S'-A^r

THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE

PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN THE

SCIENCES AND THE ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

^ : . ,;;*j1ROBERT JAMESON,

Kfmp^^ftMiVXJ^R^V NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KBBPBR Of

^^*^^'l!V-*^" " THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH;

Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; of the Antiquarian, Wemerian and Horti-
cultural Societies of Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal
Dublin Society ; Fellow of the Royal Linnean and Royal Geological Societies of London ; Ho-
norary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall,
and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern,,
and Cork Institutions; of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and New-
castle ; of the Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ;
of the Royal Academy of Naples ; of the Imi)erial Natural History Society of Moscow ; of the
Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of St Petersburgh ; of the Natural History Society of Wetterau ;
of the Mineralogical Society of Jena; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of Dresden; of the
Natural History Society of Paris; of the Philomathic Society of Paris; of the Natural History
Society of Calvados; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural
Sciences and Medicine of Heidelberg; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of New York ; of the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York; of the Natural History Society of Montreal; of the Geolc^ical Society of France; of the
South African Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; of the Franklin Institution of the SUte of
Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, S^c. S^c.

APRIL... OCTOBER 1833.

VOL. XV.

TO BE. CONTINUED QUARTERLY,

EDINBURGH :

ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINHURGH ;
AND r.ONGMAN, REES, ORME, CROWN, (;REEN, & LONGMAN,

LONDON.

1833.

Ai iv

'X\W

PRIKTED BY KEILL & COMPANY,
OLD FISH MARKET.

CONTENTS.

Page
Art. I. Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. By

Baron Cuvier, - - - . i

II. Facts relating to Diluvial Action in America. By

the Hon. William Thompson, - , 26

III. On a Gradual Elevation of the Land in Scandi-
navia. By James F. W. Johnston, A. M.,
F. R. S. E., &c. &c. Communicated by the
Author, ----- 34.

IV. Some Observations on Phosphorus. By John
Davy, M. D., F. R. S., Assistant Inspector of
Army Hospitals. Communicated by Sir James
Macgrigor, Director-General of the Array Me-
dical Board, - - - - 43

V. On the Characters and Affinities of the Genus
Codon. By David Don, Esq. Librarian of the
Linnean Society. Communicated by the Author, 53

VI. On American Steam-Boats. By Mr C. Redfield

of New York, - - - _ 55

VII. Lion-Hunting in South Africa. By Lewis Leslie,

Esq, 45th Regiment. Communicated by the
Author, - - - _ _ g2

VIII. On the Connexion which subsists between the

Calyx and Ovarium in certain Plants of the Order
Melastomaceae. By David Don, Esq. Libr. L. S.
&c. &c. Communicated by the Author, - 68

IX. Experiments upon the Solidification of Raw
Gypsum. By John P. Emmet, Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, 69

CONTENTS.

Page
Art. X. On the Physiognomy of Scandinavia. By Pro-
fessor Hausmann, - - _ 73
XI. Life of Linn^us. By A. L. A. Fee, - 85
XII. Tables of the Sun's Mean Right Ascension. By
William Galbraith, A. M. Communicated by
the Author, - - - > 97

XIII, Summary of the Rain, &c. at Geneva, and at the
Elevated Station of the Pass ^of Great St Ber-
nard, for a series of Years. From the Biblio-
theque Universelle for March 1828. With Ob-
servations on the same. By John Dalton,

F. R. S. - - - - - 101

XIV. Observations on Competitions among Working

Tradesmen. By William Grierson, Esq. of
Garrock, W. S., Member of the Society of Arts.
Abridged from a Paper read before the Society
10th April 1833, and by their Committee recom-
mended to be printed. Communicated by the
Society, - - - - - 105

XV. Some Account of the Northern Light-houses.

Communicated by the Author, - - 108

XVI. On the Ground-Ice or the Pieces of Floating
Ice observed in Rivers during Winter. By M.
AitAGo, ----- 123
XVII. On the Advantages of a Short Arc of Vibration
for the Clock Pendulum. By Mr Edward Sang.
Read before the Society for the Encouragement
of the Useful Arts in Scotland, 6th February
1833. Communicated by the Society, - 137

XVIII. On Dwarfs and Giants. By M. Geoffroy St

HiLAIRE, - - - - - 142

XIX. On the Hot Springs of the Cordilleras of the

Andes, _ - - - . 151

XX. Proceedings of the late Dr Alexander Turn-
bull Christie in India, — as stated in a letter
dated Madras, September 1832, - - 153

XXI. Results of Experiments on the Economical and
Medical Uses of the Oxides and Salts of Chrome.
By Professor Jacobson of Copenhagen. Com-
municated to the Editor, - - - 157

CONTENTS. Ill

Page
Art. XXII. On the Specific Gravity of Different Solid Parts

of the Human Body, - - - 159

XXIII. Eloge of Baron George Cuvier, delivered in the

Chamber of Peers on the 17th December 1832.
By Baron Pasquier, President of the Chamber
of Peers. (Concluded from former volume,
p. 358.) - - - - - 164

XXIV. Characters of New or little known Genera of

Plants. By Robert Wight, Esq. M. D. F. L. S.
Hon. E. I. C. S., and G. A. Walker Arnott,
Esq. A. M. F. R. S. E. and L. S. Communicated
by the Authors, - - - - 176

XXV. Description of several New or Rare Plants which
have lately flowered in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic
Garden. By Dr Graham, Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh, - - 181

XXVI. Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1.
1833, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh,
Mean Time. By IMr Geo. Innes, Astronomical
Calculator, Aberdeen, - .. - 185

XXVII. Scientific Intelligence, - - _ 189

meteorology.
1. Influence of the Moon on Rain. 2. The supposed
Influence of the Moon on Vegetation. 3. Influ-
ence of the Moon on Diseases, - 189-192

HYDROGRAPHY.

4. Instances of Ground Ice. 5. Avalanches in Grusia

(Grusien), - - - 192-194

GEOLOGY.

6. Hoffmann's Discovery in regard to Carrara
Marble. 7. Fish-bones and Scales in the Coal
Formation. 8. Specific Gravity of some British
Rocks. 9- Chemical Composition of some Secon-
dary Rocks. 10. Inflammable Matter in Carne-
lian. 11. Fossils in Granite. 12. Geological
Maps. 13. Plan in Relief of Wurtemberg, 194-198

ZOOLOGY.

14. Hermaphrodism. 15. Vomiting in Ruminant

Animals, - - - - 198-201

IV CONTENTS.

Page

ARTS.

1 6. Clay for Sculptors, 1 7. Lute for Bottling Wine,
&c. 18. Method of Cleansing Wool from its
Grease, and economising the residue. 19. Stucco
for Walls. 20. Preservation of Substances by
means of Alkalies. 21. On the Prevention of
Dry-Rot, - - - - 201-203

XXVIII. Proceedings of the Society for the Encouragement

of the Useful Arts in Scotland, - - 204

List of Prizes offered by that Society for the Ses-
sion 1833-34, - - - - 205
XXIX. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 22d

March to 31st May 1833, - - - 207

TkeNotkes dftheifnpo^Mf Gedhpicdtldnd other Works sent to us,
are unamidahh/ delayed, owing to icaM of room ; and several Com-
T/litnicatiofus are in the same predicamenf. — Edit.

$_-.cc8r tf

CONTENTS.

Art. I. Historical Eluge of Louis Nicolas Vauquklin. By

Baroii CuviER. - - _ Piiee 209

II. The Numerical Rolutions of AiiiniaJs from Linnjeus to

the present time, - - - _ 221

III. The Rock of Gibraltar. By Professor Hausmann, 227

IV. Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa, the cele-

brated Anatomist and Surgeon, - - 283

y. Report of a Lecture on the Chemistry of Geology de-
livered at one of the Evening Meetings at the Uni-
versity of London. By Edward Turner, M. D.
F. R. S. L. E., Sec. G. S. - „ 246

VI. Dr Oppenhbiw on the State of Medicine in European

and Asiatic Turkey, - - . 255

VII. Observations on the Hygrometer. Communicated by

the Author, - _ _ . ' 2*73

VIII. An Account of Professor Ehrenberg's more Recent
Researches on the Infusoria. By William Sharpey,
M. D., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology. Com-
municated by the Author. With a Plate, - 287
IX. Abstract of a Comparative Revieiv of Philological and
Physical Researches, as applied to the History of the
Human Species. By J. C. Prichard, M. D., F. R. S. 308
X. I. i\Ieteorological Observations made at Edinburgh
during the great Solar Eclipse of July I7. 1833.— -2.
A Method of Freeing the Determination of the Lati-
tude of an Observatory, and of the Declination of a

I CONTKNTS.

Star, from the (Consideration of Atmospheric Refrac-
tion, By Edward Sano, S. M. A. S., Teaclier of
Mathematics, Edinburgh. Communicated by the
Author, - ^- ^ , - - - 320*

XI. On the Longevity of Trees and the INIeans of Ascer-
taining it. By Professor De Candolle, - 330

XII. On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water.

Colour of the Atmosphere ; Colour of Deep Water ;
Colour of the Rhone ; different Colours of the Sea •,
Account of the Azure Grotto of the Islandj of^Capri,
&c. By the Count XavIer DE Maistrrj r T^rwv J 348

XIII. Notice of Botanical Excursions into the Highlands

of Scotland from Edittburgb^this, Sgasojj^ 1;833. . By
Dr Graham, - (^^aocpQ Tiiiiii^T-oJ 358

XIV. Notice on the Osteology of the Hippopotamus. By

Walter Adam, M.D,, Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians of Edinburgh, M. W. S. &:c. Commu-
nicated by the Author, - c* : - - 361
XV. A Sketch of the Tertiary Formation in the Province
of Granada. By C. Silvertop, Retired Brigadier
in the Service of H. C M., K. of the R. and O. of
Charles III., and F. G. S. With Plates. Commu-
-•nicated by the Author, ^^^^ "-^^ ^'^ {-- ,u. ' ud . 3^4
•^XVI. Characters of New or Lit^&%^#¥l5^te of Plants.
^» By Robert Wight, Esq. M. D., F. L. S., Hon.

E. 1. C. S., and G. A. Walker Arnott, Esq. A. M.

F. R. S. E. L. S. and M. W: S. Communicated by

th6 AtiUioi^. - . mmuX^imisi.. 3^^

XVII. Description of several Netv or Rare Plants wbich have
lately Flowered in Gardens in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, but chiefly iii the Royal Botanic Garden.
By Dr Graham, Prbfessoi' of Botany in the University
of Edinburgh, - - L' ^^ - 381

XVIIf.' Chemical Analyses of Stratified Rocks altered by Plu-
* torietm Agency ; and Analysis of Largo Law Basaltic
Rock and Wollastonite from Corstorphine Hill, 386

XIX.' Celestial Phenomena from October 1. 18.33 to January
'1. 1834, (Calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh,
Mean Time. By INIr George Innes, Astronomical
Ca!cnlator, Aberdeen, - - - 389

CONTENT& 111

XX. Proceeding*) of the Society for the Kiicoumeement of

the Useful Arts in Scotland, - r , 393

XXL Scientific Intelligence, Ui^fi^v^ - - 395

BIETEOROLOGY.

1. Absolute Weight of th^ Atmosphere dtiring Cholera

greater than at othv^r times, - - 395

2. Wei||ht of 'the Atmp&phere at New ^nd Full Mopn^, 396

■ . .Ti;.,i{'^') GfiOLOGY. '■

SP'Fossil To^tfe^dn-Shndstone of the Coal Formation, 397

4. Living Trilobite discovered, ' - - ib.

iiJ»'FaradAy on Carbonate of Lime, •>r">ii . ;i^ ib.
Oi^'Prevost on the Geological Transitiftfr'^ijm tohtfJk-

to Tertiary Deposits, - - - 398

y-'^AntediluVian xVmbei*gris. at JBumtislandi &c. '-"*"" - - 4b.

8.' Belemnites in Talc-slate,&cM M jf / ^> P^ w ?rT t* W ib.

9,' Geological Map of $J)aiii5tudniba lo . ib.

10. Geology of Greece, - - ttoAittK sti^^. , .r^ 399

XXIL New Publications, - , . ^ - . - r - 399

,,.fc "^^^^ Principles of Ge^Jpg^ jjBy^ q^lj^S^ j|iY»LL,

^OIXl S?^' ^' ^' S., &C. &C.3 ry ^^^^^ ,j^ ^1^^ ib.

2. The Geology of the South-East of England. By

Gideon Mantell, Esq. F. R. S., &c. &c. - ib.

31, Barometric Tables for the use of Engin^iers, Geolo-
gists, and Scientific Tr^ij^ll^s.'^) gy WjLLf am Gal-

BRAITH, A. M., &C. j/; j ^, -^^ j -y. ^ r. - 400

4. Naturalist's Library. Vol. I. Humming Birds, with
Thirty-four Coloured Plates, and Portrait of Lin-
N-Eus. Vol. IL Monkeys, with Twenty-eight Colour-
ed Plates, and Portrait of Buffon. Descriptions
by Sir W, Jardine ; the EngraY^iiii^ §^4 rftr^fyings
by William H. LizARS, - .h^,^<f,..j,A n, ih.

5.j«Pn Fossil Fishes, comprising 500 extinct species; an
ij. Exposition of the Laws of the Successjpn, an^jpf the
^^J, Organic Development of Fishes^ thrpughou^ ajl the

re^volutions of the Terrestrial Globe; a new. Classifi-
cation of those Animals, expressing their relations to
the series of formations ; and, lastly, the general geo-
,^^^ logical considerations deduced from the study of these

Organic Remains. By Dr Louis Agassiz, - 401

IV CONTENTS.

6. The Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables found in

Carboniferous and Oolitic Deposits of Great Britain.
By H. T. M. WiTHAM, Esq. Member of the Werne-
rian Society, &c. _ - - - 402

7. Boylb's Work on the Botany and Natural History

of the Himalaya Mountains, - - ib.

8. Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology ; being a se-

ries of Dissertations on all the Topics connected with
Human, Comparative, and Morbid Anatomy and
Physiology. Edited by Professor Grant of the Lon-
don University, and Mr Todd, Lecturer on Anatomy
and Physiology in London, - - _ 403

9. Bridgewater Treatises, viz. Sir Chables Bell's, Dr

Roget's Physiology, Buckland's Treatise, and
those of Dr Prout, Dr Chaljieks, and Professor
Whewell, - - - - ib.

10. French Works connected with Natural History.
Brongniart's New Work on Mineralogy, Ferru-
sAc's Bulletin, Scientific Journal, named LTnstitut,
Boue's new work, and Daubuisson's Geology, 404

IL Cheap Publications on the Continent, Twopenny Pe-
riodicals, Cheap Dictionary of Natural History ;
Great rise in the value of shares in these literary
speculations, - . , _ j[j.

MS.'

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

mi

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. By

Baron Cuvier *.

A CELEBRATED academician, who had risen from the humblest
condition to the highest ecclesiastical and literary honours, said,
on the day of his admission into the academy, " Should there
be found in this assembly a young man born with a love for la-
bour, but wholly destitute of assistance or encouragement, and
in whom the uncertainty of his destination weakens his suscep-
tibility to the excitement of emulation, let the sight of my situa-
tion at the present moment inspire him with hope." Nothing
indeed can be at once more affecting or encouraging, than to
witness merit, by the power of perseverance, surmounting the
obstacles which misfortune had opposed to it, and, gradually-
emerging from obscurity, become at last an object of general
notice, and obtain, with the just approbation of all, the advan-
tages which our societies can confer on those by whom they are
merited.

Conspicuous examples of this kind are afforded by the two
celebrated chemists, with whom I propose to occupy your at-
tention during the present meeting, both of whom were born in
a state almost of entire privation, yet each supported with firm-
ness the difficuhies of his condition. From the time when they

• This interesting Eloge of Sir H. Davy, not yet published, was commu-
nicated to us in proof-sheet, through the goodness of our friend Mr Pentland
of Paris.— Edit.

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833- A

2 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry/ Davy.

had made some progress in science, and their first works were
made known to the public, they became the objects of general
favour ; were received in the world, and in proportion as their
discoveries increased, they advanced to fortune, and were loaded
with honours ; no jealous voice interrupted this unanimity of
sentiment regarding them, or, if such was ever raised, it was not
till they had obtained a position in society wliich sheltered
them from its effects, and reduced those who were jealous to the
necessity of being only envious *.

Sir Humphry Davy, Baronet, formerly President of the
Royal Society of London, Foreign Associate of the Academy
of Sciences in the Institute, w^as the son of Robert Davy and
Grace Millet, and was born at Penzance, a small town in the
county of Cornwall, the most remote portion of England towards
the west, on the 17th day of December 1778.

His family is said to have possessed at one period consider-
able landed property in the parish of Ludgvan, near Penzance ;
but Robert Davy, his father, was reduced to a very small farm
on the banks of the Boye, called St Michael, from a rock bear-
ing some resemblance by its situation, and by having a convent
upon it, to that distinguished by the same name on the coast of
Normandy. With a view to increase his limited income, he
exercised in Penzance, for a long period, the profession of gilder
and carver in wood ; but not succeeding in his profession, he
abandoned it, and soon after died, in 1794, leaving his widow
in a destitute situation with five children, the youngest of whom
was little more than four years of age. This respectable woman
did not, however, lose courage ; occupied incessantly with the
education of her children, in order to procure the means of sup-
porting them, she opened a shop, and subsequently kept a
vlodging-house, for those whose health led them to visit this
county, which is celebrated above the rest of England for the
mildness of its climate.

Her eldest son, the young Humphry, turned to the best account
the limited means of instruction which this remote county pre-
sented, and some of his teachers have since pretended to boast

• The other individual alluded to, is the celebrated Luis-Nicolas Vauque-
lin, who died on the 15th October 1829 Trans.

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. 3

of a scholar so celebrated ; but he has always said, that if there
was any thing original in his ideas, it was owing to the negli-
gence and indifference of the persons entrusted with his educa-
tion, who permitted him to indulge, without restraint, in all the
caprices of his fancy. Many men of genius, in relating the his-
tory of their early lives, could make the same observation.
That mode of instruction, indeed, which is calculated for the
majority, is not easily adapted to those eccentric intellects whose
first ideas are superior to those of their companions, and not
unfrequently to those of their masters. The exertions used to
make them conform to the common method, have only the effect
of obstructing their progress. It is fortunate, therefore, both
for themselves and for society, that they should be thus neglect-
ed. Left to himself, Davy occupied his time in hunting, fish-
ing, and traversing this picturesque country, already attempt-
ing to celebrate its beauties in verse, for from his infancy he
was both an orator and a poet. He had the power of express-
ing his impressions in a very vivid manner ; and when he en-
tered the school, his little companions were accustomed to sur-
round him, and forget every thing else, in listening to the re-
cital of what he had seen. His reading did not make a less
forcible impression on his mind than his observations ; no sooner
had a translation of Homer fallen in his way, than he began to
compose an epic poem, of which the subject was Diomede ; a
composition, says one of his former schoolfellows, very incorrect,
and abounding in violations of the established rules, and of
good taste, but full of life and varied incident, displaying a,
richness of invention, and a freedom of execution, which evince
a true poet.

It was necessary, however, that he should engage in more se-
rious occupation, and his mother bound him for five years as an
apprentice to an apothecary named Borlase, a member probably
of the same family as the minister of the parish of Ludgvan, to
whom we are indebted for a natural history of the county of
Cornwall, and an account of its antiquities, two works which
are still of considerable value on account of the documents
which they contain. This apothecary, as is always the case in
England, likewise practised surgery and medicine. Young

A 2

4 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

Davy was often obliged to visit his patients, and convey to them
medicines, an occupation quite in accordance with his early ha-
bits, and which had the effect of rendering him still more ac-
tive. While traversing this rich country, he recited aloud
either Homer's verses or his own ; for he had already composed
many. It was at this time that he wrote his ode on Mount St
Michael, and a poem on Mount's Bay, two of his best verse
compositions. The play given to his active faculties by these
solitary walks, led him to explore some of the mysteries of me-
taphysics, and as far as may be judged from some letters and
stanzas written at this period, which were afterwards published,
but in a very modified form, under the title of Life, he was
absorbed in all the abstractions of pantheism, and spoke of God
and of the world, like a Bramin, or a professor of German phi-
losophy.

i But the county of Cornwall is not merely a picturesque coun-
try ; its primitive rocks, their various relations, the metallic veins
which they contain, and deep mines, sunk at a period antece-
dent to any authentic record, render it a country pre-eminently
geological and chemical, and such an individual as we have de-
scribed Davy to be, could not listen to conversations on the
working and uses of metals, the diff*erent processes to which
they are subjected, and the relations which subsist between
them and the rocks in which they are enclosed, without having
his attention drawn to those branches of natural science which
treat of the structure of the globe, and the nature of the mate-
rials of which it is composed. A fortuitous circumstance was
the means of engaging his youthful mind in active study. Mr
Gregory Watt, son of our late Associate, who brought to per-
fection the steam-engine, and made it an agent which will
change the entire aspect of society, was sent to Penzance on ac-
count of an affection of his breast, and lodged in the house of
Mrs Davy. The young apothecary, attracted by his handsome
figure and elegant manners, became desirous of gaining his
friendship ; but the English are backward to form friendships,
especially when there is a difference of fortune or rank. To re-
commend himself to notice, Davy entertained Mr Watt with
chemistry, of which he had already acquired a slight and prac-
tical knowledge in the house of his master, although it did not

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. 5

fit him to converse on the subject with one well versed in its
principles. Some one to whom he mentioned his intention, pr(\-
cured for him an English translation of Lavoisier's chemistry.
In two days he had made himself completely master of it, and
it is very remarkable, that, in entire ignorance of the objections
which Priestley and others of his countrymen had raised against
the theory advanced in that celebrated work, he declared that
there occurred to him another explanation of the phenomena ;
and he began seriously to engage in developing it. The ani-
mated discussions which he had with Mr Watt on this subject,
had only the effect of confirming his resolution ; the poet and
the metaphysician decided at once on becoming a chemist.
The state of his affairs was such, as to render it no easy matter
to procure even the requisite instruments ; but in this, as in
every thing else that he undertook, his courage and perseve-
rance surmounted all obstacles. Old tobacco-pipes, and a few
glass-tubes purchased from a travelling vender of barometers,
formed his first apparatus. The surgeon of a French ship,
stranded near Land's End, shewed him his instruments, and
having observed a utensil of very common and familiar use
among us, the form of which apparently differs in the two
countries, he conceived the possibility of rendering it the princi-
pal piece in a pneumatic machine ; and to this purpose, so dif-
ferent from that for which it was intended, it was in reality ap-
plied. It is thus that, in the case of many great men, priva-
tion has proved the most useful master.

The experience which he acquired on this occasion was never
afterwards lost. During his whole life, Mr Davy never wanted
a resource in his investigations ; the simplicity of his apparatus
was always as remarkable as the originality of his experiments,
and the elevation of his views ; and even when he travelled into
places the most remote from scientific aid, he was never more
at a loss to bring to the test of experiment any new idea that
occurred to him, than he was when he commenced his first la-
bours in the shop of his master at Penzance.

After some further exercise, he took from his own neighbour-
hood the subject of his first experiment. He wished to ascer-
tain with what kind of air the vesicles of fuci are filled, and de-
termined, with as much precision as the most accomplished che

6 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

mist could have done, that marine plants act on the air in the
same manner as land plants. This was in 1797, when he was
not quite eighteen years of age.

About this time, Dr Beddoes, who had been obliged by politi-
cal dissensions to leave the Chair of Chemistry in the University
of Oxford, came to establish himself at Bristol, where he formed,
witli the assistance of the family of the celebrated Wedgwood, an
establishment called TJie Pneumatic Institution^ the principal
object of which was to try the action of various gases on dis-
eases of the lungs ; he commenced at the same time a periodi-
cal collection, entitled Contributions Jrom tJie Western Provinces^
in which he inserted the researches of the physicians and che-
mists of that part of England. It was to this individual that
Davy addressed his essay, and Beddoes, surprised at finding a
young apothecary of Penzance capable of such investigations,
was very anxious to attach him to his institution.

For this purpose, it was necessary to dissolve the contract of
apprenticeship which he had formed with Borlase, according to
the somewhat Gothic practice which prevails in Great Britain.
Mr Davies Gilbert now President of the Royal Society, under-
took the negotiation, which was speedilj'^ completed ; for the
apothecary, who apparently cared but little for scientific dis-
coveries, and still less for metaphysics and poetry, shewed no
reluctance to restore to liberty a youth whose qualities he re-
garded with no favourable eye, although destined to become
so soon after the light of chemistry, and the honour of his
country *.

But Beddoes estimated men by a different standard ; and
speedily discerning the intellectual qualities of his new assistant,
he did not employ him merely in that capacity, but entrusted
him with his laboratory, and permitted him to perform all the
experiments he judged necessary to extend his knowledge of
gases, and gave the use of his amphitheatre to deliver lectures.

• It is due to the character of Davy's first master to state, that the rea-
diness with which he surrendered the indenture, originated in motives en-
tirely the reverse of those here ascribed to him. It was because he appre-
ciated the talents of the young chemist, and from a wish to promote his ad-
vancement, that the arrangement was effected with so much facility. See
Paris' Life of Sir H. Davy, i, 55 — Trans.

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy, 7

It was in the Pneumatic Institution that Davy discovered,
in 1799, the properties of nitrous oxide gas^ or as it is now
called, protoxide of azote, and the extraordinary effects it pro-
duces on certain organizations *. Many persons on inhaling it
experience only uneasiness and symptoms of asphyxia ; others
are affected with decided asphyxia ; but in some it produces
intoxication of a peculiar kind, exciting sensations of the most
delicious nature, and so superior to all other kinds of pleasure,
that they would permit themselves to die in that state without
making the slightest effort to escape from it.

It is easy to imagine the eagerness with which this new man-
ner of producing intoxication was received in a country where
the old method was practised to a much greater extent than at
present, as it led to the hope of an agreeable variation in an en-
joyment become too monotonous ; the name of the young che-
mist of Penzance was therefore speedily popular throughout the
three kingdoms.

In order to do him full justice, however, it must be added,
that the courage which he had shewn was not less remarkable
than the singularity of the discovery. He gives a fearful de-
scription of the state into which it threw him. The loss of vo-
luntary motion did not at first diminish his sensations ; he saw
and heard all that was going on around him ; but in proportion
as the species of asphyxia increased, he lost the power of per-
ceiving external things ; a crowd of images rose in his mind, and
he seemed to be making discoveries, and forming theories of the
most sublime description. But let it not be supposed that this
mode of intoxication more than any other can teach any thing
new. When a friend snatched from him the receiver of the
dangerous gas, his first words were only the old formula of
idealism, Nothing' exists hut tlumght ; the universe is composed
only of impressions and ideas of pleasure and pain. This
system had been long the subject of his thoughts. He made
a still more dangerous experiment by respiring carbonic gas,
but it produced only pain and depression ; and it is not impro-

• Researches, chemical and philosophical, chiefly concerning nitrous oxide
and its respiration. 8vo. London, 1800. Translated into French, Annates
de Chxmie, torn. xli. p. 305 ; xlii. p. 33 and 276 ; xliii. p. 97 and 324 ; xliv.
p. 43 and 210 ; xlv p. 97 and 169 ; also into Bibliothcque Britanrnqtie, torn, xix.
XX. xxi.

8 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

bable that these rash attempts contributed to produce that sud-
den change in his constitution which terminated in his prema-
ture death.

At this period Bristol was filled with enthusiastic young men,
fond of novelty, and forward to express their sentiments, whose
speeches, in the midst of those dissentions which the French re-
volution had excited in England, caused this town to be regarded
as the principal seat of democracy.

These youths, in concert with their correspondents in diffe-
rent parts of the kingdom, had formed a design to raise their
friends to situations which were most likely to make them the
objects of public favour, and in prosecution of their plan, they
resolved to use their efforts to place the young professor in a
sphere of wider influence. Our former associate. Count Rum-
ford, had established in London the Royal Institution, designed
to spread among the higher classes of society the useful dis-
coveries of science. Being naturally of an unaccommodating dis-
position, he had already quarrelled with Dr Garnet, his pro-
fessor of chemistry ; and it was resolved to propose Davy, who
was urged to come forward and be presented to him.

Every one will remember that, with all his great and noble
qualities. Count Rumford was'not distinguished for affability; the
almost infantine appearance of the candidate, who always looked
younger than he really was, joined to manners somewhat provin-
cial, and the remains of a Cornwall accent, rendered the Count
even more repulsive than usual, and Davy's timidity, increased
by such a reception, was little calculated to remove the effect of
his first appearance. The persons by whom he was introduced
had to employ much art and solicitation to obtain permission
for him to give some lectures, in a particular apartment of the
house, on the properties of gases ; but more than this was not
needed. From the first, the variety of his ideas and their inge-
nious combinations, the warmth, vivacity, perspicuity, and ori-
ginality of their exposition, all the interest which the united
talents of the poet, the orator, and the philosopher can confer
on the teaching of chemistry, had the effect of enchanting the
small number who had ventured to come and hear him. They
immediately spoke of him with so much enthusiasm, that the
place of meeting was unable to accommodate the influx of auditors,

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy, 9

and his lectures had to be transferred to the great amphitheatre
of the estabUshment.

The Royal Institution was at that time supported by all that
was most elevated in Great Britain, both in birth and in intel-
lect ; ladies of the highest rank attended the lectures, as well as
the most distinguished noblemen and youths of the country.

The youth of a professor who had scarcely advanced be-
yond the age of boyhood, his handsome figure, and ingenious
manners, contributed not less than his lively eloquence to con-
ciliate the affection of such a public. In a short time he be-
came so much in fashion, that not an evening party appeared
complete when he was not present. This was such an entire
revolution in his condition, that he required not less courage to
continue his labours in this sudden prosperity, than he needed
to commence them in the midst of misfortune. Some even pre-
tend that he permitted himself to be more elated by his recep-
tion in the great world, than was due to his genius and circum-
stances. But what young man of twenty would have better
resisted such a temptation ? He did not at least renounce
science ; for in the midst of the pleasures which it was so natu-
ral for one of his age to wish to enjoy, he ceased not for a mo-
ment to multiply the titles which had been the means of obtain-
ing them for him.

But who ought to have experienced greater happiness ? From
the time of his first regular course, which was given in May
1801, a continued series of lectures, experiments, and discove-
ries, which succeeded each other with unparalleled rapidity, and
which have elucidated the most important branches of Physics
and Chemistry, essentially modified their doctrines, and led to
the most beneficial and unexpected applications to the wants
of society, secured for their author the admiration of the civilized
world, and the gratitude of his country. Nominated a member
of the Royal Society in 1803^ and appointed secretary in 1806;
commissioned by the Board of Agriculture to teach the appli-
cation of Chemistry to that branch of public economy ; united
in 1812 to a lady of great wealth, and high intellectual endow-
ments ; and honoured, the same year, with knighthood, be-
ing the first person so distinguished by the Prince Regent ,•
created Baronet in 1818, when this Prince mounted the throne ;

10 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

and, finally, elected to the distinguished station of President
of the Royal Society in 1820, on the death of Sir Joseph
Banks, by a majority of two hundred against thirteen, an of-
fice which he continued to hold for seven years: — the young
apprentice of Penzance enjoyed without interruption all the ho-
nours which a great state could confer on those who do it honour.
These marks of esteem were confirmed by the approbation of
foreigners. Crowned by the Institute in 1807, when the war
with England was at its height ; associated with that body in
1817; called upon in like manner to enjoy the honours of all
the celebrated academies ; Mr Davy had to boast of the appro-
bation of Europe as well as of his own country. But our na-
ture does not admit of perfect happiness in the present world ;
and when ail around us is prosperous, we not unfrequently
carry within ourselves the poison that embitters our existence.
In the exposition which I am about to give of Mr Davy's la-
bours, continued without interruption for upwards of twenty-
five years, and published in sixty different memoirs and papers,
it willjbe understood that I can attend only to the principal re-
sults and fundamental discoveries. I shall, therefore, pass ra-
pidly over his first experiments, made in the Royal Institution
in 1803, to determine the proportions of tannin in the different
substances^J used in tanning *. Those of the following year
(1802), on the different combinations of azote with oxygen,
that is to say, on nitrous oxide and the nitrous gas now named
protoxide and deutoxide of azote, and on the proportions of
their elements, as well as those of hydrogen and azote, which
are*acquiring a more general importance in Chemistry, were
the natural consequences of his first observations on nitrous gas,
and the invention of a new eudiometer resulted from them-f*.
A solution of muriate, or of sulphate of iron, impregnated with
nitrous gas, was found to absorb oxygen with greater facility
than any other substance.

" An account of some experiments and observations on the constituent
parts of certain astringent vegetables, and on their operation in tanning —
Roy. Soc. Londouj 24th Feb. 1803 ; Phil. Trans, xcxiii. p. 233 ; NicholsorCs t
Journal, v. p. 256.

•f An Account of a New Eudiometer Nicholson''s Journal, 4to, vol. v.

p. 175; BihUoth. Brit. vii. p. 246 ; Ann Chim, torn. xlii. p. 301.

Biographical Memoir of' Sir Humphry Davy, 1 1

We are unable to bestow much time on his mineralogical
discoveries, although they are doubtless far from unimportant.
In 1805, his analysis of a stone from Devonshire, which had
been named wavellite, furnished to this science a new species.
It is a combination of pure alumina with water *.

The same year he published a new method of analyzing stones
containing a fixed alkali, by means of the boracic acid -f*.

He proved more evidently than had been previously done, and
contrary to his own conjectures on the subject, that the diamond
produces on combustion only pure carbonic acid +. In 1822,
he proved that iron and silex are dissolved in the thermal waters
of Lucca §. Rock-crystal and other stones often contain in
cavities in their interior gases and liquids ; and as these sub-
stances must have been inclosed at the time of their formation,
a knowledge of their nature was not without interest in the an-
cient history of the globe. Mr Davy found them to consist of
pure water and pure azotic gas J.

Much light was likewise thrown on many branches of physics
by the observations made in the course of his researches. The
nature of the changes of colour produced by heat on the surface
of steel ^ ; the formation of mists over the surface of rivers ** ;
the application that may be made of liquids formed by the con-

• An Account of some analytical experiments on a mineral production from,
Devonshire, consisting principally of alumina and water. — Rot/. Soc. Lond.
28th Feb. 1805 ; Phil. Trans, xcv. p. 155 ; Biblioth. Brit, xxx. p. 303 ; Anru
de Chimie, Ix. p. 297.

f Roy. Soc. Lond. IGth May 1816; PfUl. Trans, xcv. p. 231 ; Annates de
Chitnie^ torn. Ix. p. 297.

$ Some experiments on the combustion of the diamond and other carbona-
ceous substances — Roy. Soc. Lond. 23d June 1811 ; Phil. Trans, civ. p. 657 ;
Ami. de Chimie et de Physique, i p. 16; Bibl. Britan. voL Ivii. p. 124.

§ Memoria sopra di un deposito trovato nei Bagni di Lucca. — Atti della
Real. Acad. Neapolit. v. ii. p. 9 ; Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xix.
p. 194.

II On the state of water and aeriform matter in cavities found in certain
crystals — Roy. Soc. Lond. 13th June 1822; Phil. Trans, v. cxii. p. 367; Ann,
de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxL p. 132.

% Ann. of Philosophy, vol. L p. 131 ; Bibl. Brit. voL Iv. p. 157.

•• Some observations on the formation of mists in particular situations...
Roy. Soc. Lond. 25th Feb. 1819 ; Phil. Trans, vol. cix. p. 123; Ann. de Chim.
et de Phys. xii. 195.

12 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

densation of gases as mechanical agents * ; finally, the colour
of the water of rivers and of the ocean -f- ; were subjects that at-
tracted his attention, and produced instructive and interesting
papers.

Particular mention ought to be made of the course of lectures
which he delivered before the Board of Agriculture in 1803,
and which were published in 1813 J. It was thus that a young
man of twenty-two, who had no practical experience of the
subject, unexpectedly enlightened the proprietors and most
experienced cultivators in Great Britain.

Such occupation, however, as we have been alluding to, may
be said to have formed only a kind of diversion from his severer
studies. His experiments on the decomposition of bodies by
galvanic electricity were of a superior order, and it was to them
that he owed his sudden elevation, by the unanimous voice of
Europe, to the rank of one of the first chemists of our age. No
one will dispute that there was never displayed, in such a length-
ened investigation, a greater degree of perseverance, method,
and precision ; and rarely have these qualities been crowned
with more brilliant success.

An observation casually made by Galvani in 1789, in which
he had seen the parts of a dead animal become convulsed when
a metallic communication was established between a nerve and
the muscle, had excited the attention not only of the learned but
of the vulgar : some believed that they saw in it the explanation
of all the vital phenomena, and the means of recalling even
the dead to life. Volta referred these facts to their true cause,
viz. the electricity produced by the contact of two metals ; and,
in his endeavours to render the influence of the metals more
considerable, he increased the number of the plates, and se-
parated them by others of less conductive power ; thus c on-
structing his famous pile, the constant source of an electricity

• Roy. Soc. Lond. 27th April 1823; Phil. Trans, v. cxiii. p. 193; Ann. de
Chim. et de Phys. torn. xxv. p, 80.

t Salmonia (2d edit), p. 316 ; Bibl. Univ. torn. xl. p. 114.

X Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the
Board of Agriculture, 4to and 8vo, Lond. 1813. Translated into French,
12mo, Paris 1820, and into Gennan, by F. Wolf, with additions by A. Thaer,
8vo, Berlin 1814.

Biographical Memoir of Sir Hiimphrij Davy. 1 3

which is continually renewed. Scarcely had physicians become
acquainted with this new and admirable instrument, than they
wished to try its effects on every kind of substance.

About the year 1800, Messrs Carlisle and Nicholson, intro-
ducing into the water metallic wires corresponding to the two
poles of the pile, saw with surprise that oxygen was evolved
near the positive thread, and hydrogen near the negative one.

The same year, perhaps before them, Ritter, in Germany,
had arrived at a more precise result, by placing water in two
separate vessels, but communicating with each other by means of
sulphuric acid: oxygen and hydrogen were produced indefinitely,
each at its pole. He thence concluded, not that the pile decom-
posed water, but that the two gases are only water combined
with the two kinds of electricity. When an animal fibre, or
even the fingers, formed the communication between the two
vessels, muriatic acid also appeared at the positive wire ; and
some had even concluded, fi-om this circumstance, that this acid
was formed of hydrogen less oxygenated than water. Alkalies
likewise appeared, of different kinds, according to the circum-
stances in which the operation was performed.

In 1803, two Swedish chemists, Messrs Hisinger and Berze-
lius, by repeated experiments, had ascertained the fact, that the
decomposing action of the pile extends to bodies of every kind ;
that it invariably causes acids and oxygenated substances to ap-
pear towards the positive pole, and alkalies towards the negative
one ; thus opening a way to the explanation of these different
anomalies.

Mr Davy had observed with attention the progress of these
experiments, and, even in 1800, and under the eye of Beddoes,
he had operated on water, placed in two separate vases, but em-
ploying a strip of bladder as the means of communication. In
this experiment, muriatic acid likewise appeared*. In 1801
he had made known to the public a kind of pile, differing
in some respects from that of Volta, in which a single plate
of metal alternated with two liquidsf. In 1802, he had ope-

• Notice of some observations on the causes of the galvanic phenomena,
and on certain modes of increasing the powers of the galvanic pile of Volta. —
Nicholson's Journal^ 4to, voL iv. p. 337, 380, and 394.

*t* An account of some galvanic combinations formed by the arrangement

14 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy,

rated on various liquids with a very powerful pile, and ob-
served many singular disengagements of gas. He at last en-
gaged in a series of profound investigations, which he pro-
secuted with the utmost perseverance for some years, and de-
finitely established the theory of this new order of phenome-
na. The result was published in 1806*, in a memoir, en-
titled Bakerian Lectures, so called because they were deliver-
ed in one of these foundations which are pretty numerous in
England, the object of which is to direct the attention of the
learned to certain special subjects in which the founder felt an
interest. After the most minute precautions, he succeeded in
demonstrating that, when water is pure, it is decomposed by elec-
tricity into gaseous matter alone, viz. into oxygen and hydrogen,
in the proportions in which they enter into its composition. Sub-
mitting to the same agent bodies of different kinds, he carried
to the highest degree of generalization the law of Hisinger and
Berzelius ; and, even reverting to the principle on which it
was founded, he came to the conclusion that chemical affinity is
nothing else than the energy of opposite powers of electricity — a
conclusion which, combined with another law established in 1804?
by Mr Dalton, on definite proportions, afforded to Berzelius prin-
ciples for the establishment of an entirely new system of chemistry
and mineralogy.

It was for this great and important service that the Institute,
at its public sitting in January 1808, awarded to Mr Davy the
prize founded for the advancement of galvanism, an honour
which has not since been conferred on any one except M. Oer-
stedt for his brilliant discovery of the relations between galvanism
and electricity. Soon after, Mr Davy, by prosecuting the same
views, obtained a success still more flattering, because exclusively
his own ; I allude to the discovery of the metallic nature of
fixed alkalies. For a long time chemists had been struck with

of single metallic plates and fluids, analogous to the new galvanic apparatus
of Volta.— /2oy. Soc. Lmd, 18th June 1801 ; Phil. Trans. voL xci. 397; Bi.
blioth. Bnt. voL xviL p. 237.

• On some chemical agencies of electricity. — Roy. Soc Lond. 20th Nov.
1806; Phil Trans. voL xcvii. p. 1, 1807 ; Ann. de Chimie, torn. Ixiii, p. 172
and 225; Journal de Physique, t. Ixiv. p. 421 ; Biblioth. Brit. t. xxxv. p. 16.

BiograpJikal Memoir of' Sir Humphry Davy. 15

the analogies of the fixed alkalies with alkaline earths, and of
the latter with metallic oxides, and Lavoisier had even announced
the possibility of these earths being oxides, incapable of being
reduced by the ordinary means. With respect to the fixed al-
kalies properly so called, whatever conjectures had been formed
as 'to their composition, results from some combinations with
azote ; the analogy with ammoniac had led to this idea ; but in
science the most happy conjectures are unavailing, if not con-
firmed by experience.

Mr Davy being in possession of such a powerful means of de-
composition as the pile, did not despair of resolving the import-
ant problem. After having tried it without success on some
aqueous solutions, he took potash sufficiently moistened to make
it serve as a conductor, and having placed it in the circle of a
powerful battery, the positive side produced a violent efferves-
cence, while at the negative side there appeared small globules,
resembling quicksilver in colour and lustre, but so combustible
that they were covered almost while they formed, with a white
crust of potash, and which, when thrown upon water, remained
on the surface, and burned with a bright flame and considerable
heat ; it was the same upon ice, and it looked as if he had re-
covered the wild fire so famous in Byzantine history, to which it
is probably owing that Europe is not at the present day under
the influence of Mahometanism. The same phenomena pre-
sented themselves with soda, and whatever were the conductors,
the produce of the combustion was always potash or soda; an
envelope of naphtha was the only means of preventing these
metallic globules from attracting oxygen, so as to counteract
their tendency to combustion. It was in vain that some con-
tended that these new substances were combinations of hydro-
gen, or even carbon, with the alkalies ; rigorous analysis speedily
exposed the error of such an hypothesis, and it remained demon-
strated that potash and soda resulted from the combination of
oxygen with bases resembling metals in their external charac-
ters, but infinitely lighter, and having an infinitely stronger at-
traction for oxygen. Potash contains 84 centiemes, and soda
76 centiemes, of metal. These bases, which are as perfect con-
ductors of heat and electricity as the other metals, become soft
at 12° of Reaumur, and at 30° become liquid like mercury, and

6 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

evaporate at a red heat*. Klaproth, the first individual in our
days who discovered a new metal, wished to question their metal-
lic quality on the ground of their specific lightness ; and in fact
all the known metals are heavy, but in very different degrees.
Tellurium, for example, is four times lighter than platina, and
there is no reason why sodium and potassium, (the names by
which Mr Davy distinguished the new substances) although six
times lighter than tellurium, should be excluded from that class
of substances to which they belong by all their other attributes.

This grand discovery was made in 1807, and formed the
subject of the Bakerian Lecture for the month of November of
the same yearf. It could not fail to lead a mind like Davy's to
new researches and new ideas ; he tried the same process on
many other earths, and Berzelius did the same, proving.that they
must all be regarded as oxides.

The great Swedish chemist, having electrified negatively some
mercury in contact with a solution of ammonia, succeeded in
producing an amalgam ; and Mr Davy, who had arrived^at the
same result by more simple means |, observed the mercury be-
come solid, and lose three-fourths of its specific gravity, by the
addition of a quantity of gas, scarcely equivalent to ^^^^ of its
weight ; he was led, therefore, to think that the ammonia had
likewise a base, and that perhaps the azote and hydrogen, of
which it is composed, are themselves metallic oxides §. Rising

" The more correct statement is this : — Potassium at 50" Fahr. is soft and
malleable, but melts at 1 364° ; sodium is soft and malleable at the common
temperature of the atmosphere, and melts at 194° F.

•j- On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity,
particularly the decomposition of fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new-
substances which constitute their bases, and on the general nature of alkaline
bodies. — Roy. Soc. Lond. 12th and 19th November 1807. Phil. Trans, of Lon-
don, vol. xcviii. p. 1. Ann. de Chimie. Ixviii. p. 203-225. Biblioth. Brit.
vol. xxxviiL p. 3.

+ An account of some analytical researches on the nature of certain bodies,
particularly the alkalies, phosphorus, sulphur, carbonaceous matter, and the'
acids hitherto undecompounded ; with some general observations on chemical
theory. Roy. Soc. Lond. 15th December 1808. Phil. Trans, vol. xcix. p. 39;
Ann. de Chim. tom Ixxii. p. 244, and Ixxiii. p. 5. Biblioth. Brit. vol. xlii
p. 27. Joum. de Phys. tom. Ixix. p. 360.

§ New analytical researches on the nature of certain bodies. 1st, Further
inquiries on the action of potassium or ammonia, and on the analvsis of am-

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. IT

to the highest generalities, he took into account nothing in na-
ture but oxygen and unknown bases ; varying even his explana-
tions, as in algebra, in which a diversity of forms may lead to
the same result, he inquired whether hydrogen might not be the
principle of metallization, and whether oxides might not be re-
duced to combinations of bases with water, thus reverting, so to
speak, to the ancient hypothesis of phlogiston, under another
form. This tendency may be observed in many other of Mr
Davy's memoirs, and perhaps he may be suspected in this of a
little national jealousy. But although unsuccessful in over-
throwing the French theory of combustion, he adduced at least
such a striking exception, that instead of longer retaining the
character of a general explanation, it became applicable only to
particular cases of phenomena which required an explanation of
a more elevated nature ; and this forms the third and most im-
portant of his discoveries. It was already known by the expe-
riments of Bertholet, that sulphuretted hydrogen, which does
not contain oxygen, acts like an acid ; oxygen, therefore, is not
always the principle of acidity. On the other hand, the experi-
ments of Mr Davy went to prove that it is the principle of alca-
linity as well as of acidity, and thus its name was not justified
by its nature. It was soon to be shewn that hydrogen has the
power of producing acids, not less than oxygen.

For a long time chemists had attempted in vain to discover
the base of muriatic acid ; but after the explanations proposed
by Bertholet, they supposed that this other acid, so cele-
brated for the uses to which it is apphed in the arts, and which
is obtained by causing muriatic acid to pass over oxide of man-
ganese, and named dephlogisticated muriatic acid by Steele
its discoverer, resulted from the combination of muriatic acid
with oxygen of the oxide ; it was consequently named oxyge-
nated muriatic acid, and nothing appeared more simple than to
extract from it the muriatic acid, by depriving it of this oxy-
gen with which it was believed to be surcharged. MM. Gay-
Lussac and Thenard attempted it, but could never succeed with-
out the addition of water or at least of hydrogen. This pheno-

monia. 2d, On sulphur and phosphorus. 3d, On carbonaceous matter.
4th, Muriatic acid. Rot/. Soc. Lond. 2d February and 16th March 1809.
Phil. Trans, vol. xcix. p. 450. Biblioth. BriU voL xliv. p. 42.

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX.— JULY 1833. B

18 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

menon appeared to them remarkable; water, they said, is an
ingredient necessary to the formation of muriatic acid ; but how
does it happen to adhere so forcibly, that no means are sufficient
to disengage it ? May it not be only by one of these elements
that it concurs in forming this acid ? and may not the oxygen
which is disengaged during the operation, and which is suppos-
ed to proceed from the oxygenated muriatic acid, be simply an-
other element of water ? Thus, neither oxygenated muriatic
acid, nor common muriatic acid, would contain oxygen.

This opinion they ventured to express at the end of their me-
moir as a possible hypothesis ; but they dared not support it in
the face of their old masters, in whose eyes the theory of Lavoi-
sier had acquired almost a religious sanctity *.

Mr Davy, who was under no such restraint, read a memoir
in 1810 "f , in which he advances this hypothesis, and supports
it by a multitude of additional experiments I. The pretended
oxygenated muriatic gas was therefore an agent of combustion
equal with oxygen ; at the same time when becoming to us a
simple substance, it required a simple name ; that of chlorine
was given to it, subsequently abridged and changed to chlore.

A theory so new, it will readily be believed, was not so soon
adopted as it was proposed. Mr Murray, a skilful chemist of
Edinburgh, and Berzelius himself, defended the old theory with
as much spirit as perseverance. Never was a scientific dispute
conducted with so much propriety on both sides ; to each expe-
riment and explanation of an adversary, the other replied by ex-
periments and explanations which seemed not less important,
and the chemical world appeared in a state of suspense, when
the appearance of a new substance caused the scale to turn in
Mr Davy's favour, by associating with chlorine in its properties,
and especially by producing combustion and acidification.

• Memoires de la Soc. d'Arcueil, torn. ii. p. 357.

•j* Researches on the Oxymuriatic Acid, its nature and combinations, and on
the elements of the muriatic acid. Roy. Soc. 12th July 1810. PhU. Trans.
voL c. p. 231. Ann. de Chem. torn. Ixxvi. p. 113 and 129. Joum. de Phys.
tom. Ixxi. p. 321. Biblioth. Brit. voL xlv. p. 229.

X On some of the combinations of oxymuriatic gas and oxygen, and on the
chemical relation of these principles to inflammable bodies. Roy. Soc. 15th
November 1810. Phil. Trans, vol. ci. p. 1. Ann. de Chem. tom. Ixxviii.
p. 298. Jmm. de Phys. tom. xlii. p. 358. Biblioth. Brit. torn. xlviL p. 34,
245, 340.

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. 19

This was iodine^ discovered by M. Curtois, a dealer in salt-
petre, well skilled in chemistry, a substance on which M. Gay-
Lussac * and Mr Davy made some curious experiments-)*.

Fluoric acid, to discover the base of which many fruitless at-
tempts had likewise been made, was soon arranged in the same
class, according to a suggestion of M. Ampere \. At last, Gay-
Lussac himself discovered a combination of carbon and azote
(cyanogene) which acts like chlore, fluor, and iodine, and which
produces acids without the addition of oxygen. Prussian blue is
the well known produce of one of two acids and the oxide of iron.

Henceforth it is an admitted doctrine in chemistry, that aci-
dity depends on the mode of combustion, and not on a material
principle ; and the name of Mr Davy is attached to this im-
portant proposition, not because he was the only individual by
whom it was established, but because he was the first to announce
it with precision. It is, in fact, this explanation of phenomena,
under a clear and general form, which constitutes invention in
the eyes of the majority, who are unable to follow in detail the
various phases through which a truth is obliged to pass, before
it become matured for ordinary minds.

By these three grand series of investigations, relating to the
chemical action of the pile, the metallization of alkalies, and
their combination without oxygen, — by the truths of primary
importance which resulted from them, — by the multitude of
new experiments, new views, and exquisite appreciation of all
the phenomena which had concurred in the demonstration of

• Sur un nouvel acide formd avec la substance decouverte, par M. Cour-
tois. Inst. 6th Dec. 1813. Ann. de Chim. torn. Ixxxvii. p. 311. Note sur la
combinaison de I'iode avec Poxygene. Inst. 20. Dec. 1813. Ann. de Chem.
Ixxxviii. p. 319.

Mem. sur I'iode. Inst, ler Aoiit, 1814. Ann, de Chem. torn. xci. p. 1.
Bullet. Phil. 1814, p. 112.

-j- Some experiments and observations on a new substance which becomes
a violet-coloured gas by heat. Roy. Soc. Lond. 20th Jan. 1814. Phil. Trans.
voL civ. p. 74. Ann. de Chem. tom. xcii. p. 89. Jmm. de Phys. torn. Ixxix.
p. 153. Biblioth. Brit. vol. Ivi. p. 248.

Further experiments and observations on iodine. Roy. Soc Lend. 16th
June 1814. Phil. Trans, vol. civ. p. 487- Biblioth. Brit vol. Ivu. p. 243.

t Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, tom. ii. p. 20. M^moire sur un Classi-
fication naturelle pour les corps simple. Ann. id. tom i. p. 295 and 373.
lom. ii. p. 5. et 105.

b2-

20 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy,

these truths, — Mr Davy, not yet thirty-two years of age, occu-
pied, in the opinion of all that could judge of such labours, the
first rank among the chemists of this or of any other age ; it re-
mained for him, by direct service rendered to society, to acquire
a similar degree of reputation in the minds of the general pub-
lic. The first opportunity of accomplishing this, was afforded
by a request made to him, to point out proper means of prevent-
ing the fatal effects of the frequent explosions which take place
in coal-pits.

There escapes insensibly from beds of coal, when they are
wrought, a certain quantity of inflammable gas, which, mingling
with a portion of atmospheric air, is kindled by the miners'
lamps, and explodes with a dreadful detonation, frequently de-
stroying great numbers of the workmen. Cavendish was ac-
quainted with its nature, and especially its specific lightness, and
his discovery suggested the principle on which aerostatic balloons
were constructed. No one, however, had taken any steps to
prevent these destructive effects, when one of these explosions
happened in 1812 in a mine called Felling, and killed, in an in-
stant, upwards of a hundred miners, under circumstances so ap-
palling, that all belonging to the profession became alarmed.
Each morning they took leave of their families like soldiers
about to mount a breach. Roused by interest, a committee of
proprietors of mines tried how to prevent the danger, and Mr
Davy was invited to point out the means which science could
afford for this purpose.

To others it would have seemed as if an impossibility had
been asked ; as if he had been required to carry fire into a
magazine of powder, and yet prevent its explosion ; but Mr
Davy did not despair, and perhaps his genius never appeared
in a more conspicuous light, or more deserving of admiration,
than in this instance.

This was not one of those cases in which the result is attain-
ed by a consecutive series of experiments, accumulated by
chance, rather than suggested by experience ; the problem was
proposed, and the means of solving it were to be sought for in
the general principles of science, without expecting aid from
others, or from chance.

Mr Davy began by analyzing the gas, determining the quan-

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry/ Davy, 21

titles of carbon and hydrogen of which it is composed, and the
proportions by which its combination with common air produces
more or less violent detonations. He then examined at what de-
gree of heat combustion took place, and according to what laws
it is propagated. He observed that it could not take place in
tubes of small dimension, even when every circumstance was
favourable to its production, because the size of the tubes suf-
ficiently cooled the gas to prevent its combustion. He thence
concluded that by preventing the air from coming in a volume
on the wick, and causing it to enter by long and narrow aper-
tures, and only in suitable quantities to support the light, deto-
nation could not ensue, even though the proportions of the air
should be most favourable to produce that effect.

He was thus led to construct a lantern, the communication to
the interior of which was through the intervals of numerous
concentric tubes, and which had a chimney covered with a plate
pierced with small holes, or formed of metallic gauze. This
first attempt did not give him satisfaction, but led to the con-
ception of something more perfect. He submitted solids to nu-
merous experiments, that he might seize the just degree of cool-
ing power which they possess, and discovered many physical
facts full of interest, among others the greater intensity of the
heat of flame, than even that of metal at a white heat. Thus
a wire of platina became red in a mixture, the combustion of
which was too slow to produce flame, — a surprising fact, for
which no explanation has been found. The result of all these
experiments was, that a metallic gauze may be formed, the
meshes of which may be of that precise diameter fitted to cool
the inflamed air which traverses them, and at the same time
prevent its combustion, and which may be permeable to air and
light without being so to flame. The invention therefore was
brought to the degree of simplicity necessary for the men to
whom it was destined, and formed consequently a complete so-
lution of the problem *.

• On the Safety LAmp for coal-miners, and some researches on flame. 8vo.
London 1815.

On the fire damp of coal mines, and on methods of lighting the mine so as
to prevent its explosion. Roy. Soc. Lond. 9th November 1815. Phil. Trans.
V. cvi. p. 1. Ann. de Chitn. et Physique., torn. L p. 136.

fast Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

A single envelope of this metallic gauze, whenever employed
with requisite precaution, henceforth secures miners from the
terrible danger which threatened their lives ; air ready for ex-
plosion may surround their lamp without any other danger
than that of extinguishing it, and even then, if there be sus-
pended over the wick a spiral wire of platina, it will become in-
candescent by the decomposition of the detonating gas, and af-
ford light to the miner as long as there are any remains of re-
spirable air.

This instrument, now used in the greater number of mines,
and introduced by Mr Davy himself into those of Hungary, has
been the means of preserving the lives of many useful men : and
its services would have been of even greater importance, had it
not been for the indifference which has prevented its adoption
in some countries, and negligence in observing the rules pre-
scribed by its inventor in others. Men's minds are usually so
little occupied with the thoughts of death, that the most trifling
present annoyance has more influence than the greatest danger
when it appears somewhat remote.

It now looked as if Mr Davy might be asked to make a dis-
covery, adapted to the necessities of any particularj case. The
copper-sheathing of ships is oxidized by sea water, and in a nu-
merous navy like that of England, the expense of renewing it is
enormous. The Admiralty in 1823, asked him to suggest a
preservative, and he was not long in complying with their wishes;
he had only to refer to former discoveries to be enabled to add
one more to their number.

According to his practice, he first sought to give a precise
account of the phenomena. Copper immersed in sea- water, pro-
duces a bluish-green powder, on which is deposited the carbo-
nate of soda, an obvious proof that the marine salt has been de-
composed ; but, according to his theory of muriatic acid, this
could not take place without oxygen, and as no hydrogen ap-
peared, it could not be the water that furnished this oxygen
but the atmospheric air which it contained. On the other hand,
according to his theory of the correspondence between chemical
action and the electrical condition of bodies, it was in conse-
quence of its positive electricity relatively to the salts contained

in the water, that the copper disengaged oxygen ; it followed,

3

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. 23

therefore, that the process would be stopped by rendering the
surface of the copper slightly negative, and this his experiments
on the voltaic pile rendered a matter of easy attainment. The
metal which, alternating with copper in the pile, assumed most
powerfully the positive state of .electricity, iron for example, or
what was still better, zinc, must necessarily produce the desired
eflPect. On the experiment being tried, it was found that a
single grain of zinc, a small nail of iron, protected upwards
of a square foot of copper ; and vessels whose sheathing had
been prepared in this manner, performed a voyage to America
and returned, without the copper presenting any appearance of
oxidation. It was found, however, that strict attention required
to be paid to the proper proportions, too great a quantity of the
preserving metal rendering the copper too negative, a state in
which there was deposited an earthy crust which attracted shell
fish and marine plants ; and it is even asserted, that, notwith-
standing the accurate solution of the problem regarded in its
purely chemical relations, this unforeseen circumstance occasioned
the necessity of abandoning the practice altogether. Perhaps
Mr Davy would have discovered a remedy for this inconvenience,
had not the party whom jealousy had raised against him, ren-
dered him unwilling to institute any further inquiries.

A similar cause had some years before arrested him in a la-
bour from which the most important advantages to literature
and history might have been expected to result.

Every one knows the degree of' interest taken by the Prince
Regent, now George IV., in the unrolment of the manuscripts
found at Herculaneum. He supported a director and several
workmen, who had already succeeded in unrolling more than a
thousand ; and as every thing encouraged the hope that chemis-
try would afford the means of facilitating the operation, Mr
Davy was sent to Naples for the purpose in 1818. A careful
examination of these rolls, and a strict inquiry into the causes
which had reduced them to their present condition, led him to
conclude that it would be impossible to devise a simple method
of softening them ; but he suggested numerous improvements
on the plan followed, which were received with expressions of
gratitude by the conservators of the collection. Another scien-
tific Englishman, however, skilled in the study of manuscripts,
Mr Elonsby, having attempted to decypher some of those which

24 Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy.

had been unrolled, the sentiments of the conservators underwent
a sudden change, and so many impediments were thrown in the
way of farther investigation, that the undertaking was entirely
abandoned. This journey afforded to Mr Davy an opportunity
of investigating a subject of interest in the history of the arts,
viz. the nature of the colours used in painting by the ancients.
Some on the walls of Pompei or Herculaneum were sufficient to
form the subject of analysis. He found that they were nearly
as numerous as our own, and that many seemed to have been
even better prepared, since they had resisted the effects of time
for so many ages *.

This journey likewise supplied many new observations on
volcanoes -f*, but which always bore relation to the ideas he had
previously embraced. The excessive incandescence of lava at
the moment of its ejection, the noise that precedes it, and the
water, salts, and exhalations by which it is accompanied, all
tended to confirm the idea he had entertained from the time of
his first experiments on alkalies, that the principal cause of
these remarkable phenomena is the action of sea- water on metals,
which he supposes to exist, not yet oxidized, in the interior of
the earth. This supposition reconciled a great variety of views
on the primitive state of the globe, and the various changes
which its surface has undergone, by which he sought to unite
in a single system all the observations of later times relating to
the subject, from those of Herschel on nebulae, to those of the
latest naturalists on the nature and relative position of earthy
deposits, and on the remains of animals and vegetables which
they contain.

These hypotheses were not unworthy of a genius which had
made so many real discoveries, but he did not assign to them
the importance of truths of the first order. He did not give
them to the world till the publication of a work in which his
imagination expatiates on numerous other subjects and of a
much higher nature, his Consolations in Travel^ the last of his

• Some experiments and observations on the colours used in painting by

the ancients Roy. Soc. Lond. 23d February 1815. Phil. Trans, vol. cv^

p. 97. Ann. de Chim. tom. xcxvi. p. 72. and 193. Biblioth. Brit. vol. lix.
p. 226. and 336, and Ix. p. 129.

f On the phenomena of Volcanoes. — Roy. Soc. Lond. 20th May 1828.

Phil Trans, vol. cxviii. p. 241 Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxxviii.

p. 133 Biblioth. Univ. voL xxxix. p. 121.

Biographical Memoir of Sir Humphry Davy. 25

labours, with which he continued to be occupied nearly to the
time of his death *.

The progress and destination of the human species, and the
fate of thousands of worlds, of which astronomers have per-
ceived but a small proportion, are the subjects of a dialogue, in
which the poet is not less conspicuous than the philosopher, and
in which, among fictions, a great power of reasoning is applied to
questions of the most serious nature. One would have said, that
once escaped from the laboratory he had resumed the tranquil
reveries and sublime thoughts which had formed the dehght of
his youth : it was in some measure the work of a dying Plato.

In the same way he had amused himself, during a previous
indisposition, by giving in a series of dialogues all the information
his experience as a fisher had supplied on the natural history
of the trout and salmon ; and the curious observations which
his work on this subject^con tains, will render it always of import-
ance in the science of ichthyology -f*.

But it must be confessed, that however ingenious these writ-
ings may appear, science has to regret that his mind was diverted
by them from its appropriate pursuits. The state of his health,
however, rendered it necessary, for he became so weak, that at
times an entire forgetfulness of all chemical researches was the
only means of alleviating his distress.

He had not always the power of diverting his attention by in-
tellectual exercises. Fishing, or some other occupation equally
insignificant, filled up a portion of his time. In traversing with
such rapidity so wide a field of science, he had likewise accelera-
ted the course of his life, and his early triumphs were obtained
at the price of premature infirmity. A third journey to Italy,
and a residence of some duration at Florence and Rome, had
not the effect on his present state of health that was anticipated.

Reduced to a state of considerable weakness, he was anxious
to see his native country. Lady Davy and his brother Dr John
Davy, who acted as his medical attendant, watched over him
during the journey with the most tender solicitude. The sight
of the fine prospects through which he passed, seemed for a

• Consolations in Travel, or the last days of a Philosopher. 8va London,
1830.

■f- Salmonia, or days of fly-fishing, in a series of conversations. 12mo.
London, 1823.

26 Biographical Memoir of Sit Humphry Davy.

moment to restore some of the recollections of his youth, but it
was only the last gleams of a torch about to be extinguished.
Having reached Geneva, without any symptoms that indicated
his end to be so near, he expired [suddenly in the night of the
28th and 29th of May 1829.

Thus at the age of fifty years, and in a foreign land, was the
career finished of a genius whose name will shine with lustre
among the crowd of celebrated names of which Great Britain
has to boast. But why should I say a foreign land ? To such
a man no country can deserve that name, and least of all Geneva,
where he possessed numerous intimate friends and admirers,
who were continually occupied in spreading his discoveries over
the continent; the mourning, therefore, could not have been
greater, nor the obsequies more honourable, for one of their
most respected citizens. The Magistrates, the whole University,
students and professors, as well as all the foreigners in the town,
considered it their duty to assist ; each hastened to shew that
science is cosmopolitan ; and, as a mark of their highest esteem,
the Academy of Geneva accepted of a foundation made in
his honour by Lady Davy, by which a prize will be awarded
every two years to the newest and most useful chemical experi-
ments ; so that his name will still remain attached to the truths
long after to be discovered, in a science where his own disco-
veries were so important.

FACTS RELATING TO DILUVIAL ACTION IN AMERICA. By the

Hon, William Thompson. To Professor Silliman.

Dear Sir, — When I had the pleasure of seeing you at New
Haven last autumn, I intimated my intention of sending you
my views of the geological features of Sullivan County, New
York, and hkewise the traces of diluvial action on the solid
strata, with some of the proofs that present themselves, in every
part of the county where the earth has been removed, so deep
as to come to firm rock, below the effects of frost and other de-
composing agents ; but the snow came on so early in the fall,
and my health has been so indifferent this spring, that I have
been obliged to defer it until the present time. Perhaps I shall'
not even now be able to write any thing new or interesting on

Facts relating to Diluvial Action, 27

this subject, especially as I find that Sir James Hall, many
years since, described traces of diluvial action in Scotland, and
Mr David Thomas of Cayuga, has made similar observations
in the western part of this state, as appears in vol. xvii. p. 408. of
your Journal. I have examined this part of the State with consi-
derable care, and have found that in more than fifty different places
where I have seen the solid strata, the grooves and furrows ap-
pear from an inch to one-fourth of an inch deep, and from one-
fourth of an inch, to three and four inches wide ; and in some
cases they run due north, and in every direction from north to
twenty-five degrees south of east. I have found them also in
the bottoms of cellars, of excavations made in digging wells, and
where the earth has been removed by making roads, and in
many instances where I have uncovered the solid rock for the
purpose of observing the efi^ects of the diluvial action. I have
paid some attention to this subject while travelling in the East-
ern States, and I could find none of the furrows *, but the
solid strata appears to be worn very smooth by attrition, by the
motion of some bodies smaller and less solid than those v/hich
have produced the distinct traces, in this part of the state of
New York.

It may be proper to remark first, that Sullivan County is
bounded south and west by the Delaware River ; north by
Delaware and Ulster Counties, and east by Orange ; that the
county Res on the easterly part of the Alleghany range of
mountains, and that the mean altitude of the county is on a
level with the high lands below Newburgh, — about 1500 feet
above the tide water ; that this level is continued westei-ly
through Sullivan County and the State of Pennsylvania, from
the Shongham Mountains to the Susquehannah River ; that a
space of about fifty miles wide of this level lies continuously, in
the Alleghany range, until you come to mountains of a greater
height, on the west side of the Susquehannah ; that the depth
of the earth above the solid rock, gradually and regularly in-
creases from Shongham Mountain to the Susquehannah ; that
the average depth of earth in Sullivan County, is not more than
twenty-five feet, nor more than thirty -five through the State of
Pennsylvania : that the range of the Kattskill Mountain, bounds

* The author will find notices of such appearances in Massachusetts, by
iMr Appleton, vol. xi. p. 100 of Silliman's Journal.

28 Facts relating to Diluvial Action,

the north part of Sullivan ; that south of this space of 50 miles,
the altitude of the mountains considerably increases ; in this in-
termediate space, it appears that tops of the ridges had been
dilapidated by mighty force, and that the current had pressed
easterly, and often times carried large pieces of rock to a con-
siderable distance, say from 50 to 200 rods, and if the frag-
ments are of very considerable size they always rest in the solid
strata. In many instances, sections of the strata were broken
out and raised by the violence of the current, and left on the
tops of the highest hills. I have seen an instance where a rock
20 feet square has been carried half a mile on the level surface
of the strata that are covered about three feet with earth, and
there left in that position ; the violence of the current having
ceased to effect its farther removal from its original position.

The upper strata of the whole section of the county before
the deluge, appear to have been composed of a common grey
sandstone, covering the surface of the rock from 12 to 24 inches
thick. This seems to have been the last marine formation ; it
is full of fissures and cracks, being broken into small angular
pieces by the first violent surges of the deluge, and now scatter-
ed on the surface of the ground.

The next lower strata are puddingstone, filled with quartz
and felspar, and other primitive minerals ; its parts are gene-
rally water-worn, and are from the size of a robin's to that of a
hen's egg. The next rock underneath is the old red sandstone,
which is universally found in the bottom of the valleys ; on the
tops, however, of the highest hills, the red clay-slate is universal-
ly found, and, for 80 or 90 miles west, gives a reddish colour to
all the soils of the county, and passes southerly through New
Jersey and Pennsylvania.

The valleys in this section of country uniformly run from north
to south, are in many instances from 1000 to 1200 feet deep,
and are the beds of the large streams. The lesser valleys are
covered with pieces of red and grey sandstone, of a convenient
size for making fences. The most free and feasible land is al-
ways found on the tops, and on the eastern sides of the hills,
the western sides being uniformly steep and broken. The
whole of the earth or soil appears to have been removed from
the solid strata at the deluge, and most, if not all the upper
strata of sandstone, were then broken up. A small portion of

Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 29

the puddingstone was also broken up in large square blocks,
and occasionally pieces of the old red sandstone were detached
from the bottom of the valleys. It is probable that previous to
the deluffe, there was little or no soil on this section of the coun-
try, that the hills, valleys, and streams, were the same previous
to the deluge that they are at this time, excepting that the hills
were dilapidated and lowered, and the deep valleys were made
still deeper by the tremendous cataracts and surges, the water
being carried violently over the high ledges and hills, and then,
in crossing the ridges from west to east, falling 1000 or 1200
feet into the valleys. While contemplating such a scene, our
imaginations must fall infinitely short of the reality. The
single wave that totally destroyed the town of Lima, or the surge
that overwhelmed the Turkish fleet in Candia, comes nearer to
the terrific scene than any similar events that are recorded. That
these large masses of rock should be broken up and thrown
upon the tops of high hills will appear in no way surprising,
when we consider what must be the effect of the precipitation
of the cataracts into deep valleys, and of their subsequent violent
refluxes over the high hills ; a power more than sufficient to
raise the larger masses of rock that were left on the high grounds
in the county.

That water has the power to carry rocks and other heavy
bodies over the tops of mountains, is evinced by the simple
fact, that the only place where the millstone is found within
200 miles, is at Kizerack, on the west side of Shongham Moun-
tain, 15 to 20 from Esopus or Kingston, up the Roundout Hill.
At this place, all the country or Esopus millstones are sold.
Now, over a greater part of the west side of Shongham Moun-
tain, which is composed of the millstone grit, this rock has been
carried to the height of 1000 or 1200 feet, so as to pass over
the top of the mountain, and it lies scattered through the coun-
try for many miles east, between Newburgh and the Shongham
Mountain, and as there is no other similar stone within 200
miles, this is conclusive evidence that the violence of the surge
carried the rock over the top of the mountain, and left them in
the position in which we now see them ; some of the stones weigh
from three to four tons.

Professor Eaton, in his geological survey of the Kattskill or

80 Facts relatitig to Diluvial Action.

Alleghany, says, " that all the eastern slope of the Alleghany is
capped or protected by the millstone grit ;" but what he called
the millstone grit, I call the conglomerate or puddingstone ;
both are formed in part of quartz, but in the true millstone grit,
the fine parts are formed by abrasion of the quartz only, while
common sand mixed with globular pieces of quartz, forms what
he calls the millstone grit of the Alleghany range.

I have never been able to find any grooves or furrows on
the west side of the hills and ridges in the county ; nothing
appears but the traces and breaches where the rocks have been
torn up by some violent agent. It very rarely happens that any
traces can be found in the red argillaceous sandstone ; it is not
sufficiently wide to sustain the force of heavy bodies moving in
contact with it ; although, in some instances, the grooves appear
for fifteen or twenty feet, and then the strata are rough and
broken, but the traces are mostly on the solid puddingstone,
and the common grey sandstone, which remained solid and un-
broken at the Deluge. In those cases where the old red sand-
stone appears, if the slope or side of the hill faces the north,
I have seen three or four instances in which the furrows run
in that direction for half a mile, and on meeting a ridge of
rocks in the low grounds, the furrows turned due east, and, af-
ter passing the obstruction, again turned north-east, or east.
Not a mile from the same place, on descending from the same
high ground, the furrows run east, tallying with the face of the
hill. On the high lands west of the Shonghams, and where
there could be no obstruction for seventy or eighty miles, I ex-
amined ten or twelve different places in which the furrows were
deep and distinct, and found them to run from ten to twelve
degrees north of east ; and they continued in the same direction
for a considerable distance down the mountain ; at no great dis-
tance to the south, the furrows tended twenty-five degrees
south of east, leading to a low opening in the Shougham
Mountain, through which the currents of water naturally run.
I have rarely examined the strata below the decomposing ef-
fects of frost, without discovering distinct traces of diluvial ac-
tion. Near the banks of streams, I hardly ever found any
such marks, but the solid strata appeared broken and very
little altered by attrition. In one place, where the earth was

Facts relating to Diluvial Action. 31

removed, and where there was no visible obstacle to alter the
current of water, the furrows crossed each other, shewing that
the current took a new direction, after the first furrows were
made. About twelve or fourteen miles west of Newburgh, I
found the marks on the solid grey wacke to run nearly north and
south. At Coxakie, in Green County, in digging a well, and
coming to the solid strata, the furrows ran northerly and south-
erly about in the direction of the mountain. I found that in
different places, between thirty and forty miles apart, the fur-
rows ran about ten degrees north of east, especially where the
current had a free course for any considerable distance, without
any obstacle. Where the solid strata remained, but a part has
been removed by some powerful agent. On examination, I
have found, that the corners of rocks have been worn off by
abrasion from eighteen to twenty-four inches, and that the fur-
rows made on the rocks by the abrasion of hard substances,
were very distinct, although the edges of the rocks were round-
ed. This fact is of frequent occurrence. On the high land, as
well as on the low, the furrows appear near small streams, in
every possible situation, showing, without a doubt, that the ri-
vers and hills remain now as they were before the flood. Pieces
of the solid strata with the furrows on them, are often found
where part of the strata was broken up after the furrows were
made, but more of the argillite than of any other rock appears
in fragments. It was supposed that these grooves were made
by the Indians, before the settlement of the country by the
white people. Large fragments of rocks or boulders are found
in every part of the country, which fragments, in passing over
the surface of the strata, have doubtless made these furrows.
Most of them have the corners worn off. There are but few in-
stances in which other stones are found besides the natural
strata of the country. In some instances the stones are com-
posed altogether of sea-shells ; in two instances I have found
palm-leaves and ferns incorporated in the soft grey slate. The
soil is much fuller of the small particles of quartz and feldspar
than in Orange County, or in the New England States. The
disintegration produces a fine sand, upon which there rises an
abundant growth of pine and hemlock. For three hundred
miles to the westward, it is evident that the soil or earth was

82 Facts relMing to Diluvian Action.

raised and increased very much by the Dehige, and the moun-
tains and ridges were lowered, and robbed of their loose stones,
by the same cause. The opening of about fifty miles wide
through this part of the Alleghany ridge, has probably tended,
in some measure, to control and direct the course of the cur-
rent of water. The mastodon appears not to have been a na-
tive of this section of the country, but was probably an inhabi-
tant of the champaign countries to the west, and the bodies may
have been borne, on this mighty current, through falls and ca-
taracts, to the low, basin-like counties of Ulster and Orange,
where they were finally deposited. Before the Deluge, the
counties of Orange and Ulster were probably formed of low
sharp ridges of greywacke and limestone, and narrow short val-
leys running in different directions, with little or scarcely any soil
or earth either in the valleys or on the low sharp ridges, and of
course such countries would not be the natural residence of the
unwieldy mastodon. The carcasses of these animals were pro-
bably in some cases brought whole, in others they were lace-
rated and torn asunder, or bruised, and the bones broken, be-
fore the flesh had decayed and dropped from them. This ap-
pears from the place and the condition in which the bones are
found. The first skeleton found in Orange, was taken out of a
swamp near Crawford, on the Newburgh Turnpike. This car-
cass was deposited entire and unbroken in a pond or basin of
water, and after the flesh was decayed from the bones, they
were spread over an area of about thirty feet square ; the outlet
of this pond is a firm rock ; the pond has been filled up by de-
cayed vegetable substances, and now forms a swamp of about
ten acres, covered with maple and black ash. In the north part
of this swamp, about two years ago, on digging a deep ditch to
drain the ground, a skeleton of the mammoth was found ; this
skeleton I immediately examined very minutely, and found that
the carcass had been deposited whole, but that the jaw-bone,
two of the ribs, and a thigh-bone, had been broken by some vio-
lent force, while the carcass was whole ; on taking up the bones
this was evident from every circumstance. Two other parts of
skeletons were, some years since, disinterred, one near Ward's
Bridge, and the other at Masten's Meadow, in Shongham ; in
both instances the carcasses had been torn asunder, and the bones

Facts relating to Diluvidn Action. 9S

had been deposited with the flesh on, and, in two or three in-
stances, the bones were fractured. That the bones were depo-
sited with the flesh attached to them, appears from the fact, that
they were found closely attached to each other, and evidently
belonged only to one part of the carcass, and, on a diligent
search, no part of the other bones could be found within a mo-
derate distance of the spot. If the animal had died where the
bones were found, the whole skeleton would have been found at
or near the place. Great violence would be necessary to break
the bones of such large animals ; in the ordinary course of
things, no force adequate to that eff*ect would be exerted. I
think it therefore fair reasoning to say, that, at the Deluge,
they were brought by the westerly currents to the place where
they were found ; that the carcasses were brought in the first
violent surges, and bruised, broken, and torn asunder, by the
tremendous cataracts created when the currents crossed the
high mountain ridges, and fell into the deep valleys between
Shougham mountain and the level countries at the west ; that
those carcasses that came whole to the place where they finally
rested, arrived after the waters had attained a greater height,
and were probably less violent, and of course the bodies were
less liable to be beaten and bruised by coming into contact with
the rocks. This view of the fact appears to me fairly to ac-
count for the condition in which the bones of the mammoth are
found.

I have thus given a desultory sketch of a number of facts re-
lating to the currents of water at the Deluge, and their effects
on the face of the country. If they should not appear to be
new, they may still be received as evidences of diluvial effect in
different parts of our country. I have a number of specimens
which I can send you, of rocks containing the traces left on the
different strata, and should any additional information be re-
quired, I will cheerfully furnish it. — American Journal of.
Science and Arts, vol. xxiii.

( 34 )

ON A GRADUAL ELEVATION OF THE LAND IN SCANDINAVIA.

By James F. W. Johnston, A. M., F. R. S. E., 8fc. 8fc *.
Communicated by the Author.

Of the various changes which slowly operating causes gradu-
ally produce on the earth's surface, those which affect the ex-
tent of arable or otherwise improveable land, attract the earliest
and most general attention. Such changes are in progress in
almost every country, either along the banks of rivers or the
shores of the sea, and have long been observed and universally
known. Numerous instances of the encroachments of the sea
are to be met with along the east coast of Great Britain, as well
as on the opposite shores of Norway, Denmark, and Holland;
and the recent floods in Morayshire show how destructive even
small rivers may become under certain circumstances.

At the mouths of rivers, examples of the growth of land, and
the gradual formation of banks and islands, are frequently met
with. On the coasts similar phenomena are much more rare ;
for though the sea, during its slow but incessant encroachments
upon the land, carries off much soil, it deposits it again chiefly
in the less agitated parts of its own bed, either filling up its
greatest depths, or forming submarine hills of sand and gravel,
.similar to those already found scattered over so large a portion
of the globe.

Some peninsular tracts of land occur on the opposite coasts,
of which, both effects of the sea may be observed, the one being
washed away, while the other is increased by continual deposits.
North Jutland presents an example of this kind. The Jutlands
form the north-western termination of that extensive arenaceous
deposit, which stretches from the Skaw through Denmark,
Prussia, Poland, and much of the east of Europe. The sur-
face in North Jutland consists in general of loose sand, of large
heaths, and of moss, more or less suceptible of improvement, all
resting upon chalk. Occasional tracts of arable land occur;
but the chief value of the country consists in its pasturage, and
this value inereases towards the south, till we reach the rich
meadow lands of Holstein.

• Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1833.

Mr Johnston on the Land in Scandmavia. iJ5

In some places the chalk rises to the surface, forming gentle
undulations, as in the neighbourhood of Gudumlund, in others,
hills of gravel, mixed with flints, are met with ; but in general,
nothing is to be seen even on the sea-coast, but the prevailing
sandy deposit, here and there cemented together into a more or
less compact sandstone. The action of the sea upon land of so
'loose a texture is very powerful, and accordingly, the west coast
of Denmark, like that of Holland, has from time immemorial
been gradually washed away, and encroached upon by the water.
On the east coast, again, a compensation, though to a much less
extent, is in continual progress. When the agitated waters of
the North Sea, urged by a westerly wind, rush along the
Skager-rack, and double the Skaw, they reach a comparatively
sheltered spot, where they are at liberty to deposit the sand and
gravel they have hitherto borne along with them. The conse-
quence is, that, on certain parts of this coast, the land is slowly
but sensibly increased. In some places, where tlie moorland is
in a state of nature, the successive additions are distinctly ob-
servable. From the gravel hills, a few miles south of the Lyme
Fiord, I was much interested in remarking on the new land a
series of slightly curvilinear furrows, marking out the repeated
accessions made to it from a period probably very remote. The
waters, on passing from the German Ocean to the Baltic Sea,
deposit the sand along such parts of the coast as are not in the line
of the great current, and every new storm from the east carries
them forward on the beach, constituting, probably, a new furrow
and a new addition to the growing land. Traces of an ancient
beach are found many miles inland, and the names of many of
the farms and residences of the proprietors, such as skipsted
(shipstead) hbstemark (highest ground) confirm the conclusions
as to the reach of the sea in ancient times, which the general
appearance of the land suggests.

But there occur very striking instances of the gradual in-
crease of the land or recession of the sea, for which a very dif-
ferent cause must be assigned, and to one such instance it is the
chief object of the present paper to draw attention.

It has been long observed that the waters of the Baltic sea
are retiring from the land in many parts of Sweden and Fiiv-
land, — a fact proved, among other evidence, by the increawng

c2

86 Mr Johnston 07t the Elevation of

distance of buildings, and other fixed objects from the edge of
the waters. Along the greater part of the Swedish coast, we
meet with examples of this recession of the waters. In some
places the harbours are becoming shallower ; in others, the
scarped faces of the rocks indicate a fall in the mean level of
the water; while in places now dry, rings are occasionally met
with in the rocks, marking the places where, in former times, the*
fishermen moored their boats. At different elevations, also, the
rocks are not only rounded and water-worn, but frequently pre-
sent round holes or pits of various depths, which ancient eddies
have scooped out of the solid rock. These, I have often ob-
served in the northern suburbs of Stockholm, but they oc-
cur in many places even in^ the interior of Sweden, and are ol>-
jects of superstition to the common people.

In many other countries, indications of a change in the relative
level of the land and water are to be met with, but in none, ex-
cept Sweden and Finland, am I aware of its having been found
to be still in progress. A whole coast has been observed to be
sensibly elevated by a sudden convulsion, as was the case a iew
years ago in South America ; but in Scandinavia, there are no
convulsions nor traces of volcanic action, and the apparent
change of level takes place, not by starts, but by a succession of
small and individually imperceptible alterations. Towards the
head of the Bothnian Gulf, this change is sufficiently conspicu-
ous to attract the notice of the common people, — at Lulea a mile
of land being gained in twenty-eight years, and at Pitea half a
mile in forty-five years ; and it is more or less observable along
the Finland and Swedish coasts, till we approach the southern
provinces of the latter kingdom, where it ceases to be sensible.
This latter fact is not only curious in itself, but of considerable
importance, as a test of the manner in which the phenomena are
produced.

The attention of the Swedish philosophers having been drawn
to this subject early in the last century, a series of accurate ob-
servations was made, the mean height of the waters of the Bal-
tic carefully determintd, and lines representing the true eleva-
tion chiseled out upon the rocks at different favourable posi-
tions along the coast. Similar observations have since been re-
peated at various intervals, the most recent and extensive ha-

iJie Land in Scandinavicu jRjf

ving been made in 1821, under the joint direction of the
Swedish Academy and the Russian Minister of Marine. The
result of these comparative admoasurements is, that, along the
greater part of the Baltic, the mean height of the water appears
to fall from three to five feet in a century, or about one foot
every twenty-five years.

From a mere local observation of the phenomena along the
Swedish coast, we should conclude with Celsius, Linnaeus, and the
other early observers, that the waters of the Baltic are gradual-
ly retiring. But when we consider that, though an inland sea, it
communicates by the Sound and the Belts with the German
ocean, it will be evident that the mean level of the Atlantic
ocean itself must have fallen at an equal rate, if the change ob-
servable on the shores of the Baltic be due to a depression of
the waters of that sea. Now, supposing such a fall of the level
of the great seas to be physically possible, none such has at least
ever been observed, and therefore, the apparent change of level
of the waters on the coast of Scandinavia, must be due to a gra-
dual elevation of the land itself. This conclusion is confirmed
by the remarkable fact already adverted to, that, below a cer-
tain latitude, the change ceases to be sensible even on the Swedish
coast ; while there is sufficient evidence to shew that none has
taken place on those of Pomerania, Holstein, and the Danish
islands, during the last 500 or 600 years ; whereas, were the
level of the sea actually sinking, traces of it should be observ-
able on every part of the shores of the Baltic.

That the land is slowly and insensible rising, is the general
persuasion in Sweden, and it has been adopted by almost every
geologist who has visited that country. Haussman and Von
Buch, both of whom are intimately acquainted with the Scan-
dinavian peninsula, have advanced and advocated this opi-
nion ; but there are other geologists who decidedly reject it.
Among these is Professor Lyell, who characterizes the opinion
of Von Buch as " an extraordinary notion,'' (Geology, vol. i.
p. ^65.) and attributes many of the phenomena to the " gra-
dual filling up of the Baltic by fluviatile and marine sedi-
ment." (Ibid. p. 46.) That many examples of such filling
up are to be met with is very probable, but they are wholly in-
dependent of the phenomena on which the proof of the change of

S8 Mr Johnston on the Elevation of

levfel of the coasts of Sweden rest. Whatever can be accounted
for on the principle of depositions, is clearly no evidence of the
upraising of the land. Though, therefore, it has been argued
that some of the phenomena formerly quoted in support of the
change of level, such as the shallowing of harbours, the growth
of land, and the increasing elevation of certain islands, may be
accounted for by the supposed action of currents and rivers,
the fact itself remains untouched, in so far as it depends on the
apparent rising of rocks from the sea, or the change of the mean
level of the Baltic waters, in reference to the scarped granite
walls which confine them. The level of the sea is the only ele-
ment involved in this investigation, which we can regard as un-
changeable. If it can be made out, therefore, that the living rocks
on the coast, while they retain their relative position in regard
to each other, yet alter their level in regard to that of the water,
we can ascribe the change only to an elevation of the land.
Nor must we be deterred, as geologists too long were in regard
to the bay of Baiae, by any supposed stability even of a whole
peninsula, resting assured that nature, quiescent as she now is,
has still power enough to effect changes of a far more extensive
character.

It occurs at once as an objection to the measurements of the
mean level of the Baltic, that though there are in that sea no
tides, yet the prevalence of easterly or westerly winds, by caus-
ing the current through the Sound and the Belts to set from the
east or the west, effects a change of the level of the whole sea
of several feet. This source of error did not escape the sur-
veyors in 1821, but by observations of the maximum and mi-
nimum very near approximations were made to the truth. If
we can obtain tolerably accurate determinations of the mean level
of the sea, on shores where the ebb and flow of the tide present
additional obstacles, the difficulty of determining that level in the
Baltic, cannot be fairly advanced as a reason for rejecting the
measurements obtained under the direction of the Swedish Aca-
demy.

In the Gulf, and on the coast of Finland, proofs of a change
of level have also been observed, but they appear hitherto to be
less satisfactorily established, than on the west and northern
coasts of the Bothnian Gulf. It has even been proved, by the

tliC Land in Scandinavia. -K Sill

growth of ancient pines close to the sea on the coast of Finland,
and by the similar position of the walls of the Castle of Abo,
that in those spots at least no sensible change of the respective
level of the land and water has for a long period taken place.
This is decisive as to the permanence of the water's level, but it
in no degree weakens the positive evidence of a rise of the land
in many parts of Scandinavia.

hit is only on the coasts that the rate at which the land rises
can be determined by a reference to the level of the sea ; but that
it does rise, is proved by very many phenomena which present
themselves within the coasts, and even in the very interior dC
Sweden. I shall advert to a few of these which are seen on the
Lake Maeler, and some of the inland waters around Stockholm.
This city stands at the head of an arm of the sea, about thirty
miles within the shores of the Baltic, and at the junction of its
waters with those of the lake Maeler. A small part of the lower
city, chiefly about the Skipsbro, is built upon piles. The se-
curity of the buildings thus supported depends upon the piles
being constantly under water ; but after a lapse of a term of
years some of them were observed to be giving way, and oa
searching for the cause, it was found that the sinking of the
waters had gradually left the tops of the piles bare, and exposed
them to decay.

It is well known also, that several of the small peninsulas on
which the city or suburbs stand were formerly islands, and du-
ring the past summer two canals were in progress across two
narrow necks of land, for the purpose of reviving the communi-
cation which the gradual elevation of the land had long ago in-
terrupted. The Jlsketorp or fishing hut of Charles XI ? which
in former times stood close by the deep water, is still preserved
as a memorial of that monarch, though no longer near any spot
where his favourite amusement can be enjoyed. But one of the
most interesting examples, is presented by the beautiful lake
which skirts the woods and pleasure grounds of the palace of
Haga, in the northern suburbs of Stockholm. The position of
this lake shews that it has formerly communicated with the sea,
though now it is considerably above it, and entirely inland*
As the sea retired, this sheet of water would also have been
drained oflF, had it not been dammed up at the only outlet^ to

40 Mr Johnston on the Elevation of

preserve the beauty of the promenade, one of the finest in the
neighbourhood of the city. At present it is dammed up to the
height of four or five feet, and the character of all the land
around shews, that in ancient times it has been very much
higher, and more extensive.

The upper parts of the Maeler, and its many arms and inlets,
exhibit similar evidence of a rise of the land. Wherever the
nature of its shores admits of it, it is girt by a rich belt of land
gained from the waters, and beyond the present limits of its nu-
merous branches extend large tracts of land already recover-
ed and cultivated, small reedy lakes cut off by banks or marshes
from the main body of the lake, or patches of flat land which
seem to be still undergoing a gradual drainage. Whoever has
sailed along the Maeler, made accessible like our own lakes by
the introduction of the steam-boat, must have observed many
instances of the recession of its waters, but they are still better
seen on exploring by land the upper limits, where no boat can
any longer penetrate. Near the palace of Ekolsund, the pro-
perty of Dr Seton, at a distance of about thirty miles from
Stockholm, an arm of the lake, from which it derives its name,
has been shortened several miles by this natural drainage ; and
the long narrow canal which still admits vessels within a short
distance of Upsala, is evidently the relic of a branch of the
lake, at one period of great extent. The countless islands also
sprinkled over the bosom of the Maeler, and which present so
many varying beauties to the eye of the voyager, direct the
mind back to that remote period, when they constituted only so
many hidden rocks or sandbanks beneath the surface of a body
of water much more vast than the lake now presents.

In many other parts of the North and Middle of Sweden, a
similar drainage is observable, and that not only in the flatter
districts, as around Cronstad, at the head of the lake Wener,
but also in the mountainous and hilly country extending over
Wermeland, Smoland, Dalecarlia, and part of several other
provinces. The neighbourhood of Norkoping also, and part of
the line traversed by the great canal, afford of themselves, evi-
dence of a lifting up of the land, sufficient to satifsy any un-
biassed mind.

the Land in Scandinavia. •' 41

In the present state of our knowledge, therefore, there is every
reason to believe that certain parts of the Scandinavian Penin-
sula are gradually rising, at a rate probably variable, but which
recent admeasurements shew may at present be estimated at one
foot in twenty-five years. Adopting this fact, we naturally in-
quire into its probable cause. Among the ordinary phenomena
of volcanic action, we find nothing at all parallel to the case be-
fore us. They afford many examples of elevation even to a
great extent, but these are all the result of a single impulse, or
of a succession of violent impulses, applied within a short space
of time. The elevation in Scandinavia is gradual and insensi-
ble. The country also, within the historical period, has been re-
markably free from what is commonly understood by volcanic
action ; there is, consequently, no ground for attributing it to
the causes usually assigned for that action. If, however, we
define volcanic action, with Humboldt, to be the influence exer-
cised by the interior of a planet on its exterior covering, during
the different stages of refrigeration, we shall find, in such action,
a cause sufficient to account for all the great changes of level
which the several parts of our planet have successively under-
gone. But this is an extension of the meaning of such action,
which is not generally received, and which, indeed, cannot be ad-
mitted, until it be more clearly shewn that the true volcanoes
have their origin in the high temperature of the interior of the
globe. ;Kj^

Taking for granted, therefore, what many geological phe'no-
mena render highly probable, that the temperature of the globe
was in early limes much higher than at present, we shall find,
in its secular refrigeration, a cause not only for the elevation of
ancient mountain-chains, but of the gradual elevation going on
in Scandinavia in our own time. To obtain a general idea of
the effects of such refrigeration, let us go back to the remote
period, when the crust of the earth, even at the poles, was com-
paratively slight. In this state the polar, receiving from the
sun less heat, would cool more rapidly than the'equatorial re-
gions. The contraction consequent upon cooling, would cause a
depression parallel to, and an expansion at right angles to, the
earth's axis ; in other words, the force of contraction would aid
tlie centrifugal, in gradually flattening the earth towards the

4J8 Mr Johnston ofi tlte Elevation of

poles and dilating it around the equator, where the resistance of
the crust to the pressure from within would be least. This
process continuing, a time would at length arrive, when the
polar regions would no longer throw off any sensible quantity of
heat ; when their temperature would be constant, the caloric de-
rived from the sun in summer being nearly equal to that lost
by radiation in the winter, and when all sensible contraction
coHsequently would cease. But it is obvious that such a term
would arrive long before the equatorial parts of the earth had
reached their maximum of cooling, — while they were still con-
tinuing to give off heat and to contract. The whole compress-
ing force consequent upon contraction, would now be exerted in
the equatorial regions, and the earth in this state may be repre-
sented by a globe encircled by a broad belt, compressing it at
right angles to the axis. The effect of such a compressing force
on the inner mass must be to displace it, and to produce a ten-
dency to dilate in directions where the resistance is least. Now,
the compressing force, under the circumstances stated, being in-
sensible at the poles, all other things being equal, the eruption
or displacement, whether violent and of short duration, or gra-
dual and of long continuance, is most likely to take place in
high northern latitudes. But there might occur in lower lati-
tudes, weak points in the crust of the globe, which would be the
first to yield ; and wherever the point of minimum resistance
occurred, there the convulsion would naturally take place.
Where a point of small resistance occurred, an isolated moun-
tain would be thrown up ; a line would give direction to a moun-
tain-chain ; and, where neither occurred, it is easy to conceive
that a large tract of country might be elevated either at once, if
the resistance were at once overcome, or gradually, — the resistance
of the crust and the compressing force at the equator, remaining
uniform and nearly balanced.

If, therefore, we admit the theory of the gradual cooling of
the globe, we recognise the existence, at every point on its sur*
face, of a compressing force which, at the equator, is now a
maximum, and in the elevation of the northern part of Scandi-
navia, an effort of the internal mass to liberate itself from that
pressure, by displacing the crust of the earth at a point of mi-
{umuin resistance.

tlie Land in Scandinavia. ^ i$

If such be the cause of the elevation in question, it is plain
that we cannot a priori prescribe to it any peculiar mode of ac-
tion. A whole district may be elevated equally, so that all parts
of it may retain the same relative level. A level plain, for ex-
ample, may be elevated throughout, so as to be still level. The
plain of Quito among the Andes, the table-land of Thibet, and
the interior of Spain, may have been thus raised. Or the eleva-
tion may be greater in any given direction, so as to produce an
inclination, and consequent draining of the surface ; or it may
be greater on two, or three, or all sides, than it is in the centre,
and thus may constitute a basin.

Suppose Scandinavia to have been a plain on which the up-
lifting force from within was exerted, the effect might either
have been equal over the whole surface, which it evidently was
not, or greatest towards the North Cape, so as to produce a con-
tinued slope towards the Sound ; or the greatest rise might have
been on the west, in Norway and Sweden, or on the east in Fin-
land, or there might have been an elevation on the N.E. and W.
while the central portion remained nearly at its original level.
The last of these seems to have been the true mode of action.
Sweden, Finland, and Lapland have been all more or less ele~
vated, while the central part, the bed of the Baltic Sea, has re-
mained nearer its original level.

Nor is such an elevation towards three cardinal points desti-
tute of probability on purely physical grounds. It is a result
of observation, that cooling bodies, where the surfaces are suffi-
ciently extensive, have a tendency to crack at right angles to
the surface of greatest cooling ; that is, at right angles to the
direction of the greatest contractile force. To this tendency the
origin of basaltic columns is traced. Now, the force of contrac
tion in the equatorial regions acts powerfully at right angles ta
the earth''s axis, and consequently tends to rend the brittle rocky
crust by cracks or fissures running towards the poles. Certain
lines of small resistance are thus generated, which, in former
periods, have afforded a comparatively easy outlet to the fluid
matter within, giving rise to ranges of mountains of greater or
smaller extent. If two such fissures approach near each other
Qt any point, it is consistent with observation that they should
either run into each other spontaneously, or that the force from

4-4! Mr Johnston on the Elevation of

beneath, elevating the narrow neck which divides them, should
thus produce a junction.

Now, such appears to be what has actually taken place in
Scandinavia. We have one great chain of mountains running
nearly the whole length of Norway and Sweden, till it termi-
nates in the North Cape. Another smaller range, in a similar
direction, through Finland, and beyond the head of the Both-
nian Gulf, we find the latter inclining to the west, till it joins
the former. A line of elevation is thus traced surrounding the
basin of this inland sea, and embracing the entire country in
which any rise of the land has been recently observed.

We need not rest satisfied, therefore, with simply considering
the rising of these northern countries to be a compensation for
the depression at the equator, but we may safely, I think, refer
the rise to the line traced out by the ranges of mountains just
described. It is probably due not only to the same force by
which these mountain-chains were at first thrown up, but to this
force exerted in precisely the same lines of direction. The cen-
tral action is upon the mountain-chain, and the lower land rises
gradually along with it.

There are two circumstances, independent of theory, which
chiefly incline me to adopt this view. The first is, that when
we go south beyond a certain latitude, where we may suppose
that the elevation of the distant mountains ceases sensibly to
affect the general level, we find no rise observable along the
coast. The second is, that the rise is strikingly observable to-
wards the head of the Bothnian Gulf, where the crossing of the
Finland to the Norwegian range may not be without influence
in increasing the efi^ect. The same view also accounts for the less
sensible and general rising on the Finland coast, for the moun-
tains in that country cannot compare in altitude with the Scan-
dinavian range.

Besides, if the central action of the elevating force lie upon
the mountains, these should rise more than the low country,
and there should be a considerable drainage towards the coast.
Now, the interior of Sweden^ in many provinces, exhibits, al-
most at every step, the results of drainage. In numerous
places, the only spots of arable land are narrow strips gained
from the lakes ; and land long cultivated presents very frequently

the Land in Scaiidinavia. 46

a bed of moss, a few inches or feet beneath the surface, shewing
it to have been the seat of ancient waters. Some of the finest
estates in Sweden have evidently been gained from the retiring
lakes ; and the appearances of drainage in the lake Maeler, seem
to imply that the elevation of the land, now in progress, is greater
as we approach the hilly country, than it has been found by ad-
measurement on the shores of the Baltic.

The indications of a lifting up of the scarped rocks at Udde-
valla, on the west coast of Sweden, and of various places on the
coast of Norway, within the present geological era, may also in-
dicate a greater rise of Scandinavia towards the west and north,
in the line of the mountains. The observations yet made on
that coast, however, are not sufficiently numerous to prove that
the phenomena on record are not the result of mere local con-
vulsions.

If the views advanced in this paper be correct, it will appear,
that though we may, in many cases, account for geological phe-
nomena, by reference to causes still in operation, we cannot, with
any degree of probability, conclude that they are now capable
of producing effects as powerful as they seem to have done in
ancient times. The cause which now raises the land in Scandi-
navia, four feet in a century, is the same, if we are correct in
stating it, which, in remote periods, elevated a ridge of moun-
tains to the mean height of 3000, and several of its peaks to
upwards of 7000 feet. But how vast a period must elapse be-
fore such mountains could be raised at the present rate of ele-
vation ? Suppose it proved that the rising now in progress is
greater at the mountains than on the coast, and allow it to be
ten times greater — that the mountains now rise at the rate of
forty feet in a century — still the action must have continued
7500 years to elevate the present range of Norwegian Alps to
its mean height, and 17,500 to [)roduce the highest elevations.
But the general character of this, as of most other high moun-
tain ranges, the great difference in height of the several culmi-
nating points, and the rapid decline of the whole range towards
the east, shew that they have not been elevated by any action so
slow and gradual as that now observed. Admitting the cause
to be the same, it must in former times have acted with a jliuch
higher intensity.

46 Mr Johnston o?i the Elevation of

Now, the theory we have advanced accounts for this higher
intensity in the most satisfactory manner. The higher the tem-
perature of the globe, the more rapid must the cooHng have
been, and the greater the contraction. In remote periods, there-
fore, the convulsions caused, wherever the compressed matter of
the globe found a vent, must have been exceedingly powerful ;
and to such periods we must look for that intense action from
which the highest mountain ranges have resulted. The earth is
now approaching its minimum of temperature, and its mass con-
sequently to a state of rest. It is contrary to the most certain
physical laws, therefore, to suppose that, from the cause we
have assigned, similar elevations could now result.

That the era when the expansive energy of the interior of
the globe was powerful enough to produce such mighty results,
must have been very remote, is proved by phenomena which
present themselves over the entire surface of the globe. Within
the limits of authentic record also, no very striking changes
have been produced on the earth's surface, if we except such as
are due to true volcanic action. In Sweden, we can define one
period of eleven hundred years at least, within which the rais-
ing of the land now observable has been little more rapid than
recent admeasurements prove it still to" be. To advert to one
proof only, the Church of Gammel, (Old) Upsala, about two
English miles from the celebrated seat of learning, stands on the
limits of the lower part of the plain of Upsala, and at a height,
I should suppose, of not more than 100 feet above the present
level of the Maeler. It bears marks of great antiquity, and is
known to have been a temple of Thor, before the introduction of
Christianity, a thousand years ago. At the present rate of ele-
vation, the plain should rise about 50 feet in a thousand years.
There cannot, therefore, have been a much more rapid eleva-
tion since the Pagan ritual was abolished.

In whatever way we explain it, there is, in my mind, no
doubt of the fact, that a gradual elevation of the land in Scan-
dinavia is now, and probably has long been, in progress. From
this fact we derive a new principle to assist us in accounting for
evidences of elevation on the coasts, and drainings on a large
scale, occasionally observable in mountainous countries. Where-
ever ranges of mountains occur, especially in northern latitudes.

the Land m Scandinavia. 4*7

we might, from analogy, expect to meet with some traces of
elevation still in progress. In inland districts, supposing eleva-
tions to take place, the relative height of all objects must remain
the same, all being equally uplifted. In such cases, barometri-
cal measurements are the only means of determining the fact.
But it is obvious, that gradual though slow elevations may take
place for a long time, without being made sensible by this mode
of admeasurement. It is only, therefore, where the chain of
mountains has its course near the sea that we can easily deter-
mine whether the relative levels of the sea and land undergo any
change. Series of observations, where circumstances are favour-
able, might lead to very interesting results ; and, at all events,
would prove whether or not the phenomena observed in Scandi-
navia have their counterpart in any other country.

Italy is placed in circumstances such as would justify the ex-
pectation that a gradual elevation of the whole peninsula may
possibly be still detected ; and, girt as it is on either shore by the
ddeless waves of the Mediterranean, the difficulty of making ac-
curate observations cannot be great. It requires only that, on the
rocks along the coast, a series of lines should be drawn as near
as may be to the mean level of the sea, and the time of observa-
tion recorded. Ten, twenty, or thirty years after, the line of
mean level, taken anew, would indicate if any, or how much,
change had taken place. We know that, since the time of the
Romans, parts at least of the Italian shore have been raised
above their ancient level. Lines of mean level, drawn at diffe-
rent places along the whole coast, would shew how far these ob-
served elevations are partial, and the result of local causes, or
the indications of a general uplifting due to a cause operating
along the whole range of the Appenines.

Qn the southern shore of the Bay of Biscay, from Bayonne
to Corunna, along which the continuation of the Pyrenees ex-
tends itself, is another locality, where change of level may pos-
sibly be still observable. In America, almost the whole west
coast maybe expected to undergo a gradual rise.

In Scotland, and especially in the mountainous districts, we
have evidence of the existence, in remote times, of a system of
drainage similar to that still going on in Sweden. The cause
was probably the same, though, whether that cause still operates

48 Dr Davy's Observations on Phosphorus.

on any part of our island, we have as yet no means of determin-
ing. Whether or not all elevation has ceased along those ranges
of mountains which cross the country in a north-easterly direc-
tion, or diffuse themselves in partial ridges midway between
both seas, it would be extremely difficult to ascertain. On the
north and north-west coast only, is it likely that any very accu-
rate observations could be made. And chiefly on the coasts of
Ross-shire and Sutherland, from the proximity of the mountains
to the standard level of the sea, might we expect to ascertain if
any traces are observable of a still existing action of that force
which the whole character of the country shews to have, in early
times, so widely convulsed the highland districts of Scotland.
PouTOBELLo, April 1833.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON PHOSPHORUS. Bl/ JOHN DAVY,

M. D. F. R. S., Assistant Inspector of Army Hospitals,
Communicated by Sir James Macgbigor, Director-Gene-
ral of the Army Medical Board.

In the Number of the Quarterly Journal of Science for July
and December 1829, is a paper by Mr Thomas Graham on the
slow combustion of Phosphorus, in which he has given an ab-
stract of what was previously known on the subject ; and has,
besides, added several curious particulars, ascertained by himself.

Before I was acquainted with Mr Graham's paper, I had
been engaged in a similar inquiry, the results of which I now
propose to give. Although the greater number of them accord
sufficiently with his, some of them are different, and a few of
them I believe are new.

It is considered as a well estabUshed fact, that phosphorus
does not shine in oxygen gas at a temperature below 64>°. This
is stated by Mr Graham, and by Dr Thomson in his System of
Chemistry ; it is also stated, that phosphorus does not combine
with oxygen below the point of fusion. The results of my ex-
periments have been different. In some instances, in which I
have introduced phosphorus into oxygen obtained from chlorate
of potash, it has not shone in the dark between 60° and 80".
In others, it has shone very feebly, even more feebly than in com-
mon air ; the oxygen not having sensibly diminished in a volume

Dr Davy's Ohservatimis on Phosphorus. 4i^

in the course of several hours. In others, it has shone very
brightly, sometimes by fits, flashes of light appearing and disap.
pearing ; and sometimes without interruption, with an intensity,
though infinitely below the violent combustion of phosphorus,
so much above its very slow one, that the heat produced fused
the phosphorus, and the ascent of the water or mercury in the
tube was visible in progress, and occasionally rapid, and yet
never breaking out into vivid inflammation.

To what these differences of eff^ect have been owing, I have
not been able to ascertain ; only this far, that they were not
concerned with the purity of the gas, at least, in relation to the
presence of small variable proportions of atmospheric air, or in-
deed any appreciable adulteration ; or with the degrees of tem-
perature. The most probable mode of explanation of the lu-
minous appearances in different degrees is, that they are connect-
ed with the formation of different compounds of phosphorus and
oxygen, according to the analogy of the degrees of light emitted
by sulphur in combustion ; but of the truth of this I have not
been able to satisfy myself by experiment.

In accordance with the observations of others, I have found
that when oxygen gas is rarefied, phosphorus shines in it ; and
that when condensed, it ceases to shine. With an augmented
pressure of a column of mercury of 16 inches, when heated with
a spirit-lamp in this gas, it emitted no light, till it fused ; then
it burst into flame and burnt explosively, and the oxygen was
condensed in an instant.

Dr Ure states in his Dictionary of Chemistry, that phospho-
rus soon ceases to be luminous in dry atmospheric air, on ac-
count of the acid coat formed on it, which protects the surface
from the farther action of the air. This I have not found to
be the case.. A stick of phosphorus suspended over strong sul-
phuric acid in a limited portion of atmospheric air, continued
shining many hours, till, there was reason to suppose, all the
oxygen was consumed ; and the result has been the same
when phosphorus has been introduced into air confined over
mercury, and previously dried by the same acid ; when its light
ceased, a fresh portion of phosphorus thrown up did not kindle.
In both instances, the luminous appearance was as bright as in
common air that had not been artificially dried.

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. D

60 Dr Davy^s Observations on Phosphorus.

Compression and rarefaction, in the instance of common air,
has an effect analogous to that mentioned when speaking of oxy-
gen. In a bent tube, under an increased pressure of 90 inches
of mercury, phosphorus did not shine. When the experiment
was reversed, it became luminous, and more so than under
ofdinary atmospheric pressure. The volume of atmospheric air
compressed in one instance and rarefied in the other, was about
one cubic inch.

The same effect is displayed in a striking manner by heat-
ing phosphorus in a retort securely closed. The compression
from the intense heat produced when the phosphorus inflames,
presently extinguishes the flame, which may be rekindled by al-
lowing a portion of the confined air to escape.

When phosphorus is placed on the plate of an air-pump, un-
der a receiver, and the air exhausted, the brightness of its light
in the dark rather increases with the exhaustion, and, in the
nearly |x^nlct vacuum formed by a good pump, its light was
not diminished. When the air has been suddenly readmitted,
its light has been extinguished, and for a few seconds it has
ceased to .slune.

When phosphorus has been placed in distilled water under
thp receivei' of an air-pump, and the air dissolved in the water
has been exhausted, or taking it into the open air out of the
water by a thread attached to it, it has shone with rather increased
brightness. If now immersed in common water, and suddenly
taken into the atmosphere, it has emitted no light. Many other
effects similar to this might be mentioned, showing how circum-
stanjces, apparently very trifling, exercise an influence on phos-
phorus, and promote or impede, in a manner that could not have
been expected a priof-i, its union with oxygen, and its luminous
appearance depending on this union.

In accordance with the results of Mr Graham's experiments,
I have found that the vapour of ether, oil of turpentine, aild
every other essential oil that I have tried, extinguished the light
of phosphorus shining iti common air. The vapour of alcohol,
of camphor, and even of assafcetida at ordinary temperatures,
has had the sdme effect. Phosphorus even fuses in the vapour of
camphor without becoming luminous ; arid may even be sublim-
ed with camphor without inflaming. The mixed sublimate of

Dr Davy's Observations on Phosphorus, 51

phosphorus and camphor exposed to the air on the warm hand,
did not shine till rubbed, when it became brilliantly luminous.
Phosphorus may also be boiled in and distilled from oil of tur-
pentine without inflaming.

Though phosphorus inflames in pure chlorine gas, its light is
extinguished when it is exposed to the vapour of chlorine, as
when it is held over an aqueous solution of this substance. The
same happens when it is exposed to the vapour of Iodine and
Bromine.

It does not shine in nitrous oxide, though mixed with common
air. When heated in this gas it melts, and at the subliming
point decomposes the gas explosively with a bright flash. Its
light is extinguished by nitrous acid gas or vapour, even when
so much diluted with common air as hardly to be perceptible by
the sense of smell.

The vapour of ammonia, of muriatic acid, of distilled vinegar-
and of hydrocyanic acid, do not appear to prevent phosphorus
from shining ; they rather increase the brightness of its light.
It shines in carbonic acid gas, and muriatic acid gas, when the
minutest quantity of atmospheric air is present.

It appears to be soluble, or capable of rising in vapour in
muriatic acid gas, carbonic acid gas, and hydrogen gas ; for
when these gases perfectly pure have been kept some time over
mercury with phosphorus in them, a luminous appearance has
been produced (bright flashes of diffused light), when they have
been passed alone into a jar of common air. The same eff*ect
takes place, when the azote of atmospheric air, deprived of its
oxygen by the slow action of phosphorus, is thrown into the at-
mosphere, or into oxygen gas. But the reverse is the case, when
the oxygen of the atmospheric air has been separated by intense
combustion ; however much the phosphorus has been in excess,
and though it has been a second time sublimed in the azote, it
has not acquired the power of shining on admixture with com-
mon air, although from its smell there was no reason to suppose
that the gas did not contain phosphorus in solution.

Mr Graham has pointed out the remarkable effect of diff'erent
varieties of carburetted hydrogen in extinguishing the light of
phosphorus. The results of my experiments with these gases
perfectly agreed with his. I have also found that hydrogen gas
obtained from iron-filings and dilute sulphuric acid (the former

d2

52 l)r Davy's Observations on Phosphorus.

from the blacksmith's shop) has had a similar extinguishing ef-
fect, though in a less degree. One volume of it, mixed with
fifty-nine of common air, has prevented phosphorus immersed
from shining ; diluted more than this, it lost its preventive
power. This result is probably owing either to the presence of
a little vapour somewhat analogous to that of naphtha, on which
the odour of hydrogen gas thus procured depends (and the
odour of this gas was strong) ; or, on the presence of a little car-
buretted hydrogen formed by the union of the nascent hydrogen
and the carbon of the cast-iron or steel at the instant of separa-
tion. The result of the analysis of the gas by the explosion
with oxygen by means of the electric spark, has been rather
favourable to the first supposition ; but the quantity of carbonic
acid gas formed was so extremely small, that it was impossible to
decide positively. The fact that hydrogen gas procured by
means of very pure steel, such as piano-forte wire, does not, when
mixed with atmospheiic air, extinguish the light of phosphorus,
is favourable to the same conclusion.

Some of the results described are not without interest in rela-
tion to practical chemistry. Mr Graham has pointed out the
applicability of phosphorus to detect in mixed gases the pre-
sence of very minute quantities of carburetted hydrogen. It is
equally applicable as a test of the purity of muriatic acid gas and
carbonic acid, and hydrogen gas. If they contain the slightest
trace of common air, phosphorus will shine in these gases, pro-
vided they are otherwise unadulterated. It has been shewn
how it is capable of detecting an adulteration of hydrogen, which
had hitherto, I believe, escaped detection ; and, it may also be
employed to detect similar impurities in other gases, in which,
with an admixture of common air, phosphorus usually shines.
I need not point out the caution that is required in deciding on
the absence of oxygen, in any mixed gas in which phosphorus
does not become luminous.

In relation to the results in general, they are not without some
interest theoretically considered, as belonging to the more obscure
phenomena of chemistry, somewhat analogous to what we wit-
ness in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, in which notable
changes during life and after death are taking place, owing to
the action of causes which we are not able to appreciate, or per-
haps of substances which have hit^ierto eluded detection,
Malta, March 1833.

( 53 )

ON THE CHARACTERS AND AFFINITIES OF THE GENUS COLON,

By David Don, Esq. Libr, L. S. Communicated by the
Author,

The present genus is one of those whose characters are con-
<;ealed under a peculiar habit, which renders it often difficult, if
not impossible, to determine with certainty their natural affi-
nities. I was at first inclined to consider Codon as belong-
ing to the Solanece, and indeed the curved embryo, and the
striking resemblance in habit, appeared strongly to favour
that arrangement ; but a more intimate examination has shewn
these views to be untenable, and that its affinities must be
looked for among other families. In Codon the flowers are
symmetrical, the stamens epipetalous, the anthers incumbent,
with parallel cells, the style duplicate, and the capsule com-
posed of two valves, with the septum formed by the ap-
proximation of the two prominent placentae, the ovula erect,
and the seeds albuminous, with the embryo about equal its
length. On comparing these characters with those of the Hy^
droleacece, we shall find that they accord in a very remarkable
degree ; and although in Codon the stamens and divisions of the
calyx and corolla are doubled in number, the symmetry of the
flower is preserved, and the mere increase of those parts are of
comparatively little importance, when the number of points of
agreement are taken into account. In Codon, and in some of
the Hydroleaccw, particularly in Wigandia, the leaves have a
lobed margin, and are clothed with bristly points, which, in the
former genus, are developed into prickles. The stamina and
pistilla entirely coincide in both genera, but the albumen is more
copious, and the stigmata less developed in Codon, whose affi-
nity, however, to the Hydroleacece, may be considered as com-
pletely established. Cordia decandra may be instanced as an
example of increase in the number of stamina in a family very,
nearly related to Hydroleacece, The Cordiaceoe appear to con-
stitute a group intermediate between that family, Convolvulacea^
and BaraginecB ; and, by means of the smal^ group of HydrO'
phyllecB, which is distinguished by a completely unilocular ova-
rium, and by a minute embryo placed at the extremity of a

54 Mr Don on the genus Codon.

copious albumen, these families are connected with Polemon'u
acea, and Priinulacea,

CODON, L.

Syst. Linn, DECANDRIA MONOGYNIA.
Ord. Nat. HYDROLEACE.E, Nobis.
Calyx multi (10-12)- partitus: laciniis subulatis, erectis ; altemis minoribus.
Corolla tubulosa, calyce longior, basi torulosa, costis lobis numero sequji-
libus peragrata: limbo 10 v. 12-fido: lobis oblongis, obtusis, carinatis, zes-
tivatione imbricatis; altemis parum minoribus. Stamina 10 v. 12, laci-
niis coroUae alternantia, fomicibus totidem compresso-tetragonis h fundo
ortum ducentibus inserta : Jilamenta subulata, glabra : antherce medio ad-
natae,incumbentes, biloculares: loculis parallelis, longitudinaliter dehiscen-
tibus, nisi ad utramque extremitatem, omnino connatis. Pollen f arinaceum.
Pistillum 1 : ovarium biloculare : ovulis erectis : stt/lus semibifidus, basi
pUosus : stigmata simplicia, obtusa. Capsula ovata, acuminata, bilocularis,
valvis 2, apice dehiscens, polysperma. Dissepimsntum duplicatum, mar-
ginibus revolutis, seminiferis. Semina numerosa, angulata, copiose pa-
pillosa : testa simplici, cartilagine^ : albumen copiosum, carnosum. Em~
hryo erectus, axilis, modic^ arcuatus; cotyledones brevissimae: radiculd
longissim^ filiformi, obtusa, umbilicum spectanti.

Herba (Capensis) annua, aculeis subulatis, rectis, albis undiqvs copiose ornata.
Radix /im/brwiis? Caulis erectus^ ramosus, teres, flexuosiis, robu^ius, calamo
scriptorio vix crassior, pedalis v. sesquipedalis. Folia altema, petiolata, ovato-
oblonga, apicem versics parum attenuata, sed obtusa, substantia crassiuscula
camosa, subtiis costata, margine recurva et subrepanda, pilis setosis brevissimis'
utrinque copiose vestita, scabra, 2~3'pollicaria, ad marginem et infra ad cos~
tarn prcecipue aculeata. Petioli sesqui v. bipollicares, supra planiuscuU, levi
ter canaliculati, subtiis convexi. Flores magni, solitarii, pedunculati, extra ~
alares, in caulis apice subracemosi, basi foliis 2 angustioribus scepe bracteati.
Corolla alba, purpureo-variegata.

1. C RoyenL

Codon Royeni, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 13. p. 292 Thunb. Prodr, p. 80

WUld. Sp. PI. 2. p. 540 — Andr. Rep. t. 325 Persoon, Synops. p. 466.

Had. ad Promontorium Bonae SpeL Thunberg. Niven. 0. (V. s. sp.
in Herb. Linn, et Lamb.)

The SibthorpiacecE may be adduced as affording also an ex-
ample of increase in the number of the parts of the flower, in
the genus Disandra, whose flowers are most frequently 7-cleft
and heptandrous. This small group is very nearly related to
the PrimulacecB, with which it agrees in its symmetrical flowers,
capitate stigma, and large, globular, central placenta, but dif-
fers in having the stamina alternating with the lobes of the co-
rolla, and a bilocular ovarium.

( 55 )

ON AMERICAN STEAM-BOATS. By Mr C. ReDFIELD of

New York.

'The increase in the number of steani-boals in the waters of
the United States within the last fifteen years, which has not
failed to excite both surprise and gratulation, is hardly greater
than the improvements which have been made in their structure
and efficiency. Before the commencement of the period alluded
to, the steam-engine had been brought nearly to the maximum
of its efficiency as a moving power, and the adaptation of its
energies to the purposes of navigation, though less advanced,
was- supposed to have nearly reached the same stage of perfec-
tion. About ten years since, the steam-boats which navigated
the river Hudson, and which were doubtless superior to any
others of that period, performed the passage between New York
and Albany in from eighteen to thirty hours, according to the
favour of circumstances : five years later, and from one to four
deeply laden vessels, each of more than two hundred tons' bur-
then, were towed through the same route, by a single steam-
boat, in an equal range of time.

The power and speed of the Hudson River steam-boats, as
well as those employed on the Mississippi and elsewhere, have
continued to be annually increased up to the present time. In
the year 1827, the passage between New York and Albany,
which is supposed to be equal to 150 statute miles*, had been
performed under favourable circumstances, in about twelve
hours. In 1829 this passage had been accomplished in ten
hours and thirty minutes, and in 1831 in ten hours and fif-
teen minutes, all the stoppages on the river being included in
these statements. But the giant offi»pring of science and the
arts had not yet attained its full strength and maturity, and
during the present season (1832) the passage has been perform-
ed in nine hours and eighteen minutes, including the time spent
at the different landings. Claims to this rate of speed have also
been set up by more than one competitor. It appears highly

• The distance between the two points by the river-road is reputed to be
equal to 1G2 miles. The direction or course of the channel of the river,
though generally favourable, ranges betiveen south-west and north-east.

O

56 Mr Redfield wi American Steam-Boats.

probable, that, with the means now possessed or in preparation,
the passage may yet be performed in something less than nine
hours, notwithstanding the obstacles presented by the shallow-
ness of the river, and the intricacies of the navigation, in the
thirty miles nearest to Albany. It may be remarked here, that
the length of the route, as above given, is not supposed to be
overrated, as is usually the fact with inland navigable routes ;
nor can the assistance of the tides in ascending the river be
fairly estimated at more than one mile per hour, on an average
of the whole distance ; while, in the descending passage, little
or no advantage can be derived from this source, because the
ebb and flood are then made to alternate in three hours, or even
in a shorter period. Twelve landings are usually made on each
passage, and at six of these places the steam-boats are commonly
brought to, and fastened to the wharfs.

Those who are conversant with the difficulties which attend the
attainment of high velocities in navigating a medium whose re-
sistance accumulates in a ratio exceeding the squares of the ve-
locities, by means of an artificial power, the reaction for which is
obtained from the medium itself, will justly consider the above
rates of speed as extraordinary. Nor will this view of the subject
be weakened by statements, which may chance to gain currency of
the attainment of greater speed in more open waters, by steam-
vessels, possessing less comparative efficiency, on routes either
overrated in their extent, or affording greater occasional advan-
tages, from the strength and rapidity of the tides. It some-
times happens, that, owing to the inadvertence of a compositor,
or some other cause, a mistake of an hour finds its way into the
published accounts of the passage made by a favourite steam-
boat.

In addition to twelve steam-boats which are employed on this
river in the various lines of transportation, and on short routes,
there are ten boats of the first class, which have been employed
in daily trips for the conveyance of passengers between New
York and Albany, viz. the North America, Albany, Novelty,
Erie, Champlain, Ohio, New Philadelphia, De Wit Clinton,
Constitution, and Constellation. Of these the five first named
depart in the morning at seven oVlock, and perform the passage
in nine and a quarter to thirteen hours ; the latter five depart

Mr Redfield on American Steam-Boats. 57

usually at five in the evening, and accomplish the passage in
nearly the same time. Passengers in the former may enjoy airy
accommodations, and the interesting scenery of the Hudson, to-
gether with their accustomed repose at night ; and by means of
the latter, men of active and provident habits are able to trans-
act their daily business at will, either in our commercial metro-
polis, or in one of the flourishing cities at the head of naviga-
tion ; the intervening space of 150 miles being passed over du-
ring the hours of relaxation and repose, with no other discom-
fort than attends the occupation of a good mattrass with clean
linen, in a steam-boat usually loaded with passengers. The
price of passage is commonly fixed at three dollars.

Most of these boats have undergone a material change in
their size, form, and general outfit, since their first construction,
in order to maintain a successful competition for the business of
this noble river. It will not be necessary to give an account of
the various efforts of professional skill, by means of which these
boats have attained to their present degree of perfection and
efficiency, but a general, and somewhat definite description of
one of the number may prove acceptable to the readers of the
Journal.

The De Wit Clinton having been twice enlarged, is now of
the following dimensions, viz. entire length on deck 233 feet,
breadth of the hull at the water-hne 28 feet ; projection of the
deck or wheel-guards on each side, 18 feet; maximum width of
deck, including guards, 64 feet; depth of hold JO fe^U height
of the upper deck 11 feet; length of the great cabin 175 feet ;
draft of water, not exceeding 4 feet 6 inches ; diameter of the
water-wheels 22 feet ; length of the same, measured on the
buckets, each wheel 15 feet; depth of the bucket or paddles
37 inches; diameter of the iron water-wheel shafts 14 inches;
length of the crank 5 feet ; length of the stroke made by the
piston 10 feet; diameter of the piston QQ inches, its superficies
being equal to 3421 square inches. The gross length of the
working cylinder, which is placed in a vertical position, is 11
feet 10 inches ; its lateral apertures, by which the steam is re-
ceived and discharged, are 42 by 10 and f th inches. The engine
is worked by means of four circular receiving-valves, each of
17 inches diameter (two at either end of the cylinder), and

58 Mr Redfield on American Steam-Boats.

four exhausting valves of the same dimensions. The diameter
of the main steam-pipe and side-pipes is 25 inches.

The entire capacity of the cylinder, deducting the space oc-
cupied by the piston, and including one of the side apertures
extending to the valves, is equal to 252 cubic feet, which is
equal to 1890 standard wine gallons, or sixty-three barrels of
thirty gallons each. Should the engine perform twenly-six re-
volutions or double strokes per minute *, there will be exhausted
13,104 cubic feet = 3276 barrels per minute, and 786,240
cubic feet of steam, or 196,560 barrels will be exhausted every
hour, during the time in which the engine is in full motion !
But the steam is allowed to enter freely from the boiler, only
during a part of each stroke, the throttle- valve being then closed,
and the steam which has previously entered the cylinder is al-
lowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke. If the
pressure of steam maintained in the boilers be equal to twenty
pounds per square inch above the mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere (and greater pressure is frequently employed in these
boats), the average effective pressure on the piston may be
safely estimated, even with less pressure, at about ten pounds
for each square inch of its superficies. To this must be added
the net pressure of the atmosphere, obtained by the use of the
condenser and air-pump, which is fully equal to ten pounds to
the inch, the vacuum in the condenser varying generally from
twelve and a half to thirteen and a half pounds to the inch, by
the barometrical guage. This estimate, which is obtained by
near approximations, will give an average pressure on the piston
equal to twenty pounds to the square inch ; but, lest we should
be charged with overrating, we will reduce it to sixteen pounds
effective pressure to the square inch, or 3421 inches of piston,
running fifty-two single strokes of ten feet each per minute.
Estimating now the full powers of a horse as equal to 150
pounds, moving at two and a half miles an hour, or to raising
33,000 pounds 1 foot per minute, we have the following formula :
3421 X 16 X 52 X 10 28462720

33.000 " 33 000

862

• The engines of some of the Hudson River boats are often seen running
at the rate of twenty-eight double stroke? per minutej the velocity of the
piston being 560 feet per minute.

Mr liedfield on American Steam-Boats. 59

showing a force exerted upon the engine which is equal to the
power of eight hundred and sixty-two horses. From this re-
sult we are to deduct the power necessary for moving the en-
gine, or that required for overcoming the friction and resistance
of its parts, which is comparatively less in engines of this mag-
nitude, working on such an extended crank, than in the average
of smaller engines. We will estimate it, however, as equal to
one-third of the force applied, which gives the effective work-
ing-power of the engine as equal to that of five hundred and se-
venty-five horses. An engineer with whom I have conferred,
and under whose direction several of the engines in these boats
have been constructed, estimates the net effective pressure,
ea^dusive of all deduction Jbrjriction, &c. as equal to twelve
pounds for every square inch of the piston. This may be
nearer the truth, and gives the working-power of this engine
as equal to six hundred and forty-six horses. Such results may
at first view appear to be of a startling character, even to pro-
fessional readers, but having been arrived at by gradual ap-
proximations, they seem hardly to have attracted the attention,
either of men of science or practical engineers.

The following may be given as a summary statement of the
principal dimensions of the other boats which have been named,
and which, if not minutely correct in all its particulars, is suffi-
ciently so for purposes of general information. The Cham-
plain, a new boat, is 180 feet in length, 28 feet beam on the
water line, and has two engines of 42 inches cylinder, and
10 feet stroke, which, with wheels of 22 feet, run from 26 to
28 revolutions per minute. Tlie Erie, also a new boat, is of
the same size, and somewhat greater power, her cylinders being
of 44 inches diameter*. The North America is 218 feet in
length, including a cut-water bow (which has also been affixed
to most of the other boats), 30 feet beam, and has also two
engines, with cylinders of 44 inches diameter, and 8 feet stroke.

• These two boats run to the City of Troy, a prosperous and beautiful
town, situated six miles above Albany. A large lithographic drawing of
these steam-boats, including also a sketch of the scenery in the Highlands of
the Hudson, near the mountain called Anihonj/'s Nose, has been published by
the company owning the boats.

60 Mr Redfield on American Steam- Boats.

The Albany is 207 feet in length, 26 feet beam, and has one
engine of Q5 inches cylinder, and 9 feet stroke. The Ohio is
192 feet in length, 30 feet beam, and has one engine, with
cylinder of 60 inches diameter, and 9 feet stroke. The New
Philadelphia is 170 feet in length, 24 in breadth, and car-
ries one engine of 55 inches cylinder, and 10 feet stroke. The
Constitution is 145 feet in length, 27 feet beam, and has one
engine of 42 inch cylinder, and 9 feet stroke. The Constel-
lation is about 149 feet in length, 27 feet beam, and car-
ries one engine of 44 inches cylinder, and 10 feet stroke.
The Novelty is about 220 feet in length, 25 feet beam, and
has two engines, with cylinders of 30 inches in diameter,
and 6 feet stroke, working horizontally, using steam of higher
elasticity, and dispensing also with the use of a condenser and
air-pump. Most of the above steam-boats carry their boilers
on the wheel-guards, entirely without the body of the boat.
The Erie and Champlain carry each four boilers, and the same
number of chimney pipes. The Novelty has four sets of boil-
ers, of about forty inches in diameter, three in each set, and
carries also four chimneys.

Little apprehension in regard to personal safety is now enter-
tained by persons travelling in steam-boats. At a former pe-
riod, two commodious safety barges were employed on the
Hudson, which, in order to obviate all danger arising from this
source, were devoted exclusively to passengers, and towed at
the stern of a steam-boat. These barges, which were run during
the summer season from 1825 to 1829, had attained to a speed
of eight to nine miles per hour ; but the increase which, during
the same period, was given to the speed and size of the steam-
boats, tended to discourage this mode of conveyance, and it has
since been discontinued, to the regret of those who love quiet
enjoyment, and whose nerves have not been inured to confusion
by frequent proximity with the moving power.

It has been frequently remarked, that the exposure to fatal
accidents on board of steam-boats, is much less than attends the
use of the ordinary means of conveyance, either by land or wa-
ter ; and it has been suggested, that the average loss of life by
steam-boat explosions, is even less than is annually occasioned
by lightning. In order to test the accuracy of this suggestion.

Mr Redfield on American Steam-Boats. 61

I have noted, during the present year, such accidents by light-
ning as were attended with fatal results, so far as the same have
come to my knowledge. The whole number of cases thus as-
certained is twenty-six, which were distributed as follows. In
New Hampshire 1 ; Massachusetts 1 ; Rhode Island 1 ; Con-
necticut 2 ; New York 7 ; Pennsylvania 5 ; Delaware 3 ; Vir-
ginia 1 ; South Carolina 2; Louisiana 2; and Illinois 1. It is
hardly to be supposed that this statement comprises one moiety
of the whole number of fatal casualties of this kind, which have
occurred in the United States during the past years, and it com-
prises but a single accident, in the four great States of Virginia,
North CaroHna, Kentucky, and Tenessee. In recurring to the
list of steam-boat accidents, which was recently published in
this Journal *, it will be seen, that the entire mortality from
this cause, is estimated at three hundred in a period of twenty
years, which amount to an average of fifteen for each year.
The loss of lives by the bursting of steam-boat boilers, during
the present year, I have recorded as follows : Steam-boat post-
boy, on the Mississippi, 1 killed ; Ohio, on the Hudson, 5
killed and drowned; Adam Duncan, on the Connecticut, 1
drowned ; Connecticut, in Boston Harbour, I killed ; Monti-
cello, on the Mississippi, 2 killed : Total 10. Of this last
number, as far as I have been able to ascertain, three were pas-
sengers, and the remainder persons who were employed about
the engine, showing that the risk to passengers is extremely
small.

What further improvement in safety, or speed, are yet to be
elicited in the art or science of locomotion, time only can shew
us. The steam-boat, a short time ago, appeared to our view,
as the ne plus ultra of human efforts, but the successful appli-
cation of steam-power on rail-roads, has already rivalled, if not
greatly surpassed, our achievements in steam-navigation. It is
however probable, that the maximum of useful effect, has been
nearly attained in both these departments, which, when practi-
cally considered, will be found auxiliaries rather than rivals to
each other. The art of obtaining the full power of steam, and
of applying it to the purpose of locomotion, on a fluid which

• Vol. XX. pp. 336— 33a

6S Mr Red field on American Steam-Boats.

sustains the load, and affords sufficient reaction for the moving-
power, is now well understood ; and in regard to rail-roads, it is
doubtless true, that a level metallic surface, not 07ily sustains
the vehicle, in the most perfect manner, but affords the least
possible resistance, with the best possible reaction for the pro-
pelling power, and combines, therefore, the greater conceivable
Jacilities for the transit of persons arid property *. Other ex-
pectations, which are often entertained without due considera-
tion, will doubtless end in disappointment. It is to the esta-
blishment and extension of these unequalled means of convey-
ance, that the enterprise of our growing country should be di-
rected. It has been truly said, that the career of improvement
in our age is too impetuous to be stayed, were it wise to attempt
it, and " though it would a futile attempt to oppose such an
impulse, it may not be unworthy our ambition to guide its pro-
gress, and direct its course/' — Amer. Journ. of Science and
Arts, vol. xxiii. No. % Jan. 1833, p. 311.

LION-HUNTING IN SOUTH AFRICA. By LEWIS LeSLIE^ Esq.,

Aibth Regiment. Communicated by the Author.

Some years ago it was my fortune to be attached to a party
of the Cape Cavalry encamped on the banks of Orange River
in South Africa, for the protection of the boors on that extreme
boundary, against a tribe of savages who were then supposed
to threaten an invasion of the Colony. That portion of our
African territory extending from the Fish River, formerly the
north eastern limit to the banks of the Gariep or Orange River,
had been but a few years in our possesion, and then only a
scanty population of Dutchmen was scattered over a space of
some hundred miles. The occupation, I believe, was not

• It may be noticed, that the power employed for propelling a single
steam-boat of the first class, is equal to that of fifty locomotive engines, of
the power of twelve horses each. These would probably be adequate to the
conveyance of all the passengers and property now transported upon the
Hudson River, if the same were transferred to a level rail-way of equal ex-
tent.

Mr Leslie on Lion-kuntiiig in South Africa. 68

recognised at that time by Grovernment. The character of tl^
scenery was somewhat pecuHar : vast plains or flats extended in
all directions, bare and sandy, rarely presenting a green blade
of verdure to the weary eye; these plains were enriched or in-
tersected by ranges of low table mountains, whose sides and
summits were equally divested of all vegetation ; and in passing
over the country, as you crossed the lower ridge of some of
these hills, a prospect of the same monotonous and barren ex-
tent was presented to the view. It was seldom we met with a
human habitation, and nought enlivened the dreary scene, save
the various species of antelope and quagga abounding in these
plains, who, frightened at the appearance of man, ran widely
off in every direction. At a distance they might have been
sometimes taken for vast herds of sheep, and droves of cattle. If
a boor's dwelling happened to be in the neighbourhood, these
dwellings were always erected on the banks of some rivulet or
spring, where there might be a sufficient supply of water for
their flocks, and to irrigate a few limited roods of land to grow
vegetables and tobacco for themselves. In the drier seasons,
however, these almost pastoral farmers were obliged to forsake
their more permanent abodes, and something like the Israelites
in the desert, betake themselves to tents, and with their flocks,
wander over the sandy waste in search of pasturage for their
sheep and cattle. While encamped in these open plains, their
craals or folds were frequently disturbed by the midnight visit
of the lion ; and their only escape from his attacks was in the
discovery of his retreat and his destruction. His usual prey
was the quagga or the antelope ; but the fleetness of tliese ani-
mals, or their instinctive precautions perhaps, gave them more
security than the feeble defences of a crowded craal.

It was on these occasions that I witnessed the mode in which
the Boor discovered and rid himself of his troublesome neio-h-

o

hour, as the officer commanding was applied to, and most
willingly granted the assistance of a few men, whom we were
delighted to accompany. It has been frequently asserted that
the lion is not the magnanimous and courageous animal that he
was formerly described to be, and I see that Dr Philip, in his
researches, has related the facility with which the Bosjcsmans,

64 Mr Leslie 07i Lioii-hunting in South Africa.

(Bushmen) with their poisoned arrows, destroy the Monarch of
these Wilds. From a tolerably long acquaintance and experi-
ence on the African Frontier, I am inclined positively to deny
both these opinions. I have seen the Lion on several occasions
hunted and slain, and heard the relations of many (on which I
could place more credit, than on those of the credulous Boor),
which bear ample testimony of his courage and noble bearing
when at bay. The Bushmen I have frequently seen practise
with their bows, but I have very little faith in the correctness
of their aim or the strength of their poison. The most authen-
tic relations I could obtain of their shooting even the smallest
species of the antelope, prove that the poison is not at all im-
mediate in its effect ; the wounded animal, with the barbed and
poisoned arrow in his side, will bound along the plain, where he
is traced by the Bushman'^s eagle eye until he staggers and falls
when the poison has been absorbed. If such is the case with a
weak and timid animal, what would it be with the powerful,
bold, and fiery lion .? destruction of the daring Bushman who
would attempt to meet him. I am well aware that they assert
their being able to kill the lion, but am confident it is for the
purpose of imposing on the credulous boor to magnify the power
of their favourite weapon. In nine months that we were en-
camped within a mile of a numerous craal of Bushmen, they
appeared to live almost wholly on roots, locusts, and ants, and
what they obtained from the neighbouring farmers, or from our
station.

Those who have denied the noble daring of the lion, have
never seen him in his native desert. I have heard an individual
who was engaged in the hunt, of which Mr Pringle gives so
vivid a description, bear ample testimony of his high and fear-
less bearing in many a future encounter. My own experience
is in every instance in his favour. He has nothing of the cun-
ning, cowardice, or treachery ascribed to the tiger. In his con-
duct there appeared no pusillanimity. Before man he retreats
with coolness and deliberation. He avoids because he hates,
not because he fears him ; once confront him, convince him that
he is the object of your pursuit, and he retreats no longer.
Whatever may be the number of his enemies he will no longer

Mr Leslie 07i Lion-hunting in South Africa, ^Q5

shun you. He seats himself on some ridge, which he will never
leave, and from thence growls inimitable defiance till loss of blood
or some well-aimed bullet lays him prostrate on the earth.
Often have I seen him roll, when wounded, from the ridge
where he was seated, but on his recovery, his sole object ap-
peared to be to regain it, as if it alone was the object of the
contest, and he would only yield it with his life.

The method by which the boors pursue the lion, will be
shewn by describing the last hunt at which I was present. In
every instance it was the same, and in three successful, without
injury to any individual of the parties. The north-east bank
of Orange River, opposite our encampment, was totally unin-
habited save by a few wandering Bushmen. Vast numbers of
antelopes and quaggas grazed upon the plains ; and in the
rugged and bare hills which intersect them, the lion dwelt
during the day, and at night descended after considerable in-
tervals in search of food. I have seldom seen him in the plain
during the day, save when, in the extreme heat of the summer, he
might be found on the wooded banks of the river; but often during
the night, when we bivouacked in the open plain, and the terror
of the cattle and horses bore evidence of his approach ; at dawn
he would be seen winding slowly his way to the loftier summit
of some neighbouring mountain. One might hear the thunder
of his voice at miles' distance, while every animal shook with
fear. A lion of huge dimensions passed the river, which at that
season was low, and carried off a horse, the property of a neigh-
bouring boor. For some nights previous he had been heard in
a hill close to the banks of the river, to which it was supposed
he had again retreated on destroying his prey. The boors
assert that the flesh of the horse is highly prized by the palate
of the lion, but perhaps it is because that animal is their own
most valuable property. It was proposed to cross the river the
following morning and trace him to his den, with the few boors
we could collect, and a party of our men. We mounted imme-
diately after sunrise, and with a large number of dogs, proceed-
ed to the mountain, every crevice and ravine of which we ex-
amined without finding him. Gorged with his late meal, he
had, perhaps, we thought, remained in the thick cover on the
steep banks of the river, to which we then returned, and m

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. E

66 Mr Leslie on Lion-hunting in South Africa,

passing over a narrow plain, a spot of ground was pointed out
to MS by an eye-witness, where he had been seen to seize and
devour a quagga some days before. The hard and arid soil
was actually hollowed by the violence of the mortal struggle.
The dogs had scarcely entered the thick bushy banks of the
river ere they gave tongue, and they appeared to advance in
the pursuit, as if the lion was slowly retreating. At times it
would seem that he turned and rushed upon the dogs. We,
however, could not dare to enter farther than the skirts of the
iungle with a finger on the trigger, and the carbine half at the
present. One single clutch of his tremendous paw unquestion-
ably would have been fatal. For a considerable time the dogs
remained silent, and we fancied we had irrecoverably lost him.
With more and more confidence we examined the thicket, but
without success, and were about giving up the pursuit in despair,
when a Hottentot and boor observed his footsteps in the sand.
The word was again to horse. The lion's course appeared to

be towards the mountain, which we had left. R , with a

party of boors and soldiers, galloped strait up the nearest decli-
vity, while I, with a smaller number, rode round a projecting
edge of the hill, into a deep ravine, to which he might have re-
treated. With my party I had been too late ; he had been ju^t
brought to bay, as he was commencing his descent on the op-
posite declivity of the hill, but R delayed the attack

until we should arrive to witness the encounter ; meanwhile the
dogs amused him. The ascent by which we could reach the
summit was steep and rugged, but our horses were accustomed
to such, and with whip and spur we urged them on. Whoever
has seen the African lion at bay, would assuredly say the sports-
man could never behold a more stirring scene in the chase.
There he was, seated on his hind quarters, his eye glaring on a
swarm of curs yelping around him ; his dark shaggy mane he
shook around his gigantic shoulders, or with his paw tossed in
the air the nearest dog, more apparently in sport than anger.
We arranged preliminaries. The horses were tied together in a
line, taking care to turn their heads from the direction where
the lion was at bay, and likewise that they were to the wind-
ward of him, lest his very scent should scare them into flight.
The retreat behind this living wall is the boors' last resource if

Mr Leslie 07i Lion-hunting hi South Africa. 67

he should advance upon them, that his indiscriminate fury may
fall upon the horses. Some of the boors are excellent marks-
men, and the Hottentot soldiers is far from being despicable :
yet many a bullet was sent ere he was slain. Fired by the
wounds he received, his claw was no longer harmless ; one dog
he almost tore to pieces, and two more were destroyed ere he
fell. At each shot he rushed forward as if with the intent of
singling out the man who fired, but his rage was always vented
on the dogs, and he again retired to the station he had left.
The ground appeared to be bathed with his blood. Every suc-
ceeding attempt to rush forward, displayed less vigour and fury,
and at last, totally exhausted, he fell ; but still the approach was
dangerous. In the last struggle of his expiring agony, he might
have inflicted a mortal wound ; cautiously approaching, he was
shot through the heart ; twelve wounds were counted in his
head, body, and limbs. He was of the largest size, and allied
in appearance to the species which the boors call the black lion.
We claimed the skin and skull ; the Bushmen the carcass,
which to them is a delicious morsel ; and the boors were satisfied
with knowing that he would commit no farther depredations on
them.

On another occasion we roused two on the summit of a low stony
hill. They were deliberately descending one side as we reached
the top, and amid a shower of bullets, they quietly crossed a
plain to ascend another. We followed, and they separated ; we
brought them to bay in succession, and slew both. It appears
to me from what I have seen and heard, that a lion once wound-
ed will immediately turn upon his pursuers ; but I am of opi-
nion that he seldom attacks man, generally shuns his vicinity,
and that he has none of the reported partiality for human flesh.
In the district I described, and of which a description was ne-
cessary to show that we encountered him upon clear and open
ground, the various kinds of lion were originally very nu-
merous. The boors enumerated three, — the yellow, grey, and
black. Their numbers were much diminished, principally, per-
haps, from their retreating beyond Orange River, to an unoccu-
pied country, although many also were destroyed by the boors.
It has been said that the lion dwells in the plains. The African

68 Mr Leslie on Lion-hunting in South Africa.

hunters almost always seek him in the mountains, and occasion-
ally one or two will not shun the encounter, if armed with their
long and sure rifles, which on almost all occasions they carry.
One instance more and I have done. A party of officers a few
years previous, along with some boors, discovered a lion, lioness,
and two cubs, within a short distance of Hernianus Craal on
the frontier. The lion dashed forward to protect his mate and
young ones, and attempted to defend them by shielding them
with his body, until the officers, moved by his magnanimity of
conduct, entreated that he might not be destroyed, but the
Dutchmen were inexorable, and they killed him ; the cubs fled
and the lioness followed ; but all were found dead of their wounds
the succeeding day.

The above anecdote was related to me by an officer who was
an eye-witness.

MOELMYNE TeNNASSERIM,

2bth December 1831.

ON THE CONNEXION WHICH SUBSISTS BETWEEN THE CALYX
A^D OVARIUM IN CERTAIN PLANTS OF THE ORDER ME-

LASTOMACE^. By David Don, Esq. Lihr. L. 5., ^c.

It is remarkable, that although the MelastomacecB have been
a frequent subject of investigation with botanists, no one, with
the exception of Mr Brown, appears to have been aware of
the peculiar nature of the union which subsists between
the calyx and ovarium in most of the plants belonging to
that family. The ovarium in these plants is connected with
the tube of the calyx by thin, longitudinal plates of cellu-
lar tissue, disposed on each side of the depression formed by
the insertion of the septa, leaving a tubular space free for
the reception of the anthers in the early stage of the flow-
er. The number of these plates, however, appears to de-
pend more upon the number of the stamina than of the
valves of the capsule. This curious arrangement of the sta-
mioa in aestivation, appears only to take place in thosa ge-

Mr D. Don on the Melastomacew. 69

nera whose anthers terminate in a tubular process, as Melas-
toma, Osbeckia, Rhexia, Arthrostemma^ &c. in which the
cells of the anthers are attached along the inner surface of an
elongated connectivum, and are plaited and wrinkled, so that when
the anthers issue from their receptacle (being forced out by the
development of the pollen swelling the cells), the pollen is
thrown out with an elastic force, the transverse rugae materially
assisting in its discharge. In Melastoma, the alternate anthers,
which are also the largest, and placed opposite the septa, are
attached by means of the elongated base of the connectivum to
the filaments, as it were to a pivot, which gives additional force
to the emission of the pollen. In BlaJcea, Cremanium, and other
genera, which have their anthers truncate, and opening by two
terminal pores, the hollow spaces are entirely wanting, the tube
of the calyx and ovarium being completely united, and the sta-
mina in the unexpanded flower being arranged in the free space
between the summit of the ovarium and limb of the calyx.
The union of these two organs is still more complete in Cha-
rianthus, in which, as the dehiscence of the anthers is longitu-
dinal, and no force is required for the emission of the pollen,
the anthers are found to be merely bent downwards in aestiva-
tion, to prevent their being pressed upon by the sides of the pe-
tals.

I take this opportunity of correcting an error {first pointed
out to me some years ago by Mr Brown) into which Ruiz, Pa-
von, and myself have fallen, in considering the two protube-
rances at the base of the leaves of Aa:lnaa glandulosa as glands,
while in fact they are merely callosities, originating in the fold-
ing backwards of a portion of the leaf.

EXPERIMENTS UPON THE SOLIDIFICATION OF RAW GYPSUM.

By John P. Emmet, Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Virginia.

The facility with which burnt gypsum sets, when made into
a paste with water, has rendered it not only conspicuous among
minerals, but highly useful in the arts ; hitherto, however, as

70 Mr Emmet on the Solidificatian of Raw Gypsum.

far as I am aware, it has not been supposed that the raw or na-
tural production is capable of exhibiting the same property.
The following experiments, although resulting from an inquiry
not confessedly connected with the subject of the present com-
munication, and therefore not, perhaps, carried so far as they
might have been with advantage, are considered of sufficient
importance to receive a distinct notice. They satisfactorily
show, that native gypsum may be rendered capable of perfect
solidification, without having undergone the operation of burn-
ing, and may perhaps contribute to illustrate or render more
available the setting property of this valuable natural production.

Raw gypsum, finely pulverized, is capable of undergoing
immediate and perfect solidification, when mixed with certain
solutions of the alkali potassa. Among those that answer best,
may be enumerated caustic potassa, carbonate and bi-carbonate,
sulphate and supersulphate, silicate and double tartrate or
Rochelle salt.

In all these cases, the process may be easily rendered more
expeditious than when burnt plaster alone is employed, and the
resulting solid, after having been properly dried, does not seem
to differ essentially from that usually obtained, except in com-
position. There does not appear to be any exact point of sa-
turation ; for the solid masses, when broken up and worked with
fresh portions of the solutions, constantly recover their tendency
to set, even when the saline matter is in very great excess ; yet,
no doubt, each case requires a specific amount, in order to pro-
duce the maximum of solidity. When water alone is employed,
after the first mixture, the paste rarely exhibits any remarkable
tendency to become hard ; but a fresh application of one of the
foregoing solutions never failed to develope it promptly.

There is also a marked difference as to the time required for
the operation ; solutions of carbonate and sulphate of potassa, if
sufficiently dilute, produce their effects so slowly, as to admit of
complete incorporation, whereas Rochelle salt acts as soon as
the powder touches the fluid, and all subsequent motion neces-
sarily weakens the cohesion. If crystals of Rochelle salt be tri-
turated with raw gypsum and water, and then brought in con-
tact with the mixture, there will be no apparent interval of

Mr Emmet ofi tlie Solidification (yfRaw Gypsum. 71

time between contact and solidification. This extreme rapidity
effectually prevents incorporation by the ordinary mode, and
would induce one to imagine that Rochelle salt docs not pos-
sess the power ; for when the gypsum and solution are worked
together with a spatula, although the particles feel hard and
harsh, they readily crumble, and, by continuing the operation,
actually assume a semi-fluid condition.

No other salts but those holding potassa were found to ren-
der raw gypsum capable of solidification. Those of soda, as
far as they were examined, invariably produced a contrary ef-
fect, if we except Rochelle salt, wbich, however, seems to ope-
rate by its potassa. Yet it is remarkable, that several neutral
salts of the latter alkali, as the nitrate and chlorate, did not oc-
casion the slightest alteration. The bi- carbonate of potassa inva-
riably produced a brisk effervescence, which considerably impair-
ed, although it did not prevent, solidification. The same dis-
advantage characterizes the action of super-sulphate of potassa,
whenever the mineral contains an admixture of carbonate of
lime, as was found to be the case with the specimen of gypsum
under examination. As the idea has been advanced that the
setting property of ordinary burnt plaster, depends upon the
presence of carbonate of lime, most of these experiments were
repeated, with equal success, upon pure sulphate of lime ob-
tained by precipitation.

The opinion, that carbonate of lime facilitates or causes soli-
dification in the ordinary case, seems but little entitled to belief,
when it is considered that the heat, necessary for the burning of
plaster, falls far short of that required for bringing limestone to
its caustic state, or even to that half-calcined condition which
renders it capable of hardening under water ; but, whatever
may be its agency subsequent to the application of heat, the
operation must be totally different in the present case, since the
supersulphate of potassa completely decomposes all the carbo-
nate of lime in the gypsum.

It is probable, as Gay-Lussac^has observed, in his examina-
tion of this singular property of burnt plaster *, that we should
refer the fact to an inherent property of the mineral ; yet I can-

%Annales de Chimie et de Physique, torn. xi. p. 43(5.

72 Mr Emmet on the Solidification of Raw Gypsum,

not but think the foregoing experiment abundantly proves that
it does not always depend upon the simple union with water,
and subsequent aggregation of the saturated particles, as seems
to be the fact with burnt plaster. These cases may not, indeed,
be parallel, as some of the saline solutions, added partiality, af-
fect the composition of the gypsum ; yet I have satisfied myself
that the alteration is neither uniform nor essential to the result,
although it is extremely difficult to ascribe the solidification, in
the foregoing instances, to the proper cause. Both potassa and
its carbonate are extremely deliquescent, and do not, therefore,
act by rapidity of crystallization ; sulphate of potassa cannot
effect the composition of sulphate of lime, and although the
former salt may possibly be formed in all the cases of mix-
ture enumerated^ it does not seem to form any permanent
combination with the gypsum, since the latter, in two experi-
ments, was found to lose one-twelfth of its weight by the mixture
of the substances, and subsequent washing with warm-water.
The only uniformity observable in all the saline solutions ca-
pable of producing solidification, is the necessity of the presence
of potassa, and the rapidity with which the operation takes
place, seems greatly opposed to the supposition that the result
depends upon double decomposition. If we take the pulverised
gypsum, and saturate it by the solution of carbonate of potassa,
all subsequent chemical action, from the same substances,
should be prevented, and yet when the solidified mass thus
formed, is worked up again with a fresh portion of the same
saline solution, it sets with equal facility. This property ap-
pears but little diminished by three or four repetitions. As
plain water does not answer until after the evaporation of the
fluid, it seems more probable that the saline solutions exert a
kind of repulsion towards the particles of gypsum, and thus
tend to promote that solidification which is so very characteristic
of it in the burnt state.

The experiment which first exhibited the solidifying property
of raw gypsum, was well calculated to give the impression that
chemical decomposition was necessary for the result. I wished
to determine how far fresh precipitated carbonate of lime was
capable of improving gypsum, (intending subsequently to burn
the mixture). With this view, pulverised raw gypsum was

Mr Emmet on the Solidifivatioii of Raw Gypsum. 73

placed on a filter, and a cold solution of carbonate of potassa
poured over it. The result was the rapid solidification of the
crude mineral, and an evident diminution of the alkali.
Upon repeatedly returning the same solution through the filter,
turmeric paper ceased to indicate the presence of potassa, and
re-agents showed that sulphate of potassa had taken its place.
In this manner, a saturated solution of the latter salt may be
soon obtained, yet, as has been already stated, a further exami-
nation proves, that the sulphate of potassa is not capable of con-
tracting a permanent union with the gypsum.

Further inquiry will, no doubt, lead to the detection of salts
better adapted to the development of this property than those
here noticed, but the cheapness of carbonate of potassa seems
more likely to recommend its use for practical purposes, pro-
vided it shall be found that the sohdification of raw or effete
plaster, by the process here indicated, equals, in durability,
that which has been recently burnt. Gypsum, it is well known,
requires judicious treatment, in order to fit it for taking casts,
and unless carefully defended from moisture, will soon lose its
valuable property. The process of burning may, moreover, not
always be convenient, and, in this case, a solution of carbonate
of potassa, or, for common purposes, the ley from wood ashes,
will always enable the operator to effect rapid solidification, and
as far as I have observed, it is perfect. — Amer. Journ. of
Science ^ Arts, vol. yxiii. No 2. p. 210,

ON THE PHYSIOGNOMY OF SCANDINAVIA*. By ProfcSSOT

Hausmann.

The united impression which the mountains and valleys, the
woods and meadows, the river and lakes, and all other parts
of a country, make upon our feelings, may be called its charac-
ter or physiognomy. We feel a greater attraction for one coun-
try, and a less attraction for another, just as regards the physio-
gnomy of men; and are equally unable to account for these
sensations. As in the aspect of countenances, it is not the regu-
larity and harmony among the several features which invariably
• Translated from the German original by George F. Hay, Esq.

74 Prof. Hausmann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia.

make them pleasing ; so a district in which there is a mountain,
a rock, a soHtary group of trees, or a waterfall in a prominent
situation, often interests more than another in which the out-
line of mountain and wood is marked out by gently undulating
lines. Inasmuch as the striking attachment of the inhabitants
of mountains to their native homes, has assuredly various
sources ; so we can ascribe this, partly at least, to the form of
the countries which surround them. But we can proceed still
farther ; we can even concede to the different shapes of coun-
tries no inconsiderable influence over the character and tempera-
ment of the inhabitants of entire regions and provinces. Must
not the dweller amidst the heaths of Luneburg, who is obliged
to plough up sand all day-long, and seldom sees any thing more
than the heath plant and the sky, must he not have an usually
sluggish gait, and heavy closing of his eye-lids ? From the
sameness of the external nature around him, can we suppose him
to possess a rich store of ideas, and a lively interest in what is
taking place around him ? On the contrary, compare with him
the native of the Hartz, who, now in deep valleys, and soon
again on highly elevated lands, from which are stretched out
before his view the low country ; who, in the mines, surround-
ed with darkness and constant danger, raises to the surface the
treasures which the earth conceals in its bosom ; who is necessi-
tated, by the form of the ground, to carry manure for his fields
up the ridges of the steepest mountains, and then to carry
back the produce of the sweat of his brow into the valley. We
find that this person possesses a lively temperament, and a
higher feeling of self-gratification ; and that he partakes of
these qualities with the inhabitants of mountains in general.
Lastly, it might be shewn, that, in the above respects, the inha-
bitant of the hilly country occupies a place intermediate between
that of the mountaineer, and the peasant of the heath land. May
the above few remarks suffice to shew, that reflections upon the
various forms of the earth's surface cannot fail to possess a va-
ried and general interest.

The circumstances by which the physiognomy of a country
is distinguished from that of other countries, constitute the
character of the same. And as certain resemblances can be tra-
ced among the countenances of the individuals of a nation ; so

Ptof. Hausmann on the Physiogjiomy of Scandinavia. 75

we derive the general character of the physiognomy of a coun-
try, out of the agreement among the features of its individual
districts.

As the impression which the countenances of men make upon
our feelings can frequently be modified, in no inconsiderable
degree, by means of art, such as the arrangement of the hair,
an ornamental head-dress, and many other circumstances ; so
undoubtedly works of art have a great influence on the impres-
sion which a country naturally makes upon us. Houses,
bridges, fields, gardens and the like, are instances. Perhaps
we would not know a land again, were these additions to it
removed. By cutting down forests, or draining marshes, art de-
stroys to a greater or less extent the impressions which nature
has stamped upon individual regions, or entire countries. But
Nature will never entirely lay aside the chissel, with which she
shaped out the crust of the globe. When thousands of years
have, Jby their lapse, occasioned a remarkable change in the con-
struction of any feature of a land, we are not aware of the con-
tinual operation of the hand of Nature. Beds of shells situated
high above the present level of the sea ; eruptions and streams
of lava from volcanoes ; layers of soil upon solid rocks bearing
luxuriant vegetation ; debris at the foot of mountains ; mounds
of debris formed and carried along by the descent of the gla-
ciers : the constant reforming of the surface of the earth by
means of water ; these are all eloquent proofs of the same acti-
vity of Nature. She guides her chissel slowly, but with firm-
ness and constancy ; and she seldom effaces, by means of any
sudden or violent commotion, any feature which she has been
at pains to express.

When a person travels from the southern mountainous part of
lower Saxony towards the north, the hills of the northern bound-
ary of the Hartz, which are characterized by gently waving
fines, first sink out of view: Next, those mountains of the
Hartz, which suri-ound the foot of the venerable Brocken,
and which are marked out by a more angular outline, disap-
pear : At last the Brocken conceals his bald head beneath
the horizon. And wherever the traveller turns his eye, he sees
a boundless plain covered with sand, moor, and heath, upon
which he. sees at one place a miserable juniper bush, at another

76 Prof. Hausniann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia,

place a crooked fir tree, creeping into view. It is but seldom that
the wearied gaze is enlivened by a friendly thicket of birch, still
seldomer by a clear brook, accompanied with green meadows, or
a village concealed by overshadowing oak trees. In the neigh-
bourhood of the Elbe, the sandy heaths become more hilly ; and
this increases the farther we advance into Holstein and Schles-
wig. The sand now becomes more mixed with clay, and con-
sequently more favourable for the growth of corn and large
leaved timber, particularly the beech. The hills which, ar-
ranged in waving lines, wind through the country, here and
there enclose lakes ; these, surrounded by beautiful beech-woods,
form the great charm of the districts of Plon and Eutin.
In Jutland, particularly in its western and northern parts, sand
and heath again obtain the superiority. On Fyen, Seeland, and
the smaller Danish islands, vegetation succeeds wonderfully, and
delights the eye, during the greater part of summer, with a fresh
bright green, which may be ascribed to the greater humidity of
the atmosphere and of the soil. The most beautiful beech-
woods, together with fruitful fields and luxuriant meadows, vary
the scene in this part of Denmark. Small lakes, likewise, as
well as prospects of the sea, which burst on the sight, com-
municate variety and life to the landscape.

The southern part of Shonen, in its relation to the neighbour-
ing countries, shows a great resemblance to Zealand, and with
which it was probably at one time united. But when we
reach the 56th degree of north latitude, behind an elevated land
still covered with large-leaved timber, and which traverses
Schonen from south-east towards north-west, the country then
acquires an entirely new appearance, and assumes the character
which it retains more or less throughout the whole of Sweden.
We see solid rocks, clothed partly with innumerable lichens,
and partly covered by a shght layer of earth, which permits the
growth only of pine timber with horizontal roots, or of birch
trees, which are in abundance. These rocks form either plains,
hilly country, or high mountain ranges. The valleys situated
between the rocky hills, are watered by numberless smaller
and larger lakes, which are generally united with each other
and with the sea, by means of rivers. The lakes are to be con-
^ered as expansions of the rivers ; and some of them, as the

Prof. Hausmann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia, TT

lakes of Wener and Wetter, are fifty or more miles in length.
They are hence, almost without exception, longer than they
are broad. The principal direction of the inclined strata of
the fundamental mountain-rock, which is here crystalline, in ge-
neral corresponds to the length of the lakes ; and the length of
the lakes has a similar direction with the course of the rivers,
of which the lakes are but a widening. Likewise the breadth
of the lakes, as well as their frequency, increases in proportion
to their distance from the principal mountain chains. Hence
southern Sweden, as far as the 60th degree of latitude, is sin-
gularly full of lakes.

The solid rock, which so often bursts through the layer
of vegetable soil, gives a character to the Swedish hilly plains
very different from ours. The above characters prevail in
the greater part of east and west Gothland, a part of Nerike,
Westmanland, Sudermanland and Bleking. In the whole of
the middle and southern part of Europe, solid bare rock
and plain rarely occur together. But in the Swedish plains,
on the contrary, we very often see a naked cliff arising
amidst corn fields and meadows, a rock, too, which will not
give sustenance to a blade of grass. While we see our plains
intersected by streams, which run quietly on their course;
we will be, on the contrary, frequently surprised by the noise
of a foaming river, enclosed in a deep rocky bed, and mak-
ing its way over fragments of rocks, in the^ countries above
alluded to. In imagining to myself the celebrated cataract of
Trollhatta in Westgothland, there was immediately associated
with it in my mind the idea of a considerable mountain range.
How much was I surprised, when an extensive plain, covered
with corn fields, which bordered the seemingly boundless mirror
of the Wener lake, brought me opposite to the thrice renewed
fall of the broad Gotha Elbe, which, at a great distance, pro-
claimed its presence by its thundering noise. The above plain
has some isolated hills which are more distinguished by their
flattened form above, than by their height. Such contrasts,
unfruitful rocks amidst rich corn fields ; a raging, never rest-
ing waterfall, which swallows up what is within its reach, and
gradually wastes away the firmest rocks;— such contrasts make

78 Prof. Hausmann 07i the Physiognomy of Scandinavia.

the Swedish plains not only more beautiful than ours, but un-
questionably much more interesting.

The mountainous country in Sweden, likewise, is remarkably
distinguished from that in Northern Germany. In the former
we do not see the beeches and oaks which so adorn our Elm *,
our Deister •[•, and our Soiling J ; there we find no river, which,
like our Weser, gives animation to a long, gently curved val-
ley. The greatest part of the mountainous land in Sweden —
and by far the greater part of Sweden is mountainous — is inter-
sected by mountain chains in the most various directions, which
at one time extend their branches around greater or less caul-
dron-shaped valleys, at another time they enclose narrow ravines.
The bottom of the above broad valleys generally contains the
reflecting surface of a lake ; while, on the contrary, the ravines
are watered by forest streams which tumble tumultuously over
the rocky masses. Rugged walls of rock rise from their banks ;
while the more gentle acchvities of the mountains which en-
close the broader valleys, are covered with dense pine forests,
which pass over the mountain ridges, and extend into other
valleys. Sometimes this gloomy forest is supplanted by more
agreeable birch wood, or it retires and encloses a group of
fields and meadows, which surround the neat cottage of a pea-
sant. More rarely a small village, with its picturesque church
spire, varies the scene.

The remarkable height and beauty of the (Pinus Abies)
spruce fir, and of the (Pinus sylvestris) Scots fir, in most parts
of Sweden, leads us very soon to the conviction, — that nature
has appointed these two species of evergreen trees to flourish in
the north as their peculiar country. Whether it is, that the
care of the forests is there committed entirely to nature, their ex-
tent is in general far more remarkable than in our regions, where
they are so much taken care of by art. The darker, but more
pure green of the spruce fir, is varied in the forests by the lighter
and more bluish green o'f the Scots fir. This latter tree, which
in the sand plains of Northern Germany is generally found on-

• Elm, a mountain ridge in the neighbourhood of Brunswick.

f Deister, a mountain ridge in the neighbourhood of Hanover.

X Soiling, a mountainous district between the Weser and the Leine.

Prof. Hausmann on the Pht/siognomt/ of Scandinavia. 79

\y in a crooked form, in the above countries surpasses the spruce
fir by its height, straightness of its growth, as vvell as the firm-
ness of the timber. It is hence the tree most highly prized in
Sweden and Norway, and in the latter country is the most
powerful support of its prosperity. '/

The meadows which are enclosed by the Swedish forests rival
these latter in beauty. Although the meadows want the variety
of flowers, and the height of the grass by which those of
southern regions are distinguished, we find in them, on the con-
trary, the plants closer together. Among these the Arnica mon-
tana and Linnea borealis particularly delight the eye. The
green, likewise, of the grass is brighter and fresher, and of more
lasting duration.

The want of underwood and copse, which circumstance in
Sweden is so new to the eye accustomed to German scenery, is
as striking as the enclosures of fields, meadows, and kinds of
barn-yards here in use. In no part of Sweden do we see live
hedges, but only fences invariably formed of the stems of young
pines placed together, and horizontal rows of wood to keep them
firm. Where they know how to make a better use of their
timber, these fences are supplanted by stone walls.

Although nearly all Sweden is, in a peculiar sense, a great
rocky mass, still, even in the towns, with the exception of Stock-
holm and Gottenburg, it is but seldom that we find houses
built of stone. The greater warmth of the wooden houses,
scarcity of clay for bricks, and of good mortar, are the prin-
cipal causes of this. Most of the Swedish houses, as well
the cottages of poor peasants as the dwellings of the rich, are
constructed of the trunks of trees, laid lengthwise over one an-
other, and dove-tailed together at their extremities. The inter-
stices are stopped up with moss ; the roofing is various, but is
generally of wood, and covered over with earth. It is not only
by the above style of architecture, which at most permits only
one method of construction, but likewise from the brownish-red
colour * which they almost universally give them, that the houses
have quite a singular appearance ; and this is not without its

• This colouring matter, which conduces very much to preserve the wood,
is prepared from the washed residue of roasted alum-slate, which contains
much iron-pyrites scattered through it ; or it is prepared by bummg weather-
ed pyrites.

80 Prof. Hausmann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia.

influence upon the peculiar character of the Swedish landscapes.
The uniformity which these acquire from the widely spread pine
forests, is varied by the numerous lakes which these enclose.
But sincere and happy tranquillity reigns in those valleys, in
which the deep blue lakes are surrounded by dark green woods,
out of which there occasionally rises a pillar of smoke from
some solitary cottage : And amidst the hollow forest murmurs,
we hear the harmonious tinkling of the distant bells of the cattle
grazing upon the mountain meadows.

Journeying in the swift rolling karra, * along the excellently
formed roads which lead down the declivities of the moun-
tains, and then along the winding margin of a lake, the tra-
veller finds himself transported into a quite different scene.
The lake, which before had a considerable breadth, gradually
contracts itself. The lately gentle declivities become more
steep. Out of thick woods we see rocky masses burst into
view ; always increasing in height, and overhanging the way,
which they confine more and more. At last the lake withdraws
itself entirely from view ; and a narrow rocky valley, in which a
forest stream foams along, guides the traveller on his course.
Now, at intervals, the hollow sound of a large hammer, moved
by water-power for working iron, reaches his ear. Soon after
this the fire of a forge shines through the dark fir boughs ;
and, amidst the rushing sound of the water, which moves the
wheel, is heard the thundering blow of the hammer, which
works the iron. In this workshop of Tubalcain, all is life, ac-
tivity, and restlessness ; the impression of which contrasts pow-
erfully with that produced by the scene which had shortly
preceded it.

Sweden so abounds in similar contrasts, that a journey
through this country must necessarily be very interesting.
Although nature there in individual scenes may^ appear uni-
form, and but seldom with lovely features ; still, on the con-
trary, her general exterior is in the highest degree impressive
and noble, -f* The beauty and sublimity of nature are found

• A ligbt, two wheeled carriage, in which it is usual to travel In Sweden.

f If the nature of the Equatorial Regions is distinguished by grandeur and
variety of formation, the nature of the Polar liegions, on the contrary, unites
greatness and simplicity. This uniformity does not appear, in an equal de-

Prof. Hausmann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia. 81

more in union in the regions of Southern Norway. If the
greater part of Sweden is represented as a hilly country ; so
again, nearly all Norway may be termed a high mountain-chain.
The arms of this mountain land enclose valleys, which are long,
and sometimes broad. Considerable rivers, sometimes expand-
ed into lakes, water the deeper parts. Rich corn-fields and lux-
uriant meadows, occasionally varied with the houses and offices
of substantial farmers, and the country-seats of rich merchants
—extend themselves as far as the gentle acclivities of the chain
of mountains. Where these acclivities become steeper, the
bright green tapestry of the meadows is supplanted by the blu-
ish-green leaves of the Scotch fir ; this, with its golden-coloured
stem, raises its proud head among the inaccessible cliffs, which,
destitute of all vegetation, conceal their pointed summits among
snow and clouds. The bays of the sea — which run far into
the land, and unite the rivers with the ocean — are crowded with
masts ; and upon their shores are situated smiling towns, the
abodes of wealth. The nearer the rivers are to the mountain-
chain, to which they owe their origin, so much the more have
they to struggle with the rocks through which they must force

gree, in the whole series of natural objects, but appears to diminish with
their perfection. The north, in comparison with the regions near the equa-
tor, is astonishingly poor in quadrupeds. It is richer in birds as to their spe-
cies ; but it is proportionally richest in insects ; although the Insect Fauna of
the north, as to the number of species, is far inferior to that of our countries.
In like manner, the north is poor in phsenogamic plants ; but very rich in the
cryptogamic species; and, among these, plants of the nature of lichens are dis-
tinguished for variety of species, although they are among the lowest in the
scale of organized bodies. Likewise, in inanimate nature we observe a simi*
lar relation. The north is, in general, poor in crystallizations ; but, on the
contrary, is rich in various uncrystallized mineral substances. But the sim-
plicity of the nature of the north is expressed likewise in the forms, colours,
and delineation of objects, which, as regards their variety and beauty of
structure, are far behind those of the regions of the south.

The nature of the north shews its greatness, particularly in the multitude
of individuals, which is far more considerable than what it is in our re-
gions. Legions of rats and mice people Norway and Sweden. In Lapland
the swarms of gnats are so great, that he who travels in that country during
summer, must filter the air through a veil. Thick pine-forests cover the
greater part of the habitable north. Rein-deer moss overspreads the largest
flat districts of Lapland ; and lichens are in such abundance, that Norway
and Sweden send whole shiploads of some of the species to England, where
they are used in dyeing.

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. F

82 Prof. Hausmann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia.

their way. Where they are unable to overpower these, becom-
ing impatient of their barriers, they throw themselves head-
*long, with a frightful crash, from a high precipice, and often
still maintain their entire breadth. Upon the rocks which
border, these powerful waterfalls, a host of saw-mills are boldly
placed, in order that their wheels may be driven more swiftly
round, by the increased force which the water gains by its
descent.

During the more severa season of the year, the regions of the
north are clothed in a very different, but not for that reason
less beautiful, vesture. Unmeasurable fields of ice, covered
with crystals, are in the room of the lakes. Their margins are
then contrasted by the dark-green colour of the never-fading
pine trees. The snowy pinnacles of tjie higher mountain range
glancing in $jje sun ; and the aqua-marine tint of the icicles
which fringe the glittering rocky masses, — and produce views
of indescribable beauty, which are greatly enhanced by the al-
most constant serenity of the dark-blue sky. But the magnifi-
cent splendour of the north, when arrayed in its winter garb,
appears to most advantage when, during the star-light night,
the bright, or bluish, or fire-red r^ys of the aurora borealis, arise
above the northern horizon, and shoot forth with the swiftness
of an arrow towards the zenith. Then their incessantly vary-
ing brightness is reflected once more to the eye of the observer,
by the bright phosphorescent fields of snow.

Hitherto this brief representation of the characteristics of the
north of Europe, has entirely overlooked the regions which could
leave only unpleasant impressions, and neither is Scandinavia en-
tirely without such regions, any morelhan other large countries.
There are in Norway, as well as in Svyeden, very extensive tracts,
nay entire provinces, which are marked with the stamp of the
greatest wildness and unfruitfulness, in the midst of which a per-
son may almost forget the agreeable impressions produced by
the scenes before described. To the above regions belong the
ridges "and declivities of the principal mountain-chain of Scan-
dinavia ; this extends^n its principal direction from south-south-
west towards the north-north-east, and for about two-thirds of
its extent forms the boundary between Sweden and Norway.
The higher parts of this mountain-range — which, in Southern

Prof. Hausraann on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia, 83

Norway, according to Naumann, attain a height of about 8000
feet above the level of the sea— are covered with perpetual
snow. On the western side, where the mountain-range be-
comes remarkably precipitous towards the sea, the snow extends
downwards along the deep fiords which cut into the mountain-
chain, the snow here and there terminating in glaciers. The
lower parts of the range are no doubt, in mid-summer, free
from snow. But their rocky foundations, deprived of earth,
and their high situations, prevent the growth of the flowers
of phaenogamous plants *. It is only the numerous family
of the lichens and mosses which are here in their place,
among which the reindeer-moss (Lichen rangiferinuSy Linn.)
is particularly distinguished : this often clothes boundless
plains, with a white elastic carpet. In somewhat lower re-
gions, and particularly in marshy places, are found chiefly some
dwarf-willows, also dwarf-birches (Betiila nana)^ and we likewise
see rugged dwarf juniper bushes. At a somewhat greater dis-
tance below the mountain heights, particularly in valleys which
are somewhat sheltered, there grow white-stemmed birches, but
of a humble, nearly shrub-like, growth. It is then that the
Scots-fir first begins; and somewhat later, we find the spruce-fir
appearing in crooked shapes. These appear in solitary trees,
with distorted branches, which are often entirely deprived of
leaves, and having suspended from them long pendulous para-
sitical lichens, and afford a sorry shelter to the rein-deer and
elks upon the unmeasurable mountain plains, which, under the
name of Kolen, form the boundaries of Dalekarlia and Norway.
A person may travel for some days over these plains, withoUit
lindipg ^jingle human habitation •(-.

• Among all the phaenogamic plants of Norway, according to Wahlenberg,
Diapensia iapponica flourishes the nearest to the limits of the snow.

•j- There is an error in most of the geographical works, even the latest of
them with which I am acquainted, viz. that the K51en mountains form the
boundary between Sweden and Norway. No doubt, beginning from JSnitland,
there is a mountain-chain which constitutes the boundary between Sweden
and Norway, but which has no general name to denote it. And under the
name of Kblen, as already mentioned, are implied large mountain plains,
which are here and there marshy, or covered with forests. They are such as
are termed platforms, plateaus, or table-lands, and extend along the limits be-
tween Dalekarlia and Norway. But after a person has passed these limits,
he begins to ascend the greater heights of the mountain-range.

F 2

84 Prof. Hausmann 07i the Physiognomy of Scandinavia.

Some low-lying parts of Sweden are not much better than the
above desert tracts, viz. certain districts in Smaland. This pro-
vince, which is of pretty considerable extent, consists partly of
hills formed of boulder stones ; these no doubt have been borne
along and heaped up there by means of floods, and perhaps with
the aid of ice. They oppose vegetation in a great degree. Scots-
firs, spruce-firs, and birches, of inconsiderable growth, press
themselves forward, here and there, between the masses of rock.
But not a blade of grass can thrive on account of the want of
soil. When the industrious peasant of Smaland wishes to cul-
tivate for himself a field, this often can only be done by means
of the sacrifice which he makes of his timber. He cuts down
the woods, and burns the branches, or even the trunks likewise,
that he may afterwards sow among the ashes. This produces
for him, twice in succession, a tolerably rich harvest, after which
he resigns the desert spot to kind nature again, which gradually
sows it with birches *.

If both Sweden and Norway, especially in their high northern
latitudes, possess wide tracts, in which Nature loses all her
charms, still, however, this want is much counterbalanced by
the great attractions of the remaining parts of those countries.
It can be justly asserted that northern Europe, no less than the
southern parts of the same, affords us much occasion to admire
the varied beauties with which the Creator has clothed our earth.
The vesture of the north is in general indeed simple ; but it is
from this very circumstance that its peculiar physiognomy is
given to it, the most prominent features of which are severity
and^dignity.

• This practice, so wasteful of timber, and which can be employed only in
a land which is so blessed with forests, is found in other parts, especially in
the more northern regions of Sweden, as well as here and there in Norway.
A field which is thus cultivated — over which the corn does not grow equally,
but rather in heaps, where the ashes have been collected between blocks of
stone — is called in Sweden Svedjelandy and the operation by means of which
this waste land is cultivated, is called Svedjande.

( 85 )

LIFE OF LiNNJEus By A. L, A. Fee *

Much has been written concerning Linnaeus, and the eminent
station which he has occupied, the prodigious influence which he
exercised over natural history, easily account for it : but of the
many biographical accounts of this remarkable man, which are
to be found in the French language, some were either so barren
of details as to prevent us being thoroughly acquainted with his
history, or were published too recently after his death to enable
his influence to be impartially appreciated. Men in fact are
like edifices : viewed near one cannot j udge correctly except of
the details, and even of those chiefly, if the structure be not
very lofty ; but as to temples and towering obelisks, a correct
notion may be formed by surveying them at a distance ; — it is
the same with men who stand pre-eminent in their own age and
impel it in a new direction. We cannot form a correct opinion
of them till the fruits of their works have been reaped and pre-
judices have been overthrown. M. Fee has rendered a great
service to the history of science by carefully collecting and ar-
ranging what is authentic, either in works that were published
in Sweden and Germany, or in manuscripts that he procured,
respecting the life of the reformer of natural history.

His work consists, \st^ of a translation of the life of Lin-
Dseus, written by himself, and published by his disciple Afzelius;t
2rf, of extracts from his correspondence with the naturalists of
his time ; 3c?, of a collection of anecdotes relating to him and his
writings ; ^th, of a bibliographical note of his works.

Linnaeus himself has related his life on many occasions, and
the account which forms the first part of the work of M. Fee
is the most complete of these various autobiographies. The
peculiar style of Linnaeus is recognised even in the translation ;
it is a hasty yet concise recital pregnant with facts, and in which
the flashes of a poetical imagination occasionally break forth.

• Vie de Linn6, par A. L. A. Fee, 1 vol. 8vo. 1832.

-f- This interesting autobiography of Linnaeus has been translated from
the original Swedish into German, under the title " Linnes Eigenhandige
Anzeichnungen Uber sich selbst, mit Anmerkungen und Zusiitzen Von Af.
zelius." Berlin, 1 820.

86 M. Fee's Life ofLinnam.

Charles Linnaeus was born at Stenbrohult on the 1st of May
1707. His father was a country clergyman of a mild disposi-
tion and an equal temper. His mother, he said, had a great
deal of wit, a sound judgment, and a very lively manner ; he is
an instance which tends to strengthen those who maintain the
opinion that all distinguished men have had witty mothers, and
who concluded from thence that the influence of early years on
the intellectual development of children is considerable. Young
Charles, however, having contracted a taste for botany, from look-
ing at the flowers in his father's little garden, his mother, not-
withstanding her intelligence, conceived such a dislike to the di-
rection which his studies took, that she absolutely prohibited his
brother Samuel from going among the flowers. The success of
Charles in his college studies did not correspond with the ex-
pectations which his intelligence had predicated. Throughout
his life he was by no means ready in the acquisition of languages,
which were too exclusively made the test of success in the col-
leges, and he went to the University of Lund with the reputa-
tion of a very indifferent scholar. There he resolved to study
medicine, and his poverty exposed him to great difficulties:
Stobaeus the naturalist received him into his house, which ena-
bled him to see his little museum and strengthen his taste for
natural history. He afterwards went to Upsal, where Olaus
Celsus, having discovered his talents and his indigence, took
him to live with him, that he might assist him in his work on
•biblical botany, and gave him access to a valuable library. By
teaching a few students he procured a little money, and aspired
to the place of Rosen, at that time professor extraordinary. As
a guide in his study of plants he took Tournefort, whom he
knew, especially by the abridgment published by Johrenius,
under the title of Hodegus Botanicus, and shortly afterwards
the treatise of Vaillant on the sexes of the plants opened his
eyes to a new view. Rudbeck encouraged him to follow it, and
it was at this period, when he was t\yenty-two years of age, that
he commenced writing the Bihliotheca Botanica, the Classes
Plantarum^ and even the Genera Plantarum.

Incited by the advice of Rudbeck, he at that time undertook
a journey to Lapland, a painful one, either owing to the climate
and the rugged nature of the country, or because the scantiness

M. Fee's Life (yf Linnaus. 87

of his means obliged him to travel alone, destitute of all the con-
veniences of life. He transmitted an account of his journey to
the Royal Society of Science at Upsal, and with difficulty pro-
cured a trifling sum from that body ; he was more successful in
giving private lectures on mineralogy and botany ; and when
desirous of visiting Dalecarlia in 1734, he was accompanied by
many pupils. One of them, Browall, afterwards bishop of Abo,
advised him to endeavour to marry a lady whose wealth m'ight
render him independent : he paid his addresses to the daugh-
ter of Dr Moraeus, who was considered rich, and, to his great
astonishment, as he himself said, it was arranged that their mar-
riage should take place in three years, and that he should spend
the interval in traveUing.

He then proceeded to Holland, where he received the degree
of M. D., and became connected with the most distinguished na-
turalistsof the age, — Gronovius, Van-Royen, Burman, and Boer-
haave : he astonished them by his information, and the ease with
which he named the plants which were laid before him. Clif-
fort, who had the finest garden in Holland, induced him to live
with him in order to procure his assistance in its management,
and it was in that magnificent establishment that his ideas re-
garding vegetation were enlarged. He there published many
important works, Hortus CliffbrtianuSf &c. Assisted by the
generosity of his protector, he went to England, where he be-
came acquainted with Dillenius. On his return to Holland,
at the close of 1736, his reputation was already so great, that
the Academie des Curieux de la Nature, on receiving him into
their body, conferred on him the title of Dioscorides the Second.
His method was already adopted by the botanists of Holland
and publicly taught at Leyden. He afterwards travelled to
Paris, and formed an acquaintance with the brothers Antony
and Bernard Jussieu, where it appears that some attempts were
made to induce him to settle ; but he preferred returning to
Sweden> and the great difficulty which he experienced in speak-
ing foreign languages seems to have affected this resolution in
no inconsiderable degree.

On his return home he was treated as a stranger, and the per-
son who was already considered by one part of Europe as the
Prince of Botanists, could not at first either find a chair in the

88 M. Fee's Life of L%nna.us.

university, or practice as a physician. He at last obtained, al-
most accidentally, a petty place in the school of Mines, and af-
terwards was appointed physician to the admiralty : his practice
became so great, that it yielded him 9000 crowns per annum.
He married ; was appointed joint professor with Walerius, and,
placed from that moment in a sphere which was worthy of him,
prosecuted the study of natural history with renewed zeal. His
Systema NaturcB, of which there were so many editions, at-
tracted the attention of Europe. The academies wrangled about
his name ; his pupils traversed the world, and sent him their
collections. The favours of his sovereign succeeded; he was en-
nobled, though it is said that this was owing to his discovery of
the generation of pearls in the My a margaritifera ;* he received
a pension and estates for himself and his posterity, and he who,
in his youth, had been obliged, through poverty, to patch his
shoes, found himself in his old age, in consequence of the eclat
arising from his distinguished works, in a state of great comfort
and high distinction in society.

The concluding years of his age were spent in publishing new
editions of his works, and many frequent dissertations, in the
form of theses, collected under the title of AmcBnitates ; in gi-
ving private lessons (often for eight hours a-day) to select pu-
pils ; in watching over the interests of the academy and public
collections; and in arranging his own herbal. In 1773 he was
attacked by a severe angina; in 1774 he was struck, while
teaching in the Botanical Garden, with paralysis, which termi-
nated in a tertian ague. He ceased writing his own life in 1776 ;
his intellectual faculties fell into a state of decay — the more dis-
tressing as he was aware of it. His writing became illegible ;
he sometimes blended Greek and Latin characters in the same
word. At last, he forgot his own name. In this state, the
only thing which seemed to revive him was the sight of his col-
lections in his country-house at Hammarby. He died on the
10th of January 1778, aged seventy years and seven months.

• It was at this period that he received the name of Von Linne, instead
of LinncBus, which he had always borne, not with the view of latinizing it, as
has been said, but in consequence of its being the correct famUy name. That
of Linnte^ which has often been given to him in French, is erroneous, and
merely belongs to the plant which has been dedicated to him.

M. Fee's Life of' Lihnaus. 89

The second part of M, Fee's work contains extracts from the
correspondence of Linnaeus with the naturalists of his own time.
It was unusually voluminous ; and Linnaeus himself told the
Abbe Duvernoy, that ten persons could not have answered all
the letters which were addressed to him. More than a thou-
sand of his letters, to one hundred and sixty correspondents, are
preserved, almost entirely written in Latin ; the oldest in date is
addressed to Rudbeck, his benefactor, 29th July 1731, and the
last is to Masson, an English collector of plants, in 1776. They,
of course, comprehend a period of forty-five years. It should
be observed, that, notwithstanding the intellectual decay of his
latter years, the literary life of Linnaeus was longer than that of
any other individual. His first work, Hortus Uplandicus,* bears
date 1731, and the last, Planta Aphyteia^ 1776, embraces a pe-
riod of forty-five years, during which the publications of this
indefatigable author rapidly succeeded each other. Of these
M. Fee has given a very accurate chronological list. Shortly
after the same epoch, Mr Wickstrom, a learned Swedish bota-
nist, published in his Conspectus Litteraturce BotaniccB in Sue-
cia (one volume 8vo, Holunae 1831), a list and review of the
botanical manuscripts of Linnaeus.

The portion of M. Fee's work relating to the correspondence
of Linnaeus being only of itself an extract, it is unnecessary to
notice it; but we must pay more attention to the third part,
which contains some curious anecdotes of this eminent person.

His connexion with Artedi exhibits him in the most amiable
point of view. On arriving at Upsal in 1728, Linnasus made
inquiries respecting the student who exhibited the greatest ta-
lents,— Artedi was his name ; with whom he soon contracted a
very intimate friendship : they laboured together in the differ-
ent branches of natural history, and, after a trial of some months,
each yielded to the other the departments in which he was supe-
rior; Linnaeus to Artedi in Chemistry and Ichthyology, and Ar-
tedi to Linnaeus in plants, birds, and insects ; both the friends
continued to study together on mineralogy and quadrupeds, in
which departments their talents seemed to be equally powerful.

• This work is very rare, and is not mentioned either in the Ccdaiogxte of
Holier^ nor in the later, and very accurate, Tableau of Wikstrtfm. It is men-
tioned here on the authority of M. Fee.

90 M. Fee's Life of Linnaus.

This intimacy was interrupted by their travels; they met in
Holland in 1735. Linnaeus presented Artedi to Seba, to assist
him in the publication of his hirge work, and their meeting re-
estabhshed the practice of their early days, in trusting and con-
sulting each other in their labours. Unfortunately Artedi fell
into a canal in Amsterdam, and was drowned. Linnaeus in-
duced Mr ClifFort to purchase his manuscripts, and published,
under the name of his friend, the remarkable works which he
had left on the classification of fishes.

The connexion between Linnaeus and'Dillenius commenced
hi a manner which was by no means friendly. This botanist,
who, at the appearance of Linnaeus, was doubtless the most able
of his age, was distinguished for great minuteness of details, but
never seemed to have occupied himself seriously with classifica-
tion on a great scale, and, accordingly, ill appreciated that which
was truly eminent in the innovations of Linnaeus ; but, on the
other hand, was particularly alive to the embarrassment which
a new nomenclature introduced into the science. " This is the
person zvho will embroil the whole of botany^'' said Diilenius to
his friend Sherard, on seeing the debut of Linnaeus. In many
respects, however, his prejudices gave way. Linnaeus, during
the time he lived in England, and in the course of his corres-
pondence, astonished him with his knowledge, and by his ur-
banity increased their intimacy

Another rival of Linnaeus, who would have been the most
dangerous of them all had he closely followed in the same pur-
suit, was Haller. This astonishing man, at once poet, physi-
cian, anatomist, physiologist and bibliopolist, had very peculiar
ideas respecting the natural system, and would have made im-
mense improvements had botany been the sole object of his re-
$earches. He applied his attention to a very limited subject, the
Flora of Switzerland, and he aff'ected the popularity of his work
by not adopting the nomenclature of Linnaeus in his classifica-
tion, and rejecting the first part, which was excellent, on ac-
count of his, antipathy to the second.

These celebrated men were on an intimate and confidential
footing for a long time, and proved, that notwithstanding the
diversity of -their opinions, tliey mutually did jtistice to esach
other. A slight misunderstanding. occurred occasionally, owing

M. Fee's Life ofLmnaus, 91

to some mutual criticisms : but a kind of quarrel unexpectedly
happened between them, in some respects well founded, as Hal-
ler was so indiscreet as to publish a few old letters of Linnaeus,
containing some private details of his life, and especially of his
marriage.

It must be said, in justice to Linnaeus, that during his life he
completely abstained from answering the critiques, often very
caustic, on himself and his writings, either because he despised
them, or conceived that he had a more extensive and brilliant
object in view; he allowed Siegesbeck, Browall, &c. to pour
out the vial of their wrath upon him, and enjoyed in peace the
admiration of the age in which he lived. The only petite malice
which has been noticed is against Browall, who in his youth
was, as to poverty, on a level with himself: he dedicated to him
a genus which only contained one species, BrowalUa demissa.
Having succeeded to the Bishoprick of Abs, Browall behaved
with great hauteur, and Linnaeus named a second species which
he had found, BrowaUia exaltata. The bishop, becoming ex-
asperated, wrote some severe pamphlets against Linnaeus; he
presented him with a third species, not very closely connected
with the genus, and called it BrowalUa alienata,

M. Fee has been at some trouble to vindicate Linnaeus from
a paltry act of which he has been accused towards Buffon.
The genus which bears the name of that distinguished natura-
list, is written in Linnaeus with a single Jy Bu/bnia, which was
done, it is said, with the intention of calling it the plante des
crapauds. Ventenat, desirous of exculpating Linnaeus, sayf5
that he gave it this name because the plant grows in moist
places, though, on the contrary, it exists on the most barren
rocks. The fact is, that it was not Linnaeus who made this
fatal orthographical error. The genus had received this name
from Sauvages, in his System of Leaves, and with a dedication
so highly honourable to Buffon, that it is obvious it was purely
a mistake. Linnaeus admitted it without further examination,
and was indignant that he could be supposed to condescend to
such an aspersion.

The error of the public arose from .the circumstance, that
many of the names established by Linnaeus bore allusions tO'the
persons to whom the genera were dedicated. Thus he named

92 M. Fee's Life of LinncBus,

a genus BauMnia, in honour of the ilhistrious brothers Bauhin,
all the species of zvhich have leaves consisting of two foliola.
Having received another genus from India, collected by sur-
geon Dal berg, sent by him to his brother, a banker in Copen-
hagen, and transmitted by him to Linneeus, he called it Dal-
hergia. One of the species having the fruit pointed, was named
the D. lanceolaris, in honour of the surgeon ; the other, ha-
ving the fruit rounded, was the D. monetaria, in honour of the
banker.

The collections of Linnaeus were very considerable, consider-
ing the age in which he lived, and his herbarium was the pecu-
liar object of his care and affection. He himself mentions, in
one of his own notes, the origin of the plants which composed
it, and which were obtained from the most distant countries, at
a period when voyages were far from being so easily accom-
plished or so frequent as at present ; and when the voyagers,
too much swayed by the idea that the same plants were to be
found in countries of various climates, frequently neglected to
collect them. " My herbarium," says Linnaeus, " is indis-
putably the greatest that has ever been seen ;"" but although
this assertion may not have been very correct (as the herba-
riums of Vaillant and Tournefort of the same epoch seemed
very considerable), if it is admitted to have been so, it is evi^
dent that this herbarium ought to contain about 8000 speci-
mens, for the works of Linnaeus contain in all a description of
7982 plants ; and if he procured some after their publication,
it is certain that there are also some mentioned in his works
not to be found in his herbarium. The progress which bo-
tany made in half a century may be imagined, and chiefly
owing to his influence, if we calculate the increase of the exist-
ing collections. There are many herbariums which contain
30,000 or 40,000 specimens, and at present there is one em-
bracing no less than 55,000 ! Sir J. Smith has sometimes
received more specimens in one year than Linnaeus did during
his whole life. The globe is explored with an activity which
astonishes the imagination ; and it may be justly supposed that,
after fifty years, a thousand species will be discovered annually.

Although the herbarium of Linnaeus is no longer one of the
largest in existence, it is not the less valuable, whether on account

M. Fee's Life of Lmnceus, • 93

of the feeling of admiration which is attached to its founder, or
because it is the type and basis of the whole of the nomenclature.
On the death of Linnaeus, it came into the possession of his son;
but he only survived him a couple of years. It is said that his
mother, who was very wealthy, wished to dispose of it to ad-
vantage ; afraid lest the Swedish Governmeni might be desirous
of retaining or purchasing it at a price unequal to its value.
She offered it to Sir Joseph Banks. M. Fee states, that the
baronet having no intention of purchasing it, mentioned the
circumstance to Mr Smith. The anecdote, as I heard it from
the lips of this gentleman, redounds to the honour of both, and
deserves to be preserved. Mr J. Edward Smith, at that time
very young, and a passionate admirer of Linnaeus, showed, in a
very lively manner at a public dinner, the value which he put
on the herbarium of Linnaeus, and his regret that his whole
fortune did not permit him to set apart L. 1000 Sterling, which
was demanded for it, the library, and the manuscripts, of this
distinguished man. Banks being made aware of his enthusiasm,
sent for Smith, engaged him to go over, and offered to lend him
a sum of money which would enable him to procure them.
The transaction was completed, and, thanks to this generous
interference, and the attention of the English consul, the her-
barium was sent to England. It is said that the Swedish Go-
vernment, irritated at its removal, dispatched a frigate in pur-
suit of the vessel which contained it, and this fact has been men-
tioned as a mark of distinguished respect to his memory : there
is even a portrait of Smith, with a vignette, which represents
the frigate in pursuit of the vessel \^ hich bore away the precious
herbarium. I regret throwing any doubts on an account so
pleasing, and so honourable to science, but I am bound to add,
that Sir J. E. Smith told me, that there was not the shghtest
grounds for it.

We may subjoin in this place, that this learned individual
made use of these collections in a manner worthy of their origin.
He has published many works in which, in consequence of ha^
ving seen the original specimens, he has smoothed away difficul-
ties, which the laconicism of Linnaeus frequently created ; he
frequently had the complaisance to clear away the doubts which
other naturalists might have had respecting the meaning of the

94 M. Fee's Life of LinnceiLS,

writings of Linnaeus ; in short, he has allowed those who were
engaged in certain departments to consult this herbarium, and
heightened the obligation by the courtesy and kindness with
which he conferred it. I cannot remember without emotion the
hours which I spent with him, busied in surveying this precious
depot, or mention this fact without rendering homage to his
memory. On the death of Smith, the Linnean Society of Lon-
don, of which he was President, and whose foundation is dated
from the acquisition of the herbarium of Linnaeus, obtained the
collections of Linnaeus, increased by those of Smith ; which
herbariums being deposited in a place dedicated to science, are
thus preserved for the future researches of botanists.

Having thus extracted both from the work of Mr Fee and
our own recollections the most important facts in the life of Lin-
naeus, this might perhaps be the place for appreciating his la-
bours ; but it would be too extensive an undertaking, and is
worthy of a specific work. Let us confine ourselves to the re-
mark, that the eminent and indisputable service which he has
rendered to natural history, was the creation of a language pe-
culiar to it, as well in terminology as in nomenclature. Be-
fore his appearance, the former had no precise meaning, and
€very person in describing animals, and vegetables especially,
-either employed vague terms or a circumlocution which render-
■ed their writings tedious, obscure, and difficult of comparison.
Linnaeus fixed the meaning of the terms, and introduced many,
especially in botany, which were clear and elegant; he employed
this new language with remarkable skill and address, and thus
entirely changed the form of every descriptive work. We must
certainly admit, that in proportion to the progress made in the
detailed knowledge of natural objects, it has become necessary
to modify the meaning of some terms and to add others; but
this has been done according to the principles of Linnaeus, so
that it is not without good reason, that, even at present, there is
a disposition to attribute to him all the fortunate additions which
have been made to the Linnean language, which has rendered
natural history, so clear, so concise, and so popular.

The nomenclature of animals, and especially that of plants,
was in a greater state of disorder and anarchy and embar-
rassment than even terminology. Each name consisted of a

M. Fee's Life ofLinnceus. Of

long phrase, so that the mere catalogue of a garden became a
quarto volume ; and as no individual knew them by heart, they
were mentioned loosely and inaccurately. It was Linnseus'^s
contrivance to apply to the nomenclature of natural productions
the same system which is allowed in that of individuals of the
human race ; each animal, each plant, had a generic name which
corresponds to our family name, and a specific one which resem-
bles our baptismal one. Thus the names became short, clear
and precise, they could be retained by the memory, which allows
us to expect that they will one day be universally used.

These two great basis, the terminology and the nomenclature,
being fixed, Linnaeus had the courage to apply them to every
department of natural history : he traced the tableau of the three
kingdoms according to these principles, and astonished the world
both by the variety and accuracy of his knowledge, and the care
which he took in the introduction of a crowd of new objects and
striking remarks into this vast picture ; he mentioned under
each article the ancient names which were not in use, the best
figures, and the most certain localities which he could discover.
He supported his general works by a mass of interesting an4
original memoirs, in which he explained such points as could
not be satisfactorily unfolded in his usual concise manner, &c.
Ought we, then, to wonder at the learned world being astonished
at such immense works, and at the same time that changes so
complete as to forms and terms should embarrass those who had
spent their lives in teaching others, and thus divided naturalists
into enthusiastic admirers, and sometimes unjust detractors of
Linnajus?

Having thus considered the form of Linnaeus's works, if we
now cast a glance at his classification, we will, in analyzing it,
m^t with a curious exemplification of this twofold proposition;
some writers admiring what Linnaeus himself regarded as pre-
carious and provisionary, and others blaming those parts of his
Vt'Orks which are the most deserving of praise. I shall explain
what I mean. Linnaeus appears to have been the first natural-
ist who clearly comprehended the difference between the natural
and the artificial systems ; he was especially, notwithstanding the
vivacity of his genius and his desire to sway the whole of
science, he, I say, was perfectly aware that the number of ob-

96 M. Fee's Life of LinrnBus.

jects known during his time, and the manner in which they
were described, did not as yet admit of any attempt at a classi-
fication according to the natural system ; he was satisfied with
one purely artificial as to practice, and with a few small fractions
of the former order for the purposes of study. He has said
very plainly, and on many occasions, that the artificial system was
temporary, and only useful in finding out the names of plants, &c. ;
but the natural one was the legitimate object of science, and that
thither all the labours of the natural historian should be directed.
He gave private lessons to select pupils, on the natural system,
and allowed no opportunity to escape of enabling them to ap-
preciate it. But the learned world has, in this respect, commit-
ted two blunders, which are singular on account of their incon-
sistency ; some, like Buffbn, have censured him severely, because
in his sexual system, objects very unlike are often brought to-
gether, as if this juxtaposition was not inherent in every artifi-
cial method, which can only be compared to a mere dictionary,
and as if Linnaeus had not corrected these casual juxtapositions
in his fragments on the natural system : others, who are exclu-
sively termed Linnoeans, have considered the artificial system as
comprehending the whole of the science ; they have taken for a
permanent arrangement what their master laid down as tempo-
rary, and have abandoned with contempt the examination of the
natural system, which Linnaeus declared to be the true end of
science : thus, as it were, depreciating their great leader, in or-
der to accommodate their narrow conceptions, they are opposed
to the principles which he professed, and, in retaining the ex-
ternal form of his writings, they have misconceived their mean-
ing. Linnaeus is a far greater man than these pretended Lin-
naeans would induce us to believe, and I doubt not, that, were
he again to appear, he would be their strongest opponent.
Truth, moreover, pierces the clouds on all sides; the artificial
methods are reduced to their real value, their true sphere, the
art of finding names ; and every one is sensible at present, that
the natural system, properly understood, is the true expression
of the whole science. D. C.

( 97 )

TABLES OF THE SUNN'S MEAN RIGHT ASCENSION. By WlL"

LiAM Galbraith, A.M. Communicated hy the Author,

The following Tables, adapted to the meridian of Greenwich,
have been computed by me, for the purpose of performing a
problem, of frequent occurrence in practical astronomy.

They are founded on late investigations, are more accurate
than any with which I am acquainted, and are applied in the
following manner.

Let m be the mean solar time at the place of observation,
s the corresponding sidereal time,
r the mean right ascension of the meridian, equivalent to the mean

longitude of the sun, converted into time for the preceding mean

noon at the place of observation.
a the acceleration of the fixed stars for the sidereal time s — r, from a

table for converting sidereal into mean solar time. See XXXI. of

my Mathematical Tables.
« the acceleration for the mean solar time m, by a table for converting

mean solar into sidereal time. Table XXX. of my Mathematical

Tables.

Then»n = (« — r)— a (I)

And « = r + m+« (2)

Now, by Tables I. and II. for years, months, and days, find the mean
right ascension of the meridian at mean noon on the given day of any pro«
posed year, reckoned from the mean equinox. To this apply the equations
firom Tables III. and IV., of which the arguments are S3, O, and ]), and
the result will be the right ascension reckoned from the apparent equinox.
In the Nautical Almanac for 1834, and succeeding years, the sun's right
ascension at mean noon will be given, which will facilitate this problem.

Example 1. — An eclipse of the first satellite of Jupiter was observed at
Greenwich on the 17th January 1825, at 2'' 19"* 49.0* sidereal time by a clock,
which was 69M4 fast. Required the corresponding mean solar time ?

Sidereal time by the clock, .
The error of the clock fast, .

Correct sidereal time,
VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. — JULY 1833.

h m
2 19

8

49.00
59.14

2 18
G

49.86

98 Tables of the Stm's Mean Right Ascension.

h m s

Year, 1825, Table I. ... 0 3 24.502 Table I. Q, 251

Month, Jan. 10. Table II. ... 19 15 25.553 II. 1

Day, 7 II. ... 27 35.887 II. 1

S3, Lunar Nutation III. ... 1.058 Sum, 253

0, Solar Nutation IV. ... 0.0C2 0 = 297°.5

D, Lunar Equation IV. ... 0.005 ^ = 281 .6

r = 19 46 27.067

s = 2 18 49.860

,_-r = . , 6 32 22.793

By my Mathematical Tables, XXXI.

h m s m

6 0 0 give 0 58.977

32 0 ... 5.242

23 ... 0063

jf_r = 6 32 23 give a=l 4.282 — 1 4.282

»n = mean solar time, 6 31 18.511

Example 2 Suppose the observation had been made at &* 31" 18».511

mean solar time, and the corresponding sidereal time were required, the ope-
ration would have been performed as follows :

h m s

m= 6 31 18.511

r = . • 19 46 27.067

h m s

By Mathematical Tables XXX. 6 0 0/- 69.139

31 0 -| 5.092

18.5 I 0.051

s = sidereal time, . . . 2 18 49.860

Since the tables of the sun's mean right ascension are adapted to the meri-
dian of Greenwich, a correction must be applied when the computations are
made for any other meridian. This correction may be conveniently taken
from Table XXX. of my Tables.

Example 3 Required the correction necessary to adapt these tables to the

meridian of Paramatta, in longitude 10** 4™ 5s E.

li m 8 m 8

By Table XXX . . 10 0 0 give 1 38.565

4 0 ... 0.658

5 ... 0.014

Total correction for . . 10 4 5 = — 1 39.237

which is negative or — because the longitude is east.

Ex. 4. — Required the correction for Edinburgh, in longitude 12" 42 .5 W.

m 8
By Table XXX 12 0 gives 1.972

42.5 ... 0.118

Total correction for .... 12 42.5 = + 2.090

which is additive, because the longitude is west.

Tables of the SuiCs Mean Right Ascensiofi. 99

Example 5 August 14. 1830. On the meridian of Paris, in longitude

9" 21*.34 E., at 22^ 22"» 13".4 mean solar time, what was the sidereal time?

h m s
Year, 1830, Table I. ... 0 2 34.569 S . . 519

Month, Aug. 10. ... II. ... 9 11 16.287 .... 33
Day, 4. ... 15 46.221 .... 1

Long. 9 21.34 E. cor. ... — 1.638 663

Q Lunar Nutation, ... — 0.338 © b 142*

O Solar Nutation, ... + 0.076 ]) = 105

}) Lunar Equation, ... + 0.006

r « 9 29 34.283

m s= 22 22 13.400

22 0 0 Table XXX. 3 3&844

22 0 . . « 3.614

13.4 . . . 0.037

« = sidereal time, . . . 7 55 28.178

Example 6.— July 20. 1830. On the meridian of Paris, the sidereal time

was 16*» 15™ 408.8 by a clock 198.7 slow, — required the corresponding mean

solar time ?

h m 8
Sidereal time by clock, . . . . . . 16 15 40.8

Error of clock slow, + 19.7

Correct sidereal time, 16 16 0.5

Year, 1830. Table L . . .02 34.569 S 619

Month, July 20. ... II. . .' 7 48 27.625 . . 30

Sum = 7 51 2.194 649

Correction for longitude 9m 21« E. . — 1.538 O = 117*

Difference, 7 51 0.656 ]) =s 129

Q Lunar Nutation, , . . — 0.319

0 Solar Nutation, , . , ^ 0.062

]) Lunar Equation . . . + 0.013

r «= 7 51 0.412

« s= sidereal time, . . . 16 16 0.600

» — r =:: 8 25 0.088

8 0 0 Table XXXL
ra 8
gives 1 18.636

25 0 ... 4.096

» — r = 8 25 0 ... 1 22.732 — 1 22.732

m s= Mean solar time, . . . = 8 23 37.356

These examples are sufficient to show the general method of making the
necessary -computations, which are frequently required in an active observa-
tory where a sidereal clock is indispensable.

NoTB.— In the months of January and February of bissextile years, take the day precedlx^g

that given.

G

2

100

Tables of the SurCs Mean Right Ascension,

Right Ascension of the Mean Sun at Mean Noon on the Meridian of

Greenwich.

TABLE I.

TABLE IL

TABLE in.

Year.

R. A.

Q>

Month.

Day.

R.A.

9>

9,

Equa.

Q>

Equa.

M. S.

H. M. S,

s.

s.

C1800

3 37.627

908

Jan.

0

18 36 0.000

0

0

0.000

500

0.000

1801

2 40.329

961

10

19 15 25.553

1

10

0.068

510

0.065

1802

1 43 031

15

20

19 54 51.107

3

20

0.136

520

a. 129

1803

0 45.732

69

30

20 34 16.660

5

30

0.203

530

0.193

B1804

3 44 989

123

Feb.

0

20 38 13.216

5

40

0.269

540

0.257

1805

2 47.691

176

10

21 17 38.769

6

50

0.334

550

0319

1806

1 50.392

230

20

21 57 4.323

7

60

0.398

560

0.381

1807

0 53.094

284

Mar.

0

22 28 36.766

9

70

0.460

570

0.441

B1808

3 52.351

338

10

23 8 2.319

11

80

0.520

580

0.499

1809

2 55.052

391

20

23 47 27.872

12

90

0.578

590

0.555

1810

1 57.755

445

30

0 26 53.426

13

100

0.634

600

0.610

1811

1 0.456

499

April

0

0 30 49.981

13

110

0.087

610

0.662

B1812

3 59.713

552

10

1 10 15.535

15

120

0.737

620

0.711

1813

3 2.415

606

20

1 49 41.088

16

130

0.784

630

0.758

1814

2 5.116

660

May

0

2 29 6.642

18

140

0.828

640

0.8C3

1815

1 7.818

713

10

3 8 32.195

19

150

0.868

650

0.844

B1816

4 7.075

767

20

3 47 57.749

21

160

0.905

660

0.882

1817

3 9.776

821

30

4 27 23.302

22

170

0.938

670

0.916

1818

2 12.478

875

June

0

4 31 19.858

22

180

0967

680

0.947

1819

1 15.181

928

10

5 10 45.411

24

190

0.992

690

0 975

B1820

4 14.439

982

20

5 50 10.965

25

200

1.014

700

0.999

1821

3 17.140

37

July

0

6 29 36.518

27

210

1.031

710

1.019

1822

2 19.842

90

10

7 9 2.071

28

220

1.044

720

1034

1823

1 22.543

144

20

7 48 27.625

30

230

1.053

730

1.046

B1824

4 21.800

198

30

8 27 53.178

31

240

1.057

740

1.054

1825

3 24-502

251

Aug.

0

8 31 49.734

32

250

1.058

750

1.058

1826

2 27-203

305

&

10

9 11 15.287

33

260

1.057

760

1-054

1827

1 29-905

359

20

9 50 40.841

34

270

1.053

770

1046

B1828

4 29 162

413

30

10 30 6.394

35

280

1.044

780

1.034

1829

3 31 866

466

Sept.

0

10 34 2.950

36

290

1.031

790

1-019

1830

2 34.569

519

10

11 13 28.503

37

300

1014

800

0-999

1831

1 37.270

573

20

11 52 54 057

39

310

0.992

810

0-975

R1832

4 36.527

627

Oct.

0

12 32 19.610

40

320

0.967

820

0-947

1833

3 39.229

681

10

13 11 45.163

42

330

0.938

830

0916

1834

2 41.930

734

20

13 51 10.717

43

340

0.905

840

0-882

1835

1 44.632

788

30

14 30 36.270

44

350

0.868

850

0-844

B1836

4 43.889

842

Nov.

0

14 34 32-826

45

360

0.828

860

0-803

1837

3 46.592

895

10

15 13 58.879

46

370

0.784

870

0-758

1838

2 49.296

949

20

15 53 23. 933

48

380

0.737

880

0-711

1839

1 51.999

3

Dec.

0

16 32 49.486

49

390

0.687

890

0662

B1840

4 51.256

56

10

17 12 15.040

51

400

0634

900

0610

1841

3 53.958

110

20

17 51 40.593

52

410

0578

910

0-555

1842

2 56.659

164

30

18 31 6-147

53

420

0.520

920

0499

1843
B1844

1 59.362
4 58.620

218
272

430
440

0.460
0.398

930
940

0-441
0-381

Day.

M. S.

1845

4 1.323

325

1

3 56.555

0

450

0-334

950

0-319

1846

3 4.025

379

2

7 53.111

0

460

0.269

960

0-?57

1847

2 6.727

433

3

11 49.666

0

470

0-203

970

0193

B1848

5 5.985

487

4

15 46.221

480

0-136

980

0129

1849

4 8.687

540

5

19 42.777

490

0.068

990

0-065

1850

3 11.390

594

6

23 39.332

1500

0-000

1000

0 000

1851

2 14.092

648

7

27 35.887

+

B1852

5 13.350

701

8

31 32.443

1853

4 16.052

755

9

35 28.998

1854

3 18.755

809

10

39 25.55348

Summary irfihe Rain, Sfc, at Geneva.

101

TABLE IV.

Arg.

o

D

Arg.

Arg.
100

0

D

Arg.

0

—0000+

— aooo4-

360

+0.026—

+o!oo4—

260

10

0.026

0.004

350

110

0.049

0.008

250

20

0.049

0.008

340

120

0.067

0.011

240

30

0.067

0.01 1

330

130

0.076

0.013

230

40

0.076

0.013

320

140

0.076

0.013

220

50

0.076

0.013

310

150

0.067

0.011

210

60

0.067

0.011

300

160

0.049

0.008

200

70

0.049

0.008

290

170

0.026

0.004

190

80

—0.026+

—0.004+

280

180

+0.000—

+0.000—

180

90

0.000

0.000

270

SUMMARY OF THE RAIN, &C. AT GENEVA, AND AT THE ELE-
VATED STATION OF THE PASS OF GREAT ST BERNARD, FOR

A SERIES OF YEARS. FroM the BibHotJieque Universelle for
March 1828. with observations on the same. By
John Dalton, F.R.S. ■ ^-

Geneva is situated in latitude 46° \9! N. and about 6° E.
longitude from London ; its elevation is 450 yards above the
sea ; its distance from the Atlantic is 360 miles, and from the
Mediterranean 160 miles. The high mountains of the Alps
form an immense amphitheatre from Geneva, extending more
than 100 miles to the eastward. The mountain Great St
Bernard is one of the higher Alps, over which is a public road
or pass into Italy. It is about sixty miles to the south-east of
Geneva. There is an inn or convent at the pass for tlie conve-
nience of travellers ; in summer the road is practicable without
much danger; in winter it is impassible; in spring and autumn
the traveller is oft^n in danger, and sometimes perishes by the
sudden and unexpected falls of snow, by the descent of masses
of ice and snow from the sides of the mountains, or by extreme
cold. The height of the pass above the level of the sea is
2720 yards, which is between two and three times the height of
Snowdon.

The scientific gentlemen of Geneva have very laudably availed
themselves of the opportunity which the situation at St Bernard
afforded them, of ascertaining the meteorological phenomena at

103 Summary of the Rain, ^c. at Geneva,

the latter place. A series of daily observations of the barometer,
thermometer, hygrometer, quantity of rain, &c. at the convent,
has been made for the last ten years ; and a summary of the ob-
servations was given in the Bibliotheque Universelle for March
last, together with those of the like kind made at Geneva for
thirty-two years.

The observations at Geneva do not appear to present any
thing of peculiar interest. The annual means and the general
means for the period of thirty-two years are all that are given
in the summary; the mean temperature is 49 1°: this is low
considering the latitude, but the elevation of the place, its inland
situation, and its proximity to the Alps, conspire to reduce the
temperature. The annual rain is 30.7 inches (English measure).

The observations on St Bernard are given much more in de-
tail. The monthly means for each year are given, and the ave-
rages for each month, for the barometer, thermometer, hygro-
meter, and rain ; from which general averages for the whole ten
years are obtained.

It appears that the mean height of the barometer at St Ber-
nard is nearly 22 English inches ; the mean temperature is SOJ"
Fahrenheit ; the mean quantity of rain and snow is 60 inches
annually; and the mean state of the hygrometer (Saussure's) is
83 1°, only half of a degree more moist than at Geneva.

From the accounts furnished, 1 have calculated the mean
monthly averages of rain at St Bernard for twelve years *, and
find them as under :

Ra&r,

January, .... 5.95

April . . . . . 5.65

May, 2.76

July? : : : : : tie ^ ^^^'^-

August, . . . . 4.31

September, . . . . 4.79

Sretber. : ! ! ! Jf l" ^--ge period.

December, .... 5.42

60.05
• Since the paper was read, I have incorporated two more years' rain,
namely 1828 and 1829, into the averages for St Bernard; so that the table
here presented is for twelve years.

and at the Pass of Great St Bernard. 103

The most striking circumstance with regard to the rain is the
great excess of it, compared with that at Geneva. Though the
average rain at Geneva for the thirty-two years was SO inches
annually, yet the average quantity for the same ten years as
those which were observed at St Bernard was only 26 inches
annually ; so that the rain at St Bernard is nearly two and a
half times as much as that at Geneva. From the observations
made in great Britain, it appears to be an established fact that
more rain falls in the hilly parts of the country than the plains ;
but it also appears, that the quantity of rain in a low situation,
is greater than that in an elevated situation in the vicinity.
Hence it might have been imagined, that the great elevation of
St Bernard would reduce the quantity of rain below that of the
plain of Geneva. The fact, however, appears to be far other-
wise ; and it may demand a little consideration. High mountains
produce rain, I think, unquestionably from their obstructing
the horizontal currents of the air, and causing them to ascend
into the higher regions of the atmosphere, by which airs of dif-
ferent temperatures are mixed together. Now, it is well known,
that two portions of air, saturated with vapour at their respec-
tive temperatures, when mixed together, are incapable of retain-
ing the whole of the vapour ; a part of it is precipitated in the
form of a cloud or rain. This is the case, too, if the portions of
air be under saturation, within certain limits.

The physical principles on which the above statement is sup-
ported, are, 1*^, When two portions of air of different tempera-
tures are mixed, the temperature of the mixture is the arithme-
tical mean of the two temperatures,, ^d, When two portions of
air saturated with vapour are mixed together, the quantity of
the vapour found in the mixture must also be the arithmetical
mean of the quantities found in each ; but it is only a quantity
proportional to the geometrical mean that can be supported in
the state of vapour, by the mean temperature; and as the geo-
metrical mean is always less than the arithmetical mean, the ex-
cess must needs be precipitated.

This accounts for more rain falling in mountainous countries
than in plains ; but the question at present is. How does it hap-
pen that more falls on great elevations amongst the Alps tlwin
on the plains below ?

104 Summary of the Rain^ ^c. at Geneva.

To this it may be answered, that the pass on St Bernard is
not the highest point of land in the vicinity, but rather the
lowest, at least of the ridge over which the road passes. Hence
the fall of rain, even in that elevated station, is still under the
influence of superior currents of air over the higher summits,
and may still exceed in quantity what falls on the distant plains.
The quantity of rain which falls at the Jbot of the mountain,
either on the Swiss or Italian side, I have little doubt, will be
found to be still greater than that which falls at the Hospital,
as related above. It would be very desirable, however, to ascer-
tain the fact ; and more especially on the side of Italy, where
the greatest quantity may be expected from the west winds.

How far a ridge of hills extends its influence over a plain, in
regard to the weight of water precipitated, it is not easy to form
a decided opinion. It can scarcely be doubted, that the greatest
influence will be confined to two or three miles from the ridge ;
but some influence may be found, in all probability, at the dis-
tance of ten or even twenty miles or more, according to the
greater or less elevation of the mountains.

It is a matter of curious observation, that the falls at St Ber-
nard for the four first months of the year, are all greater than
for any other months, and that the falls for the next four
months are all less than for any other, thus leaving the four last
months to yield about the average monthly quantity. A series
of twelve years can scarcely leave a doubt as to the general ac-
curacy of the fact. Possibly there may be some uncertainty as
to the quantity in regard to the snow ; the observers estimate
one foot in depth to be equa^ to one inch in depth of rain ; and
the weight of the falls for six or eight months in the year is
snow.

Remark on the Barometrical Observations at St Bernard,

The author of the summary in the Bibliotheque Universelle,
remarks, with surprise, that the barometer at St Bernard gives
the highest mean for August, and the hottest months, and the
lowest in the coldest months. This observation must have been
made without due reflection, as the cause is evident ; the stra-
tum of air from the height of St Bernard to the surface of the
earth must be lighter in summer than winter, on account of the

Mr Grierson on Competitions among Tradesmen. 105

higher temperature; consequently, the superior atmosphere must
then be heavier, the sum of both being considered a constant
quantity in summer and winter. — Manchester Memoirs, vol. v.
p. 233. •!

OBSERVATIONS ON COMPETITIONS AMONG WORKING TRADES-
MEN. By William Griebson, Esq. of Garrock, W. S.
Member of the Society of Arts, Abridged from a Paper
read before the Society lOth April 1833, and by their Com^
mittee recommended to be printed.

All of the useful arts admit of two distinct kinds of im-
provement. The one is by new inventions, the other by ren-
dering workmen more expert.

The encouragement of invention has long been a favourite
object with the public, and every one is also sensible of the im-
portance of having operative tradesmen properly instructed ;
yet hardly any thing has ever been done towards attaining this
last end, however desirable. Indeed, if we except the case of
ploughmen, scarcely one class of the members who are employed
in providing us with the necessaries of life, have ever had the
stimulus of a prize for superior excellence held out to them,
though there is not one among them to whom it might not be
applied with perfect ease, and with incalculable effect.

However varied and complicated a man's employment may
be, a very few simple operations will suffice to shew his merits.
Thus from the formation of a mortice and tenon, from the con-
struction of a pannelled door, from the fitting of a drawer, the
jointing of the leaf of a table, and one or two other such works,
a perfect idea may be formed of the qualifications of all the va-
rious denominations of square-men, in every stage of their pro-
gress. Each of these works might accordingly be assigned to a
separate class of competitors, as the test of their advancement ;
and in every other trade a similar selection might be made,
adapted to the various degrees of |)roficiency of its members.
By these means some object of ambition might be placed within
the reach of the youngest apprentice, while the most expert
workman would not find himself without rivals ; and to pre-

106 Mr Grierson on Competitions amofiff Tradesmen*

serve his pre-eminence, would be compelled to continue his
exertions.

The details of such a system must of course be left to prac-
tical men ; but there are one or two general principles which
appear to apply universally, and which, indeed, seem quite ne-
cessary to the success of any attempt of the kind. 1. No class
should be so large as not to afford a fair chance of success to
every individual comprised in it ; but, that superior merit may
obtain a corresponding distinction, the successful competitors in
the first class should be brought again into competition with one
another for an additional prize, just as in a coursing match.
2. That every one may know with whom he is to contend, the
name of each competitor should be entered in a public list, a
considerable time before the day of trial. S. The work by
which the merit of each class is to be ascertained, should, as
far as possible, be executed in the same place, and at the same
time, both to insure that no one shall produce any thing but
what he has himself executed, and also for the purpose of com-
paring the different modes of doing the same thing, practised by
different workmen. 4. That the competitors may have com-
plete assurance of perfect impartiality, they ought, in every
case, to have the choice of their own judges. 5. It maybe
mentioned, in the last place, that books appear by far the best
prizes that can be given, both on account of the valuable infor-
mation which may be thus communicated, and also because a
suitable inscription can be put upon them at no expense.

These principles of competition have already been tried with
great success by the Glenkens Society, an institution which was
formed about two years ago in a retired district of the stewartry
of Kirkcudbright, for a similar purpose with that now under
consideration ; and there can be no doubt that competitions
thus conducted, would be still more beneficial under the in-
fluence of the condensed population of a large town.

It has long been a very general complaint among masters,
that they find it next to impossible to fix the attention of their
apprentices : that even their journeymen can hardly be pre-
vailed upon to take an interest in their work beyond what is
necessary to provide themselves with bread, and that the idle
hours of both are grossly misspent. Indeed, so long as their ut-

Mr Grierson on Coinpetitions among Tradesmen. 107

most dexterity and skill can do so little towards raising them
into public notice, we can hardly wonder that their work should
hang heavy on their hands, and that their relaxations should be
of a kind of which we cannot approve. But were a ladder af-
forded to a working tradesman^ by which he might raise him-
self step by step from his obscurity, to such a station as his ta-
lents and acquirements enable him to fill with credit to himself
and benefit to the public ; and were it made plain to him that,
whatever step he may at present occupy on this ladder, no
great exertion would be required to gain one step higher, there
cannot be a doubt that the emulation which has, by similar
means, been excited among ploughmen, would be excited in
him also, and in a much greater degree. The ordinary occu-
pations of the workshop would become interesting to him as pre-
parations for his public exhibitions ; and the time during which
he is not thus engaged, would be employed by him in gaining
some acquaintance with such branches of science as may be con-
nected with his trade. This would unquestionably be the ef-
fect of these competitions on all the ablest men among these
classes ; and as it is from them that the whole take their tone,
their example would be speedily followed. The community at
large would become industrious and economical, and men who
now sink through all the gradations of idleness and want, till
they end in crime, would become active and useful members of
society.

This would necessarily produce no inconsiderable diminution
on the number of paupers, while it would at the same time tend
to lessen the expense of all the necessaries of life. Every hand
being improved to the utmost, and employed in the best pos-
sible way, would be rendered proportionally more productive,
and as the most important inventions have almost all been made
by working tradesmen, a very rapid addition to them might be
confidently anticipated, from the prodigious force of talent
thus brought into operation, which is at present altogether dor-
mant-

To these considerations it must be added, that the proposed
competitions would do much towards re-establishing the connec-.
tion between the higher and lower classes, which, of late years,
has been almost entirely done away, very much to the injury of

108 Mr Grierson 07* Competitions among Tradesmen.

both. Indeed, however anxious a rich man may now be to
make himself useful to his poorer neighbours, he has it not in
his power. He comes seldom into contact with any of them, but
such as have already reduced themselves to beggary by idleness
and dissipation, and, finding ariy thing he may give them to be
worse than thrown away, he either abstains from charity altoge-
ther, or commits his contributions to some of the benevolent so-
cieties with which this country abounds. By them he is sure
that his donations will be judiciously administered ; but, when
thus made, they will do nothing towards securing him a place
in the affections of the persons relieved, who, being unacquaint-
ed with their benefactor, cannot, of course, make to him any
return of gratitude. But were the stamp of merit fixed on the
really deserving by these competitions, a class of persons would
be offered to the notice of the higher ranks, who would be
every way deserving of their countenance. To them it would
be given willingly and liberally. It would not fail to produce
corresponding feelings of attachment and respect, and the va-
rious ranks would thus gradually become bound together by all
those sympathies which enhance the joys and soothe the sorrows
of life.

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NORTHERN LIGHT-HOUSES.

*' Pharos loquitur,

** Far in the bosom of the deep
O'er these wild shelves my watch I keep,
A ruddy gem of changeful light,
Bound in the dusky brow of night.
The seaman bids my lustre hail,
And scorns to strike his timorous sail *."

From the important nature of the experiments and trials late-
ly made with various lights at Gullan Hill, 12 miles east from
Edinburgh, by order of the Commissioners of the Northern
Light-houses, which we saw from the Calton-Hill, we have been
led to a perusal of Stevenson'*s splendid and interesting work,
entitled " Account of the Bell Rock Light-house,*^' for informa-

• Lines written by Sir Walter Scott in the Album of the Bell Rock
Light-house, when he visited it in 1814.

Some Account of the Northern Light-houses. 109

tion with regard to the Light-house Board, and its extensive
operations ; and we have also sought information from other
authentic sources.

After adverting to the early state of navigation, the voyage
of James V. round the north of Scotland, and the early charts
of the coast, the subject of a Scottish Light-house Board is men-
tioned by Mr Stevenson as having originated with the Con-
vention of Royal Burghs, and its constitution by act of Par-
liament he refers to the year 1786. The Board consists of his
Majesty's Advocate and Solicitor-General, the Chief Magis-
trates of the principal burghs, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aber-
deen, Inverness and Campbelton, and the Sheriffs or Judges
Ordinary of maritime counties.

When we look at the extent to which the operations of this
Board have been carried, it is not a little surprising to remark,
that the preamble of the original act states, " that it would
conduce greatly to the security of navigation and the fisheries,
ii Jour light-houses were erected in the north part of Great
Britain."" Such, it would seem, was the limited state of trade
about fifty years ago in Scotland, that the erection oi Jour
light-houses was all that was contemplated at that time, although
the coast, extending to about 2000 miles of circuit, is perhaps
the most dangerous of any in Europe. But no sooner were
these four lights exhibited to the mariner, than the facilities
which they afforded to navigation were cheerfully acknowledged,
and applications were received from the shipping interest of the
country for the erection of others ; and now, in 1833, there are
twenty-five lights on our coast, including double or leading
lights. The funds of this Board arise from a duty of 2d. per
register ton on all vessels passing any of them. In addition to
this, the trade of the Frith of Forth formerly paid three half-
pence per ton for the Isle of May light, by a Scotch act, to the
family of Scotstarvit ; but when this light, by act of Parliament,
became one of the Board's lights, the additional duty of three
halfpence was reduced to one halfpenny per ton, and the odious
distinction of making English and Irish vessels pay double, as
foreigners, ceased. Vessels also may now pass the three lights
of the Isle of Man, belonging to the Scotch Board, by paying
the small sura of one farthing per ton, which was considered
to be sufficient by the Board, on account of the great traffic

3

110 Some Account of the Northern Light-houses.

in the Irish sea with Liverpool and Dublin, &c. ; but if, from
the nature of their voyage, they incur the general duty of the
Northern Lights, they pay nothing exclusively for the Isle of
Man. These we believe to be all the peculiarities of the duties
payable for the Northern Lights, and they are certainly of a
very liberal description. After making allowance for some
change in the rate of the duties, the sum annually collected for
these lights forms a striking proof of the advanced state of the
trade of the country. In 1790, it was L. 1477 : 5 : 1; in
the year 1802, L. 4386 : 7 : 5 ; and, in 1824, it amounted to
L. 24,000 : the debt of the Board at this time being L. 60,000,
and the yearly expence of management about L.900.

Having noticed these particulars, we now proceed to detail
the operations of the Northern Lights Board, and our narra-
tive will convincingly shew, that the country was never more for-
tunate in the appointment of a public board. At the first
meeting of the Commissioners, held in the month of August 1786,
Sir James Hunter Blair, then Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and
Member of Parhament for the city, was elected Chairman*.
At this period, the chief lights on the coast of Scotland were
the Isle of May in the Frith of Forth, and the C umbrae Isle
in the Frith of Clyde ; and at both of these stations open coal
fires, placed in elevated choffers, were exhibited to the mariner.
Sir James stated to the meeting, that after corresponding with the
Port of Liverpool, where reflectors with oil had been substituted
for the open coal fire, he recommended that this system should at
once be adopted by the Board. The plan brought forward by the
late Mr Thomas Smith, engineer to the Board, being approved
of, the works were ordered to be proceeded with, by the erection
of the four light-houses referred to in the act. " These works,*"
we are told, were " necessarily executed on the smallest, plainest,
and most simple plan that could be devised, and with such
materials as could be easily transported, and most speedily erect >
ed, so as to meet the urgent calls of shipping, and answer the
very limited state of the funds."*' By the year 1794, in addition
to the four original northern lighthouses, two had been erected
on the island of Pladda in the Clyde, and two on the Pentland

* The only Member present at the first Board who still survives, is Sir
William Macleod Bannatyne, lately one of the Lords of Session, and then
Sheriff of Bute.

Some Account of the Northern Light-liouses. Ill

Skerries in Orkney ; being additional to the four sanctioned by the
Act. About the year 1800, the funds of the Board were getting
into a more flourishing state, its operations were conducted upon
a more extended scale, and other two light-houses were erected,
one upon Inchkeith in the Frith of Forth, and another on the
Start Point of Sanday in Orkney. The Commissioners were
now also in a condition to listen to applications for a light upon
the fatal reef called the Bell Rock, which lies twelve miles off
the shore, in the direct track of navigation, and was much dread-
ed by the mariner as the source of the greatest danger on the
eastern coast of Scotland. It has been calculated, that not a year
passed without the loss of several vessels, either upon the Bell
Rock'or in consequence of the dread of it ; but since the light-
house was erected, not a single wreck has occurred on the rock^
and comparatively few upon that line of coast.

Hitherto the accommodation at the light-houses was only cal-
culated for one family, but it was now resolved to have two ef-
fective light-keepers. The change of the watch, and other as-
sistance for the light-keepers, had heretofore depended upon the
family of the light-keeper. Over these, however, the Board
could have no control. The keeper might be single or mar-
ried ; his wife, children or servant might be unfit for the duty ;
and in case of sickness or death in these insular and remote si-
tuations, the consequences to a fleet of ships whose course de-
pended upon the regular appearance of the light might be dread-
ful. On the whole, the Board properly resolved that there should
be two responsible persons, a principal and an assistant keeper,
at each station, who should mount guard throughout the night,
as on ship-board. So specially is this now attended to, that the
keeper is liable to immediate dismissal if he leave the light-room
before being regularly relieved by his colleague ; and for secu-
ring order and regularity in this respect, a time-piece is placed
in each hght-room, and bells are hung in the bed-rooms of the
dwelling-houses. At some of the stations, instead of slender
wires, these bells are connected by tubes leading down the walls
of those lofty towers, with a mouth-piece in the light-room, into
which the man on watch blows, and immediately the alarm-bell
is sounded, which arouses the keeper below to mount guard.
We have been more particular in noticing this, both on account
of the science displayed in the apparatus, and also as a proof of

llJE Some Account of the Northern Light-houses,

the importance attached by the Board to the unremitting con-
stancy of the watch, and of its regard for that punctuality which
we believe regulates all the details of this establishment.

The dwelling-houses now constructed are calculated for the
accommodation of two families. The walls are lined with brick
instead of laths, and a space of two and a-half inches is left be-
tween to render them water-tight. They are covered with a
leaden-platform, defended by a parapet-wall, instead of a slated
roof with garrets. The slated roof was found constantly liable to
injury from high winds, in situations exposed, as the Light-
houses generally are, to the rage of every storm, and not unfre-
quently to the sprays of the sea, even in situations much above its
level. Formerly, when the attic apartments were occupied, the
premises became liable to accident by fire. The early light-
rooms were chiefly constructed of timber, lined with fire proof
plates ; now they are built wholly of incombustible materials.
The dormant sides, should there be any in the light-room, are
made double, with a space between, to prevent the effects of
condensation and moisture. For the same reason, its cupola-
roof consists of two shells of copper. The windows are now
glazed with polished plate-glass, each pane measuring about 18
by 30 inches, and a quarter of an inch in thickness, instead of the
common sash -panes of crown glass, formerly in use, which, from
the number of interposing astragals, obstructed the passage of
the light.

The reflectors originally employed were casts in plaster of
Paris, from a mould formed to the parabolic curve, upon prin-
ciples susceptible of considerable accuracy, and were lined with
facetles of mirror-glass. The power of these reflectors, however,
was comparatively small, from the reflecting surface being com-
posed of numerous pieces, in each of which only one point
coincided with the curve of the parabola. This description of
reflector was, at the time of its introduction, brought under the
notice of the late eminent Professor Robison, who expressed a
doubt that, from the nature of the parabola, the beam of light
from the reflector would be too direct to be generally useful to
the mariner. But in practice they were found to be sufficiently
dispersive.

The Trinity House having been at great pains to improve
the reflecting apparatus on the coast of England, with the advice

Some Account of' the Northern Light-Iiotises. 113

and assistance of persons eminent in science, adopted parabolic
reflectors made of silvered copper; and these, from their supe-
rior effects, have ultimately been introduced into all the light-
houses of the United Kingdom. The reflectors which have for
many years been employed in the Northern Light-houses consist
of copper coated with silver, in the proportion of six ounces
of silver to one pound avoirdupois of copper, which are rolled
at the mills of Messrs Bolton and Watt, and, with much la-
bour and great nicety, by a process of hammering and polish-
ing, formed to the parabolic curve of a mould made with ma-
thematical precision. The diagram for the Bell Rock reflectors
was drawn by Professor Leshe, and the mould was made by
Mr Adie the optician. The powers of this elegant production
of the mechanical art are quite astonishing ; and when these re-
flectors were examined by the late Professor Playfair, he ex-
pressed his unqualified admiration of the accuracy with which
the curve was formed. If, for a moment, we compare the highly
polished and regularly curved surface of the silvered copper re-
flector with the few corresponding points of the parabola formed
hy Jacettes of glass, the superiority of the former seems to be
quite infinite. But what can be more authoritative than the
fact that their influence completely extends to the horizon form-
ed by the height of the light-house tower and the earth's cur-
vature ? The lights, for example, of Sumburgh Head and
Cape Wrath are seen from a ship's deck at the distance of
nine leagues at sea. Both the light of the natural appearance
and that which is coloured red at the Bell Rock are seen at
the distance of thirty-five miles from an elevated situation. Ob-
servations have also been made across the Frith of Clyde from
Wigtonshire to the ]\lull of Kintyre, a distance of thirty miles,
from which Corsewell hght is seen, though it presents only three
reflectors to the eye of the observer ; and Inchkeith light, with
only one reflector upon a face, is seen as a good sea-light at the
distance of twelve or fourteen miles.

In the early state of the Northern Light-houses, whale-oil and
the common lamp were in use ; but, in their improved condition,
spermaceti oil and the Argand lamp have been introduced.
We believe it has been proposed by some to introduce oil-gas
in a portable form for hght-house purposes; but we take leave

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. H

114 Some Account qfilie Northern Light-houses,

to say that there is no mode of producing oU-gas either so effec-
tive or so economical as by means of the Argand burner. The
same arguments which hold good for the use of gas for domestic
purposes do not apply to light-houses. Here there is a com-
plete arrangement, — the keepers are professionally adepts in the
management of lamps, and should a drop of oil be spilt, the
floor is covered with painted floor-cloth to receive it. Nor must
we omit to notice the great attention paid to the construction of
the Argand light-house burners: they are tipped with silver, to
prevent the waste and imperfection to which copper is subject
from the excessive heat of the burner *.

In speaking of the humane and proper arrangements of the
Light-house Board, we may notice that a pilots' guard-room is
provided at the several light-house stations, where these useful
men have their rendezvous. In the event also of shipwreck near
any of the light-house stations, the unfortunate seamen are not
only lodged, but have been supplied with clothes and money to
carry them to their respective .homes. In this way it has occa-
sionally fallen to the lot of the keepers of the Northern Light-
houses to save the lives of perishing seamen, and not unfrequently
to succour exhausted fishermen and pilots when driven by stress
of weather to these lone places of abode for safety and shelter.
In these varied forms, it will not be too much to suppose that
the practice of protecting the navigator in distress, which is said
to have formed a chief part of the design of the Fire Towers
and Nautical Colleges of the Ancients, is thus in some measure
restored.

In our account of the progress of improvements upon the
lights of the Scotch coast, it is not perhaps necessary for us to
do more than simply to have mentioned the great undertaking
of the Bell Rock Light-house, the details of which occupy the
large volume now before us. This is a structure, the erection
of which should ever be coupled with the highest eulogium on
the Commissioners of the Northern Light-houses, for their pub-
lic spirit and patriotic energies, and which will be a lasting mo-
nument of fame to all who were in any way engaged in its exe-
cution. Like the Eddystone, it is built upon a sunk rock twelve
miles at sea ; but it may be noticed as a difference in the situa-

• May we not hence conclude, that the silver lamps of the Jewish Temple
were substantially for use as well as ornament ?

Some Account of the Northern Light-houses. 115

tion of these celebrated edifices, that while the water rises in
spring-tides about twelve feet over the Bell Rock, the top of the
Eddystone rock is never entirely covered by the tide. Mr
Stevenson, however, taking a liberal view of the subject, con-
cludes, that, from the smallness of the Eddystone rock, the diffi-
culties experienced by Mr Smeaton were even greater than his
own in the erection of the Bell Rock Light-house. The execu-
tion of this last work occupied about four years ; but such were
the difficulties anticipated, that the arrangements of the work-
yard, &c. were made upon a scale of seven years' duration. The
cost was L. 61,331 : 9 : 2, toward which Government, at five per
cent interest, lent the sum of L. 30,000. But the Board did
not yet rest upon its oars ; it completed an important transac-
tion with the heirs of the Scotstarvit family, and, under the sanc-
tion of Government, paid L. 60,000 as a compensation for the
light-duties of the Isle of May, by which (as already men-
tioned), the trade was relieved of the heavy duty of three-half-
pence per ton, and the toll reduced to one halfpenny. Upon
completing this transaction, measures were immediately taken for
the erection of a new light-house, with all the modern improve-
ments, and the old tower was converted into a pilot's guard-
room. The new light was exhibited upon the 1st of February
1816, and upon the same night the open coal fire was extin-
guished, after having been continued one hundred and eighty-
one years.

From the celebrity of the works of the Northern Lights'
Commission, and the confidence reposed in that Board, the
trade of Liverpool applied to it to erect light-houses upon the
Isle of Man for the protection of their shipping in the Irish sea.
An act of Parliament was accordingly procured; and three
light-houses were erected, two upon the Calf of Man and one
at the Point of Ayre.

The attention of the Board was next directed to the Shetland
Islands, where a light-house was placed upon the lofty pinnacle
of Sumburgh Head, forming the southern extremity of that
group of islands. It may here be proper to notice, that no ad-
ditional duty is levied for any new light-houses erected by the
Board on the coast of Scotland, the whole being now maintained
from the surplus duties. Since 1821, when the fight of Sum-
burgh was exhibited, lights have been erected upon the Island of

H 2

116 Some Account of tJte Northern Light-houses.

Islay, Buchanness, Tarbetness, Mull of Galloway, Cape Wrathy
Dunnet Head, Bara Head, Girdleness, and Lismore. Some of
these stations form the principal forelands of the coast, and their
erection has been attended with very considerable expense, from
the difficulties of access both by sea and land. At Cape Wrath,
for example, landing-places had to be formed, and 10 miles of
road to be made, chiefly through a deep morass. Till of late
when this district became the property of the Duke of Suther-
land, the light-house was about 70 miles from a post-office; but
there is now a post established at the small hamlet of Durness,
about 12 miles from Cape Wrath. Bara-head station, however,
forming the southern termination of the Lewis, Harris, and Bara
Isles, is exposed to still greater difficulties in this respect than
Cape Wrath, even in its former state. The light-house stores
and coal, where peat-fuel cannot be had, for the use of the light-
keepers, are carried by the general Light-house Tender of 140
tons, assisted by the Pharos Bell Rock Tender of 50 tons, be-
longing to the Board. In these vessels the visiting officers and
artificers for repairs are also transported to the several stations ;
and the engineer makes his inspection in the former vessel, ac-
companied occasionally by some of the members of the Board.
It is part of the arrangement in conducting this system, that
the light-keepers, agreeably to printed forms, make monthly re-
turns, containing in particular the quantity of oil nightly used,
the precise moment of hghting and extinguishing the lights, the
order in which the respective keepers mount watch, the prevail-
ing state of the weather, the height of the barometer and ther-
mometer, and state of the rain-gauge, with which instruments
each station is supplied. As the keepers at the Bell Rock have
rations of provisions, their returns, which will be seen at page 433
of the Account of the Bell Rock Light-house, are necessarily
more complicated than at ordinary stations. The keepers are
also furnished with Shipwreck-returns, as at page 436, which
are filled up and dispatched to the engineer in case of ship-
wreck in the neighbourhood. They state the circumstances at-
tending any shipwreck, and have been occasionally called for at
Lloyd's. The Light-house Board has also a report from the
coast-guard, and the cruisers, in the event of any defect being
observed in the appearance of the lights as seen at sea. Upon
the whole, the completely effective state of the Northern Lights,

Some Account of the Northern Light-houses. 117

and the regular system of the Board, are most satisfactorily esta-
blished.

With regard to the characteristic appearance of the Northern
Lights, they may be classed as stationary/, revolving; flashing,
and intermittent lights. In the first, as its name implies, the
light has a steady and uniform appearance, and the reflectors
are ranged in circular zones upon a chandelier or piece of iron
frame-work, which is either supported upon a pedestal, or sus-
pended by truss-work from the roof of the light-room. The
revolving light consists of a frame built upon a perpendicular
shaft, and the reflectors are ranged on perpendicular planes or
faces, which are made to revolve in periodic times, by means of a
train of machinery kept in motion by a weight. When one of
those illuminated planes or faces is brought round toward the
eye of the observer, the light gradually increases to full strength,
and again diminishes in the same gradual manner. When, on
the contrary, the angle between two of these faces comes round,
the observer is in darkness. By these alternate changes, the
characteristic of the light-house is as distinctly marked to the
eye of the mariner as the opposite extremes of light and dark-
ness can make it. The flashi^ig light is a modification of the
revolving light, and is practically a beautiful example of the
infinite celerity of the passage of light. The reflectors are here
also ranged upon a frame, with faces which are made to revolve
with considerable rapidity ; and the light thus emerging from a
partial state of darkness, exhibits a momentary flash, resembling
a star of the first magnitude, and thereby produces a very
striking effect. The King of the Netherlands having applied
to the Light-house Board for a description of this light, as ap-
plicable to some part of the coast of Holland, was graciously
pleased, on receiving it, along with a copy of the book now be-
fore us, to present the Engineer of the Board with a massive
gold medal, bearing his Majesty's effigy, with a suitable inscrip-
tion upon the reverse. Similar applications with regard to the
flashing light have been more recently made from other quar-
ters. The intermittent light suddenly appears like a star of the
first magnitude, and contmues as a stationary light a minute and
a half, when it is as suddenly eclipsed for half a minute, and,
by this simple arrangement, a strongly marked distinction in
the lights of the coast is introduced. This is accomplished by

118 Some Account of the Northern Light-houses.

the perpendicular motion of shades before the lights. A variety
of all these lights is introduced by interposing before the re-
flectors plates of red glass, which produce the beautiful red light
alluded to in the lines of Sir Walter Scott, when he notices the
" ruddy gem of changeful light.*"

Nothing, in our opinion, can exceed the marked and charac-
teristic description of the appearance of the several lights allud-
ed to. It would be most hazardous to tamper with such a sys-
tem, or to adopt speculative alterations. The French, it is be-
lieved, are attempting to distinguish their lights by classing them
in orders according to the intensity and duration of the light,
as described by M. De Rossel, Amiral de France. But we con-
fess we are at a loss to conceive how such a system can be mo-
dified to the various atmospheric changes to which a French or
even an Italian sky is subject ; and still less is it possible that
the distinctions can be sufficiently obvious to observers at diffe-
rent distances. We fear there is more of theory than practice
in this projected system.

In concluding the notice of the works of the Northern Lights'
Board, we cannot help observing the proof which they afford of the
rapid extent and importance of the shipping interest of the united
kingdom. According to the circumscribed scale of the original
light-house act for Scotland, only four stations were contem-
plated, leaving an immense hiatus between each, and it is sur-
prising to think that in half a century there are now twenty-two
stations, the distances between which are so modified, that, with
the erection of two or three additional light-houses, vessels may
go round the mainland of Scotland, from the Frith of Forth to
the Frith of Clyde, with a light always in view. One of the
lights still wanted, and which is recognised in the act of Parlia-
ment, is for the rock Skerry-vore, which lies far at sea, between
the Islar\^s of Tyree and lona, in the direct line between Bara
Head and Islay, and forms the seaward termination of a great
mass of foul ground on the coast of Argyleshire ; which is highly
dangerous to West Indiamen falling in with the land. Two or
three lights on a small scale are also wanted for the Sounds of
Islay, Mull, and Skye; and the Shetland Islands require at least
another light, to complete the entire district of the Commis-
sioners of the Northern Light-houses. The clause in the Light-
house Act will then come into operation, which provides, that

Some Account ofi}ie Northern LigfU housea. 119

when a sufficient number of lights shall have been erected on the
coast, and an adequate sum provided for their maintenance, the
duty is ultimately to cease.

There is perhaps nothing which more strongly marks that
elevation of mind and character which one would expect from
the Northern Lights Board, constituted as it is of men of edu-
cation and habits of business, than its assiduous attention to the
improvement of the lights of the coast. This, we think, is suf-
ficiently manifest in the change made from open coal-li res to
glazed light-rooms, with reflectors. Nor do they seem to be at
all stationary in this respect : their engineer has lately visited
the coast of France, and brought with him a new lens appa-
ratus from Paris. The Board has farther procured an ap-
paratus from London, for the exhibition of the lime-ball light,
with oxygen and hydrogen gases, as employed by Lieutenant
Drummond. In order to enable the engineer to try these and
other experiments which he has in view more fully than could
be done at his temporary observatory near Inchkeith Light-
house, the Board have not only extended his apparatus, but also
the means of applying it, by the erection of three light-room
cabins on Gullan Hill, a place admirably adapted for such a
purpose, and affording such practical opportunities of trial as to
prevent all danger of being misled by theoretical hypotheses.

This splendid apparatus, after much "detention from various
causes, to which it would here be out of place to allude, was
ready for exhibition in the month of February last, and its ex-
hibition was continued till the day had lengthened out too much
for such observations. We shall, however, mention the results
as far as the experiments have been proceeded in, and we hope
hereafter to be able to give further details, as we understand
they will again be resumed next winter.

We have already noticed that the light-houses are now fur-
nished with reflectors of silvered copper, raised to moulds made
with accuracy to a parabolic curve, whose focal distance is 4
inches. These reflectors measure over the tips 21 inches as ap-
plicable to stationary^ and 25 inches for revolving lights, and
are illuminated by means of Argand burners, with an effect,
which we may safely say is not surpassed on any coast in Europe.
In the much neglected state of the coast of France during the long

120 Some Account of the Northern Light-houses.

ni^ht of terror, when its commerce was ruined, and its ships
were disabled, even if we did not know the fact, we should con-
clude that it was unlikely that any attention would be paid to the
improvementof the French light-houses. Accordingly, only about
ten or twelve years since, when the Corps Royal des Pouts et
Chaussees, et des Mines, under which the light-houses and har-
bours of France are placed, began to improve their lights, they
resolved upon laying aside the very imperfect and insignificant
reflectors then in use. They adopted a modification of the fa-
mous Buffon's burning-glass, as prepared by the late celebrated
M. Fresnel, and which we believe to be similar or identical with
the burning-glass of Dr (now Sir David) Brewster, who, in
1811 or 1812, had described a lens of this description, in the
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. In the application of this instrument
to light-houses, Fresnel, with that liberality of character which
greatly endeared him to all who knew him, disclaims any merit
as the first who had suggested its application to light-house pur-
poses. Such a proposal had been made by an optician of Lon-
don to Mr Smeaton in 1759, as mentioned in his Narrative,
page 156, for illuminating the Eddystone light-house, but was
not adopted by that eminent engineer. M. Fresnel mentions
that lenses had been used in England so far back as 1789, in
the lower light-room at Portland Island, but, from whatever
cause, they have since been laid aside. In the year 1820, in the
course of some investigations connected with the Trigonome-
trical Survey of Great Britain, and conducted by a deputation
of persons eminent in science from London and Paris, M. Fres-
nel, from the French side of the Channel, exhibited, by means
of his lens and a large lamp, a powerful light, which was ob-
served by the English across the Channel.

The brilliancy of this light so struck Lieut.-Colonel Colby
of the Royal Engineers, who was engaged in these observations,
that, with his usual kindness, and zeal for the advancement of
science, he immediately corresponded with Mr Stevenson, en-
gineer for the Northern Light-houses, as to its probable use
upon the Scottish coast. Mr Stevenson, no less zealous for im-
provement, communicated with Mr Adie, the principal optician
in Edinburgh, and with Dr Brewster, then engaged in optical
researches, but without coming to any practical result. In

Some Account oftlie Nortliern Light-liouses. 121

1824, however, in consequence of Colonel Colby's having in-
formed him that the Tour de Corduan was just fitted up with
lenses, he visited that light-house; and in 1825, two of the
lenses, and the lamp employed for illuminating them, were re-
ceived from Paris, where they had been ordered by Mr Steven-
son. In 1826, Colonel Colby made arrangements for exhibiting
the lens and reflector, and Lieutenant Drummond's apparatus,
in one of the long rooms of the Tower of London. To this
exhibition the Master^ and Elder Brethren of the Trinity-
house, Sir Wilham Rae the Lord Advocate of Scotland, and
other members of the Northern Lights Board then attending
Parliament, were invited, together with a number of the mem-
bers of the Royal Society, including Sir William Herschel, Dr
Olinthus Gregory and Mr Barlow, as also Messrs Gilbert, the
opticians, and other artists of eminence. On this occasion a train
of very interesting experiments were made. From London the
lens was sent to Messrs Bolton and Watt of Soho, where Mr
Stevenson had a consultation with some of the members of that
scientific and highly respectable house, regarding the construc-
tion of lenses for light-house purposes; but it appeared that
Sheffield was rather the place for that manufacture.

The French lens was considered by Sir David Brewster as of
an inferior quality, from its being made of greenish glass, and he
stated to the Light-house Board, that if a lens were prepared
under his direction by Messrs Gilbert of London, its effect
would be much more powerful in penetrating fogs than that of
the French lens. The Light-house Board, therefore, though
they considered their lights adequate for every purpose, ex-
cepting penetrating fogs, upon the recommendation of Sir David
Brewster, readily gave him a carte blanche to prepare a lens.
The comparative trial of this lens with the French lens, the re-
flected light at present in use and the lime-ball light, and the
ascertaining of their respective powers in penetrating fog, were
the primary objects of the late experiments at GuUan Hill.

In the comparison of the French and British lenses, the first
of which is of greenish glass, and that prepared under the direc-
tions of Sir David Brewster of flint glass, there was no percep-
tible advantage on either side, as observed from the Calton
Hill, which is distant about 12 miles from Gullan. This result,

122 Some Account of the Northern Light-hmises,

though contrary to the expectation of some, is yet easily ac-
counted for, by considering that the quantity of liglit absorbed
by glass of a greenish colour, is too trifling to make any appre-
ciable difference in the intensity of the refracted beam. In re-
gard to the comparative trial of the lens light with the reflectors
at present in use on the coast, it appeared that the lens, illumi-
nated with a lamp consuming the oil of 14 Argand burners, was
fully equal in appearance to the light of 6 or 7 reflectors, each
having an Argand burner ; but it is to be noticed, that the
French lamp consuming the oil of 14 Argand burners if placed
in the centre of a system of lenses, would give a light in every
direction equal to that of 6 or 7 Keflectors. This, however, is
chiefly applicable to revolving lights, in some of which only 7
reflectors are employed, in others 12, or at most 20, according
to their situation. When the Bell Rock light was first exhibited,
24 reflectors were in use.

The light produced by the flame of oxygen and hydrogen
gases- passing over a lime-ball when exhibited in the focus of a
single reflector, was much more powerful than either the lens or
reflector when illuminated by lamps. But it also deserves no-
tice, that a single reflector very far surpassed the lens in brilliancy
and effect when the lime-ball light was exhibited at the same
time in the face of both.

It had farther been suggested that distinguishing lights, simi-
lar to those used by the Bengal pilots, might be introduced with
good effect into light- houses. Bengal-lights were accordingly
procured from his Majesty's stores at Woolwich, on the applica-
tion of the Light-house Board. At the same time, Mr Steven-
son commissioned from London a supply of the nitrates of stron-
tia and baryta, by the combustion of which red and green lights
were produced. These were also exhibited from Gullan Hill ;
but the red light, in so far as the experiments have yet been
carried, was chiefly worthy of notice. When this substance was
burned in great quantity, it afforded a beautiful flash of light
resembling the red light of the Bell Rock light. It is to be re-
gretted, that during these trials, the weather did not afford an
opportunity of making observations during fog ; but, as before
noticed, the experiments are again to be resumed, when we hope
to give precise information as to the anomalies of some of these
appearances.

( 123 )

ON THE GROUND-ICE OR THE PIECES OF FLOATING ICE OB-
SERVED IN RIVERS DURING WINTER. BY M. ARAGO.

The severe winter of 1829-30 has attracted the attention of
natural philosophers to the phenomena of congelation in running
waters. They have examined how, and in what manner, im-
mense quantities of ice are formed which some rivers carry down
to the sea, and which, on being piled up against the arches of a
bridge, often cause fatal accidents. I confess that, in a theore-
tical point of view, the question does not yet seem, in my opi-
nion, to be exhausted. Is it not a strong reason, then, for my
presenting as complete an analysis as possible of the observations
to which it has given rise ? For want of a definitive solution of
so curious a problem, I shall at least have placed before the eyes
of meteorologists a complete tabular view of all the data with
which it is indispensable that the explanation shall agree.

Every one knows that in a lake, a pond, in every sheet of
stagnant water, congelation proceeds from the exterior to the
interior. It is the upper part of the surface of the water which
is primarily affected. The thickness of the ice afterwards in-
creases in proceeding from above downwards.

Is this the case with running waters ? Natural philosophers
are of this opinion. On the other hand, millers, fishermen, and
watermen, maintain that the masses of ice with which rivers
are crowded in the winter season, proceed from the bottom.
They pretend that they have seen them rise, and have often
borne them up with their hooks. They say, in order to
strengthen their opinion, that the inferior surfaces of large flakes
of ice is impregnated with mud ; that it is encrusted with
gravel ; that, in short, it bears the most unequivocal marks of
the ground on which it rested ; that, in Germany, the sailors
have a peculiar and characteristic term to designate floating ice
which they call grundeis, i. e. ground-ice. Such arguments
make little impression on prejudiced minds. It would require
nothing less than the evidence of many experienced philosophers
to cause a belief in the reality of a phenomenon which seems di-

124 On the Ground-ice observed in

rectly opposed to the laws of the propagation of heat. But it is
so. This evidence is not awanting ; and if the phenomenon of
ice in the bottom of water has only appeared recently as an
established fact in treatises on physics and meteorology, the
reason is, because their authors generally copy from each other,
because every one neglects what his predecessor neglected, and
because academical collections, in which many treasures remain
concealed, are very seldom consulted.

In 1730, at an atmospherical temperature of — 9° centigr.
(15°8 Fahr.), Hales saw at Teddington, the surface of the
Thames, near the banks, covered with a layer of ice one-third
of an inch in thickness. There was also at the same time a se-
cond layer below, of greater thickness, which followed the depth
of the river, as it adhered to the bottom. This sheet was united
to the upper one even on the water-side ; but it was gradually
separated in proportion, as, in proceeding into the river, the
depth of the water increased. It was not so solid as the first,
and was mixed with sand, and even stones, which the flakes
sometimes carry with them in their movement upwards.

This observation is defective, inasmuch as it was made too
near the bank. Those who do not know how imperfectly
every kind of soil transmits heat, might suppose that the
cold was communicated from the dry ground of the bank to that
which formed the bed of the river by means of conductibility.
It is unnecessary to discuss this difficult point, as it has no con-
nexion with many of the cases which are about to occupy our
attention.

It is really surprising that those writers who have lately con-
sidered the subject of floating ice in a historical point of view,
have not alluded to some observations which were made in
France a good many years ago.

At the close of December 1780, the temperature was very sud-
denly increased in the southern parts of France by a very strong
northerly wind. The thermometer sunk to 8° or 7° centigr.
below zero. Desmarest, member of the Academic des Sciences,
who, at that time, happened to be at Annonay, saw the bed of
the Deome covered with spongy ice. The frost commenced at
first on the margin of the river, where there was a depth of wa-

Rivers dit/ring Winter. 125

ter to the extent of two or three feet. The cold continuing, the
ice soon shewed itself in the deepest parts.

In places where the water flowed over the hare rocJcs^ Des-
marest saw no vestige of ice. On the contrary, it was rapidly
formed in great abundance, especially where there was any
quantity of gravel : in some parts it was two feet thick.

According to Desmarest, " it was from the lower part which
touched the bottom, that the flakes of ice successively increased.

The ice already formed was continually raised up by

the expansive force of that which was in the act of formation.

In watching its motion, I have seen," said he, " that

certain flakes of ice zvere raised up five or six inches in a single
night. Some of them were, in consequence of the daily and to-
lerably equal mider-additions, believed to form, in this manner,
islands of ice, which appeared above the running water."*'

No one has hitherto corroborated this mode of increase of ice
under water. It is to be regretted that Desmarest did not ex-
plain the nature of the observation which induced him to come
to such a singular result. Had he, for example, deposited on the
flakes of the ice at the bottom objects which always remained
visible, while, in rising, all the twenty-four hours, the flakes
actually approached the surface of the water, it certainly would
have been worth while giving an explanation.

When, in consequence of a cloudy sky, the atmovspherical
temperature experiences little variation throughout the day and
night, the ice at the bottom of the water, according to Desmarest,
uniformly increases every twent}'-four hours. On the contrary,
when the sun shews itself, the ice does not increase during the
day. The difl\?rent layers which are produced during the night
after an interval of five or six hours of repose, form distinct
beds, which are easily disunited. The current then detaches
each layer of ice from the lower one, to which it adheres but
feebly, and the river begins to carry it along.

M. Beaun, a bailiff" at Weld Wilhelmsbourg, on the Elbe,
published many dissertations in 1788, in which the existence of ice
on the bottom of a river is established, either by his own obser-
vations or the unanimous declarations of fishermen, procured
after a most anxious investigation.

1^ On the Ground-Ice observed in

The fishermen asserted that, during the cold days in autumn,
long before the appearance of ice on the surface of the river, the
nets which were at the bottom of the water were covered with
such a quantity o{ grundeis that they drew them up with great
difficulty ; that the baskets which were used for catching eels
also often on being brought to the surface were encrusted with
ice; that anchors which had been lost during the summer again
appeared in th6 following winter, being raised up by the ascend-
ing force of the ice at the bottom which had covered them ;
that this ice raised up the large stones to which the buoys were
attached by chains, and occasioned the greatest inconvenience by
displacing these useful signals, &c. &c.

These various observations were confirmed by Beaun on his
own authority. He says that he discovered, by means of expe-
riment, that hemp, wool, hair, the boiled hair of horses,
moss in particular and the bark of trees, are bodies which,
on being placed at the bottom of water, are very speedily co-
vered with ice. He declares that various metals do not possess
this property in the same degree. According to him, tin
occupies the first rank, — iron the last.

Mr Knight, the celebrated botanist, has related an observation
in the 106th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, which is
the more valuable, as it seems in some respects to afford a clue
to the secret of the formation of ice on the bottom of rivers.

" In a morning which succeeded an intensely cold night, the
stones in the rocky bed of the river appeared to be covered with
frozen matter, which reflected a kind of silvery whiteness, and
which, upon examination, I found to consist of numerous frozen
spicula crossing each other in every direction, as in snow, but
not having anywhere except very near the shore assumed the
state of firm compact ice. The river was not at this time frozen
over in any part ; but the temperature of the water was obvi-
ously at the freezing point, for small pieces of ice had every-
where formed upon it in its more stagnant parts near the shores ;
and upon a mill-pond, just above the shallow streams (in the
bottom of which I had observed the ice), I noticed millions of
little frozen spicula floating upon the water. At the end of this
mill-pond the water fell over a low weir and entered a narrow

Rivers during Winter. 127

channel, where its course was obstructed by points of rock and
large stones. By these^ numerous eddies and gyrations were
occasioned, which apparently drew the floating spicula under
water ; and I found the frozen matter to accumulate much more
abundantly upon such parts of the stones as stood opposed to
the current, where that was not very rapid below the little falls
or very rapid parts of the river. I have reason to believe that
it would have accumulated in very large quantities if the wea-
ther had continued sufiiciently cold ; for I had been informed
on good evidence, that, some years before, the whole bed of the
river in the part above mentioned had been covered over with a
thick coat of ice.

" On some large stones near the shore, of which parts were
out of the water, and upon pieces of native rock, under similar
circumstances, the ice beneath the water had acquired a firmer
texture, but appeared from its whiteness to have been first
formed of congregated spicula, and to have subsequently frozen
into a firm mass, owing to the lower extremity of the stone or
rock. Ice of this kind extended in a few places eighteen inches
from the shore, and lay three or four inches below the level of
the surface of the water, and did not dissolve so rapidly as that
which was deposited upon stones more distant from the shores.*"

On the 11th of February 1816, the engineers of bridges and
roads residing at Strasburg, saw above the bridge of Kehl that
many parts of the channel of the Rhine were covered with ice.
About ten o'clock a. m. this ice became loose, rose to the sur-
face, and floated.

The thermometer in the open air stood at — 12° centigr. The
water in the river at every depth was at zero cent. The ice at the
bottom was only formed in places, however, where there were
stones and angular stuff*. It was spongy, and formed of icy
spicula.

The overseers of the bridge stated that it never appeared on
the surface until after 10 or 11 o'clock in the morning.
P The canal of Saint- Alban conveys the waters of the Birse
through the town of Bale. It is very limpid, and flows with
great rapidity. During the winter of 1823, Professor Merian
carefully examined the bed of the canal, which, in general, is
covered with pebbles, and saw that wherever the bottom exhi-

128 On the Ground-Ice observed in

bited any projection, there was a small piece of ice, which might
have been supposed, at a distance, to be a reuniting of tufts of
cotton. This ice became disengaged from the bottom from time
to time, and floated on the surface. It had all the appearance
of the /rnind-eis of the German watermen.

M. Hugi, president of the Societe d^'Histoire Naturelle de
Soleure, is the philosopher who, in my opinion, has seeji the phe-
nomena of the formation of ice at the bottom of water displayed
on the greatest scale. His first observations were made in
1827.

From the 2d to the 3d February of that year, the river
Aar, at Soleure, was breaking up the ice ; on the 15th it was com-
pletely open. It flowed slowly on the 16th, and the water was
perfectly pure. On this day, in consequence of a westerly wind,
a multitude of large icy tables were continually rising from the
bottom about 60 or 70 feet below the bridge, and over a surface
of upwards of 450 square feet. I ought to add, as this cir-
cumstance confirms what Hales was told by the fishermen of the
Thames, that the great proportion of the flakes of ice mounted
vertically, till 5 or 6 decimetres above the surface of the water,
and after remaining a few minutes in this position, they sunk
down, and floated horizontally.

After a certain time, the flakes of ice became more scarce ;
but they had increased to such an extent, that many, though
almost vertically raised above the water, still rested in the
bed of the river on one of their sides, and in which position
they remained stationary for a long time. The phenomenon
lasted for about a couple of hours.

Below the bridge, the Jar flows with rapidity over an inclined
channel of 20 or 30 degrees, and in many places is quite stony.
Beyond the place where the flakes of ice arose, the water, al-
ready more tranquil, always exhibited a sort of eddy.

The temperature of the air was — 5°.7 centig. ; near the wa-
ter — 4°.9; close to the surface of the river, -f 2°.l. The water
near the arches, where there was no ice, was at -f-3°.0 ; at the
bottom, where the ice ascended, 0°.0.

There is one circumstance which lessens the importance of

Rivers during Winter, 129

these observations as to the temperature ; it is not established
that the ice at the bottom of the river on the 16th February wa»
formed on that day, and these ices might again cover the bed of
the river for many days afterwards.

The second series of the observations of Mr Hugi were made
in the month of February 18:29!'

On the 11th of this month, the Aar near Soleure was quite
free from ice. For many days the temperature of the atmo-
sphere was from +4° to +6° centigr. During the night of the
llth-12th, it suddenly fell to — 14° centigr. On the 12th at
sunrise, the river began to exhibit numerous floating pieces
of ice. We must by no means omit to add, that the water,
either near the banks, or in the shady places where it was per-
fectly calm, as yet bore no trace of congelation on its surface.
It therefore could not be said that the floating masses were de-
tached from the banks. It would have been as unfounded to
have supposed that they had proceeded from any large sheet of
ice situated farther up the river, as at Altrey, a league and a
half above Soleure, the river hardly exhibited any ice. Besides,
flakes of ice commenced soon to rise up above the bridge, in the
place where they had been seen in 1827. Towards mid-day,
islands of ice were seen formintj in the centre of the river. On
the 13th February these were 23 in number. The largest was
upwards of 200 feet in diameter. They were surrounded with
open water, resisted a current which almost ran at the rate of
200 feet in a minute, and extended over a space of one-eighth
of a league. M. Hugi visited them in a small boat. He landed,
examined them in every direction, and discovered that there was
a layer of compact ice on their surface of 5 or 10 centimetres in
thickness, resting on a mass having the shape of a cone reversed,
of a vertical height of 3 or 4 metres, and fixed to the bottom of
the bed of the river. These cones consisted of half-melted ice,
gelatinous, and very like the spawn of a frog. It was softer at
the bottom than at the top, and was easily pierced in all direc-
tions with poles. Exposed to the open air, the substance of the
cones became quickly granulated like the ice that is formed at
the bottom of rivers.

When these observations were being, made, the temperature
of the air, at 9 metres above the Aar, was, — 11°.2 centigr.; at

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. — .lULY 1833. I

13d On ifie Ground Ice observed in

1".3, — .9°.4. That of the water, at 5 centimetres deep, 0^0 ;
at 1°».8, +1°.0 ; at 0"^.5 from the bottom, +1°.5 ; at the bottom,
+2°.4; at 1°*. in the ground, +8°.0.

These determinations of the temperature of the water were
obtained in a part of the river which had no ice at the bottom.

M. Fargeau, a distinguished professor of natural philosophy
in Strasbourgh, has made some observations on the Rhine,
which have been communicated to the Academy. Notwith-
standing what we have read, they are very deserving of notice.

On the 25th of January 1829, at 7 o'clock a. m., the tempe-
rature of the air, near the bridge of Kehl, was at 13°.71 centigr.
At the same moment, in that part of the Rhine, which, owing
to the situation of its sand-banks, formed, on the French side, a
sort of lake witJiout currents^ the water of which was at zerOy
but at the depth of | metre it was -|-4°.4 This place had only
a few plates of ice near the banks.

Beyond the banks of sand, in a little creek where the shal-
low water was co7itiguoits to a very rapid current, all the peb-
bles seemed covered with a sort of transparent mass of from 3
to 4 centimetres in thickness, and which, on examination, was
found to consist of icy spicula crossing each other in every di-
rection. In this creek the thermometer stood at zero cent, both
at the surface and at the bottom of the water. It was the same
even in the most rapid part of the current. There was also
seen, either in the channel of the Rhine, or on some pieces of
wood on the side opposite to the current, at a depth of 2 metres,
large masses of spongy ice, into which the pole of a waterman
entered with ease. This ice, on being borne to the surface of
the water, was found closely to resemble the innumerable flakes
which were at that time floating on the surface. M. Fargeau
states, that he saw ice on many occasions with his own eyes, in
the greater Rhine, separate from the bottom, and rise to the
surface.

M, Fargeau has added an important observation to his own
remarks, which was communicated to him, and from whence the
result is derived, that the nature of the bed of the river has the
same influence on the phenomena of congelation in small and in
large currents of water. In the Vosges, a superintendant of
forges, informed him, that, to prevent the formation of ice at
the bottom of the rivulet which supplied his establishment, he

Rivers durmg Winter. 131

was obliged once a year to remove the stones and other foreign
bodies with which the channel became accidentally covered.

In the beginning of February 1830, M. Duhamel, on,
breaking the ice which covered the surface of the Seine, a short
way below the bridge at Grenelle, about 10 feet from the banks,
found a layer of continuous ice 4 centimetres thick. He even,
procured many fragments. At this spot the water was upward*
of one yard deep. At every depth the thermometer stood at
zero centigr. The current was tolerably rapid.

The experiment of M. Duhamel had this defect, like that
of Hales formerly mentioned, of having been made too close to
the bank. I could not, however, omit quoting it, as I am not
aware of any observation to be found elsewhere by a man of
science respecting the congelation at the bottom of the Seine.

It has been mentioned already, that natural philosophers did
not believe in the formation of floating ice at the bottom of wa-
ter ; they ought, therefore, not to expect that any thing very
important will be found in the sketch I am about to present of
the theoretical speculations to which this theory has given rise.

Sailors for the most part believe that the flakes of ice are
formed at night on the bottom of rivers, by the action of the
moon, and that it is the sun which attracts them to the surface
on the following day. Popular prejudices are generally ground-
ed on some imperfect observation. By recollecting what we
said concerning the red moon *, we shall easily discover how the
strange notion of which I have spoken arose.

The theory of the sailors was not succeeded by an explica-
tion in any degree better. It was said that heat arises from the
rapid movement of the parts of bodies. The running water
flows less rapidly at the bottom than at the top, the maximum
of temperature is, of course, found at the surface ; it is at the
bottom, where there is the least agitation, that the congelation
ought to begin. To complete this theory, the ascension of the
flakes of ice was attributed to the elasticity which the air dis-
solved in the water resumes when it disengages itself during the
process of congelation, and to the formation, in the midst of the
icy mass, of bubbles of considerable size.

• In the Scientific Intelligence of this Number, the reader will find some
account of the red moon mentioned above.

532 0)1 tlie Ground fee observed in

In 1742, when this strange theory saw the light {Observa-
tions sur les Ecrits modernes^ t. xxxi.), the thermometer was in
the hand of every person, and of course it could have been
easily ascertained that, during a hard frost, river water is in
general colder at the surface than at the bottom. But, as Mon-
taigne says, even in the facts which are laid before them, men
willingly amuse themselves in seeking for reasons rather than
truth ; they abandon things and fly to causes.

To reconcile the theoretical objection which Nollet has made
to the popular opinion respecting ice at the bottom of water,
with the observations which incontestibly establish that the
greater part of the flakes which have been broken up have been
immersed for a longer or shorter period, and that their inferior
surface rests on a muddy bottom, it has been thought that the
origin will be found in the small streams which run into large
rivers. There, it is said, the water being shallow, the ice should
soon find itself in contact with the ground or mud with which
the bed is covered. As to the flakes of ice which rise beneath
the water, which sailors bring up with their hooks from a depth
of some feet, their existence is explained by remarking, that,
after a sharp frost followed by the commencement of a thaw,
there is sometimes a great increase, to which a new frost suc-
ceeds, so that there is in the river, but especially near the banks,
two layers of ice superimposed at a distance ; the one at the
height of the first level of the water, the other at the height
which this level has attained on the rise of the water. This
theory, which refers to a peculiar case, does not explain, in any
point of view, the observations just made, and in which natu-
ral philosophers have actually seen ice formed on the surface of
pebbles placed at the bottom of the water in the beds of certain
rivers.

We now come to Mr M'Keever, who, confining himself closely
to the most subtle principles of the theory of heat, has not, on
this account, been more fortunate than his predecessors.

According to this author, the rocks, stones, and gravel which
generally cover the bottom of rivers, have powers of radiation
superior to those of mud, perhaps on account of their peculiar
nature, but chiefly because they have rough surfaces. Thus rocks,
in large or small masses, will become much cooler in consequence

Rivers during' Winter, 133

of radiation : when the atmospherical temperature is very low,
they will, of course, freeze the water which touches them.

It is unnecessary to examine here, whether heat radiates
through a thick layer of water, as Mr M'Keever supposes, as
the most simple observation is sufficient to overthrow it.

Where is the person who has not observed, that the strong
radiation which the Irish philosopher admits, would be more
plainly manifested, or as completely, in still water than in run-
ning water ; but no one has seen a piece of still water frozen at
the bottom ?

Let us throw aside all these absurd explanations, and, for
want of better, analyze perspicuously the physical condition of
the question.

If liquids of different densities are thrown into a vessel, the
heavy will sink to the bottom, the light keep at the top.

This principle in hydrostatics is general. It applies as well
to liquids possessing different chemical properties, as to portions
of one and the same liquid whose densities are dissimilar, in
consequence of inequalities in the temperature.

Liquids, like all other bodies, solid or gaseous, increase in
density as their temperature diminishes.

Water alone, in a certain small extent of' the thermometric
scale, presents a singular exception to this rule. Suppose wa-
ter is taken at -|- 10° centigr. and gradually cooled, at 9° we
shall find it denser than at 10°, at 8° more than 9°, at T more
than 8°, and so on till 4° ; at this point condensation will cease.
In going from 4° to 3° for example, there is a manifest diminu-
tion of density. This diminution will go on till the temperature
falls from 3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and from 1 to zero. To con-
clude, water has a maximum of density, which does not coin-
cide with its term of congelation. At 4° above zero is the
maximum of density.

There is nothing so simple as to point out in what manner
the congelation of stagnant water takes place.

Let us suppose, as is always the case, that at the moment
when the wind blowing from the north produces ice, the water
throughout to be at -f- 10°. The cooling of the hquid, by
coming in contact with the glacial air, will be affected from the
exterior to the interior. The surface which, hypothetical ly

134 07h the Ground Ice observed in

speaking, was at 10° will soon be at 9° ; but at 9° the water will
possess more density than at 10° ; then, in consequence of the
principle of hydrostatics formerly mentioned, it will sink to the
bottom of the mass, and be replaced by a layer not yet cooled,
whose temperature is 10°. That, in its turn, will be affected
like the first layer, and so on of the rest. In a greater or less
time the whole mass will then be at -f- 9°.

Water at + 9° will become cool in the same way as at 10° by
consecutive layers. Each in its turn, on coming to the surface,
will lose one degreee of temperature. The same phenomenon
will reappear, with similar circumstances, at 8°, 7°, 6°, and 5° ;
but, on sinking to 4°, every thing will be changed.

At + 4° (39°.2 Fahr.) water will actually reach its maximum
of density. Should the action of the atmosphere take away a
degree of heat from the superficial layer, or descend to 3°, the
layer will be less dense than the portion of fluid which it co-
vers ; it will never sink into it. An additional diminution in
the heat will not cause it to sink more, as water at -f 2° is light-
er than at + 3°, &c.

It is quite obvious, however, that the layer in question, by
remaining always on the surface, incessantly exposed to the
cooling influence of the atmosphere, will at length lose the first
4° of its heat. It will end by falling to zero, and freezing.

The superficial sheet of ice, however singular the phenomenon
may be, is then found resting on a liquid mass, whose tempera-
ture, at least at the bottom, is 4° above zero.

The congelation of stagnant water could not evidently take
place in any other manner. I repeat, that no person has ever seen
the formation of ice beginning at the bottom of a lake or a pond.

Let us briefly examine the modifications which the motion of
the liquid should produce.

The effect of this motion, when it is rather rapid, when it
forms eddies, and flows over a rocky or unequal channel, is per-
petually to mix all the layers. The hydrostatic order on which
we have insisted so much is overthrown. The water, then, which
is lightest does not always float on the surface. The currents
are precipitated into the general mass, which is thereby cooled,
and whose temperature soon becomes equal throughout.

To repeat, in a deep mass of stagnant water, the temperature

* Rivers during Winler. 135

of the bottom can never descend below -h 4° cent. When this
mass is in a state of agitation, the surface, the middle, and the
bottom, may be found at zero simultaneously.

We have only now to examine, why, when this uniformity of
temperature exists, and when the entire liquid mass is at zero,
that congelation commences at the bottom, and not at the surface.

But where is the person who does not know, that to produce
a speedy formation of crystals in a saline solution, it is merely
necessary to introduce a pointed body, or an unequal surface
into it ; that it is around the asperities of such a body that crys-
tals originate and are promptly increased ? Be it so, every one
may be assured that this is the case with crystals of ice ; that if
the mud in which the congelation occurs presents a rent or pro-
jection, or solution of continuity of any kind, it will become as
so many centres, around which the filaments of frozen water
will prefer to arrange themselves.

But is not what we have said exactly the history of the freez-
ing of rivers ? This cannot be doubted, if we recollect, that it
never takes place in the channel, unless where there are rocks,
stones, pebbles, pieces of wood, herbs, &c.

There is another circumstance which seems to have a certain
share in this phenomenon, viz. the motion of the water. At the
surface this motion is very rapid and irregular ; it ought of
course to put a stop to the symmetrical grouping of needles; to
that polar arrangement, without which crystals, whatever be
their nature, can neither acquire regularity of form, nor solidity ;
it should of course frequently break the crystalline groups, even
in their rudimentary state.

This motion, which is the principal obstacle to crystalliza-
tion, if it exists at the bottom as well as the surface of the wa-
ter, is at least greatly diminished at the former. It may be
supposed, therefore, that its action will merely oppose the for-
mation of regular or compact ice, but will not eventually pre-
vent a multitude of little filaments becoming irregularly blend-
ed, and thus produce that kind of spongy ice through which M.
Hugi so easily drove the oars of his boat.

Having proceeded thus far, the reader may probably ask
why I did not present what preceded, as a complete explana-
tion of the formation of the grund-eis of Germany, of the
glaces defond of our sailors. — This is my answer.

136 On the Ground Ice observed in

We have no observations which prove that this kind of ice
is seen, until the temperature of the whole of the water is
at zero. It is not certain that the little icy particles floating
On the water, mentioned by Mr Knight, and which may have
acquired, by coming into contact with the air, at least on their
upper surface, a temperature considerably below zero, do not
play an important part in this phenomenon, which I have en-
tirely overlooked ; that, viz. of cooling the stones covering the
bed of the river, when dragged thither by currents. Is it not
possible that these floating filaments were the principal elements
of the spongy ice which was afterwards to be formed ?

Our theory does not explain in what manner this ice, once
formed, only increases in a downward direction. If the remark
of Desmarest be correct, there is something wanting to com-
plete it.

During the congelation of the bottom of the Aar, at the place
where the ice was formed, M. Hugi immersed pitchers filled
with hot and cold water. The^r^^, he says, on being brought
up, was covered with a layer of ice of one inch thick, the other
had no marks of congelation. Bullets covered with cloth, warm
as well as cold, afforded similar results.

These remarkable experiments cannot be kept out of view.
They ought to be repeated in a variety of ways : we should be
sure whether these two bodies, on being immersed, do not differ
but in temperature; that their surfaces are equally polished ;
and if, after all the minute precautions with which an able phi-
losopher is sure to avail himself, it be found that the body, ori-
ginally hot at the moment of immersion^ is covered, as we
are assured by M. Hugi, with more ice than the cold one, it
will perhaps be necessary to attribute this singular phenomenon
to the internal movement of the liquid ; to currents which,
being caused at first by the presence of a hot body, still conti-
nued after it became cold ; to currents which incessantly conti-
nued to throw over this cold body filaments frozen on the sur-
face.

Before coming to the conclusion, that the question which we
have been discussing is completely solved, it would be necessary
to subject the texture of the ices at the bottom to additional ex-
periments ; we must ascertain accurately whether the vesicular
cavities, which traverse it in every direction, contain any air, —

Elvers during Winter. 137

or if they are completely empty, — for this circumstance is very
necessary, in order to enlighten us as to the place where they
originate.

I am expatiating, however, beyond my plan. I at first
merely wished to examine, whether the floating ice was produced
at the bottom or the surface of a river. This question can no
longer be doubted. The theory is far from being so far ad-
vanced. I have pointed out the chasms which it still exhibits.
If the recital of these cases can in any way contribute towards
their being speedily filled up, I shall be amply recompensed for
my trouble. — Annuaire pour VAn 1833.

ON THE ADVANTAGES OF A SHORT ARC OF VIBRATION FOR

THE CLOCK PENDULUM. By Mv Edifard Sang. Read
before the Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts
in Scotland, 6th February 1833.

A LONG intercourse with persons engaged in all the depart-
ments of machine-making has brought before me many erroneous
ideas. At first I contented myself with exhibiting their fallacy
as I met with them, but continued experience has convinced me
that a systematic and public exposure of their nature would be
of advantage to engine-makers. Following up that conviction,
I have projected a series of papers, two of which are already be-
fore the Society of Arts. In this, the third one, it is intended
to exhibit the impolicy of long sweeps for clock pendulums,
and to correct that taste which renders such movements more
saleable.

In these papers, of course, I do not offer my remarks to those
who, with laudable zeal, have possessed themselves of a com-
plete knowledge of the subjects. Intended for those only whose
inattention, or whose want of opportunity, has prevented the ac-
quisition of such knowledge, these remarks can hardly claim the
notice of the initiated, unless, on the simple ground, that they
tend to remove that barrier which separates scientific from prac-
tical men. Prevenied from employing the refined and power-
ful methods of modern analysis, or even from adverting to the
truths presented by the simple sciences, I am reluctantly com-

138 Mr Sang on the Advantages of a

pel led to combat error by assertion, and to attempt the removal
of one prejudice through the agency of another.

In the present case, it would be vain to introduce an investi-
gation of the law of motion in circular arcs, since no horologist
who is able to follow that investigation can be partial to the
long sweep. Among those who are unable to follow it, an in-
distinct belief prevails that the motions of the pendulum may be
subjected to calculation : neither that calculation indeed, nor the
principles on which it is founded, have they subjected to exami-
nation ; but then the idea of applying the pendulum to the
measurement of time was first entertained by one profoundly
skilled in science, — the balance- spring, the fusee, and the com-
pensations for thermal expansion, were all results of scientific re-
search ; and it may not be impossible, say they, that, from the
same mysterious source, an exact knowledge of the influence of
long and short arcs on the going of a clock, may be obtained.
And thus, although they do not fully appreciate the force of
theoretical results, they are yet not prepared to contradict them.
Such is the kind of argument to which I must appeal in support
of the statements I am about to make.

If, when the pendulum of a clock is making exceedingly minute
vibrations, it be adjusted to true time, and if the arc be then
lengthened, the duration of the beat will be increased also. At
first, this increase will be exceedingly minute, but as the arc en-
larges itself, the interval between two beats will augment more
and more rapidly, until the slightest change on the arc of vibra-
tion will produce a sensible effect on the clock's going. I have
computed and arranged, in the annexed tables, the exact amounts
of the changes corresponding to each of the first twenty hun-
dredth parts of the semicircle ; by the help of these tables, we
are enabled readily to compare the performances of pendulums
with long or short sweeps.

Suppose that we had a clock regulated to true time when its
pendulum swept an arc of twenty centesimal degrees on each
side of the vertical line, and then let the maintaining power, on
account of the thickening of the oil, or from any other cause, be
reduced by one-twentieth part, the pendulum will, keeping no ac-
count of the resistance of the air, vibrate only 19 degrees on each
side, and its daily rate will therefore be accelerated 52''^35.

Short Arc of Vibration Jbr Pendulums. 139

Conceive now, that, by an augmentation of the weight of the
pendulum, and a consequent increase of friction on the knife
edge, the maintaining power becomes sufficient for a sweep of
only one degree on each side of the vertical Hne ; and, having
again adjusted the clock to go in true time, let the same dimi-
nution take place in the maintaining power, the arc of vibration
will then be contracted to 19-20ths of a degree on each side,
while the daily rate will experience an acceleration of (y'130, or
rather less than the 400th part of the former.

When we consider, then, the mere action of gravity, the su-
periority of the heavy pendulum with the small arc of vibration,
over the light pendulum with the long sweep, is obvious ; the
variation in the state of the oil, and the other inequalities of the
escapement exerting less influence on the former in a ratio du-
plicate of that of the arcs of vibration.

That part of the error of a clock's going which arises from
variations in the buoyancy of the air, attaches alike to all pen-
dulums of the same material; but that part which arises from
the variable resistance of the atmosphere is much less felt on the
heavy pendulum. Returning to our former case, the velocity
of the heavy pendulum will be twenty times less than that of the
light one, so that the resistance of the air on a given extent of
surface will be 400 times less ; the quantity of surface, however,
is 7368 times greater, while the distance through which the re-
sistance acts is 20 times less, so that, in all, the influence which
that resistance exerts in counteracting the maintaining power is
lessened 1085 times ; and hence that irregularity in the going of
the clock, which arises from the variable resistance of the air,
will be less 400 times 1085, or upwards of 400,000 times.

On account of the increased weight, the friction on the knife-
edge is increased twenty times, while the distance through which
it acts is diminished as often, so that, in the case of the heavy
pendulum, the friction on the knife-edge interferes with the
maintaining power just as much as in the case of the light one;
variations, then, in this friction, will only produce the 400th
part of the disturbance on the clock's rate when the heavy pen-
dulum is used ; the edge, however, will require to be somewhat
strengthened, so that this circumstance will interfere a little with
these proportions.

140 Mr Sang on the Advantages of a

The retardation of a clock, when the arc of vibration of its
pendulum is increased, is by no means so trifling as is generally
imagined ; the table, I am convinced, presents results much
greater than were anticipated by many, even of those who are
conversant with the subject. In the formation of the table, I
have taken every precaution to insure accuracy, having carried
the logarithms to ten decimal places, so long as I adhered to the
decimal division, and employed the ordinary tables to seven
places only, in passing from that to the ordinary division of
time. These circumstances, joined to that of its being new, will
render it acceptable to men of science.

These statements may be confirmed by a very simple but
beautiful experiment. Having suspended a leaden ball by
means of a slender thread, let this simple pendulum be put in
motion, so that the ball may describe a curve known to bear a
considerable resemblance to the ellipse. If the times of vibration
along the two axes of this curve were exactly equal to each
other, the ball would repeatedly retrace the same orbit ; but these
times of vibration are different, and, during the passage from
end to end of the long axis, the ball has more than returned to
its position in reference to the short one, so that the axes of the
orbit are gradually displaced in the direction of the movement
of the ball. This displacement will be found to be most rapid
when the orbit is large ; as that orbit gradually contracts, the
displacement of the axes becomes more and more retarded, until,
when the evagations do not exceed three or four degrees, it
ceases to be perceptible.

To these remarks on the advantages of pendulums with short
arcs of vibration, it must be added, that great practical objec-
tions lie against their being made very small; these objections,
however, are founded on the peculiar natures of the escapements
generally used, and, perhaps, derive additional strength from
the reluctance to depart from long established, although arbitrary,
rules. The beautiful escapement which lately gained the So-
ciety's highest prize, when applied, with proper precautions, low
down on the pendulum rod, obviates all these objections, and
offers the prospect of immense improvements in time-keeping.
A movement on this plan is already in a state of forwardness,
and I shall take pleasure in reporting to the Society the results
of experiments made with it.

II

Short Arc of Vibration for Pendulums.

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( 1^2 )

ON DWARFS AND GIANT$. By M, GeOFFROY ST HiLAIRE *.

Let us examine the first class, of the vast group of hemiteries,
or simple anomalies in the animal kingdom, viz. that which re-
lates to the anomalies of size. They may he general or partial,
consist either in a diminution or augmentation. Those by ge-
neral diminution of size peculiarly constitute dwarfishness, which
ought to be accurately distinguished from deviations in the spinal
column, or deformations in the members. In the latter case it is
disease, and not anomaly in the sense which is here attached to
it. In truth, a pigmy is, in teratology, a being all of whose parts
have undergone a general diminution, and whose height is also
much inferior to the average height of its species or race.

M. GeofFroy finds dwarfs mentioned in the most ancient au-
thors ; he sees them every where exciting the curiosity of the
learned, and serving as an amusement to the powerful. The
practice was so general in the early ages of the Roman Empire,
that merchants are said to have conceived the horrid idea of pro-
ducing artificial dwarfs by means of boxes and bandages. The
story of Jeffrey Hudson, who, at eight years of age, was served
up in a pie to the Queen of England, Henrietta-Maria of France,
wife of Charles I. ; that of Nicolas Ferry, known by the name of
Bebe, dwarf to. Stanislaus, Duke of Lorraine; and of Polonais
Borvilasky ; and also many others, afford exceedingly curious
details. What is important to be noticed here, is the great va-
riety, in a moral as well as physical point of view, which exists
among dwarfs. Some are almost idiots, pass from infancy to
old age, and die prematurely — like Bebe, who died when twen-
ty-two years and a half old ; others, like Borvilasky and Hud-
son, have exhibited much intelligence, and reached a good old
age. A young Austrian female, who died in England, was
worthy of the following epitaph, in consequence of her abilities :
*' To the memory of Nannette Stocker, who quitted this life the
4th of May 1819, at the age of thirty-nine years, the smallest
woman in this kingdom, and one of the most accomplished."
She was an excellent musician, and not more than thirty-three
inches high. There, however, exist traits common to dwarfs,

• Vide Histoire Generale et Particuliere des Anomalies de rOrganisation
che? THomme et les Animaux, par M. J. G. St Hilaire.

On Dwarfs and Giants, 143

which characterise them. Like men of small stature, they are
generally irascible, hvely, and impetuous, of which the following
anecdote is an instance. A lady of the Court of Stanislaus was
caressing a dog in the presence of Bebe ; in a fit of frenzy he
snatched it from her, and threw the animal over the window,
crying out, " Why do you like it better than me P'' The great-
er number of dwarfs have short legs, a large head, a disagree-
able countenance, and a ricketty constitution. They are incapa-
ble of generating, either with those of their own size, or indivi-
duals of an ordinary stature. They are very often the offspring
of mothers well shaped, of lofty stature, and very prolific. In
the greatest number of instances, it has been observed that the
same mother has produced two or more dwarfs. They are not
more rare in nations of lofty stature, or of one sex, more than
another. Dwarfishness with regard to age may present three
cases. In the first, the individual exhibits at birth, or during in-
fancy, a size inferior to that of his age, and afterwards grows up
rapidly to the ordinary size of his species. In the second, he
is born and developed normally at first, then, ceasing to in-
crease, retains a stature for the remaining part of his life, infe-
rior to that of the adult. In the third, he is born a dwarf, and
presents, at every stage of his existence, a stature very inferior
to that of his age. Dwarfishness, then, may be temporary or
permanent.

Without dwelling on the hypothesis of the ancients, who at-
tributed the production of dwarfs to a defect in the quality or
quantity of the semen, M. GeofFroy considers the explanation of
the moderns much more satisfactory, who regard it as the result
of an obstacle opposed to the nourishment and development of
the foetus, either from a faulty conformation in the mother, or
by a disease attacking the young subject in the course of its foe-
tal or embryo life. The stoppage in growth observed in infants
or young animals, in consequence of a deficiency of nourish-
ment, or bad health, seems to strengthen this opinion, which the
ricketty constitution of dwarfs confirms in other points of view.
Besides, it is observed that among animals, who rarely present
any examples of being ricketty, dwarfishness is very rare.

After discussing dwarfishness and tardy growth, M. Geoffroy
treats of general augmentations in size — of Giants^ and the pre-

144 On Dwarfs and Giaiits.

cocious increase of stature. Though works upon giants are
very numerous, their history is not so far advanced as that of
dwarfs. The reason is, because their existence has been dis-
cussed more than studied ; because they were more rare than
dwarfs, and been more seldom used as playthings. Antiquity
and the middle ages concur in the existence of men of an extra-
ordinary height. Many philosophers have even been of the opi-
nion that great nations, nay, that the whole of mankind, were
originally of a gigantic height, which has gradually diminished
down to the present time. According to the calculations of
Henrion, the Academician, in 1718, Adam was 123 feet 9 inches
high, Noah a little more than 100 feet, Abraham 80, Moses 30,
Hercules 10, Alexander 6, and Caesar less than 5. It is well
known that the mythologies of almost every nation are founded
on this belief. As the principal evidence of these assertions,
the discovery of human bones of large dimensions has been
quoted : such as those found in Sicily, near Trapani, in the
fourteenth century, and which belonged to a Cyclops of 300 feet
high, evidently Polyphemus ; those of Teutobochus, King of
the Cimbri, found, during the reign of Louis XIII., in Dau-
phiny ; besides a great many which are cited by ancient and
modern writers. But the researches of Cuvier in ancient zoolo-
gy, and the rapid progress of comparative anatomy, have esta-
blished beyond doubt, that these gigantic bones are merely
those of the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, or cetaceous ani-
mals, shells of tortoises, or hydrocephalous skulls.

The Bible has been finally adduced, where it is mentioned
that giants were born in consequence of the intercourse of the
sons of God with the daughters of men ; many other passages
have been brought forward, especially the history of Goliah.
The Hebrew word, however, which is rendered giant, also sig-
nifies a violent or cruel msiw. As to Goliah who was vanquished
by David, he was not, according to calculations which have been
made, more than seven or eight feet high, a stature which is
sometimes met among men. The other instances do not pre-
sent any thing conclusive. It is even the same with those fur-
nished by profane writers ; all these are owing to exaggeration,
folly, and credulity.

On the other hand, it seems established that human stature

On Dwarfs and Giants. 145

never exceeded eight or nine feet. These extreme examples
are very rare, but men of six or seven feet are not.

Giants, like dwarfs, are almost always limited as to intellect ;
some of them are even idiots. They are, moreover, destitute of
energy, activity, weak in body and mind, of a lymphatic tem-
perament and delicate complexion, and of a bad conformation.
Throughout their whole life they even retain a part of the ex-
terior characteristics and traits of infancy. It is said, that at
Vienna, where giants and dwarfs had been collected for the
amusement of the Court, the latter incessantly ridiculed the for-
mer, and that, in a quarrel between two of them, the dwarf re-
mained master of the field of battle. Giants, moreover, like
dwarfs, are impotent, and equally so in both sexes, though less
remarkable among females. Giants are still more uncommon
among animals than dwarfs. The former, in general, die at
an early age, worn out, as it were, by their enormous and ra-
pid increase. They are found among nations of the most oppo-
site characters, but generally among those of a considerable sta-
ture. They seem to be born of very prolific mothers, and are
rarely the only tall individuals in a family. The causes of a gi-
gantic stature are obvious : an abundant and enervating nourish-
ment, a more flexible organization, a weak circulation, seem
greatly to favour it. Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, made an ex-
periment on an orphan, called Margrath, of whom it is only
known that, on reaching the height of seven feet eight inches,
he died — an old man at twenty years of age.

In those of a gigantic stature, there is a positive increase in
the human stature; but this can only depend upon age and
time. M. Geoffroy here insists with propriety on the distinc-
tion which ought to be established between growth and deve-
lopment. The first arises from the gradual augmentation of
each of the parts of a body, independent of any change in their
number, structure, and functions. Development, on the con-
trary, consists in a modification, — in a change more or less ma-
nifest. The appearance of the teeth of the first dentition, that
of the permanent teeth, and lastly of puberty, indicates, in man
and the upper animals, three principal epochs of development to
proceed, from each of which the general increase commonly dimi-
nishes in a manner more or less marked. The connection between

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. K

146 On Dwarfs and Giants.

growth and development is very curious. If the first be preco-
cious, the second also begins too soon. Thus, we have seen the
appearance of teeth precede the birth in a large foetus ; we have
also seen an infant of eighteen months old, remarkable for its ap-
petite and rapidity of growth, afford at that age evident symp-
toms of puberty. If the latter development have commenced,
that of the genital organs rapidly advances, and soon becomes
complete ; all general increase ceases ; and the individual in which
it takes place may remain of ordinary stature, or even very small,
though not weak and impotent on that account. If, on the con-
trary, the development having begun, goes on slowly, and re-
mains unfinished, those circumstances may take place: either
the general increase stops, and the individual remains dwarfish
and impotent ; or this increase continues for a long time, and the
individual becomes a giant, and equally impotent ; or lastly, both
the development and growth terminate at an age much more ad-
vanced. What has been said of the respective weakness of
dwarfs and giants is quite in accordance with these considera-
tions. They also apply to what has been seen in children re-
markable for the precocity of their growth and of their puber-
ty; their manly exterior, deep voice, their squat and robust
forms, prove that the physical development is as complete in
them as in the adult. It is different as to the moral develop-
ment. These men of three, four, five, or six years of age, have
the tastes and dispositions of infancy. Here, then, it is shewn
that the general diminutions and augmentations of the stature
are merely phases, more or less long, of the hi d' alternative be-
tween the growth and the development of the organs.

M. Geoffroy, to these considerations on the individual ano-
malies of stature, has given a sketch of the most striking facts
which study presents of the variations of stature in the human
race and in the lower animals. The normal stature of a race is
necessarily the medium height of the individuals which compose
it ; and the normal stature of the species is the average height
of the races which it comprehends. Races which are extremely
high or low may be considered as anomalies produced, by the ex-
cess or deficiency of their development, as gigantic and dwarfish
races. But we must now inquire, if the causes which have pro-
duced these races are of the same nature with those which pro-

On Dwarfs and Giants* 147

duce individual giants and dwarfs, or rather, if the type of the
species was not originally greater or smaller than the numerous
races of the average height which exist at this moment. Inhe-
ritance is here a datum of the problem now first mentioned, and
which renders the difficulty more complicated.

The species of savage animals, subjected to the action of mo-
difying causes less numerous and powerful than those which af-
fect domestic animals, do not ordinarily present very distinct or
constant varieties in their sizes ; each species only forms a single
race, composed of individuals closely resembling each other. On
this subject, M. Geoffroy recapitulates the researches which he
has made into the general variations in the height of mammiferae
in a wild state. They have a reference to the medium in which
they live, the food which they eat, and the places which they in-
habit. The species which live in the bosom of the water reach a
greater height than those of the same family who are terrestrial ;
and those, in particular, who live in trees, and are adapted for
flight. Among the mammiferae who live on land and on trees, the
herbivorous are in general the largest ; then the carnivorous ; the
f rugivorous, who are[all of an ordinary size ; and the least are the
insectivorous. Throughout, we behold an admirable harmony
between the height, the size of these animals, and the food afford-
ed them by nature. Similar relations appear in the winged
mammiferae. To the marine mammiferous animals, the law does-
not hold good. As to those which dwell in inhabited places,
nature has on every|occasion proportioned the size of the locali-
ties which should receive them ; reserving the big species for
the seas, the large islands, and continents, and the small ones
for the rivers, lakes, and small islands. The greater part of the
large mammiferae inhabit the hottest countries ; others in smaller
numbers multiply in the cold regions ; but no family has its
large species in temperate climates.

It is a fault that some authors have drawn inferences from
savage to domestic animals and man ; and reciprocally. So far as
height is concerned, domestic animals present many singular va-
riations, which most frequently belong to many individuals, are
transmitted in a regular manner, and being continued by means
of generation, serve to characterise the races. These variations
are often the more considerable, as the domesticity is the more

k2

148 On Dwarfs and Giants.

ancient and complete. Climate, more or less care, nourishment,
abundant or scarce, have, besides, a great influence. The dog,
an old companion of man, infinitely less independent than the
cat, also presents many more races of different sizes. The
horse presents upwards of thirty races, all very different as to
their height, shape, and nature of their skin. The ass also
presents many varieties. In Arabia, Egypt, in Persia, where-
ever it is as well fed and taken care of as the horse, it is almost
its rival in size, beauty, and strength. It is well known why it
is small and ill-made in the greater part of Europe, and espe-
dally in cold countries. What a striking proof of the power of
man to ameliorate or degrade the animals whom he has reduced
to a state of servitude ! As to the sheep, though reduced from
the earliest ages to the most complete state of domestication, it
has, throughout the most numerous races, almost constantly
preserved the same height. Domestic birds, with the excep-
tion of the cock, differ little from the wild species. As to the
lower animals, especially fishes, the variations in size are not
hereditary ; they seem accidental, and to depend principally on
the quantity and quality of their food. The numerous re-
searches of M. Geoffroy on the variations of stature in domestic
species, have led him to the following propositions.

The domestic species may be divided into two groups, those-
whose races have all the same height, or nearly so, and those
which consist of very large and very small races.

In the first case, the height of the races or varieties cannot be
different from that of the wild type ; it may also present a dif-
ference of size, less or greater ; this difference, however, is always
very slight.

In the second case, there are some domestic races existing
much larger, and others much smaller than the wild type;
but the medium height of the domesticated races, a height which
is found exact, or almost so, among many of them, hardly dif-
fers, or does not differ at all from the wild type.

In the human species, the relation as to height is not as in
domesticated animals : individuals vary greatly, races very
slightly. The length of the body of the smallest dwarfs^ is to
that of the greatest giants as one to a fourth ; whilst the average
height of the smallest race, and that of the greatest, is only

On Dwarfs and Giants. 149

as one to one and a half. In fact, the smallest dwarfs are little
more than two feet high, and the tallest giants a little more than
eight feet and a]^half. On the other hand, the average height
of the Esquimaux, and mountaineer Boschmen, is a little more
than four, whilst that of the Patagonians is about six feet. If
travellers have differed much as to the height of these Pata-
gonians, some calling them thirteen feet high, while others
have attributed an ordinary height to them, it not only arises
from a love of the marvellous, but a mistake, produced by a mix-
ture which exists south of the La Plata, of many nomadic tribes,
some of whom are very tall, and others of an ordinary stature.

It has been discovered, with a few exceptions, that all the
people remarkable for their small stature inhabit the northern
hemisphere, in the most northerly part of it, and that those who
are of great stature generally live in the southern hemisphere,
some on the continent of South America, others in the archipe-
lagoes of the Pacific Ocean, from the eighth to the fiftieth de-
gree of south latitude. On an attentive study, however, of the
geographical distribution of the human race, we come to this cu-
rious result, — that people of small stature live almost always near
the tallest nations, and, on the other hand, those of a high sta-
ture near nations peculiarly distinguished for their diminutive
growth. Thus Terra del Fuego, near Patagonia, is inhabited
by short and ill-made men : and the people of Sweden and Fin-
land, which border on Lapland, are above the middle height.
The influence of climate is without doubt incontestable; an
acute cold is unfavourable to the development of height, whilst
a moderate degree is favourable. The preceding example may
tend to prove it.

Climate, however, is not the only active cause. Regard
must be had to food, more or less abundant, to severe or easy
labour. Misery and fatigue, not less than excessive cold, pre-
vent the development of the body ; on the other hand, ease and
good living are favourable to it. It is also necessary to pay at-
tention to the difference of the races, which connects itself with the
conditions of the original type. Thus the Malayan is generally
larger, and the Mongolian smaller, than the Caucasian and
American races ; each of them possesses a tendency constantly
to reproduce with the same characters, a tendency so much the

150 On Dwarf a and Giants.

more evident, as the race is more ancient, which applies to man
as well as the lower animals. But the unchangeableness and
stability of the principal human races, lead one to draw infe-
rences as to the high antiquity of their original formation. The
learned and ingenious physiologist Mr Edwards, has shown
what valuable assistance history may draw from such considera-
tions, in establishing the genealogy of nations.

We have already spoken of the idea, so widely spread, of
the decrease of the stature of the human races. This opi-
nion, which is unanimously received, might easily have been
propagated by one and the same people, and in that case una-
nimity proves nothing. Antiquity, besides, believes also in pyg-
mies, and according to the principle of authority, it might be
as reasonably maintained, that the stature of man has increased.
Neither the remains of the human fossil bones recently disco-
vered in many places, and which appear to be of very high
antiquity, have belonged to men of other than an ordinary height,
nor the ancient monuments, tombs, utensils, arms, paintings,
nor the mummies of Egyptians, exhibit any sensible varia-
tion in the human stature for four thousand years. Beyond
this remote epoch, monuments disappear, and we have only ana-
logy to guide us. But if, as is quite certain, the changes pro-
duced on man by civilization, are completely analogous to those
which domestication produces on animals, and if we recollect
that the average of the height of the former is equal to that of
their savage types, it will be admitted, which is confirmed in
other respects by what we know of tribes which are not savage,
that the average height of civilized men of the present times,
differs very slightly, not only from those of the civilized men of
ancient times, but also from those of men living in a savage
state before any civilization.

M. Geoffroy afterwards proposes to show, as to races of giants
and dwarfs, that there is a real analogy between their formation
and that of the individual anomalies which they present.

Many travellers, Peron in particular, have mentioned a fact
which is worthy of notice, viz. that savages, far from being
stronger than civilized people, are weaker ; an additional proof
that civilization is beneficial to the destiny of human nature,
and that the state of nature, of which Rousseau, in his disgust

On the Hot springs c)f the Andes. 151

iat a corrupt state of society, has formed an ideal felicity, is far
from bringing us in contact with physical perfections. Every
thing demonstrates, that man is sociable, and in a progressing
state ; but this progress is often shackled, his sociability render-
ed tortuous by individual egotism, and by the vitious nature of
our institutions.

>- ON THE HOT SPRINGS OF THE CORDILLERAS ^F THE ANDES.

At the meeting of the Academy of Sciences of France held on
the 18th March 1833, M. Boussingault read a memoir on the tem-
perature of the hot springs of the Cordilleras of the Andes. The
theory originally proposed by Laplace to account for the heat
of those springs, and which is grounded on the supposed exist-
ence of a high temperature in the interior of the earth, seems
confirmed by a multitude of phenomena presented at various
points of the Cordilleras. Thus, on the coast chain of Vene-
zuela, the temperature of the hot springs diminishes as the ab-
solute height increases. For instance, the hot spring of Las
Trincheras, near Puerto Cabello, and which is situated nearly
at the level of the sea, has a temperature of 97° cent. ; that of
Mariara, at a height of 4?76 metres, has only a temperature of
64° cent. ; and that of Onato, which has an elevation of 702
metres, has only a temperature of 44°.5 cent.

But in the trachytic formation, especially in the vicinity of
volcanoes, this regular decrease in the temperature of hot springs
does not present itself ; and it seems that in such cases the local
cause producing the volcanic action has a marked influence on
the temperature of the waters. It becomes, then, extremely in-
teresting to determine if these hot springs have their origin near
the seats of volcanic action. In order to solve this question, it
is necessary to submit to chemical examination the hot waters
occurring near volcanos, particular attention being paid to the
nature of the gases they may contain. If these gases should
prove to be the same which are recognised in active craters, we
would obtain a strong argument for believing, that the water of
hot springs has been in contact with the substances occurring in
the sources of volcanic eruption. The determination of the sa-
line substances contained in mineral waters would thus gain a

152 On the Hot Springs of the Cordilleras of the Andes.

new degree of importance, as these salts must then be considered
as the soluble products which exist or are formed in the interior
of volcanos. Such are the various considerations which induced
M. Boussingault to undertake the analysis of the hot springs he
has met with during his travels, and the memoir read to the
Academy presents the results. The conclusion drawn from the
numerous analyses performed is, that the gases accompanying
the hot springs, which have their sources near volcanos, are
identical with those of the craters of the same volcanos, viz. car-
bonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen gases. It is then pro-
bable that the hot waters of the trachytic formation of the equator
owe their elevated temperature to subterranean fire, and it is
equally natural to believe, that the salts dissolved in these waters
are derived from the interior of volcanos. Before terminating
this memoir, the author examines the question as to the varia-
tion of temperature of the hot springs he investigated. In 1800,
M. de Humboldt found the temperature of the Mariara spring
to be59°.3cent. In 1823, M. Boussingault and M. Rivero
found the thermometer in the same spring rise to 64j° cent, A
difference so considerable, viz. of 5°.3 cent., cannot be attributed
to an error in the instrument, especially as the thermometrical
observations made by those gentlemen at La Guayra and Ca-
raccas accord perfectly with those made in the same towns by
M. de Humboldt. It is more to be feared that as the spring of
Mariara forms a considerable stream, the observations may not
have been made precisely at the same point, although in general
an observer who determines the temperature of a hot spring en-
deavours to find the spot where the hot water is hottest. But
the objections which can be raised to the observations made at
the Mariara spring are quite inapplicable to those made at the
spring of Las Triricheras, near Puerto Cahello. At Las Trin-
cheras, the water issues from two basins which lie close one to
the other, and are hollowed in granite. The larger basin has a
capacity of about two cubic feet. M. de Humboldt gives 90°
cent, as the temperature of the water of Las Trincheras.
Twenty-three years later, Messrs Boussingault and Rivero
found the temperature of the water in one basin to be 92°.2
cent., and that of the water of the other 97° cent. Their ob-
servations, like those of M. de Humboldt, were made in the

On the Hot Springs of the Cordilleras of the Aiules. 15S

month of February. It appears, therefore, that in the short
period of twenty-three years, the springs of Mariara and Las
■< Trincheras have received an addition of several degrees to their
temperature. It is remarkable that during the interval between
the travels of M. de Humboldt and Messrs Boussingault and
Rivero, Venezuela was visited by the earthquake of the 26th
March 1812, which destroyed the town of Caraccas, and indeed
all the towns situated on the eastern Cordillera, and caused the
death of upwards of 30,000 individuals.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE LATE DR ALEXANDER TURNBULL CHRISTIE

IN INDIA, — 05 stated in a Letter dated Madras Septem-
ber 1832.

I SHALL now give you an outline of my proceedings since I
left Bombay. I went by sea down the coast to Mangalore, end
thence by way of Cannanoro, Tillicherry, and the Wynaad, to
the Neilgherry Hills, through a most beautiful country, where I
made a fine collection of birds, reptiles, and fishes, and observed
some interesting geological phenomena. The Neilgherries be;-
tween the latitudes of 11° and 12°, and rising to the height of
nearly 9000 feel above the level of the sea, enjoy every variety
of climate, from that of the plain of India to that of England.
The climate of the higher pares resembles that of the great in-
tertropical cities of America, which have become the centres of
civilization in the new world ; but is superior in one point of
view, being never subject to those sudden changes and cold pier-
cing winds, which are occasioned by the vicinity of lofty moun-
tains, some of which are capped with snow. The mean tempera-
ture of Ootacamund, the principal station on the upper part of
the hills, is rather more than that of London, but its annual range
of temperature is very small. It may be said, that the season
of spring reigns throughout the year, yet though there be no
winter, the heat is never sufficiently great to bring the more de-
licate European fruits to perfection, and at this height we can
only expect the successful cultivation of corn and of vegetables.
The valleys, which have a height of from 5000 to 6000 feet, enjoy
the climate of Italy, the climate of the vine, the orange and the
mulberry. The tea tree is cultivated in China between the la-
titudes of 27° and 31°, generally in a hilly country, and conse.

154 Proceedings of the late Dr Christie in India,

quently in a climate probably of 70° to 73° of mean temperature.
Such is nearly the mean temperature of the valleys in the neigh-
bourhood of Kotagherry, and of many others along the Eastern
and Northern faces of the hills. The cultivation of this valuable
plant might therefore be attempted here, and with a much
better chance of success than in almost any country beyond the
limits of China. A little lower down than this, coffee might be
produced, its native habitation being on the sides of the lofty
mountains of Yemen, and nearly in the same latitude as the
Neilgherries. In these delightful regions I am going to esta-
blish my head quarters, and shall only make excursions to the
low country during the cool and healthy season.

After having remained four or five weeks^ on the Neilgherries,
where I met with much attention from the Governor, I came to
Madras by way of Trichinopoly, Tanjore, (where I saw my
friend George BelFs brother), Cuddalore, and Pondicherry.
The geology of that tract of country is not very interesting, and
for some time I have been principally engaged with meteorology.

Since I came here, I have had an unpleasant attack of my
old enemy the diarrhoea ; I am now, however, quite well, and
anxious to get out of this hot place, and back to the fine climate
of the mountains. The Governor has offered me a grant of
land there, and I believe I shall take a few acres, to be increased
hereafter if I choose. I intend to try the cultivation of coffee,
which is now produced equal to Mocha coffee, in considerable
quantity in Mysore, and affords a very large return, notwith-
standing it has to pay a duty, on account of being the produce
of a foreign state. But do not suppose I am going to enter into
any speculation, for I intend to run no risk, and my farming
operations will be an amusement to me while on the hills. I
intend to begin on a very small scale, and while my coffee trees
are coming up, I intend to raise vegetables, and particularly
potatoes, from the same ground, which I expect will prevent
me^sustaining any loss by those agricultural experiments. I
may only mention, that the expenses of cultivation on the
Neilgherries will not amount to 10 rupees per acre, carriage
of potatoes to Madras or Bombay will cost about from 6 to 8
rupees a candy of 500 pounds ; and at these places they sell for
2f rupees a maund of 25 lb. An acre will produce, I suppose,
from 15,000 to 20,000 tb. A common gardener, who had a few

Proceedings of the late Dr Christie in India. 155

acres of ground on the hills, went home a few years ago, after
a residence there of six or eight years, with L. 6000.

I have written some instructions for making meteorological
observations which the Government are now publishing, and
intend to distribute at the principal stations throughout this
presidency. They have also written home for twenty-five sets
-of meteorological instruments which I recommended, and I hope,
that, in less than another year, an extensive series of observa-
tions will be instituted, according to my plan, over the whole
of this vast country. The same thing will be done in the Bom-
bay territories, and I intend to communicate my plan to the So-
ciety of Calcutta. A friend of mine, Mr Thorburn, will make
similar observations, and with instruments of the same kind, at
Alexandria in Egypt, and thus, in a few years, we may expect
to obtain more extensive, complete, and precise, information
than has ever yet been contributed to this interesting and useful
branch of science. I will send you a copy of my instructions.

I lately sent a report to Government, giving an outline of my
researches since I arrived in the Madras territories, to which I
have had the following reply : " Extract from the Minutes of
Consultation, dated 11th September 1832. Head the following
letter from Dr Alexander Turnbull Christie, dated 5th Septem-
ber 1832.

" Ordered that the foregoing highly interesting paper be
brought to the notice of the Honourable the Court of Directors,
and that a specimen of the porcelain clay, procured by Dr Christie
at Mangalore, be likewise transmitted to the Court."

The porcelain clay alluded to I discovered on the coast near
Mangalore. It is very fine, and closely resembles that of which
the beautiful Sevres ware is made, viz. the porcelain earth of Li-
moges in France. I also found it on the Neilgherries.

I am to have the allowance of an officer in charge of a sur-
vey, which, with my ordinary pay and allowances, will give me
rather more than 700 rupees a month. This will do more than
cover my expenses. I am also to have a subassistant survey-
or, who draws tolerably well, and an apprentice, detached on my
account from the survey department, &c.

I am sorry to say that the allowances granted to me by the
Government must be sanctioned by the Court of Directors who

156 Proceedings of the late Dr Christie in India,

may retrench them if they chuse. I shall therefore be in a state
of suspense for at least a year. I intend to write immediately
to some of my friends in London to plead my cause.
i In the approaching cold season I intend to prosecute my
geological researches as far south as Cape Comorin.

[We deeply regret to add, that our excellent and highly ac-
complished friend and pupil is now no more, having died on the
3d November last, of Jungle fever, caught on crossing to the
Neilgherries, before he had well begun his natural history sur-
vey. Dr Christie's enthusiasm in the cause of science was of the
purest and most disinterested nature ; and his acquirements in
Natural History were never surpassed by any British naturalist
who visited India. He was master of the practical and theore-
tical details and views of Meteorology, Hydrology, Geology,
Mineralogy, and Zoology ; and, in Botany, had all that practical
skill required for collecting the species, and tracing them with a
view of their physical and geographical distribution and econo-
mical uses in the vast countries which we trusted would have
been explored by him.

Dr Hardie *, an intelligent naturalist, now again in Europe
from India, with the view of recovering his health, and adding
to his stores of knowledge the new views and facts to be ac-
quired by stud)'ing under the Professors in Edinburgh, Paris,
and Berhn, and visiting the most important geological districts
in Britain and the continent of Europe, will, we trust, be select-
ed by the India Company (which has for so long a series of
years munificently fostered and encouraged science), to take up
and continue the investigations of Dr Christie.

Mere collectors of plants or rocks will no longer satisfy either
the India Company or the demands of science : plants may be
collected by a well instructed gardener, and rock specimens by a
skilful lapidary. The naturalists sent to India ought to be of
a different stamp : they should be armed at all points with the
powers of general science — with a perfect knowledge of the use
of those instruments employed in investigating the natural his-
tory of the atmosphere, the waters of the globe, and the gene-

• Dr Hardie is already well known by his geological memoirs published
in this country and also in India.

Proceedings of the late Dr Christie in India. 167

ral physical constitution of the earth ; with an extensive and ac-
curate practical acquaintance with the present state of the most
important of the natural sciences, both in a general and economi-
cal view, viz. Geology and Mineralogy. And it will be very
desirable, indeed indispensable, that those entrusted with the
natural history surveys in India, should be able to collect with
judgment, and investigate with accuracy, the phenomena ex-
hibited by the animal and vegetable kingdoms. — Edit.]

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE ECONOMICAL AND MEDI^
CAL USES OF THE OXIDES AND SALTS OF CHROME. By

Professor Jacobson of Copenhagen. Communicated to the
Editor. '

Professor Jacobson has laid before the Medical Society of
Copenhagen, the results of a series of experiments, relating to
the oxides and salts of chrome, originally made by him with a
view to physiology and therapeutics.

Chrome, which was discovered about thirty-five years ago by
Vauquelin, has hitherto been employed solely in the preparation
of pigments and enamels, in the dyeing of stuffs, and printing
of calico. It is found at many places in Europe, in greater
quantity in Siberia, but most abundantly in North America. It
is, as is well known, susceptible of different degrees of oxida-
tion, and is therefore capable of entering into combination, both
HI the state of acid and oxide.

Professor Jacobson has made the former of these the subject
of particular investigation, and has discovered qualities in one
of them, namely, the chromate of potash, which hitherto have
been unobserved, and which may be useful as well in the science
of medicine as in the arts.

He has found, to-wit, that this salt, which neither is, nor from
its nature can be, inflammable, increases in a great degree the
combustibility of animal and vegetable bodies. If, for example,
hemp, flax, cotton, linen, or paper, be saturated with a solution
of this salt, and suff^ered to dry, there is produced, whenever
any part of it is ignited, an active, steady, and continued com-
bustion, without flame, which spreads on every side, and con-
sumes all that portion of the substance that has been saturated.

158 Experiments on the Oxides and Salts of Chrome.

This property the chromate of potash possesses in a higher de-
gree than any other metallic salt, besides being still farther dis-
tinguished by its susceptibility of combination with an excess of
alkali, as well as of combination with bodies of very different
natures without losing said property.

Professor Jacobson has submitted the following theory of
this process. He is of opinion, that the combustion above men-
tioned is not occasioned only by the decomposition of the chro-
mic acid by the carbon, but that it is the result likewise of the
decomposition of the alkali,, which is produced by the mutual
influence of the alkali and the chrome.

Among other useful purposes to which this property may be
applied in medicine, may be mentioned the preparation of
moxas. Prepared with this salt, they burn without being
blown on, and their operation is rendered more certain.

Professor Jacobson is likewise of opinion, that it may be ap-
plied to pyrotechnic purposes.

The oxides of chrome in like manner possess this quality,
particularly when combined with alkali. Among the chromates,
of which they constitute the basis, are found some that possess
it, but none in so high a degree as the chromate of potash.

Another important property which Professor Jacobson has
found to be possessed by the salt is this, that notwithstanding
its facility of reduction, it is susceptible of combination with
most animal and vegetable substances without undergoing de-
composition. This property, and the great affinity of the salt
for water,gby reason of which it is prevented from being im-
bibed by the organic substances, render the chromate of potash
highly important as a means of resisting fermentation and pu-
trefaction. Nor does it indeed only resist putrefaction, but also
checks it when already commenced, and removes the effluvia
thereby occasioned. It is, of consequence, a disinfecting agent.

Of this highly important quality many uses may be made, as
well in medicine as in technology.

To the anatomist and naturalist it is important, inasmuch
as in a weak solution of this salt one may preserve specimens in-
tended for experiment, or for preservation in the cabinet.

The vegetation produced by fermentation and putrefaction,
called mildew, may likewise, as Professor Jacobson has ascer-
tained in his experiments, be prevented by means of this salt ;

Experiments on the Oxides and Salts of Chrome. 159

and he is further of opinion, that the dry. rot, so injurious and
even destructive to buildings, may by means of it be wholly
prevented or removed.

As to his physiological experiments connected with this
agent, Professor Jacobson has communicated but this principal
result, that chrome is one of those metals which in a particular
manner acts on the nervous system, and that its topical action is
partly resolvent, partly corrosive, though in a manner different
from that of the action of the other metallic salts. The chrome
salts are calculated, therefore, to become highly important as
medicaments.

Professor Jacobson has tried them with success in the treat-
ment of various sorts of ulcers, which application of them he
has promised to make the subject of a future communication to
the society.

ON THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT SOLID PARTS OF THE
HUMAN BODY.

Our attention has lately been directed to this subject, from
receiving an inaugural dissertation by Dr Joseph Frick, pub-
lished at Freiburg in the Breisgau, in 1832, in which a consider-
able number of original experiments are related.

Experiments of this kind, in order that they ma}^ be consi-
dered worthy of credit, must be performed upon a very great
number of different bodies, as soon as possible after death, and
as much as possible in a similar and healthy condition of the or-
gans ; for it is obvious that putrefaction, for a very few hours,
diseased alteration of any kind, and even a greater or less quan-
tity of fluids, or of fat, in the healthy state, must cause a very
considerable variation in the relative weights of the organs.

The specific gravity of a few parts of the body has been men-
tioned by Soemmering and Meckel, their information being pro-
bably derived from Musschenbroek. Some of the numbers as-
signed by these authorities are quoted by Dr Frick ; but this
author seems not to have known of the researches of Dr John
Davy " On the Specific gravity of different parts of the Human
Body,'' which appeared in 1829, in the 3d volume of the

160 Specific Gravity of different parts of the Human Body.

Transactions of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh,
and are the most complete of the kind with which we are ac-
quainted.

Dr Davy's experiments were performed much sooner after
death, and on a greater variety of bodies, than those of Dr
Frick, and are on the whole more suitable for the establishment
of the average natural result, as they were made principally on
soldiers, or adult males between the ages of 20 and 40; while
Dr Frick's experiments were performed on two males, one of
25, the other 6Q^ on a female of 79, and on a child dying at
birth.

A considerable part of Dr Frick's essay is occupied with a
description of the kinds of balance he employed in weighing
the parts, the specific gravity of which was to be ascertained,
and with the construction of a formula for the reduction of the
resulting specific weights to one temperature, viz. 16° R. or 68"
F.

Many of his experiments were made with the view of ascer-
taining whether there exists any difference in the specific gravity
of corresponding parts, taken from opposite sides of the same
body. The results show that some such difference does exist,
but they are by no means sufficiently constant to entitle us to
found upon them any general conclusion.

We shall not at present follow the author through these de-
tails, but arrange in a Table, which we think may be interest-
ing to general readers, the more important results obtained by
Davy and Frick. In this Table, those results only which cor-
respond most nearly are stated, and many are omitted in which
the differences are such that they must be attributed to acciden-
tal circumstances, the consideration of which would be foreign
to the immediate and important object of the investigation.

Specific Gravity of different Parts

of the Human Body, 161

Author's Name.

Part weighed.

Body from which
taken.

Specific Gravity.

Teeth.

Davy.

Front tooth, undecayed,

Male, aged 34

2.240

...

... Root,

...

1.950

...

... Crown, .

First molar tooth, sHghtly

...

2.380

carious.

Male, 40

2.142

...

... Roots, .

2.113

...

... Crown, .

2.313

...

... Enamel,

...

2.620

BoneSy Cartilages, and Liga-

ments.

...

Petrous portion of temporal

bone.

Male, 41

1.852

...

Parietal bone,

Male, 34

1-772

Frick.

Frontal bone.

Female, 79

1.407

..>

Fifth rib

...

1.164

...

Fourth rib,

Child at birth.

1.300

Davy.

Eighth rib,

Male, 34

1.383

Frick.

Os pubis,

Female, 79

1.060

...

Clavicle, .

1.220

...

Ditto,

Child,"*

1.284

...

Head of humerus.

Female, 79

1.005

...

Body of humerus.

...

1.238

...

Ditto,

Child,

1.426

...

Second phaL of middle finger.

Female, 79

1.158

...

Ditto,

Child,

1.100

...

Body of femur.

Female, 79

1.253

...

Ditto,

Child,

1.420

...

Lower end of ditto.

Female, 79

1.086

Body of tibia,

...

1.417

...

Ditto,

Child,

1.416

Cartilaginous heads of fe-

mur and humerus.

...

1.043 to 1.051

Davy.

Cartilage of knee joint,
Intervertebral substance.

Adult male,

1.073

outer part,

Male, 23

1.104

..

Central soft part,

1.062

...

Ligament of patella, .

Male, 22

1.104

...

Tendo Achillis, .

Skin, Hair, .Vat&, Fat, ^c.

Male, 28

1.080

Davy.

Cuticle, sole of foot, .
Skin and cuticle, back of

Male, 39

1.190

thumb.

...

1.100

Fat, abdom. integuments.

Male, 34

0.942

nail of thumb.

Male, 39

L197

...

Light and dark brown fine >
hair, . . . /

3 English fe- \
males, 30 to 40 j

1.27» to 1.293

...

Grey fine hair, . . |

Female, 66, \
Corfu, j

1.290

...

... white fine,

f

Male, 77, do.
Male Ipsa- )

1.275

...

Ditto, bleached, . . 4
Ditto, black, coarse, and

riot, exposed v
2 years, j

1.345

...

woolly.

Hottentot fem-

1.323

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833.

16^ Spiscific Gravity of different Parts of the Human Body.

Author's Name.

Part weighed.

Body from which
taken.

Specific Gravity.

Davy.

Grey reddish-brown, ex- \
posed to sun, . /

Young fern. )
Pitcaim'sIsL j

1.300

Muscles.

...

Left Ventricle of heart,

Male, 34

1048

Frick.

Ventricles of heart.

Child,

1.028

Davy & Fr.

Biceps brach., Pectoral, "j

Child, and )

maj., Sartorius, Soleus, V

males of >

1.053 to 1.058

Gastrocnem., Glut. max. \

20 and 34, )

Brain and Nerves.

Soemmering.

Brain,

mean.

1.031

Frick.

Cerebrum, .

Male, 25

1.031

Davy.

Do. cortical and medullary \
matter, . . .. j

Male,28,fluid )
in ventricles, j

1.040

Frick.

Medullary matter.

Male, 25

1.030

...

Cortical substance,

1.021

...

Whole brain,

Calf, ".*

1.016

...

Ditto,

Ox, .

1.036

...

Corpus striatum.

Male, 25

1.036

...

Thalami nerv. opt.

...

1.037

...

Cerebellum,

1.037

Davy.

Ditto,

Male, 28

1.043

Pons varolii,

Male, 34

1.033

Frick.

Ditto,

Male, 25

1.031

...

Medulla oblongata.

...

1.017

Davy.

Ditto,

Male, 34

1.037

...

Upper part of spinal cord,

Male, 27

1.035

Dura mater,

...

1.090

Frick.

Ditto,

Male, 25

1.069

...

Sciatic nerve and Crural do.

...

1.047

...

Ditto,

Child, '

1.080

Davy.

Ditto,

Arteries and Veins-

Male, 22

1.111

Frick.

Ext. coat of abdom. aorta,

Male, 56

1.111

...

Fibrous coat,

...

1.078

Davy

Ditto,

Male, 20

1.077

Thoracic aorta,

Male, 34

1.086

Frick.*

Ditto,

Male, 56

1.075

...

Arch of aorta.

...

1.078

Davy.

Ditto,

Male, 22

1.080

Abdominal aorta,

Male, 20

1.074

Frick!

Ditto,

Male, 56

1.081

Soemmerinff.

Arteries,

Mean,

1.080

Frick.

Iliac, popliteal, and ulnar.

Male, 56

1.048

...

Right femoral, .

...

1.063

Left ditto, .

...

1.080

Davy.

Upper part of ditto.

JMale, 22

1.071

Mitldle part of ditto, .

...

1.061

Soemmering.

Veins,

...

1.050 to 1.100

Davy.

Abdominal Vena cava,

Male, 26

1.061

Frick.

Superior Vena cava, .
Viscera, S[C. :

Male, 56

1.055 to 1.065

Davy.

Lung, destitute of air,

Male, 2,9

1.054

...

Ditto, hepatized.

Male, 28

1.043

Specific Gravity of different Part6

qftfie Human Body. 163

Author's Name.

Part weighed.

Body from which'
taken.

Specific Gravity.

Davy.

Pancreas, .

Male, 28

1.047

...

Thyroid gland, .

Male, 25

L060

...

Liver, healthy, .

Male, 27

1.069

...

Do. colour of yellow wax,

Male, 34

1.035

Frick.

Liver, healthy, . •

Child,

1.042

...

Ditto, surface.

1.065

'

Kidney,

...

1.034

Ditto, cortical substance.

1.033

...

Ditto, medullary substance,

"...

1.036

Davy.

Kidney,

Male, 26

1.050

...

Supra-renal capsule, .

Male, 25

1.048

Frick.

Ditto, right.
Ditto, left.

ChUd,

1.022

...

1.034

...

Thymus, .

...

1.036

...

Spleen,

...

1.052

Soemmering.

Ditto,

Mean,

1.060

Davy.

Ditto, healthy, . . i

Males, 25, 26, ■>
34 and 41

1.060 to 1.070

...

Spleen, bright red and hard, -I

Males, 22 and'
28

1.044 to 1.048

Do. very large, soft, and

putrid.

Male, 20

1.058

...

(Esophagus and intestine,

1.040 to 1.044

inflamed and ulcerated.

Male, 39

...

Cardiac portion of stomach.

...

1.048

...

Pyloric ditto.

...

1.052

...

Duodenum,

...

1,047

...

Corpora cavernosa penis,

cellular part, .

Male, 26

1.086

...

Do. ligamentous covering.

1.097

...

Testicle, .

1.041

Frick.

Ditto,

Child,*"

1.040

Davy.

Tunica albugmea, T.
Eye. ^c

Male, 26

1.088

Frick.

Whole eye,

Male, 25

1.021

...

Sclerotic coat of eye, . |

Female, 79, )
and male, 25, j

1.090

Davy.

Ditto,

Male, 23

1.091

...

Cornea,

1.076

Frick.

Ditto, ... 1

Female, 79, f
and male, 25 \

1.049 to 1.103

1.140 to 1.176

...

Choroid,

...

1.047 to 1.049
1.110 to 1.174 '

...

Aqueous humour,

1.005 to 1.024

Vitreous humour,

1.002 to 1.006

Davy.
Frick.

Lens, soft, .

Male, 23,

1.100

Nucleus of lens, hard and

yellow, .

Female, 79

1.112

...

Aqueous humour,

Calf,

1.003 to 1.006

...

Ditto,

Ox, .

1.006 to 1.008

...

liCns,

Calf,

1.002 to 1.005

...

Ditto,

Ox,' .

1.080

( 164 )

ELOGE OF BARON GEORGE cuviER, delivered in the Chamber of
Peers on the \lth December 1832. By Barmi PASQUiERy
President of the Chamber of Peers, (Concluded from for-
mer Volume, p. S5S.)

As President of the Committee of the Interior, an office which
he held during the last thirteen years of his life, the extent of
the business which he transacted, and the number of cases
examined, discussed, and despatched by his care and agency,
startle the imagination. It is known that they sometimes
amounted to 10,000 in the year. The art of dividing the work
to be performed among his fellow-labourers — a talent for manag-
ing discussion — a memory always ready to bring former deci-
sions seasonably to recollection — a profound knowledge of the
principles requisite for determining every case, and of the just
method of applying them, — such is a brief outline of the quali-
ties which rendered him so valuable in this office, and which
will perpetuate the remembrance of his labours in it, among all
who have had for an instant the opportunity of knowing and
reaping the advantages which flowed from them. To question
the great utility resulting from the labours of the Committee of
the Interior, would argue an entire ignorance of the form of
government in France, as well as to what extent the Council of
State proved to be the most valuable barrier against the encroach-
ments of arbitrary power. This truth he often demonstrated du-
ring the discussions which took place in the Chambers on the ex-
istence of this Council, and the importance of its duties. The
rules of government are not so determinate as those of the civil
or criminal law,and the personal integrity of those who administer
them is consequently of the first importance. But is not equity
the truth in all things ? And who was ever a greater or more
devoted friend of truth than M. Cuvier r* He could not be fully
known unless seen and heard at one of the sittings of Council,
or Committee, when business was transacting. Instead of show-
ing any eagerness to deliver his opinion, he appeared somewhat
absent, as if his mind was engaged with some other subject than

Ehge of Baron Cuvier. 165

that under consideration, and not unfrequently he was employed
in writing out the result to which the discussions were intended
to lead. His turn to speak did not arrive till reasons had been
interchanged by both parties, and fruitless words were well nigh
exhausted ; then a new light broke upon the minds of all ; facts
resumed their proper places; ideas, previously confused, be-
came distinct ; the necessary deductions were made, and the dis-
cussion had terminated when he ceased to speak.

In what, then, consisted the power which M. Cuvier exer-
cised ? It cannot assuredly be ascribed to his style ; for his ex-
pressions were simple, and occasionally negligent, unadorned
with imagery, and destitute of every thing that addressed itself
to the imagination. No recourse was had to the illusions of art,
but all was order and perspicuity, those first of requisites, which
are the sources of the purest pleasure to the mind. Let us re-
gard him on a more extended theatre, as taking part in the
preparation of the laws, and in the discussions to which they
were subjected, either in private committees, in the councils of
state, or in the councils of the cabinet, to which he was often
called. I should reproach myself for not having spoken, in the
first place, (for I know it is one of the services which he most
congratulated himself for having performed), of the use which
he made of his talents and influence, to obtain certain modifi-
cations in the constitution and jurisdiction of the cours pre-
votales, which have principally contributed to diminish their
dangerous effects. He took pleasure in recalling his success,
but he never did so without mentioning at the same time the
assistance which he had derived from the good sense and ho-
nourable character (I use his own expressions) of the Due de
Richelieu, as well as from M. Royer Collard, and M. de Serre, the
one in the Council of State, the other in the Chamber of Depu^
ties. If we pass on to other subjects, which, without being of
a more important, are perhaps of a more elevated character, we
will see him applying the same instinct of vigorous observation,
which made him acquainted with the form and organization of
beings emanating from the present and preceding creations, to
the constitution of political bodies, and acquiring with equid
facility a knowledge of their most secret springs, and the causes
of their strength or weakness.

166 EU>ge of Baron Cumer.

The extent of his historical knowledge supplied inexhaustible
information on this vast subject ; and his scrutinizing mind had
treasured up a multitude of practical maxims, which were of
value on all occasions. A very brief visit to London enabled
him to obtain such an accurate knowledge of the mechanism of
the English government, that he was able, on his return, to
overthrow, by irresistible demonstration, the false notions which
had been formed respecting it, by those who pretended to be
best acquainted with it. With such an aptitude to acquire
knowledge, and always founding his mode of proceeding on the
most exact knowledge of facts, whose province it is so often to
confirm or confute principles, he must needs be led occasionally
to differ in opinion from those who shew less regard to facts
and the results that flow from them, and who are often forced,
sometimes in very opposite senses, to incline the balance of legis-
lature towards the opinions with which their minds were pre-
occupied. If M. Cuvier's opinions were not at all times tri-
umphant in the struggles in which he was so often engaged on
many great and difficult questions, no one, at least, can deny
that he brought to the discussion much useful knowledge, which
had often the effect of improving even those plans which did
not obtain his entire approbation. And you know how the bril-
liant and solid qualities of his mind were always displayed, in
the speeches which he delivered before the Chambers in behalf
of the schemes whose defence he had undertaken. Such of his
auditors as were not convinced, did not fail to render homage
to the suitableness, the elevation, and dignity of his address,
and were always delighted to hear him, even when they opposed
his suggestions.

Among the most remarkable of these discourses^ I do not
hesitate to mention that which he delivered in 1820, in the
Chamber of Deputies, on the law of elections. I am greatly
deceived if his powerful reasoning was not supported by elo-
quence of the noblest kind. And here, gentlemen, a reflection
occurs to me : M. Cuvier, throughout the whole course of his
political life, never appeared as a supporter of the governments
under which he lived ; and this, it must be confessed, would be
a sufficient reason, in the eyes of some, to regard him with Jess
consideration.

Ehge of' Baron Ctevter. 167

Hut this matter requires a short consideration. On entering
into life, all men have not the same destination assigned them,
and the diversified nature of their intellectual powers leads
them into very different paths. There are some whose inces-
sant exertions are directed to the improvement of society, and
who prosecute their attempts in opposition to all the suggestions
of experience. The good to which they aspire leads them to de-
spise the advantages they possess, and to obtain this they willingly
hazard all. We do not live in an age when this assertion call
be treated as chimerical. Others, on the contrary, more struck
with the danger of the evils which too often originate in great
political commotions, never cease to contemplate the picture of
misfortune which, in such cases, history presents ; and having
come to the conclusion, that the pursuit of the desired good,
unless managed with prudence and caution, may lead to the
diminution of the benefits positively enjoyed, they invariably
resist any encroachments on the existing state of things, as a
high degree of imprudence and rashness ; under the impression
that is requisite to preserve, at all risks, the conditions which
afford protection even to their adversaries. The knowledge of
history which he possessed, and the severe trials to which his
youth had been subjected, would have sufficed to incline M^
Cuvier to this line of opinion and conduct ; and the habits of
his mind, as well as the nature of the labours to which his life
was devoted, connected this bias into strong and decided con-
viction.

The study of nature, and the incessant admiration of the or-
der which prevails in her minutest parts, — of that order which
produces, vivifies, and preserves all, had impressed him with
the necessity of establishing and maintaining the same principle
in political and social organization ; and as governments are
every where the natural guardians of order, they were on that
account alone the objects of his particular interest. May I re-
mind you, that the same dispositions in favour of established
governments, were produced by similar causes in the mind of
one of the most illustrious individuals of our age ? The eminent
author of the Mkanique Celeste had derived them from the
study of the laws which regulate the movements of the planets,

168 Eloge of Baron Cuvier.

as M. Cuvier had done from those which regulate the organi-
zation of living beings. This explanation of his views and po-
litical conduct, has been often given, I am well assured, by M.
Laplace himself, and especially by one of those individuals
who occupies a high place in the empire of science, and whom
the Chamber may now congratulate on reckoning among its
members.

It will not be supposed that M. Cuvier, although influenced
by the motives which I have mentioned to defend the pro-
ceedings of the governments under which he enjoyed the pro-
tection of the laws, was on that account hostile to the useful and
progressive improvements which are necessary to the welfare of
every institution ; but it was his wish that these should result
from patient and enlightened observation ; that they should not
be adopted in a state of passionate excitement, but undergo a
calm and deliberate discussion, after a careful study of sound
principles, and a conscientious inquiry into what was really
needed. Need I mention, gentlemen, how valuable this dis-
position would have rendered him, in the rank to which he had
been recently raised among you, joined as it was to such var
ried and profound knowledge, and such extensive experience
in the affairs of Government ? His name was necessary to com-
plete the series of illustrious men whom I previously recalled to
your recollection ; and it was not possible that he could fail to
be the choice of an enlightened prince, when occupied in filling
up part of the void left in this Assembly, and seeking for names
capable of maintaining the order of the peerage, in that degree
of power and celebrity, of which it cannot be deprived without
striking a blow at one of the strongest pillars of the state.

M. Cuvier was particularly sensible of the honour which had
been conferred on him : he regarded it as a flattering reward of
his labours and services ; and he rejoiced at the same time to
find himself in a situation which gave him the right of express-
ing his sentiments without restraint, in a place which secured
to them a favourable hearing, and increased the respect which
could not be withheld from their intrinsic worth. The discussions
which took place in this Chamber, afforded him advantages on
which he must have placed the highest value. He was certain

Eloge of Baron Cuvier. 169

of finding here the calmness and courtesy which are so favour-
able to the proper management of debate, when reasons are
propounded and listened to on both sides, with that candour
which belongs to men whose whole views are turned towards the
public good, and who are in the habitual practice of mutually
honouring the purity of each other's motives. On this tranquil
arena, M. Cuvier found the parliamentary debates characterized
by the same tone, and nearly the same methodical arrangement,
as had been familiar to him in his scientific discussions, and his
knowledge would not have been less available than it had been in
the latter. Having been a member of many commissions during
the few days he spent among us, his colleagues can bear testi-
mony to his assiduity, and the scrupulous attention which he de-
voted to the business in which they were engaged. No record re-
mains of his participating in our labours, except a report on a
law relating to corn ; the time was pressing, and the report was
drawn up, I believe, in the course of a day. It is well known
that the subject is arduous and delicate; yet the few hours
which I have mentioned, were sufficient to enable him to bring
forward an exact and sufficiently extensive statement of facts
bearing upon the case, of the general principles which ought to
regulate it, of the laws which had applied to it for a certain
number of years, and finally of the considerations favourable to
the measure proposed, and which was adopted by the Cham-
ber. It would have been difficult for him to have done better,
even had he been allowed a greater length of time. But for
this little work, which to him was so easy, we should have had
nothing belonging to him in our collections.

I am anxious before reaching the melancholy termination of
my task, to which, gentlemen, you will perceive I am now ap-
proaching, to endeavour to make you acquainted in some de-
gree with the private life of the illustrious individual, of whonv
I have hitherto spoken chiefly as a man of science and a politi-
cian ; — to shew him to you in a situation where his many amiable
qualities secured him the attachment of those who might other-
wise have felt awe in the presence of one possessed of such vast
capacity and universal knowledge. He has himself said, in
speaking of the interest excited by the elogiums of Fontenelle and
Condorcet, that it is not extracts from works of celebrated men.

170 Eloge of Baron Cuvier.

nor notices, almost always incomplete, of their discoveries; but
it is the intimate knowledge of their individuality, the pleasure
of being admitted, so to speak, into their society, of contemplat-
ing their qualities, their virtues, and even their defects, which
render these elogiums the most interesting, and at the same time
the most useful, kind of reading. These few lines point out
to me a duty which I ought to endeavour to fulfil, although as-
sured how far short I shall fall of the models which he cites, or
those which he has himself supplied.

Let us contemplate him in the Jardin des Plantes, where he was
established for nearly forty years, and to which he attached, so to
speak, his very existence, near the Museum of Natural History,
and the Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy, the latter of which
owed its existence to his exertions ; in the centre of this esta-
blishment, which is without its equal in the world, where the
most enlightened and those most desirous to learn may find
equal enjoyment and instruction ; in the midst of a series of
libraries arranged so as to facilitate the researches which the as-
tonishing variety of his occupations obliged him to pursue ; in
this extensive cabinet, were to be found, on the Saturday of
each week, during a period of so many years, not only the men
whose works have done honour to France, but the most illus-
trious names which Europe possessed, as well as travellers from
every quarter of the globe, — from the Indies, the Ohio, the
banks of the Amazon, New Holland, and the icy seas — who
never failed, even when on the most cursory visit to our capital,
to visit the great naturalist, with whom for the most part they
had previously been in terms of correspondence.

How much intellectual enjoyment must have resulted from
such an assemblage, where the free interchange of sentiment
among men of kindred inclinations, and who could appreciate
each other's worth, formed a bond of connection which every one
wished more strongly to confirm. In this meeting of cele-
brated men, which brought together young and old, masters and
scholars, from every corner of the earth, how unaffectedly and
becomingly did M. Cuvier fill the place he occupied ? His
grave, but not severe aspect, — his obliging attention in hearing
those who would willingly have listened to him, — that incredible
variety of knowledge, which not only enabled him to take part

Eloge lyf' Baron Cuvier. 171

in conversations of the most different character, but even to
open new views on every subject brought to his notice, — are qua-
lities of which all of us have had opportunities of witnessing and
admiring up to the close of his brilliant career.

But this part of M. Cuvier's private hfe still partakes a little
of a public character. In following him into his more retired
and familiar habits, we will find reason to admire, in the first
instance, the equality of his temper, and unassuming deportment
in all his social relations, combined with a gentleness which
could be best appreciated by those who were continually in his
company, and which was generally ascribed to a very remark-
able and characteristic feature of his character, — the absence of
all vanity, a commendation of the higher value, as it can so
seldom be bestowed. Not only did he avoid the indulgence of
hatred to any one, but he never felt the least displeasure towards
his opponents, notwithstanding the obstacles which they threw in
the way of his scientific and political pursuits. In general, it was
his belief that ignorance is productive of greater evils than hu-
man passions, and he was accustomed to say of those whose words
and actions, especially in political matters, he found reason to
reprove ; — they are more to be pitied than blamed, for they know
not what they do.

His disposition was so generous and charitable, that he could
never refuse an application for pecuniary aid, even when his
circumstances were such as to require rigid economy. Although
his time was of such value, and so many different occupations
claimed his attention, yet he never refused to receive persons
who wished to consult him on their own affairs. When one re-
mains, he said, in the Jardin des Plantes, at such a distance from
solicitors, one has no right to shut the door against them. His
time was distributed in such a manner that not a moment was
left without its special object ; in this way he rendered it suffi-
cient for all his avocations, and even found leisure to attend So-
cieties, the proceedings of which were so familiar to him, and
the duties devolved on him so much matters merely of form,
that he might easily have been excused for neglecting them.
For each of the works in which he was engaged, he allotted a
department of his library, in which he arranged all the books
which he might require to consult. He read and wrote even in

172 Eloge of Baron Cuvier.

the carriage which conveyed him from one place to another, and
when he returned home, either from his lectures, or from a meet-
ing of Council, or of the Academy, he crossed the apartment
which was occupied by his family, and, after some words of
courtesy and friendship, ran in haste to shut himself up in that
particular cabinet set apart for the occupation he had at the time
in view. This he did not leave till the hour of dinner, and
generally entered the dining-room with the book he had been
reading in his hand, which he seldom laid aside till he had
finished the page or article begun. A few minutes after dinner
he returned to his cabinet, and, if no other avocation interfered,
he remained there till eleven o'clock. He then went to the
apartment of Madame Cuvier, where he listened for an hour to
the reading I have already mentioned, — of some work of ancient
or modern literature, either of a light or serious kind. This re-
laxation he enjoyed much, as it afforded him the most refreshing
repose after the labours of the day. During the last year of his
life, he had in this way caused to be read to him nearly all the
works of Cicero.

What, then, could be wanting to render such a man as happy
as our nature admits of in this world ? His greatest distress,
alas ! had its origin in what ought to have been the source of
his greatest happiness. In the enjoyment of a companion whose
qualities were most calculated to excite his esteem and love, he
had become the father of four children. These he loved with
the warmest affection, and they were successively taken from
him. We witnessed the agony of his distress during the
illness of the last that died, and have seen him under the
pressure of his sore bereavement. It was a daughter, endowed
with all the gifts which Nature could bestow ; worthy, in short,
of such parents. She was on the point of forming an alliance
which promised future happiness, when she was carried off by
one of those diseases of the breast, whose ravages are so terrible.
Two days after this event, he who has the honour to address
you entered the gallery to which M. Cuvier had retired, and
the spectacle which presented itself, was one of the most affect-
ing which can be witnessed by any one, who is in a condition to
understand and admire the scenes in which human nature re-
veals itself in all the energy of which it is susceptible. His

Eloge of Baron Cuvier. 17S

whole appearance presented marks of the deepest grief which a
father can feel, and so poignant had been his sufferings, that, as
he himself confessed to me, he had come to seek, in the most as-
siduous labour which he could impose on himself, the means of dis-
tracting his attention, and rendering his sorrow more tolerable.

I can scarcely persuade myself but that I see him still, in
that noble gallery, surrounded with monuments of human skill,
and the wonders of nature, seeking to avoid the image of his
beloved child, and perseveringly demanding of science, not to
administer consolation, but to absorb his thoughts. Pascal at-
tempted by energetic application to overcome only physical
pain ; but I had before me a struggle between the heart and the
genius of man, between the powerful wish of the one, and the
deepest suffering to which the other could be subjected. M.
Cuvier could never be consoled, but he continued, notwithstand-
ing, to prosecute with equal vigour of intellect, the various pur-
suits in which he never ceased to be engaged to the end of his
life.

We now approach, gentlemen, the fatal moment to which I am
to direct your thoughts. The scourge (Cholera) which afflicted
our great city, and which made so many victims, had interrupted
none of M. Cuvier's labours; it may even be imagined that it
had incited him to additional exertion, for he is found to have
written nearly two volumes of his Comparative Anatomy, a
work which, as I have already mentioned, he wished entirely to
remodel. Could he regard so great a calamity as a warning
to terminate speedily all the undertakings which he had begun ?

On the 18th of May he opened, in the College of France, the
Course which he had continued for three years with so much
success, on the History of the Natural Sciences. Those who
were present at the last lecture of this great master, retain an
impression which can never be imparted to such as have not ex-
perienced it, and of which I can convey but a very feeble no-
tion. Seldom had he risen to such an elevation ; but his auditors
were particularly struck with the last phrases which he used, to
express his intention of taking a view of the actual state of the
study of creation — that sublime study, which, while it enlightens
and strengthens the human mind, ought to preserve it from the
deceptive habit of regarding things apart from their relation to

174 Eloge of Baron Cuvier.

each other, and distorting them, that they may be subjected to the
laws of a system ; which ought, in short, to lead the thoughts in-
cessantly to that supreme Intelligence, who governs, enlightens, •
and vivifies all, who reveals all things, and whom all things re-
veal.

At this part of his lecture he displayed a calmness and just-
ness of perception, combined with a depth and seriousness of
thought, which led his auditors to think of that book which
speaks of the creation to all mankind. This was the result of
his ideas rather than his expressions, for every thing in the free
exposition which he made, breathed the feehng of the omnipo-
tence of a supreme cause, and of an infinite wisdom. He seemed,
as it were, by the examination of the visible world, to be led to
the precincts of that which is invisible, and the examination of
the creature evoked the Creator. At last these words fell from
him, in which it is easy to see a presentiment : " Such, gentle-
men, will be the objects of our investigation, if time, my own
strength, and the state of my health, permit me to continue and
finish them." The closing scene of M. Cuvier's life, as a public
teacher, appears to me to be impressed with peculiar beauty.
Who could fail to be deeply affected at the last accents of so pure
an intelligence, disengaged from the vanities and the interests of
systems ? Who could remain cold and insensible before the last
look thrown on creation by him who had revealed so many of its
mysteries ? Who could resist the feelings excited by the view
of science revealing eternal wisdom ? How noble, now affecting,
and how prophetic ! So soon to appear before the supreme tri-
bunal, what conviction could he express, what words could he
pronounce, which would have formed a more suitable prepara-
tion ? After this lecture the first symptoms appeared of the
disorder, which, in less than eight days, brought him to the
grave. He presided, notwithstanding, on the following day, in
the Committee of the Interior. Soon, however, paralysis of a
pecnihar kind destroyed in succession the nerves which produce
voluntary motion, leaving uninjured those which form the seat
of sensation ; the members affected thus became completely in-
ert, and yet retained their sensibility. M. Cuvier had, a short
time before, read to the Academy of Sciences, a memoir sent by
an Italian anatomist on the existence of this little known affec-

Eloge of' Baron Cuvier. 175

tion of the nervous system. It may be supposed that the ex-
tent of his labours, during the latter years of his hfe, had con-
tributed to produce it. All the assistance of art, lavished upon
him by men of the greatest skill, was ineffectual, and it soon
became apparent that his end was drawing near.

Every one knows with what courage and serenity he saw it
approach. The unremitting care and attention which were be-
stowed on him affected him deeply, but did not diminish his
courage. Even to the last he permitted those to approach
who had been on terms of intimacy with him, and it was thus
that I was a witness of his dying moments. Four hours be-
fore his death, I was in that memorable cabinet where the
happiest hours of his life had been spent, and where I had seen
him surrounded with so much homage, enjoying his well merit-
ed success ; he caused himself to be carried thither, and wished
that his last breath should be drawn there. His countenance
was in a state of perfect repose, and never did his noble head
appear to me more beautiful, or worthy of admiration ; no alter-
ation of a too sensible or painful kind had yet taken place, only
a little weakness and difficulty in supporting himself were ob-
servable. I held the hand which he had extended to me, while
he said in a voice scarcely articulate : — " You see what a
difference there is between the man of Tuesday (we had met
on that day), and the man of Sunday; yet so many things
remain to be done ! Three important works to be published,
the materials of which are prepared, and nothing remains for
me but to write them."" I made an effort to find some words to
express to him the general interest which he excited. '* I love
to believe it,"" he replied, " I have long endeavoured to render
myself worthy of it.''

It will be seen, that his last thoughts were towards the fu-
ture, and aspiring after glory, — a noble desire of immortality !
At nine o'clock on the evening of the 1 3th May, he had ceased
to live, having reached only the age of sixty-two, although be-
longing to a family remarkable for longevity. Shall I mention
the profound grief which immediately environed this vast sanc-
tuary of science, in the bosom of which his mortal remains re-
pose .'' shall I describe his funeral obsequies, which neither the

176 Eloge of Baron Cuvier.

increasing ravages of a frightful malady, nor any other cause,
could prevent all ranks and all classes from attending, and
carrying their last homage even to his tomb ? But has not the most
honourable homage which has been paid to him, arisen out of
the void which was immediately felt in every situation where he
was engaged ?

I honour, as I ought, the indisputable merit of those who
have been called upon to succeed him in the different stations
which he filled, the number of which has astonished every one ;
but however well they may be filled, who would doubt, that if
M. Cuvier could again appear, they would be restored to him
with acclamation ? In this acclamation, do you not recognise,
gentlemen, the infallible voice of posterity, which has already
caused itself to be heard ? To it I leave the completion of the task
which I have so imperfectly commenced, happy if your atten-
tion has hitherto followed me without fatigue, and if you have
not found me too unequal for the task which has been assigned
me.

CHARACTERS OF NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN GENERA OF PLANTS.

By Robert Wight, Esq. M.D, F, L. S. Hon. E.I. C.S.,
and G. A. Walker Arnott, Esq. A, M. F. R. S.E. and
L, S. Communicated by the Authors.

The simple generic character of Millingtonia given by Rox-
burgh, in his Flora Ind. vol. i. p. 102., although sufficiently ex-
act for the Linnean classification, in which those parts only are
accounted stamens that have pollen, conveys little information
as to the real structure of parts. The nectarial bodies opposite
the petals, are of a very singular shape. The apex (which Rox-
burgh erroneously represents free) is incurved, and attached in
front, similar to the petals of some umbelliferous plants, leaving
two large hollows, one on each side, as if for the reception of
the cells of an anther. Indeed, their whole appearance is that
of abortive stamens, in which light we feel disposed to view
them. The bifid scales, at the back of the fertile stamens, are
of a very different texture, and these, we believe, are abortive
petals. Thus, we have both stamens and petals heteromor-

Characters of some little Icnozvn Genera of Plants. 177

phous ; the imperfect forms of the one set of organs opposite
to the perfect ones of the other. The calyx we hav€ always
found to consist of two interior sepals, and three exterior, one
of which, and sometimes, but rarely all, are similar in size to
the interior, and alternating with them : there are in some species
in addition, small close-pressed bracteolae. The mode in which
the calyx is placed is well figured by De Candolle (Organ. Veg.
t. 37. f. 12. p.) We have, then, a calyx, a corolla, and andrce-
cium, each of five parts, placed apparently in a double series ;
the one dissimilar to the other, and alternate with it ; thus ana-
logically shewing, that the hypogynous disk must be viewed as an
outer series of the gymnoecium, the bidentate angles alternating
with the two cells of the ovary. At first also, it would appear
that the two outer parts of each organ alternate with the inner
of the next, but this is only in appearance ; for, if that were
the case, the angles of the hypogynous scale would be opposite
to the three larger petals, whereas they alternate with them.
The real disposition of parts, therefore, will be better under-
stood, if we suppose each organ to be of only one series, and of
five parts ; the petals alternating with the calyx, the stamens
opposite to the petals, and the pistilla alternating with both sta-
mens and petals. That this is the true explanation, is confirm-
ed by the fact, that, in no known plant, where any organ con-
sists of a double series of parts, do the component parts of one
series differ in number from those of the other. The aestiva-
tion will thus be imbricate and quincuncial ; and in such, two or
three (as may happen) parts of the same organ are interior. It
is, however, remarkable to find them of so very different a struc-
ture as occurs in tliis genus.

The affinities of MiUingtonia have not, so far as we know,
been pointed out. The habit is much that of Semecarpus
mangifera, and Buchanania; and, like the Terehinthacece, the
embryo is campulitropal. The genus Sabia, also, has the sta-
mens opposite the petals, the ovarium bilocular, two ovules in
each cell, the one placed above the other ; but the petals are
likewise opposite to the sepals, and the habit is different : more-
over, it is by no means certain that Sahia ought to be referred
to the Terebinthacea ; and the characters of all the other ge-

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. JULY 1833. M

178 Messrs Wight and Arnott on some New or

nera of the order present little in common with Millingtonia.
Our friend Dr Hooker has suggested an affinity with Sapin-
dacea ; and with different genera of that order, it has several
points in common, — as the fleshy disk, the two superposed
ovules in each cell, the indehiscent fruit, with part of it abor-
tive; the absence of albumen, and the curved embryo ; but that
order has usually stamens twice as numerous as the petals, and,
in addition, scales or tufts of hair at the base of the petals ; so
that if, as in Millingtonia, these scales were to be viewed as abor-
tive stamens, the whole number of stamens would much ex-
ceed that of the petals. In Sapindacece, too, the hypogynous
disk is fleshy, and is, we believe, the torus : here it is quite free
from the receptacle, except at the point of attachment, and ap-
pears to be formed by the union of an outer series of styles.
Although, therefore, we cannot agree to place it among the true
SapindacecB, we can see but little objection to its forming the
type of a new order next them.

Gen. 5. MILLINGTONIA, Boxb,
Linn. Syst. DIANDRIA MONOGYNIA.
Ord. Nat. SAPINDACEIS affinis.

Calyx persistens, quandoque 1-3-bracteatus, 6-sepalus; sepala insequalia; 2
interiora, aequalia ; 3 exteriora, saepe insequalia : cestivatio imbricata. Pe-
tala 5, ad marginem receptaculi inserta, decidua, sepalis alternantia, hete-
romorpha ; tria exteriora, orbicularia, Integra, sepalis interioribus alter-
nantia ; cBstivatio imbricata : duo (spuria) interiora, staminibus fertilibus
opposita, minora, acute bifida. Stamina 5, petalis opposita, iisdemque
ima basi subunita ; tria sterilia ante petala majora ; duo fertilia ante pe-
Jala minora : filamenta (fertilium) plana : connectiviim terminale, trans-
verse ellipticum, antrorsum patelliforme, camosum, margine membrana-
ceum, antheram loculis juxta positis globosis transverse dehiscentibus
in patellula continens. Pollen globosum, laevissimum. Ovarium ova-
tum, supra discum planum, tenue, liberum, triangulatum, angulis bi-
dentatis, cum petals majoribus altemantibus, insidens, triloculare;
loculis biovulatis : ovula dissepimento affixa, superposita. Stylus sim-
plex, brevis, crassus. Stigma subbilobatum. Drupa unilocularis, mono-
spermaj loculo altero abortiente ; dissepimento supra evanido, ad basin
indurato persistente. Semen subrotundum, hinc prope basin, ad hilum,
intrusum ; integumentum membranaceum. Albumen nullum, (vel par-
cissimura, RoxL) Embryo campulitropus, curvatus, conduplicatus. Co-
tyledones oblongae. Radicula curvata, ad hilum versa.

Arbores. Folia altema, exstipulata, integra, vel rarius pinnata, integerrima,
vel dentato-serrata. Paniculae terminales, et versus apices ramorum axillares.
riores scepius minuti, subspicati, in ramulos perbreves secus ramos horizori-
tales dispositos.

1. M. pungens (Wall.); foliis simplicibus, coriaceis, lanceolatis, basi acutis,
integerrimis, utrinque glabris, nervis subtus rufo-pubescentibus ; panicula
rigida, dense ferrugineo-pubescenti ; rachi tereti; fioribus in ramulos ulti-

little known Geiiera qfPlcmts, 179

BIOS aggregatis ; calyce tribracteato, sepalis subaequalibus, margine glandu-
loso-cuiatis ; petalis tribus exterioribus rotundatis concavis, interioribus ul-
tra medium bifidis filamenta 8equantibu8.--M. pungens. Wall. ! in Herb.
Hook.; Wight et Am. in Prodr. Fl. Pen. Ind. Or. (ined.); Wight. Cat. No. 945.

M. congesta, W. et Am. M S.

Hab. In montibus " Neelgherries" dictis.

2. M. dilleniifoUa * (Wall.) ; foliis simplicibus, elliptico-oblongis, basi at-
tenuatis, subtus pubescentibus ; nervis secundariis parallelis, rectiusculis, in
denticulos patentes spinuliformes excurrentibus ; panicula gracili, laxa, pu-
bescent!; rachi angulato; floribus in ramulos ultimos subdiscretis ; calyce
ebracteato, sepalis 5 subaequalibus, margine ciliatis ; petalis exterioribus ro-
tundatis, concavis, interioribus ad basin fere bifidis iilamentum perbreve ae-
quantibus M. dilleniifolia, Wall.! in Herb. Hook.

Hab

3. M. simplicifolia {Roxh.) i foliis simplicibus, membranaceis, oblongo-lan-
ceolatis, in petiolum longe attenuatis, integerrimis, utrinque glabris; nervis
secundariis prope marginem incurvis, confluentibus ; panicula gracili, laxa,
pubescent! ; rachi angulato ; floribus in ramulos ultimos subdiscretis ; calyce
ebracteato, sepalis tribus majoribus margine ciliatis; petalis exterioribus ro-
tundatis, concavis, interioribus ad basin fere bifidis filameuto plus dimidio

brevioribus M. simplicifoKa, lioxb. Fl. Ind. 1. p. 103; Spr. Sgst. 1. p. 3C;

W. et A. Fl. Pen. Ind. Or. (ined.) ; Wight. Cat. N. 946 — M. laxa, W. et A.

MS.

Hab. In montosis provinciae Madurae. — Silhet, Roxburgh.

4. M. pwwMtto (Roxb.) ; foliis abrupte pinnatis; pinnis 6-12 jugis; foliolis
elliptico-lanceolatis, utrinque glabris, denticulato-serratis, denticuUs incurvis,
nervis secundariis ante marginem incurvis, confluentibus ; panicula laxa, pu-
berula ; rachi angulato ; sepalis inaequalibus ; 2 bracteiformibus ; petalis ex-
terioribus rotundatis, interioribus ad medium fere bifidis filamentum aequan-

tibus. M. pinnata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1. p. 104. ; Wail. ! in Herb. Hook. ; Spr.

Syst. 1. p. 36.

Hab. In Silhet ; Roxbur^.

We have in the last species taken the part of the character
referring to the number of the leaflets from Roxburgh's descrip-
tion, the specimen before us being imperfect in that respect.

Gen. 6. PLATYNEMA, mh.

Syst Linn. DECANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Ord. Nat. MALPIGHIACEiE, Juss.

Calyx 6-partitus, basi eglandulosus. Petala 5, subaequalia, plana, unguicu-
lata, margine integerrima. Stamina 10^ altemis brevioribus ; //am^/ita
basi dilatata, plana, persistentia : antherce lineari-oblongae, deciduse. Sty-
lus filiformis, stamina superans: ovarium 3-loculare, apice 3-carinato-
alatum — Folia opposita, stipuiata, elliptical obtusa, glabra. Flores termi-
nalesy racemosi.

1. P. laurifolium, Nob. in Prodr. Penins. Ind. Or. (ined.); Wight. Cat.
N. 947 — Gsertnera laurifolia. Wall. List of E. I. Plants, N. 7265.
Hab. In insula Zeylana ; Herb, mission.

This plant is, as Dr Wallich and the missionaries point out,
closely allied to GtRrtnera of Schreber, the Hiptage of Gaert-

* We insert this species and M. pinnata, although not found ki the peninsula, in order to
complete our account ot the genus.

M 2

180 Messrs Wight and Arnott on some New or

ner and De CandoUe ; but imperfect as our specimen is, we do
not think that it can be actually united to that genus.

Gen. 7. SPH^ROCARYA, WalL

Unn, Spst. PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA.

Ord. Nat. SANTALACE^ ? R. Br.

Perxanthii tubus clavatus, ovario adhserens, limbus S-partitus. Petala nulla.
GlanduleB biseriales ; 6 exteriores petaloideae, fauci caljcis insertae, sta-
minibus alternantes : 5 interiores minutissimae, ciliatae, inter stamina et
perianthii lacinias. Stamina 5 ; filamenta brevia, glabra, ad basin pe-
rianthii lacinias inserta, iisdemque opposita : antherce bUoculares. Stylus
simplex. Stigma subbilobum. Drupa pyriformis, monosperma. Albu-
men magnum carnosum ; Embryo brevis, in apice albuminis : radicula
supera — Arbores. Folia alternantia, Integra, penninervia. Flores race-
most : pedicellis brevibus, crassis, ebracteolatis.

1. S. eduHs (WalL); foliis subtus ad nervos pilosis — S. edulis, Wall, in
Roxb. et Wall. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 371. ; Spr. Syst. Veg. Supp. p. 101. ; G. Don, in
Mill. Diet. 2. p. 27.

Hab. In sylvis Nepalensibus, in valle seque ac in montibus ; Clariss.
Wallich.

2. S. Wallichiana (Nob.) ; foliis subtus glaberrimis S. Wallichiana, Wight

et Am. in Prodr. Fl. Penins. Or. (ined.) ; Wight, Cat. N. 948.

Hab. In dumetis montium provincise Madurse.

We have not had it in our power to examine the structure of
the ovarium of this genus. Dr Wallich states that " the ovu-
lum is erect, supported by a fleshy subdiaphanous spirally
twisted cord, which rises from the bottom of the ovary, and is
conducted into the oblong cell by means of a proper tube or ca-
nal,*" which is slightly at variance with the natural order San-
talacese.

Gen. 8. BRAGANTIA, Lour.

Linn, Syst. GYNANDRIA HEXANDRIA.

Ord. Nat. ARISTOLOCHI^, Juss.

Perianthium tube globoso, limbo aequaliter 3-fido. Filamenta nulla. An-
therce 6-9, circa stylum medium, seu ejus rudimentum insertae, extror-
sum dehiscentes. Fru^tus siliquaeformis, indehiscens, plurilocularis, po-
lyspermus. — Frutices erecti, ramosi. Folia lanceolata, integerrima, venosa,
magna, alterna. Flores fusco-rubri : rucemi, breves, pauciflori, axillares.

1. "R. racemosa (Loun); hermaphrodita ; foliis late lanceolatis ; perianthii
tubo 10-sulcato, limbi laciniis obtusis; antheris 6, omnibus juxtapositis ; stig-
matibus in discum concavum integrum coalitis. — B. racemosa, Lour. Fl. Coch.
(ed. Willd.) 2. p. 645. ; Spr. Syst. 3. p. 755.

Hab. In montis Cochinchinae.

2. B. tcmentosa (Blum.) ; hermaphrodita ; foliis ovali-oblongis, coriaceis,
supra glabris, subtus reticulatis, arachnoideo-tomentosis ; racemis lateralibus,
cemuis, bracteatis, tomentosis ; antheris 6 ; stylo subquadrifido, stigmatibus

little known Genera of Plants. 181

obtusiusculis.— B. tomentosa, Blum. en. PI. Jav. fasc. 1. p. 82 — Ceramium to-
mentosum, Blum. Bydr. p. 1134.

Hab. In sylvas montanis humidis insularum Javae et Nusae Kambangae.

3. B. Wallichii (R. Br.) ; dioica ; foliis oblongo-lanceolatis, basi triner-
viis ; perianthii tubo laevi, limbi laciniis acutiusculis ; antheris 9, triadelphis,
per tria connatis ; pistillo (maris j brevissimo ; stigmatibus 9, radiantibus, ad
basin unitis, tribus bifidis ; fructu tereti — B. Wallichii, R. Brcwn, in Wall.
List of E. I. Plants, N. 74 1 4. ; Wight et Am. in Prodr. Fl. Pen. Ind. Or. (ined.) ;

Wight. Cat. N. 949 Apama siliquosa, Lam. Enc. Meth. 1. p. 91.; ill. tab. 640. ;

Rheed. Mai G. tab. 28.

Hab. In dumetis montium prope Courtallum. In arenosis et apricis
" in Aregatti et Mondabelle, aliisque locis** Malabariae, copiose ;
Rheede.

{To be continued.)

Descriptio7i of several New or Rare Plants which have lately
flowered in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly
in the Royal Botanic Garden, By Dr Graham, Profes-
sor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh.

June 10. 1833.
Alstrcemeria aurea.

A. aurea ; caule stricto, glabro ; foliis lineare-ellipticis, sparsis, glabris,
pallidis, margine scabriusculis, supra nervosis glaucis ; pedunculis um-
bellatis, bifloris, erectis, foliis superioribus duplo brevioribus ; corollae
laciniis patentibus, subaequalibus, mucronatis, exterioribiis obovatis
serratis concoloribus, interioribus lanceolatis integerrimis striatis.
Description Sterna (1^ foot high, exclusive of the terminal umbel) nu-
merous, erect, simple, glabrous. Leaves (4^ inches long, fth inch broad)
very numerous, linear-elliptical, scattered, glabrous, light green, glau-
cous, and many-nerved on the surface, which, by the twisting of the long
attenuated base, becomes the lower, slightly rough on the edges, callous
at the apex, as is best seen in dry native specimens. Peduncles umbel-
late, erect, about half the length of the leaves which surround their base
like an involucre, 2-flowered, the lateral flower springing from the axil
of a leaf-like bractea, bearing another similar but smaller bractea on its
side, and in general below its middle ; and here probably in a very
luxuriant state of the plant another flower would arise. Corolla orange-
coloured, segments nearly equal in length, spreading, mucronate, the
three outer segments obovate, serrated, the three inner lanceolate, the
lower as well as the three outer segments of nearly uniform colour, and
occasionally with one or two deep orange-coloured streaks, the two others
more yellow below the apex, and having many such streaks down even
to their channelled nectariferous bases. Stamens declined, rather longer
than the lowest segment of the corolla, orange-coloured ; pollen granules
small, oblong, yellow. Stigma trifid, with short pubescence on the sur-
face. Style ascending, angular, of uniform orange colour. Germen green,
ribbed.
This sjjecies, imported by Mr Anderson, was received at the Botanic Gar-
den from Mr Low of Clapton, under the specific name here adopted, and
is now in flower in the greenhouse. I am afraid that in this, as in many
other South American genera, we are unwarrantably multiplying speci-
fic names; but this is probably rightly considered distinct from any of
the plants previously described. In habit it approaches nearly to Alstrce.
meria pukhella, but probably will always be a much smaller plant.

182 Br Graliani''s Description of New or Rare Plants.

Begonia radiata.

B* radiata ; acaulis ; foliis palmatis, utrinque, cumque petiolis et scapo
elato, pilosis, lobis lanceolato-oblongis, undulatis, sinuatis ; floribus di-
petalis, filamentis basi solummodo cohserentihus, germine S^lato (alia
rotundatis ?)

Description — Leaves (7 inches across") bright green above, paler below,
all radical, subpeltate, cordato-palmate, hairy above and below, with se-
ven strong radiating nerves, very prominent below, lobes lanceolate, ob-
long, undulate, sinuated, dentate, unequal, the central (4 inches from
the insertion of the petiol to its apex) being the longest, the others gra-
dually smaller to the sinus ; petiole rather shorter than the middle lobe,
densely covered with long coarse entangled crystalline hairs, which, in

. fading, resemble yellow wool. Scape (2 feet high) tapering upwards,
straight, pretty closely covered with oblong red streaks, from which
spring long tortuous, acute, crystalline hairs. Bractece in opposite pairs
at each division of the flower-stalk, serrated, ovate, hairy, dentato-ci-
liate, nerved, smaller in every succeeding pair. Peduncles dicliotomo-
deliquescent, streaked like the scape, and somewhat hispid. Flowers
rose-coloured, dipetalous, petals rotund, entire; male flowers in the cleft
of the peduncles, expanding before the female. Stamens yellow, ascend-
ing ; filaments cohering only at the base ; anthers spathulate, connec-
tive extending beyond the loculaments. Germen 3-winged (wings
roimded ?)

We received this plant at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from Berlin,
in 1832, having the name Begonia tanacetifolia attached to it ; but the
leaves are so very peculiar, and so unlike a species of Tanacetum^ that I
cannot help suspecting our plant may have been put up by mistake, in-
stead of another, and therefore I have ventured to apply to it another
specific designation. When in a very vigorous state, it unfortunately
damped off just before the flowers were fully expanded. The scape was
cut and stuck into damp sand, but a few of the male flowers only ex-
panded. The habit of the species is very singular.

Calceolaria crenatiflora.

C. crenatiflora ; herbacea ; foliis ovatis, suhlobatis, dentatis, inferioribus
prsecipue petiolatis, utrinque caulique pubescentibus, subobliquis, flo-
ribus corymbosis, labio superiore minimo, inferiore amplo maculato
crenalo, laciniis calycinis late ovatis nervosis.
Calceolaria crenatiflora, Cavanilles, Icones PI. 5. 28. t. 446. — Sprengel,

Syst. Veg. 1. 44.
Calceolaria anomala, Pers. Synops. 1. 16.
Calceolaria pendula, Sweet, Brit. Fl. Garden, 155.

Description Herbaceous. Stem {\\ foot high) erect, purple towards

the base, abundantly covered with soft spreading hairs, some of which
are long and acute, a greater number half their length, and glandular.
Lower leaves ovate, petioled (with the petiole 7 inches long, 34 broad)
decurrent along the petioles, slightly undulate, sublobate, dentate, sub-
oblique, rugose, pubescent on both sides, dark green above, much paler
below, and there purple towards the lip. Stem-leaves ovate, subacute,
on much shorter petioles, smaller and more sessile upwards. Floivers co-
rymbose, primary division in two or three branches, branches dichotomous
with two flowers in the cleft. Peduncles (1^ inch long) as well as the
branches having the same pubescence as on the stem. Calyx segments
broadly ovate, subacute, spreading, densely covered with both kinds of
pubescence on the outside, with the glandular only on the inner, entire
nerved, nerves generally 5. Corolla with short glandular pubescence
over the whole of the outer surface, most conspicuous on the upper lip,
glabrous within, except at the insertion of the stamens, where there are
a few hairs, yellow, sprinkled with orange-brown spots on the upper part

tS I^f Graham's Description of New or Bare Plants. 183

of the lower lip, and on its inner side near the throat, the spots being
there larger and round, in the former situation smaller and oblong, while
in that part of the lower lip which is inflected in the throat they become
streaks. Upper lip small semilunar, compressed upon the calyx, cucul-
late in the centre ; lower lip very large, inflated, about a third of its lower
surface parallel to the calyx, the remainder at right angles to this, and
the upper surface forming an inclined i)lane from the throat, crenate at
its lower part, the number of crenatures varying from three to five, and
each frequently emarginate, inflected portion of the lower lip flat at
right angles to its upper surface. Stamens erect, subexserted, filaments
conical, slightly curved downwards, somewhat compressed, and having
upon their surface a few erect, short, glandular hairs ; anthers large,
pale yellow, lobes divaricated, equal, deeply furrowed on their outsides ;
pollen cream-coloured. Pistil longer than the stamens ; stigma small,
glandular, capitate ; style glabrous, slightly curved downwards ; germen
glanduloso-pubescent, shape and structure as in the genus, placenta large,
ovules very numerous.
There is no species of this beautiful genus which forms so striking an ob-
ject in the green-house as this. How far it will bear cultivation in the
open air, we have yet to ascertain. I can see no reason whatever for
the specific distinction between Calceolaria creimtijlora and C. pendula at-
tempted to be drawn in the British Flower Garden. The chief distinc-
tion stated is the difference of the number of the crenatures in the lower
lip, and the flowers being pendulous or suberect. The former charac-
ter I find to vary continually in the flowers even on the same corymb ;
and the latter seems to me to depend solely on the degree of unnatu -
ral luxuriance produced by cultivation. I have both plants from Mr
Low, who first raised them from seeds gathered in Chiloe by Mr Ander-
son, and who furnished the plant figured as Calceolaria pendula in the
British Flower Garden, and I cannot see a shade of difference between
them. The impropriety of unnecessarily changing names is absolutely
caiicatured by Persoon, who, knowing the plant only through the bad fi-
gure of Cavanilles, imagined the lower lip to be flat, not inflated, as in
the genus, and therefore rejecting the name of Cavanilles, descriptive of
a form found in, though not peculiar to the species^ he gave a name ap-
plicable only to the figure.

Epacris nivalis.

E. nivalis ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis, patentissimis, nudiusculis, infra ner-
vosis, apice attenuatis, mucronaiis, marginibus scabris ; floribus axil-
laribus, solitariis, secundis, in pseudo-spicis longis aggregatis, corollae
tubo campanulato, calycibus acutis ciliatis multo longiore.
Description — Shrub evergreen, with many long, slender, tomentous
branches. Leaves scattered, spreading, ovato-lanceolate, attenuated at
the apex, and mucronate, dark green above, slightly paler and 3-nerved
below, nearly glabrous, edges slightly scabrous. Flowers solitary, axil-
lary, peduncled, secund, cernuous, collected into long pseudo-spikes on
the upper part of the branches, peduncles shorter than the leaves, tomen-
tous, scaly. Calyx coloured, segments very acute, ciliated. Corolla white,
glabrous ; tube campanulate, 5-sided, pitted on the outside towards its
base, so as to close it over the germen, about thrice as long as the calyx ;
limb of 5 reflected, cordato-ovate segments. Stamens alternate with the
segments of the limb ; filaments adhering to the tube ; anthers nearly
sessile in the throat, red, linear, incumbent. Stigma of five lobes, yellow.
Style glabrous, white, attenuated towards its apex. Germen globular,
green. Hypogynous scales semicircular, closely applied to the lower half
of the germen.
This exceedingly beautiful species was introtluced into the garden of Messrs
Loddiges, by H. M. Dyer, Esq. in 1829. The specimens now described
form pretty large bushes, and most attractive ornaments to the green-

184 Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare Plants.

house in the extensive collection of Mr Cunningham at Comely Bank
Nursery, near Edinburgh, where they were profusely covered with blos-
soms in April. It is extremely difficult to get written characters to dis-
tinguish E. cercBflora^ E. nivalis^ and E. impressa, though obviously very
different species. The difficulties are increased by each seeming to vary
considerably, and that in parts of structure which were considered dia-
gnostic of the species. In the reformed characters which I have attempt-
ed here, I am forced, in distinguishing these three from each other, to re-
ly chiefly on the tube of the corolla.

There is a variety of E. nivalis cultivated by Mr Cunningham, and ob-
tained from Mr Low under the name of E. variabilis, in which the buds
are suberect, the peduncle as long as the calyx, the tube of the corolla
three times longer than this, twice as long as the leaves, and the sides
grooved nearly along their whole length, the throat being slightly con-
tracted ; in all of which there is a departure from what has been consi-
dered the type of E. nivalis, and the flowers are larger than in this, the
plant is more robust, slightly different in habit, and is rather less easily
propagated by cuttings.

Epacris cercejlora is a much smaller plant than either of the others, the
wood is much more slender, the leaves more crowded, and the flowers
little more than half the size of theirs.

Epacris impressa, — Foliis lanceolatis, patentissimis, nudiusculis, infra ner-
vosis, apice attenuatis, mucronatis, marginibus scabris, petiolis brevis-
simis ; floribus pendulis, axillaribus, solitariis, in pseudo-spicis congestis,
corollse tubis prismaticis, calyce acuto ciliato multo longioribus.

Epacris cer^flora, — Foliis lanceolatis, patentissimis, nudiusculis, sub-
aveniis, apice attenuato-mucronatis, marginibus scabris ; floribus patulis,
axillaribus, solitariis, secundis ; corollse tubo ovato, calycem acutum ci-
liatura bis superanti.

Eucalyptus amygdalina.

E. amygdalina; operculo hemisphaerico, submutico, cupula, breviore; pe-
dunculis axillaribus et lateralibus, teretiusculis, petioli longitudine;
umbellis 6-8-floris, subcapitatis ; foliis lineari-lanceolatis, basi attenu-
atis, apice acuminato-mucronatis — Decand.
Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill. Nov. HoU. 2. 14. t. 154 — Spreng. Syst'

Veget. 2. 501 Decand. Prodr. 3. 219.

Metrosideros salicifolia, Gcertner, Fruct. et Sem. 1. 171. a, t. 34. fig. 3. ?
Description. — With us a rather slender-wooded shrub. Branches pendu-
lous. Leaves (3-4 inches long) petiolate, linear-lanceolate, acuminato-
mucronate, sometimes falcate or subsessile, ovato-elliptical and mucro-
nate ; glaucous, especially when young ; distantly sprinkled with minute
transparent dots ; middle rib strong, veins and marginal callosity scarcely
visible till dry. Flowers in axillary 5-8 (or more) flowered corymbs ; pe-
duncles scarcely longer than the petiole, stouter than it, nearly round, or
obscurely furrowed ; pedicels resembling the peduncle, and not much
more slender. Calyx, including the cohering segments of its limb (oper-
culum) scarcely so long as the pedicel; operculum hemispherical, mi-
nutely pointed, shorter than the tube (cupula). Stamens numerous,
white, longer than the cupula. Style longer than the cupula, but shorter
than the stamens.
This species, native of Van Diemen's Land, flowered at the Botanic Gar-
den in the beginning of this month, when trained against the wall. We
have not yet ascertained whether, like the Eucalyptus pulverulenta, it will
thrive without this protection.

The descriptions of Fritillaria minor, Leontice Altaica, Libertia crassa and
formosa, the new species Syringa Jacquinii, Oxylobium ellipticum, and Pri-
mula amcena, from want of room are delayed until our next publication.

( 185 )

Celestial Phenomena fiom July 1. to October 1. 1833, calculated
for the Meridian of Edinburgh^ Mean Time. By Mr Geo.
Innes, Astronomical Calculator, Aberdeen.

The times are inserted according to the CivU reckoning, the day beginning at midnight.
— The Conjunctions of the Moon with the Stars are given in Right Ascention.

JULY.

D.

H- / //

D.

^* / //

1.

7 5 15

61)if^ t

13.

22 32 16

]) very near $

2.

0 24 54

O Full Moon.

14.

22 18 44

d })o d

2.

1 4 51

dDi' r

15.

2 20 1

dK tt

2.

1 30 0

d])2v t

17.

7 3 36

0 New Moon.

2.

6 50 8

6Don

19.

1 59 48

Im. I. sat. y.

4.

13 24 31

6D^n

19.

3 66 38

6D^

6.

2 26 1

Em. III. sat. y.

19.

15 35 17

6 D6

6.

6 56 13

6Dyn

21.

1 3 45

Em. IL sat. 1/

5.

10 14 13

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21.

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dDvTlJ

5.

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21.

5 9 43

dD h

6.

14 34 -

c?0i

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3 47 29

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7.

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23.

21 27 48

I First Quarter.

7.

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24.

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d?«^

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24.

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9.

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25.

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10.

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( Last Quarter.

25.

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d )) ^zf^ [elong.

10.

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26.

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^ greatest E.

11.

6 56 43

61) V

26.

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§ greatest W.

11.

6 39 25

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27.

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11.

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27.

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11.

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28.

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11.

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28.

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13.

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29.

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13.

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13.

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29.

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13.

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31.

14 56 24

O Full Moon.

13.

21 55 23

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AUG

31.
CJST.

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D.

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1.

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4.

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8.

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6 1) f^ CetL

4.

15 58 39

6DrH

8.

17 50 12

( Last Quarter.

4.

17 48 58

6DsK

10.

4 35 27

c5^l^ b-

186 Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to Oct. 1. 1833.

AVGV^H—cmtinued.

D.

H. , //

D.

H. / /,

.■

10.

6 7 «

d D2-J tt

21.

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10.

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22.

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10.

7 3 20

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22.

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11.

2 9 22

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22.

6 19 24

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11.

8 4 2

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22.

21 39 -

Inf. c^ O 5

12.

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23.

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12.

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23.

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12.

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24.

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12.

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24.

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13.

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25.

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27.

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16.

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28.

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28.

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29.

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19.

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30.

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20.

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31.

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SEPTE

MBER.

D.

H. / //

D.

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2.

3 63 15

6i>^yi

8.

12 18 -

§ greatest W.

2.

20 4 17

6 6h.

8.

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3.

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8.

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9.

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4.

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4.

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10.

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4.

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10.

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5.

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11.

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6.

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d D 1^ d

12.

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d^e^

6.

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6.

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8.

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19.

0 35 46

Im. I. sat. y

Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to Oct. 1. 18S3. 187

SEPTEMBER— conrtmitfd.

D.

H. , „

D.

H. , ,,

20.

1 58 7

6 D e Oph.

25.

11 40 34

6])^

20.

11 52 5

c5 ]) D Oph.

26.

2 29 58

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20.

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}) First Quarter.

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22.

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The MooMT will be Eclipsed, July 1. and 2, Visible to all Europe — The
following are the times for the Edinburgh Observatory :

The Eclipse begins, . . . July 1. 22 52 17,6

Middle, 2. 0 30 21,2

End of the Eclipse, 2 8 24,8

Digits Eclipsed, lO^g- 18' 45",4 on the South part of the Moon*s Disc.

There will be a great Eclipse of the Sun * on I7th July, Visible to all Eu-
rope The following are the times for the Observatories of Edinburgh,

Greenwich, and Aberdeen :

Edinburgh.

The Eclipse begins, . . July 17. 4 57 7,8

Greatest Obscuration, 6 49 17,9

Visible Conjunction, 5 51 15,1

End of the Eclipse, 6 44 38,9

Digits Eclipsed at Greatest Obscu- \^^

ration, f ^"

The Moon will enter the Sun's j^

Limb at J

from his Vertex, towards the right hand, as seen with a Telescope which

does not invert

0 31,9
46M1 18

Greenwich. |

H. /

4
5 55

5 58

6 49

5,8

4,2

16,6

21,9

8 47 48,3

37° 12 20

Aberdeen.

H- / //

5 2 42,1

5 55 21,5

5 57 11,0

6 51 2,2
dig.

10 9 29,9

48° 19 4

On 20th August, at'O'' 37" 44*, it is probable that the Planet Venus may
come in contact with C n ; but the Pldnet and Star will not be risen at the
time of nearest approach.

* An account of this eclipse waa formerly Inserted in this Journal fbr October->December 1898«
the reader will also find a Projection of it for Edinburgh Observatory.

188 Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to Oct. 1. 1833.

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{ 189 )

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

METEOROLOGY.

1. Influence of the Moon on Rain. — From the comparison of
a series of observations, continued for twenty-eight years at
Munich, Stuttgard, and Augsburg, by Professor Schubler, it
appears that the maximum number of rainy days takes place be-
tween the first quarter and the new moon. The number of
Vdiiuy, days in the last of these intervals, is to that in the first as
696 to 845, or in round numbers, as 5 to 6. And this propor-
tion is not only true of the twenty years taken together, but al-
so of the separate groups of four years, which give analogous
numbers ; we therefore conclude that it rains more frequently
during the increase than during the wane of the moon. The
results obtained by Schubler receive support from a series of
observations made by Pilgram at Vienna. On 100 repetitions
of the same phase, Pilgram found the falls of rain to be as
follows : New moon 26, mean of the two quarters 25, full moon
29 ; consequently, at Vienna, as well as at Augsburg and
Stutgard, it rains more frequently on the day of the full, than
on that of the new moon. Arago remarks in regard to the
observations, " confining ourselves to the principal results^ it
seems dijfflcult to resist the conclusion that the vioon exercises an
iiifiuence on our atmosphere; that in virtue of this influence
rain falls more frequently towards the second octant, than ai
any other epoch of the lunar month ; and, lastly, that the chances
of rain are fewest between the last quarter and the fourth oc-
tantr

2. The supposed Influence of the Moon on Vegetation. — It is
generally believed, says Arago, especially in the neighbourhood
of Paris, that the moon, in certain months, has a great influence
on the phenomena of vegetation. The gardeners give the name
of red moon (lune rousse) to the moon, which, beginning in
April, becomes full either about the end of that month, or more
usually in the course of May. In the months of April and
May, the moon, according to them, exercises a pernicious in-

190 Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorology.

fluence on the young shoots of plants. They maintain that they
have observed during the night, when the sky is clear, the leaves
and buds exposed to this light, to become red, that is to say, to
be frozen, although the thermometer in the free atmosphere
stood several degrees above the freezing point. They also as-
sert, that if the rays of the moon are intercepted by clouds, and
thereby prevented from reaching the plants, the same effects do
not take place, under circumstances perfectly similar in other
respects with regard to temperature. These phenomena seem
to indicate that the light of our satellite is endowed with a certain
frigorific influence ; yet, on directing the most powerful burning-
glasses, or the largest reflectors towards the moon, and placing the
most delicate thermometers in their foci, no eff^ect has ever been
observed which could justify so singular a conclusion. Hence
with philosophers the eff*ects of the April moon are now referred
to the class of vulgar prejudices, while the gardeners remain
convinced of the accuracy of their observations. A beautiful
discovery made some years ago by Dr Wells, will enable us, I
think, to reconcile two opinions in appearance so contradictory.
No one had supposed, before Dr Wells, that terrestrial sub-
stances, excepting in the case of a very rapid evaporation, may
acquire during the night a different temperature from that of
the surrounding air. This important fact is now well ascer-
tained. On placing little masses of cotton, down, &c. in the
open air, it is frequently observed that they acquire a tempera-
ture of six, seven, or even eight centigrade degrees below that
of the surrounding atmosphere. The same is the case with
vegetables. We cannot therefore judge of the degree of cold
with which a plant is aff*ected during the night, by the indica-
tions of a thermometer suspended in the free atmosphere : the
plant may he strongly frozen^ although the air remains constant-
ly several degi-ees above the freezing point. These differences
of temperature between solid bodies and the atmosphere only
rise to six, seven, or eight degrees of the centesimal thermome-
ter, when the sky is perfectly clear. If the sky is clouded they
become insensible. Is it now necessary to point out the con-
nexion between these phenomena, and the opinions of the coun-
try people regarding the April moon ? In the nights of April
and May, the temperature of the atmosphere is frequently only

Scientific InteUtgence. — Meteorology. 199

four, five or six centigrade degrees above zero. When this hap-
pens, plants exposed to the light of the moon, that is to say^ to a
clear sky^ may be frozen, notwithstanding the indications of the
thermometer. If the moon, on the contrary, does not shine — in
short, if the sky is cloudy, the temperature of the plants does not
fall below that of the atmosphere ; and they will consequently
not be frozen, unless the thermometer indicates zero. It is
therefore quite true, as the gardeners pretend, that under ther-
mometrical circumstances precisely alike, a plant may be frozen
or not, according as the moon may be visible or concealed be-
hind clouds. If they are deceived, it is only in their conclu-
sion in attributing the effect to the light of the moon. The
moon^s light is, in this case, only the index of a clear atmo-
sphere ; it is only in consequence of the clearness of the sky that
the nocturnal congelation of plants takes place, the moon con-
tributes to the effect in no way whatever ; although she were
hid under the horizon, the effect would not be different.

3. Influence of the Moon on Diseases, — Hippocrates, says
Arago, had so lively a faith in the influence of the stars on ani-
mated beings, and on their maladies, that he very expressly re-
commends not to trust to physicians who are ignorant of astro-
nomy. The moon, however, according to him, only acted a secon-
dary part, the preponderating stars were the Pleiades, Arcturus
and Procyon. Galen shewed himself, in this respect, a zealous
disciple of Hippocrates ; but it was the moon to which he as-
signed the chief influence. Thus the famous critical days in
diseases — that is to say, the 7th, the 14th, and the 21st, were
connected with the duration of the principal phases of our satel-
lite, and the lunar influence became the principal pivot of the
system of C7ises. With regard to the theory of lunar influence
on disease, it still counts a goodly number of partisans. In
truth, I know not if the circumstance ought to astonish us.
Is it not something to have on our side the authority of the two
great physicians of antiquity ; and among the moderns, that of
Mead, Hoffman, and Sauvage ? Authorities, I admit, are of
little weight in matters of science, in the face of positive facts ;
but it is necessary that these facts exist, that they have been
subjected to severe examination, that they have been skilfully

192 Scientific Intelligence. -^Hydrography.

grouped, with a view to extract from them the truths they con*
ceal. Now, has this procedure been adopted with regard to the
lunar influence ? Where do we find them refuted by such ar-
guments as science would acknowledge ? He who ventures to
treat a priori a fact as absurd, wants prudence. He has not
reflected on the numerous errors he would have committed with
regard to modern discoveries. I ask, for example, if there can
be any thing in the world more bizarre, more incredible, more
inadmissible than the discovery of Jenner ? Well ' the bizarre,
the incredible, the inadmissible, is found to be true ; and the
preservative against the smallpox is, by unanimous consent, to
be sought for in the little pustule that appears in the udder of
the cow. I address these short reflections to those who may
think that the subject of lunat influence is unworthy of any no-
tice.

PIYDROGRAPHY.

4. Instances of Ground Ice. — A striking example of the forma-
tion of ground-ice is mentioned by the Commander Steenk of
Pillau. On the 9th February 1806, during a' strong south-
east wind, and a temperature of -|- 34°.2 Fahrenheit, a long iron
chain, to which the buoys of the fair-way are fastened, and
•which had been lost sight of at Schappelts- wrack in a depth of
from 15 to 18 feet, suddenly made its appearance at the surface
of the water, and swam there ; it was, however, completely en-
crusted with ice to the thickness of several feet. Stones, also,
of from three to six pounds weight, rose to the surface ; they
were surrounded with a thick coat of ice. A cable also, 3^ inches
thick, and about 30 fathoms long, which had been lost the pre-
ceding summer in a depth of 30 feet, again made its appearance
and swam on the surface ; but it was enveloped in ice to the
thickness of 2 feet. On the same day it was necessary to warp
the ship into harbour in face of an east wind ; the anchor used
for the purpose, after it had lain an hour at the bottom, became
so encrusted with ice, that it required not more than half of the
usual power to heave it up.

5. Avalaiiches in Grusia (Grusien). — By information lately
received from Grusia, it appears that a frightful and fortunately

Scientijic Intelligence. — Hydrography. 193

rare occurrence had taken place and caused considerable sensa-
tion. On the morning of the 25th August 1832, an enormous
avalanche descended suddenly from the mountain of Kasbek in-
to a valley, through which the military road from Tiflis passes,
and covered it for a distance of two wersts in length. The
mass of snow extended across the entire ravine, which has a
breadth of forty fathoms, and its thickness amounted to about
forty faden (fathoms), so that the communication was interrupt-
ed by about a million and a half cubic fathoms of snow, ice,
and masses of rock rolled down by the avalanche from above.
The river Terek, which flows through the ravine, had its course
so completely blocked up, that it burst through its banks at
the upper end of the defile, tore away several bridges, destroyed
a part of the road, and flooded the lower parts of the country,
before it formed a new passage for itself. The inhabitants were
saved by their own sagacity and their thorough acquaintance
with the mountains, foi* 6ven a week before the avalanche was
precipitated, they had remarked signs which indicated with cer-
tainty the approaching catastrophe, and had accordingly remov-
ed to a considerable distance with their herds and moveable pro-
perty. The forerunners of a great and dangerous avalanche are
more or less frequent small avalanches of snow and loose earth
from the Kasbeck, a mountain which rises to the height of 2500
toises above the level of the Black Sea. When the yearly aug-
menting masses of snow which lie on this mountain and its de-
clivities, are increased to such an extent as to lose the power of
coherence, they slide gradually downwards, carrying along with
them large masses of rock, and giving rise to a thundering noise.
It is at the same time remarked, that the mountain tributary
streams of the Terek become considerably swollen and bring down
earth and stones. As the Kasbek is seventeen wersts distant
from the place where the avalanches are precipitated into the
ravine, some time must necessarily elapse before the descending
snow accumulates to such an extent as to roll over all Uie pro-
jecting cliff's which give protection to the road, and it is easy for
the mountaineers to take to fligrht before the danger reaches
them. Only two similar avalanches are known to have taken
place in Grusia since it belonged to Russia; of which one hap-
pened in the year 1808, and the other in 1817; and notwith-

VOL. XV. NO. XXIX. — JDLY 1833. N

194) Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

standing the great and incessant labour employed for the pur-
pose of clearing away the snow, yet in one of these instances- five
years elapsed ere it was entirely removed.

GEOLOGY.

6. Hoffmann'' s Discovery in regard to Carrara Marble. —
According to the late investigations of Hoffmann, the famed
marble of Carrara belongs to the Jura limestone formation, and
even corresponds to the upper part of that deposit which affords
at Solenhof and Pappenheim the well known lithographic stone»
The limestone is observed rising from under the quader sand-
stone, at first but little changed, and in this state abounding in
petrifactions the same as those that occur in the Jura hmestone.
With increased inclination of the strata, they become more gra-
nular, and often alternate with large masses of dolomite : at
length, in an immense wall, which, in a length of six German
miles, scarcely sinks to a lower level than 4000 feet above the
sea, the limestone becomes throughout granular, and loses every
appearance of a common Jura limestone. But, in descending
towards Carrara, the Jura petrifactions appear again in the
deeper beds, below MisegHa, in a road which leads to the mar-
ble quarries, and thus, according to Hoffmann, shewing that
the beds of granular Mmestone or marble have been formed
out of compact limestone, through subterranean agency The
marble rests on clay-slate, which reposes on a mica-slate, sup-
ported by gneiss. Hoffman endeavours to shew that the mica-
slate and gneiss have been formed from the clay-slate, through
the agency of subterranean heat.

7. Fish-bones and Scales in the Coal Formation. — Many
years ago, we pointed out to our pupils the bones and scales of
fishes in the shale of the coal formation, in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh. Very lately my friend Mr Trevelyan has dis-
covered some specimens of nearly whole fossil fish, at Wardie,
near to Leith.

8. Specific Gravity of some British Rocks. — Compact hyper-
stbene rock. Isle of Skye, 3.051. Trap vein in red sandstone,
Isle of Lamlash, Arran, 3.0 J 4. Rock of the pillars of FingaPs
Cave, 2.957. Anamesite or greenstone from Tobermory, in
Isle of Mull, 2.905. Summit of Arthur Seat^ with traces of

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology. 195

olivin, 2.886. West wall of Longraw, Arthur Seat, 2.801.
Trap vein in the coal formation at CaroHne Park, near New-
haven, 2.764. Rock of the Gallon Hill, Edinburgh, 2.754.
Trap vein in clay-slate, Rothsay, Isle of Bute, 2.746. — Von
Dechen,

9. Chemical Composition of some Secondary Rocks. — The
following analyses by two of our young friends will afford a
good general idea of the chemical nature of several rocks con-
nected with the coal formation near to Edinburgh.

(1.) Analysis of Slate-clay , from Wardie, near Newhaven.
by Mr Robert Walker : It does not effervesce with acids, nei-
ther does it form a jelly with them. When exposed to a red
heat, it loses interstitial water, and splits into fragments. It is
found alternating with sandstone and bituminous shale of the
coal formation in the above mentioned neighbourhood. Its con-
stituents are. Silica, 60.00 ; alumina, 17.60; oxide of iron, 15.21 ;
lime, 2.36 ; loss by heat 4.41 : = 99,58.

(2. ) Analysis of Compact Felspar from the Pentlands ; by Mr
John Drysdale. Specific gravity 2.53. Chemical characters:
Effervesces slightly, and does not gelatinize with acids. Before
the blowpipe, infusible per se. Heated on platinum-wire, with
an excess of the salt of phosphorus, it forms a transparent and
colourless glass. Constituent parts : Silica, 73.5 ; alumina, with
a trace of iron, 11.23 ; carbonate of lime, 2.5 ; potash, 3.55 ;
soda, 3.8 ; water, 4.6 : = 99.20.

(3.) Analysis of Greenstone from Wardie, near Newhaven,
by Mr John Drysdale. — Effervesces, and does not gelatinize
with acids. Before the blowpipe, heated per se, it melts into a
black glass ; with the salt of phosphorus it melts into a trans-
parent glass, yellow when hot, and colourless when cold. Spe-
cific gravity 2.873. Constituent parts: — Silica, 44.00; alumi-
na, 11.4; iron (protoxide), 22.32; lime, 8.8; magnesia, 25;
water and carbonic acid, 10.5 : =: 99.52.

(4.) Felspar Rock of Wardie, near Newhaven, by Mr Robert
Walker. — The following is the analysis of an ash-grey rock,
bearing a strong resemblance to compact Labrador felspar,
but differing materially in chemical composition. It is found
rising up among the strata of sandstone, slate-clay, and other
rocks of the coal formation, and indeed at first sight might be
taken for a Neptunian rock, were it not that it is distinctly seen

N 2

296 Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

passing into greenstone. Its igneous origin is beautifully seen
in one part, where it has torn off a part of the slate-clay (now
imbedded in it), and which has evidently undergone a sort of
semifusion. From the following analysis it will easily be seen
that it has a very different constitution from any felspar. It
effervesces violently with acids, and does not gelatinize : its con-
stituents are, silica, 37.20 ; alumina, 9.75 ; iron, 20.00 ; lime,
8.57; magnesia, 3.78; carbonic acid and water; 20.80, =
100.10.

10. Inflammahle Matter in Carnelian. — In consequence of
some remarks contained in a memoir of Dufay, published in 1732,
relative to the decoloration of carnelian, Gaultier de Claubry
heated, in a porcelain retort, some fragments of carnelian with
deutoxide of copper. There was a sensible emission of gas,
which appeared to be carbonic acid, and the fragments were de-
prived of their colour at the surface. In another experiment
with pulverized carnelian, the development of gas was much
greater, viz. 29 cubic centimetres from 100 grammes of carne-
lian. This appears to leave no doubt of the existence of organic
matter in carnelian quartz, and to the presence of which it owes
its colour. At the recommendation of Thenard, the experimen-
ter calcined alone 100 grammes of carnelian, which lost in the
operation 1.169 grammes, and furnished carbonic acid and some
inflammable gas, besides an acrid liquor, which strongly red*
dened turnsol ; no ammonia was disengaged from the liquid
when treated with lime ; the residue was of a greyish-white. It
follows, that the colour of carnelian is owing to inflammable
matter. A portion of the loss may be occasioned by the escape
of water contained in the stone.

11. Fossils in Granite. — M. de Seckendorf has found in the
Hartz, in the midst of a quarry situated near the causeway
which leads to Ilartzberg, fragments of greywacke, containing
petrifactions imbedded (empates) in granite. M. Hartmann,
author of the Mineralogical Dictionary, confirms this statement.

12. Geological Maps. — In the year 1826 aGeognostical Map
of Germany, in forty -two sheets, was published in Berlin by
Simon Schropp & Co., which has become well known to the
geologists of this country and the continent. Since that time a
corrected edition has appeared, and it is with much pleasure we
learn that a third, and very much improved, edition is nearly

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology. 197

ready, and will immediately be given to the public. This map
is partly compiled from various geognostical maps already exist-
ing of some of the districts of Germany, and partly founded on
original information communicated by some of the most distin-
guished geologists of the day. The names of the contributors are
not given in the title, but we understand that the materials have
been chiefly furnished by Von Buch, Alex, von Humboldt, Fre-
derick Hoffmann, Von Dechen, and Von Oeynhausen. Besides
the various scattered observations on the geognosy of Germany
which have been made known since the publication of the last
edition, the maps communicated to the great Vienna meeting of
naturalists will also be made use of, and especially those of
Partch and Rosthorn. The observations of Zobel and Carnall
in Silesia, of Klipstein in the Vogelsgebirge, of Stift in the
Westerwald and Lahn, and of Merian on the Black Forest, have
caused material alterations in the dehneation of those districts.
The progress lately made in the knowledge of the geognostical
structure and relations of Germany, has simplified considerably
the series of colours employed to indicate the formations ; for,
in some cases, by the comparisons instituted, deposits beheved
to be distinct have been identified and united. Thus, while the
table of colours employed in the former editions amounted to
forty-eight shades, forty-one have been, in the present instance,
found sufficient. The publishers of the above mentioned map
have also the intention to prepare, immediately, a small general
geognostical map of Middle Europe, which will be about 2 feet
long, by 2 feet 8 inches broad, and include England, France,
Germany, Prussia, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, and Upper
Italy. The same materials will be employed for this map as for
the other ; and for those districts to which the latter does not ex-
tend, the best sources of infonnation will be had recourse to.
This map, which is intended for general circulation, and will
appear about the end of the present year^ will be very moderate
in price, not more than three or four dollars. The well known
spirit and liberality of Messrs Schropp & Co. ensure the good
execution of the interesting undertaking we have announced.

13. Flan in Relic/ of Wurtemberg. — M. Bath, conservator
of the Museum of Natural History at Tubingen, has for some
time been occupied with the preparation of a plan in relief of

198 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

Wiirtemberg, including the principalities of Heicliingen, Sig-
manigen, and Fiirstemberg, and the neighbouring portion of the
Duchy of Baden. This plan in relief is 26 Parisian inches by
20, and is formed upon the same scale as the section published
by M. Alberto in 1826, in his work on the Mountains of Wiir-
temberg. The proportion of the horizontal distances to the
heights is as 1 to 18, and in this the higher portion of the
Swabian Alps has, in the plan, the height of one inch and a half,
and so on in proportion the other mountains. Professor Schiibler
of Tubingen, who has superintended and assisted in the work,
will contribute a treatise on the heights and on the geognosy of
Wiirtemberg. The colouring may, according to the wish of the
purchaser, be made to express either the leading geognostical
features of the country, or the natural appearances of the sur-
face. The price of a copy of either kind is 20 florins 24
kreutzers; and of both kinds if the two are taken by the same per-
son, 44 florins. Geognostical Maps of Wiirtemberg, coloured
by M. Rath after the original map by Professor Schiibler, are
also to be had at Tlibingen.

ZOOLOGY.

14. Hermaphrodis7n.' — M. Isidore Geoflroy Saint-Hilaire con-
siders the generative apparatus altogether as formed of six prin-
cipal segments, which in several circumstances are independent
of each other, to- wit, of the right and left side; these are, 1st
and 2d, deep-seated organs (ovaries, or testicles and their ap-
pendage) ; 3d and 4th, the intermediate organs (the womb or
prostate, and the vesiculae seminales and their appendages) ;
5th and 6th, external organs (clitoris and vulva, or penis and
scrotum). The facts which the author states, establish the in-
dependence of these six segments, and shew, that there is not
one of them which may not present sexual characters, the re-
verse of those of all the rest. These six segments correspond
to six orders of diff*erent vessels ; the deep-seated to the sperma-
tic arteries, the intermediate to the branches of the hypogas-
trius, and the deep-seated (les profonds *) to branches of the ex-
ternal iliacs. M. Geoff*roy divides the numerous cases of her-

• Quaere externes ? the externals — Edit.

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology. 199

tnaphrodism into two grand classes, hermaphrodism without ex-
cess, and hermaphrodism with excess. He subdivides the first
class into four groups, to-wit, 1st, Masculine hermaphrodism,
the generative apparatus being essentially male ; 2d, Feminine
hermaphrodism, the generative apparatus essentially female;
Neuter hermaphrodism, apparatus without determinate sex ;
4th, Mixed hermaphrodism, apparatus presenting a real mix-
ture of the two sexes. He admits these subdivisons in the se-
cond class; 1st, Masculine hermaphrodism complicated; 2d,
Feminine hermaphrodism complicated; 3d, Bisexual herma-
phrodism. M. GeofFroy then passes these several genera in re-
view. From the facts and observations contained in his papers,
the author draws the following conclusions. Perfect herma-
phrodism in the anatomical sense of the term, has never been ob-
served. The most complex cases are those where there exists
double organs deep-seated and intermediate, the one male, and
the other female ; and, in fact, the penis and clitoris, by reason
of their connexions with the several bones of the pelvis^ could
not co-exist without a serious disturbance of all the connexions.
As to perfect hermaphrodism, in the physiological sense of
the word, its possibility is incontestible in animals, as in fishes,
which have the two halves of the sexual apparatus quite sepa-
rated from each other in the normal state, and in which there is
no copulation. The frequency of hermaphrodism in general, and
of each kind of hermaphrodism in particular, is very different,
according to the groups of animals. Thus, in man, masculine
and feminine hermaphrodisms, particularly the first, are very
rare. " With reference to legal medicine, it is sufficient for me
to point out here," continues the author, " the insufficiency of
the precepts given by authors for the determination of the sex
in doubtful cases, precepts which have appeared exact only be-
cause there had been but a very few of the combinations dis-
tinguished which nature presents. This difficulty in distinguish-
ing the sex is the consequence of this general fact, that whilst
the internal organs vary almost to infinity in number, structure,
and arrangement, the external ones preserve their normal num-
ber, and the modifications which they present in other respects
being intermediate between the male and female sexes, are in-
cluded within limits sufficiently narrow. It is then impossible

200 Scientific Intelligence, — Zoology.

that a particular arrangement of the external organs could cor-
respond to each of the special combinations of the internal or-
gans." Lastly, the author remarks, that legislation admitting
only two grand classes of individuals on whom it imposes du-
ties, and grants different, and almost opposite rights, according
to their sex, does not truly embrace the entire of the cases ; for
there are subjects who have really no sex ; such are neuter her-
maphrodites, and hermaphrodites mixed by superposition ; and
on the other side, certain individuals, the bisexual hermaphro-
dites, who present the two sexes united in the same degree. —
Dub. Journ. of Med, and Chevi. Science, No. viii. vol. iii.
p. 277.

15. Vomiting in Ruminant Animals. — M. Flourens lately
read to the French Academy a paper entitled, " Experiments
regarding the action of Tartar Emetic on Ruminant Animals.'*'
In a preceding memoir the author established, by means of
numerous experiments, that the vomiting proper to ruminant
animals differs essentially from the vomiting of other animals
in this, that instead of being, as the latter, a confused rejec-
tion in a mass, it constitutes, on the contrary, a rejection which
is affected only in regulated and detached portions. The
new paper of M. Flourens is intended to show, that these
two sorts of vomiting depend on different stomachs ; and thence
to arrive at the explanation of this extraordinary fact, that ani-
mals which regurgitate with most facility, do not vomit un-
less with extreme difficulty, or even do not vomit at all. Af-
ter having instanced the experiments of Daubenton, Gilbert,
and Huzard, he details his own. We cannot dweW on them
here. We shall confine ourselves to repeating the conclusions
which he has drawn from them. From the facts and observa-
tions contained in his paper, the author concludes, 1st, That
tartar emetic produces on sheep the same general effect, that is,
the same excitation of all the powers which provoke or deter-
mine the vomiting which it produces in ordinary animals; 2d,
That among the different stomachs of ruminating animals, it is
on the rennet bag, to say on that alone, which, by its functions,
as by its structure, corresponds with the simple stomach of
other animals, that the emetic displays its action ; 3d, That
it is to the particular, and altogether opposite, disposition of

Scientific Intdl'tgence. — Zoology* 201

this stomach, in reference to those for regurgitation, that is to
be ascribed on one hand the facility which ruminant animals
have of regurgitating, that is to say, by the throwing up into the
mouth the substances contained in the first two stomachs, and,
on the other hand, the difficulty which they have in vomiting, i. e.
in rejecting and bringing back into the mouth the substance con-
tained in the fourth stomach. If it be recollected, that this
fourth stomach is that where the definite conversion of the ali-
ment into chyme takes place, that which contains the ruminated
substances, the substances which consequently must no longer
return to the mouth, whilst the first two stomachs, on the con-
trary, are those where the aliment undergoes only a certain pre-
paration, those which contain only the substances not ruminat-
ed, the substances which consequently must return into the
mouth, we shall soon see why every thing must be disposed
to render easy the rejection of the two first stomachs, and that
of the fourth very difficult. Without this arrangement in fact,
the ruminated substances contained in the fourth stomach
would be constantly mixed together, confounded and brought
back into the mouth, with the substances not ruminated, a con-
fusion which must be an obstacle to the accomplishment of the
end which nature proposed to herself to attain by the act of ru
mination. — Dublin Journ. of' Med. and Chem. Science^ May
1833.

ARTS.

16. Clay for Sculptors, — Sculptors who prepare their models
in clay, have frequently occasion to leave their work for a long
time unfinished ; and, in such cases, often experience much dif-
ficulty from the drying and shrinking of the material. It is
well to know, that, by the addition of 10 to 15 per cent, of mu-
riate of lime, well worked or kneaded into this clay, it will be
preserved for almost any length of time in a moist state, and fit
for a renewal of the work without any preparation.

17. Lutefoyr Bottling Wine^ ^c. — One part resin, one-fourth
part yellow-wax, one-sixteenth part tallow ; add one-half part
yellow ochre, or red or black ochre, or coal. Keep these ingre-
dients melted over a chafing-dish; and, whch the bottle is >vcll
corked, dip the neck into the melted rtiasS.^^'i <»J jK»n'jmo«»fk|

S02 Scientific Intelligence. — Arts.

18. MetJiod of cleansing Wool from its Grease^ and econo-
mis'ing the residue. — M. Darcet, who has long been consulted
by manufacturers, advised the following method, which was
tried with complete success. Immerse the wool, well washed
from dirt, in a vessel containing spirits of turpentine, and let it
remain from thirty -six to forty-eight hours. Withdraw, and
immerse a fresh quantity. By means of a press, force out all
the adhering spirit, spread the wool out to dry, and, when it is
to be used, wash it in warm water containing a little alkali.
When the spirits of turpentine will no longer act upon or re-
move the grease, distil it for fresh use, and the matter remain-
ing in the still, treated with soda, will make good soap.

19. Stucco for Walls, — In Italy great use is made of a stucco
which gives to the walls the brilliancy, the cleanliness, and al-
most the hardness, of marble. It may be variously coloured,
to suit the taste of the employer.. This stucco is made very
easily, by mixing lime and pulverized marble, in nearly equal
proportions, according to the meagerness or richness of the mar-
ble. A paste or mortar is made of this mixture, and applied to
the wall in the thickness of a five-franc piece, with a trowel wet
with soap-suds, and in such a way, that the whole of the wall
may be finished in the same day. None but mineral colours
should be mixed with the stucco, as the lime would destroy
those derived from the vegetable kingdom. To obtain the
greatest brilliancy, the mortar should be applied with a cold
trowel. Workmen, for the sake of ease and expedition, usually
employ it warm. Chips and fragments of marble may be ad-
vantageously employed for this purpose. In cases where the
appearance of a marbled wall would be objectionable, on account
of its coldness, any portion of it may be covered with paper.

20. Preservation of Substances by means of Alkalies, — M.
Payen has preserved, during many months, polished instruments
of iron and steel, by keeping them in solutions of potash or so-
lutions of potash or soda — saturated solutions, diluted with one,
two, or three, times their weight of water. He at first thought
that the preserving power depended upon the disappearance of
the air and carbonic acid in the alkaline mixture, but he after-
wards concluded that alkalinity acted an essential part in the
phenomenon. In fact, a very small quantity of alkali is suffi-

Scientific Intelligence. — Arts. 203

cient : thus, gg'gg and even ^^^^ of caustic potash in water,
will preserve from oxidation bars of iron, &c. immersed in
it. Lime-water, diluted with its own weight of water, or, of
course, without dilution, answers the same purpose. Alkaline
carbonates and borax have the same effect, but they must ne-
cessarily be stronger.

21. On the Prevention of Dry-Rot, — At a meeting of the
Royal Institution, after adverting to the extensive decay of
wood in ships, houses, and other structures of that material,
involving a loss of such magnitude, as to have excited almost
universal search after a remedy, Mr Faraday said he should
pass by all propositions for its prevention, except that one ab-
solutely introduced by Mr Kyan, and to which Mr Faraday
had paid particular attention. The process is now largely in
use. The wood, prior to its application, is immersed in a
solution of corrosive sublimate ; in the course of a week, a load
of it is found to have absorbed five gallons of solution ; at the
end of that time it is removed, and shortly after becomes fit for
building. The preservative powers of corrosive sublimate in
furs, stuffed birds, anatomical specimens, &c. are well known ;
and those which it exerts over wood seem to be not less decisive,
and far more useful. Pieces of timber thus prepared were put
into a fungus-pit at Woolwich for three years, and at the end
of that time taken out perfectly sound. Canvass and calico,
treated in a similar manner, were also found to be preserved
from mildew and decay. Mr Faraday's suspicions appear to
have been excited, not so much as regarded the preservative
power of the process, but the healthiness of the wood, canvas,
8ec. impregnated by it ; and he required that such prepared ma-
terials should be thoroughly washed, and then submitted to a
test for proving the power of resisting decay. He found, after
calico and canvass had been washed in water until all the solution
which that fluid could remove had disappeared (mercury was
still present), such prepared materials were preserved in a damp
cellar, while the unprepared went rapidly to decay. Having
ascertained this combined state of the mercurial preparation,
Mr Faraday expressed his opinion, that the organic substances
could be well preserved by it without deriving any unwholesome
quality to deteriorate their ordinary application.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF
THE USEFUL ARTS IN SCOTLAND.

The following articles and communications were laid before
the Society during the months of February and March 183^ : —

Feb. 6. — 1. Model and description of the lower part of a Lime
Kiln with Double Grates and Doors. By C. G. S. JMenteath, Esq.
of Closeburn.

2. Model of a Railroad, or_ Wheel Track, for all sorts of Carriages.
By the same.

3. Model of a Carriage or Waggon Drag, used in France, and
applied with great advantage to loaded waggons, in the south of Scot-
land. By the same.

4. On the advantages of a Short Arc of Vibration for Clock Pen-
dulums. By Mr Edward Sang, teacher of Mathematics, Edinburgh.

Feb. 20. — 1. Model, Drawing, and description of a Chimney Top
or Can for Curing Smoke. By Mr Alexander Grant, surgeon and
druggist, 11 Broughton Street, Edinburgh.

2. Donation. — Model of a Cast-iron Chimney Top, which effec-
tually cured a smoky vent in the Castle of Edinburgh. Invented by
the late IMajor Straton, Royal Engineers. Presented by General Sir
William Maxwell, 125 George Street, Edinburgh.

3. Models and Description of improvement in the Construction of
Joiners' Moulding Planes, calculated to supersede the use of so great
a number of Planes as are now in use. By Mr John Smart (son qf
Mrs John Smart), High Street, Brechin.

4. Model, Description, and Drawings of an Improved Safety
Lock for Bankejs' Safes, &c. By William Crawfurd, Esq. of Carts-
burn. "^

5. Notice of a Prize given by the Board of Trustees, " of L. 2f5
for the best and most useful invention of Machinery, applicable to
Manufactures, to be judged of, in the first instance, by the Society
of Arts, and afterwards by them submitted to the Board of Trustees
for its approval or rejection."

The following Candidates were balloted for and duly admitted Or-
dinary Members, viz : — , ,

' ' Air David Bryce, architect, Edinburgh.

. Mr Wilkinson Steele, merchant, Edinburgh.
Wilfiam Brown, Esq. M. D. Eclinburght

Proceedings of the Society of Arts in Scotland. S05

March 6. — 1. Model and Description of a Safety Lamp for Coal
Mines. By INfr John Henderson, 3 Mayfield Loan, Edinburgh.

2. JModel and Description of Ventilating Bellows for Churches,
Coal Mines, &c. By the same.

3. Specimens of Transfer Lithography. By Mr David Allan,
lithographer, 187 Trongate, Glasgow.

4. An Alphabet for the use of the Blind. By Mr James Panal
Walker, mariner. Post Office, Glasgow.

5. An Alphabet and Description, with Specimens of a mode of
Printing for the Blind. By Miss Margartt Bancks, Midttleby Street,
Newington, Edinburgh.

Montgomery Robertson, Esq. M. D. Edinburgh, was admitted an Ordi-
nary Member.

J. C Loudon, Esq. Bayswater, London, author of the Encyclopsedia of
Cottage Architecture, &c. &c. was elected an Honorary Member.

March 20. — \. Model and description of an improved Windlass for
Vessels. By Mr John Henderson, 3 Mayfield Loan, Edinburgh.

2. Model and description of improved Inside Windows for Shops ;
to keep the goods free from dust, smoke, and gas. By Mr Thomas
Johnston, 137 George Street, Glasgow.

3. Drawing and description of an Instrument for taking the di-
mensions of the human body with anatomical and mathematical pre-
cision, for the purpose of fitting it to absolute nicety, with clothes.
By Mr James M'Donald, tailor, 46 West Register Street, Edinburgh.
The instrument was exhibited.

Mr Alexander Gilkie, surveyor, Edinburgh, was admitted an Ordinary
Member.

(To he continued.)

List of Prizes offered by the Society for the Session
1833-34.

The Society for the Encouragement of the tJ^eful Arts in
Scotland, have announced the following Prizes for the Session
1833-^4 :

1. For the best and most useful Invention of Machinery appli-'
cable to MamifdchireSy to be judged of, in the first instance, by the
Society of Arts, and afterwards by them submitted to the Board of
Trustees for its approval or rejection ; —

The Board of Trusleex li a ve offered (i Prize of Twenty-five So-
vereigns.

206 Proceedings of the Society Jbr the

2. For the best Paper on the Conslruclion of Public Buildirigs, in
relation to the Theory of Sounds, so as to ensure the voice of the
speaker being distinctly heard, so great a desideratum in such build-
ings:— keeping in view the two cases, 1st, Where the voice proceeds
from one place, as in a Church 5 and, 2d, Where the speakers may
be situated in different parts of the hall j — The Society's Gold Me-
dal, value Ten Sovereigns.

3. For the best Specimen of Lithographic Drawing and Printing,
by Lithographic Artists resident in Scotland, of subjects in Civil and
Naval Arcldiecture^ Landscape, Machinery, and Maps, from Trans-
fer Drawings ; the size of each to be not less than 2 feet, by 1 foot
6 inches. Three impressions of each of these subjects to be sent ; —
The Society's Gold Medal, value Twelve Sovereigns.

4. For the best ditto, ditto, of subjects in Portrait, Historical and
Laiidscape, from Chalk Drawings ; the size to be not less than 9
inches by 6. Three impressions of each of these subjects to be sent :
— The Society s Silver Medal, value Eight Sovereigns.

N. B. The two Prizes last mentioned aie from a Fund furnished by the
Association for the Improvement of Lithography in Scotland. Specimens in-
tended to compete for either of these two Prizes must be lodged on or before the 1st
cf March 1834. The successful Candidates shall be bound to furnish, if re-
quired, 50 impressions of each subject which shall be found entitled to either
of the above Prizes, — for which they shall be paid an extra sum, to cover the
outlay for paper and printing. The Society of Arts retain to themselves the
power of withholding the whole or any part of the above Prizes till a future
time, if there be not more than three competitors, or if the Specimens pro-
duced do not appear to be of sufficient merit.

5. For the best Specimens of Busts and other Jlne Ornamental Cast-
itigs in Iron, moulded and cast in Scotland by native Founders : —
The Society's Gold Medal, value Ten Sovereigns.

6. For other Inventions, discoveries, or Improvements in the Me-
chanical or Chemical Arts ; or by which the Natural Productions of
Scotland could be made more available to the Useful Arts than at
present, — the Society will be ready to expend a further sum, in Pre-
miums and Honorary Medals, of Fifteen Sovereigns.

General Observations. — The attention of Candidates is particularly
directed to the following subjects, as a specimen of what the Society would
desire to be brought before them ; but candidates are by no means limited
to these subjects, viz — Best construction of Screw-plates, Taps and Dies, &c.
— Means by which the expense of Diagrams, &c. for Books of Science, &c. may
be lessened — Economizing Fuel, Gas, &c — Observations on correct repre-
sentations of Natural Objects, for the ornamenting of Ceilings and Walls of

Rooms, in the printing of Cloth, Painting of China and Stone-ware, &c

Selecting, Working and Tempering of Steel, or any Compound Metal, for
Edge and other Tools, Dies, Springs, Plates for Engraving, &c— Improve-

Encouragement of the Useful Arts in Scotland. Wl

inenU in Balance or Pendulum Timekeepers. — On the best Composition
for Hollers employed in applying Ink to the Types in Letter-press Printing,
especially with a view to preserving their adhesive and elastic projjerties in
as uniform a condition as possible during damp and other variable states of
the atmosphere, &c. &c.

The Society shall be at liberty to publisli in their. Transactions copies or
abstracts of all Papers submitted to them.

In the event of any Communication not being considered of sufficient merit
to entitle it to the whole Prize for which it competes, the Society reserve the
power of lessening the Prize.

The Society particularly request, that all communications intended to com-
pete for the above Prizes (except the 3d and 4th Prizes) may be forwarded
to the Secretary during November arid December 1833, and, if possible, early in
November, in order to insure their being read and reported on during the Ses-

Communications, Inventions, and Models, to be forwarded to James Tod,
Esq. W. S. 21 Dublin Street, Edinburgh, Secretary to the Society ; and it is
requested, that, in all cases, full descriptions of the Inventions may be sent ;
and, where the nature of the communication requires it, that there be also
sent relative Drawings, Sketches or Models, so as to enable the Society fully to
judge of the merits of the communications.

Royal Institution, Edinburgh,
29th May 1833.

LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND FROM 22d MARCH

TO 3 1st may 1833.

1833.
March 22. To John Obadias Newell Rutter of Lymington, in the county
Southampton, wine merchant, for " an improved process for
generating heat, applicable to the heating of boilers and retorts,
and to other purposes for which heat is required."
26. To Samuel Hall of Basford, in the county of Notts, cotton manu.
facturer, for " an improved method of lubricating the pistons,
piston-rods and valves, or cocks of steam-engines, and of con»
densing the steam of such engines as are worked by a vacuum
produced by condensation, which method of condensation is ap-
plicable to other useful purposes."
April 2. To Thomas Moore Evans, of Birmingham, in the county of War-
wick, merchant, in consequence of a communication from a cer-
tain foreigner residing abroad, for " certain improvements in
machinery for preparing and dressing flax, hemp, and other fi-
brous materials.
24. To George Rodgers of Sheffield, in the county of York, merchant,
and John Tatam of Hilton, in the county of Derby, gardener,
for " an improved button."

^08 List of Scotch Patents,

1833.
April 24. To Claude Marie Hilaire Molinard, of Bury Street, Saint Mary
Axe, in the city of London, merchant, in consequence of a com-
niunication made to him by a certain foreigner resident abroad,
for " certain improvements on looms or machinery for weaving
fabrics."
To James Brown, of Margaret Street, Commercial Road, in the
county of Middlesex, rigger, for " certain improvements in
capstans, and apparatus to be used therewith."
26. To Thomas Spinney of Cheltenham, in the county of Gloucester,
gas-engineer, for " an improved earthen-ware retort for gene-
rating gas for the purpose of illumination."
May 16. To William Graham junior, of the city of Glasgow, cotton-spin-
ner and power-loom manufacturer, in consequence of a commu-
nication made to him by a certain foreigner, for " an invention
of a self-acting temple, to be used in the operations of weaving
by power or hand loom.
To George Harris of East Woolwich, in the county of Surry,
Esq., a captain in his Majesty's Royal Navy, for " a method
for the reducing and preparing various vegetable substances
(not hitherto in use for like purposes), and for the manufactu-
ring them into articles in general use heretofore usually made
from hemp and flax."
16. To Robert Stein of Edinburgh, Esq., for "an improved steam-
engine on the rotatory principle."
To George Frederick Muntz of Birmingham, metal-roller, for
" an improved manufacture of metal plates for sheathing the
bottoms of ships or other such vessels, and also of bolts and
other the like ship's fastenings."
21. To William Harrold of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
merchant, in consequence of a communication he had from a
certain foreigner residing abroad, for " an improvement or im-
provements in machinery for making or manufacturing paper."
To Christopher Robinson of Athlone, in tne county of Roscom-
mon, Ireland, distiller, for " certain new or improved machinery
for transferring caloric from aeriform or fluid bodies to other
bodies of the like description, and applicable to other useful
purposes."
31. To Archibald Douglas of Manchester, in the county of Lancas-
ter, manufacturer, for " certain improvements on power-looms
and the shuttles used therein."
'to Thomas Spinney of Cheltenham, in the county of Gloucester,
gas-ei'igineer, for " a new combination of materials for the ma.
riufacture of crucibles, melting-pots, and fire-bricks."

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

HISTORICAL ELOGE OF LOUIS NICOLAS VAUQUELIN.

By Baron CuviER *.

The respect which the members of the Academy entertain
for the memory of their illustrious associate, the late M. Vau-
quelin, obliges me again to bring forward his historical eloge,
which formed part of our business at the public meeting of last
year, and which ought to have been read, had time permitted,
along with that of Sir Humphry Davy. The patience and
perseverance which we had occasion to admire in the latter, and
which raised him from the most unpromising station to the en-
joyment of all the honours society can confer on its benefactors,
were not less conspicuous in M. VauqueHn, who had still greater
difficulties to overcome, as his parents were in a poorer condi-
tion, and he had fewer opportunities of instruction,

Louis Nicolas VAuauELiN was born on the 16th of May
1763, in a cottage of the village of St Andre d'Hebertat, a
league and a half from Pont TEveque (Calvados) ; and an idea
may be formed of the condition of his family, from the circum-

• This eloge of the celebrated chemist Vauqiielin, not yet published,
was sent in proof-sheet, through the kindness and attention of our friend Mr
Pentland of Paris. — Edit.

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCT. 1833. o

210 Historical Eloge of M. Vauquelin.

stance of his mother, when he was first sent to school, ofFering
him as an inducement to diligent learning, the fine livery dresses
which he had sometimes seen in a neighbouring castle. Being
naturally inclined to diligence, he speedily acquired all that
could be learned in a village school ; and, without further pre-
paration, at the age of thirteen or fourteen, committed himself
to the world, and went to push his fortune at Rouen. An apo-
thecary of that town, pleased with his appearance, took him in-
to his laboratory ; that is to say, he employed him in blowing
his fire, and washing his retorts — a situation scarcely superior
to that which had first been the object of his ambition, and in
which he certainly was not so well clothed.

But this apothecary gave lessons in chemistry to some ap-
prentices, and the young rustic, standing humbly behind the
seats, listened with emotion. The operations in which he had
taken such an humble part, had, from the first, attracted his
attention : he was astonished to see them connected together
by theory, and form a consistent whole. He proceeded to
take notes, which he subsequently perused and meditated upon;
experiencing even then, in his unhappy circumstances, the
most certain consolation granted to man, that of study. His
master one day found him thus employed, and what would
have interested a generous heart, threw him into a violent
passion ; he snatched the paper from the poor child, tore
it, and forbade him continuing such practices, under pain of
dismissal. M. Vauquelin has often said that he never expe-
rienced such poignant distress ; he shed bitter tears, and, un-
able to bear the sight of this unjust man, he went to Paris on
foot, with a small bundle on his back, and six francs in his poc-
ket, which had been given him by a charitable individual.

Two apothecaries employed him successively, but so little
were they sensible of what he was capable, that when he became
unwell, he had no other asylum than the Hotel-Dieu ; and when
he left it, and wished to find employment, his paleness and weak-
ness caused him to be everywhere rejected.

Destitute of all resource, and not knowing how to prolong
his existence for another day, he walked along the street St
Denis, weeping bitterlj, and ready to give himself up to de-
spair ; but he at last made another trial, and found some com-

Historical Eloge of M. VaiiqtieUn. 211

paBsion. An apothecary named Cheradarae (for it is just to
preserve the name of the individual whose humanity procured
him the good fortune to preserve a Vauqueiin), aff'ected by his
destitute condition, received him into his Iiouse, and treated him
as a man ought to be treated. With the improvement of his
circumstances, his ardour for learning returned ; what he had
written in the papers torn by his master at Rouen was not ef»
faced from his memory ; to that he added the phenomena which
he had daily opportunities of witnessing, and even attempted to
make experiments with the few materials which he occasionally
found at his disposal. He was sometimes found in a kind of
ecstasy at observing the precipitations which he had produced :
he was already a chemist almost before he knew precisely what
chemistry was. But chemistry was not his sole occupation : he
felt that a knowledge of Latin was necessary to enable him to
continue his studies ; and to attain this more readily, he tore the
leaves from an old dictionary, and always held some of them
in his hand, when traversing the streets with medicines, or exe-
cuting other commissions, till he had learned the words by heart.
He likewise accompanied the young pupils when they went to
gather herbs, and surprised them by the facility with which he
retained the names and even the characters of plants.

So much application and rapid advancement in a scholar pos-
sessing so few advantages, was often a subject of conversation
with M. Cheradame. He mentioned him to our late associate,
the celebrated M. Fourcroy, his relation, who having likewise
in his youth been oppressed with poverty, would naturally feel
sympathy for a youth whose situation bore so much resemblance
to his own. The modest offers which alone he was in a condi-
tion at that period to make, were joyfully accepted, and hence-
forth a career opened to M. Vauqueiin, as brilliant as it had
previously been the reverse. Become by degrees the assistant
and the pupil of Fourcroy, the assiduous companion of all hh
labours, and his intimate friend, their names are united in so
many memoirs of experiments and discoveries, that they will
remain inseparable in the history of science ; and what is per-
haps still more remarkable, and confers equal honour on them
bQth,,is the fact)J;hat,.^uring. upwards of tMentyr^Vii ycars} lio-

212 i Historical Elosce of M. Vauquelin.

■"■:" '^'^^ ^\ . ■ M.03 10 di^b

thing ever cooled for a moment their mutual attachment, the
effects of which were observable long after M. Fourcroy's death.'

M. Fourcroy neglected nothing to complete the education of
his pupil : he became his preceptor, and almost every thing had
yet to be taught him. When he had made him acquainted with
some good ancient and modern authors, and formed his language
and style, he gradually introduced him into the world, and pre-
sented him to men occupied with science. He procured his ad-
mission into that society which undertook to reform the theory
of chemistry and even of language, and used every exertion to
have him appointed a member of the Academy of Sciences.

The influence which political events had conferred on M.
Foutcroy was incessantly employed to ameliorate Vauquelin's
circumstances. The offices of Inspector of Mines, of Profes-
sor of the School of Mines, and to the Ecole Poly technique,
and that of Essayer of gold and silver articles, were due to his
intercession ; and even when the reputation of his el^ve might
have rendered his protection less necessary, he ceased not to
avail himself of every opportunity of advancing his fortune.
It was thus that M. Vauquelin was raised to the Chair of Che-
mistry in the College of France, and to a place in the Council
of Arts and Commerces that he was nominated one of the Com-
missioners for the law relating to Pharmacy, and one of the Exa-
minators of the Ecole Polytechnique, and that he at last be-
came the colleague of Fourcroy himself in the Museum of Na-
tural History.

In these promotions, the Director of Public Instruction was
no doubt seconded by the wishes of all the admirers of Vauque-
lin's works, who were generally attracted by the gentleness of his
character ; but if he had not been influenced by feelings of a per-
sonal nature, how many other uses might have been made of his
power without any being able to find fault? The gratitude,
too, of M. Vauquelin, was great and unreserved. Never did he
decline any investigation required by Fourc.f*oy ; and no divi-
sion of glory, even when the degree of labour was unequal, ever
appeared to him unjust. It was not always Fourcroy who had
made the experiment, but it was he who had formed the expe-
rimenter; all belonged to him, and what belonged to his bene-
factor was equally the property of Vauquelin. Long after the

Historical Eloge of M. Vauquelin. 213

death of Fourcroy, he took charge of his sisters, who were
poor, aged, and diseased, as he would havfe ddne of his own
mother. For their sakes, he renounced the pleasure of having
a family of hisoWHi^^'d^ they remained till their death in his
nouse, the objects of Ills most tender and anxious care.

After what has been said, it will be perceived that a great
part of M. Vauquelin''s eloge must be that of M. Fourcroy ^ ;
arid accordingly we have there spoken of their great experiment
J^ur la Composition de TEmi par la Combustion du Gaz Hydros
ghie^ ; of their united labours Sur rUrk^ ; on the Diff^
rents Esphes de Calculs*; and ConcrStions Animates et Veg^*
tales ^ ; of their Analyse des Os ^ ; of their Recherches sur le^
Combinaisons de VAcide Sulfureux '^; Sur la Strontiane ^ ; Sur
les Metaux unis an Platine^; Sur V Arragonite^^ ; and nume-
rous other substances belonging to the three kingdoms : and,
finally, the numerous experiments by which they sought to esta-
blish the new theory of Chemistry ; of all of these we have al-
ready spoken in such a manner as to preclude the necessity of
reverting to them.

In these writings, upwards of sixty in number, the reader at
once recognises the extended views of Fourcroy, and that de-
sire to attempt and know every thing which formed one of the
characteristics of his mind, combined with the coolness and un-
ostentatious but always ingenious activity by which Vauquelin
assisted him in attaining his object.

* M(^m de I'lnstitut, vol. xi. p. 97.— Guv. EL Hist. v. U. p. 3.

« Ann. de Chimie, t. viiL p. 230, et t. ix. p. 30. 'lOJslil kiDJ

' M^m. de I'lnstitut, t. ii. p. 431 ; t. iv. p. 363, et 402 — Ann. de (jhini.
t xixi p. 48, et xxxii. p. 30, et 113.— Ann. du Mus. t. ii. p. 226.

* Me'm de I'lnstitut, t. iv. p. 1 12 — Ann. de Chim. t. xxxii. p. 213.

■ '^^ ^ Ann. du M us. t iv. p. 329. ^'^^ . iOJotiifttia

' '* Bulletin de la Soc. Philom. 1803, p. -261 Ann. dn'ifasi t. 1ffl.^p.'t36,

*t t. xiii. p. 267. — Journ. de Phys. t. Ixx. p, 135 — Ann. de Chim. t. Ixxii.

7 Ann, dfiCM»!-^Wiy.|i»j2>e»'iM .-..j, ,-<.,;tf.^i:-: /.Ti .uj; Dnibob
« M^in^;4e'i'J;iwt^^HVt.iy. ,B^g7^ e^ iW^hr+Mfwlea, d^ ClJi^.t^jfj^i.

^,. » M^m. de I'lnstituJ^^f. vi. d. 366, 588, et 593 — Ann. du Mua.l.'iii.
p: 149, et t iv. p. 77, et t. y'&. ^'4dllilAnn. de Chim. t. xlix! ^jM'kihy

''^'Umi. dii Muft't.'W^ft 4^5: iq Oil* If H

^14? Historical Eloge o/'M. VauqiieUn,

But even without taking into account the shar6 which the
latter had in these common labours, the rank which he occupies
among chemists will not be materially changed ; the works ex-
clusively his own are amply sufficient to place him on an equa-
lity witti the most distinguished. The amount of these works
is rather surprising. We are assured that there exist more than
80, some of them on pure chemistry, and others on such
^iranches of natural science as chemistry is fitted to illustrate.*''

In the year 1791 some of them appeared in the Annates de
JOhimie, and from that period every scientific periodical publish-
ec( in Paris contained several ; affording a striking instance of
what an individual caji do for science, when he devotes to it all
his time and faculties.

So entirely was M. Vauquelin engrossed with chemistry, that
K'toay b6 said to have formed the business of every day of his
life, ahd of every hour of the day; no labour or inquiry was
ever considered an inconvenience, provided it related to chemis-
try ;"and iio greater pleasure could be conferred on him than to
ask him to engage in some new investigation. He seldom vo-
luntarily proposed to himself problems which affected the great
doctrines of science : it was in some measure for the sake of
analysis that he analysed ; — salts, stones, minerals, the produce
of plants and animals, — whatever afforded scope for analysis
was his peculiar province. The results, whatever they hap-
pened to be, were usually submitted to the public, without
iiiuch solicitude about the consequences; but as every thing is
consistent in Natpre, there was scarcely one of them, however
insulated it might at first appear, which did not conduce to the
improvement of some process in art, to complete some theory,
to rectify some received opinions, or even to evolve some gene-
ral truth. It was thus that he threw a great and unexpected
light on mineralogy, animal and vegetable physiology, and on
subjects connected with mediciife and pharmacy.

In animal chemistry, for example, the experiments which he
laid before the Academy in 3791, proved that the respiration
of insects, and other white-blooded animals, is of the same na-
ture, and produces the same effects on atmospheric air, as that of
the higher animals ^

1 Ann. de Chim. t. xii. p. 273 Bulletin de la Soo. Philom. 1792, p. 2',i.

Historical Eloge of M. Vmiquelin, 215

Mofe recently, the comparative examination which he under-
took, De la Coquille de VCEuf^ des Excremem de la Poule et de
la sulistance dont elle se nourrit '^y went to overthrow the hypo-
theses which assumed that the production of the calcareous shell
was owing to the vital power of animals. Mr Brande had
.proved that the blood does not acquire its colour from any com-
bination of irpn, but from a pecuhar animal principle^; and
M. Vauquelin pointed out the most direct method of obtaining
this principle in a separate state ^

Physiology is indebted to him for an analysis of hair, and the
very complicated principles which enter into its composition, and
occasion its different colours ^ ; and likewise for an analysis of
chyle, in which he detected a part of the principle to the sup-
port of which this liquid is subservient in the animal economy ^

The singular relations which he discovered along with Four-
fjroy between the composition of the sperm of animals and the
fecundating pollen of plants, gave rise to considerations not
destitute of interest ; and the same may be said of his researches
Sur h Mucus Animal ^.

During his extensive researches on Urine and Calculi, of
which we have already spoken in the eloge of Fourcroy, M.
Vauquelin discovered the remarkable fact, that the acid of ben-
ispin, the produce of a foreign tree, exists perfectly formed in
the urine of the herbivorous quadrupeds of our own country.
Thus the intestines, and a circulation through the kidneys, are
employed in an animal to combine the gaseous elements, in the
same order, and in the same proportion, as the roots, the trunk,
and the fruit of a tree.

At the time of his admission into the medical faculty as doc-
tor of medicine, he selected as the subject of his thesis an ana-
' Ann. du Mus. t. xviii. p. 1G4 — Ann. de Chim. t. Ixxxi. p. 304.
,* Ann. de Chim. t. xxix. p. 3. — Bulletin de la Soc. Philom. 1798, p. 164,
' Chemical Researches on the Blood, and some other Animal Fluids,
Fhilos. Trans, of Lond. v. cii. p. 90.

• Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. i. p. 9.

* M^m. de Tlnstitut, t. viii. p. 214 — Ann. de Chim. t. Iviii. p. 41.
^ Ann. du Mus. t. xviii. p. 240 Ann. de Chim. t. Ixxxi. p. 113.

^ Jounial de Phys. t. xxxix. p. 38 Ann. de Chim. t. ix. p. e4, et

t. Ixiv. p. 6 — Ann. du Mus. t. v. p. 417, et t. x. p. 169 — M^m. de 4^Institut,
t. viii. p. 42.

*tfs Historical Eli)ge of M, Vauqudirt:

lysbpf.the substance which is subservient to the most myste^^
rious functions of the animal economy, that, namely, which »
composes the brain, the marrow of the spine, and the nerves *.
He doubtless did not expect to discover how these functions ope-
rate, for neither chemistry nor anatomy will ever teach us this ;
but it was not without advantage to inquire what this substance
possessed that was peculiar to itself, to determine its differences
m different parts of the system, and the resemblances which it'
presented in different kinds of animals. All these particulars
i^^re successfully ascertained by M. Vauquelin.
I, Vegetable chemistry is still more indebted to him*';— the sap
peculiar to some trees ''; the medicines most in use obtained
fi:pm the vegetable kingdom ^ the different farinaceous^ and
other alimentary .substances procured from the same kingdom,
and others employed in the arts, were submitted to his analysis ^.
His chemical examinations of Cassia \ the Tamarind s, of Hel-
lebore^, of Belladonna 10, of Quinquina 11, the different Kalis i^,
Daphnes ^^, Solanumsi^, and Ipecacuanha i\ are models of pa-

^ Mem. de I'lnstitut, t. ix. p. 236 — Ann. du Mus. t. xii. p. 61.-_Ann.^
de Chim. t. Ixvii. p. 26. - ' 'J

* Journal de la Soc. des Pharm. 1797, p. 46, et 1799, p. 338 Ann. de

Chim. t. xxxi, p. 20 — Journ. de Phys. xlix. p. 38.

^ Mem. de l'I^stitut,. t- vii. p. 5Q; t. viii. p. 154 — Ann. de Chim.
t. xUii. p. 267.; t. xli^.^^ 295,^ ^^. li^^^^,. ^t t. Ivii. p. 88.^Ann. du
Mus. t. ix. p. 301. ',

^' * Bulletin de la Soc. Philom. .793, p. 44 — Ann. de Chim. t. Ixxii. p. 191 ;

fllxxx. p. 314, et 318 — Ann. de Chim. et de Physlt iii. p. 337 M^m. du

Mus. t. iiL p. 198 — Journ. de Pharm. t. i. p. 481. ; t. iii. p. 164. ; t. iv. p. 93.

* Journal de Pharmacie, t. iii. p. 315, et 481 ; t. viii. p. 353 M^m. du

]y[u8. t. iii. p. 229, et 241 — Journ. de fhys. t. Ixxxv. p. 113, e| a24.^Aim,
de,Chim. t. Ixxxv. p. 5. j^^^^^^ n^^ooaib adj

odi 'b^"* ^" ^"'' *• '^^^' ^' ^^•"~W*?n^ ^"^ t-ii- P- '^32; t. vi,,p. \^
^ '' Ann. de Chim. t. vi. p. 275. » Ibid. t. v. d. 92. '

mo-Jl i"^""- ^' "^^ '■ '""'• P- **• " '"^' *• ''^- P- I'^Jba orfj

" Ann. de Chim. t. xviii. p. 65 — Ann. du. Mus. t. viii. p. 7. v ,

Sfj ;, ^ ^ ' yfii

" Ann. du Mus. t. xix. p. 177 — Ann. de Chim. t. Ixxxiv. p. 172 J^uj^,

Mde Pharm. t. X. p. 419. ' \ -'

'* Mem. du Mus. t. xii. p. 198. «a -^ «

' -'^l Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxxviii. p. 155.— JoUrn. de Pharm. t. xiv.
p. 304.

Historical Elogd of J/. VauqueUii^ STT^

tience and sagacity; and yet the peculiar alkalies which' fdmi
the active principle in a great number of these medicinal sub^-
stances — Morphine, discovered by M. SertUner — Quinine, more
important still, first observed by MM. Pelletier and Caventou,
and others besides, were not the fruits of his laborious investi-
gations; so true is it that the most unremitting assiduity, and
greatest discrimination, are not always sufficient to attain to'tfi^
truth, if not seconded by chance. ' '"

But it is in the mineral kingdom, above all others, that tfii^
labours of M. Vauquelin have led to results most important ^8S'
science. At the request of the Council for Mines, and aided
by the skilful assistants attached to that branch of the admini-
stration, he undertook a chemical analysis of minerals, at the
same time that M. Haiiy was occupied with the examination of
their crystalline structure, and other physical properties, for his
great work on mineralogy, which this same Council had asked
him to . undertake. On this occasion, M. Vauquelin co-ope-
rated with M. Haiiy as he had previously done with M. Four-
croy, and his name appears as often on the pages of that im-
mortal work as those of Kiaproth, Bergmann, and other ana-
lysts of highest name. ^l ,\M^^ tv-a^vi :.■•; j^^o »; , ....

It was by his labours thai the %r6em'€iltrl5e?tweett the crys-
tallization of minerals and their composition was most satisfac-
torily exhibited. The similarity in composition which he often
observed between bodies of apparently different form, led Haiiy
to examine them anew, and to detect analogies of structure
which had escaped his notice ; and more frequently stilly a re-
semblance or difference in structure, was confirmed by the ap-
pearances presented by analysis. This was well exemplified by
the discovery of the earth named Glaucine by Vauquelin, who
was one of the first, according to Kiaproth, who have had the
honour to discover new elementary substances. The name of
this new earth is expressive of the saccharine taste possessed by
the salts which it forms with acids. Our chemist obtained it from
the beryl, or aigiie mar'me^y a kind of stone having the same
crystallization as the emerald. He had not at first remarked it
in the latter, owing, there can be qo doubt, to the sraalluess of

* Journal des Mines, t. viii. p. 553.— Ann. de Chim. t. xxvl p. 166, et
170.

218 HutorkalElogeofM. Vanquelin,

{the quantity submitted to analysis; but, at the request of Haiiy,
he renewed the examination, and was rewarded by the disco-
very of glaucine, which thus heQ&xm.JkJS^XtsS.Qf tiivuDoph for
crystallography. rtf^nl^ r mom ^ bCfio-. sno orr

. A still more briUiant discovery was that of the substance
called Chr,o?7ie, — ^a name bestowed on it in consequence of the
-beautiful colours it assumes at different degrees of oxidation,
and which it imparts to the minerals with which it is associated.
rXhe bright scarlet of the red lead of Siberia, the rose colour of
4he spinelle ruby, and the pure green of the emerald, are pro-
duced by the acid and oxide of this metal ^ An orange-yellow
is produced from it, which forms one of the clearest and most
durable colours which painters can employ, and an enamel of
the only pure and deep green which admits of being applied to
hard porcelain. M. Laugier likewise detected this substance in
stones which had fallen from the atmosphere.
- The late M. Delille, to whom the singular property of this
new metal was explained, inspired by phenomena of so remark-
able a character, composed almost extemporaneously some beau-
tiful verses, in which he has expressed them with much feli-
city: <BjsiiQdiiu

Peintre des min^raiix, de nos plus belles fleurs,
II distribue entre eux les brillantes couleurs ; .
L'emeraude par lui d'un beau vert se colore ;
II transmet au rubis la pourpre de I'aurore ;
Quelquefois d'un plomb vil, fidele associe,
Teint d'un vif incarnat son obscur allie ;
Tantot rival heureux des couleurs japonalses,
Avant qu' elle ait de Sevres endur^ les foumaises,
II peint la porcelaine, et lui prete a nos yeux,
Ces fonds verts et brillants qui r^sistent aux feux.
Notre siecle en est fler, et, par un juste homage,
5 Un jour Vauquelin y gravera I'image.

Les Trois R^gnes, Chant V.

No friend of literature will doubt, that the verses of Delille will
form for our associate a more lasting monument than any images
"of whatever metal they may be composed. For himself,' monu-
iments interested him but little ; a nev/ fact in chemistry would
nave been of more importance in his eyes than the opinion of

' Journal de la Soc. des Pharm. 1798, p. 174.

Historical Elogd ofM. Vauquelin. 1819

posterity ; and I am not certain that he ever read (ibe verses I
have quoted. ,

Nothing, indeed, could be more simple than his mode of life ;
no one could be more a stranger to the affairs of the world.
Having been raised without effort on his part, through the in-
fluence of another, from a state bordering on indigence to a very
considerable fortune, which increased the more rapidly as^^his
personal wants were so few ; elevated to the chair left vacant by
the death of his patron, by the spontaneous homage of all the
other candidates who unanimously gave up their claims in his
favour ; and honoured with all the marks of public approbation
consistent with his station in society, he was never placed un-
der the necessity of courting the notice of men in power or
their subordinate agents, to promote his views. When about
the age of sixty, however, an unexpected occurrence interrupt-
ed the accustomed serenity of his life. In 1824 some disturb-
ance among the scholars led the University to adopt some
measures regarding the faculty of medicine, which so slight an
occasion did not seem to authorise. It was speedily settled, but
the names of Vauquelin, of Jussieu, of Pinel, and of Dubois,
were forgotten to be replaced on the list, a neglect the more un-
accountable, as these were not only men whose high celebrity
had tended to increase that of the establishment, but whose
mode of life was most widely removed from every thing that
could bear the least resemblance to turbulence.

It is thus that the most virtuous men too often act contrary
to their own intentions, by allowing the management of affairs
to fall into the hands of those whose interests are at variance
with theirs. The little importance of this loss with regard to
fortune, and the names of those with whom it was shared, might
have rendered M. Vauquelin indifierent to a disgrace so little
merited ; the public, and even the government after becoming
sensible of its error, used every endeavour to make reparation.
He experienced a striking proof of the estimation in which he
was held by the inhabitants of his native department, by being
nominated by them to^ the Chamber of .Deputies ; but nothing
n could console him for. his. expulsion from the chair which his
master and friend had filled, and which he regarded as his high-
est honour.

220 Historical Eloge ()fM. Vauquelin.

From that period he laboured under depression of spirits, and
wias Seized with other complaints which he had no longer strength
to resist. His bowels at last became affected in such a manner as
to leave little chance of recovery. A short visit to his native coun-
try in 1829, seemed to restore some degree of strength, but ex-
posure to severe weather during a ride of too long continuance,
and some neglect of proper regimen, produced an aggravation of
his disease, which the anxious care of his friends, who assembled
round him from Caen and Paris, could not in the least alleviate.
He died in the night of the 14th or 15th of October 1829, at
the Chateau d"* H6bertat, the proprietor of which, M. Duhamel,
lavished upon him all the attention which the warmest regard
and most delicate generosity could dictate.

These were the sentiments which it was impossible not to feel
for that union of science and modesty which characterized M.
Vauquelin. Although rich, surrounded with pupils who were
devoted to him, and celebrated in every country where science
is cultivated, he had made no change in the habits of his youth.
Every year he returned to his village, where, however, he pos-
sessed considerable property.

He there renewed his acquaintance with the peasants who had
been his associates at play or at work; there also he found his
aged mother, spinning as when she had no other possession but
her poor cottage ; he walked with her into the country, took her
along with him in his visits, and accepted of no invitation unless
she was included, whatever was the rank or opulence of those
who invited him. aoja jm

At Paris, his life was scarcely less simple; it was passed in
his laboratory or among a few friends, who, for the most part,
were the companions of his scientific labours ; his gentleness and
fine ideas, sometimes of a humorous kind, and always expressed
without reserve, gave to his conversation a peculiar character.
His language was the same in this circle as in the society of
the most distinguished persons, and he used no more ceremony
with the Sovereign of Europe, who sometimes visited him, than
he did with the humblest apothecary who attended his lectures.

The first Consul had one day received a letter, which seemed
to be nothing but a blank sheet, and his attendants being alarm-
ed, some supposing that it contained -Nvrili^g hi^fpp^tJ|^tic ink.

, Historical Eloge of M, Vaiiquelin, 2^1.

bim t^Jniqg ton txi jcdi moi^

and others im^ining it to be a criminal attempt, M. Vauquelin
was called, and after examining the paper, and suddenly recol-
lecting the date of the day on which it was received, exclaimed
" My God, it is merely an April fool."" Few but himself could
have taken liberty thus to sport with a powerj^whiclr even a^jts
fpmmencement seemed to be omnipotep^.^^y'^o tT^l^'enftmt)^ Ikib
i>^ Jf we compare him with the extraordinary genius whose life
I- have related at the commencement of this sitting, it cannot .|^
said that M. Vauquelin, notwithstanding his innumerable wj-
searches, and the interesting and singular discoveries with which
he has enriched science, is to be considered equal to Sir H.
Davy. At the same time science owes him scarely a less en-
during gratitude. The former has soared like an eagle over
the vast extent of physics and chemistry, and on each he has
thrown from on high a dazzling light, shewing to view their
doctrines disposed in an order altogether new. Vauquelin, more
modest, has illustrated their most secret details, and penetrated
into their more obscure recesses. If the name of the one is writ-
ten at the head of every chapter, that of the other will bex^r
peated in every paragraph. The genius of the first has created
brilliant theories, the sagacity of the second has established a
multitude of particular facts ; but it is known that the micros-
cope is not less fruitful in wonders than the telescope ; and the
history of science, especially as exhibited in Sir Humphry Davy,
will teach us that theories pass rapidly away, but that facts
are eternal. mirl b&Jiviuodv/

bns m^ii^\i^^^ numerical relations of animals. ^^

1. mammalia. *

Year. No. of Specle«liw

Linnwus enumerates *, . . . 1767 221 tt

Humboldt t, 500 ^ -

DesmarestJ, 1822 850

Temminck ||, 1827 860

• Sy sterna Naturae, edit. 12. Holmiae, 1767 ;— the last edition si^Dper-
"iiitended by Linnaeus. i'" • • ''

f Ann. de Chim. et de t*hy8, xvl.

X Mammalogie ; Paris, 1020 et 1822. 4to.

I| Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii. ; Paris, 1827.

I-:, ':} M

2S«

The Nimerical RelcUiofis of Animcds.

Year. I

^0. of Species

1827

1124

1829

1230

1830

1126

1831

1138

Lesson*,

Minding t,

Fischer:):,

Bonaparte ||,

If we take into account the discoveries of these few last years,
we may reckon in round numbers the living species at 1100.
Lesson enumerates many species which are doubtful ; and Tem-
minck mentions those only which have been well determined.

2. BIRDS.

4o*'g,

LinnseuSj
Buffon,
Lesson,
Bonaparte,

3. AMPHIBIA.

Linnseus,
Lacepede,
Merrem §,
Humboldt,
Bonaparte,

Linnseus,
Bonaterre IT,
Lacepede,
Cnvier **,
Bonaparte,

4. FISHES

Year.

1767

1830
1831

1767
1802
1820

1831

1767
1788
1802
1827
1831

No. of Species.

904

1700

6500

4099

204
500
679
700
1500

376

746
1300
5000

7000

S^5i

5. MOLLUSC A (including THE CEPHALOPODA).

,- iv.Linneeus, 1767 832

Lamarck ft, .... 1822 3028

Schmidt H, .... 1830 4548

• Manuel de Mammalogie ; Paris, 1827.

f Ueber die Geographische Verbreitung der Saugethiere ; Berlin, 1820.

X Synopsis Mamraalium ; Stuttgardt, 1 830.

II Isis, 1832, Heft 3. Linnaeus, Humboldt, Temminck, and Minding,
enumerate only the living Mammalia, the others also the fossil, of which we
know 120 species. Fischer enumerates, besides the 11 2C well determined spe-
cies, also 200 dubious. ,;>5 m'imh^i R^l> f^iimmouoiii *

')% Systema Amphibioruxa, ■ < - ^.>^.ia ad riolrfw 'to bna ^imaqsa sd rioirfw
, T ^ Encyclopedic, 4ta ik jjbhirfoBfA »fi90iJi8in9 "io ladmun sriT f
^ *• Histoke Naturelle des Poissons. ' iaa ^euionu

++ Animaux sans Vertebres.

$$ The number in Schmidt's cpll^f,ti,<M5i^V(^o*^»?fr;

Tfie Numerical Relations qf'Aniitials.

99&

W..-.TM

b. ANNELIDES.

*2n

Y«ar.

No. of speck*. ^

TAtnsDus, ..

. 1767

50

Blainville */ »<\j . i

1827

815

^ 7- CRUSTACEiE.

,^/ii-jYton»ufl,

.,.,..... 17a7

1U> i

.oon¥^^®^^+'

iJ.Sil^WiH^* f.mW^'

25j»uyf y'

~nioT f>i

8. ARACHNIDA.

>1

LinnseuSj

1767

..„.W7 .m

Fabricius,

. . . 1793

9. INSECTS.

138

Linnceus,

. . . 1767

2616

Fabricius,

1800 to 1805

12,513

According to the different Orders, the numbers ar^ as fol-

lows:

Fabricius.

LinnaDUs.

Coleoptera^

4330

903

Diptera,

1224

262

Hymenoptera,

2101

314

Neuroptera,

170

83

Aptera, .

123

62

Orthoptera,

236

...

Lepidoptera, .

2919

780

Hemiptera,

1384

253

Myriopoda,

27

19

It may not be uninteresting, as regards insects, to compare
the progress of the classes and species with the number of ge-
nera, between Linnaeus in 1767, Fabricius from 1794 to 1805,
and Latreille, in the 2d edition of Cuvier's Regne Animal, in
1829:

Number of Genera-

Cnistacea,

Arachnida,

Insecta,

Coleoptcra,

Ortlioptera,

Hemiptcra,

Latreille.

Fabricius.

209

12

66

11

1423

431

700

181

36

46/

84

Linnaeus.
ft •

4

30
12

* Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, torn, xlvii. vcrg. : the Leech,
which he separates, and of which he enumerates 39 species, is here included.

-f- The number of Crustacea, Arachnida, and Lepidoptera, are from Fa-
bricius, Entomologia Systematica, 1793 and 1794; the other orders of Insects
are according to his Systema Antliatorum, llhyngotorum, &c Humboldt
enumerates 44,000 species of Insects ; Sachs in the Berlin Zeitung 50,000
Insects, 26,000 Arachnida? 1500 Crustacea.

2^4

The Numerical Relations of Animals.

Number of Genera.

Neuroptera,

Hymenoptera,

Lepidoptera,

Diptera,

Myriopoda,

Thysanura,

Parasita,

Suctoria^,

Rhipiptera,

10

Latreille.

27
207

87
268

8

4

9

1

2

[

Fabricius.

12
83
15
81
2

KNTHBLMINTHA.

Linnseus,
Zeder^
Rudolphi *,

Year.

1767
1803
1819

Linnaeus,
Blainville t

Linnaeus,
Eschscholtz :|:,

11. RADIARIA OR ECHINODEBMATA.
1769

12. MEDUSA.

1830

1767
1829

LinnseuSj
Blainville,

Linnaeus,
Ehrenberg §,

13. ZOOPHYTA OR POLYPI ||.

1767

1830

14. ROTATORIA.

1767
1832

15. INFUSORIA. POLYGASTRICA.

Linnaeus, 1767

Ehrenberg, 1832

Linnapu*

7
10

3
10

2

No. of species.
15
390
1100

46
280

11
208

134
536

8

291

8
291

The total number of known living species of animals thus
appears to be :

• Sjmopsis Entozoorum; Berolini, 1819. 8vo. At present, probably
the number of known species of Vermes may amount to 1500.

-j- Diet, des Sciences Naturelles, torn. Ix.

X Sytem der Acalephen. Berlin.

II The Actiniae and Spongiae are included imder this head.

§ Zur Erkentniss der Organisation im kleinsten raum. Berlin.

The Numerical Relations of Aniinah.

ns

0)

Ml

oee
oon

Mammalia^

Amphibia,

ii'ishes,

Mollusca,

Annelides,

Crustacea,

Arachnida,

Fnsecta,

Enthelmintha,

Radiaria,

Medusaria^ _ ,»^,

Polypi or Zoophyta,

Rotat^pa,

Infiusgiia,

1,100

^>^^ iHitniireVl

60,000
1,500

280
208
636
119

291

*^'^^ Total Number, 78,849

The number of Fossil animals may be stated as under

MamiBLjiUa,
Birds,
Amphibia,
Fishes, .
Mollusca,
Crustacea, -
Insecta, '''' "
Radiaria, "i
Annelides, /
Zoo'phyta,

Total,

120
26
60

250
3,100

100

150

350

500

4,645

,t»iii5ra4i=U'

In order to compare the numerical relations of the animals of
single lands, we shall place together the Fauna of Greenland,
that of Wurtemberg^ and that of the vicinity of Nice, or of the
Maritime Alps. The animals of the Fauna of Greenland are
according to Fabricius's Fauna Gronlandica^ Hafniae, 1780 ;
the Wurtemberg animals are from a small work entitled, " Uber
Wurtemburgs Fauna^ Stuttgard, 1830 ; the animals of the
Nice district are from Risso's Hlstoire Naturelle des priticipales
Productions du Midi de l Europe, Paris, 1827. These three
may be considered as the representatives of the middle and sou-
tlfern parts of Europe ; and although Greenland does not be-

voL. XV. No.,xXjj^.;jr79cGT. 1833. v

^m

Tlie Numerical Relations of Animals.

long to Europe, it may be considered as a general representative
of the polar Fauna :

Gr«enland,

Wurtemberg,

Nice,

Lat. 60°— 70° N.

Lat 47° 30r— 43» 30' N

Lat. 43° N.

Mammalia,

31

41

69

Birds,

64

213

306

Amphibia,

1

18

40

Fishes,

44

47

400

Crustacea,
Arachnida,
Insecta,

64J

(with Ler-
" nsea), 4000

200

100

1600

MoUusca,

61

100

1085

Annelides,

62

13

82

Enthelmintha,

26

48

70

Radiaria,

14

...

100

Zoophyta,

68

11

200

Infusoria,

...

12

...

467

4603

4242

It may here be observed, that the Infusoria and Enthelmin-
tha are but slightly noticed : there may be in Wurtemberg
300 or upwards of Infusoria, and even more of Enthelmintha ;
the marine and other Infusoria of Greenland and Nice are not
mentioned ; and it is evident that the number of insects is too
small for the maritime Alps.

Even more interesting than the numerical relations are those
connected with colour, which, however, can only be studied
with effect in great collections, and with the assistance of good
coloured drawings and engravings. On this subject, we have
the following, among other questions, to answer. How are the
colours related in the animal kingdom in general, and also in
the separate classes, orders, and genera ? Do we find particu-
lar colours predominating in certain genera, orders, &c. or are
they peculiar to them ? What are the relations of the dorsal
and abdominal colours, and latero-dorsal and latero. abdominal
colours ? What influence has light ? How are the colours re-
lated in warm and cold countries ? How are the colours in the
animal kingdom disposed, according to latitude and longitude,
and height above the level of the sea ? Has the sea, and fresh-
water lakes, &c. determinate influences on differences of colour ?
Investigations of this kind belong to general natural history,
and the characteristic of the animal kingdom. Unfortunately,

The Mwh: of Gibraltar. m

these general physiognoipicai relations in zoology \\aL\^ hitherto
been much neglected. Botanists are further advanced in their
representations in the delineation of the physiognoniy of plants.
It is exceedingly to be regretted, that, with the pxcpption of
some partly antiquated, partly unsatisfactory, or, when good, il-
lustrative only of particular classes, treatises on the geographi-
cal distribution of animals, such as those of Zimmerman, La-
treille, Prichard, Ferusac, Minding, we have no general classi-
cal work on this beautiful branch of zoology. — Professor Ru-
dolph Wagner^ Erlangen.

THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. By ProfeSSOT HaUSMANNJ*

The Rock of Gibraltar undoubtedly claims a distinguished
rank among the most remarkable appearances which the south
of Europe offers for our consideration. Powerful changes on
the earth's surface have probably separated it from the rest of
Spain. And the boldness of man has, in another sense, follow-
ed the example of physical forces, by founding and rendering
impregnable the above situation upon a foreign soil ; and thus
insuring the continuance of the intercourse of the most power-
ful insular empire in the world with the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean.

This wonderful rock rises with singular steepness from
amidst the waves which break against it ; and only a narrow
neck of land, consisting of sand, forms the loose band by which
it is connected with the continent -f*. Is the present the ori-
ginal one, or was the now completely isolated rocky colossus
once united with the much smaller height of San-Roque ?
Was the separation between the two effected by the rush of
water, occasioned by the higher level of the sea, in earlier times,
threatening destruction to the whole of the southern promontory
of Spain, or was the rocky wall elevated suddenly out of the sea,
through some hidden force, or from a partial sinking down of the

• Translated by George F. Hay, Esq.

t Such is the apparent connection ; but it has been well ascertained that
the *and is only a superficial covering' of the rocky masses, which, deeper
down, form a firmer union.

1-2

2J28 . The Rock of Gibraltar.

strata, by which they were changed froui a horizontal into the
perpendicular situation ?

^.^ Many may imagine that an answer is easily to be found to
J^ese questions. But I would rather at once confess, that this
■problem appears )to Wjto belong Jtp jthj?, innumerable geological
mysteries, the proper time for the explanation of which has not
yet arrived. Supposing that it be undetermined in what way
the rock of Gibraltar obtained its present remarkable shape, still
we cannot be mistaken in saying, that the mass of the rock acted
as a powerful obstacle during the resistance which the southern
promontory of Spain made to the waters which attempted to
rush across or through it. The almost perpendicular strata of
flinty slate of the basis, and of the compact limestone of the
principal mass, would form with their whole surface a barrier at
right angles to the rush of water, and thus a stronger barrier
would be formed than by the soft sandstone strata of the neigh-
bouring districts. We have existing proofs upon the faces of
the rock, which cannot be mistaken, of the powerful workings of
the sea, and the influence which it has had in shaping the rock
all around. And we can see that the heaving up of the strata,
or their overthrow, in no way belonged to the period of the con-
vulsions by which the union of the Atlantic and Mediterranean
seas was effected. And in unison with the above facts, there
are deposits at the southern promontory, which shew the various
heights of the tides at periods before the bursting through of
the waters. The celebrated breccia containing bones, (knochen-
brekcie *) which fills up the crevices of the rock, and which first
drew the attention of naturalists to the rock of Gibraltar, occurs
likewise in many other parts of the Mediterranean. And this
circumstance is a proof that the Rock of Gibraltar was particu-
larly affected by the same revolutions which occasioned a re-for-
mation of the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.

The different sides of the narrow rock vary in form. On the
north and east side, the rock is in general so precipitous as to be
almost perpendicular ; while at particular places there are for-
midable overhanging masses. Upon the west side, on the con-

• Vid. J. Frill, Blumenbachii Specimen Archseologije Telluris. 1803,
§ 4. p. 0.

The Rock of Gibraltar. 229

trary, it is upon the whole more continuously flattened, while
there are likewise here isolated perpendicular cliffs entering into
the formation of the rock. The far projecting foot of the rock
towards the south, consists of two interrupted divisions, having
cliffs which are partly perpendicular. The under part, which is
called Europa Point, is about 105 English feet above the sea ;
the second, Windmill Hill, is about 330 feet above the sea.
From here the rock rises steep to its liighest southern point,
which is named St George's tower, to which a narrow steep
pathway conducts, called Mediterranean Stairs. The above, like
the northern pinnacle, possesses a height of about 1400 feet*.
The crest of rock which unites the two, and which is in some
places extremely narrow, is upon the whole somewhat lower in
height upon the western declivity. Not very far from the Signal
house, which is placed upon the highest point of the rocky crest,
at an elevation of 1276 feet, there is the opening of a spacious
cave, which is covered with long calcareous stalactites. Around
the western, northern, and eastern borders of the rock, there
is a continued flat land, which, towards the north, runs into
the small neck of land that unites Gibraltar with the neigh-
bouring country. The town is situated on the west side of the
rock, upon the above flat, and the higher part of the town has
the declivity of the rock as a shelter. The flat space of the
eastern border is very narrow. Few houses are situated on this
part, and these are more threatened than protected by the over-
hanging cliffs. This shore runs southward towards a steep in-
clined plane, consisting of sand, and against which the waves
dash to a considerable height. This part is entirely cut off by
a perpendicular rocky wall projecting into the sea, and is thus
separated from the border of the under southern division of the
rock.

On the east side of the rock, nature has rendered fortification
unnecessary, but the other sides are protected by art. The
works of the fortress not only surround the entire border of the
rock, but they extend in the most varied lines to the highest
pinnacle of the same. And they cover not only the surface of

• The highest pinnacle, called the Sugar Loaf, has a height of 1439 Eng-
lish feet above the sea.

ted The Rock of Gibraltar.

£ne K)ck, But al-e carried into its interior by blasting the rocky
mass.

The organised nature which clothes the rock, is no less un-
usual than its mineral formation. The vegetation is a rare
mixture of productions originally European, as well as African
arid Arnerican. And thus th^re is, in its way, as animated
a picture of the intimate union which the isolated rock forms
betwfeen distant lands, as is afforded to us by the narrow flat
space at the foot of thie rock ; where we see men stirring about
in the inost lively intercourse, whose various constumes and lan-
guages enable us to distinguish the different nations to which
they belong.

The plants growing wild on the rock, are in general the
same as those which clothe the flat hills on the coast between
Malaga and Gibraltar.* The dwarf palm^ which is predomi-
nant, mounts up as high as the crest of the rock, taking root in
the clefts of the limestone ; and, upon the western declivity, the
situation is so favourable, that it is found with stems of from
four to six feet high. Between these palm bushes, and in the
wide crevices of the rocks ; a species of ape (Simia Inuus, Lin.)
takes up its abode. Gibraltar possesses these animals as well as
many amphibia and insects, in common with the opposite coast
of Africa. Succulent plants, as the agave or aloe, and various
species of cactus, bound the under margin of the above wild
vegetation. In the neighbourhood of the gardens, the succulent
plants, intermingled with the various plants in cultivation, form
a very variegated scene. The efl^ect is greatly heightened by a
pleasure plantation •[- which has been fornted of late years upon
what was formerly a wild part of the western flat land, near the
Alameda, which is shaded with trees. This spot is adorned by
red-flowering \\\^\xx\ani Pelargonia, and roses ; and jessamine
and orange blossom likewise exhale the most delightful fra-
grance.

The rock, which thus in a small space unites the most re-

• These are enumerated in Professor Hausmann's View of Spain, in a
previous volume of this J.ourtial— Edit.

•f Gibraltar owes to its present worthy and meritorious Governor, Sir
George Don, the above delightful spot, as well as many other ornamental
improvements.

Tfi£ Rock of Gibraltar. 231

nmrkable mixture of the productions of different countries and
parts of the earth, hkewise exhibits the most striking changes
of meteorological phenomena. Now we observe its summit
dear, in an instant afterwards it is enveloped in mist and clouds.
These may hang upon the cliffs for a whole day, while perhaps
the foot of the rock and the sea are enlightened by clear sun-
shine ; while a sudden change of the wind suffices to separate
or elevate the covering of clouds. It also sometimes happens
that the opposite sides of the rocky wall have quite different
kinds of weather. A thick wet fog may settle on the east side,
while the west side enjoys and reflects back the most agreeable
sunshine. There may be a storm on the eastern declivity of the
rock, while it is calm on the west side. Thus, therefore, it is
not only the waves which are broken against the rock of Gibral-
tar ; but the weather likewise is interrupted by its vast mass of
wall ; it is, in a peculiar sense, a screen both of the wind and of
the weather.

The variety of remarkable objects, and the changes in the
appearances of the neighbourhood, are not the only circum-
stances by which the eye is intensely fixed upon Gibraltar.
The viewS; likewise, which are afforded there in the distance,
are of the most extraordinary nature which any headland can
afford ; and every side of the rock, in this respect, imparts
particular delight. The narrow ridge of the summit, at the
border of the perpendicular precipice, towards the east, unfolds
to view the unmeasurable expanse of the sea, which is bounded
only by the Spanish coast upon^the west. The unassisted eye
traces this line of coast as far as beyond Marbella ; and along
the green encompassing border of the higher range of moun-
tains, insulated bright white villages are discovered, and which
may easily* be distinguished from the comparatively dull look-
ing watch-towers. Towards the west, we behold the broad*
bay, and the beautifully formed mountain range, which rises
behind Algesiras, and declines towards the hill of San Roque.
That town, with its long aqueduct, constructed by the Moors,
appears no less clearly marked than this elevated fortification.
The bay is animated with the masts of vessels; and every
change of the wind occasions a variety in this lively picture,

^2 The Rock of Gibraltar.

from the departure and arrival of ships. Although these ob-
jects are so attractive and amusing, they are still far surpassed
by the views commanded by the station on the southern terrace.
We behold the coast of Africa extended before us, from Tan-
gier as far as beyond Ceuta. The great transparency of the
atmosphere makes the distant objects appear so near to the
spectator, that he sees not only the outline and indentures of
the mountain range with the greatest exactness, but can even
distinguish a part of Ceuta. The observer learns to decide ac-
curately, that the mountains at the eastern extremity of the wide
inlet behind the. projection of the coast upon which Ceuta is si-
tuated, are only apparently continuous with the mountain range
which rises behind them ; and is led, from the form of these, to
conjecture, that, according to their constitution, they agree with
the transition-slate formation which constitutes the fundamental
strata of the rock of Gibraltar ; and that they are not composed
of the limestone which forms the principal mass of the latter
rock.

The observer, musing on the surrounding phenomena, inquires.
What power was it which broke through the mighty opposing
rock ? In^what period of the primitive world did the astounding
catastrophe take place, which has paved the way for the liveliest
intercourse among late generations ? The answer to this and
many other questions remains engraven in hieroglyphics upon the
pillars of Hercules; and the most ingenious combination of these
symbols will permit only a few interpretations to be derived from
them with certainty. But the rock, which withstands the shock
of the elements, declares, in writing which has no ambiguous
meaning, that, with its existence, there are connected a series of
the most remarkable events which have taken place at the most
different periods, — from the voyages of the Phoenicians, until the
* contest against the floating batteries. Thus an exact knowledge
of the formation of the southern promontory of Europe would
be highly interesting ; and the fact, that there is a firm and in-
timate union between the nature of a country and the history
of its inhabitants, would give additional countenance to the
inquiry.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ANTHONY SCARPA.

(

Scarpa, in modern times, is in all probability the man who^'as
a physiologist and surgeon, has acquired the greatest and most e>^-
tensive reputation. His name was not merely European ; it was
spread over the world : his discoveries in anatomy and surgery
have been every where viewed with admiration ; they have been
every where useful. His works have been translated into, and
commented upon, in every language. He has left the most pro4
found sentiments of love and veneration in the hearts of his nu-
merous disciples, and, at the same time, seeds which have every
where produced good fruit. There is hardly a society, literary
or scientific, who have not regarded it as an honour to be con-
nected with him, and on the death of Sir Humphry Davy, he
was named one of the eight learned foreign associates of the
French Institute. Honours, titles, and rewards of cirowned
heads, were transmitted to him in his retreat. The necessity
of repose, the diminution of his physical powers, especially of
sight, induced him to renounce practice, and retire to nis
magnificent country-house, where, surrounded by one of the
finest collections of pictures, objects of art, and antiquities,
he portioned out his time among the muses, fine arts, agricul-
ture, anatomy, and surgery, which he never ceased, even at his
great age, to enrich with some original idea or some new dis-
covery. '

Till the last moment of his life, he retained a perfect sefeiiiy,
and that astonishing intellectual vigour which had been so' ad-
vantageous to him during his life ; he died at the age of S5, in
the arms of ||iis pupils, — of the illustrious professors whom his
scientific knowledge had connected with the University of Pavia.
The heirs of his talents never quitted him for an instant during
the malady which carried him "off; they paid their master, friend,
and adopted father, the most assiduous and affectionate atten-
tion ; by their anxiety and gratitude they adorned the latter mo-
ments of the man to whom they were indebted for their acquire-
ments, and the honourable situations they occupy in the Ticinian

231 Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa,

School. Happy are they who have run a long career so useful
to humanity, — who die full of days, — whose death is bewailed,
and who are surrounded with friends who close their eyes !

Scarpa was born at the commencement of the year 1748, at
La Motta, a little village of Friouli, of worthy but poor and
obscure parents. An uncle, rector of the village, who doubt-
less had a presentiment of the reputation of his illustrious ne-
phew, sent him to Padua, where he defrayed the expenses of
his education. It was not long before he had reason to congra-
tulate himself on his foresight. Young Scarpa soon shewed what
he would become one day, by the immense and rapid progress
which he made in his studies. A great man could not find himself
incessantly opposite another distinguished individual without say-
ing to himself, " ed io anche^ io son pittore,'''' Scarpa at first had
Morgagni as a master, who was not tardy in discovering in his
pupil, all the genius of his future eminence ; he soon made him
his friend and fellow-labourer. At this age, Scarpa refreshed
himself from his labours by devoting himself to Hterature ;
during the long soirees of the carnival, which he spent in the
society of Morgagni, they enlivened their scientific conversa-
tions by reading the comedies of Plautus in a loud voice.

The Duke of Modena having occasion for an anatomical
dissector for his University, apphed to Morgagni to fill up this
chair. The latter having solely in view the advancement of
science, and forgetting his interest and his affection, proposed
his favourite pupil, who was gratefully received. Scarpa quitted
Padua for Modena, when he was twenty-two or twenty-three years
old, and gave his first lessons in anatomy in 1772. It was there
that he composed and dedicated his first work on anatomy, to Fran-
cis III., his Maecenas, under the title of De structurd fenestra
auriset de tympano secundario, anatomicce observationes ; Mu-
tinae 1772, in 8vo.

During the same season, the Grand Duke conferred on him
the situation of chief surgeon to the hospital of Modena. The
more his occupations multiplied, the more time he found to do
them all. Notv/ithstanding his anatomical lessons, the increase
of his medical practice, the daily attention which the hospital
required, he found time for anatomical researches, for preserving

Biographical Sketch of Antlwny Scarpa. 235

these by means of the very beautiful designs which he made,
and of writing his observations in the purest and most elegant
Latin. His second work, which appeared soon after the first,
was entitled, Anatorfticarum annotationum liber primus^ de gan-
giiis et plexibus nervorum ; Mutinae 1779, in 4to.

After Scarpa had been established nine years at Modena, the
Duke, for reasons which are unknown, thought proper to
diminish the salaries of the whole of the professors ; Scarpa
then requested permission to travel to Paris and London, which
it was impossible to refuse.

It was in this excursion that he became acquainted at Paris,
London, and in Holland, with the most distinguished physi-
cians and surgeons, such as Vicq d'Azyr, Pott, John Hunter,
&c.

At Paris he shewed Vicq d'Azyr his beautiful drawing of
the olfactory nerve, who wrote these words on its margin, " I
have, for the first time, seen the ramifications of the olfactory
nerve."

John Hunter said in his memoir on this nerve, that the
ramifications in the engraving of Scarpa were too small ; and
the professors of Pavia, who are in possession of this monu-
ment of the early labours of their master, admit that the criti-
cism of the illustrious English surgeon is well-founded.

Scarpa was at Paris at the same time with the philosophical
Joseph the Second, who was then traversing Europe incog.
The celebrated Brambilla, physician to the em.peror, was aston-
ished at seeing Scarpa there ; he expressed his surprise, and
said that he did not think that he could have quitted Modena ;
S^atpii replied, ** You ^te aware that when a distinguished
nobleman is in disgrace at court, he is invited to travel for his
health : this at present has befallen me." Brambilla felt directly,
that he ought to take advantage of this unique opportunity, to
try and attach to the University of Pavia, a professor who he
foresaw would confer on it the greatest eclat ; he mentioned it
to the Emperor, who was extremely anxious to adopt the happy
idea of Brambilla, and made the most honourable proposals to
the pupil of Morgagni ; but the latter, more affected by the
feelings of gratitude which he thought were due to the Duke

236 Biographical Shttch of Anthony Scarpa.

of Modena than his interest and his convenience, did not accept
the chair in Pavia in the year 1783, till he had been invited by
the Duke himself, in the most formal manner.

The accession of Scarpa to the chair at Pavia, was certainly
of immense benefit to this University, and there is no doubt it
was owing to the fortunate suggestion of Brambilla. As a
benefactor rarely forgets the objects of his kindness, Brambilla
from that moment eagerly embraced every favourable oppor-
tunity of augmenting the lustre of the University of Pavia. It
is necessary to state that he was born there. But how often
are many people living at a court surrounded with every kind
of distinction and honour, seen forgetting their country ! This
was not the case with Brambilla ; he always shewed himself an
excellent citizen, and he has left an honourable monument in
his native city.

Scarpa, during the same year, made the inauguration of his
entry into the University, in a Latin discourse, of which the title
was, De promovendis anatomicarum adminisiraiionum ratio-
nibusy oratio ad tirones. Ticini, 1783, in 4to.

In 1785, at the opening of the new. anatomical theatre, he
pronounced an eloquent discourse, under the title, Theatri ana-
tomici Ticinensis dedicatione, oratio habita pridie calend. No-
vembris, ann. 1785.

It was then that he yielded to his favourite passion with in-
credible ardour, viz. to anatomical researches and studies, for
which, it must be agreed, he had a wonderful disposition. He
was endowed with a patience which the longest and most labo-
rious toil could not fatigue ; he had an eagle-eye, which enabled
him to detect the most minute object ; he possessed a manual
dexterity which rendered the most delicate and difficult dissec-
tion easy ; in fine, he was fendowed with an admirable spirit for
observation and induction, which- conferred an inestimable value
on the discoveries which he made with the scalpel.

One of the first works which he printed at Pavia, was a conti-
nuation of that which he had already published at Modena, Ana-
tomicarum annotationum liber secundus, de organo olfactiis prcB-
cipuo, deque nervis nasalibus e pari quinto nervorum cerebri.
Ticini, ann. 1785, in 4to.

Biographical Sketch of ' Anthony Scarpa. 237

He soon after presented a memoir in the first volume of the
Public Disputations of the Medico-Chirufgical Academy of
Vienna, De nervo splnali ad octavum cerebri accessorio commen-
iaritis, Vindobana^, ann. 1788.

Two years afterwards, the following memoir appeared, Ana-
tomicae disqumtiones de auditu et olfactu. Ticini, 1790, in
fol. max.

An English anatomist having stated in the Royal Society of
London, that the heart had no nerves, cor nervis carere, Scarpa
accepted the challenge, and some months had hardly elapsed,
when he threw himself into the arena with this motto, Regia
Societati Lcnidinensi sacrum, the famous work in folio, entitled
Tabula neurologiceE ad illustrandam historiam cardmcorum
nervorum, noni nervorum cerebri, ghsso-pharyngei et pharyn-
gei ex octavo cerebri. Ticini, 1794. ^ H

In glancing at this work, which cost him so many nights of
toil, and which was composed during short intervals, which
he did not steal, however, from his duties in teaching anatomy
and chemistry, we may easily conceive the enthusiasm with
which it was received by the learned in every country ; from
this time Scarpa led the van in his science, and, more happy
than many others, he never descended from this eminent situa-
tion, to which he was raised with such rapidity.

In 1799, he presented the learned with a valuable work, a
true model for analytical observation, on the formation and in-
ternal structure of bones, with the title De penitiori ossium
structura commentarius, Lipsiae, ann. 1799, in 4to.

An accidental circumstance favoured this work, and per-
haps inspired him with the idea ; it was the discovery of an an-
tique cemetry, in the ruins of which he f6und bones, which
seemed to have been prepared for displaying their organisation.
Long afterwards, new experiments, and some valuable observa-
tions on the pathology of the bones, induced Scarpa to publish
a second edition, enriched with six tables from the admirable
pencil of Anderloni, by the title De anatomid et pathologia os-
sium commentarii. Ticini, 1827.

He published soon after, in the Memoirs of the Italian So-
ciety, which was then sitting at Verona, his researches on a

J238 Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa.

monstrosity, which he named a tauro^vaccUy called Free martin
in England. At this period Scarpa renounced his anatomical
labours, to devote himself entirely to the practice of surgery.
The works which he had published had already acquired for
him, not only in Italy, but throughout Europe, a renown well
worthy of envy, and .which has never been surpassed. As great
an anatomist as physiologist, it was during the eighteenth cen-
tury that he encircled his forehead with a glorious crown, and
the present age had hardly commenced, when he had reaped a
glorious immortality in the plains of surgery. Scarpa could not
have made a more prudent division at the epoch of his labours.
When in his panegyric on Carcano Leone, he said, " The his-
tory of surgery gives us one useful hint, viz. that the most clever
and celebrated surgeons have always commenced their career by
studying anatomy deeply ;"" does he not seem to speak of him-
self, and partially to refer to the history of his life? It is cer-
tain, that during early life, when the feelings are most vigorous,
when the body has the greatest power to undergo great fatigue,
and withstand the deleterious influence of the emanations from
subjects, it is the moment which is favourable to the consecra-
tion of the day, and often the night, to delicate dissections, to
examinations which always call forth new researches ; it is
thus that the eye and the hand become qualified for the prac-
tice of the healing art, it is thus that, rich in consequence of
his observations and his experience, the anatomist of Pavia
soon acquired the reputation of the most adroit and skilful sur-
geon.

He began his new career in 1801, by publishing his work
on the Diseases of the Eye. * This remarkable work, which im-
mediately had an immense success, which passed through five
editions in Italy, and was repeatedly translated into the French,
English, and German languages, was the harbinger of all that
could be expected from a scholar, who was at this time consi-
dered as the first surgeon in Italy, and probably in Europe.
He did not disappoint the world : in 1803 he presented the
schools of surgery with a smaller work, but of great importance,

• Saggio di osservazioni e di esperienze suite principali malattie degli occhi. Pa-
via, 1801. 4to.

1

Biographieal Sketch of' Anthony Scarpa. 239

on the congenital disease called the Clubfoot *. Before the works
of the Professor of Pavia on this disease, its treatment was em-
pirical ; now that we know the causes of it, and the nume-
rous dissections that Scarpa has made of club-feet, have ex-
plained the true nature of the disease, its treatment has assum-
ed a more rational, sure, and methodical character. The very
ingenious apparatus which Scarpa contrived to remedy this
disease, generally cures it in the space of two or three months.
Since that time, it has been simplified and rendered more
perfect, but tlie improvements are principally the result of his
labours.

When the French invaded Italy in 1796, the Cisalpine re-
publican government bound all its employes by an oath of a
formula perfectly new, which contained an expression of hatred
to kings. Scarpa refused to take it, and declared he would ra-
ther give up his chair : the government, had the good sense to
keep him in his situation, and allow him to act according to his
own feelings. About the year 1804, Scarpa obtained leave to
retire ; but, in the ensuing year, Napoleon having arrived at
Milan for the purpose of being crowned, said to Scarpa, in the
presence of the whole of the Professors, " You have quitted
ypur chair — you should resume it : so valiant a soldier should
die on the field of battle." At this invitation Scarpa returned,
and again took tlie chair of Clinical Surgery. It was at this
time that Napoleon assigned him a pension of 5000 francs, out
of the bishoprick of Ferrara.

One of the strongest claims to the gratitude of his contempo-
raries and posterity, was his great work on Aneurism, which
was published in 1804. The subject was suggested' by the
question which the Society of Medicine in Paris proposed in
1798, to throw light on the controversy as to the different modes
of operating in this disease of the arteries. It was not a mere
theory — the result of meditations in the silence of the study —
but the consequence of numerous and varied experiments made

• Sid piedi torti congeniti esalea maniera di corregere guesta deformita. It is
with pleasure that I notice here the orthopaidean establishment of Orbe, in
which Mr Martin, successor of Venets and Jaquards, has obtained the great,
est success in the treatment of the congenital deformities.

240 Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa.

on all kinds of animals, in which he was enabled to compare the
reciprocal value of the different modes of tying the arteries.
It cannot be too frequently noticed, that the name of Ander-
loni is intimately connected with that of Scarpa. The engrav-
ings which enrich the treatise on Aneurism will never be sur-
passed in beauty or perfection, and will with difficulty be equal-
led. These engravings, like those of all the other works of
Scarpa, are always faithfully copied after the designs of their
great master.^ *

A new subject of meditation soon prepared him for a new
work. A disease of too common occurrence, the protruding of
a portion of the intestines from its natural position, and which
is known by the generic term Hernia, seemed to him worthy of
attention. The work which he shortly afterwards published on
this important subject procured the eulogiums and the gratitude
of all the academies and every great master of the art. This,^
eminently classical work soon appeared in every European lan-
guage. •(• Every page exhibits the profound anatomist and the
able surgeon : not only has he thrown a light on the me-
chanism hitherto unknown or unexplained, by means of which
every hernia is produced, but he has also fully explained,
in every kind of descent, the dispositions of the ring of the
^funiculus spermaticiis, the epigastric, crural and obturatrix ar-
teries. He has given excellent rules on the cutting of the ring,^
and has wisely based his preference for the multiple cutting
on grounds which have been confirmed by experience. His
modern works on the cicatrisation and obliteration of the pre-
ternatural anus, consecutive on gangrenous hernia, are the
fruits and the complete result of his researches on the funnel-
shaped contraction of the peritoneal sac, and the changes suf- |
fered by the intestine inclosed in it. This work, which was .^

* SulV aTieurisma, ri/lessioni ed osservazioni anatomico-cJiirurgiche. Pavia,
1804.

•^ Sulle Ernie, memorie anatomicO'Chh'urgicke. Due edizioni, la prima alia
stamperia reale a MilanOy nel 1809 ,• e la seconda in Pavia, 1819. Infol. max.
Shall I be forgiven for staling here, that Scarpa in his work mentions me
honourably, by making, in a few lines, an extract from a memoir which I have
published on the fatty Herniae rf the Unea alba.

Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa. J^41

translated into the French language by Mr Cayol in 1812, has
been considerably augmented in a new Italian edition, in which
the various memoirs published separately have been re-written.
He published a supplement to his Treatise on Hernia two or
three years afterwards, to which he added his researches on that
of the perineum. These works, which were translated into the
French language by Mr Olivier, form the completion of the
translation by Mr Cayol.*

From that time his reputation became so great that he was
afterwards regarded as the oracle of surgery.

Napoleon, as king of Italy, named him successively, ChevaHer
of the Iron Crown, and Member of the Legion of Honour.
The Emperor Francis I., who succeeded Napoleon in these
States, decorated him with that of the Cross. Thus did every
sovereign and every government express the regard and esteem
which they had for this great man.

In concurrence with the desire of Joseph II., and by way
of showing his gratitude to his Maecenas, he, with his friend
and colleague Volta, undertook a journey to Vienna. This
prince received Scarpa and his illustrious companion with that
courtesy and affability which are the peculiar characteristics of
the present family ; — to aid science, he induced these learned
men to extend their journey through the whole of northern Ger-
many, and besides furnished them munificently with all the pe-
cuniary assistance which could favour such a project.

In 1820 he undertook a journey through southern Italy, but
merely with the intention of travelling as an amateur of science
and the fine arts, as an admirer of the beauties of nature, which
were about to develope themselves before his eyes ; and it must
be admitted, that he required the strongest discretion to escape
the continual solicitations of those who wished to consult him.
In this manner he traversed Tuscany, the Papal States, and
the kingdom of Naples ; it was in this classic land that he ap-
peased, as it were, the inextinguishable thirst which he had for
acquiring additional knowledge, and perfected the admirable

• I cannot avoid noticing here, that Dr Wishart of Edinburgh is the faith-
ful and elegant translator into the English language of Scarpa's works, and
that he was also his iriend.

VOL. XV. NO. XXX.— OCT. 1833. Q

242 Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa.

tact with which he was endowed for criticising the chefs doewvres

^of the fine arts.

\^ Scarpa withdrew entirely from instruction in the year 1812 ;

[he was at that time appointed Professor emeritus of Anatomy,
Chnical and Operative Surgery. Soon afterwards he was pro-
claimed Director of Medical Studies, a duty very honourable in
itself, which he raised to a higher degree of splendour by the
eclat of his name, as well as by the numerous services which he
rendered to the Faculty of Medicine. It was a delightful sight
to see the three Faculties, of which the University of Pavia is
composed, directed at the same time by as many men, equally
distinguished in their respective sciences, — Tamburini, Scarpa,
and Volta. Of these three great men it may be said that they
died on duty, still in the exercise of their function as directors of
learned institutions. Scarpa survived his illustrious colleagues
many years : this third torch, on being extinguished, left the
University of Pavia covered with funebral crape, — with him
disappeared the last trace of the illustrious triumvirate.

In 1814 Scarpa was appointed Director of the Medical Fa-
culty,. The principal duties were carefully to observe that the
studies were regular and complete, to preside at conferring de-
grees ; in short, to carry into effect the course of medical studies
which had been recently sent from Vienna. Scarpa, however,
goon perceived that it was not in keeping with the existing state
of knowledge ; that it was defective in many respects, especially
in what regarded the study of surgery. He wrote frequently on
the subject to the Government : he transmitted many observa-
tions to them pregnant with wisdom and energy, that a revision
of the plan might be attained, but it was to no purpose. He
pleaded the cause of comparative anatomy which the Government
had proscribed ; he proposed the disjunction of zoology from
mineralogy, by showing that it was impossible for one professor
to give a complete and perfect course of both sciences in the
same year : — his remonstrances and his writings were not ap-
proved of. Tired of preaching in the desert, he renounced his
situation of Director. The Government of Milan, who saw this
determination of Scarpa with deep displeasure, nevertheless ac-
cepted his resignation, but never contemplated the appointment
of a successor.

Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa. 243

Though he had withdrawn from the practice of surgery, he
still continued to promote its advancement. In operating for
the stone he preferred the lateral operation with the gorget of
Hawkins, on which he made an improvement, which rendered
the incision of the prostate parallel with that of the teguments :
he energetically and successfully opposed the recto-vesical opera-
tion. He always applied the ligature according to the plan
of Anel, that had been neglected, but which was revived and
perfected by Hunter, which consisted in leaving the aneuris-
matic bag untouched, and obliterating the artery in the place
where it is healthy, and at a point between this bag and the
heart, leaving the employment of replacing the principal ar-
terial trunk, and supporting the life of the organ below, to
the collateral vessels. He explained a new kind of aneurism,
to which he gave the appellation of aneurism by anastomosis
of the bone, which consists in the anomalous dilatation of the
many small arterial vessels in these hard parts, and which never
occurs without the total disappearance of all the hard part of
the bone. Scirrhus and cancer, neuralgy, perinaeal hernia, the
artificial pupil, the sanguineous varicose tumours, complicated
ascites, dropsy of the spermatic cord, the functions of the nerves,
which proceed from the brain and spinal marrow, of which some
are destined for the organs of sense, and the others for those of
motion, and many other matters in medicine and physiology, re-
ceived from him a new light, and are collected ii^ three tliick
volumes *. '^^^i'* '^^^ rvyj.\uii io 'ihuxr. mU bob siiiyj ixijU/, A

We have already seen Scarpa undertake his journey to
Southern Italy in 1820, loaded with years. His love for the
fine arts, especially painting, was the principal motive for this
excursion. It was whilst surveying the rich rooms of Tableaux
in Florence, that he made a magnificent collection of original
pictures of all the Italian Schools, at a great expense. In this
department of the fine arts he acquired so elegant a taste, and
so perfect a judgment, that his opinion was often requested re-
garding pictures whose origin was dubious : every one knows
the judgment which he passed on a magnificent picture, the

• Opuscoli de Chirurgia di ArUonio Scarpa^ 3. vols. Pavia 1825 and 18.'{2.

q2

244 Biographical Sketch of Antliony Scarpa\

property of Count Suardi of Bergamo, and which he declared
was the portrait of Guido Baldo, Duke of Urbani, the work of
the divine Raphael ; his decision may be seen in, a letter which
Scarpa published in the i?iWio^/i^5'M^ /ia/ii^ww^, . lo noitqriogeb

In this journey he discovered a casque of antique? iroil,
admirably sculptured, which he made known by publishing an
account of it, enriched with superb engravings *.| // alqosq ^nooy

It was in this manner that, surrounded with the varidus ob-
jects of his affections, he spent days worthy of emulation in his
beautiful mansion on the banks of the Po ; he was very fond of
agriculture, and though he did not publish any thing on this sub-
ject, he invented and practised new methods of cultivation which
have been frequently mentioned in different works, and adopted
with success by a great many farmers. It is difficult to find any
branch of the great tree of science which was not a source of en^-
joyment to him, and which he did not cultivate with success. . K

The Anatomical Museum of Pavia, begun by Rezia, received
an augmentation from Scarpa, particularly of his own prepara-
tions-j-. Proceeding in his footsteps, Jacopi J, Fattori, and latter-
ly the celebrated Panizza, at present Professor of Anatomy, have
successfully enriched it, so that at present it may be fearlessly
designated as one of ..the^mqslf beautiful ,^n(J u§efvi) .pp^o^fti^al
museums in Europe ^^h <^b FrnfT^vbi? tpom '^dt ntmW *^^

The dignified and gentlemanly manner with which he filled the
chair of Professor, captivated the respect and the attention of
his audience. He may, perhaps, some day be equalled, — he will
never be surpassed. He had an admirable arrangement and
method : his discourse was as charming as it was perspicuous f,
his voice was sonorous and animated, and his eloquence com-r't
manded the most profound silence among his audience : his
beb%YJf)ify{)Ji£^J f^^.fWt^ji^yaM^tQrUy, tempered by an amiability

• Sopra un elmo diferro squisitamente lavorate a cesello, lettera del Prof. An-
tonio Scarpa all Cav. J^ossl Pavia ; tipografia Bizzoni in giau. fogl. Velin
tlipag3txUicoat3dyoliiJds*iil<#Atte^:^f"9ftuB eid m bsbrriJis auw sH

f Index Jlerum Ariathmicarum Musai Ticml^ts:'^i:i^ir\i*'lW4!' '^'''^BtOYSa
XTuMarcellus eris. — The premature death of this young profes^f-who*'
gave promise of all the genius of his master, was the source of the most
acute gi^ef;.wbicJY&^I^.ey^ep,q^^^^ ffilT/ DOil^r

Bif)g¥aphiml Sketch of Aniliony ScarpSl 2#5

and sweetness full of attraction. These rare qualities easily s^,'
cured him every heart, and surrounded him with venferation.

His an&tomy"wa& rtdt reisitricted to a shanple and uninteresting
description of the organs; he khew^ Bow'tO' embellish it with
physiological and surgical reflections of the greatest interest.
Thus, not only were his lectures resorted to by a crowd of
young people who studied the medical scienct's',' b«t-he also enu-
merated among his auditors, physicians aild distinguished sur-
geons, as well as learned men quite- unconnected with the healil
ing affti ^i9V a«w ari ; o*£ odj to eimid sdj no uoigntirri iu'tiiunsd

Scarpa was taTl, well'nfia'd^, eirtd' might have been considefecT
handsome. His manner was full of grace : in society he was
extremely agreeable when he chose ; but when he was not
called upon to do the honours of his house, and found himself
in a company which was indifferent to him, then absorbed in
his thoughts, sitting apart, his chin resting on the head of his
cane, his legs across, silent, and immoveable ^hfe'ibright have
been taken for a statue. '»„.,;;

He was ardently attached tb the pleasures of the chase, W
which he acquired unusual address: In all pr6bability it was
to this exercise that he was indebted for part of his strength, and
of that suppleness, of that activity in his limbs, which he retain-
ed even to the most advanced age. His place of retirement
and living in the country, were his great passion : he was in the
habit of spending his autumnal vacations in his charming man-
sion of Bonasco, situated on a delightful hill on the other side of
the Po ; there he appropriated his mornings to the composition'
of his chirurgical works, the rest of the day he devoted to his'
friends, the chase, and rural matters ; the evenings were passed
in reading and literary conversations.

He died after suffering for many years from an affection of
the bladder, accompanied with violent spasms, and a disposition
to spitting blood, which degenerated into an incurable ulcer.
He was attended in his sufferings with a tenderness and per-
severance altogether filial by some pupils and intimate friends,
at the head of whom we ought to enumerate Professors Panizza,
Cadroli, and Rusconi.

Let us be satisfied with having rendered this feeble mark of

246 Biographical Sketch of Anthony Scarpa.

respect to the memory of the venerable Nestor of modern sur-
gery, to this benefactor of humanity, whose name is spoken of
with regret by all his fellow-citizens, and will be proudly re-
peated by posterity. Let us hope that within a short time,
friendship and gratitude will furnish us with the memoirs of
this illustrious man, of which he himself has left the principal
materials in his papers. ' <^^*ei*^;^ j, p, ^jn

P. S, It is right to render to Caesar what belongs to Caesar.
I think it is my duty to say that this biographical notice is
principally extracted from one which has just been published
by Mr Chiappa, and that of Mr Carron de Villards. I owe
much also to a letter from my friend Professor Rusconi.

Bihliotheque Universelle, 1832.

REPORT OF A LECTURE ON THE CHEMISTRY OF GEOLOGY DE-
LIVERED AT ONE OF THE EVENING MEETINGS AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, by EDWARD TuRNUM, M, D.

F.R.S.L.E.,Sec. G.S.

The lecturer began by explaining, that, under the title " Che-
mistry of Geology," he included all those geological phenomena
to the elucidation of which chemical principles were applicable.
The subject, he said, was one of great extent. He might pro-
ceed to consider the affinities which operated in forming the
crystalline rocks^of the non-fossiliferous series, — to develope the
several theories by which it is attempted to account for volcanic
action, — to show by what means the soft materials of aqueous
deposits were converted into solid rocks, — to trace the effects of
heat in modifying the appearance and nature of previously con-
solidated masses, — to endeavour to explain the origin of mine-
ral waters, — and speculate on the obscure subject of the forma-
tion of veins. But he would not then venture to discuss any
of those topics, the rather as some of them were then under in-
vestigation. He meant to confine his remarks to two parts of
the subject : First, to the causes which give rise to the disinte-
gration of rocks, thereby providing the materials for new, by the
destruction of pre-existing geological formations ; and, second-

Lecture oti the Chemistry of Geology. 247

ly, to the productioD, by means of aqueous solution, of sili-
ceous and other deposites, which were commonly regarded as in-
soluble. He would touch cursorily on the former, chiefly with
a view to.|ajal^f^t<^^^^<;^^gr^|}eDsion of the latter.

y^\jr^ Disintegration of Rocks. — The principal agents concerned
in the disintegration of rocks, might, it was said, be conveniently
arranged, under three heads : —

^R^ Mechanical agents ; such as rain, rivers, and torrent8> or,
generally, water in motion. This subject, the lecturer said, did
not require comment on that occasion, as it was not only fami-
liar to the geologists, but foreign to the plan of his lecture. ^

2. The alternate congelation and liquefaction of water. In
all situations liable to alternate frost and thaw, this was a most
fertile source of destruction to rocks.

Water, insinuating itself into fissures, or between the strata
of rocks, and congealing there, tore asunder the firmest masses
by the immensely expansive force which water exerts in freez-
ing, kept together the disjointed parts as by cement while it
remained solid, and, on thawing, left them to fall asunder by
the mere force of gravity. This was perhaps the most influen-
tial cause of the vast ruin daily witnessed in the valleys of Swit-
zerland, and in all countries where high mountain-chains are inter-
sected by deep narrow gorges, bounded by bare precipitous and
irregularly-fissured escarpments. By the operation of the same
cause, buildings were defaced and destroyed. When water
froze within the cavities of porous stones, the particles were fre-
quently more or less disunited from each other, and crumbled
into dust at the first thaw. Building materials differed in their
destructibility by frost. The compact tenacious sandstdrte of
Edinburgh suffered little, while some of the handsome Colleges
of Oxford gave melancholy proof '6f*i1i6 iiijufy^ Mii6h it nVight
occasion in the more porous and less tenacious oolite of that
country. The lecturer observed, that a scientific knowledge of
the cause of such decay had led to the suggestion of a ready
mode of estimating the durability, as far as froSt was concerned,
of different building materials. The freezing of water was a
process of crystallization attended, as in most other cases, with

248 Report ofDr Turner's Lecture on

forcible increase of volume. The crystallization of salts was a
similar pkenomenon, and gave rise to a similar effect. When a
stone was dipped into a saline solution, and then suspended in
the air to dry, the crystallization of the salt produced a certain
amount of injury ; and the effect due to one operation might be
multiplied to any extent by the repetition of the same process.
The experiment of a few days might thus be made to imitate
the effect of numerous winters, and the relative durability of
different materials be ascertained prior to their selection for
building. The salt most applicable to such substances was
found to be the sulphate of soda *.

3. Chemical Action. — The affinities which principally contri-
bute to affect the integrity of rocks, were stated to be thoseof water
and carbonic acid for potash and soda, and that of oxygen for iron.
The changes referred to were frequent in felspathic rocks, and
were exemplified in a very striking manner in the formation of
porcelain clay from granite and other allied rocks rich in felspar.
All granitic regions presented examples of this nature, and in
none were they more remarkable than in Cornwall and Au-
vergne. It was probable that the long-continued action of pure
water might produce decomposition ; but the effect of its affinity
for the alkalies of the rock was materially aided by that of car-
bonic acid for the same bases. This was shown by the increased
decomposing power of water when charged with carbonic acid,
and by the action of moist carbonic acid gas on granite, as ex-
emplified in the volcanic districts of Auvergne. Basaltic rocks
were likewise prone to decomposition, partly in consequence of
containing felspar, and partly from the protoxide of iron of the
augite or hornblende which enters into their composition. TliiA
passage of the iron into a higher degree of oxidation was du^^
to atmospheric oxygen applied in a liquid state to the rodk'^
through the medium of water. It was probable that carboni<fc>^
acid likewise co-operated ; — that, as in the rusting of iron, a ca^iX*
bonate of the protoxide was first generated, which subsequefitl^*
passed into the hydraled peroxide of iron. iiv/<>rf«

t^^he'TOcks in which these changes occurred, underwent a totaP'

, ^, M* I^r4Jin4|iit4'^iJhiiiVi[}frrhjs. vol. xxxviii. p. IW*!? V qfi-^

the Chemistry Gf>Geolog^.x s v 249

alteration both in their mecbanica I state and chemical constitution.
Their tenacity Jiwwhaoiyeetirely .destroyed, that the sjiglitest
force, a shower, or- the breeze, HufTiced to ovtTcome thecohesioft:
of their particles. The alkali of the i"eU})ar was entirely washed^
away, and an earthy mixture combined witli water remained*
The ochreous tint of decomposed basalt and greenstone, 8uffi«
ciently indicated that their iron luid passed into a higher stajtf*
of oxidation ; but felspar often left a perfectly white earth, tbc^t
small portions of iron and manganese contained in the origim^l)
rock having been removed, probably in the state of carbonate,
during the progress of disintegration. These changes consti-
tuted one of the great sources of the alkalies present in springs
and in the soil ; and the alkaline matter of the nitrates of pot-
ash and soda, generated so abundantly in parts of India
and America, had probably the same origin. They likewise
accounted for the connexion observed between the agricultu-
ral character of the soil of certain districts, and the rocks from
which it was derived. The decomposition of granitic rocks led
to deposites of clay and sand, which were too entirely free from
each other, and from lime, to be suitable for the growth of
plants ; while the earth derived from most basaltic rocks was an
intimate mixture of argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous mat-?'^
t^in proportions peculiarly favourable to vegetation. i,iOij uinod

^p Deposites Jrom Aqueous Solution of Substances commot^^,
ly considered insoluble, — The lecturer next discussed the sQia
cond branch of this subject, referring more especially to siliw
ceous depositions, such as flint, calcedony, and rock.crystal»'>
Mapy circumstances, he remarked, proved the fact that silica
very frequently existed in solution. Mineral waters, he said,
commonly contained silica. Chemists, indeed, frequently over-
looked} tH Will their analyses; but whea carefully sought for, ilfj
might in most instances be detected. It was constantly cobȣ
tained ip, tlje sap of certain plants, if not in all. For it wa»T
shown by the late Sir Humphry Davy, that silex is contained
in grass, and in the epidermis of reeds, corn, canes, and
of hollow plants in general. The existence of silex in the
sap of the bamboo, was not only attested by its flinty epider-

250 Report ofDr Turner's Lecture on

mis, but by the siliceous concretions called tahasheer. Si-
milar evidence was afforded by some fossils, which contained
silex in such a form as to indicate that it was deposited from
a solution. In proof of his position, the lecturer exhibited
samples of shells having their form preserved in silex, some
beautiful specimens of silicified coral, and a suite of chalk flints
which displayed the structure of sponges and other zoophytes.
For the opportunity of exhibiting such specimens, he was in-
debted to the indulgence of the President and Council of the
Geological Society. Traces of organization might, by careful
examination, be so frequently detected in chalk flints, that he
was disposed to the opinion of those geologists who considered
flints in general as zoophytes fossilized by silica. The lecturer
next adverted to the formation of calcedony, and shewed speci-
mens which, though found in igneous rocks, had their aqueous
origin clearly established by the stalactitic form which they
possessed. Similar masses of calcedony existed in some flints,
and passed into the substance of flint by insensible gradations.
The hollow balls of crystals called geodes, afforded similar testi-
mony, by presenting both calcedony and rock-crystal, under
circumstances indicative of pre-existing solution.

The fact being established, — that siliceous minerals are fre-
quently formed from aqueous solution^ the lecturer went on to
state the principles by which he thought the solution of silice-
ous matter, and its subsequent deposition, might be explained.
The first observation he would make related to the meaning of
the term insoluble. Chemists, he said, apply it to substances
which are not found to lose any appreciable weight when sub-
jected to the action of water. It was not afiirmed -that abso-
lutely nothing was dissolved in such cases, but that the quantities
were too small to be appreciated. This was true even of the most
insoluble substance known to chemists; namely sulphate of baryta.
But though the weight of such bodies was not perceptibly di-
minished by trials conducted in the laboratory during a short
interval of time, and with small quantities of water, the effect of
the same operation, as performed on a great scale in the mine-
ral kingdom, during hundreds and thousands of years, and
with unhmited quantities of the menstruum, might be, and

the Chemistry of Geology. 251

doubtless was, very different. It was not necessary, however,
to have recourse to this mode of reasoning. Substances, he
said, which are inappreciably soluble in one state, may be freely
dissolved in another. Silex in the finest powder may be boiled
in water without perceptible solution ; but if presented to that
solvent while in the nascent state, it was freely dissolved. Sub-
stances in the act of being formed from their elements, or of se-
parating from previously existing combinations, do not possess
that force of aggregation which properly belongs to them, and
in such states of transition they have a peculiar aptitude to com-
bine with other bodies. This property is observed more or less
in all bodies, but silica offers one of the most striking illustra-
tions of it. Siliceous earth, in its nascent state, is freely soluble
in water, and in various acid and saline solutions, which do not
perceptibly dissolve ordinary flint, however finely it may be
pulverized ; and the alkalies and alkaline carbonates, which dis-
solve silex even in its solid condition, take it up while nascent
in far greater quantity. Now, in the decomposition of felspathic
rocks, which had been referred to in the first part of the lecture
expressly with a view to that subject, the silex was exposed to
the united action of water and alkali at the moment of passing
from the state of combination which constitutes felspar, and
would be expected to be freely dissolved. That it was so,
might be proved by a comparative view of the constitution of
porcelain clay and felspar. He would represent their compo-
sition, he said, by a formula expressive of the number of equi-
valents of each element ; though, in doing so, he did not mean
to assert that porcelain clay was strictly an atomic compound.
Thus:

Felspar. Porcelain Clay.

(p o + 3 s i),+ (Ai.t,?!') ; (A/ + 3 i S i).

The lecturer stated, that the porcelain clay referred to was a
sample from Villarica, which he had analyzed during the course
of the winter. -Besides aluminous and siliceous earth, it con-
tained 21.3 percent, of water. Mr Rogers of Philadelphia had
obligingly analyzed for him some porcelain clay from the vici-
nity of Mont Dor in Auvergne, which had a similar constitu-

252 Report of' Dr Twncr'it Lectw^ on

tion. Berthier and Rose had likewise analyzed porcelain x-kly
from other localities, and each found the ratio of the two earths
to be nearly two equivalents of alumina to three of silica. Its
constitution, accordingly, ap]:)eared subject to very slight varia-
tion. The formulae shewed that every two equivalents of alu-
mina, present in porcelain clay along with three and a half of
sihca, corresponded in the original felspar, from which it was de-
rived, to twelve equivalents of silica and one of potash. Hence
the quantity of silica carried off in solution was enormousiio now

The lecturer then went on to explain how it happened that
silica, existing in solution, was deposited so as to constitute mi-
nerals. One obvious principle, he stated, was the molecular at-
traction which exists between similar particles of matter, as was
proved by facts without number. Its existence was attested by
the globular form assumed by water, oil, mercury, and other
liquids ; by the separation from one another of salts in crystal-
lizing out of mixed solutions ; by the formation of crystals du-
ring the slow deposition of vapour, as when camphor was sub-
liming slowly in a glass bottle, the particles attaching themselves
to one another, rather than spreading uniformly over the sur-
face on which they collect ; and by the tendency of like mole-
cules to get together and cohere while intermixed with a mass
of dissimilar matter, rendered liquid by heat, as when particles
of titanium diffused in a furnace, through a mass of iron, seek
out each other and form regular crystals, or when minerals crys-
tallize out of melted lava or basalt : so from solutions of silex,
whether strong or dilute, the particles are disposed to adhere
together whenever they cease to remain in solution.

Another principle applicable to this question, was the follow-
ing : Whenever substances, insoluble in their ordinary state,
were dissolved by the force of favourable circumstances, such so-
lutions were very prone to decomposition. They formed in-
stances of peculiarly unstable equilibrium. The slightest dis-
turbing causes, as agitation, change of temperature, or the affi-
nity, though slight, of some other body for the solvent, — would
in such cases put an end to the solution. Illustrative examples
of this principle were afforded by solutions of tin, titanium, and
peroxide of iron, in a neutral state. He might probably quote

»^' 4he^Cft€mktry of' Geology."'- ' 253

olbkimbious 9oIUl)ou& ^8 an instance from the anima! kingdom.
Water cooled carefully below its usual point of congelation, and
saturated solutions of Glauber''s salts, were liquids in which a
similar instability of equilibrium was conspicuous. The lectu-
rer, in illustration, here showed two solutions of Glauber'*s salt,
4«>he explained that the mere pressure of the atmosphere, on re-
mbving the cork, or the slightest agitation, often caused such so-
lutions to become solid ; and that when these failed, the introduc-
tion of « solid body, especially a crystal of Glauber's^ salt, or of
any substance having even a feeble affinity for the salt or its sol-
vent, such as a globule of air or carbonic acid gas, generally de-
termined immediate crystallization. The solutions on the lecttire
table, retained their form after removal of the cork, and after
gentle agitation : one of them instantly became solid on the intro-.
duction of a glass tube ; and the other bore the introduction of the'
tube, but crystallised instantly when a globule of air from the
lungs was blown through the tube. The principle elucidated by
these facts was, he said, directly applicable to his argument. A'
solution of silica oozing slowly into the cavities of a porous or'
cellular rock might yield a deposite as a consequence of evapo-
ration, of a slight affinity between the silica and some substance
with which it accidentally came into contact, or of the solvent
power of an alkali which had contributed to its solution being
lessened by passing from the state of a simple carbonate to that
of a bicarbonate, or by entering into some other mode of combi-
nation. The siliceous matter, being once solid, would most pro-
bably be insoluble in the menstruum by which it had been origi-
nally dissolved, and in that state would promote the increase of
the deposit by its molecular attraction for the silex still remain-
ing in solution. In this manner, might cavities of considerable
size be gradually filled up with calcedony, flint, or rock-crystal.
It was difficult, he said, to indicate the precise circumstances
which determined the form assumed by the silex ; but it was proba-
ble, agreeably to the laws of crystallization, that the development
of regular crystals was owing to the extremely slow progress of
the same process, which, when less slow, might cause the deposit
to be amorphous. In the formation of calcedony and flint, it
was most likely as Brongniart supposed, that the silica, as in

\

254 Report of Dr Turner's Lecture on

operations in the laboratory, was deposited in a gelatinous form,
hardening gradually by evaporation, and the cohesive attraction
of its particles. The regularly disposed lines which were so
beautifully displayed in some varieties of calcedony, seemed
owing to successive deposition; one layer succeeding another,
each assuming the form and irregularities of the preceding, and
differing in tint, according to the absence or presence of small
varying quantities of foreign matter, such as iron and manga-
nese. In the case of flint, it was necessary, he said, to account
for that remarkable tendency which silica possessed, to occupy
the place of organic matter, as exemplified by the specimens of
flint, silicified wood and coral, on the lecture-table. This phe-
nomenon, the lecturer thought, might be explained on the prin-
ciples which had been developed that evening.

Siliceous solutions, infiltrating through organic masses in
progress of decay, might readily be decomposed by the affinity
of gases, or other compounds, generated during slow putrefac-
tion, either for the silica itself, or for its solvent. In either
case a deposit of silex would result. Consistently with this view,
it was well known that flints contained traces of bitumen, or
some similar substance of organic origin. To it the dark
colour of flints was owing, and to its destruction the whiteness
of roasted and bleached flints was attributable.

The lecturer, in conclusion, briefly referred to the formation
of some other minerals. He explained that the production of
crystals of selenite, celestine, and heavy spar, obviously re-
sulted, in many cases, from the sulphuric acid arising one while
from burned sulphur in volcanic districts, and at another from
oxidizing pyrites, acting upon contiguous masses containing
lime, strontian, and baryta. He showed a specimen of red oxide
of iron, possessed of a stalactitic form, decisive of aqueous ori-
gin ; and oxide of manganese, he smd, sometimes occurred in a
similar state. He considered such specimens to have been ori-
ginally deposited in the state of carbonates, out of solutions of
carbonic acid, and to have been subsequently still farther oxi-
dized— a change which he illustrated by a specimen of carbo-
nate of manganese, kindly given to him by Mr Philips, in which
the progress of conversion was distinctly exhibited. He also

the Chemistry of Geology, 255

suggested a possible explanation of the origin of* the pyrites so
often found in fossil shells, imbedded in clay, which abounds
in nodular pyrites. It had been observed that sulphates un-
dergo gradual decomposition by the action of organic matter ;
and he thought it, therefore, far from improbable that sulphate
of iron, generated from oxidized pyrites, might, by the deox-
idizing agency of animal remains, be reconverted into sulphuret.
— Armals of Philosophy ^ July 1833.

DR OPPENHEIM ON THE STATE OF MEDICINE IN EUROPEAN
AND ASIATIC TURKEY.

The father of medicine in Turkey was an Ambian, named
Lochmann, appointed in the seventeenth century by Mahom-
med, to discharge the sacred functions of physician. The mi-
racles performed by Lochmann were numerous, and tradition
has recorded them in glowing colours : he was a wandering
dervise, and taught his art to the brethren of his order, who,
retaining to this day the precious secrets he revealed, continue
by birth-right the practitioners of Turkey *. As might be ex-
pected, this religious order of physicians are greater proficients
in superstition than in practical medicine, and exceJ3t being ac-
quainted with the virtues of a few plants, they absolutely know
nothing. It is true, indeed, that they attempt to acquire confi-
dence by appealing to supernatural agency, divination, astrology,
tahsmans, and cabalistic figures.

Sometimes they attribute the origin of disease to the special
wrath of God, in others to the interference of devils, but never
perform the ceremony of deprecation or exorcism, without a
multiplicity of rites and sufficient pay. Where money is given
in the expected quantity, their prayers are endless, their beads
are told ad hifiyiitum, picked sentences of the Koran are sewn
together, and given to the patient lo swallow ; or, when a fluid

• The Turks, with a happy knack of distorting Frankish names, have
confounded Hoffman with Lochmann. Thus Hoffman's liquor they call
Loclmiann-llouch.

^56 On the State of Medicine in

menstriuim is preferred, the holy words are written with chalk
upon a piece of board, this is washed, and the water with which
the ablution is performed, forms a draught potent in proportion
to its impurity. Amulets, however, form the favourite charm
of the Turks; and, over the whole of the east, Mahammedans*,
Jews, and Christians, appeal to their protection, when threatened
or overtaken by misfortune. Hence, few die without wearing
two or three amulets, to whose safe guardianship they had in-
trusted their lives. They generally consist of a scrap of paper,
containing a sentence from the Koran or Bible, embellished with
cabalistic figures, and folded in a triangular shape, enclosed
carefully in a little bag, and w^orn next the skin, either by means
of a string hanging from the neck, or by being stitched inside
the turban. Some amulets, supposed to possess a spell capable
of protecting from ball and dagger, are sold at an enormous
price. Thus, says Dr Oppenheim : — "^ iiB^u.

" After the defeat and death of Wihli-Begin Monastir, an
amulet (Nusko) was found on his body, which he had purchased
for sixty thousand piastres. The Selictar (sword-bearer) of the
grand Vizier, had its virtues renewed by a dervise, and then
wore it himself. I asked him how it happened that the fate of
its late possessor had not rendered him sceptical concerning its
protective powers. He answered that nought, save the holy will
of the Sultan, exceeded this Nusko in power, and that so long as
he who wears it refrains from provoking the displeasure of his
sovereign, he is secure against the hottest fire of the enemy of'
the poniard of the assassin."

The unsuccessful Turkish suitor invokes his amulet to soften
the obdurate heart of his mistress, and those who are afflicted
with ophthalmia, ague, and various other diseases, often place
their whole reliance upon the virtues of a scrap of consecrated
paper. As the dervises who practise the healing art, can alone
infuse power into these amulets, they foster the public credulity,
and by selling them at an enormous price, contrive to lose no-
thing by the confidence of their patients being transferred from
themselves to the amulets they manufacture. This is silly and
melancholy enough ; but after all, while the newspapers of Great

• The name of the prophet is pronounced Mahammed.

European and Asiatic Turkey, 267

Britain^^Vj^Ct^. every day hundreds of specifics; while there
a^ purchasers in abundance for quack medicines, such as Mor-^
rison's pills, which heal every disease ; while the aristocracy of
the country besiege the door of St John I^ong ; when a noble-
man and a member of parliament, still considered sane by his
constituents, has sworn in a court of justice, that St John
Long's frictions caused globules of quicksilver to exude from his
skull ; when a barrister of reputation in Dublin believes and as-
serts that the same hniment drew a pint of water from his own
brain ; when half the community of Dublin believed the miracles
of Hohenlohe ; when a commission, appointed by a grave and
learned society of physicians in Paris, has reported favourably
of the miraculous effects of animal magnetism ; when we recollect
all this, I say, ought we to indulge too freely in ridiculing the
Mahammedans for their trust in amulets, or the Turkish ma-
trons for their dread of the evil eye of the stranger, and their
belief that all the maladies of their offspring spring from its
blasting influence ? Another superstition of the Turks is, an
observance of lucky and unlucky days for prescribing or taking
medicine, and it is singular enough, that they consider Friday,
the most unlucky day of the week with ignorant Christians, as
the most propitious, while Tuesday is regarded as peculiarly
unlucky, and no one thinks either of the exhibition of drugs or
the performance of operations, even in the most urgent cases,,
upon a Tuesday. It was on a Friday that the memorable flight
of Mahammed took place, by which his life was saved. Every^,
one in gociety who can afford to pay for such useful information^
takes care to purchase from the astrologers an intei-pretation of
his destinies, as fixed by the stars that presided over his nativi*^
ty, and each person has his own lucky and unlucky day of the
week. It is well known, that even the mighty genius of Napo-
leon|Was enslaved by somewhat a similar superstition. The to-
tal ignorance and incompetence of the native practitioners have
not altogether escaped the observation of their countrymen, for
it has been long ago remarked, that a foreign physician, parti-
cularly if a Frank, is supposed by tlie Turks in general, to be,
{>ossessed of far superior knowledge, and accordingly they ai'e,
foflowed with avidity. Whoever appears in any part of Turkey
dressed like a Frenchman^ an Englishman, or a German, in fact,

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCT. 1833. K

^58 On the State of Medicine in

whoever wears a hat and not a turban, is immediately looked on
as the possessor of medical knowledge, and is at once called
" Hekim Baschi,'' and must, 7iolens volens, immediately enter
upon practice, for the Turks crowd round him, and hold out
their hands that he may feel their pulse, which, in their opi-
nion, is all that is necessary to enable the physician to form a
correct diagnosis, and they believe, therefore, that when the
pulse has been felt, nothing more is required to give an insight
into the nature of their disease, and the proper method of treat-
ment. Others of the crowd, thinking themselves sufficiently ac-
quainted with the nature of their own maladies, seek in the phy-
sician only a person to supply them with the remedies they
themselves indicate, and accordingly, one applies to him for a
vomit, another for a purgative, a third for a medicine to pro-*
duce wind, another for one to expel it; for the ancient patho-
logy, that diseases are caused by an excess or deficiency of
wind in the various organs and cavities of the body, is still
common ; thus, a headach is caused by wind in the head,
dyspnoea by wind in the chest. The physiology of respiration
is thus rendered very simple, and the trachea becomes the air
pipe not merely of the lungs, but of the whole body.

The encouragement thus given to foreign practitioners, has
generated the greatest abuses, for as there are no means of as-
certaining the acquirements of strangers, many, induced by sor-
j,j4id views, embark on a system of barefaced quackery, and thus
persons who have followed other employments at home, are sud-
„denly physicians in Tifrkey. Dr Oppenheim was invited to at-
,j tend a consultation with an eminent French physician at Smyrna,
,,iwho candidly told him, that the only preparation he had for
,,the profession was, service in the army as drum-major ! Among
!, the staft-surgeons of the Turkish army, was a Maltese, who had
been a letter-carrier at Corfu, and an Italian captain of a mer-
_ j^jjhant vessel, who had been shipwrecked on the coast of Asia
^,lJtfinor. A Genoese gentleman, implicated in the late revolu-
^j^donary attempts in Piedmont, and who had long served in the
army, applied to Dr Oppenheim, who gave him sixteen recipes,
by means of which he was set up in the world, being soon after-
wards appointed physician to the governor of Jambul ! No-
thing can exceed the heterogeneous materials of which the mass

European and Asiatic Turkey. 259

of practitioners is composed ; foreigners from all countries, and
of all trades, but chiefly Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, the re-
ligious orders of all the different forms of worship that are pro-
fessed in Turkey, besides gypsies, barbers, and old women. Of
the foreigners some are well educated, and a few, whose names
Dr O. mentions, are excellent surgeons and experienced physi-
cians, but such are " few and far between." It is a pity that
the state of medicine is so low in a country, where the inhabi-
tants esteem so highly the medical art, and where all are in-
clined to respect physicians ; by the Turks, a skilful physician
is almost ranked as a saint, and the appellation " Hekim," is
the surest protection against either religious or political persecu-
tion. In the last campaign against the Russians, often, says
Dr O., was the uplifted sword of the half barbarous Turk ar-
rested on the cry of " Hekim" being uttered by his vanquished
foe. The modern Greeks give the title of Excellency to the
physician, and old Homer estimated the value of a good surgeon
and physician very precisely, in saying that he was worth half-
a-dozen colonels * ! It may be here mentioned as a cunous
fact, that the formation of the immense empire of Great Britain
in the East Indies, was, in its infancy, greatly aided by the re-
spect entertained for the acquirements of an English physician
named Boughton, the successful exertion of whose medical skill
enabled him to obtain from the native princes, what the East
India Company had for forty years in vain struggled to possess,
the liberty to make a permanent settlement and build a factory.
There is a particular district of Greece called Sagor, in the
Paschalick of Janina, where the profession of medicine is, as it
were, the national characteristic and the chief occupation of the
inhabitants, whose right to practise is hereditary, and whose
knowledge consists in recipes and rules of treatment, handed
down from generation to generation. Three or four villages in
this district are complete medical hives, sending forth their an-
nual swarms of physicians, who spread themselves over the whole
of Macedonia, Albania, and Rumelia, and, in short, over the
whole Turkish empire. They follow the good old Greek fa-

* It is difficult to assign tlieir proper rank to many of the chiefs and
minor heroes of the Iliad. In calling them colonels, I mean no offence to the
dead. '''''"^

S60 On the State i^ Medicine in

shion, which sanctioned this lazy sort of hereditary diploma, and
looked on the descendants of Esculapius as accomplished physi-
cians from their very birth. In other states, it is not rare to
find a predilection for certain trades and manual occupations,
which are cultivated almost exclusively by the inhabitants of
certain districts, who migrate in multitudes ovei' the whole of
Europe in search of employment. Thus, Bavaria supplies
broom girls, Savoy organ-players and bear-dancers, Lombardy
her workers in plaster of Paris and makers of images, Ifd'aK
neighbouring and even many distant countries; while in France,
every shoe-black is a native of Auvergne, every gate-porter is
from Switzerland ; and in Spain, every water-carrier comes from
Gallicia ; formerly Ireland supplied London with sedan chair-
men, and now with coal-heavers *. It was reserved, however,
for Sagor to stand forth as the productive mother of doctors,
an offspring scarcely less dangerous than that which the soil of
Bceotia yielded, when the crop of armed men sprung up before
the astonished eyes of Cadmus. ' '^

Jewish physicians abound in Turkey, and are not a whit
better informed than the Albanians. They wander about the
counti'y, with their apothecary's shop upon their back, and
are, in fact, perfect medical pedlars. Their traffic is not con|'
fined to the sale of medicines alone, for they vend cosmetics of
all sorts, soaps, oil of roses, charms, and colours. The poorest
of this class carry wallets, and walk the streets and bazaars, at
every pace uttering the shrill cry " ei Hekim !" " ei Hekim 1**
(a physician, a physician,) Now and then you may see theiii
stopped in the street by some unhealthy looking Turk, whose
pulse they feel, and instantly roar out, " bilirim senin hastalik,"
(I know thy disease,) and without asking the patient a single
question, they open their wallets, give him a pill or a powder,
which he swallows on the spot, after bestowing on the physi-
cian two or three half farthings (paras) for his advice and me-
dicine ! Knowledge came from the East ; it has travelled slowly
to be sure, but here it has arrived at last, and lo, our fees, for-
merly paid in gold, are changed into silver, and undergoing

• In the reign of Charles the Second of England, the number of Scotch-
men who carried on the trade of pedlars in Poland, amounted to 25,000[!

Vide article Pedlar, Encyclopedia Britannica.

European and Asiatic Turkey, 261

the rapid process of depreciation, the distant tiii^hng of brass
may be heard even now by the ear, practised in the sounds of
coming events ! ^ As long as the fates permit, let the profession
struggle against the adoption of this oriental custom, let it in
this instance prefer the usages of the West to the wisdom
of the East, let it not be said of us, that we are " avari,
ambitiosi, quos oriens non occidens satiaverit." "I- Strange as
it may appear, the Turkish physicians are almost exceeded in
singularity by their patients, who require the most extraordi-
nary qualifications on the part of their medical attendants.
Thus, nothing so enhances in their eyes the value of a physi-
cian, as his being able to tell every thing after feeling the
pulse. By the pulse alone, he must know not merely the na-
ture of the disease, but must be able to say whether the patient
slept well the night before, what he ate during the day, whe-
ther the bowels are open, &c. &c. After having once felt the
pulse, the physician must put no question to his patient, for it
is considered as a sign of ignorance ; at his very first visit, he
must declare, from the pulse, at what precise time the patient
will die or recover. The governor of Adrianople, Halish Pl^-
cha, once visited the tent of the Russian general, Paulin, where
Dr Oppenheim and two other physician* were attending at
levee. Each of the three successively was presented to the
Pascha, who made them feel his pulse ; and when the ceremony
was over, he immediately declared, that one of them was in-
comparably a better physician than the others, for said this
wise Pascha, he felt my pulse much better ! tV\ .^' ^ \

" Often, says Dr Oppenheim, *' on presenting my passport
to a Turkish officer, the moment he read the words ' Hekim
Baschi,' has he turned out the guard and drawn thenri up. in
order that I might feel the pulse of each. This, of course, I
used to do with vast gravity and apparent attention, and the
men were quite pleased upon being informed that they were ip
excellent health !""

Many of the knavish Greek physicians pay the domestics
to give them private intelligence, concerning the diet, eva-
cuations, &c. of their patients, whom they afterwards impose

• Coming events have shadows, why not sounds ?
t Tacitus— ^^ricote vita.

262 On the State of Medicine in

on, by making them believe that their sole source of infor-
mation was the state of the pulse. When the physician, by
means of the pulse, has declared the precise nature of the
disease, and the exact moment of its termination, the Mussul-
man requires him to give a certain medicine, to have some par-
ticular effect in determining some evacuation, which is to prove
critical. No medicine gets the least credit, or in their eyes
can be the least effectual, unless it produce sweat, urine, or
purging. The Turk is fond of large doses, too, in order to pro-
duce a more decided crisis, and he always prefers medicine in the
shape of a draught, or rather drink, (sherbet.) He disliked
emetics, and nothing will induce him to allow the exhibition uf
an enema. It is quite vain to endeavour to make him alter his
diet ; of this he cannot conceive the use. In the month of May,
it is not unusual for them to submit to what is termed the
spring cure. An active purgative is first taken, and afterwards
the expressed juice of various plants, such as Taraxacum^ ¥4^
rious grasses, &c. are taken daily, along with a drink of whey.
The most favourite purifier of the blood, however, is viper
broth. The most esteemed vipers are caught in the neigh-
bourbood of Adrianople, and are sent thence in great numbers
to Constantinople, and other parts of the empire. They are
kept in wooden vessels, and when wanted for use they are
drawn out through the bung-holfc ft 'is needless to remark,
that this operation requires much caution and skill, in spite of
which, a9 happened in an instance which Dr O. himself wit-
nes^, tiii^ pbo|: ajpothecary is sometimes bitten. The bite
often, but not always, proves troublesome, or even fatal. When
this dangerous article of the materia medica has been safeJy ex-
tracted from the vessel, his head and skin are instantly taken
off, and the animal is cut into thin slices, which are boiled
with water to make broth. The most effectual of the means
employed either for the prevention or cure of diseases by the
Orientals, is the bath (Hamam.) The long continued frictions
employed, the stretching, drawing, kneading of the limbs and
flesh; the pulling and working of the joints, &c , all tend to ex-
ercise a healthful influence^ it is astonishing, what a command
over the joints an experienced attendant at the baths possesses.
He twists them in every direction, and you almost feel, as if he

European and Asiatic Turkey. 263

had performed on you a number of successive dislocations and
reductions, following each other with surprising rapidity. In
chronic diseases of the skin, gout and rheumatism, these baths
are invaluable.

I'he public baths are very handsome, capacious buildings,
of which there are several in each town. The bather undresses
in a large and spacious hall, provided with benches, and having
a fountain playing in the centre. He ties a silken girdle round
his loins, and puts on a pair of wooden sandals, and is then
introduced into the first chamber ; which like the rest is lighted
from above, and is flagged with marble. Its heat is moderate,
and is intended to prepare the bather for the higher tempera-
ture (99°i) of the second chamber, which is arclied, and has
the flags all heated from below. In the centre of the second
chamber, is an extensive platform of marble, elevated about a
foot above the floor, on which you stretch yourself at full length,
while the attendant goes through the various manipulations on
your body already spoken of. This finished, you proceed to
one of the numerous alcoves or recesses with which this chani-
ber is provided, and here the process of bathing, properly so
called, begins ; warm water flows from a pipe into a marble
basin, the bather sits down naked on the warm floor, and his
attendant, with a piece of cloth made of camel's or horse's hair,
which he dips frequently into the water, forms a lather of a
sweet-scented soap, and with this rubs every part of the body,
and finally, pouring warm water over the bather, completes his
purification. He is then covered with warm cotton cloths, and
conducted into the outer hall, when he lies down for half an
hour on a bench, takes a cup of coff*ee or a glass of sherbet, and
then dresses himself. . ;, ^

The expense of such a bath, is so trifling, that it is in the
power of even the poorest Turks to make use of them. Every
where the baths for the different sexes are in different parts of
the town. To the women they afford not merely the luxury of
bathing, but the opportunity of meeting their friends and ac-
quaintances. They have been described by Lady Wortley
Montague, in colours more glowing than might appear seemly
in the pages of a scientific Journal, and, therefore, it may be
prudent to omit the subject altogether, merely observing, that.

^64- On the Staie of Medicine in

as is natural, they are the chief strongholds of gossip and
^ndal, and afford the anxious mothers ample opportunities
^pt merely of shewing their daughters to other matrons, but of
seeking wives for their sons. In Turkey, the practice of letting
blood in &pnqg, formerly common, in Great Britain, is still
jircvalent. e taiA moil ai^do bnfi ^nwol o^ibI s "ii 4!i\ssvv j.

With regai'd to the manner in which the 'more respectable
part of the medical profession is paid, it evidently evinces a
great want of confidence, or rather extreme distrust. In Eng^
Wd, it is commonly believed, that the word of a Turkish gevi-
Oeman or nobleman, once given, may be implicitly relied on ;
but it is too clear, from the narrative of Dr Oppenheim, that a
most lamentable want of principle prevails even amongst the
upper ranks. Wo to such a nation, for mutual distrust among
individuals prevents all unity and energy of action on the part
of the rulers ; private corruption inevitably portends the public
downfall. v .f > *is^

" There is,"' as Burke beautifully refe«Ffcs,^^ii confidence
necessary to human intercourse, and without which men are
often more injured by their own suspicions, than they could be
by the perfidy of others."

The sick Turk, says Dr Oppenheim, makes promises,- WiW
convalescent Turk breaks them. In consequence of this dispo-'
sition, the physician is often obliged to draw up a specific con-
tract in writing, and according to a legal form, before he under-i'^
takes the treatment of a case or the performance of an opera-
tion. The contract is deposited in the hands of a magistrate,
who can enforce payment, and whose zeal in the discharge of
this duty is quickened by the legal fee of ten per cent., to be
deducted from the stipulated sum. It is not very rare, how-
ever, for the patient to evade the ends of justice, by paying th^-
magistrate twenty per cent. ; when this is done, the physician's
contract too often turns out to be waste paper. These contracts^^
however, in general afford the physician tolerable security, anrf-
are especially necessary when capital operations are performed,
as without th^m he may lose not merely his fee, but his life, irt'-
case his patient dies, for the Turk considers the knife of the*'
surgeon in the light of a weapon wielded b^, an ^fneray, and
thinks himself called oil to avenge th^ cjle^t;i)j,o4a.7l'Ql«tive after

European and Asiatic Turkey. 265

^ opcratipn.. This is hard enough upon the poor surgeon,
who, to avoid more fatal consequences, is often obliged to pay
blood-money to appease the death of relativec. To ayoid these
consequences, the surgeon and one of the nearest relatives of
t}}e patient repair together to the cadi^ if it be a small, or to
the mufti if a large town, and obtain from him a protection
(fetwa), by which the surgeon is secured against all prosecu-
tion if the patient dies. Dr Oppenheim, himself, felt the force
Qi^j,t]pi^ iTurkish antipathy to the performers of unsuccessfcrf
operations. After the battle of Monastir, on the 24th August
1830, he amputated the leg of a wounded Deli*: the Delt
died. In a few months, Dr Oppenheim was sent by the Grand'
Vizier to inspect recruits at Pristina, and was invited to the
Iji/tpusc of the Cadi.

■^'.-. " After the customary compliments, he asked me, ' Are you
physician to the Grand Vizier ? Did you operate on the Deli,
Soliman-Aga ?** I answered in the affirmative. ' Then,"* said
the Cadi, ' you behold here the father of Soliman-Aga, who
claims blood-money from you, which money it is most just yott^
should pay him.'" '

Dr Oppenheim being sufficiently acquainted with the usages"
and manners of the Turks, and depending upon the protection
of the Vizier, was no way intimidated, and soon brought both
the Cadi and A^i^s^J^^^ UKJ^S^^hy^voewa&^oi^Jk^few
some threats, \ .rrno"} is!?,'^' n^.i ^yaibioooft brm t"^«i-^i'*« «i hn't^

When a physician has treated a patient who dies of internal
disease, he incurs no risk, unless the deceased held some import-
ant and lucrative government post ; in such eases, the relatives
and dependants of the deceased, being deprived by his death
of their station and emoluments, are apt to wreak their ven-
geance on the physician, who, however, generally takes care to be
ou|;jQ|f) the way on such occasions. At other times, medical men
are employed to give opinions, concerning not the living but
the dead I This may appear strange, but it is the fact, and it
is for such opinions that they are sure to be best paid, for they
have it in their power to make what conditions they please with
their employ^.,/ I»,!Twrkey„ wheoeveF a governor of a pro-

• t'ho BelJs form the flower of the Turlcish cavalry, and their name means
. madman. They are so called from their frantic impetuosity in battle.

266 On the State of Medicine hi

vince, or mufti, or any other employe of the government dies,
the whole of the treasure in his possession immediately finds its
way into the coffers of the state ; therefore, it becomes an object
of paramount importance for the family, to conceal, if possible,
the death of their relative, until they have either made off with
his money, or what is a safer method of proceeding, until they,,!
have used one portion of it to bribe the members of the divati
into conniving at their keeping the remainder. The father of
the present Pascha of Uskup, it is now ascertained, was buried
four years before his death was announced. During the inter-
val, his son had carried on all the public business in the father's
name, and the signature of the latter was affixed to all official
documents. During this period, medical advice was sought for
in all quarters, and eminent physicians were even brought from
Constantinople. They were consulted, but for very evident
reasons, were never permitted to see the patient, a matter
esteemed of little consequence in Turkey, provided the state pf ,.
the pulse is accurately described.

ajf I must confess," says Dr Oppenheim, " that being at the
time but little acquainted with Turkish manners, 1 was any
thing but pleased upon being sent for by Abduraman, the Pascha
of Kalkandehl, to treat some patients in his harem. I was re-
ceived by the Pascha with all those marks of distinction, which
the Turk of consequence bestows on a Christian physician, when
he has occasion for his services. After he had complimented to
excess myself individually, and had extolled the wisdom of the
Franks generally, he informed me, that his whole harem was
sick, but that with my aid, he had little doubt that his three
wives would be speedily cured. The first lady I visited; Wi^
about twenty-four years of age, who laboured under a catarrhal
fever. I promised to cure her in a few days. The second was
nearly twenty years old, and of a well marked strumous diathe-
sis. She laboured under a chronic ophthalmia and herpetic erup-
tion. My prognosis was, in her case, more cautious, but fa-
vourable ; but I specified no fixed period for her recovery. In
the third apartment, lay a lady about thirty years old, who had
anasarca and ascites, and was also in the last month of pregnancy;
her breathing was so much affected, that I feared also the exist-
ence of hydrothorax. As I afterwards learned, three months

European and Asiatic Turkey. 267

previously she had used tlie strongest medicines to produce
abortion, but in vain. In addition, she had, for the last year,
been afflicted with a badly treated ague; these circumstances
led me to suspect organic disease of some of the abdominal vis-
cera ; I say suspect, for no examination of the abdomen would
be permitted. I told the Pascha, that she would be probably
delivered of a still-bom child, and that she would not survive its
birth many days. Bakkalom ! Allah Kaertm ! Insch Allah !
(^ shall see; Grod is great — God be merciful) exclaimed he, '
and inexperienced as I was, I little dreamed that these were
mere stereotype ♦ expressions. The Pascha appeared to take the
liveliest interest in this lady's state, and required me to feel her
pulse four times a-day, and to send him, as often, a report csoU^
cerning her health. Whenever I spoke to him on the subject,
his uniform reply was, ' Give her, I beg you, the best medicines
you have; right strong medicines, and she will yet tecovet^St.^
God is great !' The dreaded day came at last ; she was de-
livered of a dead child, and in two hours the harem resounded
with the cries of the female slaves. In the east, the females are
the first to announce either joy or sorrow. If any thing happy
occurs, they utter a cry of joy, modulated by a rapid and qui-
vering motion of the tongue against the palate and teeth. When
sorrow is to be expressed, the cry is longer and sharper ; the
shrieks of the slaves in question were decorously loud and pro-
tracted, and they rent their garments and tore their hair. I
sought not to be the first bearer of the news to the Pascha,
whose anger I dreaded ; when I arrived at his apartment, I
found that he had already learned the sad news, and I felt
greatly astonished at finding the man, who had beer* all anxiety^
and alarm at my former visits, now quite composed and tran-
quil. When I entered, he exclaimed * Alla?i Kaerim f '"*

In the course of a short tiitie, all the courtiers and principal

officers had come in successively, each, fes he entered, using the

same invariable phrase addressed to the Pascha, " she is dead,

thou shalt live."' ^<'» «' ' '^"

"The mother <ind child #ere consigned to the grave befc^

• In the ori^^nal " 4iese stetirippeti 'AiM^ungeny^ stereotype exclamations
•—a strong and original exiircssion of Dr Oppenhcim.

On the State of Medicine in

evening, for in Turkey, among the great there is no lying in
9tate, among the poor no waking. The believer in the Koran
h^tehs to inter the body of his relative, with as little delay as
possible, for every moment that the body after death remains
above ground, is spent by the soul in agony. The corpse is
wrapped in a cerecloth, and committed, without a coffin, to the
grave. The grave is about two feet deep^ and is covered over
with boards, on which the earth is heaped ; the head of the body
is turned towards Mecca. This practice of burying so quickly,
must, in many cases, occasion persons to be buried alive, for it
is followed by the whole population of the country, Jews and
Christians, as well as Mahammedans. The day of his chief
wife's death was marked by no unusual occurrence in the house
of the Pascha. The inmates conversed, followed their occupa-
tions, and ate their meals just as if nothing happened : one al-
teration was indeed observable ; during the lady's illness, every
one had spoken of her state, and evinced the greatest sympathy
for her sufferings, now, not a syllable was uttered about her.
It was the same in the harem, where Dr Oppenheim, who had
now learned the use of the expression, " she is dead, you shall
live,"" found the other two wives of the Pascha very well pleased
at what had happened, for they said that their departed friend,
who, as the eldest, held the reins of authority in the household,
had not led them a very comfortable life of it. These ladies
made Dr Oppenheim a present of garments embroidered in the
harem, and the Pascha, well contented with his services, sent a
guard of honour to accompany him two days' journey from his
residence.

Apothecaries there are none in Turkey, and no shops for the
sale of medicine, except at Constantinople, and one or two
other large towns. Indeed, in a country where the physician
is seldom able to write, such shops would be useless. Every
physician, consequently, mixes the medicine for his own pa-
tients, and is surrounded in his office by a chaotic confusion of
gallipots, pill-boxes, drugs, &c. The labels are most curious,
and present a truly polyglot assortment of Greek, Latin, He-
brew, Italian, &c. The correctness of the orthography and
grammar of these labels, may be judged of by one specimen^
" unguenti diversi,''^ which adorned a box in one of the best

European aaid Asiatic Turkey, ^9

shops in Atlrianople. Good medicines are to be had at Smyrna,
Salonica, and Constantinople, to which" places they are importje^
from Marseilles, Trieste, and Venice ; as they find their way
into the interior, they are more hable to be adulterated. Where;
there exists nothing like a medical police, no check upon suc)|i
mal-practices, it may be readily conceived that no restraints are
placed on the sale of poisons, and, consequently, poisoning by
design and poisoning by accident are very frequent. Indeed,
it occasionally happens, that a patient coming to a doctor, gets,
medicine weighed in a scale still soiled with corrosive sublima^tc^
or arsenic, and in quite sufficient quantity to despatch the un-
fortunate sufferer. Often, too, it happens, that inexperienced
beginners and ignorant pretenders, give powerful medicines in
poisonous doses, in which case the writhings of the patients are
interpreted as symptoms of their being possessed, and forthwith
the Turkish dervise and the Christian priest are in requisition,
and proceed simultaneously with their different forms of ex-
orcism. The precaution of having recourse to the ritQS of
two different religions, is taken to avoid the possibility of mis-
take or failure, for, say they, we cannot a priori tell whether,
our friend is possessed by a Mahommedan or by a ChristiAjij

^^^^^' . !t fol .BsosqqBfi bi5d;Bf{7yiR

Poisoning by design is still more frequent than poisoning

by accident, and our good honest Irish practitioner, who re-
gards the oath of Hippocrates to be quite as unnecessary as the
oath he is obliged to take against the Pretender, will understand
better the necessity of many of the clauses ascribed to the.
father of physic, when he is told, that, in the east, the phy^-^
cian is too frequently, to this day, the venal instrument of such
heinous mal-practices. Indeed, according to the religious views
of many Turks, it is no sin to poison an enemy, for the attempt,
to do so will assuredly fail, if he is not fated so to perish I Be-
sides, it is merely a measure of self-defence, for if you do not
anticipate your enemy, he is sure to poison you. *

" Melancholy, as it is," i^ys Dr Oppenheim, "to witne^
such mischievous misinterpretation of a Mohammedan dogma,"
it is still more melancholy to see persons who profess Chris-
tianity engaged in the same guilty course, for it cannot be de-
nied that too many of the native Christians of the Greek Church

S70 On the State of Medicine in

are willing agents upon such occasions. In truth, no honest
person ought to engage himself as domestic physician to any
great man in Turkey, for if he be called on to poison, and re-
fuses, it may cost him his life. Of this I myself had a convin-
cing proof. The late campaign of the Turks against the Alba-
nians was brought to a successful conclusion, not by superior
courage, numbers, or discipline, but by craft and treachery.
Two of the most powerful foes of the Sultan, Whely-bey and
Asslan-bey, surnamed the Lion Chief, were invited, during a
truce, to witness a review of the Turkish regular troops, which
to them was a matter of great interest and novelty. The Vizier
had it so arranged that they were both shot dead as they were
passing in front of one of the battalions. The Vizier's son,
Emin, Pascha of Janina, ensnared and despatched some of his
most formidable opponents in a nearly similar manner at Janina.
One evening at levee, the Grand Vizier made a sign for me to
remain, and when all the courtiers had left the room, he ordered
in coffee, pipes, and a chess-board, and I then found myself
alone in company with a man who expected and received un-
conditional obedience from every one of his attendants, and at
whose nod more than one hundred thousand heads had fallen.
Having signified that I should be seated on the divan, he
smoked, but according to etiquette, I left my pipe untouched ;
and when we had made a few moves at chess, he raised his head,
looked fixedly into my eyes, and said, ' Hekim-Baschi, I have
enemies, you can and will assist me !' He then made the sign
for me to retire, which, of course, precluded the possibility of
my replying. I made my obeisance, and rode home greatly
agitated and alarmed, for the meaning of the Vizier's words
was but too intelligible. At that time I was attending two
Albanian chiefs of note, who were afraid to trust themselves to
the care of the Vizier's physician, and who had applied to me
as an officer of the staff for advice. The Vizier was aware of
this, and wished me to despatch my two patients. I revolved
in my mind the difficulties of my situation, and saw no other
method of escaping than by making large pecuniary sacrifices,
in the way of bribe, to the Vizier's avaricious Seraff, (Pay-
master), and his Grammatiko, (Secretary). In the mean time
I feigned sickness, and remained at home. T^^elve days had

European and Asiatic Turkey. 271

elapsed since my interview with the Vizier, and nothing remark,
able had occurred. On the morning of the thirteenth day, my
servant brought in my pipe and coffee as usual ; I had nearly
finished the cup, when I perceived an unpleasant taste, which
excited my suspicion ; I immediately took an emetic, and hur-
rying to the apothecary of the forces, he immediately recognised
in the cup nearly two drachms of corrosive sublimate, upon
which I swallowed the whites of several eggs, and experienced
no further bad effects. Though the favour I enjoyed at court,
and the prominent station to which I had been advanced in the
medical department of the army, had made me an object of
envy to many, each of whom might wish to see me removed,
yet it was but too evident, that the blow aimed at my life had
descended from a high quarter, and, accordingly, I used every
exertion to obtain a passport (buerouldi), and, at last succeed-
ing, hastily quitted Turkey."

Such attempts as that made on^ the life of Dy Oppenheim are
very frequent in Turkey, and are too often successful. Hence,
it is usual, when speaking of any one who has become remark-
able for power, influence, or wealth, to observe, " He will pro-
bably soon die of poison r Hence, also, the avidity with which
the rich cultivate the friendship of every newly arrived physi-
cian, particularly of a Frank. They are anxious to purchase
his services, in order that he- may not be employed by others to
poison them. Of course, where poisoning is so frequent an oc-
currence, the feelings of a Turk of rank are by no means en-
viable, particularly when he is sick. It is then that he suffers
mortal fear of being poisoned, and to prevent such a disaster,
he always takes the precaution of making either the physician
or a slave take part of the medicine by way of trial. The ill-
ness of the master thus sometimes undermines the constitution
of the slave, who is found in this extraordinary service to un-
dergo a long-continued series of vomitings and purgations. Of
course, they at least must offer up sincere prayers for his reco-
very. When a bottle of physic is opened, and the dose mea-
sured out, it is again immediately sealed up with the master^s
private seal, to prevent the introduction of any poison. It is
for this reason also, that the Turks are so fond of getting me-
dicine from the hand of the physician who has made it up, for

S72 On the State of Medicine in

they thus render him responsible for its effects. In this country,
such a precaution would perhaps only render a patient more
liable to be poisoned. Our author next gives us the particulars
of a visit to another harem, which are so characteristic of Turk-
ish manners, that I cannot refrain from giving the details in the
Doctor's own words : —

'* Like every body else, I felt a strong curiosity to get a peep
at the beautiful females annually imported in such numbers from
Georgia and Circassia to Constantinople, where they are brought
at a very early age to be sold and distributed all over the em-
pire, to serve their masters as servants or as mistresses. I was
also extremely anxious to witness the domestic arrangements of
these little female colonies : fortune was propitious, and soon af-.
forded me the desired opportunity. The favourite wife of
Kiaja Bey, an officer high in the confidence of the governor of
Adrianople, fell sick. The Pascha, who had great confidence
in me, recommended my services, which were accepted, and a
black eunuch was sent to my quarters to accompany me to the
harem. It lay about an English mile from the residence of
Kiaja Bey ; we first knocked at a small wicket, which was
opened, and on entering, we found ourselves in a garden, taste-
fully ornamented, and containing a light and airy summer-house,
near which the cooling waters of a fountain played into a beauti-
ful basin of white marble. I was directed to seat myself near
the fountain, and was immediately served with a pipe and coffee,
while preparations were made in the harem for my reception. In
a quarter of an hour, I was conducted through the garden to
another door, which was opened by a female covered with a veil,
who, it seems, was the guardian and turnkey * of the harem. I
was now led through another garden to the building of the
women, which was evidently very populous, and I could dis-
tinguish the curious faces of children and slaves, white and
black, peeping at me in every direction. At last the door of
the sick lady's room was opened, and I entered into a very
handsome but small apartment, with closed blinds and hung
in red. The patient lay on pillows, placed on the carpet near
the divan, and was so entirely covered from head to toe with

• Tbis is not exactly the word used by Dr Oppenheim — it seems, hov^-.
ever, appropriate.

European and Asiatic TurJcei/. ^78

white cloth, that I could only guess that she was present. I
seated myself on the divan, close to her head, and now all un-'
necessary attendants were ordered to withdraw, so that I was
left in company with my patient and interpreter *, the matron
already spoken of, and two little children of the sick lady. All
the questions I asked were answered from under the cloth, with
simplicity and clearness, and many of them, which, in some of
our young ladies, might have excited mauvaise honte, were re-
plied to in the most natural and easy manner. On my desiring
to feel her pulse, one small white hand and then another made
its appearance from under the cloth, and when I asked to see
her tongue, she raised the cloth, so as to disclose the face of a
beautiful brunette, about twenty years of age. This last act,
apparently, was an effort which shocked the prejudices of my
fair patient, for immediately, like a snail that suddenly with-
draws itself* into its shell, she shrunk back under the cloth, and
I then quitted the apartment, and having put some necessary
questions to the matron, I was brought into the selamlick or the
boudoir of the master of the house, where I was again regaled
with a pipe and coffee.

" Quite pleased with this visit, I was brought into the pre-
sence of Kiaja Bey^ who, on being informed that, if my patient
followed the prescribed directions, she would be well in a few
days, ordered me to be honoured with a pipe and coffee, and a
purse of five hundred piastres. My prognosis was confirmed,
and the recovery of the lady contributed greatly to raise me in
the estimation of the Pascha-f-."

(To he continued.)

OBSERVATIONS oi^ THE HYGROMETER. Communicoted by the

Author.

■The data necessary for determining the quantity of moisture
contained irt a given volume of air, are, its density, temperature,
and the temperature at which dew is deposited.

The density and temperature of the air are, of course, most

• Probably the black eunuch.

t The above interesting view of Dr Oppenheim's work on the State of
Medicine in Turkey, is taken from that excellent periodical the " Dublin
Journal of ^ledical and Chemical Science." July 183.3.

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCTOBER 1833. S

274 Observations oil the Hygrometer.

readily measured by means of the barometer and thermometer ;
but with respect to the instrument best adapted for finding the
dew-point, and to which the term Hygrometer has been gene-
rally confined, meteorologists are by no means so well agreed.

Various inventions have been proposed for this purpose, such
as those of Leslie, Daniell, Saussure, De Luc, and many others;
but it is intended to confine the observations in this paper to two
of these, the hygrometers of Professor Leslie and Mr Daniell,
and more particularly to the theory of the former instrument.

Professor Leslie's hygrometer indicates simply the degree of
cold produced by the evaporation of water, and from this datum,
in connexion with those of the density and temperature, both
the absolute and relative dampness of the air are most ingeni-
ously deduced. Mr DanielPs hygrometer, on the other hand,
enables us to find the dew-point directly by experiment. It is
assumed, indeed, in using this instrument, that the air would
be saturated with moisture, if reduced to the temperature at
which a cold surface becomes covered with dew ; but the truth
of this supposition is so nearly certain, that the dew-point may
still be said to be experimentally determined.

Much difference of opinion exists respecting these hygrome-
ters. As far as regards the ease and accuracy with which ob-
servations may be made, that of Professor Leslie is certainly
better adapted to general use. But, as has been stated, Mr
DanielPs hygrometer possesses one, and perhaps only one, de-
cided advantage, in that it indicates the dew-point without the
intervention of theory.

Among the objections which are urged against the latter in-
strument, none seems more important than the frequent want of
coincidence between the real dew-point and the temperature in-
dicated, at the corresponding instant, by the interior thermo-
meter. The result of the observation is often rendered doubt-
ful from this cause, even when the aether has been applied with
the utmost caution. The explanation of the want of coinci-
dence alluded to, evidently is, that the thermometer is entirely
a relative measure, as well with respect to the time in which any
change of temperature takes place, as to the degree of the
change ; and although the rate at which the temperature varies
may be so adjusted as to coincide very nearly with that of the
expansion or contraction of the thermometric fluid, thus render-

Obgervat'to)is mi the Hygrovieter. 2T5

ing the latter an absolute measure of the former, still it only be-
comes so accidentally.

With respect to Professor Leslie's hygrometer, it must be
confessed, that there seems still to remain a degree of uncer-
tainty about its theory ; indeed nothing but the belief that some
such defect existed, could have prevented the universal adop-
tion of this the most easily constructed, and most convenient, of
all hygrometers. The remaining observations will consist of a
brief review of the theories of this mstrument which have been
proposed, and of the formulas for calculating the dew-point de-
rived from these, so far as they are known to the writer.

Theory of Professor Leslie's Hygrometer^

Professor Leslie''s own theory is*, that the degree of cold pro-
duced by evaporation, is proportional, under the same pressure,
to the dryness of the air when its temperature is reduced to
that of the evaporating surface. This, according to Mr H.
Meikle, is also Mr Ivory's view of the subject.

The only other theory with which the writer is acquainted,
is that proposed by Dr Anderson -|-, namely, that the degree of
cold is nearly proportional to the rate of evaporation under the
same circumstances. Or, in other words, that the degree of cold
is nearly proportional to the dryness of the air at its unreduced
temperature.

But our ideas respecting these theories, and the formulas de-
duced from them, will be rendered more precise by employing
the following symbols.

t = The temperature of the air, (in degrees of Fahrenheit).

a = The temperature of the evaporating surface.

i' z=. The temperature of the dew-point.

60

L = — X (^ — ^') = The indication of Leslie's Hygrometer.

Ti-t — t:,

^ j f The force of vapour, as measured by a column of mer-
•^ f ~ ( cury, at the temperatures ^, H and t' respectively.

• See Article Meteorology in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica.

f See Article Hyffrometry in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. The origi-
nal idea of this, however, is due to Dr James Hutton, the geologist. See
Danielle Essays, page 100.

276 Observations on the Hygrometer.

^' I _ ( The weight of moisture sufficient to saturate a given
Jt" J *• ^olunie of air at the temperatures t, H and f .

B = The height of the barometer in inches.

It has been stated, that, according to Professor Leslie, L is
proportional, under the same pressure, to the dryness of the air
at the temperature t ; that is, when B is constant, L is propor-
tional to^f, — gtn. From this theory Professor Leslie deduces
the following formula for calculating the weight of moisture
which a given volume of air contains ;

L

the value of a being constant for the same pressure. In order,
however, to simplify this formula, the volume of air which gi> is
sufficient to saturate is so chosen as to render « = 1, under the
presure of 30 inches, and

gif—^-gn' (1)

But the dryness of the air, ^when the temperature is reduced
to ^5 being also proportional to fi — fl'-i the elastic force of va-
pour at the dew-point, may, in like manner, be found by means
of the formula

/.-§=/.' (2)

Mr H. Meikle * has deduced from the same theory the follow-
ing approximate formula for finding the value of t"-.

which is remarkable both for its convenience in calculation, and
the ease with which it may be remembered.

These formulas agree well, in general, with observation when
t does not differ much from the value it had in the experiment
by means of which the coefficient a or h was determined. For
example, if the value of 6 in eq. (2), have been ascertained when
t = 67.2, the formula will give the dew-point with considerable
correctness when the temperature of the air is neither much
above nor below 67.2 ; but when it greatly exceeds or falls
short of that temperature, the theoretical dew-point will, in the
former case, be too low, and in the latter too high. This obser-

• Edinburgh Phil. Journal. ^

Obsen^ations on tfte Hygiomtter. Tt'7

vation has suggested a modification of Professor Leslie's theory,
which will afterwards be. proposed.

Dr Anderson, taking a different view of the subject from
Professor Leslie, considers D as nearly proportional to the quan-
tity of water evaporated under the same circumstances, which

quantity varies as^-^f, where/' = ^^^'^ ^ ^/ X ff = the ac-
tually existing force of vapour. Dr Anderson's formula de-
duced from his theory is

»^* ~~ 36 — tS D ~*^ ^^^

This equation, like those derived from Professor Leslie's
theory, seems to deviate most from experiment at high tem-
peratures; but the error is of an opposite kind, the calculated
being often much above the observed dew-point. Indeed, when
t is large, it will be found, upon calculation, that Dr Anderson's
equation frequently gives t — i" .^^ t — if, which is impossible.
There are also one or two points in Dr Anderson's reasoning re-
specting this formula, on which the writer would venture, with
deference, to make a few observations.

Having stated that the equation D =: ni (^ — jf') requires
a correction depending upon D, Dr Anderson * introduces the
consideration of it with the following -remarks : " It must be
evident, however, from the view we have taken of the cooling
process, that a thermometer with a moistened bulb ought to be
reduced through the same number of degrees in equal times,
and thus reach the maximum in a sudden and abrupt manner,
— a supposition which is neither consistent with the law of con-
tinuity nor conformable to observation ; for, although the di-
minution of temperature is, at first, nearly uniform, the effect
gradually diminishes as the process advances, and the differences
becoming every instant smaller and smaller, are at last altogether
evanescent. The cause of this deviation from the state of
things we at first supposed, is to be ascribed to the diminished
evaporation arising from the cooling of the moistened surface."
Now, although the evaporation is doubtless diminished from the
cause which Dr Anderson assigns, yet the continual retardation
of the cooling process seems to arise in but a slight degree from
this source ; for, suppose d = the small jx)rtion of heat which

• Alt. Hygrometry, para. 6«.

278 Observations an the Hygrometer.

the vapour rising from the wet surface carried off in equal suc-
cessive instants of time, and that in each of the same times, the
surrounding bodies restored to the evaporating surface a portion
of heat =1 {t — t') where f is variable, then it follows that, du-
ring the 1st, 2d, 3d, ... nth. instants of time, the actual decre-
ments of temperature would be (1 — l)d^{\ — ly d, (1 — lY d,
... (1 — lY d; and that the temperature of the evaporating
surface would constantly approach, while it never attained, the
limit t — (9 — 1) d. It therefore appears, even on the supposi-
tion that d suffered no diminution, that t — t^ would not reach
its maximum suddenly.

Immediately after the passage to which the above remarks re-
fer, Dr Anderson proceeds to apply the proposed correction to

the equation D = tw (^ — jf') by substituting (P -\ for m,

P and r being constant quantities to be determined by experi-
ment. Then, from two experiments, conducted apparently with
admirable care and ingenuity, he deduces the following equations:

P = 3466 + —

r

P = 35.34 -f —

r

Now Dr Anderson's theory evidently requires, that the value
of r, deduced from experiment, should be positive ; but had
it not been for one oversight in calculating the first of the above
values of P, it would have appeared that r was negative, and
therefore that the theory of his correction was, in some way,
defective. Upon repeating the calculation, it will be found,
that, in the first equation, the quantity .22723 =r^/ had inad-
vertently been used for .24223 =y, and that by correcting
this, the equations became

P = 35.89 + — -

T

P=: 35.34 -I- ^'

where'r is evidently negative.

It was before remarked, that the relation between the calcu-
lated and observed values of^r, suggested a modification of
Professor Leslie's theory. This consists simply in adding one
limitation to his former enunciation of that theory, and may be
thus expressed. The degree of cold is proportional to the dry-
ness of the air at the temperature of the evaporating surface.

Observations on the Hygrometer. ^9

B (and t) being constant. This limitation respecting the tem-
perature of the air, which is marked above, by being enclosed
within brackets, is the only modification proposed. The neces-
sity for its introduction is grounded upon the observation, that
the ratio of D to ft, -—ft", seemed evidently, though slowly, to
increase with t or J].

Having been unable theoretically to determine the law ac-
cording to which the ratio of D to /;' —fi', increased with the
temperature of the air, it was assumed that

or yj' — C7i -f'^' ^^)

and the constant quantity C was found by means of the first of
Dr Anderson's experiments-

Although this formula did not correspond in a satisfactory
manner with experiment, yet the relation which was accidental-
ly observed to subsist between its results and those of equation
(2), suggested what appears to be either accurately, or very
nearly, the law according to which the ratio of D to ^ — Jt'
varies.

Having found the values of b and c, in formulas (2) and (5),
by means of Dr Anderson's experiment, it was remarked that
both equations erred when t was either much greater or less
than 67.2, and, what was of most importance, that the errors,
which then were nearly equal, were always of opposite kinds.
The evident inference was, that the arithmetical mean between
the corresponding sides of the two equations, that is, the formula

would represent very nearly the manner in which the ratio of
D to/t' — Jl' varies with the temperature of the air. The writer
has accordingly found that, under a considerable range in the
values of t and D, the differences between the results of this
equation and experiment, are not greater than may be ascribed
to errors of observation.

The values of b and c will afterwards be introduced into the
above formula, along with the correction for pressure ; and, in
the first of the accompanying tables, the results of equations (1),
(3), (4), and (6), will be found compared with obsenation in
fifteen instances. It may be remarked, that, in all the calcula-

280 Observations on the Hygrometer.

tions, the elasticity of vapour was ascertained by means of Dr
Anderson's table, except in temperatures below zero, or greater
than 100°, when the elasticity was calculated, like the table, by
means of Biot's formula. Professor Leslie'*s formula was calcu-
lated according to the directions, and with the assistance of the
tables, contained in the article Meteorology, in the Supplement
to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Correction for Pressure.

In the preceding observations, B has been supposed = 30
inches. When the pressure exceeds or falls short of this, the
co-efficients of L and D require a correction. Regarding the
theory of this correction, however, and the exact amount of it,
there seems to be some difference of opinion.

According to Professor Leslie, when the place of observation
is above the level of the sea, it must be increased by a quantity

30

proportioned to the altitude ; that is, proportional to log. —

nearly. So that, on this theory, the same value of L indicates,
under a less pressure, a less -degree of dryness.

Dr Anderson being of opinion that D is proportional to the

30
quantity of water evaporated, that is, generally, to — (ft-—f'\

proposes, as the correction for pressure, to multiply D by — -'

and consequently he conceives the same value of D to indicate,
under a less pressure, a greater degree of dryness. Dr Ander-
son's formula, corrected for pressure, is

Mr Meikle appears to agree with Dr Anderson as to the na-
ture, though not as to the amount, of the correction. Mr
Meikle's experiments seemed to shew that D is nearly propor-
tional to ^ ^'^--, It does not appear, however, whether Mr
B + 27

Meikle considers ^' = < ~ D, or ^ = t —- D ; that is,

whether the value of D only is to be corrected, or whether both
D and/ are to ho. corrected for pressure.

It will be observed that it is the object, both of Dr Ander-
son s and Mr Meikle's experiments, to ascertain how D varies

Observational on the Hygrometer. 281

with B ; t and f being supposed constant : but if, 'as Mr
Meikle allows^

when X varies only with B, then surely the true object of en-
quiry is not how D, but how . — —^ varies with B; and the cor-
rection for pressure ought not to affect the value of f, but only
of (^ — ^).

The practical determination of the correction for pressure,
must be attended with considerable difficulty, whether the ex-
periments be conducted in the open air at different altitudes,
or, like those of Dr Anderson and Mr Meikle, in the receiver of
an air-pump. In the latter case the air is exposed to the ac-
tion of sulphuric acid, and ff reckoned =: o, or, at least, it is
supposed to be constant ; but this supposition cannot be veri-
fied beyond a certain temperature, even by means of Mr Da-
niell's hygrometer. When the former method of ascertaining
the influence of pressure is adopted, it is necessary to assume
that the formula for finding the dew-point is correct under a
pressure of 30 inches. On this principle, the writer compared,
in a variety of instances, the indications of Leslie's and DanielPs
hygrometers at different altitudes, and found that when D was

multiplied by — — — , as suggested by Mr Meikle, the calculat-
ed agreed better with the observed dew-point than any other
hypothesis. He therefore proposes to adopt this as the correc-
tion for pressure in equation (6), which, accordingly, after the
substitution of 87.719 for b, and 132.17 for c, becomes

^ (ft + .66372) (B + 27) D _ ^ .gy

^^ 10000/f ~*^*" ^ ^

But, as before stated, there is a diversity of opinion respect-
ing the cause as well as the degree of the variation of D with
the pressure. It has occurred to the writer that some light
may be thrown upon this subject, by considering whence the
heat is derived which is dissipated during evaporation.

Professor Leslie regards the heat in question as contributed
entirely by the portion of air which dissolves and carries off the
moisture; while Dr Anderson thinks it is exclusively derived
from the moist bulb.

282 Observations on the Hygrometer.

That neither of these opinions singly is correct, seems appa-
rent from the following considerations : — If, as Professor Leslie
supposes, the heat is derived entirely from the air, what reason
can be assigned for the temperature of the evaporating surface
continuing steadily so much below that of the surrounding me-
dium, from which it must necessarily be constantly receiving
heat ? surely this can only be caused by its imparting to the dis-
solved moisture as much heat as it receives. Again, if the moist
surface supplied the whole heat which becomes latent in the va-
pour, as maintained by Dr Anderson, then, when the evapora-
tion is greatly increased by a current of air, the degree of cold
should be proportionally increased, which is contrary to obser-
vation and experiment. 'Hence it seems necessarily to follow,
that the heat employed in converting the water into vapour is
derived both from the air and from the moist surface of the hy-
grometer.

Further, when the pressure is diminished, the capacity of the
vapour for heat is augmented, and the increased quantity of ca-
loric required for its formation must be derived from the same
sources as before, namely, the moist bulb and the contiguous air,
and probably in the same relative proportions. But the capa-
city of the air being also augmented, it evolves, when its tem-
perature is reduced by contact with the wet surface, a quantity
of heat corresponding to the increased absorbing power of the
vapour, or at least to that part which is exerted on itself; so
that, had the vapour been supplied with all its heat by the air,
it is possible that the cold might not have varied with the pres-
sure. As has been shown, however, a portion of the heat which
becomes latent in the vapour is derived from the wet bulb of
the hygrometer ; and since, unlike the air and vapour, this un-
elastic body has not its capacity augmented by the diminution
of pressure, the whole additional efflux of heat from it must be
sensible, and be indicated by the descent of the liquid in the
stem. Such, perhaps, may be the cause of the variation of D
with the pressure.

According to this theory, when t and t" are constant, ff _f>,
ought to be proportional to (i-^)B + n30 ^^ ^^ '^^~, since
n appears to be nearly = ,4.

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( 287 )

AN ACCOUNT OF PROFESSOR EHRENBERG's MORE RECENT RE-
SEARCHES ON THE INFUSORIA. By WiLLIAM SHARPEYy

M. Z)., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology. Communis
cated by the Author, With a Plate.

In a former number of this Journal an able analysis was
given by Dr M. Gairdner of the discoveries which had been re-
cently made by Professor Ehrenberg of Berlin, respecting the
structure and economy of Infusory Animalcules, and of a new
method adopted by that naturalist for their systematic classifica-
tion. Since the period to which that paper refers, Professor
Ehrenberg has published the results of additional researches
made by him on the same subject, of which I purpose now to
give a short account.

By referring to Dr Gairdner's paper, it will be seen that Pro-
fessor Ehrenberg"'s discoveries are calculated to bring about a
complete revolution in the views entertained by scientific men in
regard to the infusoria ; and they serve more especially to prove
that these animals have hitherto been assigned too low a place
in the scale of organized beings. Previously to his researches,
it was, with few exceptions, very generally believed, that the in-
fusoria were totally devoid of internal organs, that, in short,
they were little more than mere animated masses of gelatinous
matter ; they were supposed to be destitute of a stomach or in-
ternal alimentary cavity, the possession of which is regarded as
the most universal characteristic of animals; and though a mouth
or sucking orifice had been observed in some species, yet in the
greater number, the process of nutrition was believed to consist
simply in an imbibition of the surrounding fluid by the surface
of their bodies. Our imperfect acquaintance wilh the struc-
ture of these animals, has been due chiefly to their smallness,
and to the transparency and want of colour of their principal
internal organs. Dr Ehrenberg endeavoured to overcome the
difficulties thence arising, by the use of a microscope of a very
superior construction, and by the ingenious device of feeding
the animals with diff*erent colouring substances, which, when
swallowed, render apparent the stomachs or alimentary cavi-
ties previously hidden from view by their want of colour and

288 Account of Professor Ehrenberg's

opacity. In this manner he has demonstrated the existence
of one or more stomachs and an alimentary canal, with a mouth
and teeth, or masticating organs, of a wonderfully perfect de-
scription ; he has farther discovered in these animals, a system
of muscles, special organs of generation, and other structures
which he considers, not without probability, as constituting a
vascular and a nervous system.

Professor Ehrenberg pointed out to me, when in Berlin in
1831, the anatomical structure of some of the infusoria, such as
he had made it out, more particularly that of the Hydatlna
senta. In that animal it is easy to perceive the different organs
which he has described and figured, and their characters are,
for the most part, so well marked as scarcely to admit of doubt
as to their nature. With regard, however, to those structures
which he considers as the vascular and nervous systems, more
especially the latter, it may be observed, that though his des-
criptions and drawings of these parts are very exact, his opi-
nion regarding their nature and functions, though not improba-
ble, must yet be allowed to be somewhat doubtful, and to stand
in need of further confirmation.

The more recent researches of Dr Ehrenberg embrace seve-
ral different subjects of inquiry relative to the infusoria.

l^^Of the Ditraiioji of Life and of the Development of the Infusoria.

This part of Professor Ehrenberg's inquiries is of interest,
not only in relation to the natural history of the animals in ques-
tion, but also because the results he has obtained are, in his
opinion, calculated to correct the views entertained regarding the
constitution and production of organic bodies by those philoso^^^
phers who have adopted the theories of spontaneous generatioii ^^^
and of an indestructible living organized matter. While it i^^^^^
universally admitted that all the more perfectly organized beings,
whether animals or vegetables, are propagated from parent
beings similar to themselves, the phenomena which attend the
production of some of the simplest tribes, led many physiolo-
gists to believe that they might take their rise from various ani-
mal and vegetable matters independently of pre-existing parents,
by a process which has been named spontaneous or equivocal; ^^^

Recent Researches on the Irifusoria. 289

generation. In regard to the infusory animals, in particular,
though it was known that when once existing they could propa-
gate their species by ova, or by the separation of the parent into
two or more new individuals, yet their appearance in infusions of
animal and vegetable substances, so circumstanced that the pre-
sence of parent animals or ova could with difficulty be conceived,
has induced many eminent physiologists to have recourse to the
hypothesis of spontaneous generation to account for their origin in
such circumstances. It will be seen as we proceed, how far Pro-
fessor Ehrenberg's observations tend to confirm or to invalidate
this theory. According to another general view of the constitutioii
of organized beings, it is maintained that the material particles
of which every plant or animal consists, are themselves efndowed
with an inherent vitality possessed by them independently of the
life of the individual plant or animal of which they forin part.
Accordingly when a plant or animal dies, its constituent particles
still retain their vitality, and may be employed again in the for-
mation of new organized bodies, which can be formed only from
such organic particles. There are, therefore, two sorts of matter
in the universe, organic and inorganic ; and organic matter may
exist in two states, either as forming a part of individual orga-
nized bodies or not, in both of which states it retains its vitality,
though in the latter state this property is possessed only in its
lowest degree or most simple condition, being the property of
life in general without the special modifications which it exhibits
in individual organized bodies. By the partizans of this theory,
the simplest forms of infusory animalcules, or monads as they
are termed, were regarded as nothing more than mere organic
particles or molecules, which being separated from one another,
were impressed with movements and exhibited other phenomena
indicative of their inherent vitality. Hence they were some-
times named simple vital bodies, in contradistinction to animals
and plants which were conceived to be formed by the aggregation
of them in a number and manner depending on the size and per-
fection of the individual which they constituted. This is nearly
what is meant by the theory of an universally diffused vital mat-
ter, or of living organic molecules.

Without meaning to combat this theory, it must be admitted
that Professor Ehrenberg's observations have overthrown one

VOL. XV. NO. XXX.— OCTOBER 1833. T

290 Account of Professor Ehrenberg^s

great argument adduced in its favour, tliat which was drawn
from the supposed identity of the simplest infusoria with mere
organic molecules, since these infusoria have been shown to pos-
sess a much more complex structure than had previously been
imagined, differing only in degree from that of the more perfect
animals, and totally inconsistent with the notion of their identi-
ty with simple organic molecules, an opinion founded on imper-
fect and erroneous observation.

The method of observation adopted by Professor Ehrenberg,
in conducting the present part of his inquiry, was the follow-
ing. He poured into a watch-glass a small quantity of water
containing some of the larger kinds of infusoria, which, by a
little practice, may be perceived with the naked eye. Of these
he took out a single one with the end of a feather, cut into a
convenient shape, and placed it under the microscope, in order
to ascertain whether it contained perfect eggs, and, if any were
present, to note their number. This being done, he put the
animal into a narrow glass-tube, closed at one end like a small
test-tube, and tilled with water, in which he had previously sa-
tisfied himself, by careful examination with the microscope, that
no similar animals were present. A blade of the lemna was
laid on the top of the water, to preserve it from dust, and pre-
vent it from becoming putrid by stagnation. By this contrivance
he was enabled to carry on his observations on several separate
individuals at the same time.

He first made choice of the Hydatina senta, which he selected
as an example of the infusory animalcules belonging to the class
of Rotatoria ; this animal being about one-sixth of a line in
length, and therefore well fitted for examination. In the month
of November 1830, twelve different individuals of the Hydatina
senta were subjected to observation in the manner described,
and the following were the results :

1. One individual survived eighteen days. As it was full
grown when put into the tube, and then probably two or three
days old, and as it did not die a natural death, but was destroyed
by accident, the duration of life in this individual may, with
great probability, be estimated at more than twenty days.

% The hydatina is propagated by eggs : they were observed
first within the body of the parent animal ; then deposited in

Recent Researches oti ifie Iiifmoria. 291

the water ; lastly, tliey were repeatedly seen after the young
had been excluded from them, and when nothing remained but
the outer covering or shell.

3. The rate of increase is very rapid, but varies according
as the animals are sparingly or abundantly supplied with food*
Dr Ehrenberg put into some of the vessels in which the animals
were kept, a small quantity of the green matter which collects
in stagnant water, and which itself consists of a species of infu-
soria {Manas pulvisctdus), having satisfied himself that it con-
tained none of the hydatinae. This substance was readily eaten
by the hydatinae, and produced a marked increase in their fe-
cundity. In one glass, for example, the original animal had, in
the course of nine days, produced only one young one and one
egg ; but on adding some of the green matter, the number in-
creased, in about twenty-four hours, to nine animals, besides
one egg. From this and similar instances, he reckons that, on
the most moderate computation, a single individual may, in
twenty days, increase to a million, and in twenty-four days, very
nearly to the enormous number of seventeen millions ; a rate of
increase far exceeding any thing observed in the rest of the ani-
mal creation.

The remarkable effect of food which was observed in these
cases, affords a striking illustration of the general law, that the
propagation and increase of the lower tribes of animals are
greatly influenced by external circumstances. Another remark-
able instance of the same truth is furnished by the history of
the fresh- water polypi, in which animals Trembley found the
rapidity of propagation to be greatly dependent on the supply
of food, and on the degree of temperature to which they were
exposed. Cold invariably diminished their fecundity, and heat,
within certain limits, as constantly increased it. It is to be
regretted, that Dr Ehrenberg did not direct his attention to the
; .fifiect of temperatMre on the propagation of the infusoria,
rjii He next proceeded to make similar observations on the class
. « ^f Poly gastric infusoria, of which he selected Paramecium «w-
' relia and Stylonychia Mytilus as examples. The vaults pb-
tained with these species are as follows : -

1. Propagation took place by a transverse division of the pa-
rent animal into two. He did not meet with instances of longi-

t2

Account of Professor Ehrenherg's

tudinal division, or of propagation by gemmae, which he had
observed in the same species of animals in other circumstances.
The animals remained a few days without change ; their bodies
then appeared somewhat contracted in the middle, which ap-
pearance was an indication of commencing division ; when
this had once begun, they increased very rapidly, so that, in one
case, a three-fold division was observed to have taken place in
the course of twenty-four hours, a single animal having multi-
plied to eight.

2. Individuals, after undergoing division several times, were
observed alive for ten days, to which time, at least, the duration
of their life must therefore extend.

Dr Ehrenberg lastly infers, as a general result of his inquiry,
that the origin of infusory animalcules can be, in all cases, satis-
factorily accounted for without the necessity of having recourse
to the doctrine of spontaneous generation, which he regards as
a mere hypothesis, not required to account for known facts, and
unsupported by any trustworthy observations.

Without undertaking to advocate the theory of spontaneous
generation, we may be permitted to remark, in opposition to his
conclusion, first, that the supporters of the doctrine by no
means deny that animals which owe their origin to spontaneous
generation may and do afterwards continue their species by
propagation, whether by ova or otherwise ; that the fact of the
increase of existing infusoria by propagation, which is the chief
argument furnished by Dr Ehrenberg's observations, was pre»
viously known, and therefore forms no new argument against
the doctrine.

2c%, It might be objected, that the animals submitted to
observation in the cases related, belong to the larger and more
perfect species of infusoria, and are therefore less likely to be
produced by spontaneous generation.

3JZz/, That although Dr Ehrenberg, in refuting the notion
of the extreme simplicity of these animals, has overthrown
one great argument in favour of their spontaneous origin,
yet he has oflPered no explanation of their production in infu-
sions which have been subjected to a heat sufficient to destroy
any parent animals, or even ova, supposed to be present. In
these cases, as is well known, the adversaries of the theory

Recent Researches on the Infusoria. ^93

ascrib^^th'e'bVfgm'of infusoria to ova conveyed hfih^ air; an
assumption which the supporters of the doctrine regard as
highly improbable, and which, if admitted as true, they con-
sider inadequate to explain the production of infusoria in all
the conditions under which it is reported to have taken place by
observers worthy of credit. It is true, that Dr Ehrenberg never
witnessed the spontaneous origin of infusoria ; but before deny-
ing the possibility of its occurrence, and discarding the theory
of spontaneous generation, as unnecessary to account for the
facts, it was incumbent on him to have subjected anew to a ri-
gid examination the observations of those .who have arrived at
an opposite conclusion from himself, and either exposed the fal-
lacy of their experiments, or shown how they were to be ex-
plained on a different view from that adopted by their authors.
It is the more to be regretted that he has not favoured us with
such a critical examination, as, from his extensive knowledge of
the different species of the animals in question, his intimate
acquaintance with their mode of life, and his superior methods
of observation, he is singularly well fitted for the task.

II. On the Eyes of the Infusoria.

Many of the infusoria have one or more coloured spots on
the surface of their bodies, which Dr Ehrenberg regards as their
eyes. These spots, which are mostly of a red colour, were no-
ticed in a few of the infusoria by preceding observers, by some
of whom they were even designated by the name of eyes ; but
it seems probable that that term was used merely by way of
comparison, and was not intended to imply that such spots
were really the eyes or organs of vision of the animals in which
they were observed. Professor Njtsch of Halle, however, who
had discovered them in some species of Cercaria, endeavoured
to prove that they were eyes in a real sense ; and he has there-
fore the merit of first pointing out in a distinct arid explicit
manner the existence of such organs in the infusoria. Dr Eh-
renberg, in his former memoirs, described the eyes in several of
the Rotatoria. He has since found them in two-thirds of the
known genera belonging to that class, and in all the species of
these genera without exception ; and what is more remarkable,
Ke has discovered them in many <if the smaller aiid less perfect

29* Account of Professor Ehrenherg^s

animals of the class of Polygaslrica. According to his observa-
tions, these organs are constantly and invariably present in those
species which have been discovered to possess them, even under
very varied circumstances, insomuch that he has derived from
them distinctive characters of itouch value in his systematic ar-
rangement. MO . if-j .v>

The eyes of the Rotatoria appear as one, t\vo, often three, or
even more spots, usually of a red colour, placed at the fore-part
of the animal, either before the rotatory organs on what might
be named the forehead, or immediately behind them, on a part
of the body which might be compared to the nucha or nape of the
neck in other animals ; or they may occupy both these situations
(Plate I. Fig. 11.) They appear, according to Dr Ehrenberg,
to be immediately connected with the nervous system ; for the pos-
terior one is always placed either at the point where the summit
of the nervous arch or loop, arising from the cerebral ganglion,
touches the skin, or, when the loop is wanting, directly over the
ganglion itself, and the anterior or frontal eyes always occupy a
situation which corresponds with the points where, as is seen in
the Hydatina senta, two filaments proceeding from the nervous
loop in the neck reach the region of the forehead.

That these organs are in reality the eyes of the infusorraV W
rendered extremely probable by the fact of their being so ex-
tensively prevalent among those animals, — by their great regula-
rity and constancy, — and by their obvious connexion with what
appears to be a nervous apparatus. This opinion is corro-
borated by the fact that, in most cases, they contain a very
highly coloured pigment, which, on crushing the little animals
between two plates of glass, is effused in the form of a finely
granulated mass, bearing miich resemblance to the pigment iri
the eyes of other animals. "^

As a further proof that the infusoria are provided with atr oi*-*
gan of vision, Dr Ehrenberg adduces the great precision witfi
which they execute their movements, seize on their prey, or
otherwise direct themselves towards particular objects; nay,
these actions seem so decidedly to require the aid of vision for
their performance, that he is induced to think that faculty may
be probably possessed by those species which are destitute of
coloured eyes, and that the function may in such cases be exer-

Recent Researches on the Infusoria

cised by points of the skin, which, though not exhibiting any
colour, are furnished with nerves corresponding in origin and
distribution with those which supply the coloured eyes of other
species.

Lastly, he conceives that all doubt as to the nature of these
organs is removed on attending to the analogy which subsists
between them and the eyes of the Entomostraca. No one has
any doubt as to the nature of the organs named eyes in the
larger crustacea, and there is little doubt that the analogous or-
gans in the Entomostraca are also eyes. But these exactly cor-
respond in substance, colour, and position, with the supposed
eyes of the Rotatoria.

He mentions a singular peculiarity which he has observed in
regard to the eyes of Melicerta ringens and Megalotrocha alba.
The young of these animals possess distinct red eyes, which are
not observable in the adult animals; they seem to be absorbed
or otherwise removed during the growth and extension of the
rotatory apparatus, which is very large in these animals.

Dr Ehrenberg was no less successful in discovering the exist-
ence of eyes in several infusoria of the class Polygastrica. The
animals of this class, in which he first discovered them, belong
to the family of Astasiaea, and constitute the genera Euglena^
Amhlyophis^ and Distigma. The first of these consists of seven
species, all distinguished by a single dark red eye placed on the
fore part of the body. They formerly belonged to the genus
Cercaria of Miiller, and it was in these animals that Nitsch, as
already mentioned, discovered the presence of eyes. The Am-
blyophis^ of which he knows but one species, has a large bright
red eye in the same position as Euglena, from which it differs,
in being destitute of a tail. The eyes of Distigma^ of which
he has discovered three species, consist of two small black points,
(Fig. 16. ) He next found one animal belonging to the family of
Kolpodea, which possesses a distinct eye, and he has formed it
into a separate genus, under the name of Ophryoglenajlavkans.
Further, in the family of Epitricha he has discovered an eye in a
very singular animal, which seems to have been confounded by
previous writers with the Volvox morum of Miiller, but which
Dr Ehrenberg names Eiidorina argus (elegans ?).. It is re-
markable that in this genus the eye is perceptible only in the

296 Ai^count of pKofe^sor: JO^r^nberg's

young animals ; the body of the parent consists of a transparent
sac or capsule, in which several young ones are inclosed, and
each of these is provided with a single red eye and a long bristle,
which it exserts through the transparent envelope (Fig. 12.)

In further prosecuting his researches on the eyes of the Poly-
gastric Infusoria, Dr Ehrenberg, who had naturally expected to
meet with these organs chiefly among the larger kinds of infu-
soria, found to his surprise that they are a far more general at-
tribute of the smallest sort. For instance, in the family of the
Monads, he discovered two genera with evident eyes. One of
these, Microglena, consists of two species, the smallest individuals
of which do not exceied j J ^ of a line in diameter (Fig. 13 and 14.)
The other belongs to the Loricated Monads. Its body is bright
green, contained in a transparent shell, and furnished with a
large bright red eye. He has named this genus Lagenula, from
its shell, which is shaped like a bottle (Fig. 15)*. The pre-
sence of eyes, both in the naked monads, and those provided
with a shell, serves as an additional proof of the correctness of
the view which induced Dr Ehrenberg to arrange the infusoria
in two parallel series, the Niida and Loricata, the latter of which
differ from the former chiefly, and in many cases solely, in pos-
sessing a shell.

III. Of the External Parts of the Body, and External Organs of
the Infusoria.

In order to obtain appropriate characters for the systematic
arrangement of the numerous forms of infusoria, which, chiefly
through his own researches, are now known to exist, Dr Ehren-
berg has found it necessary to examine, with greater care than
has hitherto been done, the external parts of these animals, and
to define them with greater accuracy. I shall endeavour to give
some connected account of the more interesting results of his in-
vestigation, without entering into details, which rather belong to
the terminology of the subject, and possess no general interest.

• By means of an improvement in his microscope, he has lately disco-
vered two additional loricated monads with eyes, which he names Cryptogkna
pigra, and Cryptoglena agilis, the former ^'^ of a line in diameter, the latter
not exceeding 5^5 of a line, being little more than half the diameter of a glo-
bule of human blood.

Recent ResearcJies on tfie Infusoria. 297

^^^^^ Af, General coverings of the body. ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^

The body, in many infusoria, is naked ; in others it is jwo-
tected by a covering or lorica, of which there are several varie-
ties, differing from each other in form and substance. Some-
times it resembles the shell of a tortoise, surrounding the animal
completely in the middle, with an opening before and behind,
through which the head and tail project. This form is named
a testa or shell. In other cases, it covers only the back of the
animal, being open below ; it is then named scutellum, Tho
urceolus is a covering or case, shaped like a bell or like a cylin-
der closed at one end, within which the animal can withdraw it^
self at will. The lacerna, or mantle, is a very curious provi-
sion. It is a sort of dense gelatinous covering, which would
seem to be formed out of the most external layer of the animal's
body. Within it the substance of the animal separates into several
young ones, which are for a time enclosed, but at length escape
by the bursting of the envelope (Fig, 1^.) The parent animal
would therefore seem to lose its individual existence, and to be
at length converted into a mere capsule, containing the young.
This form is found in Volvox, Eudorina, Pandorina, and
Gonimrt. Lastly, the covering sometimes consists of two pieces,
when it is named Lorica hivalvis.

B. Exterior divisions of the body.

In the greater number of infusoria, the body presents a pretty
obvious division into heg^l, trunk, and tail. There is seldom
any well-marked indication of a neck.

The head is very obvious in the Rotatoria, it is that part of
the body which bears the rotatory organs and the eyes. Within
it are contained the large cerebral ganglions, the cavity of the
mouth, and masticating apparatus. The limit between the head
and trunk, which is sometimes marked by a slight constriction,
is named the nucha, or nape of the neck ; its position is further
marked by the attachment of the nervous loop to the skin, and
often more conspicuously by an eye here situated. In the Po-
lygastric Infusoria, the head is seldom capable of being pointed
out as a distinct part.

The trunk is well defined in those infusoria which possess a

298 Account of Professor Ehrenherg's

distinct head. In the Rotatoria it may be defined the part of
the body placed between the head and anus.

The part named the tail is an elongation of the body behind
the anus ; it differs from the tail of other animals in being as it
were a prolongation of the ventral and not of the dorsal part of
the body, so that the anus is placed above its base, and not be-
low as usual. It is sometimes truncated, at other times forked
at its extremity, and is, in most cases, furnished with one or
more suckers, by which the animals can fix themselves to sur-
rounding objects.

C. External org-ans or appendages of the infusoria.
These Dr Ehrenberg classes under three heads, viz. 1. Simple;
and, 2. Compound organs of motion ; and, 3. Other appendages
and organs which do not serve for motion. Of the first sort,
there are none more remarkable than what are called variable
processes, which are observed in some of the Polygastric infuso-
ria, and which are altogether temporary and transient in their
existence. They are the result of a faculty which the animals
possess of elongating the substance of their bodies at one or
more points, in the form of a tube or lobe-like process, and con-
sequently of giving rise to many proteus-like changes of figure,
for which preceding observers have often been puzzled to ac-
count. The mode in which this phenomenon takes place may
be well seen in the Amoeba : the animal allows a small part of
the parietes of its body to become relaxed, while it contracts
them forcibly in the rest of their extent ; by this means the in-
ternal contents, or viscera, are urged against the relaxed part
and distend it into a bag or hollow process of variable form, the
cavity of which they occupy. In this manner, the whole gra-
nular substance within the body and the stomachs, with their con-
tained food, are sometimes forced into such a protrusion, which,
in its mode of formation, might not inaptly be compared to a
hernia. In the Amoeba such variable processes may be formed
at any point ; in other cases, as in Arcellina, they are observed
to occur only on the fore part of the body, and do not receive
any part of the alimentary canal, but seem to be protruded by
means of a pellucid fluid. The next kind of simple organs of
motion arc the setae or bristles. These appendages arc im-

Recent Researches on the Ijifusoria. 299

planted in the substance of the body by their base, which is not
jointed. They, therefore, never perform any rapid movements,
but they are capable of being slowly erected and depressed, and
seem to assist in the progressive motion of the animal, somewhat
in the same manner as the prickles of the sea-urchin. They are
found in but a few species. 8f/, The ci/ta, or hair-like organs :
these, either separate or combined together into a special appa-
ratus, form the principal instruments of motion in the infusoria.
By an attentive examination of the larger forms of them, Dr
Ehrenberg has discovered that they are furnished with a bulb at
the root, to which minute muscles are attached. A slight degree
of rotation impressed on the bulb causes a much more extensive
motion in the rest of the organ, which, in its revolution, is made
to describe a cone whose apex corresponds with the bulb. In the
Rotatoria, the cilia are always combined to form the compound
rotatory organs peculiar to that class, to be afterwards described.
In the Polygastrica, they are in a few instances entirely absent,
or at least not observable ; in other instances they are placed
round the mouth, or spread over the body generally, in which
case they are usually disposed in regular rows. Uncini, or
hooks, are setaceous appendages, curved at the point, which,
serve for seizing or clinging to surrounding objects. Stt^li, or
styles, are articulated at their base, and more moveable than the
setae or bristles ; they differ from cilia in being destitute of a
bulb, and in not performing a revolving motion.

The compound organs of motion are found only in the Rotato-
ria, in which they constitute the very singular rotatory apparatus
peculiar to these animals which we have next to consider. The
structure of the simple cilia, and the mechanism and manner of
their movement, have been already described ; but in the ani-
mals of the class Rotatoria, the cilia are always combined to
form one or more organs of a more complex structure, which
are named the rotatory or wheel-like organs. Dr Eh/'enberg
has established the primary systematic divisions of that class of
infusoria on differences observed in these organs, of which he
reckons four different forms. In the most simple form the
cilia are disposed round the mouth in the figure of a horse shoe,
or of a circle interrupted at one part of its circumference, the
mouth occupying the interruption, and the cilia being not set in

300 Account of Professor Ehrenherg's

single file but several deep. The animals possessing this form
of organ are subdivided into two groups, in one of which the
margin of the circle formed by the rotatory organ, though inter-
rupted by the mouth, is otherwise entire ; in the other the margin
is indented or divided into lobes, the first are named Monotrocha,
the second Schizotrocha. In its third form the rotatory organ
is double, consisting of two circles of cilia, between which
the mouth is placed (Fig. 1.) The animals with this form
constitute the group of Zygotrocha, to which the common wheel
animal {Rotifer vulgaris) belongs. In its fourth and last form,
the rotatory apparatus consists of several small wheel-like organs
set near to one another, the group in which it so exists are
named Polytrocha. The rotatory apparatus of the Hydatina
senta affords a good example of this form of organ, and a good
representation of it will be found in the plate accompanying Dr
Gairdner's paper. Since his first account of the hydatina, how.
ever, Dr Ehrenberg has discovered a thickly set circle of curved
cilia surrounding the whole rotatory apparatus, also delicate
muscular bands which connect the small rotatory organs with
each other.

Such are the chief varieties in the form of these singular or-
gans, but by far the most remarkable circumstance in regard to
them, is the appearance which they present when in motion.
The single and double rotatory organs when set in motion re-
semble a toothed wheel turned rapidly round on its axis, first
in one direction, then in the opposite, and currents are at the
same time produced in the surrounding water, in a regular and
determinate direction. In the polytrocha, the wheel-like mo}
tion is not obvious, and the currents are excited in no regular
or fixed direction, which circumstance serves to distinguish the
animals belonging to this group, in cases where, from their
smallness, the form of the rotatory apparatus can with difficulty
be determined. .

It has been often a question what actually takes place during
this apparent rotation. Baker* supposed that the organ was
really constructed like a wheel, and moved freely round on an ,
axis which formed its sole connection with the rest of the body ;

* Of Microscopes and the discoveries made thereby. London, 1785; vol.
ii. p. 284.

Recent Researches on the Inftcsoria. 301

a view which few adopted, from the difficulty of conceiving such a
mode of connexion to subsist between the parts of organized beings.
Nevertheless, the distinction which he was led by this view t«
establish between the motion in question, which he named Rota-
tion, and that of simple cilia which he called Vibration, has pre-
vailed till now, and the animals exhibiting these two mptions
have been distinguished from each other by the names of In-
fusoria Rotatoria, and Vibratoria. Dr Ehrenberg considers thait
there is no essential difference between the two motions, being
both, produced by cilia which move individually in the same
manner, but from their diflf'erent arrangement in the two cases
produce a different general effect. The apparent rotation or
turning round of the whole circle, is obviously an optical decep-
tion which he endeavours to explain thus : The ciha composing
the rotatory organ have the same structure, and move in the
same manner as the single cilia already mentioned, that is, they
are moved round. by minute muscles attached to their bulbous
roots, in such a way as at each revolution to circumscribe a co-
nical space. When viewed sideways in performing this revolu-
tion, they must necessarily pass at one moment a little nearer, at
another a little more distant, from the eye, or in other words, al-
ternately become more and less distinct to the view at very short
intervals, and this alternation occurring over the whole circle,
gives rise to a seeming change of place in every point of its cir-
cumference and a consequent appearance of rotation. Other ex-
planations of this singular phenomenon have been offered, of
■which I may refer, on account of its ingenuity rather than its
probability, to that suggested by Dutrochet, in the Annales du
Micseum (THistoire Naturette, tom. xx.

In regard to the use of these organs, Dr Ehrenberg observes,
that they are chiefly employed by the animals in catching their
food by the currents which they occasion, and in swimming ;
they therefore serve as organs of prehension and of locomotion.
He supposes also that the currents which they produce must be
subservient to the respiratory function, by constantly bringing
a new portion of water into contact with the surface of the ani-
mal, a supposition which appears to me highly probable, when
we compare these currents with those which I have elsewhere
shewn to take place along the surface of the respiratory organs

302 Account of Professor Ehrenherg's

in many of the higher aquatic animals, in which their purpose is
no ways doubtful.

♦ The remaining external appendages of the infusoria are such
as are not employed as organs of motion ; they possess but little
interest, except as affording distinctive characters to the systema-
tologist. They consist of Cornicula; Cirrhi; PatellcBf or suckers,
which are placed at the extremity of the simple or forked tail,
and serve for fixing the animal ; the Proboscis or trunk, which
not unfrequently projects from the fore part of the head ; last-
ly, the Calcar or spur (Fig 1.) This last organ is a retractile
process, which projects from the neck in some of the Rotatoria,
especially the two-wheeled species. It resembles much in ap-
pearance the male exciting organ of the hermaphrodite mollusca ;
Dr Ehrenberg has, however, satisfied himself that in the infu-
soria, mutual impregnation by the concurrence of two indivi-
duals, is not necessary to the generative act, as is the case with
the mollusca alluded to ; and he is therefore of -opinion that
the organ in question must serve some different purpose which
has not yet been found out.

IV. On the Alimentary (^anal of the Infusoria.

The Digestive apparatus of the infusoria presents two princi-
pal forms. In the Rotatoria it consists of a simple canal, as in
insects ; in the Polygastrica, on the other hand, there is either a
canal with numerous sacs or stomachs opening into it, or several
stomachs unconnected by a canal.

Again, the simple alimentary canal of the Rotatoria exists
under four subordinate forms (Fig. 2-6.) In the firsty it is desti-
tute of masticating organs, with a very long oesophagus, and a
simple or undivided great intestine (Fig 2.), as in the genera
Ichtfiydium, Chcetonottts, and Enteroplea. In the second, it is
furnished with masticating organs, with a very short oesopha-
gus, and a simple great intestine (Fig. 3.), as in Hydatina and
SynchcBta. In the third form, there are masticating organs, a
very short oesophagus, and a great intestine, divided by a con-
striction into an anterior or gastric portion, and a posterior por-
tion, or proper great intestine (Fig. 4, 5.), as in Enchlanis, Bra-
chicmuSy &c. Lastly, in the fourth form, there is a pharynx
with masticating organs, behind which the alimentary canal

Recent Researches on the Ififusoria. 303

continues narrow till near the anus, where it is dilated into a sort
of cloacal enlargement, being surrounded through most of its
length by a cellular apparatus, composed of a number of small
recesses or pouches, which probably serve for absorption (Fig. 6) ;
they are not stomachs, for stomachs receive the food immediately
after it is swallowed, whereas these recesses are never filled in
the first instance. This form is found in the naked Zygotrocha,
the Rotifer^ Actinurus, Philodina, and others.

These differences in the alimentary canal of the Rotatoria are
so constant and so well defined, that they might afford characters
for subdividing the class, and the four principal divisions thence
resulting might be designated, from the peculiarities of their
alimentary canal, by the terms, 1. Trachelogastrica, 2. Ccelogas-
trica, 3. Gasterodela, and, 4. Trachelocystica. Such a mode of
arrangement is, however, objectionable on two grounds, first,
because, as a general rule in arranging organized bodies, it is
preferable fo take the characters of the more subordinate divi-
sions from external and not from internal parts ; and, secondly,
because, in adopting the form of the alimentary canal as a
principal ground of subdivision, animals are brought together
which differ widely from each other in their general structure
and habit. The above is therefore given merely as a physiolo-
gical view of the alimentary organs, and is not brought forward
as a principle of arrangement.

The Polygastric infusoria might also be divided into four
groups, distinguished by the peculiar form of their alimentary
organs, and designated accordingly, namely, 1. Anentera, 2.
Cycloccela, 3. Orthoccela, 4. Campy locoela (Fig. 7-10)* In
the Anentera the several sacs or stomachs, the plurality of which
characterizes the class, are unconnected by a canal, they all open
by a common orifice or mouth, and there is no anus (Fig. 7).
In the Cyclocwla, the alimentary canal, into which the stomachs
open, forms a circle or loop, having both an entrance and an
exit, or a mouth and anus, but these open externally by a com-
mon orifice (Fig. 8). The union of the mouth and anus into a
common orifice at the anterior part of the body, forms an exter-
nal character by which the Cychcaela may be always distin-
guished. The Orthocwla have a straight alimentary canal, with
a mouth and anus placed at opposite ends of the body (Fig. 9).

304 Account of Professor Ehrenherg's

In the Campyhcoda the canal is serpentine, with two separate
orifices, which are seldom placed opposite to each other in the
.axis of the body (Fig. 10). This circumstance will generally
serve to distinguish the Campyhcoda^ which have, moreover, a
certain want of regularity in their external form. It is difficult
to trace the course of the canal itself.

V. — On Glands and other Appendages of the Alimentary Canal in
the Rotatoria.

In his former memoirs, Dr Ehrenberg took notice of two
glandular bodies attached to the oesophagus in some of the ro-
tatoria, which he considered analogous to the pancreas of
higher animals, and he gave a particular description and repre-
sentation of them, as they are seen in the Hydatina senta. He
has subsequently found them in all the rotatoria which he has
examined, except the genera Ichthydium and Chcetonotus.
Having frequently observed these organs to be muc4i smaller in
those animals which had laid a considerable number of eggs,
and which were therefore older, he imagined that they might be
testicles ; but not being able to trace any anatomical connection
between them and the generative apparatus, he is still inclined
to his former opinion, that they are glands subservient to the
process of digestion.

Besides these pancreas-like bodies, he has in certain species
discovered organs resembling biliary vessels, and in others coe-
cal appendages connected with the alimentary canal. In the
Enteroplea Hydatina, several deHcate vessels are connected with
a dilated portion of the oesophagus not far from the stomach,
(Fig. 4). They are transparent and colourless, but in other re-
spects bear much resemblance to the biliary vessels of insects.
The ccecal appendages are found in several species ; in the Me-
galotrocha alba they are two in number, short, and situated near
the bottom of the stomach. In the Notommata clavulata, there
are four, which are long and filiform, equalling in length the
elongated pancreas, and are attached to th^ middle of the sto-
mach. In Diglena lacustris (Fig. 5), they are also long and
filiform, and are connected with the middle of the stomach ;
they are in some instances four in number, in others five.
These cceca are all transparent ; their function is still doubtful.

Recent Researches on the Infusoria, 'S06

p, ,. VI. Of the Dental System of the Rotatoria.

The discovery of the teeth in the infusoria, affords a striking
proof that the smallest organized beings are not necessarily also
the most simple in structure. This truth becomes still more
manifest when we learn that these organs exist under several
forms, which are so constant and regular, that the infusoria
might almost, like quadrupeds, be arranged according to their
teeth. However, in giving a systematic view of the principal
varieties in the form and structure of the teeth, Dr Ehrenberg
does not propose to found on it a system of arrangement, to
which he admits there would be serious practical objections.

The pharynx of the Rotatoria is surrounded by four hemi-
spherical muscular masses, placed opposite one another like the
limbs of a cross, which become very obvious when in motion.
Two of these are armed with the maxillae and teeth, which be-
ing formed of a hard substance, may be disengaged from the
soft parts, and rendered distinctly visible, by crushing the
animal between two plates of glass. In the greater number of
Rotatoria, each maxilla consists of an anterior and a posterior
portion or process, which are joined together at an angle (Fig.
17, 19). The posterior process is sunk in the muscular sub-
stance, and thus fixed, the anterior is directed towards the
opposite maxilla, and at its free extremity bears one or more
teeth.

In a smaller number of genera the structure is somewhat dif-
ferent. Each maxilla is shaped like a stirrup or like a bow with
a double string, and the teeth are laid across it in the same po-
sition as arrows across a bow, being fixed at both ends (Fig. 21,
23). The bow is directed outwards and placed horizontally ; the
pieces representing the strings are situated inwardly next to thie
opposite maxilla ; they are not straight, but form two arches
cotinected by their extremities, and placed in the same vertical
plane. The lower arch gives insertion to the muscles, the up-
per one supports the teeth, which are fixed to it at their in-
ner extremity, the outer resting on the bow.

According to these two principal forms of the teeth and jaws,
the Rotatoria might be divided into two groups, distinguished

VoiL. XV. NO. XXX,— OCTOBER 18S3. U

306 Account of Professor Ehrenlerg's

by the names of Gymnogompbia, or those in which the teeth are
free, and Desmogomphia, in which they are fixed. Each of
these groups is again divisible into two.

The two subdivisions of the Gyranogomphia are the Mono-
gomphia and Polygomphia. The first (Fig. 19, 20.) have only
one long tooth in each jaw, which they can push out a consi-
derable way, the teeth of the opposite sides then appearing like
a pair of nippers. The animals with this form of teeth are for
the most part very rapacious, and prey on other infusoria ; they
form, as it were, the ferae and carnivora of the tribe ; they are
more lively and quick in their movements than other rotatoria,
and, with one exception, they all possess eyes. The Polygom-
phia (Fig. 17, 18.) have more than one tooth in each jaw, some
have two, others from three to six. When there are several,
they, along with the maxilla, form the figure of a hand. The
animals of this division are less rapacious in their habits than
the former, and live chiefly on vegetable substances, or the
smaller infusoria which they attract by the currents which they
excite in the water ; they are never seen to attack the larger
Rotatoria, or to show other signs of a ravenous disposition.

The group of Desmogomphia is less numerous than the fore-
going, but includes, as would appear, the most highly developed
Rotatoria. Its two subdivisions are the Zygogomphia and
Logogomphia. The animals of the first division (Fig. 21, 22.)
have in each of their stirrup-shaped jaws two teeth, alongside of
which the surface of the jaw is finely streaked in a parallel direc-
tion, as if it contained more teeth not perfectly formed. The
Logogomphia (Fig. 23, 24.) have always more than two teeth in
each jaw, which in other respects resemble those of the Zi/gogom-
phia, the collateral streaks on the jaw being well marked. In
respect of their mode of life, the animals of both these divisions
agree with the Polygomphia, living on vegetable matter.

Lastly, a few of the Rotatoria are destitute of teeth. These
might be named Agomphia.

Besides the proper jaws and teeth just described, some of the
Rotatoria are provided with an additional masticating apparatus,
which consists of indurated folds or ridges on the inner surface
of the pharynx, of a firmer consistence than the surrounding
substance, but yet not hard like the true teeth.

PLATE 1

T.dtnrnewJ'htUear: M.Xyu2& -—U '

, -i^'qe If:- ^:iso^5iii> bsrasir set^oo'tr;

iistBtb •S^os^W'^' moil sJ^aoaei

^j^^,.,,-t - .;.. .:s^^.j^^ ihotI &i930''

Yiiohsifffi J393Blq aldga lis? sairii aidtl

bflfi ^bmd sdfj la iisq eiol ad J no ^axsd m^ -v^ »u -^^

.4oqa bei b sb ^nhasq
if as ,ttKs\so«o«s sim^m^M »8i

,6^9 bat ef^gnia bxJB

Recent Researches on the Infusoria. 307

Such are the principal forms of the teeth of the Rotatoria, to
which class of Infusoria, until lately, Dr Ehrent)erg supposed
them to be confined. By a recent improvement of his micros-
cope, however, he has succeeded in discovering a distinct pha-
rynx and teeth in the Loocodes CucuUtdtts, which belongs to the
Polygastrica.

Explanation of Plate I. ; the figures are all much magnified.

Fig, 1, Philodina eryihrophthalma^ showing thg double rotatory
organ^ behind which is the process named calcar or spur,
and the two eyes.
2-6. Show the forms of the alimentary canal in the Rotatoria,
viz.

2. Trachelogastrica from Chaetonotus maximus.

3. Coeldgastrica from Euchlanis macrura.

4. 5. Gasterodela, viz.

4. From Enteroplea Ht/datina, showing the supposed biliary

vessels connected with the oesophagus.

5. From Diglena lacustrisy a. oesophagus, bb. two pancreas-

like bodies, ccccc, five coeca connected with the stomach.

6. Trachelocystica from Philodina roseola,

7-10. Show the forms of the alimentaiy canal in the Polygas-
trica, viz.

7. Anentera from Monas Atomus.

8. Cyclocoela ft-om Vorticella citrina,

9. Orthocela from Enchelys Pupa,

10. Campylocoela from Leucophrys patula.

11. Eosphora Najas, The three red spots placed anteriorly

are the eyes, two being on the fore part of the head, and
one in the neck. The alimentary canal is filled with
carmine.

12. Eudorina elegans, with the young inclosed, their eyes ap-

pearing as a red spot.

13. Microglena monadina, and

14. Microglena volvocinOi showing the eye, which appears like

a red spot.

15. Lagenula euchlora, with its transparent covering or lorica,

and single red eye.

16. Distigma viride, seen in three different shapes ; its eyes re-

semble two black points.

u 2

308 Dr Prichard on the Varieties

17-24. Show the principal varieties in the form of the teeth of

the Rotatoria.
17-20. Gymnogomphia.
,.,r 17, 18. Polygomphia ; 17. jaws and teeth separate ; 18.

i^l pharynx and teeth of Hydatina senta,

')fU lo aioijii^^' ^^' ^onogomphia ; 19. jaws and teeth ; 20. pharynx,
jaws and teeth of Diglenaforcipata,
21-24. Desmogomphia.
., . 21, 22, Zygogomphia ; 21. jaws and teeth ; 22. ditto with
pharynx ot Rotifer macrurus.
23, 24. Logogomphia ; 23. jaws and teeth ; 24. pharynx,
^ ' jaws, and teeth of Megalotrocha atha.

^STRACT OF A COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF PmLOLOGICAL AND
PHYSICAL RESEARCHES, AS APPLIED TO THE HISTORY OF THE
HUMAN SPECIES. By J, C. PRICHARDy M. Z)., F, R. S,

The object of this essay is to furnish a survey of the progress
of knowledge in relation to ethnography, with a critical account
of the attempts which have been made to distribute the human
species into departments constituting what are termed Families
of Nations, and especially of that classification of races which
has been adopted by Baron Cuvier, and is now very generally
received. The author commences with preliminary remarks on
the resources of knowledge available in researches of this kind,
and states it to be his principal design to consider and estimate
the means of information respecting the history of mankind
which are furnished by two different methods of inquiry, viz.
by philological and physical investigations ; the former including
those researches into the structure and affinity of languages
which have been undertaken with a view to elucidate the rela-
tions of tribes and races to each other ; the latter, the attempts
which have been made to classify nations by their mutual re-
semblances in figure, complexion, and other physical peculiari-
ties* • 'X\M'ilVll:\ U--^-.1^,M--

" Philology, 4n ' this point of. view an important study, dates
'its origin from an era glorious in the history of modern disco-
very and the achievements of science. It begins with the voyage
of Malgalhaens, who first led the way in the circumnavigation

of the Human Species. 309

of the globe, and whose fame has been recorded by the gratitude
of posterity upon the heavens as well as upon the earth. While
Malgalhaens was employed in tracing in the sky nebulae, and
new seas and oceans on the globe, his companion Pigafetta be-
thought himself of acquiring the means of rendering intelligible,
and of comparing with each other, the various dialects of the
new races of men, whose existence this voyage was destined to
make known. He began the practice of collecting vocabularies
which might furnish specimens of the idioms spoken in distant
islands of the ocean. His example has been followed by suc-
ceeding navigators, and has led by degrees to results of great
interest. The native tribes found in remote groups of islands
in the great southern ocean, looked upon themselves as the off-
spring of the sun and moon, or of the soil ; they knew nothing
of other branches of the human family ; their whole world and
sphere of existence was limited by their shores, or by the
small circle of their imperfect navigation. Accordingly, by
some writers it has been confidently assumed that these tribes
of men, like the bread-fruit and cocoa-nut trees by which they
are fed, are the indigenous produce of the coralline or volcanic
soil on which they exist. This notion might have been stre-
nuously maintained, if researches into the structure and affinity
of languages had not furnished its refutation, and displayed, in
the idioms of these insular tribes, sufficient evidence of their mu-
tual relationship, and of the derivation of the whole stock of
people from a common centre."

The author proceeds to give a brief survey of the history
of philological inquiries, and of the various collections exempli-
fying the diversity and affinity of languages which have been
made since the year 1555. " In 1555 was published the first
general essay on this subject, — the Mithrklates of the learned
Conrad Gessner, which may be considered, however, as an
abortive attempt, the author having aimed at more than it was
possible to attain in his age. The Mithridates of Adelung and
Vater, which followed ISO years afterwards, is the last general
history of languages which has appeared. Particular portions,
however, of the field of philology have been cultivated with
great success, either by private individuals or by societies of
'learned men.

310 Dr Prichard on the Varieties

"1. Much light has been thrown on the languages of Asia^
their affinities and relations, by M. Julius Klaproth, who, in
various journeys in Caucasus, Siberia, and the provinces of the
Russian Empire bordering on China, has enjoyed extensive op-
portunities of acquiring information : he is likewise acquainted
with the Chinese and Mongolian languages, and has made dili-
gent use of the historical information extant in the works of
Chinese annalists and literary compilers. The principal results
of his studies are contained in his great work, entitled Asia
Polyglotta, to which is appended a Sprach-atlas^ containing
comparative tables of vocabularies.

" S. A great mass of information was collected by Dr Seet^
zen, in reference to the languages of the African nations. On
the geographical discoveries of this traveller in Palestine, the •
eastern parts of which he was the first among modern travellers
to explore, I have no occasion for remark. The principal thea-
tre of Seetzen's researches was Africa, where he spent a long
time in collecting vocabularies and historical and geographical
information from intelligent men whom he met with among the
woolly-haired races. Such of his papers as reached Europe
were either put into the hands of Professor Vater of Konigsberg,
or were published by Baron Von Zach, in the Monatliche Cor--
respondenz. I shall briefly advert to one point, in reference to
which he has illustrated the ethnography of Africa. The ori-
gin of the Felatabs, in the interior of that continent, — a red or
copper-coloured race, who have lately made extensive conquests
over the Negro nations, — was, for some time after that people
became known, a matter of uncertain conjecture. It is now
known that the Felatahs are a branch of the same race who
have for many centuries inhabited the high lands of Guinea,
where the Gambia and the Rio Grande have their sources, and
who have been visited in their mountainous capital of Teembo
by more than one European adventurer. They are the Foulahs
of English travellers, and the Red Poules of M. Mollien.
Seetzen obtained a vocabulary of the Felatah language, which
was published in the Konisherg Archivs fur Philosophie ; and
this led to a discovery of the real origin of the people.

" 3. In reference to the languages of America, which are
known to be very numerous and complex in their structure,

of the Human Species. 811

much information was collected by Hervas, the result of his
own personal researches, and those of other Jesuits. Baron
Alexander Von Humboldt brought back with him from America
a large collection of vocabularies, dictionaries, and devotional
offices, and other books, prepared by the Catholic instructors, in
different parts of that Continent, for the use of the native tribes
who came under their spiritual jurisdiction. These were put into
the hands of Professor Vater, the continuator of the Mithridates.
Since the publication of that work, the Historical Committee of
the Philosophical Society of the United States have devoted
their attention to the languages and history of the aborigines of
the Western Continent. The names of Hecklwelder and Zeis-
berger, and that of Mr Duponceau, the learned Secretary of
the Committee, stand highly distinguished among tl^ose^of^coa-^
tributors to this department of human knowledge." Hit pry m'^fp?^^
The author then states the most important results in reference
to the history of languages, which he considers as established
by these inquiries.

: •* 1. It appears that the number of human idioms, widely
differing from each other, is very great — much greater than
many persons supposed. Mr Jefferson, President of the United
States, used to argue, from the great number of distinct lan-
guages found in America, and the comparatively small number
existing, as he supposed, in the Old Continent, that America
was the most anciently peopled. Most persons will be of opinion
that this conclusion requires further proof ; but the fact is un-
doubted, that a great variety of languages are spoken in America.
According to Hervas, who relied on the information given him
by Lopez, 1500 languages, which are said to be ' iiotabUmente
diverse^"* are spoken in different parts of America. According to
Dr Seetzen, the number of distinct languages in Africa amount
to 100 or 150. If these calculations are nearly correct, we may,
without much danger of exceeding the truth, consider the pro-
bable number of languages spoken in all the world to be not
less than 2000.

" 2. We may observe, in the second place, that a comparison
of various languages displays two different relations subsisting
between them. These relations may be termed those of Affinity
and of Analogy. I shall give a few examples of each.

312 Dr Pi'ichard on the Varieties

" (1.) The relation of affinity, or, as it has been termed by
German writers, the Stammverwandschaft, or family relation of
languages, subsists between idioms which have a great propor-
tion of their elements or roots common to all of them, together
with a general resemblance in grammatical structure. It is gene-
rally allowed that nations, whose idioms have this sort of affinity,
are allied in origin. Groups of idioms thus related are termed
Families of Languages.

" One strongly marked family of languages consists of the
dialects termed collectively the Semitic. To this belongs the
Hebrew, the Chaldee, the Aramean or Syriac, and the Geez
or Ethiopic.

" Another family of languages is the Indo-European, in whicb
are included various idioms both of Europe and Asia, whose
near affinity has been thought to prove a kindred origin in na-
tions long ago separated from each other. It has been chiefly
during the last twenty years that the near affinity of this class
of languages has been discovered. They form a most extensive
group, including, 1*^, tlie Sanskrit and all its dialects in India ;
^d^ the ancient Zend or Medo- Persian language, and all the
idioms now spoken in Persia and Arminea ; 3J, the Greek and
Latin languages, and all the dialects sprung from them ; 4^A, the
Sclavonic, the origin of the Russian, Polish, and Bohemian lan-
guages ; 6th, the Teutonic languages ; Qth, the Celtic dialects,
which belong, if I am not mistaken, to the same family, though
on this subject there is some dispute.

" We have next to consider analogy between languages.
Many idioms which are entirely distinct from each other, being
completely different in their vocabularies, and having i^yt or
perhaps no words in common, are yet found to bear to each
other a striking resemblance in their grammatical structure.
This resemblance is such as to admit of no other term than that
of analogy, and such languages cannot be said to belong to the ■
same family ; they constitute particular classes of languages. I '^
shall mention some examples of this relation.

" 1. A strongly-marked class of languages are those termed
monosyllabic, the words belonging to which are monosyllables,
uttered without any inflection of termination, and with merely a
sort of intonation to express the relations of words to each other.

of the Human Species. 313

Idioms of this description are spoken by the Chinese, Tibetans,
Burmans, Cochin-Chinese, Siamese, and nearly all the nations
of the further Indian Peninsula. The particular languages I
have now mentioned are quite distinct from each other ; even
their numerals and their most familiar and common elements of
speech are different, i.u -iuoioi j<soil^# ,r u/utott iha*

" Another class of languages are those termed Polysynthetic,
consisting in long-polysyllabic words, and abounding in modes
of inflection, refined and elaborate, admitting almost infinite
varieties of termination and changes of structure ; such varieties
of structure and termination expressing numerous modifications
in the original k eas which the words were intended to c^mv^fi
To this very remarkable class of languages belong all the idioms
bf America, from iluu of the Esquimaux at Behring's Straits,
to the dialects of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego. y^^iit^'>i^n

** I shall now terminate what I have to say on this branch
of my subject, viz. on philological researches, by one remark, of
which the application will hereafter be very obvious. It is, that
although we may not \y. authorised in a positive conclusion, that
all nations whose languages belong to the same class^ are of one
race, as, for example, all the nations of the New World, the re-
semblance between their respective idioms being only analogy,
and not amounting to affinity, yet we may determine upon re-
garding such nations as more nearly connected than those whose
idioms belong to different classes; and we may assert, that afyy
pretence for incluJing in one race or lineage, nations whose
idioms belong to classes totally different, must be arbitrary, and
ia opposition to all probability. Such, for example, would be
an attempt to include some of the American nations whose idioms
are polysynthetic, in the same race,or«tock with tribes who speak
monosyllabic languages. »f« -i)!

^t* From the survey I have now taken of the progress of phi-
lological information, and from the conception which this survey
is calculated to produce of the nature and extent of such infor-
mation, we are entitled to conclude that it is a department of
knowledge which ought by no means to be neglected by those
who wish to elucidate the history and affinity of nations, or of
different races of men ; and that any conclusions which may be
drawn by such writers from.other sources, as, for example, from

314 Dr Prichard on the Varieties

anatomical and physical inquiries, pursued separately, will be
liable to error if reference is not occasionally made to the results
deduced from philology. Notwithstanding this almost palpable
fact, we shall presently perceive that the most popular systems
with respect to the history of mankind, and the classifications of
nations, are not only built on premises altogether distinct from
those which depend on affinity in languages^ but are completely
at variance with the most obvious conclusions derivable from
this source of information."

The author, after these general remarks on the application of
philology, proceeds to give an account of the attempts which
have been made to distinguish and classify the races of men by
their physical characters.

*' Many late writers on the history of mankind, have attempted
to distribute the human species into several races, distinguished
from each other by peculiarities in the form, structure, and colour
of their bodies. Varieties of form have generally been thought
to afford a better groundwork for this division than those of com-
plexion ; and since it has been known that there exist national
diversities in the shape of the skull, this circumstance has been
generally selected as furnishing the most permanent distinctions,
and those which admit of the most extensive comparison and
classification. Several writers, both French and German, have
differed from each other as to the number of human races which
they constitute ; but the most generally received system is that
which has been adopted by Baron Cuvier, though it did not ori-
ginate with that celebrated writer. Professor Camper had
thrown out the first hint of a triple division of the forms of the
skull. He distinguished the facial angles as found by his mea-
surement in European, Kalmuc, and African skulls. But a
more important view of the diversities of form in the human
skull seems also to have originated with Camper ; for we are in-
formed by Soemmering, that in his unpublished commentaries.
Camper remarked the dijfference in breadth which exists between
the three classes of skulls above mentioned, and observed that
the skulls of the Kalmucs have the greatest breadth, those of
Europeans a middle degree, and that the skulls of African Ne-
groes are the narrowest of all,

'' Nobody ever possessed means of observation and comparison

of the Human Species. 315

sufficient for establishing any conclusions of importance as to
the different forms of the human cranium, until Blumenbach
had made his admirable collection of skulls. The results of his
long continued study of this collection have been published by
himself at different times.

" Blumenbach distinguished, in the first place, three princi-
pal varieties of form in the human skull, — the ovaljbrm, which
is that of Europeans ; the narrow arid compressed, which is that
of Negroes ; and the broad faced skull, with laterally projecting
cheek-bones, belonging to Kalmucs and Mongoles. It happen-
ed, as I think, unfortunately, that Blumenbach named these va-
rieties of the skull, not from their characteristic forms, but from
some nations, in whom they in a conspicuous manner occur, or
from the supposed primitive abode of such nations. Thus the
^ broad faced form is termed by him Mongolian ; the compressed,
jEthiopic, meaning African; and the oval form, Caiccasian.
The inconvenience which has arisen from the terms thus used is
the hypothesis to which it has given rise, that these three varie-
ties of form are characteristic of three distinct races of mankind.
This is Jiot Blumenbach's opinion, but it appears to be that of
Cuvier, who, in his Regne Animal and other works, has adopt-
ed Blumenbach's terms and divisions. Relying on the diversity
of physical characters, which yet he does not consider sufficient-
ly marked to constitute differences of species, Cuvier proposes
to divide mankind into three distinct races. One of these races
had, according to his hypothesis, its original seat on Mount
Atlas, and its branches are spread over Africa. These are the
narrow-skulled, woolly-haired African nations. But there are
woolly-haired tribes of men, equally black with the Negroes of
Guinea, and resembling them in form and general appearance,
in other equatorial countries besides Africa. Such are the black
savages who inhabit the mountains behind Malacca, termed Sa-
mang ; the woolly-haired Papuas of New Guinea, and nearly all
the larger islands of the Indian Archipelago ; and the natives of
Mallicollo, and some other isles in the Pacific Ocean. These
must belong to the same race as the African Negroes, if races
are constituted on the principle of physical analogy ; and Cu-
vier accordingly resorts to the hypothesis, that some Negroes
from Africa lost their way — se sont Sgares — in the great South-

B16 Dr Prichard 07i the Varieties

em Ocean, in order to account for the existence of woolly-haired
people in the countries above mentioned. A second human race
in his system are the Mongolians or Kalmucs, whose origin he
thinks may be deduced from the high mountains of Altai. The
other great division of mankind, consisting of men with oval and
symmetrical skulls, to which European nations belong, are in
like manner supposed to have drawn their first breath on Mount
Caucasus, and are hence termed the Caucasian race.

" On surveying the manner in which nations are distributed
and associated together in these three departments, we met with
some facts which are staggering anomalies to those who judge of
the affinity of races by that of languages. We shall take, for
example, the enumeration of tribes reckoned by Baron Cuvier
as belonging to the Mongolian race. He says : —

*' ' To the eastward of what has been termed the Tartar
branch of the Caucasian race; that is, to the northward of the
Caspian, is found the commencement of the Mongolian stock,
which prevails from thence as far as the Eastern Ocean. Its
branches, still nomadic, the Kalmucs and the Kalkas, wander
over vast deserts. Their ancestors three times — under Attila,
under Genghis, and under Tamerlane — carried far the terror of
their name. The Chinese are the branch, the most anciently ci-
vilized, not only of this race, but of all nations that are known.
A third branch, the Mantschoos, have lately conquered China,
and still govern it. The Japanese and the Coreans, and most
of the hordes reaching to the north-east of Siberia under the do-
mination of the Russians, belong, in great part, to this stock :
except some of the Chinese literati, the whole Mongolian race
is addicted to the worship of Fo.'

" Here we find two classes of nations, identified and repre-
sented as branches of one stock, who differ from each other in
the most decided and remarkable manner, in every respect in
which one nation can differ from another, with the single excep-
tion, that they bear a degree of resemblance in the shape of their
skulls. The Mongoles and Kalmucs are tribes of nomades or
wandering shepherds, who roam about the lofty saline plains of
Central Asia, living in waggons and under moveable tents, as
their ancestors are said to have lived in the time of ^schylus.
They are incapable of changing their habits for those of settled

of the Human Species. 317

and agricultural people. They are all one nation, strictly so
termed, and have one language, which is polysyllabic in its
structure, admitting inflections and conjugations of nouns and
verbs. On the other hand, the Chinese arc ever known as a
people of settled, uniform, and changeless habits ; their histori-
cal records deduce them as a separate nation from the earhest
ages of antiquity, and especially establish their perpetual enmity
and discordance with the Mongolian Nomades, who are the very
people to exclude whom from their borders the famous Chinese
wall was erected in a remote age. The Chinese and the Indo-
Chinese nations appropriate to themselves, as we have before ob-
served, one entire class of languages, constituting one of the
most strongly marked examples of a distinct assemblage of hu-
man idioms, widely differing from all others. It is to these na-
tions that i\\Q -monosyllabic languages belong, consisting of mo-
nosyllables, incapable of reflection or variation, in which a mere
change of intonation and juxtaposition alone serves to indicate
the relations of words to each other. Before we can admit of
an hypothesis which derives one of these nations from the
other, we must resolve to shut our eyes against all the evidence
that can be brought to bear upon such a subject, excepting
merely that afforded by physical resemblances, which, if we are
not mistaken, will admit of a different explanation.

" The only other connective link between the Mongolian and
Chinese nations, is the circumstance that they are all worshippers
of Fo. This can scarcely be thought an argument for their
unity of race. The religion of Buddha, indeed, called in China
Fo, is well known to have taken its rise in India, among the
Hindoos, who belong to the division of nations termed by Cuvier
the Caucasian race. It was established at a remote period in
Tibet, and thence propagated to China, where, however, it is
but one of the several prevailing superstitions. The Mongoles
and Kalmucs received it not until a. d. 1250. It is not, there-
fore, a peculiar and ancient distinction of the Mongolian race.

" Many writers have thought fit to associate the native Ame-
rican tribes with the Mongolian race. Cuvier hesitates on this
subject ; but the excellent naturahsts Von Spix and Martius,
who soine years ago visited South America, were struck by the
great resemblance between ,the,»Chinese, in the form of their

318 Dr Prichard 07i the Varieties

skulls and features, and the American tribes near Brazil,
Many tribes in the Western World have flatter features, more
approaching to the Mongolian, than the nations of North Ame-
rica ; and if we were to adhere to a classification founded en-
tirely on the principle of physical peculiarities, it would be dif-
ficult to discover a precise line of discrimination, by which all
the native tribes of Americans are to be distinguished from the
groups of nations which constitute Cuvier*s ' race MongoUque.''
If the triple division of skulls is maintained, those of the Ame-
rican nations must be referred to the Mongolian form. Here,
then, we have a wide extension of this family, which thus comes
to include a greater assemblage of nations beyond the limits of
Asia, whose languages, though multiplied, have some common
characters ; and it is worthy of notice, that those common cha-
racters are the very reverse of the peculiarities, which, as above
mentioned, distinguish the Chinese and Indo-Chinese languages
from all others. The latter are monosyllabic, and hardly in-
flected ; the American languages, as we have observed, abound
in long polysyllables, and in their modes of inflection are re-
fined and elaborate, admitting almost infinite variety of termi-
nation and change of structure. As a class of languages, they
have obtained the distinguishing term polysinthetic.

" The Malays, a people whose original seat, or, as I would
rather say, earliest known position, is the island of Sumatra,
and from whom were descended, as it appears, all the Poly-
nesian tribes of the great Southern Ocean, associate themselves
more nearly with this department of nations than any other ;
and if referable to either of the three divisions, must be in-
cluded in the Mongolian department. The history of these
tribes will present us with many physical phenomena very ad-
verse to the fundamental principle on which the tripartite di-
vision of races can alone be maintained. This principle is the
assumption that all physical characters are permanent and im-
mutable. Now, we have reason to believe that some of the
tribes of Polynesian islanders have deviated in a most remark-
able manner from the physical character most generally pre-
valent in their stock. Individuals are seen among the natives
of the Society Islands of fair and sanguine complexion, and the
Marquesans are among the finest races of men existing ; their

of the Human Species, 819

skulls have the oval, or, as it is termed, Caucasian form. We
thus find that the division of mankind termed the Mongolian
race, includes several groups or classes of nations distinguished
by the most permanent and indelible characters which are
known to separate the great families of the human race from
each other. They are associated by no common circumstance
whatever, except a resemblance in physical characters, and these
are plainly subject to great varieties.

" We now come to Baron Cuvier''s Caucasian race, of which
he gives the following account : — * The stock from which we
are descended has been termed the Caucasian race, because the
traditions and filiations of tribes seem to carry it to that group
of mountains situated between the Caspian and the Black Sea.
He goes on to say, that ' the principal branches of the Cauca^
sian race may he distinguished by the analogy of their lan-
guages? Here he enters upon the ground of philological in-
vestigation, and it is important to observe how far it affords a
firm basis for his conclusions. The branches of the Caucasian
race are thus mentioned : — ' l.y^. The Aramean branch, or that
of Syria, directed its progress southward ; it produced the As-
syrians, the Chaldeans, the Arabs, always unconquered, who,
after Mohammed, expected to have become lords of the world ;
the Phoenicians, the Jews, and the Abyssinians, colonies of the
Arabs ; it is very probable,' he adds, ' that the Egyptians be-
longed to the same division.' Before we proceed to the account
which is given of other branches of the Caucasian stock, we may
take an opportunity to observe, that some historical paradoxes
have been already brought under our view. Both Jews and
Arabs are allowed to have ancient traditions ; yet none of these,
written or oral, represent either people as descended from Mount
Caucasus. Again, it is not a little startling to find the red or
copper-coloured Egyptians considered as Caucasians, and as be-
longing to the Semitic stock of nations. How is this to be re-
conciled with the statement of Herodotus and Manetho, and all
the historians who so strongly contrast the Egyptians with the
Jews, and even of Moses, who represented them as speaking
different languages as early as the time of the patriarch Joseph ?
And how, indeed, are we to get over the fact, that the Egyp-
tian language which remains to our time, is entirely of a dif-

320 Dr Prichard on the Varieties

ferent structure, and has a totally different vocabulary, from the
Hebrew ? We shall pass on to the next branch of the Cauca-
sian race.

" ' The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch,' says Cuvier,
* is much more extended, and was more anciently divided.
We can, however, recognise a multitude of affinities between
the following four languages. 1. The Sanskrit, which is now
the sacred language of lndia> the mother of all the idioms of
Hindostan. 2. The ancient language of the Pelasgi, the com-
mon mother of the Greek, the Latin, and many of the extinct
languages, and of all our idioms of the south of Europe. 3.
The Gothic or Tudesque, from which are derived all the lan-
guages of the north and north-west, — the German, the Dutch,
•the English, the Danish, the Swedish, and their dialects. 4.
Lastly, The language called Sclavonian, from which are de-
rived all the languages of the north-east, — the Russian, the
Polonese, the Bohemian, the Wendish. It is this grand branch
of the Caucasian race which has carried to the highest pitch
philosophy, science, and the arts, and which has for more than
thirty ages been the depositories of them."'

. :" There is indisputable proof in support of the assertion, that
the nations now enumerated may be identified by means of their
languages. But how far are they to be connected with the
Arabs, Jews, and Egyptians, already referred to the same race,
or with the third branch of the Caucasian race, who yet remain
to be mentioned ? . ^f? offt oifoii mrlS'

«« The Scythian and Tartarian branch,' it is added, * ex-
tend towards the north and north-east, ever wandering forth
^through the immense deserts of these regions, and only return-
ing to overthrow the more happy settlements of their brethren.
The Scythians, who so early made an irruption into the higher
parts of Asia; the Parthians, who destroyed the Greek and
Roman empires ; the Turks, who overthrew that of the Arabs,
and subdued in Europe the miserable remains of the Grecian
nation, were swarms from this horde. The Finlapd^r^ and
Hungarians were a colony of them, wandering among the na-
tions of the Sclavonic and Teutonic races. Their original coun-
try to the northward and eastward of the Caspian Sea, preserves
yet traces of people of the same.stoek; ,but,ii,h^y^p.interjnixed

nfthe Human Species. 321

Avlth an infinite number of other small tribes, of different ori-
gin and languages. The Tartar people have remained more un-
mixed in all this space. They long menaced Russia, and have
at length been subjugated by her from the mouths of the Danube
as far as those of the Irtisch.

" We are here, in the first place, struck with the circum-
stance, that the Tartar race is joined with the Finlanders and
the Hungarians. Now, the nations last mentioned are two
branches of a stock spread through the northern parts of Europe
and some regions of Asia from very early times, and are strongly
distinguished by physical character and by manners from the
Tartar or Scythian race. What is still more important, the
Finnish nations are always to be identified among themselves,
and clearly distinguishable from the Tartars by their dialects.
The Fenni and Scritifenni, belonging to the stock of the
Finns and Laplanders, are described by the Roman writers
Tacitus and Pliny, as inhabitants of the north of Europe. They
are mentioned by King' Alfred in his curious transcript of the
Voyage of Ocher the Northvian ; and, according to the most
learned investigators of northern antiquities, the Finns are the
people who, under the name of Jotuni, or Giants, had occu-
pied Scandinavia and the shores of the Baltic before the arrival
of Odin and his Teutonic followers from the east. It is said,
indeed, that some of the noble families among the Northmen or
Normans, were descended from these aborigines of Scandinavia.
Even Rollo, the conqueror of Normandy, and the ancestor of
the royal dynasty of England, claimed his descent from a Jo-
tune family, who had dwelt from time immemorial near Dron-
theim in Norway. The history of the Finns has been traced
among all the writers of the middle ages. It has long been
known that all the Finnish and Hungarian tribes are allied by
t!ie Resemblance of their dialects; but a few years ago this sub-
ject'was profoundly investigated by a learned native of Hun-
gary, Gyarmathi, who availed himself of his intimate acquaint-
ance'with one of those diflleots — his own mother tongue^— and
applied hiniseir to the investigation of the cognat languages.
The result has been to establish a connection in speech, and
therefore iii rncekiid origin, between the Laplanders, the Finns,
the Hungarians, the Ostiaks in Asia, and niany tribes scattered

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCTOBER 18*53. X

32^ Dr Prichard on the Varieties

on both sides of the great Ouralian chain, which separates the
north of Europe from that of Asia. Many of these nations are
distinguished for flat faces and red hairs, in which characters
they are contrasted with the Tartars. Their language unequi-
vocally separates them from that people.

"But still less can the Tartar or Turkish nation itself be
identified with the other members of the supposed Caucasian
'race. It has never been pretended that any affinity subsists be-
tween the language of the Tartars and the Indo-European na^
tions. The dialects of the Tartar tribes are not much varied ;
all the clans belonging to this great nation, though spread far
and wide, and reaching from Constantinople to the Irtisch and
Lena, speak one language.

" Every thing that we can collect as to the ancient history of
the Tartar nation, seems to run counter to such an hypothesis.
The only ground, indeed, on which it is pretended to associate
the Tartars with the European, or, as they are termed, Cauca-
sian nations, is the fact that the skulls of the Turks have a form
which belongs to the European type. But even this is by no
means universal. Many of the Tartar nations approach nearly
to the Mongoles and Kalmucs in their features, and in the
shape of their heads ; and this is particularly the case with those
branches of the Turkish stock who have long been settled in
the north of Asia, in climates inhabited of old by people to
whom the Mongolian characters were, from early periods^ ap-
propriate. These deviations from the more general traits of the
Turkish race, and approximations to those of the Mongoles, are
attributed by writers who maintain the permanent transmission
of physical characters to intermixtures of race. But this is alto-
gether gratuitous. If we may judge of the purity of race by
purity of language, the Yakuts, who inhabit the shores of the
Lena, must be considered as of unmixed Turkish race. Their
speech, as M. Julius Klaproth has proved, is nearly that of the
Osmanli themselves; and it has been said that a Turk of Stam-
boul would be understood among the Yakuts on the Lena.
Probability is in favour of the opinion of Blumenbach, that a
long residence in the chmate of North-eastern Africa has changed
the features of the race. The language of the Yakuts, being
unmixed, we may be allowed to infer from this circumstance

of the Human Species. 323

the purity of their stock, though their features are those of the
Mongoles and Kalmucs. -'^t '■'" -r

" Before I take leave of the Caucasian race, I shall offer
some further remarks on this designation. It is applied, as.we
are informed, to nations of this class, because their traditions
deduce them from Mount Caucasus. But is this really a fact ?
The mountains of Asia Minor, of Thrace, and of Hellas, are
all famous in Grecian story. Mountains were of old, in the
simple and primitive age, which long preceded the erection of
temples consecrated to the worship of the unseen powers, which
all nations venerated. The tops of Olympus and Mount Mem,
in the poetry of Greece and India, were the resting-places
where Father Zeus and Indra descended from the clouds to con-
verse with mortals. Caucasus came in for its share in the gene-
ral respect paid to high places. According to a story, of which
it is difficult to conjecture the meaning, it was the dwelling-place
of Prometheus, where that ambiguous personage, by turns a
Titan, a teacher of mechanical arts, and a maker of man, and
then a natural philosopher,- is said to have watched the move-
ments of the heavenly bodies. I cannot remember any tradition
among the fabulists or historians of Greece, which admits of a
construction answering to the hypothesis of M. Cuvier, or de-
ducing the human race from Mount Caucasus. Nor can any
thing more to the purpose be traced in the m)rthology of the
oriental nations. The authentic narrative of the Hebrews lead
us certainly to Mount Ararat, in Armenia, for the resting-place
of the ark ; but that is far from Caucasus.

" Another objection to the term Caucasian, as applied to an
assemblage of nations consisting principally of the Indo-European
and Semitic tribes, arises from the fact, that the chain of Cau-
casus has been from immemorial time the seat of nations who
are proved by their languages to be entirely distinct from both
of these celebrated races. V< The' Idioms of the real Caucasian
nations have been carefdlly 'examined by Julius Klaproth.
The result has been a reduction of these numerous dialects to a
'fd<^ bri^nal languages, all of which, except that of the Ossetes,
"aVe destitute of any analogy to the Indo-European idioms.
The Ossetes, indeed, speak a dialect resembling some of the
Jknguf^gek of that st6ck ; fhey ai*e an inconsiderable tribe, who

X 2

SJJ4 Dr Prichard on the Varieties

appear to have found their way incidentally into the midst of
races foreign to their lineage ; and it would be absurd to regard
them as the ancestral stock of so many great and anciently civi-
lized nations.

" 3. The Negroes of Africa, and the woolly-haired natives of
the Malayan Mountains, and of New Guinea, and many islands
in the Pacific, at no great distance from New Holland, are re-
ferred by M. Cuvier to his third race, which he supposes to
have originated in Mount Atlas. The languages of these tribes
are multifarious, and the migration of one part of them to the
Eastern Ocean is improbable and difficult to imagine. It is evi-
dent, that the attempt to identify the African Negroes with the
Papuas of the Eastern Ocean, rests on the physical peculiarities
of these tribes, and that every other species of evidence is against
it. But it is certain, that no other principle can be found to
account for the existence of nations resembling the Africans in
New Guinea and the Eastern Islands. Are not the torrid climes
of these countries similar to that of Old Guinea ? and do not all
the other productions of nature likewise resemble those of Africa ?
It is not to be wondered at that the human species should as-
similate in these parallel latitudes and analogous situations.
The black and woolly-haired variety of the human species is
that which has ever thrivea best in equatorial countries ; and
there is probably something in the nature of the torrid clime
which favours its rise and propagation. If physical agencies
produced it once, similar agencies may have produced it where-
ever their influence has been exerted with a certain degree of in-
tensity, and under favourable circumstances.''

The following are the general inferences which the author has
deduced from the preceding statement :

** It appears, on the whole, that the attempt to constitute
particular families of nations, or to divide the human species into
several distinct races, upon the principle of a permanent and
constant transmission of physical characters, is altogether im-
practicable. In the first place, such divisions of races do
not coincide with the divisions of languages. We shall find
one class of men as distinguished by physical character, in-
cluding several races entirely distinct from each other, when
reference is made to their languages. Thus, the Turkish or

of the Human Species. 825

Tartar race are separated by their languages from the Indo-
European nations, and the distinction is not less when we go
back to the earliest ages. How distant, indeed, must have been
the period when the Celtae and the German nations, and the
Greeks, Latins, and Sclavonians, were separated from the Hin-
doos ! Yet all these nations have preserved from that period
strong proofs of the identity of their speech ! Nor can we ima-
gine why the Tartars alone should have lost all traces of their
former language, if they had once partaken of the same idiom
with the nations just mentioned, or had a dialect allied to it !
The distinction of races, according to the same principle, will,
besides, separate nations who are shewn to be connected by their
language, when they happen to have acquired a different cha-
racter, diversities of figure and complexion. I have already al-
luded to particular instances which exemplify this remark.

" 2dly, A second objection to the distributing of men into
different races on the ground of physical diversities^ is, that it is
contradictory to the very principle which has been always pro-
fessed by the most enlightened writers on the philosophy of na-
tural history, and which, it may be added, had been admirably
maintained and illustrated by Cuvier himself, in regard to the
nature and distinction of species. The clear and broad line
which he lays down as constituting the distinction of species in
natural history, is that of permanent and constant difference.
We are under the necessity of admitting the existence of certain
forms which have perpetuated themselves from the beginning of
the world without exceeding the limits first prescribed. All the
individuals belonging to one of these forms constitute what is
termed a species. ' Varieties," he adds, * are the accidental sub-
divisions of species.' This is his own account of the laws con-
stituting species. By himself the diversities found between
different races of men are clearly laid down as varieties. To
regard these afterward as permanent, is to contradict what has
previously been established. In fact, we must either concede at
once that there are several distinct human species, — an hypo-
thesis which would be immediately opposed by a number of in-
superable objections,---or we must allow that no permanently
distinct races, as constituted by physical characters, exist in the
one human species.

3J26 Mr Sarig's Meteorological Observations on

" If these general observations are allowed to be well founded,
they will lead towards the conclusion — that the various tribes of
men are of one origin. The diversities of language carry us,
indeed, very far back towards the infancy of our race, and are,
perhaps, much more ancient distinctions than the varieties of
fomi and colour. But these diversities require no such ex-
planation as that of a separate origin, or a distinct creation of
the several races who are so characterised.'"' — Trans, of British
Association, Second Report, p. 529.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT EDINBURGH

DURING THE GREAT SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JULY 17. 1833. 2.

A METHOD OF FREEING THE DETERMINATION OF THE LA-
TITUDE OF AN OBSERVATORY, AND OF THE DECLINATION
OF A STAR, FROM THE CONSIDERATION OF ATMOSPHERIC

REFRACTION. By Edward Saxg, M, S. A. S., Teacher
of Mathematics, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author.

1. Meteorological Observations made at Edinburgh during the Great
Solar Eclipse of July 17. 1833.

The clouded state of the atmosphere, which completely pre-
vented any astronomical observations at Edinburgh, gave, per-
haps, additional interest to photometric experiments made du-
ring the eclipse.

After rising through a narrow belt of cloud, the sun entered
upon a horizontal zone of perhaps two degrees in breadth, entirely
free from interruption, and thus afforded me an opportunity of de-
termining the error of the clock : he then disappeared behind the
superior mass of dense cloud, and remained totally invisible till
nearly the conclusion of the experiments ; at that time his disc
became faintly visible, and, as the clock had only been erected
the previous evening, opportunity was again taken to determine
her rate. The altitudes of the sun were observed by means of
a ten-inch Theodolite and Troughton, divided to every tenth-
second, and having three horizontal wires in the field-bar of
the telescope, so that the corrected times may be depended on
to a degree of accuracy far beyond the necessity of the case.

During the eclipse, and for some time before and after it.

the Solar Eclipse of July 1833. ^17

the indications of an excellent Leslie's Photometer, prepared by
Lindsay, were noted at apparent intervals of five minutes. The
corrected times with the corresponding indications of the pho-
tometer are given in the following table.

N. P.

, D.

34 02 40 Long. West 12 44 July 17- 1833.

Mean Time.

Photom.

h m

s

Q

4 06

43

19.8

Clear sunshine.

16

39

10.2

Sun just concealed.

26

36

4.6

Sun entirely concealed.

31

34

4.6

36

32

6.5

41

30

6.9

46

29

7.3

51

25

Commencement of eclipse.

51

27

7.4

56

25

7.8

5 01

23

8.6

06

21

9.1

11

20

9.2

16

18

8.9

21

16

8.7

26

14

8.6

31

12

73

36

11

6.1

41

09

4.4

43

35

Greatest lunar obscuration.

46

07

.3.9

51

05

3.5

56

03

4.0

6 01

02

5.3

06

00

6.3

10

58

8.2

15

56

10.5

20

64

14.1

25

53

16.8

30

51

19.2

35

49

22.3

Clouds becoming thinner.

38

46

End of eclipse.

40

47

23.8

45

45

2- g f Bright spots seen iii the clouds near to the
\ sun's place.

50

44

30.7

55

42

32.6

7 00

40

36.5

Sun's disc barely visible.

The times of the commencement, middle, and end of the
eclipse are put down from Mr Innes's determination given in a
former number of this Journal.

The remarkable steadiness of the clouds in the eastern hemi-
sphere, to which alone the photometer was exposed, favoured
very much the experiments.

As the sun rose behind the mass of clouds, his rays, traver-
sing a thinner atmosphere, acquired a greater illuminating power';

328 Mr Sang on the Determination of

and this increase, even after the commencement of the eclipse,
was greater than the diminution arising from the concealment
of his disc by the moon ; speedily, however, the lunal obscura-
tion acquired the ascendancy, and the photometer rapidly sunk
to reach its minimum 7™ 30% after the computed time of great-
est obscuration. Under such unfavourable circumstances the
fidelity of the instrument was more than could have been antici-
pated, and may, perhaps, induce other meteorologists to give
this hitherto neglected instrument a place among their apparatus.
Convinced of its extreme precision, I have projected a complete
course of experiment for the purpose of comparing its indica-
tions with the degree of illumination as computed astronomically,
the above is the meagre substitute which circumstances have
compelled me to give instead.
\st August 1833.

2. A Method of freeing the determination of the Latitude of an Obser-
vatory^ and of the Declination of a Star^ from the consideration
of Atmospheric Refraction.

That element which enters most frequently into astronotiiical
calculations, is the latitude of the place ; next, indeed, to the
taking up of the meridian line, comes the determination of the
latitude of the observatory. Let us conceive ourselves to be de-
prived of all astronomical data, and to be bent on determining
them all anew, and we will then be able to view the determina-
tion of the latitude in all its bearings.

The fixing of the transit instrument, and the regulation of
the clock, are easily accomplished ; tables of the differences of
right ascension of the fixed stars are of simple though laborious
construction ; but when we seek their declinations, a new and
complicated difficulty meets us; for, without a knowledge of
terrestrial refraction, we cannot determine, by any of the hitherto
known methods, the latitude of the place, while, without a
knowledge of that latitude, we cannot settle the declination of a
single star. And, to add to the difficulty, the refraction is sub-
jected to continual variations, arising from changes in the tem-
perature, humidity, and pressure of the atmosphere. Santini,
in his elaborate Ricerche sulla Latitudine dell 'Osservatorio in
Padova, has endeavoured to free his computation from the ele-

the Latitude of' an Observatory. 329

ments of refraction and the star's altitude ; but^his success in that
attempt is only ideal. The north polar distances of the stars
were extracted from astronomical tables; and thus, though his
determination was freed from the errors of his own instrument
of altitude, and from a knowledge of refraction at the instant of
his observations, it yet involved the errors of other instruments,
and the knowledge of refraction at other places. His method,
in fact, can only be adopted at secondary observatories. Where-
ever the normal instrument exists, a method entirely indepen-
dent of the labours of other astronomers must be followed,
since, to adopt any determination made by means of instruments
of inferior delicacy, would be to reject all the advantages which
the possession of the superior instrument confers.

I submit the following method to those astronomers who are
possessed of good altitude and azimuth circles, as a means of
rectifying the determination of their altitudes, and of ascertain-
ing, by a direct procedure, the actual amount of refraction.
■ Using merely the azimuthal part of the instrument, let the
azimuths a, a, &c. and the corresponding hour-angle ^, A, &c.

12 12

of a star be observed : Denote by O the N. P. D. of the observa-
tory, by S that of the star, then have we

cot a. sin h = cot S. sin 0 — cos K cos O

1 2 1

cot a. sin h = cot S. sin O — cos h. cos O.

2 2 2

Whence

(cG% h — cos h\ cos O = cot a. sin h — cot a sin h.

^2 l/ 11 2 2

Or

2 sin. a, sin a, cos 0 = sin (a + a\ cot. f "'' J gin (^ — "V

12 ^12^ 2 ^ *^

cot X a;

2

cot a. sin h

If we put — — ' — -. — ^ = cos <p*, we obtain the easy calculation,
^ cot a.smh ' -^ *

1 1

cos O = i cot a. sin h. cse , a cse . ^ tan <p*.
a « 2 2

The latitude of the observatory being thus determined, it is
easy thence to compute the declination of the star ; and, if the
passage of the star across the horizontal wires had also been

330 Prof. De Candolle (yti the Longevity of Trees^

noted, by comparing the computed with the observed altitude,
to determine the amount of refraction at each observation.

When the latitude of the place is once known, the N. P. D.'s
of all the stars which pass between the pole and the zenith can
readily be found, by observing their greatest east and west azi-
muths. Observations, then, on their greatest and least altitudes
will readily give the refractions, but when the latitude is much
above 45°, this method will not enable us to determine refrac-
tions near the horizon. A judicious selection of pairs of obser-
vations will enable the astronomer, in a single day, to obtain
correctly the latitude of his observatory ; and he will thus avoid
the trouble of applying the corrections for nutation and aberra-
tion, which would become necessary if the period of his experi-
ment were much extended.

\2th August 1833.

ON THE LONGEVITY OF TREES AND THE MEANS OE ASCERTAIN-

iNG IT. By Professor De Candolle,

A TREE may be considered in two points of view ; it may
either be said to be a collection of as many individuals united as
are developed by buds on its surface, or as a simple individual,
analogous to what is so called in speaking of animals. In the
first mode of expression, probably the most rational, we cannot
be surprised, that new buds being constantly added to the old
ones, the aggregate which results from it has no necessar}^ limit
to its existence. In the second, which is the more common, it
must be admitted, that as a new woody layer is formed every
year, and generally new organs in the greater number of trees,
in vegetables this gradually increasing hardness (ossification) and
obstipation in old and permanent organs ought not to occur, in
which death from decrepitude, properly speaking, consists, and
that of course trees should not die unless from accidental causes.
By either of these hypotheses we arrive at the inference, that
trees do not die of old age in the real sense of the word, smd
that, in consequence, we might find some which have attained
an extraordinary age.

It is not enough, however, to conceive this opinion, we must
endeavour to establish it. Two remarkable instances have been

and the Mecms of ascertaining it. 881

adduced of it, — that of the Baobab, which Adanson has proved,
by ingenious and plausible calculations, to be 5150 years old, and
that of the Taxodium (Cupressus disticha, Lin.), which analo-
gous reasoning might induce us to beHeve was even older. (See a
notice of these trees by Mr Alph. D. C. Bibl. Univ. April
1831.) Other examples, less worthy of notice, seem to confirm
the idea, that there are at present some trees in the world of
immense antiquity, witnesses, perhaps, of its later physical revo-
lutions. We can easily conceive that errors may happen in cal-
culations of this kind, and that they cannot be considered as
the expressions of exact truth, till examples of this vegetable
longevity are multiplied to such an extent as to support one
another *. I have been engaged on this subject for a consider-
able time, as appears from the publication of the Principles of
Botany, inserted, in 1805, in the first volume of the Flore Fran-

• On the Growth of Timber. — In the year 1827, a large lot of hemlock tim-
ber was cut from the north-eastern slope of East Rock, near New Haven (in
America), for the purpose of forming a foundation for the wharf, which bounds
the basin of the Farmington Canal on the east. While inspecting and mea-
suring that timber at the time of its delivery, I took particular notice of the
successive layers, each of which constitute a year's growth of the tree ; and
which in that kind of wood are very distinct. These layers were of various
breadth, indicating a growth five or six times as full in some years as in
others, preceding or following. Thus, every tree had preserved a record of
the seasons, for the period of its growth, whether 30 years or 200, — and what
is worthy of observation, every tree told the same story. Thus, if you began at
the outer layer of two trees, one young and the other old, and counted back
20 years, if the young tree indicated, by a fuU layer, a growing season for that
kind of timber, the older tree indicated the same. My next observation was,
that the growing seasons clustered together^ and also the meagre seasons, came iu
companies. Thus, it was rare to find a meagre season immediately prece-
ding or following a season of full growth, — but, if you commenced in aclustre
of thin and meagre layers, and proceeded on, it gradually enlarged and swel-
led to the maximum, after which a decrease began and went on, until it ter-
minated in a minimum.

A third observation was, that there appeared nothing like periodicity in the
return of the full years, or the meagre, but the clusters alternated at irre-
gular intervals ; neither could there be observed, in coinparing the clusters,
any law by which the number of years was regulated.

I had then before me, therefore, two or three hundred meteorological tables^
all of them as unerring as nature ; and by selecting one tree from the oldest,
and sawing out a thin section from its trunk, I might have preserved one of
the number to be referred to afterwards. It might have been smoothed on
the one side by the plane, so as to exhibit its record to the eye with all the
distinctness and neatness of a drawing. On the opposite side might have been
minuted in indelible writing, the locality of the tree, the kind of timber, the
year and month when cut, the soil where it grew, the side and point which
faced the north, and every other circumstance which can possibly be supposed
ever to have the most remote relation to the value of the table in hand. The
lover of science will not be backward to incur such trouble, for he knows how
often, in the progress of human knowledge, an observation or an experiment
has lost its value by the disregard of some circumstance connected with it,

332 Prof. De CandoUe on the Longevity/ of Trees,

9aise ; but the life of man is too short for similar researches, op-
portunities are very rare, and examples should be sought for in
countries neither exposed to frost nor the destructive hand of
man. The very means of ascertaining the age of old trees are per-
haps not sufficiently known by travellers, or those who are in-
terested in such inquiries. This has induced me to call the pub-
lic attention to them by this particular article.

The longevity of certain trees is truly interesting, were it
merely from motives of curiosity. If we prize every document
of antiquity, why should we not attach a higher degree of im-
portance, to know whether such a tree be the contemporary of
the oldest generations ? In certain cases, this knowledge might
throw light on the history of monuments, as that of monuments
on the history of the trees in their vicinity. This discussion
may be useful in a history of the very globe we inhabit. If the
known number of veterans in vegetation increases in time to
come, if we succeed in determining their age with greater pre-
cision, may we not find in such facts some means of fixing the
approximate date of the last revolutions of the globe ? If re-
searches of this kind were made respecting volcanic or madre-
poric islands, might we not draw some inference respecting the
date of their origin ? But leaving the consideration of questions
of such magnitude, if we reflect on the means of obtaining a so-
lution of our question, we shall see that they are all founded on

which, at the time, was not thought worthy of notice. Lastly, there might
be attached to the same section a written meteorological table, compiled from
the observations of some scientific person, if such observations had been made
in the vicinity. This being done, why, in the eye of science, might not this
natural, unerring, graphical record of seasons past deserve as careful preserva-
tion as a curious mineral or a new form of crystals ?

If you should think fit to make such a suggestion, it might lead, in fact, to
the preservation of sections from aged trees in different parts of the country,
and a comparison of their lines of growth with the history of the weather as
far back as our knowledge extends. If the observations just related, with
respect to a particular lot of timber, should be found to hold true of trees in
general, drawings of these sections, on a reduced scale, would soon find their
way to the pages of scientific journals. It would be interesting, then, to
make comparisons of one with another, — to compare the sections of the one
kind of tree with that of another from the same locality, — or to compare sec-
tions of the same kind of tree from different parts of the country. Such a
comparison would elicit a mass of facts, both with respect to the progress of
the seasons and their relation to the growth of timber, and might prove, here-
after, the means of carrying back our knowledge of the seasons through a pe-
riod coeval with the age ot the oldest forest-trees, and in regions of country
where scientific observation has never yet penetrated, nor a civilized popuki«
tion dwelt Mr Twining in Silliman^s Journal, vol. xxiv. p. 39 J.

and the Means of ascertaining it.

a more exact appreciation of the ordinary laws of the growth of
trees, and that this direct knowledge may throw light on many
parts of vegetable physiology and the art of forestry. I therefore
believe, that these inquiries may turn out to be useful ; but were
they merely curious, I would still think that they might not
be unworthy of being presented to the public, for curiosity
is one of the desires which the mind is more inclined to grati-
fy the more it is enlightened, and we have a thousand exam-
ples of unexpected advantages having arisen in consequence of
this noble feeling.

Every one knows, that the vegetables designed for the forma-
tion of trees may be ranged under two great series. The first,
which is the more numerous, has a trunk composed of a
woody body and bark : it grows by the annual addition of a
new ligneous layer on the outside of the preceding layers under
the bark. In consequence of these new layers being the
youngest and the most outward, they have been called exogenous
in reference to their increase, and dicoii/ledonous when we al-
lude to their germination. The second series, on the contrary,
is composed of vegetables whose trunks, very cylindrical, and sel-
dom branching, merely present a woody body, properly speak-
ing without bark, whose outer fibres are older and harder, and
the inner younger and softer. They have been called endoge-
nous in consequence of this latter circumstance, which term is
employed when we allude to their growth, which is synonymous
with that of monocotyledonons, by which they are distinguished
when we speak of their germination. We shall succinctly ex-
amine the means of determinin<j the ase of individual trees of
both these classes, and conclude with a few words on vegetables
more humble in their appearance, but whose longevity presents
some singular ambiguities.

1. Almost all the trees in temperate, and of course in the most
civilized, countries of the globe, belong to the exogenous class ;
and its history having therefore been more carefully studied, can
supply us with the most valuable information. It is known,
however, by means, of the truth of which there can be no doubt,
that exogenous trees grow each year by a new woody layer,
and that, in consequence, the number of concentric zones which
are seen on the transverse or horizontal cut of a trunk, may give

334 Prof. De CandoUe (yn the Longevity of Trees,

an idea of the number of years which have rolled on since the
moment at which the portion of the tree where this section was
made, commenced to grow. Of course, a cut at the base of a
branch gives the age of that branch ; that which is made at the
base of the trunk, or at the neck, proves the age of the tree. If,
as some maintain, there may occasionally be seen irregularities,
it is a very debateable point ; and it may, at least, be affirmed, that
possible errors, if there be any, are so rare and so trivial, that
one may confidently argue on the hypothesis, that the known
number of layers indicates the number of years : of course,
whenever we can procure a clean cut of a trunk, this very sim-
ple criterion is sufficient to determine the age of the tree. But
the inspection of these concentric zones should be made more
carefully than it has been hitherto. These zones prove the age
by their numbers, but the rate of the tree*'s growth is discovered
by the proportion of their thickness. They must not only be
counted, but measured. For this object I employ the following
plan, which is very simple, whenever I meet with a clean cut of
an old tree, which is sufficiently sound to enable me to discover
its layers. I place a slip of paper on the branch from the
centre to the circumference; on it I mark with a pencil or pen
the junction of each zone, noting the side of the pith, of the
bark, the name of the tree, its native country, and the particu-
lar observations which it has suggested. The collection of these
slips, not unlike those in the shops of tailors, gives me an exact
appreciation of the growth of trees and the means of comparing
them. I am in the practice of marking, in a more striking
manner, the lines which indicate the tenths of years, and also of
measuring the increase from tenth to tenth. My measures be-
ing taken from the centre to the circumference, give me the
radius. I double the figures if I require the diameter ; I sex-
tuple them if I wish the circumference of the ligneous body. It
is almost useless, except in certain cases, to make similar re-
searches concerning young trees, because in operating on the
oldest trees of each species which can be obtained, we possess
the advantage of judging of trees at all the stages of their
growth. As it would be inconvenient to publish an engraving
of these slips, which are sometimes several feet long, I give an
idea of these results by means of the following table : —

and the Means of ascertaining it.

335

TABLE of the Periods of Increase in Diameter of some Exogenous
Trees, expressed in lines*

111

t'A

ll

1

1

f

1

i
^1

i

>" 0

1 to

10 years.

54

10

18

48

16

41

8

10...

20 ...

62

16

33

61

44

54

II5

20»..

30 ...

54

22^

39|

58

58^

52

12

30 ...

40 ...

60

12

38

72

72

45

lOi

40 ...

5o ...

48

13^

23

46

88

35^

2
7

50...

60 ..

44

14

12^

57

74

36

12i

60 .„

70 ...

6Q

10§

9

46

78.

18

8^

70...

80 ...

44

11

n

29

6Q'

17

80...

90 ...

32

H

H

30

59

13

90...

100 ,

32

n

8

24

45

13

100...

110 ...

30

H

7|

32

30

22

110 ...

120 ...

36

9

8^

26

30

22

120 ...

130 ...

30

9

8

20|

24

130...

140 ...

9^

10

22

24

140 ..

150 ...

lo'

8

23

18

150..

160 ...

H

83

21

19

160 ..

170 ...

9'

9

20

17^

170..

180 ...

10

8

19

23'

180 ..

190 ...

9

8

18

30

190..

200 ...

9

7

21

34

200 ..

210 ...

9

8

22

34

210..

220 ...

7

22^

26

220..

230 ...

6

21

36

230 ..

240 ...

8

22

28

240..

250 ...

8

20^

26

250..

260 ...

n

24

260..

270 ...

8

in

270 ..

. 280 ...

8

26'

280 ..

290 ...

H

28

290..

300 ...

8^

29

300 ..

210 ...

9

16

310 ..

. 320 ...

8

16^

320 ..

330 ...

8

21

On an inspection of these figures, we will find, that trees at ad-
vanced periods of life continue to form layers which do not yield
in thickness to those of a moderate age ; that each species, after
increasing rapidly in youth, seems at a certain age to grow at a
regular rate ; that, in short, we can give a tolerable explanation
of such a difference, by supposing that at an early period, i. e.
before fifty or sixty years, the roots and branches of forest-trees

336 Prof. De Candolle on the Longevitij of Trees ^

not being embarrassed by those near them, increase at liberty,
but on exceeding this age, that they do not grow so much, be-
cause they encounter the roots or branches of their neighbours;
that the cause of inequalities in growth, is generally owing, either
to the middle root of the tree meeting layers of good or bad
soil, or because at certain periods the tree, being disincumbered
of its neighbours, is able to grow at more liberty.

Similar tables of a great many species, and of individuals of
each species, would aiford excellent evidence of the progress of
vegetation. First, we might be enabled to establish in every
species its average increase annually, and thus, on finding out
the circumference of an exogenous tree, we might discover its
age almost to a certainty ; and it should be observed that the
principal differences occur during the first century ; and that af-
terwards its growth is more uniform. Secondly, A knowledge
of the average growth and solidity of one kind of wood being
attained, we could form an opinion of the layers of each trunk
by their thickness, if it depart less or more from the qualities
peculiar to its species. We may thus be certain, that the oak
No. 1. in the table is very inferior to those of Nos. 2. and 3,
because the thickness of its layers is too great for the wood to
have acquired its proper degree of hardness. Thirdly, If the
law which I suggest be correct, that at a certain age (sixty to
eighty years in oak-trees), every tree ceases to grow so rapidly,
and progresses more regularly, we might deduce precise rules as
to the period when we should fell certain trees. I therefore
presume to believe, that tables of horizontal cuts would be of
peculiar advantage, and I recommend their preparation to tra-
vellers, and those who live near extensive clearings of woods or
dock-yards,

2. If we are unable to get a transverse section of trunks,
there is another mode of judging of their growth, viz. to find
out old individuals of each species, the date of which is known,
to measure their circumference, to deduct from that, their aver-
age increase, and make use of it in calculating the age of
other trees of the same species, always keeping in view, that,
local circumstances excepted, the average taken of a younger
tree always gives a result too great for the increase, or too small
for the age of old trees. I read in Evelyn, that a Dane, called

and the Means of ascertaining it. 337

Henry Ranjovius, planted a certain number of trees in 1580, in
Ditmarsen, of various kinds, and placed stones near them, on
which he engraved their dates, that posterity, as he said, might
be aware of theii- age. It would be curious to know whether
these trees are still in existence, and, in such a case, tp get their
circumference. It is a question that I address to Danes who
are fond of science, and, in general, it would be curious to
have the circumference of every tree whose date is known, and
is upwards of a century old. I would even venture to invite
all those who have similar documents, either to publish them,
or communicate them to me, as these facts are very useful by
their comparison with others.

3. As to trees 100 years old, it is useful to get their circum-
ference at various known periods, in order to compare them with
each other, or with other raeasureinents of the same tree, which
may have been made at an earlier or a later period. These compa-
risons would afford means for a more accurate calculation of the
law of the growth, and appreciating the influence of the difference
of age. Thus the cedar, in the Jardin de Paris, for example,
measured when eighty-three years old, was 106 inches in cir-
cumference, which would indicate a mean increase of five lines
annually ; but it had been measured at the age of forty years,
and at that time was above 79 inches round. We are thus aware
that, during the first forty years, it increased 7^ lines annually,
and only 2J for the succeeding forty-three ; consequently, if we
were going to calculate the age of a very old cedar, we should
not be very far wrong did we take the latter as the multiplier.
Thus the cedars measured at Lebanon in 1660 by Maundrel and
Pococke, which were 12 yards and 6 inches round, English mea-
sure (it may be about 1527 lines in diameter royal measure),
should be about 609 y^ars old, and nearly 800 in 1787, when
they were revisited by Mr Labillardiere. This calculation is
doubtful, however, as it is founded on a single example ; it
would be much more certain were the number of examples in-
creased.

4. It would also be useful to take the circumference of some
very old trees which we may meet, even though we are igno-
rant of the time when they were planted. Such measurements
repeated at stated intervals, would inform us of the law of the

'i^i.. XV. NO. XXX. OCTOBKR 1833. Y

S38 Prof. De CandoUe (wi the Longevity of Trees,

diametrical increase of old trunks, and, compared with other
measurements, would give approximate averages for estimating
their ages. Thus, in Evelyn, we find, that in 1660 there was
an immense oak in Wellbeck Lane, which was 33 feet 1 inch
round, about 11 feet perhaps in diameter. The same oak, though
greatly mutilated, existed in 1 775, and was 12 feet in diameter ;
of course, it had increased about 144 lines in 120 years, a little
more than one line annually. From this we may conjecture
that the law of increase indicated by the oak of 333 years in
my Table, is followed by this one, though evidently older. If,
therefore, we calculate the age of the oak in Wellbeck Lane,
we see by the thickness of that of 333 years, that it must have
been about 1300 years old when Evelyn lived, and more than
1400 in the year 1775.

5. Lastly, in cases where it is impossible to obtain a trans-
versal cut of an old tree, it may happen that we may have an
opportunity of making a lateral cut in the tree, in order to
ascertain how much it has increased in a given number of years,
and in this way find out the minimum of its mean increase. It
was by this process that AdanBon discovered the age of the
Baobabs ; he saw the extent of the growth of these trees in three
centuries, and also knowing the growth of young trees, he was
enabled, by striking an average, to establish the general law.
The age of the Taxodium of Chapultepec in Mexico should be
carefully investigated by this plan.

By means of the five plans, either singly or connected,
which I have just pointed out, we may arrive at a knowledge of
the age of old exogenous trees in a manner sufficiently accurate
for the object of this inquiry. Let us now point out the trees to
which it is principally to be directed. The greatest longevity
in the vegetable kingdom ought to be found, 1^^, In trees which,
by their hardness, incorruptibility, or size, should most power-
fully resist inclement seasons; ^d, In countries which are not
exposed to ice, or to other causes which too frequently tend to
destroy large plants.

Among European trees we may mention the following :
1 . It is well known that the elm (Ormeaii) attains a great size,
although it grows very quick. The individual in which I have ob-
served the greatest increase, is near Morges. A note of its layers

and on the Means of ascertaining it. 339

and the account of its fall was obligingly communicated by Mr
Alexis Forel. Its cut indicated 335 years of age ; at its fall it
Was perfectly sound, and had grown in a light moist soil; its
trunk, at the neck, was 17 feet 7 inches diameter, Swiss mea-
sure (the foot being equal to 3 decim.), 30 feet in circum-
ference below the branches, 12 feet from the ground, and one of
the five thick branches was 16 feet in circumference : the tree
fell during a calm season, the soil having been probably washed
away by the waters of the Lake Leman. Its mean increase
was 34 lines annually ; but on a division by centuries, it was
observed, that it had grown 6 lines annually in the first, 2J in
the second, and 2| in the third century; these figures agreed
with those which are generally found in the elms which were
planted by order of Sully before the churches in France. We
ought carefully to distinguish between the rate of increase in
large and small-leaved elms ; the latter is longer lived, and seems
to grow more slowly *.

2. I saw an ivy (Lierre) in 1814 at Gigeau, near Montpellier,
whose trunk near the base was 6 feet in circumference, which as-
tonished by its immense size: another ivy of forty-five years old
was only 7| inches in circumference. If this is to be taken as
a model, the ivy of Gigeau should have been 433 years old in
1814, and about 450 at present, if, as I hope, it is still in exist-
ence. It is probable, that if there be a mistake in this, as also in
the following examples, it is owing to my having calculated the
age of the individuals at the very lowest rate.

3. Above I have given the measurement o^a\3Xch-iree( Meleze)
of 255 years old. Assuming this example to be a law of nature,
we may believe that there are some between 500 and 600 years
old, but it is of consequence to multiply the measurements of their
layers.

4. The lime (TilleulJ is the European tree which, in a given
time, seems capable of acquiring the greatest diameter; that
which was planted at Fribourg in 1476, on account of the battle

• The treaty which William Penn made with the natives in 1682, was ne-
gotiated under a large (American) elm, which grew on the spot now called
Kensington, just above Philadelphia. It was prostrated by a storm in 1 810, at
which time its stem measured 24 feet in circumference. — Memoirs 0/ Hist. Soc,
Pen.

Y U

S40 Prof. De CandoUe on the Longevity of Trees,

of Morat, is actually 13 feet 9 inches diameter, which gives an an-
nual increase of about 2 lines. This quantity, equal to that of
the oak, seems, in ray opinion, to indicate that it was not in a
favourable soil ; and I should be induced to believe, that it would
be more correct to admit an average increase of 4 lines annually.
As there are a good many large lime-trees in Europe, it would
be important to have the circumference of those whose dates are
known. I may mention, on account of their thickness, that of
the Castle of Chaille, near Melles, in the department of the
Deux-Sevres, which, in 1804, was 15 metres in circumference,
at that time, I imagine, 538 years old : that of Trons in the
Grisons, famous even in 1424, which, in 1798, was 51 feet in
circumference, and, I suppose, 583 years of age ; that of Depe-
ham, near Norwich, which, in 1664, was 8J yards mean circum-
ference ; that of Neustadt in Wurtemberg, which, in 1580, was
so thick as to require props, and in 1664 was 37 feet 4 inches in
circumference. In studying the lime-tree more minutely, we
ought carefully to distinguish between those of large and small
leaves ; the former seem to increase more quickly than the latter.

5. The evergreen cypresses are certainly among the trees of
Southern Europe which reach the greatest age, and the custom
of planting them in church-yards has rendered them an object of
respect, and afforded means of measuring them. Hunter says that,
in 1776, there were a few in the garden of the palace at Grenada,
which had some celebrity at the time of the Moorish kings, and
which were still called Citpressos de la Regna Sultana, because a
Sultana was found there with Abencerrages. I can find no
precise information, however, respecting the increase of these
trees, which I point out to naturalists *.

6. The chestnut-trees appear capable of attaining a great age,
but I do not found this opinion on the famous tree of a hundred
horses on Mount Etna. Messrs Simond and Durby have com-
municated details respecting it, which seem to establish that this
tree, which is 70 feet in circumference, is an amalgamation of
many. We ought, indeed, to estimate the growth of this tree
by trunks of extraordinary size ; there are many very large ones
on Mount Etna. Poederle mentions having seen one 50 feet in
circumference in Gloucestershire, which was believed to be 900

• Cypress, mentioned about 350 years o\(\.—Organographie.

and on the Means of ascertaining it. Stt

years old. Bosc cites one which is near Sancerre, 30 feet in
circumference, and was known, it is said, by the name of the
great chestnut-tree, for 600 years. It would be desirable to have
precise information as to the growth of this species.

7. The oriental plane-tree (Platane), (if it can be numbered
among European trees), is certainly one of the largest, but we are
ignorant of the law of its growth. There is a plane-tree in the
valley of Bujukdere, three leagues from Constantinople, which
reminds us of the one which Pliny has rendered so celebrated;
it is 160 feet round, and has formed a cavity of 80 feet in fcir-
cumference. I should wish travellers to ascertain, — 1. If it be
a single tree, or the amalgamation of many ; % How much it
has increased in a given time, which might be discovered by a
lateral nick, which would enable us to count the layers ; and,
3. By what law the growth of plane-trees of a century old is
regulated*..

8. I would also direct the attention of observers to the walnut-
tree (Noyer). Scammozzi, the architect, says that he saw, at
St Nicholas, in Lorraine, a table of a small piece of walnut-tree of
25 feet in size, on which Frederick III. gave a celebrated re-
past. We cannot determine the ages of similar trees, as we do
not know the rate of their increase : when they are aged, it would
be easy to ascertain it. • :')^]cn

9. The orange and citron trees which are cultivafeS in
Europe increase most slowly, and become the oldest. It is as-
serted that the orange-tree of St Sabine at Rome was planted
by St Dominick in 1200, and that of Fondi by St Thomas
of Aquinus in 1278. The measurement of these trees, and the
verification of these traditions, might give an approximation of
the annual increase of the Jgrumi (bitter orange trees) of Italy.

9. The cedars of which I formerly spoke, though they ap-
pear to me less aged than they are supposed to be, merit the at-
tention of observers •(•, it?

10. The oak is undoubtedly one of the most long-lived trees of
Europe ; but its study is involved in great ambiguity, either be-
cause it is a tree which, by the admission of foresters, is princi-
pally modified by soil, or because the wood of the Quercus pe~
'MM? n* • Oriental Plane, 720 years and upwards.— Or^an.

f Cedars of Lebanon, abo^lt 800 years old.— Or^a/t.

d4S Prof. De CandoUe on the Longevity of Trees ^

dunculata, which grows quickly, and to a great height, has been
very generally confounded with the Quercus sessilijlora, which
grows more slowly, becomes harder, and is more tortuous ; in
consequence of this confusion, it is impossible to compart the
documents which have been obtained. There are many in-
stances to be seen of the thickness which oak-trees may attain,
in the Sylva of Evelyn, a valuable work, from which I have
frequently obtained useful information. I have reason to be-
lieve that there are oaks, even in France, of 1500 or 1600 years
of age, but it would be proper to verify these dates by more
careful investigations.

11. The olive-tree is also capable of attaining an astonishing
age, in countries where it is not exposed to the axe. M. Cha-
teaubriand mentions, in his Itinerary, that the eight olive-trees
in the olive garden in Jerusalem, only pay a rnedin each,
5^5 of a piastre, to the Grand Seignor, which proves that they
existed at the invasion of the Turks, because, of those planted
since, the half of their fruit is paid. The largest olive-tree in
Italy, mentioned by Picconi, is at Pescio ; it is 7696 metres in
circumference. If the calculation of Moschcttini is to be relied
on, that the olive-tree grows a line and a half annually, it would
be about 700 years old; but this estimation, compared with
younger trees, must be below the truth.

12. Of all the European trees, the yew (If) appears to have
reached the most advanced age. I measured the layers of one
of 71, Oelhafen one of 150, and Veillard one of 280 years old :
these three measurements agree in proving that this tree grows
a little more than one line annually in the first 150 years, and
a little less from 150 to 250 years. If we admit an average of
a line annually for very old yews, it is probably within the
truth, and that in reckoning the number of their years as equal
to that of the lines of their diameter, they are younger than
they actually are. Now, I find four measurements of celebrated
yew trees in Great Britain.

Those of the ancient Abbey of Fontaine near Rippon, in
Yorkshire, known in 1133, were in 1770, according to Pennant,
1214 lines in diameter, or upwards of 1200 years old.

Those in the church-yard of Crow-hurst, in the corinty of
Surrey, were, according to Evelyn, 1287 lines in diameter in

a7id ati the Means of ascertainmg it. 343

1660. If, as we are informed, they are still in existence, they
ought to be fourteen centuries and a half old.

That of Fotheringall in Scotland * was, in 1770, 2588 lines in
diameter, and therefore, twenty-five or twenty-six centuries old.

That in the churchyard of Braburn, county of Kent, was, in
1660, nearly 2880 lines in diameter, and if it be existing at
present, should be 8000 years old.

I venture to point out these trees to the foresters and bota-
nists of England, that they may verify them, ^nd if possible
ascertain the law of their growth, for it is very probable that
the oldest specimens of European vegetation are to be found
there +.

For the same reasons, I recommend to those who may have it in
their power, to study the law of the growth and dimensions of the
CeUis or nettle-tree, box-tree, carob-tree, beech-tree, phillyrea J,

• The yew-tree here alluded to, stands in the church-yard of Fortingal,
at the entrance to Glenlyon in Perthshire. It was described by the Hon.
Dames Barrington in 1769, (Phil. Trans, vol. lix.) : he mentions that, at that
period, on one side of the trunk the outward bark only remained, the centre
having decayed ; that the fresh portion was then 34 feet in circumference ;
but that he could then measure the entire bole, and had in fact measured it
twice over, and ascertained it to be 52 feet. This ancient tree still lives,
and was visited, in July 1833, by Mr Neill, Secretary to the Caledonian
Horticultural Society. From him we learn, that considerable spoliations
have evidently been committed on the tree since 1769; large arms have been
removed, and masses of the trunk itself carried off by the country people,
with the view of forming quechs or drinking-cups and other relics, which vi.
sitors were in the habit of demanding. The remains of the trunk now pre-
sent the appearance of a semicircular wall, exclusive of traces of decayed
wood which scarcely rise above the ground. Great quantities of new spray
have issued from the firmer parts of the bark, and a few young branches
spring upwards to the height perhaps of 20 feet. The side of the trunk now
existing gives a diameter of more than 15 feet, so that it is easy to conceive
that the circumference of the bole when entii'e should have exceeded 50 feet.
Happil)', farther depredations have been prevented by means of an iron-rail,
which now surroundsi the sacred spot ; and this venerable yew^ which in all
probability was a flourishing tree at the commencement of the Christian era,
may yet survive for centuries to come. —Ed.

•f- A Ficm IndicCf on the banks of the Nerbudda, is celebrated throughout
India, on account of its vast size and great antiquity. It answers to the tree
described by Nearchus, and therefore cannot be less than 2500 years old Ed.

X There are some specimens of Phillyrea laHfolia in the garden of Mont-
pellier, planted in all probability in the year 1 598.

{^^ Prof. De CandoUe ori the Longevity of Trees,

Cercis or Judas-tree*, Juniper -f-, &c. respecting which there is
a want of information.

^iijAmong the exogenous trees in countries between the tropics,
•the Cheirostenion lias been cited (because there is a tree at To-
luca known since 1553), and the Ceiba, which astonishes by its
.thickness ; but it is improbable that trees, the wood of which is
so soft, should be among the number of those that are very old.
I confess, however, that the example of the Baobab, which, with-
out being very hard, attains, according to Adanson^ more than
5000 years of age, ought, in this respect, to render me circum-
■spect. I shall rather call the attention of travellers to large
trees of hard wood ; such as the mahogany, which is generally
>Beven feet thick ; the Courbaril, which it is said attains, in the
Antilles, a diameter of twenty feet, and whose hardness is such
tliat its growth is very slow ; the various trees known under the
name of Iron- wood ; the Pinus lamhertiana of California, which
is said to be from 150 to 200 feet high, and from 20 to 60 feet in
circumference ; the fig-tree of the pagodas of India, &c. I shall
advise them, especially, to verify what is connected with the
Taxodiums of Mexico, Cup?'essus disticha, L. Is the immense
tree of Chapultepec, which is said to have attained a circumfe-
rence of 117 feet, 10 inches, really a single tree, or the amalga-
mation of many ? Has it a hollow cave at its base like those of
Louisiana, said to belong to the same species ? I venture to
recommend another examination of this gigantic tree : it may be
the most ancient vegetable production in the globe, mtj mu io
It is more difficult to find out the age of endogenous th^n of
exogenous trees, either because their native country has not been
so thoroughly examined, or because the absence of woody lay-
ers, and the preservation of the same diameter at different stages
of existence, actually render this investigation more difficult.
Endogenous trees generally present themselves under two as-
pects; the first, such as the palm-trees, have almost the whole

• In the same garden at Montpellier, there is the largest Judas-ttee
which is in Europe, and perhaps in the world. Its exact measurement should
te registered.

•f- I have seen a gigantic juniper tree at Draguignan, which possesses this
peculiarity, that it is at the side of an ancient monument, called a Druidical
stone ; but from what I know of the increase of this tree, I doubt whethei^ it
be more than 380 years old. ^

— and on the Means of ascertaining it. S45

of the trunk bare, and marked with circular rings, nearly at re-
gular distances, at least during the greater period of their life ;
the others, like the Dracaena, have the trunk branching, with-
out rings. The age of the palm-trees may be estimated in two
ways, very analogous to one another: — 1. By the height to
which they reach, compared with the empiric knowledge of the
time which each species requires in growing ; 2. By the nume-
rous rings and their mean distance, compared with the height of
the trunk. Both of these modes are principally based on a
knowledge of the height of the trees, just in the same way as
the study of the age of exogenous trees is founded on their
thickness. It is therefore of essential importance, to advise tra-
vellers to take a correct note of the extreme length of the trunk
of every kind of palm-tree. They should also be requested to
measure the height of every tree whose age is known, and to as-
certain, by an examination, if the rings seen on the outside real-
ly indicate, as it is said, the annual growth, or any other pe-
riod.

The first method, on being applied to the date-tree, seems to
afford results in conformity with truth. There was a date-
tree in 1709 at Cavalaire, in Provence, 50 feet in height,
which had been planted in 1709. The greatest height of those
in Egypt and Barbary. is 60 feet, and the Arabians reckon that
their age rarely exceeds two or three centuries. It is unneces-
sary to ascertain in what proportions the rapidity of the growth
of the date-tree decreases at diflPerent periods.

Assuming that the external rings of the trunk indicate the
years, we may estimate the approximate age of the Brazil palm-
trees, according to the principles laid down by M. de Marti us,
i^ his magnificent work, as follows :

o-ni vjbmi r'-jyio

Height of

Diameter of

Distance of

Probable

the trunk.

the trunk.

the rings.

age.

Feet.

Inches.

Inches.

Years.

(Enocarpus Botaua

80

12

7

134

Euterpe oleracea

120

8 to 9

4 to 5

300 1-

Euterpe edulis .

100

6 to 7

4 to 5

300

Iriartea exorhiza

80 to 100

12

4toe

250 to 30G

Guilielma speciosa .

80 to 90

6 to 8

4 to 5

250 to .^00

Cocos oleracea . .

CO to 80

12

1 to 2

600 to 700

Cocos nucifera . .

CO to 80

4 to 12

3 to 12

80 to 330

346 Prof. De CandoUe on the Longevity of Trees,

I give these approximations to travellers, as indications, and to
induce them to verify the data on which they are founded.

As to endogenous trees branching, and without regular rings,
we are not aware of any plan for establishing their age, and the
problem ought to be laid before observers without limitation.
We know that some of the trees belonging to this class reach an
extreme longevity, such as the famous dragon-tree (Dractiena
draco) of the garden of Franchi, at Orotava, island of Teneriffe,
which was a celebrated tree in 1402, at the discovery of the
island, and at that time an object of veneration among the peo-
ple. Mr Berthelot *, who has published an accurate descrip-
tion of it, says, that on comparing the young dragon-trees which
are in the vicinity of this gigantic tree, the calculations which he
has made as to the age of the last have more than once asto-
nished his imagination. In 1796, according to Mr Ledru, it
was 20 metres in height, 13 in circumference at the middle, and
24 at the base ; since that time, the hurricane of 21st July 1819
has destroyed a great portion of the top of it.

I am induced to think that, among perennial plants and small
shrubs, there are some which are older than we are accustomed
to beheve, but on this point there have been no inquiries. I
shall here mention some incomplete facts, which may encourage
observers to direct their attention to the .duration of these hum-
ble vegetables. In vegetable organography, I have taken notice
of the singular willow, called herbaceous, which, when it grows
on the mossy ground of the Alps, in places below the declivities,
the soil of which moves away slowly, is gradually covered, and
stretches itself out to an extent absolutely necessary to reach the
surface, in such a manner that it presents the appearance of a
green turf many yards in extent, and is in reality the top of a
subterraneous tree. I have attempted to uproot this singular
kind of tree, but never could reach its inferior extremity, though
the length which I dug out, compared with the extreme slow-
ness of its spreading, indicated a very advanced age. It would
be curious to reach the lower end of this tree, which, owing to
its subterranean existence, escapes the inclemencies of the atmo-
sphere.

I have seen Eryngiums and Echinophoras in the downs of the
, , * Mem. Cur. Nat. vol. xiii. p. 781.

ajid on the Means of ascertaining it. S4^

south of France, whose crawling stem extends itself as the
downs rise ; I attempted to tear them up, but never'could reach
the genuine root; i. e. the descending portion. I should almost
think that these vegetables are sometimes cotemporary with the
downs themselves. The rhizomas of the Nymphasa, Equisetum,
and ferns, should also afford examples of extreme longevity,
though I am not aware of any mode of discovering it with ac-
curacy.

'I shall even descend to vegetables still more humble.*^ Mr
Vaucher has traced a lichen for forty years, without seeing any
apparent change in its size. For aught I know, it may be po^
sible that, among the specks which cover the rocks, there may
be some whose origin goes back to the period when this rock
was first exposed to the air. It may be possible that, among
the mosses which line the bottom of certain rivers, some of thera
may have been in existence when ihey began to flow.

If we set aside these plants, too obscure perhaps to attract
general attention, and confine ourselves to trees, the history of
which is an object of universal interest, we shall find the solu-
tion of a truly curious problem in the inquiries which I propose.
Let us hasten to solve it while there is time. On the one hand,
the progress of industry, the calculations of the art of forestry,
which are now thoroughly understood, the frequent change of
owners, the general spread of civilization, have caused the de-
struction of trees a hundred years old, in the most remote dis-
tricts ; whilst, on the other, changes in religious opinions, and
the decay of some notions worthy of respect, though supersti-
tious, tend to diminish the veneration which certain trees formerly
inspired in the people. Let us hasten to ascertain the dimen-
sions of those which do exist, and if possible to preserve those
monuments of ages now no more. If my isolated voice could
reach the proprietors of such trees, the municipal governments
of the districts where they are, I should like to induce them to
take measures which might tend to their preservation. Where
is the town which does not take an interest in the preservation
of coins, which refer to ages that are gone ? Old trees are coins
of a different kind, which deserve to be saved from destruction.
I should wish the oldest tree in each district to be recognised as
public property, that it should be preserved from injury, either

348 On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water

as an historical monument, or to gratify the imagination of those
who are fond of referring to antiquity.

osl address these reflections to foresters, naturalists, painters of
rural scenery, the local authorities of every nation. I request
them to measure the old trees with which they may be sur-
rounded, by the plans which I have proposed. All those who
have any means of publishing their results will act wisely in
printing them immediately, the only kind of register which at
present is destined to endure indefinitely. As to those who have
no facility in publishing, I offer to receive their observations,
and to register them in their names, either in this collection, or
in a particular work on the age of trees, materials for which I
have already collected. Those travellers who may not h^ix^'
ficiently acquainted with botany, so as to designate the tree by
the correct name, will do well to join to their measurements a
dried specimen of a branch in flower, which will serve as a label.
Those people who could send some specimens of the wood along
with them, which might aid in ascertaining the rate of their
growth, would afford means which might be of use in verifying
and comparing them. — Bib. Un.'MaS. 1831.

ON THE COLOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND DEEP WATER, BH,

the Count Xavier de Mmstbe,

The blue colour of the heavens is usually explained on the
supposition that the light of the sun, when reflected from the
surface of the. earth, is not entirely transmitted by the atmo-
sphere and lost in space, but that the molecules of the air reflect
and disperse the blue ray ; but no reason is assigned for this ray
being reflected in preference to the indigo or violet rays, whicH^^
are more refrangible, and appear to be more easily reflected. '^:^

The same blue reflection is observed in the deep waters of the '
sea ; and in those of lakes and rivers when in a limpid state.

But these fluids are not the only substances which present
this singular phenomenon ; it is also found in bodies of a differei(i^^*
nature, and which appear to have no analogy to each other^.jf
OpaHne substances have generally a blue reflection *, and the <

• The reflected colours which confer so tntich value on precious opal, have

On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water, 349

same thing is observed in some other siliceous stones, although
it is still more remarkable in opaline glasses ; a weak solution
of soap produces the same appearance, and it is more striking
in the jelly of the fish of Astracan, while an infusion of the
bark of the chestnut is perfectly opaline. Newton mentions a
kiad of wood which he calls nephritic, an infusion of which is
opaline. Lastly, the amber found in the Sicilian sea, at the mouth
of the Giarreta (the ancient Simcethus) is greatly prized on ac-
count of the opaline property, which it possesses in the highest
perfection *.

A blue reflection is observed in certain bodies which are white
and opaque, when they are reduced to a sufficient thinness to
transmit the light ^ a familiar example of this occurs in the
skin that covers the veins, which is blue, although neither the
skin nor the blood are of that colour.

Finally, the mixture of white with black, and with transpa-
rent colouring substances in painting, present numerous exam-
ples of the pi;o4uction of opaline blue, which shall be afterwards
described, .^r .>.i, .djwoi^

This blue colour is the only one which admits of being ex-
plained on the theory of thin plates, supposing that the particles
of opaline bodies are of the size requisite for reflecting blue.
This explanation becomes probable when it is considered that,
the colour transmitted by these bodies is the yellow comple-
mentary of the reflected blue ; but the object of this essay is
only to point out the phenomenon in the substances which
produce it, and to describe the effects, without admitting the
truth of this theory, to which there are considerable objections.

The examination of opaline substances, and their action on
the light that is reflected and transmitted, will shew clearly the
analogy which exists between their colours and those observed
in the air and in water^ and will prove that the same cause pro-
duces the phenomenon in all bodies where it occurs. , mmr, -ni i

In preparing opaline glass, the powder of calcined bones is •'

been attributed to natural iissures. This was the opinion of the celebrated
Hatty. ,. ,, . <Scv!;tM»:tnot. ^1' irnorvnUf i^U»;^ni^«m>

• One oi^ the tributaries of the Giarreta flows at the fh«t of Etna; and -
this modification of amber, which does not occur elsewhere, is no doubt owing
to the influence of the volcano. It is likewise found in this place of a ruby
red colour, as well as green and black.

350 On th£ Cdcnir of the Atmosphere and Deep Water,

mixed in the ordinary paste of white glass, in such quantity
as to produce in the mass a shght bluish tinge, without altering
materially its transparency ; this powder appears in a state of
extreme division, or as if it had undergone a slight degree of so-
lution, which does not disperse the transmitted light.

The colour of the light transmitted by opahne bodies, varies
according to their size ; it is yellow if the body is thin, and be-
comes successively orange and red as the thickness is increased.

The analogy between the air and opaline substances is not
only shewn by the blue reflection, but also by their action on the
transmitted light, which becomes successively yellow, orange,
and red, according to the volume of air that transmits it, and the
nature of the aqueous vapours with which it is impregnated.
When the sun is risen above the horizon, and his light traverses
the purest and least dense part of the air, the rays are white,
with a slight tinge of yellow ; as he sinks by degrees, they some-
times appear yellow and orange ; and when the light falls aslant
on the earth, and is transmitted by air of the greatest density,
and charged with the vapours of the evening, they are perceived
to be of a red colour, or even purple.

But it often happens, that the colours are not observed, and
the sun sets without producing them. It is not, therefore, to
pure air alone that we must attribute the opaline property of
the atmosphere, but to the mixture of air and aqueous vapour
in a particular state which produces an effect analogous to that
of the powder of calcined bones in opaline glass. Neither is it
the quantity of water which the air contains that occasions these
colours, for when it is very humid it is more transparent than it
is in an opposite state, the distant mountains then appearing more
distinct — a well known prognostic of rain — and the sun then sets
without producing colours ; in the fogs and vapours of the
morning, the light of the sun is white, but the red colour of the
clouds at sunset is generally regarded as the forerunner of a
fine day, because these colours are a proof of the dryness of the
air, which then contains nothing more than the particular dis-
seminated vapours to which it owes its opaline property. In
this state of the air, the disk of the sun sometimes appears like
a globe of fire, and deprived of rays.

According to the nature of the vapours disseminated through
1

On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water. 351

the air, the sky is of a very variable blue, although the volume
of air be always the same ; and what renders it certain that its
blue colour is caused by these vapours is, that it appears black
when seen from the high eminences of the globe, above which
there is not sufficient vapour to reflect the blue.

Limpid waters of sufficient depth reflect, like the air, a blue
colour from their interior ; it is of a darker shade, because it is
not intermingled with white rays ; frequently, indeed, it is not
perceptible, the reflection of the surface, in which the sky and
surrounding objects are painted as in a mirror, usually conceal-
ing the interior colour, or forming composite tints by combining
with it.

We have seen that the property of producing colours pos-
sessed by the air, is owing to the presence of aqueous vapour;
and analogy may lead us to suppose, that the same property in
water is to be ascribed to its mixture with the air which it con-
tains.

Although many causes, in general, conceal tlic blue colour
of waters, it is occasionally displayed in all its intensity ; of this
an example may be seen in the Rhone under the bridges of
Geneva, where the river seems to be composed of ultramarine.
The spectator is then in the most favourable situation for ob-
serving the colours of water, free from the reflection at its sur-
face, as far as is possible under an open sky.

The agitation of the water, and the difference in the form of
the waves, produce a change in its colour ; sometimes the tran-
quil sea is seen to reflect the warm colours of the horizon, and
to represent all the tints of a bright sky so exactly, that the sea
and the sky seem to be confounded with each other ; . but if a
slight breeze ruffle the surface, the blue tints immediately suc-
ceed the brilliant tints in the places agitated ; all the inclined
surfaces of the small waves, which no longer reflect the heaven
to the eye of the spectator, permitting the interior colour of the
water to be seen through them.

It is this which causes the water of the Rhone to be distin-
guished from those of the lake Leman ; the motion of the river
in the still waters of the lake must necessarily produce some de-
gree of agitation, and consequently diminish the brilliant reflec-
tion of the sky, and render the colour of the water more appa»

352 On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water.

rent. The green tint often assumed by the waters of the sea,
may seem to render it doubtful whether the property of reflect-
ing blue is inherent in the nature of water ; but this green hue
is never observed but when the sea is not of sufficient depth,
that is to say, when the bottom reflects the transmitted light.

On looking at the sea from an eminence of about fifty toises,
on the shore of the island of Capri, I observed some portions
which were of a more beautiful green and greater briUiancy
than the surrounding water ; to ascertain the cause, I went to
the spot in a boat. On reaching the margin of the sea, these
portions were no longer distinguishable, but they soon reap-
peared, and I perceived that the colour was produced by white
rocks, which were easily seen notwithstanding the great depth,
as they lay on a bed of dark sand ; the rocks, thus seen in a ver-
tical direction, were of a less intense green than they appeared
to be from above, but I could not doubt that they were the
cause of the phenomenon in question.

In order to assure myself of this by direct experiment, I pre-
pated a square plate of white-iron, 14 English inches on the
side, painted with white lead. Having suspended this horizon-
tally to a line, I sunk it in a deep part of the sea where the
water under my boat was blue without any mixture of green,
following it with my eyes under the shade of an umbrella held
over my head. At the depth of 25 feet, it had taken a very
perceptible tinge of green ; this colour gradually became darker
to the depth of 40 feet, when it was of a beautiful green inclin-
ing to yellow ; at 60 feet the tint was the same, but of a deeper
shade ; the form of the plate was now no longer distinguishable,
and at 80 feet I saw only a greenish glimmer which soon disap-
peared.

We see, therefore, that the light of the sun, transmitted by
the water of the sea and reflected by a white surface, produces
a green colour. The cause of this is easily perceived, by ad-
mitting the existence of the same opaline property in deep water
that is found in the air. The light, after having penetrated a
mass of water of 100 feet to reach the plate and return to the
surface, must appear yellow like that transmitted by an opaline
liquor ; this colour reflected by the plate, mingling with the
blue of the interior, produces the green colour. If the bottom

On the Colour of the Atrnoftphere and Deep Water. 353

of the sea was white, the waters near the margin would present
the same green tint which the white plate produced at different
depths ; but the bottom is usually of a dark grey which reflects
the light imperfectly, and can give rise only to dark and inde-
terminate shades of green ; it is therefore to the reflection of the
bottom that the green colour of the sea near the shores is to be
ascribed. In order to leave no doubt on this matter, and to
confirm an observation often made before, I took a boat and
proceeded from the shore, during a fine sunshine in July, at
eleven o'clock in the forenoon, with the view of examining at-
tentively the changes which should take place in the colour of the
water, while looking under the boat on the side opposite the sun.

At about fifty toises from the shore, the water was of a de-
cided green, and this tint continued for a quarter of an hour; it
then became of a bluish-green ; as we advanced the blue gradu-
ally predominated ; and after sailing an hour the water under
the boat was of a fine blue, without the least mixture of green.

While returning, I was careful to observe the reappearanci^
of the green, and when I found the tint well defined, I ascer-
tained the depth, by sounding, to be 150 feet; the light of the sun
which produced the green colour- had thus to traverse 300 feet of
water. But in this part of the gulf, another cause contributes
to produce the green colour, viz. the impurity of the water for
several miles along the shore. This will not excite surprise
when it is considered that the sea of Naples receives no river that
can give rise to any motion in its waters, and that all the filth
of this populous town is thrown into it. On the shores of the
island of Capri the sea is perfectly blue at the depth of 80 feet,
because it is always pure ; while near Naples it was green at
150 feet — a difference which can only be attributed to the im-
purity of the water near the town at the time the. observation
was made.

Water, however, may be blue at a much smaller depth than
80 feet, provided the bottom be black or of a very sombre hue,
so as not to reflect the transmitted light.

If some obstacle intercept the direct rays of the sun, in such
a manner that the bottom is thrown into the shade, while the
water itself continues exposed to the light, the latter will be

VOL. XV. KO. XXX. OCTOBER 1833. Z

354 On the Colour qf the Atmosphere and Deep Water.

blue, because its colour will not be affected by the yellow reflec-
tion from the bottom ; this may take place in deep rivers^ when
their banks throw a shade on the bottom.

Thus, the depth of the bottom, and its colour, may occasion
variations in the colour of the sea ; and it may be regarded as
an established fact, that when the light of the sun, transmitted
by the waters, is not lost in their depth, but reflected from the
bottom, the sea will assume a tint of green.

In the high seas this effect may be produced by beds of sub-
marine plants, or by those myriads of microscopic molluscae
which often cover a vast Space, and which may act on the lighty
or even possess in the mass a slight permanent colour. ->- ^^ '

Colours transmitted by deep waters cannot be observed di-
rectly, like those of the air, which are depicted in the clouds.
!A single observation is recorded on this subject. The learned
Halley, having descended into the sea in a diving-bell, observed
that a ray of the sun which penetrated to him across an opening,
closed with glass, tinged the back of his hand with rose-colour.
The experiment would have been more conclusive for the prob-
lem to be solved, had the ray fallen on a white surface ; the red-
^dish hue of the hand must necessarily have had an influence on
the observed colour. It is not probable that he had descended
inore than 30 or 40 feet ; but at this depth the colour of the
transmitted light could only be a scarcely perceptible shade of
yellow, mingled with shades of white, and this, in connexion
with the colour of the hand, might appear to be a rose tint.
Halley observed that the under side of his hand was of a green
colour, which was rib doubt owing to the reflexion of the bottom.
The contrast of this green light, with which he was surround-
ed, with the colour produced by the isolated ray on his hands,
, might contribute to th^ illusion which I suppose^ hirti to have
^^'been under.

^'^*- The cause of the greenish-blue colour of the crevices in the

"^^Ia6ieirs'id the same as that which renders the waters green near

•'*^the shore. If the mass of the glacier were as large and homo-

' igeneous as that of the sea^ the interior of the crevices would be

blue ; but the ice contains bubbles of air, particles of snow, and

fissures, which reflect the light, and throw it from one face to

another of the crevice, till it is transmitted to the opening; these

On the Colour of the Attnosphere and Deep Water. 355

epaque particles produce the same effect in the glacier as the
white plate and the bottom of the sea.

On the shore of the island of Capri, there is a grotto which
Nature seems to have constructed to shew the blue colour of
the sea in all its beauty, and which, for that reason, bears the
name oi grotte d'azur ; it i? situate under a rock, on the north
side pf the island. As it cannot be entered by a boat of ordi-
nary dimensions, it remained unknown till the month of August
1826, when two Prussian artists, MM, Kopitch and Frisi, swam
into it, and examined it. Their description having excited the
curiosity of the public, boats of suitable dimensions were con-
structed, for conveying amateurs into the interior.

The entrance to the grotto is four feet five inches English in
height, and about the same width, nearly in the shape of an
equilateral triangle, one of the sides of which is formed by the
sea. The summit is rounded, and by no means wide, so that
it is passed by a slight inclination of the head, when we enter
into a spacious grotto, the roof of which is remarkably regular,
as well as the wall which supports it. Its extent, measured from
the entrance to the landing-place opposite, is 125 English feet
in the direction from north to so^uih, while it is 145 feet from
east to west. The depth of the water under the entrance is 67
feet, in the middle of the grotto it is 62^ and near the landing-
place 58 feet^33^3^ yhoik^s^ ^ ylno bfro id: .

The rock is calcareous, of a light grey colour in the fracture,
and there is no appearance of stratification.

On entering all appears pbscure, except the water, which is
bright and of a brilliant blue, contrasted with the general ob-
scurity. Our constant experience of seeing the light come from
the sky, is no doubt one of the causes of surprise produced by
this pacu'liar blue light issuing from the depths of the sea.
Advancing towards the end of the cave, while the boat is still
in the direction of the entrance, the end of the white oars shines
in the water with a bright blue light, which disappears as soon
as they are raised. This is the most remarkable phenomenon
which the azure grotto presents; for it is not easy to understand
^hy objects are fio brightly illuminated in the water, and no
longer so immediately above tlie surface. When the hand or a
cloth is plunged into the water, one would believe that it was

356 On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water.

dipt into a blue tincture ; the immersed part is bright and co-
loured, while that out of the water is obscure and retains its lo-
cal colour.

The landing-place is at the end of the grotto, on a small
space level with the water, formed by the rock ; it is the only
spot in the grotto that could be supposed to be the work of hu-
man hands. The spectator then ascends to a second ledge of
rock, about three feet in elevation, and forming a commodious
station for several persons : it is from this point that the pheno-
mena presented by the azure grotto are best observed *.

The small entrance admits a stream of white light, which re-
sembles the reflection of the rising moon from the surface of the
sea, and reaches to the middle of the sheet of water; all the rest
of the surface is blue up to the feet of the spectator. This co-
lour gradually diminishes on the right, where the walls of the
grotto are most distant from the entrance. The white light al-
luded to illuminates the roof sufficiently to shew its natural co-
lour ; but when the entrance is obstructed by a boat, or what is
better still, when it is wholly covered up by a dark curtain, the
roof itself is bluish ; the effect is similar to that produced by the
flame of spirits of wine in a dark room : there is then no other
light than that which issues from the water. The experiment
with the curtain, which is very easily performed, ought to be
omitted by none who wish to see the spectacle in all its beauty.

When a spectator sees from the landing-place a boat pass be-
fore him, it causes no reflexion, and throws no shade on the water.
If he then put his hand upon his eyes in such a manner that he
sees nothing but the water and the boat, the latter will appear
suspended in the air, like a black silhouette, traversing the sky.
This efi^ect is so striking when seen for the first time, that one
cannot avoid experiencing a feeling ^<^f^ uneasiness for the indi-
viduals who afford the spectacle. , .,;,

In the dark place towards the right, whith I have already
mentioned, the water is not blue, but is remarkably transpa-
rent. The rock under the water is seen by a feeble light,

• Beyond this landing-place the grotto communicates with a natural gal-
lery, about 100 feet in length before it becomes too narrow to admit of pass-
ing. From the entrance to this gallery a view of the blue water is obtained
across two arcades separated by a pillar ; it is from this point that many ar-
tists have taken views of the grotto.

On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water. 357
sufficient, however, to shew the inequalities of its surface to a
considerable depth, while above the water it is very obscure.
The line of the level of the sea in contact with the rock is like-
wise well marked, and bears some resemblance to the phenome-
non of the oars, which were luminous when in the water and
dark above its surface ; but here the feeble light has a yellowish
tinge, instead of being bright and blue as in that instance. The
depth seems to increase according to the degree of attention with
which it is observed, and the bottom is soon discovered, al-
though in this place it is at the depth of forty feet. The white
plate which I sank was easily distinguishable on the dark sand.
Its colour, instead of being green, as in the experiment made in
the sunshine, was slightly yellow.

The feeble yellow light which illuminates the submarine wall,
in this part pf the grotto, is derived from the reflexion of the
bottom, and from that part of the opposite wall which receives
the light from without. This light, which has traversed a great
mass of water, must be yellow, like that which is transmitted
by opaline liquors ; thus the opaline property of the sea explains,
in a satisfactory manner, the principal phenomena to which the
particular construction of the grotto gives rise. I have attempt-
ed to give an idea of this construction, by means of the subjoined
figure, which represents the exterior rock in the sea, and above
the surface. '"^ ^'"'"^ ' '^^ "[ '^^''^''' ''^'''''^^''^ ^'^^ '^^* '

i i ar\ h h

r-f^p^iftei on ?

1 \

I nini i

^

The small entrance is at a, above the level of the water, which
is represented by the line bhb- The eastern side of this entrance
is continued almost perpendicularly downwards" for SO or^40
feet; there it appears to be cut horizontally 2X d\d^ and sus-
pended in the dark blue waters of the sea; c^ ^ c is the supposed
continuation of the eastern side of the entrance to the bottom,
which, as has been seen, is 67 feet in depth. The western side
of the entrance yyy* forms an angle of 10 or 1^ feet deep;
it then continues in a horizontal direction for 20 or 25 feet, af-

358 On the Colour of the Atmosphere and Deep Water.

ter which it descends obliquelyj probably to the bottom of the
sea, where the eyes cannot follow it beyond 30 or 40 feet.

This construction gives an immense opening for the light to
penetrate into the grotto across the water, even when the small
opening above the level of the water is closed, and thus occa-
sions, in a great mass of water, that dispersion of the blue ray
which always takes place in deep and limpid waters, and which
appears most conspicuously in the azure grotto, because it is not
mingled with any other light.*

After having considered the opaline property of the air and
waters, let us make some inquiries into the production of opa-
Hne blue in opaque bodies.

We have formerly mentioned the blue tint observed in the
fine skin with which the veins are covered. Leonard de Vinci
alludes to this phenomenon, which is entirely owing to the opa-
line property of the skin. Let us examine the conditions neces-
sary to produce it.

( To be concluded in next Number. )

NOTICE OF BOTANICAL EXCURSIONS INTO THE HIGHLANDS OF
SCOTLAND FROM EDINBURGH THIS SEASON, 1833. By

Br GrabjM.,^ ' ' ' "

In the end of June, Mr Brand, Mr Munby, and Mr James
Macnab, spent a few days in Clova, and found, in addition to
the plants already known as natives of that interesting district,
Arbutus alpina, on the top of the mountain opposite to the vil-
lao-e of Kirkton. This is an unexpected addition to the Flora
of that range, and shews still further the impropriety of hastily
discarding from the natives of a particular district, plants which
have not recently been found in it ; for I feel convinced, that I,
and others, have passed within a few yards of the station where
these gentlemen found the Arbutus, yet never saw it there.

Favoured with the company of a number of friends, devoted
to various branches of natural history, and some of them emi-

• It may be recommended to travellers to examine the colour of the wa-
ter in our sea-caves, particularly those on the coast of Sutherland, some of
which have the situation, form and dimensions of the azure grotto of Capri.
— Edit.

Botanical Excursions into the Highlands in 1833. 359

nent in such pursuits, I left Newhaven on board the steam-boat
on the morning of the 30th of July, and landed at Invergordon
on the evening of the 31st. From Invergordon we walked to
Bonar Bridge, the place of rendezvous for those whose avocations
or inclinations had carried them' by different routes. Thence
we proceeded by Oikel, Inchandamf, Kylestrome, Scourie, Bad-
nam Bay, Laxford, Riconich, Durness, Erribol, Casheldhu,
Tongue, and Farr ; returning through Strath Naver to Aultna-
harrow, Lairg, Golspie, Tain, Invergordon, and Inverness.

The following are among the plants which we observed as
most rare in the district we visited— omitting many of those
which I have already noticed in this Journal (1825 and 1827)
as found on former excursions.

Arenaria rubella. — I found a single specimen of this plant somewhere on Ben
Hope in 1827, and again in tolerable quantity on the point of one cliff this
season.

Calluna vulgaris — The hoary variety of this plant' is most abundant on the
hills between Invergordon and Bonar Bridge. The variety with white
blossoms occurred occasionally throughout the whole route, but not more
commonly than on other heaths.

Carex filiformis — we found frequent in the subalpine bogs, especially at Oikel,
Laxford, Riconich, Loch Naver, and on the moor south of Aultnahar.
row.

Carex paniceay var. phcBostachpa I found this plant on Specanconich, and think

there is no doubt of its specific identity with C. panicea.

Carex pulla — I found at a considerable elevation on the east side of Ben More,
Assynt, of its usual form, very different in size from the giant speci-
mens of Clova.

Carex rari/lora This Carex, hitherto confined to Clova, Mr Macnab first ob-
served near Oikel. I afterwards found it by the road opposite the west
side of Ben Hope ; and Mr Tyacke found it at the base of Ben LoyaL
In 1825, Mr Home and I found it in Batcall Moss, between Riconich
and Old Shore. I then considered it to be C. limosa, and I still am in-
clined to agree with those botanists who can see no good specific distinc-
tions between C. rarijloraj C. limosa, and C. irrigua.

Cladium Mariscus — The late Mr John Mackay found this plant in Galloway;
and Mr Don found it many years ago in the Bog of Restennet, near For-
far ; but it has not been known to exist in any other station in Scotland,
till we found it in large quantity, but very sparingly in flower, in a
marsh by the road-side, about half-way between Kylestrome and Batcall
Church.

CraUeffus oxyacantha. — ^Woody plants are rare in the west of Sutherland, and
I only saw one bush of this on a rock at Loch Assynt.

Cytisus scoparius — We did not see this plant in the western parts of Suther-
land, nor at all along the north coast, till we reached Borgie Bridge,

360 Botanical Excursions into t/ie Highlands in 1883.

above which we saw one patch. We found it again scattered sparingly
through Strath Naver. It is plentiful upon the east coast.

Draha rupestris — This plant, hitherto confined to Cairngorum and Ben
Lawers, was found by Mr Macnab on Ben Hope.

Erica cinerea, flor. alb — This variety we met with occasionally, but not more

commonly fhan on other heaths.

• <i t)')--''»r<i ^i^-''' -lilt- • ■

Erica Tetralix, flor. alb — we found to be very common, particularly in the

middle and western parts of Sutherlandshire.

Fucus Mackaii — Dr Greville first picked on the shores near Kylestrome. It
exists there, and farther north on the same coast, in the utmost abun-
dance, but was not found on the north or east coasts.

Fttctts serraiusjvar. laciniatusj — was gathered by Dr Greville at Erribol Ferry.

IJieracium nmbellatum — We found this in the station where I formerly ob-
served it, near Farr, and in much larger quantity than before. I have
never seen it anywhere else in Scotland. Dr Johnston, in his excellent
Flora of Berwick-upon-Tweed, mentions a peculiar swelling of the stems
of this species from the deposition of the eggs of an insect. Hieracium
denticulatum grows abundantly in this station interspersed with H. um-
bellatum, and in other parts of the country, and is very frequently so af-
fected, but both this season and in 1827, I observed H. umbellatum to be
wholly exempt from it. "^^ ••''^^"

Isoetis lacustris — ^^In the river Oikel, immediately above Invershin, and in se-
veral lakes in several parts of the route.

Juncus baltims — In much greater abundance than formerly noticed, near the
shore, behind Keoldale, in the parish of Durness.

Luzula arctmta, — abounds much more than former observation had led me to
believe on the summit of Fonniven, and was also discovered on the ridge
leading to the top of Ben More, Assynt, from Inchandamf.

Malaais paludosa — ^we found on the road-side above Invershin, on the hill be-
hind Oikel, near Free Vater, and at Ben Loyal.

Pihilaria globulifera Road-side above Invershin, plentiflilly.

Pinguicula Imitanica This species, generally confined to the west coast of

Britain, we found very abundantly a little above Invershin, and thence
by the road-side nearly as far as Oikel. As another eastern station, I
may mention that it has been found by Mr Stables in Strath PefFer.

Primus Padus Road-side near Tongue, and by the side of Loch Naver.

Prunm spinosa Lower end of Strath Naver, not observed anywhere else in

the west or north of Sutherland.

Salix reticulata Sparingly on Ben Hope, picked by Mr Macnab-

Ulex europeeus — Keoldale, Loch ErriboU, Tongue, Strath Naver, Strath Fleet,
and along the east coast of Sutherland. It certainly was originally intro-
duced at Tongue, and it may have been in all of the other stations except
Strath Naver ; but there, I am convinced, it is native. There seems no
possible reason why it should ever have been introduced in such a place,
and it occurs in detached plants throughout the whole Strath, about
twenty miles long, nowhere in great circumscribed masses, as at Tongue.
In Strath Fleet, and at Erribol, it is employed to form fences ; and in
aU of the above situations, it grows either at the level of the sea, or in
rery moderate elevations.

■' *!Dr Adam on the Osteology of the Hippopotamus. 361

UtrmUaria intermedia. — Yerj common in the lakes ai>d bogs throughout the
route. ,

Vtricularia minor. — Much less common tl^'^ last species, but existing oc-
casionally in the lakes, l^ound in flower only once in a small pool near
the base of Speckanconich, Assynt, by Mr PamelL

Vicia sylvatica — This was picked by Mr Campbell and Mr Stables in Free
Vater, north of Ross-shire, the only station in which it was observed.

Among the rare plants of the north and west of Sutherlandshire, I ought not
to omit the mention of common winter Wheat. The first experiment in
the cultivation of this grain has been tried this year at Balnakiel, the
farm of the late Mr Dunlop, in the parish of Durness, upon the shore,
ten miles east of Cape Wrath. The field was sown during last winter,
is an excellent crop, and will,.! suppose,, be reaped about the middle of
September.

A Vi^'-im ir/< *tn f<7>^'j oril to ni'/Kc.t'qSw mm moil <m
NOTICE ON the" OSTEOLOGY OF TH^ HIPPOPOTAMUS. By

Walter Adam, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians of Edinburgh, M. W. S. S^c. Communicated by
the Author.

In species valuable to mankind, or in species that have be-
come extinct, or are otherwise interesting, it may be desirable to
know the relative size of each bone. But, in most animals, no
very tedious investigation is required to ascertain, osteologically,
the distinguishing form ; in other words, those osteological di-
mensions, the constancy of which determines the existence of
separate species.

The precision of which the arrangement of animals is suscep-
tible, according to symmetrical measurement of such dimensions,
may be exemplified in the hippopotamus, the rather that few
animals are of a form so remote from elegance.

In the hippopotamus the number of dorsal vertebrae, as of
ribs, is fifteen. Of these fifteen the tenth is narrower over the
transverse processes than any other vertebrae in the trunk of the
animal.

Four other chracteristic dimensions of the hippopotamus are
identical with this smallest transverse breadth of the vertebral
column. These are, —

1. The mesial height of the cranium from the surface of the palate.

2. and 3. The inial breadth of the cranium, both at the inio<coronal pro-
minence, and at the occipital condyles.

4. The breadth of the knee-joint.

362 Dr Adam on the Oateolo^y of the Hippopotamus.

Five dimensions still more characteristic are twice the dimen-
sions above stated :

1. In the vertebral column ; the transverse breadth of the atlas, equalled
by that of no other dorsal or cervical vertebra,

2. and 3. The breadth of the cranium, at the orbits, and at the sockets of
the tusks.

4. The greatest expansion of the scapula.
6. The length of the first rib.

The foregoing dimensions being as one and two, the follow-
ing are as three :

]. and 2. The transverse breadth of the second and fourth of four lumbar
vertebrae (the third and broadest is I -12th broader than these two).

3. The inial breadth of the lower jaw being the greatest breadth of the
head.

4. The length of the palate.

5. The length of the scapula from the glenoid cavity.

6. The greatest length of the humerus.

7. The length of the femur from the cervix to the rotular groove.

Connected probably with the uncouth figure of the hippopo-
tamus, is the imperfect symmetry of the pelvis in relation to the
cranium.

The acetabular breadth is the same as the zygomatic breadth ;
a dimension of the cranium of this animal subordinate to that of
the lower jaw. Besides ; intermediately to the acetabula and the
ischial tuberosities, the pelvic breadth is half the inial breadth of
the lower jaw.

The three classes of identical dimensions to which this notice
has been limited, are according to a very fine osteological speci-
men of a male hippopotamus in the Museum of the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons of London. The actual dimensions are, 5,55,
11.10, 15.65 inches.

Though, owing to the multiplicity of osteological, as of other
living forms, it seems hardly possible to assign any one osteolo-
gical dimension as a standard of reference for the dimensions
even of mammalians alone, it follows from what has been above
stated, that the general comparison and precise arrangement of
animals may perhaps be attained by viewing their osteological
dimensions in combination. We may suppose a range of equi-
distant planes parallel to the mesial plane, by which planes the
constant dimensions of breadth may be considered as bounded ;

M

B

Dr Adam on the Osteology of the Hippopotamus. 363

while the other dimensions of breadth, that are more or less va-
riable, terminate in the intervening spaces, or beyond.

Let the line Mw represent
the edge of the mesial plane in
any animal ; for example, in the
hippopotamus. Let the lines
E/7, E'y, YI' p'\ represent the
edges of equidistant planes pa-
rallel to the mesial plane, on the
right side of the animal ; and let
the lines ep^ ef p\ d' p" represent
the edges of like planes on the
left side. Then, the dimensions
of breadth, which may be consi-
dered as constant, will be repre-
sented, those of the first class by
the lines B 6, B 6, B 6 ; those of
the second class by the lines
B' h, B' h\ B' y ; and those of
the third class by the lines B" 6",
Wy\ Wb'\ such lines being
thus all multiples of one unit.
Then also, by graduating the
line M ?7i to the same scale, fix-
ing terminal points correspond-
ing to the variable breadths, and
drawing lines through the ter-
minal points of the different ajciocrod '"
breadths (constant and variable), we shall obtain curves that
will shew in diagram the series of breadths in each species of
animals.

The dimensions of length and of height may be given in a si-
milar manner.*

London, Auffust 1833.

• Dr Adam lately published, in the Unnean Transactions, an interesU
ing memoir on Osteological Symmetry^ which we recommend to the particular
notice of those naturalists who are aware of the importance of the practical
and theoretical views connected with such investigations. The memoir is en-
titled " On the Osteological Symmetry of the Camel; Camelw Bactrianw of Lin-
nmis," &c, — Edit.

e"
B'

B'

/

B

u

d

e

I

: I

:' 1

b'

S"

B

f>

6"

B

b

b'

B

h

//

6"

p"

^JE

b"

0

( 364 )

A SKETCH OF THE TERTIARY FORMATION IN THE PROVINCE

OF GRANADA. By C. SiLVERTOP, Retired Brigadier in the
Service of H. C. M., K. of the R, and D. O. of Charles III.,
and F, G. S. With Plates, Communicated by the Author,*

The tertiary deposits discontinuously spread over the province
of Granada, are naturally and geographically divided into two
portions, — the littoral, and the inland, — by the intervening moun-
tainous district of primary and secondary rocks, which I have
termed the Sierra Nevada Chain.

At the southern base of this chain, along the line of the Me-
diterranean coast from Malaga to Cartagena, wherever the older
rocks that compose it do not descend to the shore, as well as in
some transversal valleys that terminate in this inland sea, nume-
rous patches and little tracts belonging to the tertiary formation
may be seen. These constitute the littoral position of the de-
posit

The inland position will embrace the different tracts to the
north of the same Sierra Nevada chain, or in the interior of the
province of Granada, where beds of similar origin have been ob-
served, and will be subsequently noticed in the same order.

Littoral Portion of the Tertiary Deposit in the Province of Granada^
or Line of Coast frcmi Malaga to Cartagena,

Various beds full of tertiary organic remains are observed in
the immediate vicinity, and in the neighbourhood of Malaga ;
1^^, contiguous to the higher part of the town ; ^dly.^ between
three and four miles up a mountain stream, called the Guada-
medina, which separates Malaga from its suburb, and then
enters the Mediterranean ; and, Sdly, up a transversal valley or
estuary, which I shall call the Valley of Malaga, that terminates
in the Mediterranean between this city and the village of
Churiana, about eight miles distant towards the south west.
For the sake of perspicuity, I shdldividjs. these beds jtnto. two

• This memoir was read before the Geological Society of London, but
withdrawn, by permission of the President and Council^ ff]^,jp^bJU(£»tion in this
Journal ,a,;T9li!>i.;..

Tertiary Formation in the Province of Granada, 365

groups; 1^^, or lowest group; 2d!, or superior group. (See sec-
tion 1. Plate II.)

1. Lowest group : consists of a brownish yellow and dark
bluish-grey coloured tenacious clay.

2. Superior group : consists of alternating horizontal beds of
sand, coarse sandstone, sandy loam, marl, and conglomerate.

1. Lowest Group. — Contiguous to the northern higher part of
Malaga, and confined towaids the east and north by the moun-
tainous district which borders the Mediterranean, and towards
the west by the Rio Guadamedina, there is a small open tract,
in a portion of which, near the convent of La Vittoria, exten-
sive excavations for brick-earth have been made in the argillace-
ous deposit belonging to this group. The upper part of the
deposit consists of a light- coloured brownish-yellow argillace-
ous marl, from 12 to 16 feet thick, the lower portion of a dark-
ish bluish-grey coloured tenacious clay, which has been pene-
trated to the depth of 50 feet. There is an admixture of fine
sand throughout the deposit, in the lower part of which it is in
a small, but in the upper in a considerable quantity. A waving
irregular line, distinguishable from the different shades of colour
of the upper and lower part of the deposit, may be distinctly
followed by the eye ; but at other points near Malaga, where
this argillaceous group is seen, the upper portion is of variable
thickness, and sometimes entirely wanting, so that the subjacent
dark- coloured clayey mass is exposed at the surface. Irregular
veins of selenite, from two inches to half an inch thick, are occa-
sionally seen passing in straight or undulating lines through both
portions of the deposit, from the base to the top of the escarp-
ments formed by the workings.

The most abundant and characteristic shell of this argillaceous
mass, is the Pecten Pleurenectes *, of various sizes of from three
inches to half an inch in diameter. One resembling P. corneus,
but longer, Dentalia natica, Triton nodiferum, identical with

• Mr Deshayes, who did me the favour to examine some of the fossils from
this bed, identified Pecten pleurenectes, Dentalium sexangulare, Natica can-
rina, Natica llillwgrii-payr. ■ '

Mr Sowerby identified, amongst other specimens, Pecten cornus, varietas,
and Triton nodiferum.

/f^^^"^

^

366 Brigadier Silvertop's Sketch of the Tertiary Formation
that now existing in the Mediterranean, and many fragments of
Ostrea. No vegetable or animal remains could be discovered,
nor, as I was informed, had any such been found at this loca-
lity.

Part of the town of Malaga is built upon this argillaceous
deposit, through which wells are sunk into a subjacent bed of
sand, where water is found.

This member of the tertiary may also be seen in some escarp-
ments on the left bank of the Guadamedina, which, as above
stated, bounds the little tract under consideration towards the
west ; and two miles up this stream from Malaga, there is a con-
siderable patch of it, in which vertebral bones (probably of the
Delphinus, as will afterwards be seen) were discovered in making
an excavation for a pond.

On the left bank of the Guadamedina, I have not observed this
argillaceous bed at any other point. The remaining higher un-
dulating ground of the little tract immediately under considera-
tion, belongs to the tertiary beds of group 2d, (see sect. 1. PL II.)
But, on the opposite or western bank of this stream, it is exten-
sively developed over an open, hilly, ravined tract that borders
the mountainous country towards the north, and terminates
southwards in a large horizontal flat, along the Mediterranean
shore, between Malaga and Churiana. From this tract, which
may be stated to be enclosed by the Guadamedina and Guadal-
horce rivers, it may be followed, in an irregular manner, for six-
teen miles up the estuary or Valley of Malaga, to a village called
Alaurin el Grande, where, in consequence of its being worked
for brick-earth, another fine opportunity is presented of observ-
ing the organic remains that have been entombed in its mass.
(See sect. % PI. II.)

Alaurin el Grande, a remarkably neat clean little village, sur-
rounded by orchards of fruit-trees, is situated at the base of the
Sierra de Mijas, which bounds the Valley of Malaga towards the
W. S. W., and contiguous to the village, which is about eighteen
miles distant from Malaga, and, between 900 and 1000 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean, there is a small tract on
the slope of the adjoining mountain-ridge to the valley, where
the excavations for brick-earth, just alluded to, have been made.
The workings are carried on by perpendicular shafts, generally

tJ^VOf.f-il) 9(f F)IuOJ ■=- Tf,

K>[ Bid^ fa bnuoi (isiiff

.■-r,dj ij-gcIeM l.aoJT rrrjtjjij^ 'iff J .jfj :■■'

'T98cJoion ovfiff I ^rafbe>ffi£h/jrj ' ^.Tf V. >trt..J
ibienoD T3bna /f^^tiiibomm' JOBit ebjil tn.j lo bnuoig gnbu'i

'nffr!'.3t bar t
.fiR'ncjliboM 4dr "^ n\l>i ^.^r

;0 9di V. "^ 9d oj *.';;;. ?r -*;; v

V u oJ ^j^gfilfiM "to ^ITji V ^TBjjias adj '

"^•^ h^jnoPS'K} «f ^(^Jinoiioqqo snB i9d:toixe ;dj.. ^
iv^ioifjas a99d S^bK lcd.t Mr, fBrri9ixi^n*VQn«

)di*to o>^H or!? tB bM?jiu3:8 gi\8s*yiJ-)iijill[o rfbiBrif*io {<)

i rtM 'to ^(siIbV sriJ ebnuod rfoiftw ^B\iM. oh ^r\ n
: j^ jisoui. ci djfdw jSgRifivsdi qteuoD^E^hnoobdB^///^ .fe W
>^'0i 0I1J5 OOG flo^^J'KJ ^baB cBi^BbM moi; Jiiij^arh - *1 ^>
iMin5 lining s ^i Qiadi ,nBi^aA.n9jfb^M 3dJ lo fevsLo'

' .dt o1 9gbri umtnuoiti giiintoj^bfi sdi lo yqcle 'ni*

»:> cSvtlfida ifiluoibflsqidv-} yd i.o b^mso snfi b^ijTiow id'"

PLATE 11 . IldinrnewFhU.Jour. Vol.XVj). syy.

South.

Medit^Sea.

Cementerie.

Seen en 1.

Detris.

IT^ortk.

,{^.n. fc

(ruada
Medina E .

Malaga

Group.

1

Guaddl y^^^a de
Tertiary r^ — v , JffreeJi. Carlama.

•■'" i :?• • :>:n :,^^^-«

f Serpentine. \

Seel. 5. '>f^8 OJ Of god i

Tertiary. . . , v* ^, , ., .Ormp. i

T-sTjrntr

lino'job daijixty* iliiw bsuti p^nj^do sib ^.biuoju

Grcnp.

TIT" G XI7" TJ' 3? e Mj^Vt/ , .» # ^^__^ (_Q ; y_

Tertiarj. '^ J

S.

Medil?Sea

Li o'iB gakfns'i ainsgio onnBCff yTijIjiot ,kg'

Cerrc de \

Zc^ Ca.vlptes.

i> - Tx *; a Convent of S.Ant . Cerro de \

\ ^L^ltcirL ,yfJfI9/ to ^jnofrlrjiqc TJ-i^ San Anion. \

^ i'>u ■ ',fj^r^^'7'fr^''p -"^

Itedii'^Sea.

Jlnnl, I'lvm 3fa/i/f/0 To Vfli'i. Malaga

1/k

Mdil^Sea. Tertiary

Sea. 7.

Gairifts.

Sierra de |

J'ran-^ritiojt Idine Slene . \

EiyS

SanFedrff.

\ t f,

T^^tfr^tfov ofi

/'//<? Craters.

Medif^Sea.

^^r7^f<:^racTijte. y 3ne7ijte

Campo de
mjat

in tJie Province of Granada. 367

from five to seven yards in diameter ; and the following section
of one of these will show the nature of the deposit.

1. Two yards alluvial earth, with a few small fragments of
the white crystalline limestone that forms the adjacent moun-
tain.

2. Seven yards of a brownish and bluish tenacious argillace-
ous loam, which makes a momentary effervescence with nitric
acid. Irregular lines separate the mass into fragmentary pieces,
which, on fracture, exhibit a somewhat conchoidal surface. Ma-
rine remains begin to show themselves here, but they are very
rare and small. Little groups of minute almost microscopic
Lenticulites (Sowerby), having a pearly and brilliant lustre,
are discovered in some places, and in others numerous minute
moulds are observed, lined with whitish decomposed shelly mat-
ter, indicating the former presence of other testaceous remains.
Small pieces of fibrous gypsum are also occasionally met with in
this portion of the deposit.

3. Five yards of a light sandy loam. In this * portion of the
deposit, tertiary marine organic remains are abundant, viz. nu-
merous entire, and fragments of Ostreje, some retaining a pearly
lustre, — also specimens of Venus, Natica, Triton nodiferum,
Dentalium, teeth of the shark, and two entire vertebral columns
of Delphinus, were found in this mass.

4. A horizontal argillaceous sandstone, about six inches thick,
and very hard in the centre, in which one or two shells were ob-
tained, but so finely-imbedded that they could not be got out en-
tire. The total depth of the deposit, therefore, is about 36 feet ;
and, from the above account of a shaft sunk through it, it appears
that, with respect to its materials, the order of superposition is ex-
actly the reverse of what is observed close to Malaga, the argilla-

• Mr Sowerby was so good as to examine the fossils from Alaurin and
identified the following :

Strombus Gallus. Lucina incrassata. Lam.

Kanilla gigantea. Turritella incrassata. Crag. Min.

Dentalium sexangulare. Con. 51.

striatum. Pleurotoma Colon, var. M. C 146.

Pleurotoma Colon. Natica tyrena ?

For the identification of the vertebrae and teeth, I am indebte<1 to the kind-
ness of Mr Clift.

368 Brigadier Silvertop^s Sketch of the Tertiary Formation

ceous ingredient forming the lower part of the deposit at the latter
town, and the upper or superior portion at Alaurin. Dentalia,
Triton nodiferum^ Ostrea, and Natica, are found at each loca-
lity. ThePecten pleurenectes, so abundant at Malaga, I did
not find at Alaurin, nor the Venus, which abounds in the de- ,
posit at Alaurin, in that at Malaga ; nor in the latter any shark's
teeth, or vertebral remains of delphinus. Before I conclude the
description of this lower group, I think it necessary to allude to
the difference in level between the beds at Malaga and Alaurin
el Grande. At the former locality, the strata are not more than
50 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, while at the latter
they are at the height of 900 or 1000 feet. This difference of
level, I conceive, is connected with the highly crystalline charac-
ter of the limestone of the ridge on which the tertiary beds
rest, and the subjacent mass of serpentine which occurs at the
N. N. W. end of the ridge, or Sierra de Mijas.

^d'&r'SttpeHdt Group (see Sect. 1. and 3. PI. II.)— In the
higher and undulating part of the little tract first alluded to
contiguous to Malaga, there are several low eminences {% 2. 2.
in sect. 1), where the horizontal bed of sandy loam and marl,
and the masses of conglomerate that belong to this group,
are well seen. The immense size of the ostreae found in these
beds is worthy of attention (Ostrea crassissima ? of Lamarck),
and particularly when compared with the small ones met with
in the subjacent or lower part of the tertiary deposit. The
predominating shells, however, are pectens of various undescrib-
ed species, but very similar to those now found along the Medi-
terranean shore. The balanus is also frequently found in these
beds. As the argillaceous deposit of the group 1 A is at a consi-
derably lower level than these beds, and as it is seen forming the
left^bank of the Guadamedina Rio that bounds this tract towards
the wfest, I presume that it extends under the beds of the second
group, and has once filled up the whole of the area under con-
sideration. The section 3. (PI. II.) of ground on the opposite or
western side of the Rio Guadamedina will also, I believe, prove
its subposition, although I have never seen an instance where the
beds of group 2. overlie the deposit or group 1 . Each group, how-

1. :,..»> \ in the F^rovhice of Granada. 369

evtfr, appeftr« ta be distinguislied by |>eculiar or characteristic or-
gai>ic remains.

The shelly conglomerate masses that belong to this group are
often seen in the form of short intcrrii})ted projecting banks,
one of which may be observed near a path road that leads from
Malaga to a high hill called El Cerro de los Angeles, about a
mile from the town. But the principal conglomerate beds exist
several miles up the valley of Malaga, firsts near the village of
Alauriaejo) op the road to Alaurin el Grande, and secondly, in
the vicinity of the villages of La Pirrara and Arola. A hilly
baspd of this conglomerate, in which tertiary shells are met with,
extend^ frooi n^i jAlaurinejo to the south-eastern end of the
Sierra de Cartama (a short insulated ridge of transition rocks in
the central longitudinal course of the estuar^^ of Malaga) About
a uiile distant from it, the argillaceous deposit of group 1. forms
the banks of a deep ravine at a much lower level than this con-
glomerate band, and thus brings nearly into contact the two
groups of the tertiary formation, so as to prove their order of
superposition. In the high insulated hills of conglomerate near
La Pirrara and Arola, I did not observe any organic remains,
but the superposition of these beds to the argillaceous deposit
of group 1, which may l?e seen near La Pirrara, countenances
the belief that they belong to the suj^ei-ior portion of the tertiary
formation in the neighbourhood of Malaga. (See Section 4.
PI IL)

The argillaceous deposit, or group 1. of the tertiary beds,
has been noticed at Alaurin el Grande. Zoological evidence ex-
ists to prove that the superior beds of this formation, or those
belonging to group % have also extended as far as this village.
Ostrese in great abundance, of the same extraordinary size, and
with similar long hinges as those stated to be found in the upper
tertiary beds near Malaga, are met with close to Alaurin el
Grande on the slope from the base of the Sierra di Mijos to the
valley. They are seen in groups in the superior stratum of al-
luviun^ about a mile to the east of the village, and it is evident,
from their high state of preservation and their position, that
they belong to a deposit superior to, and more modern, than
that in which the varipus mariae remains described were disco-
vered at about an equal distance to the west of Alaurin. In se-

VOL. XV. NO. XXX, OCTOBER 1833. A a

370 Brigadier Silvertop> Sketch of the Tertiary Formaticyn

veral of the small islets along the coast to the east of Malaga, as
well as on the banks of some of the ravines by which torrents in
the rainy season xiescend to the Mediterranean from the conti-
guous mountainous district, small patches belonging to the su-
perior portion of the tertiary formation, or to group 2, may be
observed.

About a mile from Malaga, on the Velez-Malaga road, there
is a little inlet or ravine called La Caleta, which forms the bed
of a stream that descends from the mountainous country towards
the north, and here enters the shingle of the Mediterranean
shore. Proceeding up this ravine for a few hundred yards, its
low banks being first of all composed of detritus, with an occa-
sional projecting rock of greywacke, a path leads from it to an
old fort constructed on a hill at a short distance from its left
bank. The bank at this point, little elevated above the bed of
the ravine, is formed of gravelly sandy marl, containing pectens.
Fifty yards up the ascent "towards the fort, a mass of sandy
marl is observed full of pectens, balani, and fragments of ostreae.
This mass takes in places a conglomerate character, from an ad-
mixture of fragments of different rocks consolidated in the for-
mer by a ferruginous cement, and contains similar shells, but they
are generally broken. Tertiary beds were not observed higher
up than this point, the path in the ascent beyond the fort getting
upon secondary red sandstone crowned by nummulite limestone.
Descending to and proceeding higher up the ravine, a little cir-
cular basin is soon reached, filled up with a deposit of yellow-
ish sandy marl full of tertiary organic remains, bounded on one
side by the high hill upon which the castle of Malaga stands,
and on the other by a still higher hill termed El Cerro de San
Cristobal. In an escarpment this low tract forms to the ravine
testaceous remains in abundant, and in an excellent state of pre-
servation, some of them partially retaining their colour. The
predominating shells are small pectens, but a Dentalium^ a Tro-
chus, and some fragments of ostreae were also collected.

. The road from Malaga to tlie point where this ravine was
entered, is bounded towards the north by the hill upon which
its old castle stands, and towards the south by the beach of the
Mediterranean. In passing this road, which leads to Velez-
Malaga, and for the next two miles is confined towards the north

in the Province of Granada. 371

by a hill composed of red sandstone, containing a thick bed
of gypsum, resting upon greywacke, and capped by secondary
nummulite limestone, a considerable semicircular open space is
crossed that slopes down from the more retired mountainous
district to a horizontal flat contiguous to the shore. In the higher
part of this open tract several patches were observed, composed
of beds of soft marly sandstone, and of arenaceous marl, full of
pectens ; but they are insulated, and without continuity for more
than twenty or thirty yards. Another patch of the upper tertiary
deposit was observed in ascending from this tract to the Convento
San Anton, situated at the base of a high hill of nummulite
limestone, characterised by two projecting peaks. This is the
most elevated patch of the tertiary formation I have met with in
the immediate neighbourhood of Malaga, and it contains many
perfectly preserved shells of the Cardium genus, identical with
those now found in the land of the Port of Malaga. The sec-
tion 5. Pi. -II. will give an idea of the situation of this fragment
of tertiary origin, the line of section being nearly from south to
north, and intersecting, in the first part of its course, a group of
hills called Los Cantales, formed of nummulite limestone, resting
upon red sandstone, in which the open tract above alluded to
terminates towards the east.

In this patch-like manner httle fragments of the tertiary order
continue to be seen along the line of coast between Malaga
and Velez-Malaga, on the slope of the mountainous district to
the Mediterranean shore ; but, before reaching the latter town,
which is twenty miles distant from Malaga, there is a more con-
tinuous little tract belonging to this formation which will soon
be noticed.

The last locality in the vicinity of Malaga I shall cite, where
beds belonging to this superior part of the tertiary formation, or
to group 2, hav6 been observed, is about two miles from the
town, up the Rio Guadamedena, and they may be traced for a
couple of miles farther into the mountainous district towards the
north. They appear to be the discontinuous prolongation of
those stated to form the higher part of the tract contiguous to
Malaga, where excavations have been made in the subjacent ar-
gillaceous deposit for brick -earth, and contain ostrcre, balani, and
pectens, like the former.

A a2

S12 Brigadier Silvertop's Sketch of tJte Tertiart/ Formation

In terminating this slight notice of the tertiary formation iiv
the vicinity of Malaga, it is important to mention, that the sea,
for many years, has been retiring from the line of coast. Within
the memory of men now Uving, vessels anchored where a por-
tion of the town of Malaga, and its beautiful Alameda, bordered
by two lines of splendid houses, are situated. The site of the
old sea-gate, El Puerto del Mar, and parts or fragments of the
Moorish wall, formerly washed by the waters of the Mediterra-
nean, are still more retired from the present shore.

Velez-Malaga, — In following the coast-road easterly from
Malaga, this is the first little town met with, at the distance of
about twenty miles from the former. Five miles before reach-
ing Velez-Malaga, the road passes a fort called El Castillo del
Marquez, built upon the beach, between which and the moun-
tainous district towards the north, there is a httle low interven-
ing tract belonging to the tertiary formation. The beds that
form it consist of a hard quartzose sandstone, often taking a
conglomerate character, and abounding in pectens, fragments of
ostreae, balani, and some other shells, which is quarried, and sup-
plied the material for building the great mole at Malaga. Other
tertiary beds iiear Velez-Malaga are made up of sand and com-
minuted shells loosely consolidated together, shelly conglomerate
and sandy loam.

Pursuing the road to A^elez-Malaga, a group of mica-slate
hills, which here come down to the beach, is crossed, after which
the latter is bordered for some distance by a considerable and
high eminence, formed of tertiary beds, from whose summit
there is a long gradual slope inland, or towards the north.
Along a sort of hollow, consequently, formed between this ter-
tiary eminence towards the south, and the mountainous district
of mica-slate, progressively increasing in elevation towards the
north, the road proceeds towards Velez-Malaga, and at a point
where it makes a bend, and commences its descent to the Rio
de Velez, a curious instance of the immediate contact of two va-
rieties of conglomerate rocks of very different ages and composi-
tion was observed, which seems to argue the very modern date
of the uppermost or superior tertiary beds, or of group 2, along
this line of coast.

in the Province of Granada. Ji73

The under portion of the escarpment consists of an in-
ilurated earthy argillaceous conglomerate, made up of fra^i^
ments of mica-slate, talcose and other slates and quartz, in
which there is not a single shell ; while the upper part of, the
escarpment rests upon the conglomerate of old rocks, com-
posed of a loamy mass, with rounded pieces of tertiary sand-
stone, pebbles, and numerous tertiary shells, mostly Pectens,
Chamae, Balani, and fragments of Ostreae. To the righi, or
towards the south, is the last part of the slope of the high ter-
tiary hill alluded to.

This hill, which occupies a considerable area, and stands in-
sulated along the coast line, rises to the height of about 250 feet
above the level of the sea, and is something less than a mile dis-
tant from the shore, to which it presents a high and singularly
water-worn escarpment, worked out into recesses, caverns, and
overpending rocks, of the most grotesque and capricious forms.
It is composed of thick horizontal beds of comminuted shells,
mixed with quartz-sand, occasionally passing into conglomerate,
and alternating with others of sandstone conglomerate. The
quantity of shells that have entered into the composition of this
mass is immense, but they have been so triturated that few en-
tire ones can be collected. Those I was able to obtain are a
large Chama, small Pectens of various sizes, a Cardium edule,
Balani, and fragments of Oslrea?.

The slope of the hill terminates towards the north in a waving
and gradually rising district of primary slate, upon which, in-
land, no further vestige of these tertiary deposits is observed. —
(See Sect. 6. PI. II.) Towards the east, it also presents consi-
derable escarpments, from the base of which there is a rapid
slope to a cultivated flat along the right bank of the Rio de
Velez. On the opposite or left bank of this stream, there is a
low open undulating tract, which has the appearance of having
been, at some ancient epoch, a semicircular port or bay, surround-
ed by an amphitheatre of primary mountains. In this tract is
situated the ancient town of Velez-Malaga, about one mile from
the Rio de Velez, and three miles from the Mediterranean.
The general cover of this open area is composed of allu-
vium, but the subjacent mica-slate occasionally projects into
little hillocks, and a few small patches of tertiary origin were

374 Brigadier Silvertop's*9toc/A o/'^^^; Tertiary Formation

observed. The tract is termed the Vega or Valley of Velez,
and it is one of the favoured spots along the southern Mediter-
ranean coast of Spain. Protected from the winds by its amphi-
theatre of mountains, which gradually rise towards the north to
the height of 8000 feet above the level of the sea, and irrigated
by the waters of the rivulet above alluded to, vegetation a&sumes
all the rapidity and luxuriance of meridional climates; and little
woods of olive trees and fields of the finest wheat, alternate over
its undulating surface with groves of the orange-tree and plan-
tations of the sugar-cane, surrounded by fences of the bamboo,
the aloe, and the nopal. The harvest of the sugar-cane was
about to commence on my passing through Velez-Malaga in the
month of February 1832 — the Sierra de Tejeda, not twenty
miles distant towards the north, but the highest mountain in
tbi& portion of the Sierra Nevada chain, was clothed in snow,
and presented a singular and interesting contrast *.

In following the Mediterranean coast from Velez-Malaga east-
ward, few or no well characterized tertiary beds are observed
until we arrive in the neighbourhood of Almeria, primary or
transition slates immediately bordering the shore as far as Adra,
with the exception of two little alluvial inlets or creeks cultivated
with the sugar-cane, in which the seaport villages of Nerja and
Almunejar are situated, and a more extensive flat surrounding
the town of Motril. The large low horizontal tract or bend
near Motril is formed of a sandy loam, cultivated principally
with the cotton plant, with a few interspersed sugar-cane planta-
tions. This deposit may perhaps be partially of tertiary origin,
but no regular beds nor shells were observed. In all these in-
stances, the immediate subjacent rock is mica-slate, or some va-
riety of transition slate.

It may be remarked here, that the mica-slate in all the inter-
val between Velez-Malaga and Almunejar is characterized by
the presence of andalusite, generally imbedded in highly crys-
talline glassy quartz. I collected some beautiful crystals of this
mineral, as well as a few of kyanite, in the neighbourhood of
Almunejar.

* Mr Deshayes identified Pecten benedictus and a Pecten, nov. spec,
which is also found at Perpignan, among the fossils from Velez-Malaga.

in the Province qf Granada. 375

Fromi the little seaport of Adra, in the centre of which a
group of highly inclined mica^slate may be observed, celebrated
in the day for its extensive establishments connected with the
lead trade, to the village of Roquetas, twenty-five miles distant,
the McditeiTanean is bounded by an open flat tract, between^
three and four miles broad, which terminates, to the north, in
the bold escarpments of the Sierra de Gador, formed of transi-
tion limestone, containing the richest veins of lead-ore in Spain,
It was an incessant rain when this barren tract was crossed, and
the atmosphere so thick and foggy that no satisfactory observa-
tion could be made. Irregular beds of conglomerate, forming
a sort of superficial incrustation, and sandy argillaceous loam,
generally constitutes the superstratum ; and on once approach-
ing the coast, in consequence of having lost the road, some sand-
stones, which appeared modern, but in which I could perceive
no shells, were remarked.

Roquetas is a very wretched little fishing viljage, possessing
but one good house, in which I was fortunately lodged, and
most hospitably received. My landlord informed me that a
month rarely passed without some slight shock of an earthquake
being experienced ; tlie sea being often so violently agitated in
consequence that boats ready to sail for Almeria were obliged to
delay their voyage for several hours.

The road from Roquetas to Almeria crosses the soutli-east
portion of the Sierra de Gador, to which it ascends by a pass or
puerto, from the easterly termination of the open tract just no-
ticed. In some little escarpments of the dark blue semicrystai-
line limestone of this mountain, at the base of the puerto, the
strata run nearly from east to west, and dip to the north at 23^.
Hence to Almeria is about ten miles, for eight of which the road
is continually upon the limestone rock that forms the Sierra de
Gador; but about two miles before reaching this pretty little
seaport town, at a point where a bridge is crossed and there is
a redoubt perched on a rock overhanging the sea, the tertiary
formation again appears with the character of a whitish earthy
coarse limestone, or fine calcareous conglomerate, containing mi-
nute rounded fragments of the subjacent dark-blue transition
limestone. The organic remains collected in this tertiary calca-
reous deposit, which appears to form an unstratified mass, are

376 Brigadier Silvertop's Sketch of the Tertiary Formation

large and small pectens, cardia, balani, and fragments of ostrea?.
From this point it may be followed continuously to Almeria,
whose ancient extensive castle is built upon an eminence it forms
within the walls of the town on its northern side ; but it does
^not extend inland above two or three miles, constituting a hilly
broken tract, two or three hundred feet above the level of the
sea, along the eastern slope and base of the Sierra de Gador.
In a long subsequent descent to Almeria, an older conglomerate
rock, of a dark brown colour, with numerous large and small
fragments of transition limestone, is observed to come out from
under the tertiary deposit, and shortly after the fundamental
limestone of Gador makes its appearance from under the con-
glomerate.

The fundamental limestone is much decomposed, and of an
ochreous tinge ; but a few undecomposed strata of a dark grey
colouf alternate with the former in a little escarpment bordering
the road, and dip to the north at 30°. It would appear from
the above fact, analogous to what was noticed near Velez-Malaga,
that an alluvion had been formed upon the surface of the tran-
sition limestone of the Sierra de Gador, previous to the epoch
when the tertiary deposit took place.

Almeria. — This is one of the most agreeable, cheerful, little
seaport towns along the southern Mediterranean coast of Spain,
containing about 12,000 inhabitants. To the east of Almeria
there is an extensive flat bordering the Mediterranean as far as
the Cabo de Gata, distant about eighteen miles, when the coast
line, winding round towards the north, is bounded as far as the
village of La Carbonera by a ridge of volcanic rocks, partially
concealed in the latter part of its course under tertiary -deposits.
This open tract, contiguous to Almeria (see section 7. PL II.),
rises gradually and in step-like manner towards the north, termi-
nating at the southern base of a mountainous district termed La
Sierra de Alhamilla, composed of mica-slate. Towards the west
it is bounded by the Sierra de Gador. Probably the whole of
this tract, which chiefly consists of sandy, marly, argillaceous
loam, capped irregularly, as it approaches the mountainous dis-
trict, by thin beds of conglomerate, are of modern origin : how-
ever this may be, indisputable proofs of the epoch to which a

in (he Province of Granada. 377

portion of it at least belongs, may be seen near the base of tK«
Sierra de Gador, and on the road from Almeria to Guadiz, k
city in the province of Granada about fifty miles inland towards
the north from the former seaport. This western part of the
tract is filled up variously with a coarse quartzose reddish sandi-
stone, often taking a conglomerate character ; loose and sertn-
indurated gravel ; and earthy and indurated argillaceous marl-;
in all of ^hich, except the last, the usual tertiary shells are ob-
served ; pectens*, balani, fragments of ostreae, and echinital
spines, existing in great abundance in the gravelly beds. The
argillaceous and superjacent gravelly beds dip towards the west
south-west at an angle of about 20% which would apparently
carry them under the unstratified tertiary calcareous deposit
noticed on approaching Almeria from the west, and upon an
eminence of which its old castle is situated. How far these ter-
tiary beds may be traced inland, up a sort of fissure or irregular
valley in the chain of mountains that border the Mediterranean,
extending from Almeria to Guadiz, or from S.S.E. to N.N.W.,
will be ascertained by future inquirers; I followed them about
four miles inland on this line.

Before leaving Almeria, I may perhaps be allowed to observe,
that the Mediterranean Sea has apparently, at some remote
epoch, washed the base of the primary Sierra de Alhamilla, in
which the low tract to the east of this town terminates towards
the north, as to the west of Almeria the same sea has advanced
to the foot of the bold escarpment of the transition limestone of
the Sierra de Gador, which confines towards the north the
long open tract along the Mediterranean shore from Adra to
Roquetas. These two tracts have probably been elevated and
added to the mainland by some of those subterranean agencies,
whose power has been manifested from immemorial time, arid
is so frequently felt at the present day, in this part of Spain.
(To be continued,) '**' '''

Mr Deshayes identified,

Pecten benedictus

Pecten dubius V from Almeria.

Pecten striatus

}

( S78 )

CHARACTERS OF NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN GENERA OF PLANTS.

By Robert Wight, Esq, M. D.F. L. S, Hon. E, I. C. S.,
and G. A. Walker Arnott, Esq. A, M. F. R. S. E. and
L. S. Communicated by the Authors,

(Continued from p. \Q\.)

[The following communication on Lepidadenia and Horyg^
ryza is from our friend Professor Nees von Esenbeck of Bres-
law, April 8. 1833. We prefer publishing it in the original
Latin, although our wish is in general to give the remarks in
English :]

"In Wallichii viri clarissimi Catalogo, p. 79, n. 2587,
Lauri species enumeratur Macrantha nomine appellata, eidem-
que in Supplemento, p. 239, sub eodem numero lit. B adscribi-
tur arbor, quam ill. Wightius in Neelgherry legit. lUam autem
Laurum macranfham, primo loco relatam, quam in eadem cum
Wightiana E. Notan invenit regione, Wallichiusque noster Lauro
semecarpifolicB similem esse docet, 1. c, inter plantans Laurineas
curis meis olim ab amico commissas non inveni, quo factum est, ut
in Synopsi Laurinearum Indicarum, ' Plantarum rariorum' se-
cundo volumini insertae, silentio praeterire istam speciem necesse
esset. Hunc autem clariss. Wightir benevolentia specimen vi-
dere contigit ex illorum saltem numero, quae posteriori loco,
littera B inscripta, adnotavit Wallichius. Quod cum accuratius
observarem, non solum sui juris esse speciem didici eamque ab
omnibus, quotquot vidi> characteribus luculentissimis diversam,
sed et alia quaedam in eadem deprehendi, quae generis proprii
altiora discrimina nisi omnino probare, indiciis saltem prodere
baud spernendis videbantur. Quae vidi, fideliter jam enarrabo ;
imponam nomen genericum ; rem omnem autem dijudicandum
lis relinquam, quibus meliora completioraque aliquando videndi
specimina et fructuum naturam explorandi oblata fuerit occasio.
Nomen ' Macranthce^ Notanianis illis speciminibus ab illust.
Wallichio impositum, donee Wightiano quod coram est, illorum
aliquod componere liceat, in re tam difficili suspendere, quam
incautius, si forsitan haec atque ilia diversae fuerint arbores, trans-
ferre in alterum malui.

On some New or little kiwmn Genera in Plants. 379

Gen. 9. LEPIDADENIA, Nees ab Esenb,

lAn,^st. DODECANDRIA MONOGYNIA.
Ord. Nat. LAURINEJE, Juss.

Hennaphrodita (?) Perian^AiMm 6-partitum. Stamina \2, (iuorum'6 inte-
riora a tergo laminis geminis sessilibus obvallata. Fnictus non notus. —
Inflorescentia umbellata ; umbellis involiicratis, pedunculaiis.

Est genus, inter Dodecadeniam et Tetrantheram versans, flore pro familia
eximio, diversum ab utroque illorum generum laminis petaloideis planis
obtusis subsessilibus, loco glandularum terga staminura interiorum sti-
pantibus, ita ut seriem quasi exhibeant petalorum, stamina 6 exteriora
ab interioribus separantium. Quod ad partium numerum proxima igi-
tur accidit Dodecadenia, sed quod ad inflorescentiam, Tetrantherts est
propinquior; haec autem, ubicunque perfecto hexasepaloque guadet
flore, nunquam pluribus quam novem staminibus est praedita, glan.
dulisque senis. Accedit florum amplitudo quredam, et foliorum singu-
laris in hoc ordine obliquitas, plure forsan et alia, quae tempora futura
docebunt.

1. L.. WigMana, N. ah E. in Prod. Fl. Penins. Ind. Or. (ined.); Wight. Cat.

n. 944 Tetranthera macrantha. Wall. List of E. I. Plants, p. 239, N. 2587, b.

Hab. In montibus ' Neelgherries ' dictis ; D. Wight.
Folia adsunt et ramuli particula cum racemulo umbellularum. Cortex fus-
cus, pubescentia subtUissima rarissimaque conspersus. Gemma inter fo-
lium et pedunculum stipitata, capitulo ovato acuto angulato subtiliter
strigiloso. Folium majus 10 polUces longum ; minus 64 poUicum est;
unum 3, alterum 3i poUices latum, utrumque ex ovato oblongum, ob-
tusum cum mucrone, basi cuneatim acutum, obliquum, altero latere
infra medium production et quasi in angulum obtusum elev^ato, reliquo
ambitu leniter repando. Supra laevissima sunt folia et nitida, subtus a
pubescentia subtilissima appressaque veluti sericantia et opaca ; sub-
stantia chartaceo-coriacea. Kami costales plures (12-16) tenues, sub-
simplices, reti interjecto obsoleto ; costa media subtus prominens, lata,
sulcata. Petiolm brevis, crassus ; supra depresso-canaliculatus, subtili-
ter puberulus. Pedunculus axillaris, 1 \ poll, longus, erectus, crassus,
tomentoso-strigilosus, angulosus, inferne subquadrangulus, prope a basi
florens. Umbellulat racemosae, brevissime pedicellatae, 6-florae; alabas-
trum globosum, pisi magnitudine. Involucri foliola (4 ?) subrotundal
strigiloso -tomentosa, grisea. Flores breve-pedicellati, 3 lineas lati, pa-
tentissimi ; laciniae subsequales, ovales, obtuste, obsolete trinerves, con-
fertim minutimque pellucido-punctatoe, extus pubescenti - strigilosae.
Faux hirsuta. Stamina 12, quatruplici serie, centrum versus decres-
centia; exteriora 6 perianthio duplo fere longiora; filamenta linearia,
hirsuta ; antherae lineari-oblongae, quadriloculatae, omnes introrsum de-
hiscentes, loculis oblongis, duobus superis pauUo minoribus, inferioribus
raagis lat«:alibu8. Intimi circuli antherae duplo minores reliquis, siib-
ovatae, uno alterove loculo saepe abortiente. GUmduite I2>l9, per paria

380 Messrs Wight and Arnott on some New or

circa basin staminum interiorum dispositjE, intimisque saltern eorum
evidenter a tergo incumbentes ; exteiiores autem modo minus regulari
distributae, filamenta interiora longitudine subcequantes, ovales, com-
pressae, oblique truncatae et rotundatae, pleraeque sessiles, nonnullae bre-
^'issime unguiculatae, glabrae. Pistillum longitudine staminum interio-
rum, glabrum ; ovarium lanceolatum, in stylum crassum brevemque
abiens; stigma latum, irregulariter lobatum (?) Forsan abortivum ex-
stat in nostris speciminibus pistillum. Fructus latet. — Quod ad habi-
tum in universum accedit haec species TetranthercB semicarjnfolite, et si
sui generis novi typus non arrideat, hie eam illi vicinam ponat, necesse
est. DifFert autem Tetradenia ilia semicarpifolia a Lepidadenia nostra,
floris structuram ut taceam : foliis non obliquis, evidenter venuloso-
reticulatis magisque hirtulis, pedunculis umbellularum longis peduncu-
ioque communi gracilibus, umbellulis minoribus nutantibus.

HYGRORYZA, iV: ab E.
Lin. St/St. TRIANDRIA DIGYNIA.
Ord. Nat. GRAMINE^, Jms.

SjpiculoB uniflorae, hermaphroditae ; superiores ramificationum inflorescen-
tiae saepe abortivae, Glumce duae subaequales, chartaceo-membranaceae ;
interior caudato-setigera ; superior acuta (nervis raucioribus, quam in-
fera, praedita). Flosculus unus univalvis ; valvula brevissima tenerrima,
apice dentata, genitalia amplectens. Lodicidce nullae. Stamina 3, fila-
mentis capillaribus ; antheris linearibus, utrinque bifidis. Ovarium li-
neari-oblongum, stipitatum, compressiusculum : stylus ad basin fere bi-
fidus ; stigmata crassa, plumosa, ramulis pinnatis. Caryopsis subcylindrica,
compressiuscula, laevis, altero margine sulcato angustissimo insculpta,
pedicellata, mucronata.

Inflorescentia : racemuli aliquot approximati, subfastigiati et quasi digitati, a
basi Jlorentes, oligostacfiT/i. Spiculoe solitaries, pedicellata}, quam pro statura
planta grandiores, pallidce.

Genus proximum sane Zizaniw, ejusdemque tribus, ac ista, sed notis allatis
evidenter distinctum, multoque magis etiam habitu proprio. Valvulam
.fiosculi, sive glumellam, nee lodiculus esse involucrum illud florale in-
terius exiguum, inde patet, quod stamina intra fines ejus, nee extra nas-
cuntur. M onendum autem, hoc singulari casu transitum quendam ab
involucris floralibus e vaginarum brdine (glumellis ''a3 'jperiatntlila ru-
dimenta (lodiculas) palam fieri. ,.>u .. -

1. H. aristata, N. ab E. in Prod. Fl. Penins. Ind. Or. (ined.)— Pharus aris-
latus, Retz Obs. 6. p. 23 (descr. opt.) ; Willd. Sp. PI. 4. p. 397 ; Kunth Syn.
p. 10; Wight Cat. Gram. n. 2\Q. ^

Gramen vix semipedale, basi repens natansve, radiculis pinnatis; Rami
adscendentes, ad inflorescentiam usque vaginati. Folia pollicem ununi
lonf»a, 34-4 lineas lata, basi rotundata vel subcordata, oblongo-lanceolata,
obtusa cum mucrone obsoleto, striata, gla\ica, rigidula, in anibitu paginae
superioris tuberculis exasperata, in sicco nostro exemplo apice ssepe fissa.

little known Genera of Plants. 3^8 1

Uacemuli in apice culmi vaginato 4-5, \~\ polL longi, graciles, patuli
scabriusculi. Spicula 3-4, alternre, cum caudis 7-8 lineas longae, ob-
longae, compressse, altero margine rectiusculo. Glumas cum pedicello,
\-\\ lineas longo, basi confluentes; inferior major, in caudam rigidam.
rectam, ipsa glumali parte longiorem, extenuata, alte et curvatim cari-
riaita, 5.nervis, nervis in carinas elevatis et setoso-hirsutis ; superior glu-
ma 3 lineas longa, lanceolata, acuta, 3- nervis, 3-carinata, carinis simili
modo hirsutis. • Valvula florem a latere, glumae superiori ojiposito, cin.
gens, altitudine fere ovarii, tenerrima, apice truncata et emarginato-
angulata, enervis (?). Filamenta pistillum aequantia, capillaria ; antheras
pro filamentorum proceritate breves. Stigmata valida, valde plumosa,
ramulis iterum plumulosis, superiora versus confluentibus. Caryopsis
2 lin. longa, distincte pedicellata, fere teres et subcylindrica, mucrone a
styli basi residuo bidentato coronata, leviter substriata, fusca, latere latere
linea depressiuscula pallida inscripta.*

(To be conlimied.)

Description of several New or Rare Plants which have lately
flowered in Gardens in the neighbourhood (f Edinburgh,
but chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden, By Dr Graham,
Professor of Botany in the University ,of Edinburgh.

lOfA »Sep/. 1833.
Fritillaria minor. i^- /. r.

F. minor ; caule inferne nudo, subunifloro ; foliis sparsis, lineavibus, ca-
naliculatis ; flore subtesselato, petalis exterioribus oblongis, iiiteriori-
bu8 latioribus obovatis. — Ledehour.
Fritillaria minor, Ledeb. Ic. PI. Fl. Ross. Alt. 2. 12. t. 130 — Ibid, Fl-

Altaica, 2. 34.
Fritiilaria meleagroides, Patrin, in Schult. Syst. Veget. 7« 395.
DEScniPTioN — Bulb subrotund, white, about the size of a small hazel
nut, with many slender roots from its base. Stem (in my native 8j)eci-
mens from 7 inches to 1 foot high, in the cultivated specimen 1 foot 10
inches) erect, simple, single- flowered in my native specimens, and almost
always so in such, according to Ledebour, in the cultivated 3-flowered,
pruinoso-glaucous, brown and speckled towards its base, obscurely three-
sided, naked for a considerable way above the base. Leaves scattered,
smaller upwards (in native specimens 4-5, the lower 3 inches long, in
the cultivated 7, the lower 6 inches long), lanceolato-iinear, channelled
along the upper surface, blunt, suberect, pruinoso-glaucous, half stem-
clasping. Flowers (13 lines long, 10^ lines broad) generally solitary in
the wild plant, 1-3 in the cultivated, springing from a common point at
the top of the stem bt'tweeA two subopposite leaves, and provided with

• E Panicearum tribu novum genus prodiit, CoridocMoa ampellatum, cuju« typus est Pani-
cum cimicinum Relz. Proximum hoc est genui Anthenanthia P. de B., 8cd distlnctum spJcula
biflora et floscula fertili sctifiera. Neutro flosculo valvula superior deest, vel potius transitu In
lodiculas e.r tratisvento oppo.titas lancewlato-arumliiatas compHcatOMrarinatas. De quo alio tem-
iwre secrsim acturiis sum.

382 Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare Hants.

peduncles (above 2 inches long), nodding, dark blood-red, obscurely tes-
selated, pale, more yellow and more distinctly variegated within, nec-
taria linear ; outer petals oblong slightly spreading at the apices, inner
broader obovate connivent at the apex. Stamens subequal, about half
the length of the corolla ; filaments subulate, slightly dilated at the base,
and very sjiaringly glanduloso-pubescent ; anthers oblong, yellow ; pol-
len granules small, oblong, yellow. Pistil rather longer than the sta-
mens ; stigma tripartite, erecto-patent, green ; style triangular, cleft to
about its middle, the stigmatic surface extending along the inside of
the segments ; germen of uniform diameter from end to end, distinctly
grooved along the angles, and more obscurely along the sides ; ovules
very numerous, 2-rowed in each cell.
This plant was obtained by David Falconar, Esq. from Mr Goldie, who
brought it from Russia. It flowered in the garden at Carlowrie, in the
beginning of May, the same season in which it was found by Ledebour
to flower in its native stations in Altai. It varies a little in the wild
state. I have native specimens both from Dr Fischer of St Petersburg
and from Ledebour. The former are smaller, but the flower is larger,
and the leaves, which are longer and narrower, are collected nearer to
the flower. Even in a wild state, it appears from Ledebour that occa-
sionally, though rarely, there are more flowers than one on the stem,
and the two lowest leaves are sometimes subopposite. I cannot but
think that this plant scarcely differs more from F. meleagris than some
of the acknowledged varieties of this species. The great length of the
pendulous part of the stem or peduncle, which Ledebour considers charac-
teristic, and which is figured in his beautiful illustrations of the Flora
Altaica, is not possessed by my native specimens, nor by Mr Falconar^s
plant, and the flower in the figure is much less lurid, and longer in pro-
portion to its breadth, than in any of these.

Leontice altaica.

L. altaica ; folio caulino solitario, petioli a basi tripartiti ramulis seg-
menta 5 oblonga Integra subpetiolulata palmatim disposita gerentibus
— Ledebour.
Leontice altaica, Pall. Act. Petrop. 1770» p. 257. t. viii. f. 1, 2, 3 — Willd.

Spec. PI. 2. 149 — Pers. Svnops. 1. 386 — De Cand. Syst, Nat. ii. 26

Ibid. Prodr. 1. 110 Spreng. Syst. Veget. 2. 121 — Schult. Syst. Veget.

2. 22 — Ledebour, Fl. Altaica, 2. 52 Bot. Mag. 3245.

Description- — Root tuberous. Stem erect, succulent, green, purple at the
base. Leaf solitary, petioled, petiole 3-paitite, segments spreading,
each bearing upon its summit five elliptical, glaucous, unequal leafets,
on partial petioles, particularly the largest, and those adjoining it.
Raceme terminal, deflected, about 12-flowered ; bractece large, obovate,
the lowest rotundato-reniform, pedicels spreading, single-flowered, twice
the length of the bracteae, farther elongated and cernuous when bearing
the fruit. Flowers yellow. Calyx of six spreading elliptical leafets. Pe-
tals 6, yellow, opposite to the leafets of the calyx, erect, semicylindri-
cal, truncated, bi-aristate at the apex, about half the length of the ca-
lyx. Stamens 6, yellow, opposite to the petals, and longer than them ;
anthers bilocular, opening by the sides folding upwards to the apex,
where they adhere to the connective. Stigma small, simple. Style short,
angular. Germen inflated, membranous, unilocular. Ovules four, ob-
ovate, green, erect from the base of the germen, and afterwards exposed
by the rupture of its apex.
This very pretty plant was received by Mr Falconar from Mr Goldie,
and flowered very freely in a cold frame at Carlowrie in April. It is a
native of the Altai Mountains, towards the western part of which, it ap-
pears from Ledebour, it is most abundant, flowering early in spring,
while, in the eastern part, it was not observed. According to liedebour,
it does not differ from Leontice Odessana.

Dr Grahanrs Description of New ot- Hare Plants. S83

In a most valuable collection of Ledebour's plants which I possess through
the inexhaustible kindness of my friend Mr Hunneman, I have a 8])eci-
nien illustrating the singular appearance occasioned by the protmsion
of the unripe seeds through the ruptured membranous capsule.

While this sheet was in the press, the excellent figure by Mr James Mac-
nab of the specimen described, with dissections by Dr Hooker, appeared
in the* Botanical Magazine.

Libertia crassa.

L. crassa ; caule subcompresso, flexuoso, pruinoso ; floribus capitatis, ca-

(titulis multifloris, terminalibus lateralibusque, inferioribus peduncu-
atis, superioribus sessilibus ; perianthii segmentis exterioribus ovato-
ellipticis subherbaceis subcarinatis, interioribus subemarginatis cor-
datis; staminibus monadelphis ; foliis margine exteriore minutissime
serrulatis.
Description. — Root throwing up many crowns and fiowering-stems. Leaves
(6-14 inches long, half an inch broad at the base) sword-shaped, strongly
nerved, the inner edge towards the base sheathing membranous and
glabrous, above this sBghlly scabrous, the outer edge very minutely ser-
rulate, the serratures being only visible under a pretty high magnifying
power. Stem (1 foot 9 inches high) suberect, fiexuose, stout, subcom-
pressed, pruinose, each angle bearing a sheathing leaf-like spathe, which
contains a single many- flowered capitulum, peduncled at the lower part
of the stem, sessile above, external spathes gradually diminishing up-
wards, till they pass into the form of the internal, which are numerous,
membranous, withering. Flowers on short pedicels. Perianth rotate,
the three external segments subherbaceous, sessile, ovato-ellipticaL, blunt,
the three internal (9 lines long, 74 broad) twice the length of the exter-
nal, and more than three times their breadth, pure white, cordate at the
base, clawed, blunt or emarginate at the apex, with a conspicuous dia-
phanous middle rib, and faint diverging lateral veins. Stamens mona-
delphous ; filaments white, diverging a little, shorter than the inner,
longer than the outer segments of the perianth ; anthers large, incum-
bent, yellow, cleft at the lower end, lobes parallel, bursting along their
sides; pollen granules very minute, oblong, yellow. Stigmata minute,
terminal. Style trifid for about two-thirds of its length, the lower part'
round, and insheathed by the cohering portion of the filaments, segments
diverging between the stamens, angular, and each larger than the united
portion. Germen green, glabrous, 3 sided, equal in length to the pedicel,
and shorter than the outer segments of the perianth.
This was received, like the other species of the genus here described, at
the Comely Bank Nursery from Mr Low of Clapton, and was, like it,
imported from near Cape Horn by Mr Anderson. It is a much stronger
plant than any of the other species w ith which I am acquainted, and
flowered very abundantly in the open air. The flowers are larger, but
in the present state of the plants, at least, this is less elegant than the
next species. Bermudiana Narcisso-Leucoii flore of Feuillee, vol. ii.
p. 9. t. iv. belongs to this genus, and is this, if either of the species now
described ; But I think it is different from both.

Libertia formosa.

la.formosa; caule folioso; foliis radicalibus caule brevioribus, margine

laevibus; laciniis perianthii exterioribus ovatis, apice subherbaceis,

carinatis, interioribus unguiculatis, cordatis, retusL<<, filamentis basi

cohserentibus, fructibus flore minoribus.

DESCRirxioN. — Root-leaves (6 inches to 1 foot long, 2 lo A^ lines broad)

equitant, every where glabrous, membranous at the edges of the sheath,

Uiiear-swordshaped, acute, nervetl, the central nerve thicker and stronger

than the rest ; stem-leaves few (about 3) sheathing, smaller upwards (the

uppermost IJ^ inch long) in form and structure like the root-leaves,

384 Dr Graham's Descfiption of' New or Rare Plants.

Stem (1 foot 4 inches high) simple, very slightly coiiiiiresscd, glabroiis,
light green, jointed at the origin of the leaves. Flowers capitate, pedi-
cels light green, round, glabrous, outer sjmthe bivalvular, longer than
the pedicels, membranous, repeated on the inner flowers, which expand
in succession. Perianth superior, G partite, glabrous, rotate, tube none,
outer segments small, narrow ovate and colourless at the base, concave,
keeled and subherbaceous at the apex ; inner segments (7 lines long, 6 lines
broad) about twice the length of the outer, unguiculate, cordate, entire,
very slightly crisped, retuse at the apex, somewhat fleshy or like white
wax, with a distinct somewhat diaphanous middle rib, and very faint di-
verging lateral nerves. Stamens three, inserted into the base of the co-
rolla, opposite to the outer segments, about as long as the inner; filaments
like these segments pure white, erect, cohering for about a quarter of
their length, above which they diverge a little ; anthers yellow, incum-
bent, oblong, cleft at both ends, but especially at the lower, opening
along the sides. Stigmata minute, terminal, capitate, colourless. Style
white, single, shorter than the stamens, cleft into three to the point
where the filaments cohere, segments diverging between the filaments,
each thicker than the cohering part included within the sheath of the
filaments. Germen inferior, oblong, triquetrous, green, glabrous, 3-locu-
lar. Ovules numerous, oblong, mutually impressed, fixed into a central
placenta.

This species flowered beautifully in Mr Cunningham's nursery at Comely
Bank, Edinburgh, in May, having been received from Mr Low at Clap-
ton, W'ho raised ic from seeds imported from near the southern extre-
mity of the continent of America by Mr Anderson. Its root forms a
number of crowns, by which it no doubt may be propagated, and it pro-
bably will ripen seeds in the. greenhouse.

This genus was separated from Sisyrinchium by Mr Brown, and the name
of Renealmia. for a time suppressed by Smith, given to it ; but as the
genus lienealmia has been restored upon good grounds by lloscoe, it be-
comes necessary to adopt from Sprengel the appellation of Libertia for
the genus of Brown, which is a most natural one.

Oxylobium elliplicum.

O. ellipticum ; fbliis ovali-oblongis, mucronatis, subverticillatis ; bracteis
infra apicem pedicelli caducis ; capitulis terminalibus, racemosis, (legu-
miuibus calyce duplo longioribus.— £r.)
Oxylobium ellipticum, Br. in Kort. Kew. 3. 10. — De Cand. Prodr. 2.

104 Spreng, Syst. Veget. 2. 349-

Gompholobium ellipticum, Labillard. Nov. Holl. 1. 106 t. 135.
Callistachys elliptica, Vent. Malmais. 115.
Description.— S'/imi erect ; bark, on the stem brown, greenish and some-
what silky on the twigs. Leaves (1 inch long, A\ lines broad) elliptical,
mucronate, coriaceous, shortly petioled, dark green, reticulate, and gla-
brous above, somewhat silky below, reflected in the edges, subverticiilate,
four in each whorl. Flowers yellow, in terminal capitate spikes. Bractece
single below the origin of each pedicel, and opposite a little above its
middle, linear-subulate, caducous, silky. Pedicels spreading wide, silky.
Calyj^ equal in length to the pedicel, bilabiate, u])per lip of two approxi-
mated acute segments, lower of three spreading acute segments. Petals
5, nearly of equal length ; standard concave, seniicircular, crenate, sligli tly
marked with orange in the throat, claw short ; aloe elliptical, truncated
at the -base, claw very slender; keel of 2 petals, united in the mii.ldle,
subinflated, each petal shaped like one of the ahe, but with rather a
longer claw, and with a pouch ])rojecting outwards and backwards near its
base. Stamens hypogynous, included, Irce, fil iments slightly compressed,
anthers inserted by their backs, ))ollon yellow. Style ascending, ex-
serted. Stigma small, blunt. Germen pedicelled, siiorter than the sta-
mens, silkv. Ovules about 8.

Dr Graham's Description of New or Rare Plants. 385.

Seeds of this plant were received at the Botanic Garden, Edinbui^h,
from Van Diemen's Land, through William Henderson, Esq. in Fe-
bruary 1829, marked Prussian Shrub. The plant has been treated in
the greenhouse in the usual way of New Holland shrubs, and in April
last, when about three feet high, it flowered for the first time, every
subdivision of its numerous branches bearing upon its apex a crowded
bunch of flowers.

It appears from the Hortus Kewensis that the species was introduced from
Van Diemen's Land by Mr Brown in 1805, but it seems to have been
afterwards lost. The profusion of flowers with which it is covered, and
the continued succession of these during a long while, renders it a very
desirable species for cultivation.

Primula amoeiia.

P. amoena; foliis spathulato-ublongis, rugosia, crenato-denticulatis, hir-
sutiusculis, subtus incano-lanatis ; umbellis multifloris, tomentoso-
villosis, involucris subulatis ; calycibus ovato-oblongis, angulatis ; co-
roUae limbo piano glabro, tubo calyce vix longiore, coUo hemisphaerico.

Primula amoena, M. Bieberst. Fl. Taurico.Caucas. 1. 138. — Lehman. IVIon.

Prim. p. 39. t. 3 Roem. et Schult. Syst. Veget. 4. 13?. — Spreng. Syst.

Veget. 1. 574.

Description, — Leaves (3^ inches long, \\ broad) spathulato-oblong, much
attenuated towards the base, but scarcely petioled, crenate and denti-
culate, slightly hirsute and bright green above, densely covered with
white wool below, neatly and regularly rugose ; middle rib and veins
very prominent behind, primary veins nearly at right angles to the
middle rib and secondary veins, which latter are nearly equidistant, reti-
culated at the edge of the leaf. Scape (with the flowers 7 inches high)
lateral, erect, tomentoso-villous ; umbel many -flowered, involucre awl-
shaped, pedicels erect, unequal (from half an inch to an inch long) pu-
bescent. Calyx {A\ lines long) gland uloso- pubescent, pentagonal, ovato-
oblong, 5-toothed, angles prominent and green, interstices membranous,
diaphanous and purplish. Corolla very handsome, purplish-lilac in bud
or recently expanded, more blue after a few days ; tube scarcely longer
than the calyx, purple, glabrous, wrinkled ; faux hemispherical, slightly
glanduloso-pubescent, and purple on the outside, yellow within ; limb
spreading, nearly flat, segments elliptical, emarginate. Anthers nearly
sessile in the throat, yellow. Pollen yellow. Germen globular, glabrous,
lobed. Style (in the 8j)eciraen described, but, as in allied species, its
length probably varies) twice the length of the germen. Stigma large,
hemispherical.

This most desirable addition to the cultivated species of a universally ad-
mired genus, was obtained by Mr Neill from Mr Goldie, who brought
it from St Petersburgh. It flowered beautifully in the cold-frame at
Canonmills in April last, producing an umbel of eighteen perfect flowers.
In its native station, the Caucasian Alps, it is described by Marschall
Bieberstein, its discoverer, as having an umbel of from three to ten flowers;
and a variety is noticed by him, m which the scape is awanting, the
pedicels being all radical and single-flowered, — another analogy, if any
were wanting, to confirm the opinion that there is no specific distinction
between Primula vulgaris and P. ekUioT^ our common Primrose and Ox-
lip.

Syringa Josika?a.

S, Josikaa ; foliis elliptico-lanccolatis, acutis, ciliatis, rngosis, utrinque

glabris, supra iuridis, subtus albidis.
Syringa Josikcea, Jacquin, in Bot. Zeitung, 1831.
Description — Shrub erect ; branches spreading, very slightly warted,
twigs purple. Leaves (3 inches long, 1^ inch luDiih t'lliptioo-Uiuoolate,

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCTOBER 1833. i: !)

386 Dr Graham^s Description of Netv or Rare Plants.

attenuated at both extremities, shining and lurid above, white and veined
below, wrinkled, glabrous on both sides, ciliated, ciliae short. Panicle termi-
nal, erect. Calyx\ like the pedicels, peduncles, rachis, petiole, middle rib of
the leaf, and the branches, pretty closely covered with short glandular
pubescence, 4-toothed, teeth blunt, and much shorter than the tube.
Corolla (half an inch long) clavato-funnelshaped, deep lilac, glabrous,
wrinkled; tube sliglitly compressed ; limb erect, 4-parted, segments in-
volute in their edges. Stamens adhering to about the middle of the tube ;
anthers incumbent, oblong, yellow. PisHl much shorter than the tube ;
stigmata large, cohering ; style filiform, glabrous ; germen green, gla-
brous, bilocular ; ovules four.
This plant was received at the Botanic Garden from Mr Booth of Ham-
burgh in the end of October 1832, and flowered in the open border in the
end of May and beginning of June. It seems therefore to flower later,
and to remain longer in blossom than any of the species previously in
cultivation, but does not equal any of them in beauty. As the name
under which we received it was not legible, and as I had not seen it
any where described, I proposed that it should receive the name of
S. Jacquinii, from the botanist who first noticed it ; but I have since re-
ceived the above quotation from Dr Hooker.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF STRATIFIED ROCKS ALTERED BY PLU-
TONEAN agency; AND ANALYSIS OF LARGO LAW BASALTIC
ROCK AND WOLLASTONITE FROM CORSTORPHINE HILL.

I.

The interesting displays of changed strati/led rocJcs observed
at the line of junction of stratified and unstratified formations,
pointed out long ago by Hutton, abound all around Edinburgh.
An examination of these changed neptunian masses, shews
that, in some instances, they have been simply hardened, in
others softened, to such a degree as to allow a movement of the
particles, and consequently a new arrangement of these on cool-
ing, thus giving to the altered rock a series of external charac-
ters different from that possessed by the unchanged rock. As
the external characters of minerals are intimately connected with
their chemical composition, it seemed probable that these sof-
tened rocks had, in all probability, acquired a new chemical
composition ; a conjecture illustrated by the following analyses.

Lochend. — At Lochend, near to Edinburgh, there is a fine
display of the changes produced on some of the rocks of the coal
formation by the greenstone of this district. The greenstone
crag which rises immediately from the side of the Loch, rests
upon, and is partially covered by slate-clay and sandstone of the

Chemical Anal^es qf Hochn. .3SY

coal formation, and in the body of the greenstone itself there
are numerous fragments of those rocks, esj^cially of the slate-
clay. The slate-clay, upon which the greenstone rests, and the
fragments of that rock contained in the greenstone, is so much
changed as to resemble some varieties of compact felspar. I
gave Mr Walker a specimen of slate-clay, taken from a bed at
a distance from the greenstone, and another from the upper part
of a bed of the same rock, in immediate contact with the green-
stone, with the view of being analyzed. The following re-
sults were obtained :

1. Unaltered slate-clay from Lochend. Heated per se before
the blowpipe, it fuses with difficulty: with ammoniacal phosphate
of soda, it forms a white enamel ; with phosphate of soda, an ena-
mel yellowish-green when hot, and yellowish when cold ; with bo-
rax it forms a greenish glass. Its constituents are : Silica, 58.22 ;
Alumina, 17.50; Protoxide of Iron, 10.53; Lime, trace; Mag-
nesia, 4.62 ; Soda, 2.02; Water, 6.70; =: 99-59.

2. Altered slate-clay from Lochend. This specimen, which
very much resembled some varieties of compact felspar, afforded
the following constituent parts: Silica, 53.25 ; Alumina, 17.56;
Oxide of Iron, 8.64 ; Lime, 6.62 ; Magnesia, 2.70 ; Soda, 7.85 ;
Water, 2.23 ; = 98.85. This analysis shews that the altered
slate has received a notable quantity of lime and alkali, thus
giving it a composition different from that of the unaltered va-
riety.

Understanding, from the communication of a chemist, that
common alluvial clays contain alkali, I directed my young
friend's attention to this point, and he ascertained, as stated
above, that the unaltered slate-clay also contains alkali. The
importance of this fact as connected with soils is too evident to
require any particular consideration.

Altered or Changed Slate^ Clay from a mass imbedded in the Green-
stone of Salisbury Craigs.

Specific Gravity ^.52. Chemical Characters : Effervesces, and
does not gelatinise with acids. Before the blowpipe, heated per
se^ it melts into a transparent greenish glass ; witli salt of phos-
phorus into a transparent and colourless glass. Constituent
Parts: Sijica, 66.100; Alumina, 19-5 ; Oxide of Iron, trace;

388 Chemical Analyses of' Rocks,

Lime, 6 A ; Soda, 4.45; Water and Carbonic Acid, 3.3; =99.65.
The above analysis by Mr J. Drysdale, affords another inte-
resting example of the chemical change induced in neptunian
rocks by plutonean agency.

II.

1. Analysis of the Basaltic Rock of Largo Law in Fifeshire.

The beautiful hill named Largo Law, which rises 938 feet
above the level of the sea, is composed of a greyish-black com-
pact basaltic rock, belonging to the greenstone or dolerite se-
ries. It rises through the surrounding rocks of the coal-forma-
tion, in which it has occasioned changes of position, structure,
and probably also in composition. The rock, although gene-
rally massive, in some parts of the hill appears disposed in ele-
gant columns. As it had not been analyzed, I put a specimen
of it into the hands of Mr J. Drysdale, who returned the fol-
lowing account of his examination of it :

Specific gravity %Jdl\. Chemical Characters : It neither ef-
fervesces nor gelatinizes with acids. Before the blowpipe per se,
it melts easily into a black mass ; with the salt of phosphorus
into a transparent and colourless glass ; with borax ditto, &c.
Constituent Parts : Silica, 45.2; Alumina, 14.4 ; Protoxide of
Iron, 14.0; Lime, 12.7; Magnesia, 6.55 ; Soda, 5.22; Water,
2.4; = 100.47.

2. Analysis of the Zeolite named Wollastonitey by Thomson,

Fine specimens of this mineral were found in the greenstone
cliffs of Corstorphine Hill, by one of our best geological ob-
servers. General Lord Greenock. The following is Mr Wal-
ker's analysis of the Wollastonite from this new locality : It
phosphoresces when heated, giving out a feeble white light. It
does not effervesce nor afford a perfect jelly with acids. Heated
per se before the blowpipe, it fuses with effervescence into a
very hard white enamel. Its constituents are : Silica, 54.00 ;
Lime, 30.79; Soda, 5.55 \ Water, 5.43; Magnesia, 2.59; Alu-
mina and Oxide of Iron, 1.18; =99.54

( 389 )

CELESTIAL PHENOMENA FROM OCTOBER 1. 1833 TO JANUARY
1. 1834, CALCULATED FOR THE MERIDIAN OF EDINBURGH,

MEAN TIME. By Mr George Innes, Astronomical Calcu-
lator, Aberdeen.

The times are inserted according to the Civil reclionlng, the day beginning at midnight.
— Tbe Conjunctions of the Moon with tlie Stars are given in Right A$cetuUm.

OCTOBER.

D.

H. , /,

D.

H. , ,.

1.

2 17 32

d D U Ceti.

15.

21 28 39

dD^:^

3.

4 24 21

Im. I. sat. 11

16.

10 23 27

6])^ Oph.

3.

17 43 -

69i^

17.

10 41 14

d }) e Oph.

3.

17 44 37

d D 13 b

17.

19 11 2

Im. II. sat. y

3.

18 16 41

d ))2J b

17.

20 18 42

d }) I> Oph. .

3.

18 54 7

d D3S «

19.

2 42 9

Im. I. sat. ^

3.

20 17 28

d D ^ «

19.

2 57 32

dM' t

4.

11 39 42

d })' «

19.

3 22 16

d])2v t

4.

20 7 -

Sup.d05

19.

7 37 43

61)0 t

4.

22 20 20

d Do «

20.

11 37 30

]) First Quarter.

4.

22 52 66

Im. I. sat. y.

20.

20 17 -

d?/3TT5

6.

2 39 20

d D ? d

20.

21 10 52

Im. I. sat. y

6.

13 46 29

d D H n

21.

14 52 4

dD'.n

5.

18 17 35

d D »> n

22.

5 43 0

d])¥

6.

21 37 57

d })/«n

22.

8 26 34

dD^n

6.

4 11 34

Im. III. sat. 7/

22.

10 55 18

dD^n

6.

15 45 36

( Last Quarter.

23.

15 6 44

O enters n\.

6.

20 57 11

dD^n

24.

4 10 16

c?0V

7.

3 25 44

Im. II. sat. 1/

24.

10 43 10

d ))^^^

8.

6 18 52

d ]) 7 OS

24.

11 46 45

d ^ 3^;<cs;

9.

16 29 24

d D « .a

25.

0 19 6

Em. II. sat If.

10.

17 16 34

d])?

25.

10 56 58

d DfK

11.

9 58 59

d D^TTJ

25.

12 46 59

d D*K

12.

0 47 27

Im. I. sat. 7/

27.

16 22 6

6)>^yi

12.

2 36 16

6]>h

28.

1 13 46

Em. I. sat. 11

13.

6 41 0

0 New Moon.

28.

3 23 43

6))'il

13.

13 45 -

9 near S

28.

8 46 28

d }) U Ceil.

13.

14 7 27

6))6

28.

15 20 0

O FuU Moon.

13.

14 8 23

dD^

29.

18 10 7

d $h

13.

19 16 9

Im. I. sat. y

29.

19 42 39

Km. I. sat. %

14.

6 38 -

d?'^

31.

0 37 64

d ])S3 «

15.

13 38 46

dDv^

31.

2 0 19

dD. «

15.

17 19 7

dDn:^

31.

17 13 15

d D U Cetk

390 Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1. 1833 to Jan, 1. 1834.

NOVEMBER

D.

H. . /,

D.

H.

^

II

1.

2 55 19

Em. II. sat. n

18.

13

46

7

d])¥

3 38 57

(5 Do tt

18.

16

10

23

dDr n

1.

8 6 30

dK b

18.

19 37

16

6i)^ys

1.

18 57 50

60)6

18.

21

25

44

Em. II. sat. y

1.

19 2 1

6} Hn

19.

7 37

0

}) First Quarter.

23 41 45

d ]) " n

20.

1

28

10

Em. I. sat. y

2.

3 22 2

d D^n

20.

3

52

-

^ greatest E.

3.

2 27 35

dD^n

20.

18 47 50

dD24':c55[elong

3.

22 32 21

Em. III. sat. y.

20.

19

21

26

61)^^^

4.

3 8 49

Em. I. sat. 11

21.

18 36

52

6 })»-K

4.

12 20 14

6 D y25

21.

19 57

4

Em. I. sat. y

5.

0 21 24

( Last Quarter.

21.

20 27

22

c^ D^K

5.

21 37 32

Em. I. sat. 7/

21.

23 47

-

6 ?xT1}?

5.

23 27 35

6D»^

22.

11 37

17

©enters ^

7.

9 4-

69^m

23.

5

24

-

dbyTTJ

7.

18 23 56

dD^W

24.

0

15

11

6^^^

8.

1 4 11

d D ^Tije

24.

3

23

30

6])y

8.

16 46 43

dD b

24.

16 39

17

<f D U Ceti.

10.

12 36 12

61)9

25.

7 37

-

6S-=^

11.

2 33 43

Em. III. sat. y.

26.

0

1

52

Em. II. sat. y

11.

9 49 6

6 D6

27.

6

54

30

O Full Moon.

11.

17 26 0

0 New Moon.

27-

7

53

37

d ]) 3^ d

IL

18 49 33

Em. II. sat. 1/

27.

9

14

47

6}^ 6

12.

20 37 31

6])>P Oph.

28.

0

10

49

d])-d

12.

23 32 47

Em. I. sat. y

28.

10

33

45

6])o ^

13.

7 0 43

6D^

28.

14

45 58

61)1 6

13.

20 34 39

6 }) e Oph.

28.

21

52

38

Em. I. sat, 7/

14.

6 1 22

d ]) D Oph.

29.

1

36 42

d DHn

14.

12 50 29

dDb ^

29.

4

28

-

dc^A —

14.

18 1 40

Em. I. sat. y.

29.

6

1

31

d 1) ^n

15.

12 1 8

6li^ t

29.

9

17

41

61)/*n

15.

12 25 11

dD2v t

30.

8

5 43

6D^u

17.

22 47 44

6D»n

DEC£:

MBER.

T>.

"• / //

D.

n.

1.

17 41 15

d D yso

6.

3

40

14

dDh

3.

2 37 69

Em. II. sat. y

7.

0 17

-

d?4?-

3.

4 46 24

d ]) « ^

7.

18

17 43

Em. I. sat. y

4.

9 8 24

( Last Quarter.

8.

15 45 31

d])2|-

4.

14 26 18

dD'^

9.

6

20

-

Inf. d 0 ^

5.

0 6 34

6])nw

9.

8

52

10

6D^^

5.

0 23 2

dD'TlJ

9.

12

87 26

dr'»=^

5.

T 13 14

dD^Tije

9.

13

21

38

c^ 3)?

5.

23 48 19

Em. I. sat. 2/

9.

16

28

58

Im. III. sat. y

Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1 . 1 833 to Jan. 1. 1 834. 391

DECEMBER— ^xm/inwrf.

u.

H. ^ „

D.

H. , /,

9.

16 50 38

c^ ))^^

21.

22 8 55

Em. I. sat 11

10.

7 14 8

6))S

22.

0 22 1

0 enters J^

10.

23 5 48

]) very near 5

22.

1 33 31

d ]) U CetL

11.

7 52 54

% New Moon.

23.

16 37 56

Em. I. sat V

12.

21 22 6

6))^* t

24.

17 5 44

6 ))3J «

12.

21 39 5

dD2v t

24.

18 26 24

d D» «

13.

1 44 6

Em. I. sat v.

25.

9 16 2

6D' a

13.

18 32 4

Em. I[. sat. "2/

25.

19 31 28

61)0 b

14.

20 13 2

Em. I. sat. y

25.

23 40 16

</ }) C »

15.

7 25 40

61)r>A

26.

10 20 16

d )) H n

15.

20 15 -

69S

26.

14 39 52

d D »» n

15.

23 39 56

d})^

26.

17 52 8

dD^n

16.

0 36 7

6Dyn

26.

21 9 18

O Full Moon.

18.

2 55 43

C5 J) 2 r/. «5

27.

15 18 34

69<^

18.

. 3 29 20

6 D 3^^a5

27.

16 17 43

d D ^ n

19.

2 53 52

61)rK

27.

21 25 30

Im. 11. sat 11

19.

4 38 43

6])sH

27.

23 44 4

Em. II. sat. 1/

19.

6 15 36

]) First Quarter.

29.

0 4 51

Em. I. sat. 1/

19.

23 39 -

6^9

29.

0 46 50

d ]) y 2s

20.

18 49 16

Im. II. sat. y.

29.

1 36 -

9 greatest W.

20.

2) 8 5

Era. II. sat. y

30.

10 55 27

d D « ^ [elong

21.

8 58 5

c^ DvK

31.

19 57 21

6))'^

21.

11 16 42

d J) V

.

The Moon will be Totally Eclipsed, December 26, Fisible to all Europe.
The following are the times for the Edinburgh Observatory :

D. H. / „

The Eclipse begins, .... Dec 26. 19 30 5,6

Beginning of Total Darkness, .... 20 30 31,7

Middle, 21 19 42,2

End of Total Darkness, 22 8 62,7

End of the Eclipse, 23 9 18,8

392 Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1. 1833 to Jan, 1. 1834.

pi

g
s

s

i<5 lo kO W5 O lO
oiO >C O O O kO

1
1

oifi >o lO »o lo »n

S3

f

O

■^ -H t>,CO ©
•* -^ Tf CO CO (M

0 kO tO kC kO kO kO

- »« CS a 05 Ci 05
. O O O OJ OJ Ci

a 3^ (N (N -^ -< "-^

a CO CO CO t^ t«. !>.

♦ ..

a CO CO © kO ID o

i

S5

°F-* o © o o o

03

1

^co CO c: (N © —

--^ (N CO »0 p^

°© © © © ^ -•

la

oj

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<M (N CO x* -^ »0

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^CO O -^ CO CO t^
■t CM F-^ O M —

^,. Ci C5 OS CO CO CO

^ t-. -H CO -<* >-0 CO
kO Tj< (M -^ (N

j£ t-. t-» t>» t>. © ©

1

3

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°Ci Ci CS CS C5 CO

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•'a.

3

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kO -^ -^ ■'t -^ x*

°eo CO CO 00 CO CO

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- CO © CO «0 Ttt (N

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"^ (N (M !M CI S^I (M

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kO Tjt (M "* (N

J© © © © © Ci
* (N (N (N <N F-^ -<

1

^«5 CD CO Tf CO —
CO JO »Q — ' iM Tf

CQD t^CO O — (N

02

^05 CO t^© CO T)<
.-H r^ F- (M — < ,-.

0 TJ< >ft CO tx CO o>

o
Q

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■" lO C5 CO CO <M CO
•^ SO PO <M (N -H

S^ -H ^ -H .-< ^

^ '-" t^ (?» Ci -* ©
^ kO kO k«

en'

3

1

CO CO >0 Tf
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>•

1 29 S.

3 22

5 41

8 3
10 18
12 27

3
C

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CO

^ CO <M "O t>. kO t-
k« (N C^ CO kO

^rn CD CS CO CS CO
CO CO CO Tf Tf Tt<

^ OS 05 C5 05 CJ Ci

^CO »C CO (M © ©
O «C O '^

. Ci 05 Ci © © ©

^ kO O kO f-H t^ (M
^ p^ <N CO SO "*

©©©©©©

1

''CO »« Oi o> -^ — «
to CO Ol c^

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02

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>>

1

24 13 S.
22 49
21 41
19 13

18 58

19 49

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^CO CO kO -^ CO cc
. (f» (M CO CO w co'

^© t>»© CO © ©
kfS (N '^ CO (N

.(N (N ^ -• © ©

a; Fi 1-1 -^ f-H F^ F-i

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.— lO © kO © kO
O ^ -N (N <N

( 393 )

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF
THE USEFUL ARTS IN SCOTLAND.

The following articles and communications were laid before
the Society during the months of February and March 1833 : —

April 3. — 1. Communication on a System of Typograpliy for the
Blind. By Mungo Ponton, Esq. W. S. 30 Melville Street.

Printed Specimens, &c. were exhibited.

2. Description of a Calculating Machine, for proposing and answer-
ing Arithmetical Questions ; calculating Interest at any rate per cent,
for any amount, and for any number of days : — chiefly intended for
the use of Teachers of Arithmetic, Banking Houses, &c. Invented
by Mr James Macfarlane, teacher of the Mercantile Academy, 48
George Square, Glasgow.

The machine was exhibited by Mr Macfarlane.

Mr George Angus, architect, 1 St Colme Street, Edinburgh, was ad-
mitted an Ordinary Member.

Donation. — The Code of Agriculture, including Observations on
Gardens, Orchards, Woods, and Plantations ; with an account of
all the recent Improvements in the management of Arable and Grass
Lands. By the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair, Bart. Founder of the
Board of Agriculture. From the Author.

April 10. — 1. An Alphabet and mode of Printing for the use of
the Blind ; with specimens in metal. By Mr John Henderson, May-
lield Loan, Edinburgh.

2. Specimens of an Alphabet and of Printing for the Blind ; with
relative letter. By Mr John Richardson, teacher, 11 Lothian Street,
Edinburgh.

3. Model of a Chimney Top for Curing Smoke. By Mr Martin
Gavin, slater, 2 Nottingham 1 errace, Edinburgh.

4. Model and Description of a Fire-£scape. By Mr Alexander
]\I'Coll, Cupar Fife.

5. Observations relative to Machines for " Treading and Consoli-
dating the Soil ;" and for ** Breaking Sea shells into dust for Manure."
By the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair, Bart.

6. Additional Specimens of Lithographic Views, chiefly Scottish,
intended for immediate publication. By Mr Samuel Leith, litho-
grapher, Banff.

7- Observations on the Improvements which may be effected by
means of Competition among working Tradesmen. By William
Grierson, Esq. of Garroch.

April 17 — 1. Model and description of a Chimney Top for Curing
Smoke. By Messrs Thomas Brown, 4 Shakspeare Square, and John
Adam, 11 Market Street, Edinburgh.

2. Mode and Description of a machine to enable Blipd persons to
write with ease and accuracy^ By Mr John Henderson^ Mayfield
Loan^ Edinburgh.

394 Proceedings irf'the Society for the

3. Description of a Portable Steam Kitchen, manufactured by Mr
Alexander Aitken, tinsmith and ironmonger, 30 George Street,
Edinburgh.

The Steam Kitchen was exhibited of two sizes.

4. An Alphabet for the use of the Blind. By the Rev. Edward
Craig, Minister of St James's Episcopal Chapel, Edinburgh.

5. Additional paper on an Alphabet and method of Printing for
the use of the Blind, with specimens. By Mr Alexander Hay, teacher,
10 Catherine Street, Edinburgh.

April 24. — 1. Description and Drawing of a new and powerful
Break Harrow. By Mr Thomas Johnston, 137 George Street,
Ol asgow.

2. ^Specimens of Lithography from Chalk Drawings. By Mr Da-
vid Allan, lithographer, Trongate Glasgow.

3. Description, with specimens, of an Alphabet and Method of
Printing, for the use of the Blind. By Mr James Gall, printer, Nid-
dry Street, Edinburgh.

Three Copies of the Gospel by St John, in the binding of which,
different degrees of pressure have been used, and several other
specimens, were exhibited.

4. Description with printed specimens, of an Alphabet and method
of Printing, for the use of the Blind. By Edmund Fry, M. D. late
letter founder, Dalby Terrace, City Road, London.

5. Specimen and Description of a Relief and Incuse Alphabet for
the use of the Blind. By Mr Richard Eaton, London Wall Street
Coventry.

May 15. — 1. Specimens of Lithography, by William Johnston and
Son, letterpress and lithographic printers, Greenock. ^

2. Remarks on Dressed Leather made from the Skins of Rats. By
Mr James Dowie, boot and shoemaker in ordinary to his Majesty for
Scotland, Frederick Street, Edinburgh. Specimens exhibited.

3. Additional communication on the subject of Arithmetical No-
tation for the Blind. By Mungo Ponton, Esq. W. S. Edinburgh.

4. Description of an Alphabet and Mode of Printing for the Blind,
with Specimens. By Mr Daniel Macpherson, wood-engraver, 93.
Leith Wynd, Edinburgh, with additional remarks thereon.

6. An Alphabet and Mode of Printing for the use of the Blind.
With a supplementary paper, extending the plan of Wire and Coun-
ters to an abbreviated System for the Reading, Correspondence,
Arithmetic, and Music of the Blind ; and with Drawings and De-
scriptions of various Alphabets for the Blind. By Mr John Lothian,
37. George Square, Edinburgh.

6. The following Candidates were balloted for as Ordinary Mem-
bers, and duly admitted, viz.

Alexander Hamilton, Esq. W. S. F. A. S., 6. Stafford Street, Edinburgh.
Mungo Ponton, Esq. W. S., 30. Melville Street, Edinburgh.

7. The Council reported regarding the Donation of L. 400, offered
to the Society, at Whitsunday 1833, for the encouragement of the
Useful Arts in Scotland, by Sir David Brewster and Dr James
Keith, the surviving Trustees of the Fund left by the late Alexan-

Entvuragenient of the Uaeful Arts. 395

der Keith) Esq. of Dunottar, for the promotion of Science and the
Arts in Scotland ; and the acceptance of the same by the Council in
name of the Society.

May 29. — A new system of Tangible Signs, comprising the Ro-
man, Greek, and Hebrew alphabets ; with numerical figures, alge-
braic symbols, musical notation, and a variety of other characters, for
the use of the blind. By Mr Robert Milne, professor of music, 7.
Nicolson Square, Edinburgh. Printed specimens exhibited.

2. An Alphabet and Description of Double Frame and Type for
Printing in Relief, for the use of the Blind. By Mr John Johnston,
15. Cavendish Street, Glasgow. No printed specimens sent.

3. Description of a new and economical Pump for Draining Deep
Mines. By Mr John Milne, teacher of drawing, &c. Edinburgh,
Cur. Soc. Arts. A model and drawings exhibited.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

METEOROLOGY.

1. Absolute Weight of the Atmosphere during Cholera greater
than at other times, — At a meeting of- the British Association,
Dr Prout exhibited a table containing the results of eighty-seven
experiments on the absolute weight of the atmosphere between
the 16th December 1831, and the 24th March 1832. The ex-
periments were usually made about noon, and as nearly as pos-
sible under similar circumstances. The following is a summary
of the results : The mean of all the experiments (with one ex-
ception, to be presently noticed,) is, that 100 cubic inches ofdry
atmospheric air, free from carbonic acid, at the temperature of
32% barometer 30 inches, in the latitude of London, weigh
32.7958 grs., the extreme differences between the highest and the
lowest observations being .0507 grs. The mean of the first for-
ty.four experiments, between the 16th of December and the 8th of
February inclusive, is 32.7900 grs. ; the mean of the last forty-
four, between the 10th of February and the 24th of March inclu-
sive, 32.8018 grs; the difference between the two series being
.0118 grs. The exception alluded to above occurred on the
9th of February, on which day the weigfit of the air was 32.8218
grs.; and it is remarkable, that after this period, during the
whole time that the experiments were continued, tlie air almost
uniformly possessed a weight above the usual standard ; so that,
as above stated, the mean of the forty-two observations after this
crisis exceeds the mean of tlie forty-four preceding it by no less

396 Si it'll ti/ic Intelligence, — Meteorology.

than .0118 grs. The apparatus employed, and the care takerr,
were the same throughout ; and there can be no doubt, that the
difference, whatever it depended on, really existed, and did not
arise from error of experiment. How the circumstance is to be
explained, it is difficult to form a conjecture ; but perhaps it
might be worth while to observe, that almost precisely at the
period above mentioned, the zviiid veered round to the north and
east, where it continued Jhr a consider able time, and that under
these circumstances the epidemic cholera first made its appearance
in London. It zoould seem, therefore, as if some heavy foreign
body had been diffused through the lower regions of the atmo-
sphere about this period, and which was, somehoia or other, con-
nected with the disease in question.' The action of this body is
quite unknown ; but it could have scarcely possessed acid or al-
kaline properties, as, in the former instance, it would have been
separated by lime-water, and in the latter by sulphuric acid.
We may probably consider it as a variety of malaria ; and,
what renders the conjecture more likely are its effects upon the
animal economy, which are somewhat analogous to those known
to be produced by certain varieties of this poison. Thus, du-
ring the present spring and summer, the saliva and the exhala-
tions from the skin, in almost every individual on whom the ex-
periment was made, have been found to be unusually acid ; the
state of the urine also, and other secretions, has been most re-
markable, and that in so great a number of individuals as to
prove the existence of some widely acting cause, such as has not
occurred in our time, or at least since the author of the present
communication has turned his attention to the subject. Should
the above conjectures prove to be well fouiided, they lead us to
hope that the cause of the present formidable epidemic will not
be permanent, but will pass gradually away ; though, from the
deep-seated and malignant influence which it has exerted in or-
ganic action, it is probable that several years will elapse before
its effects will be entirely obliterated.

2. Weight of the ^Atmosphere at New and Full Moon* — The
weight of the air, says Dr Prout, is observed to be very un-
steady, and usually heavier about the new and full moon.
Whether this arises from aerial tides has not been satisfactorily
determined. It may, however, be proper to observe, that many
of the minute differences in the weights of the air at different

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology, ti97

times are more apparent than real, and depend upon the slug-
gishness of the mercurial barometer, which prevents it from being
an exact measure of the movements of the lighter and more
mobile fluids.

GEOLOGY.

3. Fossil- Tooth in Sandstone of the Coal Formation, — Gene-
ral Lord Greenock, some months ago, brought me a specimen
of red sandstone, which he refers to the coal-formation, from the
vicinity of Paxton, in Berwickshire, in which there is imbedded
a well preserved tooth. On examining the portion of the tooth
uncovered, I considered it as probably that of Sijish^ — other na-
turalists here thought it might belong to a saurian animal.
Wishing for further examination, I sent the specimen to Lon-
don. There, a celebrated anatomist said, " This portion of tusk
approaches nearer to that of a rt'o^ than any other with which I
have been able to compare it. It is not, however, yet completely
developed, though I have exposed a greater part of its surface
than when it was put into my hands." Another acute and ex-
perienced observer, on examining the specimen at the College of
Surgeons in London, was somewhat puzzled, but having got it
into his own keeping, he returned it with a groove, cut so as
completely to shew {\\e Jang, as also specimens of similar teeth
from the Lophius piscatorius, or sea-devil. In our next num-
ber we hope to give a more complete account of this interesting
relic.

4. Living Trilobite discovered. — Every one familiar with the
history of the trilobites, is aware that a good deal of controversy
has existed among naturalists, respecting the precise link, in the
grand chain of organized beings, these singular fossil animals
should occupy, and also whether or not they have been annihi-
lated by some ancient revolution of our planet. All these matters,
says one of Professor Silliman's correspondents, are now put to
rest by the late discovery of some living trilobites in the southern
seas, near the Falkland Islands, by Dr James Eights. We
have had the pleasure of seeing the specimens of Dr Eights,
of what appear to be trilobites. If this opinion is correct, the
trilobites must be regarded as being of almost all geological ages.

5. Faraday on Carbonate of Lime. — At a meeting of the
Royal Society of London, 3d May 1 833, Mr Faraday read a

393 Scientific IntelUgehcc—Geologi/,

notice on the combination of carbonic acid with lime. After
some details on the importance of carbonate of lime, the variety
of forms under which it occurs, the different applications for eco-
nomic purposes, for marl, manure, smelting in metalling opera-
tions, 8ec. he called the attention of the members to the fact, that
carbonate of lime, when heated without the presence of any other
gas but carbonic acid, did not lose its carbonic acid, whatever
may be the intensity of the heat employed, and under the com-
mon atmospheric pressure. An analogous fact is the occurrence
in lime-kilns of masses of limestone that have been softened and
crystallized without the loss of their carbonic acid. Probably
pressure has little to do with the retention of the carbonic acid
during the fusion of carbonate of lime. The absence of mois-
ture, as well as the presence of carbonic acid, may contribute
powerfully to the retention of the carbonic acid.

6. Prevost on the Geological transition Jrom Chalk to Ter-
tiary Deposits. — In travelling from Syracuse to Cape Passaro,
Prevost observed an apparent passage from the tertiary to the
secondary formations in the neighbourhood of Noto, by means
of thick beds of white friable limestone, almost without fossils,
which on the one hand was connected with the tertiary deposits
by its mineralogical characters and superposition, and on the
other passed in an equally gradual manner to calcareous beds,
which the greater number of geologists refer to the chalk forma-
tion.

7. Antediluvian Ambergris, — In the clay ironstone of our
coal-formation, near to Bathgate, Burntisland, &c. we have been
long familiar with a pale yellowish- white and wine-yellow, trans-
lucent, soft, inflammable mineral, to which no particular name
had been given. It is now said to have the chemical characters
of ambergris.

8. Belemnites i7i Talc-slate, <^c.— Studer stated at the meet-
ing of naturalists at Clermont, that he had found belemnites
amongst garnets in talc-slate on the south side of St Gothard.
The same naturalist also announced his having discovered at the
Lake of Lugano that the black augitic porphyry Was older
than the red quartziferous one, the latter forming dikes in the
former, but not the reverse, as he and Von Buch thought in
1887.

9. Geological Map of ' Spain. -r^houhey Elie Beaumont, and

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology/. 600

Duffrenoy are among the Pyrenees. Le Roy is still in southern
Spain, where he has discovered many interesting facts. Schulz,
inspector of mines in Spain, who is at present busy exploring
Gallicia and Vallcjo, has it in charge from the Spanish govern-
ment to make a geological map of the whole of Spain. If we
add to the list of active geologists who have visited that country,
the names of Silvertop, Hausmann, Lyell, Cook, &c. we may be
allowed to hope, that, ere many years have elapsed, we shall have
a map expressive of the general geognostical features of Spain,
Pitta de Castro, who returns with the young Queen Donna
Maria to Portugal, will describe the geognosy of his native
country.

10. Geology of Gi-eece. — Boblaye and Virlet are publishing
rapidly their interesting observations on Greece and Asia Mi-
nor. Von Buch is now in Greece, but it is to be regretted
that that great observer had not had an opportunity of reading
before his departure the fine observations made by these French
naturalists.

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

1. The Principles of Geology. By Charles Lyell, Esq. F. R. S.,

&c. &c. 8vo. Vol. iii. Pp. 530, Avith numerous Illustrative
Plates. John Murray, 1833,

This, in our opinion, is the most interesting volume of Mr
Lyeirs geological work. It is almost entirely occupied with de-
tails and views illustrative of the geognosy and geology of the
Tertiary Formations.

2. The Geology of the South-East of England, By Gideon Man-

tell, Esq. F. R. S. &c. &c. 8vo. Pp. 420, with Maps and

Plates. Longman & Co. 1833.

This valuable work, already, we doubt not, in the library of
all our geologists, treats of the Physical Geography, and next
of the geological structure of Sussex, in the following order,
viz. 1. Diluvium; J^. Tertiary Formation; 8. Chalk Formation;
4. Organic Remains of Upper and Lower Chalk; 5. Chalk
Marl, Firestone, Gait or Folkstone Marl, Blue Chalk Marl,'
Shanklin or Lower Green Sand ; 6. Tlie Wealden Formation ;
7. Organic Remains in the Wealden Formation ; 8. Observations

400 Nerv Publications.

on the Fossil Remains of Saurian Animals ; 9. Results of the
Geological Investigation of the South-East of England.

3, jBarometric Tables for tJie use of Engineers, Geologists, and Scienti-

Jic Travellers. By William Galbraith, A.M., <S:c. Ediii.
Stirling &^ Kenney, and A. Adie, Optician. 183§.

Mr Galbraith, already so well known as a cultivator of ma-
thematical and physical science, has done an acceptable ser-
vice to geologists, and others, by the publication of these
useful tables. They were computed by the author with the
greatest care, and the results examined by means of differences,
before putting to press. In reading the proofs, the same care
was bestowed. They were then cast, and proofs from the ste-
reotype plates were next read, with the same precautions as be-
fore ; and, in the whole, two errors only were discovered and
corrected. Table I. contains numbers in English feet, cor-
responding to the height of the barometer in inches, tenths, and
hundredths, with proportional parts to thousands, from 1 to 9.
Table II. contains the corrections for the expansions of mercury,
depending on the difference of the temperatures of the mercury
in the barometer tubes, indicated by the attached thermometers.
Table III. contains the corrections depending on the mean tem-
perature of the air and the approximate height. Table IV. em-
braces the corrections for the latitude a, and the corrected height
H'. Table V. will be found useful for converting French metres
into English feet, when a comparison is made with heights pre-
viously determined, either trigonometrically or barometrically.

4. Naturalist's Library. Vol. I. Humming Birds, with 34 Coloured

Plates, and Portrait of Linnaeus. Vol. II. Mo7ikei/s, 28 Co-
loured Plates, with good Portrait of Buffon. Descriptions by
Sir W. Jardine, F. R. S., M. W. S., &c. &c. ; the Engraving;^
and Drawings by W. H. Lizars. Edin. 1833.

That the taste for popular natural history is on the increase,
is shewn by the numerous light and gay works on this subject,
daily issuing from the press. Enterprising publishers and artists,
aware of the general desire among all classes of readers for this
kind of information, have at times given to their readers correct
information, illustrated by judiciously selected and well executed
engravings. The most beautiful of these cheap books on natural
history we have met with, is the Naturalist's Library, of which al-
ready a good many thousand copies of each volume have been sold.

New Publications. 401

5. On Fossil Fishes, comprising 500 extinct s/)ecies ; an ExpotUion tf
the Laws of the Succession, and of the Organic Developpient of
Fishes, throughout all tfie revolutions of tJie terrestrial globe ; a
new Classification of those Animah, expressing titeir relations to
the series of formations ; and, lastly, tJie general geological consi-
derations deduced from the study of these organic remains. By
Dr Louis Aoassiz. In 5 vols. ; the text in 4to, and 250 plateti
in folio, on fine paper.

» It is now, says Professor Agassiz, nearly three years since 1
announced this publication in tlie prospectus of my " Fresh-
water Fishes of Europe.'''' Circumstance over which I had no
control, have, till now, prevented the publication of these tw(j
works, which ought to have appeared together, for their mutual
completion, and for exhibiting my idea of the science of Ich-
thyology. A more favourable position now enables me to un-
dertake this enterprise,. and I commence with printing my Fossil
Fishes. The mere study of species, and their individual organi-
zation, has been almost the exclusive aim of naturalists. When
they have pushed their investigations farther, the objects of their
research has been limited to the philosophic principles of their
classification and organization. I have also constantly kept in view
these two points in my researches on fossil fishes. In establish-
ing successively 500 extinct species, the remains of which are
scattered through all the collections of Europe, I have made many
new observations on their structui-e, as compared with that of
existing fishes, and other vertebrate animals. But this study has
led me farther. I have deduced the law of succession and or-
ganic development throughout every geological epoch. In the
contemplation of this class, during its successive metamorphoses
from formation to formation, science may trace, in this one
grand division of the animal kingdom, the progress of organiza-
tion through a complete series of the different ages of the earth.
After such multiplied comparisons, it will not excite surprise
that I announce changes in the classification of fishes, which will
often indicate, at the same time, affinities hitherto unknown ;
but the most interesting circumstance is, that the new classifica-
tion which I am about to promulgate, will completely express
the natural affinities of fishes with each other, and their succes-
sion in the series of geological deposits. The general geologi-
cal principles deduced from the study of these fossil remahis^

VOL. XV. NO. XXX. OCTOBER 1833. C C

^ 402 New Publications.

will indicate the connexion which exists between the organic
development of the earth, and that of different classes of ani-
mals. These ideas will be illustrated by an organic delineation
of each of the grand geological epochs.

The " Researches on Fossil Fishes" will be printed in 12
numbers, each consisting of from ten to fifteen sheets of text in
q^uarto, and of 20 folio plates, at the price of 24 francs of France,
or 11 florins of Germany.

The first will appear on 1st September 1833, with 20 sheets
of text, and 20 plates : it will comprehend the family of the
LepidotideSf and, besides the figures of all the fossil remains
which characterise the species, the skeletons of the living species
with which it is necessary to compare them, restored figures
will be given of one species of each genus. — The succeeding
numbers will appear, without intermission, every four months.

6. The Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables found in the Carboni'

ferous and Oolitic Deposits of Great Britain. By H. T. M.
WiTHAM, Esq. F. R. S. & M. W. S. 4to. 84 pp. J 6 Coloured
Plates, containing 150 Figs. Black, Edin. and Longman, Lond.

In this richly ornamented and interesting volume, besides a
reprint of former papers, there are many additional details illus-
trative of the structure of fossil trees, in different secondary for-
mations, and also of the formations themselves. An attempt is
made by Mr Witham to classify minutely some of the petrifac-
tions, which we consider premature, because such determinations
cannot be of much value until we are better acquainted with the
structure of the recent woods than is the case at present. We
therefore recommend to our author, and others engaged in this
inquiry, a close study of the structure of the recent woods, be-
fore instituting any more minute comparisons with the fossil ones.

7. Boole's Work on the (Botany and Natural History of the Hima-

htya Mountains,

The intelligent author of this projected work is a sur-
geon in the India Company'*s service, who has enjoyed a lu-
crative appointment as one of their botanists. The work will
be principally devoted to the natural history of plants ; for,
as we have already often remarked in this Journal, the In-
dia Company have hitherto bestowed their munificent patron-
age almost entirely on botanists. " Although," says a valued

New Publications. 403

correspondent, "this work will be chieHy botanical, the reader
will not find there, as he too often finds in works of this nature,
a mere farrago of Latin definitions to satisfy his curiosity. Mt
Boyle has collected all the information he could obtain in the
East regarding the virtues and properties of the several plants :
he has cultivated them in the Botanic Garden 6t Saharumpore, of
which he was the superintendant, and administered them to the
sick ; he has studied them in connection with climate, soil, and
situation. The animals will be described, and iheir natural his-
tory fully considered, and the niinerals also will be noticed. '^ This
work, from what we have heard of Mr Boyle's talents and ac-
quirements, promises to be of a very^ superior cast.

8. Cyclopmdia of Anatomy and Physiology ; being a series of Dis-
sertations on all the Topics connected with Human., Comparative,
and Morbid Anatomy and Physiology. Edited by Professor
Grant of the London University, and Mr Todd, Lecturer on
Anatomy and Physiology in London.

The name of Professor Grant alone is a sufficient guarantee
to the public that the editors will fulfil to the letter all the con-
ditions, and these ate very important ones, of the ptospectus
now in circulation. The object of Dr Grant and Mr Todd,
and those embarked in this undertaking, is to put within the
reach of every practitioner and student of medicine the marrow
of an anatomico-physiological library ; to enable them to com-
mand all that is known of the pathology or comparative anato-
my of any disputed or doubtful point ; to make them acquainted
with the anatomical peculiarities of species in zoology, which it
would occupy hours in a well stocked library to ascertain ; — in
short, to afford an amount of information upon these subjects
which no other printed work can supply. The work will appear
in parts, and the first part will be published early in 1834.

9. Bridgewater Treatises,

A second edition of Sir Charles Bell's beautiful and interesting
treatise is about to appear. Dr Roget's treatise on Physiology,
in three volumes, now in the press, will take the lead, in Britain,
in this department of science. Buckland has been engraving, but
has not yet begun to print ; he will be the last, but certainly not
the least important, of the Bridgewaters. Dr Prout's anxiously
expected treatise now passing through the press, will, we doubt

404 New Publications.

not, fully sustain the high expectations formed of it. Dr Chal-
mers''s eloquent volumes, and also the admirable treatise of Pro-
fessor Whewell, are reprinting.

10. French Works on Natural History.
Brongniart is about to publish a new edition of his Mineralo-
gy, in which he will make use of Gustavus Rose's late work.
We are glad to learn that there is some probability of Ferrusac's
valuable Bulletin being recommenced. A useful weekly journal
is now publishing in Paris, entitled, " L'Institut, Journal des
Academies, et Societes scientifiques de la France, et de PEtran-
ger,'"* in quarto sheets. It gives an account of the proceedings of
all learned societies, with some scientific news. Boue is engaged
with a work on the general Bibliography of all the sciences more
or less connected with geology, viz. astronomy, physics, chemis-
try, mineralogy, geology, geognosy, paleontology, natural his-
tory, physical geography, geodosy, &c. All the works, acade-
mical memoirs, periodicals in all languages, &c. will be methodi-
cally and chronologically arranged, and illustrated by notes and
critical remarks. The second volume of Daubuison's Geology
is about to appear.

11. Cheap Publications on the Conti?ient,
At Paris there is at present an extraordinary demand for cheap
])ubhcations ; the weekly two sols papers are increasing in num-
ber. We have now, says a correspondent, " the Magazin pitto-
resque, the Lanterne magique, Panorama, Mosaique, France
pittoresque^ all published in quarto, with fine wood-cuts, at the
weekly rate of two sols each, and many others are in preparation.
A cheap dictionary of natural history is about to be started, un-
der the guidance, not of quack naturalists, but of men of high
reputation in the scientific world. The shares of some of these
publications have risen from the original value of 300 francs to
that of 5000 francs ; — so much for speculation in this kind of
stock. The desire for reading, I find, after having travelled
over the most of Europe, to be marvellously on the increase.
Truly scientific periodicals at the rate of six francs per annum,
is a wonderful feature of our times."

y<^^^\^,S-

List of ScoftiVt^^a^t^^mkbe given in next Number.

( 405 )

INDEX.

Adam, Dr Walter, on the osteology of the hippopotamus, 361
Advantages of a Short Arc of Vibration for the Clock Pendulum,

by Edward Sang, 137
Agassiz, Professor, his great work on Fossil Fishes noticed, 40 J
Analyses, chemical, of stratified rocks altered by Plutonian Agency ;

also of the basaltic rock of Largo Law, and the WoUastonite of

Corstorphine Hill, 388
Anatomy and Physiology, comparative, work on, by Dr Grant and

others, noticed, 403
Animals, numerical relations of, from Linnseus to the present time, 2*21
Antediluvian ambergris, 399
Arago on ground-ice, 123— on the influence of the moon on rain,

vegetation, and diseases, 188
Arnott, Walker, F. R. S. his characters of new or little known genera

of plants, 176, 378
Arts, Society of, the proceedings, 204, 393. — Prizes offered by, 205
Atmospliere, colour of, considered, 348 — absolute weight during Cho-
lera, &c. proved to be greater than at other times, 393 — weight

of, at new and full moon, 397
Avalanches in Gmsla, 192

Barometric Tables for the use of Geologists and other scientific travel-
lers, noticed, 400

Basaltic rock of Largo Law, account of, 388

Belemnites found in Talc-slate, 399

Boyle's work on the Botany and Natural History of the Himalaya
Mountains, noticed, 403

Bridgewater Treatises, notice of, 402

British rocks, specific gravity of, 194

Candolle on the Age of Trees, 330

Carnelian, inflammable matter in it noticed, 296

Carrara marble, discovery in regard to which, by Hoffmann, 1 94

Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1. 1833, 106 — from

October 1. 1833 to January 1. 1834, 389
Christie, Dr Alexander TurnbuU, proceedings of, 153 — his death and

character, 156
Chrome, results of experiments on the economical and medical uses of

its oxides and salts, by Prof. Jacobson of Copenhagen, 1 57
Clay for sculptors, 201

Coden, observations on its characters and affinities, by David Don, 53
Cuvier, Baron, his Eloge, by President Pasquier, ci^cluded, 164 —

his eloge of Sir H. Davy, 1 — his eloge of Vauquelin, 209
Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, by Professor Grant and others,

noticed, 403

406 1NDF.X.

Dalton, John, F. R. S. summary of the rain, &c. at Geneva, and at the

elevated station of the pass of Great St Bernard, for a series of

years, with observations on the same, 101
Davy, Sir H. biographical memoir of, by Cuvier, 1
Davy, Dr J. his observations on phosphorus, 48
Diluvial action, facts regarding which, by William Thompson, 26
Don, Mr David, on the character and affinities of the genus Codon, 53—1

on the connexion between the calyx and ovarium in certain plants

of the order Melostomaceee, 68
Dry-rot, mode of preventing it, 203
Dwarfs, observations on, 142

Ehrenberg, Professor, account of his recent discoveries in regard to the

Infusoria, 287
Elevation of the land of Scandinavia, observations on, 34
Emmet, Professor, on the solidification of raw gypsum, 69

Faraday on carbonate of lime, 399

Fee, M. his Life of Linnaeus, 85

Felspar, compact, of the Pentlands, analysis of, 195

rock of Wardie, near Edinburgh, analysis of, 198

Fish- bones and scales in the coal-formation around Edinburgh, 194

Fossils, or organic remains in granite, 256

Fossil Fishes, Agassiz's great work on, noticed, 401

Fossil tooth in sandstone of the coal formation, 397

Galbraith, William, A. M., Tables of the Sun's mean right ascension,

97 — his Barometric Tables for the use of geologists and scientific

travellers, noticed, 400
Geneva, summary of the rain at, by Dr Dalton, 101
Geoflfroy St Hilaire on dwarfs and giants, 142
Geological Map of Spain noticed, 3^8
Geology, chemistry of, by Dr Turner, 246

principles of, by Lyell, noticed, 400

of the south-east of England, by Mantell, noticed, 399

of Greece, noticed, 399

Giants, observations on, 142

Gibraltar, rock of, described by Professor Hausmann, 227

Graham, Dr, his account of rare and new plants, 181, 381 — his notice

of botanical excursions into the Highlands of Scotland in 1833,

358
Granada, the tertiary formation of, described, 364
Greenstone of Wardie analyzed, 195
Grierson, William, Esq. his observations on competition among the

working-classes of tradesmen, being the substance of a paper read

before the Society of Arts of Scotland, 105
Ground-ice, on the pieces observed floating in rivers, by Arago, 123 —

instances of, 192
Gypsum, raw, on its solidification, by Professor Emmet, 69

Hausmann, Professor, on the Physiognomy of Scandinavia, 73. — on llie
rock of Gibraltar, 227

INDEX. 407

Hermaphroditism, observations on, 198

Hoffmann on the nature of Carrara Marble, 194>

Hot Springs of the Cordilleras, observations on, 151

Human species, on the varieties of, 308

Human body, specific gravity of different solid parts of, 159

Hygrometer, observations on, 273

Infusoria, account of, by|Dr Sharpey, of Ehrenberg'slate discoveriea^ 287
Influence of the moon on rain, 189 — on vegetation, ib. — on diseases,

191
Innes, George, his Tables of Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to Oc-
tober 1. 1833, 185; and from October 1. 1833 to January 1,
1834,389

Jacobson, Professor, his experiments on the economical and medical

uses of the oxide and salts of chrome, 1 57
Johnston, J. F. W., on elevation of the land in Scandinavia, 34

Largo Law, basaltic rock of, analyzed, 388
Linnaeus, life of, by L. A. Fee, 85

Lion-hunting in South Africa, account of, by Mr Leslie, 62
Lochend, near Edinburgh, the altered and unaltered slate-clay of, ana-
lyzed, 387
Lute for bottling wine, &c. 201
Lyell's Principles of Geology, vol. 3d, noticed, 400

Mammalia, numerical relations of, 221

Mantell's Geology of the South-East of England, noticed, 400

Maps, mineralogical, of Germany, 196 — of Spain, 398

Medicine, on the state of, in Turkey, 255

Melastomacese, observations on, by David Don, F. L. S., 68

Models in relief of Wurtemberg, 197, 198

Moon, influence of, on rain, 189

, supposed influence on vegetation, 189

, on diseases, 19

Naturalist's Library by Jardine and Lizars, noticed, 401
Natural History books publishing in France, 41)2
Northern Lighthouses, some account of, 108

Oppenheim, Dr, on the state of medicine in Turkey, 255

Pasquier, Baron, his fcloge of Cuvier concluded, 164

Patents granted in Scotland from 22d March to 3l8t May 1833,

Phosphorus, Dr Davy's observations on, 48

Preservation of substances by means of alkalies, 202

Prevost on the geological transition from chalk to tertiAry deposits, 399

Prichard, Dr, on the varieties of the Human Species, 308

Redfield, C. on American steam-bouts, 55

Rocks, British, specific gravity of, 194. — Chemical composition of rocks

< J 408 INDEX.

near Edinburgh, by Messrs Drysdale and Walker, 195 of cbang-

ed stratified rocks, 387
Ruminating animals, observations on tlieir vomiting, 200

Salisbury Craigs, the altered slate-clay of, analyzed, 387

Sang, Edward, on the advantages of a short arc of vibration for the
clock pendulum, 137 — his meteorological observations made at

Edinburgh during the great solar eclipse of July 17. 1833 also

his method of freeing the determination of the latitude of an ob-
servatory, and of the declination of a star, from the consideration
of atmospheric refraction, 32S

Scandinavia, its physiognomy described by Professor Hausmann, 73

, its gradual elevation or rise, considered by W. Johnston,

A. M., 34

Scarpa, Anthony, biographical memoir of, 233

Secondary rocks, chemical analysis of, from Wardie, near Newhaven,
and the Pentlands, 193

Sharpey, Dr, his account of Ehrenberg's late discoveries, 287

Silvertop, Brigadier, on the tertiary formation in the province of Gra-
nada, 364

Slate-clay of Wardie, analysis of, 195 — of Lochend, 387

Society of Arts of Scotland, proceedings of, 204, 393

Spain, geological map of, noticed, 398

Specific gravity of different solid parts of the human body, 159 — of
gome British rocks, 194

Steam-Boats, American, observations on, by Mr C. Redfield, 55

Stucco for walls, 202

Sun's mean right ascension, tables of, by W. Galbraith, 97

Tooth, fossil, in red sandstone, account of, 397

Trees, on the longevity of, 330

Trilobite, living species of, discovered, 398

Turkey, on the state of medicine in, 255

Turner, Dr Edward, his lecture on the chemistry of geology, 246

Varieties of the human species, observations on, by Dr Prichard, 308
Vauquelin, L. N., his eloge by Baron Cuvier, 209
Vomiting in ruminating animals, experiments on, 200

< Water, deep, on the colour of, 348

Wight, Robert, M. D., his characters of new or little known genera
of plants, 176, 378

Witham, H., his new work on fossil trees, noticed, 402

Wollastonite of Corstorphine Hill, analyzed, 388

Wool, method of cleansing it of its grease, and economizing the resi-
due, 202

Working classes, on competition among, 105

Xavier de Maistre, Count, on the colour of the atmosphere and deep
water, 348 X^

U