the extinction of lighted chips of wood in the-gas’which floats over fermenting liquors..-He remarked, that the smoke formed ‘distinct clouds floating on the surface of the atmosphere’of' the vessel, and: that this mixture of air and smokey when thrown over the sides of thé vat, fell to the ground ; fron’ whence hé deduced ‘the greater weight-of this sort of air than of atmospheric air.’ He next foufhd that water imbibes the new air, atid again abandons it when boiled or frozen... These mote’ obvious properties of fixed air having been ascertained, he extended his inquiries to its other qualities and relations; and was afterwards led by analogy to the discovery of various other gases, and to the investigation of their characteristic properties. © It would be inconsistent with the scope of this essay to give a full. catalogue of Dr Priestley’s discoveries, or to enumerate more of them than “are necessary toa just estimate of his philo- sophical habits and character. “He was the unquestionable au- thor of our first knowledge of oxygen gas, of nitrous oxide, of muriatie, sulphurous, and fluor acid gases, of ammoniacal gas, and of its condensation into a solid form by the acid gases. Hy- drogen gas was known before his time; but he greatly extended our acquaintance with its properties. Nitrous gas, barely dis- covered by Dr Hales, was first investigated by Priestley, and ap- plied by him ‘to eadiometry. ‘To the chemical’ history of the acids derived from nitre, he contributed a vast accession of ori- ginal and most valuable’ facts. He seems to have been quite aware that those acids ‘are essentially gaseous substances, and that they might be exhibited as such, provided a fluid could 4 Dr Henry's Estimate of © be found that is incapable of absorbing or acting upon them *. He obtained, and distinctly described+, the curious crystalline compound of sulphuric acid with the vapour of nitrous acid, or, more correctly, of sulphuric and hyponitrous acids, which, being of rare occurrence, was forgotten, and has. since. been redisco~ vered, like many other neglected anticipations of the same au- thor. He greatly enlarged our knowledge of the important class of metals, and traced out many of their most interesting relations to oxygen and to acids. He unfolded, and illustrated by sim- ple and beautiful experiments, distinct views of combustion ; of the respiration of animals, both of the inferior and higher classes ; of the changes produced in organized bodies by putrefaction, and of the causes. that accelerate or retard that process; of the importance of azote as the characteristic ingredient of animal substances, obtainable by the action of dilute nitric acid on mus~ cle and tendon ; of the functions and economy of living vegeta- bles ; and of the relations and subserviency which exist between the animal kingdoms. After trying, without effect, a variety of methods, by which he expected to purify air vitiated by the breathing of animals, he discovered that its purity was restored by the growth of living and healthy vegetables, freely exposed to the solar light. It is impossible to account for these and a variety of other discoveries, of less importance singly, but forming altogether a tribute to science, greatly exceeding, in richness and extent, that ' ef any contemporary, without pronouncing that their author must have been furnished by nature with intellectual powers. far surpassing the common average of human endowments, If we examine with which of its various faculties the mind of Dr Priestley was most eminently gifted, it will, I believe, be found that it was most remarkable for clearness and quickness of ap- prehension, and for rapidity and extent of association. On these qualities were founded that apparently intuitive perception of analogies, and that happy facility of tracing and pursuing them through all their consequences, which led to several of his most brilliant discoveries. Of these analogies many were just | and legitimate, and have stood the test of examination by the clearer — light, since reflected upon them from the improved condition of * Series i. vol. it p. 175. _ t Series ii. vol. i. p. 26. the Philosophical Character of Dr Priestley. 5 science. But, in other cases, his analogies were fanciful and un- founded, and led him far astray from the path which might have conducted him directly to truth. It is curious, however, as he himself observes, that in missing one thing, of which he was in search, he often found ancther of greater value. In such cases, his vigilance seldom failed to put him in full possession of the treasure upon which he had stumbled. Finding by experi- ence, how much chance had to do with the success of his inves- tigations, he resolved to multiply experiments, with the view of increasing the numerical probabilities of discovery. We find him confessing, on one occasion, that he ‘ was led on, by a ran- dom expectation of some change or other taking place.” In other instances, he was influenced by theoretical views of so flimsy a texture, that they were dispersed by the first appeal to experiment. “These mistakes,” he observes, “ it was in my power to have concealed ; but I was determined to show how little mystery there is in the business of experimental philosophy ; and with how little sagacity, discoveries, which some persons are pleased to consider great and wonderful, have been made.” Candid acknowledgments of this kind were, however, turned against him by persons envious of his growing fame ; and it was asserted that al/ his discoveries, when not the fruits of plagiarism, were “ lucky guesses,” or owing to mere chance*. Such de- tractors, however, could not have been aware of the great amount of credit that is due to the philosopher, who at once perceives the value of a casual observation, or of an unexpected result; who discriminates what facts are trivial, and what are important ; and selects the latter, to guide him through difficult and perplexed mazes of investigaticn. In the words of D’Alem- bert, “ Ces hazards ne sont que pour ceux qui jouent bien.” The talents and qualifications which are here represented as having characterized the mind of Dr Priestley, though not of the rarest kind, or of the highest dignity, were yet such as ad- mirably adapted him for improving chemical science at the time when he lived. What was then wanted, was a wider field of * These charges, especially that of plagiarism, which had been unjustly advanced by some friends of Dr Higgins, were triumphantly repelled by Dr Priestley, in a pamphlet entitled, “ Philosophical Empiricism,” published in 1775. 6 ve Dr Henry’s Estimate of observation ;—an enlarged sphere of chemical phenomena ;+an acquaintance with a far greater’ number of individual bodies, than were then known; from the properties of which, and from those of their combinations, tentative approximations to general principles might at first be deduced ;° to be confirmed or correct- ed,enlarged) or circumscribed,’ by future experience.’ It would have retarded the progress of science, and put off, to'a far’ dis- tant day, that affluence of new facts which Priestley so-rapidly accumulated, if he had stopped to investigate, with painful’ and — rigid :précision, all the minute. circumstances of temperature, of specific gravity, of absolute and relative weights, and of crystal- line structure, on.iwhich the more exact science of our own times is firmly based, and from which its evidences must henceforward be.derived.: Nor could ‘such ‘refined. investigations have: then been carried on with any success, on account of the imperfec- tion of philosophical instruments... It would have been fruitless, also, at that time, to have indulged in speculations respecting the ultimate constitution of bodies ;—speculations that have nosolid ground-work, except in a classof facts developed within the last thirty-five years, all tending to establish ‘the laws‘of combination in definite and in multiple proportions, and to support the still more extensive | eneteamntens — has been reared by _ genius of Dalton. | It was, indeed, by the activity of his intellectual As rather than’ by their reach or vigour, that Dr Priestley was enabled: to render such important services to natural science, We should look, in vain, in any thing that he has achieved, for’ demonstrations of that powerful and sustained. attention, which enables the mind to institute close and accurate comparisons }—= to trace resemblances that are far from obvious ;—and ‘to dis- criminate differences that are recondite and obscure. The aha- logies which ¢aught his observation lay near the»surface,, and were eagerly and hastily pursued ; often, indeed, beyond the boundaries within which they ought to have ‘been circumserib- ed, Quick ‘as ‘his mind ‘was in the perception of! resemblances, it appears (probably for that reason) to have, been Jittle adapt- ed for those profound and cautious abstractions, which supply the only solid foundations of general laws. In sober, patient, and successful induction, Priestley must yield the palm to many the Philosophical Character of Dr Priestley. 7 others, who, though far less fertile than himself in new and happy combinations of thought, surpassed him in the use of a searching and rigorous logic; in the art of advancing, by secure steps, from phenomena to general conclusions ;—and again in the employment of general axioms as the instruments of farther - Among the defects of his philosophical habits, may be re- marked, that he frequently pursued an object of inquiry too ex- clusively, neglecting others, which were necessarily connected _ with it, and which, if investigated, would have thrown great light on the main research. As an instance, may be mentioned his omitting to examine the relation of gases to water. This relation, of which he had indistinct glimpses, was a source of perpetual embarrassment to him, and led him to imagine chang- es in the intimate constitution of gases, which were in fact due to nothing more than an interchange of place between the gas in the water and that above the water, or between the former and the external atmosphere. Thus he erroneously supposed that hydrogen gas was transmuted into azotic gas, by remain- ing long confined by the water of a pneumatic cistern. The same eager direction of his mind to a single object, caused him also to overlook several new substances, which he must ne- cessarily have obtained, and which, by amore watchful care, he might have secured and identified. At a very early period of his inquiries, (viz. before November 1771), he was in possession of oxygen gas from saltpetre, and had remarked its striking ef- fect on the flame of a candle; but he pursued the subject no farther until August 1774, when he again procured the same kind of gas from the red oxide of mercury, and, in a less pure state, from red lead. _ Placed thus a second time within his grasp, he did not omit to make prize of this, his greatest, dis- covery. He must, also, have obtained chlorine by the solution of manganese in spirit of salt ; but it escaped his notice, because, being received over mercury, the gas was instantly absorbed’*. If he had employed a bladder, as Scheele afterwards did, to collect the produce of the same materials, he could not have failed to anticipate the Swedish philosopher, in a discovery not eerie than that of oxygen gas. Carbonic oxide early * Series ii. p. 253, 8 - ©. «Dr -Henry’s Estimate of and. repeatedly presented itself to his’ observation, without his being aware of its true distinctions from other kinds of inflam- mable air ; and it was reserved for Mr Cruickshank of Woolwich to unfold its real nature and characters. It is remarkable also, that in various parts of his works, Dr Priestley has stated facts that, might have given him a hint of the law, since unfolded by the sagacity of M. Gay-Lussac, “that gaseous substances com- bine in definite volumes.” He shows that : ; 1 measure of fixed air unites with 1$ measure of alkaline airy 1 measure of sulphurous acid with 2 measures of do. 1 measure of fluor acid with 2 measures of do. -/ 1 measure of oxygen gas with 2 measures nitrous, very ~y) oo nearly 5 and that by the desde pecans of 1 vol. of ammonia, 3 vols. of hydrogen are evolved, Let not, however, failures such as these to reap all that was within his compass, derogate more than their due share from the merits of Dr Priestley. ; for they may be traced to that very ardour of temperament, which, though to a certain degree a disqualification for close and correct observation, was the vital and sustaining principle of his zealous devotion to the pursuit of scientific truth. Letiit be remembered, that philosophers of the loftiest: pretensions are chargeable with similar oversights ;-~ that even Kepler and Newton overlooked discoveries, upon the very confines of which they trod, but which they left to eine glory on the:names of less illustrious followers. Of the general correctness of Dr Priestley’s experiments, it is but justice to him to speak with decided approbation. In some instances, it must be acknowledged, that his results have been — rectified by subsequent inquirers, chiefly as respects quantities and ‘proportions. But of the immense number of new facts originating with him, it is surprising how very few are at vari- ance with recent and correct observations. Even in these few examples, his errors may be traced to causes connected with the actual ‘condition of science at the time; sometimes to the use of impure substances, or to the imperfection of his instruments of research ; but never to-carelessness of inquiry or negligence of truth, Nor was he more’remarkable for the zeal with which the Philosophical'Character of Dr Priestley. 9 he sought satisfactory evidence, than for the fidelity with which he reported it. In no one instance is he chargeable with mis- stating, or even with straining or colouring, a fact, to suit an hypothesis. And though this praise may, doubtless, be con- ceded to.the great majority of experimental philosophers, yet Dr Priestley was singularly exempt from that disposition to view phenomena through a coloured medium, which sometimes steals imperceptibly over minds of the greatest general. probity. This security he owed to his freedom from all undue attach- ment to hypotheses, and to the facility with which he was accus- tomed to frame and abandon them ;—a facility resulting not from habit only, but from principle. “ Hypotheses” he pro- nounces, in one place, “* to be a cheap commodity ;” in another to be “of no value except as the parents of facts ;” and so far as he was himself concerned, he exhorts his readers * to consi- der new facts only as discoveries, and to draw conclusions for themselves.” The only exception to this general praise is to be found in the. pertinacy with which he adhered, to the last, to the Stahlian hypothesis of phlogiston ; and in the anxiety which he evinced to reconcile to it new phenomena, which were con- sidered by almost all other philosophers as proofs of its utter unsoundness. But this anxiety, it must be remembered, was chiefly apparent at a period of life, when most men feel a reluc- tance to change the principle of arrangement, by which they have been long accustomed to class the multifarious particulars of their knowledge. In all those feelings and habits that: connect the purest morals with the highest philosophy (arid that: there is such a connec- tion no one can doubt), Dr. Priestley is entitled to unqualified esteem and admiration. Attached to science by the most gene- rous motives, he pursued it with an entire disregard to his own peculiar interest. He neither sought, nor accepted when offer- ed, any pecuniary aid in his philosophical pursuits, that did not leave him in possession of the most complete independence of thought and of action. Free from all little jealousies of con- temporaries or rivals, he earnestly imvited other labourers into the field which he was cultivating; gave publicity, in his own volumes, to their experiments ; and with true candour, was as ready to record the evidence which contradicted, as that which 10 Dr Henry’s Estimate of confirmed, his own views and results... Every hint which: he _ had derived from the writings or conversation of others was un- reservedly acknowledged. As the best way of accelerating the progress of science, he recommended and practised the early publication of all discoveries; though quite aware that, in his own;case, more durable fame would often have resulted from a delayed and more finished performance... ‘¢ Those persons,” he remarks, “‘ are very properly disappointed, who, for the sake of a little: more reputation, delay publishing their discoveries. till they.are anticipated by others.” »>In perfect consistency with that liberality of temper which has been ascribed: to Dr Priestley, it may be remarked also, that he took the most enlarged views of the scope and objects of Na- tural Science. | In various passages of his works he has enforced, with warm and impressive eloquence, the considerations that flow from the contemplation of those arrangements in the na- tural world, which are not» only perfect in themselves, but are essential parts of one grand and harmonious design... He strenu- ously recommends ‘experimental philosophy as an agreeable -re- lief. from employments that excite the feelings or overstrain the attention ; andhe proposes it to the young, the high-born, and the affluent, as a‘source of pleasure unalloyed with the anxieties and agitations of ‘public life. He regarded the benefits of its investigations, not merely’as issuing in the acquirement of new facts, however striking and valuable; nor yet in the deduction of general principles, however sound and important; but as having ‘a necessary tendency ‘to’ increase the intellectual: power and energy of man, and to exalt human natureto the highest dignity of which it is susceptible. The springs of such in- quiries he represents as inexhaustible; and the prospects, that may be gained by successive advances in knowledge; as in them- selves ** truly sublime:and glorious.” Tet Into our estimate of the intellectual character of an indivi- dual, the extent and the comprehensiveness of his studies must always enter as an essential element. Of Dr Priestley it'may be justly affirmed, that few men have taken’a wider range over the vast and diversified’ field) of human knowledge. » In devo- ting, through the greater part of his life, a large portion of his attention to theological ‘pursuits, he fulfilled, what»he strongly the Philosophical. Character.of Dr Priestley. 1 felt to be his primary duty as a minister of religion. .-This is not the fit occasion to pronounce an opinion of the fruits .of those inquiries, related as they are to topics which still con- tinue to be agitated as matters of earnest. ‘controversy. In Ethics, in Metaphysics, in the philosophy of Language and in that of General History, he expatiated largely. He has given particular histories of the Sciences of Electricity and of Optics, chatacterized by strict impartiality, and by great perspicuity of language and arrangement. | Of the mathematics, he-appears to have had only a general or elementary knowledge ;\ nor, per- haps, did the original qualities, or acquired habits, of his mind fit him to excel in the exact sciences. -On the whole, though Dr Priestley may have been surpassed by many, in vigour of understanding and capacity for profound research, yet it would be difficult to produce an instance of a writer more eminent for the variety and versatility of his talents, or more meritorious for their zealous, unwearied, and productive employment. ORPeEHD Ie: my ‘Since the foregoing pages were written, I have added a few semarks on a passage contained in a recent work of Victor Cousin, in which that writer has committed a material error as to the origin of Dr Priestley’s philosophical, discoveries, ‘ La chimie,” he observes, ‘‘ est une création du dixhuitiéme siécle, une création de la France; c’est Europe enticre qui a appelé chimie Frangaise le mouvement qui a imprimé a cette belle sci- ence une impulsion si forte et une direction si sage; cest a lexemple et sur les traces de Lavoisier, de Guyton, de Four- eroy, de Berthollet, de Vauquelin, qui se sont, formés et. que marchent encore les grands chimistes étrangers, ici Priestley et Davy ; la Klaproth et Berzelius.” (Cours de [Histoire de la rier tom i, p, 25.) i It is to be lamented, that so éniletiteand a writer as Victor Cousin, yielding, in this instance, to the seduction of national vanity, should have advanced pretensions in bebalf of his countrymen, which have no foundation in truth or justice. No- thing can be more absurd or unprofitable than to claim honours 12 Dr Henry's Estimate of — in science, either for individuals or for nations, the title to which may be at once set aside by an appeal to public and authentic records. It was in England, not in France, that the first decided ad- vances were made in our knowledge of elastic fluids. ‘To say nothing of anterior writers, Dr Black had traced the causticity acquired by alkalies, and by certain earths, to their being freed from combination with fixed air; and Mr Cavendish, in 1766, had enlarged our knowledge of that gas and of inflammable air. In England, the value of these discoveries was fully ap- preciated ; in France, little or no attention was paid to them, till the philosophers of that country were roused by the striking phenomena exhibited by the experiments of Priestley. Lavoisier, it is true, had been led, by an examination of evidence derived from previous writers, to discard the hypothesis of phlogiston. The discovery of oxygen gas by Dr Priestley not only completed the demonstration of its fallacy, but served as the corner-stoné of a more sound and consistent theory. By a series of researches executed at great expense, and with consummate skill, the French philosopher verified in some cases, and corrected in others, the results of his predecessors, and added new and im- portant observations of his own. Upon these united, he founded that: beautiful system of general laws, chiefly relating to the absorption of oxygen by combustible bodies, and to the constitution of acids, to which alone the epithet of the Anti- phlogistic or French theory of chemistry is properly applied. Of the genius manifested in the construction of that system, and the taste apparent in its exposition, it is scarcely possible to speak with too much praise. But it is inverting the order of time to assert, that it had any share in giving origin to the researches of Priestley, which were not only anterior to the French theory, but were carried on under the influence of precisely opposite { views. This, too, may be asserted of the discoveries of Scheele, who, at the same period with Dr Priestley, was following, ina dist stant part of Europe, a scarcely less illustrious career. “Tt is the natural progress of most generalizations 1 in scietice, that, at first too hasty and comprehensive, they require to be narrowed as new facts arise. This has happened to the theory of Lavoisier, in’ consequence of its having been discovered, 4a v oo ae as a a a ee ee the Philosophical Character of Dr Priestley. 13 that combustion is not necessarily accompanied with an absorp- tion of oxygen, and that acids exist independently of oxygen, regarded by him as the general acidifying principle. But after all the deductions that can justly be made on that account from the merits of Lavoisier, he must still hold one of the highest places among those illustrious men, who have advanced chemistry to its present rank among the physical sciences. It is deeply to be lamented that his fame, otherwise unsullied, should have been stained by his want of candour and justice to Dr Priestley, in appropriating to himself the discovery of oxygen gas. This charge, often preferred and never answered, would not have been revived in this place, but for the claim so recently and indiscreetly advanced by M. Victor Cousin. To the credit of Dr Priestley it may be observed, that in asserting his own right, he exercised more forbearance than could reasonably have been expected under such circumstances. In an unpublished letter to a friend, he thus alludes to the subject of M. Lavoisier’s plagiarism. ‘ He,” (M. Lavoisier) ‘is an Intendant of the Finances, and has much public business, but finds leisure for various philosophical pursuits, for which he is exceedingly well qualified. He ought to have acknowledged that my giving him an account of the air I had got from Mercurius Calcinaius, and buying a quantity of M. Cadet while I was at Paris, led him to try what air it yielded, which he did presently after I left. I haye, however, barely hinted at this in my second volume.*” The communication alluded to was made by Dr Priestley to M. Lavoisier in October 1774; and the memoir, in which the latter assumes to himself the discovery that mercurius calcinatus (red oxide of mercury) affords oxygen gas when distilled per se, was not read to the Academy of Sciences before April 1775 +. In evineing so little irritability about his own claim, and leaying its vindication with calm and just confidence to posterity, the English philosopher has lost nothing of the honour of that discovery, which is now awarded to him, by men of science of every country, as solely and undividedly his own. * Letter to the late Mr Henry, dated Calne, December 31. 1775. + See an Abstract of this Memoir in the Journal de Rozier, Mai 1775. ae Fa Account of the Russian Vapour-Bath: By 'T)S: TRaitr, M.D. peau Communicated’ by’ the Author.* «ine existence in Hamburgh: of two establishments where the Russian: Vapour-Bathois used,’ brought to my recollection the descriptions given by; Acerbi, and: other travellers, of the intense heat and sudden transition to cold, so much relished’ by the na- tions: of Northern Europe; and. raised) my curiosity to experi- ence in my own person theeffects of this: singular species ‘of bathing. « I was further mduced to take this: step from finding myself) suddenly oppressed with a violent feverish‘ cold, which raised my pulse considerably above 100°, and rendered me lit- tle able to join the public dinner-table in the Apollo Saal. — «» Accompanied by:two friends who wished to: make the same experiment, I repaired to the» AnexanpERBaD, which is under the direction: of \its ~proprietor,: a Jewish physician, who had liberally. opened it gratuitously to:the members of the Society of Naturforscher, then assembled at. Hamburgh: We were'usher- ed into a very neat saloon, provided'with six’ couches; beside each of which stood a dressmg table, anda convenient: appara- tus for: suspending the clothes. of ‘the, bather.» Here we un- dressed, and were furnished with long flannel dressing-gowns and warm: slippers, after which we were all conducted into a small hot ‘apartment, where we were desired to lay aside our gowns and slippers, and were immediately introduced into the room called the bath, in which the dim light admitted. through a single window of three panes, just: sufficed to shew: us that there were init two persons, like ourselves im puris. naturali- bus ; one\of whom was an‘essential personage, the operator, the other a gentleman just finishing the process by’a copious affu- sion of cold water over his body. This sudden ‘introduction in- ‘to.an atmosphere of hot steam was so oppressive, that I was forced to cover my face with my hands, to moderate’ the pain- ful impression on the lips and nostrils, and was compelled to. withdraw my head, as much as possible, from the most: heated 4 “ua * Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. e Dr Traill on the Russian Vapour-Bath. ‘15 part of the atmosphere, by sitting down on a low bench which ran along two sides of the bath. _ At first our modesty felt some dailies at.our, perfect niidity, and that of those around us; but I soon felt that it would be absolutely impossible to endure the contact of any sort of cover- ing of our nakedness in a temperature so high ; and consoled my- self with the reflection, that it was no worse than the promis- cuous bathing I had so often practised. at the sea-baths of Liverpool ; an exposure which, notwithstanding my passion for bathing, was always disagreeable at the commencement of each season ; but to which custom had soon rendered me indifferent. The bath-room is about 15 feet long, by about as much in breadth. It is lined with wood, rendered quite black by con- stant immersion in hot steam. On two sides it has three tiers of benches, or rude couches, each of which is calculated to hold two persons, with. their feet toward each other; so that twelve persons might bathe as the same time. |The lowest bench projects farthest into the room ; they rise two feet above each other; and each has a wooden pillow at the ends, - In one corner of the farther end of. the. apartment stands the furnace, which is supplied with fuel from without, and has a thin arch of fire-brick turned over the fire, against which the flame reverberates, until the arch is red hot. Over this arch is _ built a small brick chamber, the only aperture to which is by a small door about two feet long, and fifteen inches wide, opening nearly to the level of the arch... To increase the heat. ed surface, numerous small earthen jars, or broken pottery, are piled.on. the arch, and all are kept up to a low red heat. On these, a basin of water is occasionally dashed ; and the clouds of steam which instantly issue from the door of the heated chamber, form the source of heat. a to maintain the temperature of the bath. In the corner opposite to the. asain fa treba of cold water, into which the person. who manages the bath frequently, during our stay in the bath, plunged to cool his surface ; a precaution not unnecessary for an individual who is exposed daily eight hours, stark naked, to a temperature quite oppres- sive to the uninitiated. Yet this exposure and this alternation cannot be unhealthy ; for I never saw a more athletic man than 16 Dr Traill on the Russian Vapour-Bath. this person, who informed me that he had been constantly em gaged in this occupation for sixteen or eighteen months. The centre of the ceiling of the bath-room is perforated by numerous holes which allow a copious shower-bath of cold water to descend on the head of the bather, when a valve managed by a cord is opened. Such is the apparatus necessary for a Russian vapour-bath. After remaining some time in the bath, the first sensations of oppressive heat subsided, and I ascended to the second tier of benches, the wood of which, however, was somewhat cooled by the plentiful affusion of cold water. At each remove this operation is repeated ; otherwise the contact of the wood would be insupportable to the skin. It is needless to say, that the perspiration very soon began to run from every pore, not mere- ly as a moist exhalation, but ran off in copious streams. This greatly moderated the sensation of heat. lined After lying extended for some time on the second tier of benches, a bucket of cold water was dashed on the upper one, . and we removed there; but'the heat, so near the ceiling, was fully as oppressive as on first entering; and I found it neces- sary to allow the air to enter my nose through my fingers. | If I inhaled it with the mouth wide open, I felt an oppressive heat in my chest; but by degrees even this degree of heat be- came supportable; though I never was able to sit upright on the upper bench; so strong-was the temperature of the humid atmosphere close to the ceiling. While we were groping our way from bench to bench, the assistant more than once plunged headlong into his cold bath, to refresh himself ere he commenced on us the next part of his , professional occupation. , We were one by one requested to descend to the second tier ; and the assistant, grasping in his hand a bundle of birch rods, ‘ began assiduously to whip his patients, who lay extended on the bench at full length, from head to heel. This application dif- fers essentially from the well remembered scholastic birch dis- cipline; for the leaves are left on the twigs, and the sensations produced in no way resemble the effect of the instrument em- ployed in English schools to convey a Sundamerital knowledge of Greek and Latin into the heads of our youth. | In fact, this —— Dr Traill on the Russian Vapour-Bath. 17 species of whipping is performed very dexterously, with a sort of brushing motion, from the shoulders downwards ; and the: application becomes general over the body and limbs, as the — bather turns on his wooden couch. The sensations produced by this operation are agreeable, and are very far from producing that excessive redness of the surface described by Acerbi. The operator now anoints the whole body with a liquid mild soap; and, after again mounting tu the upper tier for some time, we descend one by onc to the middle of the floor, where a power- ful affusion of cold water from the shower-bath in the ceiling re- moves every vestige of soap. This sudden affusion of cold wa- ter is remarkably grateful : it is scarcely possible to describe the effect, which is highly exhilarating and refreshing. It is usual again to undergo the steaming after the tempera-~ ture of the bath is increased by the affusion of water on the glowing pottery in the furnace. For this purpose, the opera- tor opens the door above described, and placing us out of the direction of the immediate efflux of the steam, he dashes, in suc- cessive jets, a small bucket of water into the furnace. The apartment is instantly filled with clouds of steam, at a high tem- perature ; and when the door of the aperture is closed, we re- sume our places on the benches, gradually proceeding to the highest, as we become inured to the temperature. From the upper tier we finally descend to have the cold shower-bath re- peated ; after which we leave the bathing-room, are rubbed dry by assistants in the small heated apartment, where we resume the flannel dressing-gown and slippers, and are reconducted to the saloon, where we find the couches spread with blankets ; and we recline for half an hour in a most profuse perspiration, and in a state of luxurious languor, and mental tranquillity. On a subsequent occasion, I provided myself with the means of ascertaining the temperature of the bathing-room, and noted its effect on the pulse of myself and two other bathers. The heat is generally from 45° to 50° of Reaumur; that is, from 133°.25 to 144°.5 of Fahrenheit. On the occasion referred to, it ranged in the bath, during my stay, from 42° to 46° R., = 126°.5 and 125°.5 F: in the lower part of the bathing-room ; but I was unable to examine the temperature near the ceiling, on account of the thick vapour, and the intensity of the tempera. VOL, XIIL. NO. Xxv.—JuLY 1832. _ B 18 Dr: Traill on the Russian Vapour-Batlk. ture, which affected my eyes. This temperature, high as it is, is far short of what Acerbi asserts of the Finnish baths’; he says that they reached from 70° to.'75° of Celsius, = to 158° to 167. of our scale: but perhaps his thermometers were subject to the - influence of the open fire-place in the rude baths of that people ; for their furnace consisted of a few loose stones piled into a sort of rude arch, over a fire on the floor of the hut: or perhaps he did not accurately ; ascertain the temperature; as he never en- tered the bath but momentarily, for the purpose of placing his thermometer ; and I am confirmed in this by observing that the Finnish operator, in his plate, appears dressed in her ordinary clothes, which I should think insupportable in so high a tempe- rature as he assigns. ‘The éffect of the Russian vapour-bath is to accelerate the pulse, which soon regains its natural standard on leaving the bath ; and, when I took it in a highly feverish state, I was with- in an hour after entirely free of fever, and able fully to enjoy the philosophic soirée that evening. On bathing a second time, I was accompanied by the same two friends: our pulses were before about 74 in a minute. On just coming out of the bath, Dr Traill’s pulse, id te =116 Mr Johnston's do. “i, 4 = 88 . Mr Palk’sdo. -. - 69 ay A quarter of an hour afterwards, hue on the couch, they were as follows: ak Dr Traill’s pulse, - - = Mr Johnston’sdo. - - |= 88 Mr Palk’sdo. - -. |- Sol Si " After being dressed, and sitting i m an adjoining coffee-room, perhaps one hour after the bath, Dr Traill’s pulse beat, - - = 88 Mr Johnston's do. taarcr, dy ome eS -MrPalk’sdo. = -. -. +. =80, .) (tyes (These experiments | shew the great difference i in the pe lity « of the I heart in d different individuals, from exposure an.ihe | same heat, My pulse, in my best health, isa Eh ies hese: Son, Fanart 4 to 80, but is y. (OTHCIGOW i ty cited; and I have often fou und it if oh 9 mom ce itd interesting conversation, or even cup of strong tea. . FS Dr"Traill on the Russian Vapour-Bath. 19 The proces of the vapour-bath is completed by a plentiful supply of towels, with which we gradually dry the surface, while we are well rubbed down by an assistant. We then re- sumed our dress, and retired to a coffee-room, where there was a plentiful supply of newspapers, and had a cup of good coffee for ‘twopence Sterling. As I have already stated, the baths were free to the naturforscher ; but I ascertained that the whole expense of the bath and its accompaniments is not more than one mare, or sixteenpence English, and for twopence more the bather is entitled to a cup of coffee, and to read the newspapers in a handsome apartment. | I received from the liberal owner permission to examine his splendid establishment of vapour and shower baths devoted to females. The vapour-bath resembles that already described, but 1s much neater. The variety of drat atid surprised me. They are of every conceivable form, from the powerful stream to the mi- nute drizzing of water from orifices as fine as a needle, which jet tiny streams of warm or cold water, at the option of the bather, in every possible direction on her person. By means of polished brass arms, curved so as to enclose the body, moveable by universal joints, connected with a cistern, and perforated with innumerable minute holes, a cross-fire of jets (if I may be al- lowed the expression) is kept upon any part of the body. If the bather inclines to sit, a perforated seat is placed on a large flat trough, which collects and carries off the water, jets of wa- ter play from the various moveable arms from each side, from above, and from below, so that every part of the surface is be- dewed. A general stopcock commands the whole flow of wa. ter, while each brazen-rod is under the control of one appro- priate to itself. These are at the disposal of the bather; and each trough or bath is surrounded by curtains to skreen the person from the eyes of the assistant. Similar shower-baths are appropriated to gentlemen. "The whole forms one of the most elegant and perfect establishments of the kind I have ever seen, and is a source of emolument to the spirited proprietor. I inquired anxiously into the medical a, of the Russian 20 Dr Traill on the Russian Vapour. Bath. vapour-bath, ‘and ‘found that in chronic rheumatism, in the stiff- ness of limbs consequent on ‘gout, and other long continued in- flammations, in some cases of’ palsy, in various cutaneous dis- easés, it is'a most powerful and valuable remedy... While in the éstablishment I saw ‘an invalid enter, who informed me, that, after severe acute rheumatism, of several months’ duration, he was 'so lame that he had been carried by two persons into the bath ; but ‘that, after five or six times undergoing the discipline I have described, he could walk alone as well as I saw him (he had walked, aided by a stick, from: his house to the bath), and appeared confident that in a little time he should acini re- cover the power and flexibility of his limbs. From all I could learn in Hamburgh, T am inclined to consi- der the Russian vapour-bath as a most valuable remedy in some chronic diseases, and regret that we have not a similar establish- ment in any of our medical charitable institutions. ‘| February 31. 1832. On the Breeding Spots of Birds. By FREDERICK Faser* ‘Tux leatned editor of the interesting Travels of M. Boie in Norway, considers it as indispensable, for the complete deve- lopment of the eggs, that they come’ in contact with the external skin of the bird. This is certainly the case; but I doubt very much if it is the reason of their plucking the’ feathers off their belly. Some water-birds, as the different species of Colymbus, preserve the same dense mass of feathers on their belly during breeding, as at other seasons. Most birds, however, at this period’ have a much thinner covering on their abdomen than usual, and ‘this'is produced, in my opinion, partly by the fric- tion of hatching, partly by the excess of animal warmth which is concentrated in that region. \'The female of the Iceland grous, and of many wading birds, have’ the’ ‘breast and belly nearly quite bare while breeding. But this falling out of the feathers is a'consequénce of hatching, and belongs to the next’ period. _ An entirely’ different relation takes place ‘ainong’ some of the boreal aquatic and wading birds. "These pluck off a number * These observations are taken from Faber’s very, interesting, work on the _ Habits and Manners of Boreal Birds, of which, ne acneienehi will, we trust, soon be published M) Faber on the Breeding Spot of Birds. al of feathers from one or more spots of the belly on the develop- ment of the pairing impulse, and before they have laid any eggs, or have begun to-hatch.’ This gives rise to certain naked spots, which T call Breeding spots. ‘The utility of this arrangement is various. There is generally so thick a layer of feathers upon the belly of most aquatic birds, that without some process of this kind, the eggs would hardly ever be brought directly in contact with the skin of the mother. In the second place, most aquatic birds have no nest, or other means of furnishing warmth to their eggs, even in the coldest climates.. The breeding spots thus form as it were a nest on the body of the parents, as they collect with their bills all the eggs into this artificial cavity, so that they - are quite surrounded by the feathers. ‘The discovery of this peculiar phenomenon in the history of the boreal birds is entirely my own. Only occasionally do we find former writers directing our attention to these breeding spots, but none seem to have recognised their real importance. Being only found in the boreal birds, the discovery was reserved for a naturalist who had an opportunity of spending the summer in their native haunts. Gunnerus remarks of the Procellaria gla- cialis*, that he had found no such cavity, but that the mediéal student Martin had observed+ them to possess a hole under the crop beneath the large feathers, which he thought might per- haps serve for the hatching of eggs. Fabricius remarks, also of this bird {, that he had found this hollow ; his words are, Aream deplumem sub abdomine etiam reperi. _M. Boie has observed, in his Travels (p. 192), which were written at, the same, time with my Prodromus, with respect to the Lestris parasitica, that this bird lays only two eggs, and shews that, the two parents, which sit alternately, have on both sides, of the belly a naked spot, of the size of one of the eggs, and ‘the editor hazards, the conjecture that these naked spots may be found in AY, others of the aquatic and wading tribes, ..,, 0 The true uses of these spots L:shall, now, onclaaant, to, unfold Birds seldom pluck off their feathers in,order to lay them in the nest. Those which are, most, naked (of all, during’ the, breed- ing, season, either. build aa nest, or haye,no feathers in it. . Only * Mem: of the Dtvhtlieihy Sed! i 198." | Transact. of the Royal ‘Avad, vf aii of Sve for 1750. $ Fauna Groenlandica, p. 86. 22 M. Faber on the Breeding Spots of Birds: the Anas and Sua tear out their feathers to line their nests.. Therefore, we do not find in the nest ‘the feathers which have been taken off the body of the bird. \ It is necessary that a por- tion of the great mars which covers the abdomen be removed, in order that the eggs come into immediate contact'with the epi- dermis. This is the first use of the breeding spots. — It cannot, however, be their only use, because they are wanting in many of the aquatic birds of the compound. monogamy, whose coat of feathers, as just mentioned, is no thinner, as in the Sula and Carbo. They must, therefore, be intended to envelope and fur- nish the eggs with warmth. T have found these breeding spots only in the boreal aquatic birds, and confined to those species which belong to the perfect or compound monogamy. It would be extremely interesting if _ their existence could be established in the aquatic birds of other zones *. They are never found in the genera Colymbus and Po- diceps, which belong to the partial monogamy. They are equally wanting in those simply monogamous, as the Mergus, Anas, Anser, Cygnus. But all these birds have the habit of plucking out their feathers for the purpose of lining their nests, which does not exist in those birds which belong to the perfect mono- gamy, such as the Phalaropus, Uria, Alca, Mormon, Carbo, Puffinus, Sula, Sterna, Larus, Lestris, and Procellaria. Breed- ing spots are found in all these genera, with the exception of the Sula and Carbo. : - As both male and female of these species share the labours of hatching, the breeding-spots are found in both sexes, with the remarkable exception, however, of the Phalaropus, where they exist only in the male +. Among the many hundred individuals * Since the above was written, I have had an opportunity of ascertaining the existence of these bree(ling-spots in the Danish gulls and sea-swallows, during a zoological excursion in the summer of 1824. They exist, both in the male and female of the Larus argentatus, L.-ridibundus, Sterna arctica, cas- pia, nigra, and minuta. Their position and number is the same as in the northern individuals of these species. In some wading birds, of both sexes, as the Charadrius hiaticula and albifrons, I found a spot in the middle of the abdomen, besides,a thinner cover of feathers on the breast, which they have in common with most land birds, and the other wading birds, at the breeding season. + M..Holbol has since assured me that, in Greenland, he has not only found the breeding-spots solely in the male of the genus, but that he never saw a female at the breeding-place. But I have found both mates together at the nest in Iceland, but the male only sitting on the young. Can we infer M. Faber on the Breeding Spots of Birds. = = %8 of ten dacs wl een ts teed ssn I have not seen a single instance of these being wanting, or of their varying in position and number in the individuals of the same species. For. they are not a consequence of an unusual deficiency of feathers in these birds, but they follow, the most precise rules both in regard to position and number, and furnish. a sure specific character of the different boreal aquatic birds. Their number is only two; in my prodromus (p. 90.) it is indeed stated that the Larus ¢ridactylus has from three to four. But I had before me at the time specimens which were cnly com- mencing the process of the removal of feathers from the belly ; and I do not doubt, but that, asin the other northern gulls, these different patches would have united into asingle one in the centre of the abdomen, when it had assumed its finished form. The Phalaropus, Uria grylle and alle, Alca torda, Mormon Sratercula, Lestris, have two breeding spots. The Uria brun- nichit and troile, Puffinus arcticus, Sterna arctica, Larus tri- dactylus, glaucus, marinus, and the Procellaria glaczalis, have but one spot. One of the most important distinctions, between the Alca torda and Uria troile auctorum is, that the former has two and the latter but one breeding spot. In regard to position, they are always on the belly, never on the breast; and when one only is present, it is constantly in the middle of the belly ; when two exist, they are symmetrically on each side. Their form is circular and proportioned to the size and number of the eggs which they have to cover. A central is always larger than each of a pair. Their number occasionally corresponds to that of the eggs, but sometimes there are more eggs than spots, as in the Larus ; in the Alca torda, and Mormon fratercula, the spots exceed the eggs in number. When a bird has more eggs than spots, these are generally large, and capable of including more than a single egg. When the spots are more numerous than the eggs, these change their position. from the deficiency of the breeding-spots in the Phalaropus, a similar defect in the breeding impulse? ‘This genus would then be a solitary exeeption, of one individual laying the eggs, and another hatching them. It must, how- ever, be observed in general, that we can always infer the breeding impulse to be present when breeding-spots exist, tat not vice verea ; as, for example, neither sex of the Sula or Carbo has breeding spots, although both hateh. 24 M. Faber on the Breeding Spots of Birds. _ The Uria grylle, Lestris catarractes, pomarina, and parasi- ticas have two eggs and two breeding spots. , The Uria Brun- nichii and troile, Puffinus arcticus, and Procellaria glacialis, have one egg and one, spot. .The Uria alle, Alcatorda, and Mormon fratercula, have but one egg and two breeding spots. _ The Phalaropus cinereus, and. Platyrhinchus, lay four eggs, and have but two breeding spots. The Sterna arctica, Larus glaucus, marinus, and tridactylus, have sometimes, three, some- times two eggs, but constantly only one breeding spot. These spots are not entirely meant to supply the place of a nest; they are, therefore, not invariably in an inverse ratio to the building impulse. _ Certainly, the species which want these spots, as the Suda and Carbo, build a nest; most of those, also, which are provided with them build no nest, as the Phalaropus, Uria, Alca, Morindu, Puffinus, Sterna, Lestris, Procellaria ; but the genus Larus have breeding spots,and build nests. Their presence is therefore merely a proof of the development of the pairing impulse, but is not to be considered, as , synony- mous with the laying of eggs or hatching. Birds plack out these feathers before even they have joined their mates, and without being certain of breeding that year. . Therefore I have found them in May, in individuals of the Lestris catarractes, and Pro- cellaria glacialis, which were so far out at sea, and removed from the breeding places of the species, that I,had good cause for reckoning, these barren birds, which, pass the summer. with- out breeding. They also exist in the single individuals of the Lestris parasitica, which flock about, together. After hatching is over, these bare spots, are very quickly again covered with feathers. All traces of them have disap- peared in August and September, when the young of some species are not yet fledged. Analysis of the Stony Pericarp of the Lithospermum officinale. By Captain Cuartes Le Hunre, (Communicated by the Author.) Tus. may be considered one of the most remarkable substances in the vegetable kingdom, its properties, mechanical and chemi- cal, are those of:a mineral, rather than that of a vegetable. The ES Analysis of the Pericarp of the Lithospermum officinale. 25 seeds resemble small, pear-shaped, porcelain beads ; they are very hard, difficult to break, and have a high polish. When heated, they at fitst become black; but they do not shrink, nor does'a white heat change their form, in the slightest degree ; it _ destroys, however, their lustre, and renders them, when the ve- getable matter has been consumed, whiter than they were origi- nally. Before the blowpipe, small pointed fragments of the pericarp may be partially fused ; but this requires a good heat. To determine the nature and quantity of the earthy consti- tuents, the pericarps were carefully separated from the enclosed seeds, and exposed to the action of dilute muriatic acid; a violent effervescence immediately commenced, which did not entirely cease for upwards of two hours. At the end of twelve hours, the acid liquor was decanted, and the pericarps were well washed. ‘Their appearance was not in the least changed ; when dried, at a moderate heat, they still retained their original lustre. The acid liquor was found to contain a great deal of lime, a very little phosphate of lime and oxide of iron, with traces of potash and magnesia, which-were separated in the usual manner. The pericarps were then heated to destroy the vegetable mat- ter, which it is exceedingly difficult to effect ; but, notwithstand- ing the intense heat employed, the form of the fragments was not changed by it, they merely lost their lustre, and became very white. When the vegetable matter was entirely consumed, they were again treated with muriatic acid, and left in a warm place for several hours. ‘The acid took up a very little phos- phate of lime and oxide of iron, The matter insoluble in the acid, was fused with carbonate of soda, and found to be pure silica. The analysis was repeated, and the composition of the substance appeared to be very uniform. ‘The following is the result :— Carbonate of Lime, : : ; . ‘ 43.70 Silica, : : ; ; d : 16.5 Vegetable matter, small quantity of phosphate of lime and oxide of iron, with traces of potash and magnesia, . 39.8 100 The silica appears to form ‘the polished surface of the seeds. As the acid acted upon the vegetable matter of the pericarps, and took up a little phosphate of lime and oxide of iron, that 6 .. _ Rev.'Dr Buckland on the Vitality of could not be weighed accurately, it was scarcely possible to esti- mate the quantity of carbonic acid that they contained, from the loss of ‘weight caused by the effervescence. “I found it alittle greater than it ought to have been, on the supposition that the whole of’ the lime was in the state of carbonate; and I did not think it necessary to have recourse to a more delicate mode of ascertaining its quantity, for I had no reason to suspect the pre- ‘sence of any other salt of lime, excepting a small quantity of the phosphate. When the dilute muriatic acid was applied to the pericarps, the effervescence was brisk ; but they appeared to of- fer some resistance toits action ; and when they were not allowed to remain in contact with it, for at least twelve hours, the silica always contained a little lime. | Nitric: acid, which acted more powerfully upon the vegetable matter, dissolved the lime speedi- ly, the fragments became very thin, and the siliceous coating alone was left; but, in this case, it was quite impossible to make - any caleulation for the carbonic acid. An-examination of a larger quantity of these seeds might af- ford some interesting results; and)the whole plantis worthy of attention. I may remark, that they had been collected a Lon when the analysis was made. ! On the Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. By the “Rev: W. Buckrann; F.R.S., FL. 8.) F.G.S., and Pro- fessor of Geology ‘and Mineralogy in ‘the University of Ox- ford.’ Communicated by the Author. Lx the month of November 1825, I commenced the following experiments with a view to explain the frequent discoveries of toads enclosed within blocks of stone and wood, in cavities that are said to have no communication with the external.air. In one large block of coarse oolitic limestone, (the Oxford oolite from the ‘quarries of Heddington) twelve circular cells were prepared, each about one foot deep and five inches in dia- meter, and having a groove or shoulder at its upper margin fitted to receive a circular plate of glass, and a circular slate to pro- tect the glass ; the margin of this double cover was closed ‘round, and rendered: impenetrable to air and water by a luting of \soft ee te ie EEO EEE—————— “‘Doadéanblasédiise: Woadasd Stone: ar clay. Twelve smaller cells, each six inches deep and five inches in diameter, were made in another block of compact siliceous sandstene, viz. the Pennant Grit of the Coal formation. near Bristol; these. cells also were covered with similar plates of glass.and slate cemented at the edge) by clay... The object of the glass covers'was to allow the animals to be inspected, with- out disturbing the clay so as to admit external air or insects. in- to the cell. The limestone is so porous that it is easily perme- et Gis ac Rag NE ee compact. On the 26th of November 1825, sais Dinitinideicidlelenliid each7of the above-mentioned twenty-four cells, and the double cover of glass and slate placed over each of them and cemented down by the luting of clay ; the weight of each toad in grains "was ascertained and noted by Dr Daubeny and Mr Dillwyn, at _ the time of their being placed in the cells; that of the smallest was 115 grains, and of the largest 1185 grains. The large and small animals were distributed in equal proportion between the limestone and the sandstone cells. He These blocks of stone were buried together in nares beneath three feet of earth, and remained unopened until the — 10th of December 1826, on which day they wereexamined. Every toad in the smaller cells of the compact sandstone was dead, and the bodies of most of them so much decayed, that they must have been dead some months. The greater number of those in the larger cells of porous limestone were alive. No. 1, whose weight when immured was 924 grains, now weighed only 698 grains. No. 5, whose weight when immured was 1185 grains, now weighed 1265 grains. The glass cover over this cell was slightly cracked, so that minute insects might have entered ; none, however, were discovered in this cell ; but in another cell, whose glass was broken, and the animal within it dead, there was a large assemblage of minute insects, and a similar assem- blage also‘on the outside of the glass of a third cell. In the cell No. 9; a toad which, when put in, weighed 988 grains, hac increased to 1116 grains, and the glass over it was entire ; but as the luting of the cell within which this toad had increased in weight was not particularly examined, it is probable there was some aperture in it, by which small insects found admission. No. 11 had decreased from 936 grains to 652 grains. 98 Revs\Dr Buckland on the Vitality of When they: were first-examined: in December: 1826, not only: , were all, the:small, toads dead, but the larger ones) appeared’ much emaciated, with the two exceptions,»above mentioned: We: have already stated, that these probably owed their increased weight to’ the insects which had found) access: towthe cells and become their food. The, death of every individual of every size in sedi alee calle of compact sandstone, appears to have resulted from a de- ficiency in the supply of air, in consequence of: the smallness of the:cells,and the impermeable nature of the stone; thelarger volume of air originaily,enclosed in the:cells of :the limestone, and .the porous nature of this stone: itself:(permeable as it is slowly by water and probably also by air) seems'to have favour- ed;the duration of life to the animals enclosed) in them without foods | ab ih ese Ie 3 »»It:should be noticed that there is a defect in :these experi- ments, arising from the treatment of the twenty-four toads be. fore they were enclosed in the blocks of stone. | ‘They were shut up andburied on the 26th of November, but the greater num- ber of them had been caught more than two months before that time, and had been imprisoned ‘altogether in a cucumber frame placed on common garden‘earth,' where the supply of food to so many individuals was probably. scanty, and their confinement unnatural, so that. they were in an’ unhealthy:and somewhat meagre state at the time of their imprisonment. We can 'there- fore scarcely argue with: certainty from the death of all these individuals within two years, as ‘to the duration of life which might have been maintained had they retired spontaneously and fallen: into thestorpor of their watural OE in — ‘bodily condition. 2639 1 -«The results of our ieabicienathe amount to this; all the inte both large and small mclosed in sandstone, and the small toads ‘in ‘the Jimestone also, were dead at the end'of thirteen months. Before the expiration of the second year, all the large ones also -wererdead \;:these; were examined several times during the'second year through the glass covers)of the cells, but without removing them: tovadmit air ;they appeared :always awake with theireyes open, ahd néverim a staté of torpor, their meagreness increasing ‘atveachi:interval'iniwhich they ywere«examined, ‘until’ at length — they were found: dead ; those two} whidh had'gained an ac. - Toads:enélosed in Stone arid Wood. 29 cessiomof weight/at ttheend: of ‘the: first year, and. were then carefully: closed up» again, were emaciated and-dead before the expiration/of:the second year.) 9) 9 om ison tone ) Atethe same time that these toads were enclosed in: stone, four other toads of middling size were enclosed in three holes ‘eut for this purpose, on the north side of the trunk'of an apple tree; two being placed in the largest cell, and each'of the others in assingle cell; the cells were nearly circular, about five inches deep and three inches in diameter; they were carefully closed up witha plug of wood, so as to exclude access of insects, and apparently were air-tight ; when examined at the end of a year, every one of the toads was dead and their bodies were decayed. From the fatal result of the experiments made in the ‘small cells cut in the apple tree, and the block of compact sandstone, it seems to follow that toads cannot live a year excluded totally from atmospheric air; and from the experiments: in) the larger cells within the block of colite limestone, it seems probable that they cannot survive two years entirely excluded from food ; we may therefore conclude, that there is a want of sufficiently mi- nute and accurate observation in those so frequently recorded cases, where toads are said. to be found alive within blocks of stone and wood, incayities that had no communication whatever with the, external air. The fact\ of my-two toads: having: in- creased in weight at the end ofa year, notwithstanding the care that was taken to enclose them perfectly by a luting of clay, shews how very small an aperture will admit minute insects suffi- cient to maintain life. In the cell\No. 5, whete the glass was slightly cracked, the communication though small was obvious ; but, in the cell No. 9, where the glass cover remained entire, and where it appears certain, from the increased weight of the en¢losed animal, that insects must have found admission, we have an’ ex- ample of these minute animals finding their way into-a cell, to which great care had..been taken to prevent any possibility of meer Grebo fly forge eel be obmeand xo ont otolot Admitting, then, shat swell are cctasionall jsbosnd ‘in cavities of wood and stone, with whieh there is no.communication suffi- cently large toallow the ingress, and. egress of the animal en- closed in them, we may, I think, find a solution of such pheno- mena in the habits, of these reptiles, and of the insects which form their food, The-first effort of the young toad, as soon as 30 Rev. Dr Buckland on the Vitality of it has left its tadpole state and emerged from the water, is to” seek shelter in holes and crevices of rocks and trees. An indi- vidual, which, when young, ‘may have thus entered a cavity by some very narrow aperture, would find abundance of food by catching insects, which like itself seek shelter within such cavi- ties,‘and may soon have increased so much in bulk as to render it impossible to go out again, through the narrow aperture at which it entered. A small hole of this kind is very likely to be overlooked by common workmen, who are the only people whose operations on stone and wood disclose cavities in the interior of such substances. In the case of toads, snakes, and lizards, that occasionally issue from stones that are broken in a quarry, or in sinking wells, and sometimes even from strata of coal at the bot- tom of'a coal mine, the evidence is never perfect to shew that the reptiles were entirely enclosed in a solid rock ; no examina- tion is ever made until the reptile is first discovered ‘by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and then it is too late to ascertain without carefully replacing every fragment (and in no case that I have seen reported has this ever been done) whether or not there was any hole or crevice by which the animal may have entered the cavity from which it was ex- tracted. Without previous examination it is almost impossible to prove that there was no such communication. In the ease of rocks near the surface of the earth, and in stone quarries, rep- tiles find ready admission to holes and fissures. We have a no: torious example of this kind in the lizard found in a chalk pit, and brought alive to the late Dr Clarke. In the case also of wells and coal pits, a reptile that had fallen down the well or shaft; and survived its fall, would seek its natural retreat in - the first hole’or crevice it could find, and the miner dislodging it from this cavity to which his previous attention had not been called, might in ignorance conclude that the animal was a yin with thestone fromwhich he had extracted it. | Itremains ‘only to consider the case, (of which I iseebl any authenticated example), of toads that have been ‘said to be found in cavities within blocks of limestone to which, on care- ful examination; no! access whatever could be discovered, and where the ‘animal was absolutely’ and entirely closed up with stone. Should any such case ever have existed, it is probable eit that: the ‘communication ‘between ‘this cavity and ‘the exer _. Toads enclosed in Sione and Wood. gh surface had been closed up by stalactitic incrustation after the animal had become tvo large to make its escape. A similar ex- planation may be offered of the much more probable case of a live toad being entirely surrounded with solid wood. In each case the animal would have continued to increase in bulk so long as the smallest aperture remained by which air and insects could find admission; it would probably become torpid as soon as this aperture was entirely closed by the accumulation of stal- actite or the growth of wood ; but it still remains to be ascertained how long this state of torpor may continue under total exclu- sion from food, and from external air: and although the experi- ments above recorded shew that life did not extend two years in the case of any one of the individuals which formed the sub- jects of them, yet, for reasons which have been specified, they are not decisive to shew that a state of torpor, or suspended ani- “mation, may not be endured for a much longer time~by toads that are healthy and well fed up, to the moment when they are finally cut off from food, and from all direct access to atmosphe- ric air. The common experiment of burying a toad in a flower-pot covered with a tile, is of no value, unless the cover be carefully luted to the pot, and the hole at the bottom of the pot also — elosed, so as to exclude all possible access of air, earthworms and insects. I have heard of two.or three experiments of this kind, in which these precautions have not been taken, and in which, at the end of a year, the toads have been found alive and well, _ Besides the toads enclosed in stone and wood, four others were placed each in a small basin of plaster of Paris, four inches deep and five inches in diameter, having a cover of the same ma- terial carefully luted round with clay; these were buried at the same time and in the same place with the blocks of \stone,, and on being examined at the same time with them in, December, 1826, two of the toads were dead, the other two alive, but much emaciated. We can only collect from this experiment, that a thin plate of plaster of Paris is permeable to air in a sufficient degree to maintain the life of a toad for thirteen months. In the 19th Vol. No. 1, p. 167, of Silliman’s, American Jour- nal of Science and Arts, David Thomas, Esq. bas published some observations on frogs and toads.in stone, and. solid earth, enu- 82 On the Vitality of Toads enclosed in Stone and Wood. merating several authentic and well attested cases; these, how- ever, amount to no more thania repetition of the facts so often stated and’admitted to be true, viz. that torpid reptiles occur in cavities of stone, and at the depth of many feet in‘soil and earth ; but, they state not any thing to disprove the possibility of a small : aperture, by which these cavities may have had communi- cation with the external surface, and insects have been admitted. ' 'The attention of the discoverer is always directed more to the toad than to the minutia of the state of the cavity in which it was contained. In the Literary Gazette of March 12. 1831, p. 169, there is a very interesting account of the habits of a tame male toad, that was domesticated and carefully observed during almost two years by Mr F. C. Husenbeth. During two winters, from November to March, he ate no food, though he did not become torpid, but grew thin and moved much less than at other times. During the winter of 1828, he gradually lost his appetite and gradually recovered it. He was well fed during’ two summers, _ and after the end of the second winter, on the 29th of March, 1829, he was found dead. His death was apparently caused by an unusually long continuance of severe weather, which seemed to exhaust him before his natural appetite returned. He could not have died from starvation, for the day before his death he refused a lively fly. Dr Townson also, in his tracts on Natural History, (London 1799), records a series of observations which he made on tame frogs, and also on some toads; these were directed chiefly , to the very absorbent power of the skin of these reptiles, and show that they take in and reject liquids, through their skin alone, by a rapid proc ess of absorption and evaporation,—a frog absorbing sometimes in half an hour as much as half its own weight, aid? it! a few hout's'the whole of its own weight of wa- | ter, and nearly as rapidly giving it off when placed in any posi- tion that is warm and removed from moisture. Dr T. contends that a8 the frog tribe never drink water, this fluid must be sup plied by means of absorption through ‘the skin. Both fro and— toads have a large bladder, which is often found full of w water 3 _« whatever this fluid imily"be) (We Says), it is as pure:as distilled water and equally tasteless; this I‘assért’as well | of that of the i? toad which I have often samedll ‘ds that of frogs.” Por tsa8 pe) = ‘i 33. po 4 « sn soeatie calediiemedb b> esis UU : By Artrnur ConNELL, eit FP. sata anal Communicated’ by the Author.*, Ix examining some specimens of harmotome from Strontian, I observed some crystals which appeared to present a very dif. ferent aspect from the ordinary harmotome with which they were associated. The usual crystals of this mineral from the above locality are well known to be of considerable size, and. to exhibit the form of a rectangular prism, Plate I. Fig. 1, termina- ted by a pyramid, the faces of which are set on the lateral edges of the prism, two opposite edges of the pyramid being also replaced by planes. On the other hand, the crystals to which I have re- ferred were a great deal smaller in size, usually not exceeding one-tenth of an inch in length, and of greater transparency ; and they presented the apparently very dissimilar form of a rhombic prism, fism, Fig. 8, of considerable acuteness, having the acute angle more or less truncated by the face A, and termi- nated by a pyramid C, the faces of which were set on the late- ral planes of the prism, and its apex truncated. They were spread over the surface of calcareous spar in considerable num- bers, and were usually attached to the matrix by one of the ex- tremities D’'D. Farther consideration, however, showed that this latter form was in reality merely a modification, although undoubtedly a very considerable one, of the old form, and arose principally from the vertical contraction of the crystal, Fig. 1, and its horizontal elongation in the direction of the faces BB, the inclination of the several faces to one another remain- ing always the same; as will be evident by comparing Figures 1, 2, and 3, Fig. 2 representing another form of the crystal, which may be regarded as intermediate between Figs. 1 and 8, and the whole three being placed in parallel position, with their ¢orres- ponding faces marked by the same letters. In some rare. in- stances, the pyramids.C’ C, and the face A, Fig. , almost en- tirely disappear, so that the crystal appears nearly as a simple rhombic prism ; and in others equally rare, the face D almost disappears, s6 as to leave the pyramid nearly without truncation, * Read to the Royal Society of Pesto April 1832, VOL. XIII. NO, Xxv.—guLY. 1832. c 34 % the. Chervicg!. Constitution of Rlamagennts unnecessary, to notice. _ bic _T was farther confirmed in these views mp the connexion be- tween the two forms, by the opportunity which the, Jiberality of Mr Allan afforded me of consulting the i interesting catalogue of | his collection, drawn up by Mr Haidinger, in which I found el of figures of harmotome crystals, presenting, in so far s I could judge, a transition of the one form into the other, an some of those lesser modifications to which I have alluded. “As the angle of the faces B, replacing the opposite edges of the pyramid in Fig. 1, has been stated by Mr Phillips as 110° 26’, this will of course become the measure of the rhombic prism, Fig. 3, if the foregoing views of the relation between the two forms are correct. Before the connexion of the two forms Figs. 1 and 3 had oc- curred to me, which was not until I had observed a crystal of the form Fig. 2, I commenced an analysis of a portion of the crystals of the rhombic form, Fig. 8, under the idea that they might present, some modification of the usual constitution of this mineral ; and although they proved to be merely a barytic harmotome, yet the analysis seems to throw some little addi- tional light on the connexion between the barytic and lime va- rieties of the mineral. The ‘steps of the analysis were as follows. (a.) 7.87 grains of the crystals in coarse powder lost, by i ig- nition, 1.1 grain, equivalent to a loss of 14.925 per cent. (6.). 16.07 grains of the crystals which had been previously treated with acidulated water, to remove all adhering calcareous spar, were reduced to impalpable powder, and then left for three or four days in contact with muriatic acid, a moderate heat being occasionally applied. ‘The mass did not gelatinize; but, as will afterwards appear, the action was quite sufficient for the purpose , of anal ysis The whole was evaporated to dryness. A little riutiatic acid was then poured over it, and left for some hours, hen water was added, and heat ‘applied. The silica was ‘then se] roaget by filtration. After | ignition, it weighed ee gr: 5. I ved ‘in boiling ‘Caustic pot potash ley, exce AT, which was gusbed Wy ai i tse a Ct ela a other necessary ‘steps, inte 4 silica, and .01 of oxide of iron. The total silica thus amounts to '7.48 grains. On thie Chemical Composition of Harmotome: 35 pte ‘The liquid from which the silica had been separated 1 was itated by ammonia. ‘The precipitate, after collect- aa cise eal duly washed, * was dried and ‘euied Tt then pend grains. It was dissolved in muriatic acid, and left a residue of .03 of silica. “The muriatic solution was then boiled with caustic potash. “What remained undissolved by the Potash was collected and washed, and then treated with muriatic acid. A residue of .02 of silica was left by the acid. The muriatic solution was boiled with nitric acid, neutralized by ammonia, and precipitated by benzoate of ammonia. The benzoate of iron was burned with a little nitric acid, and the peroxide of ‘iron thus got weighed .03. The residual fluid boiled with car, _ bonate of potash gave an insignificant white precipitate, too small to weigh or examine. There thus remained of alumina, dissolved by the caustic potash, 2.45 grains. _(d) The liquid which had been precipitated by ammonia, together with the washings of the precipitate concentrated by evaporation, was heated, and carbonate of ammonia added to it whilst hot. The precipitate which fell, weighed, after being washed and ignited, 4.36 grains. It was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, and left 01 of silica. ‘The solution by evapora. tion afforded tabular crystals of muriate of baryta. (¢.) The crystals of muriate of baryta were washed with Pit cohol. The alcohol was separated, mixed with water, and eva- porated to dryness, when a little deliquescent matter was Jeft. This was re-dissolved in water, and the solution precipitated by oxalate of ammonia. The precipitate by calcination afforded .08 of carbonate of lime, equivalent to .0168 of lime. By sub- tracting from the amount of the precipitate by carbonate of am- monia, the substances afterwards separated from it, we get 4.32 of carbonate of baryta, equivalent to 8,8517 of baryta, a The liquid which had been precipitated bonate of ammonia, in (d) was evaporated to dryness, and th fain plete The residue, after ignition, Dissolved in it left 02 of silica, giving . 48, athe Uedinta residue. "The by evaporation gave , cu i¢al crystals, Reco tt ai was allies mnie by muriate wie .eorlie io f ata Bb. of simuorua ¢ 36 On, the. Chemical Composition of Earmotome. of platinum, which was added in some excess. The whole was then evaporated to dryness at a gentle heat; the dry mass di- gested with alcohol; the alcoholic solution mixed with. water and sulphate of ammonia, and evaporated to dryness. The residue was then ignited, and treated with hot water. The solution by evaporation gave efflorescent crystals of sulphate of soda. (g.), As in this analysis the relative quantities of potash and soda were not determined, a new analysis was undertaken for that purpose. 13.55 grains of harmotome crystals of the same form were decomposed by muriatic acid, as before, and after evaporating to dryness and re-dissolving, the whole earthy con- tents.of the mineral were thrown down. at once by carbonate of ammonia. The residual chlorides obtained, as in the preceding process, weighed .38.. Their solution was. precipitated by mu- riate of platinum, and, the liquid left to spontaneous evapora- tion. . Well characterised prismatic crystals of the double chlo- ride of platinum and sodium were formed. These were taken up by digestion in alcohol. The residual chloride of platinum, and potassium, aftér being well washed with alcohol, and carefully dried, weighed .58, equivalent to .17726 of jchloride of potassi- um... By subtraction we get .20274 for the chloride of sodium, On distributing, in the same proportions, the .48 of soluble resi- due of the first analysis, we get .2239 of chloride of potassium, and .2561 of chloride of sodium, equivalent to:.14163 of potash, and .13647 of soda... I. prefer taking the ,total,soluble, residue of the first analysis to that of the, second, because the crystals analyzed were better formed, and. of greater purity. , . We.thus have in,.16.07 grains,of the nition souslugibes of water jrieieoond siti Pay ‘és Fiscticys © sien) GO ABITV rrectareahiboeantibiorr-needicaeretrenes Tas at ue ,, Alumina, EN aa eR i S20 gs 2.45 Baryta, 5 pendant hey Mah velninfebe gl han 3.3517 WTB) HEY ¢ JO. 294 BOR) |: LK) ORS Bilt 000 6. ie) dt ones SE Potash, (GIs dia KO IAG. - paige bhatiey his ap eivod UDyaxd Bo5..10 Aaa dyed rotg Barbs sitG. 9900 S404 ed dastoc Say tae: Fe Onits m1 A ; ff i ( eees ih earth died ma SAY Devas hat PSoTe 7 -1364 BRS ; Pero ne e of a ei ip RY ta im em nofeulls 1 mes 1y° AIG Hats’ eo4 tat. % Siri ISS 1 HS etseda Dg 2gtttnd THUD it lr vite M956 1S¥9n avant fT { arnt Se ye ae =. aay Fe h . —— of ° yj $7. : -- “And; im 100 parts; amroecnr bsbbs: ese forty oouantesla Te" ern mntnetenemrnesenre AOL: Loareuogeimlar baxter wionuioe slodotikand.aionoe's dima OC ABATY ty ana estscteldeteseetileresdstechitbdanc saben eoteesedateehe! 20.850” ‘oe ponte sHtee seeeneeewacmenmenes ce tens — dorsapess i-deemeesi-@iccros AQ) ew tus Pet TS STEN SrA IEA SEANAD oo (88, OO be cil seh a ns a Wn a ot re CEB IU RAR HAIR RWI. 101 1a BDO 21064 ~Seti 40 ei2'+ymo ssdwomisii- to enter Set receme Iii iSo'e ees. 1oisd mr oi) ayurtierd tesco 10011, 4 After Thad Geibttnietirtshinnioiee alkalies in the ‘crystals of the new form, I submitted to chemical examination by a 'si- milar process a portion of the barytic harmotome of Strontian of the ordinary form, and obtained cubical crystals, the solution of which, when mixed with muriate of platinum, and evaporated at a gentle heat, afforded on re-solution a small quantity of minute yellow scales; and by subsequent spontaneous evaporation, crys- tals of the chloride of sodium and platinum were formed. ‘IT then examined some small twin crystals of barytic harmotome from An- dreasberg, in the Hartz, which was, I believe, the locality of the specimen analyzed by Klaproth, and obtained a like result. It seems, therefore, extremely probable, that it will be found universally, ‘that eeayee nee ACNE = rage monary potash and ‘toda *: Heit , Cy Thy as - The existence of potash and a harmotome of strontian, ‘appears to afford an additional link of connexion between the two varieties into which harmotome has been di- vided by foreign chemists, baryta in the one being supposed to be replaced by lime and potash in the other. The constitutions of the two varieties have not yet, however, been accurately re-~ conciled to one another. The Berzelian formula of KS? 2 C S*+10 A $*415 Aq correctly represents the composition of the | lime harmotome, according to the analyses of Gmelin and afi ng vc Stee} potash has before been observed in a proper barytic I had detected the two alkalies in the strontian harmo. tome, I observed in Berzelius” Jahres Bericht, 6th year, p. 224, an allusion to some unfinished researches of L. Gmelin, showing the presence of soda ina barytic harmotome, but I have never seen any further account of these re- searches. Werrekinck. “But when we substitute baryta for lime and pot-: ash, ‘the formula will not exactly apply tovany of the analyses: of barytie harmotome with which I am acquainted, although: it does not deviate very much from. some ‘of: them. ‘We cans not, ‘however, I ‘think, draw any argument against the appli- cation of the doctrine of replacement to these two varieties, from this want of perfect conformity ; because the different analyses of batytic harmotome, scarcely vary more from the formula than they do from one another, and we might as well argue that the different specimens of barytic harmotome which were the» subjects of these analyses, were not the same mineral, as deny the occurrence of replacement between the two varieties, on the mere ground, of this disconformity. On the other hand, the almost perfect identity between the forms of the two varieties, the approxima- tion between their atomic constitution on substituting one set of oxides for another, and the occurrence of small quantities of potash and lime in the barytic harmotome of Strontian, and of a little baryta in the lime and potash harmotome of Annaréde*, appear all to reader it extremely probable that the two will ul- timately be ‘found to admit of the application of the principles, of isomorphism, or at. least of plesiomorphism... We may hope that future and more extended, analyses will yet establish the perfect conformity of the constitution of barytic harmotome with that of the other variety, on making the requisite substitution. If-this-shall be the case, we can hardly doubt that the mineral, which has been in this country called Phillipsite, ought also to, be considered as a lime harmotome. The general form of its crystals, as deseribed by Mr. Levi+, is the same as that of ba- rytic harmotome; and the measurements of its angles. do. not; present greater discrepancies than between the carbonates of, lime, iron, manganese, and magnesia, substances. which, if the. etrine of replacement has any foundation at all, must be view- as composed of plesiomorphous. bodies. Neither would it em that the variations of its cleavage can present any serious bstacle; for cleavage appears chiefly of importance as being in- icative of crystalline form; and as long as the cleavage of two | sbersane | De eii bad iat CTU EAA “Sls * See: Wernekinck’s analysis, afterwards given. nf ns ede Analg of Philosophy, November-1825.--°— sets asened . On the Chemical Composition of Harmotome: 59. minerals affords forms which are identical with some of the crys) talline forms which are common to. both. minerals,—and. this, is. the case in regard to philipsite and, harmotome,—we can hardly maintain’ the-diversity of the two substances, merely because these cleavage-forms may not be identical with one another, if other’ circumstances tend to establish the connexion of the two ‘I shall here, with the view of enabling every one to draw his own conclusion as to the probability of the ultimate reconci- _ liation of the constitution of the two varieties, subjoin, Tables . containing all the analyses of the mineral with which Iam acquainted, and shall annex the composition of both varieties caleulated by the: atomic weights of Berzelius, according to the chemical formule corresponding with KS? + 2. CS? + 10 AS? +15 Aq for the lime variety, and 3 BS? + 10 AS* + 15 Aq for the barytic variety. It will be observed that the Strontian mineral approaches nearer the theoretical composition than any of the other barytic varieties, in so far as respects baryta and the other replacing constituents, which is perhaps a step not alto- gether without importance, towards a more perfect accommoda- tion of the two varieties, although, as respects silica and alumina, ‘of the other analyses come nearer the formula. i u atin ad LIME HARMOTOME. e | Le Gmeling (| Le Gmelin, | Wermekinck, | | Formule, | Sitiea, 48.51| ' 48.02 48.36 | | 49.381 Alumina, . . 21.76 22.61| | 20.20 21.125 )Lime, . .. | 6.26 ) 656 5.91 7.025 | Potash, ... . | 633 7.50 6.41 5.820 Baryta, . hue q 46 ’ ; Total A wo Atal 12.59 | 14.06 12.78')' “ relge8” Earths, .— +4ib pion aa | Peroxide ofIron,| 99, 18 Abhi) sacl irrop Water, ; . ag AS 16.76 17.09 7 est REL Leet i wire “vn fol TRE Total, . ~ |) 100.38 100.62 | 98.64. 99.995 Locality, Marburg. | Marburg. | Annaride tebe / « - oo} near Giessen. 40 On the Chemical Composition of Harmotome. » BARYTIC HARMOTOME. ; 4 aah ee AY NO Pact DU hs) \ % CSS y copay A Sete He, wea > Areryenes Sh SA ONS taptdth Passaeet.] Wemneline. > Connelt ee ape ht mam pavers | a etihes 2 CURE eneer (ea erence Seer -—— SiLiEae Seseeprand9ofrsodFe [dy (vh479 are 42.764 Alumina, . . 16 19,5} os Ma), 15.24 | 18,294 Baryta,. . . 18 16 17. 59 0.85 24.527 Lime; joe! |). IV 12 dia , 1.08 { 10 / a} dition Potashy +9. ‘oo! J ro O&¢t WP bodeildua, leertuo Soda, \ 3 , ‘ , Lip ste t Oj2! i : 6 Total Atkaline | } | Eatthy and 18}! | 16. el67 ..1 ¥ 22.67 24.527 , Alkalies, ' £ Islan doll sit aa vt Peroxide of Iron, ty +85 024 or es Water, « aes 15] 135) | 15.32 14.92 | 14.415 ABET) 4 i ! ) ; fit } 2G JTotal csi} 0 98) 4.) 96.5 98.91} 10011}. 99.998 Localities, . | Hartz.| Ober- | Sheffenberg, | Strontian. | D920 D9! : | stein. near «Giessen. 4 At Ofd } t ii gy nig’ may take this opportunity of mentioning, that after I © had detected ‘alkalies’ in barytic harmotome, it occurred to me to ex- amine Brewsterite again for alkalies by the same process, which was applied to the former mineral ; my previous researches for alkalies in Brewsterite having been made by décomposing it by carbonate of baryta, and throwing down the baryta ‘by carbon- ate of ammonia, a method which renders necessary the ultimate | expulsion’ by heat ofa very large quantity of ‘ammoniaeal salt, which is apt to carry alotig with it’ small quantities! 6f fixed’ chlo- rides, I accordingly ‘treated a small quantity of powdered Brew- sterite with muriatic acid, leaving them i in contact for some days, and oceasionally applying heat. By the ‘process already detail- ed, I ultimately obtained a minute quantity of cubical erystals ; and,:on examining those ‘by muriate»of platinum, they seemed to be entirely chloride of sodiuin, ‘at’ least’ operating with the: small. quantity. of materials. which Tn used, I could not detect. suche, minute quantity, of, soda, i is, of course in, addition, tovstrontia, baryta; and the other constituents which I formerly, mentioned ‘in’ Brewsterite. “ When my time permits, I intend to execute another ané halysis| of the’ mineral, to aan i the eet ou proportion -of alkali # contains. — a ,.a AGATE Ry So IVIIGR Aaoengaid oi oe nf ‘ iMOGOPOMAZ Remarks Saravine of Baron Cuvier's Lectures on the Hi. - of the Natural, Sciences, in reference to the Scientific Know- --ledge- of the-Egyptians ;- of the source from whence Moses i | “derived his*Cosmogoniy, ‘and the generat) lagen atl | Cosmogony with Modern Geology*. | n some of the Numbers of the Edinburgh New Philosophical ournal published in 1830, are given Reports of Lectures on e History of the Natural Sciences by Baron Cuvier 5 and i 842, No. XVI., we find in them the following statement ) pecting the Hebrew legislator :— _« His ‘books shew us,” that | had very perfect ideas respecting several of the highest ques ms of Agi a philosophy. His cosmogony especially, | ed'in a purely scientific view, is extremely remarkable, ‘inas- ich as the order which it assigns to the different epochs of | tion, is precisely the same as that which has been deduced from geological sal considerations.” “This, then, ‘is the issue, in the opinion of Baron Cuvier, of that science, which. has been, held by, mek Persons, to teach ‘conclusions at variance ie the bed de cisely what i a iB sar three iene years ago, “But at the same time that, the Baron makes this statement, it is implied’ by him, in the accompanying sentences, that the. He. brew legislator had, acquired his, knowledge of the gosmogony from the Egyptians ; for he says, ‘ ‘The leaders of the colonies which; issued from Egypt possessed, i in general, but a small part of the knowledge of which the privileged caste (the priests), was the depositary, They carried with them only the . Practic, cal results... ‘The case was different with the Hebrew legislator, p ‘tlle opinion, can be heretical, but that which is not true. Truths ¢an, mavens Tat peninns cosh Mei, I affirm, therefore, that we, have, nothing tp fear from the results of ur so i provided they be followed in the labo- stoliy tt Lala WA of RadSann induction. In this way, we may rest assured, we shall never arrive at conclusions opposed to any truth, ‘either physical or moral, from pf pau pi derived; nay, rather that new ponr® He eg lend support. and/illustration to things which are al- own, by us a t into the universal harmonies of We ”"— Professor Seige Adve Geological’ Sooiety, February 19. 1830. 42 Estimate of the Scientific Knowledge He had. been brought up by the Egyptian priests, and knew not only their:arts, but also their philosophical doctrines.” 1) - In attempting to discuss: the: merits of the opinion heream- plied, we would speak in terms of high respect of the illustrious. individual who has promulgated it; for such respect is due to one who, without question, has, in the field of natural. science, erected,.a, nobler monument to his own fame than any other who has appeared since the days of Newton. ‘The premises from which it is inferred that the Egyptian priests may have possessed such a knowledge of geology as would furnish a foundation for the cosmogony of Moses, are by much too meagre to warrant such a conclusion. The chief of them is indeed found in what Herodotus states regarding the - land of the Delta, by depositions from the waters of the Nile. It is said in page 340, “ The Egyptians had very correct ideas on several points in geology; they had well observed the laws of alluvial deposition, and at the present day we account for the formation of the Delta inno other manner than that in bigs it was accounted for in the days of Herodotus.” In turning to Herodotus, respecting whom many modern dis- coveries have proved that he was a faithful chronicler of what he saw, although often absurdly credulous of the reports of others, we find no proof in his relation, that the Egyptians had well observed the daws of alluvial deposition. With respect to the priests, he states, in the passage referred to by the Baron, only that they informed him of two facts; one, that the greater . part of a country, of which he describes the limits, was an addi- tion of land to the Egyptians by the depositions of the Nile; the other, that in the reign of Myris, about nine hundred years before the time of the historian, the land was so low, that if the river rose to the height of eight cubits, it was sufficiently wa- tered; whereas at the time he visited Egypt, unless the river rose fifteen or sixteen cubits the land was not sufficiently wa- tered. This is not science, but history. No reasoning of the priests is added with regard to these simple facts; and the evi- dence appears conclusive, that he had heard no ‘reasoning ‘of theirs, in this circumstance, that he himself proceeds ‘to reason regarding them with considerable ingenuity, and to prove their high probability from a variety of considerations, and could ps of the Ancient Egyptians. 43 scarcely have omitted the arguments of the priests had he heard any from them.) As far as regards the’ science contained in this passage ‘of Herodotus, it is perhaps as. truly philosophical | as any other to’ be found in’ his writings; but the philosophy is exclusively that of the Greek himself. The facts, which rested onthe authority of the’ priests, were of a character that it re- _quired no science or cultivated understanding to ascertain; no more, indeed, than it requires in the present inhabitants of Snr Hee IRR EL aL Aentiont ganeeens (ethla eecctns berehbladens pied) that ese idiiaeaieler ininerals were tolerably well examined. The country offered every facility for this; the mountains which form the sides of the walley of the Nile exhibited, and in all their native lustre, various species of rocks ; in the lower part limestone, farther up sandstone, and towards Syene, porphyry and granite. Egypt was in some measure a great mineralogical cabinet. The neces sity of passing along the small valleys which run towards the Red Sea, led to the discovery of other minerals, which do not oceur in so great masses. It was in one of them that the mine of emeralds was diseovered, which supplied all those known in pi ' ‘The discovery and working of the emerald mines, the only fact stated here, from which any thing can be inferred affecting the present subject, does not necessarily imply that the proper- _ ties of minerals were tolerably well exaniined. Very barbarous nations, among whom not a trace of legitimate science has been discovered, have yet the propensity and the skill to dig out and ornament their persons with the natural gems; and it no more knowledge of mineralogy, much less of geology, in the ancient Egyptians, to dig mines for the emeralds, than it does in the inhabitants of Pegu to search for the rubies of their coum- try, or in those of Siam for the sapphire. It may be allowed, yet within certain limits, that the properties of ‘minerils were in some degree examined. It appears to have been known to them that their granites and syenites were more durable than their sandstones and limestones, as they have often carried the former from great distances to, execute their more important ar- chiteetural works, when. they had. the others nearer at “hand ; 44 Estimate of the Scientific Knowledge but this implies»no more than the knowledge possessed by every working mason, and from any thing) communicated: with | cer. tainty” ey hea we are not calledon to ascribe to thetfi 0 il iMeOGanD, 4 fof lt;. BI EBG Egypt was no doubt, even in: the most ancient’ times,’ as it is now, a great mineralogical cabinet, just as the Paris: basin’ was. The minerals were placed there by the hand ofvthe Author of Nature ;° but we have no more reason to believe that the ancient Egyptians could demonstrate and explain the order of the mine rals'in their country, than the Parisi, in the time of Julius»Ca& sar, could illustrate the Retnotieaeial and erento of Mont- martre. But, in the lecture’ on the science: of Egypt, the most unsa- tisfactory argument is that which relates to! anatomy. In«page 335, after stating that there were constant opportunities afford- ed of observing the external forms and habits of animals,.as many were brought up in the temples of the gods, either as ‘de- dicated to them, or receiving divine honours) themselves, itsis added, “* there were even occasions of observing their internal structure, as it was customary to embalm them after death” and, “ in Egypt the same horror towards dead bodies was not entertained as in India; not only were the bodies of sacred) ani- mals embalmed, but those) of men also.\.Now, this practice could not fail to give those who were charged with ita know- ledge of the form and position of the organs. It was undoubt- edly in Egypt that anatomy originated; it was to that country that the Greeks resorted to study it; and thither Galen madea journey expressly for the purpose of seeing the diab bronze of a human skeleton.” Now, with regard to this matter, when we reflect on the far. pose for which the dead ‘bodies were embalmed in Egypt, and what the motives;must have been which led to the practice, we muist:immediately conclude, that; instead of affording facilities for acquiring a knowledge of anatomy, nothing could have pre- sented ‘a greater impediment to it. "The purpose of embalming - was:to preserve the bodies as: muchas possible in the forms which ‘belonged. to them when alive; which was: altogether \in- compatible with that dissectionsof ‘the parts which unfolds their structure to the anatomist ; the motive to the practice could be a po nef the:Ancient Egyptians: AS no. other than-the.desire to honour the remains of their deceased kindvedy- which»has:been common«to all-the nations of the earth, and the effects: of} which, | whether shewing themselves \in) em- balming them, in depositing them in splendid catacombs or mausolia, or in:simply)interring) them, in: grounds.appropriated to that. purpose, must: be held-as: the natural and. becoming ex- pression of. those family affections, which, form tthe basis: of ,all human society: If; in the operation of embalming, the .viseeva were extracted, this: was not for the purpose of investigating, the structure of! these:organs, but for. subjecting these more perish- able} parts: to, ani additional. preparation: for, preservation.. In fact, there is no evidence whatever that anatomy was a science atvall understood by the ancient Egyptians; and, with regard toxcomparative anatomy, the branch which has in later times illustrated geology, we have the statement of the Baron himself that Democritus of Abdera was the first who practised it. Even with regard to the science of medicine, which in all countries we find, in some shape or other, preceding anatomy, we have the testimony of Herodotus that it must have been at a low ebb in Egypt, when he tells us, that each of those who practised it ap- plied himself exclusively to cure one disease, or the diseases of one organ. If Galen went to Egypt to see the representation of a skeleton in bronze, we must remember that this oecurred long after the Alexandrian school of anatomy, under the pa. tronage of a Macedonian race of kings had been enabled to throw some light, but still only a glimmering and very partial one, on that science, which it has been reserved for Cuvier him. ree ne enn nnennennne titel: leeddlit day. rr Wi sergd -) When we reflect. how. ddenolanigsctlis idideciaidelitns in the fwenend ogi of the relative position of many of the strata of the earth, has depended on that beautiful comparative anatomy | which, under the hands of Baron Cuvier, has become one of the best founded and most splendid monuments. of the inductive philosophy, equally remarkable for the happy: elucidation of both physical and final causes; we must iat the same time ac- knowledge how impossible it was that Moses could derive his knowledge of the order of the epochs of creation from versa Bhi) 200010 9 AE ob vitedt!+de\\; Bprotsns o 46 ' Was all Record of the Science of destitute of the incipient germs of! the science, the full perfeetion of which alone:could direct unaided reason to that knowledge) | - In discussing the present question, we need ‘scarcely refér, ‘as the Baron has done, to some arts which the’ Egyptians possessed in a considerably advanced ‘state, as the arts of making enatnels and porcelains, of applying some excellent and durable colours inpainting, and the art of representing the forms of animals, and man himself, in both their paintings and sculptures. The possession of these arts is not necessarily connected with any great progress in science, as is evident by’ the existence of some one or other of them, in much greater perfection, among several other nations, who yet can scarcely be said to cultivate what i3 properly termed science, as the Chinese and modern Hindoos:* In page 341, after a detail of the branches of natural stienté and art, in which the Egyptians are supposed to have madé pro- gress, but the evidence for which we find thus unsatisfactory, it is added: “ It cannot be imagined that a nation which devoted itself with so much perseverance and success to the observation of nature, should have confined itself to the mere ¢ollecting of facts, without attempting to connect them by theories) atid’ to ascend to principles. It must, therefore, be supposed that there was, at a certain epoch, in the colleges of the priests, the know- ledge, not only of philosophical and religious doctrines, but also of ‘particular scientific theories. |'These theories doubtless have been lost in consequence of the oppression to which the sacer- dotal caste was subjected at’ the time ue rage Peli 5 er of Cam- byses.” bie) opie These conjectures, without proof, ana in the avowed admis- sion that all proof of them is wanting, are those which imine- diately precede the intimation that Moses had derived his know- ledge of the cosmogony from the Egyptian priests. Here, then, is ‘a singular series of mere suppositions.» We tritiet, Pet, ‘dein hes pose that all record and knowledge'of the philosophical’ science of \the priests was completely destroyed’ by the ‘persecution’ of Cambyses, for no trace of it remains in any profane eine condly, ‘That the’ priests: did eertaitily possess a ' sophical science of geology, in pérfection at: ju now attained by the joint’ Iabouts® and tern ert Buropean geologists; thirdly; "That "Moses tratiseribed’ the re- the Priests.destroyed. by \Cambyses ? ‘47 sults of this exact science into the Ist-chapter of Genesis. And, fourthly, That, as we shall afterwards see, while he transcribed she aha seaetsihn earetally Hattekjouti abiteacast ofthe successive steps by;which they were attained. _ But the evidence regarding the persecution of Gisiayies, and its effects, does not warrant the conclusion that the science of the priests was. destroyed by it. ‘The most authentic evidence is to be found in Herodotus; and the account which he gives of it bears on its face so much of verisimilitude, that those of the after historians, where they differ from his, are extremely sus- picious ; especially when we consider that, by a reference to the ited and accompanying: and following circumstances, re- lated by both him and them, it becomes obvious that his nar- ration formed their chief authority. Herodotus, who visited Egypt only from sixty to eighty years after the time of Cam- byses, and who takes care to inform us, that, with regard to the Egyptian history, after the time Psammatichus, he had the tes- timony not only of the Egyptians, but also of the Carian and Ionian colonies in that country, tells us that the persecution be- gan only after the return of Cambyses from his disastrous ex- pedition against the Macrobians. Nothing can be more natural than the account which he gives of its cause. Cambyses, at his return, found a universal rejoicing among the Egyptians, on account of the discovery of their god Apis by the priests. Suspicious that the rejoicing of the recently subdued nation arose. out of the calamities of his own army, he inquired into the cause of it, and, being told what that was, ordered the newly found god, led by a priest, to be brought before him. The de- rision of the Persian fire-worshipper being excited by the ap- pearance of a god in the shape of a calf, he wounded the ani- mal with his own hand, but took so little interest in its further fate, that he never knew whether it died of the wound or not; but the rejoicing of the Egyptians, in the moment'of his owm calamity, excited not, his derision, but his wrath. . «He order- ed,” says the historian, “* the priest to be whipped: by his offi- cers, and all those who were making public. rejoicings,,.to be slain, wherever, they. were, found,” .*.‘Thus,” adds. he, * the priest, was punished.” Herodotus afterwards tells us, that Cam. byses entered the temple of Vulcan, and mocked at the image 48 Was all Record of the Science of of the god.;,,and,that he also entered the temple of the Cabirian gods, aud having in like manner mocked, at.the images, ordered them.to.be burnt,, This.is the sum of the, detail given by the historian, nearest the time of that oppression to which the:sa- cerdotal.caste was subjected by, Cambyses,, Had it been of that Aerrible and. exterminating character that would have involved sthe,loss,of their science, we should certainly have had from. that dnntatat a more full account of ,it;, for he expresses»great:dis+ robation of the Persian king, for deriding religious institu- ne and has given a very detailed and, graphic. account, of «the king's madness, and of his murders of .many of his own. Per- sians and relations. ; The time that Cambyses remained in Egypt, after the i inci- dent of the god Apis, was too short to admit,of any)extensive extermination of the priests, and. their sciences for bis:whole reign was only seven years and five months, most of which must have been consumed in the negociations and preparations that preceded his Egyptian war, and the campaigns, he made,, ins cluding the delay occasioned by his embassy to the Macrobians. Accordingly, Herodotus. himself finds the priests still in full possession of their sacerdotal authority, and all branches of the Egyptian superstition flourishing in full yigour. _ He describes many of their temples as seen by himself, still standing, and the scene of the same degrading rites to which they were originally _ destined; and the priests.could yet shew him the spacious building which contained the images of all the high priests, from. father to son, and could repeat their genealogies. Besides this, the priests were yet in possession of an accurate outline account’ of some part of the Egyptian history preceding the time’ of Cambyses, as is evident from the good agreement, in point of time at least, between the narrative which, Herodotus received: from, them ,regarding Sennacherib and. Necho.and Apries, ante the statements regarding these kings in the Jewish history *. | om Tt is highly robable that we shall arrive ultimately at the ee tis Se mao. ities Tytania sir mace: ‘ of ews, to enticate the out... line of pe ata tu Eau is tices etn bane and si Faggot Trai raster ca Sova: cheias to Wace elon any more suspicion on the correctness of the general bearing of the early ees eS —: the Priests destroyed by Cambyses. “49 - It is altogether-incredible, that;-while their superstition and» history thus-survived the persecution of Cambyses, their scieriee should ‘have been utterly lost. ‘There can be no question that it too’survived, such as it was; and, regarding its true quality, the same inquisitive historian has’ leesaatieek is with very consi-. derable information. Thus, for instance, at his entering’ on the subject of Egypt, he puts us in possession of the true merits of their experimental philosophy, in the story of the two infants part, than on that of the latter part. ' Now, jn reckoning tackwards from Sellen of Egypt and Hezekiah of Judah, who were both ‘contemporary with Senna- cherib, we find cleven kings of Egypt inclusively to Sesostris, and twelve kings of Judah to Rehoboam, who was contemporary with Shishak, In estimat ; the merits of the position that Sesostris and Shishak (iy the nt | ) are the same, it is a matter of no small moment that the first syllables of the respective names are composed of letters of the same origin, especially as we find a similar circumstance taking place regarding the mane of sneer Egyptian king, mentioned both by Herodotus and the Jew- historians; the Sethon of Herodotus being evidently no other than So (or, independently of the Masoretie points, Sua), in 2d Kings, xvii, 4, which the septuagint ‘has changed ‘to Segor. There are several circumstances in which ‘there are singular agreements between the details regarding Sesostris and Shishak. Herodotus tells us, that when Sesostris met with a brave resistance on the part of any nation, he erected hc columns to commemorate their resolution, and when he was ‘opposed by any people in a cowardly manner, he erected columns with marks of infamy upon them.’ He tells us, also, that he himself saw some of these columns of the latter sort-in the Syrian Palestine, of which country we elsewhere learn from him the city Hadytis, or Jerusalem, was the capital; and on referring to the history of Shishak, we find that he was permitted to mete Pom errno dae Phe coriquests of Sesostris and Shishak agree also in respect of their tem- porary character. Neither of them is described as attempting to keep per it, iitem Sqeien Ae sebslaptanh eany Hensteable chynito sees ost unéxampled in the history of conquerors. } pedple named as forming the armies of Shishak agree well Le issaid"by Herodotus regarding the order of the conquests of find,among them the Cushim, by which natne, it is well steer pr Hahei people who dwelt in Arabia, near the Red Sea.) Now, Herod states, that Sesostris made his first expedition with 4 fleet on the Red Sea, subduing’ the nations Who’ divelt on its ee niet when. he turned his arms to’ the’ north, he would have, practice of, recriaita ee | ‘These’ remarks “ove pace from Egyptian priest the” aa or: FA a ‘eae rh eter rea Of tewey Senniacherib. fe) AS ae nee. Bi fo. Xkvi7e¥ 1899" D 50 Character of Larly Egyptian Science. who were ordered. by the King /Psammetichus. to be. brought up among the goats, without any one being perntitted. to speak to them, that it might be ascertained, by..the words, they should first utter, which nation was the most ancient. While they were thus inquisitive on this point, and took this hopeful method to settle it, they were utterly incurious) regarding the most wonderful natural phenomenon of their country, the over- flowing of the| Nile. , Regarding the causes of this, Herodotus tells us he could not get so much asa conjecture, either from the priests or any other Egyptian, although he expressed to them a very earnest desire to learn something about them. |He puts.us, in another place, in. possession of the accuracy of their conceptions regarding other natural. phenomena, by telling.us that the priests informed him, during the reign of! their mortal kings, the sun. had altered his course four’ times, had, ‘risen twice in the east and twice in the west; and, in full accordance with this singular specimen of their science, he. tells, us their astronomy was not their own, but that they had got it, and. the use of the gnomon, and the division of the day, from the Chal- deans, . It'is unnecessary to go on to quote from the same source their opinion that fire is a fierce animal, eating up every thing, and then dying when. it has no more. to eat; or thew sage conjectures, like those of the inhabitants of Laputa re- garding the health of the sun, that the other nations must some time or.other perish, as they depended on rain for, rendering their soil productive, while that of their own country was ren- dered fertile by their river. In the face of this positive testi- mony of the utter worthlessness and. ineptitude of their séience and theories, : furnished us by one so inquisitive, and who had the amplest means,of acquiring the| proper information on the spot, it would be quite unwarrantable to. conjecture that they had any: wine ae them at» al tance ‘to our modern geology... a ue o1 Bub haoleelelshay of tad iidiaiaa of Herodotnai i the time-of Cambyses, .we have some insight into the worthlessness of the Kgyptiam science;; through: 'Thales.and Pythagoras, who both wisited Egypt: before, the time of that invader... Before amaking: a few-observations on, what we dJearn; through them, we - must enter a protest against what is stated in No. 17. of the Character of Early Egyptian Science. 51 Edinburgh’ New’ Philosophical Journal, p. 48, that, “at the time whenmThales went to study in Egypt, the priests of that country had already forgotten, in a’great degree, the metaphy- sical doctrines which in former times were kept up in their col- leges:”! Where is the proof of this'to-be found ? ‘Had the per- secution of a former Cambyses obliterated. all trace’ of ‘these, _ and left to usa clear field to suppose they’ possessed ‘them ? Or is it to be found im. the assumption that Moses had ‘bor- rowed ‘his metaphysics’ from the Egyptian colleges?) Oris ‘not this, strictly, reasoning in a circle, and begging a question at each extremity of the diameter? We shall afterwards see, that the conjecture that Moses borrowed his metaphysics from the Depa tensan angrier tse rh“ aera. ete Thales and Pythagoras. Mt, 160 "We shall readily grant, for in dig io we pay no-tisbitet respect to the science of Egypt, that both these individuals learnt their peculiar dogmas in the colleges of the Egyptian priests. .“ Thales thought he had found in water a prineiple, that is to say, a thing pre-existent to every thing. According to him, water is the original matter from which the world is formed,” | His disciples were ungrateful scholars, for one found _ ‘the first principle in infinity, another in air, and a third in fire. P. 43.—Pythagoras was even more refined: ‘ He tried to dis- cover the’ principle of things’ in the power of numbers.” * He extended the language of arithmetic even to morals, and said justice was always divisible by two.” According to him, the universe was a harmonious whole, and on this account the number of the planets was equal to thatvof the notes of the gamut. In the centre of this harmony was the sun, the soul of the world, and the principle of motion: » The souls of men and of animals participated in the nature of ‘the celestial five, ‘and also those of the gods, who were themselves only animals of a superior order..—Pp. 44, 45. So, then, if Pythagoras «got these notions in’ thé Egyptian colleges, in which, according to the best accounts of \him, he remained twenty-five yearsy:we have a proof that their metaphysics was again recovered after the time ‘of ‘Thales; for there arisestoour astonished view a complete system, Ee te SE oo nt beinie af tadw tanieas taow® 19} - Chracter of arly Reyplidin Scie. comprehending Whe souls oF f men, and of gods; and of the world; but as it aifers greatly from that’ of Moses)‘ we shall not over rigorously insist that it was learnt in Keypt, but allow that‘it may have been the fruit of the ‘Samian’s own fertile invention!” The fact is, that in all this’ we find nothing that’ has relation or similitude to true science in any one department. It is ac- knowledged (p. 48), “that the experimental method was en- tirely’ unknown in these days.” ‘Equally ‘wanting ‘was every species of rational theory, which is in all cases the fruit only of experiment and observation. ‘The dogmas of Thales ‘and’ Py- thagoras, whether indigenous “of Greece or borrowed ' from Egypt, are only a small portion of that painful picture! of hut mian ignorance, weakness, and self-conceit, which the history of Grecian philosophy unfolds to us. | 'The’ wildest ‘hypotheses were assumed as the foundations of science, and ‘the progress of true knowledge impeded by it for ages. “Out of the’ abundant stores of his ‘own genius’ and science, Baron Cavier,’ as he has done: in these lectures, may furnish a veil to'cover’ the ragged- ness and squalor of ‘its professors, and ‘may ‘make “a’ subject amusing by his resources and eloquence, whose intrinsic merits can never render it interesting; but their ¢apricious and fantas- tical hallucinations were' long ‘since better judged of | by en the’ most redened vd our bimeryihieH EGOS HONS ED OF) ui A| W .99n9%oe ta: seo12e01d) oelito «“ These are false, or little, else but dreams, , Conjectures, fancies, built ‘on nothing firm veh "east what can they teach, aid not mislead, 70) Ye ‘Ignorant of themselves, of God much more, 6) 50) ou oi) orl) (¢And how the world,began™:? sav aoeong cwlanden ones mm 19¥-90 ats Jot bowhely HOB» SEB GoM nowt tie * There are only two pene in to the, insignificant, sand worthless che; racter of the science of the early Greeks, One is their seometry, which - Will always remain a very beautiful and intéresting monument 6 hal génius!'! That/geothetry tas! invented in Egypt) is a'eonjecture of Herodos tus, given\as entirely his own, | If the Greeks got itthere, it: must have been while jt was Feu pute bi its infancy ;, for whatever credit we attagh to, acco int), that. P Fyth rst searba on ‘the theorem which F ‘we ria “propositio n of ued ‘a8 referred ‘to y the Baron Cuvier, tiie ps evidence Mi iat L geometry was not mucl advanced till the bi lerenirian Si ier i (ia el sjrite vil lo ni al ve 6 emoygtrated 5 10 the raion, of ¢.con "y- Bid. Sheena qeeinate se Ledig & 3 oR «There is another. series of conjectures, founded on an obscure and unsupported hint of an Egyptian writer, and a ‘few not We defined coincidences of arts and institutions of. some ancient na- tions, and some acknowledged agreements in their languages, to which we shall now directour attention. odn,No. 16,,p..31, we are informed : “ It is in India, accord- ing to.all appearance, that we are, to, look for the origin of the sciences,,..It isin, that country, in fact, that the men who e from, the.deluge must have established themselves. The | loftiest mountains, of the globe, the chains of Himalaya, and Thibet, would afford them an asylum, and the bases of these mountains would, present, them with the first cultivable land. * * ‘The priority. of the Indians is farther shewn by a tradition to which no-attention seems,hitherto to have been paid. It is, in fact, 1 in the-extracts which. have been preserved of the works of Mane- tho,,that, in the reign of Amenophis, a king of the 16th dynasty, a colony. came from India. to settle in Ethiopia. Now Diodorus Siculus, and all those who have written on the religion of Egypt, deriye. that religion from Ethiopia, or Upper Nubia. _ ‘Thebes itself was but an island, a colony of Meroe, which was the sacer- dotal. city, of the Ethiopians... Thus, then, civilization came from India into Nubia, and, from Nubia into Egypt.” We are then informed, that among the Indians themselves we find no account of the progress of science, which is conjectured to be owing to the doctrinal point of the Brahmins, that history should not be written, although, in,,the case of Egypt,. the conjecture had been, that science had been utterly lost, while we found history in some measure preserved. Wether have a notice ‘of the In- dian monuments, which are acknowledged not to be very an- cient ; and of their most ancient books, the Vedas ‘and’ Oupa- vedas, both of the date of 1500 years before Christ, the former containing an exposition of the religious philosophy. of; the, In- dians, the latter various scientific treatises, on music, medicine; war, architecture, and the mechanical arts; and’ it is added, rd ila Shia Sanscrit—a language which ig bike cylinder, inscribed TH” OE shothier,” The other exception ts Aristotte’s atiiral Histor: y of Animals}"in® is ge not ‘a little ‘that pial sh a os Aiba OF hid owit tind, and not borrowed fromi Egypt or aiiy vihiey quarter. Bh Did Stiehice'wriginate we Indie? ndt HE piodeit SPORE Ma TANBUiRRe THY HHGSEOKEbA Lan! that ts KieWwe nicer sen cipetially remarkable for the cireunistanee, that! it’ ‘ene’ the rdts ‘of the Vatious’ lariguages of Europes of the Greek, Latin, Germidn;' Sclavonie;' so that°*to “find even the’ first ihstrument of 'sciehdé; ‘tamély latiguage;’ it would ‘Seer we must #0 to the Indians ’in'starch of it.” We'have, then, ‘an acknowledgment that the astronomy of ‘the Indians’ is ‘not’ very aticient, and that they had no knowledge of anatomy; s6that, in’ short,” it is said, “ all that the Indians could éommunitate to the Egyptians was their metaphysis) — nyeeleny? — theif constitution.” ws Bue’ we acinie che tatioaubeibn otieheve batichas into Kyse by. the Indian eolony, why must we exchide their other sciences, sifice they had music, medicine, war, and‘ others!” Is it lestwe should bé compelled to admit; along with these, their well:known absurd cosmogonies, atid so deprive ourselves of the right to-de- rive the cosmogeny of Moses ott’ of the ‘utter darkness of Egypt? But let us briefly investigate the merits of the tradition presetved by ‘Manetho, and” how far it apatite with ‘the ‘tite light of history. bs autiiowad aW The inquisitive Herodotus tells us, that he rinsed penetrated int) Egypt as far as Elephants; ‘and’ thére’ inquired particular- ‘ly into the state and history of the countries Higher wp; and gives, as some of the results of his‘inquiriés, ‘that the Ethiopians of “Meroe had no other gods ‘but Jupiter and Bacelits, whom they worshipped with great pomp. “Here, then, we find neither the mythology of India nor the fetishisit of Egypt} and in con- sistency with this, he tells’ us ‘in another ‘place, ‘that the eroco- dile, an object of adoration ‘to the lower Bey ptians, was so far ‘from ‘being held ‘gatted, ever no higher tip than Elephantis, that ithe inhabitants were in the'practice’ of eating him. Will these es “wee us to detive the féligion of Egypt from Meroe? “He ves tis another ‘piece of history, dhrowitig inuch’ light!on that Meroe, and which he ‘assigtis'tb'the tein’ of Psammetichus, abet he-says, the afftirs of Egypt, thtogh ‘iheans y rh Onidn “and C aes belonibe, ‘wert il "ere PAD GIL, ai Redo aLO beat ccakat Otebeba, a lange body of troops revolted ‘fon that king mini le roe, where they were well received, afd that through their = ‘ cine ¥ eee ea nee eg a EE a a ee Did Science, originate in India? 53 means the Ethiopians were somewhat. civilized, and learnt the manners of Egypt. Ought we to admit a vague tradition, com- mitted toywriting only at a much, later period, in opposition to this circumstantial eyidence of the progress of civilization from below upwards, instead of its coming in the contrary direction ? Or can we be:even entitled to set in, opposition to it the, opinion of Diodorus Siculus, who lived 400 mon after the time of He- rodotus? . . FEMME reach Fires ¢teroiom illbasithees graab al availa “on India will stand us in no, better stead. for supporting its reality, or even that of, the derivation of the Egyptian religion from Meroe... Granting that much of the low part of Egypt was a gift of the Nile, p- $31, and. that the land which is now the Delta was at an early period either a marsh or a lake, we must_ still, remember, that the simplest reference to the order of nature, in such cases, leads to the certain conclusion, that on the margins of these there must always have existed a stripe of rich land, however narrow, watered yearly by a fresh-water river, and admitting a continuous population down to the neighbourhood of Palestine. We have thus a road always open for the introduction of the arts from that side, and are not reduced. to the necessity of bringing them down through Meroe. Let us see the amount of probability that the architecture of Egypt, on which much stress is laid as»being similar to that of India avd Chaldea, was intro- duced through the lower or upper road. The Baron, himself allows that the monuments of India, of gigantic proportions, may be judged to be posterior to the age of Alexander and the Ptolemies, p, 332. This at once cuts off all derivation of the Egyptian forms from India, and we avereduced to Meroe itself ‘for their origin, if they came fromthe south. But, the first time that the architecture of Egypt is presented to our notice, which, is im the.time of, Moses, we find the buildings, of bricks evidently implying that. it bad its origin in the, clay lands of the Delta,or its, neighbourhoods 4) fo. shh Yo _ Ttisiallowed also, by the Baron, —p. 338, that most. of the edi- fices of Egypt, which, we, know, must, have been built; from be year 1000 to the year,550 before Christ. . But 500 years earlier — moins the inhabitants af Palestine aii an, ar- honk bovine Hew a719 yor 56s Did\Sciencesoriginatesin Jntlia? chitecture jof}stones, and cities described ias'walled:up tocheaven.. (Numb, xiv. 402 Dents i) 28).0\Invthe:time of Samgoncwe find | columnar. forms.among-the Philistines at Gaza: (Judges xviv 250 Aboye,all, just at the period of the. commencement of the Egyp- tian (buildings, we find, the: Tyrians:in. possession’ of veolumnat) forms, assimilated in their proportionsto those of | Hgypt, and skilful, enough, to.cast them in! the costly: material»of brass: Hiram, the, Tyrian, employed by Solomon: inthe: construction of shis temple, cast two noble, \columns: of, brass, having high- ‘ly ornamented capitals, in the style common! among the »na- tions, to whose, architecture the Baron refers. | (1) Kangs:viis 15.) +) We find Lucian also stating that the Phenician and Egyptian ~ architectures, resembled, each other ;: and: would: it' not: then be wrong in point, not only of probability, but even’ of strict argu- ment, after this clearly determined source for it, to: search for ‘the origin of the latter in Meroe. ..We shall find little difficulty ‘in,accounting for the appearance of the same forms in Chaldea; when we reflect that Nebuchadnezzar carried the inhabitantsrof Palestine to Babylon; little, too, for their being found at Perse+ polis. and. in India, when we further reflect, that the-Persians had.such constant rule in Palestine, from the beginning of their monarehy ; and that the Seleucid appear to have possessed for some time.the Indian, conquests, of Alexander. |,After all, the fact with regard to the,columnar forms may be, that, those,in different nations are not of one single origin, but were naturally derived in more nations than one, according, to ithe opinion of eminent. architects, from. the wooden avers of the! habitations which men first.constructed. ...., ii 1eboexolA .. The,division. into casts, which we find 3 savpuhesant Egypt, and again in India, ceases to! be,a proof of common origin, and indi- cates even the,contrary, when we ‘find that, these,¢asts do not {correspond with each. other in) the two countries. ; We find only -fourcasts, in India;, and;,according to, Herodotus, there were ysevenin Egypt, three only of which are known) in Indiad¢j-209 jo After, all) the, languages of nations are the monuments which “most certainly demonstrate either their diversity on community,of ‘origin. We xeadily,allows not that in the Sanscritjare to be found the roots, of. the. European languages, but, that ia great number -o10H ort to nrero arlt 10 yroodi s detldstes of botqmetis ase ee fg Pe Did \Sciencevoriginatesin India’ BY of roots ‘are eormuion tothe former and the latter: Had ‘a 'eolony? come feomIndia to Egypt;:!we Should find :reots'of all'the Eas ropeanvlanguages inthe Coptic’as Well’aszin’ the Sanscrit's" but none dre found:in:the former,» €xcepting such as’ are obviously derived from the Greek alone; and for the introduction of ‘which into Egypt, the long’ possessionof that‘country by the Macedou nians' sufficiently accounts. »'The proof, therefore, “ef ‘any colo: nization of Egypt from India not only fails, but: the results ‘of our inquiry, in most of Lag vet BOF to hand pray at no‘such colonization took place.2"! © -))) 96) Soiromtnmio yl ‘ “But failing the proof of the Sutin of 's science from India; to the western part of the Old Continent through the’ toad! of Egypt, another path is pointed out by which it may have conié toms from that country. We have already quoted the passage stating that the Sanscrit contains the roots of the European lan- guages, ‘and that it would seem we must go to India to find thé first mstrument: of science language. Wee find, in a somewhat similar ‘strain, at page $45, “ The Pelasgi were originally from India, of which the Sanscrit roots that occur abundantly in their language, do not permit us'to doubt.” But why should’ this be predicated of the Pelasgi alone’ here, when we find the Greek, Latin, German, and Sclavonic, having Sanscrit roots ?’ We'aré happily enabled, ‘on ‘sure’ grounds; to give a more ‘satisfactory account of the origin of the relation between the Sanscrit and European tongues, than by gmcxyenren eh the — ad we penser of Indians in Europe. » The * History of the European: Reingchguss 6) the late Dr Pi teat Murray, and the discovery of the Zend-avesta in the hands of the Parsees, have placed the whole question’ in a very simple and natural point of view. Dr Murray’s book is, taken asa whole, unfortunately imperfect, not having been’ completed ‘or arranged at the time of the author's death’ and the leartied editor’ having’ judiciously determined! to present it as ‘much as possible in the form in which it was left by so great a master ‘of languages as the'author; the more valuable parts of it consist of ‘only disjomted notes, and it has not therefore attracted! that no- tice which it deserves: “Another ‘cireumstance which has proved ‘unfavourable to a’ jast public estimate of ‘it isy that the author has attempted to establish a theory of the origin of the Euro- 58 ead sii idenvesnigionteindaiie': Me ads on pean. Janguages,,.which indeed. he ,has not been,,able,;to make good. But this,,can.be. easily, separated from, and. ;happily tends in, no, way to obscure, the flood of light which he has, been enabled to. throw, over their affinities,,,, Respecting this last, we need, not, go,into any lengthened detail, but.refer to, the, book itself. 'The roots, and. structures jof ; the western and_southern European, languages, the, Greek, Latin, Welch, Sclavonic, are traced upto, the "Teutonic, of which, an,old and authentic mo- nument remains ina translation, of ,the Scriptures, made,in, the fourth century, for the Meeso-Goths,. a..people inhabiting near the shores of the Black, Sea, and not, remote. from, the, Thracian Bosphorus. Roots, similar to those found in, the Teutonic, are pointed out in the few monuments. of the. Median and. Persian languages, which have been. preserved by the western historians, leaving no doubt, that the Teutonic and these languages were very closely related to each other., The Zend-avesta, an ancient Median or Persian work, contains a, profusion of the same roots. _, A few facts that we can glean out of ancient history, confirm the conclusions deduced from these monuments of ancient, lan- guages. Thus in the Anabasis, we find Xenophon’s interpreter, speaking to the Armenians in the language of the Persians ; and in Herodotus’ account of the army of Xerxes, we find him sta- ting that the Armenians and Phrygians wore the same armour, and that the former of these were a colony of the latter; and also that the Phrygians had_ formerly inhabited in the country of the Macedonians. .AJl this implies at least a common. origin, and common language of the Persians, Armenians, ae and some early inhabitants of Macedonia. We. do not need, then, to call a golony out, of India to A os the Sanscrit roots in Europe, We find them, at an early age, stretching along the eastern side of, the Tigris, pointing on one hand, towards Europe, through, Asia Minor, and by. the shores of the Black Sea, , and, on. the. other, ; towards India through Parthia, . ron? ti yfdise Sirf} to’ tor uliPselt oF «We, thus discoyer, in very remote times, two. great families of Janguages, very unlike both in, their structures and roots, namely, the family having the European, and. Sanscrit, roots, on, the one ~ hand, and that which includes the Semitic tongues, the ¢ Arabic, Hebrew, &c. on the other, marching with each o kk Was the Mosaic Cosnogony borrowed From the Egyptians ? 59 a litie whith" passes very ‘nearly through the ‘point’ assigned by Moses forthe séene of the ¢onfusion’of'languages, 9) 008 vp he Semitic languages, ‘so peculiar in ‘their structure ‘and roots, having been thus limited, from early times, to the western &dé of the Tigris, forms ‘an insurmountable objection’ to the donjectiire that language had its‘origin in India’ °° “Inno evidence, therefore, extrancous to his own writings i there arly proof whatever that Moses derived his natural ao from Egypt or India. “When we refer to his own wri discover there highly satisfactory internal evidences that ead Hot; and to some of these we shall now direct our attention. © "Phe first chapter of Genesis is written ina pure arial "This was the language spoken, and afterwards extensively writ- teri, by the people whom Moses conducted to Palestine from the land of Goshen. "Phat it differed greatly from the language of the Epyptians, we have full proof in the Coptic remains of the latter, ih the Egyptian proper names preserved in the Hebrew Writings, and also in the circumstance that Joseph, when’ pre- tending to be an Egyptian, conversed with his brethren by meins of ait interpreter. "Yet, iii the ‘chapter in’ question, ‘we ‘id tio ‘terms, ‘no appearance of its Being’ ‘translated’ from” atly éther tongue ; but, on’ the contrary, it bears every internal matk of iy purely original, for the style is condensed and idioma- tical in the very highest degrée. " Had “Moses derived ‘his scietiée ftom Egypt, either ‘by ral’ Gémmtinication, “or the study” 6f Egyptian writings, it is inconetivable that somie'of his terms, or the style of his composition, should hot, in ‘some point’ or belie, betray the plagiary or eopyists'” "1/80 ‘But the conjecture that ‘Moses borrowed ‘his cosmojony rom the Egyptitns, must’ rest, moreover, dha Supp GRASP whic "He sidehems FOL thie'difrerui ochs' been determined by a course of observation and indtiétion, ‘arid thé Corrett ‘aipplicitién of inany’ other highly perfected itiendes to Ae illustration of the subject, equal at least in their ddeilicy | ‘precision “to those by which our present’ ‘geo- rik knowledge Has Beth OBtaitied: * Nothitig Tess than: itis élih account fe te Ws precisély What the ‘triodérn geslogy teaches, if “WNOW his kiidWledlge if Be terely huitiain. iiviea toch 60 Was the Mosaic Cosmogony borrowed from the degyptians ? How. comes»it} pass, then; that: while he has. given,us the.perfect; and satisfactory, results, he has(been enabled,so, totally to exclude, from /his; record. every, trace.of the steps by, which, they werejob-, tained ?,,.The,supposition of such \perfection of geological, knows ledge in ancient Egypt, implies.a slong )series:of observation) by; many individuals having the same} object. in, view. »,It,implies of necessity;; also, .thesinvention,.and ,use-of..many. defined terms of science, without which there could have been nomutual under-, standing,,among, the. different observers, .and,of course no “pros gtéss an-theirjpursuit.. ‘Lhese terms-have all totally. disappeared: inthe) hands of Moses.,, He has,translated, with precision,'the: whole! science, of .geology into ‘the language of, shepherds and husbandmen, leaving no trace whatever of any one of its,pecu-! liar terms any move than.of the curious steps in, its progress.” ‘9, But. there.is,a phenomenon in-his,record still more wnaccount+ able \upon),any supposition that, his, science: is, merely, human: His geology, acknowledged by the highest authority in this,age of scientific improvement to .be thus accurate, dwindles:\down in his hhands to be a merely incidental. appendage to an. enunciation of, the most rational and, sublime theology, ‘This latter he did. not learn in Egypt, for it was in possession of his,ancestors while they were yet inhabitants: of \Canaan;,,and) we ‘find, Ketishism established in. Egypt :inchis agé,.and even asoearlyias the time of, Joseph. Joseph’s,steward addresses his:brethren as if their God were different; fromthe gods of Egypt.(Gen.:xliii.: 23.)5 ahd we-find, him afterwards stating (Gen. ilvi.:$4y),.thatvevery: shepherd 1s |an' abomination, to ‘the! Egyptians.)-o Herodotus has! given ayes MIT 1 reat ky Bigue' : 205 side hh 1 OOPS Bystrheristata 62048000, 91)) 300 tus von oo ek aALon +tOR KY oo Gar Biber: i Ea Fiiaeye bag BZ rot SUIMIBIHISE Bor hs sans sbiceaitaal (hip Ot (11808 cOWinmtio uitPeté MAO hie om or iu yogis BRS: upd dat rot * Phoca vitulina, - 3 352 we + Moabdon Necehal, - : 363 Fundamental Types of Organization. _ 85 We have here a double series, an increasing and a decreasing. The first ranges from man to the Virginian Opossum ; the second continues from the Opossum to the Cetacea, The intermediate members of the first series are, first, the apes, then the makis (Lemur), then the plantigrade or digitigrade carnivora, and, lastly, the insectivorous. genera of Erinaceus, Talpa, and Ves- pertilio. In the second series, the links are filled up by the Ro- dentia, of which the hare forms the passage to the Ruminantia ; to which follows the Pachydermata, which pass through the Phoce into the Cetacea. Thus the relations of the spinal cord to the brain in these animals, entirely coincide with their other natural affinities, _Some writers, it is. true, have regarded their affinities differently, making. the bat succeed to the makis, and the phoca to the plantigrades. But, in the determination of these affinities, we must not be swayed by a few of the more obvious external marks, but by the whole internal as well as ex- ternal conformation. Upon such a basis these animals will as- _ sume the order that we have given them above. 'The only ana- logy of the bats with the makis is in the pectoral mamme; and the phocee are intimately unconnected with the cetacea through the genus Manatus. By this, however, I am far from asserting the mammalia can be ranged in an uninterrupted series, according to the propor- tions of the brain to the cord. Even in the above list, deviations are found from such an order. This is owing partly to the re- lative breadths of these two organs not being exactly indicative of their relative masses; and to the circumstance of the number of individuals in which the masses are determined with precision 5 being still too small to justify the formation of an exact series. i Only, if these defects were supplied, it might be expected that, Yi in order to preserve the scale of natural affinities, the vacuities \ of the ascending and descending series should be filled up. It | cannot be doubted, for example, that, in the sloths (bradypus), the brain, compared with the cord, is smaller than in the makis and the uppermost of the carnivora. They ate, however, im- i, mediately connected with the makis, and must be placed in the . series between the lemur and ursus. Ifthe proportional breadths of the organs were as*100 to 300, the descending’ series from man to the opossum would change into two others, one from man 86 On the Fundamental Types of Organization. to the sloth, the other from the. bear to the opossum. Farther inquiries, would likewise disclose other intermediate series. Such interruptions of the. principal series are, however, quite corres- pondent to the laws of natural affinity. They would only transgress these if interposed members gave rise to recurrent series in one of the two principal; if, for instance, an animal which, according to its natural affinities, succeeds to the sloth, should, from the proportion of its brain and spinal cord, stand above it. But I do not believe that such a genus can be found. As every genus and species, not only of the mammalia, but also of the other vertebrated animals, has a certain proportion _ between its brain and spinal cord, in the same manner each part of the brain, especially the cerebellum, bears a definite propor- tion to the other parts. Hence we might deduce further speci- fic and generic marks; and one day we may be able to distin- guish the whole of the vertebrata by the numerical masses and dimensions of the parts of the encephalon, and range them from this character according to their natural affinities. The relation, — it is true, varies in different individuals of each species, but there are limits which it never exceeds. | Analysis of the Labradorite Felspar found in the Trap-Rocks of Scotland. By Captain Le Hunts. Communicated by the Author. ~ . Silica, aN gt tat en Alumina, . 2 i A 27.889 Lime, t 4 \ F j 10.600 Soda, " ‘ ‘ ; ; 5.050 Potash, 5 “ “ : A 0.490 MBRIOMR 6 ye) eke yp ike 0.181 Protox. of Iron, . . : ‘ 0.309 at 99.193 The specimen analyzed was found near Campsie, in a por- phyritic greenstone. It was'in the form of long narrow crys- tals, nearly transparent and colourless, of a foliated structure, and vitreous lustre. Its specific gravity was 2,689. The larger crystals frequently present a flat conchoidal fracture, which first a a a hey Analysis of Labradorite Felspar. 87 “induced me to suspect that it was not felspar. Bicaiiehielgneal difficulty that I experienced in procuring the mineral in a pure state, the analysis was made upon a small scale ; but it was re- peated with nearly the same result. It appears, then, that this mineral is labradorite, with the best analysis of which the fore- going nearly agrees. The large crystals of labradorite that are imbedded in trap-rocks are very much cracked, and so impure that they cannot be employed for analysis. About two miles to the west of the village of Milngavie, near the road between Glasgow and Strathblane, there is a very re- markable brown porphyritic trap, that contains large and beau- tiful erystals of yellow labradorite. ‘These crystals are cracked, and when heated, present numerous brown spots, which show that they are not pure. The following is their composition :— ° gt thinirendbedeurmptebiise! 25. Alumina, ; . < : 29.968 Lime, é Z z ; ; 12.103 Soda, , Bi che Vir) Mates 3.974 tee ti Wilk ok o 0.301 Perox. of Iron, Pep le mved sg 0.866 99.553 All the analyses of labradorite that have hitherto been made differ a little from each other ; some agree with my first analysis, while one of Klaproth’s differs but little from the last. It is probable, that, owing to its structure, labradorite has seldom been examined in a pure state. The chemical characters of labradorite wublen: us to distin- guish it from felspar, even when the quantity for examination does not exceed a grain. For this purpose the mineral, in the state of an impalpable powder, is treated with weak muriatic acid in a watch glass, and gently heated for an hour. ‘The so- lution is then evaporated to dryness, and the saline residue is heated until the excess of acid be expelled when it is redissolved in water. To the clear solution, when warm, a few drops of oxalate of ammonia are added, which produces a precipitate of oxalate of lime if the mineral be labradorite, but does not pro- duce a precipitate if it be pure felspar. Dr Macculloch mentions, that the glassy felspar which he found 88 Analysis of Labradorite Felspar at Sky frequently resembled labradorite. I have seen many specimens’ from that island to which the latter name must be applied. ‘The mineral, which gives a porphyritic aspect’ to some of the pitchstone of Arran, appears to be glassy felspar ; as far, at least, as I can judge, from having examined a very small fragment of it. The porphyroidal traps, on the western boundary of the Scotch coal district, more frequently owe’ their structure to the presence of labradorite than to that of felspar. This last mineral, with its usual characters, very rarely occurs in them. We frequently indeed find a white, opaque, foliated mineral, destitute of lustre, which has generally been’ called felspar; but I have procured both lime and soda from this substance ; therefore it has, in some cases at least, been impro- perly named. The trap-rocks appear to contain other minerals which resemble felspar in many of their characters, but differ from it in composition. One of these, which I found in the neighbour- hood of Stirling, is of a red bright colour, opaque, foliated, and has a silky lustre ; from the small quantity of it which I could procure I could only determine, that it contained a good deal of perox- ide of iron, and a little lime. The analysis of another was pub- lished some time ago by Dr Thomson, who called it Mornite. ‘It is very remarkable that the composition of mornite is precise- ly the same as that of the first specimen of labradorite that I examined, excepting that it does not contain an alkali, but it contains a quantity of protoxide of iron, exactly equivalent to the soda in labradorite. The external characters of mornite and ‘labradorite must also be very similar, for the mineral dealer from whom Dr Thomson procured the former, when I'showed him my specimens of the latter, immediately called them mornite. I have “not seen this mineral, which was found in a trap-rock in the north ‘of Ireland.’ The granitoidal traps of the Scotch coal district, on'the contrary, very frequently present well characterised crys- ‘tals of felspar, ‘and rarely labradorite. They often, however, ' “contain a white mineral, which, through a great extent of rock, ‘does not present any of the characters of felspar, but rather re- “sembles a zeolite; and these differ very much, in all their cha- racters, from those which contain felspar. It would be easy to cringe the granitoids, from their external characters, into three found in the. Trap-Rocks of Scotland. 89 classes, and to give them very expressive names, if the minerals which they contain were well known, , The unicoloured crystal- line traps occasionally contain labradorite, and the presence of this mineral may account for the soda that has. generally been found in them, as well as in basalt, to which they are closely al- lied ; but it does not, in some cases, account for the whole of the soda, so that they probably contain other minerals, of which this alkali forms a constituent part... I have analyzed two of these rocks, that contained labradorite, and the analysis differed but little from those of some basalts. The neighbourhood of Glas- gow affords some very fine specimens of columnar trap, which all contain labradorite. The range of large and regular columns that stands on the side of a wooded hill, a little to the south of Strathblane, is well known. It is composed of a dark green trap or greenstone, containing crystals of that mineral. The same may be said of the black basalt, that forms the remarkable hori- zontal columns, near Altmarry turnpike, on the road from Glas- gow to Drymen ; and also of the columns that are found in more than one place on the Kilpatrick and Cathkin Hills. So that labradorite is probably one of the minerals of which basalt is often composed. I have made these remarks upon the situations in which I have found labradorite, because I believe that we cannot at- tempt to arrange the trap-rocks, or give them expressive names, until we are better acquainted with their composition. The pre- sent nomenclature of these rocks is very defective, and, not be- ing formed upon any fixed principle, it cannot be improved. The names must either be multiplied to such an extent as to rendet them very burdensome to the memory, or be applied so loosely, as always to require a definition. he short and simple terms now in use have not the flexibility which names, applied to objects that are constantly varying in their characters, should possess. It would be better to employ in geology, as often as possible, compound descriptive names, that would indicate the structure and composition of rocks. Such names would, in many cases, be shorter than those now employed, as they never would require a definition; and, when formed upon a fixed. principle, they might be multiplied without loading the memory. As far 90 Mr Dalton’s Physiological Investigations on as the trap-rocks’ are concerned, they can be accurately named. in this manner only; for we frequently find among them rocks’ of the same composition, but differing in structure; and, on the contrary, their structure is often the same, when their composi- tion ‘is different. ‘They are easily arranged in a few classes, by their external characters; and the class to which the rock: be- longs'may be expressed in a’ single word, while its composition may be denoted by two or three. There are some cases in which we should still be obliged to use arbitrary terms; but this ‘should not induce us to reject the only principle upon which an expressive and convenient nomenclature can be formed. for the greater number of these rocks. I have long been in the habit of using those compound terms in a district which presents trap under a great variety of forms; and I should mention the mode that Tjhave adopted, to render them as short and expres- sive as possible, but that my observations and experiments on the subject are far from being completed. Physiological Investigations arising from the Mechanical Effects of Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. By Joun Datron, F. R. S. A. pzniop of a century and a half has elapsed since the inven- tions of the barometer and the air-pump. In this time the weight of the atmosphere, its.elasticity, its specific gravity, and many other properties, have been ascertained experimentally with. al- most; mathematical. precision. 'The weight of the atmosphere, that quality we have more particularly to consider in the present essay, is not constantly the same, as is proved by the rising and falling of the barometer. It varies in this part of the earth from jth to ;1-th of the whole weight at certain times ; but those varia- tions are gradual, so that it requires some days or weeks before the weight passes from one extreme to the other. Onan ayer the weight or pressure of the atmosphere amounts to 143 lb. on each square inch of surface of the earth; and, as fluids press equally in all directions, every square inch of surface, whatever may be its position, must be subject to the same pressure. The surface of the human body, as well as that of animals in general, re a the Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. 9 has to sustain’this pressure ; and it will be found by calculation, ; that the whole surface of a middle-sized person, will have to'sup-’ port from 15 to 20 tons of pressure all acting inwards, and hav- ing no other mechanical tendency than that of squeezing or com- pressing the materials of which the body is composed into a less compass. The above is a statement of facts, all of which I believe to be incontrovertible. But a very difficult question arises out of them, How is it that the animal frame is utterly insensible of the whole, or of any part of this enormous pressure upon it? In ordinary we feel no pressure on the surface of our bodies, either external or internal ; neither when the barometer is stationary nor when it is in a most'fluctuating state. I have never met with a satis- factory answer to this question, and I doubt whether such a one has ever been given; yet it must be allowed to be one of import- ance, both as it affects the physiology of the animal and vegeta- ble kingdoms. Having had occasion for a few weeks past to -ruminate on this subject, some new views have occurred to me ; and it is the object of the present essay to unfold them, in order to elucidate the phenomena arising from aerial pressure on the animal economy more especially. It is pretty well known that the specific gravity of living men in general, is less than that of water. Mr Robertson, formerly librarian to the Royal Society, procured an apparatus for the purpose of determining the specific gravity of the human body. He chose ten men promiscuously for the purpose. Of these, three were found very nearly of the same weight as water, one being a little heavier, and the other twoa little lighter than wa- ter; two others were found only about.8 the weight of water ; but the other five were of intermediate specific gravities. The average of the ten was, height 5 feet 6¢ inches; weight, 146 Ibs. ; specific gravity, 891; bulk, 2.618 cubic feet. From this I think we may safely infer that the body of a full grown living man, when plunged over head in water, will be found upon the average to be nearly .9, the weight of an equal bulk of water. It is remarkable that all the component parts of the animal frame, at least of the human subject, are severally specifically heavier than the whole body, with the exception of air. Bone, muscular flesh, blood, membrane, &c. are all heavier than water ; 92; Mr Dalton’s Physiological Investigations on. animal fat,is perhaps the lightest of the conponents,: but even this is heavier specifically than the whole man, upon. the average, Bone from the leg of a calf I found to be 1.24 specific, gravity. The lean of beef (raw) I found 1.045 specific gravity. Blood; is from 1.03 to 1.05 specific gravity according to circumstances. On the whole, the solid and liquid parts of the body, examined. after life is extinct, would appear on an average to be somewhere about 5 per cent. heavier than water. . That part of the volume of man which is exclusively occupied be air, and which may therefore be considered as adding nothing materially to the weight of the body, consists, of the air-tubes and air-cells of the lungs, the trachea or windpipe, the mouth and.other appendages. It is not easy to ascertain the medium volume of air in the lungs of any individual. . Messrs Allen and Pepys found the air remaining in the lungs of a man after death somewhat exceeded 100 cubic inches. I found, formerly that after a full inspiration I could blow out 200 cubic inches of air from my lungs, but was then quite exhausted. My ordinary in- spirations and expirations amounted each to about 30 cubic inches *, Judging from the above facts and considerations, I should be disposed to conclude that the medium volume of air inthe lungs of a middle-sized person would not be less, but, rather more, than 100 cubic inches. Besides the lungs there are no, other receptacles for air, I believe, in the body except the sto- mach and bowels, which are occasionally more or less inflated with portions of air either from the atmosphere or other sources. If we allow 150 cubic inches for the volume of air contained in the whole man when entirely immersed in water, it will be as fair.an estimate, perhaps, as can be made. But it may be ima- gined by some that the whole substance of the body is pervi- ous to air; that the skin, the flesh, the blood and even the bones, may be imbued with air, somewhat in the same manner that water is, and yet have no cavities or cells in which the air is collected into a visible volume. Whether such an idea has ever been entertained or discussed I am not aware; but.I pre- sume no one has succeeded, in determining, either the nature or the with of the air so enveloped. in the. ehriiciee We shall * Memoirs, vol. ii. (New Series, p. 26.) — HE Kee phe the Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. 98 now examine how far such a notion is countenanced by the pre- According to the preceding table of Robertson, the average bulk of the ten men was 2.618 cubic feet, 4.500 cubic inches neatly; but of this volume 150 inches according to the above estimate were air, and the remainder 4350 inches were solid and liquid parts of the body. Now the average specific gravity of those parts of the body has been estimated above at 1.05 when examined as dead matter: this would make their weight equal to 4567 cubic inches of water; whereas it was found by actual weighing, to be 146 lbs. as per table, = 4044 cubic inches : hence the observed weight was less than the calculated weight, a por- tion equal to the weight of 523 cubic inches of water, or more than one-ninth of the whole weight of the body. Here is a discrepance that demands an investigation. Can Robertson’s table of the specific gravities of men give too low an estimate? This is not likely; every one knows that the human subject generally floats in water till the lungs become filled with that element,—a proof that the body is lighter than water; and many persons are observed to swim with the whole head constantly above the surface of the water. Have we overrated the specific gravities of the component parts of the body? I think not: bones, and flesh, and blood are certainly all heavier than water, some more, some less. Has the capacity of the lungs for air been underrated? I cannot imagine that any one will contend that the lungs of a middle-sized man will hold, at a medium state of inflation, six times the volume of air we have assigned. Upon the whole, I am inclined to believe the true explanation of the difficulty will be found in this, that the substance of the body is pervious to air, and that a considerable portion of it constantly exists in ‘the body during life, subject to increase and diminution aecording to the pressure of the atmosphere; in the same manner as it exists in water: and, further, that when life is extinct, this air in some degree escapes and renders the parts specifically heavier than when the vital functions were in a state of activity. The facts that water absorbs air of all kinds, that the quan- tity of the air absorbed is proportiotied to the pressure and den- sity of the gas, whether it be alone or mixed with other gases, 5 94 Mr Dalton’s Physiological Investigations on and that certain laws of equilibrium take place, by which water acquires that state in which it is disposed’ neither to give out nor to take in any more gas, have been abundantly proved by Dr. Henry and myself. M. Saussure has shown the like’ for other liquids, and for a great number of solid bodies. It may be seen, too, in my Chemistry, vol. i. p. 236, that a bladder, which is generally considered as an animal membrane, least pervious to air, may be filled with one gas, and being some time exposed _ to the atmosphere, it will be found to continue full blown as at first, but the contents will be chiefly atmospheric air. Messrs Allen and Pepys, in their ingenious and excellent essays on respi- ration, have proved that when a Guinea pig or a pigeon is con- fined for an hour, toore or less, in a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, in proportion as '78 to 22, a large portion of azotie gas is found in the residue, and an equal portion of hydrogen — disappears. ‘They ascribe this change to effects of respiration, but it appears to me more probably due to the principle we are advocating ; namely, to the egress of azotic from the whole body, and the ingress of hydrogen in lieu of it, in consequence of with- drawing the external pressure of the former and. substituting that of the latter. | When the palm of the hand is placed over the top of the receiver of an air-pump, and the air is exhausted, the pressure of the ait on the outside is scarcely felt, but the inside is swollen and feels as if it was drawn or sucked into the receiver. ‘Thus the sensation is on the inside and not without; but there is within, and’ the consequence is a tendency of the air in the hand to escape into the receiver, which occasions the pain and swell- ing. It isthus also that the issuing of blood in the surgical operation of cupping is effected. Though it does not seem of much consequence what the pressure of the air may be on the animal frame within certain limits, yet sudden changes must always be accompanied with _ uneasy sensation. Climbing mountains, or ascending in a bal- loon, removes a part of the atmospheric pressure from the body ; this causes theair in the body to tend outwards, and sometimes oc- asions bleedings. ‘To supply oxygen to the lungs, a greater volume of air must be breathed, and this seems’ to produce an acceleration of the pulse. On the other band, by descending the Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. 95 30 or 40 feet deep into the water in a diving bell, the pressure of the air upon the body is increased inwards ; pains in the ears are felt from the difficulty of suddenly restoring a disturbed equilibrium ; but if the descent is slow and interrupted, time is given for the air to enter the pores, and the pain is less sensible. To what limit warm-blooded animals could bear rarefaction of air so as to subsist, has not, that I am aware of, been determin- ed with much precision. Ascents in balloons have been made till the atmospheric pressure was reduced more than. one-half. Formerly I found that a mouse could subsist. in 3th of atmo- spheric density and seemed not to have suffered much ; but upon reducing the density below jth, the animal was convulsed and expired immediately, notwithstanding the air was instantly ad- If the view we have expounded in this essay, in regard to the action of aerial pressure on the animal frame, be correct, it may be inferred, that the pressure admits of great latitude ; perhaps an animal could subsist under the pressure of half an at- mosphere, or of three or four, or more atmospheres. The uneasi- ness and danger would be found in the quick transition ; if time is allowed for the air to enter the body, and to escape from it, the transition is gradual, and the sensation arising from it imper- ceptible. ‘The animal economy would be adapted to it, like as in the transition from a cold to a warm climate. It may here- after be found, what length of time is sufficient to adjust the equilibrium, and whether this subject is any way connected with certain diseased states of the body. As far as regards the ab- solute pressure on the body, and our insensibility of it generally, this question will be met by the argument, that the air within the body, by its elasticity, sustains a corresponding pressure from without ; but this only accounts for our alleviation from a small fractional part of the whole exterior pressure. The great- er part must still be supported by the body ; and we must have recourse to the great incompressibility of matter to account for our insensibility of pressure... Canton found that water, pressed by one atmosphere more than ordinary, only exhibited a reduc- tion of ,,4,th part of the whole; if the same rate, applied to the compression of the human body, the reduction or compres- sion of the size of a man, 4500 cubic inches, would only be }th 96 Atmospherical Pressure on the Animal Frame. of a cubic. inch, for the weight of an additional atmosph Now as ‘the body consists of solids and liquids of ee t . compressible matter, and there is “only @ a small part of c e vo- lume, onsisting of elastic ‘fluid that is compressible, no mate. rial change of yolume can. take place, but on the sudden tran- sition | from one atmospheric pressure to another; and unless a change of volume take place, we cannot feel any pressure, either inward or outward. The phenomena of the water ham- mer shew, that the particles of water are hard, as they strike each, other. like flint and steel; and it is exceedingly probable that other bodies,.solids as well as liquids, are constituted in like manner. A general pressure on the system, then, only in- ‘éreases ina small degree the attraction of the ultimate particles, and it is met by a corresponding increase of repulsion from the atniosphere of heat; so that the system’ remains as wes as ‘possible the same,'and unaffected by such pressure. I can scarcely forbear observing on the present oecasion the ab- surdity of those who remark, that all people might swim, and that it is only from fear or ignorance of the art that some fail inthe attempt. When we see that some persons are heavier than water, and others only .8 of that weight, it would be just/as plausible for a piece of deal to upbraid a piece of lignum vitee with the in- ability to swim from fear, or from want of skill in the art, which ‘the deal considered of easy acquisition: Pings Memoirs, vol. ‘v. New Series. Ka this AM ‘Chemical Analy of Spinel, Gahnite; ie Chrome Ores : ot ee By Mr Hermann ABICH, | ' saleaty Rmitbientnthentcietamentenrntetah toa ITT : "| Massive \Cry Constituent Parts, / Blue Spine, Red Spinel,|Pleonaste, Pleonaste,| Gahnite, | Gahnite, |\Chrome| Chron i MEAS ‘Ceylon. | Ural.)) 'Vesuvius./ Sweden. | America.| Ore. Siicyae 24 c OP 2250 POU 2.02 Prey. 288 | B84) 1.22) 0.83 Alu ate nds, owes - 69. 01 |, 65.27 | 67.46 | 55.14 .09 ee 00.00 | 1.10° | ‘00.00 | 00.00'} 00.00 | 00.00 [54.91 agnesia, . - +» «| 25.72 26.21 17.58 | 26.94 ||. 5.25 |. 2.22 | rite Ox sidlated ron 349) 0.71 ae 6.06 | 5.85 | 4.55 } 97 4 oe 4 ue rab BA bs ane ad oy tN Ay 80.02. 34,80 — Cnet Mabuahcoha| i ail 9:00.00.) | ia hesey, ee Tatiana us tows Sums, 220040 »| 099.05. 99.32 1003410020 99. TANUTINT ee TT ee ee eT a Tule gern ion le a SEM erie % OK. dT 20% ail! lis tes Ki a were: s 4 | 97 }e 7 we / ryan + ats i Drementtiae of all known Substances to the ic Ti , and the Application of the fact in En- eeerng ene Mining, for the Determination of the Thick- ness of Substances not otherwise Measurable. By the Rev. Wizuiam Scoressy, F. R.S. Lond. & Edin., Corres- 3 t of the Institute of France, &e. &e. Castntiniteeea _ by the Author. Concluded from p. 334 of preceding Vol. INVESTIGATION OF THE LAW OF THE DIRECTIVE POWER OF BAR- | | MAGNETS, AND THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE MAGNETIC IN- FLUENCE MAY BE CARRIED FOR MEASURING DISTANCES. 2 Tux law of the directive power of bar-magnets, at different distances, was the next subject of investigation. Coulomb, I believe, was the first to establish, by the test of satisfactory and consistent experiments, the previously assumed law, that the force of magnetic attraction and repulsion is in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distance. The applica- tion of this law to the investigation in hand served at once to verify the law, and to render the results of my experiments of general application. In regard to the comparison of distances, it appeared to me to be of considerable advantage to estimate all distances in lengths of the bar made use of, by which the re- sults for any one bar became applicable to all other bars of a proportional form and quality, and state of magnetic energy. And such, therefore, with a certain modification, afterwards found to be necessary, was the measure constantly adopted. Placing now the magnet in the direction of the east or west point of the compass, or at right angles to the magnetic meri- dian, I proceeded to ascertain experimentally the deviations pro- duced, either by the same pole constantly, or by the mean of the action of each pole alternately, first at the distance of one length, and then successively at other distances to the extent of ten lengths of the bar. Preparatory, however, to a general application of the results thus obtained, it will be useful to ascertain by calculation the actual force exerted by any magnet on a compass at different distances, according to the above law of attractions. VOL. XIII. NO. xxv.—JuLY 1882. G 98, Rey,. Mr, Scoreshy,on the Uniform Permeability of , When, the, bar is\placed in, the, prescribed , position, with the north pole at the distance of one length from, the compass, then the action of the south pole, tending’ to, counteract, that of ithe north, willbe in the inverse relation-with the-nearest pole of 2? to'1*.” That is, if the force of the nearest pole be called 1, then the: force « of the remote pole will be’ inversely as 4 or th, which. being’ in the: contrary direction to that of the nearest pole, re- duces its action to {ths. In like manner; at two lengths’ of the bar, the force of tie nearest pole being’ now inversely as the biaave of 2or 4th is reduced by the remote pole at three lengths distance, the action of which is inversely as the square of 3 or th; hence + — 4 = %, representing the actual influence or general resultant of the whole of the magnetic. forces in’ the magnet acting upon the compass. But we may obtain a general expression for all distances, either in lengths or fractions of lengths of the bar. i Let F be “He ay Mg of the nearer pole at the distance a. Then will ~ ar = RepKeSSht the influence at. the distance ay and P the counteracting influence of the remote pole at the dis- tances+1. | » Hence the resultant sflaace 1s}, #0 | ‘ aes vt 2e+1 ba (a- = )- Fe =e ST ; As the force F, however, bath ihe sae action of a pole | sot practicably separable, is not a quantity that can be imme-. diately’ ascertained by experiment, this expression requires to. ’ be extended so as to connect it with we value of the assumed force =) ap 4 Let R be the resultant influende of a iirc on . the ag distance 4, and, in the first instance, let a be equal tow. 2at1_ Qa41 )* ‘Then Rake grat an . ; t ‘ 4, sae b ielhy - Pheréfore F ao ai ae Hence, iv Pain sa ve eye hin aay gual eile eit @a ei Ba eee aT PsP Rw HS 3 Cs ¢ ' Me) ° | a8 MET “all keikovoit Shibstaives fo the Magnetic Inftlience, &c. 99 “(Phe natiire Of! the’ forees’ acting’ upon the néédlé, at’ Various Bin Hebe the eh thd ‘restilts, and wteductiont of! these re. sults to’éther ‘ratios; are’ exhibited in the following Table. re Cilia -4. eg ot | ‘6a | rod gly aia’ al » each a b dw Cokes Ay ig 2 tL} Po the relation the rela- k sau id : PPE SRE Per ee ed vr ek ta | 1 : x te oY fh , , ' a J n i ee i : 1.0 OF ps * i wiih: 1, OSG ant 7 gi 1 ve Tt 6 5 oH + $= 7 & 9 36 27, ré : igi paakb pp ys Oy iy : 5 hog 1 -—— — 15, Ti sal ue dD TH 144 , 10a. nd + ais ee ol 1 : ep parelh ¥ ae 9 ig ~~ DR. b st i | 400 300 33.3 nas i Bop cit pis i] om ee eile fewer eee te pula: 4 Tita ol] OG Plleragl 5 ith 1 13 sles Bbh dorado bs lb ud f ts he © GE} S36 | Bape 1 198-8) aha} i i I | 17. . Ol een } = aH th t) gpag | 228-7 + Prlatd fads irved be s6abi oltre oh : ssa fh} Bl. 100). MOO} Goze =| S19.7 +. | ook ie a ai RE om a re an yet 10 ey 106 ~ Tar} Tatoo 9075 sp mmm d tes Bye bobs on, 2 i 7 . Ths dea bidet i ageg °| oom ' 44 mig 730.1 — = S| ia Tae) passe, | eas 1 { ‘ch n= sa, F ii ee. NY 27 27 os * “T09~ 198 | Hist | amas = 196 1 “= t Sees 1 Se 29 hes ine “Toe 936 | = Faio0 & 33075 | | 100» Rev.\Mt Scoresby:on the Uniform Permeability... 27 Do Lenmort’ fi “ { ‘OU "General resulltanty) ec % lols TOgH1g 9d of Ideas mene LBL Radiant seaduen. Fh “mi q Peet tg yah 1} "Fo the relation To the wei | i Us eh GAROTTT Ri sone Prep Ty Rabeing = PERRET S cls Shas be Abacdh ack +, naa. 4 - setuill a | : ° hams? 7S eT, 16 Mies sos & Ns ie a ants 1 1Sho ted) r9rBb dos 2 OTS C1908 wih £9225, 95256,f;/, 57600; ,} 3200. dn. . " an yO aie } | B 1 133 33 0: MR lt jT of) 856)) 289). 1 73984 55488 | j IM9EMhe ey f two srry ge ped? 6 ta Res oy ui DoophouP aoiiatvoh $25! i AY 289 324 |. 93636 70227 ) (¥ 394 : i i . Midge TO V : ei if 1 el, eT eT os sth lo py $e Joo) 824) 861 116964 ., |, ., 87723), Pd ou SP Col Te 36D > 400} 144400 108300 | = a5 | bb re ae Ga 41 41 ! ++ | 400 441 | 176400 132300 441 iToIgh gil| mand Mio Bios TA 43 435,011. bv geatioft|). al |, 484]. 218444 160083 ai gugilde 4 2010.4 45 » 45) 22 |. _ = 404 529'| . 256036 _ 192027 $5 = 0 b 1 opt } Lis i ‘ } 1 © 629 Ure aoe een it bahizon og (a pag 2 \ = “559° 576 | 304704 || 258598 ai F (676 es > jor j 1 49 49 | URS = NZD 25 1 iL, ES A 24 ye ; |= 576 625 | 360000 ~ 270000 dire Pe WK , 1 51 breton sees hich bi owl 1 . sates 625 ee a nae ar eit 625... 676.4 42250? ony y AA 676 “ 1 6) 900 a ial wibed emtfemunitine 30 | de Sy \ = 900 961 864900 648675 = 961 1 i ie pots coer iee Tyaa7n 35 | aba Pal = j295 1296| 1587600 1190700 1296 40 n= Ta Ae 1 ae 1 Oe hd tee Phat a: A60p Heer: MMR 1, ete 45 n = 595 eh, ee 1 91 a ie td 2025 2116} 4284900 | 3213675 f 2116 4 7 Ou 1 a *~ ae} | We ee 101 s=si.J |” 25007 2601| 6502500 | 4076875 |e of all: known Substances to the Magnetic Influencess&c. 101 Now. these general resultants- ought to be proportional to the tangents of the angles of deviation produced by the magnet a the respective distances. For, since the compass is acted upon Limaitunehasly-by-forces* in-two- directions, that is, at i d angles to each other, that of the earth, which may be consi as uniform, and always in the direction of the magnetic m dian, and that of the magnet varying as to intensity, but as F direction, being always at right angles to the other,—the mea sure of the variable force will be fairly given by the tangents ‘of the angles of deviation produced in the needle. If, there- fore, the law of the magnetic force as to distance be correct, that the action:of either pole diminishes in proportion. as the squares of the distance increase, then the tangents of the ob- served angles of deviation applied inversely to the general result- ants, ought, on this hypothesis, to give the same product for all the different distances. _ In order to yerify these deductions, and to obtain a firaptioal rule for determining the quantity of magnetic influence at all distances, however remote, a careful series of experiments were ‘made with the two-feet bar magnet and one of Kater's ary compasses at the several distances of one to ten lengths. _ The following Table contains the observed deviations, as pro- duced by each pole of the bar, with the application of the tan- gent of the mean of the observed deviations to the reciprocal of ‘the magnetic force acting on the compass at the respective dis- _ tance, so as to produce the ratio, which was expected to be uni- form, in the sixth column. | © Though the forces are more in number than two, it is only necessary 7 _ consider the resultants of the forces in each direction. : a : aes : i VG | | | sehen | wr bl | ~ — Hyarrer [ “Mwbeer tro” yet | ory re ee 10% Rev. Mx Georesby on the Uniform Permeability of. fod Hite aTeotiAg vitnsi vitioe romons risty SVfOrl. erties year t hii Tali “bersdano gn go! 1G SIRO ON! WDE WAI 7 »9 Deviation pf the Gommppes | |: Pangent | Fl Ratio or” he 4 Regilt | SQNesve) ae isd Die chevisedo orl Pad Pe tf Sth ais | ing | «} Differences, 82 ry a observed E-f:) . Dev. | 3 oI 58 ) ip adl vawor| 4c! | “agi {be [sey 9 angles, | as AP Magnet ah 1% } 8) ree } ord Sx, bygete: } jem va P Dator st: Pps Lbvorg esa Pwpold Shesjzoe 1% Dia'sor4 fo 3448. | 68190 | 7:| 68130.|\74000 4, 36;80,).2. 14. Sima 044 , 1 ' pe 0 40 4 Aso 1222 | &F | 74084 | 1206} 0-42} 0° 0 s= : 0 e| n= 010 ’ i Vie Iegeel agrees yor Gog \ OAL: | 320.) seg | 73186 J. (323) ODD Din ofinid 074 wii haaid Yo cash ogy! Wi gait olla 12 i Bd sd ec nd ater Anlc aer tse bee MO eB by 00 Godin ame) ote} 75625.) 170 | 0%: [010 " A8 the results in the 6th column appeared to differ'too con: siderably to be at all satisfactory, the last three columns were added’ inorder to determine the real nature and extent ofthe apparent’ discrepancies. Taking the’ mean of the ratios at 74000, in round numbers (which 'was found to ‘be sufficiently near the truth), and applying that in a’ contrary way to the magnetic forces belonging to the different distances, the column of “¢aleulated tangents” was obtained, ‘the resulting angles of which, with only oné or two exceptions, ‘eorrespond with those obtained by experiment within the probable limits of ‘error ‘of observation *. “Hine compass employed being only graduated to 80° ofa degrée,| and without any vernier, it required some habit and attention to’ the an- gles within such small limits as those indicated by the column of differences. all known Substances to the Magnetic Influence, $¢. 103° These results, however, though i gy ceed uniform and con- sistent for most practical purposes with the present i nvestigations, were "not so entirely ory as to be’received _~ Dre For the difference between the observed and cal-. ° culated deviations at the first distance was by far, too considerable - ‘ to be ascribed to any error of observation or other accidental cir. © ‘cumstance, since it was proved to be occasioned by some con- stantly acting cause, because of a similar discrepancy being al- ways found to ogeur through an extensive series of experiments with many different magnets. _ ‘The discrepancies beyond the mere errors of observation were ‘at length discovered to be mainly owing to the adoption of ex- act lengths of the magnets as integers of distance, instead of the length of the interyal between what may be termed the foci of "| attraction in the north and south portions of the bar. For, al- though the principal energy of a well constructed and well mag- netized, bar is doubtless at the extremities, yet a considerable though rapidly diminishing power necessarily prevails within the extremities. The aggregate or resultant action, therefore, of the varying intensities of either half of the bar may be.re- | ferred to a particular point or focus, which, through the ap- plication of the foregoing law of attraction; may be determined by approximation experimentally. _ In order to determine the position of the foci of attraction in.a three-feet bar-magnet,(A) of very superior construction, I assumed, in the first instance, the focal length to be 2 feet 10 inches, considering the foci of attraction to lie an inch within the extremities\of the bar. | In this.case the ‘ Difference” in the first. length, which in the preceding instance was, 2° 14’, (Col..9.) was now reduced to Jess than, one-half... A focal length of|2 feet, 9 inches was then tried, when a further reduction of error was observed, . Lastly, L,assumed, the distance between the foci to be. 9 fest, G. inches, and. then. the sie were most Dacian consistent and satisfactory... a? cused Hy ty .» The following ‘Tables exhibit ig reese #4 the. firs se last meheebabenamititnipuitine Yidnd “ory Pyoyerttne Pobre shih Ie eran! ft wa hatasibt ov: rh) ve whine! Tose 104 Rev..Mr Seoresbyvon the. Uniform Permeability, of . nor o} beianonrr Vdéidw 2iosinived 5 endive ih of TABLE of te Ret ond hen th et eof he Be tein Ve wis eaw ili integer of distance eo ty sonkterh ode 4e to Se linn od ASD ENS + TTrrhiritry — a7 Trew Tit Vatis 5 mm Nderoh oo} gated Ere i 9 i to pet ont woseits (Retlo of. VOTE ARE seh ott intone reslae viMéayi) ofl) (Pangent,...4 Dang. of Dev. .})...) <4 ‘Lengths. "Deviation. Magnetic Force.. ; Try <«) . yr eciey she ak ; eB9TS OO like cin IBISTD POP (hoot So] ef onrmanoe 7] = — wr aw cians | vert Tal ‘7 i's , : Por Wii i” fi ee ‘360 72654 72654 | ‘hie 1 Se TEES BO 18 Bg 98 tba op/ On aggg a WE Manet Ge EpoagOTP ECD loisge OT igpge@!> VPO Pr pyDED IMT OF Hatiot , 4 ef 8 "LAT 9G 48 5OF Op Tighsoed Jani Insure of sar Hold sng Yausgag) S90 ggg88 to) 46H aatdey® epiodaquineih re 0.28 815 82942 4919n uerrtor ¢ : ‘ : fe him riod ve Rite sayy ott ni reser Table of Results with three feet per ere when the distance between se sordlps inn peng nid ge! 6 fag 7 OTIGIHAHOSD yy Ty Pee ea : le to |) |; Mean, |‘Tangents.| Propor: }, ‘rom. | R, feren-| Lengths. . | each pol mean of see ain ee Tl 4 f.' T morte ep wid oe Te rt ii rif tai : 1 poaos* nnn ana, 50.48 |129612/ 122612121600} 60.34 adn} ei ' cr ' riet ia Wyn j 24.9 at Binge 1 126 | 22853 |120706), 22518 | 1241.) 8 ay 1 y . ce ih .f 6 a : : 3 a 3 crap rare 4.31 | 78991121870 |'° 78a |'°4'304)' 12 sees \ } 1 tar ryeti ABO MIOW oF talaloe 4 n= 1,48 ) ' 4} 99 {35 2a} 2,4,| »8609].120300] 3648),..25,..) Lt rr ras f Mstt i frit poy hy S7o 6° PQA i, dg 3 a ‘ee 18 1978|121377] 1982! 18 y SIney Tha £3 hry tA TY Ore oriipRy + 3 / rf t aren ere sl Osi ¢ oat}: 1193] 121411} 9 1195) 641-0 geort Yo MOMs bY IBoti 0.20) farniiisY| hy Ley yal Hay ey pilPodh Hh faite se lo.gep) | 0.27 | AAD 429088. 978, OHS Oe to) 91399 90! OF ConoRgtiis fo eiioel 98) MOT! boTLUEnOI om Oana * The distance of the magnet from the compass at the first’ ne Fy ath, it will be observed, is three inches Zess than the assumed focal length. ‘This parent difference arises from the measurements of distance being taken as the interval between the centre of the compass and the nearest extremity of the magnet, instead of the nearest focus of attraction in the magnet lying . three inches within the extremity. vious ao einer which inital to from titecst enty series, ‘the taigelt of the’ angle’ of deviation, at the distance of the scent ater of the bar, was | always consi- derably Jess than 3 because of the length between the foci of the hisagnek being too had but/in this last series, for the first:time, ‘the tangent be- to |one focal-length’s « distance is somewhat, too great, which cola seem,.to indicate, » that the assumed length was now too small. Where, however, all the ratios at other distances are _ found to coincide so very closely, the small difference in the first tangent must bereferred to a peculiar cause, which, the greater discrepancies with: shorter magnets eventually enabled me to detect. In the celine: investigations on the magnetic forces acting upon a compass, the attractive and repulsive actions of the same pole of the magnet on the different poles of the needle have been considered ‘as, a. simple and not a compound action, because in most cases, excepting at short distances, they so combine as to pro- duce almost exactly double the effect of either influence separat ly. This double effect, therefore, which for simplifying the’ vestigation may generally be considered as the result of a ‘singld force, cannot, in the case of a short distance, and with a larg compass-needle. be so considered, without being the occasion of very perceptible error. For although the north pole of a et, when ‘placed ‘at a considerable distance from a compass, n the direction of its east or west point, will attract the sout -of the compass, and repel the north pole with equal energ same magnet, if placed véry near the compass, so as to pro- duce a great deviation, will then have a difference of energy, a to its attractive and repulsive influences, because of the attract of the needle being much nearer to the magnet) than: the le which is repelled. Neither will the mean action of these two forces be the same ‘as that of the force belonging to the dis tance as measured from the focus of attraction to the centre of the bsiihee As for example i. sooo ie te om i ijn vel hoo? orwrarmas acl?! ctorta ac9 ASK) Otic CoD lomeinoragiuAdain old wrott eo rn i Olleew > G2otaen 30 bree PABQNIOD m3 tO orlas } paivi Jorruen orl’ ma moionrisin ‘te SWOO’ Seq1ped Sd? to heroten horror f ,IeNHIITIZGS 106° Rev. Mr Soreshy om the som ee sath lliw: coals thou gai us iach A. ko 30 i : fl fT pet HoiMaesIqek S26 Fig. he now awh) dasbive. stom sd : ‘ , giver. ; 7 . ? he. ; Pe geh. Hotil-o a i) OOABTAI 271i} 90) 10 Joeta.ads wi Sidinxa ¥ > : yyy Fig. 5 i nm Let.M, Fig. 4, be a magnet, of which Fis the focal. point, and C a compass at the distance of at least four focal lengths. | Let ns be the position of the needle under the influence of ter- restrial magnetism only, and n’ s the position which it assumes —@g under the action of the magnet. , ‘Then the action of the nearest | pole F is,represented by the sum.of the squares of the distances | F s-and\F w’ inyersely, which: does. not, in thisinstance, mate- rially differ, from the sum.of the squares of the distances F s and F'n inversély. But in the case represented ‘in’ Fig. 5. the result is far other- wise. Here the’ bar M, ‘placed at the:distance of one. focal length, occasions such a great, deviation: of) the needle. that. a very considerable increase of action on the: pole # is gained, be-. yond the diminution of action sustained by the pole n’,—the increase of force being in the proportion in which the sum of the reciprocals of the squares of the distances F s’ and F n’, expressed fractionally, exceeds the sum of the reciprocals of the squares of the mean distances F s and F n *. * The sum of these direct squares must in all cases be equal. For F sn being a triangle which is bisected in the point C by a line FC drawn to the apex, the sum of the squares of F's and F , is equal to twice the squares of FC and Cs. In the triangle F s’n’, for the same reason, the sum of the squares F's’ and F'n’, is equal to twice the squares of FC and Cs’. But the lines sn and's'n’,representing the same needle revolving’on a centre, are equal, a - all. known Substances tothe Magnetic Infiuence, &e. OT But the nature and extent of this disturbing influence will be more evident, if we work ouit’the case represented in Fig. 5, exhibiting the effect of the first distance of a 12-inch magnet (C) of 10 inches focal. length, the powers of which, to the extent of six lengths, are exhibited i in the following Table. ; and FG common to both s hence twice the squares of each must be equal. the sum of the squares of F s, F n, and the sum of the squares of F s, F n’ being each equal to the same thing, must be equal to one another. however, the sum of these several squares are equal—not so their ppp ag oe i he Ad lms 5. Ory tk a more ple ee r ; Let FC = 4; and Goa 3; then the f- gure 26, being ¢right-anglen triangle, FC 1G <7) with divin Bobet If the needle be now brought into the line FC, then Fg will be (4—3) = 1; Fn’ = (4+ 3) =7; and FC, as before, = 4. Now, the sum of the squares F s and Fn = 25 + 25 is 505 which is, equal, to 2 pei ‘bigest 2FC +9: vies Bich LO being tog £0 aes B In like atines, FF $Fr Liepy = 50. poids ashe AY sn Gk the sig a OR OE and the sum! of the squares of F Fit are equal, each amounting to 50. But not so the re coco. ie veciprocalyot Fs wid’ Fn (= 26/and 2, oY aid) ard ad the ma bag But the reciprocals of Fy and Fn’ (m1 and49) are + and + their sum being j, + {= Gj; Hetice, whilst the sums of the Sees ee eee ee tt Bee Lair ’ vous , it mi Teh rh ee 1) | HOI a) Hii | 7 rf tonal boensiyx ha A hee 4 ywaimse yOu OIL iO aso 1g pe oO 7T suthen edhO antog SS 1 MALTY 24 : ; ; | 4, mnt ott yo | i iufl o> bets OD Ye eeratinpe ord coheed oF (ative Ins aus ites) a coo dPripver Sl boon ornia off) oni tao ea Rev. -Mr'Seéresby: nee Ned: PRaTSMe OVER aw Mest eels mer TS | yore ae Fo o i + r= > ———— iw g - Distance of sibs ing Uibiathe Kidnam yeog sthtobhr Sthesrgr a ct 0 is \ ifclemonr etd RO of the 103, to % sonar, fy —— A ol 8S the Compas. hie co REDS Hl Uy A ere liwy a499c9uttar sai boli dd89 J poaqe Feet, | Inches, Ae ey or Avy 4 if ig ee, i 3) ; : yd : ] 0 9 n= 56° 26° k wm Gt wal Vo0 nth 168979 | 16898 aan Ta 1 7 m=13 48 |). sono /2 TE ae <’ge Apadoda 25304,.|, 13664, | mn 4 2 5 n= 5 Bi i baie Mamet ates © 6925 | 13770 | 3 3 = 2 14 ae as \ 2 22 4133 | 13777 SS] SOV Pee oP by p Y , Ss ke ; 1 17,| 2248 | 13704 6 4 All n= 0 47 | sa 0 Ae 1p 8) 468 1352 13759) Mean of 2 to 6, rejecting No. 1. = 13759 ne Noth # "No. 1. PES with a small compass, with a needle of 1,% inches. VP 04 9 | me 55 0 7 45 | 146870 y= 56 30 4687 Now, the position represented in Fig. 5. is that of No. 1, in the first, line. of this table, in which the magnet was placed at the distance of one focal length from the’ compass—not ‘from the centre, but, in this instance, measured from the focal poles/of the needle n, s. ‘Therefore. the ,distances P $ adit F nm are each = = 1; ; and F's and F'n, the distances of the remote or counteracting pole are each = 2. But owing to the considerable length of the ¢om- pass needle, and the great deviation which occurred on this occa- sion (namely 59° 28’), the actual distances of the two’ poles of the iy Of jie ‘needle from the nearer Re By were 30 and 5 io» and from’ the re- Molsieod igvvicg 10 Nog wy! ow see’ Whi 0 mote focus, were 1i5 bs 2s ry) Lets now. men i hos in com rison wi ose * yforces, tl dis tances a free oN flortieoq ott 16 ooo} bontive oto, the distance] sand 2 Senoo Mm Jorgen orlt yd bontise Towog First, As to influence of the magnet on the -dompass;,.whilst o} follersqthe needle:isiinothe, meridional, position. $22, rod ef 3T * ~“ophe distances° P'sandF nubeingveach =: 1, their combined ‘influence Will be inversely A814 1" ot 2 whiel #epresentérthie th needle i pial abLABEMOC no inss-2cr | 3 | distances of the remote, focus: F’siand: Frabeing their influences. will be inversely as 2°}. that inland re the pepree of which, iz z>arepresents* the’ respective spe And = ” i4+i= + Tepresents the counteracting force operat- on re needle in the position nS, at the distance 2.) _ Hence tats represents the resultant influence of both. be or f the whole bar i in the give position. | | ‘Secondly, As to the actual influence exerted Us te mag. pees net in the deflected position of the needle s w. The distances F # and F nf being @ and 3 = 4 and 3 the ‘es, representing the inverse power of their action, are = a pod = Hence the reciprocal representing the attractive force is iS; and the > ain: sa hae i the repulsive force is 2. Then io te oe aoe chy oe ae <=) or 3,5 Which represents the whole in- fluence of the nearer ‘ons in the actual position, s’ ’, assed by the needle *, Again, the distance FY s, in | the case before us, be rr to be Ai. and, that, of 0! = 9, or ® and’ = and ¥, the squares of which are § and *22. yy ‘tet Hence the reciprocal representing the attractive force i is s : and the sexiprocal re representing the repulsive action is #8; Then ae #8 as + Me Be the whole influence of the remote Socus, Ra i ae in the asl ah “s sumed eed the needle, r Hence mst = i — = epi th clan influence of both foci in the deviated or actual pos sumed byte ele needle, whilst the excess of this en WLS ee su the position m s = 3, indicates’ the”quhintity ¥f power gained by the magnet in consequence of the length 6f the ‘compass needle. | 00 joes ot to.consufar ob dds von 04 * It is here assumed that’ the uttractive and tepmlsive forces are parallel to each other, which is not the cases: hénce ‘the results! obtained, though) suffi- ciently near for our present object, can only be considered as approximations. HO Rev. Mri Scoresby. on the Uniform Permeability of Reducing, now, the fraction 4) to the same denominator: as the above, we have (22 ag the’ resultant influence of the wholé 1411344 bat inthe ‘assuined’ position %; 8. Therefore the entire of resul- tant force acting upon the needle, in the deflected’ position 7, ¥, 2458125 fy 2117016 » 1411344 1411344? as z to | ® nearly. If, then, we apply this proportion to the ob- atved deviation of No. 1. (series in page Roe 59° 23’, the tan- gent of which is 168979, we have 4 ats : 168979 : 144839, = 55° 23’, which, it is satisfactory id? find, corresponds very nearly with the deviation observed, when a very small»compass was substituted for the large one; in that case, the angle formed by the needle, as near as could be observed, being 55°.45'.' Still, however, the deviation thus eciie is found to be consi- derably greater than that given by a mean, proportional; namely, 54°. 'The cause of this difference is probably. to be found in thé peculiar direction, Fs, of the strongest force, which evidently is not stri¢tly tangential to the meridional position of the needle; but, must operate more favourably for overcoming the directive) force of the earth, than if, acting in the direction s M, it were precisely at right angles to. the terrestrial ener is to the force in the assumed position n, s, as Since now the caleulated dnvistions 26 fhdirbbes feet magnet (Table, p. 24), as obtained from the méan ratio 121600, are all, except the first, within the limits of the possible:error of ob- servation; and since the ratios, obtained from experiments with the twelve-inch magnet (‘Table at p. 108) are all, with the’excep- tion of the first, uniform. within the: probable! limits of erfor, —whilst the discrepancy at the first.focab length has been suffi= ciently, I trust, accounted, for,—the position of; the foci im both these magnets, may be considered, as rightly, determined *., ‘For all practical purposes, therefore, | connected: with the ehagarvict [OM BE sei shid have hithérto spoken of a fixed afid d determinate f tet ; ti a representing the whole of the magnetic ‘forces of either half a regular netized, bar, yet, I amawaré that that) very focal position ‘will’ be Mable to a small variation at very, short, fisieert & in such, cases being’ nearer the sf _ mity than the e calculated posit tion. Fentblatt iah seme bee oe Tae A apErahendy len of ‘the dial et, “no ‘alters A A nf wih maduneeiniomate o enone ie mer 5 %ie be ‘eit eee 1 all known. Substances, to the Magnetic Influences §c. Bat method-of measuring the thickness of solid substances! a siffi- cient approximati ion, we find, may be readily obtained. by :expe- sees es He rhe time a. ed s whatever. oo gn ee ; ' Hence Se f the" aaective power of bar-magnets, at any distance, however remote, 1 So RCE ER I tpg ed as ns determined; ; dp : ab. ay ated RG OE eis da bhoqsstios bait diy qebiontates pyres ts waveebye istichide stated; representing the’ resultant ‘action of’ all the forces in the magnet; at any distari¢e, in’ measures of its focal length, ordi fractional parts of such’ measures, on ‘a compass situated in the line of the longer axis of the magnet, and bear- ing east or west from each other. And hence the directive force of all magnets, of proportional intensity of power, must be in the direct ratio of their focal lengths ; so that if a bar of 1 foot focal length ‘will produce a given sensible action on a compass (suppose of 5’), at the distance of 12 feet,—then a bar of 2 feet focal length, proportionally strong, will produce the ‘same de- viation at 24 feet, a barof'3 feet focal length at 36 feet, or one of 6 feet interval between the foci of attraction, will produce a similar sensible deviation atthe distance of '72 feet. . ‘8. The foregoing investigations enable us satisfactorily to de- termine oa papmeptgnlen ced uvitheeyioe fe: ete may be carried. : As the directive: power of different magnets, thane as to proportions and quality, is very nearly in’ the ‘rélation of their lengths § 1: (2) 6; and’ as\ the accuracy’ of different well-con- structed compasses, as to their capability of indicating very mi. nute quantities of magnetic influence, may be ddnisidéréd’ to be in the relation of the s of their needles,—it is evident. that there can be no assig 1able limit to the application of the method of ascertaining distances now. proposed. | For, by inéreasing the length or number of the and improving the quality or inctedsing the dimensions “of the coth yt agua still, further e and ha éxtensive applica fy oft principle will be ob- tained. 112 Rev. Mr Scoresby on the Uniform Permeability of A few of the results, however, with ordinary compasses and moderate-sized bars, may be useful, as illustrative of the facility of employing the ig dicts influence practically for the purpose proposed. With a single straight bar-magnet, ‘ond temper ed only at the ends, and a pocket-compass of only 1? inches diameter, distances of four times the length of the bar may be determined to within 1-10th of the whole, and shorter distances to a more considerable degree of accuracy. With the same single bar, and a Kater’s compass of 5 inches in diameter, Pei itobs of about six times the length of the mag- net may be determined within a very moderate limit of error, and an extent of even ten lengths of the bar may be measured to, perhaps, a tenth of the whole. Two similar magnets placed parrallel to each other, a few inches asunder, will indicate, within the same limits of error, distances of nearly a length and a half more remote with the pocket-compass ; or with a Kater’s compass, distances from two to three lengths greater, when the deviations are very small. Four bar-magnets of a similar kind will produce, on the Ka- ter’s compass, about the same deviation at 16 focal lengths, as a single bar produces at ten focal lengths—thus affording, with three feet magnets, a tolerably correct measure of the thickness of any solid intervening substance, of about 40 feet. But the same magnets will produce a sensible effect. on the compass (namely, a sum of deviations amounting to 2’) at the distance of no less than 33 focal lengths, or 82 feet ! These results, however, which are taken from.the observation . of the effects of bar-magnets on a compass acted upon by the whole force of terrestrial magnetism, will be greatly modified, and vastly extended, when the directive force of the earth on the compass is partially neutralized, by the proper arrangement of one or two small magnets in juxtaposition. For, extending | the influence, therefore, to the greatest possible distance with a given apparatus, such an arrangement will of course be used. _ But I proceed to give the particulars of a few eoperinents Jabs age by which the extent of influence expected to be produced was ie, all known Substances to the Magnetic Influence, ce" 13 amply verified, and, by which an increasing “influence, under improved arrangements, was progressively produced. The first experiment’ in which’ any very great distance was — was made with four straight bar-magnets of two feet n length each (two of them, however, were very weak, and added little to the result), witha view of. Re to con- vey the magnetic influence through my own house? ‘The com- pass, in this instance, was placed outside of the northern, or main back-wall, a little above the level of the dining-room. floor, and the magnets were placed on the south side of the southern or main front-wall, a little below the level of the dining-room floor,—so that the magnetic influence, if it should. affect’ the compass, might pass, not only through the intermediate space of 25 feet 6 inches, but, at the same time, through the two prin- cipal walls of the house, and obliquely through all the joists of the floor, with other interposing substances. In order to render the compass as susceptible as possible, the directive force of the earth’s magnetism was very greatly diminished by a neutralizing magnet placed near“it ; whilst; in each experiment, the magnets on the opposite front of the house were simultaneously turned, with their analogous poles the same way, so as to influence the compass by the sum of their action, Three sets of experiments were'now made, when the results gave an amount of deviations of 0° 20, 0° 15’, and 0° 15’... Whilst the compass, with its neu- tralizing and directing bar were undisturbed, the magnets’ were brought round into the back garden, and placed at the distance of 25 feet 6 inches from the compass in the opposite direction, in which there was no interposing object ;—the deviations, now produced by changing the poles of the magnets simultaneously, were, in this position, very nearly the same as before, being, on each of three successive experiments, 0° 15’. This was decided evidence of the great extent at which the directive power of the magnet is capable of influencing the compass, and indicated that the measure of distances, even within a quarter of a degree of deviation, or less, might be accomplished with considerable precision. On subsequent trials, however, a visible action on the com- pass was produced by the influence of a pair of two feet mag- nets only, at much greater distances. VOL, XIII. NO. XXV.—JULY 1832. Hn 114 Rev. Mr Seoreshy w.the Uniform Permeability. of ‘The compass, in, the next trial, was placed upon ‘the library; chididep-adie, and the néedle so far neutralized, that its vibra- tions were reduced from 13 to 8 per minute. A pair of ‘tw feet'magnets were then taken tothe farther extremity of a bed room on the same floor, separated from the compass by:th idth of two rooms and a lobby, with two brick-walls, book ‘containing books, &c.; and there, in a parallel position, d about 10 inches asunder, presented to the compass, Their etion, though at the distance of 31 feet 8 inches, was quite evi- dent. and measurable., The amount of the influence of thein poles, in a mean of six sets of experiments, was 0°.29'3*, Having at this stage of my experiments obtained a beautiful pair of magnets (A), before referred to, from Sheffield, construct- ed under the kind superintendence of Mr. Abraham, I was’en- abled to accomplish every thing which my calculations had anti- cipated. ‘These magnets measure exactly 3 feet in length, 2}th inches in breadth, and 3th of an inch in thickness. They are) made out of the best cast-steel, and tempered throughout,—the, ends, after the whole was hardened, having been reduced to a gold colour, and the rest of the bars to a blue. The following table exhibits their powers in combination, as they lie in their case, 43 inches asunder, in that reduced state‘of magnetism pro- duced by being repeatedly placed in unfavourable contact ; when, magnetised,, howeyer,, to saturation, their action on. the, compass is still more considerable. = i i * In very delicate experiments, it is found to be advantageous to. the ‘ac. tion of the compass gently to tap the glass with the point of the finger ; without this precaution, the friction of the needle ‘on its pan may be pro- duptige of considerable discrepancies. rg AS, ’ pau j i i 1 (Ser ; r ih ' ay } : ag . phe by eS i sy ; OES : eo | ; t pif iy a WOR we Idauy Mud es } oF Tot CMR ' THE@ 6 ag Bi . wii eau: gy Qs sik Bang | «9 Mpoggiaid pio slot ance ae Ri ot YI ree x Bd TIX Ltoy i seer @ BSE | Oe all known Substancesto the: Magnetic: Influénce, &e. VS To] Rae eee ee Pm | ‘Sum 'ot the (Set 2 RISES | Mae Se praone. 2} 7 blthed Becker. (iss | . SARs SSPE: oh par! mri rar am Wide aie Pa] co neat O50 De TAT atop ie i jo 4s hoe WAST? jfo2 10000, » 64, 32, 12, 129.49 24-4. slang, 409) © a OU. SBB8ROCP! Aas COMP 42° 300 a ROBE Hep BOS BHP iggdg hE op ase] G8 go) Be BOS Lol AG th gh h tid oP titeia ia, latoed danipintdos soho 4) g in 300. ; : hee fie iia 4 18 4 of 42 365. ie RR 3 ‘ a ; \), 3422, : | 1.57. 34 h 13 55 By age “14 9 a 2064" 2 10° 56 le gpiega ns / s i : Pa i/f4 : bh viv ' Bai :) ae Pays os i330 fo as 2 PY 8" ET Pare es ay ¥ ’ 7 Nine a ath ie, 008 arastent «h Pakade 9 3868 918 ; 0. 31 33 L 3 6 a] ih 22.08 bigs 657} 0 22..85 | 0 sont0 f mo fae | Se 486 | 0 16 49° |) “O39 ad]! Bi 4h oe a) is hows 2 mors | 11 | 27 3 on 370 0 12 44 0 2 28 ‘aA’ i ’ Tre Ateiet ¢ lin ' T T . MQ) 2909.0) i teaprey front 9287 0.9 52, }6) Os 1 dhe, 433 poses Pes" fl Seago dee Octezo sav ole onslnag of 1d} 34'9' | Se a 0 6 18 |’ o 12367" ‘ ; if f 31 4 is ; Th oa , 43200 | i 151 ; : 0 5 12 r 9 }0, 24, i NBy | 989 De bi gee 125990) Odo dB ye] Oe) B B65) ie} ao | 89 os eT Oe 8 ie a i) : 19 1047-8 76 0° 2 37 0 5 4 “4b 4 ay Wo 4 i, of api ohn re) (65 9 2 4 0 4 2), 1} 62.3) ao a ae hea} sa go | 49 6 14/1 0 8 2% wuoOd bey! Loui 33487 3 | oe 43 o 1 29 0 2 58 4/68 9 |. oe 38 o 1 18 0 2 36 iasauh a 25 62 5 an 34 0 1 #10 0 3 we 30 | 74.9 He 198] 0 O 41 o 1 2 % | 7 3 | ge 1225| 0 0 6 | 0 Oo 82 . eeu 40 | 99 9 Di 84) 0 0 17 0 0 34 a wee 45) 1123 | ‘Sis | 69} 0 0 12 o 0 24 50 | 12 9 | ate 44} 60 0 9 | 0 0 18 116 Reve! Mr. Scoresby ¢ on the. Uniform. Permeability . With these magnets. the following experiments, shewing their influence through solid substances, were made. 0 aOR bo Near, the engine-house of the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way, I found a very favourable position for trying the effect of the magnetic influence, on the compass, through a solid mass of freestone, rock i in situ., In, the place referred to, the rock. is,ex- cavated in two. parallel positions to,a considerable depth into » the solid... Between the,.two. is a, solid, septum $1 feet.5 inches in thickness... The magnets being placed on the one side, and the compass on the other, the position of the needle, (which happen- ed to be so nearly parallel to. the. wall as to require no directing magnet), was observed, and then the opposite poles of the, mag- net were presented, which occasioned a deviation of about },of a degree. The experiment was repeated several times bith a very uniform result, affording a mean deviation, being the sum of the action of the north and south poles, of about 20’ of a, de- gree, whilst the calculated deviation corresponding with the total distance’of $2 feet 1 inch, viz. $1 feet 5 inches of rock, and 8 inches,. the distance of the centre of the cape fromthe rock, was 19”. Ona subsequent o¢casion, I attempted'to transmit “themag- netic influence through about 60 feet of rock near the same place as that of the above experiment; but the quantity of * live- iron *”'6n the spot, consisting of locomotive engines perpétual- ly passing to and fro, produced such frequent changes on the compass as to defeat my object in this experiment. In conse- quence of this disappointment, I sought in my own premises for a situation suited for my purpose, which the sloping nature o: the ground i in front.of the house readily presented. Placing the magnets in the front garden, and the,compass within the house in a cellar kitchen, the magnetic influence had to pass obliquely througli an‘ ‘extent’ of soil, stones, and brick-walls, of no Jess than 61 feet, in order to act on'the compass. But even at this distance its influence ‘was very perceptible:' The mean ‘of ‘six experiments indicated 'a deviation under fhe ‘wy of aie] “OS The p Mier Bibi fit {248 > Ky ae wer ST proximity stationary | iron has no “injurio us influence on ments of this kind whatever; but irdn in motion, saci Mase to arate GOW PAIS tibet HEB REAY produce an’ (eal nen, qa,27 ; RTL, RY WON @ set | Od Pv toat Sundae ae stepeeMypualhe, Wt site’ poles “of 0°37," whilst ‘the’ Galculated’ wetion, "at''244' focal pre or 61 feet 6 inches, was fotmd’ to ‘be” oeepr> fiiitledeul erresttial ihlagnetism was now partially tralized hp oom of ‘a’ small magnetic bat; when ‘a series Of eriftiefits gave'a medin OF 074%’. Another series OF six ae i , With an alteration inithe’ { sokicion GE eI ReaCAlETS magnet, ave a mean deviation 6f 0°52". "The ‘reality ‘ofthe in flueiice, therefore, under these’ circumstance, through aries of 61 feet of earth, h mages and bricks, raph bn nl ee bbb BAGS GHi0 ; le so timed: st) fee S a of Yi ‘SENOS 4, LAI TIG A$ 1 4920, V0 JRO) 2D.OT BR, 22AQTO> am ae hrittaehah AND MINTNG mana, i bie AY ‘! DeteaMwATion oF ‘THE riticxienie or sot stneTANG ONoT OTHERWISE 0m OE ts UST e. sa O HH ie) [he Bat poy e ib1i9o 8B Me The fhenasing ioatetientionts aeheation > as shay are.in vattnins able accuracy, are nevertheless amply sufficient for the practical application of the present. rabligd af determining the thickness of solid substances, not otherwise measurable. 190 _ The cases in which thi s mode of esi fs oid seems to, be. most, partic iY vhere, it appears to, me, its application, considerable importance,.chiefly occur in mining. 118 > Rev.\MrSedtesby on the Uniform’ Permeability. ~ Th tinnelling) for itistance, through ‘rock, and workiig! from different shafts, ‘this method of measuring the intermediate dis- tance wotild Often relieve ‘the engineer from much anxiety, and the miner from mich personal risk, when the opposite’ workings come néar togethér. For ‘although’ practical ‘men, who have been’ well experiénced in mining’ opérations, in’ that particular kind of ‘rock, may take’ a tolerable guess of the’ distance be- tween the two '“* head-ways” prévious to their “breaking through, yet, it is well known, that very experienced engi- neers have often estimated the interposed rock at some yards in thickness, when, in reality, it has not been more than as many feet. Blasting, under such a false supposition, it may be well imagined, might be attended with the most fatal consequences. A very serious accident, that had well nigh proved fatal to two very deserving men, happened in the working ‘of the rail- way tunnel under the town of Liverpool, which will very well illustrate the present case. This tunnel, which is 2250 yards in length, was excavated not only from the extremities, but also from six or Seven intermediate shafts. The person entrusted with the superintendence of the working department, being a practical man, was aware of their near approach to a junction, and arranged a signal with the opposite’ party previous to their making an intended blast. But the workman charged with this duty, it would seem, did not believe that the junction was £0 near, for whilst the confiding “ overlooker,” and a companion on the ‘opposite side, were listening to the sound of’ the’ picks, the thoughtless miner, without giving the signal, applied the match, when the force of the discharge, instead of re-acting, ex- ploded forward about the defenceless heads of the unfortunate individuals in the contiguous head-way. Most providentially, they escaped with their lives ; but they were severely wounded, their faces permanently blackened by the penetration of ‘unex- ploded gunpowder,’ and both of them’ suffered the’ loss’ of ‘an evel” f nN Cl Sea oF OTN? 0956 8 Ae IP aR "Tn this instance, had the distance been accurately determined, which it might have been by the magnetic influence to within a quarter of an inch, they never would have attempted a blast un- det such petilous circiimstances, or at’ least no man would have been’ so Fédkless of the safety of his fellow-workinen, as to have made the discharge without a sufficient warning, = of all known Substances to the Magnetic Influence. 19 Another important application of the proposed. method of as- vertaining, distances, is in the working of . mines. . When ap- proaching,an,old working from, a different shaft, or the verge of an; adjoining, mine—perhaps) a, different property,—many, re-, sons might,exist,,such, as an, accumulation, of water,, “ fire- damp,”, &c¢. why the separating wall should not be perforated s whilst,..on, the other hand, the value of the ore, or, bed,of coal might,be.such as to render it: desirable to approach, as near as consistent with safety. No,means, howeyer, heretofore|known, would,enable the miner to ascertain with accuracy, the, thickness of, the interposing wall ;, whereas, by the proposed method, when- eyer.the. two sides of the wall were attainable, the thickness, within, given limits, might easily be determined. . And, the. cases are. by no means unfrequent, in which a magnet, under. proper precautions, might be safely carried into an old working con- taining fire-damp or water, though the breaking through into that, working might, be attended with most, mischieyous or eyen consequences... 5 | ww Libre tre In mining, beneath the sea also, or, under the hed. of. a river, the same principle, (substituting a. dipping-needle, for the eom- pass), may be easily, applied, so as to determine the thickness of the, stratum of earth or rock forming the roof of the mine, and indicative of the sufficiency. of the protection against oyerwhelm- ing, waters... wT 2b oes Had ood Gin nds 98D fnew ¥r. x ride oi Many supposable cases might occur in engineering, or in or- architectural, works, in which the principle, before ,.us haye important application, Suppose, for instance, that it, is,proposed to, build a spite upon the tower of a church, or any, other, heavy. superstructure upon,a given wall, but it is not known, from. the want of embrasures or windows in some of; the pe mye each portion. of the | basement, be | sustain) the additional weight. , Instead.of where no ordinary means exist, of ascer- taining ita thickness, which might be laborious, and perhaps a blemish, to the, interior,.the magnet, would readily give, the thickness, to.the, greatest, desirable accuracy. In like manner, in engineering, the, thickness of walls, or beds of rock, not, other- wise, determinable but) by actual. perforation, might, in most supposable cases, be measured by means of tlie magnetic deyia- tions. 120 .Rev.\Mr Seoresby onthe Uniform Permeability . The yerifying of masonry or brickwork executed. by-contraet, and..not sufficiently ,inspected, is. another. application ofthis principle which, might very often be useful, by enabling \uss without injury to the. structure or. finishing, however delicate, to.determine the thickness of almost pa of the blank: walls with almost, perfect:accuracy.|,. ())0 f on .Hifiee .,Mr George Stephenson, the talented. engineer of the Liver- pool,.and;, Manchester railway, suggested another application, which,. he conceived, might frequently be, exceedingly usefulin the. working.of coal, ..In. many, cases it is the. practice of the, colliers to run. two. parallel drifts through a great extent, of coal, leaving between them, a wall, yfrom. 10 to. 20 feet thick, for, the support.of the roof, but which itis desirable should not be thicker than, necessary, to. prevent) the waste of labour and) coal. ..,In this. arrangement, which is often adopted: when ‘the roof is loose, 'so,as not easily to'be supported, it is a matter of great practical difficulty to prevent an undue encroachment upon the limited thickness, that the safety. of,.the roof benot endan- gered. In such a case, the apparatus for the deviation, might. be applied ywith much, aidan and the thickness verified, as occasion, might require: AGA ikgen cities Aon tttt hui An engineer in extensive, wesecitieg in, Scotland, ales resins visited Liverpool, and happened to be present ‘at the *‘ railway . area” when I ;was.trying the magnetic. influence throngh a great. body. « of solid, rock, expressed his exceeding, delight in what he, witnessed, and, mentioned several instances, m/his experience, in: which the present process would have been of. incalculable. ad.., vantage. .'I'wo of the cases it may be satisfactory. to mention. - In an extensive colliery, with the general ekingeuieénntdl working of which he was entrusted, a horizontal drift, designed: for carrying the water off the mine, by. conveying it to the well’. of the pumping-engine, was stopped up by the falling of a por-., tion of the roof... This circumstance, whieh’ compen spor ti stop to the chief operations of ‘the mine, occasioned them ¢ anxiety and perplexity, from their utter inability. to. determine the extent of the fallen rock... Not knowing how small that ex’ the workinen; and to attempt to clear it’ ram th OPE pe, prey of all known Substunces tothe Magnetic Influence. 121 where'the’water had risen’ within a yard’of the roof, was a mat- ter of much’ difficulty. | Nor did the examination ‘of thé upper part,-by the°engineer hirself lying flat in afloat, and pushing himself forward by his hands against the roof, give ‘him any sa! tisfaction, further than’ this, that the portion’ of fallen rock being solid, must be shaken with a-blast, as affording the’only means of clearing ‘away the obstruction: ‘This hazardous'experiment, after _ nitich delay and anxiety;' was at length undertaken ‘and ‘cleverly atcomplished ; and, fortunately, the obstruction proving to be very partial, the water made its way through the disrupted 'matetials. Bat it was a mere chance, as they knew nothing of the ‘thick- ness of the fallen masses. Had the thickness been ‘many times as great, they never could have ascertained how long it would have been safe to have worked below the obstruction, nor when a blast ‘at the upper part would have been the most advantageous. This; however, the magnetic deviation would have enabled theta’ readily to determine, and then they would have ‘proceeded at onée to the' most proper measures, arid been’ gp age from ame greatestembarrassment.. 9)" He HIM Mbe 4 ‘Another’ case which he mentioned was more sire i 7 the sinking of a coal-mine near the Frith of Forth it’ was ‘re! quired, on' one oecasion, to run two! parallel drifts or tunnels be- néath this arm of the sea. It was essential, in this work, that’ the two drifts should be near each other and parallel, but, for the suiecess of the future operations, they must not perforate the por ae . When, however, the tunnels had proceeded a ideation, steal weeithrebes misled by some mistake or neglect onthe part of the superintending miner, broke through the'septum, and the whole work, which had been conducted’ so far at a great expense, was rendered entirely useless, -Hére, _ theny was an’ instance in which magnets could have -been em- ployed’ with the greatest facility, and ‘must have been: Soracrsaen in preventing the accident which rer ttibyorses rag (oY nrg) liaeteao0 jen (phy tt CAMA MJ ¥GO fale 4 “Though many more’ cases may yo imagined in wih cet posal tors ab ass of important application, enough, I trust, has been! said toprove ‘that it'is tiot a meré’ matter off philosophical curiosity but is eapable of ‘becoming of extensive and practical utility) ! ye hp 122 Rev..Mit Scoresby! on\the: Universal’ Permeability , _ It stillh-remains:for «me to describe, the requisite. apparatus, with! the preparation: ofthe magnets, and to offer a few sugges- 0 for carrying «into the practice of mining, &c. the on developed:by the preceding investigations. {ciate -( {Dlieapparatus necessary for the practical phosodtet in view are chiefly)a pair of bar magnets, tempered throughout, of 3 feetor upwards:in Jength:; another pair, say of 12, inches, correspond- ing’ in ‘quality,temper, and) proportions; a compass. (the one employed for miming operations will do), with two or three other articles; of simple) structure, hereafter to be described, which may be made by any ordinary artizans. The preparation and determination of the nese of the magnets will be the first step in the business The bars havmg been wlieplitiont to saturation, will require to have their directive powers and foci of attraction determined. Previous to this, it will be prudent, to place, them upon.one ano- ther fora few-moments, with similar poles,.contiguous; not,in contact, but separated by a sheet: of: paper, or other, thin) sub- stance, in order to disperse or/neutralize any excess.of magnetic energy which: they; might not, beable, permanently. to retain. Without this or,;some-similar precaution,, the, intensity of the magnetic energy of the bars will be liable to diminution in the course) of the: experiments, so as to prevent satisfactory or, in- deed. usefulresults.\ «The position of the foci of attraction. may then be: easily determined. And. in accomplishing this, for ordi- nary practice, it will only be necessary to, try the deviation at, the first three or four lengths. Assuming the focal position, as inthe experiments heretofore made, at |;',th of the whole length.from each extremity; we shall generally, in properly rr ore well-proportioned' bars, be very near the truth. i bs -«But, by the way of. example, let the pcaision of, the. foci. of attraction of a three-feet bar, or of a: pair of such magnets in combination, be required, |;;‘The assumed position of the fociof attraction, at ,3,th the length within each extremity, will give 2 feet 6 sasha ri the focal length, and 3 inches for the distance of each focus from the extremity. The first focal length, be- cause of the measurements being from the centre of the com- pass to nearest end of the magnet, instead of the nearest focus, will be 2 feet 6 inches — 3 inches — 2 feet.3,inches.. ithe Ise-. cond 2.3 + 2.6= 4 feet 9inches ; the third:4:.. 9:4) 2°.6— 7 feet 3 inches, &c. Find now the mean deviations, «by ‘obser: vation; of the two poles of the magnet at these several distances; and multiply the tangent of the deviations by the reciprocals of the relative forces before determined (Tables at pp. 99 and 115) ; then; if the assumed position of the foci be correct, the numbers thus obtained will correspond very nearly with the tangent of the angle of the greatest deviation, as well as with each other. _ If, however, the tangent of the greatest deviation:be Jess than these remoter products, then the assumed position of the foci will be too near the extremity of the magnet; but ifthe nearest tangent be very much greater than the rest (we speak here:of a 3-feet magnet), then the position assumed will be too far from the pole. As, from principles already explained, the first tan- gent ought to be somewhat greater than the products of the other'tangents*, it will be desirable, when a tolerably close ap- proximation has been obtained, eae - result | by trying the deviations at greater distances. What has been now suggested for the otal of the foci of attraction, is ‘equally applicable to two or more bars in fixed combination, or ata given distance, as'to single bars.) VA convenient arrangement, represented in Fig. 6, designed for the safe keeping of the magnets and their employment in practical gener hte fo adapted for giving fixedness of position g the determination of their powers. Here, the magnets Al, A 2, are laid in parallel grooves in a case about four inches apart. C, C, are the neutralizing conductors of soft iron, which, uniting the opposite poles of the magnets when not in use, serve to preserve their energy uninjured. @ a are two pieces of wood fitted into grooves in the centre of the case, of the same size as the conductors. Such is the arrangement when the bars are required ‘to be neutralized, and always -when unemployed. When required in the mine, it is only necessary to change the position of one of the bars end for end, so that the two similar poles may lie contiguously, at the same time removing the con- * On account of this difference being so great, when short magnets, or very long compass needles, are employed, the first length must be rejected from the results, and the approximation for the focal position bé determined by the observations at the more remote distances. 124 Rev. Mr’Svobesby’ on the Uniform Permeability of” ductors int the grodves at aa, and* substituting in ‘their’ stead the Pieces of wood 5 by phis means the magnets are tetained * Whilst ‘thu8 retained in their case, the powers and yike focal position of both bars together are determined, so that their op dition'in practical operations is exactly the same. A table o their powers (after the’ manner of that given in page 115) nap then be calculated, and the bars forthwith employed as occasion any require. ~ But I proceed with some suggestions for the practical appli- cation of the foregoing principles and investigations in mining In all cases where both the level and direction of the work- ings or mines are known to be the same, or in which the differ- ence can be satisfactorily ascertained, the application of the proposed process for determining the thickness «f interposing substances, will be sufficiently plain from what has already been stated ; for, in such cases, a single observation of the deviation produced by the action of one or more magnets will be sufficient to show the distance betwixt the magnet and the compass. When the direction of the separating wall lies neardy north and south, so that the compass does not require any directing mag- net, the table of deviations already calculated for the magnets in use will enable the miner generally to judge with sufficient accuracy ‘of the distance, without the trouble of bringing the magnets round to make the corresponding experiment *. And even where a directing or neutralizing magnet is employed, it would not be difficult to come at very satisfactory results by the employment of the smaller set of proportional magnets (propor- tional as to dimensions and directive power), so as generally to render it unnecessary to remove the bars from one mine to the other: For if the two pairs of bars were constructed at the same rite of the same quality of metal, and of similar temper, there ‘Should the proposed plan of ineasuring the thickness of rock), &e. be brought into general practice, it would be useful and important to have tables constructed.of the form of that in. page 35, shewing the ratio of deviations for magnets of different degrees of energy....A. series of tables, for instance, might. be calculated for every degree, or for every two degrees, of delation tm t. focal length, from 55 or 60 to 75 or 80 degrees. 2 al knowony Seehetoncen tate Manteo, oh 1S would be. little difficulty of giving them a directive power, wh hich, at. considerable. distances, in reference to “their, foc. u_len thss would, be very, nearly, or almost exactly, the same ; and, e% c or some little difference in the magnetic intensity of, the two sets of. bars, it would be no difficult matter to ascertain the relative farce « of each, and to obtain, sufficiently accurate results, tion, ‘accordingly. , _The appropriation of. the results obtained | from the smaller set of magnets { for the, determination of the distance of the larger magnets from the compass, when the same deviation was produced, would be most simple—the measure of the distance given by the smaller magnets being, to the. real distance through the rock, as the focal Jength of the smaller is to that of the larger magnets. If, indeed, the, smaller ts were a foot, and the larger three feet in length, ‘the distances at which they would produce equal deviations, suppos- ing their magnetic energy proportional, would be just as one to three. Another method might | be adopted for reducing the observed deviation under a neutralizing or directing needle to the ratio ine the table of deviations, which is by finding. the number of oscil. lations of | the compass 1 needle i in a given time, after its adjust, ment in the amine, and by comparison with its ordinary vibra~ tions under terrestrial magnetism only, calculating. the relative magnetic forces. contending against the action of the magnet *. erro this ya iii troublesome, the former is to be preferred _ As in | ap lap oe A oon the comparative levels. or direc. tions, of the two workings might not. be satisfactorily. known, a single experiment, though it give the distance between the com. Efe the magnet, will not be sufficient to determine the nearest, sere of the two contiguous mines; but the nearest pproximation, I ba any may be very well determined, and shih -a matter of no mean importance,—the com- se direction, as well as. the distance of the workings i we: she of however, for the sake of perspi- on Tie a McC hss eeu te different circumstan- ces, will be proportional to the squares of the numbers of horizontal oscilla. tions in equal times. 126 Rev. Mr\Scoresby2on' the Uniform Permeability of cuity and practice; to consider’ this application of the enn under three ia ea cases. Gite ll _Whete ihe aie of the mines is known to be the same, but» the direction is doubtful. Tit this ase it is oly necessary ‘to apply the magnets in one 6f thé wines in @ given position, and then at the same horizontal level of the! other, (say on the floor of the mine, or at any par- tictilar ‘distance above), to try the deviations of the compass at moderate ‘intefvals, from ‘side to side, directly across the head- way, when, from the observation of the greatest deviation, the point nearest to the magnets may be ascertained. One precau- tion, however, will be necessary. If the direction of the com- pass-needle be not exactly at right angles to the position of the magnet, then the greatest deviation will not occur at the nearest point but a little beyond, towards the place where the action of the magnet is most perfectly tangential *. Hence, it will be generally advisable, not only to adjust the needle of the compass, by a directing magiiet, as near as may be to a right-angular position with the’ magnet (as shown by the known magnetic position of each mine), but also to repeat each experiment with both poles of ‘the magnet alternately presented to the compass, so as to obtain the difference of deviations of the two poles at each position of the compass. In order to conduct this ex- periment with the greater facility and uniformity of effect, the simple apparatus represented in Fig. 7, Plate V. of preceding volume, formed out of a piece of board, may be useful. C is the compass, and D a directing magnet sliding in a groove, which is so adjusted as to its distance from the compass, that the needle may assume a position pa to the straight edge * As this circumstance might in, some cases occasion a considerable error, if only the deviation by one pole were taken, it would be useful to have the means of ascertaining the extent of error capable of being thus product This would be given by a table of the'powers of the magnets, calculated from the sines of deviation instead of the tangents, which would shew the distance | of the magnet from the compass, as placed at right angles to the. needle in its deviated position. At great distances, _ however, no. material mi e can arise from the neglect of this source. ‘of error,—the powers of th sines and tangents being so nearly'the same in deviations under 5 or 6d egrees as to be ot: within the ordinary limits of error of observation. ane ths ay Nea Fi) ae — rt J) oe ‘i Mak S33 2h 4 "16 ° oe Ea) \ ‘ snr Ab } . mrtti Ae & pe > . M ’ be ; a “ eS ae ' , : ‘ ; ; i i { * - a el a 2 P ) ’ nA ’ ) j a tig. 6. Case of Magnets. all known Substances to the: Magnetic Influence, §c. 12% of the board aa, when that edge is placed parallel to the inter- posed substance, the thickness of which is tobe ascertained. The adjusting magnet is then fixed in its place by the thumb- screw. $,.S0.as to secure a constant influence, whilst the parallel- ism of aa with the wall of the mine is preserved ; and, in order to facilitate and secure the preservation of that parallelism, a deal plank may be, placed directly across, the mine. against, the extremity of the working, and supported at the required level, which would not only serve as a table for the compass. apparatus, but having nailed upon it a straight batten near_and, parallel to the edge, it would enable the experimenter to bear the compass from side to side of an irregular working, and to preserve in eyery part of the distance the parallelism of the straight edge aa. Fig. 8. Plate I. illustrates this arrangement. Suppose T to be the working of a mine, and 'T’ the approxi- mating working, and it is required to ascertain the thickness of the intermediate, mass of rock R. The case of magnets M being placed against the middle of the wall, in one of the head- ways, the plank P is placed at the same horizontal level on the opposite side, when the compass apparatus,, guided by the batten e ¢, being carried from side to side, will, shew the great- est deviation in the position a. Let the magnets be|now turned with their opposite pole towards the compass, (the time for doing which is to be indicated by signal, as about to. be suggested), and the deviations tried a second time across..the mine. \ If the greatest deviation be in the same position as before, that may be assumed as the nearest point ; if not, p ney stir tions must be taken. It is not necessary to denceibe the cliinaam more soiniati ly, nor to enter into the management of the apparatus for all particular conditions ; for to do so would swell this paper to an inconvenient length, whilst the details would be easily anticipa- ted by a very little practice. It may be proper, however,\ to mention, that where the deviations on the removal of the com- pass continue to increase to the very extremity of the board, or to the side of the headway, it will be necessary to cause the mag- net to be removed in ‘ar sa so that the maxi. mum deviation may mtunatietatsotily obtained add | J 128 Rev. Mr Scoresby on the Uniform Permeability of Case II.—Where the direction may be certain, but the level doublful. Here the magnet and compass being placed on the known line of direction, the compass is moved progressively upward, from the floor to the roof of the mine, to determine the greatest deviation, which, it is evident, will be on the same horizontal level as that of the magnet. | A result, perhaps more satisfactory, might be obtained by the use of a needle, suspended like a dipping needle, and traversing in a vertical plane. Such a needle being brought into a vertical position by a small directing magnet, would shew by its devia- tions the position of corresponding level. Case III.—Where both level and direction may be uncertain. In this instance, the magnet being fixed, and the plank placed on the floor of the mine, the compass apparatus is to be car- ried from side to side, till the place of the greatest deviation is ascertained, or the middle between the two positions of great- est’ deviation produced by the different poles. This will give the directional position. The vertical needle being now tried throughout a vertical line drawn through the directional point, will shew by its greatest deviation. the horizontal level of the magnet, which, being at the same time in the directional line, will. indicate the nearest attainable point between the magnet _ and compass. ‘The vertical needle, in this and similar cases, may be guided in its transit by a board, with a’ straight edge, or pillar of wood, placed vertically, so as to’ preserve its: ny lelism of position at every altitude. | It may be proper here to call to mind, that the chief object of the processes now described, is the determination: of) the thickness of solid substances not otherwise measurable, ‘and not primarily at least, the determination of direction and levels; for the application of the observation of deviations to°these latter purposes is only expected to afford an approximation, in some cases, indeed, a very important approximation, to: the’ truth. Where the distance to be measured is small, say only 8 or 10 feet, or in any case in which the deviations: amount 'to'S or 4 degrees,—the line of direction may be very accurately de- termined by the middle point between the maximum deviations all: known Stubstarices to the Magnetic Tiyptuence Sc Ae9 of the opposite poles of the magnets, and especially if each maxi- mum be itself determined by the mean of equal deviations on both sides of the maximum ; in this case I have frequently de- termined, at moderate distances, the: very point ‘on the: cross _ plank, from whence a line drawn at right angles will pass through _the.magnets, consequently the nearest possible distance between the magnets and compass. Where the deviations, however, are very small, as it will then requirea considerable’ change in the “position of the compass, laterally, to produce any sensible change in the deviation,—the line of direction, or the level, will be pro- portionally less certain, though the nearest distance cs * suf- ficiently epumnet, Pye tert As the person fihs conducts any experiments on the foregoing principles will have to direct the application of the magnets, with any changes that may be requisite as to their poles or posi- tion, whilst the experiment is in progress, an arrangement of directions by signal will be necessary ; and this may be very well accomplished by the blows of a hammer or mall, ’'The distance at which any sound can be heard through solid substances, will depend both on the nature of the concussion, and the quality’ of the vibrating mass. Through earth, gravel, or other loose’ materials, the transmission of sound is very li- mitedand uncertain ; but through solid uniform rock, direc- tions may be communicated by signals to very considerable dis- tances.’ In'solid and uniform sandstone, the pick, I understand, maybe very well heard through a distance of fifteen or sixteen yards, whilst the vibration produced by a blast may be percei- ved at very great distances beyond. ‘The working of coal by the pick may be generally heard sixty or eighty feet, I am told ; though no rational determination of the thickness can be made from thé nature or intensity of the sound,—for a change in the structure of the bed, or the interposition of an increased quan- tity of moisture, may produce as great an alterationin the sound as might be'expected ifthe distance were doubled |” The blow of a mall upon aniron wedge set in the rock, may be heard much farther than the stroke of a pick, or the blow of the hea- viest hammer ‘on thesface of the rock,—and this will forma convenient arrangement/for the purpose of signals. NOL, XILf. NO. XKV.=JuLnY 1882. I 130 ~=—Rev. Mr Scoresby on the Uniform Permeability of By the use of two elements,—number of blows and an extra interval of time in different parts of the series,—an abundant code of signals might be arranged within the limits of not more than eight or nine blows in succession *. * "The following may serve as an illustration of the method proposed for signalizing by means of blows. The number might be increased, and the signals modified, by employing scratchings with the point of a pick-axe, which can, be heard at considerable distances, as well as by the method of blows. Drrecrions by the Exrrrrmenter Answers or Inquiries by the Ma- observing the Deviations. nager of the Magnets. Bie of Indication. — paling Indication. 2. Attention. 2. We are attending. 3. Apply the magnet (N. pole) 3. It is done. where you are; as near as : you can tell opposite me, at the floor of the mine. 4. Reverse the pole of the magnet, 4, It is reversed. and apply it to the same spot. 5. Neutralize the magnets. 5. They are neutralized. 1,2. Apply the N. pole of the mag- _—1, 2. It is so applied. net to the middle of the | working, at the floor of the mine. 1, 3. Carry the magnet to the right 1, 3. It is so applied. on the same level. N.B. The distance in yards to be indi- cated by the number of suc- cessive blows. 1,4. Ditto to the extreme right of _ 1,4. It is at the extreme right. the mine ; same level. 2,1. Ditto to the left,...... so many 2,1. It is so applied. yards. 2,2. Ditto to the extreme left of 2, 2. It is at the extreme left. the mine. 2,3. Raise the magnet vertically _ 2, 3. It is raised as directed. -from the floor, so many feet. 2,4. Raise it to the roof, directly 2, 4. It is at the roof. rene | upward. on 3, 1. Depress it to the floor, directly 3,1. It is at the floor. downward. | ; te 3,2. The experiment is finished. 3, 2. Is the experiment finished ? © 3, 3. ‘The experiment is not finished. 8,3. T understand. : 3, 4. Do you understand ? a I do pestpenesseo vil What ‘ « all known Substances to the Magnetic Tnfhience; &e. Il .. And by such a code it would be perfectly easy for the eon- ductor of the experiment to give every requisite direction for es 22~ ogee eoarg anneieecs tne drarmamenaantecie eee blows could be distinctly heard. _At distances, however, beyond the limits of communicable vibrations, the application of the magnets must be by precon- certed arrangement. In this case a certain moment of time might be agreed upon for the application of the magnets; and given intervals arranged when the magnets should be reversed, and when neutralized. Though, in the preceding investigations, the equal permeabi- lity of solid substances generally has been verified or assumed, nothing has yet been stated in respect to the effect of the inter- position of metallic iron on the action of the magnet. This sub- stance, the action of which on the magnetic needle is so peculiar, has indeed been made the subject of very particular and diligent investigation, but the results have been intentionally omitted, both because these results are somewhat different from all the others, and because iron, in a metallic state, is not likely to be met with in mining, so as in any way to affect the universality of application of the process herein suggested for the measurement of distances otherwise indeterminable. Thus much, however, may be briefly mentioned, that iron, in any state in which it can be had, whether malleable or cast, whe- 4,1. Is the magnet against wall ? 4,1. It is against the wall. 4,2. Is the magnet neutralized ? 4, 2. It is neutralized. 4,3. Yes! 4,3. Yes. It is. 4,4. No! 4,4. No. It is not. 1, 2, 1. Lay aside the magnet till di- 1, 2,1. May we lay aside the mag- rected. net ? 1, 2,2. Place the magnet. 1, 2,2. Shall we place the magnet ? 1, 2,3. Which pole of the magnet is 1, 2, 3. The North pole is presented. presented ? 2,1, 2. The South pole is presented. 2, 1, 3. Where is the magnet placed? Answer by signal of other column. ADDITIONAL SIGNALS TO BE FILLED UP, 2, 2,1; 2 % 25 228; 23,1; 23,2; 29,35 31,25 3, % 25 3, 2,35 3, 3,15 3,3, 2; 3,3, 3; &e. N.B. The separation of the number of blows by a comma, denotes a sen. sible pause between each series, 12 ~ 182 On the Permeability of known Substances. ther in steel tempered or soft, does not prevent the influence of the magnet being transmitted to the compass; but, on the con- trary, I have most commonly found, that the deviations produ- ced by the magnet acting through a mass of iron, are greater than when nothing whatever is interposed. I have also found that the influence is not interrupted, though the interposed me- tal be a mass of hardened steel, nor even when trial was made on a body of powerfully magnetic bars, two or three inches in solid thickness,. When the mass of iron is not otherwise magne- tic than as to its magnetism of position derived from the earth, then the action of a magnet passed through its neutral or equa- torial plane, is, in all cases, (as far at least as can be inferred from very many trials), more energetic than when no such sub- stance is near it. This was so particularly the case when the magnetic influence was passed through the two double cylin- ders and furnace of a locomotive steam-engine (consisting of ten successive plates of iron, forming a total of 5§ inches im thickness of metal), that it required the magnets to be a foot nearer to the compass \in free space, than whes placed beyond the engine, to produce equal deviations. For, whilst the dis- tante of the magnets and compass, when the influence was trans- mitted through the engine, was 7 feet 8 inches, the distance on the open side, producing the same deviation, was 6 feet 74 inches *. Now this anomaly may be easily shewn to arise from the de- velopment of magnetism in the mass of iron, through the proxi- mity of the magnets, by which the direct or permeable influence of the magnet is necessarily augmented; but that the whole of the effect which takes place is not due to this cause,—what is generally called “ induced magnetism,”—but chiefly to the ac- tual transmission of influence through the very substance of the mass of iron, I have distinctly and experimentally determined. “Some working engineers, who were present when this experiment was made, were exceedingly inquisitive about the effects produced, watching the deviations of the compass with great astonishment. One of them perceiving _ that the magnet, which was hid from his view by the engine, equally affected the compass as when. presented in the open space, addressed to his comrade, and made this characteristic remark,—“ Why, Tom,’ s he, “ it sees through’t Foie a C \ ° ie Go) he’ SOP Boke athe aes = tee ee ity aod Saat } eS == ee ag ( 138) | ol eI judy < ‘eg yuidy | “gz pady | ‘or wady | tt wdy | cc sepy | 6 eye |e dy | eet % Ainge | og oung | OW ar Tdy | oz 4eye | oz dy | -eredy | pt dy | ot dy | er edy | 2 sepy | teyedy | test ‘g, Syne | ‘et oung | ye pady | ‘or pady | ‘et Ae | ‘giqedy | et mdy | -t wdy |e qedy |-z wep | -o wey | -¢ dy | ‘ocer ‘oy Ang | ‘og oung |‘, Avpy | gt [dy | “¢ oung | +2 i eo Tady | py dy | ‘6 jwdy | os wep_ | 1s aeyy | os wePW | “Eze "6@ oung | ‘og oung | *g Avy | ‘oT Tady | ar fey | “or pedy | we qadv | ver mdy | or mv | corse | eg - tepy | cos eT | ezer "ag sung | 6g eung | “6g Tady | ‘et judy | FL Ae | et wedy | er pady | pr redv | or wey | oc sep | er wzepe | ‘9 tly | clear ‘96 Sung | ‘9T oung | ‘9g Tady | ‘or pady | ‘or Avy | ‘ct dy j zz edy | ‘or adv | 9 wdy | «6 Gal os ‘qeg | Gt IT | “Ozer ‘96 otne | “g], eung | ‘gg pady | ‘er pady | 71 Avy | ‘9g Pedy | ee wedy | tr edy | 2 edy | oz eC | 1S “Pa | “Ps LC | “est ‘g¢ Ane |g Aine | 9 Avy) pe tedy | ‘g ounge | eg Avyy | ces pedy | br dy | 02 weedy | rz qady | fr aepe | is zene | Pzel L Ane |e Aine | AO 1g dy | eo Aeye jt ee | cis adv | oi iedv |‘ wdy | te szepe | er sep | “6s see | ze ‘OL ounp | og eang | -9¢ yady | -1g pady | ‘or Avy | or dy Pot wadv | cis mady | ez 4eRE | os ee |e ep | er zee | ezer ‘OL Ainge = ae 0g Tady | og “eye | ‘oe adv | ‘os Tedy | ‘of Pady | es dy | or wepe |r sepe | ce were | cicel ‘ge Aine ¥ ‘el Tudy | ‘we Avy | oz dy | et wdv | er edy | cz dy | os wepe | tr sere | er zene | ect “6T oung OL Tady | cet ey | or mdy | cer mdv | wy jdy | ¢ wey | pe wep | or were | Lr sere | oredr ‘ar, oung’ jy "ee [Ady | ‘se Avy | vez wady | -cs judy | ot wedv | ‘ie “eR | er “deg | os 2eTE | Os ee | eI8T ‘Ig oung . % Sony ‘g sung | Be dy | Mey | cig dy | es mdy | iz were | Gr Gea) eae | ‘Lia ‘9g ouny . 6T judy | ‘or eung | St Aepy | “zz pdy | ‘es Pedy | ‘or [dy | ‘ez Ae ‘SI see | “IT ee | TST ‘OL oung , “f ‘et tady | ot Avy | 9 iedv |r Ae | et dy | ‘et wew [it mdy | 6 ‘qeq| * ue | ‘cre "9% ouny: " ‘et Tady | 1 aung | *ze qady | ‘oz pady | ‘£1 qady | er dy | or dy | = mady | esse | Fret ‘Ze oune “ cl Tady | ‘9 oung ed Indy | -¢ supe | -9¢ pudy | 9c Iady |p oung | eg Gog | os we | “SIST “pS ouny “= ‘91 Tudy | -~ oung | Ze iedy jt Aepy | iz pedy | ‘in wdy | og dy | os qea | ol zen | IST ‘g oune * ‘st Iady | ‘9 Avy | 08 TeV | cee rady | “1g pady | ‘er We | os weRY | OL eRe | IT zee | TIT ‘gT oung - Iz Judy | oz Ae oe Tady | gg tady | er wady | ‘er mdy | ez aaa | es ‘qed | of sere | “ort "PZ ouns ve a %% judy | et Avpy | os Pedy |p Aepy | ‘os judy | “te Wady | “Zt - 91 URAC | 0S WC | “GOST ‘91 oune ha et dy | os Ae | ce AU | ct Ae | 6 Iedy | or imdy 1 > WA) S eW | ‘so8t ‘Togyonbuy;) = ota} : “og een plone. | vere oor paw wouL sua | woUL Be | oxfam yey nogens | payee | "| kyonng Suqmos uetog | “SA 'S “Ha “bsg ‘aoove “Ay Aq poyeorunmmoy “bsg ‘x09 AUNIY ka wv yday ‘saounanaddy youngnyy snortva Jo a0q yr so Soy ¥ dong ur pjayfsdury fo ysrang ay ur “wang LNOLIAILT, 90 ( 184 ) "eT ‘9 “ET SEG ois g masons @ SHH BG eee po | 90 ‘po ‘pO ~PO pO ‘~pO "po pO ydag “ydag pO 6) “qdag ‘Ppo "390 "PO +ydag +jdag *~O *ydag ‘ydag “ydag ‘qdag "6g “Sny "gt “deg "Iz “ydeg ‘ey “ydag ‘FI “3deg + “deg “430g ‘sdoy, ON ‘FI “ydog "92 “ydag % “ydeg 01 4dag *§1 ‘ydag "8 “qdag ‘Ie ‘Sny ‘Sny “ydag ‘dag sny Sny ‘Sny ‘sny dag dag ‘ony “ydag 4dag ‘ony ‘ony “ydag "99 sey “ydeg dag dag ‘Sny “ydag adag ‘Sny “yeouM. ted ‘sdoy Suryotg ueseg “soog jo UMBMS YSel *wOOTg Uy MOTTE MA *qsoAIe yy poystuLy ‘panuryuor——saounimaddy yo.1ngo xy fo AIQSUTIY. Register of Natural Appearances. 85 ' On the 19th of April 1808 there was a heavy fall ff bay for four hours. 1808.—A fine productive harvest, and but little blight. Last week in April 1809, very cold, wet, frosty, and unpleas- ant weather. May 1809 came in very fine and hot. -1813.—An immensely productive harvest, and a general thanksgiving for it. January 4th 1814, the deepest snow that has been known for 40 years began, and it continued on the ground for five weeks: at some places the drifts were 15 feet high. The frost continued 12 weeks to March 20. 1814. 1816.—From April 12th to 15th snowremained on the pet and the weather was exceedingly cold and frosty. 1816.—September 3d, a hard frost which produced ice. 1817.—The month of August very wet, succeeded in Septem- ber by fine harvest weather till November. 1818.—May 8th, a deluge of rain fell, after which no more rain fell at Treveroux or near, till September 5th, 17 weeks and one day, and all vegetation was completely burnt up. 1819.—October 22d, Snow six inches deep. 1822.—No rain from May 2d to July 5th, nine weeks of very hot days. _ 1823.—Rain little or much every day from June 29th to Au- gust 15th.—47 days. 1824.—A very wet summer, but not cold ; crops of corn slight of hay heavy. : - 1825.—Sold the produce of 12 acres of hops for 5s. - 1826 and 1827.—Two fine summers. | _ 1828.—Very heavy rain every day from July 6th to August 14th. | 1829.—Though the 9th of April is stated as the day on which oat-sowing was finished, yet an experiment was tried, by sowing white gate field with black Tartar oats, on the third of May. The weather was much against them at first, but they turned out very well, and were carried in on the 7th of October. Rained more or less every day from the 16th of June to 20th September, except.on four days, the 23d and 24th of July, and the 3d and 4th of September. 136. =) at As Diodorus wrote in the Greek language, it is or ee adopted the weight of that country, according to which’ ‘the value of this mass of gold, as calculated by the Abbé Barthele- my, would amount in our money to about L. 11,000,000 Ster- ling; whilst others estimate it at somewhat less, a difference, however,‘ scarcely worth investigating. It is impossible not to suspect the statement here given of some exaggeration, though ‘we may be induced to believe that a large quantity of the pre- cious metals had been collected at that early period ; but’ the exactness of the quantity must be a subject of doubt, when it is considered that Diodorus wrote near two thousand years after the events he relates, and in an age when written records must have been both rare and of doubtful authenticity. The pro- bability of an accumulation of gold to a great extent in Baby- lon, is strengthened by the narrative in the book of Daniel, of the great size of the image of gold erected by Nebuchadnezzar, on the plain'of Dura, near that city. There is an appearance of authenticity and of accuracy in the account given by Herodotus of the tribute of gold and silver which Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, about 480 years be- fore Christ, drew from the several provinces, into which, after completing his conquests, he divided his extensive dominions. The amount supplied by each province is stated, and, whether paid in silver or gold, “the aggregate sum,” he says, “will be found to be 9880 talents in silver, and estimating the gold at thirteen times the value of the silver; there will be found, ac- cording to the Euboic talent, 4680 of these talents. The whole being estimated together, it will appear, that the annual ati paid to Darius was 14,560 talents +-.” This treasure is estimated by Gibbon and by Rennel, to be dighdvleni to about L.8,250,000 Sterling. According to’ the inference of the former writer, drawn from the same authority, in book i. cap. 192, this revenue was the surplus, after the expenses of the maintenance of the army, and of the provincial administration, had been discharged. This quantity of gold and * Diodorus, book ii. cap. 1, + Herodotus, book iii. cap. 95. : Accumulations in Syria and Persia. — 148 silver, was probably that which became the property: of the mo- narch, ae a kind of reserve stock, to meet ee con- tingencies. i? We find in another passage in Herodotus, a a ederipciende the manner in which the treasure so collected was preserved in the royal residence. ‘“ The gold and silver were melted and poured into earthen vessels, and these when filled were re moved, leaving the metal in a solid mass; when any was wanted, a piece was broken off, of the capacity which the occasion re- *. ” It seemed, as far as regarded Darius, to be eli viata no more gold or silver than was needed to conduct the commerce, and to defray the expenses of the state-+, which at that period could not be of any large amount, from the paucity of com- modities, which were the subjects of exchange, and from the low prices which all the necessaries and conveniencies of life bore. It is not improbable that this reserve fund was carefully kept from circulation by hoarding, as a preparation for the grand campaign against the Greeks, which must have formed a part of the warlike operations projected by the Persian monarch and his ministers. We learn that Xerxes took with him into the field so much money and valuable effects, as formed loading for 1200 camels t ; and, upon the disastrous events which attended his invasion, was under the necessity of distributing so large sums to the mercenary troops which had accompanied him to the field, that Sparta alone received from him 5000 talents §. Darius coined pieces of gold of great purity, which obtained the name of Darics: they were about the value of twenty-five shillings of our present money. The name Daric was at subse- quent periods, however, given generally to all gold coins which contained but little alloy, and thus indicating the purity of the _ metal, rather than the weight of the piece. The darics of this coinage, were fewin number, and contracted in eirculation, or more of them would have been handed down to posterity. It is said, there are but two now known to exist, one of which is in the collection of Lord Pembroke. The figure of an archer is * Herodotus, book ili. cap. 96. + Strabo, book xv. p. 505, + Demosth. de Symm. § Isocrat. Yuna $2. B4h 0 Mecumilationsin Syma and Persia. ’ stamped on it, which: ‘gave rise to’ an ancient witticism, ‘that may be worth relating. eeyyemey( Ges ALG Agesilaus, king of Sparta, received from. Dasrhas a- bribe of ‘80,000 ‘darics to withdraw from the other Grecian states ‘with wliom he was in alliance. Being reproached for his treachery,’ he \defended himself, by asserting that his operations had been sus- ‘pended; owing to bis having been defeated by 80,000 archers. a Greece.—The wealth of Croesus, king of Lydia, who lived about’540. years before Christ, has become proverbial ; and, though no precise communication of the extent of it has been “handed down, we may form some estimate of: it, by the musifi- cent present he made to the temple of Delphi, as related by Herodotus *, ‘and Diodorus ++, amounting to 4000 talents of 'sil- ver, and 270 talents of gold, or near L. 3,000,000 in valite of our money. ' We find in Herodotus a story sileataat both of the eal of this ‘king, and of the manners of his time. When Croesus sent his Lydians from Sardis to consult the oracle at Delphi, they were received with hospitality by the family of the Alec- meonide at) Athens, and, on their returi, acquainted their master with the kindness they had experienced. A member of that family received an invitation to visit Croesus, and on his atrival was presented with as much gold as he was able to car- ry {... */Lo improve the value of the gift, Alemson made use of the following artifice: Providing himself with a large tunic, in which were many folds, and with the most capacious buskins he could procure, he followed his'guide to the royal treasury ; there rolling himself among the golden ingots, he first stuffed his buskins as full of gold as he possibly could ; he then filled all ‘the folds of his robes, his hair, and even his mouth, with gold dust. This done, with extreme difficulty he staggered from the place; and from swelling mouth, and projections all-around him, ‘resembling any thing rather than a man. When Croesus saw him he burst into laughter, and not only suffered him to -earry away all that he had got, but added to it other, presents equally valuable. The family from this cireumstance became exceedingly baeveesici and Alcmaon was enabled: wi ata caie * Bei, c. 50. ip? | t Diodorus, b. xvi. 56,, ein at 6 105, Tih, 1 SHO OF ap .ewore If aE v1 »¥ prt in1se9tq wit fx OY srry ny Accumulations of Gold and Silver in Greece. M5 maintain those horses which gained him the victory in the Olympic games.” Whatever may have been the real wealth of Cronin it sedtibal appear that gold must have been of very high value in Athens, when such a load as an individual could carry about his person, in the way here described, could be sufficient to form the founda- tion of the fortunes of one of thearistocratical families of that state. _ Pytheus, king of the petty territory of Celana in Phrygia, has been celebrated for his wealth. According to Herodotus, he was a native of Lydia; but according to Pliny, of Bithynia ; and it does not appear in what manner he became possessed of the rich territory he ruled. It is related of this man by Hero- dotus, that, “* when Xerxes invaded Greece about 470 years be- fore Christ, he entertained that monarch and his whole army with great magnificence; and being asked the amount of his wealth, replied to Xerxes, I conceal nothing from you, and will not affect ignorance, but fairly tell you the whole. As soon as I heard of your approach to the Grecian Sea, I was desirous of giving you money for the war. On examining into the state of my affairs, I found I was possessed of 2000 talents of silver, and 4,000,000, wanting only 7000 staters of gold of Darius ; All this I give to you; my slaves and my farms will be sufficient to maintain me.” According to the estimate of Larcher, an able French critic, the metallic treasures of this man, the ruler of a small territory, but the proprietor of rich mines of silver, amounted to L. 3,600,000 of our present money. A long account of this man has been collected by Larcher, chiefly from the work of Plutareh,,“* De Virtutibus Mulierum.” It narrates the measures taken, by his wife to cure him of that passion for seeking gold, to which the lives of his subjects were sacrificed, and by which a want of sufficient food for subsistence was caused. As the story has been frequently told, and must be familiar to most readers, we may dispense with the relation of it. The application of the labour of all the inbabitants to the searching for, and purifying gold, caused such distress for food, that at length Pytheus was induced to direct, that only one-fifth, instead of the whole, of the citizens should in future be compelled to devote themselves to those operations. The story of Pytheus is important to one of the objects of the present inquiry, inasmuch as it shows, as far as it regards VOL. XIII, NO. XXV.—JULY 1832. K 146 Accumulations of Gold and Silver in Greece. the particular case, that the acquisition of gold and silver was only to be obtained, in that remote period, by the mines being in the hands of severe as well as arbitrary despots, who spared neither the enjoynients, the labour, nor even the lives, of their subjects, ‘inthe eager pursuit after the metallic riches of their dominions. ' It does not appear that the free states of Greece possessed a store of gold and silver, equal to that acquired by these absolute rulers of smaller portions-of territory. | When Pericles *, in order ‘to animate the Athenians, in their defence against the Peloponnesians, about the year 431 before Christ, addressed them, he stated the amount of the money then in the citadel to be L- 1,162,250 ; ‘and, in addition to that, the gold in the sta- tue of Minerva, which must be replaced if appropriated to the public ‘service, to amount to L.124,800. The revenues de- rived from the tributary states, amounted ‘annually to the sum of 1.116,250, and more than L.'700,000 had been expended in improving the public works +. The mass of the precious metals brought from the eastern to the western world by Alexander, must have been enormous, though much of that captured was expended in the subjugated countries, and in those which were between them and Greece. The accounts of historians are probably exaggerated ; but what- ever allowance may be made for such a practice which was too common with the ancients, we must be convinced from the nu- merous authorities * which bear testimony to the facts, and cor- roborate each other, that the accumulation in the hands of indivi- dual monarchs and states, was much greater about the time of the establishment of the full power of the Roman empire, one any subsequent period. _ The treasures acquired by Alexander in Susa and Persia, exclusive of those which were found in the Persian camp and — in Babylon, are stated by the authors above referred to and. others, by some at 40,000, by others at 50,000 talents. The trea- sure of Persepolis is rated at 120,000 talents ; that of Fasagarde ; at 6000; and upon the capture“of Ecbatana, ey renal * Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War, book ii. ial + The sums here stated are taken according to the alin Smith, the learned translator of Thucydides. fouont -$ Strabo, 615, p. 502,—Arrian, iii, 3. Justin, xi. 14 ano Tht, Vit. Alex, 36. } real , . >| Sa Aéciieulations of Gold and Silver in Greece. 14 account preserved in Strabo, 180,000 talents are said to have beén collected from thence, besides 6000 talents which Darius had with him, which were taken by the murderers. Alexander's profuse expenditure, which his flatterers called generosity, was in accordance with the vast sums he seems to have acquired. He gave great rewards to his soldiers, and paid their debts, amounting to 9800 talents. He presented to the Thessaliaus 2000 talents. The funeral of Hepheestion is said to have cost 12,000 talents, and the researches in natural history, for the work of Aristotle, 800 talents, The wealth of his satraps was also enormous. Harpalus, one of them, is said to have amassed 50,000 talents, although, when at Athens, he denied the possession of more than 950. The successors of Alexander also collected large sums ; though, by their extensive and fierce wars, the greater part was dissipated. In Polybius is found a description of Ecbatana, at ajperiod subsequent to the capture of that place by Alexander, and af- terwards in the reigns of Antigonus and Seleucus. ‘The magnificence of the palace,” he says, ‘ was such in every part as to give a high idea of the power and wealth of those by whom it had been erected ; for though the wood was all cypress or cedar, no part of it was left naked ; yet the beams, the roofs, and the pillars that supported the porticoes and peristyles, were all covered with plates, some of silver, and some of gold. The tiles, likewise, were all of silver. Though the place had been three times plundered by those we have named before Antiochus arrived, there was still remaining, in the reign of Ena, some pil- lars cased with gold, and a large quantity of silver tiles, laid together in a heap. There were also some few wedges of gold, and a much greater number of silver. These were coined into money, and amounted to the sum of about 5000 talents *.” Ptolemy Philadelphus, the second king of Egypt after Alex- ander, is stated by Appian, upon the authority of official docu- ments, to have possessed treasure to the enormous amount of 740,000 talents; either Roman talents, or the small Ptolemaic talent. If Roman talents, which were about equal to the Attic talent, be rendered into money of the present day, it will give the amount as 178,000,000. If the smaller talent, which seems most»correct, be taken, it will amount to at least one-quarter of * Polybius, book v, cap. 9.—Hist. Rom. Proem, 10. K% 148 Accumulations of Gold. and Silver in Rome. that sum. \o'Though an account of this kind may appear exag- gerated, yet there seems no reason to doubt its general, veracity. The revenues-of the Ptolomies were excessively large, and the countriesover which their dominions extended were, by, the col- lections, completely drained of all their wrought gold and _sil- ver; and the tributes. were collected. by the farmers. of ,the re- venue, with the assistance of an armed force, composed not,of regular soldiers, but of organized bands of robbers. Some idea | of the degree of rapacity in extracting revenues under Ptolemy, may be formed by comparing the tribute drawn from the pro- vinces' of Ccelesyria, Palestine, and-Samaria, under Cyrus, as given by Herodotus, and that extorted by the successor. of Alexander, as given by Josephus. At the time of Cyrus, the island of Cyprus was included in the’ province of Ccelesyria’; but in the time of Ptolemy, was separated from it. In the first instance, the tribute paid was 350 talents *.. In, the latter in- stance, it'was farmed to Evergetes for 8000 talents ; but if the taxes were farmed by a Jew, he was to pay double that amount, and, moreover, supply to the royal treasury the money required to redeem the confiscated goods of such pues as had not paid their taxes}. During the pried of the Macedonian empire, the precious metals were spread in great abundance over the whole eastern shores of the Mediterranean ; and if there had not. been a very large portion of them hoarded up in the royal treasury, their value must have fallen much lower, in comparison with other commodities, than was actually the case +. The Romans.—The extension of the aren empire, until it comprehended almost the whole of the known world, if it tended to diminish the production of the precious metals, powerfully at- tracted them, from Asia and Africa, to its own metropolis. It is thus that the enormous fortunes of individuals, which are re- ated by historians, are not to. be accounted for. The descrip- _ tions of such fortunes, it is true, are not confined to their mere metallic wealth, but include their lands, houses, slaves, and fur- niture, : and also money lent at interest on mortgages or other *Herodot us, book iii. cap. 89. - + Josephus Antig- Jud. xii ; $ See, on this subject, the valuable German work of Professor Boeckh, en- titled, “ Staatshaushaltung der Athener,” an excellent translation of which was published in 1828, under the title of “Public Economy of Athens.” 2 Sa ee a we > “ a : 1 Aceumulations of Gold and Silversin:Rome. — 149 securities)') But unless the metallic wealth had: increased in a prodigious degree, that remarkable rise in the prices of other commodities could not. have been experienced, which: is noticed by all writers. As, among other instances, we know that. the house of Marius *, at Misenum, was purchased by Cornelia for 75,000 drachmias +, and a few years after sold to Lucullus for '500;200 drachmas t.. The fortunes of private individuals may be judged of by a few select notices to be found in contemporary atithors. ' Crassus is said to have possessed, in lands, bismillies §, besides money, slaves, and household furniture, estimated at as much more ||. Seneca is related to have possessed termillies j. Pallas, the freedman of Claudius, an equal sum.' Lentulus, the augur, quatermillies* *. C.C. Claudius Isidorus, although he had lost a great part of his fortune in the civil wars, left, by his will, 4116 slaves, 3600 yoke of oxen, 257,000. head of other eattle, and, in ready money, H. S, sex centies ++. . The emperors were possessed of wealth in a proportion com- mensurate with their superior rank and power. Augustus ob- tained, by the testamentary dispositions of his friends, quater- decies millies + +. Tiberius left at his death vigesies a septies mil- lies § §, which Caligula lavished away in a single year.) | - The expenses of the government, and the debts and credits of the most eminent individuals, seem to have been on the same _ @olossal scale. Vespasian, at his accession, estimated the mo- * Plutarch in Mario. + L. 2421: 17: 6 Sterling. t L. 16,152: 5: 10 Sterling. § L. 1,614,583 : 6: 8 Sterling. || Though Crassus had several silver mines, and estates of great value, which were profitably managed, yet his revenues from those sources are re. presented as inconsiderable, when compared with those he derived from his slaves. He had a large number of them, whom he educated, who were taught to become readers, amanuenses, book-keepers, stewards, and cooks. Besides this, he made interest of his money, at a high rate, receiving for the use of it one per cent. at the end of each month. It is recorded, as a saying of his, “ that no man could be accounted rich who was not able to maintain an army out of his own revenues.” It would seem, that when he was desirous to form a powerful party in the state, he could be occasionally as profuse as he was habitually avaricious; for on one occasion he gave an entertainment to the populace, who were seated at 10,000 tables, and at another time gave them a supply of bread-corn for three months.— Plutarch, Life of M. Crassus. 4] L. 2,421,875 Sterling. ** L. 3,229,166 Sterling. ++ L, 484,375 Sterling. $h L. 32,291,666 Sterling. §§ L. 21,796,875. Sterling, OT 150 Accumulations of Gold and Silver in Rome. ney which santana’ of the commonwealth wane L. 822,916,660... . The debts of Milo amounted to H. G. septengenties *. il us lius Ceesar, before he held any office, owed 1300 talents. When, after his preetorship, he set out for Spain, he is reported to have said, ‘Bis millies et quingenties sibi deesse, ut nihil haberet;” that is, that he was L. 2,0018,000 worse than nothing. When he first entered Rome, at the beginning of the civil war, he took out of the treasury to the amount of L. 1,095,000 Sterling, and _— brought into it, at the end of that war, L. 4,843,000. He is reported to have purchased the friendship of Curio, at the com- mencement of the civil contests, by a bribe of L. 484,370; and that of the Consul L. Paulus, the colleague of Marcellus, by one of L. 279,500 +. Anthony, on the ides of March, when Cesar was killed, owed L. 320,000, which he paid before the kalends of April, and squandered of the public money more than L. 5,600,000 t. Many other instances might be found of vast masses of wealth being collected, of large debts being contracted, and of prodi- gious sums being expended, either on public occasions, or in pri- vate indulgences of the dress, the tables, or the furniture of the Romans, just after the acquisition of universal empire. At that period the treasure, which had been acquired by conquest, had not been generally in the hands of numerous individuals, nor had much of it been consumed by the friction, which the prac. - tice, soon after extended, of converting large quantities of it into coined money, necessarily occasioned.—Jacob on the Precious Metals. On the Origin and el Cishiheieson of Basalt. Basatz, like granite, appears composed of several different minerals, and has not derived its existence from the fusion of * L. 565,104 Sterling. oly + It is remarked by Pliny (book xxxiii. cap, 3),. that the city of Rome never possessed so much money gs at the beginning of the war bebe em and Pompey. ). sank ty ¥ + See Adam's Roman Antiquities, 9th edit. p. 461, from, eae as far as regia Rome, the facts are selected, and where the eran 1 on me each of them rests is pointed out. ie 12 7 + Aim On the Origin and Composition of Basalt: 151 granite or any other known rock. With the view of testing in some degree the accuracy of this opinion, Leonhard. requested of the celebrated chemist C. G. Gmelin, who has published so interesting an account of the composition of Phonolite or Clink- stone, to examine basalt in the same manner as he had phonolite. Leonhard, in his great work on Trap-rocks, now in the press, tells us that Gmelin readily agreed to undertake the analysis, and had already atteabuetecatodd to him the following examination of basalt. Analysis of Basalt, by Professor C. G. Gmelin. The analysis was conducted in the same way as that of, pho- nolite. Basalt from Stetten, a Conical Basaltic Rock in Hegau. A et ee 100 parts of the not gelatinizing contains mass contains Silica, Pate WS Geena Silica, . se a 48.500 Alumina, . , Ny 11.121 Lime, 4 : 17.395 Oxidulated Iron, - 16016 Magnesia, 2 90 18131 Oxide of Manganese, . 1.487 Atamlbas:, 33) 0c 19 6.792 Lime, etree DE OTIC tl axe Oxide ofIron, . 9.388 Strontian, . . . 0.112 Oxide of Manganese, . 0.436 Magnesia, . . 10.434 sa Natron, ok Malpas 3.264 95,637 Potash, 1.204 Water, 6.530 97.822 Contents of the analyzed Basalt, - 10,162 grains. soganaeennenereces: = gelatinizing mass, . 6.254 <éb nc smdoanepéc a, 060 not gelatinizing, : 3.908 Contents of the Basalt altogether, Silica, } hank gia iat Mae Vlee Alumins,, 2) he ate 9.57 Lime, | Hips 14.02 ‘ Strontian, ‘ é ° aa ite 0.07 eS ee ae 11,47 ‘Oxidulated Iron, a. nie ee Oxide of Manganese, ony AT 1.10 WG eer eee el PA 0.74 Soda, a OR re 2.01 Water, * : : : ’ ’ 4.01 96.98 152 Onthe Origin:and Composition of Basalt. The mass which does not gelatinize yields, when what ap- pears to~bemagietic iton is abstracted from ' the oxidulated oxide of iron, Silicays¢i .. ‘ i 4 . wisi 44.50 Alumina, . ° . : i * 13.85 Lime, y : $ : Pail ab 14.83. Strontian,, . Oy) Lys : ® 0.14 Magnesia, . . . ‘ . » 13.00 Soda, .. 5 . 5 * ‘ 4 4.06 Potash, ; i , y : 5 1.49 Water, i ‘ u ‘ ‘a 8.13 100.00 _ This result does not agree precisely with that of any other ‘mineral, with respect to the component parts, but it approaches, in some measure, to anorthite, a species of felspar discovered by G. Rose. Anorthite is entirely decomposed by concentrated mu- riatic acid. “It likewise contains a considerable quantity of mag- nesia, but. what particularly deserves notice is, that no other fos- sil containing much magnesia gelatinizes with acid. » The quan- tity of silica and lime in that part of basalt which gelatinizes with acids, agrees completely with, that contained in anor- thite. But, on the other hand, anorthite contains a far greater quantity of aluminous earth, considerably less magnesia, and no alkali. On the whole, it appears that that part of basalt which gelatinizes with acids, is the regular mass from which the vari- ous crystals are developed, that occur so frequently in basalt. For example, it is easy to perceive, that in consequence of the _ disappearance of magnesia, Labrador felspar, that universal com-~ ponent part of dolerite and syenite, as well.as of many meteoric stones, stilbit so frequent in basalt, as well as chabasie, prehnite and arragonite, will be found in the mass. ‘The portion which dees not gelatinize has nearly the same component parts as augite. “The analysis of basalt'from Hohenstoffeln in Hegau i is not yet quite completed. The proportion of the gelatinizing part to that which does not gelatinize i is — 6.197:3. 303, and it deserves to be noticed, ‘that it approaches very yh to. tte sates from Stetten. FO pee SF a oe a eee OE Te Sas, lk On the Origin 28 mi: 158) we 4 i, rdw vapor ad T 100 parts of the gelainizing siti contains,— _ Silica, . . . . . 35.13 (VEY wi 3f Alumina, ¥ . 12.24 Oxidulated Oxide of Iron, .° 15.30 ‘Oxide of Mra ie 1.70 Magnesia, . ‘ K 13.07- °° Potash, A 4 P . 1.91 Water, ‘ ; ‘ oy eee 98.17 Without doubt that part which does not gelatinise 1 is completely analogous in its composition to the basalt from Stetten. The gelatinous portion of basalt from Sternberg near Urach, has likewise the greatest analogy in its composition with, the pre- ceding. . In. this basalt the portion that, gelatinizes,is very re- markable: its proportion to that which does, not, ers - 100.14. 100 Paige the gelatinizing mass BOLD A a ) Silica, . TURE 2) notl86.0@si: _ Alumina, echivar » wl edesicreia Se Oxide ofIron, . oth 6 13.34 Oxide of Manganese, . . 0.30 “eTime, .. . : , : 14.18 “Magnesia, . «© « «+ 1106 Soda,. . .- ‘ omcis « 3.30 dig » yy Potash, - Fe ey ahs Rs TP 2.46 . ' Water, o wk P ° 3.59 BD LIT : —_-—_ if PBL ister 95.73 Wit} ed beast xd i heii if We. saath Mirhcnnan ‘This basalt exhibits a very distinct decomposition on its sur- face, consisting of two to four lines of bluish-grey, and where the decpmnptetion has Ton farther, of a light, yellow. co- lour. In this bistanra i» Papa part, as well as that which is undecomposed, requires examination. Of the former, a part of that here completely decomposed was em- ployed. The prinei was ros goticipeed, as might be ex- pected, namely, that rn ition diminished the relative proportion of the gelatinizing mass. 154 On the Origin and Composition of Basalt. The gelatinizing mass in proportion { The undecomposed Basalt, = 067,47-1 to that which did not gelatinize, The decomposed Basalt, = 031,10.1 100 parts of the gelatinizing mass ‘of the undecomposed ba- salt contains— ~ Silica, . . of fsa ite ‘ 28.9 Titanium, . . A ° ; F 6.63 Alumina, . , 4 4 ¥ 11.64 Oxidulated Oxide of — rags) ; 28.79 Oxide of ele Sete Bibeln Shoes 0.21 Lime, F " . " ; : 7.37 Magnesia, He eI BL ¥6 4g) Aad sh 5.46 Soda, Seria! a Aa ana 3.67 Potash, be VOR Ue) et am Water, i d ‘ » osideel Se 5.32 99.50 The portion which did not gelatinize exhibited a peculiar composition ; but the analysis must be repeated, as the loss is so considerable :— Silica, : : s 3 ‘ < 56.65 prvedn Ve FE ee ee 9.16 . Oxide of Iron, . oi viel, 6 wie e 3.99 Lime, niet dmignihi® Myint ban esa Magnesia, oot ies, » gta hte Cera Paw Rodap eisiads (or ieea® eiidohemeiy Potatley fey yee. Meee ee | 92.66 The quantity of alkali is remarkable, anid’ it might. be sup- posed that it was acquired in consequence of the silica in the ge- latinizing portion being separated from that which did not gela- tinize by the carbonate of potash ;, but that cannot be the case, because the powder was first of all acted upon by diluted muria- fie acid, and then carefully washed. "The result of the investigation of the decomposed mass was, ee quantity of silica, titanium, lime, magnesia, | and the al- ¢ was diminished, while that of the oxide of i iron ‘was con- aly increased. { ; " r ~ Chrome has been found i in all analyzed basalt ; ; tet i %, is ‘contained in olivine, and perhaps the chroma te af iron . sft 4 CY MON KK me : ‘ eR On the Origin and Composition of Basalt. 155 _ likewise to be found. Professor Bugengeiger of Freyburg has long since discovered chrome by means of the blowpipe.° _ Nothing was discovered after repeated experiments with mu- riatic acid, nor with sulphuric acid. Lithia has not been dis- covered. Strontian was by no means always found; but it was- decidedly discovered in the basalt from Stetten. On the Cholera Animalcule. Ix is a very generally diffused opinion, although supported by no positive facts, that those animated creatures belonging to the lowest classes to which, on ‘account of their minuteness, the name of Microscopic Animalcules has been given, are formed by the simple aggregation of the so-called organic molecules ; and Dr Hermann has endeavoured to explain the contagious nature of cholera upon this supposition. As similar views have been more than once suggested, and it is to be feared that their plau- sibility may gain for them a more extended credence ; the opi- nion of a naturalist deeply versed in microscopic inquiries, and who has personally observed the oriental plague, a disease not dissimilar in some of its characters to cholera, merits considera- tion. Professor Ehrenberg, in a late fugitive piece, has express- ed himself in the following terms upon this subject. To the doctrine of the similarity of the contagion of plague and of cholera, is connected with another which has lately found its way into the public journals, and which is merely a revival of the old and antiquated idea of small invisible insects which ge- nerate this contagion by their irritation, poison, &c., and propa- gate it by their increase and migrations. Similar stories are to be found in the traditions of various people as well as those of the poisonous look of some human faces, of the dragon, of witches, magicians, the second sight, &c., formerly so seriously believed, but now only thought ridiculous. Linné, the great reformer of natural history, first took this fabulous animalcule into the domain of natural history, probably only with the view of directing the attention of naturalists to the subject, 156 On the Cholera Animalcule. Tt was said to be the’ cause of the pestilential blisters of the Gulf of Bothnia. ‘He gave it the vermiform shape, and’ the yellow ‘colour’ of northern ‘tradition, and conferred on ‘it ‘the scientific name, more ridiculous than formidable, of the Infernal Fury (Furia infernalis). Before that, at the time of the plage, at Marseilles in 1721, the contagion had been ascribed to small infusory-like winged or mitelike, yet invisible, animals ; and at the time there appeared in the French language many treatises, which must now appear absurd to every well-informed per- son. One of these, printed anonymously in 1726, to push the matter still farther, deduces all diseases from these animalcules, which are designated by the following name: Vers assoupissans, cours de ventristes, barbon quifians, clouifians, erectifs, fistu- laires lacrymaux, fleuistes blancs! 'The tradition of the Lin- nean Furia still remains in Finland, where the anthrax is com- mon ; and, in Siberia, I found, in 1829, on my journey with Baron von Humboldt, a similar tradition regarding the cause of the Siberian pestilential boil, only that it was ascribed to flying large insects, without, however, one of them ever having ‘been exactly characterised or even taken. Although we passed through many places infested with the pest, and I neglected no opportunity of learning the causes of the disease, I found no trace of this insect. A similar tradition gave rise to the question which was put to Dr Hemprich and myself, in the year 1823, by the Pacha of Egypt, whether it was true that, in Dongala, there were flying scorpions which produced mortal wounds, for the troops refused to march there, having already suffered much from those with- out wings. As during my natural history researches for nine months in Dongola, I had found nothing which justified this belief, .except the troublesome small mosquitoes, which were neither poisonous, nor scorpions, the mind of the Pacha was set at ease. As was to be expected, the same idea of invisible poisonous insects was transferred to the contagion of cholera; yet it is hardly credible that Hahnemann, as stated in the Leipzie Jour- nal, should have for this reason recommended the sedative ef- fects of camphor, because it killed these insects, and so ex- pelled the cholera. , ‘ On the CholeraAnimaleue, © AB I have, for many years, made these minutest of organic be- dies the subject of my particular inquiries, and haye for, that purpose employed the best instruments.,..But. none before me, nor haye I myself, ever succeeded in finding in the air, these small bodies to which tradition had, given areal existence, I must, therefore, warn medical. men from modes of treatment of cholera founded upon this principle, for no naturalist has yet observed these animalcules, I have never obseryed these ani- malcules under the microscope, at the time of the plague in Egypt and Siberia ; and previous to my African journey, in the Hospital of the Charité at Berlin, I had examined with the mi- croscope many contagious cutaneous eruptions, without having ever seen them. While, by the most rigorous microscopic ac- curacy, I have made the singular discovery, that infusory ani- malcules, from }th to yy's5th of aline in size, possess an orga- nization similar to many, of the higher animals, and have de- monstrated. their propagation by eggs and internal organs, which are less than 5g} 9th of a line, or gg g5,5 9th of an inch in diameter, and are yet distinctly visible. What must, then, be the size of the pest or cholera animal. cules, or cours de ventristes, if they were not discernible by such instruments? The opinion is to be classed in the same ru- bric with the traditions and hypotheses of dragons, &c., and has at least been confirmed by the experience of no credible natura- list. According to the observations of Professor Ehrenberg, the so called « P Priestley’s Matter,” when it is not formed by real animals of a yery different form, was by alge ; and particularly when it appears as a pellicle or cuticle, is the result of putrefac- tion, and only consists of the dead bodies of infusoria. It is therefore not the commencement of new formations, but the re- mains, of dead organic generations, WIQNES A) J On the Crystallization of Ice, and of Veins of Ice % m Tce. yy Professor HEsset. | For some time past I have bee occupied with observations on the different forms of crystallization. The crystallization of water under certain conditions, induced by artificial means; formed ‘also the subject of my inquiries. I shall here’ briefly detail one of my experiments, which I have repeated frequently of late, as I reckon it not unimportant for the doctrine of veins, whose different modes of origin can, in my opinion, only be sa+ tisfactorily explained by collecting as many examples as possible of the formation of veins and vein-like masses since the commence- ment of historical epochs. So that we have then only to inquire whether this or the other vein, or assemblage of veins, bears most resemblance to lava-veins in lava, to veins which may be con- sidered as canals filled up by mineral springs of some sort or other, to fissures filled by sublimations, to fissures which have been the outlets for alternate streams of fluid or elastic matters, and which have been gradually closed by the deposition of solid matters, or to fissures which have been filled by infiltration from’ above, &c.; or whether these veins are to be viewed as the result of the contemporaneous: congelation” (crystallization) of two or more heterogeneous masses, one of “which has filled fissures i in the other, but which have never been in reality open. Upon this supposition every experiment on the origin of vein- _ like masses, however insignificant it may appear, must be con- sidered as an augmentation . of our resources for the’ elucidation’ of the origin of those veins which have not been’ observed’ by man, so that this communication is of interest not ppserce to ber crystallographer but also to the geognost. WA ; I set aside, in a warm room, a mixture of fine clay and water, in which the latter was somewhat in excess, so that the thin mud could be easily stirred about with a fine hair-brush. Upon ~ resting for some time it divided mto two portions, the under- most of which consisted of moist clay, and the upper and least — considerable of clear water. During the cold days which we’ had in December (5° — 10° F.), I exposed’ the ‘mixture ‘after agitation to. crystallization or freezing. © wi ig au did not Professor Hessel on the Crystallization of Ice, &c. 159 ‘ take place till the mass had returned to the state of rest, but before the separation took place between the clay and the water. The structure of the frozen mass varied im different experi- ments. In every case, however, frozen mud and frozen clear water could be distinguished from each other. But the latter did not occur as a stratum at the upper part of the mass, but was distributed through the substance of the frozen mud. 1. The most common appearance was like that of small quartz veins traversing in different directions a’ siliceous slate. The same as in hand specimens of siliceous slate, when two of the quartz veins meet one another, they traverse one another, shift one another, or mutually cut each other off, &c. was ob- served distinctly in the present instance. ‘The principle that the traversing vein is newer than the one traversed, could not be easily demonstrated to be correct in these ice veins in the frozen mud; nor could the idea of the contemporaneous formation of veins with the surrounding rock be admitted as unconditionally correct. In these ice veins there was apparently a real cutting across of one vein by another, so that the traversed vein be- yond the traversing pursued its original course, or was diverted somewhat from its position, but more frequently one was com- pletely cut off by the other. Often we could suppose a true wedging out of such a-vein without a previously exining empty fissure promoting its formation. 2. Often the water-ice was distributed through the frozen mud like the quartz in the felspar of graphic granite. The surface formed by cutting and polishing exhibiting, like ‘the latter Hebraic, Arabic, and Chinese characters ; and these were still more characterised on the dark surface of the mud, than the greyish-white quartz on the whitish felspar. 8. Another mode of distribution of the water-ice in the frozen mud, was its forming vertical plates, which were so grouped that the surface of the mass of mud on its middle section, re- sembled a concentrically radiated crystalline mass, the rays di- verging from the centre outwards. Several of these groups of rays were observed. Each Bemearcinete tert epetiotniile hight above the surface of the mud... During the formation of the veins, I sometimes observed also that of hollow spaces.. These were enclosed by three or more 160 Mr Wilson on the Introduction of ice veins, which penetrated obliquely downwards, partly to the bottom of the vessel; they had a breadth of from half to:three quarters of an inch, and. were quite empty of the frozen mud. ‘The frozen: mud, separated as much as possible fromthe transparent ice, gave, when thawed, a moist mud, so that-crys« tallization had produced no more complete separation than sim- ple rest ; but the ordinary separation of the water from the mud was produced in a much shorter time than by the mere: opéra- tion of specific gravity in the mechanical mixture. i With regard to the cauves of the three different appearances that Ihave enumerated, they appear to me to depend upon differences in the excess of water in the mud, on the tempera- ture of the mass before it is exposed to congelation (sometimes boiling water was used), and especially the rapidity of the con- gelation. Farther I can give no explanation. Account of the Introduction of the Wood-Grouse or Capercailzie _(Tetrao Urogallus ) to the Forest of Braemar. Py James Wutson, Esq. F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. . Communicated by the Author. ane Tse almost recent extinction in Britain of the largest european bird of the gallinaceous order, is a remarkable fact in the geo- graphical history of the species. Its reintroduction is also a circumstance of sufficient interest to deserve a detailed record. The wood-grouse or capercailzie, was formerly a well-known and frequent inhabitant of the Scottish forests. It still occurs ‘in considerable abundance among the wooded and alpine dis- tricts of Europe, especially in Scandinavia. It is rare in France, well-known in Germany, not unfrequent in Switzerland. It spreads through Russia into Siberia, and is very numerous in several districts of the north of Asia. It seems always to prefer mountainous forests, and is rarely met with in plains or ‘flat countries, however richly wooded. Its favourite trees are birch, and juniper. It feeds on the fruit of the last-named plant, and on the buds and tender sprays of the two former. Colonel Montagu found the crops of two females which he ex- amined, to contain a species of berry similar to the cranberry, called in Norway T'ytteboer; and the tops of that plant, a 2 — & F SO ere aretat ne ORE ee Tee the Capercailzie to the Forest of Braemar. 161 ther with sprigs of the common heath, appeared to have been swallowed in considerable quantity. "The gizzard was extremely’ strong and-muscular, and contained a large mass of pebbles in~ termixed with the macerated food*. Many other alpine and woodland plants, no doubt, minister to its wants, and, in com- mon with’the rest of its order, insects of various kinds may be presumed to be sought after, especially by the young. () These birds are of polygamous habits, and consequently do not pair. During the breeding season, which commences as soon as the buds begin to expand, and continues throughout the rapid northern spring till the forests are clothed in their freshest green, the male is frequently seen perched on some tall pine, where he moves backwards and forwards, uttering at the same time a peculiar ery, which seems to attract the neighbour- ing females. His head, on these occasions, is red and swollen ; his wings dependent, and his neck extended. His cry is said to commence with a loud explosion, which is followed by a noise like that of the whetting of a scythe. This is heard at a great distance, and, as soon as the females are collected around the tree, the male descends from his“ high cheney" er — rte company. wherlis, hagieeetlein xéscedertiis hee bees likin Scotlands was shot, about fifty years ago, near Inverness. For, a. consi- derable time anterior to that period, it had been of extremely rare occurrence, and, although a solitary remnant of the ancient stock may have contrived to maintain a precarious existence for a few succeeding years in some obscure recess of the umbrageous forests of Braemar or Rothiemurchus, it can scarcely be doubted that the species, ere long, ceased to exist as indigenous to Bri- tain. _ It was known to have been extirpated from Ireland at a considerably earlier period. — When we consider the great size and beauty of this pesvam game, and its value : as an article of food, we need not wonder that various attempts have been made to naturalize it for the second time i in ‘Scotland. I shall confine my present notice to the Sag ee oy ig payroll had an opportunity of ob- serving. : ‘sapplands thtee Otnithological Dictionary. + Journal Economique, April 1753... VOL. XIII, NO. XXv,—-ULY 1832. L 162 . Mr Wilson on the Introduction of [had last summer the pleasure of accompanying my scien- tifi¢ friends, Professor Graham and Dr Greville, on a botanical excursion to'the Valley of Clova. The discovery of Astragalus alpinus; till:then unknown as a British plant, and. of other interesting rarities, rewarded their zeal, and. has been elsewhere recorded*, .-For myself, I chiefly plied the angler’s trade, and. had the satisfaction of providing my friends and their followers (Professor Graham being accompanied by.a detachment of his class) occasionally with an agreeable, addition to their dinner in regions where there were very few loaves, and (but for my. ex- ertions) no fishes. We afterwards crossed the Grampians, skirt- ing the ‘dark Loch-na-gar” and other fine mountain masses of that neighbourhood, and, descending to the banks of the Dee, took up our residence for a time at the Castletown of Braemar. I was wading down the Dee one fine afternoon, a little below Mar Lodge; and with a lighter pannier than usual, .when I heard the ery of a bird to which I was unaccustomed, and my, bad success in that day’s angling induced me the more readily to diverge from the “ pure element,of waters,” to ascertain what this might be. I made my way through the overhanging wood for a‘ few hundred yards, and soon after reaching the,road, which runs parallel with the river on its right side,I observed a wooden: palisade, or enclosure, on the sloping, bank,aboye me. On reaching it, I found it so closely boarded up, that\I had. for a time some difficulty in deserying any inmates, but my eye soon fell upon a magnificent bird, which at first, from. its bold and. almost fierce expression of countenance, I took, rather for some great bird of prey than for a capercailzie. A few seconds, how- ever, satisfied me, that it was, what I had never before seen, a fine living example of that noble bird. I, now sought the com- pany of Mr Donald Mackenzie, Lord. Fyfe’s gamekeeper, the occupant of the neighbouring cottage. He unlocked the door of the fortress, and introduced me to a more familiar acquaint- ance with its feathered inhabitants. These I found to consist of two fine capercailzie cocks and one hen, and the latter, I was delighted to perceive, accompanied by a thriving: family of young birds, active and beautiful. I made various inquiries on the spot ; but the fatigues of angling, and of "entomologising ¢ com- * See this Journal, October 1831, p. 373. — the Capercailzie to the Forestof Braémar. = 163, bined, prevented ‘my writing down the result at the: time, al- though I have'still a distinct recollection of the leading facts*.\, It was) however, with great pleasure that I availed myself, at. an-after period, of Sir Thomas Dick Lauder’s obliging offer to. convey a series of queries to Mr Cumming, Allanquoich, Brae- mar, Lord Fyfe’s factor, from whom I received eeenlatasion of the following information. | baits sit fhe Rect idee Canons ibdeengcuipenceftins rss] Nous SinSs den about the end of the year 1827, or early in January 1828. It consisted of a cock and hen,’ but the hen unfortunately died after reaching Montrose Bay. As the male bird alone arrived at. Braemar, the experiment was judiciously tried of putting a common barn-door fow] into his apartment during the spring and summer of 1828. ‘The result was, that she laid several eggs, which were placed under other hens, but from these eggs only a single bird was hatched, and when it was first observed it was found lying dead. — It was, however an evident mule, or hybrid, and shewed such unequivocal oe, Toe character as could not be mistaken. | i he:sepiiel tadpeclh sip dak inoedculenhi olla ebdkcieledsbetd and arrived safely in this country in January or February 1829. The female began to lay in the ensuing April, and laying in ge- neral an egg every alternate day, she eventually deposited about a couple of dozen: She shewed, however, so strong a disposi- tion to break and eat them, that she required to be ‘narrowly - Watched at the time of laying, for the purpose of having them removed, for otherwise she would have soemoyed the whole. In * During our excursion we generally passed over pre pllenamar than was consistent with entomological observation, the objects sought for by the botanist are generally of larger size, and being also lovers of light and sunshine, they are more easily distinguished than most of the insect tribes, so aps poet ee ip I was, however, fortunate pty cag ae of Glenmuick the scarce heath-butterfly Hippar- Nek ht never before seen alive in Scotland; and in open the woods which skirt the right bahk of the Dee, between void and I captured the rare and beautiful Hipparchia Blandina, commonly eailed the Scotch. Argus, a species hitherto found chiefly in the island of Arran, and not previously known to occur so far north on the mainland. Of the rarer Diptera, Pedicia rivosa may be mentioned as not un- frequent among the Woods of Braemar. 4 164 Mr Wilson on the Introduction of . fact she did succeed in breaking most of them, but eight were obtained uninjured. ‘These were set under a common hen, but only one bird was hatched, and it died soon after, In the spring | of 1830, the hen capercailzie laid eight eggs. Of these she broke only one, and, settling in a motherly manner on the other seven, she sat steadily for five weeks. On examining the eggs, however, they were all found to be addle. ‘“ It is to be remarked,” Mr Cumming here observes, ‘ that in 1829 and 1830 the hen had access only to the cock that was brought home with herself.” In the early part of 1831, three apartments were ingeniously formed adjoining one another. The hen was placed in the central chamber, between which and the enclosure on either side, each of which contained a male, there was an easy com- munication ; so contrived, however, that the female could have access to both the males, whilst they, from their greater size, could neither approach each other, nor disturb the female as long as she chose to remain in her own apartment. In May and June of that year she laid twelve eggs, seven of which were set under a common hen. Of these, four were hatched in an apparently healthy state, one was addle, and the other two con- tained dead birds. Of those left with the capercailzie hen, she broke one, and sat upon the other four, of which two were hatched, and the other two were found to contain dead birds. Of the two hatched one soon died, Both the barn-door hen and the female capercailzie sat twenty-nine days, from the time the. laying was completed till the young were hatched ; and Mr Cumming calls my attention to the fact, that there were birds in all the eggs of this year’s laying except one. Of 4 My visit to Braemar took place about the first week of ‘last August. 1 think all the five young were then alive, and al. though only a few weeks old, they were by that time larg than the largest moor-game. I had no opportunity of handling them, or of examining them very minutely, but the genera ‘view which I had of them, at the distance of a few feet, did not ’ enable me to distinguish the difference between the 1g mal and females. They seemed precisely the same vie one both in size and plumage, although I doubt not the male — | markings must have soon shewn themselves oH Fe oH Po The single surviving bird of those hatched by the mot er died the Capercailzie to the Forest of Braemar. 165 of an accident, after living jn a very healthy state for several weeks. Two of those hatched by the common hen died of some disease, the nature of which is not known, after lingering for a considerable time. It follows that there are only two young birds remaining. These are. both females, and when I last heard of ‘heed to some months ago, were in a thriving condition. The whole progeny were fed at first, and for some time, with young ants,—that is, with those whitish grain-shaped bodies, which are the larvae and crysalids in their cocoons of these in- dustrious creatures, though commonly called ant’s eggs. At that period they were also occasionally supplied with some ten- der grass cut very short. As soon as they had acquired some strength, they began to eat oats and pot barley, together with grass and the various kinds of moss. They are now fed like the three old birds, chiefly on grain and heather tops, with the young shoots, and other tender portions of the Scotch fir. I am infortled that the distinction between the sexes had become very obvious before the death of the young males. 'The plumage of the latter was much darker, their general dimensions were great- er, their bills larger and more hooked. ‘These characters be- came very apparent during November and December. The old males have never yet had access to the young birds, so that it has not been ascertained whether they entertain any natural r for their offspring, or would manifest any enmity towards t . From the continued wildness of the old birds, especially the males, it was found difficult to weigh them, with- out incurring the risk of i injuring their plumage. However, the male which arrived in 1829, and which then appeared to be a bird of the previous year, was lately weighed, and was found to be eleven. pounds nine ounces avoirdupois. Judging from ap- pearances, it is believed that the weight of the old hen would not much exceed one half. ‘There ts, indeed a striking disparity in the dimensions of the sexes in this species. T have not yet heard the result of this season’s courtship. The intention is, as soon as some healthy broods have been reared in confinement, to liberate a few in the old pine woods of Braemar, and thus eventually to stock with the finest of feathered game the noblest of Scottish forests, Woopvit_e, 6th June 1832. 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Boni! Sdefi ay ab ( 167 ) Description of several. New or Rare Plants which lately ; f flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Granam, Profes- ~ sor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. mri : June 10. 1832. ; ada tetragona. A. tetragona; foliis eee re wists, Spee iquetris, ob- tusisy glabris (?)¢ pedunculis elongatis, solitariis 3; corollis campanulatis.—Spreng. _ . ; Andromeda tetragona, Linn. Fl. Suecic. ed. 2. No. 356.— Willd. 2. 607. —Wahlenb. F\. Lappon. No. 200.—Pursh, Fl. Amer. sept. 1. 290.— Spreng. 2. 289. ; f wea Andromeda pedunculis solitariis lateralibus, corollis campanulatis, foliis tom ora adr pl ga eg Te = Bar Descnrer1on.—Stem erect, woody (about & inches h) naked near the : and marked b leaves, much ; branches . ccbesece. Une Innes, aocotbens ut the, base and rooting. Leaves (two a r, solitary, at first short, afterwards much ted, tl ESrracralsemed tr fi ek piten peste nga ti wit 8, n ents gibbous at the ‘base _, Cora a white, campanuate somewhat con near mouth, w is e segments blunt an Stamens filaments shorter than the pistil, erect. aibee sak low, each with two slender hispid bristles. Pistil searcely lady tepebion stamens ; obtuse; style pier ly tapering upwards. Germen roundish-oval, obscurely LT eRe TS mae tee apd surrounded at the base by a gland ring. Capsule erect, nearly globular, glabrous, ha- ving 5 loculaments, the th; actaing: fem the ‘centre uf the which are inflected in apices. he of this interesting little which surely will yet be found indigenous in Britain, were communicated to the ie Gar- Arbutus pilosa, — A. pilosa; ca procumben te piloso: foliis ovatocelll ticis cili agra er apice muticis, callosis ; pedunculis axillari. bus, un elongatis, nutantibus; antheris quadri aristatis. Descniption.—Stem branching from the root, prostrate, red, twiggy, co- e hai vered with thickset preading, rusty-coloured Leaves (9 lines long, 44 broad) scattered, spreading, and being turned to the light, are distichous, coriaceous, naked and shining on hoth sides, dark green in 168 Dr Graham’s,Descniption of New or Rare Plants. front, pale, behind, ovato-elliptical, with a callous ‘tip, but, no. mucro, veined, serrulate, each serrature being tipped with a hair similar.to those on the stem, a very few also occasionally exist on or near the middle rib behind. | Petioles short, subappressed, and with rather tumid axillary buds. Peduneles sparingly covered with a few fulvous hairs, solitary in the axils of'a few of the terminal leaves, of which they are equal to one- half the length. Bractee ovate, scattered upon the badasetes adpressed, larger and fewer upwards. Calyr 5-cleft, persisting, white, glabrous with- in and without, spreading, segments ovate, aciite, gibbous at the base. Corolla (3 lines long) ovate, white, 5-toothed, teeth blunt and revolute. ‘Stamens 10, ‘arising froma small green disk ; filaments white, covered with minute pubescence, swollen immediately above their righ, and there somewhat concave on their innér surface, subulate upwards; anthers |) yellowy-attached by their backs, ovato-oblong, each loculament with two : ‘small ascending awns; in front of which it opens by a pore. Stigma small, » red, terminal, very obscurely 5-lobed. Style erect, cylindrical, included, » colourless. | Germen ovate, green, rather more than half the length of the . style, and equal tothe filaments, slightly covered with obscure pubes- . cence, and depressed on the top, where the style is inserted. This species is nearly allied to A. mucronata, which flowered in the Botanic Garden lately, and is figured in Bot. Mag. t. 3093., but is easily distin- _ guished by the character given above. They undoubtedly belong to the “same genus, but whether they should be left as species of Arbutus, or re- moved ‘to: Gualtheria or Arctostaphylos, or erected into a new genus, must ' be chiefly regulated by the fruit, which I have not'seen. I doubt whe- » ther the calyx, though persisting, will become berried ‘as in Gualtheria, ‘but the anthers are, as in that genus, provided with 4 awns. ‘The pre- sent species is a ‘native of Mexico, and was raised by Mr Neill from ‘seed received from Mr Don. From Mr Neill we received it at the’ Botanic Garden.’ In both establishments it flowered ‘during May, and is per- fectly hardy.) Sai i A ot Epacris cereeflora: 9!) greene Des. E. cereflora; ramulis tomentosis ; foliis lanceolatis, acuminatis, patentis- simis; floribus fatale pedunculatis, secundis ;.calycibus, acutis, ci- __ Matis, tubo corollz longe brevioribus.., hob: oott/ subd) 086s Descrirrion.— Stem ercct, branched.'|. Branches tomentous,’ purplish. Leaves lanceolate, acuminate, dark green above, paler below, mucronate, .. Subpetiolate, spreading wide. Flowers collected near the extremities of _ the branches, white, secund, peduncled, patent. Calyx segments lanceolate, ciliated. | Corolla, tube obscurely pentagonal, thrice as long as the’calyx, pitted on the outside between the calyx segments, and having nectarife- rous depressions under the corresponding elevations within, somewhat con- tracted upwards; limb revolute, segments subacute. ‘Stamens subexserted filaments alternating with the nectariferous pores, affd adhering through their whole length to the inside of the corolla; anthers dark leaden-co- loured, pollen: granules white. Stigma capitate, sublobate, flattened on the top. Style glabrous, somewhat thickened above its base, and again » contracted, tapering a little’ towards the stigma. Germen green, gla- | brous, subrotund. Unripe capsule subturbinate, pitted at the insertion | of the style. ‘Seeds erect, on'a central placenta. ~~ This species, a native of Van Diemen’s Land, was raised at the Botanic - -Garden, Edinburgh, from seeds communicated by Mr Newbigging.and _ likewise by the Rev. Mr ‘Craig, in January 1831. It flowered for the first time in April and May 1832, the plants being still very small. It’ appears to be ripening seed abundantly. Ati Ona iis piaonsiia lt) Francoa appendiculata. fa a Uriet if : Foi a ai asia as _/B. appendiculata s caulescens, foliis lyratis, denticulatis {itrinque’ pubes- Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare’ Plints:' 169 centibus, hp ets: ‘Taaximo eordato obtuse angulato ; floribus , spicatis: + As be bs i Francoa app ai ulata, Cavan. ead Vi 77- t. 596._Pers. Synopse 1. 445. - ; “ ) . Plant. 2. 262- anud Francoa sonchifol ? Ad. Juss. Ann. des Sc. Nat, 3. 193. t. 12. old DescriptioN.—Root with several very leafy crowns. Stems short.) Leaves Cac yrate, with —— shgntty tcl pubescence on sides, bullate, undulate, strongl late, decurrent in a vigorous. vee es untly cor- wey tt Lotti tation Lesh seston, ikey having a few leaves at the base only, erect, straight, round, slightly tapering, PsapAalOn ED yan aay wri Moggers Sra perro saponin rl > a bractea near the top, arise solitary crear .p 2h seers Somsban 0th shoot, but smaller. (6 inches racemose, flowers (4 long, 4 inch -across: when Calyx persisting, 4—5-parted, rather longer than te, rayne L,- He : Ht ovato-acu twith- faple parce gag 4-5, twice the length of the calyx, Sidad abapels oad theemealigd'ie tock tarde the she clans ree behind, of ap rose-colour, with a darker in the centre, becoming lighter after ex- pansion. SieaR AIA. cenetia then. tho ntlyncaletmeching-a-encen ob- scure but nectariferous disk, with short dive scales (abortive sta- _ mens); filaments subulate, glabrous; anthers w; bilocular, oblong, bifid. at both extremities, and slightly di at the lower, bursting the sides, pollen yellow, ules small. superior, oblong, pr Fase and. as many loculaments, formed by the inversion of the margins of the valves. Stigma sessile, 4-5-lobed, at = involute, then s g, peltate, fleshy, surface tubercled. | Ovules This om A ene showy plant was int introduced into the Clapton nursery front Chiloe Mr A From Clapton it was Sbtdined t y Mr Cc at Coashig-aiiey near Edin and communicated to Mr Neill’s , den at peng ll me pry a erin hd it flowered in 1832. ve no doubt g the species of Cavanilles, and wy little about its being that s achhe, ated Uneagin the fiewerd saath by we AU 3 variety, but I can percei character b which it ean be distinguished, penn aretha leaves The Seeds are in foam baeteeatehaet raser ¥ in | theft time in Ai 1 beet Menziesia sanpelistortitd ) ayy oe we ts rene linearibus serrulatis ; peduticilis\ 'aggregitis ; us campanu erectis, decandris; calycibus glabris, obtusis, basi gibbosis; antheris filamenta aquantibus. : 7 170 Dr Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. Menziesia empetriformis, Smith, in Linn. Soc. Trans. 10. 380.—Pursh, Flor. Americ, Septent. 1. 264.—Nuttall, Genera, 1. 252.—Sprengel, Syst. Veget. ii. 202. ’ Descriprron.—A small erect shrub. Leaves (6 lines long, 1 line broad) linear, on short adpressed petioles, crowded, suberect towards the extre- mities of the branches, below spreading, when young glanduloso-ciliated, afterwards glabrous, with a few cartilaginous small teeth especially to- , wards peanoues slightly channelled above, fleshy in their sides, midrib re: p somewhat flattened and wrinkled. , Peduneles (4 inch long) erect, glandular, axillary, single and single-flowered, collected near the extremities of the branches, bibracteate at the base. . Bractee ovate, con- cave, crenate, opposite. Calyx 5-phyllous, red without, green within, except on the edges where it is red, glabrous, ciliated with minute white hairs, leaflets blunt, wrinkled and gibbous at the base. Corolla (3 lines long, 2 broad) reddish-purple, campanulate, erect, glabrous, about three times as long as the calyx, 5-toothed, teeth reflected. Stamens 10, of _» rather unequal length alternately, about the length of the germen ; fila- .ments rose-coloured, flat, linear; anthers purple, oblong, narrower at the upper end, as long as the filaments, connivent, grooved along their sides, bursting by two terminal pores, attached by their backs to the filaments. Pistil exserted; stigma of 5 connivent, triangular teeth ; style slightly curved, cylindrical, red; germen globular, green, glandu- si quinquelocular; ovules very numerous, attached to a large central placenta. This very distinct species of Mensziesia was raised at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from seeds communicated by Mr Drummond on his return from the last expedition to North America under the command of Cap- tain Franklin, and, I believe, collected by him (Mr Drummond) on the Rocky Mountains. It first flowered in November 1831, but much more abundantly in May 1832. If Sir James Smith had seen the living plant, I think he would have given a different. specific character. The leaves, in the recent state, are de- cidedly tumid, both above and below, being depressed only along the middle rib on either side. Pimelea sylvestris, P. sylvestris ; foliis oppositis utrinque glabris, lanceolatis, acutis; florali- bus 4-5, rameis subsimilibus, capitulo terminali multifloro breviori- bus; perianthiis glabris, tubo infundibuliformi.—Br. - Pimelea sylvestris, Br. Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holland. 361.—Ram. et Schultes, Syst. Veget. 1. 274.—Spreng. Syst. Veget. 1. 92. DescripTion.—Siem erect, shrubby, twig-like, bark covered with minute warts. Leaves (above 1 inch long, 4th of an inch broad) opposite, in five rows, on short adpressed petioles, spreading, glabrous on both si lanceolate, acute, quite entire, flat above, or slightly turned back at the edges, very obscurely veined, middle rib channe led below; floral leaves similar to those of the branches. Capitwlwm terminal, many-flowered, flowers expanding from without towards the centre, much longer than the floral leayes. Perianth (above half an inch long) glabrous, funnel- shaped, pale rose-coloured, becoming white after expansion, throat naked ; limb 4-parted, segments erect, ovate, their edges folded outwards at their base, the two outer segments in the bud subacuminate, and keeled at the apex, an se inner blunt; oo much ota leh te at its where it covers the germen, and is persistent, all above being deciduous. Filaments adhering to the throat, above this free, tober than the perianth, reflected. Anthers er nae. linear. Stigma capitate, |. Style erect, filiform, exserted, glabrous, colourless. Germen ovate, é Se Ovule single, pendulous... Pi sGsners The seeds of this species were collected on the south coast of New Holland Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare Plants. 11 ; a See hy he preemie RC ae epoamhlie at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, twelve months afterwards: Several ts flowered freely in the greenhouse in May 1832. They form a _addition to the species previously in cultivation. There is reason to believe that the seeds will ripen. Rulingia corylifolia. : : Rk ; foliis ovato-deltoideis, jeubcordatis, basi lobatis supra his- subtus hirsuto-tomentosis ; stipulis ovato acuminatis; corymbis “opposttfolis filamentis antheriferis simplicibus, sterilibus ovato-lan- D irsiox Sirti from the bas of the fe Dink timed slight- flexuose, tomen Leaves (24 inches 2 inches brea Pra) ov cl ght cota sora slightly lobed at the , serrato-crenate, rugose, pu th sides, but much more considerably behind, beg also alo they a are alee aol hoa above, | at, w ger: Dprccnty Fae prin a ot ; petioles sli 1 dint rn the orter than the leaves, at vio sie her they concave, gibbous at their base, sides formed into two blunt 1 \ sini rl towards the axis of the flower, apex extended into a blunt linear a at raphy Tpsteiggyt ory ee Vs out mae e and altern with the pears rs bay? ‘shorter than tl and included wi ei follls, bebitettiie dn thie same urceolate with, and ouewhat ashi than, ovato-lanceolate scales (abortive api et which are hairy on the outside, smooth within ; fila- aye ogg Sw yesd uae Daneaeagel bursting slang the sides. Pol. len y > granules round. Stigmata h other, small, ca- 5, glabrous, in contact in the centre of the stamens. Germen 5-lobed ; in its early and a little rough, afterwards rounded, green, in the centre, and densely covered with stellate pubescence, , dissepiments from the of the valves, their two layers Ovules tw each loculament, with a central of the valve between een thet both attached to the central column Fo arin, whe, every where on the plant stellate, except Shion: an 00 the epee surface of the leaves, it ofven ap- er esp la yearby OE ies whe he Eine en and in Ma nd een ie gin an a nekée ae wens inp sont Eh na Or, Gop Snd Hy olllin when me to itvesti- c tilatakeo. Stylidiutn Pirhaatidgy' S. hirsutum ; seapo. hitsuto. villis acutis; racemo subsimplici; calycis labia ( patthaale> capsula ventricosa ovata ; foliis pe heat at. tenuat re en rm parum — assigete, squamis seariosis distinguantibus 172 Dr Grahatn’s Description of New or Rare Plants. _ Stylidium hirsutum, Br. Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holland. 568.—Spreng. Sp. 0 Plant. Fee CP 2 | Descrirtion.—Roof of strong, hard, branching fibres. Leaves (6 inches _ long) all radical, linear, glabrous, firm in their texture, edges revolute, attenuated at the base, interspersed with scariose glabrous scales, which become larger towards the innermost, these being terminated with a point resembling the leaves, but shorter. Scape (9 inches high) erect, simple, "rather, longer than the leaves, covered, especially at the base, with long spreading. colourless acute (not glandular) hairs, smoother upwards. Raceme (1% inch long) spicate, the uppermost flowers expanding first, each rising from the axil of a lanceolate green bractea, which is covered . with hairs similar to those on the scape. , Pedicels hairy, half the length ,. of the primary bracteze, and having secondary lateral bractese. Calyx _,§-partite ; tube very hairy, having both pointed hairs and others which _ are shorter and glandular; segments connivent, blunt, having glandular hairs only, the two outer the largest and broadest. Corolla purplish- rose coloured, yellow in the throat, as well as the calyx covered on the outside with glandular pubescence, the four larger segments nearly equal, spreading, flat, channelled in the centre, and slightly crisped on the edges, the two next the labellum rather the narrowest, and having each one erect, ovate, entire tooth at its base, of similar colour with the rest of the corolla, the two others green at their base on the outside, and furrowed in the throat, the groove having prominent, erect, pubes- cent edges; labellum deflected from the inside of the calyx between the lips, small, ovate, acute, yellow, with a purple crisped and crenate edge, its appendices blunt spreading and much shorter than itself; tube pale yellow, twisted, equal to the longest segments of the calyx, the whole of the inside and the upper surface of the limb presenting, under the mi- croscupe, a beautiful crystalline appearance. Column linear, flat, equal in length to the limb, dark red in front, yellow behind, glabrous, very ir- ritable, bordered at its lower part. Anthers leaden-coloured, pollen gra- __nules lilac, minute, ovate. Stigma of dull green colour, oblong, = ae dular surface crystalline. _ Germen ovate, bilocular, dissepiment imper- fect above. Ovules very numerous, attached to a central receptacle, _,, awanting in the lower part of the dissepiment. ' This species is new in cultivation, and the flowers are larger than any in our gardens. I owe to the late Mr Fraser, colonial botanist, a native specimen collected at King George’s Sound, on the south coast of. New Holland; and, from seed picked off one sent at the same time to Mr Macnab, the plant described was raised. It flowered in the greenhouse of the Royal Botanic Garden in May, and will continue to bear flowers during the early part of June. — , Symphitum Caucasicum. S. Cawasicum; caule ramoso, inferne hirsuto, superne glutinoso ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis, base attenuatis, semidecurrentibus, hirsutis; caly- cibus obtusis. Symphitum Caucasicum, Marsch. Bieb. Fl. Tauric. Caucas. 1. 128.—Spren- gel, System. Veget. 1. 563. ‘DescriptTion.—Stem (2 feet high) hirsute near the bottom, higher up pu-. bescent and viscous, slightly winged, flexuose, branched. Leaves ovato- lanceolate, hirsute on both sides, but less harshly on the upper, and there when young subviscid, half decurrent, the lower attenuated at the base, the wi pair oblique, sessile and alternate. Spikes terminal, F dani te sg many-flowered, secund and involute, common peduncle and pedicels . glanduloso-pubescent. Calyx angled, the angles and blunt teeth ciliated, when in fruit distichous. Corol/a at first red-purple, but loses this co- lour as soon as it expands, and acquires a lively azure hue; tube longer than the calyx, sparingly and minutely pubescent on the outside, having Dr Graham's Description.of New or Rare Plants. 173 a white fleshy narrow projecting internally from its base over the disk ; teeth of the limb blunt and revolute in their edges; teeth of the throat erect, blunt, and having short crystalline ciliz on their edges Stamens included, about as long as the teeth; filaments purplish ; an- | thers yellow, rather shorter than the free portion of the glaments; bifid at both extremities. Pistil rather longer than the stamens; stigma bi- lobalar, rounded; style slightly ta abrous, lilac; germen’ light _yellowish-green, seated on a white disk. The unripe achenia are rough, irregularly depressed over their surface, and each is raised on a sand-glass ion of the disk, the upper lobe of which ‘projects from its lower side a simple row of short dent subulate hairs. The seeds of this plant were received at the Royal Botanic Garden, from Dr Fischer, under the name adopted, in 1830, and flowered for the first time in May 1832. The profusion of lively coloured flowers in this spe- cies, which is less deformed by coarseness of herbage than others, makes it one of the most desirable for cultivation. eee y Tropzolum tricolorum. De Eg ere, T. tricolorum; caule tenuissimo scandente ramoso, fats pe ltatisectis ; segmentis 6-7 ob obovatisve integris basi attenuatis, petiolis cir- rhosis, petalis ungu is calyce persistente subclauso parum longi- tegerrimis.—Sweet. Tropxolum tiicolorum, Sweets British Flower Garden, 270. Descriprion.— Root tuberous. Stem filiform, greatly branched, branches pei f Leaves alternate, petioled, pereetesete, low one of. 3 petiole (1 inch long) fil ; resembling the branches. Peduncles (above 2 inches long) solitary, opposite to the leaves, espa capillary, tly thickened upwards. Calyz’ ight vermi- n colour, pen 5-cleft, the ents blunt, mtc ate, on the yellow, subexserted, inserted below the incisures of the calyx, obcordato- unguiculate, dilated at the base over a slightly villous pit. . 8, included ; filaments glabrous, colourless, di at the base, and having on the outside of the insertion of each a pit similar to that at the base of the petals; anthers yellow, cernuous. Germen glabrous, ' B-lobed, lobes keeled. Style glabrous, shorter than the stamens, ved on three sides, 3-toothed at the top, one of the teeth larger the others, and Smale We received plant from Mr Anderson of the Apothecaries’ Garden, Chelsea. It uced its trulneplvsitial flowers in the greenhouse of the Botanic in March April. ~ it 5 tat Lr) a! SO Oe ae Celestial Phenomena from July.1. to October 1. 1882, calculated Jor the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr Grorce Iynzs, Astronomical Calculator, Aberdeen. The times are inserted’ according to the Civil reckoning, the day beginning at midnight —The Conjunctions of the Moon with the Stars are given in Right Ascension. D. a 1, 46, 88. 1. } 2% 0 28 2. 1 34 40 2 13 38 43 3. Ss 9. 4. 23 24 31 “9. 158 4 8. 2 41 16 8. 8. Je 9. 5 56 31. 9. 8 14 22 ll. 0 16 30 ll. = 6 89:15 Wess) Fedo 12 7, 3.53, 12 9 30 38 15.1 10 12, 22 47. 55 14. 17 23.35 15. 515 40 15. 10 14 19, 16. 1342 4 18. 12 32 54 20. 12 36 39 D. it. <7’ @ 1. 11. 48 2. 2.21.9 3. 1 18 28 3. 10 42 25 4. 8 57 37 5. 12° 313 7. 13 611 13 48 22 ]. 22°30 57 8. 13 13.18 | 8 15.40 14 9. 446 — JULY. D. 6%: 20. 6 9eK 21. Im. II. sat. 2/ 21. é)h 21 Sup. d@ $ 22. ) First Quarter. | 22. Im. I. sat. 2/ 23. Sb )xvy= 23. 6 $x 23. d ) ¢ Oph. 23) gdon 23, Im. IY. sat. 2/ 24. oDle ft 25. S)2ef 26. d pot 26. So) aft 26. 6 $2 , 27. -OFull Moon. =} 27. 56) FV 27. 6) 27. $)xK 28. 5 DIV. | 29. 5) 4 30. SD)» 30. AUGUST. D. 5 BEN 10. Im. III. sat. 2/ | 11. Im. II. sat. 2/ 11. ) First Quarter. | 11. 5S) ye 11. d ) ¢ Oph. 1. d)le ft 12. 5) 2et 4. Im. I. sat. / 14. d)joft 15. d)et 16. 2OH 17. H. ‘ “ 21 55 43 435 7 10 56 30 - 18-40 13 1513 1 22 15 21 0 14 18 Hi 54 35 13 9 15 13 38 2 18 29 39 18 43 22 14 10 34 1 3219 314.11) 22 42 9 9 24 36 13 49 1 14,19 18 2144 - 22.8 36, 432 - 2 8 20 3.20 8 Hoy ou 23 29 5 9 31 41 Phe 6) 14 19 43 16 15 14 19 42 0 16 i2) « 16.5 11 22,22. 16 » 0 2541 ~ 18 29 55) 17 10 19 -~ a & ? = se HG) 0.0.0.0. oVvvrww 3 SBovvvvyv: ag ga RO HO HO OAAAO Mee we weHKre MEBs vw = 7. aa 5 2 ZY g & = 5 a © +0 B OHA. DA® Jb Qe Im. I. sat. 2/ SDH d ) 2% Ceti. Celestial. Phenomena from July \. to October 1. 1882. 175 a) 1 3 , 17 34 48 22 6 25 623 7 17 4 - 19 24 54 20 41 59 21 11 42 212 44 3 14 12 315 14 , 23.20 52 2 19 37 Ho, 4 19 17 15 117 31 840 - 19 54 55 20 36 59 1 0 59 1959 47 22 25 52 415 -? 01317 22 27 55 0 37 36 614 19 147 (27 22 58 17 2 24 24 248 - 5 17 25 3 13 25 3 36 57 TL 5 26 010 2 22 42 37) 2 29 41 2 32 30 6 34 46 3 40 15 21 113 2143 9 AQWWKAAAAXAAAO AUGUST—continued. 7. AAS: UES DY ) @ Ceti. 22. 12 48 5 dr? 23. 4 43 45 pfs 23. 204817 Last Quarter. | 24. 3 11 25 So 25. 21 32 55 drs 26. 10 41 53 p1sy- 26. 1858 6 p238 27. 4 O08 p28 27. 22 25 0 PeN 30. 22 42.52 Ves | 31. 2 48 44 De 31. 1639 19 Im. I. sat. 2/ 31. 18 45 - SEPTEMBER. D. , Tae d ) ¢ Oph. 16. 1 28 17 ) First Quarter. | 16. 2 28 25 56 9? 16. 2 58 31 d)let f16. 13.17 37 d)2e ft 17. 935 45 Im. IL. sat.2/ 117. 13 26 37 d)oft 18. 433 - dé} ft 18. 6 12 57 d%h 18. 20 4 24 6 29am 19. 219 40 Im. III. sat. | 20. 11 40 27 Im. I. sat. 7/ 21. 2212 59 5 )oK 99, 2122 — 6) H 23. 192 d6)7% 23. 114 8 Sd )IK 23. 1031 17 Inf 6 ©% 23. 1356 9 © Full Moon. | 24. 6 47 19 Sb DY © 24. 19 37 52 d6Oh 24. 2032 - Im. II. sat. 2/ | 25. 9 28 46 5d Qnty 27. 3 22 24 dD)» 28. 1 38 18 d ) 28 Ceti. 28. 10 11 51 Im. ITI. sat. 7/ | 28. 0 48 29 Im. I. sat. 2/ 29. 345 4 d ) # Ceti. 30. 34'S d pes 30. 713 Im Isat. | 31. = 18 15 28 d)¢ 5 cia § tore Rv ow. oa 2 z = 8 R Hg@a00 F m 4 ® AAAaax Em. II. sat. 2/ ~~ Times of the Planets passing the Meridian, and their Declination. 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Gk GSA Awol + ‘i peony flak aaP itt stad 4 bpia f . £% Oo jttr wer aes bel i" SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. METEOROLOGY. 1. First View of Sierra Leone.—Dr Boyle, in his i idewastinis work on the medical topography of the western coast of Africa, says, “ There are very few parts in the tropical world which at _ first sight hold out more allurements, even to the experienced _ traveller, than Sierra Leone. Its splendid scenery, and its beau- tiful river, together with its extensive, commodious, and general- ly secure harbour, and pleasant-looking town and villages, are _ calculated to excite the most flattering hopes in respect of health and enjoyment, notwithstanding strong previous impressions with regard to the contrary. On making Sierra Leone from the north, the mountains from which the peninsula was named first excite attention. They are lofty, perpetually clothed, from their summits to their bases, in all the fertile gaity of Nature’s verdant scenery ; and there is a pleasing and endless variety in the outline of their countless peaks and declivities. As the ship draws in with the shore, signs of cultivation appear, and increase with rapidity, both in number and attractiveness. Freetown, and the lately formed villages in its neighbourhood, at first ap- pear like anomalous patches in the view; but on a nearer ap- proach, they add greatly to its beauty and its interest. When the ship has arrived just at that point of distance from which a person may see all the broad outlines and apparent characteris- tics of an extensive scene, without being able to discern the mi- nute details, the effect is magnificent. On the left hand is the -Bulloon shore, low, but covered with luxurious and richly coloured bush, an occasional palm and pullom tree, rising in graceful form above the neighbouring mangroves :—in appear- ance it seems to embody the notions formed of fairy-land, but its realities most sadly illustrate the folly of such dreams. The middle ground also occurs on the left hand, and it gives a va- riety to the view. In front are the spacious river, extending farther than the eye can reach, aad the north side of the penin- sula, with its lofty mountains, and Freetown, running to the wa- VOL. XII, NO. xxXV.—JuLY 1832. M 178 Scientific Intelligence: —Metcorology. ter’s'edge, and: surmounted by the barracks, and. protected by|a handsome fort,and a coast, forming small and convenient/bays, fromthe town to its termination at the Cape, which runs-boldly into theisea,:. On, the right is the Atlantic. |, That.a scene,, coms posed \ofi:such ‘ostensible material features, is grand and, impos- ing, "may readily be supposed; but those who are, ignorant, of the: peculiarities jof a tropical.climate, and. its seductive influence on aistranger, can form no adequate; notion of the| character and - extentiof its actual:powers For the moment home:is forgotten s orif;remembeted, the remembrance. is accompanied with.a de- sire:it should be situated. in such a seeming paradise... In, thus speaking of the view: on arriving at Sierra Leone, we are sup- posing the settlement to be made on a fine clear day,, when, the atmosphere is bright and comparatively devoid of malaria, and the river runs its natural course, unswollen, and free, from dis- coloration. Should the arrival, however, happen.at a different period, when the atmosphere is dense, oppressive,,and fraught with deleterious exhalations, and the rains are deluging’ the face of the country, :and. atonce augmenting the, river, and destroy- ing: its: beauty, then Sierra Leone presents a, very different ap- pearance; there:is nothing to excite.a pleasing anticipation, but there is a world of causes for apprehension and for dread,,,, The realities of the scene are, of course, unaltered, for the two,periods are the property of the climate, and must, be alike endured. by the colonists ;; but the nth shi present a PoE and fearful contrast.”| |; io, Hpiew 2e-Description, of an. slit Lormaslaceties seasons vat hiatal Leone are divided into the wet and the dry... The latter is generally ushered. in by the explosion of two. or,three,torna- dos, which, although formidable in themselves, are still so long connected with the approach ofa pleasant time, as,that the iny habitants have sometimes prayed for their appearance. OQ those: strange commotions of mature is thus, described by Boyle: A violent tornado, appears to, strangers,,a. most ,ap- ng visitation, and produces, an. extraordinary effect upon ase It consists of successive flashes of the most, vivid lightningy tremendous. shocks of thunder, rapidly, and a ingly reiterated, impetuous gusts of wind, deluging rain. , —ar of the. Batennamts oni OW Tk ev Scientific Intelligence-~Meteorology:' | 479 the coast-under.consideration ;. but it occurs with peculiar force on what is called the windward coast, especially at Sierraeone. Its denomination is derived from the Portugese, it being’a cor- ruption of the word trueno, which means thunder-storm. «Its approach js first discernible by the appearance of a small clear silvery speck, at a high altitude in the heavenly expanse, which increases and descends towards the horizon, with a gradual and slow, but visible motion. In its descent it becomes circumscribed by a dark ring, which extends itself on every side, and as ‘soon as the silvery cloud approaches the horizon, veils it im impene- trable gloom: »At the moment the elements seem to have ceased their operations, and the very functions of nature to be para- lysed ; the atmosphere appears to: be deprived of the spirit of vitality, and a sensation of approaching suffocation pervades and oppresses the physical system. ‘The mind is wrapped in awe and suspense, but the latter is speedily relieved by the dark horizon being suddenly illuminated by one broad blaze of elec- tric fluid; peals of distant thunder then break upon the ear, and rapidly approach, and increase in fervency aad violence, till the shocks become appaling; when the thunder is at its loud- est, a tremendous gust of wind rushes with incredible and.often irresistible vehemence from the darkened part of the horizon, not rarely in its course carrying away roofs of houses and chim- ney-tops, blowing down or uprooting trees, and laying the stout- est and largest ships on their beam-ends, or sinking them under weigh or at anchor; and to that succeeds a furious deluge of rain, which falls in one vast sheet, rather than in drops, and concludes this terrible convulsion. The lightning is of the most vivid description, and, contrary to what has been reported of it, seldom sheet-lightning, but forked and piercing, and often ex- tremely destructive, both to things animate and inanimate. | Its apparently doubtful, wild course, is sometimes directed to a large and lofty tree, and the foliage, at the points of contact, is blasted on the instant, the exposed branches are severed from the trunk, and probably the enormous trunk itself is rent to its basis and destroyed. When it comes in contact with a house, it. fre- quently leaves it as great'a wreck as ships have been scen to be on coming out of a severe action, or after a destructive storm; and, occasionally, the building entered by it'may happen to re- mu 2 180 Scientific Intelligence:—Meterology. main untouched; ‘atid its inmates, some) or all “of them;as’ the author has known to edur, perish under its scorching influence: Occasionally’ the spindle of a ship’s mast, the*most elevated part of it, ma y appeat to be the point of “attraction, ‘and it will some- times dart among the’ spars and’ ‘cordagé ‘harmless, descending till'i it reach the deck, when’ it Suddenly quits the vessel’ by some aperture, a and rapidly returning through another, seems'to have acquired a new character with incredible velocity $ for, steering its strange and rapid course into the maindeck or hold, it will kill, maim, or injure every animate ‘or inanimate with which it comes in contact. Much good has unquestionably been effected by conductors; but those who have watched the progress’ of the electric fluid, will hold the theorist in no estimation, who does not make the atmosphere the first and most important point of consideration. The heavy peals, ‘or rather’ ‘the terrifying shocks, of thunder which follow the lightning, frequently not only shake the buildings at Freetown,’ but thé ‘very foundations on which they stand ; ant the reverberations from the surround- ing mountains increase, if possible, the awe excited by elemen- tary commotion. ‘The succeeding rain, or rather deltige, | ‘is happily . of short duration, and rtfetitig down the various ihlets and indentations i in ‘the adjoining mountains, it forms into streams even a few minutes | “after “its ‘commencénient, ‘which’ Sweeps through the streets of Freetown with’ astonishing velocity, béar- ing with them all the exposed | vegetable and ‘other matter, i ‘a state of putridity. or decay. Such is the’ torfiado} ‘and'it is" by the preponderating power of its gusts, and the’ atmosphere iii fluence of lightning and its rains, that noxious exhalations ‘from the earth, and deleterious ‘miasmiata, before confined to’ the neighbourhood of their origin by opposed ‘or spit ‘currents of air in the day, or “attract 3 by the’ Aa (the nibré “lofty” the more Attractive) i in the night, ‘are removed, and’ corigequetitly, the indescribably distressing feclings: occasioned by” oa gue: te here, are su perseded by ‘those comparatively” pléasutable Lh { 2Otji el ee enlivenin sations ar have’ been "already" noticed, 8 fie ones we time for thé tornados to set isis the bares tion of the mo saul September, ‘fon which time wntil Chie a cay Ne her i be expected At'Christ- chase "ae ead al winds ealled the tiafnitai"Comnendé atid Scientific Iuelligence-—Meterology, 181 continue to blow for six or ten weeks. ., It is very, curious, that whilst! to the natives, and to the Europeans, who, from, long, re- sidence,;may be ‘said to. be acclimated in the. settlement, these winds |are exceedingly annoying,; the Europeans, newly. arrived consider them. as, refreshing, and. salubrious, But during the raging of the harmatans, the furniture of every, house. i is covered with fine sand, and tables and,chairs crack under By influence. Mr Boyle concludes. this |part, of his subject by a diary « of the Weather at Sierra Leone, for, the term nearly of a year,—a d docu- ment that will be read WOSERE interest by all the ‘cultiya- tors of meteorological science. \ 8. On the distance to which Sona of the ‘Sea may be carried. +A few remarks on the distance to which spray. from the sea is'sometimes carried inland: by storms of wind, may not, per- haps, be deemed, altogether irrelevant to the subject we are treating upon, Sea-water is brought into the immediate neigh- bourhood of. Manchester, which is,at least. thirty miles, from the nearest coast, by every violent and long continued gale from the west 5 and’ the exact proportion i in given quantities of rain-water, collected ;on. several, occasions of this kind,, has been determined chemically,.. That the sea, is the principal source whence. the salt is derived,.with which the rain that falls in this town and its. vicinity; is occasionally impregnated, cannot, T think, be doubted:;, as L. have clearly ascertained, by direct experinient, that .its excess,.or deficiency depends entirely on the direction, force, and duration of the wind. Rain collected in clean glass- vessels, a few miles to the north of Manchester, when the wind blows moderately from the north or north-east, scarcely ever exhibits the slightest trace of muriatic acid, on the application of the most delicate test (nitrate of silver), even when reduced two-thirds or three-fourths by spontaneous evaporation ; though samples collected in the town, precisely at the same time, on be- ing subjected; to the test, generally have their transparency more or less impaired, This fact seems to prove, that, notwith- standing muriate of soda is never raised into the atmosphere by evaporation, yet the air over large towns usually contains a very minute portion of muriatic : acid, which, as Mr Dalton observes, is probably supplied et the sublimation. of muriate of ammonia during, the combustion of fuel. A considerable 1 increase of mu. 181 Sctentifie Tritelligence Meteorology. riatic acid takes place’ 4 ‘in the rain which falls ‘in’ Manchester, when 3 accompanied with a brisk breeze from the west, of several hours’ duration ; a8 is evident from the greater degtee of opaci- ty « observed in samples caught under such cir¢umstances, when treated with a few drops of the solution of nitrate of silvers and that which falls in the adjacent country, then mahifests a’ sensi- ple trace also.’ “Indeed, the diréction of the wind remaining the same, its force atid duration ‘scem almost entirely toregulate the quantity of tmuriati¢ acid in the atmosphere ;’ which’ completely establishes the fact 'that'it is brought from the sea by the me- chanical action of powerful currents of air. ‘The utmost dis. tance to which’ séa-water is conveyed by tempestuous winds’ is not easily determined.’ Sir H. Davy, in’ his Elements of Agrti- cultural en sian p: 295, states, that “* in great storms: the spray of the sea has been carried more than fifty’miles from the shore ; ;” but he does not give his authority. Being at Blackwall, in ‘Derbyshire, the residence of my relative John’ Blackwall, Esq. on ‘the 28d of November 1814, when a violent hurricane occurred, which’ did extensive damage on’ the southern eoast;'I took’ several Opportunities’ of examining the!‘rain which fell! at intervals on that oceasion, ‘and uniformly found’ that it became . extremely turbid on application of the test, evidently containing much more muriatic acid than rain’ collected in ‘large towns, during’ calm weather, is ever ‘found to contain. ‘The* storm ‘commenced on the,night of the 22d of November, and conti- nued, with little abatement, till after noon on the 23d. .'The wind blew from the south'all the time, and’ the place of) obser- vation is 140 or 150 miles from the sea in that direction. "This ; is, ‘perhaps, the greatest distance on record to which’ sea-water “has “been clearly ascertained ‘to be conveyed by the wind ;!iand “ae it extended much further’ 1 warn probable.— Manchester ! Memoirs, vc ‘vol. ¥. pail woah At herein ask odie AE) Fale? Hay} Wi herOoso igial ap rat efwg- oxihae gut SL (Phe biw WAIOG TSB IE feed pieces pets EEE 8 facie 1h oe, sett Bikes i ahaa ‘in the Tlinots Country, in North America. ‘Line “buffato “Ny vot be ohag us. Betore!the | settle ‘'praities afforded pasturage® to“large!herds of ‘huh ‘the traces of iteartnarloAeamieaeeeest « huffalo paths,” Which'ate to be seen’ iit several’ parts’ of the Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. State. hwanedini beaten tracts, leading generally from th prairies in the,interior of the. state, to the margin: iu the larg rivers ;,shewing the course of their migrations as_ ange. their pastures, periodically, from the low, marshy a luvium t the dry, upland, plains, In the heat,of summer they would b driven, from the latter by, the prairie flies ;, in the autumn ‘they awould: be expelled, from, the former, by the mosquitoes; in th Spring the grass of the plains would. afford, abundant astu while,the herds could enjoy,the warmth of the sun, and snuff the breeze that sweeps so freely over them 3 in, the winter, the rich)cane on the river banks, which is an evergreen, would fur- wish food,—while the low grounds, thickly covered, with brush and forest, would afford protection from the bleak winds. I Anow, few. subjects, more. interesting than the migration, of wild animals, connecting, as it does, the singular display of brute instincty»with, a wonderful exhibition of the ,various supplies which nature. has, provided for the support of animal life, under an. endless variety of circumstances. These paths. are narrow, and remarkably direct, shewing that the animals travelled in single file through the..woods, and pursued the, most cust _ gourse to their places, of destination.——Deer are move ab dant,than at, the first, settlement of the country, ,'They i ae toa certain extent, with, the population. ‘The reason of this appears) to be, that. they find protection in the neighbourhood, of man, from the, beasts of prey that, assail them in, the wilderness, and fromwhose, attacks, their young. sociale can, with dif- dasreshadicehctialoneed: who seldom, give “in the chase until a deer .is. taken, We, have, often, sat, ona moonlight summer night, at-the door of a log-cabin on ene of our prairies, and “heard:the wolves in full chace of a deers yelling yery nearly, in the same manner asa pack of hounds. Sometimes the cry would be heard at a great distance over the plain; then it would die away, and again be distinguished at a nearer point, and in an- other direction ;——now, the full cry, would burst upon us, from a neighbouring thicket,,and we would almost hear the sobs of the exhausted, deer ;--and again. it would be born away, and lost in the distance. . We have. passed nearly whole nights in listening to such sounds; and once we saw a deer dash through the yard, 184, Scientific Intelligence. Zoology.: and immediately ypass the door at which we sat; followed by ‘his’ audacious pursuers; who were but a few yards inchis: rear She Immense numbers of deer are killed every year by our hunters) who take them»for their hams and skins alone, throwing»away-” theirest of\;the carcass... Venison hams and hides ‘aré important” articles of;export : the former are purchased from the’ hunters | at 25 cents;a pair,’ the latter:at 20 cents ‘aypound:; ‘Invour vik’ lages we purchase for our tables the saddle of venisony with the’ hams. attached, for 374:cents; which would be something like 1 cent a;pound..—There are several ways of hunting’ deer, ‘all’ of:, which are ‘equally simple.» Most generally the hunter. pro2)_ ceeds to the woods.on horseback, ‘in the day-time, selecting par- ticularly certain hours, which are thought to:be most favourable: It.is said, that, during the season when the pastures are green,’ this.animal rises from his lair precisely at the rising of'the moon) whether in the day or night ; and I suppose the :fact* to be so, because such is the testimony of experienced hunters. ‘If it» be true, it is certainly a curious display of animal \instinct. »'This hour-is therefore:always kept in-view ‘by the hunter, as‘he rides slowly through: the forest, with his:rifleson his shoulder, while’ his: keen eye penetrates: the surrounding’ shades... On beholding” a deer, the’hunter slides: from: his ‘horse, :and, while the'deer is observing the latter, creeps upon him, keeping the largest trees between himself! and: the object of pursuit, until -hegets’ near’ - enough to fire... An) expert: woodsman ‘seldom~fails ‘to ‘hit ‘his! game: ‘It is extremely dangerous to approach a*wounded deer) Timid and ‘harmless as’ this’ animal ‘is, at other: times,“ he no" sooner finds himself deprived of the power of flight, than he bes comes furious, and rushes’ upon: his enemy, making desperate’ plunges with his sharp’ horns,’ and ‘striking ‘and trampling furit ously with his fore-legs, which, being extremely muscular, and armed with sharp’ hoofs, are capable ‘of inflicting very severe ' wounds. Aware of this cirewmstance, | the hunter ‘approaches: him with caution, ‘and either secures his prey! by a second shot,’ where the first has been but partially successful, or, ‘as ts more | frequently the case, causes his dog to seize the wounded animal; | while he watches: ‘his own’ opportunity. tostabehim with ;his) — hunting-knife. ‘Sometimes where a noble buck isthe wietim, — and the hunter is!impaticnt or inexperienced, ‘terrible conflicts | Scientific Intelligence-—Zoology. 185" ensue on such occasions.—Another mode, is to watch at«nighty in the neighbourhood of) the: salt-licks.: | These ‘are spots-where: « the earth:is impregnated with saline particles, or where the salt- water oozes:through the soil. Deer and other» grazing animals © ' frequentysuch places, and remainfor) hours:licking the earthy’ The hunter secrets himself: here;»either inthe thick>top ‘ofa’ trees or most generally in a:sereen’ erected for thespurpose, and) artfully concealed, ‘like!,a«mask-battery, \ withodogs'\ or -green. boughs.;, This: practice is pursued only in the summer, or early: in the autumn,’ in: cloudless nights, when the moon ‘shines bril- liantly,and objects may be readily discovered.) Av the rising of the moon, or shortly after, the deer having risen from their beds, approach the lick. | Such places are generally denuded of timber, but surrounded: by it; and» as*the animal is’ about ‘to — emerge from the shade into the clear moon-light, he stops, looks cautiously around, and snuffs the air. Then he advances a few steps, and stops again, smells the ground, or raises his expanded nostrils, as, ifhe ‘snuffed the approach of danger) in every tainted breeze.” Uhe hunter sits motionless, and most: breath. less, waiting. until, the animal shall get within’ rifle-shot, ,and . until its position, in relation to the hunter andthe light, shall. be favourable, when he fires with an unerring aim: A few deer only can, be. thus taken, in one night, and after a few. nights these timorous animals are driven from the haunts which) are thus disturbed,—Another practice is called driving, and is only practised in those parts of the country where this kind of game is scaree,and where hunting. is pursued. as an amusement.) A large party is made up, and the hunters, ride forth with their, dogs. , The hunting ground is selected, and, as it is pretty. well. known what tracts are usually taken by the deer when startedy, an individual is placed at each of those passages, to intercept. the retreating animal. ‘The scene of action. being; in some meas, sure, surrounded, small parties advance witli the dogs from dif». ferent directions, and the startled deer, in flying, most generally. pass some.of the persons:who. are concealed, and who: fire at: them as they: pass.—-+The. e/k has disappeared. A few have’ been seen of late years, and) some taken ; but it is not known that any remain jat:this;time, within the limits of the State. The bear is seldom seen... Ehis animal inhabits those parts of 186 Scientific Intelligence:—Zoology. , the country-that are. thickly wooded, and) delights particularly in cane-brakes, where it feeds in the winter on, the tender shoots of ,the, young'canei, The) meat is tender, and. finely flavoured, and is,esteemed a great delicacy. Wolves are very numerous in every part of the state... There are two kinds; thecommonor — black, wolf, and. the| prairie wolf... The formeris a large: fierce avimal, and yery destructive to sheep, pigs, calves, poultry, and even.young colts.) They: hunt in| large packs, and. after using every stratagem, to; circumvent, their prey, attack it, with»re- markable forocity.|| Like the Indian, they always endeavour to surprise, their ‘victim, and strike the mortal blow without ex- posing themselves to danger... They seldom attack man except when. asleep or wounded. | ‘The largest animals, when wounded, entangled, or. otherwise disabled, become. their prey, but; in general they only attack such) as are incapable of, resistance. ‘hey have been known to lie in wait upon the bank ofa stream, — which. the buffaloes were in the habit of crossing, and, when one of those unwieldy animals was so unfortunate as to,sink in the mire, spring, suddenly upon it, and | worry, it: to, death, while thus disabled from, resistance., Their most common:prey is the deer, ,which they hunt regularly. ; but all defenceless animals are alike.acceptable.to their ravenous, ‘appetites. When tempted by hunger, they approach’ the farm-houses in the night, and snatch their prey from under the very eye of the farmer ;,and when the latter.is absent with his dogs, the wolf is)sometimes _ seen by the females lurking about in mid-day, as if aware-of the unprotected state of the family, , Our heroic females have |some- times shot them, under such cireumstances.' The smell.of burn - ing assafoetida has a remarkable effect upon this animal. , Ifva fire, be made in'the woods, anda portion of this drug thrown into it, so as to saturate the atmosphere with the odour, the _ wolves, if any are within reach of the scent, immediately assemble around, howling in the most mournful manner; and:suchyis ‘the remarkable fascination. under. which’ they ‘seem to labour, that they will, often. suffer themselves to. be shot down rather, than quit the spot. Of othe Overy) few) instances. of, their attacking human beings of which: we have heard, the following may serve to.give some. ideasof their habits : In very early times, a ‘Negro man namin inthe night, in the heheh pene Scientific Intelligence:— Zoolooy. ‘87 - from:one settlement to‘another. ‘The distance waé'several miles, and 'the:country' over which he travelled entirely unsettled’ In the “morning” his*earcass was found ‘entirely stripped ‘of flesh. Nearvit Jay his axe, covered with blood, and all around, the bushes‘ were beat down, the ground trodden, and the number of foot-tracts so great, as to show that the unfortunate victim had fought long and manfully.\"On pursuing his track, ‘it appeared that’the wolves had pursued hin ‘for a considerable distarice, he had’ often’ turned’ upon ‘them ‘and driven them’ back.’ Several times they had attacked him, and been repelled, as'appeared by the blood and ‘tracks. He had killed ‘some’ of them’ before the final onset, and ‘in the last conflict had destroyed’ several’; his axe was his only weapon. The prairie-wolf'is a smaller species, which takes its name from its habits, or residing ‘entirely upon the’ open’ plains. Even when hunted with dogs, it ‘will make circuit after circuit round the prairie, carefully avoiding the fo- rest, or only dashing into it occasionally when hardpressed, and then returning to the plain. In size and appearance this ani- . malis midway between the wolf and’ the fox, and ‘in ¢olour ‘it resembles the latter, being ‘of a very light'red)"! Te'preys upon poultry, rabbits; young pigs, calves, &c. The most friendly re. lations subsist between this animal ‘and the common wolf; and they constantly hunt in packs together: “Nothing is more‘ com- mion than to see'a large’ black wolf in company with’ several praitie-wolves,” I'am well satisfied ‘that the latter‘is the jackal of Asia, “Several years ago, an agricultural society, which was established at the seat of government, offered a large premium to the person: who should kill the greatest number of’ wolves in one year.'\'Lhe legislature at ‘the: same time offered a bounty foreach wolf-scalp that should be ‘taken. The consequence was, that the expenditure for wolf-scalps became so great, as to render it necessary to repeal the law. ‘These animals, although still numerous and troublesome to the farmer, are greatly de- creased in number, and are no longer dangerous to man. We know of no mstances‘in late years of a human being having been attacked by them—Featherstonchaugh’s Journal) «5. Entomology in Scotland,~Vhe great attention which heh - been bestowed foremany’years on the Entomology of England, where there is) scarcely 'a single city without one or more assi- 188 Scientific Intelligence. Zoology. duous collectors, renders the fact the more remarkable, that, in the northerii portion of the island, this delightful study” should have made, go slight a progress. ‘This may be in some ‘manner owing to the,want of a proper elementary, work, of. a.sufficiently compendious’nature, to guide the student through: the intricacies of a subject: somewhat encumbered ‘by ati ‘unsettled’ system of nomenclature and arrangement. We are therefore happy to have it in our power to announce that the first, volume is in a forward state of preparation, of a work entitled ‘Entomologia Edinensis, or a description and history of the. Insects indigenous’ to. the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, by Mr James Wilson, F.R.S. E., &e. and Mr. James Duncan. This volume is intended ,to con- tain the generic characters and_ specific descriptions. of the cole- opterous insects found in. the district,just named, combined with a general history of their localities, economy, and metamor- phoses. An introductory essay will present a general view of the Class Insecta,—pointing out. its» distinetive attributes and relations tothe other great divisions of the animal kingdom, and including an account of the anatomical. structure, physiology, . geographical distribution, &c. of, the: extensive )order, to a pors tion: of) which’ the: sear rih Bane of the forthcoming volume exclusively, relates. | joi :bRA Td ObutekL yf 1 VESUiiS arRoD it hee LLit ve ALR j ittoks PiBih. Fels ; Di MOLIRisI 2 cri ior < rietd GEOLOG GY. Pe AMIRI YRS DOs ‘snidea., att HonunssIis il 6 ig of, Mountains and rome. an North America im, me s Peak, Chippeweyan, or Rocky Mountains, ,.,15,000 feet. 9)... 3 ,, Mount Washington, N. Hampshire," . sopnbsepasennecen, oa fs taint “Mansfield Mountain, N. Peak, Vermont, wee meta Ne 4 ‘Catal!’ Mountains, Round ‘Pop; No York, {6.0510 sia00) 1 80 ~ 0 Black Hills, Lat. 40. NW. of Missouri; .............15°3,500. — 000s oo , Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, c+.+4s+44- seesiienhi Bl 00 yd srnot 413, }OzaRe, Mountains west of MississIDDb spre ssneseny “bite staid no iL Pe idssctegeamiren tu tare re Teak - 2,250 hei las © Catskill Mountainhouse, N. York, sais tn 324° ° —— © Sources’ Vt detain Wit O6 RUAN AKG ed fad” sirve thes cos tines a ito : GUPerior, ee cececeinniesedsh sac aaecseaasoas eanabaenedawene 1,200.2 ot eew auiges phe og igi the ng prmertontrsrertcaiet aise Teo ywat Me SE. ofthe Take a he ewes mained pbivid bine Hes ner BH GO) boa! gs onelodh ps ce 0 DA wait ot This is the oftiest of the White Mountains.) (4). oy Scientific Intelligence-—Geology..” 189 fi) (Takes of thie Wo0dsysii ilc uae ig ee, A834, ba rvolq ty 7 BOTANY. 8. pias eam arboreum of Sacquin.—This species. aa the Guayacan or Bean-caper tree, is a. common native:of the pro- vince of Carthagena in South America. It grows to the beight of 40 feet, and the wood is remarkably dense and heavy, being of greater specific gravity than the most compact ioak. ‘The Spanish setilers speak with enthusiasm of its durability. :\.It has been found by experience to-be so lasting, when driven as piles into the ground, that they often give it the name of imperish- able wood. As it does not contain any gallic acid or tannin, iron-fastenings do not act injuriously upon it. This timber, it is believed, might easily be procured; and it might. be worth while to try some piles of it in our sea-piers, in the hope that it would resist the attacks of the minute but very destructive ma- rine insect (Lemnoria terebrans of Leach), the ravages of which have hitherto baffled the ingenuity of our engineers, usd aio, von bits TiitT? ies List of Patents ‘granted in Engin, Qd August to 30th pps. August 1831. 1831. weno vs Aug. “8."To Sir J.C. Axpensow, Bart. Bultenant Castle, county of Cork, “ for certain improved machinery for propelling vessels on water, |)" \ which machinery is applicable to other useful purposes.” 3. To J. Hau, younger, Dartford, engineer, “10t\an Improvement, in machinery used in the manufacture of pene.” Communicated by a foreigner. 10. To J. M. E. Anprt, Newman Street, Oxford Street, printer, “ for ‘© \@ machine or apparatus for drawing, and for copying and redu- Ini deamringn qnd: ates cnjace. or (sthjocts ond Sap; sahing pang. | Tamas.” Communicated by a foreigner. “To A. Cocunane, Esq, Norton Street, Great Portland Street, “for certain improvements in machinery for propelling or mo- es tomomgc mare and giving motion to mills and other machinery.” ‘eT To W. Masox, London, patent axle-tree maker, “ for certain im- provements in the construction of wheeled ° 11. To D. ne Liverpool, merchant, « for ‘improvements 199 A List of Patenis. in metalli¢ mills ‘for grinding coffee, corn, drugs, paints, and va- rious other materials.” Communicated by a foreigner. Aug. 13..ToA. Ww ‘Gittet, Birmingham, “ for a new or improved machine _ or instrument to measure, beat, and. give the accents in all the "different moods of time, with any degree of velocity required, ap- plicable to the teaching of music.” Communicated by a foreigner. 1% To J. Perxtns, Fleet Street, engineer, “ for his improvement on ‘his former patent, dated July 2, 1831; making the same applica- _ble to the evaporating and boiling of fluids for certain purposes.” a 30, To B. Aingworth, Birmingham, button-maker, “ for an improve- "_* —* ment in the making and constructing of buttons.” ‘, 6 ae is List of Patents granted in Scotland. from 15th to 28th March 1832. 1832. March 15, ‘To Joex Benevict Nort of Liverpool, Esq: in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, and invention by himself, for “ certain improvements in the construction of a furnace or furnaces for generating heat, and in the apparatus for the application of heat to various use- ful purposes,” being farther improvements upon a patent ob- tained by him, dated the 4th day of November 1830. . 'To Joun Ericsson of Liverpool, in the county palatine of Lan- caster, civil engineer, for an invention of “an improved engine for communicating power to mechanical purposes.” 21. To James Tuomson of Gorbals, city of Glasgow, and county of Lanark, distiller, for an invention of “ an improvement on the construction of distilling apparatus, and particularly of. the con- denser or worm.” 28. To Peter Youne of Fenchurch Street, rope and sail saline consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, for a new mode of “ manufacturing mangel wurzel, for the purpose of producing various known ar- ticles of commerce.” To Ex1san Gattoway of Carter Street, Walworth, in the county of Surrey, engineer, for an invention of “certain improvements on paddle-wheels.” To. Henry WARNER of Loughborough, in the county of Leices- ter, hosier, Cuartes Hoop of the same place, frame smith and setter up, and Bensamin Axpov, also of the same place, : frame-work knitter, for an invention of “ certain improvements upon the machinery now in use for m making or __stockings,. st -web, or frame-work, big md web, warp-net, and point-net.” rides ae Bn. v THE sale “EDINBURGH NEW "PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. Memoir of Witt1am Roscoe, Esq. By Dr Tuomas Stewart Trait, F.R.S.E., &. Communicated by the Author. “Clarorum Virorum facta moresque posteris tradere antiquitus usita- tum, ne nostris quidem temporibus, quanquam. incuriosa suorum wtas omisit, quotiens magna aliqua ac nobilis virtus vicit ac super- gressa est yitium, parvis magnisque Civitatibus commune, ignoran- tiam recti et invidiam.”—Tacir1 Vita Agricole. Ixy the sentetice now quoted, Tacitus has justly indicated the true objects of biography ; and, although in this humble notice of our late illustrious President *, I do not profess theintention of handing down his character and virtues to posterity (a task for- tunately confided to abler hands +), yet I feel satisfied, that this attempt will not be displeasing to a Society of which he was at once the ornament and the head. As our age cannot be justly accused of want of curiosity respecting our contemporaries, it does not'deserve to be characterized as ignorant or envious of merit. If, in tracing the career of Mr Roscoe, we find him ris- * Read before the Literary ana Serra 1 wore ye in-Oc- tober 1631. 4 The public will soon have the satisfaction of receiving from the pen of Henry Roscoe, Esq. barrister-at-law, a life of his father, illustrated by selec- tions from an extensive and interesting correspondence with many distin- guished characters of his age. VOL, XIII. NO. XXVI.—OCTOBER 1832. N s 194 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. ing, by his own exertions, from obscurity to eminence, that age and that country have some claims to commendation in which the force of genius can overcome the obstacles of birth and’ for- tune, and elevate its possessor to the society of the noblest’ and wisest of the — Wirtram Roscor was’ born on the 8th of March 1753; in the Old Bowling-green House, which ‘still exists ‘in’ Mount Pleasant *, and ‘is well known to’ many persons by the engra- ving from a drawing by Austin.’ His parents, in humble but comfortable circumstances, were little able to advance his edu- cation ; -yet anxious for his improvement, at the age of six they sent him to a school, kept by a Mr Martin, for the elementary instruction of children ; whence, in about two years, he was re- moved to the seminary of Mr Sykes, at, that time a considerable ~ private school in Liverpool. _ The instruction which young Roscoe here received was con- fined to English reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of geometry. “At the age of twelve years he left school, from which ‘period he may be said to have been, in a great measure, his own instructor, until about the age of sixteen, when he was articled as clerk to Mr John Eyes, a respectable attorney in this town. During the four years that elapsed between his leaving sthool and entering Mr Eyes’s office, he occupied himself with desultory English reading, in cultivating some fields rented ‘by his father, ‘and in Frey Aetig the painting-room of ‘a ‘porcelain manufactory in the neighbourhood, where he amused stm wee painting on china. _ At that period of his life his English reading appears to have been rather confined. | His favourite authors were Shakspeare, ‘Shenstone, the poenis of Mrs Catharine Philips, and the Spec- tator. From the former he imbibed a decided predilection for poetry, and his taste for English ‘composition was probably mo- delled on the elegant examples contained in the latter. It is curious to trace his attachment to botany and the fine arts to this early period. The phenomena of vegetation, and the cultiva- tion of plants, appear to have made a deep impression on his youthful mind ; and in the little cultivator of his father’s fields, * Asstreet in Liverpool. — Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 195 _ -we can trace the embryo botanist, to whose ardent enthusiasm in after years, we owe our botanic garden, the world the new arrangement of Scitaminex, and. the superb botanical publi- cation on. the same beautiful order of plants. The early essays in painting china-ware seem also to have first inspired him with a love of the fine arts, and drew him on to cultivate his taste in the arts of design, in which he not, only displayed the knowledge of an intelligent amateur, but such practical proficiency; as might have led to eminence, had. his. genius not been directed.,to,other channels, as several slight but spirited etchings by his hand, yet in existence, amply testify. dy The rudiments of Latin he acquired between, hineniad fis six- teen and twenty, by his own unassisted efforts, though at a later period he read several of the best Latin authors in company with his friends the late William Clarke and Richard Lowndes, two young men of Liverpool, equally intent with himself on mental improvement. I may here mention, it was not until a comparatively ik period of his life, and, if I mistake not, after the publication of the Life of Lorenzo had given him celebrity, that.he, began to study Greek. In a copy of Homer in possession of his family, we find the following note :—“ Finished the Odyssey the day,I came to Allerton, 18th March 1799,—W. R.” From his fifteenth to his twentieth year, he apyeare, from some memoranda which he has left, to have studied very assidu- ously during his leisure hours ; and he luckily found some as- sociates, with congenial tastes and habits, of whose friendship he always spoke, to his latest hour, with affectionate regard. Among those the most conspicuous were Mr Edward Rogers, Mr William Clarke, Mr Richard Lowndes, Mr William Neil- son, and Mr Francis Holden. 'To the latter, whose various, ac- quirements and extraordinary talents were in after life the fre- quent theme of Roscoe's enthtisiastic encomiums, he was dispos- ed to attribute his first, inclination to the study of modern lan- guages; and he had pleasure in acknowledging, that it was by the advice and encouragement of this young friend, that he de- voted himself assiduously to the study of Italian. In his ac- quisition of the elements of French and Italian, he does not seem to have had any other assistance than the advice and en. w2 196 . . Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. couragement of young Holden, who, seeing the aptitude and in- dustry of his friend, strenuously urged him to pursue the path which his own genius | had opened to his aspirations after literary distinction. In fact, Roscoe owed very little of his acquirements to any instructor. What he drew from the conversation of bis early -associates, ‘there is every reason to, believe he amply repaid in kind; and, with the singleiexception of: Burns, I do not know any of our distinguished writers who’ is’ less indebted to others for assistance in the road to literaty eminence than WiLL1aAm Roscor—certainly few of them,could with more truth exclaim, in the language of heater when a peapenibnt to Ulysses, — "Avrodidaxros O° sie. During the time of his apprenticeship, Mr Roscoe formed an agreement with his friends Clarke, Lowndes, and Holden, to meet early in the morning, before the hours,of business, for thé purpose of reading together some Latin author, and__discours- ing ¢ on what they, read. The example of these, youthful, stu- dents cannot, be too. ‘earnestly inculcated on the, rising, generation ‘of. this ‘place, while t the success of one. at, least, of, them in, the fields of literature is, a striking proof ¢ of what may. be obtained by such appropriation of hours too often lost to mental i improve- ment... pW bile classic, authors thus engaged, his morning leisure, Roscoe continued earnestly to cultivate Italian, literature......It woul ds seem that, | before -his twentieth year, he had. read, in, the eyed ‘several of the Italian historians, and, at, that, time even, set, “his mind. on “becoming the. biographer, of. ‘Lorenzo, de’ Medici, the great p patron of the. ear restorers ¢ of, ancient learn- ing. eld he 4453¢ : tds, “He had, from an early period of be life, felt the force of poe- tic inspiration, and had undoubtedly. cultivated the Muses with high promise of brilliant, success, ere he. had attained his twen- ‘tieth summer, A considerable number of his early verses re- ‘-main, which breathe an ardent spirit of poetry. Some of these _ are addressed to a young Jady of the same age, whose poetical genius had excited, his warmest admiration, and who appears to have no, less admired | the talents of Roscoe. One of her MS. ‘poems, written abot 1772, contains the following. lines, which Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 197 at once prove the poetic powers of the author destined” ‘after- wards to become the mother of an eminent poet), and shew her discernment in detecting, in the unknown attorney’s clerk, the i of future eminence :— « But cease, my Mi uneqiial to the task, Forbear the Pom ‘to nobler hands Resign the lyre! Thee Roscoe! vidya tei : Uncalled attends, and'uninvoked inspires: ut In blooming shades and amaranthine howert.: They weave the future garland for thy eon, ‘And wait to crown thee with immortal fame ;— Thee Wisdom leads in all'Her lovely walks, ' Thee Genius fires, and moral beauty charms ; Be it thy task to touch the feeling heart, Correct its passions, and exalt its aims ; +». Teach pride to,own, and. owning to obey, ; ‘j ey Fair Virtue’s dic tes, and her sacred laws; | To brighter worlds shew thou the glorious road, pat And be thy a at hy og # Eagete hey bi og AB A Cee of “disposition and’ genius drew close the cya of friendship between this lady and Mr Roscoe ; and’ it is worthy of notice, that his first puis produc on, ne done dem € cited Mount Pleasant, Written’ at the “age of n he was nik 1 inscribed“ to’ her, although, when printed ans” ra cee pan PESTA Ole! NKOTAE ny “his pobin, ‘which’ exhibits, with considerable power of versi- fication, a wari poetical feeling of the beauties of nature, is still moka remarkable for the indignant apostrophe to, Britons oct on the slave-trade ; an expression of generous ‘sympathy nag the suffering sons of Africa, which it required no inconsidera share of moral courage to promulgate at that period, and i in the chief seat of the odious traffic. ¢ Shame to mankind ! But shame to Britons most, Who all the sweets of Liberty Cass Rade | 1) Vet, deaf to ew’ry human claim, deny 1) te aMMD acon bleh oesiniareuaied cs __ Life's bitter draught. meen og agg © Blast ev'ry » and add to ey’ry ill; ‘The trembling limbs with galling iron bind, Ra cscgr sone ben al These lines'are here chiefly quoted to shew how early Roscoe denounced the traffic in human flesh; and that the love of li- berty which marked his whole life, was in him, not the crea- WwW JMO : ptf 198 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. tion of circumstances that brought him into public notice, but: had grown up with his expanding faculties, and became voufitinedd by the reflections of his maturer years. | While’ Roséoe was thus improving his literary’ taste’ in 'thé moments ‘snatched from the fatigues of his profession, he devo- ted n no ‘inconsiderable } portion a “His attention ‘to the ‘study and promotion ‘of the fihe arts in ‘his ative ‘town. He was the chief instigator, and. most active member, of a small society formed! here i in 1772, “for the encourdsembrit of designing, drawing,’ and j painting; »' and he read’ beforé that association, at one 0} its first meetings, an ode, addressed to the institution, which was" afterwards published with the poem of Mount pce in 1777. Soon after the termination of his articles of clerkship, Mr Roscoe entered into partnership as an attorney with Mr Aspi- nall; and in this profession he continued, first with that géentle- man, and afterwards with Mr Joshua Lace, until the year 1796. It is roper to ‘remark, that Mr Roscoe, though eminent as a practitioner, 1 never relished ‘his profession, and had always ex- pressed | his ‘determitiation to retire from practice as an attorney, whenever the possession of a moderate competence should enable him to devote his attention to literary pursuits. ” He continued, however, for several years: to attend sedulously to his business ; but i it was not until the year ‘1781 that the profits of his exer tions enabled him to marry ; when he was united to Jane, the second daughter of Mr William Griffies, a | respectable trades man of Liverpool. ght “This union was productive of the utmost’ domestic baal to the subject of this memoir, and made him the happy father of seven sons and three daughters ; 3 all of whom, except a son and a daughter, survive him. ° For several years ‘after his 1 marriage, at intervals’ of leistite, he contrived to increase those rich treasures of literary informa- tion, and to cultivate that ‘taste for the fine arts, which gave a peculiar charm to his conversation, and ‘paved the way to sani ture celebrity. a Lost Tn the 3 year ‘187, the agitation of the shalitsti of the gate. trade drew Mr Roscoe into the field of political controversy ; and he became the author of two anonymous pamphlets on. that Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 199 great question. The first was entitled “ Original View of the African, Slave Trade, demonstrating its injustice and impolicy ; with hints toward a Bill for its abolition.” The, second was called forth, by,the. publication of the Rev, Raymond Harris, entitled + Scriptural Researches.om the Licetness of the Slave. Trade.” That author had shewn, much dexterity as a contro- versialist. .'The general scope of his argument is based on the practice of possessing bond-servants being mentioned in the Old. ‘Testament, without, any condemnatory comment,;.and from the noted injunction of St, Paul to the Aer, of the New Testa- ment, “ Be obedient to them that are your masters, according to the ls with fear and trembling,” it is inferred, that Christia- nity gives a warrant for holding our fellow men in ‘slavery. The first proposition was supported by the fact, that_ Abraham and other very exemplary patriarchs purchased slaves or bond. servants without any stigma being cast on their humanity or rectitude ; and the second was defended by the repeated i injunc- tions of the apostles to their converts to fear 1 those i in authority ; a mode.of reasoning which has been lately | borrowed by two Presbyterian divines from this reverend Jesuit ; 3, whose work, it is\said, was, considered, by the Common Council of Liverpool of that day, as,worthy of a donation of L200 to the author, _ Harris's pamphlet caused a considerable sensation ; but was soon attacked by the Rev. Mr Dannet, minister of St Tohn’ 3, in Liverpool, who was evidently inferior as a controversialist to his Catholic opponent; but the doctrines of the latter were ably and warmly attacked in Mr Roscoe’s second essay, which bore the title of “ Scriptural Refutation of a Pamphlet lately pub- lished by the Rev. Raymond Harris, &c.” on the Christian pri n- ciples that “ all men are equal in the sight of God,” and the nevolent injunction of the great Founder of our religion, “ There- fore, all things whatsoever ye would that.men should do to you, do ye even so to them.” i The question of the slave-trade, at that period, so engrossed the mind of Roscoe, that, in the same year, he published his well known poetic effusion, “* The Wrongs of Africa,” in two parts ; - the profits from the sale of which he placed at, the disposal of the committee then formed for promoting the abolition of the slave-trade 200 Memoir of William. Roscoe, Esq. The Society for the encouragement of the Arts of Design had soon melted ‘away ; but Mr Roscoe, about the time now alluded to; succeeded in forming a new association for a similar purpose ;, and to. their exertions Liverpool is indebted for its first exhibitions of works of art,/which were continued ‘for |seve~ ral years/with great success. To. this Society, which, bore the name of. “¢ Liverpool Academy for the Encouragement of ‘the Fine Arts,” Mr Roscoe, delivered .a series of lectures onthe Progress and Vicissitudes of ‘Taste, which remain in manuscript, and which -he appears to have, at oné time, contemplated to publish, as:I find among them. a title-page, thus—“ An Histo~ rical Inquiry into the Rise, Progress, and Vicissitudes of Taste, as exemplified. in Works of Literature and of Art. . In two vo- lumes. Vol, I,”.. The manuscript, however, does not seem to have received his.last corrections; though many. of the observa~ tions are original and interesting. rit He had also, for some years, a ocnnbendonds witty Mr Faavidtnst the engraver and.antiquary, and author of ‘the valuable Dietio- nary of Engraners:, The letters of Struttacknowledge'the res ceipt of various important disquisitions on the-history of en- graving from Mr Roscoe, of which, if I mistake not,;Mr Strutt: availed, himself, and incorporated them in the as we to his Dictionary, |}... About the same period, Mr Roadee, ea Nery hi fea oebh lection of prints,. which was particularly rich in, painters’ eteh- ings and engravings of the old masters... This collection was ; chiefly formed between the years 1'780 and 1790; but continued» » for many years to receive valuable additions, by every journey) to London, which his, profesional business often rendered mee sary. ) ae - Ata later period he began to vidoes jnieings Lap pide mas- ) ters, and of these his collection was remarkably choice ; his taste: and judgment in that department being excellent: «4 9) ) From the time when his professional exertions put it in his power to indulge his elegant propensities, the formation ofva library became a prominent article in his expenditure. Simple and refined in his habits, these were his chief expenses. He was not, however, a mere collector. His books, his. iter sad ne aby Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 201° _ works of arty were diligently:employed to store his mind, or to improve’ his taste, with the wisdom and art of formeriages: © — In theyear 1789, after much previous study of Italian litera- ture, he began to devote himself to the object of his early ambi- tion, the Life ‘of Lorenzo the Magnificent. In the course of that*year he communicated ‘his-intention to his valued friend William Clarke ‘ (who, onsaccount of his health, in the autumn of 1789, had fixed his residence at Viesole, near Florence), and requested: his assistance in collecting manuscript documents re- lating to the subject. The fruits of the friendly exertions of that amiable man are best given in Roscoe’s own words: »° — —* An intimate friend, with whom I had been many years united in studies and affection, had paid a visit to Italy, and had fixed his winter residence at Florence. I well-knew that I had only to request his assistance, in order to obtain whatever information he had an opportunity of procuring, from the very spot which was to be the scene of my intended history:'' My inquiries were particularly directed to the’ Laurentian and Ri- cardi Libraries; whieh’ I was convinced would affordmuch oti- ginal and: interesting information. It would be unjust merely | to say that/my friend afforded me the assistance I requited:; he went far beyond even the hopes I had formed,—and his return — to his native country was, if possible, rendered still more grate- ful to me, by the materials which he had collected for my use *.” Of these documents ‘several are published entire in the ap- pendix ito Roscoe’s work, especially the poems of Lorenzo; the existence of which had escaped the knowledge of ine) foriner biographers of the Princely Merchant. , From a very early period, Mr Roscoe had taken a daly ‘in. terest in political matters. In the year 1788, he took an active part) at the meeting which, in Liverpool, as well as in other parts. of England, assembled to commemorate the centenary of the Revolution that expelled the family of Stuart from the throne of these kingdoms; and he composed an odé, which was recited on that occasion. In the following year the French Revolution broke out ; and, in common with many warm and generous spirits, he hailed its fair and auspicious dawn with all the devotion of a friend to the * Preface to Lorenzo. 208 Mentoir.of William Roscoe, Esq. human raee}theardour ofa: patriot, and the enthusiasm:of)a poet. ‘'Porthose who recollect: the flattering commencement: of | that: extraordinary movement, it is;unnecessary to observe, that, it-was viewed with unmixed satisfaction |by\a great majority. iof, the»people‘of this country, as affording the prospect of vast im-, provements’ inthe social institutions! of the; European, commons | wealth. In various places meetings ofthe friends of liberty, were held, ‘similar to. those of the preceding year, to. celebrate another: triumph) of a great people over an unjust and, tyrannical government ; and ‘at’ one of those assemblies Roscoe a his two ‘admirable\lyrics— 9) 1 ©) ice seal elegans SON Over the Vinie-dover"d hills amid gay valleys of France,” gag, 72: Saray s ee Citi ‘Father Time, thy nats" records unfold.” | ro. bin These brilliant and exulting’ strains were poured forth “in the year 1789, ‘while “ the Genius of French freedom,” in the’ ner- vous language of Currie,““appeared on dur Southert ‘horizon with the countenance of ‘an ‘angel;”"—and ere she’ had yet“ !assumed the features of a demon, and vanished ina shower of blood.” "Mr Roseod Had, ot! several dccasions) Ade Hiniself eonspieu- ous by his attachment to the cause of civil and religious liberty, in ‘such. a degree as to'attract the notice of several eminent states- men, and particularly of the ‘late Marquis of! Latisdowne, with whom he’ ohana atled a ¢losé correspondence until ‘the “death of that nobleman.’ Literatu¥e, ahd espetially pdliticsy were the subjects of their correspondence; and the'létters show how con!’ siderable: were the parle tary ply rn a by the Whig? statesmen of that period. “°""" ect aes.casee “The violence of the second sree National Adgerhtity’ ‘in the two succeeding years, “alienated a great many of their’ ‘admirers’ in this country ; ; but ‘many good’ men still ‘hoped that’ the fer’ ment. ‘would subside into rational liberty, and’ deprecated the evident hostility which our “government began in’ 1792 to exit’ bit. “Among the latter was Mr Roscoe.’ On the appearanée of Mr Pitt’ s famous proclamation’ against’ sedition, the ‘minds of men were much agitated, and greatly divided. " “The friehds of the minister in Liverpool convened a meeting to thank his Ma- jesty for the proclamation. Mr Roscoe, seconded: by the late William Rathbone, sueceeded in carrying a counter-address ; Memoir of Wiiliam Roscoe, Esq. 203: but, onthe following day, a mob rose and destroyedsthe coun-: - ter-address'where’it lay for signature: Party spirityiom that oc, casion, rose’‘so high*in Liverpool, that @ small “private literary society;of which: Mr: Roscoe, Mr Rathbone, and Dr Currie were members*, thought it expedient to discontinue their meet-_ ings; ‘lest’ their objects! should,oby party nian aembe as seditious or'revolutionary2 (99% eeon'g euoney al iin On the breaking out of the «war! with France, Rulisobe sights ap- pears as a political writer. ‘He inveighed against the unjust and impolitic interference of this government with France ; andy ina pamphlet entitled “ Thoughts on the late Failures;” published in 1793, he attributes the mercantile distress of that.period to ’ the consequences of our meddling policy, a subject which he re- sumed in 1796, in “ An» Eaposure of the Fallacies of Mr Burke's” celebrated invectives against the French Reyolution. We, come now, tothe, principal eyent in the history of our author, the, publication of ‘ the Life of Lorenzo de’ Medici,” which appeared in; the winter of 1795, in two volumes quarto, The work was printed by John M‘Creery in Liverpool, and is a fine specimen of provincial, typography, both for, accuracy and elegance of execution, The sensation produced by this hi was immense ; “the first edition was rapidly, exhausted, and a second was, demanded by the public within a few months. Letters of the most gratifying kind were showered on the author from high literary authorities in all quarters. Among others, the late Earl of Bristol, Bishop of Derry, , then resident at Rome, hailed with the highest en- comiums the appearance of an English, work, which was the surprise and envy of the. Italians themselves ; and he imme. diately wrote to the publisher to know ‘ what present of Italian books would be most acceptable to the accomplished author.” Its, success on the continent was no less gratifying.. Besides a reprint of the original, the work was speedily translated into the Italian, French, and German languages ; and it procured for Swot ee mS of some of the most emi, nent literary men of Europe. — *' Besides these gentlemen, it consisted of thé Rev. Joseph Smith, the Rev. John Yates, Mr Ralph Eddows, Mr Tattersall, the Rev. William poe and Dr Rutter. 204 Memoir of William Roscoe, [sq. A work which. has received such marked public approbation, which has gone through so many large editions in Britain, which has been translated into the most polished tongues of the. conti- nent, it is not my intention now to criticise. , [shall content my- self with remarking, that the author's intimate acquaintance with. the literature of Italy has excited the surprise even of Italians ; : ‘and J well recollect the incredulous stare with which an Italian nobleman, of great literary. taste and information, re- ceived my assertion, that, Mr Roscoe. had never been out, of England, ' ‘The success of the Life of Lorenzo, appears to have confirm- ed the author’s intention of relinquishing his practice as{an at- torney ; ; and, some time after that event, he entered his name as a member of Grey’s Inn, with a view of. being called to,the bar. This, determination, however, he also relinquished, upon Keeping a few terms, In the year 1797, while his name remained on the, books of Grey’s Inn, he, paid a visit of some length to London. , In con- sequence of his literary reputation, and his intimacy with Lord Lansdowne,, he was introduced into,the first literary and various political circles: in particular, he used to state, that he then had the pleasure of becoming personally acquainted with Mr Fox and Mr, now Lord, Grey; and he formed besides. many valued private friendships, which were dissolved only by death, Among those who then more particularly gained his esteem he often mentioned Dr Moore, author of Zeluco, of the spirited ** View of Manners in Italy,” and of a “ Journal of a Residencein France, ”"—the father of the gallant and unfortunate Sir John Moore. wi Tipilbe OF Boi el ag ida dowel Mr Roscoe’ $ retirement from professional iabonica enabled. him to devote himself with increased _assiduity to Italian. literature, To relieve his mind { from the fatigue of more intense researches, he this year translated into English verse the Balia of Tansillo, in which ‘the: long. neglected beauties of the Italian, poet, are brought, rane to British ears and British feelings with admir- able tact an spirit. “His 1 more arduous. occupations. were, the vast stores ‘of Ttahan | history about the period of the restoration o _ Memoir ef William Roscoe, Esq. 205 HOS of Letters, with a view to the Life of Leo X.; ue Subject which had been recommended to him by Horace Walp pole (Lord Or- ford), and some other literary friends, after his sult publi- cation of the Life of Lorenzo the Magnificent. ba In the ‘year 1798, the want of a public’ reading-room | ona better footing than Liverpool then’ could boast, caused the foundation of our Athenwum. The “plan suggested | by Dr Rutter was warmly supported by Mr Roscoe, Dr Currie, Mr George’ Case, and some other gentlemen, who, exerting their i in- fluence among their friends, obtained ‘so general a subscription in Liverpool, that the foundations of our magnificent Constilta- tion Library and News-Room were speedily laid, and a consi- derable collection of books soon formed. In this institution, as creditable to his native town, Mr Roscoe always took much de- or ; ef ni numerous strangers who were now attracted to Liver- pool, chiefly by the reputation of our distinguished fellow-citizen, caused such encroachments on his time, notwithstanding his re- tirement from business, that he resolved to retreat into the coun- try ; and with this view he purchased half of the éstate of Al- lerton from the’ representatives of Mrs Hardman, and removed to that beautiful spot in 1799. In a playful letter to Fuseli the painter, Mr ‘Roscoe mentions his removal, and his intention of not again embarking in any kind of business, but of dedicating himself wholly to agricultural and literary pursuits, His tasks were simple, his views moderate, and his means fully competent to realize his plans ; from which it is greatly to be lamented that any circumstances should ever have induced him to deviate. While employed as a professional’ man to arrange the sieatvda concerns of the bank of Messrs J. & W. Clarke, he was thus - brought into contact with Sir Benjamin Hammet, a London Banker, who held acceptances of the Liverpool Bank to an im- mense amount (I am informed for L. 200,000), Hammet was so struck with Roscoe’s ability in arranging the affairs of” his friends, that he wished him to become a partner in the concern. This he repeatedly refused ; but Hammet threatening, in case of his refusal to join the concern, to make it bankrupt, Roscoe, satis- fied that the assets were, in ordinary times, more than sufficient to cover the demands against the bank, finally consented, and 206 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. for.twenty:years,the principal part’ of |his;time;was,oceupied in the mianagement Of that: imiportant establishment. :)/) oye oy) ! _./While thus,employed, the hours which. he: was:now enabled to devote to'the history of Leo were abstracted fromthe period usually dedicated to. repose, or recreation... Yet, »witly \all these demands on his' application, the interest he always felt on great political questions did not suffer him to. view im silence the ierisis \of 1802,; ‘but called forth his pamphlet entitled ‘ Observations on the relative situation of Great Britain and France ;” ‘a tract in| which he has recorded his detestation of war, and his anxiety to;see the two. foremost nations of Europe engaged: in the less guilty rivalry for pre-eminence in the arts of peace. In 1802. the. Botanic. Garden of Liverpool: was betailisted, chiefly through the influence of Mr Roscoe, and, at its opening, he, delivered an address to the proprietors, which was’ printed. In this establishment he always ‘took the interest of a parent in/a favourite child. Under his auspices, and the consummate skill of Mr John Shepherd, the Curator of the garden, it speedi- ly became conspicuous among botanical sar anaes cade it = ranks among the first in Europe. | In-1805 he completed his history of the Li ift and Ponifeat of Leo. X.” which appeared that year in four volumes 4to. This elaborate work had: been the ‘fruit of eabSiniésciiaiptlt intense previous’ study, and was always regarded by its author as superior to‘his Life of Lorenzo : yet it was not’so favourably received by the British public ; a circumstance witl some truth attributed to the violent age on it'in’several of our periodical works; (0% 9)500 ton -orkt UieDhei inetility af some’of the reviews was piaeutii sired by political’ rancour toward Roscoe as an opponent of the mrinis- terial measures’ of that eventful period ; in‘ others it. sprung ~ from anger at the mamner in which he had treated the character of Luther-as the founder of anew church. 9). hs ou VV ot appears to me that’ Roscoe had sufficiently lauded: the: bold- ness'and constancy of the man to whom we owe the assertion of private judgmentin religious and civil matters; that he had given thehistory of Luther with theimpartiality of asearcherafter truth, admitting his failings and his errors, while’ he applauded his courage and undoubted talents; that the early patrons of literature Memoir of William ‘Roscoe, Esq. (207 tude, and that the:historian of the Revival of Letters hadwwisely dwelt-more ow thetunquestionable merits of Leo and his family, in -promotitig “that great object, than in‘ raking up, from the gross seurrility of a profligateage; imputed erimes or vices, which; after allprest only onthe doubtful: authorityof “acrimonious and vin- dictive ‘controversialists;: 110 Yous fon Dep anoneonp levonoy ol'Phe merits of the Life of Leo were, however, differently: esti- ‘mated on the Continent: | It'was speedily translated into French, German, and Italian; andthe extensive sale’ of *several-editions of it in Italy, where, it may be fairly presumed, the best judg- ment of its wants or its defects could be formed, sufficiently at- tests the character which foreign critics ie mes so a, work of our author. » On the appearance of the British rite Mt ‘Rostob: pre- cos a full answer to the objections of the reviewers, but this reply he never published; contenting himself with :inserting a short abstract of it in thexpreface to the second edition, whieh appeared: in 1806, within a year from the publication of the first. The chief objections, in addition to the criticisms above stated, were, that he was fond of paradoxical: opinions;—as in- stanced in the chivalrous defence of the character of Lucretia Borgia,—and in his doubting whether Pope Alexander VI. was stained with every crime laid to his charge by his numerous enemies,—that he was too fond of quotations from the poets,— and that by' retaining Italian orthography of proper names, he had. made needless innovations on our language. ‘These charges are not very important defects in such an elaborate work, even if we admit their justice. ._In my opinion, they are sufficiently answered by his few remarks; and the Life and Pontificate of Leo X. already ranks, by the beauty of its style, and the value of research, among our standard historical works. . ©. While ergaged in these occupations, on the dissolution of Parliament in October 1806, Mr Roscoe was to himself most unexpectedly called on to become a candidate, for the represen- tation of his native town, | ‘Lhe requisition was signed only a few days previous to the election :—and, after a keen contest for eight days, during which, there was a coalition against him, between the friends of the rival candidates Generals ‘Tarleton 208 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. and Gascoyne, he was placed at the head of the poll by a large wiajority. as 0 ‘His itd career was of short duration, but he had the satisfaction, in that short period, of declaring his sentiments on several subjects in which he felt a deep interest. He spoke and voted for Sir Samuel Romilly’s bill for rendering real estates subject to simple contract debts ; he had the happiness to lift ‘his voice in Parliament for the abolition of the slave-trade, and to see that great act of national justice triumphantly car- ried ;/he had an opportunity of advocating the claims of our Roman Catholic brethren to an equality of political rights ; and: he delivered his sentiments with indignant energy on the dismissal of the Whig administration in 1807, on their attempt to redeem the pledge given by Pitt at the period of the Irish Union ; a pledge by themselves always considered as just and expedient. Mr Roscve’s chief parliamentary friends at that time, were, Mr Whitbread, Sir Samuel Romilly, and Mr William Smith; but he never permanently attached himself to the ministry ; and was by them regarded as a person who would rather act on his own views of what was right, than enter into the trammels of party. On the dissolution of Parliament, he received another requi- sition to offer himself for Liverpool, and was escorted into town by a very numerous and respectable cortege. His opponents, however, had succeeded in prejudicing many of the populace against him, especially on the ground of his vote for the aboli- tion of the Slave-Trade—a traffic which they had been taught to consider as essential to the commercial greatness of the port ; and the rage of zealots was kindled against him for his speech on the Catholic Question. The consequence was, that, on the arrival of the cortege in Castle Street, a serious riot. took place, and Mr Roscoe was induced, from the fear of hazarding the] > peace of the town, to decline allowing himself to be again put in ho- mination. I have reason to believe that this deterotbnatianrdl not cause him much regret ; a distaste for parliamentary’ daties was not unnatural to a man of his previous habits, entering on a new career at a rather advanced period of life. . These consi- derations determined him to withdraw from the contest ; but he rk, 24 ROS Memoir of William Roscoe, 1 209 was, without dis concurrence, or that of his most intimate friends, proposed as a candidate on that occasion, as well as in 18]2, when he was put in nomination in a similar manner at Leicester without his consent, and polled a very considerable aunbey of votes. e% P * We ive already noticed Mr ate wthlhine ma peace. In 1808, he published ‘‘ Considerations on the Causes and Consequences of the. War with France,’—a pamphlet which excited much attention, and speedily went through eight editions. It was followed in the same year by another pam- phiet, entitled ““ Remarks on the Proposals made to Great Bri- tain for opening Negociations for Peace with France,” in which he endeavoured to shew that the advances of France had not been met with a sincere desire on the part of our, Govern- mien, toipns ener tn, the minarien arian nd, hloRe fe test. In 1810, Mr Roscoe published.a [ attakondhnmmmentebond Chancellor, then Mr Brougham, on the question .of Parliamen- tary Reform. In that tract he advocates a more extensive Re- form than the partial measures then in contemplation by the Opposition ; and the coincidence, in many respects, between his suggestions and a late measure, has, within the last few months, caused a republication of Mr Roscoe's pamphlet. This letter brought him into more immediate correspondence with Mr Brougham ; and when that gentleman was invited to become a candidate for the representation of Liverpool in 1812, Mr Roscoe not only entered warmly into the contest to support Mr Brougham, but, on the return of Mr Canning, the rival candidate, wrote a causti¢ review of the electioneering speeches of that statesman, which the enthusiasm of bis admirers.had yr lected into a bulky pamphlet. Such ephemeral specimens. of oratory should, on all sides, be permitted to remain in the less ambitious pages of i cg newspapers, At every period of “his lite Mae Roscoe was much attached to the study of Botany. As w shave stated, the establishment of our Botanic Garden was principally. due to his suggestions, In VOL. XIII. No, XXvI—ocToBER 1832. o 210 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 1809, he presented to the Linnean Society his valuable paper “ On anew arrangement of the Scitaminean order ,of plants,” which appeared:in their Transactions, and established his claim to the character of an original thinker in this elegant depart- ment of natural history. His reputation, still more than the claims of private friendship, led Sir James Edward Smith to institute the genus Roscoea, which now contains many species of that beautiful order. is similarity of political principles, and congeniality of taste for‘agricultural improvements, had for some time made. Roscoe acquainted with: Mr Coke of Norfolk. In 1814, he was in- vited to visit Holkham, the splendid seat of that eminent agri- culturist...'There he found ample employment in the magni- ficent library, collected by the late Lord Leicester, uncle to the present possessor, a nobleman who, with vast wealth, pos+ sessed a highly cultivated mind, and a passion for collecting books and manuscripts. It was well known that the collection was immensely rich in classical manuscripts and unpublished works’ on Italian history. Mr Roscoe readily undertook thé examination of this superb collection, which had afforded to Drakenborck. the manuscript copies of Livy employed in: his valuable ‘edition of the Roman Historian, and which, among 600 manuscript volumes of ecclesiastical annals and Italian ‘civil history, was discovered by Mr Roscoe to contain one of the lost volumes of Leonardo: da Vinci’s T’reatises on Mechanics, and the long deplored and precious volume ‘in which’ Raffaello, at the desire of ‘the Pontiff, had made pen drawings of the re- mains of ancient Roman magnificence, illustrated by short de- scriptions in’ his own handwriting. Mr Roscoe undertook to make a catalogue raisonnée of the manuscripts of the collection —a task which he some years afterwards, with the assistance of Mr Madden, now one of the librarians of the British Museum, fully accomplished. This catalogue (of which a short aceount was given to this Society a few years ago) extends to four or five thick folio volumes, and is enriched vite “engraved (fac similes and illuminated ornaments: E tg ypeay sc] The manuscripts had been little Siecanen to fo many years, Most of them were in the original ‘coarse paper sejatore’ and — Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 211 some were injured by damp and time. The whole were some time afterwards consigned to Mr Roscoe’s care, who put them into the hands of our eminent binder the late Mr John Jones, who, by great industry and skill, succeeded in restoring crumpled vel- lum to its original smoothness, in pasting torn leaves with won- derful neatness, and who bound the whole collection in a du- rable and-elegant manner. An ancient and admirable Hebrew manuscript of the Pentateuch *, written in a beautiful hand, on deer-skins, forming a roll thirty-eight feet in length, was mount- ed, by the same ingenious artist, on rollers ornamented with sil- ver bells, under the direction of a learned Rabbi, who believed the manuscript to be an eastern transcript of great antiquity. Toward the close of 1815, by one of our too frequent com- mercial convulsions, and by the extent of their accommodations to’ persons engaged in business, the affairs of the bank in which Mr Roscoe was a partner became involved, and the house found it necessary to suspend payments. For four years Mr Roscoe devoted himself to the arrangement of their affairs; entertaining throughout the most sanguine hopes of being able finally to discharge all their engagements, as the joint property of the partners was valued, at the time of the suspension of payments, at considerably more than the amount of their debts. The de- preciation, however, of that property, combined with other cir- cumstances over which Mr Roscoe had no control, prevented the accomplishment of his most earnest wishes, and in 1820 he became a bankrupt. Previous to this (in the year 1816), his noble library, his fine collection of prints and drawings, and his curious collection of paintings, were dispersed, and the proceeds of the sale were applied to the payment of the debts of the house. It will convey some idea of the collection to state, that the books, consisting of about 2000 works, sold for no less a sum than L. 5150; the prints for L. 1886 ; the. drawings for L. 750 ; and the’ pictures for 1. 8289 ; “making a total of L. 11,025. | The beautiful sonnet written by Mr Roscoe on parting with his library, was given toa friend, and handed about in manu- script; but the Reverend William’ Beloe has since inserted it, © Believed to be-mote thbst:1000.years'cld. 0 2 22 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq, without any acknowledgment, )in his autobiograph, as the motto to’oné of the-chapters of that conceited work*.. 09) eo ivoars “Several of! Mr ‘Rostoe’s friends, anxious to preserve 'toyhim various works, which they knew he highly prized, either for their iiitrinsic worth, or as the gift of esteemed: friends} bought them up at the sale of-his library, to the amount-of LL. 600,and presented them to’ Mr Roscoe. The’ gift, however, was firmly, but ‘gratefully: declined; and the subscribers resolved to present the collection’ tothe Atheneum’ Library, to be kept together as a testimony of theitesteem for their respected friend ; and ofthat library the ‘collection now forms a distinct part. » & selection from’ his ‘pictures, comprizing specimens of art highly illustrative of the progress’ of painting, was purchased by several of the same gentlemen, at a liberal price fixed by Mr Winstanley and myself, and presented to the Royal Institution by those admirers of. Roscoe. This collection ‘cost LL. 50, and forms ‘an interesting part of the ane which attract: seat to our Institution, | py I may here remark, ‘that the cate ee of: the Liverpool Royal Institution originated, and: was drawn up by me in 1813; although it was'‘carried into effect during my absence on the Cons tinent in 1814.’ Mr Roscoe took an‘active part in this measure, was long the ‘Chairman of the Committees while it was strug- gling into existence; and, as its first President, read an ‘elo- quent address on the opening of the Institution in the'year 1817. -' From an early period, Mr Roscoe had’ been a warm advocate for a reformation’ 5 the ac gi pes cade of this a * SonnetT.— | | OOKID, iM Sddaenesghadnasintt figs his friends ret Soo QD bo ahaa, Regrets their loss, yet hopes again erewhile .. sp unin To share their converse, and enjoy their smile, ek lie And tempers as he may ‘Afiliction’s dart,— SRS IM J ~ "Thus, lov’d associates ! ‘chiefs of elder art!) 40). Teachers of wisdom, who i ct inet Oxted foo-20. | My tedious hours, and brighten ev'ry. tolls) une w mbes -)) - >), now resign you—nor with fainting heart ; Bah “For pass a few short ye: or days, or hours, eso bam - And happier seasons may their dawn anapetsi:: 1 ARTO EDA ii Od easy tne, sacred fellowships restore; 508 eb 80 BD 46 When, freed from earth, unlimited its powers, ede 4. sid __Mind shall with mind direct communion hold ee en? And kindred spirits meet to part no more.” ert. ye Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. 213 His humanity and amiabie mind revolted from the frequency of executions ; and hé eagerly desired to see those statutes which awarded death forstrifling offences, and are too barbarous, tobe enforced in the present day, expunged from the code of British jurisprudence.» | Shortly before «the| period of, his misfortunes, his:attenttion had been turned to the! subject.of penal. law and ptison discipline.. In 1819 he published his/tract, entitled, <¢,05- servations on Penal Jurisprudence, and the, Reformation , of — Griminals ;” which was followed, between’ that period; citi by two other dissertations on the same subject...) 40.) ..;9i)>- The principle of the system which he. advocates is, | that she only: legitimate object. of punishment is the prevention of a repetition of the crime, by a reformation of the offenders ; which effect he proposed to accomplish by hard labour in penitentiaries, and by moral instruction. . He denies that we have any right to punish for the mere benefit.to society of the example. . He in- veighs against the barbarous maxim that revenge or expiation for the i injury committed ought ever to be the principle of penal ; and cannot admit that retribution,to.the injured party can be the proposed. end of punishment. In, the) third part of his. essay, he seems to doubt the propriety of the pun- ~ ishment of death in any case,-—Part, iin) p:/106;; but,, at all events, he considers that. it. should be reserved for four. or five crimes of the blackest dye. These essays contain the out- line-of some principles which are now generally acknowledged ; and»if the humanity and generous spirit of the author have led him: to forma too; favourable estimate of human nature, and to overlook some difficulties in the practical application of his prin- ciples of legislation, we cannot but admire the benevolent enthu- siasm and earnest appeal to the best’ feelings of our nature which are stampt on every page of" his treatise. In his second tract he had pointed out the evil consequences likely to result from too great severity in prison discipline, and had entered a warm protest against the horrid punishment of long-con- tinued solitary confinement, as a general measure for effecting this reformation of offenders, He severely commented in the third part on the atrocities which appeared to have been perpetrated in the Auburn Penitentiary in the State of New York: This drew him into a long controversy with several’ American writers in the 214 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. latter years of his life ; and'to the zeal with which he devoted him- self to plead.the cause of the outcasts of society, we have to ascribe the first serious/shock. to his general health,as I shall by and by have occasion to notice; but he had the happiness to, find, after much,angry discussion in the newspapers of the western world, that his arguments against solitary confinement, which he » stigmatized as the utmost refinement of cruelty, and’ utterly in- effectual.as.a punishment, were not lost on the Americans. The infirm’ state of Mr Roscoe’s health’ at that time brought me much into contact with my venerable friend ; and when he learnt from various quarters that the change which was taking place in the prison discipline of America was in no small degree attributed to his expostulations, I heard him repeatedly declare, ‘“ that no literary distinction had ever afforded him half the gratification he received from the reflection on the part he had taken on this great question ; and he expressed his satisfaction that he now might be permitted to think that he had not lived altogether in vain.” I have, in noticing the conclusion of this controversy, anti- cipated some events of his life to which we must now return. When released from the harassing cares of business, the mind of Mr Roscoe, with the elasticity and application of youth, diligently entered. on various literary projects. Since the first appearance of the Life of Lorenzo, he had obtained from Italy, and elsewhere, various documents illustrative of that work. These he prepared for publication, together with some strictures on the manner in which the character and biography of Lo- renzo had been treated by Sismondi and some other writers. This work appeared in an 8vo. volume in 1822, under the title of “ Illustrations of the Life of Lorenzo de Medici.”. The strong terms in which Sismondi accused Mr Roscoe: of : par- tiality to the Medici Family, and of palliating their crimes, drew forth an able and indignant answer ; yet, it is pleasing to reflect, that when Sismondi, a few years afterwards, visited England, Mr Roscoe formed with hima personal achpodinitacnaneaanetsy affected by their literary controversy. Pie aarti the See pee fats - About the same period, Mr Roscoe’ published an: amusing “ Memoir of Richard’ Roberts,” a self-taught linguist; well Memoir of William Roscoc, Esq. 215 . known in Liverpool by the extraordinary number of. languages which he can read, no less than by the filth of his person... The profits of this publication Mr Roscoe humanely dedicated to. the use of this singular person ; whose intellect, defective in every thing but language, renders him as helpless as a child ; and Ro- berts may now be seen in whole clothes, with his portable li- brary stuffed, as in former times, between his shirt and his skin ; for he disdains a fixed abode. ‘Ammpplication having|haeui made to: Mr, Roscos to become the editor of a new edition of Pope’s works, and to furnish a fresh life of the author, Mr Rescoe engaged in it with all the ardour of a poet, having ever been a warm admirer of Pope’s genius. This was no trifling task—for he added notes on the poems with much care; and in the life, which forms the first volume of that edition, defended the talents and character of Pope from sundry imputations cast on him by Mr Bowles and others. The date of publication was 1824. ) About the same time, he superintended a new edition of the Lives of Lorenzo and. Leo, to the istteccaf which he added many new notes, In 1824, Mr Roscoe was eldcted a $ Royal Associate ” of the Royal Society of Literature, founded by his late Majesty George IV. A pension of L.100 a-year was awarded to each of ten associates, which Mr Roscoe enjoyed for three or four years; but which, from the neglect of providing a permanent fund for the purpose, would have ceased about the time of his decease. .The great gold medal of the Society, value 50 guineas, was also awarded to him as an historian, two years before he died ; and it remains with his family. _ It would be unjust to omit, that the misfortunes of our dis- tinguished fellow-citizen, called forth the warm sympathy of his numerous friends, and prompted them to take steps for secu- ring him against their immediate consequences. It is more neces- sary to state this, because many unjust imputations have been vented against the inhabitants of Liverpool, on account of their supposed neglect of Mr Roscoe in his adversity. ‘There was consi- derable delicacy necessary in the steps which were taken to testify their esteem and attachment. Mr Roscoe had a noble and inde- 216. Mempir of William Roscoe, Esq. pare gaa bi He had steadily refused , the, proffered. env a valuable RSP from his library, even after it, had. been, for that purpose b bought, by, his friends at.the. sale ;,, and)those,who had the pleasure of, being intimate with, him, well, knew,-how necessary i it would be,to keep, him in ignorance.of what was int tended, , until it it, was, accomplished. During)a, second, visit which he. “made. to. Holkham, @ private fund.,was, quickly subscribed among his friends, for the purchase of an anauity\on, the’ lives of Mr and ‘Mrs Roscoe... ‘The delicate, task,of communicating, what was done devolved on me 3 and in the correspondence, which en: sued between us, though his pridejof independence was at first alarmed, the example of. his. friend Charles, James, Fox, under similar circumstances, was successfully, urged, to. reconcile, his mind to receive this spontaneous homage to his talents and, his worth, from sincerely attached friends. ‘We Nase alnanis noticed, Mir Roscoe's early attachment to botany, and_ his critical. labours on.,the order. Scttaminee,. to which he had long paid much. attention, stimulated. by the con- tinual additions., this order, was receiving from. the, East and West Indies, The number of new. species which. the; {judicious care of Mr Shepherd, the, skilful curator of ,our-Botanic' Gar- den, had successfully cultivated, together with the dried,speci- mens which ,Mr Roscoe received from various quarters, ,.deter- mined, him. to publish, a work \containing coloured: figures: of new or interesting species, with botanical, descriptions.,| This) gave rise to the most splendid botanical work that; ever issued, from the provincial press of any country ; which occupied much, of his time during the latter years of his life, and was only,com- pleted shortly, before his death, ,, Of this superb. work, he nike ed too few copies; and before the second number came out, there was a necessity of reprinting, additional copies of the firsts). TI e work is bighly prized. by, botanists ;,and is particularly, lued on the Continent, where, from the small number of ims, Hi which Mr Roscoe. could. be induced to throw off, itis; extremely. scarce. Many of the beautiful figures in his.work. are from his own spirited. sketches ;, but the majority of them are the productions. of the pencil of hinidenghiptiniio ates: Edward. Roscoe, or of Miss R, Miller of this places!) 0)" ' Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. ; ait » My acquaintance with Mr Roscoe commenced in. ‘1806, and I soon had'the félicity of being received as an intimate friend. From 1810'T was farther honoured by being consulted as his physician; in which capacity I' watched with much anxiety 0 over his declining health: From the tite of the first derangement of the affairs of the bank, ‘the immense mental and bodily ¢ exer- tions which he made» produced’ great inroads on a constitution naturally good. He: then’ began, on much applicatio , to any subject, to be seized’ with’ océasional faintness ; an once, in 1816, he was attacked at the bank with a slight loss of memory, which’ speedily wore off. ‘His ‘habits of intense study, after this period, produced similar effects ; and while engaged in the controversy on prison discipline, after writing for the great- est part of a night, to overtake a ship about to sail for America, he was affected in the winter of 1827 with partial paralysis of the muscles of the mouth and tongue. I was immediately called ; the patient was freely bled—on which he recovered his speech : and the introduction of a seton in his neck removed the lytic affection-of the mouth. Intense study was forbidden : 4 and after a period of perfect relaxation from his literary occu- pations, he recovered sufficiently to be able to complete his botanical work; ' the catalogue of Mr Coke’s library, and to cor- rect for the press his latest tracts on prison discipline. It was a great satisfaction to find his intellect quite entire, and it remained so/until within ‘an hour or twoof his death. His bodily feeble- ness, however, gradually increased ; yet, by the affectioriate care of his family, his’ infirmities were little felt. His amuse- ments were various reading, the illustration of his son’s transla- tion of Lanzi’s History of Italian Painting, by a small collecti of engravings, together with putting the last hand to his bo cal work, He was unable for the fatigue of receiving much company, or of seeing strangers, for some time before his death : yet he loved to conyerse with a few friends, and took a lively interest in the political events with which the last year (1830) was pregnant. On the French revolution of July, he wrote a long and earnest letter to M. La Fayette (with whom he had before occasionally corresponded), urging him to use the influence of his name and popularity, to induce the French nation to spare the lives of the ministets' then under arrest ; pointing out how a — 218 Memoir of William Roscoe, Esq. sanguinary punishment would detract from the glory of the re- volution, and: what a noble opportunity the French people:now had of setting an example of mitigation of the criminal code to all the nations of Europe.’ This letter; and another of gratulation to the:present Lord Chancellor, on bis attajning that high office, were the last public acts of his indefatigable and useful life *. -o Jn the month of June 1831, he was attacked with influenza ; and his exhausted frame being unable to struggle with the dis- éase, effusion into’ the chest took place, and he expired on the 80th ‘of that month, in the 78th year of his age. » Besides his published works, Mr Roscoe has left behind him a large mass of ee and an extensive and valuable hon. siad enice. “ Among’ the former are various dissertations on the fine arts, some of which appear in a finished state. In the year 1814, Mr Roscoe had proposed to the writer of this memoir to under- take the translation of Lanzi’s Storia Pittorica della Italia, and he engaged to furnish notes, and a preliminary dissertation. I had ‘made considerable progress in the translation, when Mr Roscoe’s misfortunes, and my own professional avocations, in- terrupted the work; which has since been well executed by his son, Mr Thomas Roscoe. Among the papers of my venerable friend, I find a very interesting introductory dissertation, in- tended for our joint work, tracing the history of the art of painting and sculpture to a much later period than their suppo- sed extinction in the west, indeed almost to within 200' years of their supposed revival by the Pisani and Cimabue. This ttea- tise is in such a state that it might be published, and it would form an excellent introduction to Lanzi’s work. It is entitled, < An Historical Sketch on “xd State of the Fine Arts ae the Middle Ages.” I find also a curious dissertation on Painters Ditsebiapes ; another on the Origin of Engraving on Wood and on Copper ; a third on the Engravings of the Early German School. There * A short while before his death, in a conversation with the writer of this memoir, he spoke calmly of his increasing feebleness, and probable early dis. solution! He “thanked the Almighty for having permitted him to pass a life of much happiness, which though somewhat checkered by vicissitude, had been on the whole one of great enjoyment: and he trusted that he would be enabled cheerfully to resign it whenever it pleased God to call him.” Memoir of William Roscoe; Esq. - 219 are large fragments also of a work on the Eichings:of the Ita- lian Painters, which contain much useful information;:and a lecture ** on the usé¢ of Prints,” another on the “ Practical Part of Painting,” and two “on the Origin and Progress of Taste.” There is also a poem on the origin of engraving, written in — of which there are two copies in MS. » I have already mentioned, that the lectures on tdeeOriginl aiid Beogresk: of, ante: mene diitenbdlbd toca: treatise, which’ is not finished. This is also the case with some dissertations on the state of letters and the arts anterior to the Greeks, and their’ progress among that people. The whole seem to have been parts of a great work on the fine arts, which he left imperfect. Among his papers are some MS. essays on moral and politi-. eal subjects ; and a considerable one “* On the principle of Ve- getation and the Food of Plants.” _ His correspondence with various eminent sohashatnsh is very extensive, and comprizes a period of upwards of fifty ‘years, during a succession‘of most interesting events. A selection: of these letters will form an appendix to reverenns Mr Roscoe, now in preparation. nd The letters consist of,— ‘ 1. icieaphaideimce tai tipoisidsl isbjentascwihindie Duke of Gloucester, the late and the present Lord Lansdowne, Mr Whitbread, Sir Samuel Romilly, Mr Creevy, Mr Coke, Lord Holland, the present Lord Chancellor, and President Jefferson. 2. On penal jurisprudence and prison discipline, with Mr Ba- sil) Montague, M. de La Fayette, M. Van Praet, Mr Fowell Buxton; with Dr Mease, Mr Roberts Vaux, Mr Stephen Al- len, Mr Bradford, and other American gentlemen. — net _ 8. On literary subjects, with Lord Carlisle, Lord Orford, Dr Parr, Dr Symmons, Dr Aikin, Mr Samuel Rogers, Mr Thomas Campbell, Mr Montgomery, Miss Lucy Aiken; Mr’ Dawson Turner, Mr William Clarke, Professor William Smyth, Profes- sor Wilson, Mr Barnard Barton, Mr Capel Lofft, Dr Chan- ning. 4. On matters relating to the fine arts, with Sir Joshua Rey- ec Sir brirerse Lawrence, ‘Mr Strutt, Mr Fuseli, Mr Meng n, &e. 5. On diley and eigristbn, with: Sir Joseph Banks . 220 Metioirof William Roscoe, Esq.’ JohnySinclair, Si Tamer E. rem Dr apenas Dr eee Hooker: ices! 98) o> mn} aq ot piuaTiihesd 996, On» his chistory: vf died Medici Family, with Fabbroni,;: Moreni, Mecherini, Professor i BA ee Bossi, ‘and Mr’ Henke.dsidw,notioveh bas ceob beh oH (Ini-persons Mr: Rossel was: all anid bat slender. ‘In early: life chespossessed much bodily: activity’: -hishair»was: light: aus burn,:almost ‘inclining to:red); ‘his: full grey eye was clear\‘and milds;his face:expressive and cheerful.’ As he advanced in ‘life, the: benevolentexpression: of his countenance remained, but the vivacity)iof the: features was temperedinto ia noble dignity,’ which it was impossible to see without respect and admiration; while the mouth bespoke ‘taste and feeling, and the clustering hoary shair:round his temples -_ a venerable air to his — features. » ni) tou ‘There are several representations of hims Leite none of. isbn appear to me so finely to express the characteristic traits of his head :as'John:Gibson’s medallion. The portrait im the: Institu- tion; and Spence’s busts, give us Mr Roscoe in his decline with: great fidelity. Gibson’s marble bust is said to:recall-his youths ful appearance; but the Terra Cotta medallion is Mr Roscoe, as, I should wish-to remember him. I may add, that it/has been exceedingly well copied in: the fine medal, gs te AON Cle. ments of this town, from.a die. by» Clint. Of Mr Roscoe’s ‘genius and acquirements, his: publishdd works present a better memorial than any panegyric can confer ; but I may be permitted to state my conviction, after having examined a great mass of his unfinished manuscript dissertations, that, had he been left to pursue his original plan of literary retirement, instead of again plunging into the cares and anxieties of bwsi=, ness, he would have left behind a work on the History of the Fine Arts, far superior to sei —_ on that subject which Bri ny literature possesses. PF MG oF OF ONGOVOU, JATEI vO) 6 Maes An public life, Meidbiiahce was a consistent and fearless cham" pion of, civil,and religious liberty ; the uncompromising enemy of oppression, and the humane advocate of a mitigation of ‘the severity ofipenal enactments.) 9) i ema 1 ~ Of the qualities 6f his heart, as a privat individual, it is im- possible to speak:too highly, In the ‘relations “of husband, fa" Memoir. of William: Roscoe, Hisq.’. 22h ther, and friend, his conduct was most exemplary ; andat-would. be difficult to point out a man who possessed the fascination df manner which attracts and rivets ereeripeenienermme than Witte Roscok.., ose? soeeoter't nweroe Mi anongl He had deep and solemn feelings of devotion, which it was not: his»practice to obtrude.on his acquaintances’; but which ‘he occasionally expressed to his intimate friends in the language of heartfelt piety. . The beautiful invocation to the: Deity, which he substituted for the intended dedication of:his great botameal work, breathes the deep fervour of his adoration of the Supreme Creator ; pM AE NotI poet’s dream at the advanced age of 76. © as on, sdoiche _ An innate love of sincerity and truth ; sienndleng scodiitidd with a playful vivacity yet suavity of manners ;a generous be- . lief in the integrity of others, the consequence of his own »recti« tude of purpose ; an anxiety to do justice to the merits of others ; a liberal and. judicious patronage of modest talent, struggling to escape from obscurity; joined to a natural cheerfulness of dispos' sition ;, all united to convert:imto devoted and enthusiastic admis rers, those who. first rece his ene penters his: literary:res putation. . Cn af 410tbot Md) 5 90018 IRSGGR) ey The fame of Roscoe. Leldngustt bidet sp>ittenielanblanal his inestimable qualities remains to his friends: |» yo)" “ Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit—. : 100 budd doyesogit 2430 eater oz ——cui Pudor, et Justitia soror ones ade tO) oh dud 2 pi __Incorrupta Fides, nudaque Veritas, . i Jt), ha Daeorie ; ‘Quando ullum invenient parem 7” Honar. : 9k Tae Mii A Hil fh ipdibtt, oF AG : wean Y Aue Uhakat AVS qi ; ; woes x f Ege CGA fa) UL) ak! On’ the: Mode of determining Fousil’ Plants. By eta rapt u sini Mak) lu Uiie jaa Ms Wi HEN a botanist proceeds to the prs ah we a men of an unknown plant, he directs his views to certain pecu- liarities in the organs, both of fructification and vegetation, tas ken together >and from what he finds to be their structure, he judges of the class, order, or genus to whieh: it belongs. | But as in fossil plants neither calyx, corolla, stafiens, nor pistillum are to be recognised, an opinion has to be formed, not from the 2 222 Professor Lindley on the Mode of consideration of a complex combination of characters, in which the loss of one’organ is compensated for by the peculiarities of those which remain ; but from a few isolated and very imperfect data, exclusively afforded by the remains of the organs of vege- - tation. In the latter, unfortunately, the modes of organization are not sufficiently varied to enable us to draw any precise con- clusions; from: their examination ; but, on the contrary, we are ° often obliged to he’ satisfied with a general idea only of the na- ture‘of the object of our inquiry. This is, perhaps, not attend- ed with so much practical inconvenience as might be expected, in a geological point of view, because the end of science will’ be sufficiently answered, if we can, in the first place, determine the general characters and affinities of the plants of the former eras ; and, in the second, so exactly classify their fossil remains, as to be able to recognise them, with such precision, as to render them available for the identification of strata. It usually happens that the only parts which are aati of being examined in a fossil state, are the internal structure of the stem, and its external surface ; together with the position, divi- sion, outline, and’ veining of the leaves, Of these it has never yet happened that any one specimen has afforded the wholes. more frequently it is only two or three of those chatacters: that the botanist can employ. Suppose that he has.a fragment of the fossil trwnk of some unknown tree; if no trace can be discovered of its exact anato- mical structure, it may be possible, at least, to ascertain whether its wood was deposited in concentric zones, or in a confused man- ner; in the former case, it would have been Dicotyledonous, or Exogenous, in the latter Monocotyledonous, or Endogenous; if a transverse section should shew the remains of sinuous un connected layers, resembling ares with their ends erent out- ~ wards, of a solid homogeneous character, and embedded some softersubstances, then it may be considered certain that such a.stem belonged to some arborescent Fern. But if the state of a fossil stem will admit of an anatomical examination, it is always desirable that it should ‘be instituted with the assistance of the microscope. Naturalists’ have shewn the possibility of this be- ing done ; and if it should: prove that the condition of fossil re mains is in general favourable to this kind of examination, more determining Fossil Plants... 223 light is likely to be, thrown. upon the extinct Flora than could be otherwise anticipated. If the tissue of a stem should be found entirely, cellular, and it could be satisfactorly made, out that no vascular tissue whatever was combined with it, the speci+ men would, in all probability, have belonged to that division of the vegetable kingdom, which, being propagated without the agency of sexes, is by botanists called Cryptogamia. A specimen of this kind should, however, be examined with the most rigorous accuracy ; because it might have been a succulent portion of some Dicotyledonous tree, in which the vascular system was so scattered among cellular substances as to be scarcely discernible. If the tissue should have consisted of tubes placed parallel with each other, without any trace of rays passing from the centre to the circumference, it would have been Monocotyledonous or En- dogenous, even if there should be an appearance of concentric cir- cles in the wood ; but if any trace whatever can be discovered of tissue crossing the longitudinal tubes at right-angles, front the centre to the circumference, then such a specimen would have been Dicotyledonous or Exogenous, whether concentric circles can be made out or not ; for such an arrangement of tissue would in- dicate the presence of medullary rays, which are the most certain sign of a Dicotyledonous plant. If, in a specimen having these rays, the longitudinal tubes are all of the same size, a cireum- stance obvious upon the inspection of a transverse section, the plant will have been either Coniferous or Cycadeous ; but if, among the smaller tubes, which in fact are woody fibres, some larger ones are interspersed in a definite manner; it would, in that case, have belonged to some other tribe of Dicotyledons. It is indispensable that the arrangement of the larger tubes should have been definite, for appearances of the same kind exist in much Coniferous wood ; but, in the latter, they are scattered in an indefinite manner among the smaller tubes, and are not ves- sels but cylindrical cavities, for the collection of the resinous se- cretion peculiar to the Fir tribe. Again, if the walls of the lon- gitudinal tubes of any fossil specimen are found to exhibit ap- pearances of little warts, growing from their sides, such a speci- men had certainly belonged to some Coniferous or Cycadeous plant, no other tribes whatever possessing such a structure at the present day. Finally, if a trace of pith can be discovered, 224 Professor Lindley, on the Mode. of that circumstance alone.will be a proof of the plant. having, been). Dicotyledonous,,,hecause all other classes are destitute of that), central, cellular. column ;,.it, must, however, always be borne,in), mind, that absence of pith does not prove that a specimen is not, Dicotyledgnous,, because. the roots, of those; plants have no;pith,,,,; » Tfa;stem.is,in,such,a, state that nothing can be determined, , concerning its,anatomy,, we must, then, proceed ito,judge ofjit, by,,, another: set. of, characters,);/1n, the first .place,,, it,should,.be: in-,,, quired, whether it had,a distinctly, separable bark, or a cortical. ; integument, that) differed in its.organization from the wood. with-). out being,separable.from. it; or;neither the one nor,the other. , In the first.instance, it would have been Dicotyledonous ; in the. second,; Monocotyledonous,; in the third, Acotyledonous; or,,, Cryptogamic, supposing that it had, been a trunk which many, successive, years had contributed to, form. ‘The distinction as, applied to, the, two latter. classes, is not,, however, so positive, as could be..wished,, because, (tree ferns have .a cortical, integu-) ment, but they, are easily known by the long, ragged. scars left, by their leayes,;,,and no other cryptogamic, plants , possess, the character of .having a, spurious ,bark,, .For \this, reason, itis. doubtful.whether Calamnites is.related to Equisetacese, and.if we. could be sure,that the coaly matter found enveloping that genus was really the remains of a cortical integument, there would be. no doubt of its affinity being of a different kind, as, forinstance, with Juncus, But,here isa difficulty ; how are,we.to be ;sure that,this coaly matter is a part,of. the original organization,of the stem,,and.that it is not an.independent carbonaceous forma-., tion ?, Another object of inquiry will be, whether.the stem was.) articulated (as indicated by tumid modi) or not ; and-if the former; ., whether it had the property of disarticulating?.. These circumstan-.\, ces are not of much positive value in pointing out affinitiess-buts. they afford negative evidence that. must on, no account: be! overs: looked. For example, if this had been properly, considered:ineres' gard.to Calamnites, although the. affinity of that genus might not baxeibemdiseaxeres..yet.it never could have been xeferred-either A third and, ery. important kind of, evidenee:isito be -eollected - from, the, scars left. upon stems by the fall.of leaves. Although. . these. llildhteinlanan eof the. shepeanashendtibareetonsns > ROT Meee TE I Tae sdétéPmiviinge Pool Plants: 25 tlie lea¥és themselves, yet they indicate, with precisiony their po~ sition, the form of their base, and. sometimes also: thei” direction: We an’ tell whether they were opposite’ or-verticillate;: _alteinate’ of spirally disposed, deciduous or’ persistent, and: im bricatéd°6r rérnote': all characters’ of great ‘use ‘as ‘medins’ of dis~ critmination;/and as ofteti affording ithportant negative’ evidence upon doubtful points!’ "Phe geologist will however, be earefal’ not to ascribe too’ much value to” modifications im the'origin’ of Jesives;‘and, in particulary to’ the’ spiral ‘mode, whieh’ forms so striking a feature!in many fossil remains : he will bear in'mind, that the ‘latter is theoretically the normal! mode*in’ which’ all leaves:originate, and that other modes are more or less obvious -modifieations of it; and, finally, he will consider, that if: he is not! familiar with instances of it in recent: plants, it is because the’ lines of spires are broken by the leaves that are interposed between them and the eye. He will, possibly, only remember that the leaves of firs, the fruit of the pine-apple, and the foli- age of the serew pine (Pandanus), are arranged upon this plan ; but, if he draw a line from base to base of the leaves of any al- ternate-leaved plant, always proceeding in the same direction, he will find, that that line will describe’ a spire round’ the ‘axis from which the leaves originate ; so that'a pms gap ralil be’apparent in proportion as leaves are approximated. — In judging of the indentity of fossil stems that are character. ised by their external appearance, care must be taken not to” distinguish, as different species, those stems that have still ‘their cortical integument upon them from ‘such as have lost it. In these two'cases, the appearance of scars will be different; those- of the former being more rounded, broader, and probably more deeply furrowed, than the latter ; for the one is a real scar shew- ing the outline of the base of the leaf, while the latter is solely err earls Je gp mange bay petiolevof.the leaf. “ih ‘The. manner in which stems branch is sometimes well deserv- ine denadevation Where no trace of leaves can be found, their position may possibly be indicated by the origin of branches, for the latter being always axillary to the leaves can only originate as'they do: but, unfortunately, the value of this fact is often’ reduced to nothing by the appearance of branches from the axilla VOL. XIII, NO, XXVI.—-OCTOBER 1832. r 226 Professor Lindley on the Mode of of afew leaves dnly! in: distant parts of the stem... The.most usefub character:to!be: thus derived, is when the, branches, regu:, larly bifureate, for'this kind of ramifaction is,a strong,symptom, of cryptogamic plant, nip accompanied.by an:imbricated » mn actoled \o! 27210 BI0d = jfeeo it DMeteshizno9 vilstonise ‘Anobewves, we van. anion recognise, in & fossil, on more than theivomode of venation, division, arrangement, and \outline, to which .dre:sometimes! added: their) ¢erture, and, surface... All theseare of importance, but im: unequal degrees...’ Of; the hight estvalue isthe evidence afforded! by the distribution of the veins, taken together with the mode of division of a leaf; if the veins arecall parallel, unbranched, or only connected by little, trans- verse bars, and the leaves: undivided, the plant was probably Monocotyledonous ; and ‘if the veins of such a leaf, instead of running side by side from the base to the apex, diverge from the midrib, and lose themselves in the margin,' forming a close, series’ of double curves, the plant; was certainly: analogous’ to what are now called Scitaminee, | Marantacese,) and -Musacese; but,! supposing that the paralielarrangement of | simple veins. is combined witha pinnated: foliage, then the plant would. proba- bly ‘have! belonged to: Cycades, that: curious, tribe that: stands on the very limits of Monocotyledons and |Dicotyledons, and of flowering and flowerless, plants. By such characters as. these however; there‘is no means ‘of. fh Pe certain, palms, if in’ a‘ fossil state, from Cycadeee. Me lotta tie ioTfweins are all of equal thickness, he Po have an ‘indication’ of :the | Fern: tribe, which is, seldom deceptive: Nevertheless, it'must be remembered that the flabelliform leaves, both of Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons, have ‘occa- sionally this kindsof variation... Even if the veins are not dicho- tomous) if. ‘they arevall, of nearly equal. thickness and very: fine, ‘or divided) in‘a very simple manner} it is probable that they: indicate the! Fern’ tribe, whether simple, as in. the fossil genus Taeniopteris, or reticulated, as in the modern genus Meniseium. If veins’ are ‘of obviously unequal thickness, and so branched. as to resemble: the: meshes of a net, we have a sign. of Dicoty~ ledonous structure that seldom misleads usii 8 9h oho! ese Peano eke at all areitocbe found, an. opinion mt ( i hb Ae yR a: | 0 deteimihing Fossil Plantslon Ifthe leaves aré’small, their absence: may: be due-tosincomplete development’y’ but if the’ leaves are large and irregularly divid~ ed, we tay ‘have ‘an’ indication of some kind of marine: plant. When “leaves are ‘small and are densely imbricated, they:are, generally considered by fossil botanists to belong to either: Lycopodiacess, or Conifers: ;-and there is so: little:to distinguish those ‘families in a fossil ‘state, that there is\searcely any means of demonstrating to which suchogenera as Lycopoditesy Lepido- déndron, Juniperites; Paxites, and the like:actually belongs» \: “Tt would be easy to extend: these'observations much further; but to dwell at length upon this branch of the subject, would carry us far beyond our present limits... We will; : therefore, bring our remarks to a conclusion, by calling attention to some 6f those’ points, to the elucidation of which, it is) most.to be wished, that geologists, who have Speen of collecting fos~ sil. plants, would. apply: themselves. pine: As wren . In ‘the ‘first: place, evidence is ‘iedlindlirpadindtiente to, which the cones called Lepidostrobi, the leaves called Levidoptyllajand the fruit named ‘Cardiocarpay,' respectively appertaini-o Are they all portions of species of the same genus, er, as seems; more: pro~ bable, is*notCatdiocarpon a part of a plant of.a)totally differs ent affinity?’ Secondly, what were the leaves of Sigillaria and of Stigmnaria? Of'the latter, something is known; but) the leaves Ate s ‘so: crushed, that no notion can be formed of their ex« actnature. Mr Steinhauer says he has trated them tothe length of 20 feet! In the third place, to determine the leaves of any of the fossil stems that at present are only in the latter state, such as Sternbergia, Bucklandia, Cycadeoideay |Caulopteris, Exogenites and: Endogenites, would be to'supply a great desideratum. | Again, what was the real nature of the stem of Calamites? Wasitaman: nual shoot, proceeding from a perennial horizontal rhizomay like that of Juncus;‘&e:? - Had itvany leaves, and if so; were they of the ‘nature‘of ‘those figured in-our work, as probably belonging to Calamnnites nodosus, but considered by Sternberg and Brongniart adistinet genus,’ which’ they call Volkmannia? ‘Another very interesting’ object of! itiquiry' is into the nnatomical structure of Lepidodendron, for the’ sdke ofsettling-whether: that.extensive! fossil genus, belonged Conifers be to Tycopodiacea, or! to neitheres We know nothing df the-leaves (belonging to the fos. pr 2 228° Rew) Edward \Stahley: on the Vitality of Toads: sil-fruits*calledAmomocarpon Musocarpon, &c.; or of theifruit: of@ycadeoideay*Annularia, Asterophylites and many» dotherse Now thesevare difficulties that probably «may: be ‘removed: with diligent ‘résearchyamong the: beds: in which such fossils occurs andywhieh; if removed, would contribute much more td fixings the sclenee*upon «a solid: basis; than the discovery’ of species not! before described. — and tutton's' Fossil Flora‘of Great Britaioigny2 wre lobo to lws : é jo otuenole odd. j sonon. to vilit0 ¥ DORMS 1 Jon! : } 1992918 F009 SHI Ss ar BI1IIOG Al DIDRIGe BI @ Dis ¥ | (Sf Wed On the Vitality of vetlel By the’ Rev. Epwarp siiatal wr. ba . G 83 Be _ Conimunieated by the Author. vob aR COLI Obed ra LB ‘Hge " USEBy?* } boobs Bs) Tw Noo 2s'of mere validity Journal, page 26, you have saga edati“interesting paper on the vitality’ Of toads by Professor Buckland?'-If other experiments, ‘partly similar, ‘attended with similar results, ‘are woe of recording, igor miiy’ insert the ‘fol- lowing?! Mok tweygKety BO: oH (43M ‘© Ott the’'22d' Tune! 1830, Iplaced threé toads, No. 1; edit 6'drachins’; No.'2, weighing 174 drachms ; No. 3, weighing ate drachms, ‘iti’ separate! fower-pots, covering the surface with a tile; as well’ as the hole at the bottom. They were then hint about four feet deep! in' garden soil, and dug up on the 21st Mareh 1831, all dead: It appeared, however? ‘from the state of their remains,’ that they had died at different times, the ‘body of ‘one being | in’ nearly ‘a perfect ‘state, whereas of another not thing remained but’ the ‘bones. ‘Conceiving that the damp ‘state f of ‘the soil might have ‘affected’ them, I placed a 4th in a mie mouthed bottle, corked down, ina dry place, inserted | a qui through the cork for the admission ‘of air, and a 5th in a simi Jar bottle, well corked, entirely exeluding air, which died before ‘Twas aware of it, in 48 ours * ; proving ‘very decidedly ‘th: air is as essential to their existence as to any other class of livin animals. No. 4. contimaed in apparently good health or abou wnteieinapane shi, however, nent tm sions of weakr “Wg ts Seareely necessary to add, that the afr in : : + coinbu ol iphtod be Bh inged into-it w: Setly cxtialphipts be havea), 201A SAA Kees rowan Bf Att visievm ‘sid wayne pevenns Tite ® ioodt (9 Swat cS (i Revo’ Edward Stanley on the VitalitysofiToadsi = — 229° andvits:eyes became dim;:in fact; it appeared so: nearly:exhaust~ ed: and dying, that I released: it from its confinement, and plac- ed it undersa:flower-pot on moisti:garden earth, where:it! could) meet) with ‘worms; and small; insects, and enjoy a sufficiency: of- air. The consequence was, that in the course of a day on twoat had completely recovered itsmatural, colour, :bmlliancy of, eye, and. full. motion of its limbs: \and, when finally released) Thad the pleasure of seeing it crawl off under every symptom of\,en- tire convalescence. One fact I remarked worthy of notice. I have mentioned that Nos. 4 and 5 were placed in bottles in a dry situation. In, consequence probably of this, at,the end of about 12 hours I observed them to be in a state of violent,per- spiration as if every pore was exuding moisture, to such a de- gree, indeed, that the sides of the glass were covered with a strong dew, which accumulated till it: formed, drops, collecting at the bottom to the amount,of about one-fourth of a, teaspoon. ful. Of the precise nature, of this liquid, , I\amignorant, but it probably contained a portion of some powerful acid, as in.a _ very short time I observed the ink to disappear from the, small labels I had enclosed in the bottlesy containing, the: weights) of the toads and, dates. of, their, confinement, Tt, is .clearjfrom these several experiments, that the, commonly, xeceived, belief that these reptiles can exist in blocks of stone and stems, of solisl woud, is perfectly false ; notwithstanding, the almost numberless on. record,,, apparently. well attested, of their vitality at e joint additional singularity of exclusion of aix,and Ba ation of food. My experiments, are, indeed, .more to,,the poin tft their, inability to exist for,any length of time unless amply supplied with air and food. of theirown) selection,,than Dr ida ei s; for I should observe, that, although in, the, in- ce of No, 5, absolute exclusion, of air,,exclusion of | food. is ina a » in the cases No, 1, 2, 3,, both food and, air, were bor ae pb or less amply supplied, for, in the flower-pots I not onl +) Mii und. several eral, small, scolopendra, but quantities, of more inn e insects, consisting chiefly, of the, Podura fimetaria. . Now, Be is evident, that to. that depth, air, must haye penetrated, or the insects themselves could not have existed ; and that it must have been to a degree quite “sufficient for anil life, is, equally iin from these insects hav g descended so far from choice. There is still, however, considerable mystery in the history of - -seyejofia disturbed toad,, seem to express: the very sentiments, 980 Rev. Edward Stanley on the Vitality of Toads. es-remaining to be cleared up, and so much con-: paca ls oe at I cannot bring my, mind ‘t0 at ae tive conclusions pe oe certainly have revel” he nate: enough to meet with one of the many instances of todds'shid to have been found hermetically immured in wood or stone, bhi theymustjhave, existed for several years at least but T hav met,with; them in situations, such as bottoms of ‘shafts, aan, cellars.and,creyices,.. where I could not easily account for % a «due supply,of, their. known usual food, and, in fact, I selected the, imprisonment. under flower-pots, _ as. the nearest ‘mode “ f -eombining their, natural habits with the supposed theory of ex. istence/under. absolute exclusion. That No. 5, placed in the bottle, died: from exclusion of air I think there can be no doubt ; and that No, 4, though supplied with air, would have died i in another 24 hours, is most probable; but I think it not imp sible but.that some other causes might. haye operated, for wher - ever L.observed them, I could not perceive the slightest ¢ “appear- ance of uneasiness or sense of, restraint ; they appeared exactly according. to their usual habits, in a sort of dull dormant. quies- cent state, just as when found iny some secluded chink i in, rocks or under stones,..when;the only predominant feeling appe pear t r to be dissatisfaction jat, any interruption to their sluggish life,” ac- companied; by an, unnatural ‘excitement es will not call i it activi- ty) of their limbs, occasioned by | fear, and anxiety t to ‘mal e them retreat, with, all speed to some similar abode under 5 pine other »)*¢ cold. ;stone,” , wherein again to resume their “ Gron sleep... In a,word, the awkward dull movements and lethargic of STKE the) oe prophetess to. Odin : ; dott he weve AG SAE f+ FAs «Now imy weary eyes I close, Crabs Mod fiae i. a ae Leave me, leave me, to repose.” Fg ey BER ADEE ¥ ; * As the experiments of vi baiuais in 1777) and Dr Edwards in-18 *“ not be generally known, T'shall briefly:state, that; the former shut up three r » toads in’ sealed: boxes in’ plaster, which, after having been. ti ae F fn a aga Scienees, were 0 gon wope een ae euaaan y days; end much longer ‘tha onbioae: pris forced to temain under ne havin UN as paiteeigh et leo hai iperrns ee water, ‘This singular result can or chek on the supposition that air must — whi through ‘the plast me ; i a E * [ ¥ 7 b Of i VII LE Ba WU LoVe ou . + As areon! r é e ebnd LYS Webs ¥ Cy Bh Dcie biswhol ws O8e “{Y63 TOD OT Oz On, iienietional - 7 Naphthaline m Oi-Gas Apparitus. “By A. om ie ‘F.R.S.E. Tsai by the logos avid YT Yo Sa5nK Ie : £7 , SHG fis IIS O] docone So opie sti lie’ pre sdid to ie deposited by £3tin me b ‘Profeésso PI dimes for ‘chemical ate ; matter Ww Bib wt itt thidl' fables’ ad- ee eta grou ‘and possessing a fie peatly dustre. A partial discoloration bah onan by the intermixture of a little i impurity, consisting’ of oxide of rot; with sore’ adhering carbonaceous matter, which | gave an empyreumiatic smell when heated. — The white crystals were found to ‘possess! ‘the well- known chemical properties of naphthaline; and’ I’should ‘not have thought it necessary to take’ any farther notice ‘of ‘them, had it not been that the source from which they’ proveededs and. the circumstances under ‘which they were foritied,’ were some- what Peculiar, ‘and may ‘afford some illustration of wd coniditions necessary to the production of this body. " yessn to gous Upon “making | inquiry at the ‘place: where! he pens ‘were produced, I was informed that they were first observed invan old iron pipe ‘several feet in length, and 2 ‘féw inches in! internal gies which had. five years before formed part of a private ‘ oi il-gas pay This pipe had been sittiated between the re- tort on nd, ‘and the edidenser atid’ gasbirieter on the wos png when the apparatus was in operation) ian empyreu- _m matic oil used to be deposited in it,” but ‘tid ‘forination “of 'the * white crystals had ever been obsérved during’ that period."The inaterial which had been eerily et for thé ‘production of thergas — was at first whale-oil ; then palm-oil had’ been used ; and latter- ly whale-oil had been again employed» Some of ‘the crystals which I saw taken out of thé pipe were mixed with a black soft pitchy-looking matter,,which, seemed to line its inside, When this' dark matter was heated on platinum foil over, the spirit-lamp, ” it fused ‘at ‘a ‘moderate heat, and gave off dense _white, vapours,, When’ ‘the flame of the lamp was brought’ in ¢ontact. with it,, it, took fire and burned away, eaving a conside- ~wrable' residues which was:attracted -by the magnet, and was iron ‘more ‘or less oxidized: "Wherr some of the dark, matter, was 232 Mr Connell ona Production of Naphthaline. heated in a tube, it gave off at a moderate temperature a little ea ie line, whieh condensed i in the upper. part: of the:tube, and) va “was increased, a yellow fluid condensed: on,theysides of te | which . was to a great. extent, soluble jin jaleohola() tine views may. be taken, of the mode.of production, of, the LB PIS er Bes, in the gas apparatus,, We, might suppose that it "er n formed. during the. destructive) distillation of | oné or ' atk of the oils employed, and deposited in crystals, at the time of its formation ; but this view is opposed by the circumstance, that no naphthaline was'observed' Whilst the gas apparatus was in operation ; anWit is alo improbable, that crystals of the size obtained and so well défined, sKould’ have remained during so long’ a’ ‘period in ‘a situation to which there was access of - air, when the great volatility of naphthaline is considered. We may concéive, in the next place, that the naphthaline, after it had been. formed by a new arrangement of ‘elements during the des- tructive distillation of the oil, was condensed along with’some of the other products and held dissolved by them, ‘until the solvent was decomposed or dissipated by the slow operation of time and the external air. Or, lastly, we may suppose that it was not formed ‘during ‘the distillation, but first existed only, through the slow and Spontaneous decomposition of, some. of those. products, with access of air, after the apparatus had beet laid aside." The = view is perhaps on’ the whole the most probable... “The influence of external air in the production, or at’ ‘Teast , development, of naphithaline, has been lately observed. by M. Laurent, who found that naphthaline was not obtained jin. all cases by the distillation of coal tar, and that its production was most certain when the coal’ tar had been long exposed to the ait *. “M. Reichenbach did not succeed at all in getting naph- thaline by the distillation of coal tar, but the tar employed. by him had been apparently recently prepared +. °M. Laurent al- so found that the action of abnemphstar air was: as superseded: by that of chlorine. ’ thee | irk Sorting cL ateak 6 ORD exalt Jo") Annales de Chimie et de eabres aes mes ait yen pee ltt: “ooth Ebvaxliza, 36. 1 i; Jordend ansse ebncalta bal? r ra sssesiofteibsseonand elt Mapes Stetk9e OF S219 S101! e Had ati yd: Borde pat itswrieresioaq? bas GUuliRVO, TOrroini-lis! é' oon! Hite tation seit weet \ oe ae FIR ‘ ry wh Eee anmosign 4s, \o 8268) » xo Hsanod 3M oes. sbom « is. To svsg ii,odui.s m1 botsard Onthe: sR Se sid eppailids of certain either hee longing tothe Flora’ Peritviana. “By Mr Davin tt eae Beeapecsiaciee ‘Linneliti' Sotiety ;° Me “ibe dF tne Hine Academy! Natu\ee” ‘Curiesbritm 5 of the ‘Tiiperial ct Li lanmealienee -of “Moscow ; of the Riyal nial Societ se © Ratisbon and of the Wertietiai’ ec Bi é. “(Caine fon Nooo Oe. ‘y881;° p80: aio a1 0 f ‘g uC goneiaiuols oh! 4d Lazoqqo at tv ot > nonemot aii i ae ve Ings 28 'ZIGADENUS, Mich, otiiadidgen Oa my ey Hlii. du «Sst, Linn, HEXANDRIA, TRIGYNIA > (OI RE JO ni bb Ord. Nat. MELANTHACEE, Br, o2 DAs ma Perini ¢ partis ores ocealatiepemicatn bs _,.contluentibus. . Qvarium (e flliculis 3 connatis composituni)t7 tea ovulis indefinitis. Stigmata simplicia, canaliculata, pruinosa, recurvata., Capsula ain ge sitet 3-locularis: Joculis Ci-plyspermis Se. onli nee arin pe tear pve, eis, Sete Herbe (Amer. Suna © Obie! DeAWAA tasibedbbede * waited! mela, ne etn iti ormton yy payers Racemus divisus, panioulatus, Q ta ot barr mo23) enw oi rag cen Kak rms sylis salu abe. Yoo arte Heoecne: aye olin Sect Linn pA. yareraet Hab: Tnx re mgt Orizabae in ral ah ‘0,000 pedl—Sehiode Schiodg et reulares cul confiuentibus, rim umd ! os semi-inferu rum | ¢ folliculis 3 aril) t pruinosa. ' 0 branacea,)3-locularis s. : anes ana "Semin anes 0 oko agree This genus is. so closely allied to. the following, that, besides the glands at the base of the segments of the perianthium, and the branched inflorescence, there is little else to separate them. The species is well distinguished by its half-inferior ovarium, and by the shorter and unconnected styles. 284 MrwDs Dob onthe Characters aul: Affinities and od of edt oarvatisd act mosrox jar dnidtd T ef srd Tt . oth gpONTAS, Might sobasnisH. yd oF barister Aisusesaoes TY ods Y%. Hal Badass se0 aft hi Ande dari EL ONE AP AAI gel oy} IRS TRS TP Ot si) aodtod VW to bailoW BBATRA SP Aue oi, ‘oidve a0 a linrS@se Zénm, HEXANDRIA TRIGYNIA, k robe ef deal ehoitestp Sis colt MELANT HACE Rede sie oiviriodi 46 Perianthium 6-partitum : segmeniis. obtusis, subzequalibus. Stamina 6; ,fila- menta subulata, basi partum “atiatita® ailhuas Fumhtbied ? ‘loeulis'confu- Cigjentibus. | Stigmata; subulata, \Capsula 3-locularis;: , Joeulis oligospermis. _. Semina compressa: testé memibranacea. a faite Camee ors pdhucbbles |? Bebb thi phlabeweaeT Ricans spicatus, brad. y\\tediats., Capsula-membramacedy 5) oy oy hc Rib At hail “Ons! In Xerophyllo anther loculis distinctis, filamenta basi saepé dilatata, rianthii gmenta 3 interiora latiora, racemus corymbosus bracteatus, cau- rearmyeenh har ’ | foliosus. . SIIIGOD - In Helonia luted, quee recté, in novum genus, constituit ill. Decandolle, flores sunt dioici, filamenta et stigmata clavata, antherze oblong, apice emar- ginatze, loculis parallelis distinctis, nec confluentibus, racemus ebracteatus, caulis foliosus. By, Me RAT LT LT ELT 3 cemo elongato, seminibus compressis apice alatis. Veratrum officinale, Schlecht. in Linnea, 6. p45." Ytzcuimpatli secunda, Hernand. Mez. p. 307. Hab. In,graminosis ad latera montium, Hacienda de Laguna et Barranca de hivorelo in, provineie, Vers. Crucis regionibus temperatis. “Schiede et Deppen, Ueoi (Vs 8 8p, in, Herb, Lamb) iis soetioh ag Radix crassa, subbulbosa, fibras complures. Jongissimas, basi emittens : o | teolloelongato,.‘tudimentis foliorum,emarcidorum fibrosis in. circu- dis: conéentricis: dispositis obvoluto. Scapus ¢ foliorum, medio. solita- rius, iisque multd altior, erectus; teres, levis, solidus, medulla. spon- oie «gies farctus; pennee corvinze crassitie, , /olia plurima,. issima, re- ‘009 eurvato-patentia, linearia, acuta, carinata, margine denticulis cartilagi- neis serrulato-scabra, nervis plurimis parallelis prominulis intermedio- own ‘que walidiori-peragrata, luteo-viridia, tactw aridissima, sesqui y,,;tripe- veme .idaliay 3oineas . Racemus spicatus, terminalis, erectus, 4-5-uncialis ; fructiferus yrolongatus,, pedalis et ultra. .#lores parvi, albi,,exsicca- _... tione lutescentes, undique versi, conferti, erecti. Pedunculi teretes, ‘© “yalidi, Jeeves, brevissimi. ' Bracteolé recurvate, truncate, margine scariosee, lacerseque, persistentes. Perianthium marcescens, 6-partitum : segmentis simplici ordine eequalibus, linearibus, apice crassiore obtusis, basi disco parim elevato calloso auctis, Stamina 6, segmentis perian- » ‘thit opposita, vequalia: jlamenta subulata, jem ersisten basi 13. af rset anthere reniformes, medio filamentis adnate: is “\ Japice confluentibus ; sutura a a yt 985 i ony vy) omeis. Pollen pulyereum.,, Ovarium, (& folliculis. 3 compositum) | ~~ orum, 3-loculare, shin yt entisque marcscentib ba / SSO. + opulis in quoque loculo | (6) erectis, sutures internie i ot eda rd oath "ip oan ent Sai Sei TIAIP 2 en iss. Disse Y. arginibus « 1. H. officinalis, foliis. linearibus preelongis. carinatis margine scabris, ra- vee 7 pel ina compressa, apice complanato-alata : testa a- on tad FE rg si "ABDUL Arce adlteoeentt¢>, Aiea! . cartilagineum, album. Embryo paryuss teres; dn basi - - tus, concolor. fi Bh Ne wwriiun ys 8) ; Yay omy bad wiaoe oh ¢al wfrcitjuity Geneta sn Lhe Flora Pérudianddl. 235 There is, I think, much reason. for. believing this to be the second kind of the Yizcuimpatli feferred to by Hernandez, for it can scarcely be the same with his first sort, if the figure and description of the leaves can be relied on. Whether this last is identical with thé plant’ figared by ‘Descourtilz, or which of them is actually the Cibhdiind “Of I ‘des, are quewous which Ehave not tates t6 detide. 99908 ee “As all the plants of this family possess. pk cll perties, it is not improbable that different species, have beeh ap- plied in different countries to the like purpose: The Sabadilla or Cevadilla formerly held an important’ place in the Pharma- copeeia, but happily the progressive habits of cleanliness in the Raid ie SF ee. Sone eocomemny: fa] XIPHIDIUM, Lefl. "Sysh Linn. TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIE. Ord: Nat: LEMADOBACE Ey By hi op pita er Eeoua howto tripld ae i Snthere : Joculis distinctis shagiente ali de piesnren inh Ke globosum, 3- pain gigi liberum: re comigeer tis, processibus | ana. ‘Stylus indivi- 7 | ahha bus elev: undique tuberculate. Semi resso-angula i ode reddeavivindubs' testa a aethdee, veum. Ferber (Amer. Mend.) Veratr Veratri facie. Radix Hibrosa, repens. Folia alterna, - Bracteolw scariosa, brevisine. Bacen violacea. ayy? is eo 4 rubrum, execs dent ia ’ nici tal mei, Pert | pe Ruiz et Pavon MSS. - Habvin Peruvid, Rui et Pavon,, Ye W's, 6p. in Herb, Lamb.) “S Notwithstanding: its. free oyarium, this genus, “evidently be- longs to the Heemodoracee, to which it had been doubtfully re- ferred by. the distinguished author of the Prodromus Flore Nove Hollandie, to whom the structure of its fruit appears to have been then: unknown. ..'The ovarium is also free in Wachen- dorfia, so that even among: cama asia this charac- ter is not ohpinnery pemanit 1) Looby ti yy 236 Mr,D..Don onthe. Characters and. Affinities < eralipolLeR aneemdO Waudtadbeidoh witilpnibuir rufoe iaad waiiel ox austons,; mubiint asont. QBPHYRAS “+ wa tie ye avomor om SysteLinn “TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA YT) 2) oOo.4 Ord. ‘Nat ASPHODELEX, Br. .. Trib. 3. ConANTHERER, Nobis, | Perianthium semisuperum, monophyllum, subhypocrateriforme, coloratum, de- »-¢idaum : 4ubo eylindraceo, basi circumciss4, partim dilatatf: limbo 6-partito, Ave patenti: segmentis’ elliptico-oblongis; 7-nerviis (nervis plerumque ra- “\. mosis) 3 exterioribus paulld rg hee ite mucronulo tuberculiformi papil- “sloso-apieulatis. Stamina 6, fauci perianthii inserta ; 2 longiora, sterilia ! 1) filamenta compressa, glabra’? anthere' ovato-oblongee, apice obtuse, inap- pendiculatz, valvulis licet longitudinaliter solutis e foraminibus 2 termi- nalibus tantim pollen effundentibus ; Joculo altero (interiore) basi in cor- _ niculum brevissimum producto, Ovarium 3-loculare; ovulis pluribus. * Stylus tenuis. Stigma punctum pruinosum., Capsulam maturam non- dim vidi. Herba (Pertiviana) elegans. Rhizoma bulbo-tuber? Caules erecti, ramosi, glabri, nudiusculi, busi rudimentis scariosis membranaceis foliorum imperfecté evolu- torum obvoluti, palmures. Folia radicalia mihi ignota ; caulina pducissima, rudimentaria, lineari-lanceolata, acuminata, canaliculata, nervosa, glabra, plerumque adpressa, vix uncialia. Flores numerosi, paniculati, azurei. Pe- ,_ dicelli simplicissimi, filiformes, summo apice dilatato cum perianthio articulati. '' Bracteolee subulate, virides, pedicellis breviores. Perianthium 10 dineas |; fongum. OF dG A> $IEBAB Ecc o A A Hab. In Peruvise provincia australiori Tarapacensi ad Lomas de Iquique. Di. Bollaert.’ YU. Vulgd Flor de Viuda. ~ (V.'s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) “\"Dhis interesting gen us accords entirely in habit and in the struc- ture of its perianthium with Cummingia, from, which it is, how- ever, essentially distinguished by the circumstance of two of the stamens being sterile, and the absence of the membrandus points from the anthers, one of the cells of which is developed at,the base into a short spur-like process. The specimens whence the ak ove description was derived, formed part of a small but valuable collection of plants made by Mr Bollaert, formerly chemical. as. sistant at the Royal Institution, in the course of his traye sin the interior of Peru. ‘The singular circumstance of two of, the stamens being sterile, leaving four fertile, is worthy of particu, lar notice, as forming a remarkable exception to the law of de- velopment of organs among the Monocotyledonce. ! axty o win Gok FAADEG | verrghoitor& seg, oe bt 7 ag PASITHEA. ngs Oo) SR OAMO DE ane Ge rh aie. : 9) One Nat ASPHOD ELAM, Br.» THb.'3. Conder RER, Nobis, okt) Vans PePtalvooltd eo srrsc rrr irs ct: bibbiadlid bhteni~kcereer pes : Perianthium omnindsuperum ! profundé 6=pa ois quila “ahlongis muctonuio subewculat,paplloso api Her’ interi lelis, basi solutis, longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ovarium 3-loculare : wot indefinitis, Stylus ser nana Stigma trifidum : laciniis re- ulati, cyanets\,Pedicelli fili- igo ee inarticulati, summo. apice dilatati, : brevissime, membranacee., reer ite -Ovarium apici pedicelli feré immersum. | ) a P. coerulea. Seeies ai a ee ceeruleum, “Ruiz, et Pavon Fi. Peruv.. et. ‘Chil. 3p. 67, t. 299 _ Bermudiana coerulea, Phalangii ramosi facie, vulgd Ideu. Feuill, Perw. 1. p. 712. t. 8 _ow es lab, in Chili locis umbrosis. Fevillée, mish aren tt Y Vulgo Illeu. (V- s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Besides the present, several other plants have sak sepia to Anthericum by the authors of the Flora Peruviana; which clearly do not belong to that genus; and among them their Anthericum plumosum and coarctatum are deserving of particu- lar notice, as constituting the rudiments of two new genera, ap- parently belonging to the normal. group “of. Aiphodelee.. “Phe inferior or halfinferior ovarium, and the simple, inarticulate pedicels, have itiduced me to regard the Conantheree as forming a'separate section of the order. The incumbent anthers and the trifid stigma essentially distinguish ae, both from Conan. thera and | Se cannot fail to be remarked, that the triple stigma and the y inferior ovarium bring this genus very near to the Hypowidea, affording one among many other proofs that might be adduced of the extreme difficulty, or rather utter impossibi- ie of estate absolute chatacters in Natural History. . " BRCILDA, Ad. Juss. Syst. Linn. DECANDRIA PENTAGYNIA. _ Ord, Nat. MEAN ue th Nobis. ceis.., 10, perigyna ; eananl ¢is foliolis opposita filamenta thar tee incumbentes, biloculares : toute filamentorum eiRtemitste solutia,abtucia Redinte ance & breviter peticelatin cideum, {perenne aera ebOnuen, _ G-loculare, Styli 6, subulati, Stigmata recur- , pruinosa. | Ovula solitaria, erecta, rapheos bast adnata. Bacoa (ma- 238° MD. Doi bvbtte yensnainind: aa Affinities -), ttntani Horde? Vidi) 62ebeeH : “codcis HoNdspermis, anguild intérioti. ad- natis; exteriore lovgitudinaliter dehiscentibus *, hg 9 UR th Frutex Metin conettie, glaberrimus. Folias ‘paren, petiolata, ‘dvalia, obtusa, pit sangreonteete cartilagineo-integerrima, unicostata, venis immersis, 2B-un- ecem! ‘awillares ! solitarii, subspicuti, penduli, bipollicares. Flores plaY be didd at Apis *MACROMERIA.- i oft Pa aot. RENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA,, wir onl Ord. Nat. BORAGINE, Juss. Trib. 3. LATHOSPERMES, Wobises.) 5); imtvise C partitus, Corolla, infundibuliformis, ' ape et ‘or, fith ohiet te actus, erect, 8 ina 3 oe ula Alam cpl parka es were aula vahacadne . - CIOS Soe res, be rsatiles : loculi dinaliter , tg i "Sia eis g saber. Sigma po pacha acm Ceane G H. iis (Mes ss Hib enon iit a3 cone a ineeien et tc Me Braco abort Co sitefooaimesipia ys ong . -3-pollicaris : rin ase Henuatus : ‘aux dilatata : li us 5 sie ob m-mec imbpibahs.® 1108 © OIIW bet al , baie SH TNF AA genitalibus inclusis: ospermu Hab, in pe nga oh Mente meg (ea ert. eam)?" Dojo Moana pea Nea mia ‘en i le iin“ ge sf dice Rare oe (oem in eb oan bp: worn) "The flow wers a a by far the la ‘of the whale ‘family,, of which it may justly be reckoned the most showy genus. The. long Wiccocaee essentially distinguish it from Lithospermum and Batschia, to which it otherwise comes nearest in affinity. The Boraginee may be divided into five very natural groups, dis- tinguished by the form and’ structure of their éorolla. The Bi See eo Sidemenrea *"Trichodesma, and poe fl GFL vith pina lead characterised cae ' “parted corolla, rescence, diffuse inflo- pr ce Joy, the baant-abbeoviaved proceetes of tte covelier\ es tere : welrete yabey ; wd : 7 pare o~ nll : ai Ve 240 Mr D.Don on the Characters and Affinities minated Symphytee, comprehending Symphytum, Onosma, Onosmodium, Cerinthe, Mertensia and Pulmonaria, having a tubular, truncate corolla, with very. short lobes, and. the inflo- rescence rarely revolute. The third are the Lithospermea, ha- ving an open tubular corolla, with broad, mostly rounded lobes, and the stamina often exserted, consisting of Lithospermum, -Messerschmidia, Batschia, the present genus, Moltkia, Echiwm and Lycopsis. The fourth are the Buglossew, having a salver- shaped corolla, with the mouth closed with vaulted processes, comprising Anchusa, Myosotis, Omphalodes, Cynoglossum, and Asperugo. The fifth are the Heliotropee, consisting of Helio- tropium, Tournefortia, and Tiaridium, agreeing in the form of their flower, with the last group, but remarkable for the plicate limb of their corolla, and for their connate fruit, approaching the simple drupe of Cordiacew, to which they may very properly be considered as forming the transition. ‘To the latter family belongs Cortesia of Cavanilles, which does not seem to be gene- rically different from Beurreria of Jacquin. The mode of in- florescence in Cordiacee, their parted. style, and the nature of their albumen, connects them on the one hand with Convolou- lace, and on the other with Hydroleacee, and from this last to the Polemoniacee the transition is pretty evident | NIEREMBERGIA, Ruiz et Pavon. Petunia, Juss. | NicoTian#, sp. Act. Syst. Linn. PEN TAN DRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. SOLANEH, Br. Calyx profuind’ 5-fidus : lobis ligulatis, foliaceis. Corolla Hy pockapertfontaid fauce nunc ventricosa : limbo patenti, 5-lobo, 5-plicato. | Stamina 5, tubo inserta, partim inzequalia: filamenta capillaria, glabra, infernd adnata : anthere subrotundee, biloba, biloculares: Joculis basi partum divergenti- bus, apice distinctis, rima longitudinali exteritis dehiscentibus. aldedlabe basi disco cyathiformi cinctum. Stylus pete amis - glaber, apice dilatatus. . Stigma reniforme, compressum, Y. capi and cidum, nunc minutissimé papillosum: Jobis compares ppacatis, i - - -volutis, subinde quasi sulco medio exaratis. Capsula ovata, — walvulis: bifidis. Dissepimentum contrarium (facie ad ee sr rumpens, tandem solutum. Placente 2, septo adnatee. formia : fen crustacea, scrobiculata : albumen coninenay j arcuatus, : cotyledones lineari-oblongee, plano-cony cotyledonibus pauld longiori, obtusa, hilo proxi ‘ut gluse radice fibrosé, sepiiis annua. "Palin gp nune raré subopposita. Flores soltvarii, ps pence, ec of certain Genera in the Flora Peruviana. | 2 Oss. A Nicotiana, cal ycia laciniis foliaceis tantim differt. Salpiglosis so- lummod? distinga hire hese ee ree et calycis non limbo fo- liaceo. quam diversa genera viduntur.. oA eich examination of the various species of Nera and Petunia, which have fallen under my notice, has led me to the conclusion that they constitute but one genus, which is scarcely of itself to be distinguished from Nicotiana, except by the foliaceous segments of its calyx. The tube of the corolla is found to be more or less dilated in different species, but this character cannot be regarded as of more than specific import- ance. The Nicotiana minima of Molina is identical with Nie- ' rembergia repens. Salpiglossis agrees with Nicotiana in the structure of its calyx, and is only distinguished from it and Nierembergia by its somewhat irregular corolla. PITAVIA, Mol. Gatvezia, Ruiz et Pavon. non Juss. Syst. Linn. OCTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord, Nat. RUTACER, Nobis. Calyx 4-fidus : laciniis eestivatione imbricatis. Petala 4, ET laciniis al- terna. Stamina 8, perigyna, yay hn alterna sine ater rh tpstaey brevi- : loculis ora wate Wngitedealites de tibu a ge wie chante” Ovarium 4-loculare, rote dpe a Comte es racy elevato cylindraceo pe cgwes : e4 = 4-suleatus, basi fis- sura dation Stigma Sabieaseanes obsolete 4-10 m, minute papillo- sum. Becca abortu seepe monococca :. coccis monospermis. Arbor (Chilensis) rapido 6-orgyalis. Ramuli tricarinati.. Folia + erenata, coriacea, glabra, pellucido-punctata, 3-5- ype basi acuta. Pea oa sublis obtuse carinati, semipollicares. YF lores 1. P. punctata, Mol. Chil. ed. 2. p. 287. Galvezia punctata, Ruiz et Pavon Syst. Veg. Fl. Perwv. et Chil. 1. ° i LBP tore iene fine Yt os ha ‘Hab. obama a pepmgl ieee vincia in s is et ad rivulorum are et Pavon Floret Octobri et Novembri. Ver. Pitao. (V. % sp. in Herb. Lamb.) Ons. Genus Calodendto Thunb. proximum, similiter folia ita v. terna, atque habitu alioqui convenit. Folia inter manus contritn ‘anges This g genus clearly appertains to the Rutacee. Its habit is entirely that of Calodendrum. ‘The descriptions hitherto pub- VOL. XIII. NO. ¥XVI.—ocToBER 1832. Q 242 Mr-Dy Don on. the Characters and Affinities lished.of the genus are very imperfect, and it is hoped the pre-. sent will,supply many of their, defects, although we have, still to, regret the want.of perfect seeds to complete our knowledge of. its, structure,, ; The name applied to. the genus by Molina i is here, adopted, in preference to that of Ruiz and Payon, as being con~ ’ siderably anterior to the latter, and there being already another, Galvezia among the Scrophularine. AITONIA, ye, a Syst. Linn. OCTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. RUTACER, Nobis. Calyx 4-fidus. Petala 4, calycis laciniis isdn: Stamina 8, corolla longiora, , declinata : filamenta glabra, basi dilatata, connata : anthera incumbentes, _ lineares, basi apiceque obtusis, biloculares : Joculis parallelis, distinctis, raphe angustissima connexis, longitudinaliter dehiscentibus : valvulis car- tilagineis, eequalibus. Ovarium globosum, 4-loculare, disco partim elevato _. marginato insertum: ovulis erectis, paucissimis, axi loculorum insertis. _. Stylus filiformis, declinatus, glaber. Stigma clavatum, disco parim de. .pressum. Capsula 4-alata, 4- ocularis : loculis dispermis. Semina orbicu- ata, compressa: desté coriaced, fuscd, extis tubereulata, inthis pellicula leevissima vestita: albwmen nullum. Embryo erectus : cotyledones folia- cee : radiculé his tripld breviori, subconica. Plumulainconspicua? Frutex (Capensis) ramosissimus, 8-pedalis, Folia alterna, lineari-lanceolata, i in- _ tegerrima, pellucido-punctata, e ramulis nondiim evolutis plerumque fasciculata. _ Stipulee nulla. Flores in ramulis nondim evolutis terminales, solitarii, pedun- _ eulati, penduli, Corolla campanulata, sordidé purpurea, aig magna, membranacea, inflata, colorata, reticulato Oss. Genus Melianthio spt et capeulé proxime affine. Flores rard 5- fidi, 10-andri. Li, Bawa 1. A. Capensis, Linn. fil. Suppl. Pl. p. 303. . Hab. Ad Promontorium Bonze Reet in Karro deserto inter ripas flu. minis Gand et Lang-Kloop D. Nien. h. (V.v. ce et s. sp. in Herb. Lamb.) i “M. de Jussieu has referred this genus to Ke Méhitbeie\ and in this opinion he has been followed by most subsequent wri- ters: it appears to me, however, to approach much n to the Rutacee than to any other family ; and I am led tbe. lieve, after a careful comparison of their several characters, that few will question the propriety of the place that is here assigned to it. The genus has been omitted by M, De oir published = Ra of his invaluable Prodromus ; bt ) bable le that, d distir nguished botanist. had not made u u Re t sey ‘to Bs alfipities. _Notwithstan nding the habit an 2 the structure of their leaves, 1 am incline that Aitonia and | Metian nthus: a be iaelinded in of certliin Genera in the Flora Perubiana: |) 248° tural family, agreeing, as they apparently do, in the more essen-' tial parts of their structure; nor do I think the présence or ab-) sence of stipules alone sufficient to’ separate the Zygophyllee from the Rutacee, to whom they are otherwise so intimately al- lied? “These appendages in some families are evidently: of se. condary importance only.) ‘ CITRONELLA. ser Viriaresta, Ruiz et Pavon. Fl. Periv. non Prod. nec Syst. eorund. Crrxt, sp. Mol. Syst. Linn. PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ord. Nat. AQUIFOLIACEX, Ad. de Juss. gs “it arate Petala 5, calyci8 laciniis alterna, disco linea elevata gees _ filamenta alia iisdem Pmicrgy bicarinata aucta. Stamina 5, petalis al- filamenta plani labra, supra leviter canaliculata, inferné © a te i paligtinas) tildes lates ¢ Jooults tunigidis; disthictia, lon ee abaetsthiigs Pollen ulesum, Ovarium liberum, sub- sb Pha subsolitariis, ulis. Stylus brevissimus. ee um, minuté Drupa monosperma. er ees ane neta supera, cotyledonibus cfbiculats Peviny sis), era, sempervirens, coma frondosissimd, valde coriacea, glabra, viridia, siccitate eruginosa v. lweida, sublis opaca, iora, margine nune dentato- spinulosa, basi rotundata ; in arbore juveni cordata, dentato- spinosa, undulata. Flores parvi, albi, capitati, Capitula dongivs peduncu- axi communi pubescenti, Ca- ity Villaresia mucronata, Ses apparent t. 231. “£6. Ad. de Juss. in’ Ann. des Scien. Nat. 25. p. 14. t. 3. f. Citrus chilensis, Mol. Chil. ed. 2. p. 293. | ai or Seat eee ven nest, Nara, UW. spi 5. 7 a ane ewe eigliat ij ‘on which Villaresia was originally founded by ee abi of the Flora Peruviana, namely V. emarginata, et ay belonging toa very different genus, apparently akin to, Celastrus, from which it appears to be principally distin- guished by the bivalvular dehiscence of its capsule, has ren- dered another generic appellation necessary for their V. mucro- nata ; I have, th Pp re to call it Citronella, being a v of its Spanis in Chili, The genus I consider to ral beds. ity Ruiz and tell state their Vil- a2 244° Mr D. Don on the Characters and Affinities, &c. _ laresia emarginata to be a shrub about two yards high, and a) native of Pillaoin\Peru; and. the\desoriptions..of the, plant iin their Prodronius and Systema shew: it \to:(belong toja-very dif ferent genus from the one subsequently adapted by, them ra the third volume of their Flora. The specimens and ‘drawing of the former were doubtless’ lost i in the shipwrec of ‘the 4 Pedro. de Alcantara. Among a small ‘collection from South America, I have seen specimens ‘of a plant, Which may even- may prove to be a congener of Villaresia emarginata. ra o0a “MALESHERBIA: I have to add the following description of ‘another new Spe cies to this interesting genus, for samples of which I ‘am in- debted to my enterprising friend Mr. Bollaert, who collected them in Southern Peru,. The flowers. of this new, species are pink, andthe, root)is apparently annual, It is, readily distinguished from all those hitherto described, by its almost pinnate leayes,).. ‘7. M. tenuifolia, | foliis Sania at een a a perianthiis tu- bulosis, corona, inciso-lobata. vd pe Sones Hab, In Peruvize servis, sibestion Bara scene ad Sinstaconda. Di Bollaere. () Ploret Febnuatio. oy Zora, to. Cay- ~* ‘sicum Alopecis. Vii x opiibedt oral Leomton ly erwentT©certainly ‘think ‘it very! possible that there may be a generatio euivoce of eg@s;but not of perfect’animals ; but en —,! er eae eneine eecle ons £To minlstesg seco A ons To etsccuiit 5 rdw ololedg Ye Qn the supposed Connection ene the y eae and Animal; JGW joren\ allssiiyoF Te » Kingdoms. _ (ep Rod oe It) is very commonly an, admitted fers shat retaiotabies and animals toueh one another in their lower degrees—that they even pass into. each other,—that,,notonly,in one genus do we find both animals and plants, therefore species from, the two king- doms of nature which can,/be separated by, no) generic distine- tion; but,that eyen)a plant often produces an animal which, du- ring its.growth, again changes into a plant... I_must.admit that these notions were once very attractive to me; that the globules of. the. blood were simple monads, which were formed.from the living,animal matter, like the infusoria from,dead animal) mat- ter; that the Ectosperma produced monads which disappeared after. the short life. of an hour, and. grew up to,Confervae,,, I mot merely believed this myself, but haye publicly taught, it.as an acknowledged fact, till I took the microscope in my hand and experimented for myself. [ have now perhaps fallen, into.the other extreme; for, certainly, I have, never succeeded in, obser- xing the separation of the globules of the blood from the paren- chyma, although I do,not pretend to, deny its possibility ;. ner have I at any time seen how animals change into plants ;. and, notwithstanding Spallanzani’s often repeated experiments, doubt very much of the resurrection of Furcudaria after having been dried .up for more than a year, When Treviranus, Bory) St Vincent, and others, have seen globules issue from the tubes of the Confervee and swim freely about like infusory animaleules:; when Edwards has seen Confervee again spring from, these globules after settling ; when Unger and others baye seen ae- tive globules, which he, calls Monads, issue from the Ectosper- ma clavata; 1 do not doubt the fact of globules having issued from these cryptogamic plants, which sprung about in different directions: these motions seem, voluntary, therefore they are.ani- mals; they are very small and, round, therefore, they. are, mo- 254 Dr Wagner on the Structure dnd nadsi:'' Here; therefore, a moving globule and a monad are’ cons sidered 'asidéntieally the same. In order, however, to establish this,they showld have been seen to take in colouritig’ matter} atid to cbntaitr internal cavities, which Ehrenberg has dotie with regard to all the true monads. —Ingenhous, ''T'reviranus, Horns chueh ‘and’ Nees Von' Esenbeck, if'I mistake not, have said that thé’Priestley’s matter Consists of dead 'infasdria, ‘and ‘that from this congealed vegetable mass, as’it is called, Confervee,’ Ulva, Tremellx, nay even the Hypnum riparia, have'all been formed. Here’ T do not doubt the fact; times without number have T seéri the Priestley’s matter take its origin’ from green infusoria, such as the Huglena viridis, and the’ green pellicle in pools and im- fusions very generally consists of the dead bodies of infusoria, but never'have I seen plants formed from this gréen’ matter ; it continued long fresh, and became afterwards yellow, ‘brown, run together, and fell to the bottom. “When Conferve grew in the infusion, or in the midst of these masses, there ‘was never a transition between the dead infusoria’ and’ the living ‘plants. Whether these plants‘arose from the spontaneous’ development of globules, or from the presence of infinitely small ‘seeds in the water when drawn, I will not pretend to determine.” Still less can I believe in’ the observations’ of Wiegmann, that the £n- tomostraci, Cypris and Cyclops are generated in putrid water from Priestley’s matter, ‘and after their death are changed into conferve. He even asserts that he has seen conferve springing out of the feet and antenn. It is very possible that these ani- mals have arisen on confervee, but not from them. 1) Wa ies rk x ; sei VI. Structure of the Cercaria. aud (oie aiidg “The ‘exact’ observations and inimitable drawings which sg . n given of the Cercariz by Nitsch, must be known to every ne who has occupied himself with researches into the infusoria. wal uently Baer has made some highly important ¢ observ, serva- tions on their formation, after Bojanus had called our A ate on (ORS ub oe sul e subject. During last Bre eit I had * crea nit Ps ~ observin ; the living Cercariae in some water St Wa AIBD Ri drawn whi yes 001 for the RHP of | ‘fe ta M vy and which t res and any Ver FWNey: MOLISIE hy tn * lass, ; Py y Development of the Infusoria. 1 255 planorbes, and_as I, think the Pl. carinatus, ,.On examining the water in a few days, I observed with the naked eye;some.very, active animalcules, which I immediately recognised. as cercariee by;their very rapid, motions. ‘Their numbers. increased on the following. days. My observations were afterwards interrupted, Qnjcloser examination the, animal appeared to be the Cercaria Lemna, Muller (Encyclop. Method.. Pl. 8. fig. 8, 12.),.a species which; as Nitsch supposes, is probably identical with the Cercaria major, (Beytr. zur Infusorienkunde, Tab. ii. fig. 1-8.), for it re- sembles it exactly ; only I could detect none of the fine hairs, on the tail, which, howeyer, only appeared to Nitsch with very high powers, and with the field of vision half illuminated. I employed a power of 48. Fora long time I was quite de. lighted with the singular movements of these Cercari@, but I turned)my attention principally to. their internal structure, which is not sufficiently known. wie Plat fies i jodct pgs The cercaria which L observed was about }” in length. . The tail and the body, were nearly of the same thickness ; the latter was longitudinally striated. The substance.of the, animal, was homogeneous, transparent, and of a milk-white, colour.,.At the anterior extremity was the round extensile opening, of the mouth, from which it appears to be surrounded with, a wreath which was notched. This mouth is succeeded by \a.smaller very distinct oesophagus, between which and the mouth the,ins testinal canal seemed to be somewhat narrowed. I. saw, no trace of the forked organ noticed by both Nitsch and Baer; nor was the course of the intestinal canal here marked by any dark spot, but it appeared to me merely to resemble a broad band extending from the mouth to the anus. ‘The ovaria were very conspicuous, placed on the two sides of the body. When. the animal was moderately extended, they made several convolutions in the form of an S, from the two sides of the cesophagus to the . cloaca. The convolutions were less distinct when the animal was much extended, ‘The hinder extremity was very short and broad, where the ovaria formed two irregular masses. ‘Their texture appeared granular, and had a beautiful appearance, their dark colour being contrasted with the transparency of the rest of the body. ‘Their exit ‘into the cloaca I could not dis- tinguish. Their origin towards the anterior part of the hody 256 Dr Wagner on the Structure of the Infusoria. was very distinct by two dark spots. Nitsch took these for'eyes, which they certainly are not, but the origin (ifnot the. — exit; “against which, “however, we have all ‘analogy) ‘of *the ovaria, which are here destitute of the granular tissue. * These spots sometimes assumed a spiral, sometimes a forked or double forked, form. With regard to the organs of motion, themeuth is large, more or less extensile, and surrounded with a notch or plain margin or ring; it is bell-shaped, and is attached ‘to'th body by a narrow pedicel! ‘The tail has lateral indentations” and longitudinal striae or fibres towards its middle.’ T'ani ine” clined to suppose a union of transverse and longitudinal’ fibres, true muscular tissue, for T am convinced that these animals pos!"’ séss muscles quite analogous to those of the higher animals, and Ehrenberg has demonstrated it with regard to the hydatina. How the tail is fixed to the body, I have not béen able’ prée: ° cisely to determine, but it is probable that a sort’ of prolonger i tion is fixed into a notch in the hinder part of the trunk, a These few observations on the infusoria cannot’ bé compared ” with those of Nitsch, Baer, and’ Ehrenberg; they’are only 4 fragment towards the completion of the ‘history of this ‘vast’! kingdom of nature. In conclusion, I must’ add a word’ to éx- plain why I have taken no ‘notice of ‘two recent observers Of int ’ fusoria—Bory St Vincent and Munckes; but so much do I value the labours of O. F. Muller and Schrank, that I owe it to’ truth’ to assert that I consider the communications of the former as quite lost for science. When Muncke says that he has devoted ’ from three to four hours every day for three weeks to ‘the ob servations which were laid before the meeting of Naturalists’ at’ Hamburg, we can only lament that a'man of acknowledged ve- re- putation | as a natural philosopher’ has® spent so much | time’ tise. © lessly ‘upon matters with which he was quite unacquainted.” Tt" is worse with Bory ; for it is quite incomprehensible ‘how any” man can be considered as a naturalist of eminence, who dis! plays in his writings an ‘inaceuracy, superficiality, and ignorance, ” that must be frightful to every one who’ examines closély ‘his ° works, and a8 revolting ‘as’ the ‘frivolity Of which ‘his Histoire ® Natiielle ‘de Homme 48 so’striking an’ example") ero 7é heoplagaby ylibsst oie laste bas neat shad eatlte, adeeani ace, sem pdt ssvs10 doves sidayvd ya ap@ooNii wittiosis See! ANGOT Mien LIL OY Titk OF Lnete apaalt 2 do w dos Eapostion sof lool of the } Fk kad: Peaacane of Mace wetic Inpucrion, with: original Illustrative. Experiments... Byithe Rev. Wiz11am Sconessy, F.R.S. Lond, & Edin.,. ‘Correspondent of the Institute of France, &e. &e. &e, Com. janiaticate day the Babi "Ens: me magnetic principle, like the electric, to which it is nearly aljied,. i is not a mere attribute of.a particular class of bodies, but: a, principle: or influence pervading, doubtless, the whole of the. terrestrial. creation, For it is not likely that such an influence has been ordained by Infinite Wisdom for the com- paratively minor Purposes to which. men are able to apply it; but rather that it is an essential constituent in the economy of . the globe,—and not of this globe only, but of the entire system, . perhaps, of created nature, , Wherever the exploring traveller has urged. his way, there, its influences have been marked ; wherever the adventurous mariner has trayersed the ocean, there its agency has availed him; wherever the laborious miner has penetrated the earth, there its energy has, been found undi-.. minished ; and wherever the daring aeronaut has ascended into the atmosphere, thence its power has been extended. f Though a universal agent, however, and a part of the consti-- tution, of our globe, it is chiefly in ferruginous bodies, and in bodies in a peculiar electric condition, where its phenomena be- come sensible, and its influences capable of being controlled. In ferruginous bodies, its strongest and most permanent energies are exhibited. In.iron, the magnetic principle has evidently permanent re- , sidence,—capable, indeed,’ of exerting external influences, but not capable of being abstracted or increased. Each portion and . description of iron has its own constant and unalterable quan- tity, abiding apparently in its individual particles,—the two qualities possessing northern and southern polarity existing in every particle. The usual condition of the magnetisms is ge- nerally neutral, or nearly so, so that but a slight and imperfect — is naturally evinced, Yet the latent energies, especially. in the softest kinds of iron and steel, are readily developed by electtic influence, or by the touch, or even the mere juxta-posi- VOL. XIII, NO, XXVI.—OCTOBER 1832. Rn 258 Rev. Mr Scoresby on some of the Laws tion of ansactive magnet... For though the natural quantity, of inherent magnetism cannot be altered, yet an, active and) con- stant. influenice) may be, and. is, externally. exerted, without in the smallest;degree diminishing the, original, power.,of, the,.ac- tuating magnet, . That, this is, the case, a well known, fact suffi- ciently proves,—that a magnet may elicit, the|magnetic)condi+ tion in ten thousand bars of steel, and, yet, retain, its, original strength perfectly unimpaired. And that, the magnetisms re- side inalienably in their, own particles, of the, metal,),is equally evident from another familiar fact,—that if-a,bar in a magnetic condition be broken in the centre, so as to separate apparently the northern and southern, polarities, each portion, instead of comprising one quality only, will be found to be a distinct mag- net, exhibiting, like the original mass, the two different polari- ties at the extremities. These general principles being premised, we are prepared for the:consideration of the particular objects of this Essay. ).: Cina. I,—Expos!T10Nn OF SOME OF THE Laws AND PHENOMENA or Magnetic InpuctIon. Inpuction is that well known. property.of magnets, of pro- ducing in contiguous. ferruginous substances, the magnetic..con- dition: It, is not, however, strictly speaking, the communica. tion of any thing previously foreign to the ferruginous bodies, as nothing (as we have shewn) is abstracted from. the inducing magnet, and nothing in reality infused into the iron thus mag- netized. Induced magnetism, therefore, may be defined,—the development of the latent magnetism in iron or steel, bythe juxtaposition of any substance in a magnetic condition... For this property is elicited not only by actual magnets, .but by_all electro-magnetic or thermo-magnetic arrangements. And, the inductive effect is. produced upon. all. substances capable..of a magnetic condition, according to their respective susceptibility, The degrees of capacity of different ferruginous, bodies for mag- netism by induction may be ranged, beginning with the least sus, ceptible, in the following order ; iron-ores, hard. cast iron, hard cast steel, hard blistered steel, soft steel, common malleable iron, best Swedish iron,—the most susceptible of all being the. softest and most ductile iron. Hence it is probable, that the measure,of | IE I EE Te ge SE pe Shum ies rae or didbad« ies, <4 hs, 5p fects WMV “ ey, as Rating mde Prise videwasii xe) sh> t: ‘sae Rasietise? weltruns BF baer 1S ti lea ol ti apdend af eoitibio frelon. sian Hing ensrlirens ws vii onl iiss. «vlna aia: dive neiaingese Ee ts Sal demise, ditecltl: asian ae eat ; seit nany: ua alae ' fis oom 2 Segceng ood seh batts Seat Th " te sa sept asiclaeuineas SR Ry, ei: san Neat 0 aan * , a Chie a eH a aa ee ry Dt HAAS sey: aS ‘nome a RO Eas Lod, 4% Mee has yd Lao; ras 2 4 et Anachicneay shore eh Uhr yc wate hy ta? } PRU comlanpiectine otis: Relsprugitna i reds AO soa ii bis SRE Ware ciorcwnd phen, iM Lindt 1) Ok ss7A, MEA AiO x leivurvasg ynidg yun hdc | ‘s 10%. Fotewsaly prwnle aend aw en) aaitel cases 943 crt gs jai, wits MM Bitton buy Jorgzusn pborst: ) soeitangeut beasties inition Marat lastnl sl) Yo Asya} cping Neca WE AG oto eogoenars, a Ano Joe beviviis ei yrsqurg eiclt Fe kgs 10 Uemgautarisoal. nye bowyhow 4) doo avitos fui re Y . getibrinans..poisibaryy vabbigectiah . dip to, ela he Wiles bo T bg stad opt Hmidouibed x prvi jay Ibu garyollod sels. fines | is Xia in f eagle Gado “ay, — 0S ~ i ay ‘ if +¢ y x 4 ; — =) > oa ae ewes .- vivs ee Oe rs i eae <—- mae al naib ! cid Ee Ti — Near e eee ee cee win whee eee, (hs Tray of Magnets. hie x ' r Iron Bar. i. % 2 se = ’ a} First-Distance one Foot. the telative capabilities of iron for induced magnetism, thay: be employed as a satisfactory test of quality in its several kinds. At small distances from a powerful magnet the: inductive energy is very’ striking, and productive of a number of well known and interesting phenomena. ‘Let a piece of soft iron, for instarice, such as a common key, be placed near the extre- inity of a bar-miagnet; either in continuation of the same line or inclined’ ‘toceach other at any-angle, provided either of the ex- tremities of the key and magnet are the parts nearest to each other, and the’key so plated will instantly acquire such a mag- netic condition as to be able to support another smaller key or other portion of iron aveither of itsextremities. . And though the magnet be placed beneath the table, or under a slab of marble or any other solid substance, the inductive influence will be pre- cisely the same, so as the distance and position of the masses are similar. Wiad) Beslimeta paid ; tye act f But these phenomena, which have usually been observed only in circumstances of juxtaposition, may be satisfactorily exhibited at considerable distatices, as shewn by the following experiment. A pair of véry fine bar-magnets, 3 feet in length, 2} inches in breadth,*and }th of an inch in thickness, being placed over each other, a quarter of an inch asunder, and with similar poles adjacent, were employed, with a view to their inductive effects, at different distances, on the nearest end of a soft bar of square iron, 18% inches long, and 1 inch in thickness. In order that the’inductive influence might be separated from any magnetism of position derived from the earth, the iron bar was placed in the east and west magnetic line, and in a horizontal position ; and ‘that the more delicate experiments might not be affected by the magnetism acquired under the more powerful influences, the most distant ‘and weakest inductions were first tried, and each experiment verified by taking the mean power of each end of the bar alternately presented to the magnets. The iron bar thus situated (Plate TIv Fig. 1.) sustained by the extremity nearest to the magnets (when all the’ points of contact were po- lished) the substances and’ weights, at the distances respectively armexed to each, xs given inthe first'three columns of the fol- lowing table :— HOG ORE 9) 4) UL Je On oig r 2 cd Rev. Mr. Scoresby on some of the Laws Distance of \ PMU lakes: Distance N ict Do erent samen eat | te te ap [0 Se hh 9 : the same level. was raised. | a 'P A piece of wire, ..:. ey 25.5 35.5 ay VC ht } Polished nail, 2.00.) 20°F eto OP SBteepazs o) Ditto... i wd i 178" 1s Diitb0, «57. p.ncee 112° “95 108" gy TSH Ta Ditto, .....+. i ae © Le Ditto san (cnes 339 | 44° | | 68 Ditto, ss.ssrne-| 482 | 42 gy «eB A key, of 1200 fp, 265), | BB But.these results, if we consider the nature of the polarities induced, inthe, bar and the suspended substance in their rela- tion to each other, will be seen to; be jless than. what might be. obtained by simple induction at the respective distances; For, let the acting end of the magnets be the north pole, then the magnetism. induced. in, the, nearest.end ofthe. iron bar_will _be the .contrary, or, southern polarity ;, but .the tendency of the magnets on the end sof the nail, or other suspended substance, in contact with the bar, will be to produce also, southern pola- rity,—because of this:end,of..the nail, under the circumstances, being nearer to the magnets than the lower.end; consequently, the induced. magnetisms of the parts of contact.of the bar and nail, being, as far as derived from the magnet, of the same kind, must have a tendency to diminish the action of the bar on, the nail... He a Ae In, sein to deibonsdta this defect in. ‘ae neemitess another, series of experiments was made with the same apparatus,, in. which the iron bar, whilst kept in the same vertical plane, was, raised..on each trial so much above the level of the magnets,— namely, one half the length of each suspended nail,—that the. influence of the.magnets upon the suspended body might be sitailar at both its extremities, and consequently neutral. Un- der this arrangement, (Plate II. Fig, 2.), the inductive power, as had been, anticipated, was, much greater, so that the different substances. were, now suspended, according, to, the distances in, the last, column of the table. . @BOMLOD lt bas 2) Diath Tih ori rei Whilst these striking results were apesinied y the action of the end of the bar. nearest to the magnets, the influence at the distant end was but feeble—sustaining only nails of 20 grains, and 87 grains, at the two last distances of the third column. In experiments merely illustrative of the power of induction, the arrangement of the Jast column of the table may be still farther improved by raising the bar so high that the ‘lower ex- tremity of the suspended substance may be on the same hori- zontal level as the thagnets. In this position the lower extre- mity of the nail being nearest to the magnets, becomes a south pole, with a north pole, by consequence, at the upper end, which, being attractable’ by the southern polarity induced in the bar, augments its suspensive power. And such was the increase obtained by experiment, that the nail of 482 grains was now suspended (by’cither end of the bar, when presented ‘in sueces. sion to‘ the magnet), at thé distatice of nine inches, and the key at the distance of 7 inches, ‘the — a piodhepe ip the magnets. Mm pea if 14 21a Bao BUS ols " Subsequent experiments were’ made ‘with ‘a flat ‘iron’ ay quarter of an inch in thickness, but similar in all its other di- mensions’ and’ quality ‘to the bar previously employed. "The distances of stispension' obtained by this bur, indicated a smaller quantity of inductive influence, Lt pretty — — its proportion of surface. © ~ "These, however, ate but proximate results: the indole oft fect'as measured by the deviations produced on the needle ofa compass was therefore resorted to for a more satisfactory ratio. ' The apparatus employed in this investigation consisted of four similar bar-magnets, each 18} inches long, 1 inch broad, and 3th of an inch thick ; the square bar of soft iron used in the foregoing experiments, being of the same length and breadth 'as the magnets; and a delicate compass of four inclies diameter. The magnets were placed parallel to each other on a board,’ half an inch asunder, in’ order both that their eombined influence might be employed for affording more decisive results, and that they might be'presented at different distances from the bar in the same relative position atid equality of iagnetie power. The iron bar was placed in a horizontal position, in the first instance bes twixt the magnets and the compass, atid in an’ east’ and “west 262 Rev. Mr Scoresby ‘on of some of the Laws magnetic direction, where, being in the plane of the’ magnetic equator, it'was free from any disturbing influence from terres: trial’ magnetism.’'The magnets were then placed’ at” various successive distances in the line of the bar, according to ‘the ar- rangement represented in Pl. II. Fig. 3. The distance of*the bat from the compass, which ‘throughout ‘the ‘series’ of “experi- ments was always precisely the same, was 5} inches,’ and the distance of the magnets from the bat was first 12 inches, and then at equal successive intervals, as far as four feet: The'ob- ject of fixing upon intervals of 12 inches was, because that.dis- tance was very nearly the. focal length of the magnets, or the length betwixt the two foci or centres of attraction in either half of the magnets, to which the-whole of the varying magnetic in- fluences, in such segments, might be referred. . The employ- ment of intervals, therefore, of focal lengths of the magnet and iron bar, was calculated to'simplify the investigation, and to af- ford' more’ satisfactory results. ‘Though’ I hada motive for fix- ing upon the position given to the iron bar, the distance of its focal point from. the centre of the. compass_being about one-half of its focal length; yet, whilst its position was, on every trial, always the same, the particular distance was of little importance. In this position of the ‘bar, the first situation of the magnets was (51 + 133 + 12) = 81 inches from the centre of the com- pass; the second 43; the third 55; and the fourth 67 inches. Placing now. the magnets, in the general line, with their south poles directed towards the east, at the shortest interval, the bar not being yet placed intermediately, the power of the magnets alone, as determined by their action on the needle of the compass, was" first observed, and found to be 27° 42’.. The iron-bar, the m netism of which had been carefully neutralized, was then Tle posed in its assigned position (according to Fig. $.), each ni of the bar being alternately presented towards the” compass,’ when the mean deviation, by a double set of careful observation" proved’ tobe’ $8° $1’. ‘The unassisted action of the magnets” was then verified by another trial after the ‘bar was bin gl ‘ and found to be unaltered ;’ conseqtiently the increase of" F tion of (38° 31/ — 27° 42’) = 10° 217", indicated’ era te of action die to the magnetism snide under the particular | civelitiatdhoUa tntb*the BaP OF HUA, BEAR, inate in. ..and- Phenomena. of Magnetic Induction, 263. duced. into. the end. of the bar nearest to the magnets), trans... mitted. consequentially to the opposite extremity. . For although . there is a direct inductive action on the remote extremity, it,is, the transmitted influence, it is to be observed, which — Natesice socunteh oll 5 SEG) Geis ie Ha nSORRT In a similar manner, iisaslosin effects of, pas Se were salt, terwards determined, at the several intervals of two, three, and, four feet borer ees the bar... The results, were as follow : pang é {Hot eR Fei : Ly tert 4: ical pew ayn Yt : peed : si} { = * fou a nena sw ao __, DIFFERENCES Pr = cc i ia faa ee ae 2 7 lay as 52501} 38 31/7828) | 10 af 25780 “2 | 3. 7.2.48 | 2eaahie 16i/ 07 | 91; | 0540 A 3.4 3) }4.7,| 6 414}11738) 8 tere A ADE bh 274.1 yo 4 aly ogy 357 16905) '4 582)87100} 1°13 |. 1805) fF Oo ay met: Die eee ee ios ail? ie ee te ott pie Gace U Bo) Agrasines a magnetic force or forces. of variable intensity, acting upon, a compass needle in, a direction, at right. angles to terrestrial magnetism (as in the foregoing experiment), will pro- duce deviations the tangents of which will be, proportional t to the actual intensities ; the tangents of the angles of deviation, as aboye determined, will afford a measure of, the. relative forces acting upon the needle i in the several positions of the magnets and iron-bar ; whilst. the differences of the tangents of deviations will indigate. the quantity and proportion of magnetism induced | and. developed in the end nearest the compass, at the several dis- sane of one, two, three, and four feet. Were the magnetism upon one end of a soft iron-bar exhibited, as if by a ie 2 conductor, to the other end, then would these differences | exhibit the actual effects of induction ; and the law of induetion, as to distance, might be experimentally, determined. But this, as, will hereafter be shewn, appears not, to be the case, There. fore, the differences indicative o of the. actual induction at. the re- mote, end of the bar are probably, not. proportional to the rela. tive forces known. to be, acting upon the end nearest to the mag- 264 \oRevMr Scoresby on somevof the Jaws vmetso: Stilljdhowevery the differences of the-tangents in| theypre- ceding table afford a ratio not very incongruous withthe known law of :magnetic/influence as to distance: Calling) the: nearest odifference: (25780), indicative of the quantity, of induced,magne- (tism, 1.00, then' the other differences afford, a ratio of 25.2; 14.5, and 7.0, which; expressed: fractionally, ate venyinearly,J; 4th, ~5th,.and_,';th, exhibiting the proportion of induced. magnetism | at the several distances of 1, 2,3, and dulengthswoy 10 | Whilst the foregoing experiment. affords an indication of the | relative force of magnetic induction at different distances, ap- __proximating the known law of direct attraction and repulsion, in _ which the forces are inyersely proportional to the squares of the | distance ; ; it likewise shows the facility with which the magnetic _ energy induced at one end of a bar'of soft iron is conveyed to the other. There was nothing inthe experiment, however, which could afford any data for ascertaining whether the transmission _of the magnetic ‘energy from end to end of the bar was perfect ; or, if not, what proportion of resistance there might be in.a bar ’ of soft iron to the free communication at induced meatier to the remote end of the bar. “With the view of obtaining information on this point, I’ pro- ‘ceeded to vary the experiment, by ascertaining the’ deviations produced by the same end of the ironhar as that on witich the _ influence of the magnets was immediately acting; and this was accomplished by the following arrangement, | ‘With the four magnets placed on a tray, exactly as ii} the _ former series of experiments, their inductive influence on the! bar | of soft iron'was now-examined, when arranged. after the ma _ represented in Fig. 4. pra ie __ ‘The compass, in this case, being betwixt the magnets. and the iron, was placed, as in the former experiment, at the distance of : aoe inches from the bar ; and the intervals were now. ‘measured .»,aeross the compass, and noted at 1, 2, 3, and 4 feet, as before. . “Under this arrangement, the south poles of the magnets being q “presented towards the’ compass, caused the deviation of its north ug as before, ‘to be towards. the west ; and this deviation, on ayes application. of the iron-bar,. was. augmented, because ~ the "nearer shresepriomeen en ‘becoming’a north’ pole: by:induction, as- OFib iiok.sa) Nom wobjonitionl) dexter so9 (00, a6) 08), s9nreR lbmerg togyit ~vand Phenomena of! Magnetic! Induction. $265 sisted! by its:repulsive action, the westerly: deviation ‘ofthe:north vend bf the ineedlesux2teoit! tide tom crete jolts eldst-gaibes -» \ Successive trials were then made on thé’ unaided:actiow of ‘the ‘magnets ow the compass at the respective distances, as well iasvof “the itieréase produeed'by:the mean action of the differentvends ‘of the iron-bar: ’ 0 9 RTO SS An bats Hefiotosig poaubot io Poibiods Ti Sit 0 its : bop iit Dist. : "rfluende df the . 2 Semi! iy Iguvveatons Js eek pom agncts Difference || Difference rth 4 sous DOI os 2b Otte Jogos iron. ete ah. tatu ¥ fot iar: Serene Deva? 165 Tem PAST ioa me \Gotd: & 6.1 Cot’ 8° 7. fUldi Vad) DAS at? os Wis jos 1O--yenk si97 Ota OF! woe eA MOG Vp pe le ay satel ritensel ater" sonst ae | io fet ) aotdw (ily ¥ ulosbons ewhode oawwpa piss) ah fo2 ih, 25] A 6H], 60,41], 178077 |, 63-184, ,} 198900, 23TH: ) 20823 PB feB [Qo GP) VHMs fo 53208 | 13042} | 59405) 241g | GlOT Oe OL ay 363 yeas) -Bag8e" he >! 95900 1.46} |! 3975) obhiod 264 td ba) to bers. of 4s moi vexa09l|blomasm|pd) to 6O) Bf oa rh Onn @iahy oh ene m1 Lo represented by the diff Lio Now, the comparative forces, as represented by the difference . t tangents, of the magnetism induced i into ¢ the iron- -bar, er the two conditions of direct ndeation, on, the, nearest, end, and _ of developed. iran. on, the, end. most, remote from the mag- 115 nets, WSs 38, follows tae) Ae £40) dO, yy oid vs yyolain rig Wiesuds 4 i BOO Vial Sibetal enw Rosie my t» Oi the Eifects of Induction. lst Length. | 24 Length. | 3d Length. | 4th WISTS OO) OL oe if role ‘tidy 4) | 2 ait Zh rns aks . ni 4) 40) Phases | Lbrpesn ‘ , wd -aos| Direct,on, the nearest, end,.n.-+|,..71097,,.|,,.20828..|.,.619%,..|,.. 8272 ‘0 @ Ditto, another series *,..........| 110104 | 21640 5832 Nose eee 25780 6559 | ‘2974 | ‘1805 04 US 2)3ifvubtis ti) i #7 Sii5 i! : Bt)') wit The great difference of the results of the first length betwixt the two " séties ‘Of ‘experiitients On the direct induction dn the nearest etid’of the bar, "requires explanation. It may arise from two causes, the difficulty of placing | the magnets when there were four in number, to act equally and tangentially 148 OnE Magnet, che ie esa, bsbresn, she tray. of magnets and the com- pass was so small, a importance of the smallest error of pres Hal ’ “when the tangents Py ‘deviation are #0 ¢ gteat. The’ first cause, however, |) peing considered: Ri adiiud ptattnadiadlep eee first éxpetiment of the second » series was made in a)different, manuer, by arranging the magnets in a verti- eal parallel series, so as to concentrate their action more strictly into the ” 266 Rev.) Mr Scoresby on some of the Laws ‘0 Hence itoappears! thatthe direct: induction:is vastly greater, than the influence’ communicated to the remote end ofthe, bar, being ‘nearly five-sixths greater at the fourth length, about twice: as great at the third length, about thrice as great at the second, length, and about quadruple at the fourthlengthis!) od 6% «simi ~The relative force of the inductive: influence! under the: fitst arrangement,—that is, as.developed at the farthestend,.of :the} bar,’ has: been shown to be in ‘the ‘ratiovof: 1y4thy\4th, jy thy nearly, at the respective distances of 1, 2, 3:and.4:focal-lengths: of the bar and magnet. But, under the latter arrangement, in which the magnetism is directly induced on the same end, of the ' bar as that whose attractive energy is measured) a different ratio is obtained. Taking» the first ‘tangent-difference of the first series‘at 100,’ the ‘relative energy ‘of induction at the other dis- tances successively become as 29.0; 8.6:and 4.5, which, ‘expressed. fractionally, exhibit: this series;in which the first is unity, 4, 425° vgsgy nearly. © But, calling the first tangent of the second series) ( oo 100, the ratio becomes: 100;'20, 5:3, - LETT al as 1, 3, 4, nearly. Vio yop Ie Phese results, exhibiting: such considerable ‘differences, sity be considered perhaps rather ‘as perplexing than satisfactory.” They might seem to timate, that, where the law of attraction’ is so simple, the experiments not according with this law must’ be erroneous. But simple as the law as to a single, separate: attraction is, the estimation of the variety of influences which come into account, in these investigations, is far from being so” _ easy as at first sight it may appear.’ For, whilst the power of ) the nearest pole tends to develope in the nearer end of the ‘iron’ bara magnetism contrary to its own, the tendency of ‘the re- motest pole of the magnet, being of a contrary polarity, isjin” the inverse proportion of the square of its distance, to alter the® ‘magnetism developed by the other pole. But this is notvallo® For'each of ‘the poles of the magnet have, at the same time)! their direct influence; however diminished in energy by increase” of: bern! gh ‘the yemote end of ‘the bar, which influence is” Os ch Das got Lf6I8ED! od oy east nd west ting of the 2 ¢0 Still, haere e servation or position, wher Titan 5 8 Q gr rea th ae ésearily p considerable Aitereied SORRELL AO A mre m nearest: peg en: sneedqo. Sd ole “aay SBaq{fttos th ad ot banwet onmuesom} Jeni pis hocdaerniunt and. Phenomena of Magnetic Induction. 267 necessarily transmitted in modification: of the direct; action) of the magnet onthe»nearest: extremity of the bari; These diffe- rent forces, indeed, may’ be easily calculated, but the manner in which they act reciprocally — the different oe mains to be determinedriso) 0) ds |feenide faery! Notwithstanding what bali now been iaheadh thie ssiulie derived from the foregoing experiments may be considered, perhaps, as so'far satisfactory, as)affording a comparison of the quantity of magnetism directly:induced wpon the nearer end of a bar, and of | that developed at the remote extremity, and indicating also the proportion: of resistance in the iron itself to the ~— trans- mission of the inductive energy from end toend. cy ins ' Another mode of experimenting, however; which isihendentaly occurred 'to me, is much more practical, satisfactory and useful, afferding, by direct experiment, the actual, quantity of, magne- tism induced into any iron or; steel bar or bars of different ca-. pacity, in reference to the energy of the inducing magnet itself, together with the exact proportion: of influence JP aepeN at any given distance. The arrangement, in this case; which was Bhs So sioarhe, required only this:adaptation, that the bars of iron or steel used for trying the quantity of induction. should be of the same length, or nearly of the same length, as the magnet employed. And when comparative. experiments were made on the relative capacities of different kinds of iron and steel, or iron and steel of different. tempers or degrees of hardness, it further required (in order to obtain at once direct and final results) that each bar should be of the same-dimensions as the magnet made use of. Fig: 6. Plate II, represents this new, arrangement. . M isa magnet placed in the direction of the east or west point of the compass C at any distance,—say at two focal lengths from the centre of the compass, when the deviation by either pole is care- fully observed... An iron bar, I, of the same dimensions as the magnet, is then placed exactly over it, separated, by two little blocks of wood, or other substances of equal. thickness, adapted to the distance required for the experiment. As the magnetism now induced through the whole length of the iron bar is of the opposite kind to that of the indu inductive magnet, its action on, the compass must also be opposite; the deviation is consequently found to be diminished, and that (measuring by the tangents) 268 Rev. Mr Scoresby on‘ some of the Laws -exdotly’ int thecproportion which the magnetism “induced! in the iron’ béars'to'the actual energy of the magnet; itself.) The relation of the ‘induced magnetism with that “of ‘the: inductive energy “being ‘thus at one distance simply and experimentally ascertained, the proportion of induction’ due! to: A other’ dise tance is’as easily determinables) © 6). oon) bis. towog awe On this plan a series of experiments on the power ofiridud: tion witha bar of soft iron of the same dimensions‘as*the!imag- néet,'was made at a variety of distances from: contact wp toofive inches, together with: two comparative ‘series; at’ the samendis: ‘tances, with two other ‘soft iron-bars: of similar: length ;and breadth, but differing in thickness, one being 5th ofan«ineh thick, and the other an inch, whilst the magnet itself was 3th of an. inch thick. fant anes The following Table, eabitite ee vineedanseliii of both, ends of each iron-bar, in juxtaposition with the magnet, as placed at 17 different distances, the-magnet; ‘which was°132°inches long, being uniformly at the distance of 24 inches from the: centre of the compass, where, by its sole sep it, t produced, a deviation of 18° 14. pf Table of the Effects of I. nduced Magnetism on three different Bars’ of Soft Iron, at various distances. eS Square Bar, |. ; Flat Bar, Iron Hoop, 1 Inch by 1 Inch. 1 Inch by 4. : 1 Inch by 4+) Distance ; of Iron = Fears Bar above |. Mean - | Diff. of ac- Diff. of ac- Diff. of ac- the Mag- | Deviation | tion of Bar|] Mean | tionof Bar|} Mean __|tion of Bar net. of both jand Magnet} Deviation. jand Magnet || Deviation. |jand al ' : ends, alone, or alone, or alone, or 18° 14, 18° 14’, 18° 14’, a Inches, o 7 ° o ¢ © i¢ e [, 5 16.54 1.20 17.38 0.36 17.53 0. 4 16.17 1.57 || 17.16 0.58 17.36 | 0. 3 15.27 2.47 16.51 1.230 3748 . ae 15.12 3.2 16.34 1.40 | 1654 | 1. 2 14.55 3.19 || 16.21 1.53 || 16.47 | 1. 24 14.27 | 3.47 16.3 9.11 |} 16.18 | 1. 13.57 4.17 15.40 2.34 | 15.51. -}> 2 ie 13.30 4.44 | 15.15 | 259 || 15.25 | 2. 1 12.52 | 5.22 || 14.43 3.31 |} 1459 | 3.15 7 1} 1213 |, 61 (|| 148 |. 46, |} 14.19 |. | 1 11.24 6.50 13.29 4.45 13.39 4 § | 10.27 7.47. ||.12.35..| 5.39 |) 12.49. | ! fil We i | 8.53 9.21 11.15 6.59 || 11.32 | . ae fe ie 6.54 11.20 || 9.21 53 |} 9.42 | 832 OEP GI 5.22) fge2'Ub 7.69" 1018 © “gae0| 936° LEP pot og BeA® ppd$e25 ody 9 O88.) 1A SG fh -745,, |,10.29._ finest) 3.0 | 15.14 5.32 | 12.32 | 6.32. | 1142 uit: and. Phenomena of Magnetic Induction. 269 . Hence the ratio of influence on the soft iron-bar|} of an inch thick (being precisely of similar dimensions to those of the,mag+ net) was as follows, nearly: At the distance of 5 inches,» the irou-bar acquired, sth of the power of the magnet ; at, 4 inches, ee of the magnet, was jth, of its own power; at 3 inches y’sth; at 2 inches 4th ; at 1 inch tins at }th of an,inch Sc iaebaten fein 2iitt: nt But the proportional influences at the various: distances will be more evident, bya reference to the annexed additional Table of deductions, from the,middle: series of experiments made with: the quarter-inch bar, which was similar in all its dimensions to the magnet. i, cone sno ; touts e ee -lieats Pe ! tain io ; Deductions from ithunbiee's with the bar ¥ ora iron 132 inches og a “byt inch Brot andl Pinch thick; and Magnet of Same size.’ 11. iowa Wo ane) siete lars ' mes ner f — Si ery we 10556 os ome I coe Ost Ba) aT irl a 10 SOE Distance ogg ps feb Geviations fon, «oA pana IR (90 Fh Deviation. | Tangent, and mag- deviation, forpeaefi<) pac ail Li ts. Se eet it moiini - ‘[Contact,| 5.32 | 9688 | 1292 |°ase6°} |] : i a ee hee 7 eau ; Psi Ae me o | ; The ast odkeueel of | this table represents the. proportionate force of the induced magnetism at the ‘several distances of ly 2, 270 ‘Rev. Mr Scoresby on some of the Laws 3}'4; and'S inches, the force’ at the distance of-am inch ybeing called 100) «1 My BA i of badowesdt altlie /'In-this' method of Dehesnleig the proportions’ of ‘the mags netism’ induced;'both with reference to the power‘of the magnet. made use of,'and with respéct to the distance of the: bar: from the magnet; it was assumed that these proportions would be the same’ at whatever. distance from the magnet ‘the: compass»em: ployed for the deviations might be placed. In order to verify-this assumption, as well as to acertain the degree of ‘consistency)to be expected’ in’ similar experiments, elsewhere made, another: series of ‘deviations, under ‘a similar arrangement,:andwithva magnet and an iron-bar of the same dimensions as) therformer;. was observed some months after the foregoing deductions, had been calculated. —'The distance ofthe ‘bars: from the: compass: was, in this i sya heating now 12 anelien ten of two feet. 8 9) & lo. eats pe ‘The following were the deviations:and: nim sletlined from. this series, as to the proportions of induced magnetism at the different distances of 1, 2,3, 4, and ‘5 inches; the ey lames peeaeay a bee arbi of ying ‘ Dif. of) | Dif. of Tan- |. = 34 of Denier Dariation Tangent aia yynnaed t~ ion- fete hey above the | of both | % Pevias\" ang hDeviation of enti by former et. |) ends, 2 engl ether, | Magnet and | Experi- 61° 18. (Bar —~ He igs Inches. [4° fa fe gine BRL 1 52. 5 | 128379 9.10 53897 100.0 100.0. 2 56.57 | 153693} 4.18 | 28583 53.0 |e S465 “3 1 58.47 | 165011 | 228° | 17265 | 320° |) a9le foo sd be porte skal, ‘ : & £6 G43 iio Jot— 4 59. 45 | 171473 1.30 10803 20.0 r Rt oh 5 |.60.15 | 174964 | 1.0 7312. |, 1B5. Hh i ADR odo iy i may Tost og ~’ Comparing the last two columns, we havea ccitieldenee suf. ficiently near to verify the ‘asstmed prineiples,—that’ the '‘mea- sure of the actual, as well’ as proportionate forces of indueed magnetism, is correctly derived from the tangents of the deviat tions, and that the proportions are not’ dependent’ on, or influ- enced by, thé distance'at' which ‘the compass ‘is plated from the magivet ‘and irofi-bar! "Theedifferences; indeedsin the ratio of ine 5 and. Phenomena of Magnetie Induction. 272 duction, in, reference; to-distance, are, only such as; may,reason- ably be ascribed to the errors in the measurements ofjthe,.dis, tance betwixt the magnet and the iron-bar—these, distances not having: been:.adjusted with that attention to perfect, accuracy, which an absolute coincidence would have required... so. Various as the preceding..modes' of examining the inductive power-of the magnet,are, and simple and. consistent as the re- sults,of the last. method have proved, yet we do not find that the law of. magnetic induction as,to distance is satisfactorily shown by any of them, . Whilst the law)itself is unquestionably uniform. and consistent, the effects. of that law are found to vary accord-. ing to the mode of directing the inductive energy. _When the influence is that of a magnet upon a bar of iron lying in the same straight line, the induced. energy, as estimated by the tangents of deviation of the compass, approximates the inverse ratio of the squares of the distance ; but when the influence is that derived, from the whole mass of the magnet into the whole mass of the bar, lying in parallel juxtaposition, then the ratio appears, to. be totally different... For when, in the latter case, measures of jan. inch are made the integer of distance, then the ratio.of energy be~ comes }, 3, 35 #5 and } nearly, But when the ¢hichness of the magnet, or of the bar (both being the same), is made the integer of distance, then, the energy at } of an inch interval, the first distance, being called 100, the series becomes 100; 79.2; 64.5; 544; 47.1; 40.5 ; 34.45 29.7; 25.3; 21.9; 19.45; and side ti at the 12th interval. Unsatisfactory as some of these indastiqatiaat may appear to be, I have been encouraged to proceed thus far with the subject —not only because of the interest necessarily belonging to any of the laws with which the wisdom of God has endowed the va- rious forms of created elements; but because, likewise, of an im- portant practical application of the influence under considera- tion, to which it appears to be .peculiarly adapted....I refer. to the employment of magnetism of induction for estimating, the quality of iron,,as to the strength or ductility of which we have no satisfactory test but that of positive trial, _ The ductility of iron being that property which most chiefly determines its value. in, commerce, and, manufactures, it is asa measure of this quality that the magnetic influence, I, consider, , Y 272 Rev.:Mr.Scoresby.on some of the Laws» may be applied. For there seems to be a particular relation be- tween the ductility of iron, and its capacity for. magnetism— the softest and most ductile iron having .the greatest: capacity for the magnetic influence. Hence it is considered, that the experimental -determination of the capacity of different speci- mens of iron by the method adopted in the last experiment, might (as already suggested) afford a simple and. decided test’ and measure of their relative quality and value in commerce, ~ For this purpose a bar-magnet of moderate dimensions (say of 12 inches in length) and.a small compass would. be-all, the: apparatus requisite. The ‘different specimens of. iron, -whose: proportionate quality as.to ductility is to be determined, might: require to be forged into the shape and. size of the magnet, or at any rate into a similar shape and size with each other, and. then softened equally by being moderately heated and allowed: ‘to cool slowly in the same place, or under similar circumstances; The magnet being then placed. in the east or west direction of. the compass, say at two lengths distance, will indicate, by the deviation of the needle, its own power of attraction, which, bemg~ observed, one of the specimens of iron: is laid exactly over the top of the magnet separated by two small) blocks. of wood, or. other. substance of equal-thickness, and then the deviation pro-) duced by both extremities of the iron-bar alternately observed. (See Fig. 5.) - The difference: between the mean of these devia-, tions and that of the: magnet. alone, will serve as a measure of the capacity of that particular specimen for induced magnetism.” Whilst the compass and magnet remain undisturbed, the rest; of the: specimens can be brought successively to the test, being always kept at equal distances from the magnet by the same in=~ terposed substances, when the comparison of the measures of? their different capacities for induced magnetism will, if the theory be:correct, afford a certain indication of their relative qualities. »» » With a view of assisting me in verifying this theory, my friend / Edward Roscoe, Esq. of Liverpool, kindly furnished me with’: several characteristic specimens of the different qualities ofiron— most commonly manufactured in Britain. Though the examinas tion of these 'did not enable me to discriminate small differences, » yet; when the common and best qualities were compared, the magnetic capacity of the Jatter,proved. to hetinenly ne-teet! greater than any of the common kinds. and Phenomena of aca 273 eG nostzies seluniiieg dedntaasix ote el leads ed yar Cuav, I2-Expentients miusrrative or ‘rae Natore, IN- rie A ee ne INDUCTION. © ‘8) suit: norsisene* = peed ogee | SOR _, Seer. 1. "Of the, Nature of Magnetie Induction. - 5 4 5 snabiieens Induction, some of the laws of which have tow been examined, ‘is of most extensive influence in the science of magnetism, being more or less engaged as an agent in almost all its:phenomena: » The attraction of ferruginous bodies, not hav- ing’ previous polarity, by the magnet, depends simply on their inductive capacity,—the proximate end of the magnet first de- veloping a polarity different from its own, and then, according to the general law of both magnetism and electricity, attracting the contrary polarity thus developed. In whatever substance, therefore, magnetism can be induced, there will be a capability: of being attracted by the magnet, the degree of attraction bemg proportionate to’the inductive capacity. It is also the general inflaence by which | a" rete thet we —— —_ of permanent magnetism. © ave! Though we have no means Ue expiikitny the declaadl nature of ‘an agent so'subtle and extraordinary as that of magnetism,’ yet wemay exhibit; by striking experiments, a variety of. its properties and phenomena. ‘The connection of the magnetic principle with iron is, as we have said, inherent and inalienable, __ and the two denominations or polarities appear to have perma. nent residence in each ferruginous particle, being 5 in ae particles but not separable from them. hit » Ferruginous bodies are usually and naturally devoid of any strong magnetic energy, the arrangement of the magnetisms of the different particles being such as in a great measure to neu tralize each other. But the mere proximity of a magnet, or even an electrical influence, as has been shown, disturbs the na- tural equilibrium of the polarities, and tends to arrange them: by its inductive energy in a magnetic'seriess 4) The development of the magnetic condition in a bar of iron, then, is the mere artangement! of the mherent polarities in a magnetic series, which arrangement: appears to be the result of two influences,—the direct inductive ieiuenee of the op ‘VOL. XITL. NO. saiinge ox + pbennnnl “Ss RTA ‘Rev. ‘Mr Scoresby on some of the Laws - magnet-on each of the particles of the iron, and the communi- cative influence of the various magnetic particles in, the. bar » upon each other: Hence the energy with which the inductive influence’ on the énd of the bar nearest to the ae is exhibit- ed iat the other. a 4i}orrone »«. Of these two ‘iseieanli thin experiment seems-to afford a ga- tisfactory illustration, AF iodo Deowh Way Bi ICR at Experiment 1 rd eesiotion of the cosa opdidion of eg r ibid the Direct. and. Communicated. influence of induction. A bar magnet, 12 inches in length, being placed in the direc- tion of the west point of a: small compass, at the distance of a foot from its centre, produced a deviation in the needle of 39°.40’.. Between the magnet and the compass: I now placed, in ‘the manner represented in Pl. II. fig. 6. a, a series of six.similar -\ pieces of regres previously softened in the fire, 1/7 inches in length each, and 5th in diameter, |The wires) inthis arrange- ment being laced at right angles across the straight line joining the magnet and compass, derived no polarity, because of their _yposition, and, consequently, could exhibit no influence; the de- viation, as expected, was therefore unaltered... Each piece of wire being now turned on its centre, so as.to preserve its-relative dis- tance, was next arranged without contact, as in series b, and “then the deviation was 43°.41’, being an increase through the magnetism developed in the wires of 4°.1’. The pieces of wire were, lastly, placed in contact in a straight line, as in series c, each piece being at the same distance both from the magnet and compass as before, when the deviation was found to be 49°47’, ‘being a farther increase, occasioned by the transmitted influence, of 6°.6. Suppose, now, these pieces of wire to represent separate mag- “netic particles, and they will be found very well to illustrate : the principal phenomena of induction. Under the parallel form “of Fig. 6. a, we have a representation of an unmagnetised | bar of - iron, in which the particles, under the influence of their inherent ‘spontaneous attractions, are mutually neutralized. Under the ‘next form (0), we have an illustration of the proportion ‘of di- rect inductive influence of the proximate magnet, on all the se- parate particles in the aggregate. And under the last form, of and Phenomena of Magnetic Induction. 275 a continuous line im contact (ec), we have an experimental ex- ample of the increase of magnetic energy, produced by the in- ductive influence of the particles upon one another. And if we compare the two influences in the case before us, the relative magnetic energies being proportionate to the ‘tangents ‘of the ‘angles of deviation in‘ the compass-needle, we find that the magnetism induced on the separate particles directly! by the magnet, was to po? someser by the particles upon one another as 2 to 3 nearly. . This relation, bene is found to vary in different ‘ferru- ginous bodies, and in the same kindof iron or steel of different degrees of hardness, the transmitted induction, or the influence of particle upon particle, being constantly smaller as the hard- ness of the metal increases. This fact, which was first suggest- ed speculatively, by the consideration of the nature of the phe- nomena, was afterwards verified as to iron and steel of three dif- ferent states of hardness, by repeated pr SK of which the following is an ar rascal ‘2.—Examination ne illustration of the propor- tions of directly induced and communicated magnetism in pieces of soft iron, wire-drawn steel, and hard steel. . The pieces of the different descriptions of metal consisted of six in number of each kind, all very nearly of the same dimen- sions as the wires made use of in the preceding experiment. The magnet was placed about 12 inches from the compass, and jath of an inch from the end of the nearest wite; the series ex- tending 10 inches, brought the other extremity within 2 inches of the centre of the compass. Each series of wires was then suc- cessively interposed between the magnet and compass, at equal intervals from each, and the deviations, in the two atrange- ments } and c of Fig, 6. observed. As, however, the different series of wires were not accurately of the same length, the dis- tance of the magnet from the compass became subject to a mel alteration ; , but the effects of this on the results is not tha- NS it : Th s@2 276 Rey: Mr Scoresby on some. of the Laws, io The following, are the results of the three series of, wires. ; 1a%e ob y tint rryy Mt -_ - 2 . a3) 9h 8 f Did bie Ee Z PaInG Ste og? é y : Series A. Inductive influence on the sory 1RON-WIRES. > . $ r > The action of the magnet alone was a deviation of 40°.45’. Out of contact (as Fig. 6) 44.13 — 40.45 = 3.28 In contact (Fig. 6c) 51.45 — 40.45 — 11.0 Hence the influence transmitted 61.45 44.19 27.92 from bar to bar, - Srrixs B. Inductive influence on the WikE-DRAWN STEEL. The action of the magnet alone was in this series 40°.26’. Deviation out of contact, 42.72 40.96 & Lar’ ~ —-—— in.contact, 43.19 — 40.26 — 2.53 A Hence the influence transmitted 43.19 49. 9 = 1.12 » 4... , from bar to bar, . ey , Series C. Inductive influence on the HARDENED STEEL WIRES. Here the action of the magnet alone” was a_ deviation of 39°.5%. Deviation out of contact, 40.47 — 39.52 = 0.55 ———— in contact, « 41.20 — 39.52 = 1.28 Hence influence from bar to bar, 41.20 — 40.47 = 0.33 Whilst, therefore, in the series of iron-wires, the total induc- tive influences, direct and transmitted, were productive of a de- viation of 11°.0’, in augmentation of the unaided deviation of the magnet ; the influences in the wire-drawn steel occasioned but 2°.53' augmentation, and in the hardened steel only 1°.28’. »| And whilst the direct induction on the iron-wire occasioned an-augmentation of 8°.28', that on the wire-drawn steel Was a -and on the hardened steel 0°.55’. - \) And whilst the transmitted influence produced i in ‘the iron- wires a power of augmentation of '7°.32' tc the deviation ¢ occa. sioned by the magnet. alone, the wire-drawn steel produced 1°12 augmentation, and the hardened steel wires only. 0.38. ee wie | bce Terae TS ae and Phenomena of Magnetic Induction: QT7 Hence the comparative capacities for induced’ magnetism of the three series, as estimated by the differences of deviation, are as follows: . Ist Series. 2d Series." 3d Series. “ Direct influence, 3.28 L41 0.58 ‘Transmitted influence, : 7.32 1.12 + 0.33 Total inductive energy, 11.0 2.53 1.28 The proportion of energy of the magnetism directly induced on the different portions, and that transmitted from portion to portion, it must be observed, affords no measure of the relation between the two influences in an actual bar of iron, because there the- number of the particles, and the intimacy of their connection, renders the transmitted energy by far more consi- derable in soft iron than the direct influence. Sect. 2.—On the Inductive Effects of the Magnet on Iron. The experiments detailed in the preceding parts of this essay are all illustrative of these effects; but, being designed for the examination of the laws and_nature of induction, they have been limited in their character to that particular class which seemed the best calculated for the attainment of these objects. This section of the essay, however, not being confined to any particu- lar investigation, will admit of all such original experiments as may serve to illustrate any of the various influences and pheno- mena of this interesting property of the magnet. Series A. With a single bar-magnet, or with two or more equal bars placed over each other in parallel juxtaposition, and with similar poles coincident. As these experiments are the more striking, in proportion to the power of the magnets, it is advisable, if the bars be well tem- pered, so as not to injure each other by their proximity, to em- ploy at least a pair of magnets, according to the arrangement of fig. 1. before given. The original experiments were made with a pair of three-feet magnets: but nearly the whole series can be exhibited, though with less striking effects, with a pair of good twelve-inch bars. 278 Rev. Mr Scoresby on some of the Laws ; Experiment 1. —For the Suspension of Iron Bails. These balls consist of the best soft iron, and require to be turned in.a lathe and well polished. A convenient size is ;*,ths of an inch in diameter, weighing about 70 grains. Of this de- scription sixty to eighty balls will be requisite, and from twenty to thirty, of smaller dimensions, in a graduated series. The suspension of the balls in a single dependent chain of conmexion, is a satisfactory means of trying the power of the magnets. A pair of good twelve-inch magnets will suspend about six equal balls of seventy grains weight,—perhaps eight or nine, if gradually reduced in size towards the bottom ; whilst my three-feet magnets will sustain no less than fifteen equal balls, or eighteen diminishing in size, in a single series, Here we have a beautiful illustration of the inductive power of the - magnet, assisted by the inductive influence of each ball upon the one contiguous to it in the series. The polarity of the first of the chain is developed directly by the action of the magnets, but the second is at once influenced by the first ball and by the magnet, and so on throughout the series. The balls, when employed without any other apparatus, may be attached by the magnetic influence in a number of pleasing forms, as festoons, fringes, and bunches of grapes. But I proceed to describe some more novel arrangements. Experiment 2.—For the Suspension of Balls at the extremities of Crooked Wires. (1.)—Fig. 7. represents a modification of the experiment with the balls, which has a very pleasing effect. For this expe- riment two pieces of iron-wire, about 3 inches long, and }th in diameter, bent into the form represented at 6, and notched into each other, are added. Being crossed at the notched part, and attached to the pole of the three-feet magnets, each extremity of the wires will sustain eleven or twelve equal balls. The sub- stance between the wires and the magnets is an oblong piece of polished iron, by the interposition of which the-effect. of the « ex. periment is improved, though the number of balls capable being suspended is diminished. It may be necessary to observe, once for all, that the points of contact of all the substances em- Rin? new Phil. Jour Vor ALI p. 5 : ae — = Ve Te SRRRC EM ty Laces ising ort Winste ase vay ae tar hp et oe i as) ii 1S DBs aosws citeapnirs and Phenomena of Magnetic Induction. 279 ployed in these experiments should be highly polished, and, to obtain the best effects, the iron of which they are composed should be annealed or softened previous to the polishing. _ (2)—Fig. 8. a, Pl. III. exhibits another modification of the experiment, in which. a half link of iron-wire, b, similar to the former in thickness and quality, is appended to each extremity of the crossed wires, and the balls are now suspended from every point. Each of these, ‘without the interposed iron, will sustain from two to ten or ore balls, according to the power of the magnets. (3.)—An elegant variety in this experiment is obtained, un- der powerful magnets, by adding to the half links suspended from the cross wires, a second half lmk to the extremity of each of the first series; and, even at this distance from the magnets, a chain of six graduated balls (see Fig. 9.), may be suspended from each of the sixteen downward terminations of the last pay of wires. But these three last experiments admit, of course, of an unli- mited variety of modifications. Experiment 3.—Formation of Chains of Half Links. A pair of good twelve-inch magnets will sustain a chain of about six half links, of the size of wire above described, which may be increased to five full links, measuring above nine inches in length, by the use of the three-feet magnets. Fig. 10, a. This experiment is modified, as represented at 5, by the in- terposition of a ball between each complete link ; at c, by a ball at each limb of the half links; at d, by the introduction of the crooked wire, Fig. 7. b, &c.; and at ¢, by a weight of cork suspended from the fourth complete link. Experiment 4.—For Suspension, without contact, of Small Masses of Iron, This is a very striking and curious experiment. Fig. 11. a, represents the general arrangement. A very little key held down to the table by a piece of fine thread, or a hair, is brought within a small distance of the extremity of the magnets, where, the thread being on the stretch, it can be suspended without contact, quivering in the air. With twelve-inch magnets, the distance at which the key can be sustained will be caccedingly 280 Rey,.Mr, Scoresby, vin some of the Laws. small; but with three-feet magnets it may be supported more than a quarter of an inch below them, so as to admit of plates of glass, metal, or thin wood, to be passed between, A key, weighing 580 grains, has been supported by my own three-feet magnets without contact. : Lf two keys or wires be suspended: contiguously at the same time, they will repel each other, and if a sinall magnet be brought near them) they may be attracted, repelled, or agitated, ‘to a con. siderable limit. a 9s - Modifications of the experiment are represented at b,c, d, e, J A small piece of tinned iron is suspended at 5; at c, two pieces of iron-wire; at da crooked piece of wire *; ‘ate a small kite covered with silver paper, with a piece of wire in the mid- dle; at\fa balloon, formed out of an egg-shell, reduced to ex- treme thinness in vinegar, and coloured. Ati axis of iron-wire yields the requisite suspensive energy. ‘The ‘story of the suspension of Mahomet’s coffin within a loadstone cave is amusingly illustrated by this experiment. Srertizs B. With a compound horse-shoe magnet and an iron-bar, or single bar-magnet, for partially neutralizing one of its poles. All the experiments of the preceding series can be equally well performed with a good compound horse-shoe magnet, ac- cording to the arrangement represented in Pl. IV. Fig. 12. _ "The magnet being suspended from a frame of wood, is so ad- justed in height that one of its poles should rest upon a large flat bar of iron, or else upon the end of a bar-magnet with op- posite poles coincident. By this means the pole in contact with the flat bar is partially neutralized, so that the operation of the unattached pole is left more free and unembarrassed for the per- formance of the experiments. ay ae : It is not necessary to repeat here the series of experiments with this apparatus, being precisely similar to those under the’ experiment, in any of its modifications, it will be found advantageous to ett. ploy a very short thread, otherwise its elasticity will ‘prove: inconvenienty if not fatal, to the success of the experiment, doidutiaryoandety EMitohetl Soulp? ; e oe 1 ; fii us she Oa ah ee at an A te say and Phenomena of Magnetic Induction. sr Se Sosa . t citw dud ; isi ¥ SERIES ££. is Jo RAPE 3B TLBE {7 With two equal bar-magnets, placed over each’ other at atew inches distance, with opposite poles contiguous. Fan ¥ As in all the experiments of the first series, the magnetism fn duced on the different masses of iron was chiefly upon the por- tions nearest to the magnets, the influence on the opposite ex- tremity of each portion being merely consequential, it occurred to me, that if the substances employed in the experiments were placed betwixt the two opposite poles of a pair of magnets, so that the appropriate polarity might simultaneously be developed at both extremities of the iron, a much more powerful action might be expected. In this expectation I was not disappointed ; for, adopting the arrangement represented in Pl. IV, Fig. 13, 1 found that experiment No. 4. could now be accomplished at dis- tances considerably greater, and experiment No. 2. with a great- er number of balls, whilst a variety of new illustrations of the’ phenomena of magnetic induction were successively suggested, as I proceeded with the amusing investigation. . Experiment 1.—For the vertical support of Nails and Wires on their points. Iron-wires (a, 6, Pl. IV, Fig. 14.), placed vertically on their pointed extremity, can be supported by the large magnets at the distance of two inches from the upper magnet, and the nail c, weighing 326 grains, at the distance of an inch and a half from it. Experiment 2.—Small Figures in paper, or card board, ver= tically supported. A pleasing variety is produced in the foregoing experiment, by attaching the iron-wires to little figures cut out of paper (PL IV. Fig. 15.), which, standing upright betwixt the magnets, and quivering on the points of the wire, are made to vibrate, or whirl round, in mimic life, by approaching them with another magnet, and waving it around them. ‘These figures, three inches in height, can be readily sustained at the distance of an inch from the upper magnet, the magnets themselves being four inches apart, 282 Rev. Mr Scoresby on Magnetism. Experiment 8.-For the support of small Wires and Nails 2 upon each other's extremities or points. ~ With the large bars, four inches apart, iron-pins (the’com- mon black pins of the shops) will stand on each other two inches _ below the upper magnet, or three or more in a ‘Vertical series, firmly adhering to each other, and yet vibrating freely on their supporting point, whenever a small magnet or piece of iron is brought near them. a, b, c, Pl. IV. ‘Fig: 16. represent differ- ent series of pins; da key supported on the point of a nail, — and e, two polished hails. Tura 4.—For the ilibal of different articles in an up- right series. The variety of amusing series capable of being sustained un- der this arrangement is evidently unlimited. ‘The forms and groups represented in Pl. IV. Fig. 1'7. may serve as specimens of what may be accomplished, with the articles only previously in use. The form represented at @ is produced by a nail, with two half links of iron-wire suspended on its point. 6 is a half link of iron on the point of a nail supporting four balls near ‘the upper magnet. ‘The next form c represents six half links or a chain of three full links, sustained vertically. d consists of three balls upon a half link. ¢ exhibits three balls upon the point of anail. f represents a nail of two inches on its point, which will not stand alone ; but when the head is set round with black pins, though the heads of these are nearly an inch from the upper. magnet, the whole is freely sustained. The form represented at o consists of a two-inch nail, on the point of which is an iron ball, and that ball set round with black pins, like the plume of the Thistle: ro aS we 283 j : Peat ? 268 Additional Observations on the Relation of Nitric and-Nitrous Acids to Bromine and Iodine. By Artuur igi satin F. RB, E., &c...,Communicated by the Author... ..9, 4). | er a nema senniens was made of some e_unsuecessful ate | tempts to, oxidate. bromine by means of nitric acid, by a process, similar.to that which effected the conversion of iodine into iodic acid *.', It.was, farther.stated, that when a small quantity of bromine was boiled with nitric acid for a considerable time in a. long tube, the upper and open extremity of which was bent and terminated in water, and the intermediate part kept cool by moistened bibulous paper, so as to condense the bromine as it sublimed, and cause it to fall back into the acid, the water, after. the free bromine which had passed over was expelled by heat, gave with nitrate of silver a pretty plentiful precipitate of bromide of silver... This. precipitate I have since found, from. an. examination. of the liquid in a variety of ways, was caused by the presence.of ,hydrobromic acid ; and the question arose, to what cause the occurrence of that acid could be attributed. To ascertain. whether bromine. was capable of decomposing pure water by similar treatment, and of so giving rise to the forma. tion of hydrobromic acid, a little bromine was boiled with water, under the same circumstances; but after the liquids employed had been deprived of colour by a gentle heat, no hydrobromic acid could be discovered by the agency of chlorine, and subse- quent agitation with ether. It became necessary, therefore, to look for some third body, which, by its affinity for oxygen, might contribute to the decomposition of water; and as a coloured and fuming nitric acid had been employed, it. appeared probable that nitrous acid might have that effect. Accordingly, on ma- king the experiment with colourless nitric acid and bromine, and afterwards driving off free bromine from the water, in which the extremity of the apparatus. terminated, by a gentle heat, no hydrobromic acid could be observed in it, when ex- amined by means of chlorine and ether. On the other hand, when the experiment was repeated with a red and highly fum- ing nitric acid, the presence of hydrobromic acid in the water * This Journal; April 1692 284 = seioo) Mr Connell on the Relation’ of was! made abundantly manifest by the same reagents. A like result was obtained, when an acid was employed. which had been highly charged with nitrous acid, by passing ——, it a cur- rent of deutoxide of azote. (From these experiments, it seems to follow:that, sited sec; influence of bromine and nitrous acid, a portion of water is de- composed by ‘long continued boiling, hydrobromie acid, and probably nitric acid, being formed. ‘This result is somewhat re- markable, because, under ordinary ‘circumstances, ‘nitric and hydrobromic acids mutually decompose one another. It does not appear that all the bromine employed becomes year acid, a part of it being wong “a goon “As it would appear that the precautions necessary for dimi- nishing the loss of iodine in the preparation of iodic acid by the action of nitric acid have not been well understood *, TI. think it proper to add the following particulars, willingly leaving to others the determination of the comparative merits of the differ- ent-methods which have been proposed for the preparation of iodic acid. The essence of ia method by nitric. acid, consists in using @ vessel of very large capacity in relation to the quantity. of mate- rials employed. I would recommend that it should be capable of containing forty or fifty times the quantity of nitric acid ac- tually used. The reasons obviously are, to afford a large im- ternal surface on which the iodine volatilized may be condensed, and from which it may be washed back again into the acid, and to diminish the quantity of acid-vapour escaping by the: neck, » which ought to be as narrow as possible+. A very strong acid, ought also to be employed, and the boiling is best maintained by the small flame of a spirit-lamp, so as to prevent, as much as possible, the heating of the sides of the vessel. Operating in this” way, although I have always experienced some loss of iodine, yet" r do not conceive that, with due care, the loss is so great as to. ~* See Annales de Chimie et de nis jie! xlix. 144; and Anna der Py xxiv. 363. - * Sst + Ibis: very convenient i in wishing back the iodine, to be able occasion. ally'to fit in'a glass stopper, 80 that the’ Tiga eay eh every part of ths vessel, without danger of being spilt. A hl sa, Nitric and Nitrous Acids to Bromine and Iodine. 285: constifute a-serious objection to the method *;»:‘Phere' are fewv chemical processes which are not attended with some! sacrifice of: materials; and it seems a matter of very little consequence: on what material that loss falls, provided the total expense, in'coms parison! with other methods, is: not increased. Indeed, plans might easily be devised, by which all the iodine which escapes’ oxidation might be condensed, and saved for another operation. And if it be objected that the process of ebullition is tedious, I shall leave to others to determine whether more time and trouble are expended, than in the numerous steps of other methods. It will give me much pleasure, if the suggestion of M. Serul- las, whose recent loss science deplores, shall be found. to facili- tate the process; but in the only experiment which I have made on the subject, E could not observe that the employment of an acid, which had been highly charged with nitrous acid, by pass- ing through it a current of deutoxide of; azote, offered ee ; advegenges Major-General Sir Howard Douglas, Bart. &c. on Military Tr jee and the “Amer, of Rivers’ in Military Operatione®, Tan passage from one point of a country to another, with fa- cility, will always, among a commercial and warlike people, form a topic of general interest for discussion. In ancient times, one of the greatest obstacles to the free intercourse of one na- tion with another, and of different parts of the same kingdom wey each other, was generally understood to arise from the beds: Si cis iid no i peel ab day ona siepectnnctn itde;soaara ch ey ducted with any particular view to economy; but I observe that M. Duflos, in following out these experiments, has succeeded in converting half an ounce of iodine into iodic acid, by means of 2) ounces of nitric acid, without any loss, of iodine at all.—Bullet. des Sciences, Oct. 1831. + This article is to be considered as illustrative of the highly interesting and very important work, entitled, “ An Essay on the Principles and Cons struction of Military Bridges, and the Passage of Rivers in Military Opera. yt By NEN A See Ie Bart. &c. enehenee pp. 4 4% 286 “Major-General Sir Howard’ Douglas'on “ness of the roads, and the want of bridges on’large and rapid rivers. ‘To this cause may, in some measure, be attributed the ~ glow progress of civilization, of the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and of the general diffusion of useful knowledge. © A conqueror did occasionally arise, inflamed with ambition, and actuated by an enthusiasm for conquest, who ‘tartied in“ his army men possessing a knowledge of all the science of the’age in which they lived. When a Greek or ‘Roman ‘general ‘had conquered a kingdom or a province, the first care of a conquéror generally was, to introduce among the inhabitants a knowledge of the arts then known; and to this cause many of the ancient European nations owe the introduction of the first rays of intel- ligence by which they were enlightened. To retain possession of conquests likely to be récovered by former rulers from intes- tine commotions, or loss by the sudden incursions of neighbour- _ing tribes, a ready communication from one place to another, and a rapid march of troops to quell any occasional insurrection, or hostile attack, would form the first objects of the conqueror’s solicitude. Hence arose the Roman roads all over Europe, and particularly in Britain, where traces oftheir remains yet traverse E the island from one extremity nearly to the other. If, in‘ the course of these roads, a large river crossed its direction, which in floods was impassable by troops, then a magnificent bridge was generally erected. There were thus constructed numerous bridges in the course of a Roman itinerary. These have been of great advantage, even in modern times, by affording facilities of communication that would otherwise have been unattainable. The methods of selecting lines, and of laying out of roads, have been lately much improved ; therefore, the points where formerly _bridges had been erected, have been found to be injudicious ; and, consequently, in countries where manufactures and com- merce have been introduced, it has been found Pee se ‘change | the line of direction, and to select new sites for’ though, in those countries that have slightly changed their ae ‘dition for centuries, the old Roman bridges have ‘continued to be used with considerable advantage, both oe the Purposes of ; commerce and of war. Eg pat! Next to the commodious situation of a bridge, its jadiaibe ‘construction forms an important consideration. Arches ‘and Military Bridges, and the Passage of Rivers. 287 domes were. used in, buildings long before their, properties. were investigated on scientific principles. The inyention of the arch is frequently attributed to the Greeks, as it has been discoyered in several of the, most ancient temples of Greece, but nothing of the kind is to be found in any of the ancient monuments of Per- sia.or Egypt. . Most of the apartments of the ruins of ancient Egypt are covered with a single stone ; and, in the. galleries of the pyramids, of which the roofs consist of numerous pieces, their peculiar construction renders it highly probable that the builder was ignorant of the arch. The Greeks seem, therefore, entitled to, the honour of the invention. The arched dome, however, appears to have been invented by the Romans. In the later monuments of Italy, the Etruscan dome, and the Gre- cian temple are combined, as in the famous Pantheon, even in its most ancient form. In modern times, mathematical and mechanical Principles have been applied to the investigation of the properties of bridges... Dr Hook proposed the inverted catenary as the. best form of an arch, in which all the strains would balance one an- other. This curve may be applied to most cases that occur, though it has seldom or never been used in practice. The cir- cular arch has been, from the simplicity of its construction, most generally introduced. Of late years, however, the elliptical arch, from its convenience in keeping the crown of the ia low to suit the level of the road, and its superior elegance, has been much employed, When the semiellipse forms the arch, this curve rises more rapidly at the haunches than the semicir- cular, of the same span, and thus, besides the advantage of be- ing lower at the crown, the under part of the arch forming the youssoirs, is by that means much more capacious, and conse- quently better fitted to admit a free passage of the water in high floods. Permanent bridges have generally been constructed of stone, sometimes of wood ; and, for temporary purposes, of boats, es- pecially in military operations, which require them to be speedily erected, and as quickly removed, Suspension bridges have been long used in India and America; and of late years they have been introduced in Europe, both for civil and military purposes, with considerable advantage, ‘These methods should eee MejreGeneral Sir Howard Douglas om.» be all carefully studied, their respective merits well considered, and their applications most minutely scrutinized, ‘by. those pro- fessionally engaged i in their construction. sig? it : “Besides a “knowledge of the scientific principles, on, ehicd bridges are constructed, an acquaintance with the general, laws observed by fluids in motion is of much practical, advantage to the civil and ‘military engineer. By a proper application of these Jaws, the most advantageous position for a bridge may be select- ed, and its permanence secured. On this account Sir Howard Douglas commences his work properly with a section on the pittickptes' and effects of the motion of water in rivers. He justly remarks : , 0 Although it is not the object of this pei) to aagider the doctrine of the motion of water in canals and rivers, in relation to the purposes of civil life, yet 8o many deductions, highly important to our present subject, may be made from it, that:a few observations upon hydraulics will be found a useful introduction to the various methods of passing rivers in military opérations.” “ A knowledge of the principles of the motion and action of water, enables us to trace that mode of unceasing operation which occasions sinuosities $.. re- gulates the velocity of the current; forms eddies, and consequently banks 5 determines the natures of the sections at different parts of rivers, and many other points connected with their local circumstances, essential to-the prop application, construction, and security of military bridges, and to the caleula= tion of the effects or the delivery of water, whether for inundation, subsist- ence, or force.”—Pages 1 and 2. Sir Howard Douglas then notices the imperfect fiche of Guglielmini and Varignon. ‘The latter became proverbial among the academicians at Paris, for a predilection to generalizations, without a sufficiently careful appeal to experiments; and eyen, Belidor, who has been considered one of the most profound. of scientific engineers, adopts the same theories in his Architecture Hydraulique. The applications of these theories, however, to, the courses of the rivers Po and the Danube, showed their im~, perfections ; and the Abbe Bossut and the Chevalier Du ‘Buat, were by that means induced to undertake each, an extensive, sea varied s series of | experiments in hydrodynamiés, for the. exe P ed vs a of 3 ‘improving _ these theories. The former. i colt sauthesnin at AONE ee knowledge of t that anit very successfull latter was assisted talented icer « Beat de 8 Hon fe hoa, pend sick nae il BP gt i ee Pa siize of Rivers. B39. ental course.” ‘The whole forms. an in- a a PIE We discovering the laws of nav ture, involved in a series of « : “The Cl valiet Du Buat’s first experiments were’ undertaken to establish: thé similarity ‘of the motion of ‘water in. pipes and open canals. From ‘thesehe ‘proceeds to show that the moving principle of Water ‘arises’ from’ gravity and the mobility of the particles, which causes thé fluid to assume a level in close vessels, or de- terimines it to move to that side where there i is a defect of pres- sure; and, excepting i in very small tubes, there is scarcely any deélivity’so'smiall that water will not move in it,—are all owing to the same cause’ From this reasoning Du Buat derives his first principle, namely, that the motive force of éach particle of water ‘river arises simply from the slope of the surface. - haw a current of water were not resisted by the bed int which’ iteruns, and: if its fluidity'were perfect, its velocity would become more and more ‘accelerated, to such a degree ‘that its destructive’ impetuosity would become irresistible. But the friction‘of the water against the bed of the river, which, by the effect of adhesion, is communicated to the'whole niass of fluid, causes a resistance, which ahginenting 1 as! che suite the?velocity, “at’ length’ equals the accelerating force, when the velocity will remain uniform, without the a ee of increas- ing,"unless a change takes piace | in the slope of” the Tie or in the dithensions of the section. “From the foregoing reasoning, Du Buat obtains his Nebaith principle, namely, that when a stream moves uniformly, veklin sistance to the accelerat Orce, - . ondMilinal It orehtch observation, a re with reasoning, on n the nature of tivers,’ that, ‘in open? canals’ and rivers, the greatest “welocity’is at ‘the surface in the middle of the stream, and in Ase pipes in the central line or axis ; because there the movi water is most remote fromi all causes of resistance. If this velo. city, therefore, be taken to calculate the force or discharge of. the water, the results will, in: both cases, be erroneous in excess, The situation of the line or stream of mean velocity in the sec, -tion'varies with so many that it cannot be pre-. 3 ai Pb 8 of very ingenious experi- VoL. xill. No. ‘XXVI.—OcTOBER 1832. " (290) 0 MajorsGeneral Sir Howard Douglas oi. “ments performed > oe oat the oe ‘laws were: disco- es rverediz)! } ould gal glirs Pt ¥ (apagy As Pe ons 1. In’small selocites; the teliietvg at vd surface exceeds: that ! at: thé: bottom:in a very considerable ratio? 17 %9 |maves Qs 'Phis ratio.diminishes in proportion as tharweldeieyint ‘the eurrent,inereases; and, in very great peng approaches near- be sates Pg of ‘equality. iya,apelg, delgionga 8. Neither the magnitude’ of the bedy nor the slopeof «the tiver, ‘changes’ this rarer when ie mean a the same. KjOI4, B27 a, eduade “teh soye 4. When the vebielty, at the surface ‘is constant, -that ‘at’'the . sleotaornil is constant also,’ whatever be the depth of vines or afte magnitude of the section. © 6) ©) 9608) O08) ots sig hilly 5a‘The mean velocity isan arithmetical mean: pHock wiser diet ‘atithe: surface and that.at the bottom... /~ 6 teow olde. yy ltis very: difficult, to determine: the velclins at b the bottom: by 1 apis and the proportion between it and the former dimi- nishes.as the mean velocity increases. Du’ Buat determined) this variation: by,,experiment,.. and .thence deduced the following rule. .'To.find the bottom and mean velocities when that at the surface is known, take unity from the square root/of the surface -yelocity, expressed in inches, and the square of the remainder is the velocity. at the bottom. Half the.sum of these two: will. give the mean velocity. MiB Ex. If the surface velocity i in the middle aff the current, be 25 inches per second, what is the bottom and..mean velocity ? fete =5—1=4, and 4° = 16 the bottom, velocity ; therefore, = aa 48 = 203 the mean vcncase: As the mean’ ve- | ‘Tocity i is most generally required, it may be found is the ‘ollow- ing tule. . From the observed. surface velocity, in the middle of the stream, increased by 4, subtract the square root of the. sur- i Er pelocity, the remainder will be the, mean velocity | Of the a ection, From, the. same example as. before, 255.— phy —5 = 203, the mean velocity obtained more «than, by,the:former; rule. ie Saltxarl wr: rogtnnd'T , into AD nat A af .. Military Bridges;.and the Passage of Rivers. 291 -owhichs:by this:rule,the mean will be readily obtained; and:itis the mean velocity that must be used. in calculating the discharge, icsupply,forcesand every other effect/ofrunning waters! .{ ‘Several experiments are resorted to for.the purpose :of:deter- » mining themean velocity of running water, such as a cylindrical rod of wood, loaded at the lower extremity. with a piece of lead, or straight glass tubes, having their bottoms: filled with: smallishot, ‘to keep them perpendicularly in, the water, and at such’a depth as may )suit the depth; of;,the.stream., In absence of these, weeds or shrubs, having a proper quantity of earth adhering to their roots, may be conveniently substituted, whem gréat preci- sion isnot required. . By using a sufficient quantity of these at different points in the breadth of a stream, the mean velocity of ‘the: whole flowing mass of water may be obtained with consider- able accuracy. By observing the mean time: in» seconds by a good wateh, or half or quarter seconds ‘pendulum, the volume of water that flows through a given space or distance: in ‘a:given “time, may be accurately computed, which may, be. turned to aannisteretite advantage in many ‘philosophical inquiries*, ') ‘From avast mass of experiments, Du Buat proceeds to de- ities ani empirical formula, on the principles that have now been detailed,-and at:last arrives at, the following expression for the mean velocity of runnang water, in French inches, per second of ) Wh 297 (/r—0. 1) Fel bohyp log x b41.6 in WwhiehV denotes the mean velocity of the water in’ French inches, 7 the radius of the section, and 4 the distance, divided _ by the fall i in the ar Tie gui that is, if the fall be two feet % dc es aniihs then gam = w= jr and therefore & = 9640; By r; | or the radius of the section, is meant the area ‘of | the “transverse section of the river in square inches, divided by the —0.3(Jr—0.1) . (1) ae suf of Use wate in contact with its banks: "OF may y LEE: 7" bait of . , © 1 So: Thames "Phesamchrs Helos Heat and Electricity, page 268, _ @. comparison is made between the of rain, and quantity of evaporation, by co BREED afk flechtas Ps | Though the principle is good, yet we 2 29% —-- MatjorsGeneral Sir Howard Douglasion \ ; be-defined to be:the; quotient obtained. by dividing the area of: thesis verde section ofthe stream expressed in ‘squarevinchesy. by the boundatyorsperimetér of that section, ditninished by the’ breadth of the upper surface of the stream, in linear inches. To those) not »very familiar with algebraical formule, it: is rather, difficult to apply: formula (1.) to practical purposes, ‘and. theres. fore attempts have been made to simplify it for’the use’ of prac» tical men, without sacrificing much of its’ accuracy. ‘For this. purpose, Robison, in his Works; on Rivers, vol. ii. page 444, adoptsithe second form of Du Buat, phe in p, 63, nei ote Pe i gma ae ne x frelon “seri, 18 ON BOTT A0 Ty 0h RMR hyp. log TET —0. B(Jd—0. yt @) from “Which he deduces a table that is'easily applied, ‘Sie How. ard. ‘Douglas proceeds to.a farther siaiibitiaks La ina ba p. 17, adopts...) wofiets Fis ; jean AD Jae . : io oe oy DePOR seh Ve —~ be S 7 as HB W ¢ we ion eirats SPOIL at G if ie fib te a tte Gs igh set oo) This; thoi less: accurate ste be scion Me ales practical: purp Fe ; bi ee Sie ‘dy eae Pes ‘sant . ‘In ange 20, we eS some very setdedstag and 1 i ‘remarks, relative to the action of water on the beds of rivers se- lected from Du Buat. This gentleman found— ; “Gi “by experiment, that, the, greatest velocities which the rene stance expressed below can resist without moving, are General Sin Howard Douglas.on\s bridges, areidetailed.with great minuteness, ‘whichcannot failto be useful: ‘to-alh. engineers engaged in ‘similar. pursuits." paprasia gy nd third’ Seétion treats of Bridges of Boats. \, if The subj bjec ect aT ¥ 70 SQBAaNT 8 manages Lgwith, great, ability... Lhe, re: t, the, size ,of the. boats, should, correspondwithitheanagnitude, of; thewivers::- For the Danube, :the length: should’ be 60 feet; for the Po, ‘50 feet ; for the 'Tatiaro ot ‘Taro a but '20"' fect, with a breadth of, about, 10, fect. and ry depth, ¢ # fects... Sir i, Douglas is. of Opinion, that; the:.twoofirst, are fartoo dongs In Jarge. tide, rivers, subject to heavy» swells, decked lighters are very convenient ; and in some cases, as in’ the: j passage» of the Adour by the Duke. of. Wellington's, aang: in,.1814, they ‘were indispensably necessary. | A. curious, «and we should: think useful, composition for covering the’ tarred faanllian applied to pontoons,’ may be seén’at pages: 105 and'106)" 0" ee “After having s shown the” most “approved. das f laying down , pontoon bridges, the, manceuyre of ,withdrawing,.a bridge. entire is ‘also carefully described, and every operation’ correctly éxplained. ‘The converse Speretion of restorihg. a bridge a after’ it has been’ withdrawn, i in ‘both snvall and Jarge Hivers, is treated at full length,. so .as to ,be, easily, understood, by engineersiems ployed in, these services... Our author next: illustrates his idifd ferent maxims by detailing the passages ‘of various rivers by’ ae tinguished military commanders. ati ove wird ae AMS _ © The passage of the Douro,, in “May ;1809,. hae LicutinsetsGouslll Sir Arthur Wellesley, may be cited asa splendid and very instructive example, of. what may be effected by judicious combinations and. arrangements; withy very trifling material means, in forcing the passage ofa river not properly, and guarded; and shows the importance of providing» columnsof; troops intended for such enterprises. by a few row boats, with which to, coms; mence instantly an attempt, that might otherwise, be defeated, by the-most, obvious and simple precautions on the part of an enemy,—a ‘practical, dedue.. 1 may well be enforced from the fact, that v celet eratio § cotamenced with one Bo oat ace app iae: dental cir circumstance ae aINE operation sia ly de alee Napier if his sper Ness Waiiissibaas't Mums ints on 3A 9riate i th os 8 HOR, OF 18h a Ma, in which the Frenck ese Seah pth tit eae Bae pe, of og bid nt i Rao Cad OD a EP i Es Sw iin Tot sot Pres OL, eon ald sae hag yp thea Military Brillgesyand the Passage’of Riders. 297 _march, having-Jed the Marsbalto:believe that the passage of the tiver would -be attempted apie insets Pe big.attention, mone, particulanlyta the STOR aa W lide pore ng he Bo hac cali macys a elieseemsndiacanelamanmnailiietnainnelass make ‘th there», (Never was plan pe fas a ei ane me ORs % hd ’ fe He St an Pe ta es im the night, had accidentally vered, Colonel Waters gallantly pet ear ‘unperceived in’ quest’ of peeks cit and soon returned toa or four:large: barges: Inthe mean_ time, a battery: of eighteen or pee “my fre fe Alay te Saal t, Vv t some, pin o sedieh ft hooks, and a: fy Ba force marched towards Avintas, Ws dthicin adage at the’ pce river neag.that place. DS bid), SO. BUTS 20d 4 fj iz Wagy 2 bpp? ty “ Early in the morning) of | the 1ath,, some, trpops,of Ii Sir Edward Paget's aitaed were ‘pushed across hd river, from, the upper part of the siritosity formed ‘by the Sierra point, and conséquently concealed from the town; and that’ gallant iain Aled of a‘latge' building, — forming a seminary mearly opposite. . . ‘The French, completely surprised, made, the grea tafigprentions Heurenanee. ie important post ; but the, first battalion of th the ute supported by th eoee and 66th, regiments, bet candi tlt (ORS-G8 he aaa Moses wa eda Hy the vevere wounds whtich he received on’ this’ brilliant ull suceeded to the ‘com- mand of these troops), maintained their | position with the most determined notwithstanding the repeated attacks made on them bs apr, Pes troops aie Soult in person. — “ Some troops of General Sherbrooke's division now began to Bia ‘in boats which were recovered from the broken bridge; and General Murray crossed at the adjoining salient near Avintas.. The passage being, thus yeni ‘nt French eolumns were ell to move in haste, which was soon p corifusion, along the Valonga road, under a destructive fire fro Pie te teries' under Generil Hill, now posted ih the’ Seminary ahr a"? ahd ifdt had been possible to muke the movement froin’ Avintas somewhat earlier, Soult’sretreat by that road would have been intercepted, ant the French army ruined,” |) ). |, ‘We have been; tempted, to make this long, quetatian on, ag count of, the instructive lesson which it gives,on military. strate- gy» when, the operations are. conducted by men of science and talent ; and, for the benefit of the young engineer, we imagine we cannot, do. better than give the yery, able, and, uncleesnate re- marks of | the learned, author, piheed! troy by «4 “ The defeat as well as the victory of this day are full of instruction on the precautions of surveillance and othér measures, which should be takén to 298° — .«MajorsGenerab. Sir Howard Douglasyon) \\\\' preclude sitprize, and to prevent a passage, by open forde, Pee rls ed; and on the measures and means most conducive to the success « of Peytek: eet of this deseri ption. Soult did not adopt proper measures of surv rveilla gu No arrangements. were made for a’ rapid communication’ of intelligence, "by * als,’ by which ‘means only that’ prompt’ concentration of troops Soa fhdo ts‘of attack’can:be effected, on which the defence of |a-riyer-bank mainly |, deletes Lhe plan of operation on the offensive part. was justly co sig ived, wellcombined, and most gallantly executed. The quick perception of Soult’s error, in believing himself secure, and of his neglect ‘Of Use jutidnaty measures ‘which he ought to have adopted, were adntirably aeted2upon. opie ® Seniifary’ proved an excellent itéte\decommunication ; ‘the batteries yplaced on’, the:convent height commanded the ground in front of the ¢éze, so that, shh . once gained, the footing on, the right bank could not well be lost 5 and movement from Avintas was judiciously calculated ‘to conceal from’ the-ene- my an important operation, and to reap the fallest fruits of a victory which’ all these combinations richly ‘deserved.’ C Aledutueh Yo ‘seroe aede tis Such, then, ‘are the’ ‘spendid achievements Of a brave army, | well disciplined, provided “with engineer officers. of :intrepidity ) and skill, when commanded ‘bya°consummate generals )Stch:; also'are the disasters of ‘an army, however — ning 7 the direction’ of ‘aii’ iprovident leaders ile 1) seodsindna 46 nos ~The fourth section of’ the work is oceupied. with’ the ane Wiles of constructing Flying Bridgesy-and’ employing them forthe; passage of troops’ across unfordable rivers.” \‘Sir-Howard) Dou-; glas gives'several of the most ‘convenient :and-effectivé modes of; . erecting the necessary apparatus for this purpose. |The flying=, bridge is formed by anchoring a floating body, such; as,a,buoy in or near the centre of| a river, so that a boat attached to,it\by; a‘cableor chain may receive the action of the stream obliquely.; By this means a force is derived from the current, which moves} the vessel across the river. ‘The manceuvre will. be more easily, executed with a somewhat long cable:than with a ishertwone. In ‘great rivers, such as the Rhine or the Danube,two large, boats or vessels are commonly used, On the sides of. these, ‘pas of timber, wool, sandbags, &c. may be’ construct “was practised by Charles XIT. in his: passage of’, the Dunayin. ‘Y701.°° The’ author, after ‘having giving complete information: on’ thé ‘Methods ‘of constructing ‘and managing flying-bridgesy, illustrates ‘the whole ‘with ‘many ‘interesting’ and. appropriat amples, which’are’ of great utility to the’ practical ‘er commanding officer. oO 9QS%) Oto flop gaw nish biekietow'estdw These ‘are’ chiefly'drawn ftom the campaigns of Napoleon, Military Bridges, and the Passage-of Riders. 299° the Ardh-Duke Charles of Austria, andthe Duke eof Welling: ton, for which we niust ‘refer to the work itself!" SPase eae ie bo he fifth “seetion contains a dissertation on Bridges y BE Ratt of Timbery-Casks, Air-tight Cases, and Inflated Skins nad. dition’to the methiod of constructing rafts, a variety.of: useful. rales f6¥ ‘finditig' the donteiits’oF beats, and valuable tables tela tive Nt to their co ntents and specific gravity, are subjoined. An” sede on guaging, or determining the capacity of casks, in or-_ der to obtain their bitoyancy, is likewise recorded. Inflated bags, madeé of the skins of animals, ‘were even suggested by the Rhodian to Xenophon, to enable him to pass the ‘Tigris; and Alexander had recourse to'this method in order to pass the Oxus, Livy tells us that some of Hannibal’s Spanish infantry passed the Rhone_ by swimming, with the assistance of inflated leathern bags, and Ceesar informs us, that the Spanish light infantry practised this, method of passing’ rivers, as is at this day employed:on the. Ti... gris ‘and! Euphrates. » Canvass-bags, lackered over with a.solu-. ri of caoutchouc (Indian rubber), have Jately, been, proposed, and in India, basket+boats,coveredwith undressed hides, are of- ten employed. In short, the extent and variety of information, relative to these’ more temporary expedients can only be.duly. appreciated by those employed in such operations, to whom the examples will prove invaluable. . ) Oar attention is next,directed in section sixth to Corre. Bridges and Suspension-Bridges. _ Carriage-bridges are, sup- ported on four-wheeled carriages, and are found to be very use- ful in’ expeditiously forming temporary bridges in small shallow; rivers and canals. Sir Howard does not recommend. the,Pont- volant of the Aide Mémoire, a French book similar, to, his own, but there is no doubt that the ordinary carts and waggons of a country may be sometimes found very useful for such pur- poses. A carriage-bridge for infantry, two abreast, was made across ‘the Douro, between Tordesillas and Toro with, the spring-waggons of the army. ‘The bottom of the river was hard and even; the average depth being from three to four feet, The waggons were placed longitudinally, at distances suited, to the lengths of the planks that; had been collected for flooring, which were laid from waggon to waggon, the tail and front boards being taken out,, ‘The same thing may be done with the 800 Major-General Sir HowardsDonglas'on' imo r tWwo-whiééled’ ‘carts, by merely entadan ate ol fai me the’ body of that in, eee i os :' Saito’ ° St | Soil Js si -an ‘approximate form, abit _ Let x.be the depression of the middle of ie chain ‘ploy the dnciierdtek line, called generally,.by, mathematicians , the. absciss ; ‘y half the horizontal ‘distance of the points of suspension, ‘or ordinate; and x half the* lepgth of the curve; then, if the weight of a unit of the chain, such as one foot, be w,, the weight of half the chain will:be wz, .and,7,¢c.and w.t,will;be the tensionsat the middle of the chain, and at each,pointief suspen- Sion. «: From these eonsiderations, and the properties of theisus- -pended chain, Sir Howard arrives at his equation.(6) 5; ORs 9/49 i Ff ike + soindsoi eBay® as woh: te pay che édnstifosa (6) } yd yee Ga Ci Cr; dain ; cs ae uh nid uehHt Ay Boe koucg) a? LIAR ASD Lh a ts -Aiy rss #03 and, a =y ie RO Se pe ote r . . Opi 4 Fe] an @) yor ¥Y ue torent Ae PMgy rhiead iS To these we shall add those given by Pitewe! Sir Sohn Leslie, from which every thing necessary to the construction 6f suspen- sion-bridges in all ordinary cases may be derived with the grea’ est simplicity *. Taking the distance between the points sus. ‘pension equal to d, the depression of the middle’ of the chaiti!be Jow the horizontal line equal to h, the length of the chain —_ ¥, and ‘the ‘strain at the middle of the chain, or e ‘eine, & eqiial top; “then, “in “all practical ‘appRbactolfs anvaien aie tities ae with the Steg itn the a SE AST Y Leoriirte 2 ra f(y rth eer ee aie Miskrswrd rit Mba? oe ARH EE laa! ‘i (09) rina , ‘strains at points of suspensions or agi 4 soe ac (fay oat x era MoAEGd | dieyistips, g hal 1 we nepiibi ip rast Lie or, 8 =! OB mei nook ah ednel lav wo pod od heihed iael dskesa Hat Lites Tike at “egy ey and dd, ; echt dite anob hia! ae Sine otk em , _ Mi BOR REE HES A I sae: uted eres i, Dy thet Ae i resis Te eres fd 0t Ae nat & Ms engineers... Sir H. Dou sae formule, oF rived from. them,: to .the,.construction. of a rope, where . pe acres the épresciow 19 feet, Singita ge unloaded. 12,490 Ib... and. when Toaded with infantry diss lg te peits wei MIR s oot ssounsh “Ie The whol eng othe cre, doeh ye + lump A295 feet. ag oe BRE a nes Eee salad wcslodandinniaalet's Ao ec ULOFBEN is * cUse 16 ? file Ab? bb weave : wS el Ni et vi Hsugolzs (vot I RRS ay . " nh jas wilt hu CORRS = 0 : LIPOU ETB Lorry Wwe a eau I ee A‘A'is am elevation "bt vertical’ section leng ieee Fi tite stone to'bé titedstired ;"BB the measuring tod, with elbows D and C, of ‘thin hammered copper} fir ly Sec Ys if ed Voit. The end D was always adjtisted to the Se prt ore the’stone, by sliding throt a’ ATT thé ‘copper gui id Fr cemented to the vt te ™ elbow C was aire in like manner b y sliding through a groove in the’ piece F, 5 rilso | attached ry the i The elbow C has itself Pea through which the wedge W r may slide horizon- tally under ‘the guide B, between the elbow C id the stone. This wedge being graduated as a diagonal scale, showed by the distance which it entered, ‘the difference between the length of the measuring rod and that of the stone. The expansion of the measuring rod being known, the length of the stone could be’ caleulated in decimals, viz. the English standard inch. Hey OUP “A groove was cut in the stone, in which a thermometer was placed at each measurement, and, being covered, was suffered to'lié some time, in order to ascertain the temperature of the stotié. "The temperature of the Ineasuring rod was assumed to be that’ of the open air to which it had been ‘exposed. | “By Lardner ‘and Katét’s Mechanics, we have, asa mean between the results of ‘Captain Kater and Dr Struve, for the linear expansion of deal wood, in terms of its length, for oné degree of Fahrenheit, the decimal 00000255 ; and by the Edin- VOL. XIII, NO. XXVI.—ocToBER 1832. u 10 a daily a eeerdl 5a 306 = =s_«__—Cs« Liditénant Bartlett on the Hapanvion burgh Encyclopedia, article Expansion, we find the’ decimal 00000944 to'express the same for hammered ¢opper.Brom these data, the actwal length of the measuring rod wasicaloulated for each experiment, knowing its’ length” av''60% Fahrenlieit. But to abridge the calculation, the difference in length 'between the stone and measuring rod, as shown by’ the wedge: Wy was substracted from the length’ of the rod, ‘before making the re- duction for the temperature of the latter. The length of»the copper part, and that of ‘the wooden part, were’ calculated: sépa- rately, on account of their different I SOREN ‘Lhe result of this calculation is the following Tablewi iy jo) bine : hito! MARBLE. |) |) GRANITE SANDSTONE, | 12 ‘No. of | 1) Lengths ti | Degrees} Lengths’ Lengths in Apes, Pabter|s., anchos, Fane. Micben | ae, inches). | 9 } d i ‘ Ay 3 “> 7 i U938 1I9¥ Tar 6 | 93.4155 | 6 | 94.0251 | 6 |, 94.0180 | 2 7 || 93.4277] 8° | (94.0380 | °8!')) 940158'P O°! 33: é 93.4201 9): [94.0260 | 9) 5 94.0052.1.5.-4 4 | 1 93.4207 | 10 | 94.0265 | 10 | 94.0088 |. > 6 Fon | 98aran for || 94.0280: ) a) |) 94.0124 9p o9 6) |, 12 |, 93.4186 |. 12, |, 94.0282 | 13 oe A ae 7 14.| 93.4174 | 14 | 94.0271 | 14, 0206 | 8 | 14° [993.4294 )) 14 9)94.0847 Pongo 940220049 2/2 olf 9} 44s} 93-4308 |. 14} 94.0361, |, 15.) 94.0235 J, "Toyo" | 16° | “93.4302 | 16 “| 94.0285 | 15 |} 94.0238 | 11 | 16 | 93.4291 | 16 | 94.0345 | 17 | 94.02%do}° unr 12 | 17 | 93.4305 | 17 | 94.0358 | 18 | 940181 | > 13 (| 19 +}..93.4327..)..19...).-94,0416..4...20-|..94.0239 14 20 | 93.4310 | 20. | 94,0364 | 22 | 94.0258 15 21 93.4316 | 21°} 94.0440°} > 22°} 94,0263 | 16 81..|.. 93.4265..|..32.. |..94,0324. |. 32... p4087) wags 17 $2 93.4352 | 32 94.0406 | 34 4.0466 | 18 34 | 934422 | 36 «| 94.0330°) Ba: | 94.0554 1 | 19 36 | 98.4360 | 36 | 94.0450 | . 39 4.0436 20 36 | 93.4857 | 37 | 94.0483 | 39° 21 88 | 93.4436 | 41 +} 9410844) 43). 22 52 | 93.4323 | 52 | 94.0348] 53. 23 58 | 934450 | 62 | 94.0541] 64> 24 3 |. 93.4655 | 86 | 94.0720] 935} 94 25 6 |. 934649 | 88 |. 94.0737] 93- 26 90 | °9314709 | 88 4 9406880) (95. )" 27 | 99 | 293.4677 * |, 94.0731y] 990) at Th ‘ 0 ¢ 00 | te the stone, and GALOT Ime PERE nd JK ae? i ak ea a ee ned wa Creer ple ek ee aa DS ag . and Contraction of Building Stones. 307 in part to imperfections in the measuring apparatus; but as the hygrometric state of the stone was not recorded, we can take no account of it.in our deductions. These discrepancies, however, will have but little effect upon the general result, for it will be observed that there is always an increase in the length of stone for an inerease of temperature, when any two experiments are considered which are removed from .each other by several de- Pea hs ore! oP Pia ale he? 4 pane _» Brom the facts :ascertained concerning the expansion of other substances, we may assume that the expansion of stone is uni- form; and that, within the range of our experiments, each of the stones increased in length by a common difference for each degree of the thermometer. To find an approximate value for this common difference, say for the granite, we substract the first observed length from the last, and, if these experiments were accurate, the difference .0470 would be ninety-six times the common difference, ninety-six being the difference in degrees between the’ extreme temperatures : the same operation being performed, with the second experiment, and that next the last ; the difference .0298 (the difference in lengths) should limelight}. six times the common difference. By thus comparing the ex- treme experiments of Da which remain, we obtain the fallow- ing Table. oi tas Se : Abe . 9 ; Diff. in le yy : Experiments. Degrees, Diff, in Lengths. : : ewes ete \v ' ) Gay f , a } 1 and 31 96 + .0470 v 2 ee! BO ’ - 86 + 0298 3 i. 29 82 + .0433 4 4 t.. | 26 80 + .0428 } ot) 9 4.00 BF 78 + 0501) 6 s.6 26) 76 + .0406 7 ” 25 74 oa 0466 . 8 oow (24 § 72 + 0373 . ) 9 ee 23 : 48 + 180 PR FOG. 22" He BB + 0063 feet ' : aid bee ll... 21 te) er — O01 | eho PM BS) 1. | Se0hU re gp + 0125 ) Jeqnege @Si, /1Bsieese 19 + .0034 uP) as oe 18 ¥ 4 if o —_— 0034 y or 34-4 ~~) 0034 4 tbr phy onbel — Dotaby «if 817), yoo 3708 Hemeoond aural “y ? sos ath 4 ada a0 Nele-oviscw oun anf Ayre o! tide vu % 308 Lieutenant Bartlett on the Expansion We have neglected the sixteenth experiment, because we eati not employ it without using some other experitiént twice; thus - giving the latter an undue influence, and because’ the’ middle term should have my least weight in: aera the common difference. AY ds Hea By the above table, we find, as the combined result*of “all ‘the experiments, that .3708 should ‘be 817 times! ‘the’ common difference ; and hence the common difference for one degreeof Fahrenheit is .0004538 inch. Now, assuming! 94.05 inehés as the mean length of the granite, which is sufficiently near, wefind the linear expansion for one inch of stone for each degree of ‘Fahrenheit to be = .000004825 inch, and for one foot this expansion would be .0000579 of an inch. ‘By proceeding in the same way with the experiments on the other’ stones; we »ob- tain the following results :— i> dey a a Cc difference in | © difference in inches |’ | (Mean whole length in | snches for the whole length: pide ext = inches. ‘| of stone for 1° of Fahr. of ai 2p Granite . 94.05 0004588 000004825 | Marble. 93.44 0005297) 000005668 Sandstone 94.05 0008965: 000009532 White Pine . . | 00000255. ip ~ Hammered Copper’ 00000944. | To apply these results to the case in question, let us suppose _two coping-stones, of five running feet each, to be laid in mid- summer, when they have a temperature of 96° Fahrenheit ; in winter their temperature may safely be assumed at zero, 50 t that the total variation of temperature will be 96°; and if we suppose these stones to contract toward their centres, which would be the most favourable supposition as regards the tightness ‘of, the . joints where a number of these stones are used, the whole length of stone put in motion by a change of ‘temperature would | be five ; feet. If the coping: be ni granite, - the distance. by 1 w ich the ends of the stones of be ‘separated, In. ence 0 one degree’s ariation, \ would be sixty, pls bn int and. for a'variation-« 2es, 0002895 x 96 = = 0277792 inc of Building: Stones, 309 sani besdinensiiicaahiciandersidsh of .03264, nearly twice the thickness, of common pasteboard; and for sandstone).054914, ‘nearly three times the thicknessiof pasteboard.. These cracks are not only distinetly yisible, but. they allow water to pass freely into the heart of the wall. The mischief does not stop here: by:this constant,motion; back and forth.in the coping, the cement, of awhatever kind. the joints might, be «made, would be crushed to powder; and in-a short;time betotally washed, by the rains from its place, tig” eee 1 Open, oni) 4 inet 5907 | fay! [Wad e Sh 5}! bdo ihlaeypoah AYATYAATR HDS Fy 54 Observations on Saline Siedatienshant By Rakivcadnwi, » MwD., Extraordinary Member-of the Royal Medical ake chsoenTEalinhog 1; Communicated by the Author, } crystallizing small quantities of saline substances, it srite quently, occurred, to me to observe, that concentrated warm solu- may. be cooled downto the ordinary temperature of, nosphere, without depositing crystals, This property, \as appertaining to sulphate of soda, is noticed in most of the sys- tematic works on chemistry ; but it is usually stated. that it} is hecessary. to defend the solution from. the pressure of the atmo. sphere, by.xemoving the vessel containing it from the nonin i in a state of ebullition, and immediately. corking it up... _ Gay-Lussac*, however, has shewn, that atmospheric pressure does not paces induce crystallization; he found that if the liquid was coyered with a film of oil of turpentine, it might be anes without crystallizing, . And more lately, Professor 'Tur- has succeeded i in the s same experiment, without the use of aa eok ie the flask to communicate with the by means of a moderately narrow tube. Thave | made a number of experiments on this subject, with different salts; but I haye never observed any ‘relation to ak era the | pressure of a atmosphere and the occurrence solutions. The solutions, 14 S f cryst . have been co Il forms, from a ‘narrow-necked. ; Haske tka i ig, to. an open j paren cei ast without their cryst ase herbicryeb | 4584 BAR mt "Shon delhi asa h {p-sBlen hen. oy 810 | Dr Ogden on Saline Crystallization. \ovLatother eases, ‘when ithe) solution: has :been!;preserved. frond atmospheric pressure, the experiment has nevertheless: failed; and the 'salt*has crystallized. It requires some delicacy) to:con- duct the experiment successfully, and mere protection from the atmosphere is no’ security against its failing.» And when it! suc- ceeds, and a supersaturated ‘solution is: thus obtained ini aywells closed flask or phial, I have found it:as easily:excited to erystale lize by: agitation’ without removing - the cork, as when: it is: con- tained in an open vessel. . Lexoligdang ht yealaott> - Atmospheric pressure, then, I do not consider as a condition at all facilitating crystallization in a supersaturated solution) Nor have I been able to determine what conditions are mecessas ry. Crystallization often: occurs without any obvious cause. The slightest agitation will sometimes produce it; even that oc- casioned by stepping across the room has appeared sufficient. Sometimes, again, the solution will bear to“be briskly agitated several times daily, for many successive days; without’ crystalli- zing: A’crystal'of the same salt as’ that in solution will gene- rally bring on crystallization, when ‘placed in ‘contact with ' the liquid; frequently, ‘however} it fails to do“so: “As’ a’ general? rule, the stronger the solution is, the more readily itis en to crystallize by either of these means. Sulphate of soda is the ‘salt ‘most frequently orieteat as’ ii: sessing the property of' resisting crystallization ; but it is by no’ means confined to it, or to any genus of salts in particular, ‘alka- line, earthy, or metallic. ‘Yet there are many salts of which I’ have never been able to form supersaturated solutions ; if there was the slightest:excess over the quantity soluble in cold water, it’ was invariably deposited on cooling, however ‘carefully the: experiment was conducted, and whether or not the soliition was’ protected from atmospheric eiimcig hd inc peculiarity" I shall subsequently revert. Wee eo ‘In stating that crystallization’ is quite inaciendas of “abt spheric pressure, I do not advance it as a new discovery, Me rather’ as a point requiring additional ‘investigation. “The var liest mention I find of it, is in Gay-Lussac’s paper pa plished | 1813; but he seems to have considered ‘some ‘protection’ neces. sary, and employed for this purpose a'stratum of oil-of turpens) tine, . og omens also formed: supersaturated solutions! with: ES A RT Pee AI EN A TOR A, ent et IN ef rin ee ae Dr Ogden:on, Saline: Crystallization, su three or four different salts,:shewing that the property) was mot peculiar to the sulphate of soda... CS erttiny salen otiadg werks .In«the Repertory of Arts for 1818, vol. xxxiiis.isia paper by Dr Ure, in which are detailed some curious experiments, , tend ing: to shew that negative electricity has.a powerful effect, in, promoting crystallization. ,He operated on. sulphate, of soda, and-also.atrives at the conclusion that “ neither ,the chemical properties of the atmosphere, nor its. ere: ‘ana DY: influ- ence on crystallization,” uoSinee then Mr.Graham of Glasgow ana itpprobable that; the chemical..properties of the atmosphere, or at. least of some gases, are capable of inducing crystallization, His. expe- riments consisted,in throwing, up. small, quantities of gases through mercury into supersaturated solutions of sulphate. of soda, and he concludes. that,‘¢.air, determines the crystallization of supersaturated, saline,solutions, by dissolving. in the, waters. and thereby, giving a shock to. the feeble power by which the excess of salt,is held in solution.” ,Ammoniacal..gas was found most,eflicient, ... The experiments are.detailed, in the Transac- tions,of the. Royal. Society of Edinburgh for 1828..,They.also, prove.crystallization to,be iedleninetsen, of the, PapMS: of the, atmosphere, bangin al Notwithstanding these. ssstbesitiaine the ation of prurivar te nic, pressure occasioning crystallization is yet very generally re, ceived, and. may, be traced in.some of our. best works on chemis try. There is a certain appearance of analogy between the cone! version of elastic gas into a liquid. by. the force of strong pressure, and the conversion of a supersaturated liquid into a crystalline, solid by the same means,;,which. has greatly, tended, to give curs) reney and plausibility to the latter doctrine, But the analogy is, defigient in.one very important particular. The liquefaction of, a gas isattended with an immense reduction of volumes, whilstin: the solidification of , a. liquid, the volume undergoes little or no change... There are also circumstances in the mode of, experi. menting which may, have been,instrumental in perpetuating. the error, When, the, cork.or\ stopper is removed from a closed’ vessel; containing a supersaturated, solution, it is very liable to: occasion, a few almost yimperceptible fragments of salt to be, de. tached fromthe neck, which, falling into the liquid below, im- 312 Dr Ogden on Saline Crystallization. mediately ‘excite’ crystallization ; and ‘this may readily be suppo- sed to result from the entrance of the air. But supposing that there ¢an be no-suspicion of such an inaccuracy on the part \of the operator, thelagitation produced ‘by the entrance of ;the’ ait’ may; of itself, bea sufficient cause.’ The vidlénce ofthe atmio=! spheric vibrations caused by the discharge of 'a'pistol is sufficient: to‘break ordinary window-glass: Every one knows’ the loud re* port occasioned by puncturing the concave bladder forming the! upper surface of a vessel exhausted by the ‘air-pump. » Of: the’ same character is the sound inthe conimon operation of opening: aibottle of wine: The effervescence of champagne by a'smart: blow on the top of the glass with the palm of! the hand, is a fax miliar illustration of a change in the’ constitution of a liquid, occasioned ‘by a violent shock. In like manner, the concussion produced on the surface of a supersaturated liquid; by the-sud-' den admission of ate = be “dpa sufficient to: oe Sai lization. ‘4 oft “Besides the ‘cireumstance of pressure ‘not Bie adhe to’ eryitatidarida, nor certain to preduce it, there are ‘otlier’ minor: points.in the ‘nature of’ supersaturated: ‘solutions, into which I was led to inquire, and which it may not”be “deemed ‘irrelevant to mention. These, as well as the first, will be sufficiently ex- plained by the following desultory experiments.» It is necessary to premise, that, in all cases, the solutions were unprotected from atmospheric vaca wy “abn where 0 pstag y= is a. ly’ ‘stated. ia © 1. A hot solution of carbonate of soda via sda edi contained in a six-ounce phial, was allowed to stand ina hot sand-bath until the whole was cool. "Twenty-four hours. after- wards it was perfectly fluid, but being gently moved, it solidis fied. ; RRP Fe Oe) % 2. A’ strong solution of sulphate of soda was filtered ‘whilst hot into two phials, one of which was corked immediately, and the other was left open. At the end of three hours, the of each remained fluid, and each became solid on being agitated. 6"8.-A stréng solution of sulphate of soda was filtered whilst hot into an open jar three inches in diameter. © afterwards, it remained ‘perfectly fluid.) A’ erystal of the same salt being adap aie it, the whole solidified in a few seconds. Dr Ogden on Saline Crystallization: | 318° “‘Phese-éxperiments'clearly demonstrate that atmospheric press’ suré alonedoes not! produce crystallization.) it titer oF hse ‘Owing to its: remarkable’ property of being: most olable' ‘at? the temperature of 106 Fahrenheit, ‘sulphate of soda is-particut! larly’ well adapted for these illustrations. It does not-require so! gradual and careful @ reduction of temperature’ as’ other’ salts y the solution’ may’be filtered’ at any high temperature near ‘the boiling point, for it: ‘has/no: tendency’to’ crystallize until “it has fallerito 106%. With’ many: ‘salts, ’ erystallization’ commences with the Nast iedastion ‘ofr ‘temperature, and’ if the’ attempt’ i is made:to filter’ their ‘solutions fully saturated, they itmediate: ly’begin to crystallize: It is therefore panes ip enw somewhat under saturation at the boiling heat. bait P RATE OS 4c Arstrong solution of muriate of lime cig whilst hot, and) allowed to cool: ‘It was ‘several times freely agitatedy without producing any effect, On exposing the phial contain’ ing it to a blast of cold wind, it crystallized. "The sameeffect may be produced by dashing cold water on the outside of & Ves- sel containing @ supersaturated solution; 6% (onsen ' The seclusion from: atmospherie: pressure in: this case had no’ effect in preventing: etystallization.\>j\ PR? ed HOUR! py 6. Tovastertaid if a supersaturated solution’ was’ capable of exhibiting its proper chemical qualities without crystallizing, TE again heated and gradually cooled the vessel containi of lime. » Into the cold supersaturated solution thus formed, I let fall two drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, which pro: duced a'solid crust of sulpliate of lime,’ and ‘evolved fumes of muriatie acid, but did not induce'crystallization. == = 1-6:; The last experiment was repeated, shaking the mixtute’at the time the sulphuric acid was added. - Arvirinlencdhesbor' crystallize. i roy ah laps) »'% Decomposition was likewise effected by adding oxalate of ammonia to the eye No ee pro- duced. — Ot eel ite Ties iz saeliqna Qanwy.Ay ob Arty 1 Nitmteict oatyten wen dripped int asylrnnted ol tion of sulphate of magnesia, forming sulphate of barytes and nitrate of magnesia. The solution did not crystallize. “The only result of’ the four last experiments is, to shew that 31d Dr. Ogden, on Saline Crystallization: the:salts.in/supersaturated solutions continue to‘exert chemical elective attraction, without necessarily reverting tothe state: of: ordinary saturation. This might have been considered doubt- ful,‘in consequence of the feeble affinity by which the! saltiis held. in’ solution. .).A‘drop of alcohol, by combining: with) the: water, separates a nucleus, and thus crystallizes :thewholey »)«« »jIt occurred to, me that, the peculiar. constitution, of: supers: saturated solutions, .on which depends. their power-of resisting) crystallization, might be completely changed by the admixture of: a; portion, of mother-water of the same ‘salty which had af- forded crystals ;—as the fermentative: process ‘is! established) by» means of a. aren in. wmapeng eran of sen sar fermen~ tation. i SO Ver ETS AGI ET a With this view I oe tne the ipewndsioeesdl -solu- tion of muriate of lime, and poured into it a drachnof mother- water of the same-salt. ‘The vessel was ional sesiersiy 3 butino. crystallization succeeded. Land iitaicore tudy bloo sade Hence, whatever may en al molecular’ state: or donetitsitielne of a supersaturated solution, it is quite compatible im mixture, or inicombination, with a solution simply. saturateds: 00 00) Joor. In some supersaturated solutions crystallization: proceeds slow=): ly; an otbers, especially if concentrated, .it’ proceeds so:rapidly” when, a. nucleus:is obtained, as to give the idea that» the disposi~. tion to crystallize is communicated instantaneously, like an elecs trie)shock, to the whole mass... The following cnr cr proves that, this 1 is'not the case...) aes .10.,An evaporating dish was. prepared witha poets: editing: of acetate of soda, and left for.twenty-four hours imjas state of perfect quiescence. A crystal was then carefully dropped’ iniat.one’ sides | When about one-fourth of the: mass had erystal- lized, a portion of the remaining liquid was poured intovanother!! vessel, where it continued, fluid until the. ames it also’ was” then crystallized. by the same means. seb ea deL E> Olde eae 11, A vessel containing supersulphate of daniiie and potashs which jhad,already been the subject of experiment, was heated ina sand-bath until all the salt was redissolved, On cooling, — about one-third of it a the rest ri it wasshaken..») xj) ogy) oe meeieiney ma Hagens, Jenqgs Malt octiie cree , TES coven Dr Ogden on ‘Saline Crystallization. 315 This experiment shews that the presence: of crystals n°a’ supersaturated ite does not +e arg determine: crystal.) lization. | Dow biadeo, mead ieee inlige, TiERibzwo /12.-There‘does not’ ores any limitation to thetime which! a supersaturated solution may retain its fluidity. -Phosphatée\of' soda was kept: in that. state for the space of eleven days, theny shaken for several minutes, and poured into another vessel. | It i owenes fii. eee er Into it. io ribs sdpPydehéeeeidy yfsr ic mineniigzave a have aledndy sated iB with some silts T have: raljels nih ceeded. in forming supersaturated solutions, the excess being always deposited on cooling, . ‘The mode of determining this. property may be varied in many ways; that which I aad adopted, and found. most convenient, was the following. : Any given quantity ofa salt is dissolved in siijeantitiell distilled water less than is requisite to form) a saturated solution’ when cold, but greater than is requisite to form a hot saturated » solution... The operation is performed in a glass-flask ovet! a chareoal-fire, aud. after being kept a few seconds at a boiling: heat, the solution: is filtered through »paper into another ¢lean» flask, in which it is: again brought to a’ boiling heat, The fire is, then covered with an iron-plate, by which. it. is slowly and gradually extinguished. ‘The vessel containing the solution is, suspended over the iron-plate, and within an inch of it; every. thing is then left undisturbed for ten or twelve hours... When. cold, if the salt is found to have crystallized, it is owing to one of two causes; either it is a failare of the experiment, the salt being capable of forming a supersaturated solution ; or the salt To remove the doubt, the vessel and its contents must be again). heated and cooled; this process must be frequently repeated ;— and. if there is uniformly a deposition of the superabyndant salt, een that it eniameait cca eeies peat rated solution, _ + Aarebateytiygienelt ny) 4 wHiihinew Wetw Ale Ader buco: Feel gern sientvadtiniiaiine tal eed aed! elects ler Gaattrsealy “The first of the following tables.exhibits those salts, with which, pc RC erm the second, those which . enti of that poor ue io tay S10 “pial Pe dor et ele dl ‘316 a8 ln asioes aol desl aoqe may ie vers ii) nwa eno dren Midd Carbonate of soda. . Oxalate of ammonia. $Bultfnaté of sodtat’! Siilphate ‘of ritagptiesia Atel dindawGhaat il ‘Tarttate ofisoda‘and potash: | ailehntapnpil rrigtidbod fio Biborate pl igi (all Muriate of lime riv, «vas iy basis leat of potash. “ry a ronedd | tongand comand of alumina’ and potash.) ‘Sulphate ofizine., 2: ug /inoe od Bisulphate of potash, . Sulphate of coppetyoo: a joins -Tartrate of potash and antimony. . viabanethene uae wih IT Aigete of ammonia, Hshvs Diesaseor monn fis v iewatpo sell: ee oe eee V¥oRsL @oO a it. fa on Jott ane ids “Muriate oF potash. vieev) uf Bichlo ig of: mercury. ‘ Nitrate Tipu, at Uf Bay ted S445 SFA Sulphate of potash. 0°) 0. Muriate lof ammonia.) © 6) opi -Chromiate:of potashe 115)». o Sulphate ofjammonia.y 96, (f°) Chlorate of potash oii) 9 cio of senarart ota eal Nitrate of lead. , 197 rt ofl od bio aeadie ‘In the progress of these’ éxpertinventas I eval not anil: serving, that the principal characteristic difference between these two sets'of ‘salts was, that the'first contain water of crystalliza- ‘tion, ‘whereas’ the ‘second’ are! anh ydrous. “So generally true is this, that it was with some surprise that I found: bichromate of potash, an anhydrous salt, to form’an exception. Of all the rest -of the salts in the first table, the crystals’are hydrates.» Inthe ‘second table there’ are two exceptions, sulphate of ammonia, and ‘sulphate’ of magnesia’ and potash, both of which are erystalline hydrates. ‘These three exceptions (and many others ‘may yet ‘be found) annul’ the distinction between hydrated and abhy- ‘drous salts, and’ invalidate’ any’ ee rule ene might~be foutided on it. ee AONE aah here a | 2 "Whilst ‘operating on dobine of soda, I todd doladant a deposition of a portion of the salt, in the form of*brilliant ‘gransparent crystals, which became white ‘and opaque when -erystallization was induced in the remaining’ liquid. » This phe- nomenon is described by Mr Faraday in the Journal of Science, vol.’ xixi3 he finds the’ crystals to contain‘cight only, instead of “ten, atoms of water’ of crystallization: MrFataday ‘refersto their production in closed vessels only.) Ihave generally experi mented with open vessels, and all the instancesI have seen have _ Dr Ogden on Saline Crystallization. ely _ been in such. anaheny eee was an open dish four inches wide. | wala semiethahbedpicienss in the habitudes ‘of sulphate of soda with water, which; so far as I know, has.not: been. .no- ticed by any writer. Under certain circumstances, a cold ‘super- saturated solution has the power to dissolve an additional tity of the crystallized salt... Not only does, it dissolve it, but - the solution is greatly facilitated by agitation, unless, by some capricious incident; the agitation should excite: it to crystallize. To illustrate this point, four ounces of sulphate of soda may be dissolved in four ounces and a half of hot distilled water in a glass-flask. The superfluous salt must be allowed to erystallize, and the vessel containing both salt and mother-water is to be placed in a dish containing sand, and exposed to a temperature of 120° or 180° F. in a'common kitchen-oven. . When all. the salt, with the exception of about a drachm, is dissolved, the flask is to be removed and carefully cooled. If this is suécess- fully done; it is not accompanied. by any deposition of crystals. In this: stage, the flask contains a cold supersaturated solution, ‘the heat of the sand-bath*,. It is now to be gently inclined to one side, \so as to elevate the undissolved crystals into the supe- rior part of the liquid... After standing an hour or two in this position, the most elevated. part\ of the salt will have been. dis- solved; and, the vessel being inclined. in another direction, an- saicespee ab thd: telCie teclts sien. apd aeniine eeptrion aati the liquid, and there dissolved. - In repeating the experiment, 1 hate geverally shaken the vessel briskly, and found the crystals to dissolve with much greater rapidity in consequence; though this very agitation has ‘sometimes induced Pom before the ao stips had_ been jeotipleteds ee oe Thus, rn a: tiltialphate shaviautmimnaiaaetel. and which has stood two, three, or four days in,a cool, room, actual- —_— to exert a solvent power on salt’of its own kind, . It was suggested to me, that the undissolved salt might not $érvabphats afta) but some accidental impurity, soluble. in © Furnishing another proof that the presence of erystals in a supersaturated solution does not necessarily determine crystallization. if’ Sep drvendy (318 Dr Ogden on Saline ‘Crystallization. _ virtueof the known power possessed by saturated solutions ‘to dissolve a little of another different salt. I had no. reason’ to doubt the purity of the salt which I employed, and I tried many different specimens, and always obtained the same result. To put it still further to the test, I prepared the solution as above described, ‘and when cool, poured the supersaturated, liquid’ in- to another vessel, and crystallized it... 1, then. returned) the: mo- ther: waterinto the flask containing the undissolved: salt,;.but it . had no solvent effect on it. So that. the very same salt: which would have dissolved in a cold supersaturated solution, was: in- soluble in a solution simply saturated, which. is, the sranrinnesee mother water after the deposition of crystals... - Doubtless this power of solution: possessed. by the wipltsliten rated liquid, has its limits; as the first stage, or simple satura- tion, is the limit.of ‘the solvent power of cold. water ;, but what is the limit of supersaturation,| yet ‘remains, to be ascertained. And the inquiry is beset-with some difficulties ; .for,, independ- ently of the great liability, of strong solutions, entirely to crystal lize, the process is sometimes interrupted, by the deposition,.of the brilliant quadrangular crystals, containing eight proportionals of water of crystallization: Sulphate of soda may indeed.be considered capable of three stages of saturation ; .the-first is the limit of the solvent power of cold water; the second is the li- quid which has deposited quadrangular prisms; and the third contains a still greater quantity of salt. The next experiment illustrates these three stages. 13. A supersaturated solution of sulphate of soda; with a pale tion of undissolved salt remaining at the bottom of the vessel, was allowed to stand at rest for four days. It was then’ briskly agitated, and most of the salt was dissolved. All this time’ it had existed in the third stage of saturation, although notat the limits of that stage. The next day there had been a \corisider. - able deposition of brilliant and transparent crystals. The Te- maining liquid was now in the second stage of saturation. The prose eh repeatedly shaken in the course of three hours, prem any change. “'T'wo hours after AA5id ceil y ‘without meio Sl pi A A doi th 7 saturations)!" 2AM ROIGS 49h tae pesos te - Dr Ogden’on Saline Crystallization. 819 » Inever could calculate with any certainty onthe phenoniena owhichethese expériinents would present. «They were often total en ana ‘at was) Only by frequent: repetition’ 6f then’ that heir peculiarities cotild be observed. © The ye men 3 iscan in sesinicuabeitalveseadeedtr met’ With") OF %orieult Niwer tig 14s Al potind ‘of crvstallived acetate of soda’ was fused \ineits | allization, and poured’ into a clean’ glass’ retort. Six hours afterwards, ‘it was cold and perfectly fluid, with the ‘éxception of 'a’mass/of" erystals about the 'size of ‘a hazel nut, which lay at the bottom of the retort, and a few smaller masses ‘which ‘were floating in the liquid.’ It was several times shaken Without its shewing’ any’tendency’ to’ erystallize. » ‘A’ small ‘ery- stal of the same salt being then dropped in, the entire! mass ‘be- came solid ‘in a few'seconds.” "The evolution of’ sensible’ heat which attends the transition from the liquid to’ the solid: state, was in this case very considerable!) me rmte eu Himibad pst 16. Sulphuric acid sufficient to decompose the acetate of soda was then added, and the’ acetic ‘acid? was drawn ‘off by distilla- tion.” ‘Water was poured ‘on ‘the residuary ‘sulphate of’ soda when cold.’ "The next day about two-thirds of the|salt had dis: solved; ‘but on attempting topour it out of ‘the’ we it sud denly crystallized; aiid became a'semifluid mass.” vat fanny J 8 b eT Fonndaz Tih) s yaoterw Blan eo y9W oe *40TRS\) At Aww! biel 4 SUD erp Sire re Fo rhe) reeterent fle feta HY Neepcheibaact re ‘Pre eerer id be TPM leee eee) eT ae eee ee |, ae eee .* ; aes J On the Magnitude of the Ultimate Particles of Bodies hy “ fusory Animals not formed immediately from, Dead Matter ; _ Extraordinary Minuteness of the I ia 5 Amproved Ar- rangement of the Infusoria ; Marvellous of the Infusoria ; Estimate of the relative value, of the, Micros. _copes.of Chevaliers i stent » eh serene Beit Sie AG ead pola Alias Vrrd TI dp t ¥ ha yi av tio “Magnitude of Ultimate. Particles -Wishin. these arainin the atomists have become. pretty, confident in their dogtrines re. lating to the minute particles of bodies. ‘They have not rested satisfied. with viewing atoms as, ideal unities of an infinite degree of minuteness, but have sought for approximative numerical ex: $20 Magnitude of Ultimate Particles of Bodies, “pressions of their magnitudes. . Nay, many bold theoretical ex- “perimenters ‘of the: present day seem to have fallen.little short, “in their own imagination, of in» reality seizing the ultimatesele- “ments of bodies, and of reconstructing them at pleasures, 4») Newton ‘long ago taught us to believe: that) the elements of -colour were of tolerable magnitude... His words are, $¢Could the power of the microscope be so increased as,to.represent ob- jects at.a foot distance, magnified 500 or 600. times above what they appear to the naked eye, I imagine that. we might discover some of the coarser elements which enter into the formation of colours ; and’ that, with a microscope which magnified 3000 or 4000 times, we might recognise them all, even those which form the black colour.” Supposing that Newton has. correctly esti- “mated the natural power of human vision, his elementary. parti- cles, as appears from. the following observations, would, for the red colour, not exceed a minuteness of 55355” in.diameter, be- tween, which and 5445555 all coloured particles, not.excepting _the black; would be included*... But itis prebable that Newton’s ‘estimate of the acuteness of vision is below the truth, when these elementary particles would become considerably larger. . Buty:as ‘has been already observed by Herschel, in his Optics, it noust not’ be forgotten that Newton. made a marked distinction, be- tween the elements of colours and atoms, aswell as later philo- sophers, although he does not expressly say so. In the above passage, Newton does not speak of atoms, but of colouring par- ticles—(T'raité @Optique, 1704 ; lib li, part iii; Ed. Hrane. 1720, p. 357.) ~ 'Thesmall magnitudes which have been required for. shisax- ‘plication of the phenomena of light upon the theory of undula- tion, ate exactly enough determined. by. calculation, but»they “ean only be considered as hypothetical, not as really observable quantities, as. the whole theory, however great its probability, -still requires more complete demonstration. The smallest length “of a wave of light on this theory, calculated from the most exact datay does not exceed +5555) or about 4,5”. Buty as the pitino elie handot ibsivomniderabyp smaller than their undu- -tinctitos, svied, fade. nrolly ciiiw caloric { AEE. (iy RD sR ap * The general reader may be in line or 12th part of an inehewioe) iy yon ovnsa: sbqcsema vans 0 Infusory Animals not formed from Dead. Maiter. ($21 ' Jatory»-motions,..this: number’ gives. a tangible limit: for their _maximum, although somewhat arbitrary, and therefore one-ex- pression for their degree of minuteness. If we were.to conelude the minuteness;of these elementary particles: from the, want,of ‘\ weight-of highly condensed light, or:masses of ether, the, limits ‘of these maxima must) be considerably extended... All, these, however, ;are mere hypothetical impeninyies when we esipedie ‘express them in numbersi)) 6) >. “»'The coloured phenomena between a ek are neu: in ‘contact, permit likewiseof some inferences regarding the mag- nitudes of the:so-called,elements of colour. Newton has already fixed at yy ‘55'9"s the smallest interval, which gives a. white co- lour, which is a little more than, 44}94”’5 and. Haiiy has, calcu- lated, from the different refractive powers of mica, that a plate of this substance, which: produces. the. same effect,as the above layer of air, must be todos ofa eetiidede or sadlsen! in thickness... Ww moows » With welpebt to. solid iets gat as well, as sionganie, bodies, Robert Brown’s microscopic. measurements, of the years, 1827 and 1829, fixed the’ size of the. smallest observable. particles which he saw in ‘active movement, ‘and. of .a globular,.form,, at about yy ho5" to s0h5 0" OP from yy'56”” tO gz'yq"" In diameter. oJ, FLW. Herschel, in his Optics (1829), says, that be.has seein bodies, through an Amician microscope, magnifying 8000 times, but that he was far from supposing that he had. at, all succeeded in resolving bodies into their constituent, atoms, \» Infusory Animals not formed directly from dead matter.— M. Dumas, the chemist, from his. own observations, mai tained, in 1825, that the elementary globules of dead orga- nie matter might be seen and counted by the, aid of a good microscope ; that they formed other larger bodies by the simple ‘union and augmentation of their masses, which were at, first: in- fusory animalcules, capable of being resolved by. the electric shock into their primitive elements, when they assumed. the form of ‘a raspberry.—( Diet. Class. d’ Hist. Natur. Article Gx- NERATION, p. 195.) In the same place, p. 81, the author be. lieves that, in the present state of chemistry, it was. geen to VOL. XILl. NO. XXVIL.—ocToBER 1832. | wo} es ye TnfusoryAnimals, not formed from Dead. Organic Matter. form..synthetically an artificially organized. matter, and con- clu les, “ If infusory, animals could be obtained in, this, rath the Bonhetian theory. 0 of generation would be overturned.” ‘cf ;, Koelle also gives a peculiar chemical microscopic Poartbaceriv (Kastner's, Archiv. f. Naturlehre,, xii. 348, 1827,), He says: Zymom consists of microscopic globules, and, forms withGlyadine Gelatin (p. 350.), Zymom is the substance; from, which, the simplest organic forms are produced on; the occurrence of fa. vourable circumstances (p...352.) ,The.globules; of milk ;and blood are zymom;, gelatin, caseum,) starch, sugar, &c.. contain aymom, (p. 350.) Silica assumes first, a vegetable structure, and from the zymom formed from thence arises animal life, (p. 358.) Vegetable. matter: can be immediately,changed into an infusory animal (p. $60.),...In favourable ¢ircumstances, the different kinds of infusory animals can»be formed from. Aymow (p- 358.) The. first. infusory, animal, the: lowest, organic form, isan animated, zymom globule; (p: 358.) Zymom mays; in, cer: tain points of. view, be. considered as.an.egg, (p,;360,).,. igi yolk of, egg consists of zymom united. with, mucus, (P, 857.) These are not hypotheses but facts, (p.. 361.) eg That the,origin of many organisms, is the effect, of, puteetae tion or fermentation, and. therefore a purely chemical process, is a very old opinion, and therefore could not, fail of beg repro- duced in an improved form in ,modern.times. . Gruithuisen (Gehlen’s Journal der Physik, viii, 519. 1809) has characterised the formation of the smallest organic: forms as;a peculiar kind of fermentation, and specifies, besides the vinous, and acetous, — the. infusorial fermentation as a source of organization,...For, merly 1 the autochthoniens were supposed to have been formed, in this way, afterwards it was limited. to insects, and, the plants produced during the process, but now insects and the Jarger plants have been. withdrawn from this category. It has.sinee been extended a little to include the Infusoria and Fungi, on account of their difficulty of observation,; but from which, asour . observations have shewn, it must be equally withdrawn. . Berzelius, who notices the subject. in his classical. Lehrbuch der Chemie, but does not, give any. observations of his own, cons siders as probable the fact, mentioned by, others, that, dead orga- nic matter, on ne moistened. with, water, generates, infusory > Extraordinary Minuteness of the Infasoria\S\ $28 animals; and views Professor Hornschuch’s idéa'as not impro- bable, that ‘the prima germina’ rerum, or infusoria, miay ‘be formed in’ different bodies, under certain external inflliences. Tn’ other'respects he has followed MM. Dumas ‘and Milne “Ed- wards’ in the doctrine of organic’ atoms; and the inorganic ators, Which hive’ bedh of ‘So"'mach’ Service to the’ doctrine of chemical ‘proportions by the simple process of addition and’ sub- traction, aré more or less ideal imities, which will long continue of the most decisive practical benefit to chemistry. “Quite recently Mancke of Heidelberg has observed the march of organic bodies-in infusions with a microscope of Plossel, and has arrived at the result, that a passage of organized matter takes place from vegetable to animal life, and: from animal to vegetable life —(Isis, 1831, p. 1083.) } “T must state, in the first place, that the whole fange of my microscopic’ observations are completely opposed to the ‘prevail- ing opinion, that infusory animals or fungi éan ‘be prodticed by simply pouring water upon dead organi¢ substances. ' Tt must be admitted that such appearances are deceiving; but when exa- mined minutely, sometimes one kind of infusory animals, some- times another, appear under the most similar modes of treat- ment, and I have never been able to obtain certain forms by means of certain infusions, although this is stated in all the ma- nuals, and has succeeded with all the earlier observers. Ac- cording to my results there are certain forms, but few in nam- ber, atid these the most diffused, whose ova or individuals are fotind in every kind of fluid, even in those of what are reckoned the most poisonous parts of plants. “Blainville (Dict. des Soc. Nat. Art. Zoophytes) has also arrived at the same opinion with regard to the generatio equivoca from ‘his own observations, ° I have’ often laboured ‘in vain to produce, at will, a certain spe Giés of organic bodies in little glass tubes, although in others containing the same water, and’ situated in the same circum- stances, they apm — = utmost pecmusion: Extraordinary Minuteness yf the Infuisoria.—My obsérva- tions, in regard to the smallest ‘organic parts, have enabled me to-ascertain the following smallest triagtitude, as actually exist- ing and discernible by the senses x 2 $24 Eviraordinary Minuteness of the Infusoria. &"'By means of the microscope, I saw: povarnin9 nities Se which the greatest diameter of the body was from 13455” to yaiyy”o0f a line)” This, whichis the smallest of known animals, I have named Monas'termo, is the same as that described by Otto F. Muller, under thisname. In the largest individualsvof this animal: E was able,’ by colouring the liquid, to discover:in some;othe Jars ger, six, in the smaller, four sacs or stomachs; jand in»some of ‘them the stomachs did not: occupy the! half ofithe)whole - animal. Such a stomach of. the ‘Monas) termo,: therefore,! if the animal is only ;;4,5 part’of a lime in: size (if: there are only four stomachs which: occupy the half of the animal), iS yy%55 part of a line in magnitude, consequently five times smaller than the smallest moleculesiobserved by R: Brown. We observe in the forepart of these animals; as in ‘all the monades, a violent projection of: still smaller bodies than itself,.as soon as'these come near to:it, hence these have probably a wreath of ten or twenty feelers around the anterior miouth opening) asin the .Monas pulvisculus, and) the other still larger monades, © It is probable that each of the stomachs) which: are ‘filled in our experiments. with colouring matter, contain, more) than, one atom; if each stomach contains. three coloured atoms, this af- fords a proof of the existence of red and dark):blue particles of colouring matter floating in. water, with a magnitude of sybo5 Part of a line, 737555 part of an inch in diameter; and if the same objects are calculated according to the smallest. ani- _ mals we have observed, which are 9;',5 of a line in magnitude, and sometimes contain four coloured points in the binder:-part of the body, these latter parts, which are no longer individual ly distinguishable, even by a power of 800, but are distinguished m: ‘the aggregate, have a magnitude of ;,}y5 of a line;cor s7e0006 Of an inch, which is twenty times smaller than the smallest molecules of R. Brown. We may also notice the fine- ness of other parts of these living organic beings. The small stomachs of the monas appear isolated in the body, and sharply ‘bounded. In larger infusoria which, are: },’”, or upwards, in diameter, we see these receptacles as distinct bladders, and there _ is no reason for assuming another .structurein the coloured: ca- vities observed “insthe smallest.of the monades in ; ments. -If we assume: the; thickness.of the \walls:of, the stomach 2 ; ’ nen » Arrangement.of the Tn fusoridess\ A 325 asiy'y of its diameter; it/ amounts in the Monas \termo, haying a diameter of ,;\,5’”, where the stomach appears,as the) ;th part ofthe measurable length of the. whole animal, consequently redeo” in diameter, to sgq'959 of a line or yy 75595: 0f an inch, and:as thereis reason for supposing that the walls. of the, sto- mach contaim vessels, at) affords a still further minuteness.,of atoms.'| But. magnitudes) even »smaller| than these may be pointed: outic In:the Polygastrie infusoria there is an ovarium, The grains) of this! ovariufm are as 40 to 1 in the female of the Kolpoda cucullusy in: others:as 80 to 1; and they appear to in- crease in fineness asthe: body diminishes in magnitude. Is. it, not probable that it:is‘only the transparency and the imperfec- tion of our microscopes that prevents us from observing |a, si- milar ovarium inthe monades, which are similarly, organized, so that it cannot be overlooked that there may be young monades contained inthe ovum, or which have escaped from it,,in. which the diameter of | the. whole body ‘measures only) .g55 gy t0 0}00s and which also are| provided with stomachs, which, ac- snlingi to. thes same -relation, will have, a diameter, of. from gedove” to gzcene” 20 The walls.of these monadal, mamnache will be about zs a} 500" 0 g¢5dn0y" in diameter. | By the kindness of Professor Ensler of Berlin, L. have beth enabled to make many observations with a solar microscope. On viewing the Monas atomus, strongly filled with indigo, I dis- covered in the intervals the shades of smaller monades, which could not have amounted nearly to 9,5,'", but which were quite invisible in the water when examined with Chevalier’s micro- seope, perhaps on account of their transparency. Whether these bodies were the young of the Monas atomus, or independent species, it follows that yjy," is not the limit to a size of orga- uO RAR acct ak | Improved Arrangement of the Class Infusoria—Hitherto I had only been able to observe in Jnfusoria Polygastrica, the muscular, digestive, and generative systems. In one genus only of the class could I detect the points of the eyes. Recently I have been (viz. the Lnglena) able to detect the eye-points more frequently, so that now the genera, possessed with eyes can be enumerated, comprehending sixteen species. Among these forms 326 “°\"lltiplicution of the Infusoria” thére ‘are sottie’ eye-beating monades 5,” in ‘diameter: ‘Thus the traces of alnervous system descend to the monades. | of have extended’ farther my first endeavour to class the Tnfuc soria according to’ their internal organization.’ The’ digestive system furnishes, in’ each of the two classes, only four differences: The Polygastrica fall under the’ Anentera, those without intes: tine ; the Cyclociela, those with a circular intestine 7’ Orthoeela; those with a straight intestine ; and Campylocéla, those witha eurved intestine. ‘Che Rotatoria fall under the Trachelogas- trica, long-throated without stomach} ‘Czlogastrica, long intestine *without a stomach, and with a short throat ; (Gasterodela, those with a stomach ; ‘Trachelocystica, those with: bladders: — ini testine of the latter'is ‘very peculiar. ~The Rotatoria alone, from my further cision hive been capable of being’ divided according to their dentary orgatis. They’ fall first under three’ groups: Agomphia, ‘toothless; they are few in number ;’Gymnogomphia, free toothed; they are the most numerous ; Desmogomphia, hook-shaped’ teeth: © Those with free teeth fall under two great natural divisions, ‘viz. the Monogomphia with one tooth in each jaw, and the Polygom- phia, with many teeth. The Desmogomphia, whose ‘téeth ‘are not free but inserted into’a cartilaginous plate, fall also into’two natural subdivisions, the Zygogomphia with teeth disposed ‘in pairs, and Lochogomphia, with teeth in rows, so that the fol lowing scheme may be formed : u Gg i Kcosrura. GyMNoGOMPHIA. DEsMoGoMPHIA. /eva,t) Monogomphia. Polygomphia. Zygogomphia. Lochogomphia. pS | 6 IIL. IV. v. osiw v7 =, 318 fit to Multiplication of the Infusoria. —T have’ alsé made some observations on the development and smultiplic tion of the Infusoria, which I deem among the most’ im- portant 0 of all my researches. I have’ ‘observed for iH days successively « a single Hydatina ‘senta,’ and’ as it was pe fl ee aw ae Mi gléd it out, and did not die of ioe ee estroyed, the’ life’ of ‘this animal’ miust’ be Os “Vee bapa "ana "RS ofl paarale 12 'Wbabie Ge WOLHOLA ple Wan eye WU WNirdg ROAR pe*eka uP cht Nite be Estimate of the relative Value,of Microscopes. — 32% four eggs from the embryo state to the exclusion. of the young, But this fourfold increase in the space. of @-day, when no ob- stacle intervenes, and the same individual, gives,, in, ten, days, forty.eggs, and raised to. the tenth power (therefore on, the 10th day)-a-million, of individuals from,one mother; and on, the 11th day four, on the 12th sixteen, millions, Kc. Although this produc- tive power)is the, greatest which has been yetiobserved in nature, far exceeding that, of insects; it is far from attaining that, of the Polygastrica: In the, Paramecium aureliay which is yy" in size, and which has been.ascertained to live several days, a donbiing of each, individual. by transverse division has been observed within, twenty-four hours, its, rate.of increase is therefore double that, of the preceding. But as these animals, besides division,-also propa, gate by. eggs, and these eggs are not, separated from the parent singly but. in, masses, and as they also form, gems, the possible increase.within forty-eight hours, becomes quite, innumerable Who can, wonder that, under such circumstances, fluids should, with the ree of 3e-a8 three, reniieharmneKion with, ADAP oil _ Estimate of the iain Value of the Microscopes of Chevalier Plocssel, and Schiek,—The following are my individual views re- garding the microscopes of Chevalier, Ploessel, and Schiek, which are the best of the present.day., ‘The advantages, of all these instruments rest upon the discovery of Selligue, and the most important advances upon this basis have been certainly made by Chevalier. The chief practical advantages of the microscope of Chevalier are,—extent of field of vision, distinctness of outline, even with the highest powers, high magnifying power, a sufficient distance of the object-lens from the object, which amounts to a line even with the highest powers, simplicity, of apparatus, and, conse- quently, a very moderate price. , Ploessel’s BEPC TRE ng Abpsk wean that of Chevalier, i is rs ve its, use, is more, conyenient, i high powers, | nr mg employment..of several, eye-glasses, instead of the elongation « ‘of 928, \\MaHardie’s Outline of the, thetuberequired hy:the former. ‘The inconveniences of Ploessel’s microscope are,--its almost entire uselessness for the observation. of. fluids, on, acebunt of the small distance. of :the; object-lens from the object under the high powers, andthe impossibility :of employing apparatus for pressure, not even, miva., »Lt-is alsoy on.account.of its varied adjustments, and particularly avery fine, screw-micrometer, twice the price of Chevalier’s; therefore only half.as useful considered in the abstract... Its,form is.much handsomer, than that.of Chevalier, and more.convenient,for-use. » Schiek’s. microscope unites, the advantages.,of |both of, the others. Its field of vision is extensive, extremely. sharp. and clear illumination, even to the highest. powers, appearing |to! me much clearer than either, of the others, when I compared. them together, Its magnifying powers equal. the highest of Ploessel’s, therefore twice that of Cheyalier’s, accompanied with consider- able focal distance, permitting, of. the use of water, and. pressure for the most minute objects, , _Its,size is smaller, and form more convenient and handsomer than the others without being weaker. From, the. simplicity. of its, arrangements, the price is, very;mo- derate, and. therefore wandioulenly paADIAe for, the sii na- turalist. , _ The greater deaunen of diovi image, Mind, uidiiiene of, light, isa step made by M..Schiek which isa clear, gain to. optics ;, which, united to all the other advantages, have hehe to.me quite new and surprising. | rPaye al Outline of the Geology of the Bhurtpoor District: By rrisreg ¢ Hii opae Esq. Bengal Medical Establishment. Communi- ~ eated by the Author. So tod hei ETT COWS, THRST Pens district may be described ‘as forming a portion of the South-western boundary of the Valley of the Ganges and Jumna. It presents ¢ a level platform, elevated about sixty feet above the hed of the latter river, and is in most situations covered with the usual alluvium of the! Gangetic’ provinces.’ The country ig fertile and highly cultivated, and impresses°us witha favour: able idea of the’ industry -and enterprise of the Jauts, trasted with neighbours of Jeypoor. rhe Geology of the Bhurtpoor ‘District. 829 taught them bythe fall of their far-famed capital in’ 1825; has not been thrown away upon the inhabitants; and’in rast cated India doés the English traveller meet with more ¢ivility“and ‘at- tention ‘than in this district; wvhesete a few i“ ago he was treated with: instit and contempt. ~~ qs Quielqm@ The rocks' which immediately siddertte the Gangetic deposits in'somie few situations, appear near the surface, and are quarriéd for architectural’ purposes; while strata of an anterior date to these here ‘and there ¢rop out, forming, especially in the northern portion, small ‘detached hills, which are generally topped by a village or stronghold. -'To the west the Bhurtpoor district is flanked by a belt of rocks of the secondary class, which stretches in’ a’ northeasterly’ direction’ from the ancient city of Biana, situated on the south-western portion of the district. This belt is interposed between the newer strata’ just alluded to, and’ the decidedly primary formations of the Jeypoor and Ajmeer terri. tories : its eastern limit is marked by a low hill range, seen a short distance to the westward of the city of Bhurtpoor, ~ ¥ ~The sandstone quarries which have for centuries supplied nf this portion of India with materials for building, are situated in the Bhurtpoor district, and, as these are important, both ina statistical and geological point of view, I shall, in the first place, communicate what little information I have been enabled to collect relative to their natural history. Of the sandstones there are three varieties. No. 1. is a close- grained argillaceous sandstone, more or Jess slaty; of a uniform dark red colour, so soft as to be scratched by the knife, and ap- parently composed of small particles of quartz, cemented. toge- ther bya ferrugino-argillaceous basis: minute scales of micajare - distributed through the mass, to which circumstance) it appa- rently owes its slaty texture. No. 2. is also a close-grained ar- gillaceous sandstone. This is .a very beautiful variety, its co- lour is dark red, speckled with white spots, which, are generally roundish, and vary from an inch in, diameter. to the size, of,a pin’s head. . This rock is less, schistose than No, 1, contains less mica, and, when slabs of, it are properly cut and squared, has, at a little distance, exactly the appearance of a fine red. por- phyry. No, 3. is,a,rock. similar im point of texture and compo- sition to the last, but is of a uniform salmon-colour, passing, into 380 5 >» Mr‘ Hardie’s. Outline of the Iw greyish-white. It can with difficulty be obtained in slabs less than’ four’ epee far gh while ‘No.1. may 1 tad nea than’ one-half an inch. wort, The above rocks are all of them employed in brehitdeea, and are ‘vemarkably- free working stones. _ Slabs ofthe. slaty_v riety, spanning from beam to beam in flat roofs, have been su stituted by my friend Lieut. J.T. Boileau of the Ben ] Engineers, instead: of the bridging joists and:tiles in comm D uses and he has found that the roofs completed upon this prin- ciple have, in every instance, proved perfectly water-tight, and that the terrace laid over the stones-has invariably dried - uniformly, and freer from cracks, than when bridging joists have n used. ' By a seriés of expétiments, Lieutenant Boileau has kee that no apprehension need. be entertained in reg to the transverse strength of the sandstones, objections” on. head’ having been urged against his plan, while the advant ttending its adoption are invaluable, inasmuch as ‘it secu s e buildings against fire, and, what is of still more importance, renders them safe from the attacks of white ants,..'The annexed Table will shew the results of Lieutenant Boileau’s experiment which. are. interesting both ina. a Rineraaginm and economi ae of view. [Pie _ By a reference to the ‘Table, ‘it will been seen that’ the: red. sandstone does not lose much, if any, of its strength by being saturated with water, which~renders it particularly fit for fe purposes of roofing ; and though, in its dry state, it is far in rior to the salmon-coloured variety, (as 11 to 17 nearly), ye yet, -when. wet, it is something superior, to it, the latter variety. losing about one-half its strength, by immersion, in water.;, For: the eause we may look to the difference observable in the! arrange. Poent of the component particles of either ve ef? ) Leete Ort t oiterile Srl? OF vaweleel Ingon! i fia yrus9@38 wedtA Sf bits’ RIE v0 bea bate fade) end! sidlnct ise meeciveandl alt ‘UMONIE D5) S19 nung 6d yao dle js wa dowa beotsieast eyitettey fol#osqe bis bax ort to boson teaodbovilibs| yin dons 1n5Siidenr orice 19987 Js nvbisa odd uni soisg, ons oltdw hing ‘aiedeblivl Yo edmoi oi bas .ewiuM is-eolqmet mieb — wear gnes ony Yo Sanne oreeslo oe 4 nt ep is Ub caperpne WT ; 4 e ' bt Abt ot & Fees 5 zdeie ot benthide dd vio) 9 11 ..stilw-darystg Tediachesindsdincdinebeal Eeaavieuhee male on-Sandstone) Slabs, frente Goeenirnant armament Aisin aves in breadth, and 1 inches, in thickness. 2s oyods oll £ Uigi2. adi to. silsle 230052 ane aue a9 rs too’ tat i € Bi ; ; | \38 IE pee i901 oct to mE) ad . Al a0 38 nA iis ° — Noto. DescRIrTION.2 1210) 7 4 35) 33 P| 5 2 3 Tie - | S rte £ a3 M ti & Lmo0o! 09) icy eer > 2 i. 4 : % : "5 sal | tn» ag 2%, : a ‘) 3. : ' S00 1 sandstone slabs, dry, |2275|142 | 80 |.... |304|.362|. 45_ - nf Pied sendeeene Paty ah 146 | 824) ... |390}150 | 570 p bi Sheol suincrs3 sof 2846]146 +824) ye [482)-75 ho 7k, by 1 bor > Means, '+'| 9322/1449) G19 | us. | 392 |.637})) 57 op 4 |Salmon-coloured do. dry, |2389/149 |84 |... |555 ; i Co — - ey 4 eee aingdevbe.oi alidw .delq 42Ber Mt lot 617}. $, » n°? Vinsaur’’.s t AVEERT IESE f i , 85 ort poe "i pia’ j +708). 56 , .} 10 | Salmon-coloured, do. —- |2012)125 | 703 | 744 | 266) .75 a ~% Pye) Teen TL fener | vss [76° [774 |432}.625]) 6@"P "Means, {|3094|1304| 733|77' |300 701 ve bth } ; : mi.dulk ; wy I "* Macw sy a & Sez a SBS \ The majority of the buildings of the Agra and neighbouring districts are constructed of the sandstones under review ; and among these are some of the most splendid edifices of Hindos- stan. ‘The fort of Agra, the gateway of the Taj, the tomb of Akber at Secundra, the magnificent gateway to the shrine of the Mussulman saint Salim Chisti at Futtypoor Sickra, and the far-famed Kutib Minar at Delhi, may be enumerated among the many edifices constructed of the red and speckled varieties ; while the palace in the garden at Deeg, some magnificent mo- dern temples at Muttra, and the tombs of Buldeosing and Surujmull at Goverdhan, the classic haunts of the Indian i 939 OM Hardie’s Oudline of the Apollo} aréexamiples of the salmon-coloured) variety: *!! "Phe 1O6fs of tiany of these buildings are very wide, but nevertheless or in’by' series of slabs, spanning from wall to wall 1" “Phe dark'red colour and brick-like aspect of the first variety; as'contrasted with the pure white of the Makranacmarble,’ of which the cupola pavilions and trellices of the buildings are generally formed, give to many of the most stupendotis iionu- ments of Mogul dtchitedtiit: a fantastic and party-cdloured ap- pearance; and it is impossible not to regret’ that thé “lighter coloured varieties had not come into general’ use'at ‘an’ earlier period. ‘To the employment of the red sandstone there is a still stronger objection. 'This rock seenis but little capable of resist. ing the decomposing effects of ‘the atmosphere ; ‘hence it is that so few of the edifices, for which Agra was ‘once so famous, now remain entire, and of the few which still 'suivive, ‘the ‘mhajority are rapidly falling to decay. The splendid mausoleum of Akber at Secundra is likely soon to meet the fate’ of “its fellows ; ‘while at every step we take we percéive the most stupendous ruins of palaces, and courts, and gateways, which less than two centuries ago were the favourite haunts of the monarchs of Hindostan. In every climate this is a most serious objection, but in a climate like India it is quite insurmountable. ‘In, comparatively speak: ing, modern days, an Indian monarch, surrounded by a court more gorgeous than Europe ever witnessed, pronounced this capital the “ first city in the world +,” destined to be eternal ! We may smile at the vanity of Jehanghir ; but let us not neglect the lesson which the fate of Akberabad + has so eadiahe taught us. A day must come, distant though that day may when we, like those who have preceded us, must resign to othe the mighty empire of the East; and I know not if at this hour there exists in India a single edifice of British construction which will survive our fate, even for a few years. We cannot but re- gret that this should be the case: independent of every oth consideration, we feel a sort of melancholy pleasure in the ‘idea that we shall leave behind us some monument of our greatness, (45) Obi ae) sui rb * Bor 9 depctiption, of these magnificent edifices see Bishop bua » 4p See the Life Jehanghir, written by himselfs 6 69/005 ip I 91 ©The Mash nai Modern Aga HOSEL esque! ite eaqbe ext dbidw enioe woddo bis esidut odd to SHOR Ma9e oval tips ards Ft si at iibavods ee a a tt ate ee ee ee Lae, an eh, ee ee po eee ee © eae - Geology of the Bhurtpoor District. 833 something amid the-scenes of our achievements, to,tell to future generations of the existence of one of the most extraordinary empires that the world ever witnessed, and to mark.the spots where our footsteps have been. In this point of view, the labours of the geologist acquire additional importance : but to our sub. he ‘salmon-coloured sandstone is less liable than the red to be affected by atmospheric influences. The former is a re- markably fine freestone, and may be had in slabs of any magni- tude; it is admirably adapted for paving and hearth stones ; and is even capable of being used in the finer kinds of ornamen- tal architecture. A remarkably handsome chimney-piece of this rock is in the possession of Colonel Lockhart, our political agent at Bhurtpoor, which, in chasteness of design and minuteness of sculpture, could scarcely have been surpassed had the. finest mee been employed in its fabrication *. iy The sandstones. under review belong to that great formation so extensively distributed throughout Hindostan, and which has been pretty generally considered as the type of the new red sandstone of, England. . The rocks of this series, which occupy so conspicuous a place in the geology of the southern boundary of the valley of the Ganges and Jumna, appear to be continued on with but little interruption into the Bhurtpoor district, where they occasionally are found near the surface, though, generally speaking, they are hid from view by the alluvia of the Gangetic provinces. The latter in many eases seem to occupy extensive internal basins or valleys in this formation. _ In the Bhurtpoor district, as elsewhere, the sandstones are characterized by the nearly horizontal position of the strata, and » © The marble which was so extensively employed by the Agra architects du- ring the reigns of Jehanghir and Shah Jehan, was brought from Makrana in the Joudpoor district ; and appears to be a very durable stone. Unfortunate. ly it was but too often associated in the same building with the more, perish- able sandstones. Shah Jehan, indeed, encouraged a chaster etyle of archi. tecture ; and the Laj Machal, where the ashes of this monarch now mingle with those of his beloved and beautiful Begum, is still preserved in all its pris. tine splendour. ‘This magnificent mausoleum is, indeed, well suited to his gorgeous title of “ King of the World.” In the exquisite mosques for which the Laj is so celebrated, a variety of agates, jaspers, coloured marble, hélio- tropes, with lapes lazuli, plasma, and similar minerals, are employed s;but I have seen none of the rubies and other gems which travellers have described as abounding in this edifice. 884 ‘Me Hardy’s Outline of the by’ the Abserice'of' enclosed organic remains. “There are rio part. inws ‘interposed between the strata, the sections-of’ the rocks ‘exe hibiiing a suécession ‘of huge rectilinear’ tables,’ piled’ directly one on another. "These strata ‘are remarkably free from veins or fissures. of (any kind, and’ contain fers if any,embedded “imine- ralsii | Jism auosRolss: diow »y'Ehe-geology of the more recent siuidstelyscae the» Bhurtpoot hatzichnnay’ be best studied ; at» Rupbas,.a town:situated about thirty-two miles ina .south-westerly direction from Agra: There are other. quarries; ‘near the: villages of Jugneet, Bussai,\ and Puharpoor, all,of which places die! within »a-limited:;patch! of country, distinguished. by.an undulating surface, and ‘by mene: low rounded hills formed.of the sandstones: |, Asi far.as Ihave; been enabled:to-ascertain the eg thetd ‘are no, deposits of rock-salt. or gypsum included in the rock forma= tions.of the Bhurtpoor district. The soil, however, is: imprege nated, to, a; great-depth with, saline particles, and ‘a saline 'efflo- rescence. very generally: appearssat the: surface. -From: these sources | are manufactured. large quantities ofa salt called Khaz ree nimuk (i.e, Bitter Salt, a name! by-the-by veryeindefinitely applied to several, saline»compounds:in which sulphate:of soda exists,as-an ingredient), whichis used by the) natives» as:a ‘cons diment..,, The : salts: collected at the surface, together with a quantity of the saline» soil, are. washed; with water from: the brackish. wells, and. the solution:thus formed is. left to evaporate in. shallow. pits dug for the purpose. The: pits are: lined witha thin coating of lime, which is renewed after every deposition: The salt is deposited in. cubic crystals, many of which arewery perfect,and colourless, though occasionally they are tinged with: iron; they have a bitterish taste :. the principal ingredient» their composition is chloride of sodium, which is combined with sulphate and.carbonate of soda in small proportion, and)a:mit nute, quantity of iron. A more reside pessoa ‘ had not aw opportunity. of making. | nef A19G td gina » ‘The wells' from which se dadk ake is seis aw in depth’ from 42 to\644 feet, the richest water being’ that which is: pro~ cured atthe depth of from 51 to 60 feet. o Th mgt ace cording to circumstances, from a ched ol. (ue from 1 to $ per cent. by weight), ant ey wah Pell me a season from 100 to 1000 pullahs,-a pullah, or bullock-lo Oe _ me Rg REE LE Geology of the Bhurtpoor District. 335 heing equal to.34-muns, at 90. sonat rupees, to\the.seer'*. 9 (Itis said that, the: water below 65 feet.is also saline,, but-that the. salt in this/case| does not form into separate crystals, but is leféfin; a solid, erystalline.cake. at the bottom of the evaporating pits.) sco _. Lhe (soil, through which the wells, are,sunk. is clayey,-mixed with calcareous matter, fine siliceous sand, and scales of mica: Itveffervesces | strongly!-with acids, the inferior beds are nore tenatious and: retentive “than the’ upper; and beds of loose sand, exhibiting something:of'a-stratiform appearance, occur at various depths:below the surface: “The principal salt manufactories are at Bhurtpoor, ‘Deeg,:and/Kumbeer.. From sources similar to the above, ‘salt is manufactured in various other districts of In- dia ; and an inquiry into the phenomena attending its oecurrence would» be. extremely interesting. Are ‘such saline soils found only:in connexion with: rocks: of the so-called Indian new ‘red sandstone: formation?) Or, in other words, when ‘seassalt"is found intermixed with the soils of the Gangetic provinces,’ is there any reason to believe that this circumstance has any con- nexion with the occurrence of rocks of the above formation be- neath such soils? Or, on the other hand, have these saline:par- ticles ‘been transported froma distance, in mixture with the other ingredients: of ‘the soils, and by the same causes: which operated in forming the alluvia? Or, are they the produce of some: chemical decomposition still going forward in the great laboratory of nature? ‘The experiments of Sir James ‘Hall have rendered this a most interesting subject of inquiry ; and, supposing for a moment his theory relative to the influence of sea~salt as a consolidating agent to be correct, might'we not also spppose that the salts now found intermixed with the’ soils had originally effected the consolidation of the strata below, and that; having passed through ‘these strata in a state of vapour, the: superjacent soils were thus impregnated with’ saline matters without themselves being consolidated ? The latter cireumstance might perhaps be attributed to diminished pressure from their stperior position; and I ean-see nothing in the phenomena of sublimation to militate against such an idea, | In this view of the case, the period of deposition of the diluvia must have been ' _# he weight of the Sonat’ Hupee is ‘shout 7 : n | “urna he si is shout 7 i Troy ; a Mu consists Ma UA) / WU ' 336 Mr Hardie on the Geology of the Bhurtpoor District. either synchronous with, or anterior to, the consolidation of the sandstone strata, and future observation perhaps may identify Some of the lower beds of the loose arenaceous deposits with the _-superior.. beds of the new red sandstone formation containing ~ rock-salt, Might not the identical agent, supposing it to have been a body of water concerned in the transport of the loose deposits, have. ‘supplied the pressure necessary for the conditions © of Sir J. Hall's hypotheses : P And might not the presence” of so a an ocean in countries now far removed from the | sea, be connected in some way with those great uphéaving agencies 7 | which are supposed to have effected the elevation of our moun- ob tain masses ? Well-marked indications of the operation of some 7 “such | agencies may be perceived in the neighbouring hill ranges; ay and | we might thus be enabled to’ trace a regular’ chain of phe- “nomena which might all be referred to one grand original ¢ cause. The speculations of Elie de ‘Beaumont, and others, have invest- “ed. this subject with a. degree of interest bordering a! almost on romance, __ Unfortunately, v we know as yet but Tittle of the minute » geo. _ logy of the Gangetic. deposits, and the Tittle we do. know tends rather than. otherwise to perplex the subject. The borings for fresh water now going, forward in ‘Calcutta, may “probably | lead _,,, to important results, and the attention of the scientific i in, India has of late been more forcibly directed than heretofore to such - studies, _ As far as I know, 1 no organic 1 remains have as yet been. diet pote in the deposits under consideration, except perh 1aps some recent shells found imbedded near the surface in the Jast ey eat of the alluvial soils. . Had organic remains of. the larger ,antediluvian animals. been. abundant, they must ere this have {» been.observed on the banks of the, Ganges, Jumna, _ ani ; “other x sis telah which have worn, for, themselves deep channels, in, the ty gerreity aie care nscornanily liable, to extensive. slips, an sections, often of great perpendicular height, are thus daily ex. ., posed: ‘Would the absence of organic remains, if’ satis rn (Ai OAR TORR' in any degree to corroborate the ideg _ identity, in regard:to age, of, the inferior beds of these, with the saliferous sandstone,formations?, , Ou Tre Kawe ‘ttithe (To be concluded in neat Number.) — etemd * a . et a ts lg | cae A oy + icy ia 3 : | 2? “yas PSPs ee ast 1 =a \ 3 onigtt ai ass en 887) yah J | IOTHDTYs \y P “+ on Meigen aa fom «Regier of Weiter, ee eee ee) a | 1821 and 1828, | > ORL Py RRP A I paid a a good deal of attention to the weather, and kept a register as connect- edly as I could for the greater part of the time. There is a re- markable similarity in the climate there, and I fonnd that though the monthly results varied in some instances consider. ably, the yearly average did not materially differ. ‘Chinking that it may be of some importance to know facts at a time when every thing connected with climate causes an unusual interest, T have sent you the results of two years which were considered to be extremes,—the one in respect of rain, and the other unques- tionably of drought, in order that the medium of’ the two may be estimated as the weather commonly to. py looked for at the _ place where I was stationed. - Bancoorah, situated in 23° 20’ North dled alle OP hnen Longitude, is a civil station in Bengal, distant a hundred miles west-north-west from Calcutta, on the great road to Benares. The country is remarkably level upwards from Calcutta, until you reach Burdwan, a distance of fifty miles; and it is from this last place that the country ascends in a gradual elevation to Bancoorah, a distance of fifty miles, above which place the ascent is much more rapid, and the country becomes hilly. ‘The face of the country about Bancoorah is covered with low woods, and the soil is gravelly, with a clayey sand on the surface, that be- comes perfectly bard in the dry weather, and requires mucly rain or manual irrigation to render productive. The river Dalkissah, that passes Bancoorah, brings down in floods considerable pieces of trap and also of quartz rock, containing a large portion of mica (which is largely imbedded in the gravelly soil of Bancooral and its neighbourhood), from ‘the hills about its sources ; but about the place itself, with the exception of two or three masses of quartz jutting above the surface, there is no rock or stone of any consequence. There is a considerable bed of coal and freestone VOL. XIIf. No. xxvnocToRER 1892) ev. OF Fe $388 . 4M Macritchie’s Meteorological Tables; upon ithe: banks of the Damoodah river, about thirty miles north-east of Bancoorah ; the coal resembles our Scots coal very mudh, and the freestone is durable, though coarse imits texture. Bancoorah: is a very sultry place during the) hot, season .of the year; but. from its being situated above the lowswamps,,and in a great degree free from the noxious exhalations emitted from their surface, it is generally accounted tobe the healthiest station in»that) part.of India... It.is. elevated, above, the, sea-215 feet, and; above the tide-mark 160 feet,,and.at a distance of about 105 miles in a meet line. north. ere from, the nearest’ sea- coast. iz Li Ai talegon _ As the. tonbniescitiine, in “the accompanying “table, was noted fom a thermometer placed against.a wall.in the room, \it.will be» requisite that: L.should say, something regarding the con- struction:of the houses in India, so very: different from, those.in thiso country: ‘The: houses ‘there are. all.built .of . brick,,flat- voofed;and: thickly covered ,over-and ornamented ‘with finely pulverized lime wrought into plaster, that-admits.of a high po- lish if necessary. Every house has ‘anyopen. verandah, or porti- co, With as many door-ways 'to‘each .room)as)may, be.consistent with; architectural proportion and, stability, running. along the whole length and breadth of. the, house, from) the verandah and the.outer-walls, to allow -the-external, air, when refreshing, free access to the remotest: corner.) These door-ways.are occupied by foldimg doors, with Venetian blinds. in.each, half, which .can be opened, or shut as required, and,glazed windows are hung. in the-same style! immediately within. these, so, as. to!prevent, the hot wind..from blowing; in upon: you without darkening) the room, /;In this manner the temperature of the room, into) which the solar beams do not directly, penetrate, is properly thatiof.the shade, for on the. outside of the -house it is. diffieult:to finda place free from. the hot wind,-and the direct or reflected. rays of a vertical, sun, which subjects the thermometer: to, sudden rises beyond the true temperature, as indicated in.a room ex- posed tothe heat of both without the direct influence of either. ‘The external.air, during the hot season, is-insupportable ‘with- out cover to the European; so that: itds-theihouse, under the — foregoing circumstances; that he is the most» pantial:toy andicon- ‘gente Ronbe: siya — temperature of} his sitting apart- a s ‘ et : \ + a t {' Vb kept at Bancoorah during the years 1827-28. 3389 ment. But it is only whilst the hot winds continue.that the two thermometers materially differ; at all other seasons of) the year the temperature im both situations is remarkably equal... here was no artificial means resorted to, as tattces, for cooling. the room: iti which” my thermometer hung, so that the temperature is given ‘as it really happened, without any influence upon it beyond the necessary openness of the dwelling. Tattees are very generally had recourse to for procuring comfort in the hot- weather, ‘They are constructed of an oblong wooden frame of split bamboo, having ‘the body of it thickly wattled with the small sprigs of the bamboo, and the interstices filled with the coarse common tothe country. When wanted, this frame is placed against the door-way upon which the hot wind is blow- ing, with the folded-door shut, and the Venetian-blinds open, and being constantly kept wet with water, the wind passes through it cool into the room within. Whether tattees conduce to the health of those under their influence is ata left for mee cal mien to determine. g The atmospherical preseures was s uoted frais an pt irs doriah barometer in an adjoining room; and the quantity of rain waseare. fully measured by a yain-gauge placed in the centre of 1a grass- plot fronting the house, andvaway from all overhanging impedi- ments. 1 did not observe the hygrometer. In the rainy season the atmosphere is perfectly moist, and in the hot weather it is dry toa very great degree, no dew falling during the night at this season. From what I observed, I was led to conclude that the driest month is April, and July that in which there is the most moisture. In the cold weather, the atmosphere is less dry than the clearness of the sky would indicate, from the heavy dew ‘that falls during the night being evaporated by the succeeding day’s sun, and remaining in a state of vapour, to condense again after his setting. ‘The greatest range of the thermometer in tlic room was from 60° to 98°, and the greatest difference during the day never exceeded 9°; and that only following a severe storm, after a preceding temperature of 90° and upwards, I never saw the barometer lower than 29°250, nor higher than 30-200 ; and a variation of 2 lines: between the two observations, was always looked upon as remarkable, and never happened but in very wet weather. ‘The temperature of the external air in the cold ¥2 340 Mr Macritehie? s Meteorological Tables, ‘ ‘season’ i betn Seen’ so"low as’ 55° or 50° at ‘sunrise: but this coolness only took place i in a clear morning, after a fall of ‘rain, for, when clouds made’ their appearance, there was no difference between the temperature of ‘the external atmosphere and that of the room, although it might have amounted to 12? or 14° on'the preceding morning at that tinie. Phe heavy dews that fall du- ring the night, at this ‘season, in clear weather, give a chilliness to the su¢ceeding unclouded mornings more sensible to the feel- ings than a much lower degree of cold in mote northern cli- mates. “The weather becomes warm in February ; ‘and the hot winds commence about the beginning of'\March, but seldom in earnest until the vernal equinox, and ¢ontinue until the setting in of the rainy season in’ the’ first’ or second week’ of June. The hottest month is May, and the heat increases in sultry oppression ‘as the rains approach, ‘until ‘their ‘actual’ presence abates its’ insupportable tyranny. © ‘The heat of the ‘night com- monly exceeds that of the day in’ closeness for nin¢ months in the year; and the'most pleasant part cos es when ing to hours is an prey or two before sun-rise. ©” ef ONES ‘Phe ‘rainy season in’ general '‘sets*in with: Hilly rain from the ‘eastward, attended by severe thunder and lightning ;\ the higher clouds’ motion having previously come round by showers from different quarters to the point agreeing with the wmd on thé surface. “The heaviest rain falls-m July, and Jessens in quantity until the middle or end of September, when the rains ustally take their leave with a flood from se east, in a similar a2 lé'to their commencement. 42of%e “Solar and lunar halos are very frequent when drill beconies hazy and slightly overcast, but without that effect up- on’ the coming weather expected’ in variable climates, excepting When it chatiges from dry to wet, and the contrary. - Lunar Fainbows aré not uncommon in’ stormy showery weather.’ I had at’ opportunity of seeing three very perfect ones, in one instance 86° well defined as to appear double. Parhelia, with bright spots 6f and ‘around the halos, are of genctal occurrence in the mares: tails and mackerel formation, which the clouds ‘so'often assume in/‘an Indian atmosphere. “ Eclipses’ do’ not ‘faterially’ influence the weather’: in’ 1828; the great solar eclipse of April’ was not followed by any alteration, ibis the exception of happening near kept at Bancoorah during the years 1827-28. $41 to a periodical change of season, when they hastén its approach, as has been before remarked to: be the only influential attendant ‘on those! phenomena, » Earthquakes are generally attended with — ahazy atmosphere, with: small Jow motionless clouds, -and . the breeze on the surface loess Seles am- strong eddies, with vals ihterveitiag.iciniorin ies: zo iadtget de. vid « . veo ars ~ ‘[tiis im! May'and September that Cholera Morbus and other Bhai prevail most: ansthe year 1825, the rainy season. did not commence ibefore:the -4 9th: of June, continued throughout very mild, and broke wp in'so-light a:manner.as scarcely to: be remarked) at ‘alk: Lin consequence, the weather, for a month be- fore:their setting-in\/aud at their conclusion, was unusually close and. oppressive,: although the temperature was not higher than that! of other years:at the times in question... The cholera raged im) Calcutta in June; visiting the country here and thereon that ‘and the following months, and reached Bancoorah, among-other places; ‘in September; sweeping off a vast number of the natives in its way. After continuing for a fortnight,or threey»weeks)im the: towm of Bancoorah with fatal effect, almost in every case baffling the power of medicine, it all at once left, the place and appeared in Chatna, a village about eight miles to the northward. In this manner it travels through the country in coutinued hot moist weather, carrying off great numbers of, the, native po- pulation, and, I believe, in some instances taking one portion of a, village, or even one side of a street, leaving the rest of the village untouched in its progress onward, In Calcutta, the cholera is among the natives in the Black Town almost at all seasons ; the low situation of the city, and the crowded and nartow streets of the native part of it, being exceedingly well suited to keep the disease from abating even during the coolest part of the year. At this time Calcutta is almost. daily visited with a dense damp fog hanging over the city and the River Hoogly in the morning and evening. In May 1828, the cho- lera was not only mortal to the natives in that city, but there were more numerous instances of its proving fatal to Europeans there and in other parts of the country than former years. had exhibited. This might have arisen from, the unexampled heat of that season. There cannot be a more impressive case of dis. tress than that of witnessing a patient labouring under Cholera 342 “Mr Macritehie’s Meteorological Tables,» Morbus, In the morning he might have been perfectly well— before sun going down (a speedy interment is in that climate indispensably nécessary) the tomb covers all that is mortal of him! From the great evaporation that takes place before and after the departure of the rainy season, giving an intolerable closeness to the heat, September and the first weeks of October have been always considered. the most unhealthy season of the year. ‘The cold weather is not generally thought to be the time most conducive to health, from the coolness of the air giving a check’to perspiration, and the heavy dews that then fall at night proving so damp*and chilly asito:make the least exposure to them be. attended with prejudicial consequences. The season commonly considered to’ be:the most healthy is the continuance of the steady north.west hot wind, whet a copious perspiration is produced and: speedily: ‘evaporated off ‘the surface of thesbody by its;warm dry, influence, giving a light. cheerfulness. to the spirits they never can have under ‘the — of a sultry, ‘still, and close atennephere: Kiger bars beat ; 7 | ar bapa Gronce Macurrente. CiunrE, 12h March ta32, : | Pe Cena © (poe wae 2 [sete arene |emmn tenia en sare oe me enero) f f Dt, ke i To R. JAMESON, Esq... | ahh } LY Lt Prof. Nat. ‘Hist &e. eT Of re: 1A | i KE Moe Ahh Hoa T WV t y aeeyey AG issuo% ; ’ mus wai, i Seb / bs : : 7 heavy . bi ee ne Pu ae ee ae Pe ae abies clad ee Lay i v8.4 & oh ay se iL y inel> Hadt aagni gitsq t di a : “eg ‘eA te ees ferk “TUE Tehk ‘ a scl? aT ; BI TH > Te —— cities 'Montily | Monthly ‘ + peonsehls bat’: + t8o72 (tempers. |Aehnpera- | tempera prewure Fall of rain in} i "noon. , 4 ; at |, tureat | ture at Smaak 3 Php Me) "Boon, | 10 Pp. M mil: 2) is) sft Fe rail o> oa) mr i mop. © Wary + sy |) 66.75, |, 68.25 | 67 29.800 1,729...) February were “Tas, 7450 | 78.50: | 29.800 oO} Martens ©2205! | o-78.95''180.50°.) 7825 | 29.775 1.199 fii‘ ote Mr) $4.25 | 83 25 me 1.3386 ay - rt 00'| 87.25 | 86.00 750 1.765 rare iS ie @ 83, 85.50 - — : 29.525 oie ’ * be e 50 84.00. 83. l * je : 81.50 | 82.25 \| ‘8.75 goes 11.676 | September. <. 81.50 |, 82.00. | 81.26 | 29.625) 12,678,,,)) © October . 80.75.| $1.75 | 80.25 700 ‘| November '.° 2) at 7476 | 78.00 ° soo) oF (} December .-\.. |. 6875,,|. 69.75; |. 68,50] 29.825 478°) Yearly average| 78.46 | 79.56 | 78.39 | 29.669 3} ol bbe 1828. 4 y January 66.75 | 67.50 | 67.00 | 29.825 1.679 | February . 69.50 | 70.50 | 69.75 | 29.800 902. |, } 79.50 | 80.75 | 79.26 | 29.900 April j . 86.75 | 87.50 | 87,76 | 30.050 003 ay + 90.00 | 91.00 | 90. 30.075 144 June . 86.50 | 87.50 | 86.00 | 29.750 7.368 July . $2.75 | 83.50 | 82.50 | 29.425 8.698 site’ :| $59 | Sue | fem |u| Sen 82.50 oe . | 80.25 | 80.75 | 79.50 | 29.700 3.166 November .| 75.50 | 76.00 | 74.00 | 29.825 601 December 69.75 | 70.50 | 68.50 | 29.800 Yearly average | 79.39 | 80.19 | 79.06 | 29.762 8 } ss.015 Average 1827 .| 78.46 | 179.56 | 78.39 | 29.660 Pleas YP | B} sor) Medium for the two years . ’ | i | ; ; " ; B4de i % |TABLE shewing the General Direction of the Winds, ber of Days in which each prevailed. a s and the num- “Days Days Da . froin from SE. Da: ys 8. #8 from ae a a < “: t <4 " NOK OWWho ne + ROS ores 7 Cm bom fof: te . Bi. red ae, 4 ‘ vet Boll 12- > memstTOn cp: : December's. |g) | P-}) PM bar Uta 5 0a Te 17. 103. 21 _" —) 1828, 5 ; . * > >t q@amcen: : tol WT RRO te mE ry —_ ; >. : SEM OMWIH WS Rw aS Number of days (a m. Average num-) ber of days . } 403 | 18) | 29. | 173 re | N- B.—Under NE. is included all the intermediate Hoints-troii N. to Fy 1) the same with regard to SE., SW., and NW... PERL ome z 9 me tt tohunibst {+ -—— A +p SAE OMS te. | 2. re ae oO i> Ss mu & - oes Bee = as po oa, lanmepgue ‘pus | a5i" | : ? ssnimenrrmpenasteioaeiiidl a } 345° eat 4 i & a\ > 8 z VS. 21s se is eR . ERs FAP) B te Fit HS | ret ’ ya " Pan f>' fo 2 ’ ae : : z. a a | ¢ 81 ed ; 7” +49 30 go wpa Pa 4 1 Lys og} 0 s00H TNE OKL sey 298 wet omp to paw “ae dewey | © spremypio omy wroxy osjou Supqums pnoy w yyy popuanyE ‘ "Wd 11 78 pes ays UO ~~ sw +d OT 09 $ 48 TBs. UO MOquTET awuN'] ay, “HK “Vv E4sed F Fe IHS OM UO we Scr ATE Batus BAGS pier ys: ie) _ Ae eD oD 5 | S87 emeggagee 7 rr » Td F Satie ete q oc _ = bia 7h tees | sess * ies ; { ysour Suzoq Apeyeut syy} 10y uoswes } Bea 2 é . 9 Li uy “~ S t “ WP oman cares aaa asec se eel beans a a ae | =f PI gI qdy vai * a % . — 7 _— Pr 9 $I “‘qeq “os 3 3 = Hoe 20) fete. | gin > 4 Lf: 3 $1 uey ' ? , se = >: : ~ or re : 5 “a ° = ach eee : ef = 3 2 — : 4 2d 9 i <' Woy 2 soe att 0 #38 Pe au) Uo onde seurry is Sh es oe oo x - ii & z = 7 “AON >| =) eanr peso y} ce fS.04 a Pe Pe L- wee | a. | 2O uo bad tee San = s FE : ~ ; < } ot yy a “adag x. ¢ 6 vf i 6 ~~, - a , a kept at Bancoorah during di ars shia saoas ap O1IE Pa «: BID/OYD oy, he "NV , ae y ~ = ~~ gr: ~ nev bape be ee ar: Oey | Oe 1% Ee epee ee ee: a o Pi2TERARLONK, . eu if , 1, Ay . ie ~ E ons EB Hy i fiejjene=s anil 7 ined) henl@oieah (346 ya title eH, Oy Ys J . 6 ‘B39 Se the Graphite or Black-Lead of Céijton Severat ye ark ago, splendid specimens of graphite were A ai sented to me by one of my pupils, who brought them from the — island of Ceylon, where, he informed me, the mineral occurs in masses varying in magnitude from the size of a-nut to several inches in diameter, imbedded in gneiss.- Mr J.~Prinsep” has lately, in the Gleanings of Science,” an interesting periodical published at. Caleutta, published the following analysis of one of the varieties: Carbon 62.8, iron 5.4, silica 21.0, alumina 9. 3, lime 0.2, magnesia 0.1, manganese a trace, and loss 1.2, = 100. Sus- pecting, from the large proportion of earthy impurity in this ana- lysis, that some of the matrix had remained mechanically mixed withthe graphite, Mr Prinsep made. the following additional analyses: 1. The graphite, uncleaned, left,.as above, iron and. — earth, per cent. 37.2. 2. Roughly cleaned, left, a residue) per cent. 18.5... 3. Crystals selected with care, 6.0. . 4. Another trial left the very small proportion of 1.2, The.two last. residua did. not, entirely dissolve in muriatic. acid ; indeed. the former yielded 0.3 of silica on analysis... This statement is illustrative of the accuracy of, Karsten’s view of the composition of gra- — phite, namely, that it.is a mere modification of carbon, and — the iron and earths are accidentally mixed parts*. The gra- phite of the Himala Mountains yielded to Mr Prinsep the following ingredients: Carbon 71.6, iron 5.0, silica 15.0, alus mina, &c. 8.4= 100.0,. The English graphite. was found. by. Mr Prinsep to yield, hygrometric moisture 2.7, carbon burnt, off with difficulty 53.4, iron taken up. by. acid..7.9, earthy, im- purities 36.0= 100.0, As this variety was marked. of *)supe+ rior quality,” it follows that, chemically considered, it is inferior, to the kinds found in Ceylon and the Himalas. hinow ava The Ceylon graphite, Mr Prinsep informs us, has only been known commercially for five or six years; the government, had, shipped small quantities of it to England by way of trial, and it answered so well, that they were induced to receive it, ' other articles, in lieu of revenue, ata fixed valuation, when th were suddenly surprised at the quantity of this novel. volumes of this J ournal. * Karsten’s interesting experiments ‘on graphite wily he found in ia g b. be | ) ! x te - Weed - oe — i) a 4 i - ma COS? st ot OS Fee oe) eal 1 Analysis of Indian, Chinese, and New Holland Coals. 347 offered in payment. A latge heap was thus accumulated ; and as the island abounds in this mineral, and there are no padlocks upon the mines, as in Cumberland, it might soon effectually de- stroy the income’ of” the 9 ee enteratameenit if introduced largely into'the Sl market. | ee of Ceylon ‘make ae igipva2 OF gua.2& 10 We {13 vas stpig ite : eel“ VISIT TG Tae etal Ml beer 7 Anilysts of sceeHal Thin, Clinese, aid Ne%e Holland Coats By J. Prinser, Esq. Secretary to the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta. © oe- OOP = i moltbas (90n7 Rey Tie Po sntrpna table, published ii on Cabiaited pculinat of Science, comprises the results of several analyses of Asiatic and New Holland coals. The fourth column, containing the water expelled, is kept distinct from the three which’ follow it, under the head of composition, as it is usual to include all the volatile products together. Should ‘the water be looked upon as hygro- metric, the per-centage of carbon and ashes must be increased to obtain the true composition of the coal : mean staté-ooal-nftet deducting 10 per cent. of water, contains wity tetra O'-"Folatile’ miitter, 22 hep 84.4 Oy yrevresTy us bab ..dodiss. to 2 0a RE + 40.5 x do. = 45.0 ePuls ; sath ra EON 2a NbRIG PAs: torve, opie Pe doy ues ob dope f oly 00.0"! Af Pi Be boi ta table, it will be seen hoe isalty unfit are most of the Indian coals for the purpose of: making coke. The Burdwan coke, with the exception of one specimen, would contain neatly a quarter of its weight of earthy impurity ; the Silhet would be ‘still worse; the anthracite of Baghelpur would be nearly half earth; some of the mountain coal from Ava would yield a coke of better quality, but of very little den- sity: ‘The Chinese glance-coal alone forms a remarkable ex- ception to this’ unfavourable conclusion “oriental coal, and deserves to rank at the head of the list in respect to its pu- rity as # coke, although in’ specific gravity it does not ome tp to the character of the English fuel, tieither has it the spongy texture which must contribute mach to the glowing combustion of the latter. It will be remarked, that the ashy residue on the 348 Analysis of Indian, Chinese, and New Holland Coals. analysis of English coke (No. 2), much exceed what, should have been expected from the composition of the coal whence it was formed; this may. be explained by,supposing that portions of the ashes, probably the alkaline salts, are volatilized : with the gaseous matter, when suddenly decomposed at a‘high temperature’; | or that considerable variation*exists in the quality of the material charged in the oven,» Whatever:may be>the cause, the same deterioration might ‘be looked: for in'the coking of Indian coal; which would tend ‘to: lower: are still : ‘more an scale of comparison. * — - >; sTosliasis, WO FOR cspeNe iz acy rye Fh TABLE of Indien end ote Gaadaanpinahaditha Cale Ase ry A —— Vahiii; 1, 2-Mr Brand, who accompanied the first party, had the good fortune to find this plant in a new station on the south side of the Glen > of ‘the Dole, near its lower'extremity. Vee) ete amar ! station at Glen Callader. sor om Cine Oiler, 12LtPit Bidslesies par] aise Cochlearia officinalis, var., 2.Leaves vedutitulty radiaihiais with broad white edges, or entirely white. I found only one patcli of this on moist rocks ‘vrt the south ide of thie Fee The plant wab retiatkably vigorous; and sella Laboipt ale Satie. Rul ahmnirgon we os penn REE the ae ‘with Astragalus alpinus, in Glen Isla, in -the’parish of Farr, and most Aap tamale Rye Laser ee where it is confined to limestone rock. |” xe Epllobitein anguallf hans ee: aljisshanitih, mane didvte gelkenteta the descent to Glen Isla. -It had a very peculiar appearance, was not in flower, but seemed distinguishable only by ag vatromae aN ere of its leaves, varying from 2 to 44 lines. in Equisetum Drummondii, 1.—In a ditch ty tae via mje diaesiatenporth of Forfar, and on the banks of the Caledonian Canal, near its east end. Erigeron alpinus, 1, 2..Both in’‘Clova and Glen Isla, but especially in the latter, where Dr Wight gathered a few specimens with two flowers. pe on! aeons! SPE peeiicned Chis wpamingly acer te Knyirepty cmmpeeirts: Geéntiana nivalis, 2.—Found in abundance at a moderate height upon the rocks on both sides of Glen Isla by Dr Greville, Dr Wight and myself, varying from a simple stem, scarcely a quarter ‘of an inch high, to one greatly branched, ‘and 6 inches in height, but always with flowers of ' equal beauty, and not differing proportionally in size. ‘The sparkling of this most rare and lovely little gem among the scanty mountaiti her- ' bage, cured me of hunger ‘and thirst, and made’ me forget that'l was i ty eH os mr ang or tent aa are ~ occasions a regard at least equal to its value. Goodyera repens, tA Rima eaheys woods at on Cunt at ~! Gordon Castle. woer es Miles o> caldeh Linnea borealis, \, ude Wetiein test eid EL to I ~_vered with flowers, among the heath at a considerable distance from any trees, on the south ee re oe a) reer ent wity drone the stream. 7 Lychnis alpina, 2. Teahdibeptseliblii ‘plant, sevuatite found in Britain, ' ‘exeept by Mr Don; ‘was gathered by Sir John Ogilvy on the 30th of July. We went to the station next day, and gathered it in abundance, and in full flower. The locality is circumscribed, but Mr Maenab af- terwards observed it in smaller quantity on another spot, at a little dis- ZR b ‘ 4.4» 356 * Botanical. Epcuraonis sudo abe ‘Highlands. tance, ron, ‘the, sa sane: mountain. It grows on a bare, dry, stony summit, , or.in the,edges of the immediately adjoining peat, at an elevation which, judging from the heights ascertained by Mr Watson, I suppose may ‘be about 3200 feet above the sea. The rock in both stations is a mixture _ay of, felspar and, tale, is much weathered, has a deep cream colour, ; and is quite different from any thing around. We observed that in the same spots grow Armeria vulgaris, Cochlearia officinalis, and Cherleria “sedoides, and there only at this elevation, A shepherd whom we met upon the ground told us he had seen the plant growing on a mountain top, either between the Glen of the Dole and Bachnagairn, or between this and Lochnagar, I am uncertain which, because, as he evidently did not dis- tinguish between the Armeria and Lychnis, I paid little attention to his » report at the moment; but reflecting since on the one never having been seen without the other on these mountain tops, I think the shep- herd’s accuracy should have. been inquired into. The capsule of Lych- nis alpina is defined as unilocular, Our plant, which is certainly that of Linneeus, as I learn from Mr D. Don, who has compared it with the Linnean, herbarium, is most distinctly 5-locular when far advanced to ripeness. Whether the dissepiments ultimately disappear, whether the Swiss, plant is in this respect different from ours, or whether the des- _cription of its capsule be incorrect, Iam unable, from want of ripe fruit, to determine. Malawxis paludosa, 1, 2.—This we found in many situations, and in large quantity, in the bogs and by the’sides of the rills in the valley of Clova, or a few’ feet up the mountains on both sides. Molinia depauperata, 2.—Extremely vigorous, and in large quantity, on the cliff near the Oxytropis campestris. Nasturtium terrestre, 1, 2.—Not a common plant in Scotland, but Setgid by _ the first party near the Loch of Forfar, and by Dr Wight near Lah, leven. Nuphar pumila, 1.—In various statious. Poa alpina, 2.—In large quantity in Glen. Isla, and not in a viviparous, aie Potentilla alpestris, 2.—Widely distributed on the rocks to the yonth of the _, Fee, and in Glen Isla. Primila scotica, 1.—Found by Mr Watson in various stations from Thurso to Farr. Some of the specimens have several long single-flowered scapes, the same variety of form which separates Primula vulgaris from P. elatior. ». Pyrola rotundifolia, 1, 2.-Very sparingly in Glen Dole. ——— secunda, 1, 2.—Much more common than the last on rocks i in various _/| oe qplaces in Cloya.., . Sali lanata, 1, 2-Both male and female plants i in | great perfection on many ‘son stocks in Glen Dole, Glen Isla, and Glen Callader. ig - ———rosmarinifolia 2 1,—Probably from the same bush a as that seen Mee >» Greville two years ago, and i in no better condition. ‘ Lecter caspitosa, 1.—Picked by Mr Barry, but sparingly, i in the same si _~» uation as that. in which it,was seen by him Ia nig 5 _ —— nivalis, 1, 2.--In tolerable quantity in Clova, but much uch more abusdnt- eae d and 2 ad f i “< Yo joseph Sie fe iW as a Beat ote” j a } Vi f rl ee Botan Excursions into ‘the Highlands. ‘ 4 nigricans, 1.—Various moors in the north of Sutherland. a album, 1, aes Y, 2 bef tn Forfar, where it was inttoduced by Mr "Don. Silene acaulis, var. flor. ald. 1.—In considerable quantity” ‘on the’ Sisinit of “Ben-na-muic-dui, and on the south side of Glen Dole." | © ‘Sonchus alpinus, 1, 2—Found in five new’ stations in Glen Bite! sii Glen _ Isla by Dr Wight, Dr Greene of Boston, U. S., and Dr Greville.’ The first party found it only in the old station, where, from being constantly plundered, it is becoming weaker every year. Fortunately some of the new stations are wholly inaccessible. ‘Stratiotes alvides, 1—In the Loch of Forfar, where it was introduced by Mr ~ Don. _ Thiaspi alpestre, 2. — —New to Scotland. I gathered a few specimens at the | foot of the rocks in Glen Isla. Veronica alpina, 1, 2-—F:xceedingly common all over the banks of the White , Water, in Glen Dole, upon the Fee, in Glen Isla, Glen Callader, and _ the ‘perdecnshire mountains near Castletown. It is not common ‘in “the other parts of Scotland which I have visited. ‘Mr wore mail a few specimens on Cairn Garidh. |” —— savatilis, 1, 2.—Common in Glen Dole ; but in much larger auantity, tip he ‘and of much greater size, in Glen Isla. * ‘Woodsia hyperborea, 2.—A single tuft was found by Dr Greville in’ Gién Isla. —— ilvensis, 1.—Found by Mr Watson sparingly on the cliff with! Oxytropis wept —— | Observations of Mr Hewert Warrson a Axso.vre altitude is of so little importance in the geography of plants, that my attention was for the most part limited to the observation of their relative heights in regard to each other. For this purpose, however, it was. necessary to determine the heights of a few species most commonly met with, as points of comparison and reference. ‘The following are the averages of various observations made near the places mentioned; the nu- merals denoting the altitudes above the sea-level in feet +. * We trust Mr Watson will continue his interesting investigations, and in his next communication inform us how his heights of stations were ascer- tained.—Eprr. + Arbutus alpina does not grow in Clova or Braemar. Its southern li- mit in Britain is probably near Fort William. ‘There its lowest limit (ave- rage of three observations, several miles distant) is at 1970 feet; on the north side of Ben Shith aterm te Het), near Tongue, 970, and by Loch ments give a good pant apeaf influence of longitude, particularly when taken in conjunction with the descent of ‘Thalictrum alpinum to the shores of Keoldale, a few miles to the westward of Loch Erriboll, as noticed in the ex. cursion in 1827. Mr Watson did not find it so low in his route, but was par- 358. Botanical Excursions into the Highlands, Clova. Braemar, Fort Willies. , i. Upper limit of Myrica gale, «sw... 1350 1120 — rire Pteris aquilina, 1600 con cot! RSG SUdUEE Ts, Erica cinerea, . 2400 2200 2100 Re Calluna vulgaris, —...... 2900 2620" "2440 Empetrum nigrum, «...... » 4100) 09) B50O yoke. Lower limit of Carex rigida, . 2325 2300 2070. “1550 Azalea procumbens, 2350 2200 a “1500 The highest stations of— Clova.: Braemar, Fort William, a Ulex europzeus, : 1550 1350 280, "350 Lonicera Periclymenum, 1580 ~~... Le 5 700 Corylus Avellana, §. 1600 1400 Ya BTID inh. Cytisus Scoparius, . 1700 1900 A ‘Taking Braemar as the standard, it is found, from’ the’ lke. rage of the first table, that a similar climate in Clova is 125 feet above this; while at Fort William it is 269, and at Tongue 595 feet below it. The difference is greater at lower elevations, so that vegetation, both natural and cultivated, is very little better near the sea-level at Tongue than we find it at.a thousand feet, above this, on the banks of the Dee. The influence of, si- tuation is well exemplified by the fact that Empetrum. nigrum, under the steep snow rocks onthe northern side, of Ben Nevis, fails 600 feet below its height on, the western side; and. Cal- luna vulgaris, on the northern precipitous slope of Cairn Ga- ridh, ceases 400 feet below its limit on the western declivity of the same mountain. In our ascent, we find the following plants about 1500 feet below Carew rigida: ‘Saxifraga aizoides. Tofieldia palustris. Alchemilla alpina. Epilobium alsinifolium. Oxyria reniformis. Carex capillaris. |. ., rad About 500 feet higher up, we begin to see sindbo il opened Luzula spicata. . .\) Silene acaulis. {i} .:94) yitisition ROM Thalictrum alpinum. Potentilla alpestris. _ mith Peo 3 oppositifolia. ee octopetala,,.- coos hasten _ Rhodiola rosea, o RAIS Ft ab tioulaly struck with the rapid descent of tpine,yegetation ee renter at the sea level, on. ern cliffs. at Loch Erriboll, ‘arex capi aris, Drabeinoana, tease Sestfrage tesa 5 octopetald; and the last equally low at Fatr, but they ange Pr ‘Tongue. ‘The n bourhood of the north shore ato abi Jusitanica, generally confined tothe west: coast, to grow a considerable way, to,,the eastward., I, formerly ‘gathered it om Ben) Hope; and. Mx Watson found it still, farther, pa 5 vei mom 7 i a ont Blo" otis? oli “atk heoanbaely nuin W ibe po panastiin: Od 3 Botanical Excursions into the Highlands: 359). A little higher wehave — ize es meer aft, ha Rubus Chamemorus. = ~— Cornus Suecicas sida -Betulanana ..,.,......., Arbutusalpina, Epilobium alpinum. Draba incana. Bordering clonal on the confines of Care# rigida, are Juncus trifidus. _ |. - Gnaphalium supinum. tinit “Arabis petraea.. Mao i Hieracium alpinum. Above the commencement of Carex rigida, we first see Sibbaldia procumbens. . .. Poa alpina. Cerastium alpinum. '\ Salix herbacea. ’ Aira alpina. 1% Astragalus alpinus. _. Here, too, is the natural climate of some species occasionally carried lower by streams or debris from rocks, viz. Veronica alpina.» — - Phieum alpinum. Sancepeshece saxatilis. Sonchus alpinus ? * _ Carex atrata. _ Saxifraga nivalis. .++ Vablii. Cherleria sedoides. e Nis ~ Alopecurus alpinus. _ Spergula saginoides. Stellaria cerastoides and Savifraga rivularis are scarcely seen below the upper limit of Calluna vulgaris; and Luztla’ arcuata on Ben-na-muic.-dui only commences a thousand. feet above this. With respect to’ the upper limits of species. On the’ small space of Beti-na-muic-dui bers above Lapeiten ay nn weve only observed ~ I 1 spicata. +6 LDA oe ahah Carex rigida. hands ebicense eek casersece SECU Festuca vivipara ? re Silene acaulis. ~ -\-) o Lyeopodium Selago. Salix herbacea. bia, 4h) ei These Cg Lee of the summit ; dads antes. ly as high, were Sy4) So year sat 210 wit hoy Vaccinium Myrtillus. > Juncus trifidus. b alvin Aira alpina. . vite “ooes Viola palustrisn, | yoo crit t Gnaphalium supinum. ye Lane Excepting Luzula arcuata, all these were seen alive Empe- trum nigrum on the Ben Nevis range (mm which Cairn Garidh is included), and, along. with them, several others, which per- haps may exist.equally high on Ben-na-thuic-dui, viz * Mr Watson marks this with doubt, from being sdichanabenictiet the elevations of the new ‘stations at which Sunchus alpinus was found. | Nei- ther can I speak positively, but iy ispression is as he states it. . All the new stations are, like the old one, in deep shaded ravines, with a northern aspect.—R. G. 860 Botanical. Excursions into the Highlands. Saxifraga, stellaris., ; Euphrasia officinalis. que SH Bok apepesdss rivularis. Statice Armeria., x Sibbaldia’ procumbens. — Poa alpina. ¢ Reais Prrano Rumex acetosa.,.__, Oxyria reniformis..§ 0) hens Leontodon —? (not i in flower). Silene maritima. NS Alchernilla alpina: / Aira flextiosa. toqyu on) yuo! sap -» vulgaris. Thymus Serpyllum. f., ae Galiumn’ Saxatile. Cryptogramma crispa. eee Cochlearia, officimalis ? Polypodium, Phegopteris, 0) jo }0 Oe cerastoides. : Thalictrum alpinum. ; -seeee Uliginosa, Chrysosplenium oppositifolium. pene Ky silobium alpinum, Cerastium latifolium. ; OTR LOOM oo. PTH) | PY Teagpeeonnoeceet viscosum. Cerastium latifolium. . Polygonum viviparum.) Ranunculus acris. Carex pulla, Veronica humiifusa. | Troifius CurOpeeUs f Peeneeeerees alpina. d “Nearly at the same altitude as Empetrum nigrum, terminate Lycopodium alpinum. Vaccinium uliginosum, Blechnum boreale, ~ —~ Caltha palustris. 7 Descending towards the line of Calluna vulgaris, we meet me | Pinguicula vulgaris. . Arbutus alpina. Campanula rotundifolia, ' Azalea procumbens. Eriophorum angustifolium. Arabis petrzea. Eleocharis cespitosa. © | Anthoxanthum odoratum. Rubus Chamzemorus. Tormentilla officinalis. Juncus squarrosus. Carex pilulifera. Luzula campestris, =e asenee . pulicaris. -seseee SYlvatica. Lycopodium selaginoides. Scabiosa succisa. Vaccinium Vitis-ideea, Oxalis Acetosella. Nardus stricta. Narthecium ossifragum. Achillsea Millefolium *. Solidago virgaurea *. Saxifraga hypnoides. Such constitute the most alpine vegetation of Britain. On descending from the upper limits of Calluna vulgaris, the ac- cessions ‘become too numerous to detail : a few may be noticed. Betula alba I saw a seedling of among the rocks of Ben Nevis, 2700 feet high, there almost the upper limit of Empetrum ni- grum, and equal to 3500 on a better aspect. Between the up- per line of Calluna vulgaris, and lower limit of ia rigida, 4 s the greatest height reached by aieA. (USAR pst eh ‘ t es fi PASTOR « Zk ey FE sylvestris, - Juniperus ican aap a Drtatsy © -Pyrus aucuparia, Ho eoos 0) Arbutus Uva-ursi. % 4 Hus 2: alk is only below. Cares rigid by 1000 feet ease ae . "T have seen both. these ] plants on dry broken quartz, wi it within a few feet of the summit of Ben More, Assynt, dwindled down to one or two inches in t, but in full flower ; os Mr Watson sag ak the ied G. at matt nee Rita iiaoqqe, SB natiloy ,ojoots ofzonmet ,ososdiod algae AOR ai9do Ars ; ovolig giierise rotilsspartt eitsluosor eitslosoaal aitgliss Dr Graham’s Description of New orRarePlants. ‘$61 find the upper limits of the oak, ash, beech; "sycamore; holly, cherry, and hawthorn. The roses and shrubby brambles (ex- cept Rubus ideus) are almost equally distant; and with them is found the upper limit of agriculture. At Clova, Ulex euro- peus exceeds cultivation by six or seven hundred feet ; in the other three stations itis rather below. In none of them ‘does the climate admit the successful cultivation of wheat: Braemar is too high; Fort William is too wet; Glen Clova, a narrow valley shaded. from the sun by bigh hills ; and Tongue, ~s to a north sea, and with high ground to the south :—all there- fore are equally unsuited. i Clova it has been tried, but failed to ripen. biveqi oC : Description of several New or Rare Plants which awe: lately flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and. chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden. By Dr Granam, Profes- sor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh... Sept. 10. 1892. Banksia media, B. media; foliis cahehtoslinearibts truncatis dentato-serratis basi atte- nuatis: subter reticulatis venis ena ue tis lacunis tomen- tosis, perianthii bus sericeis ; bris, folliculis glabrius- culis immersis marcescent ado < Banksia media, Br. Prodr, Fl. Nov. Holland. Suppl. 1. p. 35. * Descrirriox.—Shrub bverticillate and id tly as ta ot ey ith t Sere with shies SpeakOn — Amentum (3 pastor nat iol the eee 5 om xj btn he spe Perianth 4-parted, segments narrow; claws coy yellow toment ts ; 2 pee ts green, streaked wi h brown, at first rt haley, alr are wards subglabrous. This species is placed by Mr Brown immediatel after By It yg Heade gyne c ap in the dcblietbals pooped Edinburgh, to which pera! t was ngly commun from the Clapton n mh a a its Hoverstn in the beginning of teml i ft Gy ted ehela’ cheat ie coverst mat Tae sets probably expand in succession fora bia. Eupt ; bia i3 criientata. bovrvede noaie VF iB bow y E. cruentata; caule herbaceo, ramoso, erecto, foliisque oppositis 1 eulatis lanceolatis maculatis inequaliter serratis piloeo "ie 362 Dr:Graham’s Description of New or Rare Plants. _ (oou neari-lancevlatis ; cymis terminalibus subtrifidis, decompositis ; invo- . luero fimbriato; appendice unico cyathiforme integro ; fructu glabro ; seminibus' verrucosis. A EN IOC, DEscript10on.—Stem herbaceous, erect, branched, hairy, particularly, tos wards its extremity. Leaves (2 inches long, 10 lines broad) petioled, ~*“Janeeolate, unequally serrated, above irregularly sprinkled with dull red spots, hairy, particularly below, where they are much paler without the red spots, and with very prominent middle rib and veins. Bractee linear- lanceolate, more eritire, but in other respects resembling the leaves. oopoCymes terminal, subtrifid, crowded ; primary rays trifid, and their sub- _ divisions irregular. Involucre fimbriated, provided with only one. cup- _ shaped entire appendage. Male flowers on pedicels longer than the fila- ment, anthers yellow, lobes byrsting along the vertex. . Germen green, labrous, but not shining; styles revolute, white. Fruit smooth... Seeds brown, verrucose. ., atta , Seeds of this plant were sent along with specimens to this country from St _ Louis, North America, by Mr Drummond. The plants flowered in the eenhouse of the Botanic Garden in August and September, .'The only ifference between the cultivated and wild specimens arises from the greater vigour of the former: they are larger, and the leaves are nearly rhombvid. af (Enothera perampla. ‘10. perampla ; caule ramoso, tenuissime rubescenti, foliis runcinatis, pu- bescentibus, lobo terminali maximo acuminato undulato basi sublo- bato; floribus axillaribus, omnibus diffusis; calycis limbo petala.sub- o> Yotundata integerrima zequante, tubo longissimo; capsulis muticis te- trapteris, alis deorsim. truncatis. ' Descrrprron.—Root perennial. ‘Stem herbaceous, robust and: much branch- “Phe seeds of this ‘very fine species were’ received: from my friend Mr «~ Cruckshanks, and were probably gathered somewhere ‘in the né urs . hardy, and has flowered in the open air at the Royal Botanic Gard eth ry ‘deserviiy of Vnltivation. “Tt ‘is disti hed from this by of fi stem; by the cap- Es Se k 5 om. thi iad: y im aC LS LMICc ¥ \) Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare'Plants: 368 fused over the branches, and never crowded near the root, as‘so: many _of them are in O: tarazacifolia and O. triloba; and, lastly, by the absence of the lobed crown to the capsule which both of these have. Physianthus albens. © 2 oy ae . P. albens ; herbacea, rapes, is, foliis oppositis integerrimis acutis basi 4s, cordato-truncatis sub 1s adhié rites, oribus subdichotomo-cymosis. _ Physianthus albens, Mart, Nov. Genera et Sp. Plant. Brasil. i. 54. t. 32. ~Descrierion.—Root woody, branched, and fibrous. Stem woody (at least \ when cultivated in’ the’ stove), round, branched, twining; bark green, - “etacked, and on the recent shoots, which are very long and slender, pretty densely covered with short adpressed pubescence. Branches op- posite and sitllary, spreading. Leaves (3 inches loug, 1} broad) petioled, opposite, oblong, truncated below, undulate, entire, acute, deep green and pruinose above, paler below, and there especially clothed with mi- nute pubescence. iole about one-third of the length of the leaf, of the same colour with the shoots, channelled above, spreading. , Pe- duneles lateral, more rarely axillary, subdichotomously cymose, 4-8- flowered, about as long as the petiole, and like it ; pedicels (about 7 lines long) spreading, strai ‘ht. Calyx 5-parted, green, very minutely tomen- tous, obscurely veined ; segments ovate, acute, spreading below, erect im their upper half, reflected at the sides. Corolla Taintly perfumed, some- what fleshy, white, when’in bud pale rose-coloured, hypocrateriform; gla- brous; tube (half an inch long) one and a half times:as long as the calyx, at its base ventricose with five gibbosities and slightly hairy on the in- side, above 5-gonous, sides depressed, and having a ridge in the centre of the depression ; limb (1} inch across) spreading, ea ie rag ovate, acute, reflected at the apices and at the sides. Crown attached to the inside of the base of the tube, 5-parted, lobes connivent, blunt, con- vex on the outside, alternate with the gibbosities of the tube, glabrous. Stamens opposite'to the lobes of the crown, and twice as long as these, adpressed to the pistil ; filaments coarse and fleshy, monadel phous, con- cave on the inside, flat‘on the out, sagittate above, terminated by alittle | ovate subacute point, below the sides of which, and on the inside of the filament, are the cells of the anther ; pollen-masses yellow, elliptico-ovate, flattened, reticulated. Stigma large, conical, angular, terminated. above by two appendages longer than itself, which diverge below, meet above near the apices,and again diverge; glands alternate with the stamens, in- dented into the angles of the stigma, deep lilac; cartilaginous, slit verti- -eally along their outer surface, terminated above by a cordate brown pro- cess, emarginate at the apex, arid below enn we which are brown, linear, flat, swollen at both their extremities, becoming attached ob- liquely to the narrower extremity of a pollen-mass in the stamen next to it. Styles 2, short, connivent abovey Germens-2, turgid, ovate, acute. '- Ovules very numerous, small, imbricated, filamentous, attached to the ~ | receptacle placed on the inside of the germen. 4) 0) 4) ee “ Seeds of this fine plant were received by Mr Neill from’ Mr ‘Tweedie, “\) Buenos Ayres, in 1830, and, climbing along the roof’ of the stovein his + 9 garden, flowered Se eae excellent specimen, in no respect different from the cultivated plant. : i rayar? ie ; » m Tee a yyte WS bike a OY fratld Stylidium junceum. , nen, sind 8. junceum ; foliis tadicalibus linearibus ¢ scapi strict glabri minutis dis- tantibus ‘bracteisque medio adnatis, calycis laciniis subulatis: basi sim- plici, fauce glandulis stipitatis corondta, lobello in iculato— Br. Stylidium janceum, Brown's Prodr: ¥'\. Nov. Holland. 1. 569, © Descittrtiox.—Root fibrous, pérenittial, plishing several stems (stapes) eee Mec eta kt bu ora hy ous at the tip: stem-lec ‘minute, green an iy, | the middle, acuminated at , or rarely emarginate below, ad- ty assed Soe Gate a et h ey Grae fender " aie ha 22 364 Dr Graham’s Description.of New or Rare Plants. brous. Raceme terminal, lax ; pedicels resembling the extremity of the _ scape, solitary from the axils of the bractez, and Rococo bracteolate, “-pubéscent,,ony their upper side, pubescence glandular... Calyx segments «y Subulate, unequal, glabrous. Corolla small, rose-coloured, tube longer than the calyx, twisted ; faux very oblique, crowned with’ Hewiglandu. lar hairs; limb glabrous on the inside, sparingly covered with glandular ubescence on the out, segments ovate, blunt; labellum oblongo-ovate, inappendiculate. Germen green, turbinate, with five Vi forrerey at the top from which the calyx-segments spring. Column flat, much longer than the corolla, tapering below and above broadest where first deflected over the labellum, and at this point lilac, below white, above rose-co- loured, everywhere glabrous, dilated fleshy and reticulated at the sum- mit. Anthers small, yellow, glabrous. Stigma prominent, green; pubes- > eent. This plant, less ornamental than perhaps any of the species hitherto intro- duced into cultivation, but still interesting, was raised, from seed from King George’s Sound, at the Caledonian Horticultural Society’s Garden, last year. One of the seedlings, communicated to Mr Neill, Canonmills, came into flower in the beginning of September 1832, in consequence of the judicious treatment it received. We have raised it at the Botanic Garden this season, and many of the plants are pushing up their scapes, but the flowers will not be expanded for some time. ; Tropzolum pentaphbyllum. Bin T. pentaphyllum ; foliis digitato-quinatis; foliolis ovalibus, integerrimis, reels petalis duobus, subrotundis, subsessilibus, calyce multo bre. vioribus; calcare recto, apice ovato carnoso ascendenti. y Tropsolum pentaphyllum, Lam. Encycl. Method. 1. 612. pl. 277. fig. 2. — Willd. Spec. Pl. 2. 299.—Pers. Synops. 1. 405.—De Cand. Prodr. 1. 684.— Spreng. Syst. Veget. 2. 226. nei DescripTion.—Root tuberous, large, oblong. Stem slender, greatly elon- gated, slightly twisted, round, glabrous, coloured, branched. . Leaves {about 2 inches across) petioled, digitate, of 5 oblong entire Retiolate soft glabrous spreading leaflets. Common petiole (2 inches long) twis in form of a tendril, and forming the chief support of the stem, as well as the partial petioles and the veius of the leaf purple and glabrous: partial | petioles bordered by the decurrent leaflets. Peduncles (4 inches long) sos | litary, axillary, longer than the leaves, purple, glabrous, thickening up- wards, pendulous. Calyx (1} inch long) persisting; spur horizontal, fleshy, dull purple on the outside, yellow within, nectariferous, conical, till towards its apex, when it is contracted, thinner, and somewhat shri- velled, the apex am ovato-acute, fleshy and erect; limb (74 lines across) | 5-parted, green, brighter and spotted or streaked with deep purple with, . in, segments ovato-acute, the uppermost the narrowest, the two next to — it the broadest. Peéals 2, small, subrotund, subunguiculate, reflected, bright vermilion-coloured, inserted into the throat of the calyx on each side of the upper segment. Stamens 8, longer than the calyx segments ; | filaments subulate, declined, closely streaked or spotted with purple, in . the bud erect, turned out between the calyx segments after the pollen ~ is shed; anthers four-sided, oblong, truncated above and below, nN pollen green. Germen yellow, glabrous. Style yellow, 3-sided, shorter than the stamens. Stigmata 3, acute, diverging. Frwit 3-coccous, gla. _‘Meetblalll pessived.at hia warden atl Cancamilfas babe thered b Mr r Neill received at his en at Canonmills a tu ere Mi eadie in 1829. It ral out some feeble shoots 1830, and also last year, and is now growing most vigorously, settling a question of which De Candvlle was doubtful,—that the species is perennial. cutting taken from it, flowered in the arecbo > for the free 1832, a pro for \ 1 > a fy d . XM seeds. From Mr tyeote rer ane p Met tive spe ered ‘in hedgee n Bu Ayres. ila taste is'very sin of Trow paolum majus, but less’ pungent, ‘anc lssagnoeaie. bi. AS Ok Hay oF EMO. A SY tke 80 Peg $63 ‘y po. .2 ated si) cb 200 % * - A POT Seis toes aiiy ROSS TE BLOT * Celestial Phenomena fiom October 1. 1832 to January 1. 1888, ~ ealeulated,for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean. Time... By ’'Mr Géoitce Innes, Astronomical Calculator, Aberdeen: oo) The of the Moon with the Stars are given in Right Ascension. fies ste coraiglarsiagenssie ys guns ae Dedtus i tg beds! volicn bag wv deok. tn D. _ J Bes 19 14.6) First Quarter.| 16. 19.17.13. Em. II. sat, 7/ 1. 2133 4 Em. I. sat. 2 16. 206 18 ( Last Quarter. 20 BBN 2 we yo Pe IZ. 17 B04 BM’) dos 2. 6 ORB Oye f. 1 17." 19°82 48 Em.'1. sat. 2/ 2 16 48 36. 694 TR 19, 22.41 18 Im. III. sat. 2/ 2 19-48-41 5 Tm TV. sat. Y | 20. 143 9. © Em. IIL sat. 7/ 29245 1) Ei. TV! sat’ Pane oO Ta OS Ph 4 134917 “S)S1 23, "8 28 Sup. 6 OS 4 201451 o)H 23. 92635 © enters ML & 63:57 d)rK 23, - APTS og Yyonqo"d & YON 2V 37 SY ~*t-230°° 18 20°18 — » @ New Moon. 7 O47 NM SOs “7 93." '99"'52° 45°) Em. 10. sat. 2/ 7 17.49.17. d)Y. |94. 21 48 26 Em. I. sat. 2/ & — 932.84 d8aAM. | ee 3 4618 OR 8 232826 kEm.I.sat. 2 4:25. »,10/52.14 d)v= 9 >, 19,10,48 | ..©, Bull Moom, |.25. 14.41 16. 6 ) Q 1099 7-6 1B AG YwH coo gshovors eta og poe 10. 17:57 16 © Em. Isat. U8) 07) 9 844 OPA IL, 514,85 p2eCeti, [27,1187 3° dh ) ¢ Oph. IL, 12.57 88 gd Pw Ceti. 2. 104123 gg S2eB 12. 21 41 50 «= Em. IIT. sat. 7 | ag, 11 158 ¢)plet 13, 8 758° g)lssB 2. 1243 7 ‘gj 2s’ t 13, 83740 Jd) 238 2. 5134 d)of 13: 121334 dG DS 2. 4.639 d)peweft 1400145848 f YTS 30. 22712 ghey 14. 23 45 59 G 2a 31. 02820 Em. IL. sat, 7 15,238,367. ..d.)» 1 31... 15 3648 _) First Quarter. . 16) 123,56 Em. I, sat. 7/ 3. 21651 0 ¢)SeK« 16 4838 9 6G DE 31. 23 4411 «Em, Iv sat. 7 16 752 1 g)tu tome NOVEMBER. | DM ya me RS, PPP a ly. 6.- QO? 9 22244 g)pCeti — 1. 422 GDH. .| & 8 1 0 © Full Moon. be 14:43 58056 De KB > & 1384635 fd Yx= EK 11212) “GpIVw ® (1002018). 6 DS 2 18 13.10 Em I. sat, 7 2 W364 SG)1IY Beri 22 8442 SDM oy |) M5 88g 2a Y WLW GDH oro oe 20.9.2 . Em. L. sat. 7 7. WAM GP BECetion! fie 1 BIG) DG oram. ") The times|ate, inserted according to the Civil reckoning, the day beginning at midnight 866 Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1: 1832.40 Jain. 1.1833. Cap anneias wecrnins SRS “REE Re RE AE PRR EONS RE a 18. j chit = Be = 21 38 1 de = 10:50 48, 1. 15 19) 16 AL, 17 43 36 Ia 7 21 51 = $2° ~ 38 83) 8i- 13. 5 47 13 13. 1827 22 = Gh, = "93" 5 9 14. 1 43 29 15... 4 23 36 = We 22 4 57 ., 13... 10.43, 41 17. 17.50 52 “ay; 18 57 25 _ 20. 14, 4 27 ° 92. 6.57 41 - 92, .. 8 50 48 23. 7, 24 19 we a ee Ll. ©9948 24 ik 22°58 55 2, 20°25 53 4; - 1/47 16 4, 3.39 26 _ 4. §.23°50 1 5. 7 28 57 B. 9°52 16 6. 3658, 13 7, 130 2 4. 1 58 35 We 2 AG16" J. ~ -20 6 30 - Be 6"64 35 8.21) 3°25 8 2123 2 on § 0 5 38 © ofe 2 25 22 "9. 16 36 57 9. tf 35 41 9. 22°21! 54 ll, + 6°59 13 11. 416 50 56 14... 12 13 54 64 19° 527 ee ae baa sh — ~—NOVEMBER=continued.— ra AP D syey > fa Te adae -g ) : R S9FM |B. 19 64. 36 oS ) @ Op db )eD 24. 75348 499 Oph 6) 24, 18 55,43 .. Im. IIL, sat. 7 d)2u 24, 201314 6 )1p ft 6)3u 24. 205310 d)2e fp 3 2 9 Oph. 4, 2 712 SB B Oph, ‘PS S1IAB 24, 2133 6 “Em, ID sat. 7 d )igs 24, 215258 Em, ILL. st uy d 3 B Oph. 25, =, 1 638 gg PQ) fk ( Last Quarter. | 25. 101138 9af | — Em. Isat. | 25. 182953 Em, I. sat. Y s)h 25, 19 42.14 ~ =d Dodd |. 2 Em. III. sat. 2/ 25, . 22, 6.19 SPirif fice Em. IL. sat. 7/, | 28. 54032 ¢)3W) §O¢... o [28 1918 52.. d )de | ac ©enters fT . | 28 2238 0 d)xK |). = @ New Moon. 29 2.748 f¢)InR | = d yor 30. 1234 6 — ) First Quarters DECEMBER, Mam ee wont 3 . a eh Ae aa PP hh ib Oe 19. ape payee | Ne Im. III. sat. Y | 19. 10°11 33 “GY oe Em. I. sat. 7/ | 19. 18 38 21 “Em, I, sat.|2f © Sd)» 21. 3 034 4) eOph. © out 21. 18°39 4 — © enters rs a 6 )2eCeti.. | 22. 2°22 12 @ New Moon.” 6 ) w Ceti. 22. 143217 SG PY a (a) SYat 22, 422'358 ‘Gyles, ee. 4y at 23. 258 10 “Syot jo é)1 23. §28is Wyeig Pe b)2 24. 23:15 43 Inf 6@o © % grea es 25. 123034 +) very near 9 = © Full Moon. | 25. 124862 ~¢@)9WR) S)eS 25. ‘4 5144 699K S)nH ~ [25 1734 32 9 EmTV, sat. yf Im. IV. sat. / | 25. 20149 68 Ems Tsat. é)et 25. 22 833 g)H 6)» ) | 26. 5 2620. d)r7¥K GO) CM 8 726 (916 260 nd DE pe Oo Hs Wey. 126. aes se shane f Em. I. sat. Wf * |26. 19 Sar *S Ste p44 5) 3a 26. 21:14 16 “Em, TI. sat. Eni I. aat, 2 28. eae At Times of the Pianeis the Meridian, and their Declinations. OCTOBER. ~ n Ry « “3 OIRO SO ‘reso ewas i be eesees ad ee : bid od Sok St St et od ' NSrosuldso _—_- = Se Part ee. sles ce dei cw cs *wWAeeHA "Say edhe Aa Nas R°SSas RABRSS yt ts tr A CEE tb Z , < 2 ® co 4. ALSI88 “Z3RR2 2° 3383 i °.9 no ot tt ony OD 69 09 02 09 : "MmAAIAA ‘$n2°3R “SSRSSRl~ | 1 sRages iSeeoe eo = Sr w pond. body " an | x. ‘ a . “Ss 5°RRF Teusss ORRTESR -| Cte mon 2 9199 P 9 990908 sa Jel 7) & ae i a\. 7 Oey ene ~ “ » “ ~~ SS2SR"P e BAT me | Sa °Ssax aMAAaaA|E| | ARRRSSS|E| | Asssqee ; | = Oa ae 5 RA , Q zi ~ 4 4 Fe! W2Qsscr Z| [oeerees a) fear ese ° : " F RRARRAA i "ARARAR i "RRRSSVS wRarsne Sposeeesn “SRYTAZ dno MAA s7~OORR aRAhaa f “a “A a) . = s ° RaASSSs S35a5° Gihasn o, a) : e=asre SoS oot : "AARARS . P ~ a Sorres naaaeee Oe Rao S ieSss"S iZ2eee% iseaae : ni “hk BoA “x a ~~ ad — °328"s)_ 1.) weS°Ss), Lj sesare A ° . : ° > = i ThE F "SSaARRA, ' RAAAAA “2° A2R89 oh. “Saee" Lame it femhm fab be hes te Ga oe ep Pe ; s | ive : : , pape 7p) im er?SeRaal| lal st*eers | ay? S388 €: 96B 6) Niger £ 1 oF ; ¢ : ' : iy af Meta ¢ sEs. ¥ . ’ ee we)" SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE... ___, ¥ ee mM: a tJ mi a METEOROLOGY. j : Ss ‘+. riieeigiiene| Delserin. the neighbourhood of Ronadenneks has. been. recently observed,, that the, morning ,dews,, instead fof, ; being:pure and limpid, are of an unctuous consistency. dia CHEMISTRY. oie 2. The New Vacuum Sugar.—The grains of this beautiful sugar are true and well-formed crystals... They donot melt’ so” readily as common -stigar;—a circumstance that induces some inaccurate observers to-mmagine that this‘sugaris not so sweet -_as,common muscovada. The taste is just that’of fine caridy: The’ advantage is, that this sugar is far less hygrometrie than common raw sugar, and suffers less from ‘a moist atmosphere. The ap-. paratus used ‘in its preparation is a modification: of the late Mr’ Howard’s apparatus for boiling sugar in vacuo; with “strainers” of opper-plates pierced with minute holes, or several folds of wire-gauze for clarifying the syrup. The process’ is, ‘imme- diately on: ‘crushing ‘the canes, to heat, lime, and scum the juice, which, while warm, ‘is forced through the strainer, from which it runs into the boilers. These are provided with air- tight covers, the tops of which are connected by tubes with a~ large air-pump, wrought by a steam engine. The steam, as” generated, is thus drawn off, and the boiling is carried on at a” temperature far below the boiling point of sugar. “When ‘stift ” ficiently concentrated, the syrup is crystallized, and, when con-/ solidated, it is carried to the curing-house, the temperature of” which is kept up by steam-pipes running into it. This ‘process’ saves much sugar, for the heating being low, little or no molasses” are formed, and a large quantity of sugar is obtained, which in’ the’ old: process, is converted into molasses. This apparatus ” was adopted by sugar-growers in Demerara, on the s of a distinguished philosopher in Liverpool. The’ capil { has succeeded admirably; and the sugar bears’a premium in’ the Liverpool market, especially when required ‘for coffee.” ty whe | bree 4 9 wie bite fofternrenret slefisrressd Loge maseitly old “Amisere wget moanot Srls doisfy eruiirarpete? ‘eRat ERM View TV A AVA 11S Tee . Scientific Intelligence.— Chemistry. 369 3. On the Grease of Wines.—White wine is subject to an alteration which is designated in Switzerland, and other coun- tries, by the terms greasy and ropy, (tourner au gras, graisser, filer), a change which takes place after the vinous fermentation has apparently ceased, and the wine has been bottled or closely confined in casks, ‘The wines of Champagne, of Switzerland, and most thin’ and light wines, ate very subject to it, especially when the vintage has been wet. The cause of this malady re* sides in a mucilaginous principle which is developed in light wines: it pervades the whole mass, and puts on a reticulated appearance; a similar change is observable in beer, and in syrups made of sugar of an inferior quality. Various methods have been pursued for remedying this defect. Common salt is added to the wine, a practice which was adopted, it is said, by the Romans, in consequence’ of an accidental disco- very of an amateur in wines. Having opened an amphora of wine; and being struck with its excellence, he demanded of his slave what he had put in it. The latter, mistaking: his master’s meaning, fell on his knees and confessed he had’ drank a little wine and filled up the vessel with sea-water. After two or three months, it is impossible for the most delicate palate to distinguish the taste of salt, and it is admitted that such an addition improves the taste of the wine, but that it pre- vents the grease is a point much more doubtful. Another re- medy is the addition of brandy or alcohol. But the more effi- cacious means of all is a frequent racking off, or decantation. Wine must never be allowed to whiten, that is, to admit the rising of a milky substance, which destroys its transparency. When this disease has been contracted, it may often be removed by clarification with fish glue; but this remedy has two incon- veniences,—it does not always succeed, and when it does, it di- minishes the strength of the wine. This deterioration arises either from the glue, or perhaps from the disease itself, which has occa- sioned the operation. Another method of clarifying wines and re- moving the grease, consists in filtering them through shavings of hazel. For small quantities this method is very good. When the sale of wine is not pressing, and care is taken to keep the vases which contain them full, and they are allowed to undergo a slow and insensible fermentation, and are exposed to the change of temperature which the season brings round, this disease spon- VOL. XIIL. NO, XXVI.—ocToBEeRr 1832. Aa 870 Scientific Intelligence. — Chemistry: taneously disappears... .It,is rane that greased. wines, thus treated are:noticured: in passing through the cold. of. one, winter, The attention of chemists has been much engaged, with) the nature of this quality in wine. M. Frangois of Chalons-sur- Marne, ascribes it to a substance which is found also in the gluten of wheat flour,and which M.’T addei, an Italian chemist, discovered and named Gliadine. It. is, the»portion: whichis soluble in alcohol, the insoluble portion he called Zimomes Af an alcoholic solution of gliadine be added to clear wine, it be- comes milky, and assumes, according to M..Frangois, the aspect of greased wines. Berzelius, however, does not. believe in the gliadine of Taddei. .He considers it to be gelatine, and. the zimome to be albumen, both of: which have been long known: to exist in'the gluten. The same chemist has proved that, vege- table and animal gelatine are identical in the properties of unit- ing with tannin and forming an insoluble precipitate... However this may be, M. Francois has been.induced to regard tannin,asa remedy for the grease of wine. .He'accordingly makes: an-ob- servation: which seems to have; escaped:all those, who had..pre- viously examined the subject, that-redwines are never subject to the grease. Now, the difference between red and. white wine is, that the red always ferments in .presence of the, husk and seeds of the grape, substances which contain tannin: in abuh- dance, while white wine remains in contact with the husk but , a very short time. It is also-a fact, that light winés:anade.of grapes deprived of their seeds are more subject to this disease than others. Hence it is probable, that the presence of tannin may, by precipitating the gelatine, prevent the. phenomena»of the grease. The. following are. Mr Frangois’s directions :, By adding tannin to wine a month or six weeks prior to bottling,ait -may be preserved from the grease ; and this substance being one of those which exist in wine, it may be, added without. fear, for - it communicates no unnatural odour or taste. Twenty grains of tannin to a bottle.of wine, or three and a half ounces to a hun- - dred bottles previously. well : decanted from. all sediment, isthe proper dose, although..in frequent, cases, this dose must be re- peated... If any, sediment. remain in. ‘the wine, a. much: larger _ dose of tannin: becomes. mecessary.. M.. Francois. affirms that ‘athigmnaledy: ‘in wine, when once: destroyed, lice io she femnimcnd 9 anata lini icle, ob Scientife InteliigensioZodlagy” 37h gallnut by sulphuric aeid, or by potash, itis probable thata substitute may dee fai ininrecanh thn severe iinrien ip re marry nigh one ‘eas “ds beni Ana ckeboatec fc liver pies of Strasburgh are made of the livers of geese, fattened with great attention. The animal is.shut/up:in-a cage, but little larger than its body, and is. taken out but twice a-day, and then to. be fed with about a quart of crude. peas, They are introduced with a finger into the pharynx of the animal; which is thus made. to swallow this enormous, quantity of nourishment, and is then i iatel shut up in its cage. The immediate result of this kind of. life isa remarkable obesity, and an enormous development of the liver, which, without any notable change of structure, acquired a triple or quadruple enlargement of volume. Bibulous paper brought. into'close contact with. this. fat liver, immediately ab- sorbs.an oily matter, much like melted fat. These livers-some- times weigh eight or ten ounces, and. sell at from three to five franes. The fattening of geese in this manner is a good specula- tion, for every part of the animal possesses. an intrinsic value ; the fat on many occasions. is a substitute for butter, and the flesh is served at table, and although somewhat tough, is: not the less nutritious; the feathers are much sought after, the quills serve for writing, and.even the excrements sell at a high price as one of the richest of manures. . §. Portable Milk.—M. Direhoff, the Russian. chemist,, re some time since discovered the process of making starch, into sugar, has lately made several experiments upon. milk: the result of which he has arrived at is curious. He is said to, haye found a mode of keeping milk for use for any definite space of time. The. process of preserving is this: he causes, new milk to be evaporated over a, slow fire, ‘until itis reduced to a powder. This powder is then put into.a bottle, which is hermetically sealed... When the milk is. wanted for use, it is only to dissolve some of the powder in a seasonable quantity of water, and. the mixture so dissolved will; have all, the qualities, as well. as: the taste, of milk,—Ldinburgh Agricultural Journal. 6. Quantity of Rggs consumed in London.—The eggs of hens are those most commonlyised. as food, and form an artigle aa® 372 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology. of’ very considerable importance in a commercial point of view. Vast quantities are brought from the country to London, and other great towns. Since the peace they have also. been ‘largely imported from the continent. At this moment, indeed, the'trade’ in é¢ggs forms a considerable branch of our commerce with France, and affords constant employment for a number of small vessels. It appears from official statements, that the e imported from France amount to about 60,000,000 a-year; and supposing them to cost, at an average, 4d. per. dozen, it follows that the people of the metropolis and Brighton (for it is into them that almost all are imported), pay the French above L. 83,000 a-year for eggs ;' and supposing that the freight, im- porter’s and retailer’s profit, duty, &¢. raise their price to the consumier-to 10d. per'dozen, their total cost will be L. 218,009. The duty in 1829 amounted to L:22,189.—MacCulloch’s Com- mercial Dictionary. {About fifteen ‘years ago the number’ of eggs exported from’ Berwick-upon-T weed ‘to London amounted to L. 30,000 worth a-year.|—Edinburgh Agricultural Journal. ". Destruction of Fresh-water Fish by the admission of the Sea into a Lake.—The following particulars of the-phenomena attending the opening of Lake Lothing at Lowestoft to the Sea, where sea-borne vessels were first received into the new harbour at that place on the 3d of Jyne last, may prove of interest in natural history. They are extracted from the East Anglian Newspaper of June 7. 1831. Some of the circumstances at- tending the junction of the salt and fresh waters in the first in- stance are remarkable. The salt-water entered the lake with a strong under current, the fresh-water running out at the same time to the sea upon the surface. The fresh-water of the lake was raised to the top by the eruption of the salt-water beneath, and an immense quantity of yeast-like scum rose to the surface of the lake. The entire body of the water in the lake was ele- vated above its former level ; and, on putting a pole down, a strong under-current could be felt bearing it from the sea; and at a short distance from the loch, next the lake, there was a per- ceptible and clearly defined line where the salt-water and the fresh met, the former rushing under the latter, and upon this Jine salt-water ‘might have been taken up’in one hand and fresh in the other. The consequences of the admission of ‘the brmy waters have been fatal t to thousands of the former inhabitants of . Scientific Intelligence.— Geology. 373 the peaceful lake: ~ Its’ surface was thickly studded» with the bodies of pike, carp, perch, bream, roach, and dace; multitudes of which were carried into the ocean, and thrown: afterwards ’ upon the beach, most of them having been bitten in)two by, the dog-fish, which abound in the bay. It is a singular fact that a pike of about 20 Ib. ‘weight was taken up dead near the Mut. ford end of the lake, ‘and, on opening the stomach, a: herring was found in it entire: Edinburgh Quarterly Journal of Ag- riculture, No. xviii 4 Sh _ GEOLOGY. 8. ‘Eucoaiions im ify aka New South Wales.—The fol- lowing elevations above the level of the ocean, of points on the road over the Blue Mountains to Bathurst, and interior to the westward of its meridian, were computed. by John Oxley, Esq. late Surveyor-General, from differences of the column of. mer- cury, taken simultaneously in Sidney, and at the respective stations, in the year 1817, which barometrical admeasurements have been, since that period, fully. verified by others :— - Spring Wood (Military Post) 124 miles from Emu = 1297, Bridge over Ravine, 17 dittoditto, . |) . ... 18l4 Caley’s, Repulse, 18 ditto ditto, .. . .. . «+ 2110 Christmas Swamp, 24 ditto ditto, . . . . . 2466 King’s Table Land, 264 ditto ditty or ise nt #52. SAF GIGS IR, Military post, 28 ditto hapa Sees Lon. tose 190ain, S2imiles, . bh BAE achYs Io ences 324 miles, P he wine S40 FW uptiarte? Si) eee Blackheath, 41 ditto, ee le % SRS es Bee Summit of New Pass, ° ; : . - ‘ 3245 Base of ditto, . : . : ‘ : 2714 > Summit of Mount York, or Old Pay é ¢ ee « 3309... Base of ditto, .. . with $ ied HAA er? - _ 2610 Vale of Clwyd, near Collitt’s toe : 2642 Depot at Cox’s River, nant oe (at 33° ‘ws, Long 190° OYE.) . 2172 Mount Blaxland, ’ ‘ , : . . 3074 Hill above Jock’s Bridge, gi otk blues fesesre; sober, 34464 Fish River Bridge, - .. + : } ; - : 2669 Hill above ditto, »§- 4 + + « . 0) ae Sidmouth Valley, . . 2606 Sdiieda regulon ct: wage eyidew: cick ties 2232.) Depot of 1617, on the Lachlan Rivet (Lat. 33° 40’ S., Long. Tih 148° 20/ E.), rp ort 2 600 Field's Plains, on ditto (Lat. 33° 10) g, tne: 147" 16 BE), 500 att Svientifie Intelligence. — Geology. 9. On Subte aneous “and Ominous Sounds. —In a former volume of the oor’ we communicated sone curious details in regard to what ave been called subterranean atid ominous sounds. Sir John Herschel has lately considered this’ subject, and conjectures _ that the noises of Nakoos, in Arabia, may ‘be owitig to a subterrancous production of stéax, by the peiiuhacidl and condensation of which, under certain circumstances, sounds are well known to be produced. They belong to the same ‘class of phenomena as the combustion of a jet of hydrogen gas'in glass tubes. He also remarks, that wherever extensive subter- raneous caverns exist, communicating with each other, or with the atmosphere, by means of small orifices, considerable diffe. rences of temperature may occasion currents of air to pass through those apertures with sufficient velocity for ‘producing sonorous vibrations. The sounds described by Humboldt, as_ heard | at sunrise, by. those who sleep on certain granitic rocks, on the banks of the Orinoco, may be explained on this priticiplé. The sounds produced at sunrise, by the statue of Memon, and the twang, like the breaking of a string, heard by the French naturalists to proceed from a granite aoatieath at Carnac, are viewed by him as referable to a different cause, viz. to pyYome- tric expansions and. contractions of the heterogeneous material of which the statue and mountain consist. Sintilar sounds, and from the same cause, are emitted wher heat is applied to any connected mass of machinery ; and the snapping often heard in the bars of a grate affords a familiar example of this phenomenon. The following amusing account of an ominous sound is given by Gairdner in his book on the “ Music of Nature In 6ne of the baronial castles of thie north, which has beet uninhabited for years, there were heard at times such extraordinary noises, ‘as to confirm the opinion among the country people that the’ place _was haunted. In the western tower an old cotiplé were per- mitted t to live, who had been in the service of the former 16rd, but so imbued 1 were they with the suiperstitions of the country, that they, never went to bed. without expecting ‘to hear the eries of the disturbed 5] irits of the mansion.’ ‘An old story was étirrent, that et, heir-apy he a he ati tinele; areas possess, te Ww 0» hor ever, ‘enjoying’ for’ pore annoyed by the Wunids nthe castle, that be d with an “tae rb ‘ftom the’ dons, feel: Scientific Intelligence. —Geology, oT EF the propert descended to a eo oe Camiaegie the nae of Waterloo), who, nothing daunted, was determined to make this castle his piace’ of residence. As the noises were a subject of real terror to his tenantry, he formed the resolution of sleeping i in the castle On” the night. he took possession , in order to do away these supet® ¢ stitious fears, Not a habitable. r room could be found, except the one occupied by 1 the, old gardener and his wife in the Westertl turret, and he ordered his camp-bed to be set up i in that apart- inent. It was in the autumn, at nightfall, that he repaired to the gloomy abode, leaving his servant, to his no small comfort, at the village inn; and after having found every thing” com- _fortably provided, turned the large old rusty key upon the an- tiquated pair, who took leave of him to lodge at a farm hard by. It wasjone of those nights which are checkered with occa. sional gleams of moonshine and darkness, when the clouds’a a riding in a high wind. He_slept well for thé two ‘first hours he was then wakened by a Jow mournful sound that ran throug the apartments... This warned, him to be up and accoutt He descended the turret stairs with a brilliant light, which, oh coming to the ground floor,,.cast a gigantic shadow of hasnt upon the high embattled walls. Here he stood and listened, when presently a hollow moan ran through the long corridor, and died away. This was followed by one of a higher key, a sort of scream, which directed his footsteps with more certainty to the spot. Pursuing the sounds, he found himself in the hall ef his ancestors, and vaulting upon the large oaken table,’ set down his lamp, and folding his cloak about him, determined to wait for the appearance of all that was terrible. ‘The night, which had been stormy, became suddenly still; the dark flitting clouds had sunk below the horizon, ‘and the moon insinuatéd her silvery light through the chinks of the mouldering pile. As our hero had spent the morning in the chase, Morphetis came unbidden, and he fell asleep upon the table. His drédim was short; for close upon. him issued forth the hortid groan ; amazed, he started up, and sprang at the unseen voice, fixing, with a powerful blow, his ‘oledo steel i in the arras. ‘The blade was fast, and held him. to dl e spot. At this moment thé thon shot a.ray that illumined the hull, and showed that behind the waving folds there lay, the canse « concealed. His sword he left, 376 Scienti ific Intelligence. — Geology: and to the turret retraced. his steps. When morning came,, a. welcome crowd greeting, asked if he had. met the ghost? ‘*.O, yes !” replied the knight, ‘* dead as a door nail, behind. the. screen he lies, where my sword has pinned him fast bring. the. wrenching bar and we'll haul the disturber out.”... With such.a leader, and broad day to boot, the valiant throng tore, down. the , screen where the sword was fixed, when lo.! in.a recess, ‘lay, the ; fragments of a chapel organ, and the square wooden trunks. rine for hallowed sounds were used as_props.to, stay. the work. when the hall was coated round, with vak,... The wondering. clowns now laughed aloud at the mysterious voice. .It, was the, northern blast that found its way, through the crannies. of .the wall to the groaning Pipes, that alarmed _the country round for a ‘century. 10. Fossil Frogs, &c, — Goldfuss, i in the Nova Acta Physik a Medica Acad. Ces. Leop. Carol, Nat. Cur. for 1831, describes the following fossil remains of various amphibious animals he eet in brown coal, in the vicinity of Bern, 1. Rana dilu- viana. Salamandra oxygia, two inches and a half long. . 3. rita noachicus, two inches in length. 4. Ophis Fs ay This remarkable remain he is of opinion belongs either to a snake or a snake-shaped fish. 1) 11. On the Permanence of the Earth's Auis of Resition a ‘* It appears,” says Mrs Somerville, in her admirable work, ** from the marine shells found on. the tops of the highest mountains, and in almost every part of the globe, that i immense continents have been elevated above the ocean, which (ocean) 5a W must have engulfed others. Such a catastrophe would be oc-, casioned by a variation in the position of the axis of rotation on. the surface of the earth ; for the seas tending to the new equator would leave some portions of the globe and overwhelm others, But theory proves that neither rotation, precession, nor any of the disturbing forces which affect the system, have the smallest, influence on the axis of rotation, which maintains a permanent position on the surface, if the earth be not ‘disturbed in its rota-_ tion by some foreign cause, as the collision of a comet, which may have anion in the i fmmnenstty ak: time... Then, . indeed, the equilibrium cou id only only faite en nies ot A 4 the rushing, tu a Oe Fave NEY AP vould eoninue eit toed ras 5ghy bere PERSIE 1B ihe sr Scientific Intelligence. —Statistics. 3Tt of gravity. But it is probable that such an accumulation of ‘the waters would not be sufficient to restore equilibrium, if the de- rangement had been great; for the mean density of the séa is” only about a fifth part of that of the earth ; and the mean depth, | even of the Pacific Ocean, is not more than four miles, whereas. the eqitatorial radius of the earth exceeds the polar radius by. twenty-five or’thirty miles; consequently, the influence of the sea on the direction’ of gravity, is very small; and, as it thus appears that a great change on the position of the axis is incom- patible with the law of equilibrium, the geological phenomena must be ascribed to an internal cause. Thus, amidst the mighty revolutions which have swept inmumerable races of organized beings from the earth, which have elevated plains, and haat mountains in the ocean,—the rotation of the earth, and sition of the axis on its surface, have undergone but sligh ‘ Va riations.” ) ee ' BOTANY. 12. Indian Coffee-—In a communication from India to Dr Traill, it is stated that a Dr Strong has succeeded in raising a marketable coffee, in some quantity, at Russypugla, about five miles from Calcutta. he attempt failed in the hands of Dr Wallich, and those of Messrs Palmer and Company, who tried it on a large scale. The secret of Dr Strong’s success is in cul- tivating his plants in the sun, not in the shade. He states, when cultivated in the shade of other trees, as has been recom- mended by some, the roots and branches are more scanty. than when they grow in the full sun. We expect, in our next Number, to report as to the qualities of the coffee, from expe- riments made in this country. Dr Strong says that if they can succeed in the formation of artesian wells, the cultivation may be extensively carried on in his neighbourhood, and with great prospect of its becoming a grand article of commerce. . Should it equal, or be near in quality, to Mocha coffee, it will undoubt- edly be of vast importance to Bengal. STATISTICS. 13. Academy of St Petersburg.—The sixth series of the Me- moirs of this Academy commences at the centenary celebration of this learned body, held in 1826. Up to this date, the com. plete collection of its voltimes’ comprehends five series, each of 378 List of Patents... which i8 marked by 4 chiatige of title. Fidm the foundation of the Academy in 1726, to 1823, the Latin Jatiguage was thé viedium of coifinitinicdtion: ‘The first Series, called Commenta- ries (Commentarii), extended from 1726 to W747 ; that i is, from the inauguration of the academy, by the Empress Catherine I, until the Empress Elizabeth affected some few: eipulatictli This sefies is in fourteen Yohime’. Front 1747 td 1776, there are twenty-one volumies of Novi Commentarit ‘it. The celebration of the séini-secular jubilee established a new epoch, from which the publications are called Acta: 'Fivelve volumes of these bring the labours of the Academy to’the year 1783, a memora- ble year, in which the acadetity was placed under the direction of the Princess Daschkoff; for in Russia there is no Salic law, even in the goverriment 6f letters atid science. . Under the new Directeur (such was ‘the title given to this lady by the Imperial ukase, which invested her with the direction of thé Academy), fifteen volumes of Nova Acta terminate the publication in Latin. The year 1803 was. ati. important period to the Academy ; the Emperor Alexander gave it new laws; and the French language was stibstituted for the Latin. But the period was unfavour- able to academic labours; so that, from 1803 to 1826, but eleven volumes appeared, forming the fifth. series, under the title Me- motres. Lastly; a mode of publication: more useful than that of entire volumes, viz. that of parts or livraisons, has been adopted. List of Patents granted in England, from 31st ing to 16th i891. September 1831. Aug. 31. “To J: J. Tacavrer, London, for “ improvemeiits in We studensied for making paper.” Sept. 5. To H. G. Dyan, London, for “an improvement in ‘cialis or method of executing subterraneous excavations.” “ §. Td G. Foikesren, Liverpool, engineer, for “ certain improvements in wheels for cartiages and pomcyioe if oe ch imiprovenients are "applicable to other purposes.” 6. To W. Bicxrorp, Tuckingwill, Cornwall, for his invention of “an “instrument for igniting’ gunpowder, when’ used in the operation of blasting rocks and in mining.” 9. ‘To J. Nevitze, Surrey, en eer, for his i | apparatus for ibis Ga ook nie PRE AES Foe a 00H Bits Een kh hmm — | meta the tain eg, inery nee pphieabletor“peoy ee other purposes,” List —— Patents. : S79. | Hodtser ci dotdw ‘Scotland Lia of Pats grate nt Ap os aT ASH NEO : Br no 3. fe AE) pia ee dinhabaeins: DanePRLe Yor an” SS Seerition BF € ait improveniont if the ihanufacture of diaper ani! ois) oo @aimask table-linen?? iu 4, To ALEXANDER. . Beatriz, SaAsiktionb, London, for an invens tion, communicated to him bya foreigner, of « a new method ae splditig Mat and p by means of niachinery 6. To Gunwat Lowe oft in the county of W cen civil | (eigineer, for ‘an itivention of “an improvement dr improvements in arid connected with the manufactiite of gas for illumination.” 1. To ALEXANDER Brown of " Liverpool, inetchant, and Herman ‘Henpnicxs of Passy, near Paris, for ah invention of “ an im- ~ proved method or methods of manufacttiring the prussiates of "potash and soda, and the prussiates of iron, also for the construcs _ tion of certain apparatus, vessels or itiachinery to be used in the said manufacture, and a new or improved method or methods of : employing the said eat, “f or other j russiates of iron) “Gs 'a substitute for in BeceeP elas talwaad ~ ther in «ype ing ed Jo Syne Sree or other- wise, also in dying silks, cottons, linens, and in fact all other sorts and descriptions of textile or othér substances fit for the pur. es of rectiy colours of a blue, blue-black, black, greens, pee or any other colours for which indigo has hitherto been edd Wither ai's pron week ar ancillary, and also for an im- proved arrafigement of certain utensils and machinery to be used in the said dying processes. 17. To Jouw Samuer Dawes, of ay g BE in the parish of West Bromwich, in the county « of Stafford, iron-master, for an inven- ‘tion of “ certain im in the manufacture of iron.” 30. To Jouwx Ports, Ricuanp Otiven, and Witt Warw- wriont Ports, all of New Mills, in the county of Derby, en- gravers to calico-printers, and co-partners, for an invention of “ an improyed method or process obeaning soerentons from engravings in various colours, and applying the same to earthen- ware, porcelain, china, glass, and other similar substances.” May 2. To Rosent Mowroomery, residing in the town of Johnston, in the county agai: f Scotland, for an invention of a “ ma. chine for a new mode of spinsiing cotton, Besar Po other fibrous substances.” .Conimunicated to him by a certain fo. 5. Tod vFneais of iverton, in the county of De. von, for an inventi / new. or improved methods of at r OF improved machinery machinery and appa- 380 List of Scotch Patents. May 14. To GrorcE Goopter, residing in Leith, proprietor of the Lon- don, Leith, and Edinburgh Steam-Mills, for an invention of “a new method of preparing rough meal from ground wheat, or other grains, previous to their being dressed for flour; also rough meal from ground barley, malt, or other grain, previous _ to their being put in the mash-tun for brewing or distilling.” 21 To Bennet Woopcrort, of Manchester, printer, for an invention of “ certain improvements in the construction of a revolving ‘spiral paddle for propelling boats and other vessels on water.” 22. To Tuomas Brunton, London, and Tuomas Futxer, London, civil-engineer, for an inyention of “ an improvement or im- provements in certain mechanical apparatus applicable to the raising of water or other fluids, and also a new or sine mode of effecting the same object.” 31. To Witt1am Drake, of Bedminster, pear the city of ‘Bristol, tanner, for an invention of “ an a aed rapids or wi gered in tanning hides and skins.” To Joun JExicorsE, of Stansfeld Mill, in the county of York, spinner, for an invention of “certain improvements in spinning machinery.” June 2, To Josnua BarEs, for an invention of « certain ‘{finprovements _in machinery, or apparatus for roving, twisting, or spinning cot- ton, silk, wool, hemp, flax, or other fibrous substances.” 8. To Joun Joyce, of John Street, London, for an invention “ of a certain improvement, or certain improvements, in machen for making nails of iron, copper, and other metals.” » 22. To FrepEericx STErNER of Church, near Blackburn, in the: sminty . palatine of Lancaster, manufacturing chemist. and 'Turkey-red dyer, “ for a certain process or processes, by which spent mad- ders, or madders that have been previously used, can be made to yield a great quantity of colouring matter, iid for dyeing with the same of various colours all descriptions of cotton, linen, wool, silk, or any mixture of them, and also for improving for dyeing madders that have not been previously used.” .. 4. ‘July 2. To Huex Boron of Staples, in the parish of Bolton-le-Moors, in the county of Lancaster, carder, for an invention of “ an im. proyement in machinery used for carding cotton “and other fibrous materials.” yf 21. To ALEXANDER BEATTIE SHANKLAND, ee: iq; for * “a new “eens method of spinning wool.) 0" Te x00} 1 98, Po Jouw Hoxr the younger of Whitby, sieges for -an.inven- tion of “a mode or process for preparing and ‘manufacturing Pepe . certain fibrous substances.” res i To Joun Howarp Kyan, London, for. oa wieder ae eCity mode of preserving certain mod beprearmapargs Lon poe Sis Ee en ee ay peraeet Hae © 381.) INDEX. wear 4 Academy of St Petersburgh, notice of, 377 African tornado, description of, 1°78” Atmospherical pressure, observations on, by Dalton, 90 Basalt, on the origin and composition of, 150 Bartlett, Lieut., on the expansion, and contraction of building stones, 804 j Bhurtpoor, its geology, by Hardie, 328 Breeding spots of birds, observations on, 20 Buckland, Professor, on the vitality of toads enclosed in stone and wood, 26. Dathlinds ahenniiient tha enguesieuend apabtagiion ¥,, 004 Capercailzie, on its reintroduction to the Forest of Braemar, 160 Catrine Works meteorological register for 1831, 166 Celestial phenomena from July 1. to October 1, 1832, 174; from Oc- tober 1832 to January 1833, 365 Cholera animalcule, account of, 155_ Coals of India, China, and New Holland, analyzed, 347 Ceylon, graphite of, described, 346 Coffee, Indian, notice of, 376 | Connell, Arthur, F. R.S. E., on the chemical extapesitive of harmo- tome or cross-stone, 33—0on a production of naphthaline in an oil- gas apparatus, 231—on the relation of nitric and nitrous acids » to bromine and iodine, 283 , Cox, Henry, Esq., his register of the date of various natural appear- eet, Leype, on Teenie Bem hermes of Limpsfield, Sur- rey, 133 Crystallization of ice, observations on, ‘158. a saline, observations on, 309 _. Dalton, John, F. R. S., ‘his pile investigations arising from the mechanical effects of pf tibiae pressure on the animal frame, 90 382 Indew. Dew; “unctuous, 368. "7 erro .peoewinkh Don, David, F. L. S., on the 4 Bidlagnad and afitities ficectsig genera, ~~” chiefly belonging to the Flora Peruviana, 283.00 «0 ) sou! pies spin wtradd; on military. hei -and ‘the: nee: of rivers, 285 ped .W doosl Earliest knowledge of gold and silver, account of, 136-150 |... Earth’s axis.of rotation, permanence of the, 376... Z Eggs, the number of, imported from France and Scotland into Lavin 372 _ Ehrenberg, Professor, observations on various relations: of the Tafa : ria, 319 . Entomology in Scotland, remarks on, 187" Faber, his observations on the breedinig spots of birds, 20: Fishes, fresh-water, destroyed by the admission of the sea ace lake, 372 Flora, fossil, remarks on, 349 Fossil plants, mode of determining, by Professor Lindley, 2 22! frogs, 376 Fundamental types of organization, pe Weta ah on, 7 5 Gmelin on the composition of basalt, 150 Gold, its occurrence in Russia, 189 ee, bytes Graham, Dr, on new and rare plants raised in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, 167, 361.—Notice of his botanical excursions’ Aaa Highlands, 350 Graphite of Ceylon described, 346 3 ~ 7 Grease of wines described, 369 . > i =< 18 Hardie, James, his outline of the geology of the pee distiict, 328. HE Harmotome, or crossstone, its iinet constitution investigate by A. Connell, Esq. 33 naar Heights of mountains and lakes in any 188 oF istidatginn in 88) New Holland, 873° > heii o hee Henry, Dr, his estimate of the philosophical harsdtie obDE Priestley, 1 Hessel, Professor, on the Ra of i esi and of veins: of ice in ice, 158° BTR eel nsienar gat ish. ool Oe eae A “etadeteiead IUjinois Country in North Aspprica, eileen a. Indian coffee, notice of, $78. 050 aid to eiemites a — 1 Index. 383 nfusoria, observations gn. their sacar anf th sepmneet hip oo Wagner, 245.-——By Ehrenberg, 319 wel Innes, George, celestial phenomena. feotn July: 1, to Oster 1 1899, 174 ;and-from October 1. 1832 to Jannary 1}. 1838, 365... Jacob, W. Esq. on the earliest knowledge of gold and silver-—Hesiod. —Scandinayian Museum—The = The, Book of Job— on of Wealth with the Hebrew nation— Accumula- con in Bao el Toh im Rees 15180, nad Jacquin on Zygophyllum arboreum, 191 Labradorite felspar, analysis of, by Captain Le Hunte, 86 — Lakes, heights of, in America, 188 Le Hunte, Captain, his analysis of the stony pericarp of the Lithos- permum officinale, 24—His analysis of Labradorite felspar, found in the trap-rocks of Scotland, 86 Lindley, Professor, on the mode of determining fossil plants, 221 mage officinale, analysis of its pericarp, by Captain Le rots 245 Magnetic influence, its uniform | permeability 0 of all known substances, and the application of the fact to engineering and mining, by the Rev. W. Scoresby, 97-133,—On magnetic induction, 257 Meteorological tables of the weather in Bengal, by Mr Macritchie, 337 Milk, portable, noticed, 371 Mountains in New Holland, heights of, 373 Natural sciences, on the history of, in reference to the Scletitific know. ledge of the Egyptians, 41 Naphthaline, on a production of, in an oil-gas apparatus, 231 Obesity of geese noticed, 371 Ogden, Dr Henry, on saline crystallization, 309 ett Organization, on fundamental types of, 75 Patents granted in England from 2d August to 30th August 183], 191; from 31st August to 16th September 1831, 376,—~In Scotland from 15th Mareh to 28th March 1832, 192; from 3d April to 4th September 1832, 378 Petersburg Academy, notice of, 377 Platina of Russia, notice of, 189 Priestley, Dr, estimate of his philosophical charactor, by Dr Henry, 1 384 Index. Roscoe, William, Esq. memoir of, by Dr Traill, 193 © Scientific Intelligence, 177, 368 Scoresby, Rev. William, his observations and experiments on the uni- form permeability of all known substances to the magnetic in- fluence, and the application of the fact to engineering and mining, for the determination of the thickness of solid substances not otherwise measurable, 97—Exposition of some of the laws and phenomena of magnetic induction, with original illustrative expe- riments, 257 Sierra Leone, first view of, 177 Silver of Russia, notice of, 189 Sommerville, Mrs, on the permanence of the Earth’s axis of rotation, 376 Sounds, subterraneous and ominous, noticed, 374 Stanley, Edward, on the vitality of toads, 228 Sugar, vapour, described, 368 Toads, on the vitality of such as are enclosed in stone and wood, by Professor Buckland, 26—On the same subject, by E. Stanley, 228 Toads, fossil, 376 Tornado, African, description of, 178 Traill, T. S., Dr, his account of the Russian vapour-bath, 14.—His me- moir of William Roscoe, Esq., 193 Treviranus, Dr, on the fundamental types of organization, 75 Vapour-bath, Russian, account of, 14 Wagner, Dr, his observations upon the structure and development of the Infusoria, 245 Watson, Hewett, his observations on the physical distribution of plants in north of Scotland, 357 Wild animals of the Illinois country, in North America, 181 Wilson, James, his account of the introduction of the wood-grouse or capercailzie, the Tetrao Urogallus, to the Forest of Braemar, 160 | Wines, grease of, noticed, 369 5 ‘onorit wes | | Vie eda eet a Pie 7 4, We Spe eS JUN 9 1971 Q The Edinburgh new philosophical 1 Journal Physical & Applied Sch. 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