THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A yiWf^F THB

PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN THE

SCIENCES AND THE ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

ROBERT JAMESON,

RKOIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LBCTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THB MUSEUM IN THB UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France ; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; Fellow of
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wemerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal
Physical, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth ; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin
Society ; of the Yorli, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So-
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the^ Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of
the Franklin Institute of the^State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts ; of the Geological
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope, &c. &c. &c.

APRIL.. ..OCTOBER 1838.
VOL. XXV.

TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.

EDINBURGH :

ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, LONDON.

1838.

PRINTED BY WEILL & 00. OLD FISHMARKET.

CONTENTS.

Page
Art. I. Biograpliical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann,

Professor of Geology in the University of Berlin, I
IL Upon the Formation of Crystals in the CJells of

Plants. By Dr F. Unger, . . 19

III. On the Classification and Antiquity of the Cheirop-

tera. By M. de Blainville, . 21

IV. On the Propriety of Forming National Casting Esta-

blishments, with Observations on the Improve-
ments which would result to Science, Literature,
and Taste, by the adoption of such a measure.
By C. W. Wilson, R. I. A., and A. S. A. Com-
municated by the Society of Arts for Scotland, 28

V. Survey of the Surface of the Moon. By Wm. Beer

and Dr J. H. Madler of Berlin, . 38

1. Physiognomy of the Moon's Surface, . 38

2. Supposititious Architectural Remains in the Moon, 46

3. Do Rivers occur in the Moon? . . 48

4. Lunar Atmosphere, . . 48

5. Concerning some observations which appear to indi-

cate the existence of a Lunar Atmosphere, 51

6. Non-existence in the Moon of Clouds, Seas, &c. 52

7. Light and Colour of the Moon, . . 54

8. Physical Remarks upon the Eclipses of the Moon and

of the Sun, relating principally to the appear-
ances which the former luminary presents dur-
ing these interesting phenomena, . 62

9. On the effect of the Earth's light upon the Moon, 65
10. On the Meteorological influence of the Moon, 67

VI. Remarks on some prevailing Misconceptions concern-
ing the Actions of Machines. By Edward Sang,
Esq. Communicated by the Society of Arts for
Scotland, .... 70

ii CONTENTS.

VII. Theory of Granite, and the other Massive Rocks, to-
gether with that of Crystalline Shite ; proposed in
Lectures on Geology, in the University of Chris-
tiania in Norway, in the year 1836. By B. M.
Keilhau, Professor of Mineralogy. (Continued
from Vol. XXIV. p. 403.) . . 80

VIII. On the Manufacture of Glass, Porcelain, and False
Stones as known to the Ancient Egyptians. With
Illustrative Figures, . . 101

IX. An Attempt to ascertain Characters of the Botani-
cal Alliances. By Sir Edward Ffrench Brom-
HEAD, Bart. M. A., F. R. S. L. & E. Communi-
cated by the Author. (Continued from vol. xxiv.
p. 420), . . . .123

X. Hourly Meteorological Observations for thirty -seven
successive hours ; place Drachenfels, 88 feet below
the Summit, 822 feet above the Rhine ; Lat. 30°
40' N. ; Long. 7° 12' E. from Greenwich, 135

XL Hourly Meteorological Observations for thirty-seven
hours ; place Heriot Row, Edinburgh, 175 feet
above the Sea ; Lat. 55° 57' 20" ; Long. 3° 10' 30". 136
XII. Address to the Geological Society, at the Anniver-
sary on the 16th of February 1838. By the Rev.
William Whewell, M. A., F. R. S., President
of the Society, . . .140

1. Delivery of the Wollaston Medal to Professor Richard

Owen lor his general services in Fossil Zoology, 140

2. Biographical Sketches of deceased Members of the

Geological Society : —

1. Dr E. Turner, . . 142

2. Professor William Farish of Cambridge, 143

3. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq., Member of

the Supreme Council of Calcutta, . 143

4. K. E. A. Von Hoff, the celebrated Author of ,

the important work, entitled *' The History
of those Natural Changes in the Earth's
Surface which are proved by Tradition, 144

6. Accounts of Von Hoff 's Work, . 145

3. Descriptive Zoology.

1. Additions made during the past Session to
North European Geology, by Sedgwick,
Murchison, Weaver, Strickland, Prestwicb,
&c., . . .146

CONTENTS. iii

2. Additions made to South European and

Trans-European Geology, by Boblaye, Vir-

let, Strickland, Malcolnison, M'Clelland,

Darwin, &c, . . I54

4. Geological Dynamics as illustrated by the observations

and speculations of Darwin, Fox, Hopkins, Babbage,

and Sir John Herschel, . . . 158

XIII. Result of the Examination of the Sea- Water col-

lected during the Voyage of La Bonite, by means
of the apparatus of M. Blot. By M. Daron-
DEAU, . • . . 164

XIV. Observations on the Electric Origin of Metallife-

rous Veins. By M. Becquerel, . .167

XV. Geographical and Geological Observations on some
parts of European Turkey, namely Maesia, Bul-
garia, Romelia, Albania, and Bosnia. By Dr A.
Boue'. Communicated by the Author in a Letter
to the Editor, . . .174

XVI. On the Lamination of Clay by Electricity. By R.

W. Fox, Esq. F.G.S., &c., . . 196

XVI L Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History So-
ciety. (Continued from vol. xxiv p. 428), . 198

XVIII. Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 199
XIX. Scientific Intelligence, . . 202

GEOLOGY.

1. Subterranean Heat, . . . 202

2. Subterranean Temperatures, . . 202

3. Temperature of the Earth, . . 204

4. Extract of a Letter from M. Erman junior to M. Arago,

upon the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia, 204

5. Metaraorphic Rocks, . . . 206

6. Formation of Serpentine, . . 206

7. Beryl of Aberdeenshire, . . " 206

8. Reopening of the Manganese Mine at Grandholm, near

Aberdeen, . 207

9. On the Formation of Calcareous Spar and Arragonite, 207

10. Fall of Meteoric Stones in Brazil, 208

11. Intermittent Spring, 208

CONTENTS.

ZOOLOGY.

12. Upon Microscopic Animalculi, considered as a Cause

of Putrefaction, . . . 208

13. Analogy between the organised structure and lied

Colour of the Globules in the Blood of Animals, and
of those Red Vegetable Globules namedjPro/ococcwsJ
Kermesinus^ .... 209

14. Cause of the Eed Colour of Agates, . . 210

15. On the Stinging Powers possessed by some Medusae, 211

16. Phosphorescence of the Ocean, . . 212

ARTS.

17. Dr Traill's Indelible Ink, . . 213

XX. New Publications*

1. Gaea Norvegica. Conducted by Professor Keilhau.

Part 1st 4to, with Geological Map and Plates.
Christiania, 1838. (In German.) . . 215

2. Lethsea Geognostica ; or Figures and Descriptions of

the Characteristic Petrifactions of the different Rock-
Formations. By Dr G. H. Bronn. 4to. Heidel-
berg. 1837, . . . .216

3. A Systematic and Stratigraphical Catalogue of the

Fossil Fish in the Cabinets of Lord Cole and Sir Phil-
lip Grey Egerton, together with an Alphabetical and
Stratigraphical Catalogue of the same Species, with
references to their published Figures and descrip-
tions. By Sir Phillip Grey Egerton, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. 4to. London : 1837. 216

4. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under

the Command of Captain Fitzroy, during the years
1832 to 1836. Part 2d, Mammalia, with numerous
Plates. By George R. Waterhouse, Esq., Cura-
tor of the Museum of the Zoological Society. Smith,
Elder & Co., London, . . .216

5. The Natural History of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay

and the River La Plata. Jiy Don Felix de Azara.
Translated from the Spanish, with numerous Notes
by W. P. Hunter, Esq., F.G.S., Z.S., &c. vol. 1.
8vo. Black & Co., Edinburgh; Longman & Co.,
London, .... 2l7

XXI. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 13th March

to 11th June 1838 inclusive, . .217

CONTENTS.

Page
Art. I. On the Life and Writings of the late Professor Ru-
dolphi. By his successor, Professor Mijller of
Berlin, ..... 221

II. Observations upon the Cause which produces the
speedy Melting of Snow around Plants. By M.
Macedoine Melloni, . . . 242

III. Notice of a Dioptric Light erected at Kirkcaldy Har-

bour, with Description of the Apparatus for cut-
ting the Annular Lens to the true optical figure.
By Edward Sang, Esq., F.R.S.E. Communi-
cated by the Society of Arts, . . 249

IV. Description of an Experiment regarding the falling

out of the head of the Thigh-bone from the Socket
in rarefied air, explanatory of the great prostra-
tion of strength experienced during the ascent of
lofty mountains. By Professor Wilhelm Weber
of Gottingen, .... 254

V. On an Arrangement in the Construction of the erect-
ing of Achromatic Eye-pieces of Spy-glasses,
whereby their magnifying power may always be
adapted to the state of the atmosphere. By
Charles Goring, M.D. Communicated by the
Author, ..... 269

VI. Theory of Granite, and the other massive Rocks, to-
gether with that of Crystalline Slate ; proposed in
Lectures on Geology, in the University of Chris-
tiania in Norway, in the year 1836. By B. M.
Keilhau, Professor of Mineralogy. Concluded
frcnn page 101, . , . . 263

CONTENTS.

VII. Observations on the Virilescence, Feminescence, and

Rejuvenescence of Animals. By Dr Mehliss, 272

1. Virilesence, . . • • 273

2. Feminescence, . • .277

3. Rejuvenescence, . • • 279
VIII. Description of an Improvement in the Common Vice,

and Vice-Chuck, whereby the action of the Screw-
is made perfect. By Mr Robert Wilson, En-
gineer, Paul's Work, Edinburgh. Communicated
by the Society for the Encouragement of Useful
Arts in Scotland, . . . 280

IX. On the Lunar Mountains Tycho, Pictet, Saussure ;
and on the Geology of the Moon. By William
Beer and J. H. Madler of Berlin, . 283

1. Topography of the Surface of the Moon, 283

2. Geology of the Moon, . 288
X. Geological Instructions, prepared by M. Elie, de

Beaumont for the French Scientific Expedition to
the North of Europe, . . . 292

1. Hypersthene Rocks, . . . 294

2. Trap-Rocks, . . . 295

3. Euphotide and Serpentine Rocks, • 296

4. Granite of Rapakivi, . . . 296
6. Rock Formations of Christiania, &c. . 296

6. Two great series of Dislocations in Scandinavia, 299

7. Progressive Rise of the Land above the Level of

the Sea, .... 300

8n Gradual sinking of the Land in Scania, 301

9. Stationary condition of parts of the coast of Norway, 302

1 0. Beds of recent shells above the present Level of

Sea, .... 302

11. Beds of Fossil Infusoria, . . 305

12. Transition and Secondary Formations, . 305

13. Geology of Spitzbergen and Bear Island, 307

14. Scandinavian Diluvium, . . 3 ] 0
16. On the Glaciers of Spitzbergen, . 31 4
16. Volcanic Island of Jan May en, . 3] 6

XI. Remarks upon the Physical Constitution of the Ara-
bians, who may be considered as the Prototype or
Primitive Race of the Species. By M. Larrey, 318

CONTENTS. Ill

XII. On the Revolutions of Iceland, Political and Natural, 824

Xni. On the Colour of the Ocean. By M. Arago, 330

XIV. Description, with Drawings, of a Grinding Machine
which is used instead of a Turning Lathe, for
giving a truly Cylindrical form to the rims of Pul-
leys and Drums : — also Drawing and Description
of a Machine for Grinding Pulleys round on the
rim. By Mr James Whitelaw. Communicated
by the Society of Arts. With two Plates, 333

XV. On btorms. By William C. Redfield of New
York, and Lieutenant-Colonel Reid, Royal En-
gineers, .... 342
XVI. On the probable Duration of Human Life, 330
XVII. Short Account of some Researches upon the Varia-
tions which take place at certain times of the day
in the Temperature of the Lower Strata of the
Atmosphere. By Professor Marcet, . 333

XVIII. Observations and Experiments made upon the Cause
and Effects of Vinous Fermentation. By M. Cag-
NiARD Latour, . . . 337

XIX. Observations taken at St Bernard's Crescent, Edin-
burgh, on the 21st and 22d June 1838. Height
above the Sea 110 English feet. By a Committee
of the Physico-Mathematical Society, . 364

XX. A brief View of the Botany of Ireland. By J. T.

Mackay, M.R.I.A., A.L.S., * . . 363

XXI. Summary of some new Inquiries concerning the Dis-
engagement of Caloric by Friction. By M. Bec-
QUEREL, President of the Academy of Sciences
for the year 1838, . . . 368

XXII. On Professor Ehrenberg and Hausmann's Discove-
ries regarding two varieties of Siliceous E^rth
found near Oberohe in the Hanoverian Province
of Luneberg, .... 373

XXIII. On the Last Changes in the relative Levels of the
Land and Sea in the British Islands. By James
Smith, Esq. of Jordanhill, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S.,
& M.W.S., • . . . 878

iv CONTENTS.

XXIV. Proceedings of the Royal Society, . . 395

XXV. Proceedings of the Society of Arts for Scotland, 399

XXVI. List of Prizes offered by the Society for the Encou-

ragement of the Useful Arts in Scotland, for Ses-
sion 1838-9, .... 413

XXVII. Proceedings of the Botanical Society, . 415

XXVIII. Scientific Intelligence, . . 416

METEOROLOGY.

1. Temperature of the Globe in the Polar Regions, and
upon the Tops of Lofty Mountains, 416. 2. Depth of
the Frozen Ground in Siberia, 417- 3. On the Auro-
ra Borealis, 419. 4. On Winds, 421. 5. Fall of Rain
from a serene Sky, 423. 6. Uncommon Atmosphe-
rical Refraction at Dover, . • 423

HYDEOLOGY.

7. Submarine CuiTents, 424. 8. Water Spouts, 425. 9.
Hot Springs, 425. 10. Electricity near Waterfalls,
426. 11. Tides in the Mediterranean, . 427

GEOLOGY.

12. Geology of the Zaliara Desert, 428. 13. Fossil Orga-
nic Remains in Sutherland, and Fluor-Spar in the
Ord of Caithness, . . • 480

ZOOLOGY.

14. Hydrophobia in Mohammedan Countries, 430. 15.

Experiments upon the Torpedo, . . 432

XXIX. New Publications, .... 432

1. Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle. No. II. of

Part II. Mammalia. By George Waterhouse, Esq. 432

2. Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa, &c. By

Andrew Smith, M.D. . . . 433

3. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, &c. By J. C.

Loudon, F.L. and H.S., &c. . . 435

4. Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, and Mines. By

A. Ure, M.D., F.R.S., &c. . . 436

5. A History of the British Zoophytes. By George

Johnston, M.D, . . . 43()

XXX. List of Patents granted in Scotland subsequent to

11th June 1838, ... 438

Index, . . . . . 441

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann, Professor
of Geology in the University of Berlin,

An acquaintance with the personal relations of an author
often facilitates the use of his works, especially when the facts
narrated as to his life have been collected with impartial dili-
gence, and are represented with fidelity. Scientific writings
more particularly, acquire much additional weight, from the con-
firmation they may receive from a knowledge of the life and
character of their author. In the case of posthumous works,
there is, in addition to this consideration, a wish to preserve,
along with the fruits of the writer's mind, recollections of the
natural powers and the means of cultivation by which these
fruits were produced. No further apology need be offered for
prefacing Friedrich Hoffmann's posthumous works by an ac-
count of some of the most important events of his short life ;
and it may be mentioned that the biography here given is part-
ly derived from an article published by a friend only twenty
days after his death.

Friedrich Hoffmann was born on the 6th June 1797, on the
Pinnau, near Welau in East Prussia. His birth-place contained

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. — JULY 1838.

2 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

a number of mills of various kinds, at that time under the su-
perintendence of his father, who, born in Silesia, and having
had the advantage of a scientific education at a gymnasium, and
afterwards at an university, commenced this occupation in the
year 1791. He left the place in May 1798 and went to Ko-
nigsberg, where he obtained a situation in the service of the
state, that eventually caused him to remove to Berlin, in which
capital he has acted as director of the statistical department
since its establishment in the year 1810. It was necessary to
mention these circumstances respecting the changes of residence
and occupation of the father, as they influenced very materially
the education and destiny of the son. The latter received in-
struction in the lower and middle classes of Friedrich's Col-
lege, from the time he reached a proper age for school until the
period when the family quitted Konigsberg. His father taught
in that institution from 1798 to 1807 ; and, vmder the direction
of Counsellor Waldt, much time was there bestowed on the
sciences, as well as the ancient languages. Friedrich Hoffmann
early exhibited great facility in remembering facts and events,
and in communicating to others the information he had ac-
quired. The searching after plants and insects, whose names
and properties he had learned at school, or accidentally from his
father, seemed even then to occupy him more earnestly and un-
interruptedly than it did his fellow scholars, who, however,
were also generally pretty much interested in such pursuits.
After the beginning of the year 1809j Hoffmann, now removed
to Berlin, attended the Friedrichs Werderische Gymnasium ;
which institution was selected owing to the remoteness of the
other academies from his father's house ; but, while there, he was
not among the most distinguished pupils. His taste for search-
ing after and examining plants and animals had now become so
preponderating, that it essentially interrupted the study of the
languages, which ought to have been his chief occupation ;- the
instructions in mathematics were also neglected, and the defi-
ciency thus produced was only supplied at a later period of
life by the assistance'of a friend.

In February rl813, Hoffinann's elder brother obeyed the
royal summons, and joined the companies of volunteer rifles,
then being formed at Breslau ; Friedrich remained most unwil

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann, S

lingly at the Gymnasium, but he had not yet reached an age
included in the call to join the army. After the passage of the
French over the Elbe, Berlin was no longer deemed a safe resi-
dence for the superior government authorities ; and Hoffmann's
father received an order to repair to Breslau with the other
ofBcial individuals connected with the statistical office, and
proceeded there with his family. He had scarcely reached
Breslau when he was ordered to leave it, and remove to Lands-
berg on the Warthe ; but his family remained behind, and
Friedrich Hoffmann now entered the volunteers. Although at
that time only sixteen years of age, he was, at his own request,
admitted into the rifle company of the second battalion of the
guards, in which his elder brother also served. After the an-
nouncement of the armistice, he accompanied his corps to Dres-
den, Leipzic, and Frankfort on the Maine. His brother then
left him, having, with many of his comrades, been raised to the
rank of an officer, and transferred to the troops which were
destined to occupy again the fortresses of the Elbe. His father
was brought unexpectedly to his neighbourhood, for, in the
middle of December 1813, he was commanded to accompany
the Chancellor of State to Frankfort, and afterwards still for-
ther. The father and son met at Freiburg in Breisgau, and
again at Basel, where, on the ISth January 1814, the guard*
crossed the Rhine. From this time the two were always so near
that the communication of intelligence was easy and rapid;
and the father learned that his son had been attacked by dy-
sentery after the battle of Brienne, and obtained permission to
have him brought to be under his own care, instead of being
sent to an hospital. Although but little could be done for the
sick in the unsettled kind of life that was then necessarily led,
young Hoffmann soon recovered. Ere he was again fit for ser-
vice, the war took a turn which rendered it impossible for him
to rejoin his own company. While the guards, with the chief
army of the allies, were directed towards Paris, the French
army under the command of Napoleon himself, broke up the
communication between the army and the diplomatic head-
quarters, which latter were withdrawn southwards to Dijoru
Here intelligence was received of the entrance of the allies into
Paris, to which capital the road was soon opened for the oflt-

a2

4 Biographical Mevioir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

cial authorities who had taken refuge in Dijon. Soon after his
arrival in Paris, the father requested the discharge of his son
from military service, -which was willingly granted, as the war
seemed to be ended. Friedrich Hoffmann remained two months
with his father in Paris in the enjoyment of manifold instruc-
tive and exciting relations, and then hastened back to Berlin to
continue his interrupted studies.

As a student of the first class, but not yet nearly prepared
for the University, he had quitted the Gymnasium in May
1813 ; but no doubt existed in the minds of his father and
teachers that he could not again return to it. The events of the
thirteen months that had since passed over his head, had tended
so much to the development of his mental faculties, that he had
completely outgrown the forms of instruction belonging to a
school. The want of a complete Gymnasial education was
therefore first of all supplied by private instruction, until there
was evidence of his fitness for entering the university. In
autumn 1814, he was received as a medical student. The me-
dical department was selected, because it is most nearly con-
nected with the natural sciences, and because it offered the pos-
sibility of procuring a respectable situation in life, should no
opportunity occur of obtaining an appointment as a naturalist.

The war, which recommenced after Napoleon''s return from
Elba in 1815, very soon interrupted Friedrich Hoffmann's
medical studies. He was appointed officer in a regiment of
the Landwehr^ which, however, only advanced as far as the
Weser, as the sudden and decisive termination of the hostilities
brought about by the battle of Waterloo, rendered its appear-
ance on the scene of war unnecessary. Hoffmann was thus
able to obtain permission to leave the service before the end of
June 1815, and now once more dedicated himself entirely to
his studies, which he prosecuted in Berlin until Easter 1818.

At that time he formed a wish to spend a year at another
university, and Gottingen was the one he selected. However
accidental and slight might have been the causes in which this
wish originated* its fulfilment exercised a very important influ-
ence on the direction afterwards taken by Hoffmann's studies.
At an early period, botany was the science that attracted him
the most; as he advanced in his medical studies a preference

Biographical Memoir of' the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 5

for zoology seemed to be awakened ; but at Gottingen both these
branches of knowledge began to be subordinate to a more gene-
ral object of interest. He acquired his first ideas of mineralogy
and geognosy from the lectures of Hausmann. The magnificent
views of the history of the planet we inhabit, which geognosy at
that time had partly unfolded, and partly only gave promise of
revealing, thenceforward completely occupied the active mind
of Hoffmann ; he directed all his scientific investigations to
these geognostical views, and his interest in them was never af-
terwards weakened. An interruption of the academical lectures
in the summer of 1818, caused by disturbances, was much
more favourable than the contrary to this change of the nature
of his pursuits, for it afforded him leisure to seek out in Nature
herself, as displayed in the Hartz, spontaneous proofs in favour
of the instructions he had received, or reasons for doubting
their accuracy. Hoffmann devoted the succeeding winter ses-
sion chiefly to the formal completion of his medical studies, in-
cluding his examination.

In the beginning of April 1819, when, in high spirits, and fluc-
tuating between several plans for the future, he returned to his
paternal home, he unexpectedly found the family in the deepest
distress. His beloved mother had been buried the preceding day,
and he had not even heard of her illness, so sudden had been
the passage from apparently perfect health to the grave. This
melancholy event decided him to remain for the present in
Berlin, in order to console his bereaved and afflicted father.
He found there much assistance to his studies in the public
establishments, in intercourse with young friends who had a
similar bias to the natural sciences, and in the free and unfet-
tered leisure which he employed in beginning the regular study
of mineralogy, under the guidance of the celebrated Professor
Weiss. Anxiously striving to attain above every thing clear-
ness in his ideas, and accuracy in his knowledge, he was by no
means satisfied merely with the conclusions deduced by others,
or with the examination of the specimens collected by others ;
he eagerly grasped every opportunity of making observations
and discoveries for himself; and he did his utmost to obtain
possession of the auxiliaries for his investigations, in order that
he might not only make use of them, but also destroy them, if

6 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

necessary, for experiments. He had already at Gottingen
formed a mineralogical collection, which contained more than
could have been expected from his position as a beginner, the
shortness of the time, and the limited extent of his means.

The more he advanced in knowledge at Berlin, the stronger
became Hoffmann's desire to enter on some field for personal
observations, which should be more productive for his studies
than the Mark Brandenburg. As at first he did not possess the
means of making a longer journey, he again directed his course,
Tsx the summer of 1820, to the nearest mountains — the Hartz —
without having any very special object in view. But he had hard-
ly crossed the Elbe, and traversed a portion of the hilly Vorland
between Magdeburg and Helmstadt, when his researches assum-
ed a definite and fruitful direction. Astonished hy the sight of
the alternation of the numerous mountain-rocks occurring there;
ccanbined with the remarkable phenomena of the parallelism of
Ibe lines of direction and the position of the strata, regarding
which some of the more remarkable facts were then unknown :
the thought struck him, that the study of the newer rocks,
which previously had been much neglected in Germany, viz.,
«f their geographical distribution in the north-western portion
«f his native country, and their connection with similar forma-
tions in England, would fill up a great blank in the science.
This idea was the germ of all his subsequent investigations in
that district, and he followed it up indefatigably for eight years.
It is undoubtedly a striking trait of his truly scientific cha-
racter, that, with all the ardour of youthful enthusiasm, he still
itc<t only w^as attracted by remarkable and important pheno-
»CQa, but that, dwelling even upon those appearances which
were obscure and concealed, he could not be satisfied until he
IeskI unravelled all the relations to his satisfaction. He felt
.lA»it it would be of importance to devote a considerable period
entirely to the special geognostical examination of a portion of
Germany but little known ; and for that purpose he visited du-
jjBg the following year the districts near the Weser, and the
tnets of country lying between ihem and the outer extremity
«f tbe Hartz Mountains. With the view of furnishing as per-
fct a map as possible of the distribution of the formations, and
enabling the individual observers resident in the country,

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 7

and who were fixed at home, to compare the geognostical rela-
tions of their neighbourhood with those of remote quarters, he
followed perseveringly the boundaries of the rocks, and at first
bestowed but an inferior degree of attention on the internal
structure of the formations. In order that he might not in any
instance pass over the connection, even of the apparently most
trifling geognostical relations, he combined in the year 1822
his observations on the Weser country with those of the first
year ; he also made an expedition to the isolated gypsum hills
of Liineberg and Segeberg, and another to the island of Heli-
goland, a spot so interesting in many respects, and whose
geognostical relations were previously quite unknown. In the
course of the following year he directed his attention to the dis»
tricts lying south-west from the Hartz, and formed a map of the
western boundaries of the high plain of Thuringia, the copper-
slate mountains of Riegelsdorf, and the neighbourhood of the
Meissner.

In the mean time, the investigations of Hoffmann in the
hilly land lying to the north of the Hartz, had attracted the
notice of Leopold von Buch, and as an honourable proof of the
value of our author'^s first work, it may be mentioned that its
publication was caused by the influence of that celebrated geo-
logist.

That portion of the ministry to which the direction of pub-
lic instruction in the Prussian States is intrusted, was now at-
tracted by the investigations of Hoffmann, investigations which
had also elicited the approbation of Alexander von Humboldt ;
and he was received as a private lecturer in the University of
Halle. The circle of his hearers was but small, as few studentfl
had leisure enough to permit their acquiring knowledge which
did not tend directly to their advancement in their particular
professions ; but nevertheless this circle increased gradually,
and was characterised by great zeal and enthusiasm. The con-
sequence was his speedy appointment as extraordinary professor
at Halle.

But while occupied with his duties as teacher, the examina-
tion of the geognostical relations of north-western Germany
was still his chief scientific occupation. Each year he employed
the long summer vacation in examining thoroughly that tract

8 Biographical Memoir of the late Frledrich Hoffmann.

of country ; the field of his observations was at the same time
enlarged in its internal contents, as well as external limits.
Hoffmann extended it westwards to the slate mountains of the
Rhine (1824) ; he devoted his attention likewise to the north-
western branches of the German hilly country, between Miin-
8ter and Bentheim (1825) ; he afterwards investigated the
Erzgebirge and the Fichtelgebirge ( 1 826) ; and finally he in-
cluded in his survey the districts between the Hartz and the
Thiiringer Wald (1827). The range of connected observations
was terminated after eight years methodical investigation.
From year to year, he had already delineated the results he
obtained on maps, but these now required an explanation ; and
it was necessary that the whole treasures of information ac-
quired should be transferred as common property to the science
of geology.

Leisure was now given him by the minister for public in-
struction, to prepare in Berlin, from 1827 to 1829, his great
work entitled " Uehersicht der orographischen und geognos-
ilschen Verhdltnisse vom nordwestUchen Deutschland^ (General
View of the Orographical and Geognostical relations of North-
western Germany), Leipzic, 1830, accompanied by a geognos-
tical atlas. The territory over which the investigations ex-
tended, amounts to not less than 650 square geographical miles ;
and a glance over the beautiful general index map, at once
shews an extraordinary complication of extremely difficult re-
lations. It was only by dint of indefatigable industry, and en-
tire devotion to the object, that a single individual could, in so
short a time, have perfected so comprehensive an undertaking.
It is founded on such a multitude of separate observations as
could only have been collected by indomitable perseverance,
and unremitting constancy. But in Hoffmann's case the mass
of details did not interfere with broad and talented general
views. His connected and comprehensive representation of Che
form of the surface of the country, which was the result of
more than 2000 measurements of heights, and his descriptions
of the most intricate geognostical phenomena of that compli-
cated district, were characterised by the most luminous order ;
and all bore distinct relation to the general question of the for-
mation of the earth, a subject which received not unimportant

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 9

contributions from the investigations of which we are speaking.
Werner had only included the Thuringian secondary strata in
his system, and there was still much wanting to render our
knowledge perfect of the secondary formations of the north of
Germany. Hoffmann contributed greatly to this knowledge ;
for he not only almost doubled the number of formations, but
these were now for the first time accurately determined, and it
was only now that their comparison with the secondary strata
of other districts and countries was rendered practicable. We
have to thank his talented ceaseless diligence for an accurate
acquaintance with a considerable portion of our native country,
and for a model of the manner in which further similar inves-
tigations ought to be prosecuted. Had he not contributed
more than this single work, his name would have been assured
of honourable remembrance so long as the German nation should
place value on the knowledge of their land, and so long as the
science of Geology should regard with interest an accurate de-
tail of the structure of a portion of the earth^s surface.

The mass of materials collected was, however, by no means
exhausted in this work ; there was enough remaining of most
accurate notes, regarding detached important observations, to
furnish matter for a second volume ; but this required too much
patience on the part of our eagerly aspiring author. Investi-
gation, even of the most fatiguing description, was to him a
pleasure, but the task of writing, and putting his materials in
form, was burdensome. He longed for another field of research,
for a new employment to his increasing powers.

The study of volcanos has in recent times become of the
greatest importance ; that is, since Vulcanism has gained the
victory over the Neptunism which prevailed so much at one
time, and more especially in Germany ; and, since the opinion
has been adopted that the rocks formerly termed Primitive are
the products of burning liquid matter, similar to the lavas of
volcanos, — nay, that, bursting through fissures in the crust of
the earth, they have caused those disturbances and elevations
in the secondary strata, which, without such an assumption,
would be inexplicable. In this department, Leopold Von Buch
had already obtained an imperishable name; and Hoffmann
wished to become acquainted at least, with volcanic phenomena.

10 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

By the kind assistance of the ministers of the crown, he obtained
the necessary means and leave of absence, to enable him to make
a scientific journey through Italy and Sicily. The duration of
the expedition was at first limited to two years, but was pro-
longed to three years and a half. He started from Berlin in
October 18J29, and did not return till March 18S3.

Hoffmann formed the plan for his journey with the greatest
circumspection, and made it as comprehensive as was permitted
by his resources. It was of importance to him to arrive in the
volcanic territory in possession of a perfect acquaintance with
the language of the country, and of as extensive preliminary
knowledge as possible; and provided with good instruments, and
influential letters of introduction. For these purposes, the
preparations he had made at Berlin were insufficient. He pro-
ceeded, first of all, to Vienna, where he remained till the latter
part of January 1830. This prolonged stay in a capital so
closely united with Italy, was for him a very rich source, not
only of information in facts and the language, but also of very
valuable acquaintance with individuals ; even his Imperial
Highness the Archduke John furthered his views by giving
him the most important letters of recommendation. The win-
ter of 1829-30 was characterised by greater cold, and a larger
quantity of snow, than any previous one subsequent to that of
1788-9 ; it was particularly severe in the south of Europe, and
Hoflmann, who entered Italy by Trieste and Venice, did not
experience the perfect spring of the south till he descended
from the Apennines into the valley of the Arno. His winning
manners every where gave effect to his introductions ; and from
Florence he had the advantage of visiting, in most instructive
society, the Maremma and the remarkable island of Elba. A
lengthened visit to Siena was employed in writing an account
of his observations, while they were still fresh in his memory,
and while he was in a neighbourhood which rendered it easy
for him to supply any deficiency. He left Siena about the
middle of April ; but the road to Rome presented so many ob-
jects of interest, that he did not arrive there till May. Two
months were requisite to examine with care the classical site and
vicinity of Rome ; and his trips to the neighbouring mountains
led to the idea of deviating from the direct road to Naples, and

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 11

penetrating, during his journey southwards, into the Abruzzi.
This tour rewarded him amply, but was unfavourable for the
object he had in view, which was to arrive in the volcanic dis-
trict at a good season ; and it was not till August, the tenth
month after his departure from Berlin, that he arrived in
Naples. Well aware how far Etna surpassed Vesuvius in phe-
nomena connected with his special object, he confined himself
for the present to a cursory general view of the volcanic neigh-
bourhood of Naples, and hastened onwards, in order to arrive
at Catania ere it should be too late to ascend Etna. He there-
fore embarked, in the month of September, with three compa-
nions, at Naples for Messina ; and he employed the remainder
of the year 1830, in the first instance, in investigating the
coast between Messina and Catania ; and then, in ascending
repeatedly Mount Etna, in traversing the wide extent of its
declivities in all directions^ in investigating, by dint of prodi-
gious exertions, the most impassable ravines and inaccessible pre-
cipices, so that he might obtain a satisfactory knowledge of the
peculiar features of this remarkable mountain, whose accumula-
tions of ejected matter, formed during early single eruptions,
sometimes surpass in extent the whole of Vesuvius. From
Christmas till the middle of February 1831, violent torrents of
rain prevented the continuance of his expeditions from Catania ;
but this leisure was necessary, in order to arrange his great
mass of observations, and to dispatch the collections which he had
accumulated. When the weather improved, he commenced the
construction of a geognostical map of Sicily in its whole extent ;
and this great work, which was carried on with inexhaustible
care and perseverance, occupied a period of more than ten
months. Catania, and still more Palermo, served as resting
points for the arrangement of his observations and collections.
Hoffmann enjoved also here the valuable assistance of distin-
guished patrons and well-wishers. A remarkable interruption
to these extensive labours was caused by the unexpected break-
ing forth of a new volcano, which, at the beginning of July
1831, was raised up from the bottom of the sea, at a distance
of a little more than five miles from the south-west coast of
Sicily. Its erupted matter formed a hill of loosely heaped-up
small fragments of slag, ashes, and sand, and which had a dia-

12 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

meter of about 800 feet, and was upwards of 60 feet in height.
Hoffmann, the moment he received intelh'gence of this rare
phenomenon, hastened to Sciacca, the nearest sea-port, and, on
the 24th July, in company with his companions in a small
boat, he approached the new volcano as closely as could possibly
be allowed by the rapidly succeeding eruptions. Even Sicily
received the first accurate description of this natural phenome-
non from our author. The voyage in the portion of the Medi-
terranean between Sicily and Africa, caused by this occurrence,
was extended to Pantellaria, lying more towards the African
coast ; and that small, entirely volcanic island, was carefully
examined. On the 25th September, the party visited, for the
second time, the new volcano ; which, in the mean time, had
been extinguished, and could, therefore, now be investigated
close at hand. The storms and waves combined to destroy the
newly formed island ; and, in the following winter, it entirely
vanished beneath the sea. Hoffmann's geognostical labours in
Sicily were concluded in Christmas by a voyage to the Lipari
Islands, where he was detained for some time by contrary
winds. Finally he sailed from Messina to Naples in February
1832, after a residence of seventeen months in Sicily.

He returned just in time to witness an eruption of Vesuvius,
which commenced on the 22d February 1832. It was most
fortunate that this eruption, on the one hand, was considerable
enough to afford a clear example of such phenomena, and yet,
on the other, was so moderate as to admit of a very near ap-
proach, which, if not free from danger, was at least not extremely
perilous. The interest with which Hoffmann regarded the won-
derful and classical country of Lower Italy, was immeasurably
heightened by the information he had acquired, during his ex-
tensive and minute survey of Sicily. He looked with longing
eyes to Calabria, and to the Greek islands, whither so many
temptations invited him, and where his newly acquired know-
ledge would have opened the most inviting paths. It was only
the unavoidable necessity of returning to his official duties in
his native country that forced him to make the ruins of Paestum
the limit of a journey so replete with enjoyment. As, with a
heavy heart, he tore himself from Naples in the month of

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 13

August, he compared the light of Vesuvius to the fiery sword
of the angel which drove our first parents from Paradise.

He proceeded by sea from Naples to Leghorn ; and the gra-
cious reception he experienced from the Grand Duke of Tus-
cany, combined with the varied information he received from
his numerous acquaintances at Florence, Pisa, and Siena, de-
layed his departure till October. It was impossible for him to
pass so near to the remarkable marble quarries of Carrara, with-
out investigating them minutely. Thus the winter found him
still in Upper Italy ; and it was only when his researches were
interrupted by the weather, that, about the new year 1833, he
crossed the St Gotthard, and found a first resting-place, on this
side the Alps, in the hospitable house of his faithful travelling
companion (Escher) at Zurich.

Hoffmann was gifted by nature not only with a high order
of mental powers, but also with a strong bodily frame, which
his early campaign had rendered capable of great exertions.
Already during his wanderings in northern Germany, his insa-
tiable thirst for investigation, even of the most difficult country,
had sometimes exacted too much from his great strength of
body. He had suffered from some severe falls ; and, in the
hours of depression before his journey to Italy, he complained
that his strength had begun to leave him just at the time when
it was most required. Animated by the new prospects and en-
joyments w hich the Italian journey presented to him, his mind
gave wonderful support to his body. The necessity of seeing
every thing with his own eyes, caused him to shun none of
that exertion by which personal observation must generally be
purchased. Although his bodily condition became somewhat
precarious in Sicily, still he allowed himself no rest. The
transition from the warm south to the cold north, is even per-
ceptible in summer ; but it is much more so during a journey
made northwards in the winter season. The passage of the
Alps, performed in the beginning of January, completed the
exhaustion, Hoft'mann came to Zurich in a state of great
weakness ; but a most friendly reception, and the most sympa-
thizing care and attention, succeeded in restoring his strength
so far as to enable him to travel to Heidelberg and Frankfort,
and to reach Berlin about the end of March 1833.

14 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann.

Arrived in the Prussian capital, it did not for a moment seem
doubtful to him, that the regular life of an academic teacher,
and the cessation from great bodily exertions, would perfectly
restore his health. He still retained his extraordinary profes-
sorship at Halle, and had only obtained leave of absence for
scientific purposes. The richer auxiliaries for his studies pre-
sented in Berlin by libraries, collections, and, above all, per-
sonal intercourse with its men of science ; together with the more
extensive usefulness he might anticipate as a teacher, made him
desire to be removed to the university of the capital. This was,
with some difficulty, accomplished ; and Hoffmann, in conse-
quence of the improvement of his health, was enabled, during
the summer of 1833, to prepare himself for commencing his in-
structions in Berlin in the winter session of 1833-4. The du-
ties of his professorship now absorbed his whole time and
strength ; and all the incitements derived from the state of the
science itself, all the urgent persuasions of his friends, failed in
producing a division of his time and strength, which should
render it possible to come forward as a writer, while he per-
formed his duties as a teacher, and should thus enable him to
render available, for a wider circle than his students, the fruits
of his residence in Italy. But, however much he felt the ne-
cessity of making public his observations, yet he regarded his
duties to his hearers as more imperative, and delayed all other
claims on his time to a future opportunity, which unfortunate-
ly was denied to him. But the result of these lectures was
most successful ; it was his enthusiasm for the science, the clear-
ness and perspicuity of all his demonstrations, and the warmth
of his natural eloquence, which delighted those who listened to
him. Language flowed from his mouth like an inexhaustible
stream ; a crowd of the most apt expressions stood ever ready
at his command ; and to every one it became apparent, that he
had real pleasure and satisfaction in communicating the truths
of his sublime science, and in acknowledging the services and
discoveries of others. In his hands every subject acquired fresh
life and interest ; he invariably rivetted attention by the riches
of his well-selected materials, and by the clearness and beauty
of their arrangement. He obtained for his subject an unusual
degree of interest on the part of his students, who seemed to be

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 15

hurried along by the zeal of tlieir professor. His house was
ever open to his pupils ; he gave up to them almost his whole
time, and, whenever he found a fondness for the subject, he
used every endeavour to secure young votaries of the science ;
although his career as a teacher was short, yet assuredly the
matured fruits of his exertions will be visible in time to come.
HofFmann^s academical life at Berlin embraced but four ses-
sions : during the two winters he lectured on physical geogra-
phy, and on volcanos and earthquakes ; and during the two
summers, on geography, together with fossils and hydrography.
His deeply meditated plan was to extend his subject, so as to
include general natural history, in order to unite with the suc-
cessive epochs which indicate the history of the formation of
our globe, the characteristic successive generations of plants and
animals, and to pass from the original primitive inhabitants of
the earth to those of the present time.

The apparent signs of a progressive improvement of his bo-
dily condition, unfortunately caused him to overlook how much
in his case precautions were necessary. He expected especially
much advantage to his students from the geognostical excur-
sions he proposed to make yearly, — at one time to the Hartz,
and at another to the Erzgebirge. An expedition to the Hartz
was proposed as the first of the series, and it was fixed for Au-
gust 1835. Hoffmann felt himself indisposed in the spring of
that year, but he considered the sensations he experienced mere-
ly as the consequence of a want of such exercise as he had been
accustomed to for so many years during his wanderings and
journeys ; and he longed so much the more for a trip to the
mountains. With this feeling of illness, and the desire for a
cure, he went alone to the Hartz during the Whitsunday holi-
days, in order to select the route which might prove the most
instructive. A map, which he intended should facilitate the
comprehension of the phenomena to those who might accom-
pany him, was already engraved ; but the excursion never took
place. Whitsunday week, 1835, was remarkable for its great
heat compared to the otherwise cold summer. Hoffmann, ac-
customed to perform long daily walks, believed himself still in
possession of sufficient strength for the purpose, and returned
to Berlin fatigued by excessive exertions during intense heat.

16 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann,

and depressed by this convincing proof of the diminution of*
his bodily strength. After this last effort, his vigour decreased
with perceptibly greater rapidity. A hoarseness, which had al-
ready been apparent in winter, was now aggravated ; and, with
the bitterness of disappointed hopes, he himself confessed the
urgent necessity of hastening to an end his summer lectures, of
renouncing his proposed expedition, and of betaking himself to
a watering-place ; and, for this purpose, Ems was selected by
his medical friends. The autumnal weather was no longer fa-
vourable for the baths ; and, indeed, the internal disease had
by that time advanced too far to yield to such treatment.
Much reduced in strength, and evidently in worse health than
when he left Berlin, he returned thither. He still cherished
the belief that repose, a carefully regulated diet, and the re-
fraining from exertion of mind, would reinstate his strength ;
and this belief did not forsake him even when he became
daily weaker, was confined to his room, was compelled to have
recourse to the constant use of a sofa, and finally became un-
able to quit his bed. He regarded these signs of a gradual,
but steadily approaching dissolution, as only the consequence
of the unfavourable season ; and he was already forming a plan
of waiting for the return of his strength, with the better weather,
in retired summer quarters ; and of occupying his leisure time
in preparing the account of his Italian journey.

Since the middle of the summer of 1835, Hoffmann''s friends
had not been able to conceal from themselves the critical state
of his health ; their hopes, that his vigorous mind might still
succeed in supporting his body, diminished every day, and by
the new year of 1836, they had entirely given up all belief in
his recovery. His illness excited a widely extended sympathy,
even in the very highest circles of society. His mind remained
serene and unclouded, even when his voice had become hardly
intelligible. He expired on the evening of the 6th February
1836, in the arms of his younger and beloved brother, who had
not left him for three weeks. The opening of his body proved
how strong the frame must have been which was so late of
yielding to a complete destruction of the most important inter-
nal organs. A numerous attendance of distinguished indivi-
duals and mourning students accompanied his corpse, on the

Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann. 1*7

10th February, to the beautiful cemetery of the Trinity, where
an iron cross now indicates his grave.

Friedrich Hoffmann's personal appearance was striking. A
very successful bust, by the master-hand of Ludwig Wich-
mann, has preserved the highly expressive features of his coun-
tenance. His mind embraced, with ease and certainty, the
most diversified subjects ; not only was his attention drawn to
natural phenomena, but also to manners and customs, manu-
factures, &c., and these branches found in him an anxious ob-
server and impartial judge. A desire for the enjoyment of
nature, and an inclination for social intercourse, were leading
features in his disposition. The letters he wrote home from
Italy were peculiarly characteristic of his mind and dispositions,
and were particularly interesting, even when treating of well
known topics. A catalogue of his writings is subjoined to this
brief memoir. Science has to lament his early death ; but as-
suredly his contributions and exertions were great, compared to
the shortness of his career. His life was varied and active »
upon the whole fortunate, and even enviable ; he had not to
wait for the approbation of posterity, but, on the contrary, en-
joyed his fame during his lifetime. He possessed the friend-
ship and regard of celebrated individuals of all conditions and
occupations, both at home and abroad; his memory is secured
of a place in the history of science.

Chronological List of Professor Friedrich Hoffmann's Works.

1821. 1 . Attempt at a systematic arrangement of mountain-rocks, according
to their natural relations. In Oken's Isis, 1821, part viii. p. 710. — 1822. 2. On
the Turf-moor at Linum ; in conjunction with Chamisso and Poggendorf
Karsten's Archiv, vol. v. p. 253. — 3. On the occurrence of native copper in the
island of Heligoland; Gilbert's Annalen,voL Ixx. p. 432.— -1823. 4. Contribu-
tions to the Geognosy of Northern Germany. Part 1st — 5. Geognostical re-
marks on the Basalts of the Meissner district, and on their volcanic origin ; toge-
ther with a notice of some barometrical and electrical observations. Gilbert*s
Annalen, vol. Ixx v. p. 323 — 6. De Vallium in Germania boreali principalium
(lirectione memorabili congrua. Dissertatio inauguralis pro rite obtinenda facul-
tate legend! — 1824. 7. Geognostical description of the secondary rocks which
make their appearance at liiinebergand at Segeberg, with a Notice on the direc-
tion of the rivers of Northern Germany and on the Liineberger Haide, with a
Map ; Gilbert's Annalen, vol. Ixxvi. p. 32. — 1825. 8. On the geognostical rela-
tions of the left bank of the Weser as far as the Teutoburger Wald ; Pog-
gendorf's Annalen, voL i. p. 1. 9. On the filling up of the cavities in Amyg-
daloid ; Leonhrad's Zeitschrift, 1825, vol. ii. p. 490 1826. 11). On thft

VOL. XXV. KO. XLIX. JULY 1838. 1

18 Biographical Memoir of the late Friedrich Hoffmann,

geognostical relations of the district of Ibbenbiihren and Osnabriick ; Kart-
Sten's Archiv, vol. xii. p. 2G4, and vol. xiii. p. 3. 11. Researches regarding
the fussil plants of the coal-formation at Ibbenbiihren and at the Piesberg near
Osnabriick; Karsten, vol. xiii. p. 2GG. 12. On the copper-slate of the north-
western portion of the secondary formations of the north of Germany ; Leon-
hard's Zeitschrift, 1826, vol. i. p. 539 — 1827. 13. On the volcanos of the South
Sea Islands — being a preface to two memoirs by Ellis on the volcanic pheno-
mena ofOwaihi; PoggendorfF's Annalen, vol. ix. p. 141. — 1828. 14. On some
newly discovered geognostical phenomena of the Plain of North Germany ;
PoggendortT, vol. xii. p. 109. 15. On Volcanic uprisings in the Moluccas; Pog-
gendorffj vol. xii. p. 606. 16. Remarks on the volcanos of the island of Java ;
PoggendorfF, vol. xii. p. 605. 17. Remarks on the occurrence of platina in
the Ural; PoggendorfF, vol. xiii. p. 666. — 1829. 18. Remarks on the reci-
procal relations of the ancient floras of the earth, with more particular refer-
ence to the Prodrome of Ad. Brongniart; Poggendorff, vol. xv. p. 415. 19,
On the geognostical constitution of the territory of Rome, together with gene-
ral remarks on the geognostical character of Italy ; prepared by Hoffmann for
the great work on Rome by Plattner, Bunsen, Gerhard, and Rostell ; and also
published in PoggendorfF, vol. xvi. p. 1. Translated in Edinburgh New Philo-
sophical Journal, vol. viii. p. 76. 20. On the relations of the crystalline rocks
to the slates in the Hartz, and in the Erzgebirge and Fichtelgebirge ; Pog-
gendorfF, vol. xvi. p. 613. 21. On valleys of elevation, and their connection
with the origin of acidulous mineral springs; Poggendorff, vol. xvii. p. 151.
Translated in Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. ix. p. 349. 22.
Geognostical Map of North-Western Germany, in 24 sheets. 23. Remarks
on the vegetation and fauna of Heligoland ; published in the " Verhandlungen

der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin," vol i. p. 228 1830.

24. General View of Orographical and Geognostical Relations of North-
Western Germany, one vol. 8vo. 25. Series of Geognostical Plates of North-
Western Germany. 26. Barometrical measurements of a line from the Saale
near Halle, to the Weser near Iloxter; Berghaus's Annalen der Erdkunde,
vol. i. p. 48. — 1831. 27. On the mountains of Albano and on iEtna, (with a
view of the Val di Bove); Karsten's Archiv, new series, vol. iii. p. 361.
Translated in Edin. New Phil. Journ., vol- xii. p. 370. 28. On the Temple
of Serapis near Pozzuoli, (with a Plate) ; Karsten, vol. iii. p. 373. 29. On
the tertiary formations of the coast of Sicily, the relations of the basalt to the
west of Syracuse, and ossiferous breccias, (with Views) ; Karsten, vol. iii.
p. 383. 30. On Cape Passaro and the Val di Noto, (with a Map): Karsten,
vol. iii. p. 397. 31. Remarks on the New Volcano near the town of Sciacca,
in a letter to the Duke of Serradifalco. Palermo, (in Italian). 32. Letter to
Niccolo Cacciatore on the New Volcano, published in the Giornale di Scienze

Lettere e Arti per la Sicilia, October 1831 1832. 33. On the Earthquakes

observed during the last forty years at Palermo, with reference to their direc
tion, distribution according to the seasons of the year, and probable influence
on the barometer ; Poggendorff, vol. xxiv. p. 49. 34. A large portion of an
article on the new volcanic island in the Mediterranean, published in Pog-
gendorff, vol. xxiv. p. 65. 36. On the ossiferous grotto of Mardolce, near
Palermo ; Karsten, vol. iv. p. 253 (with a Plate). 36. On the geognostical
constitution of the Lipari Islands, (with four Plates,) published in Poggen-
dorff, vol. xxvi. p. 1, and also separately. — 1833. 37. On the geognosy of

Dr F. Unger oji the Formation of Crystals in Plants, 19

Massa Carrara ; Karsten, vol. vi. p. 229. Translated in the Edinburgh New
Phil. Joumalf vol. xxi. p. 110". 38. On the volcanic formations of Naples,
Sicily, and the Lipari Islands, in the " Bulletin de la Socic^tc* Geologique de
France,*' vol. iii. p. 170. 39. Observations on the communications made re-
garding Sicily by M. C. Prevost, ibid. vol. iii. p. 175. 40. Observations on
the marble of Carrara and some fossils of the environs of Spezia, ibid. voL iiL
p. 179. 41. Observations made with M. Escher jun. on the porphyries of
the southern flank of the Alps, in the Canton Tessin, ibid, vol, iv. p. 103, and
326. — 1835. Geognostical Map of the country between Magdeburg and Kas-
sel, intended for the use of his students during the projected excursion in IB?*^.
To this list there is now to be added the first volume of Hoffmann's Posthu-
mous Works, from which the present memoir is taken, and which is devoted
to a treatise on Physical Geography. The second volume will contain our
author's views on the more general departments of Geognosy, and more espe-
cially on Volcanos.

Upon the Formation of Crystals in the Cells of Plants. By
Dr F. Unger.

Some authors have erroneously maintained that the crystals
which exist in plants are not to be found in the cellules them-
selves, but in the intercellular spaces. They may have fallen
into this error from the fact that these groups of crystals are
sometimes so voluminous that they very much disturb the cell,
and give it a bulk of at least six times its natural size. In ge-
neral, these crystalline cellules contain no other organic sub-
stances, though I have found in the Piper hlandum crystals,
mixed with numerous grains of chlorophylle, within the same
cell. Meyen was the first to discover these crystals in the epi-
dermic cellules, for, previous to his time, it had been supposed
that they were confined exclusively to the parenchymatous cells.
To the two plants, the Maranta Zebrina and the Tradescanfia
discolor, which he pointed out as presenting this peculiarity, I
can now add a third, viz. the Goodyera repens. At the same
time, it is true that it is usually in the parenchymatous cellules
that these inorganic bodies are found. They appear in all the
divisions of the vegetable kingdom, from the simplest algae (Nos-
toc muscorum, Conjerva crystallifera) to the highest organized
vegetables. It seldom happens that only one crystal is found
in the same cellule, though this peculiarity may be found in
the Papyrus Jntiquorum and the Ficus Bengalensis ; but much
more frequently, even in the plants we have named, each cell
contains many. In those plants which have aerial cavities, the

B 2

9.0 Dr F. Unger on the Formation of Cells in Plants.

crystal cellules are often free, and project in the interior of
these cavities ; and this is especially true of the acicular crystals,
as M. Meyen has demonstrated in his Phytotomy ; and I have
also observed it in the starry like crystals of the Myriophijllum
splcatum. The existence of crystals seems to be connected with
the cells containing fecula, and such like substances, such as
resin, chlorophylle, &c. The vascular bundles, on the other
hand, seem to have no apparent connection with the crystalline
formations.

We shall first attend for an instant to the form of these crys-
tals. This, their great minuteness makes it very difficult to
determine, for nothing definite can be stated on this point, if
we cannot determine the angles which the different surfaces
make with each other. To effect this object, M. Raspail
has invented his microscopic goniometer ; but this instru-
ment is too difficult to manage, since the limits of its errors may
be less than the differences which exist between the different
vegetable crystals. This will easily be conceived, if we re-
flect that the largest crystals which I have examined were
not longer than 0,11 of a Vienna line; and a great number
were only 0,023, and smaller than this down to their being in-
finitely small. The results which I have obtained on this point
perfectly agree with those of M. Raspail. I have given figures,
as accurate as possible, of the crystals I found in the following
plants, viz., Ficiis Be?igalensif, Maranta zebrina, Musa para-
dislaca, M, coccinea, Yucca gloriosa, Sireliizia regina. Papy-
rus antiquorurri; Triioma uvaria. Aloe pulchra. In these vege-
tables, the crystals are isolated, or at all events free in the inte-
rior of the cellules; often, however, they are grouped, and even
soldered together, as may be observed in many Rhubarbs^ also
in the Myriophyllum spicatum, Hermaria glabra, Mercurialis
perennis. Viburnum Lantana, Cactus pendidus^ and the Cala-
dium nympheafoUum.

The chemical examination of these bodies does not present
fewer difficulties than the determination of their physical forms.
Buchner, Schlibler, Saigey, De la Fosse, Nees d'Esenbeck, and
Raspail are the only individuals who have engaged in the in-
vestigation. Their bases appear to be lime, magnesia, and
more rarely, silica. With them the carbonic, oxalic, phospho-
ric, and tartaric acids combine. The process which I employed

M. de Blainville on tlie Cheiroptera. 21

differed from that of Raspail. I first allowed the crystallifer-
ous tissue to digest in diluted nitric acid ; I then filtered, and
added ammonia ; I collected the white precipitate which was
then thrown down, and heated it on a platina dish. Its effer-
vescence proved the existence of some vegetable acid, probably
the tartaric or oxalic.

The author subjoins, somewhat incidentally, some observa-
tions upon the latex vessels, in connexion with a figure which
accompanies his memoir. Their purport is to the following
effect. These vessels, described by Schultz and Meyen, are
altogether different from the vasa propria^ as M. Mohl has
proved. They also contain a juice which is much more muci-
laginous in its composition, as well as resinous and gum-resi-
nous substances. The vasa propria constitute a part, so to
speak, of the vascular bundles, and probably discharge an im-
portant function in the movements of the juices. The latex ves-
sels, on the contrary, never accompany the other vascular bun-
dles; they are invariably separated from them by cellular tis-
sue ; and develope themselves by the anastomoses of many cells
placed end to end. In fact, they appear to me to belong more
to the cellular than to the vascular system. In one of these fi-
gures the author has represented these nascent vessels as they
appear in the pith of the Ficus Bengalensis. Here they are
quadrilateral cellules placed end to end ; nor do they differ
from other parenchymatous cellules, unless it be that they al-
ready contain a great number of those roundish granules which
form the greatest portion of the latex. This mode of formation
is in perfect harmony with what we observe concerning the for-
mation of other organs, such, for example, as the spiral vessels,
which are nothing more than anastomosing cellules placed end
to end. M. linger has never hitherto been able to determine
any movement of the latex, and he purposes soon to prosecute
the investigation of the subject.

On the Classification and Antiq^dty of the Cheiroptera, By
M. de Blainville.

M. DE Blainville lately read to the Academic des Sciences
the result of his researches concerning the antiquity of th

22 M. de Blainville on the Classification and

Cheiroptera, or the animals of the Bat family, on the surface of the
earth, premising preliminary observations on the scientific history
of the subject, the principles of their classification, and their pre-
sent geographical distribution. This memoir is extracted from
a work the author means speedily to publish under the title of
*' A System of the Animal Kingdom, founded upon the whole
organization, and its functions, as inferred from the external
characters." Each great genus of the Linnean system will thus
be brought under review, and the fossil species, as well as the
existing ones, will be considered. We shall now present an
epitome of this essay, whence it will appear, how, in the pro-
jected work, M. de Blainville proposes to investigate every
group of the animal series.

The Bat is denominated by the Greeks Nuxrsgog, and by the
Latins Vespertilio ; and both of these appellations designate it
better than that of Avis-Sorex (flying mouse), of Oiseau
Musaraigne, of Souris-Chauve (bald mouse), or, finally, of
Chatite^Souris^ now the general French name. According to
M. de Blainville, this unfortunate denomination, which gives to
the bat a kmd of equivocal nature, is to be considered as the
cause why naturalists have not assigned to these animals their
proper place, according to their natural relations ; and hence he
prefixes the scientific history of these animals. He then points
out the arrangement in which he proposes to place them, both
as it regards their genera and species. We shall allow him,
in his own words, to explain the principles which have regu-
lated him.

As by a natural methodical arrangement is understood some-
thing stable, which reposes on the existence of an animal series,
and in which, therefore, there is nothing arbitrary, it is clear
that the zoologist only attains this object when the first species
of a group is that which most nearly approaches the last of the
preceding group, and when the last is that which is the least re-
moved from the first of the succeeding one. It likewise follows,
that when these two points are determined, the intermediate ar-
rangements follow as a matter of course. Now, what essentially
constitutes a bat, or rather the group of the Cheiroptera, the
first order of the carnivora, is, that they fly more or less, that
they may procure, and often that they may pursue their prey,

Antiquity of the Cheiroptera. S3

and consequently, that they have a certain more or less striking
disproportion among their members, and especially that of the
anterior ones, compared with the trunk ; and, secondly, that
they are more or less carnivorous, and consequently have the
dental apparatus more or less fitted for this purpose, or in other
words, have the molar teeth closer together, more numerous, and
beset with sharper tubercles. The regular arrangement of the
bats in a series, then, must be founded, first on the degree of
the development of the cutaneous expansions which enable them
to fly, and of the parts which sustain them, as the anterior ex«
tremities in general, and their digits in particular, also the tail|
which, by being prolonged more or less backwards, and beyond
the feet, enlarges so far the interjemoral membrane, because, in
fact, it unites the posterior members. Thus, in this point of
view the first species considered will be those which, in propor-
tion to the size of the body, have the smallest flying apparatus,
and also the smallest tail ; and the last species will be those in
which the flying apparatus attains its greatest development, af-
fecting in the same way the bony machinery connected with it.
The second portion of the organization of the Cheiroptera,
which will assist in determining their natural methodical ar-
rangement, is the state of the dental system, as it is found
more and more carnivorous and insectivorous. Now, this cha-
racter is determined, in general, by the presence of a greater
number of teeth, and especially by the more acute arrange-
ment of the tubercles upon their crowns. Hence a degree
of importance which progressively increases from the incisors,
— which exhibit many variations, not only in their number but
in their form also, according to age and species, and to such an
extent that they may quite disappear, — to the canines, — .which
are never wanting, but are more or less developed, — and espe-
cially to the molars, which must be studied in the most mi-
nute manner as to their number, their relative proportions, and
also the number and proportions of their tubercles. After the
minute study which I have directed to this portion of the dental
system of the bats, I may mention I have only hitherto found
five combinations, to which we may attach the names which
M. F. Cuvier has attached to several.

24 M. de Blainville on the Classificaiion and

1st, J as in the Scotophilus (1 + i)

2d, I Serotinoid (J + f)

3d, f Noctuloid (i + f)

.4th, f Semi-Murinoid (f 4- f )

5th, f Murinoid (f + f)

The consideration of the nasal concha^ which is quite want-
ing in some species, and is most singularly complicated in others,
as well as that of the auditory concha^ equally remarkable for
the various degrees of its development and complication, afford
much more secondary characters in the natural arrangement of
the bats, although they supply admirable characters for the dis-
tinction of species, but their expression is often difficult, even
in drawings, on account of their shading away into each other
in a way that is sufficiently troublesome.

The digital system of the anterior extremities especially, the
tail, and the interfemoral membrane which it supports, consti-
tuting as they do an important element in the manner of the
bats'* locomotion, in truth supply characters of much greater
importance than the olfactory or auditory concha, inasmuch as
they almost always run parallel with the characters drawn from
the two parts already mentioned.

Regulating himself by these suggestions, M. de Blainville is
disposed to arrange the sub-order of the Cheiroptera in the fol-
lowing method : — First, the Roussettes, as has been done by
all zoologists, as those Cheiroptera that approach nearest to
the Galeopitheci which terminate the Makis ; and as compre-
hending the species which are by much the least qualified for
flying, and are the least insectivorous, or in other words, the
most frugivorous ; and at the other extremity M. de Blainville
places the bats properly so called, as possessing the highest
dermal development, the greatest want of proportion in the
anterior extremities, and the greatest length of the tail
and of the interfemoral membrane which accompanies it to
the very extremity, whilst at the same time they possess the
most insectivorous dental apparatus, passing thereby towards
the small insectivorous carnivora, and amongst others towards
the moles and hamsters.

The distribution of the species of the sub-order naturally
flows from this arrangement. They are first divided into three

Antiquity of the Cheiroptera. 25

families, the Roussettes or Meganycteres^ the vampires or Phyl-
Imtycteres^ and the bats or Normonycteres. The first family is
formed of those which have the nose and ears simple, the two
first digits or fingers complete, or very little deformed, with no
tail or interfemoral ligament, or with these parts very short; the
molars also are distinct and very simple. In the second famil}',
the first digit alone is complete, the molars are more or less
sharply tuberculous, and they have the nose more or less com-
plicated at its orifice. In the third family the nose is constantly
simple. The species of Roussettes are then arranged by begin-
ning with the common Roussettes, which have the head and
jaws most elongated, and terminating with the Cephalotes in
which they are the least developed ; and between these are in-
termediately comprehended the subdivisions named Pachysoma^
Harpiay Hypoderma^ Cynopterus, Epomophora, and Macgro-^
glossa, which being nothing more than successive shades of dif-
ference without any influence on the manners and habits,
should not, according to him, have been adopted as distinct
genera.

The species of Vampires or Phyllonycteres, beginning with
the Glossophaga, and evidently passing to the Macroglossa of
the preceding family, and finishing with the Nycteres, which
approach very near to the Taphiens of the third family, are di-
vided into three principal genera ; viz. the Stenoderma, whose
tail and interfemoral membrane are still very short, as in the fa-
mily of Meganyctera, comprehending the sub-genera, Glosso-
phaga, Desmodus, Stenoderma, which last includes the Dy-
phylla, Artiboeus, Madotoeus, and Brachyphylla ; 9.d, the
Phyllostoma, whose interfemoral membrane on the contrary is
very large, passing beyond the origin of tlie calcaneum, and the
more Carnivorous species of which are still further divided in
relation to their tail, which at first does not exist, and then be-
comes longer and longer in the three genera of Phyllostoma,
subdivided into Vampyrus, Monophyllus, and Mormoops ; and
8d, The Megaderma and Rhinolophus, subdivided into Rhino-
lophus properly so called, Nyctophilus and Nycteris,

The species of the Bats or Normony teres, which are charac-
terized by having a simple nose, and by the almost uniform ex-
istence of a long tail, are, from the consideration of this append.

26 M. de Blainville on the Classification and

age, divided into three sub-genera, viz, 1*^, Noctilio, in which
the tail is engaged only near its base, and is free above the
membrane throughout the remaining portion, is distributed in-
to the two sub-genera, Taphozous or Taphien, and Noctilio,
2c?, Molossus (E. Geoffroy) whose tail in the same plane as the
membrane, is not accompanied by it at its terminal portion ;
and these may be subdivided from the consideration or absence
of the small superior false molar, into Molossus^ Cheiromeles,
and Myoptera or Dysopes. 3J, Vespertilio, whose tail is
wholly engaged quite to the extremity of the membrane ; this
group is composed of the sub-genera Emhallomira^ Furia, and
Vespertilio L. ; it subdivides itself into Scotophilus, Serotines,
Noctuloides, and Murinoides, Plecotus, and Nycticoecus,

Having thus established the series of the Cheiroptera or fly-
ing Insectivora, as serving to connect in an evident manner the
Makis or the last family of the Primates^ with the moles and
hamsters, which ought to commence the grand series of the
Carnivora, the author shews, in treating of their present geo-
graphical distribution, that one of the branches of this family
is confined to the hot countries of the old hemisphere, but that
it belongs essentially to its insular parts, beginning in the Con-
tinent of Africa below Cairo, and terminating with the last
of the Australian Isles : these are the Roussettes. Another
branch, viz. the Stenodermes and Phyllostomes, compensate, as
it were, for this, and in fact are only found in South America,
whilst the remainder of this branch belongs exclusively to the
ancient Continent throughout. These are the Megadermes and
the other Rhinolophi. Finally, the last branch, that of the
Bats, is found in every part of the world, and ascends farthest
into the Arctic regions ; but only certain species of the genus
Vespertilio properly so called, and a single species of Molossus,
are found in Southern Europe, and there is also but one spe-
cies of Nycticoecus.

Passing now to the antiquity of the Cheiroptera upon the
surface of the earth, M. de Blainville shews us that in the writ-
ings of Moses, bats are numbered among the impure animals
which the Israelites were not to eat ; and that, in hieroglyphics,
they are employed to indicate a nurse or mother suckling her in-
fant, &c. At the same time, it ought to be remarked, that ti>e

Geological Age of the Cheiroptera. 27

ancients have not left us any monument which expressly repre-
sents any living animal of this family, unless we put down to this
account the figure which they frequently give of the Harpy,
which, in reality to a considerable extent, resembles it. But if
bats have thus left no traces of their existence upon the surface
of the globe, except in the writings of man, it is very different
in the successive layers of the crust of the earth, or in what is
usually denominated the fossil state. Without particularly
enumerating the different discoveries which have been made on
the point, during the century and a half to which the attention
of naturalists has been directed to this subject, we shall only
notice that he sums up, nearly in the following terms, our pre-
sent knowledge of fossil remains of the Cheiroptera. 1^^, Ani-
mals of this family existed before the formation of the middle
tertiary deposits of the northern or European countries,
since undoubted remains are found in the gypseous formation
in the neighbourhood of Paris. 2c?Z2/, These bats were pro-
bably contemporaneous with the Anoplotherium and the Pa-
loeotherium, as their bones are found in a similar geological
position. Sdlt/, They have continued uninterruptedly to exist
from that time to the present day, and that throughout the
whole of Europe, because their remains are found in the dilu-
vium of caverns and in osseous breccias. 4^/i/z/, That these
very ancient bats do not differ much, if indeed they differ
at all, from the species which are now living in these same
countries. Hence it may be deduced as a legitimate result, that
the conditions of existence which are essential to them now
were the same at that epoch, more or less distant from the pre-
sent time, and, therefore, that there has been no considerable
change in the totality of the circumstances, or at least these
changes must have been in the last degree insignificant, and in
limits of variation such, that the maxima and minima oscillate,
as they now do, without any appreciable influence upon orga-
nized beings.

M. de Blainville concludes by giving us a synopsis of the
arrangement of the genera, including the principal species ; but
what we have said above may suffice for the comprehensioQ of
his classification.

( 28 )

On the Proprkiy of Forming National Casting Establishments^
with Observations on the Improvements which would result to
Science, Literature, and Taste, by the adoption of such a
measure* By C. W. Wilson, R. I. A., and A. S. A. +
(Communicated by the Society of Arts for Scotland.)

Amongst the various subjects which occupy the public
mind, there is no one more interesting than that of the nature
and extent of the encouragement which an enlightened go-
vernment should afford to the Fine Arts.

• Read before the Society of Arts, 28th March 1838.

+ Report of the Committee of the Society of Arts appointed at the Meet-
ing 28th March 1838.

Wednesday April 4. — Present : — Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart. ; Sir John
Robison ; Mr William Fraser ; Dr Maclagan, Convener.

The Committee to whom was referred the communication by Charles Wil-
son, Esq., R. I. A., and A.S.A., " On the Expediency of Forming National
Establishments for Moulding and Casting Works of Art," read at last Meet-
ing of the Society, having heard Mr Wilson in further explanation of the
object proposed, beg leave to repeat, — First, That it appears the formation of
such establishments in this country was suggested by Mr Andrew Wilson,
the author's father, now residing in Italy, and well known as a distinguished
artist and man of taste, in a communication made to the Board of Trustees
for Manufactures in Scotland in the summer of 1837.

Second, That the object proposed in Mr Charles Wilson's communication
is deserving of the warmest encouragement and support of the Society, as cal-
culated, by the facility it would afford to the diffusion throughout the coun-
try of the purest models for emulation and instruction, to raise the taste, and
improve the execution not merely of artists, but of artisans and manufactu-
rers ; and at the same time to elevate the standard of public feeling, and
create a demand for works of a superior class in every department of indus-
trial art

Third, That, impressed with these feelings, and with the conviction that
this great national object can be fully attained only by the fostering aid of
government, the Committee earnestly recommend that the Society of Arts
should co-operate in every means for its advancement.

Fourth, That in furtherance of its success, the Society should address a
Memorial to the Lords of Her Majesty's Treasury, praying their support
and encouragement of the measure, with the expression of their confident
hope, that in the event of a national establishment being formed in London,
its benefits may be extended by the formation of a branch institution in this
country, where casts may be obtained by native artists and artisans at a rea-
sonable rate, and free of the cost of transport from moulds made in London
from the finest casts in the Metropolitan establishment. Fifth,

Mr Wilson on National Casting Establishments. 29

In examining this interesting question, and in devising
means by which the arts may be fostered, encouraged, and di-
rected, we are bound to study the history of the art in past
ages in different countries ; and by a consideration of the means
by which it attained excellence in these, and a comparison of
the different degrees of perfection observable in the various
schools, the works of which are in high repute, we may arrive
at some satisfactory conclusion as to the best means of encou-
raging the different arts of design amongst ourselves.

The schools of the Continent which have flourished at diffe-
rent periods are so numerous, that a full consideration of the
means by which they arrived at distinction would extend our
inquiries beyond a reasonable compass. However important such
an investigation might be, we must at present confine our obser-
vations within as brief a space as possible. We shall therefore
be contented with alluding to four well known schools, — the
Roman, Florentine, Venetian, and Flemish.

The history of art proves that the patronage which was af-
forded to the principal artists of these distinguished schools,
was of the most munificent description. Popes and other so-
vereigns, princes, nobles, and the wealthy of every degree,
united to encourage art, and to honour and enrich its profes-
sors. The effects produced by a liberal and enlightened patro-
nage of the arts in different countries, were the full develop-
ment of native genius, and the attainment of different degrees
of perfection in each of them respectively. As the four schools
above mentioned were all powerfully and extensively patro-
nised, a comparison between their respective merits, may lead
to important conclusions as to the best means of fostering art.

Fifth, That the establishment in this country may be advantageously
placed under the superintendence of the Board of Trustees for Manufactures
in Scotland, to whose taste, judgment, and liberality, the public are indebted
for the admirable collection of casts in the Gallery of their Academy, and for
the free admission of all classes of the community.

Finally, Your Committee are persuaded that the formation of national
establishments for moulding and casting works of art, conjoined with the free
admission of the public to many of the museums and collections of the coun-
try, which they trust will be still further extended, would materially tend to
raise the character, and improve the social qualities and condition of all classes
of the people. David Maclagan, Convtner,

30 Mr Wilson on the Propriety of Forming

Although patronage thus led to the full development of ge-
nius, yet the paths followed by the various schools were widely
different, and it is to this Jact our attention must be turned.
We perceive that patronage will effect a certain object; but
that it will create a school of art distinguished for qualities of
the highest description is another question. By a glanc*^ a
the history of the four schools we have chosen, this question
may be settled.

Does a school of art exist, distinguished for qualities with
regard to the merit of which all competent judges agree ? — un-
questionably. The Italian, the German, the Frenchman, and
Englishman, each differing materially in opinion with regard
to which is the true path in art to be followed, have no diffe-
rence of opinion with regard to the superior excellence of the
Roman and Florentine schools. If all agree as to the merits
of the great masters of these, we find considerable diversity of
opinion as to those of the Venetian and Flemish, especially the
latter ; these last, however, are placed by common consent in
a lower grade than those of Rome and Florence.

It is quite unnecessary on the present occasion to inquire in-
to the nature of the qualities which give the Roman and Flo-
rentine schools so pre-eminent a place in our estimation. When
we consider that the masters of these schools were surrounded
by some of the finest works of antiquity, many of which were
discovered in their time ; when we reflect that they studied them
diligently, and when we read in contemporary historians of the
effect which such studies had upon their works, we feel that
they owe the sublime excellence for which they alone are dis-
tinguished amongst modern schools, to the inspiration which
the genius of their authors derived from the study of the im-
mortal productions of the Greek chisel. Much as we may ad-
mire the exquisite powers of painting exhibited in the works of
the Venetian masters, we cannot claim for them the same
greatness of design, and poetry of conception, which so much
overpower us with admiration when regarding those of the mas-
ters of the Roman and Florentine schools. The possession of
dexterous manipulation in painting, for which the Venetians
were remarkable, is too often apt to mislead the judgment, and
consequently, we find that it contributed to the degradation of

National Casting Establishments. SI

the art with them, as well as elsewhere. We cannot, however,
refuse them an equality with their great rivals in beauty and
harmony of colour. We must even concede to them, that ow-
ing to their system of painting, they excelled them in bril-
liancy ; but we must again repeat, that in sublimity, poetical
feeling, and all the qualities which touch the soul, they must
yield the palm of superiority to their great competitors. None
of the beings they represented rise in a great degree above the
nature they studied, and their drawing is often incorrect.

The cause of this will be obvious to every one : the Venetian
painters had no opportunity of properly studying the antique,
and of purifying their design by such models ; they indeed ad-
hered to the nature which surrounded them, with a degree of
strictness which frequently rendered their works incongruous,
the costumes of their own times being applied to subjects taken
from ancient history.

The Flemish school now comes to be considered, and it must
be placed on a level greatly lower than that of Venice. It is a
glaring example of the disastrous effects which may result to
art from inattention to its higher principles. Possessing a ge-
nius, equal to any, perhaps, of those of the great Italian mas-
ters, having a fertile imagination, and unequalled powers of
execution — Rubens — the great head of the Flemish school, con-
tributed to the corruption of art and taste. His design is the
very reverse of that which, by common consent, is held to be
the only true model of purity ; he copied the coarse and vulgar
nature with which he was surrounded. His works are a proof
that, when uninfluenced by the principles developed in Greek
art, powerful genius, although stimulated by the most extend-
ed patronage, cannot rise above the surrounding level of natu-
ral objects.

These brief observations having now been made on the ge-
neral characteristics distinctive of peculiar schools, and one pre-
dominant cause having been assigned for the superiority of the
two former of these schools over the two latter, we consider it
unnecessary to notice any of a lesser importance ; the argument
that this is the primary cause of this superiority, is that with
which we are at present chiefly concerned. The inspiration,
the soul-begotten qualities, distinctive of Greek art, are equally

32 Mr Wilson on the Propriety of Forming

evinced in the productions of the Roman and Florentine mas-
ters; their art addresses the intellect. The Venetian school
has been mentioned as deficient in the higher qualities of art,
from the taste of its masters not being purified by the study of
classic models ; and Rubens has been prominently noticed as a
strong instance of the errors genius may commit when unfet-
tered by, or ignorant of, those rules which guided the taste of
the Greeks in their immortal productions.

We may be allowed to glance at the influence of classic taste
on all the arts of Italy, and at the results of the absence of this
influence, especially in our own country. A traditionary taste
existed in Italy, even in the darkest ages ; it is evinced in all
the productions over which art exercises control, in the paint-
ings, in illuminated MSS., in the ornaments on coats of mail,
in the utensils of common life, whether in metal or in other ma-
terials ; and this traditionary taste derived from happier times,
prevented in Italy the perfection of the universally spread
Gothic architecture. When the discovery and study of an-
cient works led to the restoration of the arts, the Italian mind
reverted with facility to the only true path in painting, sculp-
ture, and architecture ; classic taste re-asserted its sovereignty.
After a time, art declined in Italy ; an unhappy craving for
novelty, and an insane desire of originality, corrupted it and
utterly perverted taste. The example of the great masters was
forgotten, and the precepts manifested in the works of the an-
cients neglected.

The success with which the arts were cultivated in Italy,
exciting the admiration of foreigners, Italian art spread over
Europe, and Italian artists were induced by prospects of high
reward to visit foreign countries. These artists brought a
style founded on the classic, to countries where all the existing
examples of art were Gothic. It was quite impossible that the
new style could eradicate ideas, associated with every monument
of national importance, and accordingly the result was a mix-
ture of styles utterly opposed in principle, which it is to be re-
gretted has now many admirers, and still more unfortunately
many imitators.

The absence of those pure examples, which in Italy pointed
out the true path, and as long as they were studied kept art

National Casting Establishments, 33

in it, is the certain cause why taste erred so greatly in every
other "European country.

In England, we find no traces of classic purity of taste, ex-
cept in its architecture. Foreign professors of the sister arts
imported the bad taste prevalent on the Continent, and nothing-
can be more melancholy than a retrospective glance at the state
of our national art, till the period when it awoke to a better
existence in the middle of the last century. But even then the
art adopted as a model, was not that of the highest schools, and
it cannot be asserted that what is termed high art has ever
flourished amongst us. The Venetian and Flemish schools
have exercised a fatal influence over us, and whilst we have
many artists remarkable for their powers of colour and chiar'
oscuro, we fear that we cannot boast one great historical
painter.

Let us look back at the history of every thing connected with
art in the last century ; for instance, the costumes on our stage,
and the various products of our national industry ; and we may
reflect with a feeling of shame on the ignorance and want of
taste displayed.

English sculpture should have been mentioned before the
foregoing paragraph, but its history brings us to a new era.
The degradation of this art is painfully evinced in our Cathe-
drals. When classic art, however, became more an object of
study, sculpture rapidly rose ; the Elgin marbles have contri-
buted immensely to its improvement, and sculpture now takes
a prominent place amongst our arts ; adding yet another to the
many proofs of the advantage of studying and being guided by
classic models.

In the late Parliamentary inquiries instituted regarding the
state of the industrial arts in England, numerous witnesses exa-
mined by the committee attested the superiority of French
taste in ornamental manufactures, and this has been chiefly
attributed to the number of schools in France for the education
of mechanics in the arts of design. The excellence of the
models and of the examples set before the pupils has also been
dwelt upon in evidence ; and this is of great importance, as we
know from the history of art, that schools may exist which do
nothing but propagate bad taste. The taste in French orna.

VOL. XXV. NO. XLTX. JUNE 1838. c

d4 Mr Wilson on the Propriety of Forming

mental design is chiefly to be attributed to the adherence of
French workmen to models of the most tasteful description.

After the Italian victories of I'rance had filled her palaces
with monuments of ancient art, these effected a revolution in
her taste, as complete as that which had previously taken place
in her government. French art was then clad in an imitation
of the garb of that of classic times.

At the last peace, France restored her ill-gotten spoils to the
original proprietors ; but the French Government perceiving
the benefit which had resulted to art in general from the pos-
session of these monuments, determined that, although the origi-
nals were lost to France, faithful copies should be preserved ; and
that the whole country might benefit, and that those who could
not visit the capital might have an opportunity of seeing pure
models, an establishment was formed in Paris, where, a plenti-
ful stock of moulds being accumulated from the best statues
and other sculptures of antiquity, the whole of France has been
supplied for years with casts at a comparatively cheap rate.
The advantages of such a plan being amply demonstrated by
the result, the French continue adding immensely to their col-
lection of moulds, both of statues, bas reliefs, and architectural
ornaments. In 1836 they spent in Florence alone, the great
sum of 14,000 dollars, equal to L.8111 Sterling or thereabouts.

The artizan, when he wants to aid his invention, can easily
procure from the Louvre, at a cheap rate, such classic models
as suit his purpose. The advantages to artists of procuring
casts of statues, &c., from the very best works of antiquity, are
obvious. Schools are rapidly supplied, — private dwellings are
decorated with casts, — the constant aspect of such models
amongst a people highly civilized, and whose minds are in an
active state, must conduce to the dissemination of taste.

The importance of good models to the welfare of art, and to
the general diffusion of taste, is a simple truth which does not
require so many pages to prove ; yet, plain as this truth may
appear, no pains have been taken to place such models before the
British public : on the contrary, our national collections have
been shut against all but the wealthy, by the extravagant fees
demanded at the doors, and even in those establishments to

National Casting Establishments. 35

which the public have been tardily admitted, the doors are for
the most part open only for a portion of the week. The asser-
tion that the promiscuous admission of all classes would lead
to the destruction of the objects exhibited has been trium-
phantly refuted by a happy experience, — witness the conduct
of those who visit the British Museum, and, since the fine gal-
lery belonging to the Board of Trustees in Edinburgh has been
opened, hundreds of every class have visited it ; yet, so careful
are the visitors of all ranks, that no injury has been inflicted,
and not even an accident has occurred.

The want of proper models has long been felt in England,
and often complained of. About the year 1770, his Grace the
Duke of Richmond opened a small collection of casts to artists,
who eagerly availed themselves of such an opportunity of study.
The collection of sculptures in the British Museum has been a
prodigious benefit to art, but this benefit is almost entirely con-
fined to London ; few students from the provinces can afford
to visit the metropolis, and, as a means of generally diffusing
taste throughout the country, museums in London are of little
avail. Provincial galleries must be opened ; meritorious efforts
are making in this way, but the difficulty of procuring casts
sadly impedes these efforts.

Dr Waagen, in his evidence before the late committee, says,.
" The best way of forming the taste of the people is by the es-
tablishment of accessible collections of the most remarkable
monuments of antiquity and of the middle ages. In the capi-
tal of the country there should be the chief collection, but it is
injurious when all is centralized and confined within the capi-
tal ; it is also useful, as is partly the case in France, and it is
intended to be so in Prussia, to establish subordinate collections
in/he principal towns in the country. The principles upon
which such collections should be formed are the following ; —
the monuments of the best periods, both of ancient and modern
art, which are too extensive and too costly to be possessed by
private amateurs, should more especially be placed in a public
collection. Collections can only propagate taste and art in a
nation, when every man can daily and, hourly find free access
to the collections of art." Many witnesses before the late com-

c2

S6 Mr Wilson on the Propriety ()f Forming

mittee testify as to the difficulty of procuring good models, and
there is but one opinion as to the propriety of establishing local
galleries containing fine specimens of art, which would benefit
not only the fine arts, but also those which may be properly
termed the industrial arts. We may also advert to the difficul-
ties which our artizans find in procuring good models — diffi-
culties which would vanish were an establishment formed where
fac-similes could easily be procured of the very objects which
have rendered foreign taste superior to our own ; and, when we
consider that the taste of an individual is often fixed hy first
impressions^ we must perceive how necessary it is to fill the
country with good models.

When we reflect how little opportunity our artizans have of
seeing good models, and how long they have been accustomed
to derive their ideas in art from those of a most imperfect de-
scription, we cannot wonder at their deficiency in taste. At
present our artizans are almost entirely obliged to have recourse
to prints when they wish to design. Prints give a very im-
perfect idea of the graces of execution, and are besides so costly
that few designers can affijrd to purchase them; designs are
made up from scraps, and thus absurd mistakes are often com-
mitted, notions of unity of style and propriety of ornament
being imperfect, incongruous mixtures are made and orna-
ments misapplied. By the importation of casts of entire de-
signs, the artizan would have an opportunity of studying the
free artist-like execution of such models, and he would also
learn to appreciate and undepstand propriety of design.

When we look back to times not long past, we find that the
interior decorations of dwellings were then much richer than
they now are ; we find roofs, halls, staircases, &c., ornamented
with stucco-work, and traces of good carving and ornamental
painting. These works were chiefly executed by foreigners,
who had learned these arts in their native countries. Foreign-
ers are now seldom employed in this country for such purposes,
and as we have no artizans who could execute the designs of
architects were they to overstep certain limits, our mansions
are ^mostly finished in a plain style ; and when attempts are
made at a superior style of ornament, the expense becomes

National Casting Esiahlishments. 37

enormous — such is the difficulty of procuring workmen. The
cure for this, as in all branches of commerce, is to create com-
petition, and this will be effected by the education of workmen
in schools; and that their tastes may flow in a proper channel,
the purest models must be set before them.

Enough, perhaps, has been said to prove the necessity of the
introduction of good models, and a government which wishes
to encourage art and ameliorate taste, cannot do so better than
by such means ; all experience gathered from the history of
art proving, that where the best models have existed, schools of
the highest character have been formed : and we may antici-
pate that, by the introduction of like models into this country,
and their being placed in situations accessible to all, taste and
art of every description will be purified and improved, and a
necessary consequence must be, the extensive and well-directed
patronage of art by a wealthy and tasteful people.

It is not necessary to dwell longer upon the great benefits which
must ensue to our native art from filling the country with the
finest models of the art of the best ages : — the proposition is self-
evident. Undertaken by government on a liberal scale, the
project will certainly succeed, as by opening in London and
the other great cities in Great Britain, extensive exhibitions of
statues, bas-reliefs, and ornamental casts of every description,
there cannot be a doubt that all who require such models will
study with eagerness, and that when they can do so they will
purchase the casts with avidity.

The advantages to general education will also be great ; in-
stead of the imperfect, and often absurd, ideas of the mytho-
logy and arts of the ancients conveyed to our youth by the
prints in the books they study, the facility with which sta-
tues of the divinities of the ancients, bas-reliefs, their habits
and customs, costumes and arms, and authenticated busts of
all the great characters of antiquity, may be procured, will un-
questionably greatly benefit our classic and other students,
ameliorate their tastes by habituating them to the constant ob-
servation of beautiful forms, impress them at an early age with
love and respect for art, and give them a tenfold interest in
their studies, A series of historical busts should be in every

38 Physiognomy of the Moons Surface.

college ; and the unequalled collection in the Capitoline Mu-
seum would furnish casts of several hundreds of the most dis-
tinguished characters of antiquity. *

Thus the highly gifted though poor student would have an
opportunity of seeing and studying fac-similes of those foreign
monuments of ancient art, which the wealthy alone can travel
so far to behold ; and to the advancement of art throughout
the kingdom and the improvement of our native school, would
be added a general increase in classical knowledge and correct
ideas of the ancients, only to be derived from such monuments ;
— and thus taste, science, literature, and art, would be equally
benefited and extended throughout our happy country.

Survey of the Surface of the Moon. By Wm. Beer and Dr
J. H. Madler of Berlin.*

1. Physiognomy of the Moon's Surface. 2. Supposititious Architec-
tural Remains in the Moon. 3. Do Rivers occur in the Moon ?
4. Lunar Atmosphere. 5. Concerning some observations which
appear to indicate the existence of a Lunar Atmosphere. 6. Non-
existence in the Moon of Clouds, Seas, Sfc. ?• Light and Colour
of the Moon. 8. Physical Remarks upon the Eclipses of the
Moon and of the Sun, relating principally to the appearances
which the former luminary presents during these i7iteresting
phenomena. 9« On the effect of the Earth's light upon the Moon.
10. On the Meteorological influence of the Moon.

1. Physiognomy of the Moon's Surface. — Even with the na-
ked eye we may distinguish upon the surface of the moon, espe-
cially when full, many grey markings of different sizes, some
of which are very conspicuously distinguished from the more
brilliant parts, whilst others gradually merge into them. The
name of Seas was conferred on these markings by Hevelius,

• The above article contains a condensed view of some of the leading sec-
tions of the great work lately published at Berlin, under the title of " Der
Mond nach seinen kosmischen und individuellen verhaltnissen Od. allgem.
rergleichende Selenographie. Nebst 5 lith. Taf. gr. 4. Von Wm. Beer and
Dr J. H. Madler." Bibliotheque Universelle, February and March 1838.

Physiognomy of the Momis Surface. 39

without his intending, however,'' to identify them with terres-
trial seas, but only because no better term of comparison oc-
curred to him. Subsequent observations have more and more
clearly demonstrated that these portions of the moon could not
be entirely covered by a liquid ; for they present inequalities
of different kinds, also a colour which is any thing but uniform,
and besides void hollows are seen, as their shadows demon-
strate. Hence, although we ought not from these to con-
clude in an absolute manner that there is neither water nor other
analogous fluid on the moon's surface, nothing more is to be un-
derstood by the word seas than certain extended and greyish
portions which appear somewhat lower, and comparatively
more uniform than the brighter parts by which they are sur-
rounded.

On that hemisphere of the moon which is turned towards the
earth, there are only two seas, of moderate size, which are iso-
lated and bounded on all sides, viz. the Mare Crisium, and
the Mare Humorum. The larger ones, like the Mare Sere^
nitatiSy are only partly defined : for not only are they con-
nected among themselves, as are the great oceans of our planet,
but they are often likewise devoid of any decided line of de-
markation, distinguishing them from the brighter regions. This
is particularly the case with the sea Mare Nubium, although
very near the centre of the moon, and with the Oceanus proceU
larum^ which is the largest within our view. At the same time,
a slight difference in lustre may be observed, between the con-
tiguous parts of these different surfaces when viewed as a whole.

It may be stated in general terms, that the grey portions oc-
cupy nearly two-fifths of the visible surface of the moon. They
exist to the greatest extent in its eastern and northern portions,
and quite disappear in the most southerly part. Hevelius, as
already stated, gave them the names of terrestrial seas ; but
Riccioli shortly afterwards introduced another nomenclature,
which was founded upon the alleged influences of the moon up-
on terrestrial meteorological phenomena, and upon man's corpo-
real and mental condition ; and this system, notwithstanding
its absurdity, has been adopted. These names are now conse-
crated by the usage of more than two centuries, and they could
not be altered without introducing much confusion.

40 Physiognomy of the MootCs Surface.

We may admit it as probable, that there are regions on that
hemisphere of the moon which is concealed from us, analogous to
those to which we have been adverting : for, first, apart of those
which we see, advance to the very edge ; and again, there are
two portions of this appearance, the one of which has been
named Kaestner by Schroeter, and to the other of which, larger
and lying to the north-west, we have given the name of Hum-
boldt, which only commence on the side of the moon which is
turned toward us, and whose further limits cannot be discovered,
even at the epoch of the libration, of all others the most favour-
able for its perception.

The bright parts of the moon are almost always mountain-
ous, and these mountains surpass the most elevated of the earth,
if not in absolute elevation, at least in steepness. Sometimes,
though more rarely than on our planet, we perceive simple ranges
of isolated summits and small projections ; but far more fre-
quently we discover vast masses heaped together, widely ex-
tended, and cut by deep transverse valleys. Occasionally, too,
we observe rising up, pretty extensive portions of surface, form-
ing a plateau, whence proceed many mountains of different
shapes, and at the side of which there exists a very high
eminence, whose lofty escarpments descend perpendicularly
even to the plain. The Apennine, which is the most remark-
able mountain of this last description ( Randgehh'ge) has its
summit as high as 18,000 feet ; and it would appear from the
treatise of Plutarch, De Jade in Orhe Lunee, that it had been
observed by the ancients. Towards the conclusion of the first
quarter of the moon, it forms so marked a protuberance on the
dark part of the disk, that it might possibly be distinguished
by the naked eye. Besides these more common appearances,
there are also observed upon the moon's surface lower moun-
tain ranges, and hilly regions. Finally, there likewise exist,
and in greater number than on the earth, mountains which are
quite isolated, and which are endowed with every variety of form
and dimension. Some of these exhibit themselves as ranges
without any determinate connection ; and sometimes they form a
regular circular zone round an enclosed space, which space is
on all sides connected with the exterior by lateral valleys.

These circles of the mountains (Bergkranze) lead us to very

Physiognomy of the Moori's Surface. 4l

remarkable forms, which, both by their number and size, and
also by the very singular aspect which they present, never fail
to produce astonishment in those who examine them with a
powerful glass : We allude to the Lunar Craters. Their general
type is the following. An elevated circular rampart, which,
externally is nearly perpendicular, and internally is concave,
surrounds a spheroidal hollow, which is usually below the level
of the plane surface in its neighbourhood. Sometimes, in the
interior of this hollow, mountains rise up which, notwithstand-
ing their escarpment and their very considerable relative eleva-
tion, do not at their summits attain the elevation of the ram-
part which surrounds them, and have no connection with it.

But this fundamental character is so variously modified, and
these modifications are so differently associated with each other,
and with the diverse forms of the mountains and the seas, that
our nomenclature appears meagre indeed when compared with
the varied richness of nature, although our distance from our
satellite prevents us from recognising many other differences.*
We can subdivide these forms according to their relative dimen-
sions, which reach from a diameter of thirty German miles (of 15
to a degree), to the minimum space we can recognise upon the
moon with our present instruments, that is about 1500 feet.

The spaces surrounded by mountains of this kind which have
the largest dimensions ( Wallebene) rarely present a simple en-
closure, but more frequently a circular congeries of mountains,
with projections which are sometimes exceedingly elevated ex-
ternally. Their inner surface is sometimes plane, sometimes
convex, and most frequently studded with mountains and small
chains of hills. Their outline usually deviates from the circular
form, and sometimes exhibits something like great gates or
lateral openings. It is in the southern portion of the moon that
these particular appearances are most frequently seen, and
sometimes they appear so closely crowded upon each other that
the circular form is forcibly transformed into a polygonal
one.

The annular mountains, properly so called {Ringgehirge)

• It will be remembered the miles in this article, when not otherwise stated,
are German ; a German mile =s about 4.6 English.

4^ Physiognomy of the MoorCs Surface.

have a diameter which varies from 10 or 12 to 2 or 3 miles.
Their form is nearly circular. They exhibit a conspicuous mar-
gin, which usually determines their outline. They are met with
in nearly all possible situations. They very often exhibit a
central mountain in their interior, which is rarely connected
with the principal and outer envelope. The internal surface
enclosed by some of these circular mountains is upon the
same level with the exterior ; and the encircling envelope pre-
s?nts something like gates of communication from the exterior
parts to the interior. Frequently two of these mountains may
be observed very near to each other, and very similar in form and
size. This fact is of importance, as it indicates a common origin,
whether we regard their nature or the epoch of their formation.

In these annular mountains the elevation of the exterior en-
velope has generally a direct relation and correspondence with
the interior hollow. The external'slope ranges between a third
and a half of the extent of the internal one ; and this has led
Schroeter to imagine that were the envelope again levelled,
it would precisely fill up the vacuity. Were this demonstrated,
it would explain how the equilibrium between the different
parts of the moon is still maintained, notwithstanding the very
great differences in their altitude, and this would also go to
prove that it is to the agency of volcanic eruptions that we
must attribute the appearances which are met with on the sur-
face. Schroeter has modelled some annular mountains ; of
these he has compared the projections with the excavations, and
has often found a great similarity in the volume, though some-
times there have been sensible differences. However, it is as-
suredly a very difficult matter in this point to reach any thing
like certainty, more especially when we consider the obstacles
presented by a distance of 50,000 Gervian miles in exactly ap-
preciating all the physical dimensions of an annular mountain.

No kind of proportion exists between the altitude and the
diameter of these mountains, and it would rather appear that
the smaller have the greatest absolute depths in their interior.

These annular mountains and the analogous formations are
found throughout every region of the moon's surface ; but they
are more numerous and more closely connected with each other
in its southern than in its northern parts. In this latter region

Physiognomy of the MoorCs Surface. 4S

we should say that they occupied about one-eighth of the sur-
face, whilst in the other they occupy one-fourth. There are cer-
tain districts, as for example one situated round the large spot
called Tycho^ where the surface is so studded with these kinds
of appearances that it is impossible to find a level which may
serve as a base by which to measure the neighbouring heights.
Innumerable circular hollows of smaller dimensions occur up-
on the moon's surface. These may be distinguished into craters
and pits ; confining this latter term to those small cavities con-
nected with which we do not perceive an elevated zone, either
because none really exist, or because the size is so inconsider-
able that it cannot be recognised. In the craters, central moun-
tains are perceived, and by an attentive examination often a
smaller crater may be found placed within the large one.
Sometimes, again, two are found so closely approximated that a
part of their boundaries is common to both, and it also some-
times happens that, at the point of contact, the zone is inter-
rupted, and there is a passage which unites the two interiors.
There are circles of mountains which are in part margins of
craters ; and, lastly, we may observe that very small craters
may be distinguished on the moon's surface, even on those por-
tions which are most uniform.

When the craters are situated at a considerable distance from
the limits of the light, and when they are not very steep, their
depth cannot be very accurately ascertained. It follows, that,
when under a direct light, many of them present luminous and
bright spots ; whilst on the other hand a certain number of great
annular mountains are recognised with great difficulty, and some
not at all. Small craters are also seen with much difficulty near
the margin of the moon; their rim can then be seen only in profile;
their far side is hid as well as the interior, and it is often very
difficult to determine whether we are examininc: a mountain or
a crater. It sometimes even happens, that in regions much
nearer the centre, a crater exists where we had supposed there
was a mountain, and a mountain where we had concluded there
was a crater.

It hence results, that it is only by confining ourselves to the
examination of regions which are not farther removed from the
middle of the moon than 45° or 50", that we can satisfactorily

44i Phijsiog^nomy of the Mooii's Surface.

decide the very difficult question, whether the objects which
this luminary presents are subject to true physical changes,
which we have the power of recognising, a question regarding
which, in our opinion, nothing at all is known at the present
time. The circle above referred to, may be extended some addi-
tional eight or ten degrees, by taking the libration into account,
and profiting by it properly. Within these limits an ex-
perienced, attentive, and persevering observer, especially if free
from preconceived bias, and if supplied with powerful instru-
ments, which clearly define the objects, may be preserved from
optical illusions. Whatever is seen beyond the limits we have
just mentioned, may be very useful in determining the general
relations of the different parts of the moon ; but the region
near the margin is, for a variety of reasons, unsuitable for any
conclusions which are to be founded upon the accurate appre-
ciation of minute details.

Those mountains which are situated in the interior of the
different circular zones which we have been describing, vary
considerably. Sometimes they are solitary, and at other times
they are conglomerated in masses, and more rarely in moun-
tain chains. Their summits never attain the elevation of
the zone, and sometimes not even that of the surrounding
surface. The shadow of the zone usually covers them a long
time before the sun sets on that locality in which they are
situated ; and it is not a little curious to witness them reappear,
as very minute luminous points, in the midst of the deepest
shade which envelopes them.

From what has now been said, it will appear that the forms
of the craters of which we have been speaking, have very little
external conformity with analogous appearances in our planet.
The largest craters of our volcanos can scarcely be compared
with the smallest pits on the surface of the moon. We can always
perceive the ground at the bottom of the lunar craters ; whilst
many of those of the earth are real abysses. The Laacher lake,
near Andernach, the mountain Albano near Rome, and other
localities which might be mentioned, exhibit but the feeblest and
most obscure type of these lunar craters ; and these formations
are moreover confined in this planet to some very special regions,
whilst they decidedly predominate over the moon's surface. On

Physiognomy of' the Momi's Surface. 45

the otberhandjthe broad and long valleys of our mountain chains,
as of the Andes, the Alps, and the Himalaya, are quite unlike
any thing found in the moon, or the analogy at all events is a
most obscure one. Nearly all the forms of the earth's moun-
tains are changed by the action of water and atmospherical va-
riations, whilst these modifying agencies are probably wholly
wanting in the moon.

We have still to make a few observations upon an appear-
ance in the moon, which presents a distant analogy to our rivers,
viz. the grooves and furrows (Ilille) which are so remarkable
and at the same time so difficult to recognise. They are long
and narrow hollows, sometimes straight or slightly arched,
and sometimes sinuous or crooked, which have been hitherto dis-
covered only in a small number of localities in the moon. Some-
times they extend from one small crater to another, and in other
cases, they appear to be isolated in the grey plains, terminating
in a manner in no way peculiar. Often they are stopped by
the mountains which they do not traverse. The grooves which
are situated near Higinus and Ariadeus, as well as that large
one which is found near Aristarchus, are those which may most
easily be discovered ; and in them we perceive, notwithstanding
their narrowness, a distinct trace of shadow. The numerous
grooves situated near Triesnecker, and the small ones in the
region of Posidonius are discovered with more difficulty. Their
whole number, as now established, is still limited ; although we
have discovered a certain number in regions where former ob-
servers never noticed them. Thus we have found four in the
south-west angle of the Mare humorum, one of which runs to-
wards Hippalus, and abuts to the north in the region of Agathar-
chides. The district near Triesnecker is still richer in fissures
which partially unite and again separate as in veins, and thus
form a particular system. Some of them are from two to three
miles in length, the majority are from ten to fifteen, and a small
number extend from twenty-five to thirty miles. We have
found none that exceed this maximum.

The question now occurs, Are these grooves lunar rivers.? to
which we answer, that their resemblance to rivers is a very
slight one. They do not descend from the mountains, but ra-
ther cross their hollows. Those which are situated upon the

46 FaxLcied Jrchitectural Remains in the Moon.

middle of the moon, especially the one near Higinus, shines
brillianlly when the sun is up. This, however, is not to be as-
cribed to the effect of the reflection from a liquid surface as
from a mirror, but is owing rather to a great elevation or es-
carpment of the internal bounding wall. If these grooves had
any thing in common with our rivers, the subordinate character
of these appearances evidently proves that the existence of water
in the moon cannot be compared with what we find on the Earth.
Were this a system of rivers, they would be arranged altogether
differently. They might, indeed, be more or less compared to
rivers, did such exist, on the steppes of Persia or of Arabia, or
on the northern border of the parched Sahara.

Still less can it be admitted that these grooves are great artifi-
cial roads. It would be to allow by much too great a similitude
between terrestrial and lunar relations, to presume that the inha-
bitants of the moon engage in such works as these. The fact that
we can perceive them, which supposes a breadth of at least twelve
or eighteen hundred feet (and the majority are much wider), is
in no degree favourable to the supposition. This is equally true
when we consider the manner in which they present themselves
to our examination. In the region of Giittenberg there are
three long grooves which are quite parallel, and distant only
two miles from each other ; and analogous phenomena are to
be detected in other places. No more are they directed to-
wards remarkable points, but generally terminate in an open
country.

2. SypposHltiousArddtectural Remains inthe Moon. — We may
here observe that the zeal which has been displayed in seeking
for the traces of lunar architecture, has not hitherto led to any
successful result, nor, in fact, to any prospect of one. It is
exceedingly improbable that, even in future ages, and mak-
ing every allowance for the advancing improvement of our
mechanical and optical apparatus, there shall ever be discovered
in the moon, objects analogous to our cities, roads, or ramparts.
All that civilization has hitherto produced, or is now effecting
on the surface of the Earth, is, independently of man''s intellec-
tual powers, effected by two principal agents, one of which de-
pends upon the changes of the atmosphere, and the other, upon
the proportions which subsist between mechanical powers and

Fancied Architectural Remains in the Moon. 47

the masses on which they are brought to act. The former de-
termines the occasions and the principal directions of our cor-
poreal activity ; and the latter assists us in appreciating what
it is possible for us to accomplish in all that relates either to
quantity or quality. In other words, man builds mansions,
because those which nature provides for his accommodation ap-
pear insufficient in the atmospherical circumstances in which he
is placed ; with much labour he makes regular roads, because,
according to the nature of gravity at the surface of the Earth,
his own transport, and that of goods, would be exceedingly dif-
ficult without artificial routes. We oppose barriers, to the in-
juries of time, whose form and magnitude are determined as
much by the object we have in view, as by the forces we have
at our disposal. Our philosophy having not as yet succeeded
in procuring for us a general and perpetual peace, we have
built fortifications which, previous to the discovery of gun-
powder, were very different from what they now are, and which
will be very different again, when steam has come into some-
what more general use. A number of our arrangements have
relation to the variations of the seasons, so remarkable in our
planet. Thus, in fact, every thing which man effects upon
the Earth is associated with the special circumstances of our
globe ; and when what is requisite for us is naturally prepared,
there is no necessity for our substituting our individual ex-
ertions. If the shores of the ocean afford sufficiently good har-
bours, we never think of establishing them ; if rivers answer
the demands of commerce, a canal is not made ; and if nature's
precipices would afford sufficient shelter, we should be spared
all the trouble of walls and enclosures.

What right, then, have we to expect artificial productions
which shall have an analogy, even the most distant, with ter-
restrial objects in a heavenly luminary where the existence of an
atmosphere is, to say the least, exceedingly doubtful, and where
there are neither winds nor rain ; where of water in a liquid state
there is npne, and where the gravitation of bodies, and, conse-
quently, the resistance of matter, is six times less than upon the
Earth ; without even alluding to the immense differences the
earth presents in relation to its days, its seasons, its tempera-
tures, &c. Those astronomers who have given themselves wi|h

48 Do Rivers occur in the Moon ?

so much keenness to conjectures, might have saved us from many
useless hypotheses, which are any thing but creditable to
science, if they had attempted to base their ingenious conjec-
tures upon the evident data of theory and observation, rather
than on sheer possibilities. It is hoped that our powerful
glasses will enable us to dispel the obscurities which surround
the moon. But instead of this these individuals only deepen
the obscurity ; and never will it be removed so long as the reins
are in this way given to mere conjecture. Accurate observa-
tions alone, freed from all preconceived opinions, and repeated
with indefatigable perseverance, are the sole means in our power
by which progress can be made.

S. Do Rivers occur in the Moon f — The question of the ex-
istence of a system of drainage by means of rivers in the moon,
is intimately connected with the other which refers to the na-
ture of the large grey markings which it presents. If these
latter be not really seas, it is quite useless for us to search
on the moon"'s surface for rivers analogous to those we find on the
Earth. Now, it is to be observed that in all the regions to which
the appellation of seas has been given, besides the annular moun-
tains, and the clear and brilliant- peaks which have sometimes
been taken for islands, there are likewise many flat and broad
crests, which extend themselves in all directions, and which, as
to colour, in no respect differ from the lower districts, as should
happen were these flat elevations land, and the others water.
Towards the epoch of the moon's quadratures, a great number
of those surfaces which are among the most brilliant at full
moon, assume a darker shade, which is altogether analogous to
that of the sea, although there can be no dispute that they par-
take of the nature of continents. Nay, there are even moun-
tainous regions, such as that of the neighbourhood of the
spot Schroder, which appear at the full moon darker even
than the seas themselves, although it is evident, at the first
glance, when they exhibit themselves near the margin of the
luminous portion, that it is quite impossible they could be
covered with water. It follows, that we cannot conclude from
the dark colour of any region, that it is liquid.

4. Lunar Atmosphere. — These considerations have an inti-
mate connection with the question of the existence of a lunar

Lunar Atmosphere, 49

atmosphere. It has been attempted to establish its existence
both by observations, and by arguments of an entirely different
nature. Schroeter imagined that he perceived traces of twi-
light in that part of the moon which was dark, and principally
alorfg the obscure border, which may be seen when the lunar
crescent is reduced to a small luminous thread. According
to his observations, he has calculated what the thickness of the
moon's atmosphere should be, and found it amounted to a 28th
part of the Earth'^s atmosphere. Melanderhjelm has endeavour-
ed to demonstrate, theoretically, that the thickness of the atmo-
spheres of two celestial bodies should be proportional to the
square of the power of gravity at the surface of these bodies,
which would give to the lunar atmosphere j^th part of that
of the Earth ; but his conclusion should be limited by this con-
dition, viz. the universal existence of atmospheres.

M. Bessel has demonstrated (Astr. Nachr., No. 263) that
after attributing the greatest possible altitude to the moun-
tains behind which stars in a state of occultation disappear, say
24,000 Fr. feet, as also allowing the greatest possible effect
which can arise from refraction, viz. a difference of 2'' between
the diameter of the moon according to direct measurement,
and its extent deduced from the duration of the occultation ;
and by still further admitting that the temperature was at 32^
Fahr» from the surface of the moon to an altitude of 24,000
Fr. feet : still with all these concessions, of all others the most
favourable for the extent of the lunar atmosphere, yet its
thickness would amount to only ^ J^th part of that of our at-
mosphere, supposing that the two were of the same nature.
Upon the supposition that the temperature and the composi-
tion of the atmosphere are different, still the results are analo-
gous. Thus, supposing it was oxygen gas, the greatest thick-
ness would only be ^Jyd part, and it would be j J^th part with
a temperature of about minus 240*" R. If it is moreover con-
sidered that the stars, on reaching the obscure edge of the
moon, always disappear suddenly, and without the slightest
diminution of their brilliancy, the only conclusion which re-
mains, is, that the moon possesses no atmosphere at all compa-
rable with ours.

Concerning the alleged twilight, observed by Schroeter, this

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1828. D

50 Lunar Atmosphere,

feeble and obscure phenomenon, which we ourselves have never
succeeded in distinguishing from the effect of the earth's light
upon the moon, might easily, if it were more than a simple o]>-
tical illusion, be explained in many other ways than by having
recourse to a lunar atmosphere. The sun's diameter alone must
occasion a small twilight with a mean breadth on the moon of
2,29 miles, and geocentrically must subtend an angle of 9" ;
and which may, towards the margin, when the moon shews only
a very small crescent, extend to many minutes. The inequali-
ties of the surface, too, must occasion a somewhat more extend-
ed twilight ; the sides of illuminated mountains must reflect a
part of their light upon the valleys below, and we may, per-
haps, thus explain the phenomenon observed by Schroeter in the
moon''s southern horn, and which has hardly been noticed in any
other point. The mountain Doerfel,* which is probably the
most elevated in the moon, thus projects its light over a widely
extended space on the two halves of the moon's surface ; these
points may be considered as isolated islands of light, which rise
conspicuously above the extremity of the crescent, and in this
locality affect both the phases and the libration.

The equal distinctness with which all parts of the moon are
perceived, those near its edges as much as those in the centre,
is another positive reason against the existence of any medium
of imperfect transparency on its surface : for all the outlines in
the different regions, when observed at the same time, and un-
der equivalent circumstances as to light, are distinguished alike
distinctly ; and towards the edges they do not present other
difficulties in their representation and delineation, than those
arising from their being fore- shortened. Attentive observations
of the spots of Mars and Jupiter, have led us to recognise, that,
towards the edges of these planets, every object becomes indeter-
minate, and disappears; we have ourselves experienced this,
^nd in all probability it arises from the atmosphere of these

■ This mountain is among the number of those which are situated towards
the limit of the visible part of the moon, and whose height cannot be determined
by the length of their shadows, but only by the approximative method of the
projection which their profile forms upon the margin of the disk. Two measure-
jnents of this kind gave MM. de Beer and Miidler 3800 toises as its height.

Indications of a Lunar Atmosphere. 51

planets enfeebling their light.* But, as we perceive nothing of
this sort upon a luminary which is a thousand times nearer us»
the cause which produces it may be considered as absolutely
wanting in the moon.

5. Conceniijig some observations which appear to indicate the
existence of a Lunar Atmosphere. — We have already seen that
it may be regarded as demonstrated, that the moon has no at-
mosphere which, in any respect, is comparable to that of the
earth. It does not, however, necessarily follow, that it is com-
pletely devoid of one ; and some appearances have been wit
nessed which may be referable to a cause of this kind. Such,
for example, are the changes in brightness, as well as in colour
and form, which have been observed in some stars a short time
before their occultation behind the moon. Some astronomers,
it is true, have never recognised such appearances. But others,
we must admit, equally worthy of confidence, have verified
them. Messrs Beer and Madler mention, among others, that
two observations have been communicated to them by M. Bo-
guslawski of Breslau, in which two small stars assumed, for
a minute or two before their occultation, a form which was
elongated in a direction perpendicular to the margin of the
moon, and again, just before they were hid, appeared as lumi-
nous points. Our authors themselves, on the 25th of April
1836, observed u of the lion, an instant before its occultation
behind the moon, become somewhat redder, and slightly di-
minish in lustre. They thought also that they perceived, on
many occasions, when an annular mountain began to be illu-
minated, and when it was still darkness all around it, that
slight changes of colour were manifest, consisting in a bluish
light, which rapidly transformed itself first into a pale yellow,
and then into a more decided yellow.

If an atmosphere exists round the moon, corresponding to what

• The most considerable of the two spots which we observed upon the disk
of Jupiter, from November 1834 to April 1835, continued visible no longer,
after passing the central point, than during one hour und twenty-four mi-
nutes and one hour and twenty-seven minutes, on two opportunities which
were peculiarly favourable ; in all other instances it disappeared sooner. It
has not been seen, therefore, farther than at 54° of the point of conjunction ; so
that all that is required to render it invisible is an obscuring thickness double
of that which exists on the middle of the disk (Note by the Authors.}

d2

52 No7i-exlstence in the Moon of Clouds, Seas^ S^c.

the small size of the satellite might induce us to expect, it is
also possible that local causes might occasionally disturb and
obscure it, especially during the night ; and that would explain
why the appearances to which we have just been alluding are
seen only near the time when the sun rises upon a particular
region of the moon, or towards its obscured margin.

As yet we can in no way value, even by approximation, the
thickness or density of this covering. It is probably much
smaller even than the maximum arrived at by Bessel, viz. ^i^th
part of the density of our atmosphere, and it is too feeble to be
able to produce, in ordinary cases, the effects of refracting or
obscuring objects.

So far as the different classes of celestial bodies, viz. suns,
planets, satellites, and comets appear essentially to differ in
their various relations, and to have, in common, scarcely any
thing more than what is a necessary consequence of the law of
universal gravitation, we may also regard it as probable that
the enveloping gases of these bodies are different, not only in
their relative quantities, but still more in their constitution and
in their chemical relations.

6. Non-existence in the Moon of Clouds, Seas, S^c» — The non-
existence of a lunar atmosphere must sweep away all hypotheses
concerning clouds, smoke, nebulosities, rain, snow, &c. occa-
sioned by the presence of water, as well as the existence of wa-
ter itself. From this circumstance it follows, that there is a
complete and total difference between the surfaces of the earth
and the moon, in relation to the whole economy of organized
nature. The moon, then, is in no respect a copy, and far less
a colony, of this earth. It is impossible to compare with each
other the planetary and lunar vital forces ; and the ulterior dis-
cussion, whether the moon is inhabited by men, must appear
absolutely superfluous.*

No more can there be any seas in the moon. The hemi-
spheres, both visible and invisible, must be continents through-

* MM. Beer and Madler have remarked in the preface of their work, that,
as the distance of a German mile is the farthest that the most piercing sight
can distinguish a man, or the largest of terrestrial animals, without the aid
of glasses, and, as our distance from the moon amounts to 51,000 of these miles,

Non-existence in the Moon of Clouds^ Seas^ ^c. 53

out all their extent. Nor is there the slightest ground for be-
lieving there is any system of rivers at all analogous to ours.

The forms of the lunar mountains perfectly agree with this
conclusion. Convex slopes (convexe boschungsformen), and
escarpments, far more remarkable than those of the earth, pre-
dominate in the moon. Slopes at an angle of 45° and even more,
are there the most common ; and not only the bright parts of
the surface, but also the seas, are covered with great rocky
masses. As the density of the material of which the moon is
formed is scarcely above the half of that of the earth (0.57),
we cannot easily admit that a greater number of compact
masses of rocks can be found on the moon than on the earth ;
and these masses could not be in a state habitually to resist
the action of water and of the atmosphere, and to maintain
themselves in a position so steep and perpendicular. Great an-
nular mountains are seen, with a regularity of form both on
their internal and external surface, which they could never pre-
serve on the earth, exposed, as they would be, to the influences
of air and water ; and this shews that they have been exposed
to no such influences, since the time of their formation. Val-
leys, except, of course, craters, are comparatively exceedingly
rare in the moon ; and all their relations are perfectly different
from those we find upon our globe; in fact, there are no
broad and long ones, through which rivers might flow. The
formation of regions in successive terraces is also wholly want-
ing in the moon. The declivity of the high mountains is as
rapid as that of a wall, and does not terminate in a valley, but

we must succeed in obtaining instruments which will magnify, in linear size,
51,000 times, before we can hope to discover objects of that magnitude in the
moon. But, up to the present time, they add, the magnifying to 300 times
is the utmost extent we have succeeded in making any observations upon the
moon, whose results can be compared with each other. There is required,
therefore, a farther improvement upon our astronomical instruments, which
shall be to our present in the ratio of 510 to 3, or of 170 to 1. It is also ne-
cessary to suppose that the terrestrial atmosphere should become 170 times
more transparent; and that the inconvenience arising from the apparent
diurnal movement of the moon rendered 170 times more rapid, should be re-
moved, before we can ever hope to perceive from the earth, the living beings
who may possibly inhabit that heavenly body, which, compared with others,
is situated in our own immediate vicinity.

54 Light and Colour of the Moon.

only in the lowest portion of the surface of the ground. Nor
is the formation of terraces common, except in cavities in the
interior of the great mountains. Our satellite thus exhibits its
mountains in their original form, an occurrence which is seldom
or never witnessed on the earth.

7. Light and Colour of the Moon. — That we may complete
this general description of the moon's surface, it is necessary
to point out the variety of colouring which may be detected.
The difference betweeen the bright and the dark parts may
be detected by the naked eye, particularly at full moon : and
this circumstance proves, that, so far as these appearances
are concerned, shadows are not at all the cause, and that
differences in the level have no share in these differences of
shade. All the shadows which shew themselves on the moon
at the epoch of her phases, are always perfectly black, whilst
the darker portions of her surface, such as Grimaldi, Plato,
Boscovich, and the small spots in Petavius, William Hum-
boldt, and Alphonso, are always grey only ; so that the finest
points of shadow which are projected over these surfaces can
be measured as accurately as in the brighter districts. In
the moon, therefore, there are differences as to the quantity of
the solar light which is reflected : and as we see very distinct
traces of such a diversity in the obscure portion of the moon,
ihis same phenomenon occurs likewise in the earth's light, and
in all other kinds of light.

It is proper, therefore, that a scale of these gradations of light
should be established, and such an one as the eye, assisted with
good instruments, may be able to distinguish its divisions with
some degreeof certainty. Preceding selenographers were content
with three degrees. Schroeter, and after him M. Lorhmann,
have adopted a scale of ten degrees, and we, in this respect,
have followed their example. The zero of the scale corres-
ponds to the shadow which is projected by the mountains.
The first three degrees may be denominated grey, the fourth and
fifth, light grey, the sixth and seventh white, and the last three
shining white. The 1st, 9th, and 10th degrees are found only
on small parts of some spots. The first is that of Grimaldi
and Riccioli ; Boscovich, Julius Caisar, Plato, and a part of
Schikard have 1^ degrees of light. Numbers S and 3 are the

Light and Colour (rfthe Moon. 55

usual degrees of the brightness of the seas ; belonging to the
darkest of which are the Mare Crisium, some contracted parts
of the Mare TranqniUitas, and the Mare Nubium, as well as the
margins of the Mare Serenitalis, The seas situated in the more
elevated northern latitudes constitute the 3d degree, and conse-
quently are distinguished with greater difficulty from the sur-
rounding regions. Besides, we here and there find, between
bright parts, small, narrow, and tortuous valleys, whose bright-
ness is at 2°; and the 2d and 3d degrees of light are also very
common at the surface of annular mountains, as well as upon
the hilly regions. There are also three high mountains in the
region of Pythagoras which stand at 2^° of the scale, whilst all
the surrounding regions, including mountain and valley, have a
brightness of 4° and 5°. This fact is altogether an anomalous
one ; for although there are many hills and mountains in the
moon of a sufficiently dark shade, still the whole of the coun-
try which surrounds them is likewise of the same tint.

The brighter regions vary between the 4th and 6th degrees.
The last of these two, belongs only to a part of the south-west
quadrant of the moon, and to parts near its edges. The mar-
gins of most of the aimular mountains range from 4° to T of
illumination, and many of them on their external parts present
an equal brightness, or very nearly so. The summits of the
isolated or concentric mountains have from 6° to 8°, but gene-
rally, it is not the most elevated peaks that have this bright-
ness. A few, which are not much elevated, attain to the 9th
degree. There is, near Atlas, a small system of J;iills, and to
the north of Lejcell, a region almost uniform, which reach this
degree of brightness ; but, generally speaking, it is in the craters,
and in the annular mountains, that we find the last three de-
grees of brightness.

There are some craters which shine brightly not only towards
their edges, but also throughout their whole internal surface.
These are the clearest of all the almost innumerable luminous
points, with which the disk of the moon is studded at the
full. A circumstance sufficiently remarkable is this : — that at
these times we have no criterion by which to decide whether
these points are elevations or depressions. We must wait the
period of the phases to determine whether the luminous ap-

^& Light and Colour of the Moon,

pearance is a crater or a mountain, or if it be neither the one
nor the other.

There is only one annular mountain, viz. Jristarchus, and
one point in Werner^ which reaches the 10th and highest degree
of illumination. When the sun is sufficiently elevated, all the
interior surface of Aristarchus, as well as the annular mountain
itself, shines with a light of sparkling whiteness. The central
mountain, and two or three points of more feeble radiance, may
also with difficulty be distinguished. Hard by, we find Proclus
whose zone, and interior very smooth slope, have a brightness
of 9°, whilst the interior itself is at 8°. The central mountains,
with a very few exceptions, are always brighter than the hollows
which they surround.

But numerous as these brilliant craters are, they scarcely
form a half of all the forms of the total number of craters.
There are many, and amongst others the largest and deepest,
which completely disappear at full moon. It is no uncommon
occurrence to notice two craters very near each other, and which
appear to be equal in diameter, in steepness, and in depth, one
of which will shine at full moon with surprising splendour,
whilst the other cannot be distinguished but with the greatest
difficulty. So soon, however, 'as the shadows begin to appear,
the latter will begin to shine, and the other to be obscured, and
when the light is about to leave their neighbourhood they ap-
pear quite equal. Moreover, towards the epoch of the phases
you can scarcely any longer distinguish any difference of out-
line in the neighbourhood of the limits of the light ; and the
escarpments of mountains, which are turned towards the sun, as
well as the plains and more gentle slopes, shine, as if they were
illuminated under a greater angle.

Among the most remarkable and most inexplicable ap-
pearances in the moon are the systems of rays which it pre-
sents. Seven of the largest annular mountains, viz. Tycho,
Copernicus, Kepler, Byrge, Anaxagoras, Aristarchus, and Gi-
bers, are surrounded with long and broad pencils or luminous
bands (lichtstreifen) arranged in a radiated form. Mayer,
Euler, Proclus, Aristillus, Timocharis, and some others exhibit
the same appearance on a smaller scale, and in a less striking
manner. These bands usually commence at a small distance

Light and Colour of the Moon, 67

from the annular zone of the mountain. The extremity near-
est this point, which is comparatively obscure, has 4° of bright-
ness (only 2° upon Aristarchus) ; the band then extends to 30,
50, and sometimes even 100, and 120 miles across the plains,
mountain-chains, isolated mountains, craters, fissures, and, in a
word, across every appearance which the moon presents, with-
out being in the slightest degree modified by any of them.
They are found in such numbers in the neighbourhood of the
annular mountain, which constitutes their centre, that they
form a kind of aureola or glory (nimbus) round it ; it is pecu-
liarly conspicuous round Kepler, and is scarcely visible round
Aristarchus. After this they ramify ; sometimes they are
somewhat curved, but not often ; they are connected by trans-
versal bands ; they are sometimes, too, somewhat interrupted
by portions where the light is more feeble, and sometimes,
towards their middle, there is only a dark ray for some ex-
tent. Often, instead of this radiated form, we notice two or
three, or a greater ijumber of rays which are perfectly paral-
lel. In some instances they terminate suddenly at a crater
or annular mountain ; they always remain distinctly visible at
full moon ; many of them approach the moon's edge, and there
lose themselves imperceptibly in the brightness of this part:
when this does not happen, most of them terminate insensibly in
a plain or mountain. The most extended of these radiated sys-
tems is that of Tycho. Here more than a hundred very distinct
luminous bands, some miles in breadth, project from it in all
points, and traverse nearly the whole of the south-west quadrant,
and a great part also of the south-east one. Two of these bands
extend, though unequally, from thence ; the one of them, which
is double, having a dark intermediate space, directs its course
in a north-easterly direction towards the Mare Nubium and
the Oceanus Procellarum, where it loses itself after a course of
about 150 miles. The other, simple and not so brilliant, tra-
verses nearly the whole visible surface of the moon, reaches,
still very feeble, to Menelaus, suddenly becomes clearer on
the dark Mare Serenitatis, divides it into two almost equal
halves, and probably advances still further towards the north,
till it is lost in the northern regions on the margin of the
disk ; it thus traverses 100° of a large circle of the moon, over an

58 Light and Colour of the Moon,

extent of more than 400 miles. When these bands are much
extended, they so much surpass in brightness every other part,
during full moon, with the exception of the bright craters, that
nothing can be determined concerning the forms of the ground
or surface.

These luminous bands are not elevations. When low moun-
tain ranges come in their track or neighbourhood, they follow
neither their course, nor their outline ; and still less do moun-
tains properly so called. The mountains and the bands may
rather be said to alternate with each other ; for, when the
mountains commence distinctly to appear, the bands disappear,
and conversely. The bands may be obscurely perceived in
some plains (as in Stofler and Meton) even with an oblique
illumination, after they have ceased to be visible in mountain-
ous regions ; but this never continues after the sun has set.

It is true that the very distinct band which traverses the
Mare Serenitatis, is accompanied by low ramifications (Berga-
dern) which are parallel to it, and of which some parts traverse it.
But the band itself appears so completely on the level of the
uniform surface, that it always disappears in the neighbourhood
of the confines of the light. We have verified the disappear-
ance during six hours of observations made in a night which
was peculiarly favourable. On approaching the confines of the
light, the mountain ranges became more distinct, and generally
visible for the first time, while the bands disappeared from our
eyes without leaving a trace behind, which would not have
happened if they had possessed even one degree of inclination.

Besides the principal radiated systems we have just been
considering, which, though they have some minor differences,
are nevertheless very similar to each other, we also discover
upon the moon's surface many of these appearances, which are
incomplete, and sometimes even solitary bands. Thus three
rise from Proclus, forming with each other almost equal angles,
of about 120°, two of which are obscure and difficult to re-
cognise, while the third is more distinct, and terminates in a
marked bifurcation. On the Mare Fecunditatis, we perceive
another appearance of this kind, which has precisely the ap-
pearance of a comet with a double tail. The nucleus is re-
presented by two neighbouring craters of equal size ; the rays

Light and Colour of the Moon. 59 -•

are linear, equal in size, breadth, and clearness ; for a certain
distance they augment in capacity, then diminish in intensity,
and insensibly fade away. There are also in the Mare Nu-
hiunii and in the northern part of the Oceanus Procellarum,
many craters of a mile, and a mile and a half in diameter, sur-
rounded by a brilliant space, which is not subdivided into rays,
but which is partly concentric and partly eccentric ; this space
extends only from four to six miles, and insensibly loses itself
in the darker surface which surrounds it. Finally, we may
also perceive in these same' seas, pale rays running in different
directions, which do not exhibit any distinct mutual depen-
dence, or any common point of origin, but some of which pre^
sent, towards the time of the change, the appearance of small
mountainous ramifications, though the majority are still inde-
pendent ; for, by a somewhat more direct illumination, they pre-
sent precisely, or very nearly so, the same tint of colour as the
surrounding surface, and disappear from our view.

In the preceding remarks we have considered only the diffe-
rent degrees of illumination which the surface of the moon pre-
sents ; but it should likewise be observed that we may also
perceive under favourable circumstances, differences in colour
which are really specific. All the Mare Serenitatis^ with the
exception of the marginal portion, which is darkish, has a shade
of beautiful green. In the Mare Crisium, the green is mixed
with a dark grey. These two colours are separated in the Mare
Humorum, the green occupying the greater part of its surface.
The sea called the Cold Sea presents a palfr^reenish-yellow, which
is uniform throughout. The enigmatical colour of what is termed
the Marsh of Sleep, which is a region of well-defined hills, appears
to be yellow, and exhibits a reddish lustre in a few places. The
dark grey appears to exhibit in many places differences which
are somewhat analogous to those just stated. Whilst in certain
regions it appears to be a mixture of white and black, many
others have all the appearance of an entirely uniform steel -grey
tint. As the different shades of light only manifest themselves
distinctly at the time of full moon, so it is the same in a still
greater degree with respect to the colours which are specifically
different, which the most careful investigation will fail in dis-
covering two or three days either before or after the luminary's

60 LigJit and Colour of the Moon,

opposition to the sun, and which, in fact, cannot even then be
perceived, except under very favourable circumstances. In truth,
we have doubts whether all eyes and all telescopes have the
capacity of perceiving them ; for, although their several limits
are sufficiently marked, the differences themselves are very
small.

The great luminous bands also mentioned above, likewise
sometimes present a diversity of colour, when compared with
the brighter regions which surround them. They are some-
times distinctly seen to arise in certain parts of the surface
which are as clear and brilliant as themselves, and an attentive
examination makes it apparent that the bands are milk-white,
and the surrounding region is yellowish-white. It is true that
we have as yet determined this slight difference with certainty,
only in a few instances, particularly in those bands which ap-
pear to issue from Tycho towards the southern border. It
would be difficult to admit that the shining white of Aristar-
chus is any thing else than a very intense yellowish-white.

It is, we apprehend, quite in vain to search for the cause of
these appearances. As to the different degrees of brightness, it is
evident that the different nature of the surface must, upon the
moon, as upon our globe, occasion various degrees of reflection.
We see, in truth, that upon our planet, independent of the differ-
ences of land and sea, the aspect of different portions of the
country when viewed from a distance is very different, and is
probably modified by the seasons. Respecting the shining
brightness of a great number of craters, it may be explained
by admitting, that through the influence of their large concavity,
they act as a mirror, and reflect a concentrated light towards
us. A confirmation of this explanation is to be found in the
fact that it is the eastern side which shines most before full
moon, and the western side after it ; and that the libration al-
so appears to have an analogous effect. Perhaps Aristarchus
is nothing else than the most perfect of all the reflecting sur-
faces, whence it enables us to perceive an image of the sun it-
self, or at least of a part of that luminary. At the same time
the phenomena are much too varied to be satisfactorily explain-
ed by this single circumstance alone, and there are among other
objects, mountains and portions of plains, which equal in splen-

Light and Colour of the Mooiu 61

dour the most brilliant craters. As to the real nature of the
moon, with the exception of some negative determinations, we
know nothing special or exact. We may at least, however, be
permitted, after the preceding investigations, to reject, as inad-
missible, and contrary to observation, the opinion that the
moon is entirely covered with ice or with snow, or is nothing
more than a compact mass of rocks.

Regarding the luminous bands, Schroeter and preceding sele-
nographers have regarded them as chains and ranges of moun-
tains, but our investigations expressly contradict this opinion.
Herschel believes that they are streams of lava which have
issued from the great craters, and have spread themselves in
all directions.* Being ignorant of the forces which may be in
activity in the interior of the moon, we consequently cannot
bring forward the great altitude of the zone of Tycho, Coperni-
cus, &c., nor their other relations as to form and size, as decisive
objections against this opinion. But a current of lava ought,
more or less, like any other current, to tend towards the hol-
lows when descending from a height, and should follow the
sinuosities of the valleys ; or, should it be so powerful as to
force forward its route in a straight line, and not to be arrested
by ramparts of from 6000 to 10,000 feet of vertical elevation,
it should at all events fill up the hollows which lie behind these
ramparts, instead of simply continuing its progress, and leav-
ing every thing untouched to the right and left. If, for ex-
ample, we examine the bands which pass towards Stofler, Kies,
Bouillaud, Maginus, and other annular mountains, we shall
be easily convinced tha^, so far as it is a question of gra-
vitation merely, the lava or any other fluid could never follow
the courses which we have traced.

Still less can it be thought that they are jets of continuous
light proceeding from a central point ; for the bands extend

• Herschel, it is true, has no where so expressed himself in so many words ;
and perhaps he applied his remarks, not so much to the luminous bands, as to
the small mountain ramifications, which extend, for example, from Aristillus
and Autolycus, to the distance of jfrom eight to twelve miles. {Note by the
Axiihors.)

62 Eclipses of the Moon.

over the surface of the moon ten or twenty times beyond the
spaces whence the annular mountain may be seen, and it often
happens that, when the point has been for long invisible in the
obscured portion of the moon, the extremities of the bands may
still be distinguished.

The only conclusion, then, to which we can arrive is, that, by
some operation of nature, the interior structure of the lunar
soil has experienced, at those places where the bands are found,
some change which in them has notably increased their power
of reflecting light. As to the nature of this change we can do
nothing more than form conjectures, but it seems indubitable
that it has had an intimate connection with the formation of the
annular mountains, which are found exactly in the central point
of these bands.

8. Physical Rertiarks upon the Eclipses of the Moon and of
the Sun, relating principally to the appearances which the former
luminary presents during these interesting phenomena. — It has
long been observed that the moon does not invariably present
the same appearance when totally eclipsed. In by far the
greater number of instances this luminary may still be distin-
guished ; and in fact it generally exhibits a faint reddish as-
pect, more or less distinct, which enables us, with the help of
glasses, to recognise the most of its spots. This light was re-
markably intense during the eclipse of December 26. 1833, the
state of the atmosphere being very favourable for the occurrence.

MM. Beer and Madler discovered, on that occasion, the
smallest objects that are usually detected on the moon's sur-
face ; as, for example, the hilly groups which are situated be-
tween Pliny and the promontory of Acherusia, each part main-
taining its relative degree of illumination as in full moon. The
margin of the earth's shadow^ was very distinct, and as a whole
it was regularly elliptical. Towards the central part of the sha-
dow the objects were less distinctly traced, and the great seas
were seen with difficulty, although the spots were visible. In
other total eclipses, again, the limits of the shadow and the
aspect of the moon itself have appeared much more indistinct,
a dark and vapory glimmering being all that could be detect-
ed ; and in other cases, as on the 10th of June 1816, the moon

Eclipses of the Moon. 6S

was wholly invisible during the great erpart of the total eclipse,
although it did not pass towards the centre of the shadow.

It would appear that these striking differences are not owing
to the greater or less dimensions of the section of the cone'*s
shadow which traverses the moon, nor to its distance from the
centre of this section. According to Messrs B. and M., they
depend, to a great extent at least, on the state of the terrestrial
atmosphere in the regions where the sun rises and sets at the
time of the eclipse, the sun*s rays being refracted by the hori-
zon of these regions, so as to be propagated even to the moon,
with the various shades of colour belonging to our twilight.
As it is easy to calculate in each case what is the terrestrial
zone to which the sun''s rays are tangents, and in what part
of this zone the inflection of these rays will direct them to-
wards the moon, we may determine before hand, in certain
cases, and to a certain extent, the general circumstances of an
eclipse in these matters; and still more may ascertain afterwards,
if there has been an accordance between the circumstances of
the terrestrial atmosphere and the appearances which the eclipse
presented. It was thus, that, during the eclipse of June 10.
1816, the refracted solar rays which could reach the moon must
have traversed the southern portion of the zone of contact {tan-
gence), w^hich was then in its winter, and almost entirely ocea-
nic, so that the invisibility of the moon might easily be explained
by the probable haziness of this part of the earth''s atmosphere.

The feeble visibility, and the subsequent disappearance of a
particular region of the moon, observed by Eule in Dresden,
during a total eclipse in tli^e year 1818, may be explained by the
momentary brightening of some parts of the zone of contact.

In conclusion, Messrs B. and M. remark, " we will not
venture to determine, as some individuals have done, whether,
at these periods, the moon exhibits a light which belongs to
itself, and which endows it in all cases, at the end of a certain
time, with a red tint. Hahn admits, that in any lunar region
there is always, when it is illuminated with sufficient directness, a
kind of phosphorescence which we cannot perceive except during
eclipses ; and he moreover Mieves that the surface of the moon
receives from the sun a greater quantity of light, and a less
quantity of heat than the earth. The latter of these statements
is probably true, while the former is by no means a necessary

(34 Eclipses of the Moon.

consequence ; and we conceive that the explanation above sup-
plied is sufficient to account for all the phenomena of eclipses
which have been accurately observed. We have remarked that
the red colour appears much sooner when we remove from the
field of vision that portion of the moon''s disk which is already
bright. As by this step we only diminish the enfeebling opti-
cal effect of this portion on the other, without entirely destroy-
ing it, it is most probable that we should speedily remark the
red colour, could this optical influence be completely removed,
even should the vivacity of the colour be subsequently in-
creased.

It is likewise to the influence of the terrestrial atmosphere
that Messrs B. and M. principally attribute the circumstance,
that, in eclipses of the moon, the pure shadow is somewhat more
extended than it should be, according to the dimensions of the
globe. Their observations of the entrance of many lunar spots
into the shadow during the eclipse of the year 1833, and of
their exit from the shadow, have yielded them, for the half of
the eclipse, a mean duration, greater than it should have been,
of from ninety-three to nine-five seconds of time, and a corre-
sponding augmentation of the semi-diameter of the shadow of
about a fiftieth part. In the partial eclipse of the 10th of June
1835, they found about a twenty-eighth part was the augmen-
tation of the semi-diameter of the shadow, resulting from the
comparison of their observations with the calculations. Lam-
bert estimated this increase at one-fortieth, and Meyer at one-
sixtieth. Messrs B. and M. also conceive, that this apparent
augmentation might partly be owing to the smallness of the
solar crescent which is seen upon the moon during eclipses, and
which, in certain cases, may cause the mixed, or imperfect
shadow, to be confounded with the pure one.*

* Dr Miidler has published (in Astr. Nachr. No. 337) a memoir upon the
astronomical uses of a lunar chart, in which he supplies formulae for the cal-
culation beforehand, in lunar eclipses, of the moment of ingress of the princi-
pal spots into the shadow's cone, as well as that of their egress, and has ap-
plied them to the total eclipse of October 13. 1837. In this memoir he also
points out the spots which may be most advantageously examined in the de-
termination of the precise position of the rotatory axis of the moon, and for
ascertaining if this axis undergoes any real balancing as does that of the

Effect of the EartlCs Light upon the Moon. 65

9. On the Effect of the Earth* s Light upon the Moon. — It is
entirely to this terrestrial light reflected upon the moon that
the authors attribute, according to the explanation of Leonardo
da Vinci, which is generally admitted, the faint lustre which the
obscure part of the moon presents at the commencement and
termination of each of her periods, a lustre which renders the
whole disk visible, and which has been named the ash-coloured
light. The observations of Messrs Beer and Madler completely
confirm this explanation. The light, they say, diminishes so
soon as the phase of the earth notably diminishes in regard to the
moon, and disappears completely when the earth appears to the
moon like a small crescent. It should appear brighter in pro-
portion as the moon is near the sun, if the twilight of our atmo-
sphere had not a qualifying effect. A maximum of visibility
of the obscure portion of the moon results from a combination
of the two causes just alluded to ; and this occurs from two
and a half to three days before and after the new moon. The
visible spots exhibit precisely the same relative degree of clear-
ness as when they are illuminated by the sun during the full
moon. But, as our atmosphere is commonly not sufficiently
clear for observations of this kind, as they must be made near
the horizon, it follows, that the visibility and the glimmering
light of these spots are but rarely witnessed ; and this has led
to the assertion, that volcanos have sometimes been seen in the
moon, and that they are seen to burn in its dark portion. For
ourselves, we have never been satisfied that we have witnessed
any thing of this sort. It is common to speak of observations
of this kind having been made t)y Herschel, an account of which
may be found in the Philosophical Transactimis for 1783. By

earth, or if the whole effect of the libration is only apparent. He likewise
demonstrates the utility of the knowledge of the moon's relief in the calcula-
tion by anticipation in solar eclipses and the oscillations of stars, of the
moon's profile, and the effects of her inequalities upon the period of the com-
mencement and the termination of these phenomena. In No. 338 of the same
Journal, the author gives the result of the obseiTations made during the
eclipse of October 13. 1837, upon sixteen spots, which have given him an
augmentation of the semi-diameter of the shadow equal to l-54th part.

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. E

66 Effect of the EartlCs Light upon the Moon.

looking at a good chart, it may be seen that these remarks re-
fer, without doubt, to three annular mountains, viz. Aristarchus,
Kepler, and Copernicus, which this distinguished astronomer
perceived, as others, and as we have often done, shining in the
obscure part with a feeble ash-coloured glimmering light, and
exhibiting in the telescope the lustre of a star of the fourth
magnitude, as seen by the naked eye. Herschel, it is true, de-
signated these under the appellation of volcanos, but simply, as
he explicitly declares, because it was necessary to give them
some designation, and not at all with the intention of explain-
ing the appearances. Bode, Olbers, and Struve, all agree in
thinking, that the variations which these luminous appearances
present are owing to a difference in the circumstances of illumi-
nation and of libration ; and that a burning volcano would not
shew itself only in the obscure portion of the moon, when the
terrestrial light is sensibly upon it, but in quite different cir-
cumstances when that light is in full activity. We may add,
that it should shine brightly in proportion as the terrestrial light
is less visible, when the surrounding region is more obscure,
because real inherent light always appears most strikingly in
the absence of all foreign light.

Schroeter imagined that he could perceive, that the ash-
coloured light is more sensible before than after the full moon ;
and he conceived that this was owing to the difference of the
reflection of the solar light from the earth, according as it was
transmitted from the ocean or the continents. When (in Cen-
tral Europe) the moon, a little before the change, appears in
the morning in the east, the ash-coloured light proceeds princi-
pally from the great table-lands of Asia and Africa. When
again, towards the evening, she is found in the west at the com-
mencement of the first quarter, being confronted with the Ame-
rican continent, which is much narrower, and to the ocean, she
must then receive much less light. Those observers who are
situated within the tropics, and who can in all seasons easily
distinguish the ash-coloured light as well before as after the
new moon, and still more, those who can examine where the
contrast of the oceanic and continental portions is greater than
with us, — those, for example, situated at Canton and at Para-

Meteorological Influence of the Mooii. 67

matta, — ought to direct particular attention to this point, seeing
the great importance of such observations, among other reasons^
for the knowledge they supply concerning the surfaces of diffe-
rent celestial bodies, and as exhibiting the comparative lumi-
nous effects of our oceans and continents observed at great dis-
tances.

10. On the Meteorological Influence of the Moon. — Here Dr
Madler successively reviews the previous researches of Messrs
Schiibler, Everets, Eisenlohr, Flaugergues, Boussingault, Alexis
and Eugene Bouvard ; to these he adds his own, the result of
sixteen years' observations of the barometer, thermometer, and
rain-gauge, made at Berlin six times a-day, and still continued
by the author. The examination of these observations' has
demonstrated that, in this locality, the barometer has a mean
elevation of J of a line, and the thermometer of about f of a
degree of Reaumur, greater towards the apogee than towards
the perigee of the moon, and that there is likewise a somewhat
less quantity of rain or snow near the former epoch than near
the latter ; but the differences which the several years when
grouped two and two together supply, are too great to allow
an estimation of the numerical value of these results. As to
the influence of the phases of the moon, the author finds that
the greatest height of the barometer takes place at Berlin on
the day of the new moon, the smallest two days after the
full moon, and that the difference of height is 0^,928, with
an uncertainty of 0\297. It is sufficiently singular that these
epochs should be different from those found in other places ;
the epoch which is generally indicated for the maximum of
the height of the barometer being the last quarter, and for the
minimum the second octant^ or the eleventh day of the moon.
As to the thermometer, which no one, we believe, has employed
in these investigations previous to M. Madler, he first finds that
its maximum of mean elevation is 7°,73 R., and occurs two
days before the first quarter, and that the minimum^ which
occurs three days after the fourth quarter, is 6°,72 ; supplying
a difference of l^Ol, with an uncertainty of 0°,215.

The greatest rise and fall of the barometer most frequently
take place towards the first quarter, and shortly after the full ;

E 2

68 Meteorological Influence of the Moon.

and the extremes of heat and cold occur less frequently be-
tween the new moon and the first quarter, than during the
other parts of the period. But a much longer series of careful
observations is required to verify plienomena of this kind, and
to establish the law which they observe.

In investigating this subject, remarks M. Madler, I was
soon convinced that those great barometrical oscillations whose
causes are still unknown, as well as the anomalies of the state
of our atmosphere, must so inevitably mask the trifling influ-
ences of the moon, that we must needs for a long time re-
nounce the hope of obtaining any permanent results from the
observations made in our higher latitudes. The extent of the
barometrical variations, according to the preceding observa-
tions, is 26 lines at Berlin (comprised between 321 and 347
lines, at an elevation of 130 French feet above the ocean) ; and
those of the thermometer in the shade amount to 53° R. (viz.
from — 23° to -|- 30°) ; there are some whole years in which
the diurnal period of the barometrical height is nearly entirely
disfigured : since a single considerable oscillation, and we
have witnessed 14 lines in twelve hours, may notably change
the form of the annual curve. These immense inequalities
disappear near the tropics, and there the extreme oscillations
are reduced to two or three lines, and we can every day recog-
nise the solar period. I have endeavoured, therefore, to pro-
cure good observations made in the neighbourhood of the
equator, — and I have obtained, by the kindness of States-
Councillor Schumacher, a complete copy of those made five
times a-day, from the 20th February 1829, to the 31st of Ja-
nuary 1833, by Messrs Trentepohl and Chenon, at Christians-
burg in Guinea, at the latitude of b^° N. The barometrical
range is so constant in this place, that each observation, after
the usual reductions, and the necessary corrections from the
known periodical variations have been made, scarcely departs,
except in a very small number of instances, even a single line
from the general annual mean.

M. Madler, after reporting the monthly means of these ob-
servations for every hour when they were made, draws the
conclusion, that in this locality two periods of barometrical

Meteorological I tiflnence of the Moon. 69

variations exist, one dependent upon the sun''s diurnal move-
ment, and another upon his annual : the hottest period of the
day and year corresponds to the mmimum of the height of the
barometer, and the extreme period during the diurnal period
reaches 1,1 lines, from 9 h. to 4, He then examines the in-
fluence of the phases, and the variations from the declination
and the distance of the moon. The smallest barometrical
height corresponds to the second day after the full moon,
and the greatest to the new moon, as at Berlin ; the difference
is only 0',194, and the uncertainty only 0^06. Although the
effect of the change of the moon in declination should not be
very sensible in latitude 5°, it nevertheless reaches 0*,289 ;
and the regularity of the progress of these results appears to
leave no doubt as to the existence of this variation. The
minimum height corresponds to the greatest northern declina-
tion, and the maximum occurs two or three days after the
descending node. Regarding the differences arising from those
of the distance of the moon and earth, they are in the same
directions as those found in higher latitudes, but they are too
small to be susceptible of a precise valuation from so small a
number of observations. M. Madler concludes from these re-
searches, that we cannot refuse to the moon some influence
upon the earth as it regards its climate, although this influence
is very small, and subordinate to that of the sun, and to other
causes of variation which are still unknown. He admits,
among others, that those years in which the moon attains its
greatest northern and southern declinations, ought to be com-
paratively more favourable as to weather, and particularly for
the cultivation of the vine, than those in which it is less re-
moved from the equator. Finally, he thinks that the general
laws of gravity are insufficient to explain these effects, as much
in regard to quality as quantity, and that the properties of
the moon''s light, which we know theoretically, are still more
so.

( W )

Remarks on some prevailing Misconceptions concerning the
Actions of Machines. By Edward Sang, Esq. Commu-
nicated by the Society of Arts for Scotland. *

In the last paper which I presented to the Society of Arts,
I endeavoured to correct the common notion, that the per-
formance of a model is representative of that of a machine.
In this paper I proceed to expose the fallacy of some prevail-
ing notions concerning the actions of machines in general.

The fancy that machines are capable of generating power,
though fostered by a very absurd proclamation from our go-
vernment, is now almost entirely abandoned ; and, except from
two or three individuals ignorant of the history and of the princi-
ples of mechanics, we hear of no attempts at obtaining the
reward offered for the perpetual motion. But another fancy,
differing less from this than it at first appears to do, is very
generally entertained. We are perpetually told of the loss
of force whicli arises from the obliquity of the actions of ma-
chines, and are called upon to examine cumbrous and ex-
pensive contrivances for rendering these actions direct, and
for regaining, or even more than regaining, the force that
has been wasted. If any arrangement of machinery were ca-
pable of destroying force, putting friction out of view, the
inverse action of the same machinery would be capable of ge-
nerating it.

The truth is, that every machine, however ill contrived,
and however ill constructed, delivers over the whole, and ex-
actly the whole, amount of force which put it in motion. Part
of that force is expended in overcoming the friction of the rub-
bing surfaces, and in encountering the resistance of the air,
while the rest goes to produce the particular effect which the
contriver of the instrument may have had in view.

The geometric contrivance of machines, the arrangement
of the parts so as to produce particular motions, has unlimited
scope. But in a mechanical point of view, the inventor can,
profitably, direct his attention only to two objects — economy
in the material, and labour necessary to the first construction
of the instrument, and the diminution, as far as is practicable,

* Read before the Society of Arts for Scotland 9th January 1833.

Mr Sang on some prevailing misconception s, S^c, 71

of the effects of friction. Were all friction avoided, it would
be a matter of absolute indifference by what means the required
changes of motion might be produced ; it would then be of
no moment whether we employed the reciprocating or the ro-
tatory steam-engine, — whether we used the crank or the sun-
and-planet wheel, — farther than the mere expense of workman-
ship is concerned. And we have no other criterion for esti-
mating the superiority of one contrivance over another than
the comparison of the amounts of friction in the two cases.

These statements will be startling enough to persons half
acquainted with the nature of machinery. " What," they will
ask, " does the obliquity of the crank cause no loss of force !
Is there no force wasted in producing the reciprocating mo-
tion of the beam in the steam-engine ! And were they mere
dreams that we entertained of immense improvements in ma-
chinery P'' And when I assert, what is well known to every
one acquainted with the subject, that there is no loss of force
from the oblique action of the crank, that there is no force
wasted on the reciprocating motion of the beam, and that the
removal of friction is the only source of improvement in ma-
chines for transferring power, — I oppose the prejudices of mul-
titudes who ought to be better acquainted with the principles
of mechanics.

The principles which regulate the balance of pressures, and
the movements of bodies, though discovered by man, are not of
human invention ; they are laws impressed by the Omnipotent
upon the material world — laws to which matter yields an im-
plicit, a perfect obedience. \These laws are few in number, and
the simplest language in which they can be expressed involves
the very statements that I have made. To exhibit, then, the
truth of these statements would be to examine the reality of
the fundamental laws of mechanics. To this examination I
will not proceed, but will content myself with founding my in-
vestigations on the more common forms in which these laws are
recognised. They naturally divide themselves into two classes :
those which relate to the pressures of the acting parts during
any momentary state of the machine, and those which relate
to the properties of the machine considered as in motion. Those
of the first or statical class, though at first sight very nume-

(2 Mr Sang on some prevailing' misconceptions

rous, are summed up in one law, called the principle of virtual
'velocities. My first object will be to exhibit this principle in
a clear light ; not, indeed, as I would do in a scientific treatise
on the subject, but in such a manner as appears to me to be
best fitted for removing those prejudices, the existence of which
has occasioned this paper.

When two weights balance each other by means of the wheel
and axle, it is well known that they are to each other inversely as
the diameters ; but if the machine be turned a little round, the dis-
tances through which the weights move are directly as the same
diameters, — so that, if each weight be combined with the distance
through which it moves, the two results are exactly equal to each
other. The descent of one pound through ten inches would, for
example, be accompanied by an ascent of ten pounds through one
inch, and thus whatever is gained or lost in intensity of pres-
sure, as much is lost or gained in distance. It will be readily
seen that the same thing is true of the straight lever, and of
those combinations of pulleys which have their strings pa-
rallel : but in the case of the inclined plane, of the bent-lever,
and, in general, of all machines in which the relations of the
pressures are altered by a change in the position of the instru-
ment, the application of the same rule is not so easy ; and the
slight difficulty that attends it has elicited the assertion, that
the principle of virtual velocities is there at fault.

The relative motions of the different parts of a machine can
easily be deduced from its geometric properties. The princi-
ple of virtual velocities enables us, from these motions, to com-
pute the forces, and thus connects the geometric with the me-
chanical properties of machinery. This principle, one of the
most beautiful and most pervading in nature, may be thus ex-
pressed : —

If the position of any machine be slightly disturbed, and if
each pressure which has yielded be combined with the distance
through which it has yielded, and each pressure which has ad-
vanced with the distance through which it has advanced, the
sum of the one set of results will be exactly equal to the sum
of the other set.

Now, in the case of the inclined plane, says the objector to
the reality of this law, the weight raised and the weight which

cmicernlng the Act-tons of Machines. 73

raises it move over equal distances. The motion of the weight is
here mistaken for the distance through which its gravitation is
overcome ; its absolute motion, for its motion in altitude : now,
it is well known that the force requisite to drag a body up an in-
clined plane, is to the weight of that body as the height of the
plane is to its length ; and therefore the principle of virtual ve-
locity is here adhered to. This misconception is palpable and
easily corrected ; the motion of the machine does not alter the
proportions of the forces. But, in the case of the bent lever, the
error must be more involved, since it has crept from the work-
shop to the lecture-room, and has been promulgated where
sound knowledge and accurate ideas ought to have rewarded
the labours of the student. The arcs, we are told, which the
ends of the arms describe, are proportional to the lengths of
these arms, while the balancing forces are not proportional, in-
versely, to the same lengths. Here, again, the absolute motion
of the point of attachment is mistaken for the distance through
which the pressure is overcome. If, however, the objector's ca-
pacity be not entirely exhausted by the immense profundity of
this remark, he will reply, and with justice too, that even esti-
mating the motions in the directions in which the pressures act,
the rule does not hold good.

For the removal of this mighty difficulty I must summon all
my strength. Accustomed to handle tools (I speak not for my-
self only, but for every devotee of true philosophy), accustom-
ed to handle tools admirably adapted for facilitating researches
of this nature, and now called upon by the circumstances of
the case to lay these tools aside and to venture on the question
with unappareled hands, I cannot altogether divest myself of
repugnance to the task. To render it, however, more inviting,
I shall make the question as general as possible, and, without
confining myself to this or to any other individual case, apply
my remarks to those machines generally, in which the forces
vary with the positions of the parts.

Conceive that for a given position of such a machine, the
pressures are so arranged as to balance each other, and then
let the machine suffer a displacement. If this displacement be
considerable, the equilibrium will be materially disturbed, and
the estimate of the motions, far from giving information con-

74 Mr Sang on some prevailing misconceptions

cerning the original forces, would commingle the means for deter-
mining the forces in all positions between the first and last, and
would rather be the basis for determining the conditions of the
mean state, than of either of the extreme ones. However small
may be the displacement, still will there exist an error in the
estimate ; yet the more minute the displacement, the more in-
considerable will be the error, because there will exist the less
difference between the two extreme states of the machine. In
order, then, to compute the pressures accurately, we must deter-
mine the proportions which subsist between the motions of the
parts, supposing that these motions are infinitely small. I know
of no other method for effecting these computations than that
contained in the Differential Calculus, or in the more abstruse
but more satisfactory theory of Lagrange ; and, although the
name of fluxions be a bug-bear to thousands, it is absolutely
impossible, without its aid, to advance beyond the threshold of
mechanical investigation. The advocates for mental indolence
may urge that the statical properties of many machines may be
examined without the aid of the fluxional calculus. Such is,
indeed, the case, and these machines and such methods of cal-
culating concerning them may afford lessons to the beginner ;
but from such processes few, if any, general conclusions can be
drawn, while the instant that motion is contemplated, all these
resources fail.

The principle of virtual velocities, such as I have defined it,
holds true of all machines, even though subjected to the retard-
ing influence of friction ; and is applicable not merely during a
momentary state, but also to the motions of machines. Denot-
ing by the word jforce, the result of the combination of a pres-
sure with the distance through which it acts ; if the sum of the
accelerating forces be just equal to that of the retarding ones,
the quantity of motion in the machine will be unaltered, but if
the two sums be unequal, then will the speed be changed. Now,
in almost all machines the forces and velocities are subjected to
periodic variations ; the method then of computing the change
in velocity consequent upon a change of force must be clearly
understood, ere we can obtain any information as to the general
properties of machines in motion.

The great proposition which connects the statical with the

concerning the Actions of Machines. 75

phoronomic properties of machines is this ; that the change in
the entire quantity of motion is proportional to the difference
between the separate amounts of the accelerating and of the re-
tarding forces ; the quantity of motion being estimated by com-
bining each moving mass with the second power of the number
which represents its velocity. Now, I have already said, that,
whatever be the nature of a machine for communicating force,
the amount of force delivered during a minute instant of time
at the one end, is exactly equal (throwing out of view the fric-
tion and the weights of its parts) to that communicated during
the same instant to the other end ; so that the same change is
produced in the entire quantity of motion, whether the force be
applied directly to the moving mass, or whether it act upon it
through the intervention of machinery. This most important
principle I shall endeavour to illustrate by example.

Borrowing my illustration from the steam-engine, I shall
suppose one in which the piston acts directly upon the fly-
wheel, by means, say, of a double rack working alternately on
each side of a toothed wheel. Here it will not be denied that
the accession to the quantity of motion in the machine during
a half-stroke will be exactly what is due to the agency of the
pressure of the steam upon the piston through the whole length
of the cylinder, less, of course, by all the amount of all the re-
tarding forces during the same period. Contrast this with
what happens in the common steam-engine. Let the connect-
ing rod be so nearly in a line with the crank, that a pressure of
one hundred pounds on the piston exerts only a pressure of
one pound in the direction df rotation ; then does it follow, from
the principle of virtual velocities, that if the piston advance
minutely in the cylinder, the extremity of the crank will ad-
vance one hundred times as far along its path. The quantity
of motion generated in the machine then will be what is due to
a pressure of one pound acting through one hundred times the
advance of the piston, or, what is the same thing, to the pres-
sure of one hundred pounds acting through that advance itself.
The same thing is true for every other minute motion of the
piston, and, therefore, the whole amount of motion communica-
ted to the machine through the crank is exactly equal to that
communicated to it by means of the double rack and toothed
wheel, or by means of any other contrivance whatever.

76 Mr Sang on some prevailing misconceptions

In the two arrangements, however, which I have contrasted,
the motion will be divided among the parts in very different
proportions. The manner of that distribution vitally affects
the economy of the machine. The entire quantity of motion
is not and cannot be concentrated in the fly-wheel ; the piston
and all the other moving parts must have their share of it. In
the engine with the double rack, the piston and its appendages
possess, from the beginning of a half stroke until the end of it,
their full velocity. During the half-stroke, therefore, none
of ^the force of the steam is expended in generating the mo-
tion of the piston; but just when the piston has reached its
extreme position, its whole velocity must be extinguished and
generated in the opposite direction, and the consequence is,
that the extreme tooth of the rack will receive a blow as if
from a hammer as heavy as the piston and all its appendages,
and moving with twice its velocity ; and although no loss of
force would arise from this action, its continued repetition
would tear the machine to pieces. In the case of the balanced
crank-engine, on the other hand, during the first part of a half-
stroke, the velocity of the piston and beam is gradually in-
creasing; at the middle their velocity is the greatest; and
during the last part it gradually decreases. In the first quar-
ter revolution of the crank, the force of the steam is thus partly
expended in producing the motions of the piston, beam, and
connecting-rod ; but in the second quadrant, when these mo-
tions are being retarded, the force necessary to accomplish this
retardation communicates an equal accession of motion to the
fly-wheel. Still, then, is the whole force of the steam expended
in overcoming the friction, and in producing the particular ef-
fect which may be wanted ; still is there no force lost on ac-
count of the obliquity of the actions, or of the reciprocation of
the movements ; and still is the diminution of the friction the
only source whence increased effectiveness can be obtained.

I do not expect that what I have just said will be sufficient
to eradicate misconceptions so prolific of crude and abortive
schemes. The failure itself of the contrivance is often inade-
quate to convince its inventor of the fallacy of his ideas. For-
tified in his ignorance by the fancy that theory is a different
thing from practice, there is small chance of his yielding to

concerning the Actions of Machines. T7

the arguments of one whom he considers as a pure theorist.
The fashion of the day, which puts diffuse and indistinct no-
tions in the place of true learning, which cries for science level-
led to the meanest capacity, or, as I would translate it, to the
most confirmed indolence, fastens these prejudices more firmly
on the minds of the half instructed. Were the evils of this
fashion to rest with those who turn to philosophy for relief
from the ennui of idleness, they might have been passed over
in silence ; but when they reach that class to whose usefulness
extensive information is essential, their removal becomes an
object of the highest importance. It would not be proper for
me, in the present paper, to venture into the depths of this
subject ; but the connection between what is called popular
science and many of those mistakes which are so current, is too
immediate to permit of remarking on these without casting a
glance, at least, to their fertile source.

AVere the laws which regulate the phenomena of the uni-
verse, laws of human invention, and did they involve contra-
dictions and absurdities, then, indeed, with some propriety
might the cry be raised, " They are too abstruse, they are too
difficult ; let us have them simplified and levelled to the mean-
est capacity.^' Level these laws, and they are no longer the
laws of nature ; the true method of seizing them, is to nerve
the mind with higher powers, to infuse into it an exalted am-
bition, and to come to the attempt prepared for long-continued
and strenuous exertion. Would effeminacy pave the way to
the white summit of the Jungfrau? or, had your parlour
hearth-stones been brought;^ from the summit of Ben-Lomond,
think you that your delighted eyes could thence have wandered
over lakes and mountains ? No. He who would scan the won-
ders of Nature, who would contemplate the wisdom, the benefi-
cence of her works, and would use .his acquirements for the
advantage of his race, must give himself enthusiastically to the
pursuit, and must scorn to turn from difficulties in his path
Perseverance will crown his exertions with success ; and the ele-
vation of his mind, the calm and ineffable delight which accom-
panies the acquisition of knowledge, will, a thousand times
over, repay all his exertions. From the throne of science he will
descry connections and arrangements and sympathies among

78 Mr Sang on some prevailing misconceptions

the passing events, and turning, with his colleagues, to the yet
unsealed heights, he will emulously pursue the career of dis-
covery. The present is a spirit-stirring time ; on all hands
have discoverers been at work ; from north and south has the
hitherto unpassed barrier been assailed, and already have the
signals of the workmen on either side been descried by their
fellow-labourers. Elated by the prospect of speedy success,
they now redouble their exertions, and expect ere long to re-
assemble on a higher platform. The science of mechanics has
long reared its head proudly over its fellows. Under its effi-
cient guidance, its indefatigable votaries have estimated the
weights and motions of the heavenly bodies, and carried into
the highest department of the science an exactness almost su-
perhuman. Now, however, the sciences of chemistry, galva-
nism, and magnetism, advance rapidly to take their stations by
its side, and promise to rescue from the charge of inconsistency
the great laws of mechanics.

The precision which reason assigns to mechanical phenome-
na, the precision which these phenomena exhibit when the pla-
nets, launched in unfilled space, perform their mighty evolu-
tions, fails us, when we lower our contemplations to terrestrial
objects. Here the perfection of nature seems to be marred, the
traces of absolute exactitude to be effaced, as if some evil ge-
nius had thwarted the Almighty in his design, and sowed con-
fusion where order was intended. All motions on the surface
of the earth are soon extinguished, and there was no wonder
that men, in the infancy of science, drew the conclusion that
matter possessed a reluctancy to move. It required a mind
of no common energy to burst the shackles which education
and early experience had combined to rivet, and to oppose its
solitary strength to the bigotry of false religion and false phi-
losophy. Unaided, Galileo long maintained the contest, and,
although at last the man fell, his doctrine was victorious. Since
that time friction has been recognised as the antagonist princi-
ple, which opposes, and invariably succeeds in extinguishing,
motion, which creates errors in the results, and uncertainty in
the practice of mechanical operations. Far, however, from
being the cause of the imperfection of machines, friction is es-
sential to their very existence. Not a fastening would be se-

concerning the Actions of Machines. 79

cure, not a screw would hold, were it not for its pervading
agency. Without friction this woild would have exhibited
a scene of indescribable confusion. Conceive for a moment,
its influence suspended, and where would be progressive mo-
tion.? how would we climb the steep, how, even, would we
walk along the plain.? The mountain masses, rushing to
the plains, and not arrested even there, as now, but hastening
along with undiminished speed, would leave no spot for vege-
table, no safety for animal life : though dashed to powder by
repeated blows, each particle would yet move onward, and
chaos would be realized. Far, then, from friction marring the
general design, it itself is one of the most admirable and most
beneficent provisions which nature's God has made for the feli-
city of his creatures.

When we glance over the vast fields of modern science, and
contemplate the harmony that reigns among the known laws,
when we consider the ease with which geometry is engrafted on
arithmetic, the perfect acquaintance with geometric laws which
is exhibited in the contrivance of the mechanical ones, we can-
not imagine that the law of friction militates against or annuls
one really existing law of nature. Chemistry has acquainted
us with the permanency and indestructibility of matter ; me-
chanics has taught us that the entire amount of momentum
estimated in any given direction, is absolutely fixed, and has
indicated that, except where friction and chemical changes in-
terfere, the total amount of motion in the universe is unchange-
able. The recent discoveries in galvanism and electricity shed
a new light upon the subject.

The combustion of the coals, the chemical union of the car-
bon with the oxygen in the furnace of the steam-engine, gene-
rates motion ; that motion is extinguished partly by friction,
and partly in effecting the disintegration of bodies ; and it now
seems more than probable that this rubbing and this subdivi-
sion of matter induces a state, and communicates that state to
surrounding objects, which afterwards goes, in some distant
quarter perhaps, to reproduce chemical changes preparatory to
a new evolution of the like forces. Small, indeed, as that
change must be when absorbed into the general mass, it is not
on that account the less real. The mass of stone that has been

80 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite and other Rocks,

torn from the quarry, and fashioned into this splendid town, is
minute indeed, yet, undoubtedly, that transference has retard-
ed the rotation of the earth, although our senses, aided by
every contrivance of science and of art, be utterly unable to
discern a trace of the change.

While, then, we zealously strive to improve our machines,
and to remove the friction from the inefficient to be concentra-
ted on the working parts, let us not repine that, after all our
exertions, we are still compelled to resign a tithe of our labour
to that influence under which alone it is possible for us or our
machines to exist; and let us console ourselves with the thought,
that, though our exertions be lost to us, nature has taken care
that they conduce to the maintenance and well-being of the
general system.

Theory of Granite^ and the other Massive Rocks, together with
that of Crystalline Slate; pr-oposed in Lectures on Geology <i
in the University of Christiania in Norway, in the year
1836. By B. M. Keilhau, Professor of Mineralogy.
(Continued from Vol. XXIV. p. 403.)

At several points on the boundaries of the great granite and
porphyry districts, it happens that granite and syenite on the
one side, and porphyry on the other, pass completely into each
other. Further, we find also in some places gradual changes
from the granite to the clay-slate. Moreover, we see the same
from granite to the primary gneiss, and also many other tran-
sitions. We shall here bring forward only some of the most
important.

The boundaries between the porphyry and the granite dis-
tricts exhibit sometimes a confused intermixture of the respec-
tive masses, and sometimes true transitions ; the latter proceed
quite step by step, so that we pass perhaps for a distance of
two miles (more than one-fourth of a Norwegian mile) over a
rock intermediate between granite and porphyry, before we
reach the clearly exhibited type of the one from the distinct
type of the other. If the opinion be adopted, that the massive

M. Keilhau"'s Theory of Granite, and other Rocks, 81

rocks in such districts are the products of eruptions, still it
cannot easily be admitted that such enormous outpourings of
two such entirely different materials should have taken place
at one and the same time at points lying so near to each other.
A priority must undoubtedly be assigned to the appearance at
the surface of the one or the other. But in doing so, so far as
I can see, we cut off* the only possible approach to assigning,
according to the eruption theory, a kind of cause for the transi-
tions, viz. that the porphyry and granite on meeting at one time
in a fluid state, became blended together at the points where
they encountered each other.

But what may be still more unwelcome than the phenomena
of the boundaries of granite and porphyry, to certain theorists,
is, that we observe transitions from the massive to the stratified
rocks. One of the greatest errors in modern geology, is the
distinct separation, proceeding Jrom the genetic mode of viewing
the subject, between stratified, or what are termed normal foN
mations, and abnormal formations. In the manner in which
it is wished that this separation should be understood, it is ih
fact altogether contrary to nature ; for, according to this sys-
tem, there cannot and must not be any real transition thought
of from the type of one of the two great classes to that of the
other ; and yet such a transition exists in thousands and thou-
sands of places. This deviation from truth is its own punish-
ment. Thus, we see some geologists who are under the neces*
sity of denying a fact so clear as the transition of granite into
gneiss ; while we find others who rank gneiss, mica-slate, and
I know not how many other stratified rocks, in the class of
massive formations.

Let us examine the suite of specimens of mountain-rocks
from one of the most instructive localities in our territory, that
of Solvsberg* in Hadeland. In the first piece, we recognise
the usual siliceous slaty rock into which clay-slate and calca*
reous clay-slate pass when near the granite boundary, a rock
which exhibits distinct petrifactions, and in which, likewise, stra-

• The remarkable locality of Solvsberg, mentioned in the text, is situated
near the Rands-Fiord, and but a little to the west of the great road froift
Christiania to Bergen and Trondhjeni. — Edit.

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. P

82 M. Keilhau^s Theory of Granite^ and other Rocks.

tification is particularly well marked. In another portion we
still detect the parallel structure, but in the mass which in the
preceding specimen seemed homogeneous, there now glimmer
fine particles that in the following fragment are to be recog-
nised as plates of mica, and in the succeeding one there also
occur portions of felspar, and so forth ; — in short, there is to
be observed a gradually advancing development from compact
slate to a large-grained granular rock, which Von Buch has ex-
pressly termed granite. But, however convincing our suite of
specimens may be, it is so but in a small degree, compared
with the sight of these phenomena in nature itself; for on the
spot we can distinctly remark this circumstance, that the transi-
tion is by no means sudden, but extends over a long distance.
We can plainly see how gradually it lakes place, and that thus
the stratification and fossils disappear only by little and little,
and all in proportion as the compact structure is converted in-
to one which is more crystalline-granular ; and I have no doubt
that every one who will bestow sufficient time and attention on
the investigation, will not only be able to follow the parallel lines
of the undisturbed direction of the slate beds into that region
where granitification has already distinctly enough made its
appearance, but will detect traces of petrifactions where the
siliceous masses present shining microscopic crystalline grains ;
and the same is the case in specimens from another analogous
locality.

The boundaries of the granite and slate are not everywhere
such as we have now described them. The occurrence of ra-
mifications at the boundary is certainly the most usual ; but
still it is not exclusively the appearance presented ; for at some
points at least, instead of such a phenomenon, we find perfect
transitions between the granitic formations on the one side, and
the siliceous slates on the other.

Similar transitions can also be pointed out under entirely
different circumstances. These are of importance with respect
to an objection that might be made regarding the phenomena
just described. The opinion has been started, as we shall see
better afterwards, that felspar and the other component ingre-
dients of crystalline slates have been developed by the opera-
tion of the melted masses occurring in their vicinity, i. e. by
means of the same causes as have been supposed to have effcci

1

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks. 83

ed the conversion of clay-slate into siliceous slate. There are
also to be found in our territory places where, in fact, the stra-
tified rocks in contact with granite do not merely exhibit the
usual degrees of alteration as flinty slate, striped jasper, &c.,
but at length at the very boundaries present imperfect mica
and hornblende-slates, or even a sort of gneiss. But in these
cases there is always present a marked line of demarcation be-
tween such slates and the massive mountain-rock. It must
thus be admitted, that if the crystalline slate, which is in con-
tact with granite, and presents a sharply defined boundary, is
to be regarded as formed in the manner described, such an ex-
planation c^n by no means apply to the case where a complete
transition takes place ; thus, for example, at Solvsberg, we could
not say that a part of the granite which there presents itself is
directly pyrogenetic, and that the remainder, which affords
transitions to the slate, is indirectly pyrogenetic, being pro-
duced by the action of the other on the slate ; and we have
here the peculiar circumstance, that where both crystalline
mountain-rocks border on one another, they have so great a
resemblance that the difference cannot be observed, and thus
the boundary might easily be overlooked, should it not have
been really obliterated by these having been melted toge-
ther. Should any one now, further to support a preconceiv-
ed opinion, come forward with such an interpretation of the
transitions we have been considering, we have still another
fact of an analogous kind to bring forward, which scarce-
ly leaves the supporters of the volcanic origin of the rocks
in question any other mode of escape than that of which we
had formerly an example, namely, to deny the accuracy of the
observations. The phenomenon of which I speak is the fol-
lowing : there are places (for example on the Langesund-fiord*),
where the slate shining with microscopic crystalline particles,
lies as a bed of only one inch in thickness, between other sili-
ceous beds in which no crystalline structure has been develop-
ed, or between strata of limestone ; in other beds of the same
range of strata, and as little as the previous one in contact with

• The Langesund-fiord is the next arm of the sea to the west from Fre-
deriksvaern, and has on its shores the towns of Laugesund, Brevig, and Pors-
grund — Edit.

f2

84 M. Keilhau''s Theory of Granite^ and other Rochs.

abnormal rocks, but somewhat thicker than it, we see transi-
tions from compactness to crystalline structure which have pro-
ceeded farther ; and finally, again in others occurring under
the same relations, but which are a couple of feet in thickness,
we find masses that present a perfect crystalline granular trap,
which, in these places, represents the common greenstone. From
the trap-rocks there are transitions through petrographical inter-
mediate links in the less and less considerable beds to the finest
granular masses in the thinnest bed, all of which are distinct ;
and between what has been last mentioned and the common hard
slates, there are found intermediate rocks sufficient to complete
the suite. In other places, where bed-like masses of the usual
greenstone occur between strata of clay-slate and calcareous
clay-slate, there are found small thick beds of a rock having an
intermediate character between clay-slate and greenstone ; but
so far as our observations have hitherto gone, the range of beds
which exhibits the different shades of transition, is not so com-
plete here as in the other peculiar example of trap, nor are
these beds so thin as to preclude to the same degree the ad-
mission of the hypothesis of the lateral injections.

The transitions from the granite of our territory to certain
primary strata must likewise be briefly noticed. I confess that
no geological phenomenon has struck me so much as this, that
I found places where the boundary between the granite and
the primary gneiss had entirely disappeared, where the nature
of the rock changed completely from the characteristic type of
the one rock to that of the other ; so that at first I despaired
of the possibility of finding any explanation. As to what re-
gards the facts in this case, the relations are precisely the same
as in the transitions from the same granite to the fossiliferous
state. For the most part we find at the boundary ramifica-
tions of the massive rock branching into the primary strata ;
but sometimes, though rarely, transitions occur. That these
transitions bear testimony against the eruption theory, in the
same manner as the transitions between the granite and \M
newer strata, requires no further explanation ; but, in passingj
we may remark, how extremely important this same fact is
an argument against Neptunism. It appears that some of th(
supporters of this doctrine have endeavoured to explain th«

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks. 85

ramifications of the massive rock in the bounding strata, and
generally the relations of the boundaries and positions of these
rocks — relations which have of late been much more carefully
examined — by assuming a simultaneous formation of these
rocks which often occur together in such a peculiar manner. But
after what has been said this mode of escape will not suffice ;
for should it be maintained that the granite of the transition
territory had intruded itself at the same time that the strati-
fied rocks were deposited, it might perhaps be said, with re-
spect to the ramifications in the primary rock, that these were
upfillings of the vein-fissures then open in the basis of the new
formation. But ramifications in the primary rock, together
with transitions into the same, might just as well imply a si-
multaneous origin with the last as with the new formation.
But it is not our object to combat opinions which have been
excluded from the science, and which can only preserve their
name in its history. It is, on the contrary, those views which
have stood their ground against all the hypotheses hitherto
proposed that we have now more strictly to examine.

For this purpose it will be enough to present a group of
facts. Every one who has, even with the smallest degree of
attention, examined our territory, must have made the remark
that the great porphyry districts are regularly to be found
where sandstone occurs ; and that eurite-porphyry is associated
more particularly with alum- slate. Meanwhile, the supporters
of the eruption theory may, perhaps, lay no great weight on
these circumstances, which may appear to them as altogether
accidental, and they will not feel themselves incited to investi-
gate how far there exists a fixed place in certain stratified
rocks of a particular kind for massive formations ; for if we
consider the latter as having burst forth from the interior, they
might of course have made their appearance at any place
whatever, without reference to the mineralogical constitution
of the mountain-rock broken through by the eruption. That
such an assumption, at least with respect to our massive rocks,
is incorrect, and that it would prevent us from observing some
of the most beautiful and important phenomena of our terri-
tory, we shall now have an opportunity of shewing.

I must first of all remark in general, that all those porphyry

86 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite^ and other Roclcs,

and granite formations which have their petrographical charac-
ters so distinctly marked, and which, therefore, are so easily
recognised, are not at all to be found in any place in the whole
country, except within the boundaries of the two transition ter-
ritories ; veins of greenstone only, more or less similar in com-
position to the greenstones of the transition series, are to be met
with in other localities. It is thus perfectly clear that at least
all the other numerous massive formations, which occur more
especially in the Christiania territory, are most intimately con-
nected with the group of transition-strata of which we are
speaking. In Sweden, as we shall afterwards see, massive for-
mations occur of the same kind as ours, and there they are as-
sociated with a sandstone like our own, with orthoceratite lime-
stone, with clay-slate, &c. The genetic connection — for less it
cannot be — between these two kinds of rock, the above-men-
tioned stratified and unstratified, is particularly apparent in
looking over the map of the Christiania territory ; for it is im-
possible to ascribe this connection to accident, and it would be
a poor shift for any one to say that the places where the mas-
sive rocks in question occur, offered less resistance to the erup-
tions than any others.

Having premised these preliminary observations, we will
now consider the subject in a more special point of view, by
examining the distribution of the massive rocks within the limits
of our territory. First of all, I should be inclined to lay par-
ticular weight on the constant association of the great porphyry
masses, or rocks belonging to the great porphyry districts with
members of the sandstone-formation, viz. those slates, quartzos
sandstones and conglomerates, which occur in the upper porJ
tion of the stratified rocks of the group. It is not a mere coi
jecture, but a fact, that the presence of this sandstone-formj
tion affords the condition required for the occurrence of tl
great porphyry masses. However poor the Upland territoi
may be in unstratified rocks, yet we soon perceive that thi
massive formation presents itself wherever these sandstones ai
visible ; and, in the territory of Christiania, I know only oi
locality where this same porphyry is not associated with th<
sandstone. The stratified rocks are for the most part bound*
by the granite districts ; but wherever sandstones occur in th(

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite^ and other Rocks, 87

series of strata, there the granite and sienite immediately dis-
appear, and porphyry now becomes the bounding rock ; a rule
from which I know only one exception, and that is at the bot-
tom of Sande-fiord, where granite comes in contact with quartz-
ose sandstone ; but this case is accompanied by particular cir-
cumstances, into the nature of which I cannot at present more
particularly enter. A similar association of transition- sand-
stone and porphyry has been observed out of Scandinavia ; and
on this point, I need only refer to the porphyries which occur
in such abundance in the great coal-formation. When we
treated of the coal -formation, we did not venture to deduce,
from the constant association of the massive rocks with certain
members of the coal group, a connection by formation between
the unstratified and stratified masses ; we merely remarked that
such an opinion had previously existed. On that opinion we
are now perhaps inclined to lay more weight.

If, in our transition group, the dependence of the porphyry
on the sandstones has once been admitted, from analogy it can-
not be denied that a similar dependence exists between the gra-
nitic rocks and the clay-slate. But the most striking of all is
the connection between eurite-porphyry when it occurs in beds,
and alum-slate. It is possible that this last union has an en-
tirely different cause from that of the combination of the great
porphyry and the sandstones. Alum-slate, for reasons which
shall afterwards be explained, occurs especially near the primary
rocks ; hence, if the bed-like masses of eurite-porphyry, whether
from a general or special cause, belong particularly to the lower
portion of the series of transition-strata, so will they, as is actually
the case, be often found along with the alum-slate, without imply-
ing the dependence of the one formation or the other. But for the
moment, let that be as it may, certain it is that eurite-porphyry
or a similar rock as its representative, is perfectly regularly
found in all the places where we see alum-slate in the neigh-
bourhood of the primary basis ; there we find it more or less
perfectly in the form of beds, quite as a determinate member of
the formation, and alternating with the other transition strata.
As already stated, it always occurs in the oldest portion of the
transition-rocks, sometimes even directly on the outgoings of
the primary strata ; so that (as is shewn by later denudations)

88 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks.

it is only on the hanging side that it is connected with the Nep-
tunian transition-strata. In regard to this subject, we have to
mention a very remarkable circumstance, — that the petrographi-
cal characters of the rocks are modified in a determinate man-
ner, according as the masses lie quite near the basis of the
transition formation, or are found somewhat higher up in the
series of beds. In the first case, it presents itself as almost a
pure quartz, as an impure ochre-coloured rock, in which fel-
spathic substances are very rarely present, and in which felspar
crystals are often entirely awanting : but higher up in the range
of beds, the basis or ground of the rock acquires more and more
felspathic matter, and first of all becomes euritic, and afterwards
quite crystalline. At a still greater distance from the primary
series, the same rock becomes of a sienitic character, but then
it can no longer be said to have a fixed place in the succession
of strata. The regularity of these progressive changes is limited
only by another likewise very remarkable rule, that the larger
masses are more crystalline, and richer in felspar, as well in
homogeneous distribution in the basis or ground, as in ihe crys-
tals, than the smaller ones ; so that a perfect porphyry may
present itself very near the primary rock, provided the mass
be large enough, while a compact and rather quartzose than
euritic rock may occur further on in the range of beds, because
it exists in a comparatively thin bed. That the larger masses
are more crystalline than the smaller^ accords perfectly well
with Vulcanism ; but certainly the other relations we have men-
tioned, cannot thus be made to correspond, for it seems incon-
trovertible that this remarkable family of the massive rocks, —
whether in the form of quartz, or of sienite, or of true eurite
porphyry, cannot have been intruded from without into our
formation, since they could as well have appeared elsewhere,
«ven beyond the limits of the formation ; and it is also clear
that they are associated in a peculiar manner, which banishes
the idea that the masses belonging to them have taken the places
where they are found accidentally.

These, now, are facts of a new kind,' and it is a fortunate
circumstance that they can be observed in our own immediate
neighbourhood, although the full conviction of their accuracy
can only be derived from the examination of a great number of

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite^ and other Rocks. 89

places. I cannot sufficiently recommend the study of them in
nature herself; for I am convinced that every person who finds
the present account of them correct, will escape what, in my
opinion, is the great error, of considering all mountain-rocks
termed abnormal formations without distinction, as volcanic
(Plutonian), •/. e. masses, which were once erupted from the in-
terior in a fluid state to'the places in which they are now found.
Thus far advanced in our investigations, we must now pre-
pare ourselves to answer the question. What is the origin of
these massive rocks of which we have been treating ? since we
are not able, at least generally, to adopt even that one of*-
the two prevailing theories, which seemed to be capable of ex-
plaining the greatest number of our facts. Are there any
less commonly acknowledged views on the subject of which we
might avail ourselves, or are we perhaps under the necessity
of striking out for ourselves an entirely new path ? It really
appears to me that we are in the last of these situations. Of
all the hypotheses hitherto proposed with any degree of dis-
tinctness regarding the origin of the unstratified rocks, I know
only one which claims our attention in seeking for a theory of
the granites, porphyries, &c. of the Christiania territory — it is
that of Keferstein.* We shall afterwards have occasion to give
a full account of this, but at present it is sufficient for us to
know that Keferstein considers the massive rocks as the result
of a spontaneous vulcanisation of certain portions of the Nep-
tunian rocks, which being in a state of fermentation at parti-
cular points, were heated to fusion, or in general were brought
to a condition for crystallizing, in consequence of which they
occupied a larger space, and were upraised, &c. I treat the
whole conception with respect; but Keferstein has done ho-
mage to the spirit of the times, and in spite of his heresy, he
seems to wish to be classed among the vulcanists. These last,
however, stoutly disavow him, at least they will never forgive
his unlucky observations on fermentation. For our own part,
we really lament that we cannot form an alliance with this geo-
logist. As our reason for this, it will be enough here to state,

* A full exposition of M. Keferstein's curious views will be found in his
work entitled *' Die Naturgeschichte des Erdkorpers nach ihren ersten Grund-
xugen." 2 vols. 1834 Edit.

90 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks.

that with us he must stand on the same ground as the vul-
canists, inasmuch as he takes for granted the strata-disturb-
ing influence of the granite. We must, therefore, endeavour
to find for ourselves a position from which we may discover the
causal connection, if not of all, at least of a greater number of
the facts we have stated, than it is possible to do by the
hitherto existing theories, — I allude chiefly to Neptunism and
Vulcanism as the only ones which ha^ve as yet received any
full exposition, and whose principles have been clearly set down.
Before we go into the subject itself, it becomes necessary to
obtain a clear view of our position, and to consider especially
our relation to chemistry. With this science geologists are
most intimately connected; and in a particular manner, the
theory of granite and the other crystalline mountain-rocks,
stands very closely allied to it. That the truths of geology
and chemistry can never be found in contradiction to each
other, lies in the nature of things. But both sciences have the
same rank : we must not, as would almost seem to be required,
ascribe such a supremacy to chemistry, that the geologist
should not be able to step beyond the point of development
corresponding to the stage in its progress at which chemistry
may have arrived. The contingency may readily be imagined,
of a subject being extremely problematical in chemistry, with
regard to which we may be able to form a decided opinion by
the aid of geognostical facts; and that, ^vhile a geologist directs
his attention to what has taken place, or is now going on, in the
great laboratory of nature, he may thus discover phenomena,
and unfold ideas connected with the province of chemistry,
which he could not reach in the workshops of art. It would,
therefore, be quite in the order of things, that the geologist, by
his theories with respect to granite and the other massive rocks,
should advance before the experimental chemist ; and even if
it should chance to the latter to produce a granite perfectly
similar to that which is formed by nature, the geologist is not
absolutely bound to admit as the process of formation of the
natural rock, that which took place with regard to the artificial
product, when he finds that mode of formation at variance with
geognostical phenomena. The mode of theorizing with respect
to granite, &c. has been this, — that an hypothesis founded on

M, Keilhau''s Theory of Granite, and oilier Rocks. 91

chemical principles was carried as far as possible, but for the
rest, geological necessity was allowed to reflect back arguments
for the justice of the assumption on what remained as a chemi-
cal postulate. So long as the opinion was entertained that gra-
nite, in its geognostical relations, coincided with the rocks de-
posited from water, it was natural to suppose that it also was
derived from a Neptunian fluid. Granite is an aggregate of
crystalline minerals. The formation of crystals, on the expul-
sion of fluid matter existing in the form of water which held
them in solution, is the most common way in which we see these
derived, not only morphologically, but often also substantially
as newly formed bodies which we call crystals. The circum-
stance in which we here went beyond chemistry, was the as-
sumption, on these grounds, of the formation of felspar, quartz,
and mica, in^the moist way.

In the same way has it fared with the now prevailing theory.
As soon as it was discovered, in consequence of our being bet-
ter informed with regard to the geognostical relations of un-
stratified rocks, that these relations could not be brought to
harmonize with their Neptunian origin, the Neptunian hypothe-
sis was cast aside, and replaced by a new one, — one known for
a long time previously, but that is of no consequence for our
argument: crystals are also produced from melted masses;
and although crystallization is much more frequently observed
to take place in the humid way, yet, in that group of minerals
which compose the massive siliceous rocks, according to cer-
tain facts regarding many of them, it could more especially
take place when their materials existed in a melted condition,
and from that passed to a compact state. With regard to
granite, chemistry has actually advanced so far as to be able to
produce, in the dry way, felspar and mica; and, so far as one may
wish that the chemical postulate of the pyrogenetic theory may
pass over entirely to chemistry, it is only wanting that we should
be able by fusion to procure quartz, and to produce all the three
minerals in combination. But to us it would be a matter of
little consequence the success which might attend such attempts.

The pyrogenetic hypothesis does not satisfy the demands which
a mass of geognostical facts have on a theory of the rocks in ques-
tion, and the inquirer must look about him for a new hypothe-
sis. So far as is practicable, chemical experiments must be at-

92 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks.

tended to ; for, as we have recognised as a rule never to be
deviated from, the geologist in his postulates must always have
it in his eye, that, sooner or later, these must be brought to
accord with chemical principles ; so that it is not till, in his
search after a theory, he has failed in obtaining assistance from
his more or less perfect acquaintance with the formation of
crystals or analogous bodies, that he should consider himself at
liberty to go beyond all direct experiment.

After these general remarks, we must proceed to inquire in
what other way than that proposed by the Neptunists and Vul-
canists, such formations could take place as may afford analo-
gies, or at least hints for the solution of the problem as to the
origin of granite, syenite, &c.

In following up this subject, the first thing that presents it-
self to us is the well-known phenomena of the crystallization of
substances which occur in the form of vapour or gas ; but be-
yond this a dark region lies before us, into which, however, we
must penetrate. It appears that mineral bodies, or to speak
generally, solid unorganized bodies, are capable of changing
their morphological and chemical characters ; that is to say, they
present themselves in forms which did not exist before in their
place, and exhibit a combination of chemical constituents differ-
ent from their former one, or in short appear as new bodies in
both respects, without necessarily requiring that this change
should be preceded by their having been in a fluid state. I say
it appears that this is the case, for that a movement of the whole,
or at any rate of part of the substance of which the bodies pro-
duced in this manner consist, and in the case of newly formed
crystals at least, a very free movement must be supposed to have
previously taken place ; and the possibility of this we can only
conceive in a state of fluidity. It is nevertheless a fact that
formations take place partly with a material, which, to our ob-
servation, was, and continues to be, what we call firm and rigid,
that is, neither in a liquid nor in an elastic state of fluidity ;
and partly in a solid medium, which, according to our common
ideas, seems not capable of allowing any movement of the sub-
stances in it. It is extremely unfortunate for geology that the
whole of this field for important investigation has been left al-
most quite uncultivated. Thus there exists a metallurgical pro-
cess which exhibits in a striking manner the fact we have men-

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks, 93

tioned, but which, though it has been long employed, and
therefore must have been for a considerable period known to
chemists, has yet never been accurately examined. I allude to
a certain mode of treating poor copper-ores, described many
years ago by the Italian geologist Breislak, and employed in
Scandinavia as well as at Agordo in Italy. It consists in bring-
ing, by a proper degree of heat, but which, in order that the
process may succeed, must not go the length of causing smelting,
the greater part of the pure copper into the middle of a mass of
ore, while portions of the iron and sulphur contained in the
crude ore seem to be driven outwards. The copper, previously
only in the state of copper-pyrites, which was more or less uni-
formly disseminated through the whole mass, is now found in
the interior as a kernel, and exhibits a compound resembling
variegated copper-ore, or a mass even richer in copper. Give
this phenomenon what explanation you please, still it unques-
tionably belongs to that group of facts which teach us the pos-
sibility of such considerable chemical and morphological changes
in what are called rigid bodies, that, in the hypothesis we seek
for, we are not under the necessity of taking for granted, that,
for example, the substance of granite, immediately before the
formation of that species of rock, must have existed in a fluid
state, whether in a Neptunian liquid condition as a melted mass,
or in general in any of the modes of fluidity hitherto commonly
known ; for if it should be said that the case we have quoted
does not exclude the possibility that the transposed substances
might have been in a state of elastic fluidity, yet, even if this
could be shewn, the conceptions we have hitherto formed with
regard to this state must be not a little modified, namely in this,
that we must consider substances in this form as much more
adapted to penetrate and to move in solid masses than we have
hitherto believed them capable of doing. The following are also
examples of the processes of which we speak, viz. — of the crys-
tallization of and in solid masses : the transition of compact
substances, such as glass, amorphous limestone, &c. into a
crystalline state by the action of a moderate heat ; and the con-
version of barley-sugar from an imcrystalline to a crystalline
condition; of chemical changes without crystallization: the con-
version of various minerals into steatite (Speksteen,)

94} M. Keilhau''s Theory of Granite^ and other Roclcs.

When we examine more closely the phenomena of these che-
mical and morphological formations, we are led to the conclusion
that the heat which is in operation in these processes, is of use
chiefly in hastening them, inasmuch as it imparts to them a
greater degree of intensity, and thus appears as an indispen-
sable cause. Where, therefore, in the example borrowed from
a metallurgical process, new combinations of copper and sul-
phur were, by the assistance of heat, induced in a space of a
few weeks ; there, according to the data afforded by various ob-
servations on Roman antiquities, which have undergone ana-
logous and still greater changes of composition, some thousand
years would have been requisite in order to produce such al-
terations at the ordinary temperature.

It is quite evident that we must anticipate chemistry when
we are forced to rest on facts like these quoted, because che-
mists have hitherto bestowed too little attention on such phe-
nomena, inasmuch as all the materials furnished by that science
for our discussions consist of a knowledge of the composition
of crystals and mineral species. It would, first of all, be re-
quisite to prove if the well known fact of the formation of
crystals from expansible fluid bodies, could here be brought to
bear on the subject. The first glance even shews us that the
consideration of this phenomenon would only lead us into an
entirely unproductive field. We may take this opportunity of
mentioning an hypothesis, proposed at an earlier period, and
which may be quoted as an example of, so to speak, the despair
of clearing up the difficulties as to the unstratified mountain-
rocks. Among the efforts to unravel this great geological
riddle, the attempt was made to consider some at least, of
these formations, as the result of the condensation of aeriform
matter which was dispersed through the atmosphere, and
which was afterwards precipitated and assumed a solid form.
To follow up this idea any further would be but a waste of
time.

There is another view which is of greater importance. The
opinion has been proposed, that emanations of substances which
are in a condition to crystallize, can, by penetrating solid bo-
dies, deposite crystals in them. As in discussing this subject
authors — to the injury of science — have been inclined to ex-

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite^ and other Rocks, 95

press themselves in an undecided and obscure manner, I really
do not know with certainty if any one has imagined that, for
example, a compact slate alone can in this manner be converted
into gneiss, and if a sort of smelting at the same time is assumed
to be also necessary. From what we have said of the theories
of the origin of dolomite and gypsum, it is evident that the
idea is current, that at least some of the component parts of
mineral bodies can pass through solid masses, and that they
can even unite with other masses in the solid form, in order,
in this manner, to cause the formation of new chemical combi-
nations, and of crystals. Although no one has thought of any
other mode of existence of the matter supposed to be moveable,
than that in the form of a gas or vapour, yet still we perceive
that we here find ourselves entirely on the ground we last en-
tered on, when we inquired after the imperfectly known modes
of formation of mineral species. But be the fact what it may,
it comes to the same thing whether we assume that these move-
able matters, as they are considered, are in the state of known
expansible fluids, or are supposed to exist in a still more subtile
form ; we can scarcely hope to penetrate into these mysteries,
and in the mean time these ideas remain alike available or alike
unavailable as to our problem.

This subject ought to attract our attention in a very high
degree, because the outlines of the granite masses, the passage
of the granite into the stratified rocks at the boundary, the ra-
mifications we observe at other points, &c. remind us very dis-
tinctly that all these phenomena, even to the minutest detail,
are only a repetition of the appearances presented by dolomite
in its relations to surrounding stratified rocks. An esteemed
geologist, Mr De la Beche, remarks that so soon as we have an
accurate knowledge of the relations of position of a mountain-
rock, we cannot be much in doubt regarding its mode of origin.
I have always regarded this as an important truth, and it fol-
lows from it as a consecjuence, that two mountain-rocks which
agree in this respect, must also have had the same mode of for-
mation. I think, therefore, that the same theory that is ap-
plied to the origin of dolomite, ought also to be employed in
regard to granite and other analogous formations.

The dolomite theory supposes that the dolomite has been

96 M. Keilhaii's Theory of Granite^ and other Rocks,

produced by the penetration of magnesia exhalations into masses
of carbonate of lime. There is nothing in our previous remarks
which can be directed against the admissibility of this theory ;
but it certainly anticipates the data afforded us by chemistry.
It is not satisfactory to me, because it involves other extremely
arbitrary assumptions. It cannot be denied that in some places
dolomite occurs in very thin but extensive strata, and quite in
a regular manner between other mountain-rocks ; now how is it
to be explained why the sublimed matter left all the other strata
untouched, and only exerted its influence on the carbonate of
lime in thus converting it into dolomite ? In the irregular'
masses of dolomite, which are completely surrounded by Nep-
tunian strata, there is a similar but less considerable difficulty
to be solved. But, not to state other objections, I shall merely
mention what seems to me the greatest, that the whole emana-
tion-hypothesis reposes on Vulcanism; for if the black porphyry
(melaphyre) or other massive mountain-rock, with whose intru-
sion dolomization has been put in connection, be not pyro-gene-.
tic, then the occasion of such an extraordinary mode of forma-
tion gives way, and we are just as little able to assign another
cause in its stead ; and indeed it ought only to be in the case
of extreme necessity that we should have recourse to the theory
of emanations.

In the mean time it may be remarked, that whoever, by
adopting the dolomite theory, admits all these suppositions,
must necessarily find no insuperable obstacle to admitting that
the materials for the formation of felspar, quartz, mica, horn-
blende, &c. may, in like manner, be conveyed by exhalations, in
so far as was required at the places in the already existing
masses where the development of these minerals should be as-
sumed to have gone on. If we assumed that these conveyers
of matter rose up from beneath, then we could say of the great
porphyry masses in our transition district that they were their
result, that the emanations had established themselves in the
layers of the sandstone, that, on the contrary, the substances
necessary for the formation of eurite-pcfrphyry had not been
elevated to that height, but had united themselves to certain
strata in the vicinity of the primary rocks, and so forth.

But, in considering the subject more closely, we may leave

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks. 9T

out of consideration all these artificial speculations, and do not
require to think of emanations, whether with reference to dolo-
mite or to crystalline siliceous rocks. We should otherwise be
led into a dark region, which will not for a long time be illu-
minated by the light of chemistry. . It can be of very little
service to trouble ourselves with hypotheses wherein chemistry
teaches us to respect its operations, but of which it shews us
that not one half can be made available. It is, therefore, a
much more natural proceeding for us to confess candidly, that
the moment is not yet come when we can give a full and satis-
factory account of the phenomena observed, and that we should,
therefore, as yet limit ourselves to the examination of the facts,
such as they are, which are the first steps to an explanation,
without for the present entering on the more remote causes.

We are undoubtedly in possession of the following two most
important facts : — First, that masses in a state of compact ag-
gregation can crystallize or undergo morphological changes,
without, so far as we see, previously acquiring, in any degree, a
fluid condition ;* and next, that substantially newly formed bo-
dies, crystallized or uncrystallized, can be developed in com-
pact masses likewise, without our remarking that the matter,
immediately before the formation of the new body, was melted
in any of the known methods. These two facts are all that we
require, but they are absolutely necessary to enable us to ex-
plain a very large number of geological phenomena, both small
and great, — so much so, that it really appears quite extraordi-
nary that proper attention has not been bestowed upon them.
For my own part, ever since I directed my attention to these,
though obscure, yet very important facts, I have constant-
ly endeavoured more and more to shew their value in the
science of geology. Even in 1828,f I endeavoured to advance

* Gaj Lussac, after narrating the well known fact regarding barley-sugar,
expresses himself in the following manner : " Ceci prouve que, dans un corps
solide, les molecules peuvent changer de position et prendre la forme crystal-
line. Cet exemple a fait dire que les molecules des corps solides peuvent, dans
certaines circonstances, prendre de nouveaux arrangemens. C'est qui a lieu

pour un grand nombre de sels Ainsi les molecules des corps solides

ne sont pas fellemenl liees entre elles, qui'elles ne puissent changer de place
el former d'autres groupes."— (Cours de Chimie, II. 26, Lefi. 24.)

t Poggendorff 's Arlnalen, xiv. 134.
VOL. XXV. NO. XLTX. JULY 1838. G

98 M. Keilbau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks,

this position, — "That one of the hitherto known forms

OF AGGREGATION IN WHICH FLUID BODIES EXIST, DID NOT NE-
CESSARILY PRECEDE THE FORMATION OR TRANSFORMATION OF
BODIES ; BUT THAT, ON THE CONTRARY, THE COMPACT FORM DID
NOT PREVENT MOVEMENTS IN THE SUBSTANCE." I sliewed

*' the possibility that in the solid portions of the globe very essen-
tial changes, in consequence of the moveableness of the particles
of solid bodies, may have taken place, and still continue to take
place." " And," I added, " can any one be afraid in this case, to
form the conclusion that such an action is possible!" There is
much in modern geology which shews us that we must abandon
the unauthorized supposition ^Hhat the parts of mountain-masses,
with respect to their specific constitution^ and the position they now
occupy, are every where the same as at the moment, when, at a for-
mer time, they or their materials were produced from a gaseous or
melted condition, or from solution in a Neptunian menstruum^
But we still find that this belief is adhered to ; and it is only
by casting off such ideas that we may hope for " some light
being perhaps thrown on the origin of so many singular ar-
rangements of rock-formations, which, by the assumption of an
absolutely inactive state of the solid portions of the globe, can-
not be at all understood." I also stated it as my opinion, that
*' a multitude of mineral products whose formation has in a
very forced manner been attributed to infiltrations or subli-
mations, will prove to be the result of long continued processes
in the compact stony mass." A continued study has more and
more strengthened these earlier views : I regar*^ them as the
foundations of the whole of geology ; and they Ar^ strongly
confirmed not only by the consideration of the mineral masses
existing on the great scale as the component parts of moun-
tains, but also by the investigation of the varied modes of their
occurrence as immense veins, beds, imbedded masses, &c. to-
gether with the examination even of imbedded and disseminated
minerals.

I must again repeat, that we are npt to be prevented from
adopting a theory because the facts on which it rests cannot be
further explained, for we are not inclined to discontiiiue all the
geological investigations belonging to it, until we approach
jnore nearly the desired solutions of our difficulties, nor can we

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite, and other Rocks. 99

longer occupy ourselves with the old, hitherto exclusively cul-
tivated ground, where new resources no longer present them-
selves for new necessities.

We shall therefore endeavour to avail ourselves as much as
possible of the facts we have announced. When we consider
directly the grounds on which we repose, — in such a manner
that we avoid all idea of penetrating the subject to the root or
foundation, but, separating every reflection tending to obscn-
rity, regard them only as mere phenomena, — we may be led to-
some general conceptions, in which errors possibly exist, but
which are, nevertheless, to be received, at least provisionally,
as correct. Thus in certain cases we may imagine, that the
materials which are necessary for the formation of the new bo-
dies were not derived from any points without the parts of the
solid masses where formations take place. Keferstein, when
speaking of steatites, (spekstenen) and other similar metamor-
phoses (properly speaking metastomatoses), remarks quite cor-
rectly, that the chemical constitution of these minerals has not
the slightest connection with the chemical composition of those
species by whose transformation they are produced, and shews
that we can only assume that the chemical substances have been
completely converted into one another. Until chemistry can
enable us to trace up more successfully the nature of the pro-
cess which goes on in the instances mentioned, we may adopt
the same idea and retain the same expression. The first of the
general conclusions referred to is therefore the assumption of
the possibihty of perfect substantial transformation^ by which
it is supposed that the conveyance of matter from without is
not necessary for the formation of new bodies. It would there-
fore be regarded as not at all impossible that a mass of pure
carbonate of lime, without the addition of magnesia, and with-
out the expulsion of a corresponding quantity of lime, should
become a carbonate of lime and magnesia. At all events, we
thus remove the necessity of accounting for the origin of the
magnesia discovered by analyses in the altered mass.

Another view springs from the consideration of certain other
phenomena. We may assume that, whether the medium itself
in which these formations took place afforded the materials, or
whether they came from another place, still they did not origi-

g2

100 M. Keilhau's Theory ofGranitCy and other Rocks,

nate, at least entirely, from the very points where the new sub-
stances were formed; but that they were conveyed to these points.
We are, therefore, obliged to admit certain attractions, as the ac-
tive moving agent which transported matter to such points,
and also a power which prepared and formed the requisite
space for the matter that was collected at these places. Ex-
amples often come before our eyes of such occurrences in pasty
media, where a chemical substance is formed at certain points ;
but examples are not awanting where the medium was a com-
pletely solid, rigid mass, and where the same phenomenon has
taken place. I shall only allude to the occurrence of mellite
or honey-stone, in imbedded crystals in brown coal. Really
it appears to me, that the difficulties are not much greater in
understanding this phenomenon in an entirely solid medium,
than in a pasty one, for the latter is certainly not much more
permeable, or much more suited for the movement of fine fluids
than the former, and we cannot more easily see how the shoot-
ing out of crystals can push aside the pasty mass, than how the
compact mass is forced lo make room for the crystals. But we
cannot proceed farther, than merely thus to convey a general
impression of the phenomena ; this will at least preserve us
from untimely and wild attempts to give explanations of oc-
currences, regarding which more cannot in the mean time be
demanded than a simple glance at the facts as they are exhi-
bited in nature. Thus, I do not perceive what idea can be
formed, for example, respecting the occurrence of chiastolite
in clay- slate ; or of crystals of felspar in limestone, or in
quartzose sandstone ; or of so many other similar developments
of crystals, if we do not adhere simply to the notions spring-
ing from the unfettered conclusions presented by nature.

From the same considerations, and generally from those re-
sulting from the facts regarding the changes which take place
in solid bodies, we have now, as 1 trust, to form our ideas of
the formation of granite, and the other massive rocks of which
we are treating. We must return to- the same source when
we consider the origin of gneiss, mica-slate, or generally of the
crystalline slates ; nay, the same leading idea will at last be
made to apply to clay. slate and other crystalline rocks ; for
when well considered, although their origin has hitherto at.

I

On the Manttfacture of Glass ^ ^c, 101

traded but little attention, those last-mentioned rocks have
undoubtedly not been deposited precisely in the manner in
which we now find them. But still, it is chiefly the mas;5ive
crystalline siliceous mountain-rocks that we have in our eye,
and those namely which are found in our transition-formation.
As we are now about to apply the results of our foregoing ge-
neral views, it will be proper to touch also on a portion of the
other rocks of the same formation, whose formation stands in
certain relations of dependence to the massive rocks, or which,
when viewed along with these, may throw additional light on
the subject.

In the course of this discussion, I shall follow the not un-
usual, tliough sometimes certainly, the not advisable method
of treating the subject in the manner as if it were supposed
that the author's own theoretical views were all determined to
be entirely correct ; and this plan will cause us to speak of the
metamorphoses that have been assumed, with as much cer-
tainty as vulcanists express themselves, when they designate
granite, &c. as products of smelting. This manner of pro-
ceeding will, I hope, in the present instance, meet with so
much the more approbation, when I explain tha* I do not wish
to exalt my theory farther, than merely to regard it as a cos-
tume, a dress, with which we must clothe the new facts we
have discovered, since these, in their natural nakedness, could
not be introduced, or expect to be received, into the halls of
science.

( To he concliided in our next Number).

On the Manvfacture of Glass, Porcelain, and False Stones, as
known to the Jncient Egyptians. With Illustrative Figures."

Of the progress of the ancient Egyptians in many useful
branches of art, we have unquestionable proofs in the monu-

• We have to express our thanks to Mr Murray of Albemarle Street, for
his kindness in facilitating the transference to our pages of the woodcuts il-
lustrative of the Egyptian manufacture of glass. The present article is ex-
tracted from Mr Wilkinson's very valuable and elaborate work on "The
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians." — Edit.

h

102 On the Mami/cickire of Glass, Porcelain, Si'C.

ments that remain, and from the evidence of ancient writers.
The sculptures inform us that many inventions were known to
the«i at the early periods when most other nations were still in
their infancy, which, though generally ascribed to a much
later epoch, are, from the facility we now have of fixing the
chronology of Egyptian monuments, ascertained to be coeval
with the Exodus, or the bondage of the Israelites.

The scientific skill they possessed in architecture, is always
a matter of surprise to the traveller who beholds the stupen-
dous monuments of Egypt ; whose solid masonry would have
defied the ravages of time, and have remained unimpaired to
the present day, had not the destructive hand of man been
employed against them. The invasion of Cambyses, and the
subsequent wars with the Persians ; the three years'" siege of
Thebes by Ptolemy Lathyrus, which laid several of her build-
ings in ruins, and so completely reduced that ancient capital,
that it was no longer worthy to be considered an Egyptian
city ; the inveteracy of the Christians against their Pagan pre-
decessors, and the abhorrence of the Moslems for the monu-
ments of the idolatrous infidels; and, lastly, the position of
the temples, wlaich presented themselves to the mason as a con-
venient quarry, supplying, at little labour and expense, abun-
d?.nce of stones for the erection of new edifices, were the bane-
ful causes of the downfall of the Egyptian monuments. But,
though great portions of the finest buildings were destroyed,
sufficient remains to attest their former grandeur, and to pro-
claim the wonderful skill and mechanical knowledge of their
founders.

At the period of the Persian invasion, Egypt was looked
upon as the great school of science and the repository of all
kinds of learning ; but the arts had fallen from the degree of
excellence to which they attained under the Augustan age of
the iSth dynasty, and,, though luxury and private wealth in-
creased, taste in sculpture and architecture had long since been
on the decline, and minute and highly finished details were
substituted for the simple and dignified forms of an earlier
period. The arts, however, continued to flourish under the
succeeding dynasties, and in the reigns of Psamaticus and
Amasis, the encouragement given to architecture, sculpture,

as known to the Egyptians, 103

and painting, seemed to promise an improvement, if not the
revival of taste, and arrested for a time their downfall ; but
an unexpected event was destined to bring about their sudden
decadence, and the Persian conquest dealt a blow from which
they vainly strove to recover in the succeeding reigns of the
Macedonian dynasty ; for not only were the finest monuments
destroyed or mutilated, statues,* works of art, and all the
wealth t of the country carried off to Persia, but the artists
themselves were compelled to leave their homes to follow the
conquerors to their capital, and to commemorate the victories
obtained over Egypt, by the authors of their own captivity and
misfortunes. Thus deprived of the finest models, humbled by
the lengthened occupation of the country, and losing the only
persons capable of directing taste or encouraging art, Egypt,
already beginning to sink, vainly endeavoured to struggle with
the overwhelming current of events ; and while Persia was be-
nefited, Egyptian art received its death-blow from the invasion
of Cambyses.

The Egyptians had long been renowned for mathematical
science ; but it was not till the power and wealth of the country
were at their zenith, that full scope was given for its display
in the grand style of public monuments ; a fact sufficiently in-
dicated by their increase of scale and vastness of size at that
period, — the buildings of olden time being generally of much
smaller dimensions than those of the advanced age of the 18th
dynasty. I particularly allude to the temples and to the co-
lossal statues erected at the latter epoch, which far exceed in
their scale, and the size of the blocks themselves, the ordinary
monuments of an earlier era, as may be observed in the in-
creased proportions of the grand hall of Karnak, added by
Remeses the Great, and the dimensions of the sitting colossi of
Amunoph in the plain of Thebes, or that of Remeses, at the

* Ptolemy Euergetes is said to have brought back 2500 statues, when be
invaded the Persian dominions, which had been taken from Egjpt by Cam*
byses.

t Conf. Diodor. i. 46. *' The silver and gold, the abundance of ivory and
precious stones carried away by the Persians," and i. 49.

104 On the Mamtfacture of Glass, Porcelain, ^c.

Memnonium, which weighed about 886 tons, and was brought
over land from the quarries at the cataracts of Syene, a distance
of more than 120 miles.

Many obelisks, each of a single block of granite, had already
been hewn and transported from the same quarries, as early
at least as the reign of Osirtasen I., whom I suppose to have
been the contemporary of Joseph ; and the same mechanical
skill had already existed even before that period, as is shewn
from the construction of those wonderfvil monuments the pyra-
mids, near Memphis, which, in the size of the blocks and their
style of building, evince a degree of architectural knowledge,
perhaps inferior to none possessed at a subsequent epoch. But
it was not generally called forth in early times ; they were
then contented with monuments of an inferior scale, and their
ordinary buildings were not of the same gigantic dimensions.
A grand work was then seldom undertaken without an adequate
motive, and the knowledge they possessed was reserved for
particular and extraordinary occasions, but when riches and
the love of show increased, they extended the size of their
temples, and constant practice having made the means familiar
to them, artisans and engineers vied with each other in hewing
and transporting colossal statues, monoliths, and other ponde-
rous monuments, which served for ornament and the display of
their mechanical knowledge.

It was not in this branch of science alone that the Egyptians
excelled ; the wonderful skill they evinced in sculpturing or
engraving hard stones is still more surprising, and we wonder
at the means employed for cutting hieroglyphics, frequently to
the depth of more than two inches, on basalt, on syenite, and
other stones of the hardest quality. Nor were they deficient in
taste, — a taste too not acquired by imitating approved models,
but claiming for itself the praise of originality, and universally
allowed to have been the parent of much that was afterwards
perfected with such wonderful success by the most highly
gifted of nations, the ancient Greeks ; and no one can look
upon the elegant forms of many of the Egyptian vases, the or-
namental designs of their architecture, or the furniture of their
rooms, without conceding to them due praise on this point, and

as Icnawn to the Egyptians* 105

admitting, that however whimsical some of the figures may be
in sacred subjects, they often shewed considerable taste where
the regulations of the priesthood and religious scruples ceased
to interfere.

In their temples they were obliged to conform to rules esta-
blished in the early infancy of art, which custom and prejudice
had rendered sacred : the ancient style was always looked upon
with the highest veneration, and it is probable that from the
same feeling of respect, the formulas and diction of their books
of law or religion continued the same as in early times ; a cus-
tom prevalent among many people, whatever improvement lan-
guage undergoes ; for neither would the Turkish Moslem dare
to translate the Arabic Qoran, nor the Cairene to alter it to
his own dialect; and we might ourselves object to a Bible
written in the style of Robertson or Hume.

Plato and Synesius both mention the stern regulations which
forbade their artists to introduce innovations in religious sub-
jects ; and the more effectually to prevent this, ** the profession
of artist was not allowed to be exercised by common or illite-
rate persons, lest they should attempt any thing contrary to the
laws established, regarding the figures of the deities."

In their household furniture, and the ornamental objects
used in their dwelling-houses, they were not restricted by any
established rules ; here, as I have observed, much taste was
displayed, and their vases frequently bear so strong a resem-
blance to those of Greece, that we might feel disposed to con-
sider them borrowed from Greek models, did not their known
antiquity forbid such a conclusion ; and many have mistaken
the ornamental devices attached to them and to other fancy
works of Egyptian art, for the productions of Greek sculptors.
Now, that we are acquainted with the dates of the Egyptian
monuments, the square border and scrolls, so common on
Athenian, Sicilian, Etruscan, and Graeco- Italian vases, are
shewn to be, from the most remote time, among the ordinary
devices on cups and the ceilings of tombs at Thebes and other
places, and the graceful curve of the Egyptian cornice, which,
not confined to architecture, is repeated on vases and numerous
articles of furniture, was evidently adopted for the same orna-
mental purpose by the Greeks.

106 Ofi the Mamifacture of Glass ^ Porcelain, <§*c.

One of the most remarkable inventions of a remote era, and
one with which the Egyptians appear to have been acquainted,
at least as early as the reign of the first Osirtasen, upwards of
8500 years ago, is that of glass-blowing. The process is re-
presented in the paintings of Beni Hassan, executed during
the reign of that monarch, and his immediate successors ; and
the same is again repeated, in other parts of Egypt, in tombs
of various epochs.

Part I.

Pait 2.

No. 349.

Part 1. Glass-blowers.
2. The same.

Beni Hassan.
Thebes.

The glass at the end of the blowpipe h b, is coloured green.
a is the fire. d a glass bottle.

The form of the bottle, and the use of the blowpipe, are
unequivocally indicated in those subjects ; and the green hue
of the fused material, taken from the fire at the point of the
pipe, cannot fail to shew the intention of the artist. But if the
sceptic should feel disposed to withhold his belief on the autho-
rity of a painted representation, and deny that the use of glass
could be proved on such evidence, it may be well to remind
him, that images of glazed pottery were common at the same
period, that the vitrified substance with which they are covered

as known to the Egyptians. 107

is of the same quality as glass, and that, therefore, the mode of
fusing, and the proper proportions of the ingredients for mak-
ing glass, were already known to them ; and we can positively
state, that 200 years after, or about 1500 B.C., they made orna-
ments of glass ; a bead, bearing a king's name who lived at
that period, having been found at Thebes, by my friend Cap-
tain Henvey, R. N., the specific gravity of which, 2.535, is
precisely the same as of crown-glass now manufactured in
England.

— -I % — /=..^

No. 349. a.

Figs. 1. 2. Glass bottles represented in the sculptures ofThebes.

3. Captain Henvey's glass bead. About the real size.

4. The hieroglyphics on the bead, containing the name of a monarch

who lived 1500 b.c.

Many glass bottles, and objects of various forms, have been
met with in the tombs of Upper and Lower Egypt, some un-
questionably of very remote antiquity, though not readily as-
cribed to any fixed epoch, owing to the absence of royal names,
indicative of their date ; and glass vases, if we may trust to the
representations in the Theban paintings, are frequently shewn
to have been used for holding wine, at least as early as Exodus,
1 490 years before our era.

Till within a few years, prejudice forbade the belief that the
ancients were acquainted with the manufacture of glass, and

108 On the Manufacture of Glass, Porcelain, ^c.

many persons could not be persuaded that the Romans used it,
though represented in the paintings of Pompeii with the most
unquestionable truth, and a pane of glass, and numerous frag-
ments of broken bottles, had been discovered in that excavated
city. The fact, however, became established, and these doubts
were silenced ; still it was questioned whether the invention
dated before the destruction of that city ; the glass was much
condemned as of inferior quality ; and the authority of Pliny,*
previously disbelieved, was now welcomed as an old friend,
and called forth to prove that glass was a late discovery of
some Phoenician mariners, who having lighted a fire on the
sea-shore, and supported their cooking utensils on blocks of
nitre, were taught by the union of the fused substances the se-
cret of this useful invention. The Roman naturalist had fixed
no time for this event, and if he spoke of improvements in the
art, introduced in the reign of Tiberius, it was presumed that,
though a vitrified substance was known, its qualities were not
properly understood, and that its discovery only dated about
the Augustan age. They even objected, that, under the first
Emperors, windows were made of a transparent stone, brought
from Spain and other countries, called Lapis specularis ; and
they hence inferred the imperfect knowledge of glass.

This stone is now well known under the name of mica ; it
was only used in the houses of the rich, in litters, or as an or-
nament to the best apartments ; other persons being content
with linen, horn, or paper.

Such were the feeble arguments brought forward to disprove
the use of glass, for vases and for ornamental purposes, among
the Romans ; but with much less reason did they apply to its
invention in other countries ; and though the Egyptians never
knew the necessity, or rather the annoyance, of glass windows,
under a burning sun, they were well acquainted with vases of
that material ; and the workmen of Thebes and Memphis, and
subsequently Alexandria, were famed for the excellent qualities
of glass-ware they produced, with which Rome continued to
be supplied, long after Egypt became a province of the Em-

as known to the Egyptians, 109

pire. Strabo was informed by a glassmaker of Alexandria,*
that a peculiar earth was found in Egypt, without which it
was impossible to manufacture certain kinds of glass of a bril-
liant and valuable quality ; and some vases presented by an
Egyptian priest to the Emperor Hadrian, f were considered so
curious and valuable, that they were only used on grand occa-
sions.

Such, too, was the skill of the Egyptians in the manufacture
of glass, and in the mode of staining it of various hues, that
they counterfeited with success the amethyst and other pre-
cious stones, and even arrived at an excellence in the art which
their successors have been unable to retain, and which our
European workmen, in spite of their improvements in other
branches of this manufacture, are still unable to imitate ; for
not only do the colours of some Egyptian opaque glass offer
the most various devices on the exterior, distributed with the
regularity of a studied design, but the same hue and the same
device pass in right lines directly through the substance ; so
that, in whatever part it is broken, or wherever a section may
chance to be made of it, the same appearance, the same colours,
and the same device present themselves, without being found
even to deviate from the direction of a straight line, from the
external surface to the interior.

This quality of glass, of which I have seen several specimens,
has been already noticed by the learned Winkelmann^ who is
decidedly of opinion that " the ancients carried the art of glass
making to a higher degree of perfection than ourselves, though
it may appear a paradox to those who have not seen their
works in this material." \ He described two pieces of glass,
found at Rome a few years before he wrote, which were of the
quality above mentioned.§ " One of them,'^ he says, " though
not quite an inch in length, and a third of an inch in breadth,
exhibits on a dark and variegated ground, a bird resembling a
duck in very bright and varied colours, rather in the manner
of a Chinese painting than a copy of nature. The outlines are
bold and decided, the colours beautiful and pure, and the ef-

• Strabo, lib. xvii. t Vopiscus in Vita Saturnini, c. 8.

t Winkelmann Orig. de I'Art., lib. L 2, 19. § Winkelmann, Ibid.

no On tlie Mamtfacture of Glass, Porcelain^ ^c.

feet very pleasing, in consequence of the artist having alter-
nately introduced an opaque and a transparent glass. The
most delicate pencil of a miniature painter could not have traced
with greater sharpness the circle of the eye-ball, or the plumage
of the neck and wings, at which part this specimen has been
broken. But the most surprising thing is, that the reverse ex-
hibits the same bird, in which it is impossible to discover any
difference in the smallest details ; whence it may be concluded
that the figure of the bird continues through its entire thick-
ness. This picture has a granular appearance on both sides,
and seems to have been formed of single pieces, like mosaic
work ; united with so much skill, that the most powerful mag-
nifying glass is unable to discover their junction.

" From the condition of this fragment, it was at first difficult
to form any idea of the process employed in its manufacture ;
and we should have remained entirely ignorant of it, had not
the fracture shewn that filaments of the same colours, as on the
surface of the glass, and throughout its whole diameter, passed
from one side to the other, whence it has been concluded that
the picture was conf|)osed of different cylinders of coloured
glass, which being subject to a proper degree of heat, united by
(partial) fusion. I cannot suppose they would have taken so
much trouble, and have been contented to make a picture only
the sixth of an inch thick, while, by employing longer fila-
ments, they might have produced one many inches in thick-
ness, without occupying any additional time in the process ; it
is therefore probable this was cut from a larger or thicker piece,
and the number of the pictures taken from the same, depended
on the length of the filaments, and the consequent thickness of
the original mass, -a

" The other specimen, also broken, and about the size of the
preceding one, is made in the same manner. It exhibits orna-
ments of a gi'een, yellow, and white colour, on a blue ground,
which consist in volutes, strings of beads, and flowers, ending
' in pyramidical points. All the details -are perfectly distinct
and unconfused, and yet so very minute, that the keenest eye
is unable to follow the delicate lines in which the volutes ter-
minate ; the ornaments, however, are all continued without in-
terruption, through the entire thickness of the piece."

as Jcfiown to the Egyptians, 111

Sometimes, when the specimens were very thin, they applied
and cemented them to a small slab of stone of their own size,*
which served as a support on the back, and by this means they
were enabled to cut them much thinner, and consequently to
increase their number.

Two of the most curious specimens I have seen of this kind
of glass, have been brought to England. One is in the posses-
sion of my friend Captain Henvey, Il.N., to whose kindness I
am indebted for the copy of it, and of the bead before mention-
ed. The other was found in Egypt by Dr Hogg.

The quality and distribution of the colours in Captain Hen-
vey's specimen are strikingly beautiful ; the total size is about
1^% inch square ; and the ground is of an amethyst hue. In
the centre is a device consisting of a yellow circle, surrounded
by light blue, with a bright red border, and on the four sides
shoot forth light blue rays, edged with white. Around this,
which is isolated, runs a square ornament of bright yellow, di-
vided into distinct parts, formed by openings in each of the
sides, and at the four corners a beautiful device projects like a
leaf, formed of a succession of minute lines, green, red, and
white, the tw^o last encircling the green nucleus, which meet in
a common point towards the base, and terminates in almost
imperceptible tenuity. The delicacy of some of the lines, is
truly surprising, and not less the accuracy with which the pat-
terns are executed ; and the brilliancy of the colours is as re-
markable as the harmony maintained in their disposition ; an
art then much more studiously attended to, and far better un-
derstood than at the present day.

The secret of making these glass ornam£nts is more readily
explained from this specimen than any I ^ave met with. It
consists of separate squares, whose original division is readily
discovered in a bright light, as well as the manner of adjusting
the different parts, and of uniting them in one mass ; and here
and there we find that the heat applied to cement the squares
has caused the colours to run between them, in consequence of
partial fusion from too strong a fire. This fact, and the dis-
position of the separate squares, will be better understood from

* Mr Kogers has a specimen applied in this nutnner.

112 On the Manufacture of Glass, Porcelain, ^c.

a reference to the plate, from which, too, some idea may be ob-
tained of the fineness of the lines composing the devices.*

Not only were these various parts made at different times,
and afterwards united by heat, rendered effective on their sur-
faces, by means of a flux applied to them, but each coloured
line was at first separate, and, when adjusted in its proper
place, was connected with those around it by the same process ;
and these, as Winkelmann very properly suggests, were cylin-
ders or laminae, according to the pattern proposed, which pass-
ed in direct lines through the substance or ground in which
they were imbedded.

Paw, Goguet, and other antiquaries, had long ago been con-
vinced that glass was known to the Egyptians as well as the
Phoenicians, at a very remote period, and the immense eme-
ralds mentioned by ancient authors were considered glass imita-
tions of those precious stones ; a conjecture rendered still more
plausible by the experience of modern times, which shews that
the most noted jewels of Christian churches are frequently for-
med of the same materials. Such were the colossal statue of
Serapisjf in the Egyptian labyrinth, nine cubits, or thirteen
feet and a half in height ; an emerald presented by the King
of Babylon to an Egyptian PharaohJ, which was four cubits
or six feet long, and three cubits broad ; and an obelisk§ in
the temple of Jupiter, which was forty cubits, or sixty feet in
height, and four cubits broad, composed of four emeralds. ||

The opinions of those writers respecting the early invention
of glass is now fully confirmed ; and whether the first idea
originated with the Phoenicians, or their neighbours the Egyp-
tians, we have satisfactory evidence of its use 3300, or perhaps
3500 years ago.

Of the different purposes to which glass was applied by the
ancients, Winkelmann gives a further account in the same chap-
ter, where he pronounces his opinion, that " generally speak-
ing, it was employed more frequently in ancient than in mo-

• This reference is to a coloured plate in Mr Wilkinson's work,
t Plin. lib. xxxvii. 5, on the authority of Apion, surnamed Plistonices.
% Plin loc. cit. on the authority of Theophrastus.
§ Plin. loc. cit. See also Theophrastus on Stones, s. 44.
It To have made them of glass required extraordinary gkill.

as knowfi to the Egyptians. 11^

dern times ;'' and cites, as another proof of their great skill in
its manufacture, the vase preserved in the Palazzo Barberini at
Rome, which, from the manner in which the layers of colour
were united " had been mistaken for a real sardonyx.'' It is
the same that is now in the British museum, and known by the
name of the Portland Vase.*

That the Egyptians, at the early period of the eighteenth dy-
nasty, were well acquainted not only with the manufacture of
common glass, for beads and bottles of ordinary quality, but
with the art of staining it of divers colours, is sufficiently pro*
ved by the fragments found in the tombs of Thebes ; and so
skilful were they in this complicated process, that they imitated
the most fanciful devices, and succeeded in counterfeiting the
rich hues and brilliancy of precious stones.-|- The green eme-
rald, the purple amethyst, and other expensive gems, were suc-
cessfully imitated ; a necklace of false stones could be pur**
chased at a Theban jeweller's to please the wearer, or deceive
a stranger, by the appearance of reality ; and the feelings of
envy might be partially allayed, and the love of show be gra*
tified by these specious substitutes for real jewels.

Pliny states, J that the emerald was more easily counterfeited
than any other gem, and considers the art of imitating precious
stones a far more lucrative piece of deceit than any devised by
the ingenuity of man ; Egypt was, as usual, the country most
noted for its skill in this manufacture, § and Strabo|| says,
" that an earth found there was the only kind which would

* Some imitations of it were made by "Wedgewood.

+ Seneca says that Democritus first shewed the method of polishing ivory
and of imitating precious stones (Epist. 90) ; but this was long after the art
was common in Egypt. Vide Plin. (xxxvi. 26) " Fit et album et murrhinum
aut hyacinth OS sapphirosque imitatum (vitrum) ;" and Herodot. ii. 69, who
calls them X/^/va x'^''""'^ ^^ melted composition of stone.

X Non est smaragdo alia imitabilior gemma mendacio vitri ;" and " ex cryS*

tallo tingentur smaragdi, neque est ulla fraus vitse lucrosior," lib. xxvii,

c. 12.

§ Vide the Memoir of M. Boudet, ** Sur I'Art de la Verrerie nc^ en Egypte,"
in that valuable work the Description de I'Egypte, vol. ix. p. 213. I can-
not agree with M. B. respecting the trees and the water of the Natron Lake^,
p. 239, note C.

II Strabo, lib. xvi. p. 521, ed. Cas.

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. H

114 On the Maruifacture of Glass, Porcelain, §t.

answer for rich and variegated compositions."' The emeralds
mentioned by Apion and Theophrastus, which, we before ob-
served, are supposed to have been of glass, might also be cited
to shew that the art was known in the Pharaonic age, if we had
not abundant and far more satisfactory proofs from specimens
found in the ruins of Thebes ; and we can readily believe the
assertion of Pliny, that in his time they succeeded so com-
pletely in the imitation, as to render it " difficult to distinguish
false from real stones/'* Many in the form of beads have
been met with in different parts of Egypt, and particularly at
Thebes ; and so far did the Egyptians carry this spirit of imi-
tation, that even small figures, scarabaei, and objects made of
ordinary porcelain were counterfeited, being composed of still
cheaper materials. A figure, which was entirely of earthen-
ware, with a glazed exterior, underwent a somewhat more
complicated process than when cut out of stone, and simply
covered with a vitrified coating; this last could therefore be
sold at a low price : it offered all the brilliancy of the former,
and its weight alone betrayed its inferiority ; by which means,
whatever was novel, or pleasing from its external appearance,
was placed within reach of all classes ; or at least the possessor
had the satisfaction of appearing to partake in each fashionable
novelty.

Such inventions, and successful endeavours to imitate costly
ornaments by humble materials, not only shew the progress of
art among the Egyptians, but strongly argue the great ad-
vancement they had made in the customs of civilized life ;
since it is certain, that, until society has arrived at a high de-
gree of luxury and refinement, artificial wants of this nature are
not created, and the lower classes do not yet feel the desire of
imitating their wealthier superiors, in the adoption of objects
dependent on taste or accidental caprice.

Glass bugles and beads were much used by the Egyptians
for necklaces, and for a sort of net-work, with which they
covered the wrappers and cartonage of mummies, arranged so
a0 id form, by their varied hues, numerpus devices and figures,
in the manner of our bead-purses ; and the ladies sometimes

* Plin. xxxvii. 12.

as known to the Egyptiaiis. 115

amused themselves by stringing them for ornamental purposes,
as at the present day.

The principal use to which glass was applied by the Egyp-
tians, besides the beads of fancy work already noticed, was for
the manufacture of bottles, vases, and other utensils ;* wine
was frequently brought to table in a bottle, or handed to a
guest in a cupf of this material, and a body was sometimes
buried in a glass coffin.J Occasionally a granite sarcophagus
was covered with a coating of vitrified matter, usually of a deep
green colour, which displayed, by its transparency, the sculp-
tures or hieroglyphic legends engraved upon the stone ; a pro-
cess well understood by the Egyptians, and the same they em-
ployed in many of the blue figures of pottery and stone, com-
monly found in their tombs ; the stone, in one case, being co-
vered with a composition capable of vitrifying, and then ex-
posed to a certain degree of heat, until properly melted and
diffused over the surface, and in the other, dipped into a mix-
ture, which was vitrified in the same manner.

Like the Romans, they used glass for mosaic work, and
pieces of various colours were employed in fancy ornaments,
in the figures of deities, in sacred emblems, and in the different
objects for which inlaid work was particularly adapted, the
quality then used being generally of an opaque kind. In
some of these vitrified compositions, the colours have a bril-
liancy which is truly surprising ; the blues which are given by
copper are vivid and beautifully clear ; and one of the reds,
which is probably derived from minium, has all the intense-
ness of rosso antico with the brightness of the glassy material
in which it is found ; thus combining the qualities of a rich
enamel.

Many of the cups discovered at Thebes, present a tasteful
arrangement of various hues, and evince the great skill of the

• The lamps mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 62.), at the festival of lamps at
Sais, were probably glass. Vide infra, p. 122.

t In Rome the use of glass vases superseded that of gold and silver. Plin.
xxxvi. 26. " Usus ad potandum argenti metalli et auri pepulit (vitrum)."

X Alexander the Great was said to have been buried in a glass coffin at
Alexandria.

h2

116 On the Maniifacture of Glass, Porcelain, <^c.

Egyptians in the manufacture of porcelain ; and no one can
examine similar specimens without feeling convinced of the
great experience they possessed in this branch of art. The
manner in which the colours are blended and arranged ; the
minuteness of the lines, frequently tapering off to an almost
imperceptible fineness ; and the varied directions of tortuous
curves, traversing the substance, but strictly conforming to
the pattern designed by the artist, display no ordinary skill,
and shew that they were perfect masters of the means employed
to produce the effect proposed.

The Egyptian porcelain should perhaps be denominated
glass-porcelain, as partaking of the quality of the two, and not
being altogether unlike the porcelain-glass invented by the ce-
lebrated Reaumur, who discovered, during his curious experi-
ments on different kinds of porcelain, the method of converting
glass into a substance very similar to china-ware.

The ground of Egyptian porcelain is generally of one ho-
mogeneous quality and hue, either blue or green, traversed in
every direction by lines or devices of other colours — red, white,
yellow, black, light or dark blue, and green, or whatever the
artist chose to introduce; and these are not always confined to the
surface, but frequently penetrate considerably into the ground,
sometimes having passed half, at others entirely through the
fused substance ; in which respect they differ from the porcelain
of China, where the flowers or patterns are applied to the surface,
and perhaps justify the use of the term glass-porcelain, which
I have adopted. In some instances, the yellows were put on
after the other colours, upon the surface of the vase, which was
then again subjected to a proper degree of heat ; and after
this, the handles, the rim, and the base, were added, and fixed
by a repetition of the same process. It was not without con-
siderable risk that these additions were made, and many vases
were broken during the operation ; to which Martial alludes in
an epigram on the glass cups of the Egyptians.* That the
Egyptians possessed considerable knowledge of chemistry and

• Martial, Epig. lib. xiv. 115. Calices vitrei : —

" Adspicis ingenium Nili, quibus addere plura
Dum cupit, ah, quoties perdidit auctor opus."

as known to the Egyptians,/ 117

the use of metallic oxides, is evident from the nature of the
colours applied to their glass and porcelain; and they were
even acquainted with the influence of acids upon colour, being
able, in the process of dyeing or staining cloth, to bring about
certain changes in the hues,* by the same means adopted in
our own cotton works, as I shall shew in describing the manu-
factures of the Egyptians.

It is evident that the art of cutting glass was known to the
Egyptians at the most remote periods, hieroglyphics and vari-
ous devices being engraved upon vases and beads, made in the
time of the eighteenth dynasty; and some glass, particularly that
which bears figures or ornaments in relief, was cast in a mould.
Some have supposed that the method of cutting glass was un-
known to the ancients, and liave limited the period of its in-
vention to the commencement of the seventeenth century of our
era ; when Gaspar I^ehniann, at Prague, first succeeded in it,
and obtained a patent from the Emperor Rodolph II. ; but we
may infer from the authority of Pliny, that glass-cutting was
known to the ancients, and that the diamond was used for the
purpose as at the present day, even if they were ignorant of
the art of cutting this stone with its own dust. " Diamonds,""
says that author,-f- " are eagerly sought by lapidaries, who set
them in iron handles, for they have the power of penetrating
anything, however hard it may be.^' He also states that eme-
ralds and other hard stones were engraved, though in early times
it was " considered wrong to violate gems with any figures or de-
vices ;"J and the diamond was found capable of cutting those
of the hardest quality, " for all gems," he observes, " may be
engraved by the diamond."§

It is difficult to decide upon the precise method adopted by
the Egyptians for cutting glass and hard stones ; but if nothing
remains to shew the process they employed, there is sufficient

• Plin. XXXV. 11. {

t Plin. xxxvii. 4. " Expetuntur (adamantis crustae) a sculptoribus, ferro-
que includuntur, nullam non duritiam ex facili cavantes."

t Plin. xxxvii. Proem, and xxxiii. 1. He thinks the stone of Polycrates's
ring was a sardonyx, xxxvii. c. 1.

§ Plin. xxxvii. 13, " Verum omnes (gemmae) adamante (scalpi possunt)."

118 On the Manwfacture ofGlass^ Porcelain^ ^c.

evidence of its effect; and their early intercourse with India
may have led them to the knowledge of the diamond, and of
its great utility in engraving those materials. It is also proba-
ble that emery powder, as I shall hereafter have occasion to ob-
serve, and the lapidary's wheel, were used in Egypt ; and there
is little doubt that the Israelites learned the art of cutting and
engraving stones in that country.*

Some glass bottles were enclosed in wicker-work, very nearly
resembling what is now called by the Egyptians a damagdn :
they were generally of considerable size, holding from one to
two gallons of fluid ; and some of a smaller size, from six to
nine inches in height, were protected by a covering made of the
stalks of the papyrus or cyperus rush, like the modern bottles
containing Florence oil : others, again, appear to have been
partly cased in leather, sewed over them, much in the same
manner as some now made for carrying liquids on a journey.

Among the many bottles found in the tombs of Thebes, none

4

12 3

Fig. 1, has apparentlj leather sewed over^the glass.

2, glass damagdn enclosed in wicker work.

3, glass bottle covered with papyrus rush, like the Florence oil-

flask^r. In the possession of S. Rogers, Esq.

4, a piece of cloth with a border of a blue colour. In my possession.

• The stones engraved by the Israelites were the " sardius, topaz, and car-
buncle ; the emerald, sapphiie^ and diamond ; the ligure, agate, and amethyst ;
the beryl, onyx, and jasper." Exod. xxviii. 17, l«, 19, 20, and xxxix. 6.

as known to the Egyptians. 119

have ex cited greater curiosity and surprise, than those of Chinese
manufacture, presenting inscriptions in that language. The
accidental discovery of a single bottle of this kind would na-
turally pass unheeded ; and if we felt surprised that it should
be deposited in an Egyptian sepulchre, conjecture would rea-
sonably suggest that an accidental visitor in later times might
have dropped it there, while searching for ancient treasures of
a more valuable kind. But this explanation ceases to be ad-
missible, when we find the same have been discovered in vari-
ous Theban tombs. I myself have seen several, two of which
I brought to England :* another is described by the learned
Professor Rosellini,t and found by him " in a previously un-
opened tomb, of uncertain date, Mrliich,'' he refers, " from the

fig.l.

3. 4.

Chinese bottles found in the Egyptian tombs.
Fig. 1, in the Museum of Alnwick Castle.

2, brought by me from Thebes.

3, belonging to Mr "W. Hamilton,

4, in my possession. From Thebes.

* One is in the British Museum, the other in my possession.

t In his extensive work on the F.gyptian Monuments, part 2, yoL it p. 337.

J 20 On the Mantifacture of Glass,' Porcelain, c§-c.

style of the sculptures, to a Pliaraonic period, not much later
than the eighteenth dynasty ;" a fourth is in the museum at
Jersey ; another was purchased by Lord Prudhoe, at Coptos,
and is now in the museum at Alnwick Castle; two others are
in the possession of Mrs Bowen ; and another belongs to Mr
W. Hamilton. They are about two inches in height ; one side
presents a flower, and the other an inscription, containing, ac-
cording to the valuable authority of Mr Davis (in three out of
eight*), the following legend : — " The flower opens, and lo !
another year."

The quality of these bottles is very inferior, and they appear
to have been made before the manufacture of procelain had at-
tained the same degree of perfection in China as in after times ;
they were probably brought to Egypt through India, with which
country I believe the Egyptians to have traded at a very re-
mote period, and contained some precious ingredient, whose
value may be inferred from the size of the vase. It cannot be
supposed that the Egyptians, who manufactured porcelain of
far better quality, would have sought or imported these as ar-
ticles of value ; we can therefore only suppose, that they were
prized for their contents ; and after they were exhausted, the
valueless bottle was applied to the ordinary purpose of holding
the Kohl or Collyrium, used by women for staining their eye-
lids.

It has been questioned, if the Egyptians understood the art
of enamelling upon gold or silver, though even in the absence
of farther evidence, we might infer it from an expression in
Pliny, t who says : " The Egyptians paint their silver vases, re-
presenting Anubis upon them, the silver being painted and not
engraved.'' Small gold figures are frequently found with orna-
mented wings, and bodies, whose feathers, faces, or other coloured
parts are composed of a vitrified composition, let into the metal ;
some again appear to have been really enamelled ; and it is pro-
bable that the early specimens of encaustum were made by tool-
ing the devices to a certain depth on bronze, and pouring a

• I am happv to find that Mr Davis is preparing an account of these in-
teresting curiosities.
+ Plin. xxxiii. 9. ,

as Jcnown to the Egyptians, 121

Titrified composition into the hollow space, the metal being
properly heated, at the same time ; and when fixed, the surface
was smoothed down and polished.

Both the encaustic painting in wax, and that which consisted
in burning in the colours, were evidently known to the ancients,
being mentioned by Pliny,* Ovid,t Martial,^ and others; and
the latter is supposed to have been on the same principle as our
enamelling on gold. Pliny § says it was uncertain to whom the
invention was due ; some ascribe it to Aristides, as that of per-
fecting the art to Praxiteles ; but he supposes *' it was known,
long before that time, to Polygnotus, Nicanor, and Arcesilaus
of Paros;^

Bottles of various kinds, glass, porcelain, alabaster, and other
materials were frequently exported from Egypt to other coun-
tries. The Greeks, the Etruscans, and the Romans received
them as articles of luxury, which, being remarkable for their
beauty, were prized as ornaments of the table ; and when Egypt
became a Roman province, part of the tribute annually paid to
the conquerors consisted of glass vases from the manufactories
of Memphis and Alexandria.

The intercourse between Egypt and Greece had been con-
stantly kept up after the accession of Psamaticus and Amasis ;
and the former, the parent of the arts at that period, supplied
the Greeks and some of the Syrian tribes with the manufactures
they required.

The Etruscans, a commercial people, appear to have traded
with Egypt, about, or a little after, the same period, and we
repeatedly find small alabaster and porcelain bottles in their
tombs, which have all the character of the Egyptian ; and not
only does the stone of the former proclaim by its quality the
quarries from which it was taken, but the form and style of the

• Plin. XXXV. 11. t Ovid, Fast lib. viiL 275.

" et picta coloribus ustis

Coelestum matrem concava puppis habet.'*
$ Mart. Epig. lib. iv. ep. 39.

" Encaustus Phaethon tabula depictus in hac est ;
Quid tibi vis Dipyron qui Phaethonta I'acis ?'*
§ Plin. XXXV. 11. " Ceris pingere, ac picturam inurere quis primus ex-
cogitaverit, non constat."

122 On the Mamifacture ofGlass^ Porcelain^ S^c.

workmanship leave no doubt of the bottles themselves being the
productions of Egyptian artists.

It is uncertain of what stone the murrhine vases, mentioned
bj Pliny,* Martial, and other writers, were made ; it was of
various colours, beautifully blended, and even iridescent, and
was obtained in greater quantity in Carmania than in any-
country. It was also found in Parthia and other districts of
Asia, but unknown in Egypt ; a fact quite consistent with the
notion of its being fluor-spar, which is not met with in the val-
ley of the Nile ,• and explaining the reason why the Egyptians
imitated it with the composition known under the name of false
murrhine, said to have been made at Thebes,t and Memphis.
The description given by Pliny certainly bears a stronger re-
semblance to the fluor-spar, than to any other stone, and the
only objection to this having been murrhine, arises from our
not finding any vases, or fragments, of it ; and some may still
be disposed to doubt if the stone is known to which the na-
turalist alludes. But the fluor-spar appears to have the
strongest claim ; and the porcelain of Egypt, whose various
colours are disposed in waving lines, as if to imitate the natural
undulations of that crystallized substance, may perhaps be
looked upon with reason as the false murrhine of the ancients.
It is difficult to say whether the Egyptians employed glass for
the purpose of making lamps or lanterns : ancient authors give
us no direct information on the subject ; and the paintings
offer no representation which can be proved to indicate a lamp
or torch, or any other kind of light. t

Herodotus§ mentions a " fete of burning lamps," which took

• Plin. xxxvii. 2.

+ Arrian, in his Periplus of the Red Sea (p. 3), mentions " XiSiat vaXns
vXttova ymv, xai aXXns fAoppivns t>j; yivafjbtvrn iv Aiotr^oXti." At Medeenet Ha-
boo are numerous agatised pebbles, which were evidently brought there (the
nearest known spot where they are found being Nubia), but at what period is
uncertain. Were they not for some purpose connected with art ? If so, it
is not probable they were brought there by the Christians, though generally
found upon the surface of the mounds.

:!: In the funeral processions, one person carries what seems to be a candle
or torch.

§ Herodot. ii. 62.

Characters of' the Botanical Alliances. 12S

place at Sais, and indeed throughout the country, at a certain
period of the year, and describes the lamps used on this occa-
sion as " small vases filled with salt and olive oil, on which the
wick floated, and burned during the whole night ;" but it does
not appear of what materials those vases were made, though we
may reasonably suppose them to have been of glass.

The sculptures of Alabastron, again, represent a guard of
soldiers, one of whom holds before him what resembles, and
may be considered, a lantern ; but here too there is great un-
certainty, and neither of these are sufficient to decide the
question.

An Attempt to ascertain Characters of' the Botanical Alliances.
By Sir Edward Ffrench Bromhead, Bart, M. A., F.R.S.
L. & E. Communicated by the Author. (Continued from
vol. xxiv. p. 420).

CHARACTERS OF THE USNEACEOUS RACE.

1. Usneales. •

2. Jungermanniales.

3. Lycopodiales.

4. Cupressales.

5. Betulales.

6. Rhamnales.

7. Euphorbiales.

8. ^scuhles.

9. Hypericales.
10. Limoniales.

11. Fabales.

12. Violales.

13. Passiflorales.

14. Homaliales.

15. Elaeagnales.

16. Acanthales.

17. Lamiales.

18. Rhinanthales.

19. Ericales.

20. Carapanulales.

21. Dipsacales.

22. Myrsinales.

23. Rutales.

24. Malvales.

25. Laurales.

26. Magnoliales.

27. Meuispermales.

28. Asparagales.

29. Orchidales.

30. Bromeliales.

1. Usneales. — Evascular, eductulose, cellules irregular,
surface without stomata or epidermis, not herbaceous-green,
without a distinct axis of vegetation, without leafy appendages.
Not reproductive in water, esexual, thecae (if present) not re-
gularly dehiscing, sporules homonemous in germination.

2. Jungermanniales. — Gregarious, small ; cellules subre-
gular, evascular ; having a distinct stem and dark fibrous roots,
colour herbaceous-green ; usually having crowded simple leafy
appendages, amplexicaul or pseudostipulate, without stomata
(exc. apophysis of Splachnum ampullaceum), acrogenous. Esex-
ual ; reproductive bodies indefinite, under two forms and ha-

124* Sir E. F. Bromhead's Attempt to ascertain

ving a proper integument, contained in thecae ; calyptrate, divi-
sions of teeth or valves binary ; germinating by confervoideous
geniculate threads.

Inclining to a temperate, moist, and shady habitat.

S. Lycopodiales. — Ductulose ; stipe solid, more or less de-
cumbent, having leafy appendages, acrogenous. Esexual ;
caulocarpous under two forms, heteronemeous in germination.
SporuJes indefinite and angular.

Inclining to a warm habitat.
. 4. CuPRESSALES. — Arborcous or frutesccut, exogenous, woody
tissue with circular disks, exarticulate ; multigemmate ; leaves
simple, without branched venation, usually fasciculate and
acerose and rigid. Stipules 0. Sexes distinct, males amenta-
ceous. Stamens 1 or monadelphous ; anthers turned outwards.
Ovules gymnospermous. Albumen present ; embryo straight ;
radicle connate with the albumen.

Inclining to a temperate habitat.

5. Betulales. — Arboreous or frutescent, exarticulate, exo-
genous; leaves alternate, not dotted, not scabrous, usually
deciduous ; stipules present or leaves pinnate (Juglandacea),
not sheathing. Sexes distinct, males amentaceous; Jlowers
small and vernal, and often preceding the leaves. Calyx of the
males membranous or scaly or 0. Males apetalous^ females
apetalous (exc. Juglandaceae). Stamens perigynous; anthers
bilocular. Carpels not more than 3 perfecting seed, connate
with each other. Albumen 0 (exc. Liquidambar). — Inclining
to a temperate habitat.

6. Rhamnales. — Arboreous or frutescent, hairs (if present)
not stellate ; leaves alternate (exc. Colletia, Retanilla). Flowers
small, regular. Perianth more or less valvate or acclinate.
Sepals 2-7, more or less connate. Petals (when present) not
twisted. Stamens inserted with the petals, definite and peri-
gynous or indefinite and hypogynous (Melanorhoea), not adel-
phous when there is a disk. Disk developed or filaments co-
hering at the base (some Anacardiaceae). Carpels not more
than 10, not more than 5 perfecting seed, forming independent
cells, connate with each other or becoming solitary by abor-
tion. Stigma not capitate. Fruit drupaceous or indehiscent
(exc. Boswellia) or splitting into carpels. Ovules not more

Characters of the Botanical Alliances, lS!5

than 1 or 2 to each cell, and often abortive. Albumen 0 (exc.
some Rhamnaceae) ; radicle towards the hilum (exc? Spondias).
Inclining to a warm habitat.

7. EuPHORBiALEs. — Hairs (if present) often stellate; leaves
not dotted, simple (exc, Staphyleaceae) ; stipules rarely absent,
small or deciduous or spinesccnt. Fhnvers small. Odd sepal
inferior. Divisions of the corolla (if any) alternating with the
divisions of the calyx (if any), and not fewer. Carpels form-
ing independent cells, free from the calyx, more or less con-
nate with each other in the bud, dissepiments tending to in-
durate and not to be absorbed. Seeds 1 and erect, or 1-2
and pendulous, or axile and ascending and definite (exc. some
Celastraceoe). Albumen (if present) enclosing the embryo ;
embryo straight or only slightly curved, axile ; radicle to the
hilum.

8. ^scuLALEs. — Leaves petioled ; stipules rarely present
and then small (some Malpighiaceae, some Sapindaceae). Flowers
small (exc. yEsculaceoe, Caryocar). Sepals in a broken series,
imbricate, odd sepal inferior. Torus discoid. Petals (if pre-
sent) issuing from the edge of the disk, not connate with each
other, deciduous. Stamens hypogynous, filaments subulate or
flat (Millingtoniea?), in a single or double row ; anthers in-
trorse, bilocular, cells parallel, not opening by pores. Carpels
2 or 3 or 4, forming independent cells, free from the calyx,
connate with each other. Stigmas not .sessile. Trophosperms
central ; ovules definite. Albumen 0 or extremely thin (Mil-
lingtonieae) ; radicle next the hilum.

9. Hypericales. — Leaves simple ; stipules 0. Flowers
regular. Sepals 2-7, in a broken series, imbricated. Corolla
hypogynous, of 4-10 divisions. Stamens hypogynous, not
fewer than the corolline divisions. Carpellary leaves more or
less turned inwards at the edges, free from the calyx, connate
with each other. Albumen 0 or very small.

Inclining to a warm habitat.

10. LiMONiALEs. — Arboreous or frutescent, leaves alternate
or rarely closed up near the flowers (some Hugoniaceae) ; sti'
pules rarely present and then deciduous (Rhodolaenaceffi) or
subulate (Hugoniaceae). Flowers not sessile. Sepals 3-5,
more or less connate (exc. Rhodolsenaceae, Hugoniaceae), not

126 Sir E. F. Bromhead's Attempt to ascertain

valvate. Petals hypogynous, of the same number as the caly-
cine divisions (exc. Rhodolasnaceae), alternating. Stamens hy-
pogynous, not fewer than the petals, definite (exc. some Rho-
dolaenacese), connected at the base by an urceolus or disk or
corolline tube ; anthers bilocular. Carpels 2 or more or 1 by
abortion (Canelleas, Rhodolaenaceas), forming independent cells,
free from the calyx, connate with each other in the bud.
Stigmas not sessile, style 1 (exc. Hugoniaceae). Ovules not
basilar. Albumen rarely absent (Trichilieae, some Cedrelaceae),
enclosing the embryo ; embryo straight.

Inclining to a tropical habitat.

11. Fabales. — Leaves petioled, usually alternate and stipu-
late. Flowers solitary or racemose or panicled. Sepals not
exceeding 5, odd sepal inferior, sepals in a single series, more
or less connected at the base, persistent. Petals not exceeding
5, alternating with the calycine divisions, not twisted in aes-
tivation. Stamens not more than 4 times the number of
petals. Carpels 1-5, forming independent cells, without an
epigynous disk, free from the calyx (exc. the stipe occasionally),
not gynobaseose, not connate with each other. Styles distinct.
Fruit leguminous or rarely drupaceous or samaroid. Albumen
0 (exc. Fillasa, Cathartocarpus fistula, Cnestis).

VioLALEs. — Not arboreous (exc. Moringaceae), not lactes-
cent, stems round (?) ; leaves with persistent stipules or with
stipulary fringes or with sheathing petioles or pinnatifid. Calyx
of 4 or 5 divisions, odd sepal inferior or by reclination supe-
rior, imbricate, persistent ( ? tube at the base in Moringaceae).
Petals as many as the calycine divisions, alternating, not con-
nate with each other, not valvate, more or less unguiculate or
oblong (Moringaceae). Stamens definite, not fewer than the
petals, not more than the number of petals in a row ; anthers
or their connective or dehiscence more or less abnormal or par-
tially abortive. Carpels 2-5, free from the calyx, connate with
each other ; edges of the carpellary leaves (if turned inwards)
rarely connate at the centre (some Droseraceae). PlacentcE at
the edges of the carpellary leaves or at the base ; ovules many.
Fruit a capsule, distinctly valved when the placentae are not at
the base. Embryo straight, erect, in the axis of albumen (if
any). Albumen rarely absent, and then the embryo oily with

Characters, of the Botanical Alliances, 1^

very thick hypogaeous cotyledons (Moringaceae) or the seeds
numerous (Parnassieae).

13. Passiflorales. — Not truly arboreous or not branched ;
leaves alternate, simple (exc. some Passifloraceae, Turneraceae),
not sessile, petioles often glandular ; stipules 0 (exc. some Pas-
sifloraceae). Cirrhi (if any) axillary. Flowers not sessile.
Sepals 4-7 and sometimes an inner petaloid series, more or
less connate with each other, persistent (exc. some Flacourti-
aceae). Corolla (if any) of as many divisions as the calycine
row, alternating, not valvate. Having a corolloid or filamen-
tous corona (exc. Turneraceae). Stamens not fewer than the
calycine row; anthers 2-celled, bursting longitudinally. Carpels
S-5 (? 2-9 Flacourtiaceoe), free from the calyx (exc. Belvisi-
aceae), connate with each other. Stigmas not sessile (exc. Ca-
ricaceae, some Flacourtiaceae). Carpellary leaves spread parie-
tally open. PlacentcB parietal, or issuing podosperms from the
base (some Malesherbiaceae) , ovules and seeds indefinite, seeds
strophiolate or arillate, or cased in pulp or mucus or in a berry.
Kmhryo straight or slightly curved (Turneraceae) the radicle
not lying on the cotyledons, axile, included in fleshy albumen ;
radicle to the hilum.

14. HoMALiALEs. — Arborcous or frutescent, with round
branches, not lactescent ; leaves alternate, simple, not sessile ;
stipules present (ex. some Bixaceae, Aquilariaceae), free, usually
deciduous. Sexes united. Calycine divisions 3-15, more or
less connate at the base, valvate or imbricate, persistent. Pe-
tals 0 or 5-15, alternating with the calycine divisions. Stamens
not fewer than the calycine divisions, adherent to the calyx or
issuing near the base ; anthers 2-celled, bursting inwards lon-
gitudinally. Carpels 2-7, free from the calyx (exc. Homaha-
ceae), connate with each other ; edges of the carpellary leaves
not turned inwards. Stigmas not sessile (exc. Aquilaria).
Seeds parietal, indefinite or not more than 1 to each carpel, in
pulp or arillate. Embryo included in the albumen (if any), or
(in the solitary seeds) exalbuminous with fleshy cotyledons.

Inclining to a tropical habitat.

15. Eljeagnales. — Not lactescent; leaves (when present)
not truly alternate (exc. some Proteaceae), simple (exc. some
Proteaceae) ; stipules 0. Flowers small, usually aggregate or

128 Sir E. F. Bromhead''s Attempt to ascertain

umbellate. Having a calyx more or less petaloid, or having
petals ; sepals inclining to be connate when the sexes are united,
a bractea or the calyx or its base persistent (exc. some Protea-
ceae). Petals rarely present (Olacaceae), 3-6, valvate. Fertile
stamens 2-10, more or less adherent to the apetalous calyx
(exc. Bellendena) ; anthers bilocular (exc. some Proteaceae),
dehiscing longitudinally inwards. Carpels 1 or 4 (Penaeaceae),
carpels (if more than 1) connate with each other, ^rae from the
calyx (exc. Santalaceae). Stigma on a style or subulate (Elae-
agnaceae). Ovules not more than 4 to each carpel (exc. some
Proteaceae with stipitate ovaries) ; seed not more than 1 matu-
ring for each carpel (exc. in Proteaceae). Albumen (if present)
fleshy, enclosing the embryo ; embryo (if formed) straight, axile
(exc. some Proteaceae) ; radicle more or less in the direction of
the hilum.

Inclining to a warm habitat.

16. AcANTHALEs. — Stems round or compressed or tetrago-
nal with perfect nodes, not lactescent ; stipules 0. InJloreS'
ceuce not circinate nor capitate. Calyx rarely obsolete (some
Oleaceae, some Acanthaceae), herbaceous, persistent, odd caly-
cine division superior. Corolla rarely absent (Fraxinus), of 4
or 5 or 8 divisions, monopetalous (exc. some Oleaceae), more or
less valvate or imbricate or labiate, following the ovary in being
free from the calyx or adherent, deciduous. Stamens 2 or 4 or
5, or 6 connate in 2 parcels (Columelliaceae) ; 2 or 4 fertile
and in the latter case didynamous, adherent to the corolla, al-
ternating with the coroUine divisions ; anthers opening longi-
tudinally, the connective or dehiscence abnormal (exc. Jasmina-
ceae, Bignoniaceae), pollen powdery. Pericarpous disk more
or less developed (exc. Oleaceae, Jasminaceae, Pinguiculaceae).
Carpels not exceeding 4, carpels (if 2) with the midrib facing the
odd sepal, connate with each other. Style 1 or 0 (some Olea-
ceae) ; stigma bilamellate or bilobed or bifid or concave (Ges-
neraceae) or undivided (some Oleaceae, some Acanthaceae) or
quadrifid (some Pedaliaceae). Ovules (if basilar or pendulous)
not exceeding 2 to each carpel or (otherwise) indefinite. Albu-
men (if present) enclosing the embryo ; embryo axile, straight
(exc. some Acanthaceae), cotyledons foliaceous.
Inclining to a warm habitat.

Characters of the Botanical Alliances, 129

17. Lamiales. — Stems round or tetragonal with perfect
nodes, not lactescent ; stipules 0. Inflorescence not gyrate.
Calyx persistent, odd calycine division superior. Corolla mo-
nopetalous, not plaited, more or less irregular, hypogynous,
deciduous. Stamens not exceeding 5, 2 or 4 or rarely 5 (some
Myoporaceae) fertile, stamens (above 2) not of the same length
(exc. some Verbenaceae), adherent to the corolla, alternating
with the coroUine divisions. Carpels 2,* forming independent
cells, free from the calyx, connate with each other in the bud,
carpellary midrib facing the odd sepal. Style 1, stigma of not
more than 2 divisions. Fruit dry, nucamentaceous. Ovules
erect or pendulous, not more than 2 in each cell.s^?aK?w6r^o
straight, cotyledons foliaceous.

18. Rhinanthales. — Herbaceous or frutescent or parasitic,
not lactescent, stems round or tetragonal with perfect nodes ;
leaves rarely absent (Orobanchacese), not compound, opposite
or verticillate on the tetragonal stems ; stipules 0. Ivflorescence
not gyrate. Calyx more or less divided, odd calycine division
superior, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous, irre-
gular, imbricate. Stamens not more than 5 (exc. Disandra),
2 or 4 fertile, scarcely declinate ; anthers opening longitudinally.
Carpels 2, midrib facing the odd sepal (exc. on the transition
to Polycarpelli), connate with each other, free from the calyx.
Styles more or less connate. Fruit a capsule or rarely a berry
(Leucocarpus, Teedia, Hemiphragma). Albumen inclosing the
embryo. — Inclining to a temperate habitat.

19. Ericales. — Not truly arboreous, not lactescent ; leaves
rarely absent (Monotropaceae), simple, entire ; stipules 0.
Flozvers regular. Calyx of 4 or 5 divisions, monophyllous.
Petals connate or subconnate with each other or the plant pa-
rasitic. Stamens of the same number as the coroUine divisions

• Dr Lindley considers the carpels as 2, each bilobed, because : —

1. Thej stand in pairs in the position of bicarpellary Scrophulariaceae ;

2. The bifid stigma ;

3. VerbenacesE split into two bilocular halves, e. g. Cloanthes ;

4. Monsters : — When the number of carpels is multiplied in praetematural

cases {e. g. Coleus aromaticus), the additional carpels are always in
pairs, and the number of additional stigmas corresponds.

VOL. XXV. NO. XLTX. JULY 1838. I

ISO Sir E. F. Brombead's Attempt to ascertain

or double, stamens (when of the same number) alternating, not
adelphous ; anthers hard and dry, opening by pores or unilo-
cular or otherwise abnormal. Carpels 4 or more, forming in-
dependent cells, connate with each other. Style 1. Placenta
adnate to a central column. Albumen fleshy, embryo straight j
axile ; radicle to the hilum, centripetal. — Inclining to a mild
habitat.

20. Campanulales. — Not arboreous, internodes imperfect,
not regularly angled ; leaves simple ; stipules 0. Flowers axil-
lary ; sexes united. Calyx of 2-8 divisions, herbaceous, limb
persistent. Corolla inserted in the throat of the calyx, mono-
petalous or very irregular. Stamens not more than the lobes
of the corolla, alternating. Anthers bilocular, dehiscing lon-
gitudinally. Carpels 1 or more, connate with each other, con-
nate with the calyx (exc. some Goodeniacese, Brunoniaceae).
Style 1, pubescent or fringed or indusiate or systaminous (Sty-
lidiaceae) or very short (Pongatiacese). Seeds exarillate. Al-
bumen present (exc. Pongatiaceas, Brunoniaceae) . Embryo
straight, axile ; radicle centripetal.

21. Dips AC ALES.— -Not truly arboreous ; leaves on the her-
baceous stems usually marcescent ; stipules 0. Flowers (if se-
veral) more or less crowded in inflorescence. Calyx (if any) of
not more than 5 divisions, monophyllous, not petaloid, not pli-
cate, persistent. Corolla of not more than 5 divisions, alter-
nating with those of the calyx, monopetalous, not twisted.
Stamens not more than 5, alternating with the corolline divi-
sions ; anthers more or less induplicate in aestivation or cohering.
Carpels 1 or 3, only 1 perfecting seed, connate with each
other, more or less connate with the calyx (exc. Globulariacea^,
Plantaginaceae). Fruit not dehiscing or not regularly so ;
seed solitary if not attached to a placenta becoming finally
free (some Plantaginaceae). Albumen (if any) inclosing the
embryo ; embryo straight, axile ; radicle superior where the
seed is suspended from the apex or from a basilar podosperm,
inferior in other cases.

Inclining to a temperate habitat.

22. Myrsinales. — Leaves simple, not sessile, in the woody
plants usually coriaceous and persistent ; stipules very rarely
present, and then small and deciduous (Brexia). Calyx of 3-8

Characters of the Botanical Alliances. 131

sepals or divisions, often coriaceous, persistent (exc. Pittos|X)-
raceae). Corolline divisions not fewer than those of the calyx,
and if more then in a double series, alternating. Petals more
or less connate or conniving or valvate at the base. Torus not
developed. Stamens not fewer than the calycine divisions;
anthers bilocular, without appendages, dehiscing longitudinally
inwards. Carpels connate with each other, dissepiments tend-
ing to absorption, free from the calyx or rarely subadherent
(Samoleae, Styraceae). Ovules not parietal. Albumen rarely ab-
sent (jiEgiceras, Brexia), not farinaceous, enclosing the embryo ;
embryo straight or nearly so, radicle not antitropous.
Inclining to a warm habitat.

23. RuTALEs. — Not lactescent. Sexes united or not affect-
ing the floral envelopes. Calyx of 3 or 4 or 5 divisions, odd
one inferior, imbricate or valvate. Corolline divisions alter-
nating with those of the calyx, sooner or later larger than
those of the calyx. Stamens inserted with the petals, definite
(exc. some Ochnaceae), not adelphous (exc. some Rutaceae) ;
anthers bilocular, introrse. Carpels not exceeding the number
of petals (if any), distinct or appearing as distinct ribs of the
ovary, gynobaseose, free from the calyx. Stigmas not sessile,
styles tending to unite above. Pericarp double, the exterior
fleshy or coriaceous, the interior cartilaginous or membranous.
Placenta central; ovules definite (exc. some Rutaceas).

Inclining to a warm habitat.

24. Malvales. — Branches round, hairs (if present) usually
stellate ; leaves alternate, petioled, simple ; stipules very rarely
absent, free. Calyx valvate in the bud or ruptile or irregular.
Petals (when present) as many as the calycine divisions, alter-
nating, hypogynous, twisted or convolute in the bud. Stamens
hypogynous, a multiple of the petals or indefinite, monadelphous
or within a long tubular calyx. Carpels forming independent
cells, verticillate or connate in the bud (exc. perhaps Chris-
tiania, Malope, Sterculia, Erythropsis), free from the calyx.
Ovules at the inner angle.

Inclining to a warm habitat.

25. Laurales. — Arboreous or frutescent or parasitic ; leaves
(if any) petioled, simple. Stipules 0. Flowers not solitary.
Calycine divisions (if any) 3-10, sepals more or less connate,

T O

132 Sir E. F. Bromheacrs Attempt to ascertain

more or less deciduous in the female flower, more or less val-
vate in aestivation or accumbent or formed to admit valvation.
Corolla 0. Stamens definite, more or less adherent to the calyx
or issuing from the torus developed. Carpel 1. Stigma pel-
tate or sublobed or obtuse. Fruit not capsular. Ovule 1,
pendulous or basilar. Embryo with large albumen or with
large or oily cotyledons. Albumen (if any) ruminate, enclosing
the embryo ; radicle to the hilum.
Inclining to a tropical habitat.

26. Magnoliales. — Arboreous or frutescent (exc. some
Dilleniacese), more or less exogenous ; leaves simple ; stipules
0 or deciduous (Illiciea^-Magnoliaceae). Flowers not sessile.
Outer Perigonium a calyx or spatha or calycoid involucrum,
perigonium divided or spathaceous. Petals (when present),
alternating. Stamens many (7 or upwards) ; anthers adnate,
bilocular. Carpels forming independent cells, more or less dis-
tinct, more or less free from the perigonium. Fi'uit (if succu-
lent) inclining to be coadunate at maturity. Embryo small and
included in the base of large albumen, or highly developed and
exalbuminous (Calycanthaceae) ; radicle towards the hilum or
inferior.

Inclining to a tropical habitat.

27. Menispekmales. — Not lactescent ; leaves not opposite,
not dotted, not sessile ; Stipules 0 (exc. pinnate Berberaceae).
Flowers racemose or panicled or fascicled or solitary. Sepals
and Petals (when present) each in one or more rows, the same
number in each row. Petals hypogynous. Stamens not fewer
than the petals, following the germen in being free from the
calyx or adherent (Eupomatia) ; anthers adnate, bilocular.
Carpels forming independent cells ; carpels distinct or connate
in parcels and forming ovaries distinct in the bud ; germen
wholly or nearly free from the calyx. Styles as many as the
carpels. Ovaries indehiscent, inclining (if succulent) to be
coadunate at maturity. Albumen enclosing the embryo ; em-
hryo straight with the radicle inferior, or curved with the radi-
cle superior.

Inclining to a warm habitat.

28. Asparagales. — Not epiphytic nor parasitic, not lactes-
cent ; roots not calyptrate ; leaves not lepidote nor equitant.

Characters of the Botanical Alliances. 133

Inflorescence not spadiceous. Perianthine divisions not simu-
lating distinct calyx and corolla, divisions (if petaloid) regular,
not involute after flowering. Stamens 3-6 ; anthers bilocular.
Carpels 2 or 3 or 4, free from the calyx (exc. in some unisexual
flowers, Dioscoreaccae). Fruit not drupaceous nor nucamentose.
Valves (if any) carrying the dissepiments, hilum not rostellate.
Albumen present, enclosing the embryo ; embryo not trochlear ;
radicle to the hilum.

Inclining to a temperate habitat.

29. Okchidales. — Not annuals, roots not calyptrate ; leaves
simple, entire, more or less sheathing. Inflorescence not spadi-
ceous, flowers not minute. Perianth in six divisions, not glu-
maceous ; the odd exterior division inferior, or by a twisting
superior ; three or more of the divisions petaloid, or all petaloid
if in a single row. Stamens not more than six. Carpels not
more than three, connate with each other, connate with the pe-
rianth. Embryo (if formed) included in albumen, not macro-
podal.

Inclining to a warm habitat.

30. Bromeliales. — Herbaceous or rarely frutescent (some
Bromeliaceae) ; leaves (if any) undivided (exc. some Taccaceae).
Perianth present, divisions in one or two rows, each row in
the male flowers of three divisions, outer row more or less con-
nate, inner row petaloid. Stamens 3 or 6 or more, (if 3) facing
the inner perianth, adherent to the perianth, free from each
other ; anthers two-celled, turned inwards. Carpels 3, connate
with each other, connate with the perianth (exc. Tillandsieae,
Wachendorfieae). Stigmas not sessile, styles connate. Ovules
not basilar, one or two to each carpel or indefinite. Albumen
present. [The Rhizanths are not included.]

References to the Table,

(^) These are Coniothalami, Idiothalami, Hjmenothalami, Gasterothalami (exc. ?

Sphaerophoreae).
(') Asteraceae are Asteraceae-cichoraceae-mutisiaceae-cynaraceae — followed by ( Xeran-

themeae)-calendulaceae-arctotideae.
Asparagaceae are Convallarinae.parideae-asparageae-aloiaae-anthericeae.
Celastraceae are Celastraceae-staphyleaceae-bippocrateae-trigonieae.
Hemerocallaceae are tScilleae-hemerocallideae-tulipeae.
Oleaceae are Oleaceae-jasmiDaceae.

Rhinanthaceae are (Hemimerideae-antirTkiDeae)-gerardieae-'('rhinaDtheae.
Smilaceae are Smilaceae-dioscoreaceae-troxburgbiaceae.

134

f THE USNEACEOUS RACE.

++FuNGi,.,.By8saceae, calyciaceae, ^ grapliidaceae/ usneaceae,^ endocarpaceae, ^

Ricciaceae, tnarcbantiaceae, jungermanniaceae, andraeaceae, bryaceae,
Salviniaceae, marsileaceae, isoetaceae,^ fLYCopoDiACEAE, lepidodendraceae,*
(Salisburiaceae^), ftaxaceae, cupressace^, fpinaceae, araucariaceae,

Liquidambraceae, salicaceae, betulaceae, carpineae^-fcorylaceae, juglandaceae,
Anacardiaceae-spondieae, burseraceae, cbailletiaceae, nitrarlaceae-(neuradeae), rhamnackae,
rCoriariaceae, ('t')EUPHORBiACEAE, empetraceae-stackhousieae, celastraceae, erythroxylaceae,

Malpigbiaceae, (f)aceraceae, ^sculaceae, millingtonieae-sapindaceae, caryocaraceae, ^
fClusiaceae, marcgraaviaceae, hypericaceae, ocbranthaceae-carpodonteae, f cameliiaceae,
Rbodolaenaceae, humiriaceae, (bugoniaceae)-(canelleae), meliaceae-cedreleae, limoniaceae.

Amyridaceae, fconnaraceae, mimoseae-detarleae, swartzleae-+FABACEAE, geoffroyeae-caesalpinieae,

Moringaceae, [wormskioldiae'-tfrankeniaceae-sauvagesiae, (f )parnassieae,''^ droseraceee, fviOLACEiK,!
■fPASsxFLORACEAE-raalesberbieae, turneraceae, caricaceae, belvisiaceae, patrisieae-+flacourtiaceaer
Bixaceae, pangiaceae, samydaceae, homai-iaceae, aquilariaceae,

tDapbnaceae«penaeaceae, f proteaceae, el^agnace^, nysseae^-fsantalaceae-antboboleae, olacacese,

Oleaceae, columellieae-gesneraceae, pinguiculaceae, acanthaceae, cyrtandreae-bignoniaceae

pedalieae,
Stilbaceae, selaginaceae, myoporaceae, verbenaceae, LAMiACEAE-ocimoideae,
Buddleieae-bucbnereae, fgratioleae, (+veroniceae), f rhinanthaceae,^ orobancbaceae,

Monotropaceae-('f')pyrolaceae, ['['Ericaceae, epacridaceae, andromedeae, vacciniaceae,]
CAMPANULACEAE-lobelieae, stylidiaceae, pongatiaceae, goodeniaceae-scaevoleae, brunoniaceae,
Asteiaceae,'' valerianaceae, calyceraceae, DirsACACEAE-globularieae, 'f-plantaginaceae.

+Priraulaceae-MYRSINACEAE, acbrasaceae, (f)styraceae-diospyraceae, ilicaceae-brexieae, pittosp

raceae,
fZygopbyllaceae, f rutaceae, txantboxylaceae, simarubaceae, ocbnaceae,
Dipterocarpaceae, elaeocarpeae-tiliaceae, byttnerieae-dombeyae-bombaceae, Malvaceae, stercul

Myristicaceae, bernandiaceae, iliigeraceae, cassytbaceae, lauraceae,
Atberospermaceae, monimiaceae, calycantbaceae, illicieae-MAGNOLiACEAE, f dilleniaceae,
•Schizandraceae, fanonaceae, fberberaceae-(nandineae), lardizabaleae, menispermaceae,

Smilaceae,^ +asparagaceae,^ (f)juncaceae-gilliesieae, fbemerocallaceae,^ (f)melanthiaceae,
Iridaceae, apostasiaceae, ORCHiDACEAE-vanilleae, zingiberaceae-maranteae, musaceae,
fAinaryllidaceae, fBROMELiACEAE, fhaemodoraceae, burmaauiaceae, (taccaceae),...tRHizANTHEi

135

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( 139 )

NOTE to the Quarterly Meteorological Observations from Decem-
ber 1836 to March 1838, published in the Edinburgh Philoso-
phical Journal for October 1837 and July 1838.

The barometer used in December 1836, was a cistern one by Robinson of
London. On all the other occasions a syphon one, on Bunten's construction,
made by Adie of Edinburgh, was employed. It was placed in a closet ad-
joining a room in which there was a fire. In December 1836 and'Marcli
1837, the external thermometer was placed outside a window having a north-
ern aspect, and in June and December 1837, and March 1838, on the roof
under shelter. In December 1836 and March 1837, the moisture was ascer-
tained by Leslie's hygrometer ; for which a moistened bulb thermometer was
substituted in the subsequent observations. The place of observation is
about 160 feet above the sea.

The observations for September 1837, were taken at a height about 15
feet above the other station. The instruments were the same. The baro-
meter was placed at a window having a southern aspect, but removed during
the day to one having a northern aspect. The thermometers were suspend-
ed in the shade near the barometer. From the indications of the external
thermometer, 0^.5 must be substracted from those of the moistened thermo-
meter 0°.l.

The barometer in December 1836, was not corrected for capillarity. With
that and other exceptions mentioned, all necessary corrections have been
applied.

At the June observations on the Drachenfels, at which one of the members
of the Committee assisted, the barometer used was by Bunten of Paris, and
carefully protected from the sun. The thermometers were placed near the
barometer. Ths error of the thermometers was ascertained a few days after-
wards, when the moistened thermometer stood 0°.2 above, and the other 0"'.2
below the freezing point. The variation in the height of the barometer at
10 p. M. June 21, was partly occasioned by the instrument having been re-
moved and replaced, which seems to have removed some previously existing
adhesion.

Since September 1837, Sir J. Herschel has recommended that the obser-
vations should not be prolonged beyond twenty.five hours, as no additional
benefit was found to result from the longer period. This suggestion has been
complied with in the subsequent observations.

( 140 )

jiddress to the Geological Society, at the Anniversary on the 1 Qth
of February 1838. By the Rev. William Whewell,
M. A., F. R. S., President of the Society.

Gentlemen,

You have heard in the reports just read, statements which
shew that the society is in a state of healthy progress both in
respect to its numbers and its funds. The total number of
Fellows of the Society, exclusive of the Honorary and Foreign
Members, at the close of the year 1836, was 709. At the
close of the last year it was 738, the increase being 29, after
deducting 18 members deceased or resigned.

A part of the Transactions has recently been published,
which is worthy of its predecessors in the interest of its matter.
and which is not inferior to them in its appearance and illustra-
tions. I believe it will be found that improvements have been
introduced, especially in the colouring of the maps.

Our collections have also gone on increasing, and have, as in
previous years, derived great additional value from the labour
and knowledge bestowed upon them by our excellent curator.
But your Council has found itself compelled to attend to the
great, and I may say intolerable amount of labour which has
fallen upon Mr Lonsdale, and certain alterations in the Society's
arrangements, directed to the object of remedying this evil, are
now in progress or in contemplation. When they are com-
pleted I shall have the satisfaction of announcing them to the
Society.

The Council have awarded the "WoUaston Medal, as you have already been
informed, to Mr Richard Owen, for his general services to Fossil Zoology,
and especially for his labours employed upon the fossil mammalia collected
by Mr Darwin in the voyage of Captain Fitz Roy. I need not remind you,
Gentlemen, how close are the ties which connect the study of living and of
fossil animals ; how much light the progress of comparative anatomy throws
upon the interpretation of geological characters ; and what important steps
in our knowledge of the past condition of the earth are restorations of the
animal forms which peopled its surface in former times, but have long va-
nished away. Since the immortal Cuvier breathed into our science a new
principle of life, the value of such researches has ever been duly appreciated ;

Rev. Mr Whewell's Address io the Geological Society, 141

and the award of the Wollaston Medal last year is an evidence how gladly
your Council take that method of congratulating the successful cultivators of
such studies. I am sure that all who are acquainted with Mr Owen's la-
bours will rejoice that we have in this manner marked our sense of his suc-
cess. His earlier researches, those for instance on the Nautilus, have been
of exceeding use and interest to geologists. And the first part of his de-
scription of the fossil mammalia, collected by Mr Darwin in South America,
contains matters of the most striking novelty, interest, and importance. We
have there the restoration, performed with a consummate skill, such as fitly
marks the worthy successor of Hunter and the disciple of Cuvier, of two
animals, not only of new genera, but occupying places in the series of animal
forms, which are peculiarly instructive. For the one, the Toxodon, connects
the Rodentia with the Pachydermata by manifest links, and with the Ceta-
cea by more remote resemblances; and thus contributes to the completion of
the zoological scale just in the parts where it is weakest and most imperfect:
while the other animal, the Macrauchenia, the determination of which is con-
sidered by anatomists as an admirable example of the solution of such a prob-
lem, appears to be exactly intermediate between the horse and the camel.
But this creature is also interesting in another way, since it closely resembles
although on a gigantic scale, an animal still existing in that country, and pe-
culiar to it, the Llama. Thus, in this, as in some other instances, the types
of animal forms which distinguish a certain region on the earth's surface, are
clearly reflected to our eyes as we gaze into the past ages of the earth's
history, while they are magnified so as to assume what almost appear super-
natural dimensions. The Llama, the Capybara, and the Armadillo of South
America are seen in colossal forms in the Macrauchenia, the Toxodon, and
the Megatherium. I will not omit this occasion of stating, that the profound
and enlarged speculations on the diffusion, preservation, and extinction of
races of animals to which Mr Darwin has been led by the remains which he
has brought home, give great additional value to the treasures which he has
collected, and make it proper to offer our congratulations to him, along with
Mr Owen, on the splendid results to which his expedition has led, and is
likely to lead. Mr Owen and Mr Darwin are engaged in the restoration of
other animals from the South American remains in their possession, and I
am able to announce that two or three other new genera have already been
detected. I am sure I am conveying your feeling. Gentlemen, as well as my
own, when I express a cordial hope that these two naturalists, so fitted by
their endowments and character to advance the progress of science, may long
go on achieving new triumphs ; and may have the satisfaction — higher even
than that which they derive from the honours we so willingly bestow — of
finding the great principles which it is given to them to wield, becoming
every year more powerful instruments of discovery ; and of seeing, as they
pursue their researches, light thrown upon the darkest and widest of the vast
problems which they have proposed to themselves.

I will now say a few words concerning a few of the most conspicuous of
the names which have been obliterated by death from our list during the
year.

Among the members of our body, whom we have lost, there is one whom
we cannot but mention with more than common emotion, endeared as he was

14)2 Rev. Mr "W he well's Address to the Geological Society.

to many of us by private friendship, and admired by all for his talents, his
knowledge, and his services. Dr Edward Turner, Professor of Chemistry in
the London University, filled the office of our Secretary for five years, and
subsequently was two years Vice-President, which situation he held at the
time of his death in February 1837- Several of you may remember, Gentle-
men, that our last anniversary meeting was in some measure clouded by the
recollection of this then recent calamity ; and that many of the Fellows of
the Society, on that occasion, expressed their intention of testifying their
respect and regard for the departed by attending his funeral. Of Dr Tur-
ner's i)rivate virtues, and of the charm of his society, I must not here speak.
I will not allow myself to dwell upon the admirable clearness and precision
of his thoughts as expressed in conversation, — upon the delightful openness
and candour of his character, — upon the kind and gentle cheerfulness of his
demeanour, the genuine fruit of a deep habitual religious feeling. But I
may take this occasion to say, that in him chemistry suffered a loss, not only
great, — for that all would at once say, — but much greater and more difficult
to repair than may at first sight appear. Dr Turner entertained a convic-
tion (I am stating the result of many interesting conversations which I have
held with him) that the time was come when the chemist could not hope to
follow out the fortunes of his science, and to read in her discoveries their full
meaning, without being acquainted with the language, and master of the re-
sources of mathematics. Acting upon this enlightened view, he did not he-
sitate to encounter the great labour and exertion of a course of study in the
higher mathematics ; and he succeeded entirely in making himself a good
mathematician. And he was one of the very few who, in our country, labour
at a branch of chemistry which is of the highest importance to us as geolo-
gists ; but which, — we may suppose from its laborious and intricate nature, —
appears to repel our most active chemists ; I mean that portion of chemistry
which is connected with mineralogy.

Yet this department is, in truth, more inviting than it may at first appear.
No doubt in it clear mathematical conceptions are necessary, and perhaps
some little training in mathematics ; biit there is good promise that the la-
bour which this line of investigation demands will be rewarded. I am fully
persuaded that there is no portion of the frontier line of our knowledge of
which we can so certainly say, " Here we are on the brink of great discove-
ries." Had Dr Turner been spared to us some years longer, I know no one
who was more likely to have had a principal share in such discoveries. Two
papers of his, in the Philosophical Transactions,* show that he was able to
deal with the atomic theory in a mode which combines the resources of the
skilful analytical chemist with the rigour of the mathematical reasoner; a
combination which the right prosecution of that theory requires, but which
has not always been found in its cultivators.

Dr Turner lectured on chemistry at the London University from its first
foundation in 1828 ; he was there surrounded by students, whose affection he
gained by his kindness, as well as their admiration by the clearness of his
teaching. He also gave a course of lectures on geology, in conjunction with

* On the Composition of Chloride of Barium, 1829 ; Researches on Atomic^Weights, 1833.

Rev. Mr WhewelPs Address to the Geological Society. 143

Dr Grant and Mr Lmdlcy, each of those gentlemen taking a division of the
subject with which he was most familiar. Dr Turner was snatched from
science at the early age of thirty-nine, having been born in the island of Ja-
maica in 1796". He studied anatomy at Edinburgh, and chemistry at Got-
tingen, under the able chemist Friedrich Von Stromeyer, to whom he dedi-
cated his Elements of Chemistry ; a work which has had, as it well deserves,
a very wide circulation among students.

In William Parish, B. D., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, the Society has lost an
honorary member, elected as such soon after its original foundation, namely in
November 1808, and one of a number of our countrymen who were at that
period placed upon the honorary list. Professor Parish never employed him-
self peculiarly in geological pursuits, as we now understand the term; but it
is to be recollected, that within a few years of the date of his election, which
I have mentioned, the investigation of the earth's structure made a rapid
progress, and, in consequence, assumed a more fixed and technical form. Pro-
fessor Parish's scientific studies were mainly directed to the arts, manufac-
tures, and machinery of the empire ; on these subjects he delivered courses
of lectures full of interest and instruction; and he was thus led to describe
our mines, and the mode of working them.

But no reference to particular portions of Professor Parish's labours can
convey a just notion of the impulse which he gave to the progress of scienti-
fic knowledge within his own sphere of influence, by the habit of seizing,
with an active and vivid apprehension, upon prominent parts of modern
science, and conveying them, in a manner singularly clear and simple, to his
audience. For a long course of years, his lectures were more efficacious than
any other circumstance ii^ stimulating the minds of men in his university to
philosophical thought on physical subjects ; and to this day these lectures are
never mentioned, by those who attended them at that period, without admi-
ration and pleasure. His merit was well recognised by the university in
which he spent his life. He received the highest mathematical honours of
that body on taking his degree of B. A. in 177B, was elected Professor of
Chemistry in 1794, and Jacksonian Professor in 1813; and at the institution
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in November 1819, he was its first
president.

I cannot refrain from adding, that although I have here to speak of him
principally as a man of science, such pursuits were in his case little more than
episodes, in a life the main action of which was directed to the ends of reli-
gion and benevolence. In his duties as a minister of Christianity, he was most
zealous and indefatigable ; and every attempt to relieve the misery, the igno-
rance, the unjust restraints of any portion of mankind, found in him a stre-
nuous advocate and ready agent. His childlike simplicity, genuine kindness
of heart, and untiring religious earnestness, were such as well suited his kin-
dred with Bernard Gilpin, " the Apostle of the North," from whom, through
his mother, he derived his descent. He was bom at Carlisle in 1759, and
died at the age of seventy-eight.

Henry Thomas Culebrooke, Member of the Supreme Council of Calcutta,
was one of those extraordinary men whom our Indian empire has produced;

144 Rev. Mr Whe well's Address to the Geological Society.

and who shew the animating effects of the great scene in which they are there
placed, by the variety of subjects to which they extend their attention, and
by the vigour with which they combine speculative and practical employ-
ment. Mr Colebrooke went to India as a writer in 1782, and about 1792 be-
gan to attend peculiarly to Sanscrit literature. A little later we find him
beginning to enrich the Asiatic Researches with a series of memoirs on the
religion, the literature, and, above all, the science of the Hindoos. In this
department his labours on the Zodiac of the Indians,* and on their notions of
the Precession of the Equinoxes and the motions of the Planets,t are highly
deserving of notice; as were at a later period the account of the Indian Alge-
bra, given in his translations of the Lilawati and Vijaganita. But Mr Cole-
brooke was also ready to contribute a share in sciences with which we are
more nearly concerned. He took a lively interest in the correction of errors
respecting the physical geography of India, and was one of the first to de-
clare (in 1815) his opinion that the Himalaya mountains were higher than
the Andes, an opinion soon afterwards fully confirmed. He also was one of
the first to enter upon a subject, to which we may now look with the greatest
hope. The first part of vol. i. of our New Series of Transactions (published
in 1822) contains two papers by him, one upon the geology of the valley of
the Sutledge, which had been explored by Lieut. Gerard ; the other upon the
north-east of Bengal, where Mr D. Scott had noticed various rocks, and,
among the rest, a deposit which contained fossils, resembling, as he conceived,
those of the London clay. I shall have occasion, in the course of this ad-
dress, to refer to a recent repetition of this observation of an identity between
the fossils of the east of India and those of the London and Paris basin. I
may observe that these, and other contributions to Indian geology by other
writers, contained in the volume of which I spoke, and a preceding one, in-
duced the Secretaries of that time to insert a map, on which the localities of
these observations were indicated ; and to express in the volume a hope that
these were merely an earnest of the information which might be expected
from the activity of British subjects in that quarter.

Among our foreign members deceased within the year, 1 regret much to
have to mention one, to whom is due in no small degree a revolution in the
mode of treating the subject of geology, which has taken place in our own
times, alid the formation of a new branch of geology. This revolution con-
sists in the endeavour, now so familiar to us, to identify geological with re-
cent changes, instead of classifying the great past changes in the surface of
the earth which its structure discloses to us, as separate from the newer and
slighter modifications of which history and tradition give us evidence ; and
the study of the discernible causes of change to which we are thus led, I shall
have occasion to speak of under the name of Geological Dynamics. You are
well aware that Mr Lyell is the person who has, with a bold and vigorous
hand, moulded the whole scheme of geology upon this idea; but the power
which he had of doing this was derived in no small degree from Von HofF's
admirable survey of the evidence of those changes which can be proved by
tradition. The extent and universality of the facts thus brought into notice,
might well forcibly strike a philosopher already seeking to apply such a

* Aslat. Res., vol. ix. t Ibid. vol. xil.

Rev. Mr Whe well's Address to the Geological Society, 145

principle to geology; and Mr Lyell has always been forward to acknowledge
his obligations to M. Von HofF. Indeed the idea of such an identification of
geological with historical changes was by no means new ; it had been both
expressed and acted on by Deluc ; and must have been present to the minds
of those persons who framed the question which gave rise to Von HofFs book.
This question was proposed in 1818 by the Royal Academy of Science of
Giittingen. " Considering^^ they said, " that we havCy in the crust of the earthy
evidence of great revolutions, which have happened at dlffersnt times, in different
portions, and of which the period and duration are unknown, we are led to ask^ whe-^
ther certain more partial alterations may not lie within the domain of tradition, and
give us the means of knowing at what period they took place, and what time the f of"
mation of certain portions of the earth's crust required ; whereby some light may be
thrown on those changes which lie beyond the limit of history. ^^

M. Von Hoff 's work, — " The history of those natural changes in the
earth's surface which are proved by tradition'' — appeared (the first part) in
1822, and had the Academy's prize assigned to it. This part of the work
contained an account of the changes due to the agency of water ; and, by the
wide range of reading and study wliich it included, and the philosophic man-
ner in which its copious materials were arranged, well justified the distinction
which it received. The view presented in it of the great changes which hav6
gone on from the beginning of historical times, — the yielding or advancing
of coasts, the disappearing of islands, the union of seas, — appear to give a
new face to the globe. But the portion of the judgment of the Academy
which the author most valued, was that in which they said that he had used
the sources of his information conscientiously. In 1824 appeared the second
part, containing the history of volcanos and earthquakes ; and, although the
previous labours of Humboldt and Von Buch had done much to connect and
generalise facts of this kind. Von Hoff's labours were an important step :
" At least," he himself says, " he was not aware that any one before him had
endeavoured to combine so large a mass of facts with the general ideas of the
natural philosopher, so as to form a whole." Among other large views, we
may see much which, as to kind of change supposed, agrees with the opinions
of Mr Darwin, of which I shall have to speak ; for instance, Von HotF con*
ceives that the island of Otaheite is undergoing a gradual elevation out ot
the sea. * Finally, the third volume of this work appeared after an interval
often years, in 1834; in which he considers other causes of change; as rising
and sinking of the land ; alterations of rivers and seas ; the operations of
snow and ice ; and also the geological results to which the whole survey had
led him. In this volume he expresses his pleasure at the appearance of Mr
Lyell's work, which had taken place in the intervening period, and by which
he had found much new light thrown upon his own speculations.

In the interval of time between the publication of the second and third
volumes, M. Von Hoff published " Geological Observations on Carlsbad'
(1825), and " Measures of Heights in and near Thuriniria" (1833). In this
last work, he not only gave a great number of his own barometrical measure-
ments, but discussed all extant measures of the heights of points in Thu*

« Part II. Pi«r. p. xiv.
VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX.— JULY 1838. K

146 Rev. Mr Whe well's Address to the Geological Society.

ringia, to the amount of above 1100. He also employed himself in meteo-
rological observations.

Karl Ernest Adolph Von Hoff, Knight of the order of the White Falcon,
and invested with several oflBces of honour and dignity at the Ducal Court
of Gotha, died at Gotha the 24th of May last. He was 66 years of age, ha-
ving been born in the same city Nov. 1. I77I.

Besides the history I have mentioned, which must always continue to be
a classical work on the subject of which it treats, he was at the time of his
death employed in completing a continuation of his Notices of Earthquakes
and Volcanic Eruptions ; and also a new work, which was considered to be an
important one, and was to be entitled " Germany, according to its Natural
Conditions and Political Kelations."

In attempting a rapid survey of the contributions to geolo-
gical knowledge which have come under our notice during the
past year, I may perhaps be allowed to advert to a distinction
of the subject into Descriptive Geology and Geological Dyna-
mics ; the former science having for its object the description
of the strata and other features of the earth's surface as they
now exist ; and the latter science being employed in examining
and reducing to law the causes which may have produced such
phenomena. We appear to be directed to such a separation of
our subject by the present condition of our geological studies,
in which we and our predecessors have accumulated a vast store
of facts of observation, and have laboured with intense curio-
sity, but hitherto with very imperfect success, to extract from
these facts a clear and connected knowledge of the history of
the earth's changes. Nearly the same was the condition of
astronomy at the time of Kepler, when the accumulated obser-
vations of twenty centuries resisted all the attempts of that in-
genious man and his contemporaries to construct a science of
physical astronomy. But though checked by such failures,
they were not far from success ; and when for the next suc-
ceeding century philosophers had employed themselves in creat-
ing a distinct science of Dynamics, the science of physical astro-
nomy, full and complete, made its appearance, as if it were a
matter of course ; and thus shewed the wisdom of separately
cultivating the study of causes, and the classification of facts.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

If we begin with geological facts, our attention should first
be drawn to that district on the earth's surface within which
the facts have been subjected to a satisfactory comparison and

Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society. 147

classification, and which may be considered, in a general way,
as including England, France, Italy, Germany, and Scan-
dinavia. The language which the rocks of these various
countries speak has been, in a great measure, reduced to
the same geological alphabet. The questions of the deter-
mination of any member in one country, or the identification
of similar members in two countries, are, for the most part^
problems admitting of a definite and exact solution. In coun-
tries out of this district, on the other hand, we have not only to
explore but to classify. We have to divine their geological
alphabet ; — to decipher as well as to read. We have not only
to discover of what British rocks the observed ones are the
equivalents, but we h^e to ascertain whether there be an
equivalence ; and, where this relation vanishes, we have to dis-
cover what new resemblances and differences of members are
most worthy our notice. The great difference in the nature of
the geologist's task in these two cases seems to me to make it
desirable to employ the familiar division of Home and Foreign
Geology in a wider sense than has hitherto been common, in-
cluding in the former all that region of Europe which has had
its order of strata well identified with our own ; this distinction,.
then, I shall employ.

1. Home {North European) Geology. — If we attempt, in this-
part of our subject, to follow an order of strata, we must begin
with the oldest stratified rocks, though they are undoubtedly
the most obscure ; for the same reason which compels the his-^
torian of states to begin with the dim twilight of their savage
or heroic times ; namely, because at the other extremity of the
series there is no boundary ; since the events of past ages and
their records form an unbroken series, leading us to the un-
finished occurrences and works of to-day. Going, then, as far
back as the historian of the earth can discern any light, and,
for reasons which may hereafter be spoken of, shaping our
course by the stratified rocks alone, we should first have to ask
what addition has been made during the past year to our ac-
quaintance with those formations which have generally been
called transition. And here, gentlemen, many of you well
know, that if I had had to address you at a period a little later,
I might have hoped to be able to point out, among the labours

k2

1 48 Hev. Mr WhewelFs Address to the Geological Society.

of our members, some which may be considered as events of
primary importance in this part of our knowledge ; — steps
which may be described as a new foundation rather than a
mere extension of this portion of European geology ; — a sepa-
ration and arrangement of Transition rocks, which is likely to
become the type and classical model of that part of the geolo-
gical series, as Smith''s arrangement of the oolites became the
type of that portion of the strata. I speak of Professor Sedg-
wick''s views on the Cambrian rocks, which occupy the north-
west of Wales, and Mr Murchison''s on the Silurian formations
which cover the remainder of the principality and the adjacent
parts of England. Mr Murchison''s work, which cannot but
be one of first-rate value and interest^, will, I trust, be in our
hands in a few weeks ; and I should grieve to think that Pro-
fessor Sedgwick will be not only so unjust to his own reputa-
tion, but so regardless of the convenience and expectations of
geologists, as to withhold from the world much longer the
views which his sagacious and philosophical mind has extracted
from the accumulated labour of so many toilsome years, on a
subject abandoned to him mainly from its difficulty and com-
plexity.

Turning, then, to the researches which have been laid before
us upon the earlier stratified rocks, I am first led to notice the
important memoir of the two gentlemen I have just mentioned,
upon the structure of North Devonshire. According to the
views of these gentlemen, founded upon an extended examina-
tion of the county, this portion of England forms a great
trough, having an east and west position, in which a series of-
culmiferous beds rest at their northern and southern extremi-
ties upon older rocks. The plants found in the culmiferous
beds are said to be all identical with species which are abun-
dant in the coal-fields of the central counties of England, and
of the South Welsh coal basin : and it was at first conceived
that these plants differed essentially from the scanty and im-
perfect remains of vegetables which are found in the older
rocks. More recently, however, the same fossil plants which
occur in the culm measures are said to have been detected in
the subjacent strata. Before this fact was known, the identity
of the fossils and the resemblance of mineralogical character

Rev. INfr WhewelPs Address to the Geological Society. 149

seemed irresistibly to prove the culm-bearing beds of Devon to
be the same formation with the culm or coal-bearing measures
of Pembrokeshire on the opposite side of the Bristol Channel.
How far this apparent anomaly admits of explanation, and in
what manner it is to be allowed to modify the conclusion pre-
viously drawn, we may perhaps most properly consider as ques-
tions hereafter to be decided. The rocks which support the
culmiferous formation on the north, are conceived by Messrs
Sedgwick and Murchison to be a series, of which the last
ascending term is probably of the date of the lowest portion of
the Silurian system. On the south the culmiferous strata rest
partly upon the granite, and partly upon the oldest slate rocks
of Devon and Cornwall.

The same general vi^w of the nature of the transverse sec-
tion of Devon, and of the age of the culm, has been presented,
perhaps I ought to say adopted, by the authors of two other
papers upon the same region which have been brought before
us — Mr Austen and Mr Weaver ; and also, at least so far as
the section is concerned, by the Rev. D. Williams, in a com-
munication made to the British Association in September last.
Nor am- 1 aware that it has been dissented from by any one
who has examined the county in question since this view was
made generally known. Resting on the concurrence of so many
able observers, I should conceive, therefore, that we may look
upon this view as established, so far as the time which has
elapsed allows us to use the term. No truths should be termed
incontestable till a considerable period has been left for the an-
tagonists to show themselves and to try their force.

Although this view has thus ^o good a claim to acceptance,
you are aware. Gentlemen, that it is entirely different, both as
to the form of the section and the age of the members, from-
that which was entertained up to the time when these gentle-
men turned their attention to the subject. Their opinion re-
specting Devonshire being adopted, along with the views of
the same eminent geologists respecting Cumberland and North
and South Wales, one-third of our geological map of England
will require to be touched with a fresh pencil.

Nor is this wonderful. It is rather a matter of extraordi-
nary surprise, that when the rest of the geological map of

150 Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society,

England is again dmwn, there is scarcely any but microscopic
alterations which require to be made. No higher evidence can
be conceived of the vast knowledge and great sagacity of its
author.

Such modifications we must ever expect to have to make of a
first approximation ; and I should think it a misfortune to our
researches if we should attempt to elude this necessity by giving
up the key of all our geological knowledge of our country, —
the doctrine that there is a fixed order of strata, characterized
mainly by their organic fossils. If we have not advanced so
far as to prove this, what have we proved ? If our terms do
not imply this, what is their meaning ? Is it not true, in our
science as in all others, that a technical phraseology is real
wealth, because it puts in our hands a vast treasure of foregone
generalizations ? And if we evade the difficulties which may
occur in the application of this phraseology to new cases, by
declaring that our terms are of little importance, is not this to
deprive our language of all meaning and all worth ? Do we
not thus refuse to recognise as valuable the tokens which we
ourselves circulate, and plainly declare ourselves bankrupts ia
knowledge ? When certain strata of Devon have thus been
identified with the coal-measures of other regions, can we still
term them grauwacke? Either this term implies members
having a definite place in our series of strata, or it does not. If
it do, it is certain that these strata have not that place. If it
do not, it conveys no geological knowledge at all. But if it
be used to imply a rejection of such series, it involves a denial
of all geological knowledge hitherto asserted concerning the
older rocks of this county.

The transition downwards from the culmiferous beds of De-
von to the older strata on which they rest, is, according to al-
most all who have studied the subject, wrapt in great obscurity.
In this obscurity, if it be true that the fossil plants of the culm
measures are found also in the subjacent rocks, there is nothing
which need make us mistrust the clear and positive part of our
knowledge. And even if this be so, it will not be the less neces-
sary to separate the culmiferous from the subjacent Silurian and
Cambrian systems, by a different name in our lists, and by a

Rev. Mr WhewelPs Address to the Geological Society. 151

different colour in our geological maps, if they are to represent
the present state of our information.

The interest of this question has induced me to dwell upon
it longer than I had intended, and I must on that account be
very brief in my notice of many other communications. I
may observe that the very nature of several of these indi-
cates very remarkably the European character which our geo-
logy has assumed, since they have for their object the identi-
fication of some members of the recognised series of Eng-
land, and of France, or Germany. Thus Mr Murchison and
Mr Strickland have attempted to shew, by the evidence of or-
ganic fossils, now for the first time adduced on this point, that
the red saliferous marls of Gloucester, Worcester, and War-
wickshires, with an included bed of sandstone, represent the
keuper or marnes irisees of Germany ; and that the underlying
sandstone of Ombersly, Bromsgrove, and Warwick is part of
the bunter sandsteinor gres bigarre of foreign geologists. They
are thus led to conclude that though the muschelkalk, which
intervenes between these formations in Germany, is absent in
the new red system of England, and of a large part of France,
its other members may be identified over the whole of the north
of Europe.

Proceeding from the new red to the oolite system, we have
a memoir from Mr Pratt containing an examination of the geo-
logical character of the coast of Normandy, which necessarily
implies a comparison of this series of rocks with those of Eng-
land. The identification is found to be complete, as had already
been believed ; but Mr Pratt has made some alteration in the
received doctrines on this subject; for instance, the Caen stone,
which is usually considered to represent the great oolite, he finds
to resemble in its fossils the inferior oolite.

Ascending still, we have to notice Mr darkens elaborate geo-
logical survey of Suffolk, which, of course, refers entirely to the
chalk and overlying beds. With regard to the crag of this dis-
trict, I may remark that M. Desnoyers, in a communication
made to the Geological Society of France, has endeavoured to
identify this formation with the Faluns of the Touraine. M.
Deshayes had referred the latter to the Miocene, and the crag
to the Pliocene formations of Mr Lyell. The point is one of

152 Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society,

great interest, since it involves the question of the value and
right mode of application of the test of the relative number of
recent species, on which Mr LyelPs classification, or at least his
nomenclature, is founded. I conceive that in a matter of ar-
rangement any arbitrary numerical character must lead to vio-
lations of Nature's classifications ; and can only be considered as
an artificial method, to be used provisionally till some more
genuine principle of order be discovered.

Mr Clarke, in his survey, has noted as one division of the
diluvium of his district, a clay of a yellowish or bluish hue,
containing rolled pieces of chalk. This deposit is of great ex-
tent and thickness in East Anglia and the neighbouring parts ;
and is worth notice, since this deposit is one main cause of the
geological confusion and obscurity in which that region is in-
volved. In the neighbourhood of Cambridge this diluvial de-
posit, is called the brown clay ; and I can state, from my own
experience, that the recognition of it as a separate bed at once
rendered the stratification clear, where it had long been unin-
telligible.

Before quitting our stratified rocks, I may notice the com-
munications respecting some of their fossils which we have re-
ceived, particularly that of Mr Williamson on the fossil fishes
of the Lancashire coal-field, and the establishment of the new
genus Tropaeum, separated from the Hamites of the green sand
by Mr Sowerby.

In attempting to pursue a stratigraphical order, we are com-
pelled to reserve for a separate head the notice of unstratified
rocks, since their age and history are only known by the mode
in which they interrupt and disturb the rest of the series. We
have not had many communications respecting European,
rocks of this character ; but we cannot but be struck by the
subversion of ancient ideas which results from the investigations
of Messrs Murchison and Sedgwick. They have shewn that
the granite of Dartmoor, and consequently that of Cornwall,
formerly considered as one of the earliest monuments of the pri-
meval ages of the earth's history, is posterior to the deposit of
the culm measures.

Advancing to newer phenomena, we find the evidences of
change still unexhausted. We cannot but reflect how familiar

Rev. Mr Whewell's Address to the Geological Society. 153

those views of the elevation and depression of portions of the
earth's surface are become, which were at first considered so
strange and startling. This is remarkably shown by the num.
ber of communications concerning raised beaches which we
have recently received. When we visit places where these oc-
cur, and look at the winding shore, where the sea line is faith-
fully followed or distinctly imitated by terraces, sands and
pebbles a little above it, we wonder that we should so long
have been blind to this kind of evidence. Such raised beaches
have been described during the past year, by Mr Prestwich,
as occurring in the Murray Firth : by Mr Austin, in the valley
of the Axe, the Exe, and the Otter. Dr Forchammer has
given us the evidence of recent elevation in the island of Bom-
holm ; Mr Trevelyan has given us similar evidence for the
coast of Jutland, and the islands of Guernsey and Jersey.

Mr Morris**s paper, describing a series of dislocations in the
chalk cliffs to the south of Ramsgate, marked by shifts in a
bed of tabular flint, may perhaps be considered as also afford-
ing evidence of violent elevation. But since a small derange-
ment of the conditions of support of any stratum might occa-
sion dislocations of the scale of those here described, it would
probably be hazardous to consider them as otherwise than lo-
cal accidents.

Among descriptions of the most recent geological phenomena,
I must notice Mr Clarke''s paper on certain peat-marshes and
submarine forests, which occur near Poole in Devonshire ;
and in his investigation of the causes which have produced
the results now visible, we may see by how easy a gradation
descriptive geology passes into the other portion of the sub-
ject, the study of the processes by which change is produced.

Finally, in concluding this survey of our descriptive home
geology, I notice with great pleasure, Mr Burros communica-
tion of his notes on the geology of the line of the proposed
Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. In a country like^this,
in which the order and boundaries of the strata are, for the
most part, well ascertained, an additional accuracy of measure-
ment, of great value to us, may be supplied by the operations
of civil engineers employed on canals, roads, and the like works.
With this persuasion, and acting with the advice of the Coun-

154 Rev. Mr Whewell's Address to the Geological Society.

cil, I wrote letters to a great number of engineers, begging
tbem to communicate to us the levels and sections which they
might obtain in the course of their professional employments ;
and I am happy to see so excellent an example as Mr Burr's
paper supplies, of the advantage which may be derived from
materials of this class.

2. Foreign (South European and Trans-European ) Geo-
logy.— In proceeding beyond the Alps, and still more as we
advance beyond the shores of Europe, we can no longer, so
far at least as geologists have hitherto discovered, trace that
remarkable correspondence of the strata of different countries
which we can study so successfully in our home circuit. With
the mountain masses of those more distant regions we are, it
would seem, hardly authorised as yet in making any more de-
tailed distinctions than the general one of secondary and ter-
tiary strata ; the latter including the strata in which we trace
an approach to the existing species of animals, and the former
implying a general comparison with our chalk, oolites, and
lower strata. Perhaps we may further distinguish in most
countries which have been visited, a great mass of transition
states ; but the establishment of such divisions must be the
business of geological observers.

We have had several valuable additions to this portion of
our knowledge, including, as we must do, Greece and its
islands in this foreign district. That the Apennine limestone
is the predominant mass of the Morea, had been made known
by the researches of MM. Boblaye and Virlet. Mr Strick-
land and Mr Hamilton have told us that the same rock forms
a large mass of the island of Zante and other islands in that
sea, and of the neighbourhood of Smyrna. They find also
tei'tiary beds, as on the south side of the bay of Smyrna ; on
the east side of the island of Zante ; and at Lixouri in Cepha-
lonia, where the tertiary beds are remarkable for the number
and beauty of their fossils, some of which have been identified
with species existing in the Mediterranean. Dr Bell, who
travelled from Teheran to the shores of the Caspian, has given
us an account of the rocks which he observed in Mazanderan.
From the statements made by him, we are led to believe, that
a more ccmtinued and detailed observation of the country would

Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society. 155

give the true geological order of the deposits in this region ;
which might then, perhaps, serve as a connecting link between
western Asia and India.

It is among the favourable omens for the geology of India,
of which we now see many, that a temperate spirit of gene-
ralization has recently been applied to the examination of her
soil ; a spirit which contents itself with such a general refe-
rence of the foreign to the home strata as we have described,
till by its own labours it has earned the right of asserting some
closer correspondence. If to deny the value of our geological
terms within the home district, where they mark an order
which has been repeatedly verified, would be a suicidal scep-
ticism in geologists, there would be a rashness and levity no
less fatal in applying them to distant regions where no order
has yet been ascertained.

Captain Grant in his account of Cutch, and Mr Malcolmson
in his description of a large portion of the India peninsula,
have not ventured to call the strata which they have examined
by the names which describe European formations. We may-
trust that, hereafter, the admirable activity and resource which
our countrymen display in that wonderful appendage of our
empire, will enable them to communicate to us a genuine Indian
arrangement of secondary strata. In the mean time, Mr Mal-
colmson has most laudably employed himself in determining the
age of the wide-spread igneous rocks of the peninsula of India,
with reference to the contiguous strata. And Dr McCleland,
who was associated with Mr Griffith in the scientific deputation
sent under Dr Wallich into Upper Asam, has, among other
geological observations, noted a raised bed, at 1500 feet above
the sea level, in which none of the species are identical with
those of the Bay of Bengal on the one hand, or the secondary
strata on the north of the Himalaya on the other ; but in which
a resemblance was at once recognised with the q)ecies of the
Paris basin.

This resemblance between the extinct animal population of
regions so remote from each other, is in itself remarkable enough.
It is still more curious to observe, that the same coincidence of
the ancient animals of France and India has recently been de-
tected in another case ; and what makes the circumstance still

156 Rev. Mr WhewelFs Address to the Geological Society,

more remarkable is, that the animal was not only new in both
countries as a fossil genus, but involved a transgression of the
supposed boundaries of fossil forms. Not only had no
human bones been found in genuine strata, but, aS it had been
generally held, no traces of those creatures which most nearly
imitate the human form. This rule now no longer holds good ;
for during the past year the bones of monkeys have been dis-
covered both at Sansan, in France, in the Sewalik Hills in the
north of Hindostan, and more recently under the City of Cal-
cutta.

That this is a highly interesting and important discovery, no
one who attends to the signification of geological speculations
can doubt. I do not know if there are any persons who lament,
or any who exult, that this discovery tends to obliterate the
boundary between the present condition of the earth, tenanted
by man, and the former stages through which it has passed.
For my own part I can see no such tendency. I have no belief
that geology will ever be able to point to the commencement of
the present order of things, as a problem which she can solve,
if she is allowed to make the attempt. The gradation in form
between man and other animals a gradation which we all re-
cognise, and which, therefore, need not startle us because it is
presented under a new aspect, is but a slight and, as appears to
me, unimportant feature, in looking at the great subject of
man's origin. Even if we had no divine record to guide us, it
would be most un philosophical to attempt to trace back the
history of man without taking into account the most remark-
able facts in his nature ; the facts of civilization, art, government,
writing, speech — his traditions — ^his internal wants — his intel-
lectual, moral, and religious constitution. If we will look back-
wards, we must look at all these things as evidences of the origin
and end of man's being. When we do thus comprehend in our
view the whole of the case, it is impossible for us, as I have
elsewhere said, to arrive at an origin homogeneous with the pre-
sent state of things ; and on such a subject the geologist may
be well content to close his own volume, and open one which
has man's moral and religious nature for its subject.

In order to complete the notice of the contributions to foreign
geology, I must mention Mr Roy's account of Upper Canada ;

Rev. Mr WhewelFs Address to the Geological Society. 157

in which country he conceives that he has detected terraces
which exhibit the beaches of the lakes when the level of their
surface was more elevated than they are at present. I must
refer also to Mr. Bollaert's paper on alluvial accumulations con-
taining large masses of silver ore in Peru. And, finally, I
have to direct your attention to the very curious information
respecting the geology of South America, which we have re-
ceived from Mr Darwin. In a communication made to us, he
gave a very striking view of the structure of a large portion of
that continent ; and, as I have already had occasion to observe,
he has brought to this country the remains of various fossil ani-
mals of entirely new kinds, of exceeding interest to the zoologist
as well i^s the geologist. I need only remind you of the gigantic
mammifer which has been reconstructed in idea by Mr Owen,
upon the evidence of a fossil skull, and has been named by him
the Toxodon Platensis. This animal, although a Rodent^ ac-
cording to its dental characters, in other respects manifests an
affinity to the Pachyderms ; and also to the Dinotherium, and
to the cetaceous order. Many other fossil animals have been
discovered in South America ; and all, from their magnitude,
fitted to excife our wonder, when we compare the diminutive
size of the present races of animals which inhabit that country.
The animal remains found by Mr Darwin comprise, besides
the Toxodon, which extraordinary animal was as large as a
hippopotamus, — (2, 3, 4, 5, 6.) the Megatherium, and four or
five other large Edentata ; — (7.) an immense Mastodon ; — (8.)
the Horse ; — (9.) an animal larger than a horse, and of very
singular character, of which a fragment of the head has been
found; — (10, 11, 12.) parts of Rodents, one of considerable
size ; — (13.) a Llama, or Giianaco, fully as large as the Camel.
But I should very ill convey my impression of the great
value of the researches of Mr Darwin, by any enumeration of
special points of geology or palaeontology on which they have
thrown light. Looking at the general mass of his results, the
account of which he has been kind enough to place in my hands,
I cannot help considering his voyage round the world as one of
the most important events for geology which has occurred for
many years. We may think ourselves fortunate that Capt.
Fitz-Roy, who conducted the expedition, was led, by his en-

158 Rev. Mr Whe well's Address to the Geological Society.

lightened zeal for science, to take out a naturalist with him.
And we have further reason to rejoice that this lot fell to a
gentleman like Mr Darwin, who possessed the genuine spirit
and zeal, as well as knowledge of a naturalist ; who had pur-
sued the studies which fitted him for this employment, under
the friendly guidance of Dr Grant at Edinburgh, and Professor
Henslow and Professor Sedgwick at Cambridge; and whose
powers of reason and application had been braced and disci-
plined by the other studies of the University of which the latter
two gentlemen are such distinguished ornaments. But some of
the principal of these results may be most conveniently men-
tioned, when we pass from mere descriptive geology, to that
other division of the subject which I have termed Geological
Dynamics. And this I now proceed to do.

GEOLOGICAL DYNAMICS.

This term is intended to express generally the science, so far
as we can frame a science, of the causes of change by which
geological phenomena have been produced. Without here
speaking of any classification of such changes, I may observe
that the gradual elevation and depression, through long ages,
of large portions of the earth''s crust, is a proximate cause by
which such phenomena have been explained : and this class of
events, its evidence, extent, and consequence, is brought before
our view by Mr Darwin's investigations, with a clearness and
force which has, I think I may say, filled all of us with admi-
ration. I may refer especially to his views respecting the his-
tory of coral isles. Those vast tracts of the Pacific which con-
tain, along with small portions of scattered land, innumerable
long reefs and small circles of coral, had hitherto been full of
problems, of which no satisfactory solution could be found.
For how could we explain the strange forms of these reefs ;
their long and winding lines ; their parallelism to the shores ?
and by what means did the animals, which can only work near
the surface, build up a fabric which has its foundations in the
deepest abysses of ocean ? To these questions Mr Darwin re-
plies, that all these circumstances, the linear or annular form,
their reference to the boundary of the land, the clusters of little
islands occupying so small a portion of the sea, and, above all

Rev. Mr WhewelFs Address to ike Geological Society. 159

the existence of the solid coral at the bottom of deep seas, point
Cfut to us that the bottom of the sea has descended slowly and
and gradually, carrying with it both land and corals ; while
the animals of the latter are constantly employed in building
to the surface, and thus mark the shores of submerged lands,
of which the summits may or may not remain extant above the
waters. I need not here further state Mr Darwin's views, or
explain how corals, which when the level is permanent fringe
the shore to the depth of twenty fathoms, as the land gradually
sinks, become successively encircling reefs at a distance from
the shore ; or barrier reefs at a still greater distance and depth ;
or when the circuit is small, lagoon islands : — how, again, the
same corals, when the land rises, are carried into elevated situa-
tions, where they remain as evidences of the elevation. We
have had placed before us the map, in which Mr Darwin has,
upon evidence of this kind, divided the surface of the Southern
Pacific and Indian oceans into vast bands of alternate eleva-
tion and depression ; and we have seen the remarkable confir-
mation of his views in the observation that active volcanos oc-
cur only in the areas of elevation. Guided by the principles
which he learned from my distinguished predecessor in this
chair, Mr Darwin has presented this subject under an aspect
which cannot but have the most powerful influence on the spe-
culations concerning the history of our globe, to which you.
Gentlemen, may hereafter be led. I might say the same of the
large and philosophical views which you will find illustrated in
his work, on the laws of change of climate, of diffusion, dura-
tion and extinction of species, and other great problems of our
science which this voyage has suggested. I know that I only
express your feeling when I say, that we look with impatience
to the period when this portion of the results of Captain Fitz-
Roy's voyage shall be published, as the scientific world in ge-
neral looks eagerly for the whole record of that important ex-
pedition.

And I cannot omit this occasion of mentioning with great
gratification, the liberal assistance which the Government
of this country have lent to the publication of the discoveries
in natural history which Mr Darwin's voyage has produced.
The new animals which he has to make known to the world

k

160 Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society,

will thus come before the public described by the most eminent
naturalists, and represented in a manner worthy of the subject
and of the nation. I am sure that I may express the gratitude
of the scientific world, as weU as my own, for this enlightened
and judicious measure.

I may here notice Mr Darwin's opinion, so ably exposed in
a paper read before us, that the change by which a variety of
materials thrown on the earth''s surface become vegetable
mould, is produced by the digestive process of the common
earth-worm.

I will here also advert to Mr Fox'*s paper on the process by
which mineral veins have been filled up. This, he conceives,
might be produced by the circulation or ascension of currents
of heated water from the deeper parts of the original fissures.
The discovery of the causes of the formation and filling of
metallic veins, one of the earliest subjects of geological specu-
lation, will remain propably as a problem for its later stages,
when our insight into the laws of slow chemical changes is far
clearer than it is at the present day.

If, from these proximate causes of change of which I have
spoken, we proceed to those ulterior causes by which such
events as these are produced, — to the subterraneous machinery
by which islands and continents appear and vanish in the great
drama of the world's physical history, — we have before us
questions still more obscure, but questions which we must ask
and answer in order to entitle ourselves to look with any hope
towards geological theory. Of late years an opinion has taken
root among us, that the dynamics of geology must invoke the
aid of mathematical reasoning and calculation, as the dynamics
of astronomy did, at the turning point of its splendid career.
Nor can we hesitate to accept this opinion, and to look forwards
to the mathematical cultivation of physical geology as one of
the destined stages of our progress towards truth. But we
must remember, that in order to pursue this path with advan-
tage, we have, in every instance, two steps to make, each of
which demands great sagacity, and may require much time
and labour. These two steps are, to propose the proper pro-
blem, and to solve it. Last year an important example of this
kind was brought under your notice by my predecessor. The

Rev. Mr Whewell^s Address to the Geological Society. 161

supposition that there are, beneath the crust of the terrestrial
globe, liquid or semiliquid masses which exert a pressure up-
wards, leads to the inquiry what phenomena of fissure, disrup-
tion, and dislocation, this subterraneous strain would produce-
The answer to this inquiry must be given by mathematical
reasoning from mechanical principles ; and Mr Hopkins, who
proposed, and to a considerable extent solved this problem, has
put forth a set of results, with which, so far as they are defi-
nite and decisive, it will be highly important to compare the
existing phenomena of disturbed geological districts. The
same assumption, of an incandescent mass existing deep below
the earth'*s surface, has led two other distinguished members of
our body to another train of speculations ; which, however,
though highly interesting, I should be disposed to consider as
only the enunciation of a problem, requiring no small amount
of mathematical skill for its solution. I speak of the specula-
tions of Professor Babbage and Sir John Herschel, concerning
the subterraneous oscillations of the isothermal surfaces of
great temperature. They remark that such oscillations will
arise, when thick and extensive deposits take place on any
parts of the surface of the earth (as for instance at the bottoms
of seas), because such deposits increase the thickness of the
coating over a given subterraneous point ; and thus removing
the cooling effect of the surface, bring a high temperature to a
place where it did not exist before. The deposited strata
might thus be invaded by violent heat advancing from below ;
and there might result both changes of position arising from
extension and contraction, and a metamorphic structure in the
rocks themselves. It is highly instructing to have this chain
of conceivable effects pointed out to us ; but we may venture to
observe that, in order to render the suggestion of permanent use,
it will be necessary to express, in some probable numbers, the
laws of the result as affected by the conductivity of the earth's
mass, the rate and thickness of the deposit, and other circum-
stances. For instance, we know that a deposit of one thousand
feet thick would be quite insufficient to occasion a metamor-
phic operation in its lower strata. Would, then, a deposit of
ten thousand or of twenty thousand feet call into play such a
process .? To answer questions like these, of which a vast num-

VOL. XXV. NO. XLTX. JULY 1838. L

I

162 Rev. Mr Wheweirs Address to the Geological Society.

ber must at once occur to our minds, we have many experi-
mental data to collect, many intricate calculations to follow
out. And it would be easy to point out problems of a still
more abstruse kind, in which we no less require aid from the
mathematician, before we can proceed in our generalizations.
May we not hope to see some fortunate man of genius unveil
to us the mechanics of crystalline forces ? And when that is
done, can we doubt that we shall have a ray of new light
thrown upon those extraordinary phenomena of slaty cleavage
in mountain masses which have lately been brought under our
notice ? Or, recollecting the experiments of Sir James Hall
(a striking step in geological dynamics), may we not hope then
to learn how those crystalline forces are stimulated by heat ;
and thus follow the metamorphic process into its innermost re-
cesses ? These and a thousand such questions lie before us ;
—tangled and arduous inquiries no doubt, but connected by
their common bearing upon one great subject ; — " a mighty
maze, but not without a plan." And through this maze we
must force our way in order to advance towards any sound
geological theory. The task is one of labour and difficulty ;
but I well know, gentlemen, that you will not shrink from it
on that account. Those who aspire to the felicity of knowing
the causes of things, must not only trample under foot the fears
of a timid unphilosophical spirit, which the poet deems so ne-
cessary a preparation, but they must look with a steady eye up-
on difficulty as Avell as violence. They must regard the ter-
rors of the volcano and the earthquake, the secret paths by
which hot and cold and moist and dry ran into their places,
the wildest rush of the fluid mass, the latent powers which give
solidity to the rock, — as operations of which they have to trace
the laws and measure the quantities with mathematical exact-
ness. And though there can be no doubt that the greater part
of us shall be more usefully employed in endeavouring to add
to the stores of descriptive geology, than in these abstruse and
difficult investigations, yet we must always receive, with great
pleasure, any communications containing real advances in the
mathematical dynamics of geology, from those whose studies
and whose powers enable them to lay an effectual grasp upon
these complex and refractory problems.

Rev. Mr WhewelPs Address to the Geological Society. 163

I have but a single word to add in conclusion. This Society
has always been an object of my admiration and respect, not
only from the importance and range of its scientific objects, the
wide and exact knowledge which it accumulates, the philo-
sophical spirit which it calls into play, the boundless prospect
of advance which it offers ; but also for the manner in which
its meetings and the intercourse of its members have ever been
conducted ; the manly vigour of discussion, tempered always
by mutual respect and by good manners ; the deep interest of
all in the prosperity of the Society, to which, whenever the
hour of need comes, private differences of opinion and resent-
ments have given way. To be placed for a time at the head
of a body which I look upon with such sentiments, I must
ever consider as one of the greatest distinctions which can re-
ward any one who gives his attention to science. I trust, by
your assistance and kind sympathy, gentlemen, I shall be able
to preserve the spirit and temper which I so much admire ; —
to hand that torch to my successor burning as brightly as it
has hitherto done. And there is one consideration which Avill
make me look with an especial satisfaction upon such a result.
I have not myself the great honour of being one of the mem-
bers of the Society who are connected with it by an early inte-
rest in its fortunes, and by long participation in its labours. I
may consider myself as only belonging to its second generation.
Now if there be a critical and a perilous time in the progress of
a voluntary association like ours, it is when its administration
passes out of the hands of its founders into those of their suc-
cessors. It is like that important and trying epoch when the
youth quits the paternal roof. I will say, however, gentle-
men, for myself and for my fellow-officers, some of whom are
in the same condition, that our best cares shall not be wanting
that the Society may suffer as little as possible by this change.
And among our grounds for hope and trust, the main one is
this : that though the offices of the Society may be in younger
hands, the parental cares of its founders are not withdrawn.
We have to discharge our office with the aid and counsel of
those excellent persons to whom the prosperity of the Society
up to the present time has been owing. Surrounded by such
men, knowing their generous and ready sympathy for the at-

164 M. Darondeau*s Experiments on Sea-Water.

tempts and exertions of their followers and disciples, I feel a
cheerful confidence in the future destinies of the Geological So-
ciety; and a persuasion that it will not only preserve but ex-
tend its influence as a bond of scientific and social union among
its members.

Result of the Examination of' the Sea- Water collected during

the Voyage of La Bonite, by means of the apparatus of M.

Biot. By M. Darondeau.

The samples of sea- water collected by means of M. Biofs
apparatus,* and brought to France for analysis, were five in
number. Two of them were taken in the Bay of Bengal, not
far from the mouths of the Ganges, and the three others, re-
spectively, from the Pacific, the Indian, and the Southern At-
lantic Oceans. They were contained in stopped flasks made
of emery, and did not fill above two-thirds, which circumstance
arose from the flasks at our disposal being of a larger size than
the receiver of our apparatus. Five other samples, taken from
the surface of the w^ater, were also procured in the same lo-
calities ; tliey, too, were contained in emery bottles, which were
completely filled. One of the bottles, namely, that which con-
tained the water taken at the surface in the Southern Atlantic,
was broken in its conveyance from Brest to Paris.

All the specimens taken at the surface were perfectly limpid ;
whilst, on the contrary, those taken at a considerable depth
held some whitish flaky matter in greater or less quantity in
suspension.

All the experiments upon these different samples were made
in the laboratory of the College de France, under the inspection
and with the assistance of M. Fremy, to whose kindness I am in-
debted for my now having it in my power to supply the results.

The density of the water was determined by successively
weighing the emery flasks first empty, then filled with distilled
water, and lastly, with the sea-water, and then comparing the
weight of the two equal volumes of the distilled and sea-water.
Tnese weighings were made at temperatures which varied from
45° 5' to 50° Fahrenheit.

* Our readers will find an account of M. Biot's apparatus in this Journal^
^ol. 21, p. 43 Edit.

M. Daron(leau''s Experiments on Sea-Water. 165

The quantity of the gas held in solution in the water, was
determined by heating it to boiling in a retort of known capa-
city, which was quite filled with the water ; the gas disengaged
in this operation was collected over mercury ; the proportion
of carbonic acid it contained was saturated by means of potassa,
and the oxygen by means of phosphorus. Finally, to ascer-
tain the quantity of saline matter, the method which M. Gay-
Lussac describes in the fourth volume of the Anndles de Phtf-
sique et de Chimie, was pursued, which consists in eva|X)rating
to dryness a known weight of sea- water in a retort whose weight
is known, and which is inclined at an angle of 45°, so that there
may be no escape of any matter externally. The weight of the
residue, heated to a dull red, gives the quantity of saline mrtter,
less the quantity of chloriodic acid, arising from the decompo-
sition of the chloride of magnesia by the heat, whose quantity
is ascertained by determining the quantity of magnesia con-
tained in the residuum, and by replacing in this magnes" i the
oxygen by its equivalent of chlorine. By operating ii. this
way, the results indicated in the following table were pro-
cured : —

mes and Places at

vhich the Water

was taken.

Latitude..

Longitude.

Depths
at which
procured.

Density

at4e°4'

and 56"

Fah.

Residue of
Saline Mat-
ter in every
100 parts
water.

Quantif V of
Gas in every
100 parts; wa-
ter at freez-
ing point,
and7f><>m.m
pressure.

Composition of 100
parts of Gas.

Oxyg.

Nitra

Car.Acid.

h Aug. 1836, 1
aific. j
h March 1837,1
yrofBen2;al. J
h May 1837, 1
f of Bengal. J
t July 1837, \
ian Ocean. J
h Aug. 1H37, \
ith. Atlantic, j

11» 8'N.
11 43 N.
18 0 N.
24 5S.
30 40 S.

108°50' W. {
87 18 E. 1
85 32 E. •[
52 0 E. {
11 47 E. 1

Surface,
70 fath.
Surface,
200 fath.
Surface,
300 fath.
Surface,
450 fath.

400 fath.

1.02.594
i.,-2702
1.02545
1.02663
1.02611
1.02586
1.02577
1.02739

1.02708

3.429
3.528
3.218
3.491
3.378
3.484
3.669
3.518

3.575

2.09
2.23
1.98
3.04
1.91
2.43
1.85
2.75

2.04

6.16
10.09
5.53
3.29
6.34
5.72
9.84
9.85

4.17

83.33
71.05
80.50
38.56
80.34
^4.15
7.70
55.23

67.01

10.51*

18.06

1.3..97

58.15

13.. 52

30.13

12.46

34.92

2a82

The figures in the above table shew that, generally, the den-
sity of water taken at the surface is less than that of water pro-
cured from a certain depth. In one case only, viz. that in
which water was taken in the bay of Bengal from a depth of
300 fathoms, was its density less than when taken at the sur-
face ; the difference amounted to

loBoo'

* There is much uncertainty in this experiment regarding the quantity of
the carbonic acid gas, because it was not immediately saturated.

166 M. Darondeau's Experiments on Sea-Water,

If we consider the proportion of the residuum left after the
desiccation, it will be observed, as in the preceding case, that
sea- water, generally, is considerably Salter at a certain depth
than at the surface. There is one example of the contrary in
the table. Notwithstanding, these results do not appear to be
inadmissible ; for there is a great difference between the tem-
perature of the water at the surface, and of that at the depth
of from 800 to 400 fathoms ; the equilibrium must always be
preserved.

As to the quantity of air held in solution in the water, the
table shews that the water taken at the surface in all cases con-
tains a smaller proportion of air than that which is taken from
a certain depth, and that the difference may amount to as much
as to one-hundredth part of the volume of water.

Finally, the column which indicates the composition of the
gas contained in each of the samples of water, shews that the
gas contained in the water taken from a great depth, contains
much more carbonic acid than is contained in water taken from
the surface. Does this carbonic acid exist already formed in
the water, or rather, does it proceed from the decomposition of
the flaky matter which is found in all the flasks which have
been filled at a great depth ? This can be determined only by
analysis conducted on the spot. And whatever may be the
result, M. Biofs apparatus will at all events be the means of
confirming one or other of these equally remarkable facts;
l^^, That sea-water at a certain depth, holds in solution a much
greater quantity of carbonic acid than does water taken at the
surface; or, 2J, That at a certain depth the water contains
jnany transparent animalculae ; or at least some organic matter
which does not exist at the surface, and which decomposes with
time, and takes from the air, which is held in solution in the
water, its oxygen, so forming carbonic acid.

According to this latter hypothesis, the proportion^of oxygen
contained in the air taken from a great 'depth, should be more
considerable than that of the air taken from the surface-water ;
for, in the former case, the free oxygen and the oxygen of the
carbonic acid form with the contained nitrogen a much more
oxygenated air than the atmospherical ; whilst in the latter
case (that of water taken at the surface), the free oxygen and

M. Darondeau's Experiments on Sea-Water. 167

the oxygen of the carbonic acid, form with its nitrogen an air
which differs exceedingly little from that of the atmosphere.

Some Experiments which were made on hoard La Bonite,

In an experiment made on the 12th September 1836, in the
Pacific, at 16° 53' N. lat. and 118° 13' W. long, with water ta.
ken from a depth of 380 fathoms, it was found to contain 1.62
parts of gas for every 100 parts of water ; the gas was not
analyzed. In this experiment the vessel contained 9066 cubic
centimetres of air, whose volume reduced to the freezing point
of temperature, and a pressure of 2280 feet, gives, having re-
gard to the capacity of the apparatus, 6.48 parts of air for the
100 parts of water taken at the depth of 380 fathoms.

On the 21st November 1836, in the Strait betwixt the Ma-
rianne and Phillipine Islands, in 18° 22' N. lat. and 132° 13'
E. long, the apparatus was sunk to the depth of 300 fathoms ;
the water from this depth contained 2.20th parts of air in every
100 parts of water ; whilst the water taken at the surface in
the same Strait contained 2.27ths ; the bladder contained only
a very small quantity of air.

Finally, on the 29th November, in the China Sea, in sight
of the Island of Lu9on, in 18° 0' N. lat. and 117° 30' E. long,
the instrument having been sunk to a depth of 300 fathoms,
the bladder was found to contain 55 cubic centimetres of air,
which, at 0° and 760 of the barometer, gives 3.89 parts for 100
parts of water taken from this depth. — Comptes Rendus, 30#
Avril 1838.

Observations on the Electric Origin of Metalliferous Veins. By

M. BECaUEREL.*

Mr Fox remarks, that, if we consider the electrical relations
of the different metallic ores in a geological point of view, we
observe, that almost all those which are generally associated in
the same veins agree in the particular, that their reciprocal vol-
taic action is, for the most part, very small. Hence he infers,

• Traite Experimental de I'Electricite et du ISIagnetisme, tome v. p. 167,
174. The notes marked W. J. H. were furnished by Mr Henwood, to whom,
also, we are indebted for this translation.

168 M. Becquerel on the Electric Origin of

that, if it were otherwise, the appearances of decomposition in
the same localities would be much more marked and general
than they are found to be. He ^marks also, that when copper
pyrites and vitreous copper-ore form a voltaic combination with
pure or spring water, there are considerable electro-magnetic
effects. We would merely observe, that Mr Fox appears not
to be aware, that the electro-chemical effects produced in the
contact of two solid bodies and a liquid, depend solely on the
chemical relations of their constituent parts, and must fre-
quently vary.

Let us now approach the researches of the same gentleman
on the electro-magnetic properties of the metalliferous veins of
Cornwall, in which he has been engaged for six years past.

The apparatus which he has used in examining these pro-
perties is composed of small plates of copper, fixed on the por-
tions of the veins submitted to experiment with iron nails,* or
strongly pressed by means of wooden supports, and put in con-
nexion with the extremities of a multiplier, of which the wire
is short, and the directive power of the needle not neutralized.
Mr Fox says, that with this apparatus he perceived the fol-
lowing effects : — The intensity of the current varies, according
to the localities. Sometimes the deviation of the magnetized
needle is slight, sometimes it is considerable. In general, it is
greater when the vein contains a larger quantity of copper, and
perhaps even from the depth of the stations. He adds, that
there is no, or scarcely any, action perceptible where there is
little or no metaUic substance. When there is a distance of but
a few fathoms between the plates in a horizontal direction, and
when there is between them a great quantity of copper not in-
terrupted by non-conducting substances, there is no action ; but
if there be, by chance, quartz or clay in the vein, the action is
generally very decided.

When the two plates are placed at various depths in the
same^vein, or in different veins, the electrical action is in gene-
ral very marked. The currents are sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another. In comparing parallel veins, he thinks

• Nails were very seldom used, and those that were were always of copper,
W. J. H.

Metalliferous Veins. 169

he has observed that positive electricity takes a direction from
north to south, although he has seen the contrary in some cases.
In veins which dip towards the north, the east is generally posi-
tive, and the west negative. He has found, in comparing the
relative states of veins at different depths, that the lower sta-
tions appear negative in relation to the higher. He has, how-
ever, found some exceptions, particularly when a cross-vein of
quartz or clay intervenes between the plates. There is, there-
fore, no regular order in the direction of the currents.

If, indeed, there were a progressive increase of negative elec-
tricity as we descend in the mines, this phenomenon would
agree with the progressive elevation of temperature. The elec-
trical effects are not influenced, according to his account, by
the presence of workmen and their lights, or by the explosion
of gunpowder. Sec.

All the substances that form part of metalliferous veins are
far from possessing the conducting powers necessary to allow
the passage of currents transmitted by the metallic portions.
He classes among the conductors copper nickel, copper pyrites,
vitreous copper-ore, iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites, galena, arse-
nical cobalt, the crystallized peroxide of manganese, and tetra-
hedral copper- glance (Fahlerz). Among the non-conductors
he places the sulphurets of silver, of mercury, of antimony, of
bismuth, of arsenic (realgar), of manganese, and of zinc, the
combinations of the metals with oxygen and the acids.

Mr Fox assures us, that he has discovered that the beds of
clay-slate (killas) in Cornwall appear to possess the property of
conducting free electricity in a slight degree, but only in the
direction of their cleavage. This effect can be attributable only
to the water interposed.

With regard to the electric properties of metallic veins, he
remarks, that substances which conduct electricity have gene-
rally, at least in this country (Cornwall), non-conducting bodies
intervening in the veins, between them and the surface. He
mentions the tin veins, which are generally intersected by those
of copper. When their horizontal bearings do not coincide, the
conducting veins traverse the non-conductors.

Mr Henwood, who has been engaged since Mr Fox in expe-
riments on the electric currents in the Cornish mines, has stated,

170 M. Becquerel on the Electric Origin of

that the veins on which the mines are worked traverse both the
granite and the micaceous rocks (slates) ; that they are princi-
pally composed of quartz and other earthy minerals, mixed in
many places with copper pyrites, iron pyrites, vitreous copper-
ore, oxide of tin, blende, and galena, and occasionally with na-
tive copper, protoxide and the carbonates of the same metal^
and of some of the salts of lead, in small quantities.

At the greatest depths, the temperature of the slate-rocks is
two or three degrees higher than that of the granite at the same
level.

In many of the deepest mines, the water contains salts in va-
rious proportions. Among others, the chlorides of calcium, of
sodium, and of magnesium, &c.

Mr Henwood has adopted the mode of experiment already
described. The metallic plates were placed at distances vary-
ing from a few feet to many hundred feet, at the same, and at
different levels.

The results have been the same whatever the directions of
the veins might be. In those which only produced tin, and in
many where they were in contact with copper, no traces of a
current were perceived, except in some cases where the inter-
mediate space was filled with rich copper-ore.* The presence
of electricity was more evident when the vein contained copper-
pyrites, vitreous and black copper-ore, galena, or blende. It
was not detected when the vein was entirely without metal.
Some veins which contained copper-pyrites, grey copper-ore,
and galena, and others with carbonate and phosphate of lead,
and grey copper-ore, gave no evidence of the existence of cur-
rents.

It appears that Messrs Fox and Henwood have not remarked
the relations which subsist between the directions of the veins
and those of the currents.f

In the experiments where they have connected metalliferous

• " In most cases where there was a continuous mass of copper-ore between
the points examined, no electricity was detected. In some instances, how-
ever, where all the intervening space consisted of rich copper-ore, there was
most energetic action." — Edin. New Phil. Journal^ xxii. p. 274.

t There must be some misprint or misapprehension here, as the directions
of the veins have been mentioned in paragraph preceding W. J. H.

Metalliferous Veins. 171

portions at different depths, the currents have in thirteen in-
stances been upward, and in thirty-five cases downward.

In thirty- six experiments the current has been towards the
granite, and in twenty-one others it has taken an opposite
direction.

We are not aware whether Messrs Fox and Henwood have,
in their experiments, sufficiently guarded against all the causes
of error which present themselves when we seek for the exist-
ence of electro-chemical currents by means of the multiplier.
The results they have announced are of such importance as
regards the electro-chemical re-actions which operate in veins,
that we must discuss them.

To enable the reader to judge and appreciate the accuracy of
Mr Fox's process, we will remind him, that when two plates of
platina, in communication with the extremities of the wire of a
multiplier, are immersed in distilled water, a current is imme-
diately produced by the difference of the actions exercised by
the liquid on the foreign bodies adhering to the surfaces of the
plates. This effect almost invariably takes place when the pre-
caution is not taken to remove the foreign substances which
adhere to the surfaces of the platina when they are taken out
of the water. If, instead of platina, we employ copper, the
current is still more decided. As the surfaces are not the same,
the water affects them differently.

Now Mr Fox, in his experiments, has used plates of copper
and he has attached them to the metalliferous veins with iron*
nails, or strongly pressed them on by means of wooden stays.
These two plates are connected with a multiplier by means of
a copper wire.

Might it not happen, that the water which adheres more or
less to the sides of the mine galleries, and which does not every
where contain the same salts, might have the same effect on the
copper as in the experiment just described ? It would be \ery
desirable for Mr Fox to make his experiments on perfectly dry
conductors of electricity. The objection which we have just
made would thus be obviated.-|-

* Note on page 168.

+ There was no moisture except in the air, where a current was detected
in Levant Mine. W. J. H.

172 M. Becquerel on the Electric Origin of

It is true, Mr Fox, who has operated with plates of copper
and of zinc alternately, has observed in both cases currents
taking the same direction. Such^ result is so far favourable
to his opinion, but it is not sufficient to demonstrate completely
the fact.

In order to shew in what manner electric currents have acted,
and are acting, on metalliferous deposits, some persons have re-
cently supposed that the veins have been filled by the action of
electric currents ; but it is only necessary to be acquainted
with the manner in which they are filled, to reject such a theory.

We know that veins are fissures which occur in many of the
rocks composing the crust of our globe, and that they are filled
with metallic and stony substances. Different opinions are held
as to the manner in which this was effected. Some say by
igneous, others by aqueous action. Werner was of the latter
opinion. According to this celebrated geologist, the mass of
which mountains are composed was moist and yielding ; after-
wards, in settling and drying, fissures were formed, which were
filled from above by substances held in solution ; but, as there
are veins which appear to have been filled from beneath, we
must therefore admit that this was effected by sublimation.
Hutton, who is the great advocate of the igneous theory, sup-
posed the internal heat of the earth so great, as to melt and
volatilize the metals and earths. These, by their expansive
force, have produced rents in the crust of the earth, and solidi-
fying during their escape, have thus given birth to the crystal-
line rocks. It is thus he accounts for the production of the
great trap-dykes which traverse formations of all ages.

Taking this view, veins have been opened by elevatory ac-
tion, and filled by sublimation from beneath, and from above
by substances which have been decomposed and transported by
various causes, and have rested undisturbed in the veins.

All the facts hitherto observed induce us to think, that we
cannot admit one of these hypotheses to the exclusion of the
other, as each of the supposed causes may have concurred, ac-
cording to circumstances, in filling veins of various descriptions.
Geologists consider it certain, that veins containing the debris
of the superior (or newer) formations of the country they tra-
verse, and of organized bodies, have been filled from above ;

Metallifermts Veins. 173

but the case is different with respect to veins which are con-
nected by mineral transitions with the contiguous rocks. In
the latter we are obliged to suppose, that the formation of the
rock, that of the vein and its filling, are almost contemporane-
ous. On the other hand, when we see the crystalline masses of
different substances in the middle of, and on all sides entirely
surrounded by rocks equally crystalline, so that we cannot be-
lieve they have been introduced into the cavities they fill, either
from above or beneath, we are compelled to consider the vein as
an open fissure in a crystalline rock, that has been again pene-
trated by the substance in solution, which has thus been intro-
duced into the cavity and precipitated there, the various parts of
the rock being more or less dense, or the solution being more or
less saturated in different situations. There is another mode of
filling, which has produced the veins which contain metallic
sulphurets, in crystalline groups, projecting in all directions in
the vein, and bodies which decompose in aqueous solutions,
such as the metallic sulphurets and arseniurets, which will not
sustain an elevated temperature without decomposition, unless
under the action of a considerable compressing force.

It therefore appears almost certain, that veins have not all
been produced by one general cause alone, and tliat many in-
fluences have sometimes concurred in their formation.

It follows, from the brief sketch which we have just pre-
sented of the state of our knowledge of the constitution of veins,
that it is impossible to admit, that the fissures which have at
different periods opened in the rocks have been filled by sub-
stances transported thither by the action of terrestrial electric
currents, as they exert no chemical action except where solid
conducting bodies and liquids, capable of reacting one on the
other, exist. Now the rocks are not conductors of electricity,
and the solid metallic ores were not in existence when these
fissures were formed. We must therefore admit, that other
causes than electric currents have filled these rents. The filling
up once effected, either entirely or in part, and the water en-
tering from the surrounding rocks, electric forces would then
intervene to effect decompositions, and give birth to new com-
binations.

_ ( 174 )

Geographical and Geological Observations on some parts of
European Turkey, namely^ Masia, Bulgaria, Romelia, Al-
bania, and Bosnia. By Dr A. Bouk. Communicated by
the Author in a Letter to the Editor.*

In the general view of the Orography of European Turkey,
communicated in the preceding volumes of this Journal, I
could only enter into a few details regarding Servia, Macedonia,

* We remark with pleasure the interest excited in Germany by the series
of papers by Dr Bou^ which have appeared in this Journal. The following
observations accompany a copious abstract of the first portion of our friend's
discoveries, published by Mr Berghaus in his interesting and deservedly po-
pular " Almanach ; den Freunden derErdkunde gewidmet," for 1838: " We
may, with justice and propriety, tenn Boue's journey through European
Turkey a journey of discovery for Geography as well as for Geognosy. For,
although our maps of Turkey are filled up with the most minutely delineated
chains of mountains, and exhibit a perfectly complete hydrographical net of
serpentine rivers and streams ; yet, we know well, that these apparently ac-
curate representations belong, for the most part, to the phantasmagorical class,
and can scarcely deceive the most credulous. Most of the other countries of
Europe have been surveyed and described, but we grope in profound dark-
ness, when we inquire into the natural external form and the geognostical
constitution of the Turkish possessions. Christian prejudices and mercan-
tile interests are undoubtedly the chief reasons that have, to so great an
extent, prevented Europeans from travelling in a country which, now that
many portions of it enjoy the blessings of peace, and that the early fanaticism
of its inhabitants has begun to disappear, does not present the great dif-
ficulties formerly encountered. The indefatigable Boue, who has examined
the geognostical structure of nearly all the countries of Europe, and who saw
in Turkey an entirely unexplored field for new observations, resolved to de-
vote from three to four years to its investigation, and to associate with him
in his enterprize, naturalists who prosecuted other departments of natural
history. In the year 1836, during a portion of his journey, he enjoyed
the society of two French geologists, MM. Montalembert and Viquenel, ot
Mr Friedriehsthal, a botanist, and of Mr Adolf Schwab, a zoologist, the two
latter being originally from Moravia. It is to be regretted that Boue did not
take with him a measuring geographer, that is, a person, provided with the
requisite instruments, who should have been able to determine positions,
and to ascertain the three co-ordinates of a great number of points, so as to
furnish a foundation for a new and accurate map, of whose want, our travel-
ler, as we shall soon see, bitterly complains These are the facts

collected by Boue, during the first year of his journey of discovery, so far as
he has made them known in Jameson's excellent Journal. The services

Geogi-aphical and Geological Observations, ^c. 175

and some parts of llomelia and Maesia Superior. Last year,
however, I visited the other provinces of the empire, and direct-
ed my attention especially to the eastern and western ranges
of mountains, the Haemus, and the Albanian-Bosnian chains ;
whilst I endeavoured, at the same time, to complete my know-
ledge of the central chains, from the Dardanelles to the Adria*-
tic. I now possess nearly 350 barometrical measurements, with
corresponding observations made at Belgrade by Mr Math.
Ivanowitsch, apothecary ; and I have also obtained a great
deal of interesting information from being able to converse with
the Turks, as well as the Servians and Bulgarians.

To the north of the central plateau of Mcesia^ between Pris-
tina and Sophia, the limits of Servia are formed from E. to W.
by the Jastrebacz (or chain of the sparrow-hawks), the Plocsa,
and the Kopaonik. The first-named mountains are only covered
by oaks, and higher up by elms, like the hills in central Servia ;
but these latter have fir trees near their summits. The great-
est elevation of this chain appears to be rather above 5500 feet.
The Jastrebacz is a mass of crystalline (primary) slaty rocks,
whilst the others consist of transition-slates, with syenite, dial-
lage-rock, serpentine, and metalliferous deposits, such as mag-
netic iron-ore, &c. South of Mcesia Superior is the Orbelus, if
we may be allowed to apply this ancient name to the KurhetsTiO-
Plunina^ a pretty large group of hills, situated at the sources
of the Bistritza, and having an absolute height of between 4000
and 5000 feet. To the west and east of the Orbelus, there are
some pretty low chains clothed with oaks, and forming the
northern frontier of Macedonia, from Uskup to Dubnitza and
Sophia. These hills are chiefly composed of talcose or mica-
ceous slates, and scarcely attain an elevation of more than 3000
feet : they are sometimes still lower to the west of Kostendil,
where they partly consist of transition-limestone, and even
tertiary molasse. The Orbelus is a massive mountain of grani-

rendered by this distinguished geologist to the knowledge of so large a portion
of Europe, do not require my feeble praise ; I wish him health, spirit, and
perseverance for the continuation of his great undertaking.'' We have only
to add, that we heartily subscribe to the opinions here expressed, by so com-
petent an authority as Berghaus ; and that we cordially unite with him in
best wishes for the future success and prosperity of our traveller.-.£DiT.

1 76 Dr Boue's Geographical and Geological Observations

tic rocks with gneiss ; and in its vicinity we find trachytes,
which are in connexion with those of Karatova. Trachyte
also extends across the low central chain, from Strazin in Mace-
donia, to the vicinity of Vranja south of the Morava. A sul-
phureous hot spring issues at the northern extremity of these
hills.

On the eastern limits of Mcesia Superior^ south of Nisha, are
situated the lofty Start Plamna (old mountain), and the Suvo-
Planina (dry hill) ; these limestone ridges occur next to the mica-
slates of Baditschka-Gora (east of Leskovatz). A very extensive
group of mica-slate and talc- slate hills rises more to the south,
between the Morava valley and the valleys of Trn and Sukova.
On the north-east base of this group we find some trachytes and
trachytic conglomerates ; but, on the highly inclined southern
declivity, porphyry dykes occur in the slates ; whilst some of
the hill tops are composed of trachyte and a white trachytic
aggregate. Here, as in the Servian hills, elms cover the low
plateaux^ oaks the sides, and alpine pasturages occupy the
highest summits, the chief of which is the broad Sne^pol (Snow-
field). This last is a little higher than the S tar i- Planina^ and
attains an elevation of nearly 4000 (Paris) feet.

The Snegpol is united by the ridges above the village of
Klissura (defile), to the Kurbetska Planina and the hills of Egri
Palanka. The talc-slates, of which these are formed, are often
decomposed, and contain numerous raiccoscopic crystals of
magnetic iron-ore, which is washed and smelted in many places.
These hills completely separate the upper Morava valley from
that of Trn, whose stream flows into the Sukova and Nissava ;
a fact of which most geographers are ignorant, as they make it
fall into the Morava.

To the south-east of this group of hills we find lower ridges
composed of limestone and newer transition-slate, or Silurian
rocks, with numerous defiles or rents running nearly N-S.
These hills extend to the great longitudinal channel which
leads from Nisha to Sophia, and which is excavated, particu-
larly towards the east, in a conchiferous limestone, probably
belonging to the Jura formation. All the above-mentioned
chains are inhabited by a pretty dense population of indus-
trious Bulgarians.

Observations on some parts of European Turkey, 177

Lastly, to the west of the plateau of Mcesia lies the Pristina
or Kossova plain, surrounded by low chains, which are elevated
about 800 or 1000 feet above it, whilst its own absolute height
amounts to 1400 feet. The hills are chiefly composed of talc
or mica slates, together with some serpentines and amygdaloi-
dal limestones : they are covered with forests, chiefly of oak,
of which the principal varieties are Quercus Robii r, Q. Cerris^
and Q. puhescens.

The middle plateau of McBsia is occupied by hills a little
higher than the preceding, and containing valleys or basins
formed by the Morava, the Toplitza, and their defiles. Here
the Bulgarians cultivate their fields and gardens in a most ad-
mirable manner. The valleys are covered with villages, where
maps only indicate a wilderness, and the cultivated fields ex-
tend far up among the hills. Unfortunately, however, their
neighbours the Arnautes, or Albanians inhabiting the N.W.
of Maesia superior, do not profit by their good example, but
leave much of their ground in its primitive state of woody
wilderness. Vines do not grow well in the Morava valley, ex-
cept around Nisha, Leskovatz, Vranja, Prekop (Urkup), and
also near Pristina. Indian corn is cultivated in the lower Bul-
garian and Albanian valleys. The high mountainous ridges of
Servia serve as a protection against the north winds.

The Morava valley is composed of tertiary beds of an ar-
gillaceous or sandy nature, as near Nisha and Leskovatz : allu*
vial beds occur higher up, in the Vranja basin. Nisha, Les-
kovatz, and Vranja are the chief towns of the three basins, of
which the narrowest parts are at Kurvihan, and to the south of
Leskovatz between that town and Surdebitza. Some trachy tic
eruptions have taken place to the south-east of Leskovatz, and si-
liceous limestone, probably of fresh water origin, occurs to the
north-east, near Sheshine, at the foot of the hills to the east
of the Morava.

Between Radomir (at an elevation 1614 feet on the eastern
side of the Strymon), Bresnik, and Sophia, is a very extensive
plateau, nine miles broad, and composed of tertiary augite
porphyry. The higher summits of the hills attain an altitude
of 2456 feet. To the south rises the mountain called WistosJca
or Wistosh^ with its limestones, slaty and granitic rocks, ar-

VOL. XXT. NO. XLIX. — JULV 1838. M

178 Dr Boue s Geographical and Geological

gentiferous ores, and abundant springs. Its height may be es-
timated at above 4000 feet. To the west it overtops the bare
hilly country around Radomir, and to the east the beautiful
plain of Sophia, which has only an elevation of 1848 feet.

The great Isker (Gomela or beuk Isker) flows through the
basin of that name, enters into the mountain defiles of Sumughu
Balkan, and only leaves the hilly country six or nine miles to
the south of Wratza near Butunia. Geographers have con-
founded in a singular manner the great Isker with the little
Isker (Malo or Kutschiik Isker). This last river comes down
the Balkan north of the Ichtiman basin, and joins the great
Isker not far from Staro Celo. Etropol, Strigl (the Striga of
maps), Tashkisi, and Komartzi, ai'e on the little Isker, and not
on the great, as marked in the maps, in which also the bed of
the little Isker between Etropol and Starocelo is erroneously
delineated as a part of that of the great Isker. The great
Isker valley is the chief military highway from Bulgaria to
Servia, but that of the little Isker only leads to a pretty high
ridge of hills, which must be crossed before descending to the
Sophia basin or to that of the Ichtiman, which is situated a
little higher up, at an elevation of 1480 feet. The small Isker
does not join the Sophia basin.

The hills of Southern Maesia are united geographically to
the Despotodagh, the Rhodopus, and the Balkan or Haemus by
means of the Wistoska, together with some granitic and sieni-
tic hills at the base of the Rhodopus, and three or four low
ridges running west 2° south to east £° north, in an oblique
direction from Banja to Ichtiman, between the Rhodopus and
the Haemus. These last are composed of mica-slate, gneiss,
and granite, with some granular limestones, and their height is
from 2000 to ^S56 feet. At the base of the Despotodagh they
are crossed by the Kiz Derbend (defile of the girl) running
W-E., and composed at its narrowest part of granular lime-
stone. The road from Tatar Basardsehik to Banja is carried
along it. We must take care not to confound this defile with
one of the same name, but much finer, in the Rhodopus be-
tween Rasluk and Newrokop. In the latter there are the ruins
of an ancient castle, situated on high rocks, which overhang
an old road a thousand feet above the torrent. The passage

Observations on some parts of European Turkey. 179

of this deep defile occupies nine hours, and all around appears
a chaos. At Somakov the alluvial soil is full of microscopic
particles of magnetic iron-ore ; there are several founderies, and
the Pasha of Sophia has built one after an English plan.

The Balkan or Haemus extends from Sophia to Cape Emi-
nek, and runs W. 3% N. to E. 3°, S. or, by compass, nearly
W.NW., E.SE. It is a much lower chain than the Despoto-
dagh ; the southern slopes are generally very steep, but, on the
northern side, it is only the highest ridge which presents con-
siderable inclinations. The Balkan is almostdestituteof subordi-
nate chains towards the south ; and is composed of the principal
high ridge, and a series of parallel lower ones which diminish in.
height as they approach the Danube. Between these are large
longitudinal valleys ; and we occasionally find rents from north
to south intersecting the ridges, and occupied, as in the Alps, by
the great rivers that issue from the longitudinal valleys. As the
chain diminishes in height from west to east, the high Balkan
(Kodja Balkan) forms the western part, at the sources of the
Osma, where the summits probably attain an elevation of above
4000 feet ; whilst, near the Black Sea, they have only a height
of from 1800 to 2000 feet. There is an oblique and pretty
high ridge to the west of Czatak and Bashkoe, which separates
the waters of the Bebrova from those of the Akali-Komtschik.
The eastern part of the Balkan is pretty well delineated in the
Austrian map of Turkey, published at Vienna.

The high Balkan is composed of the crystalline slaty rocks,
gneiss, mica-slate, talc and clay slates ; these extend beyond
Tschipka on the southern side, but their breadth diminishes
from west to east. Above Islivne (which we find wrong placed
and under the name of Selimnoon maps), near the middle of the
Balkan, there are some very picturesque hills of quartziferous
porphyry ; and among these the peaks of the Tschataldagh
(rent hill) rise to the height of 2800 feet, thus affording a most
beautiful view of Romelia. Islivne is a most delightful station
for a naturalist : it is a Turkish town with 15,000 inhabitants,
and has, along with Usundschova, the greatest annual fair in
Romelia. I may remark that Tschirmen, near Usundschova,
is on the southern and not on the northern side of the Maritza
river.

180 Dr Boue's Gcograpldcal and Geological

Immediately above these older rocks of the Balkan we find
a \\\\c^ formation of green sand, composed of marly greyish
sandstones, quartzose and greenish-coloured sandstones, and
beds of marly clay and whitish, greyish, or black compact lime-
stone. The latter rock is often conchiferous as at \Vikrar, where
some of the beds contain oysters, pectens, naticas, turbinated
shells, cariophyllea?, and other coralline bodies. In some cases
orbitolites occur in great numbers, as near Loftdscha. The
limestone forms thick beds, and occasionally craggy precipices ;
but the other rocks, with the exception of some of the green
sandstones, only form hills, which are generally either covered
with oaks and elms, or, being destitute of trees, are used as
pasture grounds. The beds of the lowest cretaceous formation
are not exactly parallel to the general direction of the Balkan,
but appear to intersect it at a very acute angle, deviating a
little to the south. The general dip is nearly N.NE. ; but the
undulations of certain masses often causes the dip to change to
the S.W., N.W., &c.

At the eastern extremity of the Balkan, the green-sand is
covered by extensive plateaux of chalk, with flints and belem-
nites. Chalk appears on all sides when it is not covered by the
vegetation. Schumla is a good place for seeing the transition
from the uppermost green-sand to the chloritic chalk with its
fossils, the Grypheae (G. auricularis, G. vesiculosa), Inocera-
mu3 (/. sulcatus), Pecten, Lima, Terebratula, Cucullea, Nerina,
Natica, Cellepora, Flustra, Galerites, &c. ; and also the transi-
tion from this last to the chalk with its characteristic fos-
sils, the striated terebratulae, shark's teeth, &c. The beds
around Schumla are in an anticlinal position, and the town oc-
. cupies the centre of the convexity or rent. By the aid of a little
imagination it might be regarded as a crater of elevation, in
which are deposits of tertiary clay, forming towards the east
the natural double ramparts in the semicircular form of the
town. On the other side it is inclosed by chalk hills, upon
which a citadel and redoubts have been erected, in order to pre-
vent the approach of enemies from the plateau. These chalk
hills have been delineated by geographers as advanced portions
of the Balkans ; but certainly they ought not to convert mere
small hills into chains of mountains.

Observations on some parts of European Turhey. 181

If one might be allowed to judge from the inclined position
of the Molasse near Islivne, it would appear that the uprising
of the Hcemus was posterior to the deposition of the superior
tertiary rocks ; whilst the horizontal beds of tertiary sand on
the central plateau of Maesia would indicate an older epoch of
formation for the hills of that country.

In the vicinity of the Danube, Bulgaria is covered with a
great tertiary Jormation^ which becomes broader as we proceed
from east to west, in consequence of the oblique direction of
the cretaceous beds in Bulgaria. This direction was owing to
their having been deposited upon the Jurassic limestone of the
Pashaliks of Widdin and Nisha, and on the crystalline slaty
rocks of the Balkan. The Danube flows past a series of small
hills on the Bulgarian side ; but, on the northern or Walla-
chian side, the country is flat. A great part of north-east Bul-
garia and the country of the Dobrutscha Cossacks is tertiary.
It is only near Babadagh, and between it and Matochin, that
we find higher hills composed of older formations, particularly
clay-slate. Loss or alluvial clay-marl occurs along the Danube.
Erratic blocks are unknown in Bulgaria, as is the case with
the other portions of Turkey which I have examined.

The isthmus between Rassova and Kostendsche, where a ca-
nal might be cut in order to shorten the voyage of the Danube,
is not only occupied by alluvial matter, but also by some very
low tertiary hills ; the Danube can never have had its channel
there in historical times.

South of the Balkan there exists only one pretty distant sub-
ordinate chain, viz., the low chain of transition-slate and lime-
stone between Kalofer (west of Kezanlik), Eski Sagra, and a
place west of Islivne, where the Tondja issues through a defile
from its superior alluvial basin. This basin is the plain which
extends between Tschipka, Kezanlik, and Czirkua, and it is on
it that the roses are cultivated for making the attar of roses.
The Vienna map delineates the course of the Tondja pretty
well ; but in Cotta''s map it is very ill laid down.

From Islivne to Burgas on the Black Sea, there is a vast
hollow at the base of the Balkan ; the rivers are only separa-
ted by very small ridges. The remainder of the Balkan bounds
the western part of the great tertiary gulf, whose surface forms
the present soil of a great portion of eastern Romelia or Thracia.

182 Dr Boue*s Geographical and Geological

The southern base of the Haemus is remarkable for the exu-
berance of its vegetation, consisting of gardens of roses, jas-
mine, and wild lilac, vineyards and forests of all kinds of fruit
trees, but without the olive tree, the Anis or the Lepleh (a kind
of Dolichos lablah). Tschipka, Eski-Sagra, and Islivne, are
truly delightful abodes. The adjacent plain, however, is des-
titute of trees, and consists chiefly of fields under cultivation,
and pasture-grounds which are partly marshy, with a black soil.
This alluvial and tertiary plain extends to the chain which runs
along the Black Sea, as also the Sea of Marmora and the Ar-
chipelago. On its elevated borders near Eski-Sagra, there are
some small deposits of fresh-water limestone. Primary alluvial
matter fills up the angle of the basin between the Rhodopus
and the Balkan, and it is on this spot that rice is chiefly culti-
vated. In other parts, the shores of this tertiary gulf have
been covered by fossiliferous and coralline limestones, clay,
sand, and sandstones ; as along the sea of Marmora at Constan-
tinople, around Kirklisse, between that town and Bunar-His-
sar, between Serai, Tschataltscha, and Tschorlu, &c. The
reddish-brown smectic clay, from which the Turkish pipes
are manufactured without being exposed to the fire, also belongs
to the tertiary formation, and is probably derived from gra-
nitic or recent igneous rocks. This clay occurs in the basin of
Adrianople, as well as near Rutschuk in Bulgaria, near Sophia,
at Komavitza near Nisha, &c. The best pipes are made at
Belgrade, Nisha, Sophia, Rutschuk, Adrianople, Lule-Burgas,
and SiHvri.

In the Plain north of Adrianople^ we occasionally meet with
small groups of isolated hills composed of trachyte, as between
Jeni-Sagra and Janboli, and near Karabunar. In the north-
east portion of the tertiary basin of Romelia, the augite por-
phyry forms a very extensive undulating plateau ; extending
from the base of the Balkan, north of Aidos, to the Gulf of
Burgas, and in a southerly direction to a different Karabunar
(hlack fountain) situated on the Curu. In the wild and wooded
country between Aidos and Burgas, there is a hot sulphureous
spring, which is probably connected in some way with the fo-
cus of the eruptions, which formerly occurred in an ancient
gulf between the Balkan and the chain on the southern shores
of the BlacJc Sea,

Observations on some parts of European Turkey. 183

This last chain is not in immediate connection with the Hae-
mus ; but, speaking geographically, is only a continuation of
the chain at Eski Sagra. The great valley of the Tondja se-
parates the low mountains north of Jeni-Sagra from the plor-
ieaux^ composed of slates and blackish limestone, between Ka-
rabunar and Fakhi. To the south-east, the slates have been
broken through by great masses of diorite and granite ; and
this latter, along with gneiss, predominates between Petschio-
male and Kirklisse, and even farther to the east. The diorites
chiefly occur in the neighbourhood of Fakhi, and seem to be
veins in the granite. North of Kirklisse, the decomposition of
the granitic rocks has produced fantastic shapes, and given rise
to the formation of rocking stones, &c. On approaching the
Bosphorus, the shore-chain is divided into a number of small
hills situated on low-lying plateaux. Near Serai, we find clay-
slates which extend to the Bosphorus, and alternate with grey-
wacke and silurian shell-limestone, as near Therapia, and at the
Giant's Mountain in Asia. To the north of Bujukdere there
is a small trachytic district.

Geographers call my shore-chain Strandsia Balkan and Kut-
schuk Balkan ; but the first name is unknown in the country,
and is only that of a village south-east of Serai ; whilst the se-
cond is a general denomination given by the Turks to all small
hills. This chain is marked on maps as uniting with the Bal-
kan between Karnabat and Islivne ; but, at the distance of only
three miles eastfrom Islivne, the waters, issuing from the wooded
valleys of the Balkan, flow towards the Black Sea. A channel
could be cut from Islivne to Burgas. Islivne is near the point
where the waters flow in opposite directions, to the Archipela-
go and the Black Sea, indeed it is only separated by a small
hill from the waters which flow in an easterly direction.

The Rhodopus does not extend to the Dardanelles as all
maps indicate. Like the Perindagh, the mountains above Ras-
luk, and those of the famous Kiz-Derbend, its highest summits
are situated towards the west, viz. to the south of Banja, Sa-
makov, and Dubnitza. These attain an elevation of 8000 feet,
and perhaps some of those which I did not ascend are still
higher. The chain gradually diminishes in height from west
to east, and terminates rather abruptly about ^\q leagues from

184 Dr Boue's GeograpJdcal and Geological

the Maritza, and six leagues south-west of Adrianople. The
decKvities on the northern side are generally pretty steep ; and
magnificent views of this portion of the Rhodopus are obtained
from Philippopolis and Banja. Pine trees occur highest up
on the hills, next to them are elms, and lower down, the oak
forests. A certain number of rents running north-south form
deep valleys, which are adorned with monasteries (Stanimak)
and villages or cottages. These fissures are the passes by which
people cross the mighty wall from Philoppopolis, Tatar-Ba-
sardschik, Banja, Samakov, and Dubnitza. Along the Archi-
pelago, the lofty crags, the island of Tassos with its marbles,
as well as the high Semedrek, all indicate that the crystalline
slates, the gneiss, the granite, and the granular limestone of
the Despotodagh or Rhodopus have experienced considerable
depressions, as, otherwise, the chain would be united to the
old ridges of the Troja country and the Ida. Some isolated
portions of the Rhodopus are found in the northern tertiary
plain, as, for instance, the hills of gneiss and granite between
Harinani and Haskoe. At Philippopolis, sienite forms four
small hillocks in the town, or close to it : this formation is con-
nected with the granitic eruptions from west to east at the base
of the Rhodopus, to the west and east of Samakov, and at Dub-
nitza.

From the Archipelago to beyond Karabunar (south of Di-
motika) there is a long stripe running south-north of trachyte
and trachytic conglomerate. Here one finds all the compact,
semivitrified, and vitreous varieties of these igneous masses
which made their appearance during the tertiary epoch. These
eruptions must be connected on the one side with those north
of Adrianople, and on the other with those of the high island
of Semedrek. In this latter, as also to the east of Fered, there
is a hot sulphureous spring. On the northern base of the Rho-
dopus, hornblendic trachytes are found in some parts of the
Semisdsche valley. The trachytic country is partly a stony
barren soil, and partly covered with low trees of the Paliurus
aculeatus. It is only fertile where the conglomerates are in
connexion with the tertiary argillaceous-calcareous beds.

South of Edrene (Adrianople), between the Maritza and the
Dardanelles, are the low ridges and plateaux oi the Tekirdagh,

Observations on some parts of European Turlcey, 185

In these, Molasse is associated with clay and a sand which oc-
casionally contains shells, together with numerous fragments
of siliceous coniferous (?) wood. One bed, at the height of 800
feet, is chiefly composed of shells of the genus mactra. Coralline
and shelly limestones are found on thesandsof Malgara,and par-
ticularly on the western banks of the Maritza, near the trachy-
tic zone around Fered. The greatest height of the Tekirdagh
may amount to nearly 900 feet. To the south-east of Aimadt-
schik, there is a somewhat more elevated ridge, whicli, in the
vicinity of the Sea of Marmora, is probably 300 or 400 feet
higher than the Tekirdagh. It is improperly called JSiagridagh
in the Vienna map.

It would appear that, during the epoch of the deposition of
the middle and superior tertiary rocks, the sea did not pass
through the Dardanelles, as this rent did not then exist ; but
that the great sea of Marmora and Adrianople communicated
with the Archipelago by means of a vast firth situated more to
the west, and of which the deepest part is now occupied by the
large and fertile valley of the Maritza. Near Constantinople
also, the tertiary limestones and superior sands do not occur
beyond the mountains of greywacke and slate south of the
Black Sea, although it is probable that tertiary waters existed
in the cavities between the groups of the chain running along
the Black Sea. The rents of the Dardanelles and the Bospho-
rus were formed at a later period, during the alluvial epoch ;
as appears from the craggy declivities of their banks, the cor-
respondence of the beds on both sides, and the absence of any
very old alluvium. I do not suppose that Andreossy's opinion
is supported by any geologist, as there are no traces of fluvia-
tile or marine erosion on the banks of these straits.

To the west of the central plateau of Maesia is Upper Alba-
7M0, a country occupied to the east and south-east by the high
Tschar, (not Tschardagh, which is an Asiatic hill on the Sea
of Marmora), between Kacsanik, Kalkandel, and Prisrend; and
to the south by its prolongation, consisting of the high ridges
interposed between the wild primary valley of the Debres and
the plain of Bitoglia (Monastir) and Perlepe, as also the val-
ley of Kalkandel, called Tetovo in the Bulgarian language.
They are sometimes more than 8000 feet high, and are occa-

186 Dr Bou^s Geographical and Geological

sionally capped with snow during summer. These ridges are
immense masses of crystalline slates, which, in the Tschar, be-
come talcose or argillaceous, and contain whole hills of compact
or semi -granular limestone. As an example T may mention
the high and massive Taleshdagh, the Galitza of maps, nearly
6000 feet in height, at the eastern entrance of the black Drin.
The hills behind Prisrend and its old Servian castle are also
calcareous, and abound in fine springs. The roads through the
Tschar from Frisrend to Kalkandel, and from Prisrend to
Kacsanik, are very interesting from the beautiful views which
they command — valleys with lofty crags, ruins of castles and
monasteries, and villages scattered among high declivities.

To the west of these ridges, and rising to an average height
of 6000 or 7000 feet, are the primary mountains of Elbessan,
through which passes the only military road from Romelia or
Monastir to Scutari. It is carried through Ochri, where the
vineyards indicate that the elevation of the lake of Ochrida is
under 2000 feet ; it may, however, be estimated at 1500 or
1600 feet. More to the south we meet with the northern ex-
tremities of the primary Pindus with parallel limestone ridges
like those of the Tschar.

To the north of these chains, all of which, with the exception
of the Tschar, run from north-west to south-east, there have
been immense eruptions of Diorite, compact Euphotide and
Serpentine, and among these we find all the compact, lamellar,
sienitic, decomposed, and earthy varieties of the ophite of the
Pyrenees. Diallage-rocJc occurs rarely, but forms some mag-
nificent masses and small hills in this deposit around the tor-
rent of Rape, thirty miles east of Scutari. These igneous
rocks contain considerable masses of clay-slate, &c., through
which they have been upheaved, and which they have altered
and indurated in various ways. Whole rocks and mountains
are composed of red and greenish jaspers, and these pass into
the slate from which they have been formed, as in Italy, by
igneous agency. This singularly intersected and barren dis-
trict includes all the mountains between the confluence of the
black and white Drins, and the place where they issue from the
calcareous rent six miles from Scutari, comprehending a tract
sixty-six miles from west to east, anil nearly fifteen miles from

Observations on some parts of European Turliey. 187

north to south. The height of these hills does not seem to be
above 3300 feet ; some of their summits are covered with pines
and fir trees, as is particularly the case with the Kiafa-mala
(hill of Kiafa), near Viet. The coniferous trees descend to the
elevation of 1500 feet, and the forests lower down are composed
of elms and oaks.

This country, which bears some resemblance to a sea agitated
by a storm, is the native place of the Myrdites (not Myrmides),
a race of Catholic Albanians who extend from Scutari to beyond
Takova, and from the Deb res to Prisrend and Alessio. Their
captain, Doda, resides at Oros ; and he can assemble together
at least 10,000 armed men. These poor people dispute with
the torrents the ground necessary for cultivating their Turkish
corn ; and they conceal their villages as much as possible from
their enemies the Turks. The deep rents in which the Drin
flows through the dioritic and calcareous hills are seldom well
adapted for roads, but one has been made between Prisrend
and Scutari, along three valleys and two mountain defiles run^
ning nearly west-east. Old pavements and bridges shew that
this road had been used in ancient times ; but, although it is
crowded with horses carrying goods from Trieste into Turkey,
it is at present only a footpath, and scarcely practicable for
riding. This road abounds in precipices, steep ascents and de-
scents, flights of steps cut in the rock (called Sliale in Alba-
nian), and passes excavated in the rock and too narrow for
horses. It is ninety-six miles in length, and during the whole
distance, the traveller meets with scarcely a single village, al-
though a dozen isolated inns indicate at least as many hidden
villages at a distance from the road.

These dioritic hills are connected geographically with the
high and calcareous ridges of the lower Drin, which are only
the extremities of the very high similar chains between Ipek
or Scherkoles and the country of Montenegro. Their greyish-
white summits covered with eternal snow, except towards the east,
and their numerous rents, recall to one's mind the secondary
calcareous chains of the Alps. Around the lake of Plava, from
which the Bojana issues, near Gusinie above Plava, and a little
to the east of that, their elevation probably exceeds 8000 feet.
Their lower declivities are covered with villages ; for the Al-

188 Dr Boue's Geographical and Geological

banian, like the inhabitant of Montenegro, seeks liberty and
exemption from taxes in the wildest abodes ; whilst the Turk
bestows on him the epithet of Haiduk, rebel and highway rob-
ber.

These serrated ridges are connected with the Kom and Dor-
mitor, two high chains to the east and west of Drobniak (the
Drobnasche of maps), as also with the Lubitschnia; all of
which are limestone hills capped with snow, and at least as
high as the former ones. Farther north, these chains are
united to those east of Glubigne, between Mostar and Nova-
schin in Herzegowina. It is the BielosoJc of the Vienna map.

The maps place Plava and the neighbouring snowy chains
too far from the Drin and Scutari, and too much to the east ;
besides, the Albanian names are ill spelt, and there are nume-
rous errors in the position of inns and villages between Prisrend
and Scutari.

It is possible that the eruptions of diorite and serpentine,
in the country called mi/rdita, may be contemporaneous with
one of the latest upheavings of the chains last mentioned ; and
that Bosnia received, during that epoch, its present form, which
may be compared to a roof sloping from south to north.

The cretaceous Jhrmation, with hippurites, compact lime-
stone, and marly sandstone, &c., occurs in the superior ter-
tiary basin of the White Drin, north and east of Takova ; but
this basin, which is at an elevation of 1000 or 1100 feet, is
separated from the alluvium of Scutari by a very thick wall of
diorite, serpentine, and limestone ; and from this the Drin
issues with great velocity at Scale, at six miles east of Scutari.
The inferior chalk is found on the coasts of Albania, where
it occurs, as in southern Europe, in the form of singularly
shaped hills of limestone, which is much more frequently com-
pact, like that of the Jura, than fossiliferous or earthy. This
chalk is distributed over Dalmatia and part of Herzegowina,
and forms numerous high hills around the bay of Cattaro.
It extends to Montenegro, where its rocks are so numerous as
materially to impede the cultivation of the country ; and the
superabundant population make use of this as a pretext for
committing robberies on their neighbours, whether Mahome-
tans, Catholics, or even Servians of the Greek Church. These

Observations on some parts of European Turliey, 189

robberies are the more horrible, from the circumstance that the
robbers always carry away with them, the heads of their victims,
in order to serve as a trophy and obtain a remuneration from
their bishop or chief. This latter personage often pays reluc-
tantly, and offers remonstrances ; but all to no purpose, as his
power is limited. The Pasha of Scutari is also obliged to
reward those who bring him heads from Montenegro, a thing
which happens almost every day. The only vineyards in
Montenegro are those near the Lake of Scutari, along the
Moratscha (Moracca of maps), and near Bielopavltzi.

The cretaceous system forms all the hills around Scutari ;
the lake of which contains some rocky islands of limestone.
The Scutari basin is so much protected from the northern
winds, that the heat is very oppressive during summer ; but
the climate is, on this account, favourable for the growth of
Mediterranean plants, such as the pomegranate and orange
tree. The olive tree also occurs there ; but its true native
country commences more to the south at Durazzo. Owing to
the quantity of stagnant water, fevers are common in Scutari
during summer.

At Scale, on the Drin, the cretaceous limestone is compact,
apparently without fossils, and of a yellow or greyish white
colour. Similar characters are observable in the limestone
forming the hills east of Scutari. At the base of these hills
there are numerous villages and vineyards, whose green tint
forms a strong contrast to the grey barren rocks. To the east
of Alessio, the same limestone forms conical hills like those of
Antivari, north of Scutari. More to the south, they extend
east of Durazzo to Berat. The acroceraunian or chimerian
chain, with its sandstones, belongs to the same formation, which
probably crosses over to the Ionian isles, and along the coast
to Prevesa. These mountains exhibit frequent examples of
natural fires, similar to that of the pietra mala in the Appe-
nines. The limestone ridges around Janina appear to be older,
and analogous to those of the Pindus and the Tschar.

Large springs, issuing like rivers out of the rock, occur in
this formation, as in the older limestone districts. In Monte-
negro, the Czernojevich issues as a river from the chalk at the
distance of one and a half leagues north of the Lake of Scutari.

190 Dr Boue's Geographical and Geological

Cettigne is situated in a dry valley, and the only torrents are
those near Genognussi ; but the waters quickly disappear un-
der ground, a fact of which geographers are not aware. On
the other hand, to the east of Ipek, the Istok issues as a tor-
rent from a subterranean channel in the old limestone ; and the
White Drin makes its appearance as a river from under a lime-
stone crag at the distance of one and a half miles above Novo
Celo, six miles east of Ipek. Geographers, induced probably
by the similarity of names, have marked this Drin as having
its origin at Rosalia, a village on the Bosnian side of the chain,
and on one of the higher branches of the Drina in Bosnia. Be-
sides, the position of Rosalia is wrong ; as it is too much to the
west, or Ipek too much to the east. The high plateau of Nik-
shichi (Niskiki of maps), in Herzegowina, has no lakes, but
only caverns or katavotrons, in which the water loses itself, and
which may occasionally overflow after long rains.

Bosnia is an immense plateau inclined from south to north,
and presenting to the Albanian plain of Ipek, and the hills of
Myrdita, a limestone wall from 6000 to 7000 feet high. It
requires four or five hours to ascend to the plateau. To the
west, Bosnia is bounded in a similar manner by the snowy
chain east of Mostar, and the Kom west of Kolaschin and
east of Drobniak. Thus Mostar is another Nice, protected
towards the north, and surrounded with gardens of pomegra-
nate, olive, and orange trees, rising in terraces one above
another, — a fertile oasis in the stony calcareous soil of Herze-
gowina. Towards Servia, the plateau of Bosnia also descends
very abruptly, especially to the north-east ; but to the south-
east it is connected with the Servian hills near Uschitze, and
on the banks of the Ibar.

We may travel for many miles on level ground on the
highest and most southerly plateau of Bosnia : occasionally we
meet with small valleys or small basins, the sites of former
lakes, as the plain north of (Jgrlo. From this, the most ele-
vated plateau^ all the ridges diminish in height towards the
north, and run S.E.-N.W., so that they form a slightly in-
clined plain so far as the Save. The highest ridges run pa-
rallel to the Kom and Dormitor, &c., in Herzegowina, but have
only half or two-thirds the altitude of these mountains, or of

Observations on some parts of European Turkey. 191

those near Plava. They diminish in height in a direction
from west to east. Geographers are right in marking an ob-
lique chain, higher than the others, between Bosnia and Her-
zegowina. If we imagine, in this inclined surface of the ridges,
deep furrows running, some S.E.-N.W., or from south to
north, and others from west to east, we have a configuration
similar to that of Bosnia, with its chains running S.E.-N.W.,
or S.SE.-N.NW. These last, however, anastomose by lower
ramifications running W.-E. ; so that the small plains and
valleys, where towns or villages are situated, are inclosed by
walls running S.E.-N.W., and by low ridges running W.-E.
Here, as in the Alps and the Balkan, rents running N.-S. give
issue to the great rivers, which thus find their way out of the
longitudinal valleys.

This natural citadel is only connected with Turkey by the
broken part of the high walls above Novibazar (Jenibazar) and
Ipek ; and with Scutari or Maritime Albania by two or three
mountain-passes which are still higher, and are rendered dan-
gerous owing to the snows above the Plava Lake, and the pre-
cipices which occur for nine miles on the bank of the Zem.
These last passes lead to Zienitza and Bielopol. If Montenegro
were a quiet country, the Turks, when going to Bosnia, might
ascend the Moracca river, or cross Montenegro and the high
plains of Herzegowina.

Bosnia, that beautiful Servian-Mahometan Switzerland, is
a cold country, whose hills are covered with firs, pine trees,
and birches. The plants chiefly cultivated are, barley, oats,
Polygonum Jagopyrum^ rye, potatoes, hemp, flax, and plum
trees for making brandy. Turkish corn does not grow well,
except in the deep sheltered valleys, as north of Sexajevo (Bosna
Serai) ; and vineyards only occur near the banks of the Save, at
Brod, and at Banjaluka, &c. On the southern higher ridges
of Bosnia there is, below the forest of fir and pine trees, a zone
of elms, which rises to the height of 3800 feet on the south-
em declivity ; oaks occur lower down, and, on the borders
of the Albanian low country, there are chestnut trees and
vineyards.

Bosnia, like Centra] and Western Servia and a part of Croa-
tia, is entirely composed of my primary Jbrmaiions (the tran*

192 Dr Boue's Geographical and Geological

sition ones of authors), and particularly of the older and me-
dial divisions. The chief rocks are clay-slates, of a grey or red
colour, grey wacke, conglomerate, compact limestone, sometimes
intersected by spathose veins and reddish or whitish sandstones
(Pratza, &c.). The immense calcareous masses form lofty and
picturesque crags, as along the Verbas, south of Banjaluka, and
between Serajevo and Pratza. In other places they form sub-
alpine valleys of great beauty, as that of the Lirn, near Prie-
pol, that of Millscheda or Miloscheveda, between Zienitza and
Priepol, &c. We occasionally find deep calcareous defiles on
the banks of the great rivers, as on the Drina south of Zwor-
nik, on the Jadar near the castle of Kizlar, and on the Bosna.
The Gothic castles of Hissar (south of Priepol), Kizlar, Vran-
duk, Zwornik, &c. are situated on the tops of rocks or on craggy
walls in these defiles. The calcareous plateaux offer many
small funnel-shaped hollows, resembling the combes of the Jura.
The limestone is often fossiliferous, containing encrinites, tere-
bratulae, pectens, &c. ; and it is probable that many Silurian
fossils will be discovered in it.

The slates of Bosnia are intersected, as in Western Servia,
by masses of sienite, sienitic porphyry, and felspar porphyry,
as in the Vrt valley, near Tschainitza. Serpentine and Schaal-
stein occur near Kizlar and in other places. In the vicinity of
these igneous rocks, and especially near the first mentioned, are
the silver ores of Crebernitza. The gold of Slatibor (hill of
gold), near Uschitze, has probably a similar position. There
are rich iron mines in limestone at Maidan, in the neighbour-
hood of Banjaluka, and at Foinitza, near Serajevo ; and in these,
sparry iron and brown iron-ores occur. The chief founderies
are near Bosna-Serai, from whence a great quantity of iron
goods are sent into Turkey. It is said that gold was formerly
obtained by washing the sand on the Bosnia.

The compact slightly fossiliferous limestone of the hills and
plateaux tuar Albania, distinctly alternates in certain localities
with varieties of clay-slate, and even with reddish coloured
sandstones, as at Mount Glieb. It would, therefore, be advisa-
ble for the present, to class these beds, or at least those lime-
stones which are at a distance from Montenegro, among the
newer transition-formations. Future travellers will be able to

Observations on some parts of European Turlcey. 193

fix the exact limits between these and the Mediterranean chalk,
and also to decide on the presence or absence of Jurassic rocks ;
as there will be much less difficulty in conducting these inves-
tigations, when the country becomes more cultivated, and the
inhabitants more civilized.

The tertiary formation is not found in the great hollows of
the plateau of Bosnia; it only occurs towards the north, as a bor-
der of low hills, occasionally covered with inconsiderable forests
of oak. These hills form a distinct separation between the higher
and older chains, and the great plains, south of the Save, which
abound in oak forests. They can be traced from Schabatz, in
Servia, to Losnitza, and thence to Brod and Dubitza, on the up-
per Save. In Servia, on the contrary, the tertiary hills stretch
far up in the great valleys as from Schabatz to Vallievo, and on
the eastern bank of the Kolubara. They consist of the same
rocks as in Hungary, clay and sand alternating with shelly or
coralline limestone, which is often of a white colour ; in short
of the medial and superior divisions of the tertiary series. Neaf
the Save there is loss or alluvial calcareous clay ; and we find)
deposited on its banks, numerous trees which have been floated
down by the rivers in Bosnia.

The mineral waters, noticed by me this year (1837), were
chiefly hot sulphureous springs, as near Aidos, on the Tondja,
nine miles east of Kezanlik, at Sophia ; at Banja, on the base
of the Rhodopus ; at the curious Batak-hanese (boggy bath),
occurring in granite, half a league north-east of Banja ; at
Fered ; and at Banja, six miles east of Vranja. I must add to
these, the acidulous seltzer water of Jarmazow, near Bosna-
Serai ; and those of Lepenitza, between Bosna-Serai and Zwor-
nik. In Romelia, there are acidulous ferruginous springs at
Berki, near Jeni Sagra ; and at Hasskoe, east of Adrianople ;
but as the Turks do not sufficiently value this latter kind of
springs, the traveller finds more difficulty in obtaining informa-
tion about them than about the hot springs, which are always
converted into bathing places by the Turks.

The temperature of the thermal springs is various. At Aidos
it was 33° R. ; at Banja, near the Rhodopus, 45© and 46° ; at
Sophia, 34° and 35°. However, notwithstanding this heat, the
water near the Tondja contains Conferva:, The chemical compo-

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. N

194 Dr Boue's Geographical and Geological

sition of these waters seems to be always nearly the same. In
particular, they all contain sulphate of soda ; and some, as those
of Sophia, a little sulphate of magnesia. They all indicate the
presence of more or less sulphuretted-hydrogen in a free state.
Others contain a little muriate of magnesia or lime, as those of
Banja, Aidos, and Sophia. I was unable to detect the presence
of carbonic acid or iron. Sometimes, but rarely, there are very
minute traces of lime, as at Banja.

Temperature of Cold Springs. — At Alexinitza, in the low
hills of Southern Servia, a spring gave 13^° to 14° cent., the
temperature of the air being 17° ; at Jasen, in the lower part
of the hills south-east of Leskovatz in Mcesia, a spring was at
12°, whilst the air was at 17° in the shade, and at 26° in the
sun ; a fountain on the plateau of the neighbouring hills, at an
elevation of 900 feet, gave 16°, the air being at 19° ; near Tm
a spring was at 10°, and the air in the shade at 23° ; at Bresnik
one was at 10°, another at 11°, the air being at 28°, and a third at
15°, the air being at 18° ; in the plain of Sophia a spring was at
13°, the air in the shade at 18°; at Sopot, near Lofdtscha in
Bulgaria, at 12J°, and the air at 19°; at Csatak, in a valley of
the Balkan, at 13^°, the air being at 23° in the shade, and 26^
in the sun during the month of June; at Karasholi, near
Osmanbazar, at 11°, the air being at 22° in the shade, and 31°
in the sun ; at Schumla at 12°, the air at 18° in the shade; at
Rodosto (Tekirdagh), on the Sea of Marmora, at 18°, the air
being at 26° ; on the Tekirdagh plateau, south of Kodosto at
an elevation of 700 feet, at 15|°, the air being at 18° ; at Mal-
gara, south of the Tekirdagh, at 13°, the air being at 21° ; near
Banja, at the base of the Rhodopus, at 13°, the air being at
21° ; at six miles west of Prisrend, a spring in the limestone
was at 12° or 13°, the air being at 28° in the month of August ;
at Scutari in Albania, the water of a deep well gave 12°, the
air being at 29° ; at Mokro, in the low hills, not far from Bosna-
Serai in Bosnia, and at an elevation of 2700 feet, a spring was
at 12°, the air being at 8° during September.

These are the chief facts collected during my travels in 1837.
Geographers may doubt some of my positions, and it is possible
that I may have committed some errors ; but I had this in my
favour, that I was able to converse with the natives of each
country in their own languages, and that, in addition to a strong

Ohservat'ions on some parts of European Turkey. 195

desire for examining new countries, I always enjoyed good
health during my travels. Travellers in Turkey are now secure
and comfortable if they know and follow the customs of the
country, and if they are accompanied by a Tartar. The Sultan
has put an end to all highway robberies by means of the gibbet,
his Nisam or European army, and the stations of gendarmes.
Although some Haiduks still exist near the frontiers, they are
only rebels, called highway robbers by the Turks; and, although
the Turks dread them, the European traveller has nothing to
fear from them, as they expect much from the interest which
European Christians take in their situation. Indeed, people of
all ranks are well inclined towards strangers. In Albania, the
Christian, especially the Nemse, German or Austrian, finds
security in places where the Turks are in danger ; for the Myr-
dites are Catholics, and the Mahometan and Greek Albanians
hate the Turks. In Bosnia strangers are weU received, even
during the petty wars which too often devastate that country.

The only exceptions to this rule are some countries where
only Asiatic Turks reside, and where there are Turks of the
good olden time with their green turbans ; as also a few Maho-
metan Albanian villages. Yet, even in these, the traveller is
not exposed to any annoyance, but only experiences indifference
and neglect. The former haughty Turkish appearance has now
disappeared very much, although scarcely any of the Turks,
except those employed in the civil and military departments,
have thought it worth while all at once to change their hand-
some dress and turban for our European fashions. Besides,
our dress requires household furniture, which does not exist in
Turkey. No Turk seems as yet to have adopted our dress-
coat. In places where Turks only reside, one still often finds
that noble hospitality of the middle ages which our inns have
banished from Europe. Turkey has undergone great reforms,
but it must yet submit to many other changes. May a stable,
just, and impartial government, soon procure for the inhabi-
tants that security of person and property which travellers at
present enjoy ; and may the plague, and the injurious distinc-
tions of Raja and Ghiaours, soon disappear from Turkey. By
results such as these, rather than by the creation of an Euro-
pean army, the Sultan's name would be rendered immortaL

( 196 )

On the Lamination of Clay hy Electricity.
Esq., F.G.S. &c.

By R. W. Fox,

Some clay was exhibited to the Poly technical Society of
Cornwall by R. W. Fox, Esq., which had become laminated
b\ long continued voltaic action, so as to resemble clay-slate in
its structure.

The figure here given may serve to illustrate the process by
which this was accomplished. Let
a, 5, c, df represent the top or rim
of an earthenware cup or basin ; e,
a piece of copper pyrites ;/l the up-
per edge of a plate of zinc ; i, cop- J
per wire by which the two latter
were connected ; and g', h, the top
of a mass or wall of clay between
the copper-ore and zinc, and form-
ing for each of them, a water-tight
cell. The cell containing the copper-ore was filled with a metallic
solution, — the sulphate of zinc, for instance, — and the other with
water mixed with a little sulphuric acid. The water with which
the clay was worked up was also acidulated. Thus circum-
stanced, the apparatus was set aside for three or four months,
and was not disturbed till some little time after the water had
evaporated, and the clay had become perfectly dry throughout.

It then exhibited, on breaking off a portion of its upper
part, lines of cleavage of a schistose character, parallel to the
sides of the clay and plate of zinc, or, at least, as nearly so
as was consistent with their undulatory form. In other
words, the lines or laminae were at right angles to the direction
of the electrical forces.

They are indicated by the lines on g^ h ; and the strongly
marked line « c represents a principal - line of division which
separated the clay into two portions, from the top to the bot-
tom.

These seemed to form, as it were, two voltaic plates in oppo-
site states of electricity, and one of them consequently, more
favourable than the other for the reception of metallic depo-

Mr Fox an the Lamination of Clay by Electricity, 197

sits and other bases from their solutions. These results, which,
however, were much more marked in some experiments than ia
others, seem to confirm the correctness of the views stated in
the last Polytechnic Report, pp. 87, 88.*

Indeed, the general laminated structure of the clay appears
to indicate, that a series of voltaic poles were produced through-
out the clay, the symmetrical arrangement of which had a cor-
responding effect on the structure of the clay. This view is
still more strikingly confirmed by the occurrence, in several
instances, of veins, or rather lamina^ of oxide of iron, the edges
of which are shewn by the shaded lines A:, Z, m. In these cases
sulphate of iron was substituted for the sulphate of zinc ; and
laminae of oxide of copper were sometimes formed in like man-
ner, when a solution of that metal was employed ; and, more-
over, numerous minute insulated portions or specks of the oxide
of copper were detected in different parts of the mass of clay
when broken.*!*

The coloured laminae produced in some of these experiments,
have, apparently, a direct bearing on the variously coloured
and waving lines which the edges of the laminae of schistose
rocks so commonly present, and also, on the occasional deposi-
tion of metalliferous substances parallel to the cleavage, which
seem to liave been formed on or before the consolidation of the
rocks. The true veins, however, were evidently formed after
the consolidation of the latter; and as they generally intersect,
in Comwall at least, the laminae of the " killas '^ or clay-slate,
at more or less considerable angles, they seem to have acted
the part of the copper wire shewn at i, in completing the vol-
taic circuit.

Hence arises the question whether the productiveness of
lodes, depends more or less on their bearings with respect to
to those of the cleavage ; and it appears to be a matter of prac-
tical importance to ascertain these relations in our mining dis-
tricts, and especially to note the angles at which the laminae

* We have not seen the last Report mentioned above. Edit.

t Some of these effects were apparently most decided when a series of vol-
taic exciters were used so as to increase the energy of the action, — three or
four such cups for instance as shewn in the Fig. arranged so as to form a
complete circuit.

}98 Proceedings of the Wernerian Society.

are intersected in their horizontal bearing and underlie, by
lodes which yield given ores in the greatest abundance.*

Froceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society, — Con-
tinued from vol. xxiv. p. 428.

March 24 — Dr Charles Anderson, V. P. in the Chair. — Dr
William Macdonald read a paper on the Analogy between the Lo-
comotive Organs in Fishes and Insects, illustrating the theory of
unity of organization throughout the animal kingdom, with de-
Hioiistrations from specimens, accompanied by drawings and dia-
grams. Dr R. Hamilton exhibited additional drawings, by Mr
Stewart, of the various species of the seal tribe, and made obser-
Tations on the subject. Professor Jameson exhibited an extensive
collection of Fossil Fishes found in the limestone of Burdiehouse,
Belonging to R. J. Hay Cunninghame, Esq., and Mr Cunninghame
expressed his dissent from some of the opinions maintained by Dr
Hibbert regarding these remains.

* The following is the report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society on
the above interesting experiment of Mr Fox : —

** Of objects of speculative and experimental science, your Committee have
to notice a communication from Mr R. W. Fox, which, if his views be esta-
ftUshed, involves the most important conclusions. We refer to the speci-
IBCDS of clay, exhibited by that gentleman, which, after having been submit-
ted, in a moistened state, to weak voltaic action for some months, were found,
T»ben dry, to be distinctly laminated, having precisely the appearance of
elay-slate. It is well known that this laminated structure is common to
33Qaiiy rocks, which are proved, by the organic remains which they contain,
to be of sedimentary origin. It is also known that the direction of the lami-
Bae or cleavage, with respect to the stratification of any given rock, differs
exceedingly in different places, these being at various angles with regard to
each other. Hence it follows, that this remarkable structure cannot be re-
feired to slow deposition, or to any mechanical causes. Neither does such
ctaaaplete independence of the stratification and cleavage of rocks in reference
to each other, seem to accord with the definite character and tendency of the
|A«iomena of crystallization, to say nothing of the chemical objection to me-
cbanical matter assuming a crystalline form, without undergoing fusion or
aAjtion. Mr Fox's discovery that electricity is capable of producing this
»tnicture in clay, seems, in his opinion, to meet the difficulties of the ques-
tioa; and he considers the prevailing directions of the electrical forces, de-
peading often on local causes, to have determined that of the cleavage, and
the more or less heterogeneous nature of the roc!:, to have modified the ex-
tent of their influence.'' — Fifth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytech-
MtSocieti'j^yi. 20, 21.

Proceedings of the Botanical Society. 199

April 7. — Professor Jameson, P., in the Chair Mr Hay Cnn-

ninghame read a Geognostical Account of the southern part of the
mainland of Shetland, exhibiting specimens of the different rocks,
and illustrating his descriptions by large coloured sketches of some
of the more interesting junctions, veins, &c.

April 21. — Professor Jameson, P. in the Chair. — Mr Smith of
Jordanhill read a paper on the Latest Changes of the Level of the
Sea, particularly in the Basin of the Clyde, and exhibited a series
of shells from different elevated beaches. Mr Torrie read Dr
Lawrence Edmonstone's observations on the Distinctions, History,
and Hunting of Seals in the Shetland Islands. He then gave a
brief notice of Dr Boue's account of the geology of some parts of
European Turkey (published in our present number) ; and com-
municated an abstract of Mr John Lawson junior's observations
on the geology of the Lower District of Moray, with a description
of various mineral deposits in the vicinity of Elgin. There were
laid on the table, L A series of daily observations on the Thermo-
meter, Hygrometer, Barometer, and Rain-Gauge, made at the
Manse of Abbey St Bathan's, by the Rev^ John Wallace. 2. A
Comparative Register of the Sympiesometer and Marine Barome-
ter, kept in the Hon. E. L Company's Ship Charles Grant, during
a voyage from England to Bombay in 1836, by Henry Graham,
Esq — The Society adjourned till November next.

Proceedings of the Botanical Society.

February 8. 1838. — Professor Graham, P. in the Chair. The
following members were elected ; Resident^ Mr Graham Craig,
Mr John Shaw, Mr John Sinclair, Mr W. B. D. D. Turnball ;
Non-Resident, Mr Robert Maulkin Ling wood, B.A. Christ's Col-
lege, Cambridge. — Specimens were presented from ten members
of the Society, received since 11th January.

A letter from Dr Tyacke was read, containing an account of a
botanical excursion in the Spring of 1837 to the Channel Islands
and the coast of France, with remarks on several of the species
collected.

Observations by Dr Graham on plants collected in Scotland, in
1837, by Dr M'Nab were read. He noticed particularly the fol-
lowing : — Arenaria norvegica ; first seen on Serpentine hills, to
the northward of Balta Sound, Shetland, by a son of Dr Edmon-
ton, and afterwards found by Dr M'Nab in the same place. Spe-

500 Proceedings of the Botanical Society.

Qimens collected by Dr Pollexfen in 1835 were shewn to the So-
ciety.— Cerastium latifoliumy var. with dense, cespitose habit, or-
liicalar leaves, profuse glandular pubescence, and straight cylindrical
capsule, scarcely longer than the calyx. Hah, Shetland. — Lychnis
dioicay var. with pale rose-coloured flowers, and stem rarely three
inches high. Seen by Mr James M'Nab some years ago, and
foand to retain its peculiar habit in cultivation. JIab. near New-
ton-Stewart, Galloway. — Agrostis canina var, is perhaps Tricho-
dium alpinum or rupesire. Dr Graham thinks the absence of the
Inner valve of the perianth, though not a generic, is a good speci-
fic character ; plant first noticed by Dr Graham in Sutherlandshire,
^ome years ago, and afterwards by Mr W. M'Nab, in a vivipa-
rous state in the same county. Hab. on the tcp of Goatfel, Arran.
m-^Fedia mixta, Vahl ; specimens were gathered along with this,
shewing the transition from F, dentata, Hab. near Whithorn.

Mr R. W. Falconer read a paper containing an account of the
most celebrated gardens of antiquity, with observations on the
Hortulan taste which they exhibit. After some introductory re-
marks upon the probable origin of gardens, he proceeded to give a
detailed account of the gardens of Alcinous mentioned by Homer ;
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon ; the parks or gardens of the
Persians, mentioned by Xenophon ; the gardens of Daphne, in Sy-
ria, and the gardens of the Hesperides. He then gave an account
of the gardens celebrated by the ancient Greeks and Romans ;
among the latter, those of Lucullus at Baiae, of Pliny at Tuscu-
lum, and Laurentum. Mr Falconer considers that although a taste
for gardening evidently prevailed to some extent among the an-
cients, yet that it never attained to any perfection except among
modern nations. Flowers, he also believes, never constituted a
peculiar feature of ancient gardens, and that they were not esteemed
as objects of taste by the ancients, who appear to have cultivated
them only as decorations to be employed on occasions of public
and private rejoicings.

Mr James Macaulay then read a paper, the object of which wag
to prove that flowers were esteemed by th^ ancients as objects of
taste, and cultivated as a source of amusement. He argued that
the very fact of flowers being deemed worthy of being ofl^ered to
the gods proved a previous taste and value for them ; and gave
examples of gardens amongst the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and
Oriental nations, where amoenitaSf and not utilitas alone^ must have
been the object in the cultivation of flowers. He next alluded to
the gardens mentioned in the Latin classics, and contended that

Proceedm^s of the Botanical Society. 201

the garden of Lucullus, so often referred to, ought not to be re-
garded as a specimen either of the art or the taste of his time, as it
was censured by his own contemporaries, Cicero and Varro ; the lat-
ter expressly stating " Hortos Lttculli non Jioribvs frudihusque sed
tabulis fuisse insignes*' He also shewed, on the authority of Ho-
race, Martial, and Pliny, that the citizens of Rome used to culti-
vate plants on the balconies of their houses, and to rear flowers in
boxes and in flower-pots, which were called " korti imaginarii /*
and that it is not likely the rich would do this merely to procure
materials for their votive ofi^erings, or to supply the ornaments for
their entertainments, but that a taste for the cultivation of flowers
as objects of amusement must also have prevailed.

March 8 — Dr Balfour, V. P. in the Chair The following

members were elected : — Non-Resident — the Honourable Louisa
Anne Neville of Audley End, near Saff^ron Walden. Foreign —
M. A. Fischer, Basle ; the Reverend Louis Leresch, St Cierge, sur
Moudon ; M. Luhler, Wirtemberg ; M. Otto Wilh. Sender, Kiel,
Holstein. Specimens were presented from eleven members of the
Society, received since 8th February. Letters were read from Dr
Von Martins and Professor Ledebour on their election as honorary
members.

Dr Graham read the continuation of his observations on the

plants collected in Scotland in 1837 by Dr M'Nab ErythrcBa lit"

toralis. Dr Graham thinks it doubtful whether there is more than
one British species of JErytlircea ; and if the present is to be con-
sidered distinct, that its only character would seem to rest on the
narrow linear segments of the five-partite calyx, equal in length to
the tube of the corolla. Hah, Brodick, Arran. — Lathyrtis maritimuSf
is apparently the plant of the North of Europe, of Canada, and of
the United States as far south as Boston, and may be easily distin-
guished from L. pisiformis of Ledebour, or the figure of Gmelin
quoted by him, and in Hooker's British Flora, by the winged stem
and the shape of the stipules. The variety which Dr Graham con-
siders to be the type of the species is distinguished by its compact
robust growth, and by the common petioles being much arched back-
wards ; whereas the present plant is of a slender somewhat strag-
gling habit, not from growing in wooded ground, but probably from
being the inhabitant of the less genial climate to which the species
is extended. It appears not to diff^er from Lathyrus venosus of
American botanists. Hah, sands on the shore at Barra Firth,
Unst, Shetland, where Dr Edmonstone had observed it for several
years. — Ervum tetraspermunif and Allium arenarium. Hah. near

202 Scientific Intelligence — Geology.

Kirkcudbright. — Cladium mariscus. Hah, Ravenstone Loch,
Wliithorn. — Lafnium intermedium. Hah. Shetland.

Mr Campbell read a communication from Colonel P. J. Brown
of Eichenbiihl near Thun, containing a sketch of the botany of the
neighbourhood of the Lake of Thun, Switzerland, chiefly in refe-
rence to the geographical distribution and altitude of the species
enumerated. The Lake of Thun having an elevation of about
1900 feet above the sea, and the surrounding country being much
intersected by hills or long ridges, the vegetation assumes a sub-
alpine character on the pastures about 1800 feet above the lake,
comprising Trollius Eurceopus^ Hieracium aureum, Tussilago aU
pina, S)C. The following is given as an approximation to the spe-
cies usually met with at different heights on the surrounding moun-
tEuns: — Between 2000 and 3000 feet, Arenaria verna and ciliata,
Dryas octopetala, Coioneaster vulgaris^ Hieracium villosum, ^c.
Between 3000 and 4000 feet, Silene acaulis, Cerastium alpinum,
Phaca astragalina, Oxytropis uralensis, Saxifraga oppositifolia,
Hieracium aurantiacum^ Arhutus alpina, Ajuga alpina, Orchis pal-
lens, Carex atrata, ^c. Above 4000 feet, Gnaphalium alpinum
and Leontopodium, Petrocallis pyrenaica, Draha tomentosa, and
stellata, Androsace hryoides, ^c. Colonel Brown concludes his
paper by stating that he hopes to be able to communicate fuller in-
formation as to the precise elevation of the different localities men-
tioned, on some future occasion.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

GEOLOGY.

1. Subterranean Heat. — Bischors explanation of the higher
temperature that prevails in the depths of the ocean, the hypo-
thesis of Babbage and Herschel on the heating of the solid
parts of the earth, the views of Keilhau, Fox and others, on
subterranean and submarine action, are all tending to the
evolution of important geological principles.

2. Subterranean Temperatures. — M. Walferdin has com-
municated a notice to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, on a
pit sunk by M. Mulot at St Andre {departement de VEure),
and on observations of temperature made in that pit, at a depth
of 830 English feet. The sinking has been carried to a depth
of 862 feet, without any spouting spring being met with. The

Scientific hitelligencc — Geology. SC3

following is the series of substances traversed, together with
their thickness :

Plastic clay,

Ft.

44

In.
5

White challc, .

400

6

Chalk marl,

95

9

Glauconite,

45

4

Green sand.

276

9

862 10
M. Walferdin made an observation on the temperature at a
depth of 830 feet in this pit on the 18th of June last. Two
of his thermometres a deversement were sent down, each enclosed
in a glass tube, sealed by the lamp at its two extremities ; and
after a period of ten hours, the one was found to indicate
64;°.32 F., and the other 64°.27 F. The mean temperature of
the plateau of St Andre being unknown, M. Walferdin has
taken as his point of departure the temperature of the only pit
existing in the commune^ which he has found to be 53°.96 F.
at a depth of 246 feet. By calculating, according to these
data, the increase of temperature with the depth, we find it to
be I°.8 F. for every 101 feet G,55 inches. M. Walferdin com-
pares this result with those obtained previously from observa-
tions made in the pit sunk at Grenelle, and in that of the Mi-
litary School, adopting as a point of departure the constant
temperature (53°.24) of the cellars of the observatory, at a
depth of 91 feet 10 inches. Two experiments, made at dif-
ferent times in the pit of Grenelle, at a depth of 1312 feet
4.31 inches, give for 1°.8 F. 103 feet 3.17 inches, and 101 feet
3.39 inches. In the pit at the Military School (also sunk in
chalk), and distant about 1968 feet from the pit of Grenelle,
at a depth of 567 feet 7 inches, the temperature was found to
be 61°.52 F., thus giving for 1°.8 F. 101 feet 2.6 inches. It
tlius results from observations made at various depths of from
567 feet to 1312 feet, that the rate according to which the tem-
perature increases with the depth in the chalk formation, aj>-
pears to be regular in the Paris basin. It would be important
to ascertain, by experiments made with care, if, in the middle
and lower parts of the secondary formations, the temperature
increases with the depth at the same rate ; and M. Walferdin
now proposes to direct his attention to this point. — (Compter
Rendus, \Qth ^i'n71838.)

204 Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

3. Temperature of the Earth. — The following observations
were made by Dr Magnus with his Geothermometer, on the
temperature of a bore sunk by M. C. v. Wulffen, at Pitzpuhl,
near Burg, about nine English miles from Magdeburg : —

At a depth of 130 feet, the temperature was 49.77 F.

200

250

50.67

51.8

300

53.15

350 ,

54.61

400

55.62

457

56.63

The bore was provided with iron tubes to the depth of 427
feet ; but when the observations were made, the portion below
the tubes had already become so filled up with mud, that it
was impossible to cause the thermometer to descend farther than
457 feet. The increase of temperature in this bore was pretty
regularly 2°.25 F. for every 100 feet. The deepest observation
was at a point more than 200 feet below the level of the sea ;
for the place where the bore begins lies 111 feet above the level
of the Pegel near Magdeburgh, which itself is about the same
height as Berlin, whose elevation above the Baltic has been
lately determined to be 108°.5 Rhenish feet. — (Poggendorff 's
Annalen, vol. xl. p. 145.)

4. Extract of a Letter from M. Erman junior to M. Arago,
upon the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia. — I hope you
will look at those parts of my historical journal which treat of
the climate of Northern Asia with some interest ; and in relation
to this subject, I beg to direct your attention to the 242d and
following pages. I have there given the result of the data ob-
tained regarding the climate of the town of Jakouzk. The depth
of a well which M. Schergin, a merchant in the town, had
then excavated to the depth of 50 feet (English), in the hope
of finally reaching strata which were not frozen, and which
would be capable of supplying water, was always, when I made
trial, at the temperature of — 6° li. equal to 18^5 Fahr. The
temperature of the surface of the soil should not at the time
have exceeded this degree of cold, since the latitude of the
place was 62° 1' 29''. This result appeared to me eminently
paradoxical ; but I have since confirmed it, by calculating ob-

Scientific Intelligence, — Geohgy. 205

servations made on the temperature of the air in the same town
during many consecutive years, with thermometers which I
have carefully compared with ray own. Some results are sub-
joined :

Mean Month of

6 A. M.

2 p.m.

9 p.m.

January,

— S^rs F.

— 30°77 F.

— 3L9 F

February,

— 44.50

— 36.4

— 41.8

March, .

— 17.27

+ 1.63

— 7.82

April, •

+ 8.15

+ 30.43

+ 17.16

May, .

+ 35.82

+ 47.30

+ 37.62

June,

+ 54.27

+ 67.77

+ 53.60

July, .

+ 64.40

+ 79.70

+ C1.70

August, .

+ 57.22

+ 72.72

+ 58.32

September,

+ 38.75

+ 50.00

+ 40.55

October,

+ 11.30

+ 21.20

+ 13.33

November,

— 1.3.45

— 9.17

— 12.77

December,

— 42.92

— 3977

— 42.02

You will conclude from these observations, as I have in the
accompanying volume, that the mean temperature at Jakoukz is
'perfectly in accordance with the temperature of the upper strata^
which I have observed, by taking my thermometer to a depth of
50 Jeet (English) below the surface. This being the case, it
necessarily follows, that, in boring deeper, unfrozen strata will
not be reached till the increase of heat resulting from the ap-
proach to the centre of the globe shall amount to 6° R., equal
to 454° Fahr. The experiments which have hitherto been
made in the pits of Europe, and those which I have made in
the Oural mines, carry this increase to 1°R. = ^°.25 F. for
every 90 or 100 French = 96 or 106 English feet. Hence, I
do not expect the unfreezing at Jakouzk at a less depth than
500 or 600 French feet = 533 or 639 English feet. The ob-
servations which M. Schergin has made since my departure from
Jakouzk, and during which they have descended to a depth of
400 English feet, perfectly confirm what I have advanced con-
cerning the mean temperature of the air and soil of this lo-
cality ; for they have since found at

Ihe depth of 77 feet English, a temperature of + 19.63 Fahr.

119 -1-23.00

382 +30.88

They also indicate, for the strata occurring in this country,
an increase of heat in the ratio of 1° R. = 2°.25 F. to about

206 Scientific Intelligence, — Geology.

60 feet English ; that is to say, a much more rapid augmen-
tation than has been observed elsewhere. The only method,
as it occurs to me, in which we can explain this phenome-
non, is by attributing to the upper strata over Northern
Asia a greater conducting power of heat than the other parts
of the globe which we inhabit ; and this result will be the more
striking, as it comes in some degree to support another result
of the same kind. In fact, the excessive variations of tempe-
rature which have been observed at Jakouzk, and in other parts
of Easter Siberia, during the course of the solar year, lead us
to the conclusion that the earth's surface is there endowed with
a radiating and thermal power much superior to that of Eu-
rope.— Comptes Rendus, 16th Avril 1838.

5. Metamorphic Bocks. — That doctrine of the Edinburgh
Plutonian School, first taught by Hutton, and now known
under the name of mineral vietamorphism, is rapidly progress-
ing. Its chief supporters are our countryman Lyell, and on
the Continent, Keerstein, Virlet, Boblaye, Keilhau, Von Buch,
Beaumont, &c. &c.

6. On the Formation of Serpentine. — Mr Bobert, in Keilhau's
Gaea Norvegica, states, as the conclusions he has drawn from
an attentive examination of the various local portions of ser-
pentine occurring near Modum in Norway, that many ser-
pentine masses owe their existence to the transformation of
other minerals ; that the general diffusion of serpen tinic sub-
stances, with all their variations, may chiefly arise from the
impulse to their production and formation having been com-
municated at a very remote epoch under relations and condi-
tions unknown to us ; and finally, that some serpentines are
only to be regarded as the middle link in the conversion which
several minerals undergo into the kind of talc called Speclcstein.
Mr Bobert states, that in the serpentines of Modum there are
neither traces of Neptunian deposition, nor of volcanic action.

7. Beryl of Aberdeenshire. — Dr Fleming informs us that it oc-
curs in contemporaneous veins of coarse granite in gneiss at the
Stony hill of Nigg. It has been known as occasionally occur-
ring in similar veins in the granite of Rubislaw, where, in the
rock itself, some small tolerably perfect crystals may occasion-
ally be met with.

Scientific Intelligence, — Geology. 207

8. Reopening of' the Manganese Mine at Grandholm, near
Aberdeen. — We are informed by Dr Fleming that the ore w-
curs in a rock of mica-slate, which stretches in a northerly di-
rection, and has an easterly dip, varying from 30° to 50° and
upwards. In some places it is thin slaty, even, or waved, while
at other parts thin beds of gneiss and granite make their ap-
pearance. When the mine was opened upwards of twenty
years ago, an excavation, or opencast^ was made across the
stretch of the strata, at the eastern termination of which a mass
of felspar porphyry makes its appearance, the relations of which
are not seen at present. The ore, which is the " grey Manga-
nese ore,"" or " Hydrous Binoxide of Manganese," occurs in
irj'egular thin beds, rounded concretions or anastomosing films
in the rock, accompanied by small quantities of sulphate of
barytes. As the working has but recently commenced, little
more than a dozen of tons of the ore have been obtained. But
as the undertaking is in hands possessing abundance of capital
and enterprise, Messrs Cookson of Newcastle, the mine will
now have a fair trial, and it is hoped that a new branch of trade
will thus be added to those already so successftdly carried on
at Aberdeen.

9. On the Formation of Calcareous Spar and Arragonite. —
M. Gustav Rose draws the following conclusions from a series
of experiments performed by him on this subject: — 1. That
in the humid way both calcareous spar and arragonite are
formed, the former at a lower, the latter at a higher tempera-
ture; but in the dry way calcareous spar only is formed.
% That the carbonate of lime, immediately after precipitation
from a cold solution, is in an indistinctly crystalline condition,
which resembles that of chalk, and from which the distinctly
crystalline condition afterwards proceeds. 3. That arragonite
can be very easily converted into calcareous spar, in the moist
way, by allowing the arragonite obtained by precipitation to
stand in water or in a solution of carbonate of ammonia; in the
dry way, by exposing the arragonite to a low red heat, when
the large crystals fall into a coarse powder, but the small
crystals retain their form and produce pseudomorphous crystals.
It results, moreover, from the investigations of M. G. Rose,
that the origin of arragonite cannot now be ascribed, as has

208 Scientijie Intelligence, — Zoology.

often been the case, to the small quantity of carbonate of stron-
tia which natural arragonite for the most part contains. This,
indeed, is evident from the fact, that there is arragonite which
does not contain any carbonate of strontia ; but it is completely
proved by our being able to produce with ease artificial arra-
gonite, which contains no strontia whatever. A solution of
chloride of calcium was purposely mixed with a small quantity
of a solution of chloride of strontium, but by precipitation at
the common temperature with carbonate of ammonia, crystals
of calcareous spar only were observable.

10. Fall of Meteoric Stones in Brazil. — On the 1 Ith Decem-
ber 1836, about half- past 11 o'clock p. m., with a clear sky,
and S.W. wind, a fire-ball of uncommon size and brilliancy,
appeared over the village of Macoa, at the entrance of the river
Assu ; it immediately burst with a loud crackling noise, and a
shower of stones fell within a circle of ten leagues. They fell
through several houses, and buried themselves some feet deep
in the sand, but they did not occasion any further damage than
killing and maiming a few oxen. The weight of those picked
up varied from one to eighty pounds. — Poggendorfs Annalen^
No. 12, 1837.

11. Intermittent Spring. — In a letter to M. Rozet, Dr Boue
gives a short account of the Miracle Spring, in the district of
Bihar in Hungary, in the lordship of Bressa, on the eastern
side of the commune of Mabugyer. It issues from the foot of
a mountain, loses itself among the stones, and proceeds in the
form of a torrent to join the Moros. After a hollow noise it
suddenly gives out, several times a day, large quantities of
water, so as to fill the bed of the stream in two minutes.
The flux is more frequent from Christmas to the middle of
summer, and during that period it takes place every quarter of
an hour ; but is more rare during the last half of the summer*
and in autumn, when nevertheless the weather is more moist.

ZOOLOGY.

\% A Memoir upon Microscopic Animalculce, considered as a
Cause of Putrefaction, has lately been presented to the French
Academy of Sciences, by MM. Beauperthuy and Adet de Rose-
ville, and the results of their investigations are announced by
the authors in the following terms. 1st, When any animal sub-

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology. 209

stance is put into circumstances which favour putresence, there
is observed after a certain time, which varies according to tem-
perature and moisture of the atmosphere, the formation therein
of a number oi animalcules ; and that before any insipid or musty
smell (marking the first period of the putrid fermentation) is per-
ceptible ; and even before the liquid presents any sign of an acid
or alkaline state. These animalcules, which at first have the
shape of monades, and then assume that of vibrios^ derive their
nourishment from the substance in which they are developed,
and multiply in it with the greatest rapidity. 2d, At a more
advanced period^ when the liquid reddens litmus paper, the
microscope shews us animalcules in immense numbers, and espe.
cially upon the brownish pellicle with which the surface of the
liquid is covered. A considerable number of crystals are also
seen to be mixed with the animalcules ; and still there is no
kind of unpleasant odour. 8d, Somewhat later the fluid is
observed to be more and more charged with detached particles
of the animal substance which had been plunged into it : all
these particles are formed of agglomerated animalcules attached
to some fragments of the decomposing tissue, and this is the
first epoch at which an odour begins to exist, faint at first, but
speedily putrid. 4th, In the fourth and last period the animal-
cules shew themselves in tens of thousands, and the time arrives
in which the whole mass becomes completely organized, and
consists of nothing else than these elementary beings. By this
time the liquid has become alkaline, and is extremely fetid. — •
Comptes Rendus, 19 Mars 1838.

13. Analogy between the organic structure and red colour of
the ghbides in the blood of animals^ and of those red vegetable
globides named Protococcus kermesinus. — In a memoir read
by M. Turpin to the Academy of Sciences, on globules in
animal fluids, we find the following observations: — What ha^
just been stated regarding the presence of smaller red globules
in the globules of the blood, is perfectly explained by the
very analogous structure of those small red vegetables, globu-
lous and vesicular, so generally distributed throughout nature^
and which often tinge with a blood-red colour, the surface of
calcareous rocks — the surface of water, both fresh and salt-
snow and ice — the crystals of sea-salt — and, finally, as we pro*

VOL. XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. O

aiO Scientific Intelligence, — Zoology.

ceed immediately to observe, the translucent and colourless sub-
stance of red agates ; vegetables which are more particularly
designated by the names oi Protococcus nivalis^ Prolococcus Icer^
mesinus^ A^ardh, and Hccmatococcus^ &c. These small vege-
tables, though larger by a half than the globules of the blood,
still have with them a great analogy as it regards their orga-
nization, and probably also their chemical composition. A
transparent and colourless vesicle (or perhaps two, the one
included in the other) perfectly spherical, and filled with red
and reproducing globules, forms the whole of the organization
of these small vesicular vegetables, which, with some other
analogous ones, mark the first efforts of organization, and seem
to be nothing more than first attempts, or the representatives
of the elementary or constituent organs of the cellular masses
of more complex vegetables and animals. When the minute
internal globules of these small vegetables begin to increase
within the maternal vesicle, to become reproductive seminules,
they cause the vesicle to assume very much the mammillated
aspect of a strawberry. According to this mode of development,
is it not probable that those blood-globules of animals which,
on account of their shape, are called strawberry globules, are
also produced by the increase of a certain number of- the red
globules which they contain ? All my microscopic researches
compel me not only to admit this analogy, but likewise to think
that the red globula of the globules of the blood are the semi-
nules of those organized bodies which are destined to replace,
and sometimes to multiply, the old globules of the blood, as
they become extinct and cease to live, as individuals, in the
midst of the serum which serves as their habitation, and in
which they procure their nourishment.

14. Cause of the Red Colour of Agates, — The red colour of
agates is owing to a number, greater or smaller, of Protococcus
hermesinus accumulated together, or more frequently reduced to
their small red globules (seminules) agglomerated or coagulated,
and distributed, according to certain circumstances, in the co-
lourless structure of these siliceous compounds. Since we have
now been considering, analogically, those innumerable Proto-
coccus kermesinus, and the red globules they contain, I beg
leave to add, that microscopic and comparative investigations

Scientific Intelligence, — Zoology. 211

which I have recently made, and which I purpose to publish
elsewhere in all their details, have clearly demonstrated, that
the various colours, rose, orange, blood-red, and reddish -brown
(varieties owing to more advanced growth), which are inclosed
in, or which surround, the translucid and colourless structure
of different kinds of agates, were found to be owing to the pre-
sence either of red globules uniformly mixed, as in the carne-
lian agate ; or agglomerated into small irregular clots, and dis-
tributed into circular waves, according to certain forms or con-
ditions which existed at the time of the siliceous conglomera-
tion ; or finally, though more rarely, to these small red vegeta-
bles themselves, quite entire, and perfectly distinctly visible
with the microscope. It is impossible to find a resemblance in
colour and polish more strikiug than that which is seen in a
white glass phial filled with Protococcus kermesinus, when com-
pared with a carnelian, as may be fully established by the triaL
(M. Turpin.)

15. On the Stinging Power possessed by some Mediisce, — It
appears that the belief in the stinging or burning power of the
Medusa aurita is founded on a confusion of species. In the
East or Baltic Sea, where this species alone is found, I|have often,
while bathing, brought my body in contact with the animal,
without receiving any injury. Even touching it with the
tongue caused no feeling of sharpness. On the contrary, I have
suffered much in the North Sea, from violent burning and gell-
ing of the back of the hands, caused by much contact of the hand
with the red Cyanea {^Medusa) capillata. In the North Sea, there-
fore, as at Wangeroge, Norderney, Heligoland, Cuxhaven, &c.,
bathers ought, as in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic, to
avoid contact with medusa? ; while on the south coasts of the
Baltic, as at Swinemiinde, Doberan, &c., they have nothing to
dread from these exquisitely beautiful creatures. It is, therefore,
undoubtedly proper to warn bathers in other places than the
Baltic, against coming in contact with any medusae whatever, aS
it is an easy matter to confound the injurious with the harmless
species. Even on the northern coasts of the Baltic, injurious
medusa? are frequently to be met with after storms. They
sj)eedily die, however, is they require Salter water ; so that on

o2

^12 Scientific IiitelUgence. — Zoology.

the south coast of the Baltic we only find the harmless, ex-
tremely delicate Medusa aurita. — (Professor Ehrenherg in his
paper ; " Uber die Jhalephen des Rothen Meeres und den Or-
ganismus der Mediisen der Ostsee^'' published in the Transac-
tions of' the Berlin Academy of Sciences for 1835. Berlin^
1837.)

16. Phosphorescence of the Ocean, — The naturalists oiLa Bo-
nite in her late voyage round the globe, have made many observa-
tions respecting marine phosphorescence, which are thus reported
to the French Academy of Sciences, — Many observations made
upon phosphorescent water by means of reagents, of filtration,
boiling, simple examination^ and with the help of the micro-
scope, have led us to the following conclusions. The phospho-
rescent property of sea-water is not inherent in the nature of
this liquid, but is essentially owing to the presence of organ-
ized beings. The animals which produce the phosphorescence
belong to different classes. In the first rank, we find the mi-
nute species of Crustacea which swarm in the sea, but especially
a very small species having two valves, which possess this re-
markable property in the highest degree. All these species
have been collected, and are carefully preserved in alcohol.
Many mollusca, principally small Cephalopodes pelagiens, Bi'^
phores (Salpae), &c., and also many zoophytes, among which
we remark Diphyes, Medusae, &c., also possess the phospho-
rescent property. Finally, in certain localites, we also find on
the surface of the ocean very small yellowish bodies which are
nevertheless extremely phosphorescent. We have encountered
these small bodies in immense abundance when landing at the
Sandw;ich Isles, and in crossing from this archipelago to the
Marianne Islands. We encountered them in such vast quan-
tities at the Straits of Malacca and upon the coasts of Pulo-
Penang, that the whole surface for a great extent appeared
covered by a thick yellowish dust. These small bodies have
been examined with the microscope ; but although they have
been for a long time submitted to our notice, we have never
been able to detect the slightest movement connected with them.
At the same time, the experiments we have made on them through
the means of various reagents, lead u^ to the [conclusion that
they are organized and living bodies. They appeared some-

Scientific Intell'igence. — Arts. 213

what different, as taken at the Sandwich Islands and in the
Straits of Malacca. The former were globular and transparent,
with a yellowish point in the centre, the latter were rather oval
with a depression in the centre, so that they were somewhat
kidney-shaped ; they also were entirely yellowish.

In all the animals which possess phosphorescence, the pro-
perty has appeared to us to depend upon a particular principle,
probably a secretion of these animals, which, however, differs
as to the manner in which it is scattered around. Some of them,
as the small phosphorescent Crustacea, can distinctly emit it in .
certain circumstances, especially when, by any cause, they are
irritated ; they then project true jets, regular fusees of phos-
phorescent matter, in such quantities as to form a luminous at-
mosphere in which they disappear. We have succeeded in col-
lecting a certain quantity of this matter upon the sides of a
vessel which contained a great number of these Crustacea. Others
of these animals did not appear to possess the power of emitting
this matter, and in them it was developed only in certain cir-
cumstances, as for example, when they struck against anybody, ^
or when they moved, or when causes of irritation operated upon
them. In others again, as in the Cephalopoda, and in some
Pteropoda the phenomenon exhibited itself in a way that was
nearly quite passive. The phosphorescent matter contained
in their neucleus, or in other parts of their bodies, shone con-
stantly and uniformly so long as the animal was in the enjoy-
ment of life, and along with this disappeared the light they
shed abroad. Finally, in the yellowish corpuscules above de-
scribed, the phosphorescent matter also shines almost uniformly,
but if brought into contact with any reagent, their lustre is first
increased, and then insensibly vanishes away. The phospho-
rescent matter which we collected on the sides of the vase, was
yellowish, slightly viscous, and very soluble in the water, which
it rendered luminous at the moment it was projected by the
animal, — Comptes Ketidus, No. xv. 5 Avril, p. 458.

ARTS.

17. On the Composition of a new Indelible Ink. By Dr Traill.
— In a paper lately read before the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, Dr Traill, after an account of many unsuccessful expe-

214 Scientific Intelligence. — Arts.

riments to produce a durable ink from metallic combinations,
stated that he was induced to attempt the composition of a car-
bonaceous liquid which should possess the qualities of good
writing-ink. The inks used by the ancients were carbonaceous,
and have admirably resisted the effects of time ; but the author
found that the specimens of writing on the Herculaneum and
Egyptian papyri were effaced by washing with water ; and on
forming inks after the descriptions of Vitruvius, Dioscorides,
and Pliny, he found that they did not flow freely from the pen,
and did not resist water, — qualities essential to a good writing-
ink in modern practice. The carbonaceous inks with resinous
vehicles, rendered fluid by essential oils, though they resisted
water and chemical agents, had the disadvantages of not flow-
ing freely from the pen, and of spreading on the paper, so as
to produce unseemly lines. Solutions of caoutchouc in coal-
naphtha, and in a fragrant essential oil, lately imported from
South America, under the name of aceite de sassafras (the na-
tural produce of a supposed Laurus), were subject to the same
objections. The author tried various animal and vegetable
fluids as vehicles of the carbon, without obtaining the desired
result, until he found, in a solution of the gluten of
WHEAT IN PYROLiGNEOus ACID, a fluld Capable of readily unit-
ing with carbon into an ink, possessing the qualities of a good,
durable, writing ink. To prepare this ink, he directs gluten of
wheat to be separated from the starch as completely as possible,
by the usual process, and when recent to be dissolved in pyro-
ligneous acid with the aid 'of heat. This forms a saponaceous
fluid, which is to be tempered with water until the acid has the
usual strength of vinegar. He grinds each ounce of this fluid
with from eight to ten grains 'of the best lamp-black, and one
and a half grain of indigo. The following are the qualities of
this ink. 1. It is formed of cheap materials. 2. It is easily
made, the colouring matter readily incorporating with the
vehicle. S. Its colour is good. 4. It flows freely from the
pen. 5. It dries quickly. 6. When dry it is not removable
by friction. 7. It is not affected by soaking in water. 8. Slips
of paper written on by this ink have remained immersed in so-
lutions of chemical agents, capable of immediately effacing or
impairing common ink, for seventy-two hours, without change,

New Publicatimis. 215

unless the solutions be so concentrated as to injure the texture
of the paper. The author offers this composition as a writing-
ink, to be used on paper, for the drawing out of bills, deeds,
wills, or wherever it is important to prevent the alteration of
sums or signatures, as well as for handing down to posterity
public records, in a less perishable material than common ink.
He concluded his paper by stating, that should it be found
to present an obstacle to the commission of crime — should it,
even in a single instance, prevent the perpetration of an of-
fence so injurious to society as the falsification of a public or
a private document, the author will rejoice in the publication
of his discovery, and consider that his labour has not been in
vain.

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

1. Gaea Norvegica. Conducted by Professor Keilhau. Part 1st. 4to,
with Geological Map and Plates. Christiania, 1838. Dalil. (/».
German).

The writings of Von Buch, Hausmann,JNaumann, Esmark,
Brongniart, Bedemar, and other travellers, and those of Profes-
sor Keilhau himself, have already put us in possession of a
large mass of geological knowledge respecting Norway. A de-
tailed and systematic geological description of that interesting
country is, however, still a desideratum ; and we hail with great
gratification the long expected appearance of the first part of
a publication which will furnish the materials for such a work.
The *' Gaea Norvegica,'" which may in some respects be com-
pared to Dufresnoy and Beaumonfs " Memoires pour servir a
une description gcologique de la France ^^ is to appear from time
to time, is to consist of memoirs by various individuals, and is
to be conducted by Professor Keilhau, who will himself con-
tribute by much the largest portion of the matter. That in-
defatigable and able geologist has examined almost every por-
tion of his native country, has traversed it repeatedly in all di-
rections, and has digested and prepared for pubhcation nearly
the whole of his observations. It is to be regretted that the
future numbers of the Gaea cannot be expected to follow the

216 New Publications,

present one with much rapidity or regularity, owing to the ob-
stacles arising from the expense of the undertaking, the delay
caused by the translation, and the time required for the prepa-
ration of the maps and plates, &c. The Royal Norwegian So-
ciety of Sciences at Drontheim has, with becoming liberality,
given pecuniary aid to the publication. The first number is
of itself a very valuable addition to our geological literature,
and is chiefly composed of an excellent detailed account of the
transition district of Christiania, by Professor Keilhau, which
is accompanied by a well executed and minute geological map
and good sections ; but also contains a paper on the primitive
serpentine of Modum, by Mr Bobert, inspector of the cobalt-
mine at Modum ; and a general view of the Norwegian trilo-
bites (no less than forty-eight species), by Mr C. Boeck.

2. Lethcea Geognostica ; or Figures and Descriptions of the Characteristic

Petrifactions of the different Rock-Formations. By Dr G. H. Bronn.
4to. Heidelberg. 1837.

This excellent work, which we have already repeatedly noticed,
is now nearly finished, one number only remaining unpublished.
Its beauty, accuracy, utility, and cheapness will, we doubt not,
procure it a place in every geological library.

3. A Systematic and Stratigraphical Catalogue of the Fossil Fish in the

Cabinets of [Lord Cole and Sir Philip Grey Egerton, together with an
Alphabetical and Stratigraphical Catalogue of the same Species, with
references to their published figures and descriptions. By Sir Philip
Grey Egerton, Bart. M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. 4to. London : 1837.

The student of palaeontology will prize highly the very in-
teresting tables in this unpretending catalogue ; which, al-
though extending over comparatively but few pages, contains
much valuable and accurate information.

4. The Zoology of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle, under the Command of

Captain Fitzroy, during the years 1832 to 1836, Part 2d. Mammalia,
with numerous Plates. By George R. Watbrhouse. Esq., Curator of
the Museum of the Zoological Society. Smith, Elder & Co., Lon-
don.

This part of the Zoology of the Beagle, contains a short but
interesting geographical introduction by Mr Darwin, illustra-
tive of the principal localities of the animals collected by him

List (f Scottish Patents. 217

during the Fitzroy expedition. Mr Waterhouse figures beau-
tifully, and describes well, three bats belonging to the families
rhyllostomida?, Vespertilionidae, and Noctilionidae. Of these
the most interesting is the vampire bat. Of the family Carni-
vora, one species of canis, the Antarcticus, is described and
figured ; but the letter-press of the following characteristic co-
loured engravings, Canis Magellanicus^ C.Jidvipes^ C. Azarce,
Felis Vagouarondi, F, 2)ajeros^ and Delphinus Fitz-Royi^ is de-
layed till next number.

6. The Natural History of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay and the River
La Plata. By Don Felix de Azara. Translated from tLe Spanish,
with numerous Notes, by W. P. Huinter, Esq., F.G.S., Z.S., &c.
Vol. 1. 8vo. Black & Co., Edinburgh; Longman & Co., London.

An English translation, from the Spanish, of even a part of
the celebrated work of Azara, cannot but be considered as a
valuable addition to the zoological treasures of our literature.
We trust it is the precursor of the remaining volumes of the
Natural History of Paraguay. Mr Hunter, who, we doubt not,
will continue his interesting notes, ought to consult the writings
of Renger and D'Orbigny on the animals of South America,
works of great value, although but rarely met with in English
libraries.

List of Patents granted in Scotland from \^th March 1838 to
Wth June 1838 inclusive.

1. To Eugene Richard Ladislas de Breza of Paris, in the kingdom
of France, now of St Martin's Street, Leicester Square, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, for an invention of" a chemical combination or com-
pound for rendering cloth, wood, paper, and other substances indestructible
by fire, and also preserving them from the ravages of insects." — 19th March
1838.

2. To JoHK Paterson Reid, power-loom manufacturer in Glasgow, and
Thomas Johnson, mechanic, in the employment of John and Archibald
lleid, power-loom manufacturers there, for an invention of " certain improve-
ments in preparing yarn or thread by machinery, suitable for warps in pre-
paration for weaving on looms." — 22d March 1838.

3. To Henry Bessemer of City Terrace, City Road, in the parish of
Saint Luke, Old Street, and county of Middlesex, engineer, for an invention
of " certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for casting printing
types, spaces, and quadrats, and the means of breaking oflf and counting the
same,"— 23d March 1838.

VOL, XXV. NO. XLIX. JULY 1838. P

218 List of Scottish Patents.

4. To Richard Tappin Claridge, late of Salisbury Street, Strand, but
now of 8 Regent Street, gentleman, in consequence of a communication made
to him from abroad, for an invention of a " mastic cement or composition ap-
plicable to paving and road-making, covering buildings, and the various pur-
poses to which cement, mastic, lead, zinc, or composition, are employed." —
27th March 1838.

5. To Jeremiah Bynner of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
lamp-maker, for an invention of " improvements on lamps." — 30th March
1838.

6. To Augustus Coulon of Tokenhouse-yard, in the city of London,
merchant, partly in consequence of a communication made to him by a cer-
tain foreigner resident abroad, and partly by invention of his own, for an in-
vention of '^ improvements applicable to block printing." — 30th March 1838.

7. To Joshua John Lloyd Margary of Wellington Road, St John's
Wood, in the county of Middlesex, Esquire, for an invention of " a new
mode of preserving animal and vegetable substances from decay." — 30th
March 1838.

8. To Julius Olivee, late of Castle Street, Falcon Square,^in the city of
London, but now of Queen Street, Golden Square, in the county of Middlesex,
gentleman, in consequence of a communication from a certain foreigner re-
siding abroad, for an invention of " a certain improvement in the filters em-
ployed in sugar-refining." — 6th April 1 838.

9. To Charles "Wye "Williams of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster,
gentleman, for an invention of " certain improvements in the means of pre-
paring the vegetable material of peat-moss or bog, so as to render it applica-
ble to several useful purposes, and particularly for fuel." — 6th April 1838.

10. To Alexander Happey of Basing Lane, in the city of London, gen-
tleman, in consequence of a communication from a foreigner residing abroad,
for an invention of " a new composition applicable to paving roads, streets,
terraces, and other places, which improvements are also applicable to the
different purposes of building, and also in the apparatus for making the said
composition."_9th April 1838.

11. To John Stewart of Glasgow, in that part of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland called Scotland, for an invention of " improve-
ments in machinery for manufacturing ropes, lines, twines, and yarns, from
hemp, flax, or tow."— 12th April 1838.

12. To Marie Claudine Veronise Lenoble of Leicester Square, in
the county of Middlesex, for an invention of" certain bituminous mastics or
cements capable of receiving various colours, which compositions are applica-
ble to various useful purposes." — 17th April 1838.

13. To Michael Wheelwright I vi son, silk-spinner, residing in Hailes'
Street, Edinburgh, for an invention of " an irnprpved method for consuming
smoke in furnaces and other places where fire is used, and for economising
fuel, and also for supplying air, heated or cold, to blasting or smelting fur-
naces. "_1 9th April 1838.

14. To William Chubb of Portsea, in the borough of Portsmouth, in the
county of Southampton, umbrella manufacturer, for an invention of "certain
improvements in night commode pans and chamber-pots.'' — 25th April 1838.

List of Scottish Patents, 219

15. To William Holme Hegikbotham of Stockport, in the county of

Chester, gentleman, for an invention of " certain improvements in the con-
struction of gas retorts." — 2Cth April 1838.

16. To Pierre Armakd Lecomte de Foxtainemoreau of Charles's
Street, City Road, in the county of Middlesex, for an invention of " an im-
proved method of preventing the oxydation of metals,'' being a communica-
tion from a foreigner residing abroad." — 7th May 1838.

17. To Thomas Ridgwat Bhidson of Great Bolton, in the county of
Lancaster, bleacher, for an invention of " certain improvements in the con-
struction and arrangement of machinery, or apparatus for stretching, mang-
ling, drying, and finishing woven goods or fabrics, and part or parts of which
improvements are applicable to other useful i)urposes." — 11th May 1838.

18. To John Whyte of Haddington, in the county of Haddington, iron-
monger, for an invention of " certain improvements on stoves for producing
heated air, applicable to ovens, or where heated air is required." — 11th May
1838.

19. To HippoLYTE Francois, Marquis de Bouffet Montauban, Colo-
nel of Cavalry, now residing in Sloane Street, Chelsea, in the county of
Middlesex, and John Carvalho de Medeirgs of Old London Street, in
the city of London, merchant, in consequence of a communication from a
foreigner residing abroad, for an invention of '* certain improvements in the
means of producing gas for illumination, and also in the construction of bur-,
ners for consuming gas/' — 14th May 1838.

20. To William Neale Clay of West Bromwich, in the county of Staf
ford, manufacturing chemist, for an invention of " improvements in the
manufacture of iron."— 23d May 1838.

21. To Charles Hullmandel of Great Marlborough Street, in the
parish of Saint James's, Westminster, in the county of Middlesex, lithogra-
phic printer, for an invention of " a new mode of preparing certain surfaces
for being corroded with acids, in order to produce patterns and designs for
the purpose of certain kinds of printing and transparencies." — 23d May 1838.

22. To Jeremiah Grime of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, engraver,
for an invention of •' certain improvements in manufacturing wheels which
are applicable to locomotive engines, tenders, and carriages, and to running
wheels for other useful purposes, and also in the apparatus for constructing,
the same.'*— 23d May 1838.

23. To John Upton of Battersea, in the county of Surrey, engineer, for
au invention of ** an improved method or methods of generating steam power,
and applying the same to ploughing, harrowing, and other agricultural pur-
poses, which method or methods is or are also applicable to other purposes
to which the power of steam is or may be applied." — 23d May 1838.

24. To James Hill of Haley Bridge, in the county of Chester, cotton-
spinner, for an invention of " a certain apparatus applicable to machinery
used in the preparation of cotton and other fibrous materials for the purpose
of spinning.'' — 29th May 1838.

25. To Edmund Shaw, of Fenchurch Street, in the city of London, sta-
tioner, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner,

220 List (fScoillsh Patents.

residing abroad, for an invention of " improvements in the manufacture of
paper and i)aper boards." — 29lh May I VASH.

26. To Alexander Happey, of Basing Lane, in the city of London,
gentleman, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain
foreigner residing abroad, for an invention of " a new and improved method
of extracting tar and bitumen from all matters which contain these substan-
ces, or either of them."— 29th May 1838.

27. To William Ketland Izon, of Cambridge, for an invention of "im-
provements applicable to steam-engines." — 29th May 1838.

28. To John Wilson, the younger of Hurlett, in the county of Renfrew,
North Biitain, coal-master, for an invention of " an improved process of
manufacturing Prussian blue, prussiate of potash, and prussiate of soda, and
other substances, into which prussine or cyanogen enters as a constituent.''—
1st June 1838.

29i To Thomas Hancock, of Goswell Mews, in the county of Middle-
sex, patent water-proof cloth manufacturer, for an invention of " improve-
ments in the method of manufacturing or preparing caoutchouc, either alone
or in combination with other substances." — 5th June 1838.

30. To Francis Sleddon of Preston, in the county of Lancaster, machine
maker, for an invention of *' certain improvements in the machinery or ap-
paratus for spinning and doubling cotton, silk, flax, wool, and other fibrous
substances."— 5th June 1838.

31. To Robert Thomas, of 36 St James's Street, in the city of West-
minster, and county of Middlesex, bootmaker, for an invention of " certain
improvements in apparatus to be attached to carriages for the purpose of pre-
venting horses from starting, and for stopping or restraining them when run-
ning away or descending hills." — 5th June 1838.

32. To Charles Button, of Holborn Bars, chemist, and Harris Grey
Dyar, of Mortimer Street, Cavendish Square, gentleman, both in the county
of Middlesex, for an invention of "^ improvements in the manufacture of
white-lead."— 7th June 1838.

33. To John Potter, of Ancoats, Manchester, spinner, for an invention
of " an improvement or improvements in the process of preparing certain de-
scriptions of warps for the loom." — 7th June 1838.

34. To William Neale Clay, of West Bromwich, in the county of Staf-
ford, manufacturing chemist, and Joseph Denhaji Smith, of Saint Thomas's
Hospital, in the borough of South wark, student in chemistry, for an inven-
tion of " certain improvements in the manufacture of glass.'' — 7th June 1838.

35. To Samuel Clegg, of Sidmouth Street, Gray's Inn, in the county of
Middlesex, engineer, for an invention of " improvements in gas meters." —
7th June 1838.

36. To John Melville, of Upper Harley Street, in the county of Mid-
dlesex, Esq., for an invention of " improvements in the generation of steam,
and in propelling vessels by steam or other power."— 11th June 1838.

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

On the Life and Writings of the late Professor Rudolphi. By
his successor. Professor Mulleii of Berlin.*

The individual reffardiniic whom I have the honour this dav
of addressing the Academy, was one of that class now rarely
met with in the history of the natural sciences, who combine a
solid and productive cultivation of a variety of branches with
a rare erudition in these departments. Had he been called
away from the career of his development in the very bloom of
his strength, it would have been difficult for us to say, if he
was greater in the external natural history of organic bodies,
or in their internal natural history, that is their anatomy ; and
Avhether he had produced more valuable contributions to the
anatomy of plants or of animals. When the advancement of the
sciences rendered limitation necessary, and when a most labo-
rious appointment required the constant employment of his ac*
tivity in the natural history and anatomy of animal bodies, this
original diversity of his acquirements still animated his later
labours, and imparted to them a freshness, whose absence we
have too often to regret in the writings of anatomists.

Carl Asmund Rudolphi, Royal Medical Privy-Councillor,
Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the Friedrich-Wil-
helms University, and in the Medico-Chirurgical Military Aca-
demy, Director of the Anatomical Museum and the Anatomical
Theatre, Member of the Scientific Deputation for Medical Af-
fairs, Member of the Academies of Sciences of Berlin, Stock-
holm, Petersburg, and Naples, Knight of the third class of the
Order of the Red Eagle, and of the Swedish Order of the North

* Read at tlio public ineotin^ of tlie Berlin Academy of Sciences, Au-
gust C. 1830, and published in the Berlin Transactions 1837-
VOL. XXV. NO. I OCTODKll lS3S. Q,

222 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writings of

Star, was born on the 14th July 1771, at Stockholm, where
his father, who was a native of the territory of Magdeburg,
was co-rector of the German School. As to the circumstances
of his early life, he has himself left behind him a notice, which
Professor Link has published in the Journal of the Russian
Society of Medicine, 1833, No. 4, and to which that philoso-
pher has added what was omitted by Rudolphi himself. I have
made much use of both these sources of information. Rudol-
phi received his early education at the German school of Stock-
holm, and at the Stralsund gymnasium : from 1790 to 1794 he
studied at the University of Greifswald, where he dedicated
much time to botany. Of his teachers there, he always spoke
with the greatest respect. He obtained his degree of Doctor
of Philosophy at the same seminary in 1793, after having (pro-
phetically for his future career) defended his dissertation " Oh-
servationes circa vermes intestinales?'' In the year 1794 lie
attended the lectures of Hufeland and Batsch aj; Jena, and du-
ring the spring of the following year he made a botanical tour
by Dresden, Karlsbad, Erlangen, Fulda, Gottingen, the Hartz,
to Greifswald, where, after defending the second part of the
same dissertation, he obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine.
Since 1793 he had been private lecturer in the Philosophi-
cal Faculty of Greifswald, and in 1796 he became private lec-
turer in the Medical Faculty. In the winter of the same year
he went to Berlin, in order to have practice in dissecting; and
in the course of the following year he became adjunct in the
Medical Faculty and prosector. In autumn 1801 he again pro-
ceeded to Berlin, to instruct himself in veterinary surgery, on
which subject the professorship at the veterinary institution at
Greifswald was transferred to him. He was occupied there till
the year 1810, after being named ordinary professor of medi-
cine in 1808. To this period of his life belong some of his
most important writings.

In the year 180^ Rudolphi published his anatomical-physio-
lojrical treatises. He wrote this work after the death of his
first wife, in a very agitated frame of mind. " When I was
writing that book, I was often obliged to spring up and give
free course to my tears, over the loss of her who had at so early
gi period preceded me f' so writes this noble-minded man at the

the late Professor Ritdolphi, 2^3

beginning of a manuscript remark written long afterwards in his
own copy of the work. Besides some new essays, Rudolphi also
includes in this publication remarks on subjects previously in-
vestigated by him. He first of all treats of different portions
of the eye, proving. that the zonula is a different structure from
the retina ; of the crossing of the nerves of sight in fishes ; of the
structure of the teeth ; of the ventricles of the brain ; of hyda-
tids ; of the breathing of frogs ; of the structure of the vilU
intestinoriim, and of Peyer's glands. In the last essay he de-
scribes, in reference to many different animals, the varieties of
external structure of the glands of Peyer, bodies which, not long
previously, were represented as accidental and diseased occur-
rences. How correct he was, has been proved by the import-
ance which this subject has subsequently acquired. Rudolphi,
in discussing these puzzling bodies, did not treat of their inter-
nal structure, which perhaps, at that time, he alone could have
explained. This investigation was not rendered so necessary
till the cholera and the typhus ahdominalis had surprised many
in their ignorance of the existence of those structures, which
Rudolphi had as it were introduced anew into the science.

By his essay on the villi intesti?iorum, Rudolphi obtained a
still more important position among the anatomists who had
occupied themselves with the structure of the tissues ; and al-
though he denied the existence of vessels in the villi^ and re-
fused to admit the presence of villi in fishes, yet his observa-
tions have shewn the errors of the ancients in respect to the
visible openings of these portions : he also distinctly pointed
out in some cases the epithelium of the villi intestinorum, and
by examining the variations in the occurrence of these organs,
placed limits to the physiological hypotheses. Rudolphi re-
mained almost quite general in the views taken in this work.
In his own copy of the book, there is the following manuscript
note : " Libruvi duodecim annis elapsis legi anatomicus duo-
decies melior ac turn temporis eram, plurima tamen probo.'"

In the year 1802, Rudolphi made a journey through a portion
of Germany, Holland, and France; and published (1804) his
observations in the departments of natural history, medicine, and
the veterinary art. This tour developed a wonderful abundance
of knowledge in botany, zoology, pathological anatomy, and

224 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writings of

veterinary medicine, and is rendered extremely valuable by the
many interesting observations emanating from the meeting of
so richly informed an individual with the first scientific men of
Germany, Holland, and France. Of all his writings, these
contributions to anthropology, general natural history,, and
physiology, are the most calculated to convey a just impression
of his character to those who were not personally acquainted
with Rudolphi. Who could help admiring that man, whose
sound judgment was so conspicuous, — whose unfettered, open,
and straight-forward mind was wholly devoted to the investi-
gation of realities, — and who always guarded against that un-
productive and fanciful tendency which he sometimes encoun-
tered. How mild and yet how correct are his opinions ; how
interesting are his remarks on the medical men and institutions
of Berlin at that period ; and how attractive are the accounts
of his meetings with Brugmans, Cuvier, Tenon, Richard, Gall,
and lastly the extraordinary Beireis, whose delineation as given
by our author was not less interesting than that given by
Goethe. Rudolphi's work contains such extended notices of
what he had seen, that it is still a valuable assistance in making
use of foreign establishments.

That Rudolphi's knowledge of botany was varied and exten-
sive, is proved by his scattered observations made during this
journey, by his various essays, and especially by his Anatomy
of Plants, published in 1S07. On this subject it is better that
my colleague Professor Link should speak than myself, and he
has kindly communicated the following notice of Rudolphi's
botanical studies.

Rudolphi was attracted to the subject of botany by Weigel
of Greifswald, and he combined that science with the studv of
anatomy in the same manner as Haller, whose example had also
in other respects great influence over him. He collected with
diligence, observed in the garden at Greifswald, obtained by mer-
cantile connection plants from Barcelona, and received plants
from Lisbon from a friend. The OrnitJwgaliim Rudolphii of the
Greifswald garden still retains his name. His descriptions of
plants appeared in Schrader's journal. Willdenow named after
him a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Legumino-
soe, and we still possess it in our garden. Sprengel directed his

the late Pnifessor Rudolphl 225

attention to the anatomy of plants, and he competed for the
botanical prize offered on this subject by the Gcittingen Society.
It was divided between him and his friend Link. They had
often previously written on the subject to each other. The
examination of the cellular tissue is the weakest part of his es-
say ; but he declares himself decidedly, and with his usual
keenness, an opponent to the system of Mirbel, who founded
the whole physiology of plants on the pores he alleged to exist
in the walls of the cells and vessels. The description of the
tracheae is more exact, and he regards them as vessels for nou-
rishment. But his investigati(ms respecting the slits, pores, and
.stomatia, on the green portions, as to which he had examined
a great many plants, are still truly classical, and are the ground-
work of our knowledge of the subject. Similar to these is his
investigation of the air-vessels of plants, which has not been
equalled by any subsequent attempt. Lastly, he again exa-
mined those singular radiated bodies in the cells of the Nym-
phaea?, and other water plants, and made tlie best observations
on them that have hitherto been published.

In the mean time, the call which Rudolphi received in 1810
to a sphere of much greater activity, removed him for ever from
his botanical pursuits. As professor of anatomy and physio-
logy, director of the anatomical establishments, member of the
scientific deputation for medical affairs, and of the Academy of
Sciences, he now laboured during twenty-two years for anatomy
and physiology with splendid success.

Walter could not be surpassed as a practical anatomist, and
by his wiitings he holds a rank as one of the jfirst anatomists ;
but microscopic anatomy, in which Rudolphi had previously
distinguished himself, was unknown to him : he had accomplish-
ed so much with the naked eye, that he considered that anato-
my had been nearly perfected, and still how much is there yet
to discover with the naked eye. AV alter had not prosecuted
comparative anatomy, and it was therefore necessary for his
successor to furnish materials to the University. Before the
time of Rudolphi there existed nothing in comparative anatomy,
except the preparations in the veterinary school, and a few ob-
jects which were private property. AVhen Walter's collection
was purchased by the King in 1803, it contained 0071 prepa-

226 Professor MuUer on the Life and Writings of

rations, which were chiefly of human anatomy. From that
time till 1810, the collection received, under Walter's superin-
tendence, an addition of 162 preparations ; under Rudolphi's
direction it was increased by the accession of 3964? preparations.
At the same time the magazine received several thousand ob-
jects, of which the larger portion were already prepared, but
could not be displayed on account of the expense.*

Rudolphi had therefore the merit of founding the zootomical
museum ; and although this collection cannc^t compete with the
museums of Paris and Leyden in regard to skeletons, yet it can
bear comparison with the first foreign collections as to prepara-
tions of the soft parts ; in the department of human and patho-
logical anatomy our collection holds a distinguished place even
among the best. It must also be remembered, that the museum
has only existed since 1803 as a public establishment, — that the
collection was extended so as to include comparative anatomy
only since the founding of the university in 1810, — that our
zootomical means are more limited than those of London, Paris,
and Leyden, — -and that our commercial connections are incon-
siderable. A maritime nation is, in this respect, in possession
of extraordinary advantages; and our wonder is with justice
excited in hearing that the Garden of Plants at Paris, with its
mineralogical, botanical, zoological, and anatomical collections,
supports eight travellers in the most remote quarters of the
globe.-|-

Rudolphi, by his talents for teaching, and by his personal
qualities, soon acquired a high reputation ; and not only on ac-

• By the exhibition of a great many preparations which had been pre-
pared by Rudolphi, but which could not be displayed in his time, and of
preparations made since that period, the number of the objects in the ana-
tomical museum now amounts to 11,000, in which only the perfect ones are
reckoned, and the abundant materials of the magazine (about 3000) are not
included. The preparations of the comparative anatomy of the races of the
human species are 214 in number, among which there are 16 skeletons of
non-European races, and 134 skulls of different races. The osteological
collection of vertebrate animals, includes 434 entire skeletons of mammalia,
336 of birds, 154 of amphibia, and 279 of fishes. The pathological de-
partment of the anatomical collection is jmrticularly rich in monsters, in
diseases of the bones, and specifically determined tumours.

+ Rapport sur les heaoins du museum (Thistoire natiirelle pour Vannee 1835,
present^ au minutre dt V instruction publique, Paris 1834.

the late Professor RudolpM. 227

count of his writings, but also as a professor, he was regarded
as one of the brightest ornaments of the University. That he
communicated a powerful impulse to the study of comparative
anatomy, is proved by the many excellent inaugural disserta-
tions, which partly describe the remarkable preparations in the
anatomical museum, and partly originated from them. A feel-
ing has often been remarked in the greatest men of unwilling-
ness to communicate to others their own methods, and to culti-
vate talents which might interfere with themselves. In this
respect Rudolphi had great merit, for he communicated not
only his instructions but his enthusiasm to his pupils. He was
easy of access to the young ; and although those with recom-
mendations might receive no particular assistance from him,
yet every one who exhibited good qualities, received every ad-
vantage without any introduction whatever. Students, and
our own as well as foreign medical men and naturalists, found
themselves at home in his library ; and as he urged forward
the young by his instructions, animated them by his advice,
and, with the liberality of a Banks, aided them by means of
his library, of the anatomical museum, and the objects which
he himself had collected, zealous students were not awanting
who devoted themselves to anatomy under his particular super-
intendence. His enthusiasm for the science, his love of truth,
his noble and disinterested character, his violent opposition to
false directions of investigation, carried his students forward
with a power that was irresistible. Such qualities in a teacher
make an indelible impression on the youthful spirit, and com-
municate an impulse which ceases only with life itself; and I
shall never forget the impression I received from Rudolphi :
it was he who laid the foundation of my love for anatomy, and
he who decided the direction of my pursuits. I enjoyed for a
year and a half his instructions, his counsel, his paternal friend-
ship ; and when I left him, he presented me with many means
of prosecuting my scientific studies ; his kind interest accom-
panied me afterwards when our views often widely differed,
and when he saw unwillingly that I occupied myself with the
more abstract subject of the physiology of the mind, rather than
with the investigation of the anatomy of the organs of the
senses, such as that of the eyes of insects and spiders. With his

S28 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writings of

prosector and his colleagues Rudolphi was on the most friendly
terms. Every one must have remarked his respectful conduct
towards Knape, the colleague next him in the department of
anatomy. In the faculty and in the senate Rudolphi was dis-
tinguished in a remarkable degree for his participation in busi-
ness, and for the correctness and decision of his strongly ex-
pressed opinions ; and his valuable labours rendered important
and influential his situation in the scientific deputation of me-
dical aff'airs.

In the year 1812, Rudolphi published his contributions to
anthropology and general natural history. The biography
there given of Pallas, and the essays on the arrangement of
animals according to the nervous system, — on the distribution
of organic bodies, — and on the relations of beauty in the two
sexes, are among the most attractive of his writings. In the
arrangement of animals, Rudolphi proceeded from the anato-
mical-physiological principle, and from that system of organs
which has most to do with imparting form to all the others,
viz. from the nervous system. The vertebrate animals with
the spinal system he termed Notoneura, also Diploneura^ on
account of the simultaneous occurrence of the spinal nervous
system, and the Nervus sympathicus. He named a second di-
vision Gasironeura or Myeloneura ; in these the nervous cord
lies in the stomach. In the third system he includes the ani-
mals with scattered ganglise ; and in the fourth those v/hose
nervous system is still unknown, which he terms Cryptoneura,
Although many invertebrate animals possess the system of
nerves of motion and sensation, and that of the organic nerves,
and although both systems of nerves may extend through the
whole animal world, yet the principle of arrangement is never-
theless striking, and exhibits to us in clearly marked differences
the chief subdivisions of animals, although not of those that are
the lowest in the scale.

Rudolphi acquired the greatest reputation by his labours on
the natural history of intestinal worms. If the history of tlie
natural sciences were to dwell only on the names of discoverers,
those who had ascertained important facts from which many
others were explained, — who have disclosed a multitude of
forms, and the structure of entire classes of natural bodies, —

the late Professor BtidolpUi. 229

and who have discovered and applied the principles for the ar
rangement of tliese, then Rudolphi's name would be rendered
imperishable by his investigations regarding the Entozoa? alone.
Linnajus had indicated only eleven species of intestinal worms
in the 12th edition of his Sijst. Nat. ; Gmelin, in the 13th edi-
tion, 299 ; Zeder, 391. Riidol phi's first great work on intes-
tinal worms, Entozoorum historia nattiralis, which appeared in
three volumes, between 1808 and 1810, before his removal to
Berlin, contains the description of 603, principally accurately
described species. He almost doubled that number by his own
personal observations, made more especially during a journey
to Italy, Avhich he undertook in 1817, chiefly for the prosecu-
tion of this subject ; by the communications of his intimate '
friend Bremser ; and by the contributions sent from Brazil by
Von Olfers and Natterer. His Entozoorum Synopsis, published
in 1819, contains descriptions of 5ii9> accurately described, and
441 doubtful, altogether 993 species.

Rudolphi made known many valuable observations on the
anatomy of intestinal worms ; and what he say^ in favour of
generatio cnquivoca, is still almost the only recorded expression
of opinion on which the defence of this doctrine can be made
to rest. Rudolphi's classification is still regarded as the most
approved one. Anatomy has here, it is true, made great pro-
gress under the guidance of Mehlis, but it has not authorized
us to arrange these so widely differing animals in already exist-
ing divisions of the remaining ones ; and hence, in the present
state of the science, the best plan would be simply to place
next one another the natural groups of the worms of fresh and
salt water, and of internal worms, so that the Annulata, the
Turbellaria of Elirenberg, the Nematoidea of Rudolphi, the
Trematoda of the same, and the Ta?nia, should stand next
one another, whether one of these anatomically different groups
should live within or without the animal body. One point in
which I cannot agree with Rudolphi is his separation of the
Cestoidca from the Cystica (Blasenwlirmer). It seems ren-
dered inadmissible by a more close examination of the Tetra-
hyncha and the Anthocephala, which are similar to them ;
these last were removed by Rudolphi to the Cystica, This di-
vision of the Cystica contains animals which are not more like

^0 Professor Miiller mi the Life and Writings of'

one another than Cystica are like the Cestoidea. The long
tape- worm-shaped species of the Cysticercus {C. Jlisciolaris),
form the passage from the Cestoidea to the other Cystica. The
heads of the Coenurus and Echinococais are tape-shaped ; and
the Tetrahyncha, placed under the Cestoidea, have, apart
from the consideration of the proboscis, a considerable resem-
blance to the Echinococcus, although they do not live in ve-
sicles, and degenerate in vesicles. Hence Wiegmann has al-
ready remarked, that the animals of the Cystica tribe are re-
petitions of the Botriocephali (Grubenkopfe) and Taeniae
(BandwUrmer), and are to be regarded as undeveloped forms
of the same. According to my opinion, the Cestoidea and the
Cystica must be included in the same order, and form two dif-
ferent sections. What is known of the development of the
Taeniae is favourable to this arrangement; for, according to
Mehlis, several Taeniae, at an early stage, consist only of a head
portion. This apparent connection, which proceeds from the
arrangement of the members, may be strongly or faintly ex-
pressed in the two sections. In the Taeniae, it has relation to
the multiplication of members and the sexual portions. Some
animals of the Cystica section, on the contrary, as the Coenurus
and Echinococcus, appear as really compound animals, with a
common origin (" Blase'''' or vesicle), and many heads.

If we can now explain more readily these connecting cir-
cumstances, we owe it to Rudolphi. He introduced order and
method into this new Fauna of nature, — inasmuch as he inves-
tigated and defined, in all its relations, an almost new region of
natural history. It is seldom that Germans, in their home un-
dertakings, have had the good fortune to investigate the natu-
ral bodies of foreign countries. Forster, Pallas, Lichtenstein,
Tilesius, and Kuhl, went to a distance, when they attached
themselves to undertakings connected with foreign countries.
The limitation caused by our geographical position, has, on the
other hand, imparted to our spirit a certain direction towards
what is concealed, and has made us so much the greater in the
investigation of a world of concealed inhabitants of our native
creatures, viz. the Entozoa, — in the investigation of the struc-
ture of natural bodies, and of their internal living processes.

In his natural-historical writings, Rudolphi united the me-

the late Professor Rudolphi. 231

thod of Linnaeus with that of Pallas. His diagnoses are sim-
ple, short, and distinct, like those of the great Swede ; in his
extended descriptions he always has especial regard to anatomy.
In his researches on intestinal worms, — on the Balcena rostrata
and longirnana, — on the Rana pi pa, and other osteological mo-
nographs;— in his writings on electrical fishes, whose nerves
and organs he understood better than any of his predecessors,- —
in his essays on the orang outang, and on the embryo of apes,
we remark this union of natural history, and anatomy : cha-
racteristic description of nature appears also again in his phy-
siology ; and what he says of the races of man, and of the
mental qualities of the two sexes, may be regarded as a model
of the natural-historical treatment of these subjects.

The Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, contain a se-
ries of valuable treatises by Rudolphi. Those on comparative
anatomy are partly osteological, like some of those already
mentioned ; partly neurological, such as the essays on the elec-
tric eel and silurus ; and his observations on the sympathetic
nerves, in which he describes the portion of the syrnpathicus
only indicated by Sommering as running along with the arteria
vertebralis ; and partly myological, as the memoir on the ana-
tomy of the lion. Among his labours in pathological anatomy,
I would quote especially those on hydrocephalus, and on a hu-
man monster consisting of a mere head. In the last case, of
which I obtained two years ago a counterpart, he shewed, first
of all, how similar productions without a heart, which have
given rise to so many hypotheses, can be nourished, — inasmuch
as that head was united with the umbilical cord of a second
perfect foetus, and its vessels were branches of the vessels of the
umbilical cord ; which was also the case in the instance that
came under my own observation. His treatise on the hydroce-
phalus of the embryo, seems to me to be of still greater import-
ance ; for it explains a multitude of innate defects in the de-
velopment of the brain and skull, as proceeding from the same
source. I am surprised that Rudolphi, who brought many
facts of pathological anatomy under the same law, did not ap-
ply the idea of a secondary destruction or interruption of the
development also to the explanation of other defects, as he so
interpreted them, that the germ was only sufficient for the pro-

232 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writwgs of

duction of a head, a foot, &c. An embryo, rachitic at the
earliest period, and in which the head is as large as the rest
of the body, is not far removed from the imperfect develop-
ment of the whole lower half, and from the insertion of the
umbilical cord under the head. The paper on hermaphro-
dism is equally distinguished by learning and acuteness. Ru-
dolphi considers this phenomenon in its most general point of
view, and examines it in most classes of animals. The usual
formations termed hermaphroditic, which are nothing else but
obstructed formations of the male genital organs, or progres-
sive metamorphoses of the female parts, are properly excluded
by him ; but he describes a rare real human hermaphroditic
case, in which, on the one hand, the testicles and ductus de~
ferens^ and, on the other, the uterus and tuha, were present.
This instance is a very remarkable one, although I cannot con-
vince myself of the existence of an ovary on the female side,
which Rudolphi assumed. As anatomists generally do, Ru-
dolphi ascribed great importance to this deviation in the struc-
ture of the animal and human body. When one is accustomed
to attend to every thing with mental acuteness, and is enthu-
siastically devoted to his subject, it often happens that, though
what is extraordinary may sometimes be overrated, yet the de-
viation from the rule often leads to the knowledge of the law,
which is above the rule. Cuvier, to whom pathological ana-
tomy was unknown, could not acquire any taste for pathologico-
anatomical minutiae ; and it is extremely characteristic what
Cuvier on one occasion replied to Rudolphi, while the latter
was conversing with him in Paris on rare pathologico-auatomi-
cal curiosities : " Mais ce n^est qii accidenteU Rudolphi re-
lates this in the account of his journey. It must, however, be
confessed, that Cuvier"'s countrymen, apart from the theory of
innate monstrosities, in which the Germans have done so much,
have known how to make the most of the cultivation of acci-
dental phenomena for the subject of medicine This connect-
ing of practical medicine with anatomy, must arise in a country
where Bicb.at appeared and developed the laws of the sound
and diseased textures.

But Rudolphi was equally zealous for all branches of ana-
tomy. He often expressed tlie opinion that an individual

the late Professor RudolphL 233

could not be sufficiently informed in one branch, and could not
contribute anything of consequence, without being perfectly
acquainted with all the other branches. Solid knowledge in
zoology is also necessary for the productive cultivation of com-
parative anatomy. Hence he desired that anatomists should
comprehend in their studies human, comparative, and patholo-
gical anatomy, although they might not prosecute all these
departments with equal fondness ; and he sometimes blamed
severely the errors committed by anatomists from imperfections
in their studies, from one-sided knowledge, or actual want of
information.

Kudolphi was an opponent of the kind of " Naturphilosophie'**
which prevailed for a season. On every occasion he declared
his hostility to a species of natural studies combined with a
misunderstood philosophy which expressed itself for some time
with considerable pretensions, owing to the want of an exact
iilethod, and to a strong tendency to generalization. The power-
ful observations made by him, in his biography of Pallas, as a
warning to students, cannot have been without the desired
effect ; and the sentiments are just as remarkable which he has
inserted in the article Anatomy, written for the " Encychpa-
disches Worterbiich der medicinischen WissenscJuifteny It is
not to be doubted that he there recognises the influence of
comparative anatomy on the right understanding of the laws
of formation. In that essay, as well as in his lectures, he spoke
in favour of the existence of a pair of vertebrae in the skull, and
only blamed the abuse of this idea, which, I may take this op-
portunity of mentioning, neither Goethe, nor Oken, nor Dume-
ril first expressed or published, but J. P. Franks who was so
fortunate as to throw it out in his work De curandis honiinum
morbis, 1792, lib. 11, p, 42. If Rudolphi in his labours en-
tered but little on such questions, it might arise from this
chiefly, that the arbitrary manner in which the " NaturphUo^
Sophie'''' had treated these subjects had rendered tiie whole
matter disagreeable to him. It has sometimes appeared to me
as if Rudolphi had, in anatomy, placed too little value on this
knowledge of the laws of formation. The discovery that all
embryos at an early period have gill-arches on the neck, did
not at all suit his ideas ; he suspected deception, and appealed to

2S4 Professor Mi'iller on the Life and Writings of

other explanations. For a long time he carried on experiments on
incubation ; the results were not exactly in favour of the idea of
the gill-arches ; but still there was much observed in the course
of these experiments, which shewed a far greater resemblance
of the state of the foetus in birds to that of fishes than miffht
have been anticipated. The idea that man during his develop-
ment, passed through the other degrees of animal life, was quite
in opposition to his views, and in that he was quite right. The
existence of gill-arches in the neck of embryos, would not,
however, have disturbed Rudolphi, had he not perhaps also
rejected the idea of unity of organization in the different classes
of vertebrate animals, along with the idea of the passing through
the various grades of animals. How he explained these undoubt-
edly existing arches and slits in the neck of embryos, has never
been very clear to me. He probably already adopted the pro-
per opinion, that the general plan for all vertebrate animals is
at first similar ; that, however, it is only in fishes that gills are
formed on those arches, while in other animals these arches
partly gradually disappear, and partly become changed into
the horns of the os hyoides. In his doubts respecting opinions
■which were adopted by others, but not by himself, Rudolphi
was neither reserved nor obstinate : good arguments always pre-
vailed with him, and he willingly gave up his opinion when con-
vinced of its want of foundation. He had not seen the connec-
tion of the vesicula umhilicaUs with the intestinal canal by
means of a passage, probably because he examined old eggs; still
in 1828 he was prejudiced against it. Professor Gurlt shewed
him the connection of a diverticiihim ilei with the navel, and
he became doubtful respecting the explanation he had given.

Rudolphi's tendency in physiology was the criticism of ob-
servations and of prevailing doctrines. The time at which he
began his labours was a brilliant one for physiology. After
the discovery of galvanism, by Aloysius Galvani, that phe-
nomenon was for a long time regarded by the first natural
philosophers and physiologists as a physiological one. When
this view was afterwards disproved there was still an opportu-
nity of discovering the laws of animal irritability, and on this
path, which was opened by A. von Humboldt, many natural
philosophers and physiologists followed. Rudolphi so far took

the late Professor liudolpht. 235

part in this investigation as to examine the hypothesis of sen-
sible atmospheres of the nerves ; and the grounds on which
he controverted the proofs deduced from galvanic experiments
on animals, hold still good at the present day. After it was
perceived that galvanism is only a stimulant for the powers
of the parts of the animal body, and after the application of
this stimulant on the animal fibres had afforded the physiolo-
gists all that could then be obtained, it was discovered that too
much had been expected for the science of physiology from
that discovery, and that medical men, instead of employing
this means, under new and productive points of view, for fur-
ther investigations, became alienated from it. What was now
easier for many than to give themselves up to the deceptions
of a physiological mysticism or magic, which always made the
so called animal-magnetic power more full of pretension and
more infectious, and which interpreted the difficulties of phy-
siology in a more convenient and simple manner. How me-
lancholy is the picture of those strivings, — how depressing in
contrast to the hopes of that period in which the work on the
excited fibres of the nerves and muscles made its appearance,
and shewed the method in which advances were to be made.
A prevalent arrogant and often superficial manner of philoso-
phizing on natural objects could offer to those who really re-
flected in the face of this giddiness, but little that was consola-
tory. Even in Berlin, the focus of the most esteemed scientific
exertions, credulous individuals were not awanting. There it
was that Rudolphi checked the diffusion of such opinions by
his vigorous opposition, and great gratitude is due to him for
turning back medical men from the field of medical supersti-
tion. Other examples might be adduced of the services ren-
dered by Rudolphi's candid expression of opinion against false
directions of investigation. We still enjoy the beneficial re-
sults— they are similar to those of the operation of the yearly
reports by the great Swedish chemist on the more exact pro-
secution of the sciences.

Rudolphi gave an abstract of his physiological doctrines in
his Elements of Physiology (Grundriss der Physiologic), of
which the first volume appeared in 1821, the 1st part of the
second volume in 1823, and the 2d part in 1828. The last

236 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writings of

part is awanting ; it was to have treated of the excretions, and
of generation. Among his papers there was found only a frag-
ment on the secretion of urine. The work seemed latterly to
have lost interest for him, especially as this department of phy-
siology had in other quarters made great progress, and Rudol-
phi preferred treating of those subjects in which he could
make use of his own investigations. Good criticism of observa-
tions, a wonderful learning, and the employment of a rich trea-
sure of valuable anatomical observations, characterize this ex-
cellent work. Compared with other treatises, in regard to the
doctrinal department, much is certainly wanting to which we
are generally accustomed, and some things even which belonged
to the actual state of the science ; on many points he was short,
when he had no critical remarks to make, and no personal ob-
servations to quote ; and he had not bestowed the necessary
degree of attention on the progress of the department of the
nerves. Finally, the unusual abundance of facts in compara-
tive anatomy, and the criticism of many details, in which Ru-
dolphi, on account of his investigations, was more copious, in
some measure concealed the actual deficiencies and imperfec-
tions of our science. This excellent work will always possess
great value, when many writings, which contain more physio-
logical facts, but more error, shall have been long forgotten.

Rudolphi's predominating inclination in physiology was ana-
tomical and sceptical ; his physiological writings were chiefly
important in refuting prevailing opinions. He did not regard
physiological experiments at all in the same light with the cer-
tainty of anatomy. There is no wonder that this excellent man,
who on all occasions expressed his aversion to vivisection, assura-
ed'a hostile attitude against all hypotheses and ill-grounded phy-
siological experiments. We must participate entirely in his just
indignation in perceiving how many physiologists who shewed
their eagerness to render physiology a science of experiment, by
an ill-directed system of opening and tormenting multitudes of
animals, from which results were obtained, often of a very in-
significant and unsatisfactory nature. But Rudolphi went too
far when he believed that experiments on animals teach us no-
thing. Experiments instituted on important questions. Have
here, as well as in physics, led to the greatest discoveries. The

the late Professor Rudolphi. 237

discovery of the different functions of the anterior and posterioi*
roots of the nerves of the spinal cord, was originally certainly the
idea of a mind of genius, which it was necessary should be
confirmed by the experiments of him and of others. Rudolphi,
however, did not remain altogether indifferent to the modern
development of the physiology of the nerves. At his sugges-
tion, and under his own eye, many experiments were made in
1823, in the veterinary school, with the view of examining Bell's
views regarding the nerviis facialis and trigeminus ; and al-
though at first he was doubtful of the different functions of the
roots of the nerves of the spinal marrow, probably because he
did not confide with any certainty in the existing physiology
of such questions of vital action, yet afterwards, when decidedly
confirmatory experiments were made known, he declared openly
in favour of the matter, and considered it as one of the greatest
advances in physiology. Rudolphi avoided a more philosophi-
cal division of the general relations of vital activity, which was
to him less safe than the criticism of facts, and he entered on
the province of the mind with caution, and chiefly only in such
a manner as that he speedily passed to a natural historical view
of the facts, where he was always successful. Among the more
general physiological writings, he marked out but few in which
he perceived consistent reasoning and acuteness ; and though
he acknowledged the imperfections of ReiPs treatise on vital
power, and his derivation of all the phenomena of life from
mixture and form, yet he nevertheless regarded that work as a
masterpiece, and always spoke of Reil with the highest re-
spect.

Rudolphi was deeply grieved with the relation in which he
stood to Meckel. Each acknowledged fully the merits of the
otlier, and yet they could not get the better of mutual taunts;
and these, although they were regarded by no one but them-
selves, embittered the life of each. Rudolphi's straightforward,
though never severe, mode of expressing his opinion in his
writings produced much vexation to himself, and this would not
have been unexpected by him, had he known mankind more
accurately, and had he not adopted the mode of thinking of
any oth(?r but himself. Professor Link has finely remarked,
that our author was too guileless to make mankind the subject

VOL. XXV. NO. L — OCTOBEU 1838. R

S38 Professor Miiller o?i the Ljfe and Writings of

of his observation ; and I would add, that nothing was more
painful to him than to discover that he had been deceived in
individuals.

Rudolphi''s early sound health had for some years been per-
ceptibly deteriorated ; formerly the dissecting-room was always
too warm for him, he then required so much coolness about
him, that the others suffered; in later years, he could not
have the apartment warm enough. When I saw him in 1828,
the first time for five years, I was distressed to see how much
sharper and more serious his features had become ; he looked
much older, although his acute power of sight still rendered him
quite equal to all minute investigations, where certainty of the
hand was not requisite. I had rejoiced at the opportunity of
seeing again my paternal friend, and I then saw him for the last
time. This was apparent to me, and the feeling was a mourn-
ful one ; the change was but too striking, from the former hap-
py and bright expression of his features. Rudolphi retained
his full activity, however, till the last year of his life; in Au-
gust 1832, ascites^ caused by an affection of the liver, began
to establish itself, and of this complaint he died on the 29th
November of the same year. His collections were purchased
by the king; and his Entozoae are now in the Zoological Mu-
seum ; while his private library forms part of the Royal Libra-
ry, and his collection of medals is incorporated with the Mu-
seum of the Fine Arts.

Rudolphi, considered as a private individual, was not less
estimable than in his character as a scientific man; ifiteger vitce
scelerisque pur us. Whoever saw him, loved and respected him ;
and though his candour sometimes offended, yet, in the long
run, the irritation thus produced was constantly overcome. The
chief qualities he sought for in his fellow-men were uprightness,
sincerity of intention, and the freedom of the mind from every
ignoble disposition. Where he found^ these virtues, he gave
up every thing else, and did not allow himself to be deceived
by the semblance. He expresses his genuine sentiments in his
poems, in which he so often treats of friendship. I cannot help
feeling deeply moved whenever I think on the open, serene,
and impressive features of his countenance, and the amiable
and manly earnestness combined with the energy and candour
i>f his character. When the tone of my mind is lowered, I

the late Professor Rudolphi. 239

would shun the sight of the image of my paternal friend ; and
when I wish to recall the most elevated events of my life, I
immediately recur to Rudolphi.

What my lamented friend once declared to be his highest
wish has been granted to him. Even as a boy he loved Lin-
naeus ; in his verses he sings his praises with enthusiasm. It is
he who appears to him, and leads him into the temple where
the tablets are inscribed with the names Hedwig, Gartner,
Thunberg. At that time he did not anticipate how near he
stood to the monument of Hunter, Daubenton, and Vicq D'Azyr.
One tablet was empty, and over it was impenetrable darkness ;
it is now provided with an inscription. There shine also Pal-
las and Peter Camper, and that individual, who, while he yet
lived, wished for a place at the feet of Peter Camper, Bojanus.*
Catalogue of RuDOLnii's Writings.

A. Botanical Writings. — (1.) Botanical Observations. In Schraders
Jmrnalfur die Botanik, 1799. Vol. II., Part IV. Gottingen. 1799. 8vo, I.
No. 4, p. 274. (2.) Botanical Remarks. In the same, 1800, Vol. II. Parts I.
and ir. Gottingen, 1801-8, 1. No. 8, p. 201. (3.) On the Anatomy of Plants.
Prize Essay written for the Gottingen Society of Sciences. Berlin, 1807, 8vo,
with six Plates.

B. Zoological Writings. — (4.) Observationes circa vermes intestinales^
Gryphiswaldiae^ 1793, 4to. (5.) Observationum circa vermes intestinales Pars
II. Grt/phiswaldiae, 1795, 4to. (6.) Observations on intestinal worms. In
Wiedemann's ^rcAiu/iir Zoologie und Zootomies Vol. II. Part I. Brunswick,
1801, 8vo, No. 1, p. 1. (7.) Continuation of same in the same Journal, with
one Plate, Vol. II. Part II. 1802, No. 1. p. 1, Plate 1. (8.) Continuation of
the same, with one Plate. In the same Jounial, Vol. III. Part I. 1802, No.
2, p. 01, and Plate 2. (The conclusion of these observations was promised
but never appeared.) (9.) New observations on intestinal worms. In the same
Journal, Vol. III. Part II., 1803, No. l,p. 1. (10.) Entoxoorum sive vermium
intestinalium historia naturalis. Amstelaedami, Vol. I., 1808 ; Vol. II. Part 1,
1809, Vol. II. Part 2, 1810, 8vo, cum. xii. tab. aen. (11.) First supplement
to my natural history of intestinal worms. In : Der Geselhchaft naturforschender
Freunde zu Berlin Magazin Jur die neuesten Entdeckungen in der ges. Natur-
kunde. Jahrg vi. Berlin, 1814, 4to, Quart. 2, 1812, No. xii. p. 83. (12.)
Entozoorum Synopsis^ c%i\ accedunt mantissa duplex et indices. Berolini, 1810,
cum 3, tab. aen.

C. Mixed Anatomical and Physiological Writings. — (13.) Ana-
tomy. An article in the " EncyclopcBdiscIies Worterbuch der Medicinischen
Wissenschaften,"'' edited by Graife, Hufeland, I^ink, lludolphi, and Siebold,
Vol II. Berlin, p. 357. (13. 6.) Same article published separately. (14.)

* Vide Notice of Bojanus in Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, voL
viii. p. 200.

240 Professor Miiller on the Life and Writings of

Contributions to Anthropology and general natural history. Berlin, 1812-
8vo, with a likeness of Pallas. (15.) Anatomical- Physiological Essays. Ber-
lin, 1802, with eight Plates.

D. Writings ox Comparative Anatomy. (16.) On the Anatomy of
the Lion, with five Plates. In the Transactions of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences for the years 1818-1819. Berlin, 1820. Physical Class, p. 131. (IC. h.)
Same article published separately. (17.) Resp. C. Gidl. E. Reimann : {diss.
Med.) spicilegium observationurn anntomicarum de hyaena. Berolini, 1811, 4to,
cum. 1. tab. aen. (18.) Anatomical Remarks. (1. On the Orang-Outang, and
proofs that it is the young of the Pongo. 2. On the electric Silurus), with
five Plates. In the Transactions of the Physical Class of the Berlin Academy
for the year 1824. Berlin, 182G, p. 131. (19.) On the embryo of Apes and
some other Mammalia, with four Plates. In the same for the year 1828.
Berlin 1831. Phys. Class, p. 35. (20.) Anatomical Observations, (1. On the
bones of the back part of the head of the Pelecanus Carbo L. 2. Remarks
on the Eye. 3. On a rare species of hermaphrodism in the Simia capucina L.)
with two Plates. In the same for the years 1816-1817, Berlin, 1819. Phys.
CI. p. 11 J. (21.) Some Anatomical Remarks on the Balcena rostrata^ with
five Plates. In the same, for the years 1820-1821. Berlin, 1822. Phys. CI.
p. 27. (22.) On the Balcena longimanay with five Plates. In the same, for
the year 1829. Berlin, 1832, Phys. CI. p. 133. (23.) Observations on Com-
parative Anatomy (1. On the Electric Fishes. 2. Oa the poison spur of the
male Ornithorynchtis paradoxus)^ with three Plates. In the same for the years
1820-1821. Berlin, 1822, Phys. CI. p. 223. (24.) Some remarks on the
Structure of the Breast, and supplementary observations. In the same, for
the year 1831. Berlin, 1832, Phys. CI. p. 337. (24. i.) First paper on the
Breast, published separately. (25.) Some remaiks on the crossing of the
nerves of sight in fishes. In Wiedemann''s Archiv filr Zoologie und Zootomie
Vol. I. Part II. Brunswick, 1800. No. 5, p. 156. (26.) Resp. F. Guil. Bre-
9/er : (diss, med.) ohservationes circa fabricam ranee pipce. Berolini.^ 1811. Cum. ii.
tab. aen. (27.) Resp. F. Ch. Massalien : diss, sistens descriptionem oculorum scom-
bri, thynni et sepice, Berolini, 1815. Cum i. tab. aen. (28.) Resp. L. Wolff: diss.
anat. de organo vocis 3Iammalium. Berolini, 1812. Cum iv. tab. aen.

E. Writings on Human Anatomy, and on General Anatomy —
(29.) Resp. E. M. II. Schwarz : disp. anat. de pilorum structura. Gryphice,
1806. (30.) Resp. C. F. L. Gantzer : diss. anat. musculorum varietates sistens.
Berolini, 1813. (31.) Resp. Sels : diss, musculorum varietates sistens. Berc
lini, 1815. (32.) Some observations on the villi intestinorum. In Reil's
Archiv fiir Physiologic . Vol. IV. Halle, 1800, p. 63. (33.) Continuation of the
same; in the same, p. 339. (34.) Diss, de oculi quibusdam pariibus. Gryph. 1801.
(35.) Resp. J. U. Cdrger : diss.de ventriculis cerebri. Gryphice, 1796. (36.)
Some observations on the sympathetic nerves. In the Transactions of the
Berlin Academy for the years 1814-1815. Berlin, 1818. Phys. CI. p. 161.
(37.) Progr. de soUdorum, c. h. pariibus similar ibus. Gryphion, 1809. (38.) Resp.
J. L. Held : {diss.) observationcs cirea dentitionem. Gryphice, 1 809. (39.) Contri-
bution to the history of the teeth. In Reil's Archiv filr Physiologic, Vol. III.
Halle, 1779, p. 401. (40.) Resp. J. G. Tesmer : dis. anat. sislens observatio?ies
osteologicas. Berolini, 1812. Cum 2. tab. aen. (mure especially on the teeth.) (41.)
On the formation of horn. In the Transactions of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences for 1814-1815. Berlin, 1818. Phys. CI. p. 11 o.

I

the late Professor RtidolpJiu 241

F. Physiological Writings. — (42.) On the sensible atmospheres of the
nerves. In Reil's Archivfur die Physiologic, Vol. III. p. 108. (43.) On the
sensible atmospheres of the nerves. In the Transactions of the Berlin Aca-
demy for 1812-1813. Berlin, 181G. Phys. CI. p. 208. (44.) Dubia contra J.
Gain de organis in cerebro distinctis Usque Cranii ope detegejidis hgpothesin. Nova
Act. AcadcmicB Scientiarum imp. PetropoUtance. T. 14. Petropoli^ 1805. (45.)
Elements of Physiology. Berlin, Vol. I. 1821 ; Vol.11. Part 1st, 1823; Part
2d, 1028.

G. Pathological-Anatomical Writings (40.) General view of the

calculi which have hitherto been found in vertebrate animals. In the Tran-
sactions of the Berlin Academy for 1812-1813. Berlin, 1816'. Phys. CI. p.
171. (47.) Description of the brain of a child, where the right eye and the
nose were awanting, with two Plates. In the same, for the years 1814-1815.
Berlin, 1818. Phys. CI. p. 183. (48.) On a human mo2ister, consisting only
of a portion of the head and neck, with four Plates. In the same, for 1816-
I8I7. Berlin, 181.9. Phys. CI. p. 1)9. (49.) On hydrocephalus before birth, to-
gether with general remarks on monsters. In the same, for 1824. Berlin,
1826. Phys. CI. p. 121. (50.) Description of a rare case of human twins, to-
gether with preliminary general observations on twin animals. In the same,
for 1825. Berlin, 1828. Phys. CI. p. 45. (51.) On the absence of particular
portions in otherwise perfect organisms. In the same, for 1826. Berlin, 1829,
Phys. CI. p. 83.

H. Mixed Natural PIistouical and Medical Writings (52.)

Remarks on Natural History, Medicine, and tlie Veterinary Art, collected
duiing a tour through portions of Germany, Holland, and France. Berlin,
Part 1st, 1804 ; Part 2d, 1805. (53.) Swedish Annals of ISIedicine and Na-
tural History. Vol. I. Berlin and Stralsund, 1800. Part 1st, 17^9 ; Part 2d,
1800. (54.) General view of Swedish Medical Literature for 1799. In PfafT,
Scheel, and lludolphi's Nordisches Archiv fiir Naturkundc, Arzn-eiwissenschaft,
nnd Chirurgie, Vol. II. Part 2d. Kopenhagen, 1801, No. 3, p. 79. (55.) Ge-
neral view of Swedish Medical Literature for the years 1800 and 1801. In the
same. Vol. IIL Part 3d, 1803, No. I, p. 3. (56.) Pfaff'and Scheel's JS^ordisches
Archivfur Natur-und Arzneiwissenschajt, Vol. I. (Parts 1, 2, and 3), Kopenha-
gen, 1799, 1801, with one Plate. Pfaff, Scheel, and lludolphi's Nord. Arch.
JTtr Naturkunde, Arzneiwiss. ttnd Chirurgie, Vols. II. IIL IV. (3 Parts) 1801,
1805, with five Plates. Pfaff, Scheel, and lludolphi's Neues Nord. Arch, fur Nat.
Arzn. u, Chir., Vol. I. (Parts 1 and 2), Frankfurt a. d. Oder, 1007. (57.) Re-
views in the Jena, Halle, and Leipsig Literary Gazettes, from 1800 to 1810.
(58.) Anatomical and Physiological articles in t!ie Encyclopaedia of the Me-
dical Sciences.

I. Translations. — (59.) On the species of seal found in Sweden from
C. P. Thunberg's Beskrifning pa Svenske djnr. Upsala, 1798, p. 85. (60.) A. J-
lletzius' Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom. Leipsig, 1798.

K. Non-scientific Writings. — (61.) Biography of Peter Simon Pallas,
Berlin, 1812. With a likeness of Pallas. (Reprint from the contributions to
Anthropology and General Natural History.) (62.) Index numismatnm in
virorum de rebus mcdicis ant physicis meritonim memoriam percussorum. {Gratul,
konores doctorales decern ante lustra acceptos Ch, Knape). Berolini, 1823. Cam 1 .

242 M. Melloni on the Cause of the speedy Melthig

tab. aen. {ejffig. Ch. Knape in nummo). (63.) Index numismatum in viroruni
de rebus medicis vel physicis meritorum memoriam percussorwn. (Physiophili Ger-
manid gratul. diem semisecularem, J. F. Blumenbach). Berolini, 1825, {ed. II.)
cum. 1. tab. aen: {ejffig. J. F. Blumenbach in nummo.) (64.) Rencentioris eevi
numismata virorum de rebus medicis et physicis ineritorum memoriam .^ervantia col-
legit et recensuit. Berolini, 1829, (ed. III.) (65.) Poems. Berlin and Greifs-
wald, 1798.

Observations upon the Cause which produces the speedy Melting
of Snow around Plants, By M. Macedoine Melloni.*

I\' one of the last numbers of the Annals of Science of Lom-
bardy, we find some extended remarks concerning the greater
or less rapidity of the melting of snow in the country, accord-
ing to its position, as around trees and bushes, or in open fields,
under long herbage, or where dry leaves and other bodies may
be placed immediately over it, or suspended at a certain distance
above it. The author of these observations, M. Ambroise Fu-
sinieri, alleges that many of the phenomena are quite opposed
to the consequences which should result from the laws of ra-
diated heat, as understood by philosophers.f This opinion may
perhaps be true, if the results of my experiments upon the dif-
ferent kinds of heat are disregarded ; but if these be adopted,
the objections of M. Fusinieri fall to the ground of themselves,
and the explication of the observed phenomena becomes nothing
more than a simple and pure application of the properties of
radiated heat as now established.

We shall first attend to the observations and reasonings of
the author : and, that I may present them as distinctly as pos-
sible, I shall take from them every thing that is extraneous to
the subject now especially before us, and shall present them in
the order which to me appears the most natural.

In attentively examining what occurs around plants in a hard
winter, we readily perceive that the snoW which is placed near
the trunks of trees and tufts of bushes, melts more quickly than
at a certain distance, so that there is speedily formed around
these bodies, in the bed of snow which covers the earth, exca-

* Bibliotheque Universelle, June 1838.

t Annali delle Scienze del rcnino Lombardo-Veneto, Opera periodica di
Alcuni Collaboratori, Gen. et Feb. 1838, p. 38.

of Snow around Plants. 248

vations which are more or less hollow superiorly, and more or
less deep. This effect, in favourable circumstances, is very
conspicuous. Among other instances, M. Fusinieri cites the
winter of the year 1830, in which the ground in Lombardy was
entirely bare around trees and shrubs, whilst the snow re-
mained two and a half feet thick in the middle of the fields.

Nothing is easier than to prove that the cause which pro-
duces this speedy solution is not a heat which is peculiar to the
plants in their living state, for precisely the same phenomena
are observed around poles and stakes which are fixed in the soiL

Snow is also melted by the action of branches and twigs
which are situated above it. In fact, all the soil which is im-
mediately beneath trees and bushes, as well as a limited space
around them, is cleared before any other part of the surface of
the ground.

To demonstrate that this effect is owing to the calorific ac-
tion of the branches, and not to the smaller quantity of snow
which lies there, you may suspend dry branches or those which
have been lately cut, at a certain height above the surface, in
the midst of a plain which is covered with snow, and you will
find, in these circumstances, in which the snow is to a certainty
of equal thickness, that precisely the same phenomena occur ;
that is to say, that beneath these bodies there is speedily formed,
at the surface of the snow, hollows, which gradually extend in
breadth and in depth, and which would penetrate to the soil,
if the experiment were sufficiently prolonged.

Other circumstances being equal, the action of plants is
greater in proportion as the twigs and branches are more nu-
merous and slender. It commences at noon, and then progres-
sively extends, to the west, to the east, and finally reaches to
the lateral portions of the snow which are situated to the north
of the tree. Hence it may be deduced, that the principal cause
of the phenomenon arises from the solar heat which is directly
communicated to the trunks and branches of trees, and thence
radiated upon the surrounding snow.

And now the great objection of M. Fusinieri occurs. How
is it possible, says he, that a body heated by the influence of
radiated caloric can produce a greater effect than the direct
rays themselves ? the heat emitted by the plants must be much

244 M. Melloni on the Cause of the speedy Melting

less in intensity than the solar heat itself. But, if the events
occur as is usually supposed, the very contrary of what we ob-
serve should happen, so that in open places, where only the shor-
dozes projected by trees and bushes are thrown, the snow should
disappear more speedily than in spots completely overshadowed
hy plants ; and we should no longer have the scientific discre-
pancy of observing the greatest effect where the cause is least.
The explanation, therefore, adds M. Fusinieri, of these facts,
by the ordinary theory of radiated caloric, cannot be admitted.

I allow that the melting of snow under the action of radiat-
ing caloric, ought to increase in proportion to the energy of the
incident rays : I also allow that the direct heat of the sun ought
greatly to surpass in intensity the heat which emanates from
branches and trunks of trees, which are only heated by its in-
fluence. But in maintaining that, in the observed phenomena,
the effect is, so to speak, in the inverse ratio of the cause, it
would be previously necessary to prove that snow with equal
facility absorbs the direct solar rays, and those which are emit-
ted by the heated bodies of plants. Else, if these latter rays
are much more readily absorbed than the former, there will be
no manner of contradiction, and the less action of the more in-
tense rays will be only a natural consequence of their less ready
absorption. The error of M. Fusinieri arises from this circum-
stance that he still admits, with Leslie and Rumford, a unifor-
mity in the absorbing power of bodies for all kinds of radiating
heats, whilst our experiments have demonstrated that these
powers are liable to very great changes, w^hen we vary the qua-
lity of the calorific rays.

That we might produce a fact every way analogous to that
now before us, I freed my thermo-electrical pile of the lamp-
black which usually covers it ; I then painted it white with
carbonate of lead, and, after having supplied it with its small
tubes, I shut one side, and caused the light of a lamp, concen-
trated by a lens, to fall upon the other. The galvanometer,
when put into communication with the pile, presently marked a
constant deviation of 15°. After this I interposed on the pas-
sage of the rays, and quite near to the pile, a sheet of thick
paper, of a deep grey colour, and speedily the deviation of the
galvanometer was increased, and after a few minutes terminated

of Snow around Plants, 245

at »33°.5. Here, then, we perceive a body heated under the
action of calorific radiation, producing an effect two or three
times greater than the direct rays of the source of the heat it-
self.* But, after what we have already said, it may readily be
understood how this should happen.

Let us divide the radiating heat which directly strikes the
ther mo-electrical pile into 100 equal parts, and let us suppose
that ten of these parts are absorbed, and the rest are reflected.
Again, if the interposed sheet of paper, after being itself heated
from the source of heat, radiates to the pile only twenty-five
parts^of the hccit, and if, of these twenty-five, there are only five
which are reflected, and twenty which are absorbed ; then it is
clear that the heat communicated by the paper, although more
feeble by three-fourths than the heat direct from the source, will
nevertheless heat the active side of the pile twice as much,
and will consequently produce an action which is twofold more
intense.

But it will l)e here demanded, if snow has really the proper-
ty, like the carbonate of lead, of absorbing different kinds of
radiated heat in different proportions ? The following experi-
ments will supply the answer to this inquiry.-f-

One winter's day, when the temperature was at 2°.5 below
zero, the sky being cloudy, the air tranquil, and the ground
covered with recent snow, I placed the thermo-electrical pile,

* Although we here employed flame, it is not to be concluded that the
experiment requires the presence of light ; for, in transmitting the calorific
rays through black and completely opaque glass, before using them, an opera-^
tion which very thoroughly disengages them from all concomitant light, the
interposition of paper still gives a considerable augmentation in the devia-
tion of the galvanometer. In fact, this obscure radiation, which directly
produces from 10° to 11° of deviation, gave from 18° to 19° when it wasal-
sorbed by the sheet of dark grey paper, and then transmitted upon the
whitened pile. This experiment, which I repeat with the greatest facility
to any one wishing to witness it, alone suffices completely to overturn the
theories by means of which some wish to account for the present pheno-
mena and other analogous actions, alleging it is an actual transformation of
light into heat.

+ These experiments upon snow are extracted from a somewhat extend-
ed work, which was long ago commenced, upon the absorbing and emissive
powers of bodies in general, and which is not yet finished. I publish them
in this detached way, because they appear to me to give a complete answer
to the question now agitated by M. Fusinieri.

246 M. Melloni on the Cause of the speedi/ Melting

blackened as usual, on one of the casements of my window. On
its one side I put an argand-lamp, and on the other a bent plate
of copper, heated posteriorly to about 400° by a spirit-lamp.
By this arrangement, each of the faces of the pile fronted a
source of radiating heat, in such a way that the two calorific
actions tended to compensate each other. I approximated the
feebler source till the corresponding galvanometer maintained
itself at the zero of the division.

I then took a small copper tube, having the same dimensions
as the envelope of the pile, and provided like it with a stalk, by
which it might be introduced into the same support. This tube,
which was open at both ends, was divided perpendicularly into
two equal chambers, and into each of these I introduced pure
sn6w to a height corresponding to about half the length of the
thermo-electrical bundle (Jaisceau).

I now removed from the stand or support the pile which we
have just described as placed between the argand-lamp and the
heated plate of copper, and in its place I substituted the tube
filled with snow. Each of the two portions of included snow
was thus exposed to the action of a source of heat ; and the two
calorific radiations, at the places where they infringed upon the
corresponding snowy columns, were of equal intensity. But not-
withstanding this, the snow column which was contained in the
cavity turned towards the plate of copper heated to 400°, melt-
ed much more readily than did the other in the opposite cavity.
This trial concluded, I again filled the apparatus with snow,
and replaced it upon the stand of the pile, taking care, at the
same time, now to turn towards the lamp the side which pre-
viously fronted the heated plate. Still, however, the melting
was accomplished much more rapidly on the side of this latter
source of heat ; and so it was every time, and as often as I
continued the experiment. The mean time for the total disap-
pearance of the snow on the side of the lamp was about nine
minutes and a half, whilst on the side of the heated plate, the
mean time did not exceed four minutes.

This experiment proves, in the most satisfactory manner,

that the calorific rays from different sources are absorbed in

different quantities by snow as well as by carbonate of lead. I

i^all now add two other observations of the same kind, which

of' Snow around Plants. 247

do not require the aid of the thermo-multiplicator, and which
bring out facts which are sometimes identical, and sometimes
diametrically opposed to those which have been pointed out by
M. Fusinieri.

Having filled, and more than filled, a cylindrical vessel with
fine and newly-fallen snow, I removed all above its rim, by
means of a wooden ruler, so that its surface was a very uniform
plane of snow. I then turned this plane vertically, and upon
it I caused the rays of an argand-lamp to fall, after having sus-
pended before its central portion, and quite near to the surface
of the snow, a small disk of thin pasteboard, having both its
sides thoroughly covered with lamp-black. The rays of the
lamp, of course, darted partly on the disk and partly on the
snow. In a very short time the plain surface was hollowed out
beneath the disk, and at the end of a quarter of an hour this
cavity was not less than three or four lines deep at its centre.

I next placed the apparatus in the same circumstances it was
at the commencement of the previous experiment, with the dif-
ference of substituting the copper plate at 400° of temperature
for the lamp. The phenomena then presented themselves quite in
theinverse way, that is to say,themeltingor corrosion of the snow
was more abundant, where the direct rays impinged, than in the
part situated opposite the disk, so that a protuberance, instead
of a hollow, was very soon formed in its centre. Hence it fol-
lows, that a certain energy of the incident heat is not sufficient
alone, to produce a greater action upon that part of the surface
which is shaded by the disk ; there is, moreover, necessary, that
peculiar quality of calorific radiation which is analogous to the
solar heat, and which, like it, is ordinarily accompanied with
luminous radiation, but which does not require it as a necessary
concomitant.*

If the reasoning, which we have connected with the experi-
ment in which the grey paper was interposed before the white
painted thermo- electrical pile, is accurately understood, the ex-
planation of these differences in the melting will not present
any difficulty.

In the former case, the heated pasteboard darted towards the
vessel, rays which were much more absorbable than the direct
* See Note 2, p. 255.

248 M. Melloni on the Cause of the speedy Melting

rays from the source of heat : hence it followed that the quan-
tity of melted snow is greater in the part shaded by the disk
than elsewhere, in spite of the smaller quantity of heat which
reached it. In the second case, again, where the source of heat,
and the pasteboard heated by its influence, furnish rays which
are nearly in an equal degree absorbable, the disk only dimi-
nished, by being interposed, the effect of the direct radiation,
and thus rendered the melting less in the shaded portion.

From all this we conclude, that the speedy melting of snow
around plants, instead of being found in opposition to the exist-
ing theories of radiated heat, as M. Fusinieri alleges, is, on the
contrary, only a very simple consequence of it.

It will probably be expedient to subjoin a few additional re-
marks, to account for the more minute details of this phenome-
non,— details which are easily explicable, when we start from
the principal fact, and take some accessory circumstances
into consideration. If, for example, it be demanded, why, be-
yond the power of the solar rays, the elevated temperature of
the air contributes to accelerate the speedier melting of the
snow around trees and solid bodies generally, standing in the
plain, the cause is easily found in the obstruction which these
bodies offer to the direct radiation from the snow towards the
celestial spaces ; this maintains them near the temperature of
fusion ; whilst the snow which is lying in exposed places is
cooled down many degrees below zero, in virtue of nocturnal
radiation, and is consequently much less disposed to melt un-
der the action of the ambient medium. With the same facility
we may explain why the influence of plants is still conspicuous
when the sky is entirely covered with clouds, and the tempera-
ture of the air below zero, for the diff'used heat of the sun pos-
sesses absolutely the same properties of transmission and ab-
sorption, as the direct heat, and ought, consequently, to pro-
duce effects wholly similar, so far as the intensity is concerned.
In considering the action of prolonged calorific radiation
upon a series of bodies endowed with the same absorbing
powers, it will be seen that those which possess a smaller mass
of matter should be heated more speedily than the others, and
arrive at that degree of heat which the state of the surface, the
power of the incident rays, and the pressure and temperature

ofSnozv around Plants. 249

of the air, will allow ; and upon reflecting that the influence of
solar heat, whether direct or diffuse, continues during the whole
day, we here discover the cause of the greater or less degrees of
melting which are produced around stakes, &c. of different sizes,
and which, far from being in proportion to the mass of matter,
as would occur if these substances were heated to the same tem-
perature previous to their being implanted in the snow, follow,
on the other hand, within certain limits, the inverse ratio of the
diameters.

But here we enter upon the development of theories which have
long been known ; and the object of this communication was
to submit to the judgment of natural philosophers a particular
explanation of certain general principles which have only re-
cently been introduced into the science of heat.

Notice of a Dioptric Light erected at Kirkcaldy Harbour, with
Description of the Apparatus for cutting the Annular Lens to
the true optical figtire* By Edwaud Sakg, Esq. F.R.S.E.,
Civil Engineer, Edinburgh.-j- Communicated by the Society
of Arts.

The harbour of Kirkcaldy, like the greater number of har-
bours on the coast of Scotland, is tidal, being left completely
dry even at the ebb of neap tides. The larger class of vessels
which frequent the port, can only enter the harboin* at or near
the stream; and thus the increased commerce of the place had
rendered it an object of some importance to have the entrance
thoroughly lighted.

• Read before the Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts in
Scotland.

t Report of the Committee to whom it was remitted to consider of Mr
Sang's paper, relative to a Dioptric Light erected at Kirkcaldy Har-
bour. Read 25th April 1«38.
Mr Sang's invention of grinding annular surfaces of any form by means of
cutters attached to a moveable arm, whose end is guided by a spring uncoil-
ing itself from the evolute of the curve surface which the lens requires, is
novel and ingenious ; and if equally applicable to the construction of instru-
ments requiring great accuracy of form, promises to be extensively useful.
The mode of giving any required direction to the scratches or small indenta-

250 Mr Sang's Notice of a

The harbour Commissioners, having in the summer of 1836,
resolved to place a light at the east pier, my brother, Mr John
Sang, suggested to them the propriety of surrounding the in-
tended gas-burner with an annular lens, so as to render useful
the light that otherwise would have proceeded upwards. Hav-
ing, however, felt some doubt as to the possibility of construc-
ting a lens of this kind on so small a scale, he consulted me on
the matter, and the ultimate result was, that I undertook to
supply the lens.

My object in undertaking, at that time, such a task was two-
fold. In the first place, I was desirous that no difficulty either
in expense or in workmanship, should prevent such a benefit
to the harbour ; and in the second place, having been engaged
in a long series of experiments on the art of cutting, and having
arrived at what I conceive to be some general principles, I was
willing to regard the formation of the lens as one of those ex-
periments, or rather as a kind of test of the truth of the de-
tected laws. The entire success of the attempt, has exhibited
the possibility of turning or planing glass and of polishing it, to
almost any required figure, and that with a degree of precision
sufficient for many optical purposes.

The annular lens invented by M. Fresnel, and applied by
him to the Phares of the French Coasts, as also by Mr Alan
Stevenson to some of our lighthouses, is a solid of revolution

tions made in the process of grinding, is very simple ; and consists partly in
reversing the motion of the cutter, or of the chuck on which the lens is
placed, and partly in altering the ratio of the velocities of the surfaces in con-
tact. Any degree of obliquity in the direction of these scratches may in this
way be produced, both from right to left and from left to right, and thus every
possible variety in their direction must be the result ; so that the whole effect
ordinarily produced by ci'ossing the motions in the usual grinding process,
may be obtained. One would, therefore, be induced to expect great accuracy
from this method; and Mr Sang has certainly succeeded in giving to the
Kirkaldy apparatus, a very fine polish, which is a matter of great importance.

We consider Mr Sang's labours as important in regard to the manufac-
ture of Lighthouse apparatus, and as calculated to improve the manufac-
ture of refracting instruments generally ; and we would, therefore, beg
leave to recommend that his communication be made known to the public.

Robert Stevenson.
Alex. Adie.
William Galbbaith, Convr.

Edinburgh, June 20. 1838.

Dioptric Light erected at Kirlccaldy. 251

generated by turning the section of a common lens round a line
passing through the focus, and perpendicular to the axis of the
common lens. The focus is thus in the interior of the annular
lens, and the rays proceeding from it, instead of being conver-
ged to a conjugate focus, are flashed out horizontally. On the
large scale, these lenses are built of many zones, but, in the
case in hand, only one piece of glass was used ; and the nicety
was this, to give to the surface of the small lens that variation
of curvature, which is attained on the separate zones of the
large lenses.

Three classes of difficulties presented themselves, first, the
detection of the proper curve ; second, the manufacture of the
lump of glass ; and third, the cutting and polishing it.

The first difficulty belongs to applicate geometry ; and the
detail of the method of resolving it, would be here somewhat
out of place. It may be enough to notice, that, the cylindric
form having been determined on for the interior surface, on ac-
count of the facilities which it promised in the manipulation,
the outline of the exterior surface necessarily became a curve
of high order. The accompanying drawing sliews the section
of the lens full size ; as it resulted from very laborious calcula-
tions.

The form of the lens being thus obtained, the next business
was to procure the glass, and here obstacles presented them-
selves much greater than I anticipated. My first idea was to
use flint-glass on account of its high refractive power, but after
many attempts, of which the most successful result is presented
to the Society, I abandoned that idea, and fell back upon
crown-glass. The Messrs Cookson of Newcastle, furnished me
with two pieces, which reached me entire, but one, and unfor-
tunately the better, had received a blow on one of its edges,
and a tendency to split shewed itself soon after commencing
operations : it also accompanies the paper. The other was per-
fectly sound. On account of the lower refractive index of
crown-glass, the lens was carried to less height than had it been
of flint-glass.

My first business was to bore out the cylinder. For this
purpose, I fixed a tin plate on the point of my drilling spindle,
and having primed the edge of it with diamond powder, I cut

252 Mr Sang's Notice of a

out a series of grooves parallel to the axis : the ridges between
these were removed by using intermediate stops on the lathe-
spindle ; and the whole was then smoothed out by a cylinder
of lead with fine emery : it was then ground and polished in the
usual way for hollow cylinders.

In order to cut the outside to the proper form, the lens thus
bored out, was chucked on a turned block of lead, which had
been cast on an iron mandril ; the surface of the lead being pre-
viously covered by a fine thread which was nowhere doubled,
l^y this means the axis of the interior surface was made coinci-
dent with that of the lathe.

The evolvent of the required curve was then computed, and
the edges of two plates of cast-iron carefully formed to it.
These are seen attached to the cheeks of the accompanying
frame, and are represented in the drawing. Two pieces of
watch-spring were then made to bend over them, so that on un-
coiling the springs, one point in each would trace over the
curve wanted : these springs were then attached to the ends of
an axis by adjusting pieces, and that axis had its parallelism
preserved by means of a jointed frame.

This apparatus so prepared, was fixed on the bed of the
turning-lathe, and the moveable axis rendered perpendicular to
the axis of the lathe. On this moveable axis there were placed
the cutters and polishers ; it received motion by means of a
small pully fixed on it near one end.

To make the first approximation to the shape of the lens, an
iron cylinder was fitted on the moveable axis, and its surface
was primed with diamond. The lathe-spindle being still, this
iron cylinder was brought over the glass, so as to cut part of a
cylindroid surface, whose base was nearly the required curve ;
the lathe-spindle then being moved a division round, another
surface was cut, and this was continued all round ; as soon as
a sufficient approximation was made, both' spindles were set to
revolve at once, and the cutting continued till a uniform sur-
face was produced. The iron tool with diamond was then re-
placed by a tin one with fine emery, and the separate motions
were varied and reversed so as to produce every variety in the
direction in which the surfaces met each other. Lastly, the tin
tool was removed, and its place supplied by one of willow, the

Dioptric Light erected at KMcald^, 253

sui'face of which was covered with carefully worked putty ; the
same motions which had been used in smoothing, wete now em-
ployed in polishing, greater attention being paid to the fre-
quent reversion of the motions.

It was on this combination of motions, which I relied for
producing a true finish. The nature of the action was this :
Suppose both motions to be dentral, the point of the polisher
would meet the surface of the glass obliquely, the minute
scratches inclining to the left, and the degree of inclination dc>
pending on the relation between the velocities. Let now the
motion of the lathe be reversed, the direction of the scratches
is immediately altered, and the one set of traces crosses the
other. By varying the velocities, the direction of the scratches
was still further changed, so that all those eflPects were, in this
way, produced, which are obtained from crossing the strokes in
the usual processes of grinding.

The lens, after being finished, was supported on three brass
supports placed edgeways, so as to intercept little of the direct
light, and between these was placed a small argand gas-burner
with a sliding stalk, so as to be adjustable in height. The
lantern within which the whole is placed, is in the form of an
octagonal decaedron, its top and bottom being squares placed
45° upon each other, and its sides isosceles trigons. The form
was adopted because it contains theessential elements of strength,
and because the side astragals being all inclined, would not,
from any point of view, intercept a sensible portion of the light.
The support of the lantern is a cast from the pattern of our
})olice gas pillars ; it is imbedded deep in the mason work of
the pier.

The entire apparatus has a very insignificant appearance, and
may readily be mistaken for a common street lamp. Notwith-
standing its exposed situation during the past nine months, it
has met with no accident (except the freezing of the water in
the meter), and has afforded a sufficient light at a very trifling
tost, and with scarcely any attendance; it is lighted in the eve-
ning and extinguished in the morning, and requires no atten-
dance in the interval.

In designing this instrument it had to be kept in view, that
the light was not to serve for distant vessels, but merely for

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 1838. S

k

S54 Professor Weber^s Description of an

those making the port. For this reason, only the upper half
of the lens was used, and the lower edge of the bright flame
brought into focus. A very copious light is thus thrown on
the pier and on the water in the vicinity, so that the seamen
can work the landing lines, and the custom-house officer make
his entries with ease. The existence of the harbour light has,
indeed, nearly doubled the number of opportunities for enter-
ing the port.

In order to complete the instrument, a reflective ring ought
to have been placed on the top of the annular lens, so as to
save some more of the rays that proceed upwards : — the funds
placed at my disposal did not allow of that, but I have made
provision, on the upper edge of the lens, for securing it there
if it should be thought of.

To conclude, I may point out a mistake into which M.
Fresnel has fallen with regard to the reflective rings employed
by him. He places the focus of both the refracting and re-
flecting system at the lower part of the bright flame, whereas
the focus of the refractors only ought to be at the bottom, the
focus of the reflectors should be at the top of the flame.

Edward Sang.
Edinburgh, l^th April 1838.

r-

Description of' an Experiment regard'mg the Jailing out of the
head of the Thigh-bone from the Socket in rarefied air,
explanatory of the great prostration of strength experienced
during the ascent (f lofty mountains.'^ By Professor Wil-
HELM Weber of Gottingen.

Alexander Von Humboldt delivered an address to the Asso-
ciation of Naturahsts at Jena, at the public general meeting of
the 26th September, in which he described his ascent of Chim-
borazo, and compared it with the subsequent one of Boussin-
gault. Among other interesting subjects, he alluded particu-
larly to the remarkable feeling of fatigue experienced while
walking in very lofty regions ; and remarked that this curious
phenomenon may probably be explained by means of the
equilibration of the bones produced by the pressure of the at-

>•"- • '

* Prom Poggendorflf's Annalen. 1837. No. 1, p. 8,

Experiment regarding the Thigh-bone, ^5

mospherical air, and which has heen pointed out by my bro-
ther and myself, in our work " On the Mechanics of the
Organs of the Human Body*" ( Mechamk der Menschlichen
Gehwerkzeuge, eine anatomisch-pUysiologischc Untersuchung
vwi den Briidern Wilhelm Weber, Professor in Gottingen, und
Edzvard Weber, Prosector in Leipzig, Mit 17 Tqfeln. Got-
tingen, 1836. J

We have, in the above-mentioned work, proved by direct
experiments, that the weight of the bone, when attached to the
trunk, and which amounts to about twenty pounds, neither
hangs on the muscles or h'gaments, nor even rests on the
edge of the socket, but is supported by the pressure of the
air, which squeezes the two surfaces of the joint together.
By means of this equilibration of its weight, the bone acquires
as perfect a power of turning in its socket as is necessary for
the performance of such active movements as walking and
running. If, then, the pressure of the air becomes diminished,
a point must be reached, when that pressure can no longer
preserve the equilibrium of the weight of the bone. Another
power, such for example as that of the muscles, must now take
its place and support the bone ; as, otherwise, the two sur-
faces of the joint would remove from each other. It is how-
ever to be expected, that, when the bone is supported in this
less advantageous manner, which not only causes an expendi-
ture of strength, but also obstructs the movements of the bone,
owing to the stiffness that is induced in the muscles called in-
to action, derangements and inconveniences should take place
in walking, which would not occur if the bone were kept in
equilibrium by the pressure of the air.

In very elevated regions, where the pressure of the air is reduced
almost a half, such inconveniences really occur, viz., so great a
degree of fatigue of the bones is perceived, as would lead us
to suppose a derangement of the mechanism employed in walk-
ing, and which is only felt so long as we walk, is removed by
sitting down, but again produced by walking onwards ; and
on this account Humboldt requested us to make an experiment
with the air-pump, by which the sinking down of the head of
the thigh-bone under such circumstances might be made appa-
rent, and which might at the same time decide if the amount

s£

flo6 Professor Weber's Description of' an

of rarefaction of the air, which takes place on high mountains,
be such that the diminished pressure may be no longer suffi-
cient to support the weight of the bone, and if we should thus
be justified in attributing the fatigue to sucli a derangement
of the mechanism of the organs of motion. — We have really per-
formed this experiment during our residence in Berlin.

A fresh pelvis, together with the thigh-bones, for which we
were indebted to Professor Schlemm, was divided through the
OS sacrum^ and the fragments of the pelvis, as well as the
thigh-bones, so cut as to admit of the hip-joints being easily
suspended under the receiver of an air-pump. Perpendicularly
above the hip-joint a hole was bored through the bone of the
pelvis, and a cord passed through it, in order by that means
to hang up freely the hip-joint. A second hole was bored per-
pendicularly under the joint through the thigh-bone; so that
a weight might be attached to it, which should come in place
of the bone that had been cut away.

After having made these preparations in the laboratory of
Professor Magnus ; and assisted by him, and in presence of
Professor MiJller and my brother, I performed the following
experiment : —

On the one hip-joint, the capsular membrane was cut through
close round the thigh-bone, so that it no longer united the tvvo
bones with each other. Those present convinced themselves
that this had really completely taken place, and still the two
surfaces of the joint were not only in perfect contact, but (by
the pressure of the air) were held fast together. Afterwards
the bone of the pelvis was secured by the upper cord to a hook
in the cover of the receiver. The apparatus was thus sus-
pended freely from the cover of the receiver, and high above
the plate on which the receiver was placed. To the thigh-bone
a heavy weight of two pounds was attached by a cord. The
height of the lowest hanging weight above the plate was mea-
sured by Professors Miiller, Magnus, and Weber ; and then
the air was withdrawn from the receiver, till its pressure was
diipinished to three Parisian inches of mercury. By this the
blood was driven out of the vessels of the bones, but the head
of the thigh-bone, together with the attached weights, pre-
served their original position. Scarcely, however, was the

Experiment regarding the Thigh-bone. 9.ol

pressure diminished below three inches of mercury, when the
head of the thigh-bone began to sink gradually, and to the
amount of half an incli, which was as far as was permitted by
the capsule. For the capsular membrane forms a ring round
the neck of the head of the thigh-bone, which is smaller than
the circumference of the head. This ring, therefore, allows
the sinking down of the head ; but it prevents it from escaping
altogether : that is, it protects the hip-joint from dislocation.

After the head of the thigh-bone, in consequence of the rare-
fjiction of the air, had fallen eight lines (as far as it was per-
mitted by the capsular ring) we allowed the air to re-enter the
receiver. Immediately the fallen head of the thigh-bone, with
its attached weights, rose, and was elevated rapidly in a palpa-
ble manner, — apparently of its own accord, but in reality in
consequence of the pressure of the air, which had entered the
receiver but not the socket, — until it reached the cover of the
receiver, or, in other words, had returned to its original height.
This experiment was repeated several times, by alternately ex-
hausting and readmitting air to the receiver, and always with
the same result.

The experiment was next performed after the capsular ring
had been cut transversely across, and the head of the thigh-
bone had been even entirely taken out of the socket, yet it was
again pressed in with violence. In fact, the air thus forced
into the socket became so much compressed that the head of
the thigh-bone was again suspended by the pressure of the air
from withont. (Our previous experiments proved that the hip-
joint may be regarded as an air-pump, out of which the piston
does not fall by its own weight, even when some air is left.
'J'his air becomes very much rarefied whenever the piston falls
in the slightest degree. We bored a fine hole through the ball
of the socket, and immediately closed it, opening it again im-
mediately, to further the object of our experiment, but we
could not prevent some air remaining behind in the hole after
the closing of it, whence it might be distiibuted, as out of the
space in the air-pump where air remains behind, without our
experiment being essentially disturbed.) By the diminution of
the pressure of the air, the head of the thigh-bone, on this oc-
casion, fell out entirely and more speedily, while previously
when the pressure of the air was undiminished, the weight o

258 Professor Weber's Experiment on the Thigh-bone, ^c,

the thigh, together with the attached weights, could be safely
supported.

We had intended to perform this experiment on the other
hip-joint in a still more modified form. It turned out, how-
ever, that in taking out the joint the incisura acetahuli had
been too much exposed, so that the air had penetrated into the
fat and cellular tissue contained in it, when we loaded the thigh-
bone without the receiver ; so that the weight even in the open
air separated somewhat the surfaces of the joint from each
other. Those present, however, convinced themselves that
these surfaces were closely drawn together, and could only be
torn asunder by great violence, whenever we covered the inci-
sura with the finger, and thus kept off the pressure of the air.

These experiments not only confirm generally the accuracy
of Humboldt's supposition, but may also serve more particu-
larly to decide, if the rarefaction of the air on high mountains
be sufficient to produce this phenomenon. For they have
proved that about two and a half pounds (the weight of the
cut off thigh bone, and the attached weight of two pounds),
supported when the barometer marked three inches, could no
longer be supported when there was a small diminution of the
pressure. If we reckon the weight of the whole bone at twenty
pounds, that is eight times greater, then a pressure of twenty-
four inches quicksilver would be sufficient to support the whole
bone. If, therefore, the barometer sinks below twenty-four
inches on high mountains, so during walking the muscles of the
bone that is raised, and is swinging above the ground, can
no longer be idle, but must be so exerted, that for every inch
the mercury sinks, they must carry five-sixths of a pound ad-
ditional. In consequence of this unusual continued straining,
the muscles will not only become fatigued, but, as this strain-
ing is opposed to the swinging which ha? to be performed by
the bone, a feeling of uneasiness and inconvenience occurs in
walking, which seems to explain the described sensation of fa-
tigue.

It deserves to be remarked, that in spontaneous lameness, —
where the bone is no longer held in its place by the pressure of
the atmosphere, but even in the beginning of the disease, sinks
so far out of the socket, as is permitted by the capsular mem-
brane— also a speedy and considerable fatigue is perceptible in

On the Achromatic Eye-pieces of Spy glasses, 269

walking, which often, together with the lengthening of the
bone, is almost the only sign by which the commencing com-
plaint is made known externally.

On an Arrangement in the Constrtiction of the erecting of

Achromatic Eye-pieces of Spy-glasses, whereby their magni-

,fy'ing 'power may always he adapted to the state of the atmo-

sphere. By Charles Goring, M.D. Communicated by the

Author.

The artists of Vienna and Paris having adopted the princi-
ples laid down by me for making the eye-pieces of spy-glasses,
hona fide achromatic, as originally given many years ago in
a paper in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, and afterwards
more fully developed in a tract in the " Micrographia,""* I
avail myself of the circulation this journal has on the Conti-
nent to suggest an improvement upon this description of eye^
pieces, which will, I think, be found highly convenient and
useful ; — {to those of the common construction it cannot he ap"
plied with effect and advantage).

They who are acquainted with my writings will not require
to be informed that the doctrines I have promulgated on the
construction of achromatic erecting eye-pieces arc, that they
are neither more nor less than compound microscopes, applied
to the purpose of magnifying the image of the primary object
glass, and that if they are to be really free from chromatic and
spherical aberration they can only be made so by the operation
of concaves of flint glass applied to the secondary object-glass,
or that of the compound microscope. It is well known that spy-
glasses are made of much greater length than can be conve-
niently held and directed by the hands, and that, in conse-
quence, if their power is considerable, the object dances on the
retina in such a manner that it is impossible to examine it, and
the goodness of the glasses is thus nullified in practice. My
object has been to shorten them by combining two primary ob-
ject-glasses together, to double their angular aperture while
their focal length is reduced one-half, thus rendering them
dumpy, short, and thick. If this is done, the necessity of

* On the chromatic and spherical aberration of eye-pieces.

260 Dr Goring on the Construction of the

adopting erecting eye-pieces of my construction, will very soon
be recognised even by an English optician. As to increasing
the angular aperture of the primary or telescopic object-glass, I
only say, that if it is well executed, its defining power will be
increased, as will be shewn by its giving a much smaller spuri-
ous disc to a star than one of a longer focus and smaller angle
of aperture will ; and if it is composed of two double object-
glasses with their inner curves cemented on the French plan,
it will be more luminous than an ordinary triple one.

I here give the construction of a secondary object-glass, or that
belonging to the erecting eye-piece as made on my plan, and at
my instigation, by M. Charles Chevalier, 163 Palais Royal, Pa-
ris ; and if it is thought that it consists of too many glasses,
and that the quantity of light lost will be very great, I can safe-
ly affirm that whoever tries it, provided the convex lenses are
made of fine French plate-glass, will be agreeably surprised at
its luminousness. With an object-glass of two French inches
of aperture we may have a power of 40, with sufficient light,
Avhich I should say is as much as can be used advantageously
upon any distant objects, even in a much clearer atmosphere
than that of the British Isles. I may observe that the said se-
condary object-glass may be made of two double achromatics
instead of three, but then the edges of the field of view will not
be quite so good, if it is a large one at least.

My readers have only to unscrew that part of an erecting eye-
piece which forms the second image, consisting of two glasses, usu-
ally called the third and fourth, with a stop having a very small
perforation in it, which is placed between them, and to suppose
two double cemented achromatics substituted for the fourth, and
another for the third having the same foci and apertures with
the common glasses, the stop being removed, and they will
arrive at a perfect idea of my construction. That M. Che-
valier has executed for me, has the same dimensions, foci, &c.
as the secondary object-glass of a 20-inch day and night glass ;
and the improvement I wish to suggest upon it consists merely
in placing the third glass in a sliding tube, so that it may either
act positively or negatively, either in contact with, or at a dis-
tance from the fourth, for in this w^ay the power of the telescope
may be augmented or decreased one-half, and changed, say
from 40 to 20 or from 20 to 10, or the reverse, and every in-

Achromatic Eye-pieces (^Spy-glasses. 261

termediate change of power, between 40 and 20 or 20 and 10
&c. may also be obtained at pleasure, to suit the state of the
weather. It will be necessary, however, to accomplish this pur-
pose tliat the two double achromatics should be perfect in them-
selves^ and the single moveable one also, otherwise the balance
of aberration will be liable to be disturbed by a change of posi-
tion. There is no stop in this construction to keep out false

light, for it would be necessary to alter its aperture every time
the magnifying power of the glasses was changed, otherwise it
would be ineffective, or cut oft* something from the aperture of
the primary object-glass ; therefore, it will be necessary to fur-
nish the main tube of the telescope with stops at every joint,
embracing the cone of rays from the first object-glass, pretty
closely to within a few inches of the eye-piece, which will pre-
clude the necessity of a stop between the glasses, and be of the
greatest use when w^e view objects while the sun is low down in
the horizon, and nearly opposite to us. If stops must be had
between the said glasses, a wheel similar to that carrying the
concave eye-glasses of a perspective may be placed directly be-
fore the third glass, with holes in it corresponding to the size of
the image of the first object-glass as given by the different mag-
nifying powers, caused by pulling out or thrusting in the slid-
ing tube ; and when the observer has fixed upon his power, the
hole adapted to it must be rendered centrical by turning the
wheel round. In order to render the spy-glasses still more ca-
pable of being directed with firmness and precision towards an
object, and of preserving it steadily in the middle of the field
of view, I have recommended M. Chevalier to cause them to
be fastened at pleasure to a slight stock like that of a gun :
two straps with buckles will secure the glass as well as any-
thing ; and this would be no bad appendage to any spy-glass
not of an immoderate length.

It must be obvious that when a system of glasses, such as I
have described, is made of long focus, it must form an excellent
Megalascopey or glass for viewing the larger kind of niicrosco-

262 On the Achromatic Eye-pieces of Spy-glasses,

pic objects, such as minerals, flowers, assemblages of the aquatic
larva*, &c. : and, accordingly, the double glasses of mine hav-
ing a combined focus of 2| inches, and the single one S\ inches,
form an admirable instrument of this sort, both separately and
in combination. Thus the single one in situ may be used by
itself by unscrewing and removing the double ones, which
may again be employed separately by removing the single one ;
lastly, the three may be used combined, either at a distance or
in contact (as in the eye-piece), giving a great variety of powers.

There is an effect produced by shading object-glasses zvhen
of long foci and large aperture^ which I do not very well coni-
prehend. It is not observable in those of short foci. Thus the
single achromatic of 3J inches focus and | inch of aperture acts
most beautifully when in situ shaded by the projecting tube ^ but
if freely exposed, requires to be cut off to half an inch of aper-
ture to act as well. The same may be said of the two which are
combined in contact, whose performance is vastly improved by
a shade, — though it does not in any way reduce their aperture.

When all the glasses are combined, the single one at a dis-
tance and acting negatively, the power being a minimum, if
a stop of half an inch of aperture is inserted immediately be-
hind the combined double achromatics, it will in no degree re-
duce the size of the visual pencil which enters the retina, but
greatly improve the effect of the combination. Whether it af-
fects the penetrating power of the object-glass or not, I have not
been able to ascertain as its focus is too long to shew lined test
objects. If this arrangement should be found innocent as re-
gards penetrating power, it ought certainly to be adopted in
object-glasses of moderate power. There is another lesson I
have learnt from the study of these large achromatics (which of
course give an immense visual pencil with a shallow eye-glass),
viz., that the iris does by no means act as a stop with regard to
optical instruments, or render inert and of no effect all that por-
tion of a visual pencil which exceeds its own diameter (for as
the visual pencil of a microscope or telescope is nothing but
the image of its object-glass or metal formed by the glasses
next the eye), at this rate the iris should be equivalent in effect
to a circlet placed over the objective end of the instrument, or
an eye-hole of its own aperture, which I am sure is not the
case. — June 9th 1838.

( S63 )

Theory of' Granite, and the other massive Rocks, together with
that of Crystalline Slate ; proposed in Lectures on Geology,
in the University of Chr'istiania in Norway, in the year
1836. By B. M. Keilhau, Professor of Mineralogy. Con-
cluded from page 101.

At the commencement of the transition period, the primary
series of rocks, with their highly inclined strata, had already a
surface exactly like that portion of it which is at the present day
exposed to our view. On this surface were deposited, under
the covering of the ocean, the materials for clay-slate, limestone,
and sandstone ; and over a great extent, certainly a somewhat
greater extent than the now existing transition districts, the
primary rocks were in this manner concealed by newer strati-
fied masses. These afterwards underwent disturbances, we
know not in what manner, which produced the high inclination
that prevails with remarkable regularity throughout the greater
part of our transition districts. Then, large portions of these
newer stratified tracts began by tranquil processes to become
converted into massive mountain-rocks ; portions, in which we
should otherwise now have seen clay-slate as the prevailing rock,
converted into granite and syenite, and sandstone portions into
porphyry. Nothing is more apparent to the eye than the first-
mentioned kind of metamorphosis, in which a gradually dimi-
nishing granitification can be traced into the fossiliferous strata ;
and where, on the other hand, sharp boundaries and felspar
ramifications in the slate, operate, with those individuals who do
not remember that analogous phenomena occur in the case of
dolomite, against the conviction obtained at the localities men-
tioned above, yet still that conviction is again strengthened by
the consideration of the large and small masses of slate which
are left in an undisturbed position in the crystalline mountain-
rock. A phenomenon which we did not touch on in our pre-
viously given volcanic representation, viz. that small, altogether
isolated, granite developments* occur at the sides of large
masses, confirms likewise the same view.

* During my stay in Saxony in the year 1825, 1 observed analogous but
much less perfect developments in the limestone which protrudes from be-

264 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite and other Rods.

It is quite evident that the processes which have caused the
formation of granite belonged especially to the clay- slate tracts ;
but as these every where contain masses of limestone, we find
that the limestone was also changed in those regions where gra-
nitification took place. In the same manner, in particular
places, the sandstone may have been transformed, together also
with portions of the primary strata, into which we have found
that transition-granite penetrates, partly as forming a passage
to the fundamental gneiss, and partly ramified in it. In the
oTanitic formations are contained several chemical constituents.

neath the syenite at Weiubohla, between Dresden and Meissen ; these were
partly small, externally blackish grains of a felspathic nature (also remark-
ed by Professor AVeiss, but naturally with an entirely different interpreta-
tion), and partly small, also imbedded portions, having the aspect of wea-
thered, very imperfect granite. I have lately read, that at other places
small fragments of granite have been remarked in the stratified rocks that
are associated with the granites and syenites in those parts of the valley of
the Elbe. These localities undoubtedly merit the new investigations which
are perhaps now in progress, and which I am convinced will produce a rich
harvest for the science ; as it really seems quite acknowledged that the con-
nection of the groups of facts hitherto adduced cannot be at all explained.
(Professor Keilhau then quotes Dr Cotta's paper on the relative ages of
the granite and chalk in Saxony, from which we translate the following
passage : " Near Hohnstein small fragments of granite have been found in
a conglomerate-like sandstone, probably belonging to the Jura formation,
and which is interposed in an inclined position between granite and sand-
stone. These fragments, from their mineralogical characters, woidd seem
to have been derived from the same granite which is immediately superim-
posed. Thus the whole matter is rendered inexplicable ; for as, on the one
hide, we are irresistibly forced to regard the granite as the newer formation,
so, on the other, we cannot understand how fragments of this granile have
found their way into the subjacent sandstone, if the former be really newer
tlian the latter. The questions. Do these pieces of granite perhaps belong
to another older formation ? Or is the conglomerate-like sandstone, which
contains them, a product of the friction, and only fprmed by tlie elevation ?
seem to include the only, though much sought for, modes of solving the dif-
ficulty ; for the view proposed by Weiss of the dry elevation of the pre-
viously existing and solid granite, which may readily be placed in con-
nection with this phenomenon — though it is ingenious, and at first sight
satifrfactory — involves many difficult considerations." — Cotta in Leonkard's
Jahrhuch for 1836, p. 23. Dr Cotta, in his " Geognostichc Wandermigen" has
recently expressed an opinion favourable to the idea of the elevation of the
Hohnstein and Weinbohla granite in a solid .state. — Edit.)

M. Keilhau s Theory of' Granite and other Rocks. 2G5

that either do not occur at all, or not in sufficient quantity for
the newly formed minerals, in those masses which have under-
gone the metamorphoses ; whereas the latter consist partly of
substances of which at least not much (carbonate of lime has
been noticed in granite) is discovered in the changed rock. In
what manner this exchange is to be conceived, it is for the pre-
sent impossible to explain more precisely ; but I further regard
it as much more natural to suppose that no new material was
transported from without to produce the converting action to
which such regions were subjected, than to assume that there
were really cases where it must be imagined that sublimations
of potash, silica, &c. actually came from the deeply-seated vol-
canic laboratory.

The great porphyry formations occur principally in the sand-
stone, which forms the deposit above the clay-slate and lime-
stone. It is probable that the action took place especially on
the same fine grained partly earthy sandstone-formation, often
almost passing into iron-clay (Jernleer), of which there is still
much remaining in an unaltered state, both in the porphyries
and in other situations. When the sandstone had the character
of conglomerates, there thus arose, at many points at least, a re-
sistance to the transforming action : in this manner we often find
certain layers filled with small quartz pebbles, directly under
those porphyry masses, whose development in the uppermost
sandstone etage was interrupted by these coarse strata. Beauti-
ful proofs of the tranquil formation of the porphyry arc afforded
by the strata as well of the clay-like sandstones^ as of the con-
glomerates, for these stretch far into the porphyries, having
the same gentle inclination which is so general in the sand-
stone strata. Particular strata also, which are now fairly in-
cluded in the massive mountain-rock, stand partly in connec-
tion with that sandstone basis, from whose range of strata we
can follow a long portion projecting like a plank, and can at the
same time convince ourselves that it is not in the slightest de-
gree broken or bent ; but even when the connection with the
body of the strata is broken off by the passage into the por-
phyry which also takes place, we can in like manner ascertain
distinctly, by the angle of inclination, the unaltered position of
the portions of strata, still in the form of sandstone, lying in the

^66 M. Keilhairs Tlieory of Granite and other Rocks.

porphyry. This fact was not touched on formerly by us ; it
likewise belongs to those which volcanists cannot perceive.

Porphyry, with its more or less uncrystalline basis, does not
appear to have been so much adapted as the granites and syenites
to form thin branches proceeding in every direction into the
bounding strata : continuations of the principal mass of the
porphyry are certainly met with as veins situated in the sub-
jacent strata, but these veins are so large, and of such solid
forms, that they cannot be at all compared to the multitudes
which ramify from the granitic masses.

The more subordinate crystalline siliceous rocks occurring
in the stratified transition series, were probably developed at
the same period, and in the same manner, as those larger masses.
That the transforming action operated especially on certain
beds, and that the nature, and perhaps also the position, of these
beds had a particular influence on the metamorphic rock which
made its appearance, seems extremely natural ; and I now al-
lude particularly to eurite porphyry, which so often occurs in
the form of beds. But as to deviations from occurrence in the
form of beds, there is nothing very peculiar, when we take into
consideration dolomites, granites, &c., and are accustomed to
observe the readiness with which it appears that the processes
have spread around, and with which they have taken particular
directions during their progress through the masses encountered ;
— a readiness which, however, seems limited in other cases, in-
asmuch as metamorphoses at particular points have evidently
been checked by insuperable difficulties ; and certain formations
appear to have had a greater tendency to assume certain exter-
nal forms, suited to their internal constitution.

The crystalline granular siliceous rocks occurring as inde-
pendent veins, that is, as veins which do not branch out from the
large masses, viz. greenstone veins with their parallel sides, are
certainly greatly opposed to our theory ; and indeed that theory
will seem to many at once to deserve rejection, when they re-
member the remarkable fact of gneiss fragments occurring in
the above-mentioned veins. I grant that the difficulties are
considerable ; but even should this single case be quite insur-
mountable, yet still I do not find, on that account, that there
is any sufficient ground for giving up the proposed views, and

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite and other Rocks. 267

for returning to those other ideas, which, not merely one, but a
large number of facts have proved to be faulty and unsatisfac-
tory. The experience connected with the old theories ought to
render us cautious respecting our expectations of the new one ;
all that we can hope is to bring an idea upon the path as some-
what more productive, somewhat more correct, than those with
which we have hitherto endeavoured to assist ourselves. I must
also remark, in regard to the proposed theory of the origin of
the massive rocks, that it must always be kept in mind that it
by no means pretends to be without exception available ; — to
which of these rocks it is to be applied is a problem which re-
mains yet to be more exactly determined. When we were con-
sidering the crystalline masses occurring in Vesuvius, which, so
far as we are informed by descriptions, have completely the
forms of our greenstone veins, we did not doubt of their having
resulted from erupted lava ; we considered it further as ex-
tremely probable that a number of masses having other forms
likewise came from the interior in a melted condition, and by
slow consolidation and great pressure assumed even a granite-
like nature. Thus far we have granted, and thus far we shall
concede to volcanism all its just rights; and the views now de-
veloped only claim to be placed at the side of the other theory.
More extended investigation will perhaps shew that, instead of
being opposed to the volcanic system, these views, on the con-
trary, approach to a union with it. If metamorphoses take
place, in general, in the way we have imagined, there is then
no ground for assuming that merely original Neptunian, and
not also volcanic rocks, were subjected to them. But a more
intimate union of ideas of the pyrogenetic formation of the
massive rocks, and ideas of their production by metamorphoses,
may be imagined ; so that both opinions may possibly be in-
cluded under one and the same higher conception. One has
merely to examine a little more attentively what takes place
when a liquid mass becomes solidified, — for example, when it
becomes granite. If we attempt to take the subject into consi-
deration in somewhat more than a superficial manner, we shall
find ourselves obliged to go into ideas not disagreeing with that
theory to which our previous examinations have led us ; and
processes of transition of amorphous and homogeneous masses,

^68 M. Keilhau's Theory of' Granite and other Rocks.

into masses that have become crystalline and heterogeneous,
perhaps involve the same principles. Whether the masses were
compact, or pasty, or quite liquid, it is probably not too daring
to hazard the conjecture, that the essential distinction in the
processes will be found to consist entirely in the time required
for the development of crystalline individuals. But respecting
all this it is necessary to wait for the further progress of inves-
tigation. At present my object is to protest against the de-
mand that our theory shall explain every thing, and against
the notion that, if it should not account for the phenomena of
greenstone veins, therefore it should be rejected in reference to
all the other massive rocks.

It is, besides, by no means my opinion, that the veins which
I have termed independent, those namely consisting of aphanite
and greenstone, cannot really be regarded as metamorphic rocks
in the same manner as granite, the great porphyry formation,
and the eurite porphyry occurring in the form of beds. If it
is true that the veins branching out from the great masses, owe
their origin to the same changes which produced these masses
themselves, then the independent veins may have been formed
in the same manner ; besides, the rocks belonging to the latter
have perfect analogues in other masses occurring more or less in
the form of beds. But direct proofs are not wanting of the
formation of these veins by metamorphosis ; at least I do not
see how we are otherwise to explain a whole multitude of facts,
which I have described in the work already mentioned, and
that is about to be published ;* but, for the present, I must
content myself with thus referring to these facts, as the descrip-
tions connected with them would lead to the consideration of
phenomena which are partly of an extremely complicated na-
ture. In the mean time, I must confess that, as the study of
every thing relating to this subject is but newly commenced,
we are not yet in possession of results with which we are to be
satisfied. I do not, therefore, wish to attack any one'*s opinion
regarding these veins ; but I would remark that we ought to

* The author here alludes to his " Gaea Norwegica," which lias been
jiublished since the appearance of the present memoir, and of which a short
account will be found in our last Number, p. 215. — Edit.

M. Keilhau's Tlieory of Granite and other Rocks. 269

adhere to a theory which seems to be the only one applicable
to at least the largest number, and the most important of the
facts which I have now adduced.

We have still to consider the alterations in the stratified
rocks where these come in contact with other rocks, — namely,
with the abnormal rocks ; and to direct our attention to the
peculiar minerals which present themselves either at or neal*
the contact of the various masses which touch one another.
This study of both kinds of phenomena is that which leads
most directly to a knowledge of the forming and transforming
processes going on in solid rocks, without the aid of an extra-
ordinary degree of heat. That such processes have been espe*
cially active where heterogeneous masses met together, is to be
observed at innumerable points in new and old formations ;
and among these, there are frequently places where it is im-
possible to maintain that volcanic heat could have operated in
producing the phenomena in question. The relations present-
ed by these phenomena in the Christiania district, are of ex-
treme interest and importance ; they point to a much more
complicated play of forces than the mere action of a melted
mass on the bounding rock could have effected or produced.
These phenomena sometimes present themselves, and are some-
times absent, near the massive mountain-rocks ; sometimes also
they present themselves at the points of contact of stratified
rocks alone. The examples of the last mentioned appearance
presented by our district ought not to be passed over, although
they only contribute indirectly to the explanation of the real
subject of our investigation. Where transition-strata cover
the primary surface, which, as already mentioned, consist of
-tratified rocks, there is constantly an extraordinary quantity of
silica present, and metallic developments are observed at many
points of contact. By this unusual quantity of silica, are pro-
duced the number of quartzose masses which lie at the boun-
dary of the primary class, and with which the eurite-porphyry
series begins ; and to the same cause is undoubtedly to be at-
tributed the frequent occurrence of certain quartz druses in the
upper crust of the primary rocks, where the latter have been
covered by transition-deposits. Of ores, we met with accumu- '
lations of magnetic iron-ore and copper- pyrites, which lie espe*

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 1838. T

270 M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite and other Rocks.

dally in the primary outer crust ; but above all, iron-pyrites,
which is distributed through the whole lower part of the tran-
sition series ; it is on this account that alum-slate occurs here,
instead of the usual clay- slate, inasmuch as the alum-slate is
nothing else than a mere modification of the ordinary strata
produced by contact with the primary rocks, and which ha5>
been indirectly or directly impregnated with iron-pyrites (and
potash ?) by means of this contact.*

The actions which produced alterations in the strata in con-
tact with the boundary of the granite masses, and the forma-
tion of the new mineral products occurring there, are of them-
selves of subordinate importance,t compared with the results
of the alterations and formations which we-have last mentioned ;
but nevertheless, the contact phenomena of the granite boun-
daries are the most self-evident. The conversion of fine la-
mellar soft clay-slate into a coarse lamellar siliceous slate, and
that wonderful passage of limestone into a more or less per-
fectly white crystalline marble, are remarkable phenomena ;
but the extension of such actions to the distance of more than
an English mile (l-6th of a Norwegian mile), from the granite
boundary, is in the highest degree striking ; so also is the occur-
rence at the same boundary of numerous masses of ore, of gar-
net, and other remarkable minerals. The silicification, and the
tendency to crystallize, which are in general observable at these
boundaries, shew that the actions here were so far perfectly
analogous to that by which granite itself was formed ; but the
substances actually formed at the contact, viz. ores, seem to re-
quire the application of the idea that the new materials have been
brought from a distance to certain points, where we find them
collected, — a process that may still be going on, as the forma-
tion of these mineral masses seems so certainly to be dependent
on the contact of rocks of a different nature, and whose contact
jnoreover is permanent.

It is a remarkable fact, and one which has not yet been nar-
rated, that the usual changes of transition-strata at their boun-
dary with granite, have not taken place where the primary

* Forchammer found potash in the alum-slate of tlie north.
'\ Bee the observations on alum-slarte in the next page.

M. Keilhau's Theory of Granite and other Rocks. 27 J

rock was near enough to cause the occurrence of alum-slate ;
and the latter is never found passing into hard slate, although
quite near the granite. But there we find chiastolite, a re-
markable proof that the strong tendency to crystallization
nevertheless existed also at those places. We remarked of
eurite-porphyry, which, for reasons now clear, occurs chiefly in
alum-slate, that it has not the power of producing any altera-
tion on that rock at the junction; thus affording a sign of a
power acting against these metamorphoses, whether that power
be in the condition of the alum-slate itself, or in the causes of
the formation of the alum-slate (contact with the primary se-
ries).

That otherwise, the porphyries in general do not produce
these remarkable contact phenomena at the granite or at the
primary boundaries, is a fact which deserves to be again men-
tioned. Melted masses, whether they afterwards become har-
dened into a porphyry or a granite, must, by their heat, have
produced nearly the same actions. But if we assume that these
formations of minerals, and changes at junctions are results of
actions that required much more special conditions, we are no
longer surprised to see them sometimes only weak, and at
others entirely awanting in masses, where, according to the
volcanic interpretation, they ought to have been developed in
the highest degree.

But, for the present, we must be satisfied with giving the
above details. Whoever, in reference to our very remarkable
transition district, may wish to test more exactly the views now
given, by means of a larger collection of facts than I have here
noticed, will find sufficient data regarding highly instructive
localities in the work to which I have more than once referred.

Before proceeding, in the next place, to pass on to the con-
sideration of the massive formations of other countries, which
ought to be placed alongside of those occurring with the fos-
siliferous transition series of Norway, I would add, from my
still unpublished work, one general reflection in regard to the
chief idea in the proposed theory, — the idea, namely, that crys-
tals, and even whole aggregates of these chemically and mor-
phologically most perfectly formed inorganic natural bodies,
can proceed from an indeterminately compound, formless, nia-

t2

272 Dr Mehiiss on Viriiescc?ice,

terial, by means of slowly operating actions in the solid masses ;
my observation on this point is the following, — that it would
be a much more beautiful result of such investigations, if we
could believe that even the mass of the earth is at all times in
a condition to advance onwards to a state of greater perfection,
and that individual development from the chaotic may likewise
proceed gradually, instead of our regarding the body of the
earth a» a cadaver in which all processes merely tend to a re-
trograde movement, to chemical decomposition and mechanical
ruin.

Observations on the Virilescence, Feminescence, and Rejuvenes-
cence of Animals. By Dr Mkhliss.*

In animal bodies there are three distinct periods or epochs, —
viz. of formation, of growth, and of decay. The less perfect
animals cease to exist as soon as they have attained their full
growth, and become capable of propagating their species : the
act which marks the perfection of their development is but the
prelude to their destruction. In the higher animals, however.
a longer or shorter period elapses after they are no longer ca-
pable of procreating their species ; a period of gradual decay
and progressive exhaustion of all the powers of Hfe. This pe-
riod is longer in man than in any other animal, and presents
some phenomena which are well deserving of attention.

Dr Mehiiss of Liebenwerda, in his curious work,f has
chosen two of these as the subjects of discussion : the as-
sumption of the characters of the male by aged females, and
the reappearance of the characteristics of youth in the aged
of both sexes ; to the former he gives the name of Virilescence,
to the latter that of Rejuvenescence. H(? might likewise have
added another new term, indicative of the appearance of some

• British and Foreign Medical Review, No. xi. for July 1838.

t Ueber Virilescenz und Rejiivenescenz thierischor Korper. Ein Beitnig
zur Lehre von der regehvidrigen Metamorphose organischen Korper. Von
Dr Carl Wilhelm Mehiiss, praktisclien Artze, &c. in Liebenwerda.— Leipzig,
1838.

Feminescence, and Rejuvenescence, 273

of the virile characters in the female, as he has noticed this cir-
cumstance in his book ; and he miglit have named this condi-
tion Feminescence, from the same analogy on which the other
terms are framed.

On the subject of Virilescence, the author quotes the autho-
rity of Hippocrates and Aristotle, and traces the origin of the
ftibles of the middle ages concerning a " mutatio sexus" to the
facts which they have related, and to the mythological sayings
of the Grecian poets ; yet such a change was not entirely with-
out support from ascertained facts : old women had been seen
with beards, and their voices had assumed the manly character ;
persons who had been educated as females had been seen to
assume all the attributes of men ; and others, who as women
had remained barren in marriage, became the fathers of chil-
dren. Such instances as these, which a careful inquiry would
liave robbed of all their value as facts, were strengthened by
the opinion of Galen that the parts of generation are the same
in both sexes, and vary only in position, the same parts being
situated externally in men which are placed inwardly in fe-
males ; by that of Aristotle, that a woman is merely an imper-
fect man ; and by the scholastic dogma, that Nature, under all
circumstances, aims at perfection. Eusebius Nieremberg and
Ulysses Aldrovandus had done their best to confirm these er-
rors, by tales of exotic animals in which this conversion of sexes
was a natural characteristic ; and the doctrine was not entirely
abandoned, even by anatomists, before the end of the sixteenth
century. The seventeenth century, however, saw the error
cojnpletely dispelled ; and since then the whdle subject of mu-
tation of sex, instead of being a tissue of fables, has become an
interesting branch of natural history.

Virilencence. — Those appearances which our author includes
under the general name of virilescence, occur in females in
Avhom one or more of the peculiar characteristics of their own
sex have passed away, and consist in the assumption of some
])eculiar qualities of the male. The assumed characters differ
in different cases, but agree in bearing a close resemblance to
some part of the male frame, other than the organs of genera-
tion themselves. Virilescence, therefore, can take place only
in those animals which continue to live some time after the

274 Dr Mehliss on Virilesceiice,

power of generation has been lost, and in which the sexual dif-
ferences are sufficiently strongly marked, not merely in the or-
gans of generation themselves, but in other parts of the frame.
Consequently, it cannot occur in vegetables ; for the difference
of sex is here only marked in the sexual organs themselves.
Kob, indeed, has compared the regular metamorphoses of the
organs of generation of plants into other parts (as, for instance,
of styles into stamens, and the occurrence of male blossoms on
the female plants of the class Dioecia), with the appearance of
virilescence in animals ; but these deviations from the normal
condition are original, and do not admit of comparison with the
animal phenomena, which distinctly require the complete de-
velopment of the sexual character at a former period of life.
This condition is fulfilled only in the more perfect animals —
in birds, in the mammalia, and in man. In insects, the sexual
difference is sufficiently clearly marked in the external confor-
mation of their bodies ; but their life, closing with the process
of generation, is too short to exhibit the phenomena of viriles-
cence. In some of the Crustacea, in fish, and in amphibia,
observation will probably yet detect the existence of these
changes. In all animals, however, and under all circumstances,
virilescence is extremely rare.

In birds, the chief distinction between the sexes, after the
differences between the parts of generation, consists in the plu-
mage, which is more developed, and possesses more lively and
varied colours, in the male than in the female. The size of the
body, the character of the voice, and the occurrence of spurs
on the feet, establish other, but less striking, distinctive marks.
In each of these particulars, the female bird may simulate the
outward appearance of the male, and to such an extent that a
careful observation shall scarcely distinguish the sexes. Our
author collects abundant proof of this fact from undoubted
authorities : of these, the greater part occurred in the domes-
tic fowl and common pheasant ; others in other species of phea-
sant, in the turkey, peacock, and common duck. The par-
tridge, wood-pigeon, starling, bustard, chaffinch, and four or
five other birds, have been observed to assume the same pecu-
liarities. The change of plumage was the most remarkable, as
well as by far the most frequent, phenomenon ; the alteration

Feminescence, and Rejuvenescence. 275

of the voice was nearly as common ; the growth of spurs, combs,
&c. is reported in more than one case. These changes began
after the bird had ceased to lay eggs, and became more marked
as it grew older. In some instances the transformation was so
complete, that not only was it difficult to make a distinction
between the real and the assumed sex, but the difficulty was
scarcely less for birds of the same species ; especially as the de-
ception was increased by the masculine behaviour of the trans-
formed birds. In a few cases, eggs were detected in the ovary ;
and, in a large proportion of instances, the parts of generation
were found partially or entirely wasted away.

In mammalia, the signs of virilescence are neither of so fre-
quent occurrence nor so strongly marked as in birds; and
hitherto they have been seen only in the stag and roe. The
male of these animals, as is well known, is distinguished by
horns, of which there is no trace in the female. These parts
make their first appearance with the first complete development
of the organs of generation ; fall off annually, at the conclusion
of one rutting season ; and are again reproduced, in a more
perfect form, at the beginning of the next. Virilescence con-
sists chiefly in the growth of these parts in the female : it shews
itself, however, occasionally in other parts ; for instance, in the
hair. More than one of these changes have been seen in the
same animal. In some instances both horns were produced ;
in others only one, and that usually on the right side. Two in-
stances only are adduced in which the phenomena of virilescence
showed themselves in the hair of the animal. In one case, the
hair of the head, neck, and abdomen, the shape of the ears and
extremities, and the odour of the animal, gave it the closest
possible resemblance to the male, and it followed the other fe-
males as if urged by sexual desire. Valmont de Bomare has
described an animal which had one horn on the left side, and
organs of generation closely resembling those of the male ; the
ovaries hung down like testicles, the clitoris was elongated, and
the vagina contracted. In three instances, the animals were in
calf The case quoted from Valmont de Bomare is the only
one in which the parts of generation underwent those changes
which take place so frequently in birds. The statement that
horns have made their appearance on the heads of animals

276 Dr Mehliss on Virikscence,

.which do not usually bear them, — as, for instance, the hare,—
is justly treated as a fable; and the growth of horny excres-
cences on the skin of men and animals, is shewn to have no
connexion with the phenomena of virilescence. The change of
the colour of the skin, too, which is observed to take place in
old animals of both sexes, is shewn not to be allied to viriles-
cence.

In the human species, the phenomena of virilescence consist
in the growth of hair, partly on the face, in the form of a beard,
and partly in other situations, where, in ordinary circumstances,
it does not exist to any extent, even in men ; and in a strength*
ening of the tone of the voice, so as to resemble that of the
male. The facts which are quoted by our author are not very
numerous, amounting only to eight detailed cases, and a few
references to others. With the exception of the case of extir-
pation of the ovaries, related by Pott, the phenomena of viriles-
cence are referrible to suppression of the menstrual discharge,
occurring as well at an early period of life as in more advanced
age. The growth of hairs on the upper lip in young persons,
a short time before the appearance of the menstrual discharge,
is regarded by the author as an event of not unfrequent oc-
currence.

The following general conclusions are drawn by Mehliss
from the facts adduced by him :

1. The changes which take place in animal bodies during
virilescence are either organic or dynamic. To the latter be-
long the changes of the voice and of the sexual characters*
The former are of two kinds : in some cases a degeneration of
structure occurs, as the gradual wasting away of the sexual
organs ; in other instances there is an actual development of
parts which, in the natural state, exist only in males. The
new growths which thus take place, either already existed in a
rudimentary form, and are merely more' fully developed (for
example, the comb in the common fowl, hair in women, crista
pectoralis in the turkey) ; or they already existed in the female
under a different form, and merely undergo a change (for in-
stance, the feathers of birds) ; or, lastly, they were originally
absent, and must be considered as entirely new^ formations (as
horns in the hind, spurs in the common fowl).

Femlnescence, and Rejuvenescence, 277

2. The changes take place gradually, obey the laws to which
the development of the same parts in the male is subject, and
follow the same order.

3. In all the individuals which have exhibited the pheno*
mena of virilescence, the characters of their own sex were al-
ready fully developed ; the greater number, too, had been fruit-
ful ; and it is only in some individuals of the human species
that the power of reproduction has been wanting.

4. The appearance of virilescence was, in all cases, attended
either by an entire loss, or a remarkable diminution of the
power of reproduction ; and, as the virilescence increased, the
power of reproduction diminished, at length entirely disappear-
ed, and never returned.

5. On the other hand, virilescence seems to have commenced,
in most instances, before the usual period of the disappearance
of the sexual functions ; so that it did not begin with the com-
mencement of old age, but a longer or shorter time before iU
In men, and in the mammalia, it occurs proportionably earlier
than in birds.

6. All the individuals in whom virilescence has been ob-
served, have been placed under favourable circumstances*
They all appear to have been remarkably robust, powerful,
and healthy, and to have reached a good old age.

7. In no case was the liealth of the individual impaired by
virilescence ; nor was the occurrence of the phenomena accom-
panied by feelings or symptoms of sickness.

Feminescence. — After closing his account of Virilescence, the
author notices more briefly the reverse condition, or the as-
sumption of some of the male characters by the female, which
we might term Feminescence. The two principal circumstances
noticed under this head are, the appearance of the catamenia,
or, at least, of a sanguineous discharge in the male ; and the
secretion of milk by the male breast. Our author quotes the
authority of the ancients for the occurrence of the first-named
phenomenon ; but not a single credible instance, as might be
believed, is adduced. The most curious statement under this
head is the assertion by certain authors that the catamenial
lustration from the penis was inflicted on the Jews as a divine
punishment ! On the other hand, the secretion of milk in the

278 Dr Mehliss on Virilescence

breast of males is a fact sufficiently attested, both by ancient
and modern writers. Here, also, credulity has added her le-
gends. In the sixteenth century, some missionaries in Brazil
asserted that there was a whole Indian nation whose women
had small and withered breasts, and whose children owed their
nourishment entirely to the males ! It is, however, true, that
one of the best authenticated instances of this fact occurred in
a South American, and is related by Humboldt. Francisco
Lozano, aged thirty-two, a peasant of a small village in Cu-
mana, nourished his child with his own milk. His wife, im-
mediately after her delivery, fell sick ; and Lozano, in the hope
of quieting the child, applied it to his breast. A secretion of
milk took place, which gradually increased until it afforded
sufficient nourishment for the infant. Humboldt and Bonpland
were assured by eye-witnesses, that during five months the
child took no other nourishment whatever. Humboldt saw
both the father and son ; and states that the breasts of the for-
mer closely resembled those of a female. We may add the
following very similar fact, on the authority of one of our most
enterprising travellers. A young Chipewyan lost his wife in
her first pregnancy : he applied the infant to his breast, to still
its cries ; and " the force of the powerful passion by which he
was actuated, produced the same effect in his case as it has
done in some others which are recorded : a flow of milk actual-
ly took place from his breast." " Our informant, Mr Wenzel,
added that he had often seen this Indian in his old age, and
that his left breast even then retained the unusual size it had
acquired in his occupation of nurse."* Some remarkable ex-
amples also are given of male animals who had given suck
either to the young of their own or of other species, or had fur-
nished milk to man. The occurrence of this abnormal secre-
tion was in no case accompanied by a change in the functions
or structure of the parts of generation.

We cannot follow our author in his examination of the some-
what analogous, but really very different, subject of Herma-
pkrodism ; neither can we give his discussion on the causes of
the singular change to Virilescence. We give the conclusion

• Franklin's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 54. — Richardson's Journal.

i

Feminescence^ and Rejuvenescence. 279

to which he arrives in his own words. " Virilescenco," says
Dr Mehliss, " like many other degenerations to which or-
ganic bodies are liable, is a means of compensating a dispro-
portion which exists in the organism between the energy of
the vegetative life of the whole body and that of individual
organs."

Rejuvenescence. — The idea of the assumption by aged per-
sons of the characters of youth was familiar to the ancients,
and probably formed the groundwork of the fable of Medea
and ^son. Pliny and his successors have related instances of
the kind, and modern writers have added to our stock of facts.
No one, however, we believe, before Dr Mehliss, has attempted
to collect the scattered cases to ascertain their credibility, and
thus to make the whole subject a branch of physiology. He
arranges the phenomena of rejuvenescence under five distinct
heads: — 1. The secretion of milk by aged females. 2. The
return of the menstrual discharge. 3. The cutting of teeth in
old age. 4. The growth of hair similar in colour to that of
the young. 5. The sharpening of the intellect, and restoration
of the vivacity of youth to the old.

It would occupy too much space were we to notice, however
briefly, the various facts which are here detailed : and we must
refer our readers to the original work. The subjoined table
shews, at one view, the number and nature of the principal
facts.

Numlier of instances of

Age of the individuals.
Between 40 and 50

Dentition of tlie aged.
Males. Females.
0 4

Lactation by

aged females.

2

Menstruation of
aged females.

1

60 ... €0

1

4

1

0

60 ... 70

3

2

0

7

70 ... 80

3

2

«

0

80 ... 90

6

2

«

0

90 ...10«

1

1

e

1

Above 100

6

1

0

1

Total, . 20 16 3 W

It is stated by Dr Mehliss to be a necessary condition for
the appearance of the phenomena of rejuvenescence, that there
exists complete energy and integrity of vegetative life at the

280 Mr Wilson's Description of an Improvement on

period of decrepitude. It is also shewn that the mode in which
this energy shews itself depends upon local causes. The se-
cretion of milk, the return of the menses, and the growth of
the teeth, may in most cases be attributed to an irritation ap-
plied to the parts poncerned. In some instances, these changes
are accompanied by symptoms of constitutional irritation, and
fatal results have followed in more than one case ; a fact which
connects the physiology of the subject with practical medicine.
Dr Mehliss's book is, on the whole, interesting ; and con-
tains many curious details, and some important physiological
views.

Description of an Improvement in the Common Vice, and Vice-
Chuck^ zvhereb// the action of the Screzv is made perfect. * By
Mr lloBKRT WiLsox, Engineer, Paul's Work, Edinburgh.
Communicated by the Society for the Encouragement of
the Useful Arts in Scotland, f

In the common vice-chuck and hand-vice, the screw is fixed
to one of the arms, and the nut which works on it revolves ;
and as the arms are jointed, it follows that to render the appli-

• Read before the Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts in
Scotland, loth Feb. liiS"] ; and obtained the Society's Silver Medal, value
Five Sovereigns, 6th December 1837.

•f- JReporf of the Committee of the Society of Arts for Scotland on Mr Wilsons Im-
provement on the Common Vice and Vice-Chuck.

The great and acknowledged defect of all vices which turn on centres is,
that the screw cannot act fairly at all distances. This defect is found also in
spring-compasses and callipers.

The very simple and efficient plan adopted by Mr Wilson is to give to the
moveable arm such a form as may cause the nut to bear upon its diameter, to
whatever distance the cheeks of the vice may be opened ; in this way pre-
venting entirely every undue strain upon the screw.

•Your Committee have great pleasure in reporting, that the curve given by
Mr Wilson completely produces the required eifect ; and that there is this
farther advantage in the method, that it can be applied even to vices that
are already constructed, — a piece of steel of the requisite form has only to be
placed between the washer of the nut and its present bearing. ,

the Common Vice and Vice-Chuck. • 281

cation of the nut alike for all distances to which the cheeks may
be opened, the screw must be bent, or some other contrivance
must be had.

When the screw is bent, the separation between the threads
on the convex side is greater than that on the concave side of
the screw, — so that no nut can passably revolve upon such a
screw, and apply properly to the threads at the same time.
The line of the strain is the straight line which joins the two
ends of the bent screw, and thus there is a tendency to straighten
the screw or change its form. In every point of view the bent
screw is bad.

In the bench-vice, again, the screw revolves in the nut. The
nul-box is generally long, so that the screw cannot be formed
in a curve ; hence, to allow for the angular motion, the nut
must be suffered to work loosely on one arm, while the shoulders

There is also this further advantage, that a turn of the screw produces
always the same angular motion in the arms ; a circumstance which is pecu-
liarly recommendatory in jointed compasses and callipers.

Considering the frequent and essential application of vices to the useful
arts, your Committee most earnestly recommend the form proposed by Mr
Wilson to the notice and adoption of the members of the Society. They beg
also to recommend, that a notice of this improvei^nt should have a promi*
nent place in the Society's Transactions, in order to its adoption in the manu-
factories of the South. A very slight deviation from the common forms of
the tables and bench-vices will, without the slightest additional cost, give
them prodigious advantages.

The case where the screw is firmly fixed in one arm of the vice, is com-
pletely solved by Mr Wilson ; but that in which the screw is jointed on the
fixed arm, does not seem so satisfactorily made out. The investigation of the
true curve with that arrangement would be rather intricate ; and it is a ques*
tion if, seeing the perfect action of the fixed screw or screw-box, it be worth
while to joint it.

In the case, again, of spring-callipers and compasses, a peculiar curve is
needed ; the form of which depends on the form and flexure of the spring.
The investigation of this form is beyond the power of the present methods
of analysis, as it necessarily requires the subsidiary investigation into the
form of the spring itself, an investigation which has not as yet been accom-
plished. Still the principle of Mr Wilson's contrivance is applicable to these
cases ; and the forms can be discovered with sufficient nearness for practical
purposes.

Edinburgh, 2\st June 1837.

282 Mr Wilson's Improvement on the Common Vice, S^c,

of the nut and screw cannot bear always in the same way on
either side. Thus the strain, instead of being transferred
along the axis of the screw, is sometimes transferred from the
upper, sometimes from the under edges of the bearings, and,
but rarely, from face to face.

In both the bench and hand-vice, then, the flexibility of the
screw allows the oblique pressure to bend it, and the articles
are held in the vice by this elasticity ; and this is one reason,
that although the cheeks of the vice have met upon a hard ob-
ject, as a piece of iron, the screw can be turned considerably
farther.

But the elastic or insecure holding is not the only fault of
the common vice, — the parts obliquely strained wear out very
soon !

To remedy these evils in the chuck and hand-
vice, I fix a straight screw on one of the arms
as firmly as possible, and work it by. means of a
nut accurately fitted ; or in the table or bench-
vice, I fix the box, instead of the screw, to the
stationary arm, and work it by means of a
straight screw, — or allow the nut to be loose, as at present, which
gives it the same advantages as the screw.

The next thing is to cause the nut, or shoulder of the screw,
to work square upon its bearings, so as to transmit the pres-
sure directly along the axis of the screw. This I accomplish
by making an elongated hole in the moveable arm for the
screw to pass through, and by forming the sides of that hole to
a particular curve. The nature of the curve is this : — in any
position of the vice, if the plane where the axis of the screw
cut the curve be noticed, a plane touching the curved surface
must be perpendicular to the axis of the screw ; by this means,
as will be seen on inspecting the instrument, the screw and
nut always act directly, giving a full, steady, and dead pres-
sure to the article grasped, — while all the parts are saved from
undue wearing. The peculiar form of the curve gives it other
advantages, especially it increases the strength.
Edinbubgh, 19/^ January 1837.

( 283 )

On the Lunar Mountains Tycho, Pictet, Snussnre ; and on the
Geology of the Moon. By William Beer and J. H.
Madler of Berlin.*

1. Topography of the Surface of the Moon. — The lunar to-
pography of Messrs Beer and Madler occupies 213 quarto
pages, and is divided into four sections, corresponding to the
four sheets of their map, or to the four quadrants of the circu-
lar surface of the moon which is visible from the earth. The
authors give successively, in each section, detailed descriptions
of the seas, and of the different regions which correspond to
them, also of the mountains, cavities, and all the other ap-
pearances which they present. Hence, it will readily be under-
stood, that it is quite impossible to present any thing like an
analysis, properly so called. We shall, therefore, confine our-
selves, in presenting an idea of the method pursued by our
authors, to the selection of one of their descriptions, viz. to that
of the large spot Tycho, and of its environs, which will be
found at the commencement of their third section, which re-
lates to the south-east quadrant of the moon. And even in
this, we must omit certain less important details, and some
which have already l^een alluded to.

Tyckoy so named by Riccioli, and which HeveKus had designed lions
Sinai and DeseHum Zi7t, is an annular mountain, which is \asible to the
naked eye during full moon ; whilst,, at the epoch of its changes, it cannot
certainly be distinguished except by means of a good glass, and with a
thorough knowledge of its precise position. It is situated, according to our
nine measurements, in 42° 52' 19" of the moon's southern latitude, and in
11° 62' 25" eastern longitude ; it is 11| German f miles in diameter (about
20 leagues of 25 to a degree) ; it is of a round form, and is completely
surrounded by a naiTow rampart of a uniform height, very like a white
Willi. Our measurements give to its eastern edge an elevation of 2676
toises above the interior surface, and a height of 1961 toises above the

• We again avail ourselves of the able abstract of the labours of Beer and
Madler, prepared by M. Gautier of Geneva, for the Bibliotheque UniverseUe —
Edit.

+ We must again remind our readers, that the miles in this article are German
miles, each being equal to about 4.6 English. The measurements of heights
are given in tcises, a toise being equal to 6.39 English feet, or, for general pur-
poses, a fathom.

S84» Lunar Mountains Tycho^ Pictet, and Saussio-e.

terraces lying in front of it ; they also supply an elevation of 780 toises for
the central mountain, and 2509 toises for the eastern wall. The central
mountain, then, should be nearly of the same level with the terraces. Thesfc
terraces surround, in a series of from three to five ranges, the internal foot
of the zone, always leaving a considerable portion of the plain free ; and in
which, besides the central mountain, some hills may also be observed. As,
however, it is only two days after the rising of the sun, that the plain is
so free from shadow that this can be distinguished from the base of the
ceatral mountain, and as at this epoch the lower hills have long become^
wholly invisible, it is not certain that the interior is quiite so plane as is
represented.*

All around Tycho are to be seen hundreds of peaks, and ridges of moun-
tains and craters, so that it is impossible to find the smallest level space,
and it requires a long series of the most careful observations to determint*
successively all the details which are required in designing the map. lu
the midst of this kind of chaos, which is so irregular in appearance, we
may observe that the eastern and south-eastern craters, and the long rango
of mountains at the west, whose direction is parallel to that of the margin,
form the principal traits of the picture. The mountain chains on the north
ai-e grouped together, without being parallel to the margin of Tycho ; and
it is quite impossible to disentangle the greater number of those to the
south. At a distance of from four to six miles, the large craters and the
annular mountains begin to reappear ; only a small proportion of them are
quite circular, although all of them approximate to this figure. Very ele-
vated zones surround and traverse them, so as to interfere with every thing
like regularity.

At no great distance to the west of Tycho, we see the annular mountain
Pictety which is a very irregular hollow, of between 400 and 500 toises,
surrounded by a zone, which is formed of ridges of mountains, high and
low, and of craters. The most considerable of these is situated at C, in
south latitude 41° 33', and in east longitude 8°. Another annular moun-
tain, situated to the south, and to which Messrs Beer and Miidler have given
the name of Pictet u, is smaller, but less irregular and more visible, and is
very completely seen at full moon. Its zone is considerably elevated to-

* It may be curious to compare with these dimensions of Tycho, those of the
spot Aristarchus (Mons Porphyrites, H.), so remarkable for its lustre. Aristar-
chus is nearly a circular mountain of six German miles (ten leagues) diameter,
which has a central mountain in its most brilliant point. Its western edge is
elevated 117(» toises above the cavity, and 414 toises above its external base.
The eastern part of its zone connects Aristarchus with Herodotus, likewise an
annular mountain, and upwards of eight leagues in diameter ; it is steeper, but
»ot so deep, and has no central mountain. There is in the part of its zone near
Aristarchus two summits, a and /3, elevated about 686 toises above the cavity ;
this last is very obscure, although it is about 300 toises higher than that of Aris-
tarchus, which has a brightness of 10" over its whole extent. The margins of
Aristarchus have a brightness of from 9° to 6° ; the peak a of Herodotus has 7%
»nd /» scarcely 3\ These two mountains are situated to the north-east of the
moon's centre, in the most sombre portion of the oceanus proeellarum, and have
scarcely any connection with other mountains or bright regions.

Lunar Mountains Tycho, Pictet, and Saussure, 285

wards the nortli-wcst ; at some points it is interrupted, but, so far as can
be judged, it is without craters. At full moon, five peaks can be discovered
in the zone of Pictet, like brilliant points, which are scarcely detached from
the great luminous band which runs in that directioq.

Although it is difficult to take measurements in those situations where
the limit of the light is^quite undetermined, yet we have made some at-
tempts of this kind, which we supply.

Tycho A, western margin, has a height above the bottom of the cavity
of . . . . . 835 T. .

Tycho D, western margin, . . .817

Street^ south-western margin, . . . 698

Pictet a, western margin, . . , 889

From these measurements, it appears that the most marked differences in
elevation in the immediate neighbourhood of Tycho reach to about one*
third of those which exist between its principal zone and the bottom of it!5
own cavity.*

Smismre is a great annular mountain, which had not previously been
named, and which is situated somewhat to the west of Pictet : its form upon
the whole is regular ; it is six German miles in diameter, and is visible at
full moon, because it is somewhat darker than the surrounding region.
The luminous bands which extend from Tycho to its eastern border are
there inteiTupted, and then continue in the same direction as far as its
western margin, which is the only example of this kind of appearance found
in an annular mountain of such extent. Its interior, whose brightness
is at 3", is flat, and exhibits only one feeble crater, placed excentrically.
Its zone is highest at the points j8 and a : a terrace may be seen here, which
appears to cease towards the western margin. The most luminous of the
craters wliicli interrupt the zone is marked by the letter B, and is situated
in 42° 25' south latitude, and 3° 36' west longitude ; four small summits
crown the steep zone. The luminofre bands which are situated near the
edges of Saussure have the same degree of brightness, with somewhat
clearer places towards me south. On the exterior flank, towards jS, a small
furrow or cleft (Rille) commences, running towards the north, which was
discovered on the 18th of March 1834. Two other somewhat analogous
valleys, which run south near 7, had previously been remarked on the 29tli
of March 1833. On the Avest from the point <•, proceeding towards the
north, there exists a great mountainous ramification, parallel to the western
iiiargin, and more elevated, which connects itself with the mountains of
Orontius. The annular mountain we have designated Saussure A, situated
to the west, in 43° 20' latitude, and 1° 14' longitude, is very regular, and in
a somewhat flat district. Beyond it, more to the south, is found the double

* It will here be remembered, that for most of the smaller heights, and for a
considerable number of the mountains of the moon, Messrs Baer and Madler
have not taken actual measurements, or actually calculated the elevations; but
have limited themselves to a simple estimate of these heights, the result of a
visual appreciation of the length of the shadows, compared with those of the
neighbouring mountains, whose heights had been accurately ascertained with
all becoming care. /

VOL. XXV. XO. L. — OCTOBER 1838. U

286 Lunar Mountains Tyclio^ Pictet, and Saussure.

crater C, whose cavities are connected among themselves : still smaller ones
are in the neighbourhood, and somewhat further off is the crater ^, of a re-
gular and very distinct form. We may say that this region swarms with
craters, some of the diameters of which do not appear to exceed half a se-
cond, and which are notwithstanding upon the whole more visible than the
intervening mountains : these are seldom 300 feet high, and are chiefly dis-
tinguished by the total absence of more elevated mountains.*

It cannot be doubted that Tycho is the point of departure of a system of
rays, which occupies in its whole extent at least a quarter of the visible
surface of the moon. • » • The bands are so approximated towards
the west, that they unite in an almost continued surface over the south-west
quadrant, so that it is difficult to perceive any difference ; and the dazzling
brightness in no slight degree increases the difficulty of making investiga-
tions respecting this region. They are lost towards the margin. These
bands become visible as soon as the sun rises from 20° to 25° above the
horizon, whether Tycho itself is illuminated or not, and they disappear
when the sun redescends from them to the same extent. A portion of the
more luminous, especially those which are situated upon a dark basis, are
still for a long time visible, but none at the rising and setting of the sun.
At the same time some may be distinguished in the obscure part of the
moon by the simple effect of the illumination from the earth.

It is only during the full moon that we can see the radiated system com-
pletely, and it is best distinguished when the latitude ofthe moon is northwards.
So soon as the shadows of the mountains begin to appear in any region, the
bands disappear, and conversely. To such an extent is this true, that so
Boon as the system of bands appear, you can no longer detect the slightest
traces of the larger and highest annular mountains, or even mountain-
chains, even when you are intimately familiar with their exact position.
Still, however, very feeble traces of some of them may be discovered, such
as Saussure, Piccolomini, and Lindenau, as well as Mount Altai, and some
other neighbouring objects; but for this first-rate instruments, and a very
favourable state of the atmosphere are required. There are also some
small craters (small in number, and generally not remarkable), which are

• Though the mountain which is called Deluc is somewhat more distant from
Tycho, to the south of Saussure, it may be interesting to supply a short descrip-
tion. It is an annular mountain, of a circular form, with a diameter oi six Ger-
man miles, enclosing a small central mountain. Its western margin, which is
the most elevated, does not exhibit a distinct peak, as does the eastern, which
is broader withal. Two still smaller annular mountains, which are close together,
d and H (the latter situated in 54° 8' south latitude, and 2° 32' east longitude),
are symmetrically situated to the south and north, and the latter has a central
mountain. The point A:, situated in the neighbourhood, is the only surface which
appears obscure at the time of full moon, and consequently remains visible even
then, when its locality is well known ; the point m also remains visible like a
faint ring of light : every thing else disappears. This region is to be found near
the first meridian of the moon, passing from the centre to the poles. The cra-
ter Deluc E is situated towards the south-east limit of this region, in 66°20' lati-
tude, and 5° 31' longitude. The whole of this region exhibits few traces of past
ijommotions, and nevertheless presents a very considerable luminous brightness.

Lunar Mountains Tyclw, Pictet^ and Saussure, 287

visible as luminous points in the interior of the bands ; the steepness of the
slope, more or less, has no influence on this matter ; and there is in fact no
criterion of the visibility of these objects to bo discovered when the moon is
atthefuU.*

About this period, the central mountain of Tycho is a clearly determined
luminous point, of 8° of brightness. The whole circumference exhibits a
low flat ; a part of the lower terraces which surround it in two places near
the eastern zone are at 5" of brightness, and the higher terraces are at 3*
only.t The grand 'principal zone, about half a Gennan mile broad, is at
8% and this is the only one of this extent, to a distance of at least fifty miles,
which shews itself by its brightness ; and it is this circumstance which con-
fers on Tycho its very striking appearance during the full moon.

A grey zone of 3* of brightness towards the outer base of the inclosure,
and somewhat more luminous beyond, predominates all round this zone, to
a distance of about five German miles, and it is this space like a dark
crown, which Hevelius on his map denominated Descrtum Zin. To its
W.SW., at the distance of two miles from its margin, a small luminous
point is perceptible, which is probably the point B ; all the rest is a smooth
surface.

It is from this grey zone, as it becomes more luminous, that there suc-
cessively rise the bands which have been mentioned above, some proceed-
ing from it directly, as that which runs towards BuUiald, whilst the greater
number at first are confounded in a luminous areola, which, in some places*
extends to a breadth of twenty German miles. As soon as the bands ap-
pear distinctly separated, we perceive between them, and even upon them,
the luminous points in small numbers, of which we have already spoken.
The majority of the craters have a brightness of from 6° to 7°, and the
bands themselves from 5" to 7*.

In the north, to an extent of sixty German miles, only four distinct spots
are to be found, and this not without much difficulty. Near one of them
a whitish luminous spot may be found, at 9° brightness, which appears to
proceed from the concourse of numerous bands. It is situated, so far as we
have been able to judge, in quite a flat region, in 33° lat. and 3|° long.
This white spot is nothing less than the whitish cloud which was perceived by
Cassini in the year 1671, which he proclaimed as a great discovery, and in
place of which he saw in 1673 a new large spot. At the present day,
an attentive observer may see a whitish cloud appear four days before

* Dr Madler has given, in Astr. Nachr. No 283, by means of a copperplate
impression, two representations of the region Tycho, on a single sheet, and on
a scale double the size of the general map. In the one of these, the district is
viewed in an oblique light ; in the other as seen at full moon.

•f- This singular circumstance, of the terraces being more obscure than the
cavity, appears to have led some observers to the conclusion, that the interior
of Tycho is convex. But internal surfaces, which are truly convex in annular
mountains, such as Mersenius, Petavius, and Hevelius, manifest their shape in
quite a different way than by a greater degree of brightness ; and it is always im
possible to conclude directly the height of any point of the moon from the inten-
sity of its light.

u 2

S88 Geology, of the Moon.

full moon : he may witness it during tlio full, in all its brightness, and see
some traces of it five days afterwards, without being able to discover spots
of any other kind, for example annular mountains. But if he examine this
same region, when it is near the limit of the light, the state in which Cassini
found it in 1673, he will then very clearly distinguish mountains of this
kind, which will be new to him if he has examined the region only by a
more direct illumination. We can readily perceive to liow many errors of
a similar kind this change of aspect may lead ; and it is owing to analo-
gous optical illusions, proceeding from differences of illumination, or from
variations in our atmosphere, tliat Messrs Baer and Madler attribute,
among other causes, the physical changes which Schroeter has thought he
observed upon the surface of the moon.

There is not a single one of the bands of Tycho which, according to our
observations, shews the least elevation of level which is properly its own.
It is thus that these bands present exactly tlie same intensity of light, whe-
ther in the plain of Stoefler, which is uniform like a mirror, or on the an-
nular mountain of the same name, which is 2000 toises in height.

2. Geology of the Moon. — After having presented, in the foregoing quota-
tions, a specimen, as it were, of the lunar toxjography of Alessi-s Baer and
!RIadler, we may now mention the manner in which they endeavour to ac-
count, in accordance with the known laws of physics, for the appearances
which the surface of our satellite presents. However hypothetical these
ideas may be, yet they possess a true interest as proce?ding from observers
so accurate and judicious, and they are likely to suggest new researches.
They offer them with all possible and most commendable reserve. We take
them from the concluding part of their treatise.

The authors adopt the idea of Count Laplace concerning the formation of
the celestial bodies of our system. They admit that the moon was origin-
ally in a state of heat and fluidity analogous to that in which every thing-
seems to prove that the earth has been. They even suppose that the moon
at first was in a gaseous state, and that it gradually passed into a solid con-
dition, like the other planets and satellites, by a gradual condensation and
cooling. This cooling, they remark, must necessarily have taken place
sooner in the external parts than in the internal, and consequently a crust
must have been formed Avlien the interior was yet in a state of gas. Those
portions of the mass which remained in this last condition in separating
themselves from the molecules which were condensed, not being able to
escape outwardly without opposition, violent ruptures and eruptions {a2tS'
■briiche) were the consequerice.

We cannot assign a value to the time during which these reactions
occurred, nor can we calculate their comparative force, or determine, n
priori, what must have been the result in each celestial body in particular.
The power of contraction in the several masses, the elasticity of the gases,
the relation of the spaces to the different epochs of formation, the tempera-
tures, and, finally, the weight, might and must present differences so great,
that one body might experience only a variety of fractures, another so many
elevations, and a third, over a certain extent, might experience neither the
one nor the other of these effects. At the same time it appears, that in a

Geology of' the Moon. 280

small body the refrigeration of the surface should, in general, be more ra-
pid, so that the internal spaces which remain free should, in proportion to
the agitating forces, be more compressed than in a larger body.

It is perhaps on this account that the earth presents, in comparison of tlie
moon, so few traces of these eruptions. The form of our globe generally is
not characterized by them, but by upheavings and precipitations {JieJmngen
imd niedenchVdge). These last, again, seem to be entirely wanting in tb >
moon. As to upheavings, they appear, at least in gi-eat part, to have given
place in our satellite to complete eruptions, the result of which must liave
been the more energetic, smce the space travelled over on the moon, as the
result of equal eruptive forces, would be 6^ times greater than upon the
earth. These effects have occurred neither at the same time, nor in the
same external circumstances. The annular mountains, which exhibit the
radiated system, would appear to have been the result of the most ancient
reactions. The more recent encountering a harder substance had less
powerful effects, and the dimensions of the crater ought, therefore, sen-
sibly to be less ; the eruption had both a more determinate tract, and
occurred at a lower temperature. Besides, all the eruptions were not com-
pletely centrical ; there were some which acted linearly under the surface,
as the compressed ranges of annular mountains and craters prove, and not
less the furrows {riUen)^ of Avhich a considerable number are found upon the
moon, although, in general, they are perceived only with difficulty.*

It would appear that there have also been some subsidences {einsturzungen)
,:t the surface of the moon, nor could it well be otherwise after such great
( ii.anges. The round cavities without an annular moinitain, such as are
found in the region of Gaiiricus, as well as the great transverse fissures
{querklufte) near to Rheita, and in other parts of the south-west quadrant, as
also perhaps the valley of the Alps, may belong to formations of this kind
at the surface of the moon, in which eruptions may have had only an indi-
rect effect.

The origin of the central mountains is veiy easily explained wlien they
are considered as subsequent fonnations. The surface of tlie moon having
l)een violently dislocated (««/<;« ?ocJter«) at the places where the first great
eruptions occurred, they remained more liable to now ones ; and when the
(^ideavours at eruption were repeated, always somewhat more feebly, the

* According to this hypothesis, Tycho would belong, in the opinion of Messrs Baer
and Madlcr, to one of the earlier formations, and its origin would reach to the
time when the surrounding mountains, great and small, had as yet no existence.
From this opening, the authors add, as from a point of general eruption, would
c>scape from the interior of the moon, the elastic fluids which had been separated
since its formation, and which were probably at a very high temperature. In thus
acting under the surface they would change its internal structure, and by a pro-
cess which v/e cannot now explain, they acquired this faculty of reflecting light ;
wliich operation, if named vitrification or oxidation, we will not gainsay, provided
no ulterior consequences are deduced from the nomenclature. Perhaps the an-
nular mountains and the craters which we still find in the radiated system, were
formed in some places at the same epoch. But in the immediate vicinity of
Tycho the oflrect was not the same, whether that the heat had previously dimi-
nished, or that the immediate neighbourhood of the opening enfeebled the ener-
gy of the action in some other way.

S90 Geology of the Moon.

actual ruptures took place principally upon the point of least resistance,
that is to say in the centre of the annular mountains, and in that spot they
elevated a mountain, or formed a new crater, sometimes uplifting also the
whole interior, in the form of a protuberance or a bladder.

These eruptions, without doubt, present, in their general effects, some
analogy with terrestrial volcanoes ; but this does not authorize us to give
them this designation, and thereby tacitly or expressly to assign them the
same particular constitution. We can form no distinct conception of an
igneous eruption where an atmosphere and water are wanting. The moon
really exhibits herself as a very peaceable companion of the earth, and to
say the least, there is no observation which obliges us to admit the con-
trary. Igneous eruptions properly so called, which can escape the obser-
vation of our glasses, directed to the obscure side of the moon, must be ex-
tremely small, and such as leave no durable traces such as we can discover.
Shooting stars and meteoric stones, which Benzenberg attributes to the moon,
are much more likely to proceed from celestial spaces than from the interior
of our satellite, if they be not ratlier a product of our own atmosphere,
which is at least probable regarding a certain number of shooting stars ; and
new facts which bear on the point, seem expressly to give this indication.*
The different celestial bodies are not mere copies of each other, but are to
be considered as distinct and individual ; and we cannot arbitrarily trans-
port, from the one to the other, by simple analogies, and without positive
experimental proof, any relation which is not a necessary consequence of
the law of attraction, or of their first common origin, and especially with
regard to bodies of different orders, such as the earth and the moon. It
seems much more natural to assign the origin of annular mountains to the
action of simple elastic forces, without any very high temperature ; these
forces being capable, since the formation of the lunar globe, of acting with
great activity, and without its being repeated at a later period in any thing
like the same proportion.

When the existence of inhabitants is admitted, in natural philosophy,
not only in the moon, but also in all other celestial bodies, this supposition
is grounded essentially upon the conviction which a reflecting being must
make, that there will be the greatest possible conformity throughout crea-
tion for the most exalted purpose. It is this conviction that urges us to
admit the existence of sentient beings whenever we conceive it is possible,
since that which is living fulfils a more exalted destiny than that which is
not.

If observations demonstrate that the general conditions of habitubUitj/ are
satisfied, and that many of them are of the same nature as with ourselves
(as the relations of rotation and of density which are common to the earth
and the inferior planets might induce us to believe), the probability that

" We here particularly allude to the periodical return of a great number of
remarkable shooting stars, which takes place on the nights from the 12th to the
14th of November ; this fact indicating that the region of space which the earth
traverses at this epoch, forms a part of a great zone (perhaps annular), in which
these masses are accumulated ; at all events, the position of the moon relative
to the earth, has no concern in the appearance of these meteors. [Note by the
Authors. J

Geology of the Moon. 291

these bodies are inhabited would be decidedly increased. But if, on the
other hand, there is found in other bodies a total absence of points essential
to the existence of the inhabitants of the earth, or an immense difference
in this respect, whether in quantity or quality, we should then be forced to
exclude the possibility of the existence of living beings analogous to our-
selves. The exposition which has been made of the physical circumstances,
both general and particular, which exist in the moon, sufficiently prove that
she must be regarded as in these latter circumstances. Nothing is more
clear than this, that we must admit at least as wide a difference among the
inhabitants of celestial bodies as between the celestial bodies themselves,
and no two of them, as far as our positive information enables us to judge,
are precisely similar to each other. At the same time we admit, that it would
be possible to draw some few isolated consequences from our observations
respecting any inhabitants there might be in the moon. Thus, for ex-
ample, their organs of vision would require to support a much stronger
light, and infinitely greater contrasts than ours. But we aflfii-m, in a
word, that we shall never succeed in forming a complete estimate of the
corporeal constitution of beings living upon tliis celestial body from merely
isolated considerations ; and, in our opinion, such researches can never be
principal objects of any future observations.

Although in this and the preceding number of the Journal
we have been able to supply only a very incomplete idea of the
selenographic labours of Messrs Baer and Madler, we beh'eve
we have said enough to demonstrate their extent and import-
ance, and to enable any one to appreciate the service they have
rendered to astronomy by the publication of their chart, and
by their description of the moon. Previous to their investiga-
tions, we were ignorant of the precise position of nearly all the
notable points of our satellite. A general chart of its visible
portion had never been traced with the required accuracy ; and
no one had ever supplied a topography, at once faithful and de-
tailed, framed only from careful observations, and free from the
illusions and preconceptions of ^stems. We may say that
their work is a fundamental one for the object to which it re-
lates, and that it has considerably increased the extent of our
positive information, by giving it a more precise, and, at the
same time, a more methodical and useful direction than had
previously been thought of, and it must serve as the starting
point for all future researches upon the same subject. Our au-
thors are far, indeed, from thinking that nothing else remains
to be done. In their preface, in speaking of their determina-
tion of the different parts of the moon, they remark, " How-

^92 Geological Imtructions for the

ever rich this part of our work may appear, it will occur to any
one acquainted with the subject, that it should be considered
only as a commencement and basis for future investigation.
We have done what was indispensably necessary for a chart
constructed upon the scale which we have adopted. We hope
that measurements will yet be obtained which will be more ex-
act, more extensive, and more numerous than our own, and that
more precise methods of calculation will be employed, when
several as yet unsettled questions have been determined (such
as that of a real physical libration), and the complete accuracy
of various elements shall have been ascertained. What relates
to the measurement of the heights, is necessarily the part which
is most defective as it regards the exactness of the results ; and
it is here the greatest quantity of work remains to be done.
We may, on this point as well as others, at least offer this assu-
rance, that we have never presented results whose precision and
harmony were the result of the suppression of less concordant
observations. We have principally endeavoured to take for
our model, so far as it was possible, the comparative method
followed by Ritter in his last work descriptive of our globe.
We hope we have succeeded in preparing a comparative Geo-
Selenology, for future enquirers, or a parallel of these two
neighbouring worlds, which, in our opinion, ought to be the
chief object of pursuit in our ulterior labours. It is thus only
that these two sciences, which are even still in their infancy,
although in different degrees, can be elucidated and advanced
either individually, or in their respective bearings."

Geological Instructions^ prepared by M. Elie de Beaumont for
the French Scientific Expedition to the North of Europe,'^

If it were the sole object of a scientific expedition, such as
the one we are now about to send to the north of Europe, to
obtain more information about the countries to be explored,

• The object of this expedition, in which the King of the French takes so
lively an interest, is to collect new observations in Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway, the North Cape, and Spitzbergen, destined to complete those al-
ready made by the French naturalists and philosophers, during the late expe-
dition to Iceland.

French Scientific Expedition. 293

considered in reference to themselves alone, the instructions
required from the Academy might have been, in so far as re-
gards geology, extremely short. We might have said to the
naturalists of the expedition, " Scandinavia has given birth to
a great number of justly celebrated mineralogists and geologists,
who long ago began to describe it ; illustrious travellers have
explored it in all directions, and made public the results of
their observations ; — read these works ; follow the steps of the
masters of science, and strive to complete their work."

But, by using such language, the Academy, we think, would
not properly fulfil its duty, and would even do injustice to the
celebrated men, whose labours have rendered certain parts of
the Scandinavian peninsula classical localities for geology.

The first step in geology undoubtedly consists in giving an
exact description of the form and composition of the surface
of a country ; but the second consists in comparing together
countries more or less distant. This comparison may be partly
made in books, but it can only be completed by seeing the ob-
jects themselves ; and it requires, at all events, the faaking
collections of rocks, so that one may be enabled to compare
them with each other. It might be very beneficial to science
if a Swedish geologist, who was perfectly familiar with the
great diluvial deposit of Sweden, should come and institute a
comparison between it and the particular forms assumed by the
diluvial phenomena in the valley of the Seine around Paris.
It is comparisons of this kind that we should attempt or insti-
tute. The better a country is known by its inhabitants, the
better it is always described by them, and the more likely it is
to offer useful means of comparison.

Few countries have been better prepared for this purpose
than the southern parts of Sweden and Norway ; and it is,
therefore, intended to travel through them for the sake of mak-
ing comparisons.

As for Lapland, and especially Spitzbergen, they still afford
ample materials for a voyage of discovery.

Having had the honour to be entrusted with drawing up the
geological part of the instructions designed for the expedition
which is about to set out for the north of Europe, I have
thought it right not to restrict myself to the information I

294 Geology of Scandinavia.

might obtain in the works published on these countries. Not-
withstanding the obliging assistance afforded to me in my re-
searches by the naturalists of the expedition, and the kindness
of M. Eugene Robert in particular, who communicated to me
the notes which he himself had made from a great variety of
sources, important points might still have escaped us. I there-
fore addressed myself to M. Leopold de Buch who, about
thirty years ago, himself brought the light of science to bear
on these countries which it is proposed to submit to new inves-
tigations ; and in the following instructions I shall always place
in the first rank the indications of this illustrious traveller.

1. Hypersthene Rocks, — Among the most important rocks to
collect, M. de Buch mentions the hypersthene rocks, which give
a particular character to the maritime portion of the great chain
of the Kiolen. The hypersthene sienite is a very large granular
rock, and occurs in inconsiderable chains, which rise to the height
of several thousand feet. It is particularly in the environs of
Bergen that it presents itself in colossal forms, and there also
it is of very easy access. The Samnanger-fiord, six or eight
leagues from Bergen, in an easterly direction, is separated from
that town by a very steep chain of hypersthene rocks, which ex-
tends so far as Ous, due south of Bergen. A similar chain has
been discovered by M. Esmark, near Tons on the Glommen,
in the vicinity of Roraas, that is to say, quite in the interior of
the country.

These hypersthene rocks are again met with on the Alt-Eid,
in the 70th degree of latitude, and, finally, they occur anew
at the North Cape, but not on the promontory itself : it is ne-
cessary to penetrate into the interior of the isle of Mageroe,
where I have seen them, says M. de Buch, especially on the
heights of Honigvoogeid. The whole profile of the beds from
Kielvig to the North Cape is very curious, and is well worthy
of being examined with particular attention.

For some time past an English company has been working
some copper-mines in Refsboten near Alten, about the 70th
degree of latitude ; and I believe also, says M. de Buch, in a
hypersthene rock, which is very fine granular.

The study of these very fine granular hypersthene rocks would
be very interesting. M. Gustave Rose, in describing the veins

Geology of Scandinavia. 295

of very fine granular hypersthene sienite which traverse the me-
talliferous deposit of Schlangenberg in Siberia, has already re-
marked, how difficult it is to recognise them. When their
characters become indistinct they are generally confounded with
trap-rocks. But it is at present alleged, and this very cir-
cumstance is a new example of it, that the trap series contains
rocks of a very varied composition, although it is always equally
indiscernible.

It would be desirable, that those very fine granular hyper-
sthene-rocks should be cleared of the confusion in which they
are at present involved, and this might perhaps be accomplished,
by studying carefully the series of steps through which the hy-
persthene-sienite passes, as it becomes more fine granular. Good
suites of specimens illustrating these transitions would be very
useful.

% Trap-Rocks. — What I have recommended in regard to the
hypersthene rocks, may be recommended, I believe, in a general
way, in regard to all the trap- rocks of Sweden. When Cronstedt
and Wallerius first began to call attention to these rocks, whose
name they derived from the Swedish word treppa^ signifying
a stair, thoy could only characterise them by simple external
appearances. It is certain, as I have just stated, that these
same appearances are exhibited by many rocks of a different
composition. In general, this composition is indiscernible ; but,
by carefully examining the trap-hills, some parts might, per-
haps, be found in which the concretions are larger, and from
which we might procure specimens capable of being submitted
to the test of microscopic analysis, so advantageously employed
in regard to volcanic rocks, by M. Fleurian de Bellevue, and
especially by M. Cordier. Since modern researches have taught
us to consider hornblende, augite, and even felspar, as only
groups of species, the mineralogical analysis of trap-rocks has
become absolutely necessary for the science.

True basalts, perhaps, occur among the trap-rocks of Swe-
den. Different authors have pointed out their localities, as, at
Kinnekulle on the banks of the Wenern lake, and in the hills
in the vicinity of Svebesholm and Hor in Scania.* Are these
true basalts, resembling in all points those of Auvergne ? We

• Carte gc^ognostique des parties moyennes et m^ridionales de la SuMe ;
par M. Hisinger.

S96 Geology of Scandinavia.

should wish to assure ourselves of the fact by comparing toge-
ther good series of the rocks from the two countries.

3. Euphotide and Serpentine RocJcs. — Euphotide rocks have
also been more than once mentioned as occurring in Norway and
Lapland. A part of these rocks were assuredly nothing else
than hypersthene-sienites, in which the hypersthene had been
mistaken for a diallage ; but do true euphotides not occur in
Norway ? It would be of importance to prove it. Serpentines
have been mentioned as occurring in Norway and Sweden.* It
is known, that there is a singular affinity between euphotides and
serpentines ; does an affinity of the same kind exist between the
hypersthene-sienites and certain serpentines, and is the substance
called serpentine the same in both cases ? It would be of im-
portance to prove it.

4. Granite of RapaMvl. — Among the rocks to be examined
in the north, with reference to their composition, there is also
a species of granite called Rapakivi, which occurs in various
parts of Finland, and particularly, according to Acerby, two
miles to the north of Uleaborg. If there is an opportunity, it
would be right to make some carefully- formed collections of
it, by means of which all doubts relative to its composition
might be removed.

5. Rock Formations of Christiania, ^c. — The environs of
Christiania present, as it were, a vast museum of rocks as beau-
tiful as they are various, whose mode of occurrence exhibits a
multitude of curious circumstances, and which are as well fitted
as the basalts and trachytes of Auvergne, to be taken as types
in the description of other countries. It will be extremely use-
ful to possess good collections of them. I shall mention parti-
cularly the melaphyres, the porphyries, and especially the zircon-
-sienite, of which M. de Buch remarked as being superimposed
nn a sedimentary formation. A section towards Sennesio shews,
says M. de Buch, the whole succession of these rocks. The
quarries of Aggers-Kirke are in large veins of melaphyre, and
in particular, of hypersthene-rocks. The innumerable and very
remarkable modifications of the melaphyres, are well seen in
crossing Krogskov from Rarum towards the Holsfiord. Epidote

• Reise nach dem hohen Norden, von Vargas Bedeniar. Frankfurt, 1819.
Hisinger, Mineral ogische Geographie von Schweden. Freyberg, 1819. Vid.
also Goea Norwegica, Christiania, 1838. — Edit.

Geology (rf Scandinavia. 297

occurs there in veins, and, in particular, pretty often in the in-
terior of the crystals of labradorite, which the crystals of epi-
dote have evidently acted on, to allow of their own formation
and enlargement. Some geodes in this melaphyre contain bitu-
men. Krogskov ought to furnish an ample harvest.

The escarpements of Hohnestrand shew a passage from me-
laphyre to basalt. Holmestrand ought to detain the person in-
trusted with making the collections for several days.

The zircon-sienite occurs in its most characteristic forms in
the vicinity of Laurvig, and also in the direction of Stavem.
This beautiful rock here extends over entire square leagues ;
and it is therefore unnecessary to point out more particularly
proper places for collecting specimens of it.

It again appears at Egersund, to the south of Bergen, where
its extent has not been examined, although this would be well
worth the trouble. Farther on towards the north it is not found.

I shall not confine myself to merely recommending the ex-
pedition to search for all the varieties of rocks which I have
mentioned, and to make complete collections of them. The re-
markable circumstances of the mode of occurrence of these
rocks, the manner in which they often intersect the adjacent
rocks, or disturb or cover them ; the modifications of texture,
and sometimes even of composition, which the latter exhibit
near the point of contact, ought to be studied in detail and
illustrated by good sets of specimens ; they ought also to be
figured.

Our two members, MM. Alexandre and Adolphe Brong-
niart, during thisir travels in Norway and Sweden in 1824,
observed, especially in the environs of Christiania, numerous
masses of eruptive rocks, such as, for instance, melaphyres in-
jected among pre-existing rocks. M. Adolphe Brongniart has
made drawings of the positions and the mutual penetrations of
these rocks, which are both picturesque and geological, and
which I would recommend to the imitation of the naturalists
and artists of the expedition.

It is known how important, in a geological point of view,
those veins have become which were discovered by Hutton in
Glen Tilt, in Scotland, piercing through the superimposed
limestone. Norway abounds in phenomena of penetration no

^98 Geology of Scandinavia,

less curious. MM. Naumann and Keilhau have pointed out a
great number of them, and figured several,* but always in
drawings on a small scale, which undoubtedly give an idea of
the light which science may derive from these localities, but
which are not always sufficient to allow of their being compared
in a satisfactory manner with the appearances of the same
kind which exist in other countries ; as, for instance, in the
Alps and the Pyrenees.

Drawings on a sufficiently large scale, in which these classical
localities should be faithfully represented, including partly at
least, their picturesque beauties, and in which the entangle-
ments of the rocks should be represented, as M. Adolphe
Brongniart has done it, by a suitable use of colours, would form
most interesting illustrations for the geologist.

It is now proved that the melaphyres, the porphyries, the
sienites, and even the granites, as well as a number of other
analogous rocks, have crystallized by cooling. These rocks,
consequently, are products of the mysterious laboratories which
our globe has possessed at all times. In this point of view they
resemble the volcanic products of the present epoch. But this
apparent similarity of origin does not go so far as to establish
their identity, for there are numerous and important diffi2rences.
The time is arrived for science to fix these differences, and it
will be chiefly by an attentive, detailed, and even minute exa-
mination of the phenomena of penetration, such as we have
just been treating of, that we shall be able to discover the in-
terpretation and the extent of these differences.

The beds of gneiss present throughout their whole extent
very remarkable contortions and wavings, which are extremely
striking as they are seen exposed to view for a great distance,
and quite bare, without being concealed by vegetation or fo-
rests. " A good artist," writes M. de Buch to me, " would fill
a very large portfolio with these phenomena," and it is to be
desired that this should be accomplished.f

• Naumann. Bejtrage zur Kentniss Norwegen's. Lieipzig, 1824.
Keilhau. Darstellung der Uebergang's formation in Norwegen. Leipzig,
1826. Goea Norwegica, Christiania, 1838.

t The granular white statuary marble is generally contorted like the gneiss.
It is seen at Salthellen, near Sulboefiord, to the south of Bergen, in the six-

Geology of Scandinavia, 299

The phenomena of the stratification, the wavings of the beds,
the dislocations, the relation of their position to that of the
masses of eruptive rocks, may be studied more on a large scale,
and this study may raise new questions.

6. Two great series of Dislocations in Scandinavia. — If we
cast our eyes over sufficiently detailed maps of Norway and
Sweden, we see pretty evidently that the principal features of
the eastern slope tend to two different directions whose com-
bination determines all the forms of the country.

The first of these two directions, which is particularly per-
ceptible in the disposition of the isles of Loffoden, in that of
the arm of the sea, and of the lakes in the vicinity of Dron-
theim, and in that of the range called the Dovre Field, between
Drontheim and Christiania, runs N. E., and E. NE., cutting
the meridian of Christiania at an angle of a little above 60°.
It is at the same time cut at a very marked angle by the lar-
gest of the small chains of the Scandinavian Alps. The most
considerable of these chains, known by the name of Kiolen,
commencing at the north-eastern extremity of the Dovre Field,
separates Sweden from northern Norway ; and after dividing
at its north north-eastern extremity, among the different gulfs
of Finmack, it terminates in the Frozen Ocean at Sverholt, be-
tween Laxefiord and Porsangerfiord, and at Nord-Kyn, between
this last bay and Tannafiord.

The existence of these two principal directions has led me
to conjecture that there must have been two principal series of
dislocations in Scandinavia ; the first of which would seem to
belong to the great system of dislocations which has affected

tieth degree of latitude ; on the isle of Wyck, near the great isle of Sartaroe ;
and at Hope Holm, one league's distance from Bergen, near Tiosanger.

A search for beds of dolomite in the mica-slate is also to be recommended.
*' There will be seen and found in them,'' say s^M. de Buch, •• many minerals
still unknown in these localities : green tourmalines, rubies, kyanites and
apatites. These dolomites are found at Casness, in the sixty-ninth degree of
latitude, where they are of great extent. They afterwards make their ap-
pearance on the isle of Seugen, in the environs of Kloiven, where the tremo-
lite is very beautiful ; at Lenwig, to the south of Tromstie, in the 69Jth de-
gree of latitude; at Benoejard, still nearer Tromsoe, with abundance of
Staurotide ; and lastly, on the isle of Tromsoe itself. These beds form a
great part of those mountains, and would very probably be found high up the
Fiords.

SOO Geology of Scandinavia.

the oldest stratified deposits throughout the whole of Europe ;
whilst the second, judging from the direction of the Kiolen
chain, appears to me to belong to the epoch of the soulevement
of the western 2\lps. These conjectures may give rise to the
inquiry as to whether there was, in the north, a first souleve-
ment of very old granite, which migiit have given rise to the
first system ; a final soulevement of hypersthene-rocks, which
might have given rise to the Kiolen ; and whether, during the
very long interval between these, there appeared the zircon-si-
enites, the porphyries and the metaphyres, which seem only to
be connected with orographical changes of a less important de-
scription.

7. Progressive Rise of the Land above the Level irf the Sea.
— In proposing these different questions I cannot expect that
they should all be speedily answered, on account of the small
number of sedimentary formations which are visible in Scandi-
navia ; but if we cannot supply all the deficiencies of science
in relation to those ancient phenomena, we shall perhaps be
compensated by the observations which the expedition will
have it in their power to make on the phenomena which, in the
present times and under our own eyes, prove the mobility of
the crust of the globe. Tiiose phenomena, whose traces are
observed on the coast, are particularly to be recommended to
the attention of an expedition which will have a Government
vessel at its disposal. I allude to the change of the level ob-
servable on many parts of the coast of Sweden.

Every one knows that certain points on the coasts of that
country are progressively rising above the level of the sea
which washes them. I shall not mention the ancient observa-
tions of Celsius and Linnaeus, the marks cut on the rocks of
the Baltic and the Cattegat, the conclusions deduced by Play-
fair, the observations of M. de Buch, the incredulity with
which they were at first received, and the reiterated observa-
tions which set all doubt at rest. M. Arago, in the Annuaire
du Bureau des Longitudes, and Mr Lyell in the Philosophical
Transactions, have given to this class of facts all the celebrity
which they so justly merit.

But what is not so generally known, and what renders the

Geology of' Scandinavia. 301

phenomena still more curious, is, that not only does it not take
place over the whole coast at the same yearly rate, but that
certain points, in place of a progressive elevation, experience
a gradual lowering of level, whilst others remain stationary.

The points which exhibit these three different states are
all equally worthy the attention of observers, as the three
classes of observations would verify each other. When we see
that, on the same coast, certain points are sinking, whilst some
remain stationary, and others are gradually rising, we cannot
dread any error in the observations ; and these observations^
whilst they prove that the crust of the earth is mobile — prove
also that it is sufficiently flexible to allow of points near each
other being moved in contrary ways.

In order to explain the matter more clearly I shall mention
some local observations.

Baron Hermelin, to whom we are indebted for a mineralogical
description and a map of Lapland, wrote in 1804,* that between
Seivits and Mikkala, and between the latter and the town of
Torneo, are two bays, whose depth diminishes from year to
year, and which, since some stone bridges were built across
them a few years ago, are almost completely dry. The French
academicians reached Torneo by sea, in 1736, and, in more
ancient times, large vessels could go so far as the town ; but in
the present they are obliged to remain at the southern extre-
mity of Bjorkor, on account of the small depth of water.

8. Gradual sinking of the land in Scania. — It thus appears
that the phenomenon of progressive elevation, so well known on
the coasts of Sweden, from Calmar to Gefle, extends as far as
Torneo. But it does not take place in Scania : the coast of Sca-
nia, on the contrary, is gradually sinking.

In 1749, Linna?us had measured the distance between the
sea and a rock near Trelleborg ; Professor Nilsson has found,
that this distance is at present 100 feet less than it was in the
time of Linnaeus. In a great number of the ports of Scania,
there are streets which are below the level of the high-water
mark of the Baltic ; some are even under the level of the low-
est tides. At Malmae, the sea sometimes covers one of the

* Hermelin's Minerographie von Lappland und Westbothnieu, p. 136*
VOL. XXV. NO. L. — OCTOBER 1838. X

302 Geology of Scandinavia.

streets of the town, and they have discovered, by means of ex-
cavations, the surface of an ancient street, eight feet lower. At
Trelleborg and at Skancer, there are streets several inches below
high water mark ; whilst at Ystad there is a street exactly on a
level with the sea. It is clear that these could not have been
built in their present position in reference to the sea.

9. Stationary condition of parts of the coast of Norway. —
In another part the coasts of Norway appear to be stationary ;
at least M. Eugene Robert, who travelled through Scandina-
via, mentions that the sides of the Christianiafiord, would ap-
pear to have remained stationary for the last two hundred years,
to judge from a pavement of the ancient town of Fredericks-
vaern (burned down since that period), which is still on a level
with the sea at the harbour.

Mr Everest, in his Travels in Norway, informs us, that the
small isle of Munkholm, which is an isolated rock in the har-
bour of Drontheim, presents a conclusive proof that the land
in that quarter has remained stationary during the last three
centuries. The superficial extent of this isle does not exceed
that of a small village, and an official survey has proved that
its highest point is 23 feet above the mean high-water mark.
A monastery was founded on it by Canute the Great, in the
year 1028 ; and thirty-three years before that time, it was used
as a place of execution. According to the mean rate of eleva-
tion in Sweden (about forty English inches each century), we
should be forced to suppose that this isle was 3 feet 8 inches be-
low the mean high- water mark, when it was fixed upon as a site
for a monastery.

It would be extremely interesting to trace, at some future
period, on the map of Scandinavia, the respective limits of the
ascending, the descending, and the stationary zones. Nothing-
should be neglected which can lead to a result so important for
terrestrial physics and for geology.

10. Beds of recent shells above the present level of the sea. —
Certain geological facts also shew, that the relative level of
the land and sea has varied in several parts of the north of Eu-
rope at a recent geological epoch. I allude to deposits of
shells, often argillaceous, which are observed in certain parts
pf Sweden and Norway, at different heights above the sea;

I

Geology of Scandinavia. 305

deposits which may be compared, in their nature, with the
Fahluns of Touraine, and the Suffolk Crag^ but which are
probably more modern.

Every one is acquainted with the curious observations made
in 1807 by M. de Buch, and verified since that time by M.
Brongniart and Mr Lyell, on the deposit of marine shells of
species now living, situated at Uddevalla in Sweden, near the
frontiers of Norway, 70 metres (about 230 feet) above the sea.*

Deposits of the same kind have been observed in the envi-
rons of Stockholm, as also at Orust, and on the banks of the
lake Rogvarpen.

The environs of Christiania also exhibit examples of this kind.
Professor Keilhau has observed them there, even 600 feet above
the sea. M. Eugene Robert, in his journey through Norway
and Sweden last year, has likewise stated different facts of the
same kind. He remarked, for instance, between Drammen and
Christiania, on the side of the road at Raunsborg, a black fetid
limestone, with Terebratulae, full of shells of the Saxicava
riigosa^ which have perforated it at an epoch when the sea
reached this point, now elevated 500 feet above its level.

Facts of this kind are valuable, because they are clear and
undeniable. We may expect to find examples of them through-
out the whole extent of the coasts of Norway.

Marine shells of species now living, have been collected in
places far up the country, near Drontheim. According to M.
de Buch and M. Strom, deposits of this nature exist at an ele-
vation of more than 400 feet above the sea in the northern part
of Norway. According to M. de Buch, beds of shells are ob-
servable on the isle of Luroe, even within the Polar Circle, and
at Tromsoe, about the sixty-ninth degree of latitude.

They also make their appearance again at Spitzbergen. Ac-
cording to Professor Keilhau, there is found in the Stans-
Foreland (one of the large islands which, taken together, form
Spitzbergen), at the distance of nine and a half miles from the
sea, and 100 feet above its level, a bed of alluvial clay con-
taining bivalves, and analogous to those on the coasts of Norway.

• Linna5us, in his Travels through West Gothland, gives an interesting
account of the Uddevalla formation, and a plate, with figures of several of
the more important fossil shells.— jEWtt.

x2

304 Geology of Scandinavia.

On the Thousand Islands which border the south coast of
Spitzbergen, we find accumulations of the bones of whales.

According to Pennant, the shore of a low island situated to
the east of Spitzbergen, almost opposite to the entrance of the
Waygat, is formed of an ancient concretion of sand, of bones
of whales, and of" trunks of trees or of floated wood.

However, these deposits of shells, which are so extensively
spread over the coasts of the north of Europe, do not invariably
occur there.

According to the data furnished by Professor Nilsson to Mr
Lyell, and stated by the latter in his address to the Geological
Society of London in February 1837, no beaches of shells ana-
logous to those of which we have been speaking are found in
Scania. It is also known that this phenomenon is almost en-
tirely awanting in the middle part of Europe, or is only obser-
vable at a very small height.

The geological facts which I have just mentioned have often
been connected with the present phenomenon of the gradual
elevation of certain parts of Sweden ; but there is nothing to
prove that the raising of beds of shells to a high elevation is the
result of a slow and gradual process. Their general appear-
ance would seem, perhaps, more in harmony with the idea of a
sudden rising. This point, however, will be an interesting sub-
ject of research for the expedition.

But, what already appears certain is, that the spheres of ac-
tivity of the two phenomena (the present and the ancient change
of level) are very different from each other. M. de Buch, who
has always regarded the two phenomena as very different, has
shewn, in a decisive manner, that the phenomenon of the eleva-
tion of Sweden is unconnected with those parts of Norway
which are covered by the beds of shells of which we are speak-
ing. We see, he writes to me, at Luvoe, runic stones, placed
on beds at so slight an elevation above the sea, that there would
have been no foundation on which to place these stones, which
are traceable to a remote antiquity, if the rate for Sweden, of four
feet of elevation in each century, were applicable to Norway.

I need scarcely add, that all the facts of this kind, and all
the remarks relative to this question which the expedition could
collect, would be valuable acquisitions for science.

Geology of Scandinavia, 805

Besides, it would be of consequence to possess good collec-
tions of those recent fossil shells which are spread over so many
parts of the surface of Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Spitz-
bergen, and also collections of the shells which are now found
living in the neighbouring seas, in order to be able to appre-
ciate exactly the degree of resemblance which they have to each
other, and the greater or less changes which may have taken
place in the seas since they became fossil.

A certain creek in Spitzbergen called Shell-Bay^ might per-
haps furnish, in the way of fossil or living shells, some useful
objects for this comparison.

It would also be interesting to find in these deposits bones of
quadrupeds or of cetaceous animals, which have not yet been
noticed, except at Spitzbergen ; a deficiency the more remark-
able, as the seas of the "northern inhabited countries swarm with
so great a number of whales, seals, white bears, and other large
animals, and as Sweden, Norway, and Lapland, contain a great
number of rein-deer, wolves, bears, wolverines, and other quad-
rupeds, whose bones are certainly buried, in the present times,
in the shore deposits.

11. Beds of Fossil Infusoria. — Amongst the modern depo-
sits which should be recommended to the attention of the natu-
ralists of the expedition, we must not forget that fossil farina,
chiefly composed of siliceous shields of infusoria, often analogous
to living species, which the Laplanders sometimes mix with
their food. It has been found near Umea, at Dcgerford, and in
Finland. It would be interesting to ascertain the mode of oc-
currence of this siliceous deposit of organic origin, and to pos-
sess collections of all its varieties, and of whatever is associated
with it.

12. Transition and secondary Jbrmations. — Most of the se-
dimentary formations which have been observed by geologists
in the centre and south of Europe are awanting in Scandi-
navia. There is reason to think that, during a great part
(^f the tertiary and secondary periods, this country formed
part of a large island or continent ; and the small patches
of secondary formations which we find in it, are therefore
of the greater interest in a geological point of view. I shall
mention particularly, in reference to this, the small patch

S06 Geology of Scandinavia.

of Jurassic formation which M. Hisinger, in his excellent geo-
logical map of southern Sweden, represents in the southern
part of the island of Gottland. This is one of the most norther-
ly points in which this formation has as yet been shewn to oc-
cur. M. Hisinger, in his work entitled LcBthea suecica, men-
tions, as occurring in the island of Gottland, fossils which prove
indisputably that the lias occurs there, as, for instance, the
Gryphoea arctiata the Lima gigantea, and the vertebrae of
Ichthiosauri. It would be interesting to possess a collection of
the fossils of this deposit, in order to compare them with those
entombed at the same period in more southern climates.

I should also recommend to the notice of the naturalists of
the expedition, the deposit of coal which occurs in the island of
Bornholm, and which one is inclined to refer, like that of Brora
in Scotland, to the Jurassic formation. A series of the animal
and vegetable fossils by which this combustible is probably ac-
companied, would be interesting.

But, if the tertiary and secondary periods are only repre-
sented in the Scandinavian peninsula by patches of inconsider-
able extent, we are partly indemnified for this by the great de-
velopment of the more ancient deposits which are called transi-
tion. The deposits of this period cover whole provinces, and
occur most frequently in almost horizontal beds, which are as
easily examined as the Jurassic formations of France and England.
These formations are filled with numerous and well preserved
fossils. It would be interesting to possess originals of the remark-
able figures published by M. Hisinger in his Lcethea snecica ;
and it would, perhaps, still be more interesting to possess the
fossils of the transition-formations of Norway. As yet no special
description of these last has been published, not even of those
which are contained in the slate and limestone of Christiania.*
At Christiania itself, M. de Buch informs me, in going up
the Jggers-Elv, towards Aggers-KirJce, we find many ortho-
ceratites in this limestone. The alum mine of Opslo includes
ellipsoidal globules of limestone, each of which contains a pe-
trifaction ; but the greatest number of these organic bodies is

• In Keilhau's Gaea Norwe^ica there is a valuable memoir on the Trilo-
hites of Norway Edit.

Geology of Scandinavia, 307

found in the parish of Eger, between Christiania and Konigs-
berg. The best known places in this respect are the farms of
Raae, of Soulhong and Saasen, on the western banks of the
lake of Fiskrem, where the orthoceratites and trilobites are
heaped together in thousands. It would be desirable to fill
some boxes with these productions, in order that they might
be carefully examined in Paris.

I have never heard, adds M. de Buch, that organic bodies
have been found in the slates of Hedemarken or of the Hade-
laneb ; it would therefore be so much the more interesting to
discover even slight traces of them in these districts.

These collections will serve to establish the relations which
doubtless exist between the different etages of the transition-
formations of the Scandinavian peninsula, and those of Wales,
which Messrs Murchison and Sedgwick have divided into two
great systems, the Silurian and the Cambrian.

But if the motives which I have mentioned render it desi-
rable to procure good collections of fossils from the southern
parts of the Scandinavian peninsula, a greater interest is at-
tached to those which might be collected in the high latitudes
which the expedition is to explore. Sedimentary formations,
which may be supposed analogous to those of the south of
Sweden, cover a portion of the country between Torneo and the
North Cape ; the valley of the river Torneo, near that town,
and the valley of the Alten near Aaltengaard, traverse these
formations ; but what particularly may make us expect dis-
coveries of the greatest interest, is the circumstance that parts
of Spitzbergen and the neighbouring islands are formed of
stratified rocks of a somewhat analogous appearance.

13. Geology of Spitzhergeii and Bear Island. — I shall state
in a few words the details which have been given to us on the
geological constitution of Spitzbergen, by several well-informed
travellers, such as Pennant, Lord Mulgrave, and especially
Captain Scoresby, and Professor Keilhau of Christiania.

The western part of Spitzbergen has a nucleus, a chain of
bold mountains which rise to a considerable height. Their
jagged forms, to which the name of Spitzbergen is undoubted-
ly due, exhibit a ridge of crystalline rocks, analogous to those
of the Swiss and Scandinavian Alps. Their massive aspect

808 Geology of Spitzbergen,

(sometimes resembles granite ; in other parts they are stratified,
but in highly inclined beds. They begin at the southern point
in 76 J° of latitude. Here they consist of mica- slates and
quartz-rock in vertical beds, running NE., SW, These rocks
form the hilly country surrounding Horn Sound and Bell
Sound, and they continue still more to the north. Horn
Sound owes its name to a peaked mountain composed of the
same rocks. This mountain, the highest of those measured
by Captain Scoresby in 1815, has, according to him, an eleva-
tion of 4395 English feet. *

Stratified deposits of a more recent date also occur in these
parts, and they would appear, as in southern Sweden, to rest
unconformably on the old crystalline rocks. Captain Scoresby
mentions a curious example of this. We see, says he, at
the extremity of King''s Bay, a very regular and magnificent
work of nature. It consists of three rocky pillars of a regular
form known by the name of the Three Crozcns. They rest
on the ridge of other hills. Each one has, as its base, a table or
horizontal bed of rock ; on this we find another of the same
form and height, but of a smaller area. This continues to
a third and fourth bed, and so on, each of the succeeding
strata being smaller than the one on which it rests, until the
whole forms a pyramid of steps, as regular as if it had been
constructed by art.

Captain Scoresby mentions the occurrence of fine marble in
King's Bay, and the name of Limestone Bay, given to one of
the indentations of the coast, leads one to presume that cal-
careous beds are found there. Limestones, sandstones, and
even gypsum have been observed at the base of the mountains,
in the bays or fiords which intersect the coast, and in the
islands which border it. Carboniferous deposits of indifferent
quality have been found there, extending to the 79th degree of
latitude, and of very easy access. In 182J5, 60 tons of coal were
exported from Ice Sound, situated in the 78th degree. The
name of Cannel-coal has been given to this combustible ; and

* In our account of the primitive rocks collected in Spitzbergen by Cap-
tain Parry, the following are enumerated, viz. granite, gneiss, mica-slate,
hornblende-rock, limestone, dolomite marble, quartz-rock, chlorite-slate,
and clay-slate. The transition rocks met with were chiefly clay-slate,
quartz-rock, and limestone.— ^t^if.

Geology of SpUzhergen. 309

this would seem to imply that its aspect resembles that of one
of the combustibles of the coal-formation.*

The different localities which I have just mentioned are si-
tuated on the western coast, which is the most frequently
visited, but which, according to all appearance, is not the rich-
est in sedimentary deposits ; for it is partly formed of the chain
of crystalline rocks, of which I previously spoke, whilst, as we
proceed towards the east, the country becomes lower and more
flat.

The SE. part of Spitzbergen is formed by a large detached
island called Stans-Foreland. According to Professor Keilhauy
the western coast of this island presents, between the 77th and
78th degrees of latitude, a granular trap-rock, covered by al-
ternate beds of fine sandstone, arenaceous slaty marl, compact
siliceous limestone, and trap. Tins formation appears to ex-
tend to the 80th degree of latitude, and it probably prevails
over the greatest part of Eastern Spitzbergen.

According to the observations of the same geologist, Cherrij
or Bear Island^ situated between the coast of Lapland and
Spitzbergen, is entirely composed of secondary sandstone, and
horizontal shelly limestone (Calcaire coquUlkr.) This sand-
stone contains a bed of coal from 2 feet to 4 feet in thickness.

According to Captain Scoresby, lead-ore has been found in
the same island in veins at the surface, as well as specimens of
native silver, and coal of a good quality.

It would be very interesting to have a good collection of the
formations of which this island is composed, and which is per-
haps only an intermediate link connecting the sedimentary for-
mation of the Stans-Foreland with that in the environs of Alten
in Lapland.

How curious it would be to find madrepores in the limestones
of Cherry Island and of Spitzbergen ;t and to discover stems
of Equisitacece and arborescent ferns associated with the beds
of coal of these frozen regions. The discoveries made at

* In the Appendix to Captain Parry's "Attempt to reach the North
Pole," it is stated that the only coal lie met with in Spitzbergen, was 6roicn
hqqX. — Bd'iU

t In the collection of rocks presented to us by Captain Parry from Spitz-
bergen, we foimd madrepores in the limestones, as stated at page 227 of
« The Attempt to reach the North Pole."— JEyit.

310 Scandinavian Diluvium.

Melville and Ingloolick islands during Captain Parry's ex-
pedition, render this discovery probable, without diminishing
the interest which would be attached to it. To prove by nu-
merous facts that madrepore reefs were formerly able to exist
w^ithin from 10° to 15° of the pole, that arborescent ferns could
live and propagate themselves in a region from which the sun is
absent during several months of the year, would be the com-
pletion, and in some measure, as it were, the keystone of one
of the most interesting classes of geological facts — of one of
those which prove in the most satisfactory manner that the sur-
face of our globe has undergone immense changes.*

Certain deposits of wood, which, according to some obser-
vations, are found on the shores of Spitzbergen, would also
possess an interest, although not of so high an order ; perhaps
they might furnish the proof that the Gulf Stream, which so
often casts the productions of Mexico on the shores of the
British isles, of Norway, Iceland, and even of Siberia, casts
them also on those of Spitzbergen. As a motive to researches
in regard to this subject, I may menti(m the name of Wood-
hay., which forms one of the indentations of the northern coast
of Spitzbergen, between the 79th and 80th degrees of north la-
titude, in a country in which a few annual plants a foot high
find difficulty in growing.

Perhaps also the Siirturhrand or lignite of Iceland will be
found in Spitzbergen.

These two phenomena, and especially the first, have nothing
in common with the corals and the tropical plants, whose geo-
logical position would announce that they grew in the country
itself.

14. Scandinavian Diluvium. — Among the geological pheno-
mena presented by the north of Europe, one of the greatest,
the most curious, and the most important for the general ques-

* In the collection of rocks from Jameson's Land, in Greenland, pre-
sented to us by Captain Scoresby, the discoverer of that country, we found,
in a series of specimens from Neill's Cliffs, a pretty ample display of rocks
of the old coal-formation, or that which rests immediately on the mountain
limestone. Neill's CliiFs are situated in the southern extremity of Jame-
son's Land, in about 70" 30' north latitude. Vide " Scoresby's Journal of a
Voyage to the Northern Whale-Fishery.'* — Edit.

Scandinavian Diluvium. 311

lions which geology inquires into, and of which it often long
awaits the true solution, is the phenomenon known by the name
of Scandinavian Diluvium. It is known that, from the shores
of Northumberland to the environs of Moscow, the plains of
England, the Low Countries, Denmark, the North of Ger-
many, Poland, and Russia, are covered by an immense number
of blocksj often of prodigious size, of different rocks whose ana^
logues only occur on the other side of the Baltic Sea, and which
must have been transported from the mountains of the north
to their present position by causes, the exact determination of
which is one of the most beautiful problems of geology.

All the blocks, the gravels, and the sands set in motion by
this problematical cause, did not arrive at the limits which I
have mentioned. Sweden is covered with them, and the traces
which the phenomenon left there, have been for long the ob-
ject of many observations which our fellow member M. Brong-
niart has partly verified, and which he summed up in a memoir
read to the Philomatic Society the 12th April 1828.* Since
that time the observations have continued ; M. Sefstroem has
been of late particularly occupied with them, and the conclu-
sions at which he has arrived are stated in a letter from M.
Berzelius to M. Dumont d'Urvile, inserted in the Compte Rendu
of our meetings for the month of August last.-f"

Traces of this phenomenon also occur in Norway, and M.
Eugene Robert, in the tour which he made last summer, found
traces of it in the neighbourhood of Christiania. Nevertheless
there have been hitherto discovered much fewer traces of this
diluvial phenomenon in Norway and Lapland than in Sweden.
It will be of importance to ascertain if the transported materials
form also there those long stripes in the form of dikes running
N.NE. — S.SW., called in Swedish 6se or sundosar, and if
they were always spread over the surface of Xh^Jahluns or
shelly clay of which I have already spoken.

One of the most curious circumstances connected with the
phenomenon of which we are speaking, is the polished furrows
hollowed out on the surface of the rocks, which Saussure, in

* See Annates des Sciences NatureJles, vol. 14, p. 5.

t C<mptes liendusy vol. 5, p. 341 (Meeting of the 28tli Au^st 1837). Viak
also Edinburgh New Phil Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 69.

312 Scandinavian Diluvium.

speaking of the great debacles, whose traces he discovered in the
Alps, has designated as the ruts caused by the passage of the
transported blocks, and on which the observations recently
made by M. Agassiz in the environs of Neufchatel have anew
contributed to fix attention.*

A French philosopher, well known to the Academy, Count
Charles de Lasteyrie, an old travelling companion of Dolomieu,
whilst travelling himself in Sweden in the beginning of this
century observed similar furrows, and, some time afterwards,
one of the most illustrious geologists of the Scotch school, Sir
James Hall, observed analogous ones on the Corstorphine Hills,
two miles to the west of Edinburgh. Messrs Buckland and
Sedgwick have also discovered them in other parts of Great
Britain. M. Brongniart, during his travels in Sweden, verified,
along with M. Berzelius, the reality of these appearances.

" We found," says he in the memoir already quoted,-!- '* our
celebrated and learned travelling companion, M. Berzelius, dis-
inclined to admit the constant occurrence of these furrows, un-
til, struck by their abundance and distinctness towards the de-
scent of Hogdal, he could not resist the evidence of so remark-
able a phenomenon.

" Since then, this phenomenon has not ceased to be studied ;
the Academy has been able to judge of it by the letter already
quoted from M. Berzelius to M. Dumont d'Urville ; and I shall
now give, in addition, the following extract from a letter which
M. Berzelius did me the honour to address to me, the 8th No-
vember last, through M. Eugene Robert.

" I send along with this letter, says M. Berzelius, a stone,
taken from the surface of the porphyritic mountains of Elfdalen
in Dalecarlia, which bears marks of a geological revolution,
whose traces my countryman M. Sefstroem has studied on our
mountains, and which appears to me to deserve the attention of
geologists. You are, without doubt, aw^re of a letter which I

■ Letter from M. Agassiz to the Academy of Sciences. Comptes Bendus,
vol. 5. p. 506 (Meeting of 2(1 October 1837). Vide also Edin. New Phil.
Journal, vol. xxiv. for Agassiz's Memoir upon Glaciers, Moraines, and Er-
ratic Blocks.

+ Ad. Brongniart's Notice sur les blocs de roches des ten-ains de trans-
port en Subde {Annales d^s Sciences Naturelles, vol. 14, p. 17).

Scandinavian Diluvlinn. 313

wrote to M. Dumont d'Urville at the request of M. Sefstroem,
and which M. Arago did me the honour to read to the Academy
of Sciences, and of which there is an extract in a French jour-
nal. On this account, I shall not speak at present of the ideas
of M. Sefstroem.

*' As to the specimen sent herewith, it was destined to accom-
pany the letter to M. Dumont d'Urville; but this was impos-
sible, as the letter was sent by post. You will remark that it
appears as if polished by emery in a constant rectilineal direc-
tion. All our mountains have the NE. side worn by parallel
furrows, rectilineal in the direction from NE. to SW., wliich
on the granite are often much deeper and broader than on this
harder stone. The SE. side, on the contrary, still exhibits
the angular outline formed at the time of their souUvement.

" M. Sefstroem explains this phenomenon by a current of
water and rolling stones, of which this current has left, at least
with us, enormous remains. The memoir of M. Sefstroem, pre-
sented to the Academy (of Stockholm) two years ago, is to ap-
pear immediately, and will probably be reprinted in Poggen-
dorjf^s Annalen, The engravings, rather difficult to execute,
which accompany it, have been the cause of the delay in its
publication.""

I have the honour to exhibit, to the Academy the fragment
of polished porphyry of Elfdalen, mentioned in I\I. Berzelius^s
letter ; and I add to it, as means of comparison, a fragment of
Jurassic limestone similarly polished, detached from a polished
surface of great extent, which M. Agassiz shewed me last July
at Landeron near the Lake of Neufchatel.

I should think it desirable for the naturalists of the expedi-
tion to bring back as large specimens as possible of these po-
lished rocks of Sweden; for a much more just idea is to be
formed of them from large specimens. As they have a govern-
ment vessel at their disposal, they will possess facilities in this
respect which will perhaps not be afforded again for long.

Many geologists have thought that masses of ice acting as
rafts, or in some other manner, have performed an important
part in the transport of erratic blocks. As the expedition is to
visit Spitzbergen, where there are magnificent glaciers, it will

814 Glaciers of Spitzber gen.

perhaps have an opportunity of making useful observations on
this subject.

15. On the Glaciers of Spitzber gen. — The mountains of
Spitzbergen are covered with eternal snow throughout a great
part of their extent, and vast glaciers descend in great num-
bers to the sea.

The valleys of this country, says Lord Mulgrave, filled up
with eternal ice, are totally inaccessible, and are only distin-
guishable by the intervals which they cause between the tops
of the mountains, or by the glaciers which mark the places
where they terminate in the sea. One of the most remarkable
things which can be seen in Spitzbergen, says Captain Scoresby,
is the icebergs.

The most favourable situation for the formation of icebergs
is, where a ridge runs parallel to the shore ; and it is precisely
a similar situation which, a little to the N. of Charles's Island,
has favoured the accumulation of those enormous masses of ice
known by the name of the Seven Icebergs. Each of these
masses fills up a deep valley, which proceeds from the side next
the sea, and is enclosed by mountains of about 2000 feet in
height, and terminated in the interior of the island by the great
chain whose elevation reaches from 3000 to 3500 feet, and
which follows the direction of^^the shore. These icebergs are
quite of the nature and appearance of the glaciers of Switzer-
land.

Each of these seven icebergs, continues Captain Scoresby, is
about a mile in diameter, and perhaps 200 feet high on the side
next the shore ; but some of those to the south are much larger.
The largest which I have seen is situated a little to the north
of Horn Sound ; it extends for eleven miles along the shore.

The face of the icebergs, says Lord Mulgrave, is of an eme-
rald colour. Cataracts of melted snow rush down from different
parts of the summit, and black pyramidal mountains streaked
with white border the sides, and are piled rock on rock, and
summit on summit, as far in the perspective as the eye can
reach. Sometimes immense fragments of ice are broken off, and
fall into the water with the most terrible noise. A piece of one
of these masses, of a brilliant green, having fallen in this man-

Glaciers ()f' Spitzbergen. 315

ner, and having grounded in twenty-four fathoms of water, had
still an elevation of fifty feel above the water. Glaciers of this
kind are common in all the Arctic Regions, and it is their break-
ing up which gives rise to those mountains of soUd ice wliich
abound in these seas.

As these glaciers, which are analogous to those of the Alps,
must be, like them, covered by fragments of rock which have
fallen from the adjacent mountains, it is to be supposed that
the islands of ice, which are detached from them, must sometimes
float away these blocks of rock on the surface of the ocean, and
give rise to phenomena of transport, whose examination might
furnish interesting terms of comparison for a part of the theory
of the phenomenon of erratic blocks.

But, independently of these ordinary phenomena, we may
also ask if some great volcanic eruption, taking place near the
pole, may not have put in motion the polar ices loaded with
masses of rock, and thus suddenly caused a great dispersion of
erratic blocks ? The physical possibility of phenomenon of this
nature ought to give particular importance to all the rocks of
eruptive origin observable in the frozen zone. Spitzbergen is
not devoid of them. I have already mentioned the trap-rocks
observed by Professor Keilhau in Stans-Foreland. They occur
also in other places.

To the east of Spitzbergen, says Pennant, there is a very low
island, almost opposite to the entrance of the Waygat. It is
remarkable from being merely a part of the basaltic chain ob-
servable in many places in the northern hemisphere. It is, he
adds, a kind of marble of the finest grain, of a deep black, and
shining like polished steel, never occurring in beds in the earth,
but standing upright in pillars with regular angles, com})osed
of a number of parts placed one above the other, with so much
exactness, that one would say they were formed by the hand of
a skilful architect. Here the pillars are from eighteen inches to
thirty inches in diameter, for the most part hexagonal, and fonn-
ing a superb pavement or floor of marble.

According to all appearance, traps or basalts occur there ;
and, from some remarks of Captain Scoresby, we might be
tempted to ask further if MofFen Island and Low Island, situa-

316 Volcanic Island of Jan May en,

ted to the north of Spitzbergen, beyond the 80th degree of
latitude, may not be formed of volcanic materials.*

16. Volcanic Island of Jan May en. — But all these foci of
eruption appear to be extinguished at the present time ; and it
is in the island of Jan Mayen. situated in the 71st degree of
north latitude, that we find the nearest volcano to the pole. May
we be permitted to express the hope that the expedition will
include this remarkable island within the circle of its investi-
gations.

According to Captain Scoresby, the island of Jan Mayen is
very much elongated from SW. to NE. Its length is ten
leagues ; its breadth three leagues. It increases in breadth at
its NE. extremity, which presents the form of a lozenge, ha-
ving each of its sides about three leagues in length. This space
forms ihe base of the remarkable mountain called the Beeren-
berg (Bear Mountain). The SW. part of the island is joined
to the NW. part by a narrow isthmus, and is itself very much
elongated, whilst its breadth varies from one to five miles.

The object which particularly strikes the attention, on ap-
proaching the island, is the pointed peak of the Beerenberg,
rising to an elevation of 6870 feet above the sea. It appears
placed on a base, which is itself hilly, and rises to a mean height
of 1500 feet.

Three places in this island, called Wood Bay^ Great Wood
Bay^ and Little Wood Bay., received their names from the great
quantity of pieces of decayed wood which are found there.
These woods, whether floated thither or fossil, will give rise to
the same questions as in Spitzbergen.

Captain Scoresby, having landed in Jameson's Bay, remarked
indications of volcanic eruptions. We observed, says he, at
every step fragments of lava ; he also mentions trap-rocks and
cellular basalt, with crystals of augite, ashes, scoriae, vesicular
lavas, and burnt clays. A hill, Esk Mount, 1500 feet high,
which he ascended, presented a beautiful circular crater from
500 feet to 600 feet deep.

Another analogous crater was seen to the SW. of the first

* Low Island is composed of transition rocks. Vide " Parry's Attempt
to reach the North Pole," p. 22n.~-Edit.

Volcanic Island of Jan Mayen. 31 7

The appearance of the whole country announced the action
of subterranean fires.

At some distance, near some large fissures which were visible
here and there in the rock, they saw immense accumulations of
lavas which seemed to have been ejected from these fissures.

At the end of August 1818, says Captain Scoresby, we were
surprised to see near Mount Esk considerable jets of smoke
proceeding from the earth at intervals of from three to four mi-
nutes. This smoke was driven upwards with great velocity,
and reached a height of 4000 feet.

This eruption, and the traces of ancient eruptions remarked
by Captain Scoresby, might probably, like those which some-
times happen at a short distance from the sea, near Naples or
Catania, be only lateral eruptions of a principal volcano, which
would be, according to all appearance, the Beerenberg itself.

This might be ascertained by an attentive examination of the
structure of the whole island, and particularly of its northern
part. It is probable that the snows and glaciers, which are not
less remarkable in the island of Jan Mayen than in Spitzber-
gen, do not allow of this mountain being ascended, but perhaps
the naturalists of the expedition will be able to explore those
grouped around its base, and to penetrate into the crevices
which they present. It will, at all events, be possible to sketch,
under various points of view, this remarkable peak, whose struc-
ture perhaps bears some resemblance to that of the Peak of Te-
neriffe. It would also be very interesting to make collections
of the volcanic productions of the island, and of the other rocks
which may occur in it.

The interest which would be attached to these researches
would be so much the greater, as the island of Jan Mayen is
situated in the prolongation of the volcanic zone which crosses
Iceland, and which has already been an object of investigation
to several of the naturalists of the present expedition.

The examination of the island of Jan Mayen would com-
plete, in a brilliant manner, the investigation of the northern
Atlantic Ocean, pursued with so much perseverance by MM.
Gaimard and Robert.

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBEE 1838. * Y

( 318 )

Remarks upon the Physical Constitutmi of the Arabians, who
may he considered as the Prototype or Primitive Race of the
Species, By M. Larrey.*

During our expedition to Egypt, at the close of the last cen-
tury, I directed a large share of my attention to the study of
the physical condition of its inhabitants, and especially to that
of the Arabians. With this object in view, I made extensive
anatomical researches into the physical constitution of many
individuals, of both sexes and of all ages, whom we were in the
habit of attending in particular wards of our military hospitals.
I also prepared skeletons, and a great number of crania, which
were deposited, along with many other objects of natural his-
tory, in my house at Cairo, into which, during my absence at
Alexandria, the plague was introduced. Upon this the Com-
mission of Health of Central Egypt ordered the whole of the
contents of the mansion to be burned, and thus my collection
was destroyed. But notwithstanding this misfortune, I rejoice
that I had noted in my journal, and in my work Relation Chi-
rurgicale deVArmee d^Oricjit, the chief peculiarities of the phy-
sical constitution and of the character of these Arabs.

I shall now add to this sketch the result of the additional
researches which I have made, whether individually or with the
assistance of associates,-]- both in Egypt, and more extensive-
ly over Africa ; and which specially refer to the external forms
of individuals of this nation, to the structure and density of
their osteology, to the conformation of their internal and exter-
nal organization, and to their instinctive faculties.

This interesting people, undoubtedly one of the most ancient
in the world, have their chief residence in that immense coun-
try, which, on the one hand, separates the Red Sea from the
Persian Gulf, and on the other, the Mediterranean from the
Indian Ocean. The mild and salubrious climate of this coun-

* Drawn up for the use of the Scientific Commission which is about to
proceed to the French possessions in Africa. — Comj^t, R^nd. No. 23, Juin 1838.

•f- Dr Guyon, Chief Surgeon or the] Military Hospitals in Africa,1has
especially supplied me with a numhei' of valuable observations.

On the Physical Constitution of the Arabians. 319

try presents some slight modifications, which are to be attribu-
ted to the differences of the surface, or to the nature of the soil,
in each of its principal regions. Its productions are well known ;
and its native inhabitants and animals have a physiognomy and
character which are quite peculiar, and which distinguishes
them generally from all those which appear in the other regions
of the globe.

The physical study of the first class among them, viz. the
Arabians, has been the principal object of my researches, as I
have stated in my Egyptian campaign ; and this variety of our
race may be easily distinguished into three different groups :
1^^, That of the Eastern Arabs, coming from the margin of
the Red Sea, or from Arabia properly so called ; 9,d, Tliat of
the Western Arabs, or the original Africans of Mauritania or
of the coasts of Africa ; and, 3{i, That of the Bedouin Arabs
or Scenites, the wandering hordes of the confines of the de-
serts.

The individuals of the first group, who abound and are perpe-
tuated in the class of Fellahs or labourers, and in those of all the
artisans of the whole of Egypt, and the fertile countries of
Africa, are somewhat above the average stature ; they are ro-
bust and well formed ; their skin is sun-burned and brown,
and is elastic ; their countenance is oval and copper-coloured ;
their forehead is broad and elevated ; the eyebrow is black and
bushy ; the eye is of the same colour, deep-seated, and quick ;
the nose is straight, and of medium size ; the mouth is well
defined, the teeth well set, beautiful, and white like ivory ; the
ear, beautifully formed and of the normal size, is slightly curved
forwards ; the auditory foramen is exactly in the same level with
the external or temporal commissure of the eyelids, as generally
happens in every individual of every race.* Some additional
differences may be observed in the women ; the graceful con-
tour of their limbs is especially admirable, also the regular

* These lineaments have been traced in all their accuracy by the able
pencil of Girodet, in the head of an Arab Chief which I have presented to
the Academy. It is also to be obsei-\'ed, that the external ear varies widely
both as to foi-m and size, not only in different nations, but also among indi-
viduals of the same tribe.

320 M. Larrey on the Pliysical Constitution

proportions of their hands and feet, and the elegance of their
attitudes, steps, &c. &c.

The second group of Arabs does not differ essentially in its
physical forms from the first ; and there is, moreover, a perfect
analogy of character between the individuals of these two groups.

The Bedouins, or shepherd Arabs, are generally divided into
tribes, which are scattered upon the confines of the fertile lands,
at the commencement or upon the margin of the deserts. They
live under tents, which they transport from place to place ac-
cording as they find removal necessary. They have generally
a very strong resemblance to the other Arabians ; whilst it
may also be observed, that their eyes are more sparkling, their
features are usually less distinct, and their stature is somewhat
inferior to that of the civilized Arabs. They are also more
agile ; and, though slight built, they are very strong. Their
imagination is very lively, and their character is haughty and
independent ; they are suspicious, dissembling, and restless, but
at the same time brave and intrepid. They most religiously
observe the rites of hospitality. They are especially remark-
able for their profound address, and for great and remarkable
intelligence. They are regarded as excellent horsemen ; and
they boast, not without reason, of their skill in the use of the
lance and javelin. Besides, they are exceedingly skilful as
tradesmen and artisans.

The manners and customs of all these classes are very nearly
the same. They rear sheep, camels, and horses of the rarest
breed ; they all speak Arabic, and profess the same religion.
They all, moreover, live nearly in the same way. Their nour-
ishment consists principally in dairy produce, eggs, and vege-
tables ; they eat but seldom, and consume but little meat ; and
in general they are very sober and temperate as to drinking ;
and they easily support all kinds of privation. They all shave
the head, and allow the beard to grow.

The women allow their hair to grow, and often colour it, as
likewise the eyebrows with paint of a more or less deep brown
colour, which is in no degree injurious to the hair ; on the
contrary, it rather strengthens it, and imparts to it a beautiful
black colour. They also dye with a liquor of a golden-yellow
colour, procured from the henna-plant, the circumference of the

of the Arabians. 321

feet and hands, reaching to the points of the toes and fingers.
These parts, and also the countenance of the young of the
higher classes, are protected from the disfiguring effects of the
small pox (when not preserved by inoculation) by means of
gold leaf, which is applied to all these parts at the invasion of
the malady. This practice seems to have been common to the
Egyptians, and to the Arabians properly so called.*

Every individual, of either sex, wears a turban more or less
rich, according to his wealth ; this turban is worn in form of a
circle round the head above the ears, which are slightly inclined
towards the temples, so that their head appears almost spheri-
cal in form, and unusually elevated. t It is this particular form
of the ears, and this remarkable elevation of the cranium,
which, without doubt, have led our much respected associate,
M. Dureau de la Malle, to remark that the auditory foramina
Avere placed lower in the heads of Arabians, than in those of
people of other nations ; but we are convinced by the compara-
tive examination of the temporal bones in which these foramina
are placed, that their respective situation is absolutely the same
in the heads of the inhabitants of all other countries.

The peculiar genius of these men led them to supply the
first shepherd-kings to Egypt, as also the first astronomers, the
profoundest philosophers and most able physicians ; their other
exploits and conquests are well known.

The perfectibility which we have thus recognised in all the
internal organs, and in those also which belong to the external
members of these Arabians, really announce an innate intelli-
gence proportionate to that physical perfection, and which
is, without doubt, superior, other things being equal, to that,
for instance, of the people of the northern regions of the globe.

In Egypt, we have remarked that the young Arabians of

'• M. Larrey exhibited to the Academy the foot of a mummy in which
tlie traces of this kind of gilding were apparent.

t This excentric expansion, or development of the process of ossification,
Avliich proceeds from the centre to the circumference, confirms the principles
•which I have maintained in the memoir I had the honour to read to the
Academy upon woimds of the head, and the osteology of the cranium. The
examination of the specimen here presented may convince every one of thi»
physiological verity.

322 Mr Larrey on the Physical Constitution

both sexes imitate all the productions of pur artists and artisans
with the most astonishing facility ; they also acquire languages
with remarkable facility.

It is highly probable that the climate of Arabia, together
with the sober, regular, and simple life of this race of men, who
owe their birth to this rich and fertile country, have contribu-
ted to produce that perfectibility of organization, and that rare
intelligence, which, in some respects, makes them altogether a
peculiar race.

Independently of this elevation of the vault of the cranium,
and of its almost spherical form, the surface of the jaws is of a
great extent, and is in a straight or perpendicular line ; the or-
bits likewise, wider than they are usually observed in the cra-
niums of Europeans, are somewhat less inclined backwards;
the alveolar arches are of moderate size, and supplied with very
white and most regular teeth ; the canines especially project
but little, confirmatory of the assertion made by travellers, who
have all agreed respecting the regimen of the Arabs, that they
eat but little, and very seldom of animal food. We are also
convinced that the bones of the head of individuals of this na-
tion are thinner, and, as it appears to me, more dense, allowing
them to be of the same dimensions as those of other people. I
much regret that I have not been able to determine their spe-
cific gravity, but the experiments v/hich can be made for the
procuring of this result are very difficult, ajid, after all, do not
furnish any real certainty ; the transparency, however, of these
crania alone proves this peculiar density. After what I have
now said, it will not, I imagine, be difficult for anatomists to
appreciate, by an attentive examination, the diffisrences which
we have now indicated.

This physical perfection of the bones of the head is equally
apparent in all other parts of the skeleton. In fact, I have re-
marked that comparatively the bones of the limbs of the Arabs
are more dense, and of a more compact tissue, without losing
any thing of their elasticity ; the eminences which afford inser-
tion to the cords and the fibrous bands of the moving powers
are very strongly marked ; and this supplies these powers with
so many very solid points of support, and so leads to the great-
est precision of movement.

of the Arabians. 323

In addition, we have observed, 1.9^, That the circumvolutions
of the brain, whose mass is in proportion to the capacity of the
cranium, are more numerous, and the furrows which separate
them are deeper, and the matter which forms the organ are
more dense or firmer than in other races.* 2(Z, That the ner-
vous system, proceeding from the medulla oblongata and the
spinal cord, appears to us to be composed of nerves more dense
in their structure than is found in Europeans generally. 2d,
That the heart and the arterial vascular system present the
greatest regularity, and a most perfect development, ith. That
the external senses of the Arabs are exquisitely acute and re-
markably perfect ; their sight has a most extensive range, they
hear at very great distances, and also perceive the subtlest
odours ; this perfection is likewise very conspicuous in all the
vital organs.

The muscular or locomotive system is strongly marked, and
is conspicuously designed under the skin ; its fibres are of a
deep red colour, firm, and very elastic, explanatory of the
power and agility of this people. This physical perfectability
is very far from being found among the mixed nations of a part
of Asia and of America, and especially among the northern na-
tions of Europe. Upon the whole, I am convinced that the
cradle of the human race is to be found in the country on which
we have had occasion to dwell ; and this conclusion would be
more decidedly reached, if we could ascertain the specific gra-
vity of the bones of the true Arabs ; for this would assuredly
appear greater, other things being equal, than with people of
other nations, who undoubtedly do not possess in the same per-
fection the other normal properties on which we have dwelt ;
and this again leads to the conclusion that the Arab is the
primitive race.

I have found among the Spaniards, more especially the
Basques and Catalonians, a great analogy in physical and
instinctive qualities with the Arabians, from whom, without
doubt, the majority of the inhabitants of Spain and of our Py-

* These phenomena have been observed in the brain of the celebrated
poet Byron. We have given an account of his necrqp$if in the 6th vol* of our

Clinique Chirurgicale.

824} On the Revolutions of Iceland^ Political and Natural.

renees are descended ; to whom I may add the inhabitants of
Corsica, and of many other of the islands in the Mediterranean.
The people, or individuals, of other countries of the earth, whose
form of head and organic structure most approximate to the
physical constitution of the genuine Arabians, are necessarily
possessed of a proportionate perfectability in their sensitive
functions and their intellectual faculties.

We shall confine our remarks on the present occasion to the
statement of these general ideas, which are the result of the re-
searches and comparative observations I have had an opportu-
nity of making among many different nations in the four quar-
ters of the globe. I flatter myself that they will be useful to
the scientific commission which is appointed to make observa-
tions around Algiers, and the ancient kingdom of Syphax :
they may also assist in suggesting rules of health for the pre-
servation and propagation of the physical and instinctive qua-
lities of this race of primitive men.

M. Larrey presented to the Academy the Corsican head, and
the two others, to which he referred, that, viz. of an Arab, and
of a young Parisian aged twelve years, also the head of a Ne-
gro. All these he presented to the Museum of Natural His-
tory.

On the Revolutions of Iceland, Political and Natural.'^

Iceland is perhaps the most singular country in the world.
It is generally agreed that it received its first settlers from
Norway. For a century or two, new colonies were seen suc-
cessively to arise, which were nearly all headed either by bold
adventurers, or by great Norwegian chieftains, who, persecuted
by their kings, expatriated themselves that they might avoid
tyranny. On landing in Iceland, they Ibeheld before them
open and unoccupied lands, on which they freely established
themselves and their followers. They ere long induced some
of the principal families of Sweden to join them. These noble

* From the Voyage en Islande et au, Grotnlandy execute .mr La Recherdie,
tome i. parti. Par M, P. Gaimard. Paris 1838.

071 the Revolutions of Iceland, Political and Natural. 325

families brought along with them wealth, information, and
withal a certain degree of inquietude as it regarded the future.
The main cause of this was the apprehended vengeance of the
monarchs they had left, and, to avoid surprise from them, they
entertained, in the different courts of Europe, confidential ad-
visers, who might observe and report to them whatever in-
trigues or political movements occurred. The written commu-
nications of these agents were preserved in the annals of the
island, in which were likewise inserted all important inter-
nal and domestic events. Hence resulted in the course of time
a great collection of memoirs, the copies of which were multi-
plied, and circulating freely, and thus was there gradually spread
over the whole mass of the population a taste for historical
studies, which, in spite of occasional alternations of activity and
languor, has been perpetuated even to the present day. At the
present moment the inhabitants of Iceland are passionately de-
voted to the study of their own history, and to that of nations
removed to the greatest distance from them ; so that almost
under our eyes, and in ages which we may designate mo-
dern, the Icelanders have followed the example set them by
the most ancient Egyptians, as may be seen in the Critics and
TimcBus of Plato. It would even appear that the love of let-
ters, which supposes, and induces, this love of serious studies,
was common to the people of the northern nations ; for we
learn from Thomas Bartholin that, about the year 1450, a
royal academy was formed at Copenhagen, which, it will be
observed, is nearly two centuries previous to the institution of
the most celebrated ac£\demies of Europe. But be this as it
may, the Icelandic Sagas (the name attached to these very
* early memoirs, in the Scandinavian tongue), have long enjoyed
the highest celebrity. Besides several poems, and some cos-
mogonies, which are sufficiently absurd, there may be found in
them the original traces of the fundamental laws of several con-
temporaneous people, and more especially of the English. And
thus it is probable that if the Sagas had been investigated for
other objects than the acquisition of antiquarian lore, — if they
had been studied Avith a view to medical information, they
would have disclosed many traditionary statements highly
valuable for the science ; for there is no people so barbarous as

3^6 On the Revolutions of Iceland, Political and Natural.

altogether to neglect one of the most important of its concerns,
viz. that of its preservation ; and hence the Icelanders, so pe-
culiarly careful in every thing which bears on themselves, had
the strongest inducements to attempt to transmit to posterity
the recital of their own misfortunes, and the record of the means
by which they were delivered from them. This subject we re-
commend to particular attention. As it happens the Sagas are
now chiefly dispersed among the libraries of England, Den-
mark, and Sweden, where they whet the curiosity of Europeans.
They have been removed from their natural resting-place, like
the obelisks of Egypt. Additional ones, however, may still re-
main in Iceland, an island, which, at so early a period, wrote
its own history, and printed its own productions, an island
which has produced great lawyers, and historians, and which,
in our own days, has its merchants and travellers who traverse
the wide world, and study the laws and political relations of
its several nations; an island, in which education is so generally
spread that the children of both sexes read and write at the
age of eight and ten years, and recite likewise the sublime
writings of Greece and Italy; an island, finally, which still
reckons amongst its natives men who, profoundly versed in con-
temporaneous literature, are not less familiar with that of other
days.

We shall finish in a few words the political history of these
people. Iceland being twice the size of Sicily, and the original
establishments being far asunder, and not numerous, they at
first maintained themselves separately, and in the enjoyment of
the most perfect liberty. With time they became both more ex-
tended and more numerous, and this twofold progress having
approximated them to each other, their relative bearings neces-
sarily became more close and pressing. A union of their
strength would have made them powerful and formidable ; but
discord divided and weakened them. Pride and all the evils
it engenders, umbrage, jealousy, animosity, the rivalry of power,
the hatred and vengeance of families, armed them the one
against the other, and thus with their own hands they opened
to tyranny that door which before they had been so careful to
foreclose. Favoured by these disputes, which they vvere care-
ful secretly to nourish, the kings of Norway invaded them, and

On the Revolutions of Iceland, Political and Natural, 327

established themselves as the sovereigns of the island. Thus
anarchy was the cause of the loss of independence ; and Iceland
experienced the fate of Greenland, and even of Norway itself,
which was subordinated to the sceptre of Denmark.

To these political revolutions, so destructive of all prosperity,
were added the still more awful revolutions of nature. Volca-
nos were kindled in various parts of the island. They blazed
forth sometimes singly, sometimes together; and then was ef-
fected, in the interior, and upon the surface of this devoted spot,
agitated to its very centre, a universal convulsion. Rivers
changed their courses, mountains their places. Yawning rents
appeared every where, now beneath the beds of rivers, and now
below the waves of the ocean. From these there issued gases,suf-
focating and deleterious ; either inflammable, which blazed over
the extent of many leagues ; or dense white columns of steam,
which were instantaneously projected to the height of 80, 100,
and even 200 feet, carrying along with them great black rocks,
which fell down again with a fearful crash. Islands were up-
raised in the middle of the ocean, like the island of Graham, and,
like it, these islands again sank in the abyss. The forests were
overturned ; those beautiful forests, so much boasted of in the
Sagas, were laid prostrate, and buried in morasses, whence they
may now be obtained as great fossil trees. The cultivated
lands were covered over with ashes and lava ; and great farms
and whole villages were overwhelmed and engulfed, with all
their cattle and inhabitants. Whatever was spared by these
fearful fires, and these subterranean watery eruptions, other
agents destroyed. Furious hurricanes, great avalanches, vast
slips or falling of mountains, with dreadful thunder-storms, to-
gether with pestilences among men, and murrains among cat-
tle, including the eastern plague, which, in the year 1348, in-
vaded and ravaged the whole world, nearly completed its
destruction. Finally, to finish the melancholy picture, enor-
mous rocks of floating ice, those great glaciers which cover and
obstruct the Northern Ocean, which ever threaten the frail
barks of man, whose resolution, notwithstanding, dares to brave
them, those huge masses, carried along by the currents, find a
barrier upon the northern coast of Iceland. These are some-
times crowded with the great white bear, which, at considerable

328 On the Revolutions of Iceland^ Political and Natural,

risk, must be encountered and destroyed ; and sometimes carry
along with them great quantities of wood, which suggest the
idea of moving forests ; a singular sight, which instantly sets
the imagination at work as to the origin of so strange a pheno-
menon. Most frequently these great trees appear along with
the glaciers, connected with them, but intertwined among
themselves ; and they are sometimes so compressed and fretted
the one against the other, that they actually take fire, and then
exhibit the extraordinary spectacle of a devouring flame in the
midst of the sparkling ice. Whence proceeds all this wood ? —
and in what region is it produced ? Some of it carries its fruit
along with it, and is thus recognised to be the product of
Mexico ; other portions of it come from Carolina and Virginia ;
others have descended the Mississippi, or have been conveyed
to the ocean by the St Lawrence, while still other portions
seem to have drifted from the Pacific, and, finally, from the
northern shores of Siberia. By what opposing powers have they
all been forced to this spot as a rendezvous ? Is it the shock
of adverse currents which has produced all the agitation ? And
have these agitations forced this wood from its original direc-
tion ? Again, are these currents constant or successive ? Are
they promoted by, or in opposition to the prevailing winds ? Re-
garding these trees, it is not to be denied that they are a great
advantage to Iceland, for they supply all the wood which it
contains. And as to the glaciers, they alone are sufficient to
maintain in sterility a country which has been otherwise so ex-
ceedingly impoverished ; and of all its grievous calamities, this
is, beyond doubt, the most frightful. It is, in truth, clearly
demonstrated, that if the culture of corn, the cerealia generally,
is no longer, as formerly, practicable in Iceland ; — if vegetation
is both rare and insignificant ; — if, instead of magnificent forests,
this island can now support only a few sterile and mongrel
herbs ; if, consequently, it is deprived of fruit, and even of ve-
getables, it is owing to the cold which extends from these
masses of congelation far over the land, keeping fast bound all
germination, and extinguishing all vitality. In the years 1753
and 1754, this cold was so extreme, that it killed all the horses,
and even the sheep, though in every way protected.

But notwithstanding, in the midst of so many causes of ruin,

On the Revolutions of Iceland^ Political and Natural. 329

and in spite of such enormous losses in his wealth and numbers,
the Icelander still maintains himself ; because his pastures, the
meat, and milk, and wool of his flocks, — the aquatic birds, and
the birds of passage, which his gun procures him, — and, most
of all, the living treasures of the waters with which every sea-
son crowds his rivers, lakes, and the surrounding ocean, sup-
ply him with superabounding sources of subsistence, which
appear altogether inexhaustible. We speak not here of a few
succulent plants which he may associate with these staples of
support, augmenting their quantity, and modifying their ef-
fects. But we cannot omit to state, that if Iceland is crowded
with mountains covered with glaciers, and if these glaciers seem
to rise higher, and extend wider from year to year, the soil
which forms it, on the other hand, reposes on a vast storehouse
of subterranean fire, which everywhere forces itself to the sur-
face, and somewhat elevates itself every year above the level of
the sea, bringing hot springs to the surface, simple, salt, and
sulphureous, whose temperature is so high that they readilv
boil meat, and even as it were dissolve it, in a few minutes.
Now, it sometimes happens that this heat, in certain districts,
is the companion of mountain streams, and the moisture thus
added to the heat, clothes the surface of these favoured regions
with a rich, savoury, and in some respects a perpetual, vegeta-
tion,— a truly astonishing phenomenon in so high a latitude.
Whence it may have happened, that, if the antique elephant
wliich some thirty years ago was so unexpectedly discovered
in a great glacier in the northern coast of Siberia, may be con-
sidered as a representative of the organization which preceded
the appearance of man on the globe, it would be only natural
also to consider these portions of favoured land in Iceland, as
a representation of those vast continents which were covered
with forests, and consequently always endowed with heat, which
were the dwelling places of the innumerable legions of those
stupendous animals. But be this as it may, such is the strik-
ing contrast which travellers here perceive. At first view,
Iceland, naked, scraggy, sad, like the cloudy sky which covers
it, and whitened only by the cold sheets of snow and ice which
envelope it, — without verdure, without vegetation, where the
eye scarcely discovers a few thinly scattered habitations, sickens

330 M. Arago on the Colour of the Ocean.

the heart : he hesitates to visit it, and would almost fear to de-
scend into that deep and mournful solitude, where he imagines
that all is suffering, and which is barely habitable. But we
have only to famiharize ourselves a little with the person of
the Icelander, — with his manners, his habits, his industry, and
all the details of his domestic life, to recover from these first
impressions, — to be charmed with a life so simple, with an
ease and quiet which elevates him incomparably above the
Greenlander, and even above the indigent population of Europe.

On the Colour of the Ocean. By M. Arago.

The study of the colour of the ocean has exercised the saga-
city of a great number of philosophers and seamen, without our
being able to affirm that the problem regarding it has hitherto
been entirely resolved.

To the question. What is the colour of the sea? the re-
sponses, indeed, might be very nearly identical. It is, in fact,
to an ultramarine blue that Mr Scoresby compares the general
tint of the polar seas ; it is to a perfectly transparent solution
of the most beautiful indigo, or to celestial blue, that M. Costaz
assimilates the colour of the waters of the Mediterranean ; it is
by the words bright azure that Captain Tuckey characterizes
the waves of the Atlantic in equinoctial regions; it is also bright
blue that Sir Humphrey Davy assigns as the hue reflected by
pure water procured by the melting of snows and ice. Celes-
tial blue, then, more or less deep, that is to say, mixed with
smaller or greater quantities of white light, would appear to
have been always the peculiar tint of the ocean. Is there any
deception in this ?

We shall speak chiefly of pure water : but the waters of the
sea are often impregnated with foreign matter. Thus, for ex-
ample, the green bands so widely extended, and so peculiarly
striking in the polar regions, contain myriads of medusae of a
yellowish tint, which, when mixed with the blue colour of the
water, produce the green. Near to Cape Palmas, upon the
coast of Guinea, Captain Tuckey's vessel appeared to move in
milk ; which appearance arose also from multitudes of animals

I

M. Arago 07i ike Colour of the Ocean. 381

floating upon the surface, and so hiding the natural colour of
the liquid. The zones of carmine red, which several voyagers
have traversed on the great ocean, arise from the same cause.
In Switzerland, according to Sir H. Davy, when the tint of
the lake passes from blue to green, it is because its waters are
impregnated with vegetable substances. Finally, near the
mouths of great rivers, the sea has often a brownish hue, aris-
ing from the mud and other terrestrial matters, which are there
lield in suspension. We have thought it right thus to insist
upon the colours produced by foreign matter mixed with the
water, so that they may in no degree be confounded with those
upon which we are yet to dwell.

The celestial blue tint of the sea is modified, and sometimes
even totally changed, in those localities where the water is not
very deep. It is, then, because the light reflected by the bot-
tom reaches the eye mixed with the natural light of the water.
The effect of this superposition may be calculated by the laws
of optics ; but we must join to our acquaintance with the na-
ture of the two commingled tints, that, which is more difficult
to ascertain, of their comparative intensities. Thus, a bottom
of yellow sand but lightly reflecting, gives to the sea a green
tint, because the yellow mixed with the blue, as every one
knows, produces a green ; now, without changing the shades,
if you replace the dull yellow with a bright yellow, the slight
blue of pure water will scarcely make this a lively light green,
and the sea will appear yellow. In the Bay of Loango, the
waters are always deep red; so much so, that it is said they
are mixed with blood: and Captain Tuckey satisfied himself
that the bottom is intensely red. Let us substitute for this
bright red bottom, one of the same shade, but obscure and
slightly reflecting, and the waters of the Bay of Loango would
then appear orange-coloured^ or even perhaps yeUow.

Against this method of regarding the subject, one objection
is made which, at first glance, appears serious: a bottom of
white sand, it is said, ought not to alter the hue of the sea, for
if white enfeebles the colours with which it mixes, at all events
it does not change the tint. But there is a ready answer to this
objection. For how can we be certain that the sand at the bot-
tom is white ? It is not in the open day, after we have fished

332 M. Arago on the Colour of the Ocean.

up a portion, and so exposed it to the white light of the sun,
or the clouds ! Is the sand in the same condition when be-
neath the water ? If in the open air you were to illuminate it
with red, green, or blue light, it would then appear red, green,
or blue. We have then still to inquire what colour strikes it
at the bottom of the water ?

Water is in the condition of many other bodies, which phi-
losophers, chemists, and mineralogists, have very deeply studied,
and which possess two kinds of colours, — a certain colour which
is transmitted, and another colour, quite different from the first,
which is reflected. Water appears of a blue colour, by reflec-
tion ; and some imagine it is of a green colour by transmission.
Thus, water disperses in all directions, after having blued it, a
portion of the white Hght which went to illuminate it ; this
dispersed light constitutes the proper colour of liquids. As to
the other rays, irregularly transmitted, their passage across the
water makes them green, and this intensely in proportion as
the traversed mass is thick.

These notions being admitted, we may now return to the
case of a not very deep sea, with a bottom of white sand. This
sand receives the light only through a stratum of water ; the
light, then, is green when it strikes the bottom, and it is with
this tint it is reflected ; and in the second traject which the lu-
minous rays make through the same liquid in returning from
the sand to the open air, their green tint sometimes so predo-
minates, that it prevails over the blue. This, then, perhaps
may be the whole secret which, to the practical seaman, is, in''
the time of calm, the certain and invaluable index of great
depths.

We have put it, in time of calm, and not without reason ;
for when the ocean is agitated, the waves suitably elevated may,
in fact, convey to the eye so large a quantity of transmitted or
green rays, that the reflected blue ones shall be entirely masked.
A few short observations will make this evident.

Let us imagine a triangular prism placed^ in the open air,
horizontally, before an observer, somewhat lower than he is.
This prism cannot conduct to the eye, in the way of refraction,
any ray coming directly from the atmosphere. On the con-
trary, the anterior face of the prism will throw towards the ob.

M. Arago on the Colour of the Ocean. 333

server a reflected atmospheric pencil, a great part of which, it
is true, will pass above his head. This portion would require
to be bent in its course, to be inflected, to be refracted from
above downwards to reach the eye. A second prism, placed
like the former, but nearer to the observer, would precisely
produce this effect.

After these few words, every one, without doubt, has already
made the assimilation which must lead to the conclusion towards
which we are tending. The waves of the ocean are a kind of
prism ; no wave is ever solitary ; the continuous waves advance
nearly in parallel directions. Well, then, when two waves ap-
proach a vessel, a portion of the light which the anterior face of
the second wave reflects, traverses the first, is there refracted
from above downwards, and thus arrives at the observer placed
upon the deck. Again, then, we see transmitted light, light
which is consequently made greeuy reach the eye at the same
time with the common blue tints ; but these are the phenomena
of great depths over white sand produced without deep water,
and the green colour of the sea arises from the predominance
of the transmitted colour over the reflected colour.

We have now thus hastily traced the imperfect lineaments of
a theory of the colours of the ocean, that thereby voyagers may
be directed in the studies they may have occasion to make on
the subject. The investigation of circumstances which may
oppose this theory will suggest to them experiments, or at least
observations, which without it they probably would not have
thought of. For example, every one will understand that the
prism waves should not produce identical effects, whatever may
be the direction of their propagation, and they will be led to
expect some variation in the hue of the sea upon a change of
the wind. Upon the lakes of Switzerland this phenomena is
apparent ; is it so also on the wide ocean ?

Some persons persist in assigning an important influence to
the blue of the atmosphere in the production of the blue of the
ocean. It appears to us that this idea may be subjected to a
decisive proof; and in the following manner. The blue rays of
the atmosphere do not return from the water to the eye till after
they have been regularly reflected. If the angle of reflectiou

VOL. XXV. NO. L. — OCTOBEK 1838. 2

834 M. Arago on the Colour of the Ocean,

equals 37°, they are polarized. A piece of tourmaline will then
completely eliminate them, and thus the blue of the sea will be
seen apart without any extraneous mixture.

With the intention of being freed, as much as possible, from
the influence of reflection when studying the colours of the
ocean, some able navigators have recommended that we should
always examine it through the trunk of the ship's rudder. In
this method the water exhibits, in some points of view, beautiful
violet tints ; but with a little attention we may be convinced
that these hues are not at all real ; that they are only the effect
of contrast ; that they proceed from atmospheric light feebly
reflected in an almost perpendicular direction, and coloured
by their approximation to the transmitted green colours which
almost invariably surround the rudder.

If there be some who wish to admit, and develope, this at-
tempt at an explanation of the colours of the sea, which we
have just given, or if there be others who wish to refute it, and
substitute a better in its place, it will still be necessary to be-
gin by investigating the colour of water when seen by trans-
mission zaith the aid of diffused light. Those who will recall to
recollection the pre-eminently green hue of the cut edge of a
crystal glass, even when this glass is only illuminated in front
and perpendicularly, will perceive all the importance of this re-
mark. The following appears a very simple means of reaching
a satisfactory conclusion.

I shall suppose that the observer is supplied with one of
those large hollow ice prisms, which philosophers are in the habit
of using when they wish to study the refraction of liquids. To
make our apprehensions the more precise, we shall make the re-
fracting angle equal to 45°, we shall then suppose that the
prism is plunged 'partially into water, so that the edge of its
refracting angle shall be downwards and horizontal, and that
one of the faces of this angle, viz. that which is most exposed
(est tournee vers le large), shall be vertical, whence it will
result as a necessary consequence that the other face will be
inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45°.

When the objects are thus arranged, the light which moves
horizontally in the water at a fraction of an inch below the sur-

Mr Whitelaw's Improved Grinding Machine, 335

face, that which constitutes the colour of its cutting edge (Sa
colour de tranche), if I may be permitted to use this expression,
will strike perpendicularly the vertical ice of the prism ; it will
penetrate into the interior of this instrument, will traverse the
small quantity of air which it encloses, will reach the second
plate of ice, and will there be reflected vertically from below
upwards. In looking upon this inclined ice, the observer then
may judge of the proper colour which the water has by refrac-
tion, quite as well as if his eye were in the liquid. In this form,
the experiment is so simple and so easy, it requires so little
time that we shall venture to request the Academy to recom-
mend to our voyagers to repeat it as often as possible, not only
with sea-water, but also with that of lakes and rivers. When
the science shall be enriched with the results of all these obser-
vations, we shall no longer run the risk of constructing theories
which facts sooner or later will contradict.

There is assuredly no occasion to remark that it is desirable
that the hollow prism should be enclosed at its upper part by
a piece of ice enclosed in glass, and having parallel faces. This
will prevent the apparatus from being filled with liquid. The
instrument can easily receive the form of the common instru-
ment from the hand of an artist. — Comptes Rendus, No. 4.
July 25. 1838.

Description, with Drawings, of a Grinding Machine which is
used instead of a T^irning Lathe, Jbr giving a truly Cylin-
drical^rw to the rims of Pulleys and Drums : — also Draw-
ing and Description of a Machine for Grinding Pulleys
round on the rim. By Mr James Wiiitelaw. (Commu-
nicated by the Society of Arts.) With two Plates.

Glasgow, 19/A January 1838.

Gentlemen, — Mr Edward Sang, in his paper on the Pro-
gress of Exactitude in the Manufacture of Machines, has given
you an account of the latest improvements made on the turn-
ing, planing, and screwing machines. But besides these ma-
chines there is the grindstone, which has been fitted up of late,

z2

336 Mr Whitelaw's Description of

so as to do certain kinds of work in an expeditious and accurate
manner, and from some experience which I have had in work-
ing it, I am of opinion that it might be applied to a greater
variety of work, and much more extensively than it has ever
yet been. I \wi\\ first give you an account of a machine planned
by me for grinding pulleys or drums trnhj (ylindrical on the
rim, which has been much in use during thelast eighteen months.
After I have described this first machine, I will give you an
idea of another machine, which has never yet been brought
into practice, for grinding pulleys, &c. rotmd on the rim; and
then you will, I believe, be of opinion that grinding machines
might be used to great advantage in factories where mill-
ffearino; is made.

Plate I. Fig. 1, of sketch No. 1, is a side elevation of a
machine for grinding drums or pulleys of a truly cylindrical
shape, or, as it is called, straight on the rim, and Fig. 2, is a
ground-plan of the same machine. The parts which are seen in
both Figs, are marked by the same letters in the one Fig. as in
the other ; aa is the grindstone, and bb is the pulley which is to
be ground. The pulley bb is fastened upon the mandril c c, this
mandril is fixed into the spindle dd at the one end, and it works
into a plummet-block e at the other end. The speed of the grind-
stone is 180 revolutions per minute, and the pulley bb makes 130
revolutions in the same time ; the stone and the pulley revolve
in the same direction, in order that the parts in contact may rub
upon each other at the combined speed of their circumferences.
There is a small shaft jOf/ w hich, by means of the mitre wheels
fixed upon it, gives motion to the screws gg^ gg^ gg^ in con-
nection with the plummet blocks, into which the spindle dd
and the mandril c c work. As the plummet-blocks slide upon
the rails h, h, Ii^ which form part of the framing of the ma-
chine, in a similar manner as the parts of a slide-rest move,
and as all the screws marked gg have the same pitch of thread,
the spindle and the mandril are shifted at once, either from, or
towards the grindstone, and keep always parallel to its shaft,
if the handle or wheel v is moved by hand. Upon the end of
the shaft of the grindstone, a bevel pinion i is fixed, and this
pinion gears into the wheel Z; A*, fixed upon the shaft /. The
shaft I is bored out to fit the shaft vi m, which is turned parallel

PJuAIF. I . Edin::mwFha. Jouj^. VoL.IIV.p.336.\

Ful.I.

Fi^.2.

an Improved Grinding Machine, 337

the whole of its length, so as to slide through the shaft I easily.
There is a feather fixed into the shaft /, which fits the groove
planed into the shaft m w, so that this shaft can slide through
the shaft / ; but it cannot revolve unless the shaft / carry it
round. Upon the end of the shaft mmo. small crank n is fixed ;
as this crank has a perpendicular position in the Figs, it is not
so distinctly seen. The crank pin has a brass on it, which slides
into a groove running in a perpendicular direction in the part oc-
As two sets of the bushes in the part oo work upon journals
cut into the spindle d d, if the grindstone revolve, the spindle
dd and the mandril cc will work endways, at one time in one
direction, then in another, so as to bring an end of the pulley
b b past a side of the stone, once for every half revolution of the
crank shaft ; and, in this way, the pulley and the stone, as they
wear, keep perfectly cylindrical. It will be evident that the
mandril and the spindle have no ruffs, and they are turned pii-
rallel at the parts which slide and revolve into the plummet-
blocks. The bracket pp^ which supports the crank-shaft, is fixed
upon the two plummet-blocks for the spindle dd, and, on this ac-
count, if they are moved from or towards the grindstone, it is
carried along with them. The pulley q, which drives the
spindle dd, is connected to it (the spindle) in a similar way as the
shaft m m is connected to the shaft /, and the part of the
bracket /?/>, seen in the ground-plan passing nearly round this
pulley, keeps it always at its proper place. The small rod re-
serves to guide the part o o, and keep its groove always in a
perpendicular direction. S is the pulley which drives the grind-
stone.

The machine now described grinds fifteen pulleys of 18 inches
diameter by 5 inches broad, in a day, working ten hours ; now
this is a great quantity of work, considering the very moderate
speed at which the parts are driven. When a pulley is finished,
if a planed malleable iron straightedge is applied on the rim
parallel to its axis, it touches the pulley in every part. After
a pulley is ground, it is shifted back from the stone and still
kept revolving, then a stick with a little emery and oil on it is
pressed against the pulley, and this gives it a fine polish. A
grindstone for finishing pulleys is not anything like so ex-
pensive to make as a turning lathe : it does incomparably more

338 Mr Whitelaw^s Desaiption of

work, and it does it as well as any self-acting lathe ; besides,
when the iron is hard, which is frequently the case in thin
pulleys, a lathe is good for nothing, and this makes no diffe-
rence in a grinding machine : a grinding machine will finish
pulleys cast much thinner than any that can be turned ; this
is a saving of metal : from the manner in which the ends of a
pulley work past the sides of the stone, it always keeps in good
order : all these are advantages which a grinding machine has
over a lathe, in finishing pulleys or drums.

As the crank is made forked, and as the part o o has a groove
in it open at both ends, for the bush of the crank-pin to work
into, the crank-pin can easily be taken away by unscrewing the
nut which holds it to the crank, and then the spindle dd will
not be wrought endways by the motion of the crank. When
the ends of a pulley are to be ground, the crank-pin is taken
away and a pincing screw is fixed upon the rod r r, which acts
upon the part o o, so as to press the spindle d d on end, the
one way or the other, as required ; then if the pulley is shifted
past the side of the stone, the pincing screw will press its end
against the stone, and, if the machine is kept in motion, the
end of the pulley will be ground. Having the crank forked
answers another purpose ; it allows the pin to be shifted further
from, or nearer to, the centre of its shaft, in order to give a
longer or shorter range to the motions which the crank gives
to the spindle and mandril. A machine for grinding drums
should be made wider than the one shewn in the sketch, at the
place where the stone and the pulley to be ground work, in
order to get the ends of a long (Jrum ground, when they are
not finished in the turning lathe, at the time the drum is chuck-
ed, to get its eye bored out. Perhaps the simplest way of fi-
nishing the ends of a pulley which is bored out in the eye, is
to do it in the lathe when it is on the chuck. When a pulley
is finished, and it is to be taken out of the machine, or when
a rough pulley is to be put into the machine, the cutter t is
driven out, and then the mandril cc is drawn on end by
means of the handle w, after the key which holds the pulley
upon the mandril is slackened. Any of the plummet-blocks
which guide the spindle d d and mandril c c can readily be taken
away, and a larger or smaller one put in its place; by this

I

FLA. TE II . jSdf'r? ': Nc irl'//// . , /oi>r\ Co/ ..I'.ir./r

Fi^.I

an Improved Grinding Machine. 339

means a spindle or mandril to suit any sort of job may be used.
The stone is covered in by means of a wooden box, so that the
water used in grinding may not be thrown about the workshop.
The scale in Plate II. gives the dimensions of the parts of the
machines shewn in both plates.

The machine shewn in Figs. 1, S, and 3 of Plate II. is one
for grinding pulleys round on the rim ; in all the Figs, the
same letters point out the same parts, a a is the grindstone ;
b his the pulley to be ground ; this pulley is fastened upon
the mandril or spindle c c. When a pulley to be ground is
put upon the mandril c c, or when a finished pulley is to be
taken off this mandril, the pincing screw d is slackened, and
then the ruff into which it is screwed gets loose upon the man-
dril ; after this the mandril is drawn on end, so far as that a
pulley may either be taken off, or put upon it, by taking hold
of the pulley e which gives motion to the mandril. The two
screws^/J^/y work into nuts fixed into the bracket g ggg-) and
by moving the handle or wheel A, the pulley to be ground is
pressed against the stone, or shifted away from it as is wanted.
The bracket gggg has two pins or gudgeons i i fixed on it,
and the frame II mm turns upon these pins as a centre. When
a pulley is to be ground very flat on the rim, the plummet-
blocks Jc Jc are shifted as close to the rail marked m mas they
can get, by turning the handle n. The closer that the plum-
met-blocks, into which the mandril c c works, are brought to
the rail 1 1, the pulley will be ground with the more curvature
on its rim. The shaft o o is set in motion, by means of the
bevel wheels p and g ; this shaft has an eccentric r upon it,
which, by means of the connecting rod s, gives motion to the
frame II m m. By slackening the pincing screw <, the eccen-
tric may be shifted along the shaft o o, and by slackening the
pincing screws u and v^ it may be shifted along the rod w w,
so as to give as much travel to the frame llmm asis required.
As the frame II mm is always in motion, it might perhaps be
better to have a guide round the pulley ^, in order to keep the
belt on it. After the plummet-blocks k Jc are brought to the
place on the rails of the frame II mm, which gives the pulley
its required curvature, the machine is set in motion, and the
pulley is pressed against the stone by means of the handle h.

840 Mr Whitelaw's Description of

In order to get a very large pulley put into, or taken out of the
machine, the rail x must be taken away, by unscrewing the
bolts which fix its ends. In the bracket gg gg, each of the
parts which hold the pins i i has a slit in it, so that, by un-
screwing the nuts ?/ ?/, the pins may be shifted to any end of
the slits. One of these slits is seen in Fig. 2 ; it has a check
round it to receive a shoulder formed upon the pin. In the
frame II mm each of the parts which hold the bushes for the
pins i i, has a slit formed, so that the bushes can be fixed on
either end of it ; there are cutter holes placed so that the
bushes can have other positions, besides at the ends of the slits.
When the bushes are not fixed at any of the ends of the frame
II mm, a gib, as shewn in Fig. 2, is passed through a set of cut-
ter holes ; after this the brasses are brought up against it, and
fixed by means of the same cutter which fixes them at the ends
of the slits. By having the slits for the pins in the bracket
gggg, and the slits for the bushes in the frame II mm, allows
the rails upon which the bracket gggg slides, as well as other
parts of the machine, to be made much shorter than they could
be made without them, and some sizes of pulleys could not be
ground at all without these slits. The use of the slits in the
bracket gggg is to allow the mandril c c in every position to
work clear of the part of this bracket, which has an upright
direction in Fig. 1. The cutter holes in the frame II mm
must be fitted, so that, in whatever place in the slits the bushes
are shifted to, the rails II and mm will have an upright posi-
tion, in a view, as per Fig. 1 ; and when the pins i i are shifted
to the different ends of the slits, in the bracket gggg^ from
what they are shewn in the Figs., these rails of the frame II mm
must have an upright position, in a view, as per the side eleva-
tion. It will be seen that Fig. ^ is not a complete end view,
but is only intended to shew some of the parts.

If the smallest speed of a cone was made in the form of a
pulley, with a flanch cast inside of its rim close to one end ;
and then, if the next larger speed was cast without arms, but
having two flanches, one at each end of its rim, the parts now
spoken of could be fixed together so as to form a cone of two
speeds, by means of bolts passing through the flanch on the
^mall speed, and one of the flanches on the large speed. On

an Improved Grinding Machine, 341

the principle now explained, a third speed could be fixed upon
the cone, then a fourth, and so on, till the required number of
speeds was put upon it. In a cone having a great many
speeds, the largest speed should be cast with arms and a centre^
the same as for the small speed. A cone of this construction
could be ground upon a machine, as last described, by sepa-
rating it into speeds, and grinding the smallest one first ; then
the second smallest speed could be ground after it was bolted
upon the smallest speed, and so on, grinding one speed after
another, till the cone is finished. If cones were to be finished
upon a grinding machine, it would require to be made wider
than the one to be shewn in sketch No. 2.* — I am. Gentlemen,
yours respectfully, James Whitelaw,

Late of 18 Russell Street, Glasgow,
now in London.

• Report on Mr Whitelaw's Machine for grinding Cast-Iron Pulleys.

Edinburgh, IQih July 1838.

Your Committee, having attentively considered the drawing and descrip-
tion of this machine, are of opinion that it will produce the required effect.
They imagine, however, that there is a considerable defect in the arrange-
ment of the relative positions of the grindstone and of the dmm or pulley
to be ground. The communication is one of very high merit, and relates to
a subject every day becoming more important ; the Committee, therefore,
consider it worth while to criticise minutely the point referred to.

In Mr Wliitelaw's arrangement the axes of the drum and of the grind-
stone are parallel to each other. Two inconveniences result from this : —
In the first place there is created a tendency in the drum to follow the mo-
tion of the grinder, which causes an undue, though not very considerable,
strain on the band or belt which leads the drum. In the next place, there
is a tendency to streak the surface. It is true that arrangements are made
to shift the drum length- ways upon the stone, so as to equalize the wear,
and to shift the positions of the streaks, but this, in the opinion of your
Committee, will merely palliate, not effectually correct the evil. If the
axes were placed at right angles to each other, both of these evils would
be removed ; and if, in addition, the motion of one or other shaft Avere re-
versed at intervals, a surface would be produced superior both in general
accuracy and in finish. The streaks then would cross each other obliquely
on the drum, and the ultimate result would be a very jlat surface ; of this,
one of your Committee has had abundant experience.

Mr Whitelaw's proposed method of rounding pulleys would, no doubt,
answer perfectly ; indeed, there appears to be no distinction in principle,
and as little in practice, between the machine for giving a straight, and

( 342 )

On Storms. By Mr William C. Redfield of New York,
and Lieutenant-Colonel Reid, Royal Engineers.

Colonel Capper of the East India Company's service, in a
work on Winds and Monsoons, published in the year 1801,
states it as his opinion, that hurricanes will be found to be great
whirlwinds ; and says, " It would not, perhaps, be a matter of
great difficulty to ascertain the situation of a ship in a whirl-
wind, by observing the strength or changes of the wind. If
the changes are sudden, and the wind violent, in all probability
the ship must be near the centre of the vortex of the whirl-
wand ; whereas, if the wind blows a great length of time from
the same point, and the changes are gradual, it may reasonably
be supposed that the ship is near the extremity of it."

This view of the nature of hurricanes appears to have been
lost sight of for a long time, or to have been mentioned only in
a very cursory manner, until an American observer, Mr W. C.
Redfield, published in the 20th volume of Silliman's well known
American Journal of Science and Arts, a valuable memoir,
entitled " Remarks on tlie prevailing Storms of the Atlantic
coast of North America,''^ in which he maintains (and we be-
lieve without any knowledge of Capper's work) that these
storms are great whirlwinds. This memoir, inserted in the
18th vol. of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, from its
important details, and the general plausibility of the explanation
offered, we esteemed a valuable contribution to the natural his-
tory of the winds. In the year 1834 we were again gratified by
receiving from Mr Redfield a copy of another memoir, entitled
" Observations on the Hurricanes and Storms of the West In-

that for giving a circular outline ; here, also, the crossing of the two mo-
tions ought to be attended to ; were that done, there would probably be
no use found for oil and emery afterwards.

On the whole, your Committee beg to recommend this interesting com-
munication to the attentive consideration, and favourable notice, of the
Society.

Edward Sang, Convener,
Walter Nicol.

Redfield and Reid on Storms. 343

dies and the coast of' the United States^ with a charts'''' in which
his opinion, as to the nature of storms, is farther enforced and
supported by numerous additional observations. Tiiis memoir
and the accompanying chart were also published in the 20th
volume of TJie Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. In this
way we enabled British meteorologists to become acquainted
with Mr Redfield's observations and views. As our meteorolo-
gists generally had taken but little notice of these memoirs, we
were rejoiced to find them brought prominently before the
British Association, at Newcastle, by a very intelligent officer
and excellent observer, Lieut. -Col. Reid of the Royal Engi-
neers, in a " Report explaining the progress made towards de-
veloping the Law of Storms, and a statement of what seems de-
sirable should be further done to advance our kfiozdedge of the
subject.'''' Colonel Reid, at the meeting of the Physical Section
of the British Association, commenced by stating " that he had
long been convinced that the operations of the Deity in the
workings of his providential care over his creatures, were go-
verned by fixed laws, designed by incomprehensible wisdom,
arranged by supreme power, and tending to the most benevo-
lent ends. That however irregular the tempest or the torna-
do might appear to the inobservant, yet our own day had seen
some of these phenomena reduced to rule ; and he doubted not
soon to convince the Section that we were on the eve of ad-
vancing some steps farther towards this most desirable end.
He felt confident, indeed, that the laws of atmospheric changes
were dependent on such fixed principles, that nothing was want-
ing but a more intimate acquaintance with the subject, to ren-
der man's knowledge of these laws as perfect as that which he
had attained in any of the sciences now called strict. His at-
tention had been first directed to the subject in 1831. He ar-
rived, on military service, at Barbadoes, immediately after the
desolating hurricane of that year, which, in the short space of
seven hours, destroyed 1477 persons on that island alone. He
had been for two years and a half daily employed as an engi-
neer officer amidst the ruined buildings, and was thus naturally
led to the consideration of the phenomena of hurricanes. The
first explanation which to him seemed reasonable, he found in
a pamphlet by W. C. Redfield of New York, extracted from

844 Redfield and Reid on Storms.

the American Journal of Science, a work much less known in
this country than its value and great merits deserved. The north-
east storms on the coast of America had attracted the attention of
Franklin. He had been prevented by one of these storms from
observing an eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, which he was
soon after astonished to find had been felt at Boston, although
that town lay to the north-east of Philadelphia. This was a
circumstance not to be lost on such an inquiring mind as
Franklin's : he ascertained, upon inquiry, that the same north-
east storm had not reached Boston for some hours after it had
blown at Philadelphia ; and that, although the wind blew from
the north-east, yet the progress of the entire storm was from the
south-west. He died, however, before he had made any fur-
ther progress in this investigation. Col. Capper of the East
India Company's service, after having studied meteorological
subjects for twenty years in the Madras territory, published a
work, in 1801, upon winds and monsoons, giving brief state-
ments of their fatal effects, from Orme's ' History of Hindos-
tan.' In this work he states his belief that hurricanes will be
found to be great whirlwinds ; and says, ' it would not, perhaps,
be a matter of great difficulty to ascertain the situation of a
ship in a whirlwind, by observing the strength and changes of
the wind. If the changes are sudden^ and the wind violent, in
all probability the ship must be near the centre of the vortex
of the whirlwind ; whereas, if the wind blows a great length
of time from the same point, and the changes are gradual,
it may reasonably be supposed that the ship is near the ex-
tremity of it.' In this conjecture respecting the nature of
hurricanes, Col. Held conceived Col. Capper to be decidedly
right, and the conclusion he drew from it has stood the test of
close examination. Mr Redfield, following up the observation
of Franklin, and though probably unacquainted with the views
or opinions of Capper, ascertained that, while the north-east
storms were blowing on the shores of America, the wind was
with equal violence blowing a south-west storm on the Atlantic.
Tracking Franklin's storms from the southward, he found,
throughout their course, that the wind on opposite sides of the
shore, over which the storm prevailed, blew in opposite direc-
tions, and that, in fact, the entire storm was a progressive whirl-

Redfield and Reid on Storms, 345

wind, and that all these whirlwinds revolved constantly in the
same direction. In one of the numbers of the American Journal
of Science (for 1831), Colonel Reid found collected together by
Mr Redfield many records of the same storms, and a chart, on a
very small scale, shewing the progressof one. Strongly impressed
with the conviction that Mr Redfield's views were correct, he
determined to verify them by making charts on a large scale,
and laying down on them the different reports of the directions
of the wind at points given in the American Journal of Science ;
and the more exactly this was done, the nearer was the approxi-
mation to the tracks of a progressive whirlwind. He then ex*
hibited to the Section a volume containing eight charts on a
large scale, of which the first and second chart contained the
result of this part of the examination ; and he explained how
the arrows shewing the direction of the wind at the several sta-
tions were all on the right hand side of the several circles flying
from the south, while at the stations at the left hand, or towards
the east of the chart, they were all coming from the north.
Colonel Reid went on to explain, that as his object was not to
establish or support any theory, but simply to arrange and re-
cord facts, he had only at present to give such a sketch of what
had been done, as would turn the attention of abler men than
himself to this investigation, and to impress upon commercial
men the importance of carefully preserving the logs of their
merchant ships : the practice was, he found, to return these logs
to the brokers so soon as the vessel returned to her port, and
after his accounts were balanced, they were considered as of no
further value. He had published at length the details of his
examination of this question. He had procured the actual log-
books of ships, and had combined their information with what
he could obtain on land, thus comparing simultaneous observa-
tions over extended tracts. On the eighth chart he pointed out
eight ships in several positions in the same storm, the tracks of
several crossing the path of the storm, and the wind, as report-
ed by the ships, corroborated by the reports from the land. The
observations of ships possess this great advantage for meteoro-
logical research, that merchant-ships' log-books report the wea-
ther every two hours, and ships of war have hourly observations
always kept up. After tracing a variety of storms in north lati-

346 Redfield and Reid an Storms.

tudes, and being impressed with the regularity with which they
appear to pass toward the North Pole, and always revolved in
the same direction, — viz. opposite to the hands of a watch, or
from the east round by the north, west, south, and east, — he
was led to conclude, that, in accordance with the order of na-
ture, storms in south latitudes would be found to revolve in a
contrary direction to that which they take in the northern hemi-
spheres. He earnestly sought for facts, to ascertain if this
were really the case, and had obtained much information con-
firmatory of the truth of the conjecture, before he was aware
that Mr Redfield had formed the same conjecture, without,
however, having traced any storms in south latitudes. The
general phenomena of these storms will be understood, if the
storm, as a great whirlwind, be represented by a circle, whose
centre is made to progress along a curve, or part of a curve,
which is, in most cases, of a form approaching the parabolic,
the circles expanding as they advance from the point at which
the storm begins to be felt, the rotatory motion in the northern
hemisphere being in the contrary direction to that in which the
hands of a watch go round ; while, in the southern hemisphere,
the rotation is in the same direction as that in which the hands
of a watch revolve. He pointed out how his views were il-
lustrated by the disastrous storm of 1809, experienced by the
East India fleet, under the convoy of the Culloden line-of-
battle ship, and the Terpsidiore frigate, and four British men-
of-war, which left the Cape of Good Hope about the same
time, intending to cruise about the Mauritius. Some of these
vessels scudded and ran in the storm for days ; some, by lying
to, got almost immediately out of it, while others, by taking a
wrong direction, went into the heart of it, foundered, and were
never heard of more : others, by sailing right across the calm
space, met the same storm in different parts of its progress, and
the wind blowing in opposite directions, and considered and
spoke of it as two storms, which they encountered ; while others,
by cruising about within the bend of the curve, but beyond
the circle of the great whirl, escaped the storm altogether, which
had been for days raging on all sides of them. This led him
to draw the very important practical conclusion as to how a
ship should act when she encountered a gale, so as to escape

Redfield and Reid on Storms. 347

from it. By watching the mode of veering of the wind, the
portion of a storm into which a ship is falling may be ascer-
tained : if the ship be then so manoeuvred as that the wind shall
veer aft instead of ahead, and the vessel is made to come up,
instead of being allowed to break off, she will run out of the
storm altogether ; but, if the contrary course be taken, either
through chance or ignorance, she goes right into the whirl, and
runs a great risk of being suddenly taken aback, but most as-
suredly will meet the opposite wind in passing out through the
whirl. To accomplish her object, he shewed, by a diagram,
that it was necessary that the ship should be laid on opposite
tacks, on opposite sides of a storm, as may be understood by
drawing a number of concentric circles to represent the whirl
of the hurricane, and then different lines across these, to repre-
sent the course of ships entering into, or going through the
storm : but, to attempt the full explanation of even this, would
extend much beyond our limits.

Colonel Reid illustrated his views by reference to various
circumstances connected with the great hurricane of 1780, and
the position of the several ships of Sir George Rodney's
squadron, as also those of the East India convoys in the hurri-
canes of 1808 and 1809- He pointed out the effects of these
storms on the barometer and sympiesometer, and the practical
lessons to be derived from their indications. He highly eulo-
gized the anemometers of Professor Whewell and Mr Follett
Ossler, and particularly dwelt upon the importance of having
the latter instrument placed at various stations in the usual
tracks of these great hurricanes, as a means of deciding several
important questions connected with them. He likewise pointed

348 Red field and Reid on Storms,

out the value of inducing the several maritime nations to esta-
blish registers at their light-houses, and mutually to communi-
cate their observations, from which would result a fund of most
valuable information, which would doubtless throw light on this,
and on other collateral subjects. He pointed out the coin-
cidences which existed between the revolving motions of storms
in the two hemispheres, and those which galvanism caused
around the poles of magnets ; thus he saw the magnet, when
in conjunction with the voltaic battery, making contrary revo-
lutions around the two poles. He also stated, that where Major
Sabine had found the rxiagnetic intensity least, viz., at St Helena,
there were no violent storms, his line of least intensity ap-
pearing to be the true Pacific Ocean of the world. The lines
of greatest magnetic intensity, on the contrary, seemed to cor-
respond with the localities of hurricanes and typhoons ; for we
find the meridian of the American magnetic pole passing not
far from the Caribbean sea, and that of the Siberian pole through
the China sea. He shewed that the phenomena of water-spouts
were exactly the reverse of those of hurricanes, and alluded to
their electrical states. He mentioned two instances of water-
spouts, one in the northern the other in the southern hemi-
sphere, in which the revolutions were in opposite directions,
but both in the contrary direction to great storms. He ex-
plained the variable high winds of our latitudes, by the storms
expanding in size and diminishing in force as they approach
the poles, and the meridians at the same time nearing each
other, occasioning a huddling together of the gales. He fur-
ther remarked, because the diameters of these circles, over which
the whirl of the storm was spread, often extended from 1000
to 1800 miles, observations made in the meteorological sta-
tions in the British isles, however valuable for other purposes,
would not, by themselves, suffice for throwing light on this
question.

The celebrated American philosopher. Professor Bache of
Philadelphia, brought forward a rival, but unsatisfactory theory
of storms — ^that proposed by the ingenious Mr Espy of Phila-
delphia. Sir John Herschel said he had received from Mr
Redfield his papers on this subject, and embraced this oppor-
tunity of publicly expressing his thanks, and of stating the great

Redfield and Reid on Storms. 34d

pleasure he had derived from their perusal. It was not only at
sea that the practical value of this splendid discovery respecting
hurricanes would develope itself in enabling the sailor to escape
its violence, instead of running ignorantly into the very jaws of
destruction, by attempting to run away ; but even on land it
would suggest invaluable hints for the securing of life and pro-
perty. One or two circumstances connected with Colonel Reid's
charts particularly impressed him. The first was the curious
parabolic shape of the curves denoting the progress of these
storms, so well calculated to give unfailing directions as to the
nature and course of a storm when accidentally encountered at
sea, as the sailor had only to consider the parts of these curves
in which he was placed, and the veering of the wind, and he had
almost placed before him a chart of the hurricane. He next
threw out the suggestion for Colonel Reid's consideration, whe-
ther the Gulf Stream would not perhaps give a clue to the
direction of these curves, as so large a body of comparatively
warm water must most materially tend to heat the air above it,
and thus occasion disturbances of atmospheric equilibrium.
Colonel Reid had stated that he had no theory : in this, no
doubt, he was judicious as an observer ; but, as in the present
assembly, a theory, if it served no better purpose, helped
memory, suggested views, and was even useful by affording
matter for controversy, which might produce brilliant results
by the very collision of intellect. In the second place, he re-
marked, that in the southern hemisphere the oscillations of the
barometer, which were in an opposite direction to those of the
northern, afforded a strong confirmation of the correctness of
Colonel Reid''s views. These revolving hurricanes reminded
him, that on discharging a great gun unshotted, the mouth ot
which had been previously greased, a beautiful ring of smoke
is formed, which passes to a considerable distance with much
permanence, but enlarging constantly in diameter : upon attend-
ing closely to this, every part of the ring will be found to be in
rapid revolving motion, thus exhibiting to the eye a hurricane
in miniature, performing its evolutions. That water-spoutS
should deviate from the law of storms was to be expected. He
supposed them to arise more from some local cause of distur*

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 1838. A a

850 On the probable Dtiratiort of Human Life.

bailee, than from any great revolution in the currents of the
atmosphere. Upon the land they might be produced by local
circumstances, such as a heated space of ground, which would
force the current upwards ; and he could imagine water-spouts
revolving in either one direction or the other. As to Mr Espy's
theory, though he considered it ingenious, yet he did not see
how it was tenable against the indications of the barometer.

On the probable Duration of Human Life.*

Dr Caspar of Berlin, in his valuable work, entitled ' Der
wahrscheinliche Lebensdaur des Menschen, &c.,' 1835, after
having examined the current opinions as to the average dura-
tion of human life, and as to the most satisfactory method of
ascertaining such a result, announces his own doctrine in the
following proposition: — The proportion of births to the popu-
lation in any place expresses almost exactly the medium or ave-
rage duration of life there.

For example, suppose that this proportion is in the ratio of
1 to 28, th«i the average life of the inhabitants of the place
will be found to be 28 years.

If this rule be correct, it must follow that the duration of
life increases and diminishes in a population, according as their
fecundity is greater or less ; so that man, if not as an indivi-
dual, at least as a member of the mass, may be said to have it
in his power to lengthen or to abridge his life.

This, if true, is indeed a proposition of great importance in
political economy.

To prove that the mortality is in a direct ratio with the fe-
cundity of any population, and, consequently, that govern-
ments, seeing that the force of states consists not so much on
the mere number, as on the strength, fecundity, and longevity
of their inhabitants, ought not to favour or encourage an over
abundant population, the author has collected together a vast
number of facts, and for this purpose has drawn up tables of

* Medico-Cliirurgical Review, July 1838.

On the probable Duration of Human Life. 351

the mortality, not only in Prussia, but also in Britain, France,
and Belgium.

From these researches he comes to the conclusion, that every-
where the mortality is directly proportional to the fecundity of
the population.

This doctrine, if confirmed by future inquiries, may, to a
certain extent, reconcile the opinions of Malthus and his oppo-
nents, as it shews us that Nature herself tends to remedy the
evil of a redundant population.

Dr Caspar gives a valuable table of the mortality in Berlin,
for twelve years, from 1817 to 1829, which comprises nearly
70,000 deaths in nearly ^2,000 fiOO inhabitants.

The following are a few interesting data which are derivable
from his researches.

The longevity of the female, is greater than that of the male
sex.

The age of puberty carries off 8 per cent, more of the female
than of the male sex.

The proportion of deaths of women in labour is 1 in 108.

It has been an erroneous, although hitherto a very preva-
lent notion, that the climacteric age of women has a marked
influence in increasing the mortality of the female sex.

This opinion has been shewn to be incorrect by several sta-
tistical writers, and the researches of Dr Caspar confirm the
accuracy of their statements. On the whole, therefore, we
may asseVt that the longevity of the female is greater than that
of the male sex.

It is also worthy of notice that of still-born infants, there are
more of the male than of the female sex.

Dr Caspar proceeds to shew that the medium or average du-
ration of life has increased considerably in most European
cities of late years. In London this increase is great, for it
would seem that, within the last century, probable life has in-
creased by twenty years.

At Geneva, again, in the 16th century one-half of the in-
fants born there died, we are told, before their fifth year ;
whereas, in the present day, it would appear that this half
reaches nearly 43 years of age. A similar remark may be made
as to the increased length of life at Berlin.

A a2

Medium Longevity.

65

years.

62

do.

61

do.

61

do.

69

do.

58

do.

57

do.

56

do.

^^ ^"^^Vn the probable Duration of Human Life, -^bi^

^ 13|^^**taslflar'tifeats' pretty fully on the influence of pursuits
Md occupations on the duration of human life ; and from his
inquiries it appears that clergymen are, on the whole, the long-
est, and medical men arc the shortest livers. The different
classes may be arranged, in respect to longevity, as follows : —

Clergymen, ....
Merchants, ....

Clerks, ....

Farmers, ....

Military Men,

Lawyers, ....

Artists, ....

Medical Men, ....

Another important agent or influence on the probable dura-
tion of life is mari'iage. It is proved by the researches of our
author that the married state is favourable to longevity, and
especially in reference to the male sex.

The influence of poverty and destitution in shortening the
medium duration of life is well known. Dr Caspar gives some
tables of mortality which prove the sad contrast in this respect
between the poor and the affluent. From these it would seem
that the medium age of the nobility in Germany may be stated
at about 50 years, whereas that of the paupers is as low as 32
years.

The last chapter of the work treats of the influence of the
fecundity of a population upon its mortality. Dr Caspar shews,
by a vast number of documents, that " the mortality in any po-
pidation is always in exact ratio to its fecundity,'''' or, in other
words, " the more prolific the people is, the greater usually is the
mortality among them.''''

He alludes to the diff'erence, in this respect, in the different
districts in England ; and maintains that wherever the number
of births is highest, there the mortality is greatest at the same
time.

The same result is derivable from statistical investigations
in Belgium, France, and other countries.

Dr Caspar concludes his work by embodying the general
principles of his researches in the following conclusions : —

Professor Marcet upon the Variations of the Atmosphere. 35S

1. The proportion of births to the actual stationary popula-
tion of any place expresses, or is relative to, the medium dura-
tion of life in that population. ' ^^ymur fir

2. The female sex enjoys, at every period of life, except at
puberty, at which epoch the mortality is rather greater among
young females, a greater longevity than the male sex.

3. Pregnancy and labour occasion, indeed, a considerable loss
of life ; but this loss disappears, or is lost, in the general mass.

4. The so-called climacteric periods of life do not seem to
have any influence on the longevity of either sex. *

5 The medium duration of life, at the present time, is in
Russia about 21 years, in Prussia 29, in Switzerland 34, in
France 36, in Belgium 36, and in England 38 years.

6. The medium duration of life has, in recent times, increased
very greatly in most cities in Europe.

7. In reference to the influence of professions or occupations
on life, it seems that ecclesiastics are, on the whole, the longest,
and medical men are the shortest livers ; military men are
nearly between the two extremes, but yet, proportionally, they,
more frequently than others, reach very advanced years.

8. The mortality is very generally greater in manufacturing
than in agricultural districts.

9. Marriage is decidedly favourable to longevity.

10. The mortality among the poor is always greater than
among the wealthier classes.

11. The mortality in a population appears to be always pro-
portionate to its fecundity, — as the number of births increases
so does the number of deaths at the same time.

Short Account of some Researches upon the Variations which take
place at certaiii times of the day in the Temperature of the
Lower Strata of the Atmosphere. By Professor Marcet.*

The author first examines the observations which had previ-
ously been made upon this subject, and more particularly tjiose

• Lq Soc. de Phy. et d'Hist. Nat. de Genvte. March lasa

35 4j Professor Marcet upon the Variations in the

of M. Fictet, and of the English naturalist Six, undertaken to-
wards the close of the last century. After demonstrating that
the observations of these philosophers are not sufficient in a
satisfactory manner to resolve the different inquiries which pre-
sent themselves, the author proceeds to the description of the
apparatus which he himself employed in the prosecution of the
subject.

This apparatus consists in a mast 114? feet high, composed
of two spars of fir, accurately connected with each other; di-
verse precautions being taken that they should not be broken
or overturned by the violence of the wind. It was placed in
the most favourable situation for experiments of this kind, that
is to say, in the midst of a great field, at a considerable distance
from all habitations. The author adjusted, at the distance of
every ten feet throughout the whole length of the mast, hori-
zontal pieces of wood, to the extremity of which was attached
a little pulley, by means of which the thermometers might be
made to ascend and descend. The thermometers employed
had their bulbs well covered with some good non-conducting
substance, so that it might be certain their temperature did
not vary during the time of their descent. Accurate notation
was made, at the moment of every observation, of the meteoro-
logical condition of the atmosphere, and, in particular, of the
indications of the hygrometer and of the ethrioscope.

The principal object which the author had in view in his re-
searches may be regarded as a solution of the four following-
questions : — Isty To what extent the increase of temperature,
which has been observed in proportion to elevation, during
certain periods of the day, is influenced by the condition of
the sky, and the agitation of the air.? To determine, 2dl^,
in a precise way, at what periods of the day this increase of
temperature becomes perceptible ; if it remain constant, or if
it have a tendency to increase during the night ? Sdli/, Does
the limit of elevation, at which this increase of temperature
ceases, remain constant, or does it vary according to the meteo-
rological state of the atmosphere ? And, 4^/1/3/, Whether the in-
crease of temperature, as well as the limit of its elevation, re-
main constant, or vary according t3 the different seasons of the
year .''

Temperature (jftke Lower Strata of the Atmosphere. 355

The author discusses these four questions successively, and
gives an account of his various observations, which were all
made during the year 1837 and the two first months of the pre-
sent year. The results obtained have led to the following con-
clusions :

1^^, The increase of temperature as you ascend, which is
most conspicuous at the setting of the sun, however variable it
may be, whether as regards its intensity, or its limit of elevation,
is a constant phenomenon, whatever may be the condition of
the sky ; with the single exception of violent winds.*

2c?, The period of the maximum of this increase is that im-
mediately following the setting of the sun. Starting from this
» time it remains stationary, or even frequently diminishes, es-
pecially when the dew is abundant.f At the time of sunrise,
the increase is most frequently less than it was at sunset.

3J, The limit of elevation to which the increase of tempera-
ture extends, appears rarely to surpass the height of 100 feet,
even when the sky is perfectly clear and serene. When it is
very cloudy, and especially in winter, this limit is much lower

Athy The increase of temperature in ascending, varies, both
according to its intensity and as to the limits of its elevation,
according to the different seasons of the year. It is especially
during the winter, and when the surface is covered with snow,
that this phenomenon presents the most remarkable results.

The extraordinary severity of the last winter, enabled the
author to make many observations, upon the remarkable diffe-
rence which may exist between the temperature of different
strata of the air but little separated from each other. The
maximum of this difference amounted, on the 20th of January,

* The author establishes by a great number of observations, that the
plionomenon is not confined to those occasions in which the sky is clear and
serene, as had hitherto been supposed. It also exists, though in a less de-
gree, even when the sky is overcast ; excepting always the periods of violent
winds.

t The author has almost constantly observed that an abundant descent
of dew has a tendency to raise the heat of the strata of air which are
nearest to the earth, and, consequently, to re-establish, to a certain point|
an equilibrium between these strata and the superior ones.

356 Prof. Marcet upon the Variations in the Atmosphere*

to 14°. 4 of Fahr. on a change of elevation of 50 feet. A ther-
mometer placed at the height of two feet above the surface, in-
cheating 3° Fahr., and another at the height of 52 feet, indicat-
ing at the same moment 17°.4. The mean difference, calculat-
ing upon twelve observations made during the period of exces-
sive cold, between the temperature of two strata of air separated
by an interval of 50 feet, was 10° Fahr. These differences
were much less conspicuous during fine weather.

The comparison between the temperature of the air at tico
feet, and sit Jive feet above the surface, perhaps presented still
more remarkable results than the preceding, regard being had
to their great proximity. The difference, calculating from the
mean of nine observations (the surface being then covered with
snow), was 4°. 2 in favour of the more elevated station ; this dif-
ference, on the 4th of January, increased to 7°.2 Fahr.

A great number of trees in the neighbourhood of Geneva
have suffered this winter from the intensity of the frost. The
gardeners have remarked, in many instances, that the lower part
of the tree was frozen, whilst the upper branches remained per-
fectly uninjured. Localities even have been named where a
great number of the trees were found frozen to the height of four
or five feet, and remained green above this limit. The facts
contained in this memoir of M. Marcet serve to account for
these apparent anomalies.*

* Arago, in his Instructions for the use of the Naturalists of the French
Arctic Expedition, at present probably in Spitzbergen, has the following
remarks : — The physical causes which concur in rendering the strata of
the atmosphere calder in proportion as they are more elevated, have not
hitherto been subjected to an accurate appreciation ; on the other hand, we
are almost compelled to suppose that there is some essential omission in
the enumerations which have appeared. This being the case, it has oc-
curred to me that the investigation of an anomaly might better lead to the
detection of the deficiencies, if any exist, and furnish the means of supply-
ing them, than any general study of the phenomenon. This was the reason
why I was solicitous to call the attention of tlie naturalists in La Bonita
going to the Arctic Zone, to the exception which the usual law undergoes
in serene weather y during the night; upon the then increasing progression
which the atmospheric temperatures exhibit from the surface of the earth
to a certain limit of elevation, which has not yet been exactly determined.
At tlie present time this field of research appears to be enlarged. In cer-

/i'tfii\^\'ii<M<^ ( 357 )

Observations and Experiments made upon thtdUusilkiid^'Effildii
of Vinous Fermentation. By M. Cagniaud Latour.* ''^*

That he may prove the high interest of the subject of which
he treats, M. Cagniard Latour recalls to the recollection of the
Academy, that, in the year 1800, the Physical and Mathematical
Class of the Institute proposed the following as the subject of

tain climates the atmospheric temperatures would appear to increase with the
height, even in full day. I have verified this result whilst discussing,
with very different views, the observations of Captains Sabine and Foster,
made in the year 1823, with the intention of determining the elevation of
one of the mountains of Spitzbergen, which was much isolated and very
pointed.

On the 17th of July, between 4h. 30' and 6h. p.ni. the mean temperature
of the air was —

At the lower station, + 1°.6 Centigr,

At the summit of the mountain 501 faths. high, -f F.9 ;
The weather was dull, with a gentle breeze.

On the 18th of July, between 3h. 20' and 6h. p.m

At the lower station, -f- 1'.9

At the summit of the mountain, . . . -f- 1''.2 ;
There was a thick mist, and a moderate breeze.

On the 20th of July, between midnight and 2 a.m. —
(Note. — It is here to be remembered that on the 20th of July the sun
never sets at Spitzbergen, and that at midnight it is pretty high above the
horizon. In the place where Captain Sabine observed it was about Il°.)

At the lower station, + 2°.4

At the top of the mountain, . . . . + 4°.4 ;
• The weather was most beautiful and serene.

On the 21st of July, between lO^h. a.m., and half-past noon —
At the lower station, .....+ 4''.3

At the top of the mountain + 3°.9 ;

It rained at the lower station, and the mountain was enveloped in clouds.

It will now be observed that the anomaly is not exhibited when the sky
is wholly overcast. On the contrary, it attains its maximum under a serene
sky. All this perfectly accords with the explanation we have given of the
phenomenon in our instructions for La Bonit€, and which are grounded upon
the laws of the i-adiation of heat ; which also leads to the supposition, that, in
our own climate, when the weather is good, the temperature of the atmo-

• In a Report to UAcademie de$ Sciences. By MM. Tlii^nard, Becquerel^
and Turpin ; July 1838. ♦ ja'*»*iq 9«lJ it--

858 M. Latour''s Observations on the Cause and

their prize : What are the distivguishing Characters in Vege-
table and Animal Matters which excite^ and those which undergo,
the process of Fermentation? This question, which was again
proposed in the year 1802, was withdrawn in the year 1804, as
well as those proposed by the other classes, on account of an
unexpected event which deprived the Institute of the funds
which were intended to pay the prizes.

This great question concerning the unknown action of the in-
ternal movement of fermentation, and its extraordinary results,
a question which, at one and the same time, relates to physics,
chemistry, and physiology, having remained so long unsolved,
M. Cagniard Latour, who has been engaged with it for more

sphere may increase and not decrease with the height, even previous to
liie setting of the sun. Certain arrangements, which for a long while I have
contemplated, would enable me to subject this conjecture to a decisive
proof. In the mean while, we would suggest that the Academy should soli-
cit the members of the Northern Expedition to prosecute with continued
attention the phenomenon which I have submitted to their notice. A ba-
loon with a cord attached to it, which would convey a self-registering ther-
mometer, and which might be made to ascend from time to time, would
furnish more conclusive observations than any that could be made on a
mountain, however isolated or steep. The only recommendation we would
make would be, to substitute a horizontal thermometer, for those of Ruther-
ford and Six with a moving index, whose employment can be little de-
pended upon, on account of the violent oscillations of the baloon during the
ascent and descent, and even during its somewhat protracted sojovirn at its
highest elevation. *

• After this paragraph was written, I found in the work of M. Pictet some ob-
servations upon atmospheric temperatures increasing with the elevation, which
were made during the night, or at least when the sun was below the horizon.
M. Biot has also sent me the following note, regarding the obserj^ations of
General Roy and Dr Lind, upon the measurement of heights by the barometer,
taken from the Phil. Trans. 1777, p. 728. After citing some observations taken
at very insignificant elevations, in which, by local influences, the upper thermo-
meter had indicated a somewhat higher temperature than the lower, the author
adds, " But the most remarkable example of this kind occurred in one of Dr
Lind's observations, when a thaw supervened, on the 31st Jan. 1776, to a'severe
frost. At Hawk Hill near Edinburgh (the lower station) at lOh. 45' a.m., the
temperature in the open air was 14° Fahr. ; when at the top of Arthur Seat (the
higher station) it was at 20° F. The ground, which «till continued frozen, kept
the air very cold below, whilst the thaw had made considerable progress on the
top of the hill — The difference of the level of the stations here specified was
684 English feet, and the excess of the temperature at the top of the column
was 6° ; but as the intermediate elevations were not examined, it cannot be de-
termined whether this increase was continuous, or if a real decrease had not pre-
viously existed at the higher station.

Effects of Vinous Fermentation. 369

than twenty-five years, has at his leisure resumed its conside-
ration, and by bringing new instruments to bear upon its in-
vestigation, more especially the microscope, has obtained very
remarkable results.

That he may preserve ail possible order in his observations,
and to simplify as much as possible the object of his interesting
researches, the author has confined himself to the most import-
ant as it is the most useful of all fermentations, viz. that whose
object is to convert saccharine matter into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas, and which in chemistry is designated as the Vinous
Jermentation.

M. Cagniard Latour, thoroughly convinced that hencefor-
ward all chemical analyses must be preceded and illustrated by
microscopic analyses, that so the nature of the bodies under in-
vestigation may be recognised, whether inorganic, or organic,*
or finally organized organic, t has, as remarked, used the mi-
croscope, without whose use we can no longer speak of any body
with confidence.

The microscopic analysis of that paste which is named beer-
ferment^ which in chemistry is regarded as a simple substance,
and which separates from wort of beer during the fermentation
as yeasty under the form of scum and sediment, has convinced
M. Cagniard Latour that this paste, though apparently simple,
is, on the contrary, when observed through the microscope, a
mass entirely composed of a multitude of globular and slightly
oval particles, which are vesicular, transparent, and full of
smaller globules, the largest reaching to the size of about the
hundredth part of a millimetre, or the three-millionth part of
an English inch, without motion, and consequently, vegetable
in their nature, according to our most approved definitions.

After having recognised that the vesicular globules of the
yeast of beer were organized, the experimentalist was anxious
to ascertain by the microscope how these little vegetables exist,
and are formed in beer, and how, finally, they are multiplied

* Organic matter, considered as an element of organization, and only im-
pregnated with those elements of life which organized bodies possess.

t The organic matter employed temporarily in the structure of a vege-
table or animal, or the organization destroyed, and reduced into a gelatinous
substance.

M. I^atour^s Observations on the Cause and

k)''ks'to produce a very considerable augmentation of new
ferment

M. Cagniard Latour inquired if the globular vegetables of
the yeast were limited, as it regards their organization, to a
maternal vesicle capable of reproducing and multiplying itself
by small seeds, produced by extension, either from the external
surface, or, what is more probable, from the internal; or whether,
placed in a somewhat more elevated order of organization, they
do not represent in the mass of the ferment, simple reproducing
bodies, of that kind which germinate and advance to minute
vessels of a somewhat more complicated nature.

The author made many attempts to arrive at a more certain
knowledge of the organization and physiology of these mi-
croscopic vegetables. The first, not very adroitly executed, or
possibly conducted on too small a scale, did not produce any
vegetation, — the yeast decayed, and became decomposed. But
it was very different with another attempt, though long and
troublesome, which was made during the night in the English
brewery of M. Leperdriel, in a vat containing about S60 gallons
of the wort of porter.

This wort, when first examined in the microscope, only exhi-
bited a great number of very slender particles without any de-
terminate form ; but after the yeast had been introduced for
about half an hour, about ten o'clock at night, between 6 and 7
pounds of ferment having been added, the wort, when again
examined, exhibited solely the vesicular globules of the ferment
which had been employed, the number of which in the field of
the microscope might amount to about eighteen. After this,
specimens were taken from the vat every hour until six o'clock
in the morning, the time required for the fabrication of the
porter ; and these presented successively the following trans-
formations : —

In the first, all, or nearly all, the simple globules of the
yeast which had been introduced into the wort, were observed
to be supplied with one or two small buds, more transparent
than the maternal globule, of which, however, they seemed ex-
tensions. Some of them had not as yet produced their bud,
whilst others, more advanced than those first mentioned, were

Effects of Vinous Fermentat'tonA XA 061

found composed of two equal globular joints, thLs new bud
having attained the diameter of the mother or producing globule.
ir> In the second specimen, the whole of the globules were now
composed of two joints, and on some of these joints were to be
seen sometimes one and sometimes two new buds, whieiiTWei'tt
opposite, and placed in a contrary direction. --■ (fMnv yd

The inspection of six other samples taken from the vat from
hour to hour, demonstrated to M. Cagniard Latour that the
vegetation had steadily advanced ; for in the liquid of the
eighth portion a great number of objects might be discovered,
formed of three, four, and even five globular joints, whic|^ had
successively produced one another, and which were arranged in
a series, like a string of beads. Among them many were per-
ceived which had not made the same progress. Some of these
were still nothing more than a simple globule, others exhibited
upon this globule one or two nascent buds, or two or three
globules supplied, for the most part, with terminal buds. Be-
sides, as the product of these vegetable developments, the ex-
perimentalist conceived that thenumber of globules was greater
than in the first sample after the yeast had been put in. But
on this point no doubt could remain, for the author adds, that
some days later, when the whole of the yeast produced in the
vat was collected, the quantity amounted to 47 pounds, nearly
seven times the quantity of the ferment which had been put
into the must. At this time likewise scarcely any other than
simple or isolated globules were discoverable ; indicating the
great facility with which these minute moniliform vegetables
disarticulate themselves, when the conditions necessary to their
existence are no longer present.

In this set of microscopic observations, whose principal re-
sults have now been alluded to, M. Cagniard Latour states
that he has remarked a difference between the appearance of
the simple globules of the yeast and that of those which were
developed in succession during the act of fermentation ; these
latter, as being younger than the former, appearing more opaque
and cloudy. He also noticed, but only on two occasions, that
the globules emitted, by a kind of explosion, a remarkably fine
powder.

M. Cagniard Latour has remarked that the globules of yeast

36S M. Latour's ObservcUlons on the Cause and

had a constant tendency to rise to the surface of the wort so long
as the fermentation continued, and he is inclined to believe that
this tendency is owing to the disengagement of the gas of the
globules which are suspended in the wort. He also thinks that
he has perceived that these globules, whilst agitated in the wort,
diminish in size by contracting, and that, as the result of this
contraction, they emit, in the liquid space, small seeds (semi-
nules) or reproductive bodies, which, after having vegetated
and attained the diameter of the original globule, had the faculty
of developing themselves in the way of successive buds, and of
so producing, as we have already said, minute moniliform vege-
tables. As we have seen, the author admits these two distinct
methods in the reproduction and multiplication of the minute
vegetable in beer-ferment, — both that by small seeds, and that
by germination or budding ; an observation which appears the
more interesting, as it is in perfect keeping with the twofold
mode of reproduction of all the simple microscopic vegetables
situated at the limit of the scale of vegetation.

If M. Cagniard Latour had not thought himself obliged to
answer the questions proposed about the vegetable or animal
nature of the globules of the yeast, we should have ventured
to have blamed him for spending too much time in discussions
which appear idle ; for the discussion is concerning organized
productions, which, being neither common esculents, nor mam-
miferous animals, can be distinguished only by what they them-
selves really are, isolated in nature, and without regarding our
conventional characters of vegetables and animals. It would
have been more suitable to have said, Y east is not a simple sub-
stance or chemical product, as has been thought. What ap-
pears a dry and soft paste is an agglomeration of vesicular
globules, without locomotive power, organized, because suscep-
tible of absorption, assimilation, and increase by the addition of
joints, and finally, of reproducing and multiplying themselves ;
in short, according to the prevailing opinions, — a vegetable.

After having demonstrated that ferment or yeast is an accu-
mulation of minute vegetables, or at least of bodies capable of
producing them, the author proceeds to some observations which
are purely chemical. He remarks, \st. That yeast acting upon
sugar loses its nitrogen, as is generally known ; 2 J, That all ve-

Effects of Vinous Fermentation. 363

getables in a rudimentary state yield ammonia directly upon dis-
tillation. He then insists upon the production or augmentation
of the yeast, which, for each vat, yields about seven times the
quantity put into the wort. This augmentation, which might be
supposed to proceed from a precipitation of the vegetable albu-
men which is found in the wort, M. Cagniard Latour, accord-
ing to his observations, simply and positively accounts for by
the multiplication of globules, as above explained, and the num-
ber of which agrees well with the augmentation of the weight.

As a proof of the vegetable organization of the globules of
yeast, the author recalls to our recollection, that this yeast
quickly and properly dried may, like a great many seeds, be
preserved for a very long time, and is after this susceptible,
when placed in favouring circumstances, as in sugar and water,
of germination, vegetation, and the production of vinous fermen-
tation. This happens, even when it has been exposed to a tem-
perature so low as 60** cent, or below zero, Fabr. Finally, M.
Cagniard Latour closes his memoir with this observation : " All
those who are concerned with fermentation on a great scale,
such as brewers, distillers, &c. know that in spite of all the care
they can bestow, the result is always very variable. This very
irregularity favours the hypothesis, that vinous fermentation i*
excited by a substance, which is endowed with vitality, for who
does not know in how many different ways such substances
may be affected."''

The discovery of this author merits the most detailed exami-
nation, and with every possible care. It requires many experi-
riments and microsco])ic observations, long-continued minute
and repeated observations, which can neither be well explain-
ed nor comprehended, except by the help of numerous fi-
gures, which are herewith submitted to the examination of the
academy. We have personally, say the reporters^ submitted to
this examination with the greater interest, because from the
commencement we have recognised the truth of the facts an-
nounced by the author, and the vast importance of their appli-
cation to physics, chemistry, physiology, and domestic economy.

( 364 )

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Fleecy cumuli, increasing in number and size.

Do. still increasing.

Do. becoming more defined in their edges.

Clouds fewer, and more fleecy.

Clouds numerous and fleecy ; little blue sky.

Clouds chiefly to the north.

Clouds smaller, and more numerous.

Clouds chiefly in north and west.

Few clouds. [ing with different velocities ; comoid cirri.

Dense clouds, with rain, N W. & N.NE. ; two strata of air mov-

Dense arches of clouds from W. to N.; comoid cirri N. by E. to

Light floating cumuli all over the sky. [S. by W.

Fine evening ; cirro-cumuli and cumuli over the whole sky.

Cumuli small and few ; bank of clouds along the horizon. '

Clouds more numerous, but small ; fine evening.

Sky nearly obscured by thin fleecy clouds.

Sky obscured by dense clouds ; a few drops of rain.

Sky still dull ; some small drops of rain. [of rain.

Clouds denser, obscuring the sky, and driving very fast ; drops

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( 365 )

J brief View of the Botany of Ireland, By J. T. Mackav,
M.R.I.A., A.L.S.*

Although the Flora of Ireland is not so numerous as that
of Great Britain, it possesses a good many plants not found in
England or Scotland, some of which may be noticed, together
with others of rather rare occurrence to be found in different
parts of the country.

Killarney is celebrated for its large specimens of ArbutuS
{A. tmedo), and the Kerry and Cork mountains furnish several
species of Saxifrage, of the Rohertsonia or London Pride divi*
sion, not found elsewhere in Britain, as may be seen by refer-
ring to the Flora Hibernica. The rare and beautiful fern Tri-
chomanes birvisetum, now so much sought after, is found in
greater abundance near Killarney than any other place in Ire-
land.-f- Brandon, in the county of Kerry, is one of the richest
mountains in Ireland for alpine plants, near to which, on Con-
nor Hill, the rare little procumbent plant Sibthorpia Europaa
is to be seen in abundance. The Pinguicida grandiflora, found
abundantly near Cork and other parts of the country, is parti-
cularly deserving of notice, as it is now much sought after by
cultivators.

The wild district of Connemara in the county of Galway
furnishes a considerable number of rare and interesting plants,
the most remarkable of which are the following : — Erica Medi-^
ierranea, found on Urrisbeg, near Roundstone, which species
has, since its first discovery there, also been found in Erris ^
Erica MacJcaiajia, Menziesia polifolia or Irish heath, which, as
well as the beautiful variety with white flowers, are now gene-
ral favourites in garden collections. The curious Eriocaxdon
septangidare, which also grows in the island of Skye, in Scot-
land, is here to be seen in almost every lake. The London
Pride, Saxifraga umbrosa, is found on several of the moun-
tains in the greatest abundance ; on Muilrea mountain in the

■ Drawn up for Messrs Curry & Co.'s " New Guide to Travellers in Ire-
land," not yet published. — Edit.

t It has recently been found by Robert Ball, Esq. in the county of "Wa-*
terford.

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 18S8. B b

366 Mr Mackay on the Botany of Ireland.

county of Mayo, on Croagh Patrick, and in Erris. Saxifraga
oppositi/blia, which grows plentifully in the Donegal and Sligo
mountains, is also to be met with on the range of mountains
which separates Connemara from Joyce country. The isles of
Arran afford the beautiful and delicate Admntum capillus-Ve-
neris, or true maiden-hair fern, in the greatest profusion, in
the crevices of the limestone rocks, of which the islands are com-
posed. It is also found more sparingly near Roundstone and
on the high mountain range between Tralee and Dingle, in the
county of Kerry.

In a recent botanical tour through Connemara and other parts
of the county of Galway, the following plants were added to the
Flora of that country : — Carex filiformis and Cai'cx limosa in
boggy ground near Woodstock, four miles from Galway, on
the road to Outerard, and on a small limestone hill opposite to
it Orohanche rubra, hitherto only found on trap-rocks, near
Belfast and Magilligan. The genus Orohanche^ of which we
have three species indigenous to Ireland, is generally supposed
to be parasitical. One species, Orohanche major, grows on the
roots of the common broom ; hence the English name broom-
rape. Another species, Orohanche minor, is in this country in-
variably found near the roots of ivy, and does not appear to dif-
fer from the species known by that name in England, which is
there always found among clover. Orohanche ruhra, however,
does not appear to derive its nourishment from any other plant,
but is generally found growing in the crevices of rocks.

By the side of the Outerard road, near Ross, and in Ross
woods, Plmpinella magna was found in great abundance. A
new habitat for the Erica mediterranea was observed by Simon
Foot, Esq., Joseph Hooker, Esq., and others, on the side of
Mulrea mountain near the Killeries ; and on the cliffs near the
summit Oxyria reniformis was found for the first time.

Erica Mackaiana was also seen in full flower about half-way
between Cliffden and Roundstone, where it was originally dis-
covered. It promises to be a great acquisition to our garden
collections.

Silene Anglica was found abundantly in corn-fields, and by
the way- side, two miles to the west of Outerard. It had previ-
ously been observed sparingly in (he county of Donegal.

Mr Mackay on the Botany of Ireland. 367

On the Burren mountains, county of Clare, the mountain of
Avens, Dryas octopetala, which is also found in Antrim, is most
abundant ; and the Potentilla Jruticosa^ which is found plenti-
fully at Rock ForcL , near Gort, is also worthy of notice. Ben
Bulben and the other adjoining limestone mountains in the
county of Sligo are interesting to the botanist, in producing the
rare Arcnaria ciliata, together with a good many other alpine
plants, some of which may be mentioned, viz. — Silene acaulis,
Alchemilla alpiiia, Thalictrum alpinum, Oxyr'ia reniformis,
Rkodiola rosea ; and since the publication of Flora Hibernica,
Sax'tfraga nivalis^ an inhabitant of the highest cliffs of Ben
Lomond, Ben Lawers, and other mountains in the Highlands
of Scotland, has been added to our Flora, by John Wynne,
Esq, of Hazlewood.

The Donegal mountains, as far as they have been explored,
do not appear to have any plants peculiar to them ; but the ad-
joining county of Antrim contains some of the rarer productions
of our island, of which Orohanche ruhra^ found on the trap-
rocks of Magilligan and on the Cave Hill near Belfast, may be
noticed, and Arenaria verna in the former station. On a moun-
tain near Garvagh in the same county, Mr Moore, the able bo-
tanist attached to the Ordnance Survey, has found three species
of Pyrola^ viz : — Pyrola media, minor, and secunda, the only
habitat in Ireland for the last-named species. Mr Moore has
also found in Antrim, Car ex Buxhaumii and Calamagrostis
lappomca, new to the British and Irish Floras.

In the neighbourhood of Dublin, from its vicinity to the sea
and mountains, a large proportion of the plants of Ireland is to
be found ; and the botanist will be well rewarded by visiting
Howth, Portmarnock Sands, Killiney hill, and the adjoining
county of Wicklow ; but as the habitats of all the rarer plants
are given in our Flora, it is unnecessary to enumerate them in
this short sketch.

Doctor Taylor, the celebrated Cryptogamic botanist, has well
described the Mosses, Hepatica?, and Lichens of Ireland in the
second part of the Flora Hibernica, from which it will be seen
that our island is rich in those minute vegetables. In the last-
mentioned family, the lichenes — he has described many species

Bb2

1)68 M. Becquerel on the Disengagement of

quite new, chiefly found by him near Dunkerrin, in the county
of Kerry, where he now resides.

The shores of Ireland are also rich in marine plants, which
are ably described by Mr Harvey in ths above-mentioned work.
The late Miss Hutchins of Ballylickey has enabled us to record
the many rare and interesting species found by her at Bantry
Bay, as has Mr Harvey those of the coast of Clare and other
places ; and Miss Ball has very successfully examined the Wa-
terford coast near Youghal. To Mr Templeton, the late emi-
nent botanist ; Doctor Drummond of Belfast ; and Mr Moore,
we are indebted for a knowledge of many rare species of Algae,
found by them on the Antrim coast. In conclusion, we may add
that it cannot now be said that the botany of Ireland is little
known.

Summary of some new Inquiries concerning the Disengagement
of Caloric by Friction. By M. Becquerel, President of
the Academy of Sciences for the year 1838.*

All bodies are regarded as formed by the union of an infi-
nite number of molecules or atoms surrounded by heat, which
opposes their immediate contact ; all theoretic views concerning
the nature of heat being at the same time avoided. When its
quantity is increased or diminished, the distance between the
atoms becomes alternatively greater or smaller, and the size of
the body undergoes correspondent variations.

It is also admitted that these same atoms are subjected to an
attractive power which tends to their mutual approximation,
and which, consequently, is opposed to the repulsive action of
heat. With these two a third power is finally associated in the
constitution of bodies, viz. the attraction of the atoms for the
heat, which surrounds the neighbouring atoms. So long as the
power of aggregation prevails over the other two, the body con*
tinues solid ; if the heat is increased, a time comes when the
atoms acquire a certain degree of mobility, and the body be-
comes liquid. And, finally, if the quantity of heat becomes so
considerable that it quite overcomes the power of aggregation,
the body assumes the gaseous form. The atoms of bodies be-

* Bead to the Academie des Sciences, Aug. 13. 1838.

Caloric by Friction. 369

ing thus maintained at greater or less distances, in virtue of the
reciprocal actions of heat and the power of aggregation, they
must be separated from each other by interstitial spaces in which
all the phenomena of light, heat, mutual affinities, and atomic
attraction play their parts. It is then in these spaces that the im-
ponderable agents unceasingly contend with the material prin-
ciples of bodies.

Caloric must here exert a very powerful agency ; for, accord-
ing to its intensity and mode of action, it produces both light
and electricity, and induces the play of the chemical affinities.
Hence it follows that we cannot study too minutely the proper-
ties of this agent in relation to the particles of bodies, if we wish
to ascertain its immediate influence in all that concerns natural
phenomena of the very highest order. These considerations
suggested the idea of a series of experimental researches which
have led to some new results, of which we shall now endeavour
to supply a sketch, entering as slightly as possible into those
technical details which it would be difficult to follow in a hasty
perusal.

We shall first direct our attention to a body in equilibrium,
as it regards temperature, with the surrounding medium. If, in
any way, we so disturb this body, that its atoms lose their na-
tural equilibrium, it is evident that all the imponderable agents
which are placed in the interstitial spaces will be put in motion.
A crowd of phenomena is the immediate consequence, which the
philosopher must endeavour to analyze with every help which
science puts at his disposal. We shall first direct our attention
to the effects produced by heat v/hen friction is the disturbing
cause employed.

It is well known that when two bodies are rubbed against
each other, heat and electricity are disengaged. Are these ef-
fects, which are concomitant, also dependent upon each other ?
This we shall discuss by and by, and shall dwell now solely
upon the effects of the heat.

All that we know concerning the production of heat by the
mutual friction of two bodies may be reduced to this : the two
bodies become hot, and the quantity of heat emitted is sometimes
such that it is sufficient to set combustible bodies on fire. Thus it
is, that a wheel turning rapidly on the axletree takes fire ; and

370 M. Becquerel on the Disengagement of

that many savages, with an address and dexterity which we
do not possess, succeed in lighting pieces of wood by rubbing
them against each other with astonishing rapidity. Every thing
leads to the conclusion that the eflfect thus produced is owing
to the vibratory motion produced by the rubbing, upon the
atoms, and the following facts go to prove this supposition.

When an alloy of one part of iron and two parts of antimony
is subjected to the action of a file, bright sparks are immediate-
ly produced, which proves that the temperature is raised above
incandescence. The percussion of flint and steel produces a si-
milar effect. M. de Rumford in boring a cannon placed verti-
cally, found so much heat produced, that he thereby boiled water,
in a small cavity which was favourably situated. This, then,
is nearly all that we know concerning the disengagement of ca-
loric through the agency of friction ; and thus it would appear
that we are completely ignorant of the part which each of the
bodies plays in the production of the phenomenon, both as it
respects its inherent nature, and the state of its surface.

That we may determine how far each body is concerned, we
must endeavour to separate all the causes which obscure the
effect we are investigating, although, unfortunately, it is scarce-
ly possible to carry this purpose into execution. In fact, when
we rub two bodies against each other, more or less rapidly, their
contact being continuous, there is an evident transmission of
heat from the one body to the other. The quantity which is
transmitted from each of them, depends upon the conducting
power of the body, also upon its capacity for caloric, and upon
the state of its surface. Moreover, the caloric disengaged from
one of the bodies cannot be immediately ascertained before its
transmission into the other, with the common thermometers, be-
cause their indications are not instantaneous. But, notwith-
standing all this, means may be devised by which we may suc-
ceed in operating in circumstances which will overcome many
of the difficulties at which we have hinted, and the following
facts are some of the results of these arrangements.

The apparatus with which these effects were observed, con^
sists of a thermo-electrical pile, having an excellent multiplica-
tor. Such is its sensitiveness, that the differences of about a
hundredth part of a degree, of the Centigrade thermometer, be-

Caloric by Fricticni. 371

tween the two faces of the pile, causes the needle to traverse so
much that the angle of difference is quite appreciable.

To reduce the question to the most simple expression pos-
sible, two bodies of the same nature were selected, which were
bad conductors of caloric, which were equal in all their dimen-
sions, and which presented no other difference than that which
arose from the different conditions of their surfaces. These
bodies were conveniently fixed on glass stalks. The rubbed sur-
faces were each placed in contact with one of the faces of the pile.
When the two surfaces have the same temperature, the needle
remains in repose, owing to the circumstance that the two ther-
mo-electrical currents are equal, and flowing in opposite direc-
tions, they destroy each other. But when the temperature is
not the same, the needle speedily traverses, and the angle of
movement enables us to measure the difference of the tempe-
rature. The friction- by means of suitable apparatus, is pro-
duced with a determined velocity and precision, so that its in-
tensity is always known. The two bodies can easily be sepa-
rated instantaneously from each other, and can be immediately
subjected to the required examination. These are the methods
by which the experiments were made, and we now proceed to
the results.

We begin by inquiring into the effect produced upon the
needle by the contact of one of the rubbed surfaces with one of
the faces of the pile ; in short, with the effect produced by the
heating of this face.

Experiment proves that, whatsoever is the nature of the rub-
bed disk, whether it be a conductor or a non-conductor of heat,
the time which the needle requires to attain its maximum of
traversing, provided the traversing does not exceed 60°, is al-
ways 10". For a traversing to the extent of between 60° and
15°, it takes 9^% and 9", for deviations which reach from 75* to
90^

The needle, then, in this respect, corresponds to a pendulum
which oscillates, under the action of a weight, within narrow
limits, since the deviations are isochronous ; at the same time,
with this difference, that in the pendulum, when the amplitude
of the oscillation increases beyond a certain limit, the time of
oscillation also increases, whilst the contrary occurs in the ex«

S7S M. Becquerel on the Disengagement of

periments we are describing, that is to say, that the time dimi-
nishes in proportion as the increase augments from beyond 60*=>
to 92°. This result is connected with the propagation of heat
and electricity in bodies.

Let us now take two bodies of the same nature, quite equal
in size, and arranged as already described. Let us, for example,
take two disks of cork, the one of which shall have its surface
smooth, and the other made thoroughly rough. If one of these
be rubbed against the other in a regular and steady manner,
and they are then presented simultaneously to the two faces of the
thermo-clectrical pile, the needle immediately traverses, and its
direction indicates that the roughened disk has acquired more
heat than the other, and this in a ratio which varies with the
rapidity of the friction. Precisely the same result follows when
a piece of polished glass is rubbed upon a portion of rough
glass. In the circumstances in which we have operated the
former has acquired only half the heat of the latter. It fol-
lows then, that the absorbing power of bodies exerts an in-
fluence upon the disengagement of caloric during friction.
This law, however, does not appear to be general, for white sa-
tin acquires more caloric than black satin, which has a greater
absorbing power.

If bodies of different natures be submitted to experiment,
the following results are obtained. Experiment \st^ with po-
lished glass and cork ; — here the former substance acquires
more heat than the latter, in the ratio of 34 to 5. 2f?, with
rough glass and cork ; — here the ratio is as 40 to 7. 3^, with
silver and cork ; — the ratio in this case is as 50 to 12. 4^/i,
with caoutchouc and cork ; — the ratio here is as 29 to 11 ; and
so with many more. Regarding these, we observe that the nu-
merous results which we have obtained from the friction of dif-
ferent bodies, do not supply us with any simple laws, on ac-
count of the many different causes which all bear on the gene-
ral result. It appears only, that the nature of a hody^ an ab-
straction made, distinct from its conducting power, exercises an
influence which the state of the surface does not always destroy.
We have found it impossible hitherto to discover the cause of
this influence, which depends on the nature of the bodies, and
probably upon the arrangement of their atoms. But it is no

Caloric by Friction. 373

small matter that we have exhibited it by experiments, for we are
thus supplied with another element, which henceforward may
be taken into consideration in the theory of heat.

If we now inquire concerning the relations which exist be-
tween the production of heat and the production of electricity,
in the mutual friction of two bodies, the following are the con-
sequences which result from the experiments which have been
recently made. The displacement of parts of the rubbed surfaces
always occasions a disengagement of heat and a disengagement of
electricity, — two effects which exert a mutual dependence. This
dependence, however, is so much obscured, that it is still im-
possible to affirm if the one precedes the other, or vice versa.
We can only make conjectures on the point, — conjectures which
go to shew that the heat is derived from the electricity, when the
bodies are of the same nature, — are bad conductors of caloric, —
and only differ as to the condition of their surfaces. The sur-
face which is most heated becomes negatively electrified ; and
that which is least heated positively. When the bodies are dif-
ferent, the effects become more complex, and can be interpreted
only when the results are immediately under observation.

Some facts recently brought under review permit us to group
together the relations discovered between heat and electricity,
and of which phosphorescence supplies an example. It is known
that this phenomenon shews itself wherever particles of bodies
which are bad conductors of electricity are disturbed by per-
cussion, friction, heat, light, a shock of electricity, or when they
are decomposed by chemical action. These causes are precise-
ly those which likewise disengage electricity ; and the pheno-
mena being atomic, must produce an infinite number of minute
sparks which together produce a faint light similar to phospho-
rescence. Hence we may suppose that phosphorescence has an
electrical origin.

In glow-worms (Lampyris) and the infusoria, we are igno-
rant whence the phosphorescence proceeds, and if it be owing
to electricity. The important experiments, however, of M.
Ehrenberg are about to instruct us. This able physiologist
has lately been studying with peculiar care the light which is
emitted in darkness by the infusoria and the annelides which
make the ocean luminous in certain countries, especially when

374 On the Disengagement of Caloric by Friction.

its surface is agitated by a gentle breeze. Having placed on
the object-glass of his microscope, water containing these ani-
nialcula, he was exceedingly astonished to perceive, that the
diffuse glimmer which surrounded them was nothing else than
a collection of a vast number of small sparks which came
from every part of their bodies, and particularly from the bo-
dies of the annelides. These sparks, which succeeded each
other with great rapidity, had such a resemblance with those
we observe in common electrical discharges, that M. Ehrenberg
does not hesitate to conclude that they are identical. He has
also satisfied himself that the light emitted is not owing to a
particular secretion, but solely to a voluntary act of the ani-
malcule, and that it shews itself as often as it is irritated by
mechanical or chemical means, that is to say, by agitating the
water, or throwing either alcohol or acid into it. This is an
additional analogy with the torpedo, which only gives a dis-
charge when it is irritated. In the animalcula, as in the tor-
pedo, it is also observed that the discharge recommences after
a certain time of repose. From this similarity of effects, in the
same circumstances, may we not infer an identity as to the
causes ? Now, in the torpedo, it is already known, and no one
longer doubts it is electricity ; and, hence, we must admit that
electricity is also the cause which produces the phosphorescence
of the infusoria and the annelides. It is sufficiently remark-
able that the luminous or other phenomena which depend upon
electricity are so much the stronger in proportion as the ani-
mals are smaller ; and it would appear that this profusion of
the electrical fluid, which is emitted only by beings of an in-
ferior order, is destined to discharge other functions in beings
of a hiffher order.

o

Is it not, after this, allowable to imagine, as M. Berzelius
and other philosophers have advanced, that the light which is
disengaged by combustion, and which occasions so great a
disengagement of electricity, is, also, nothing more than the
result of the discharge of an infinite number of small sparks
produced in the combination of combustible with other burn-
ing bodies ?

We perceive, therefore, that the relations which associate to-
gether light, heat, and electricity, acquire from day to day ad-

Ehrenberg and Hausmann on Siliceous Earth. 375
ditional extension, and demonstrate that these three agents
which rule in the atomic constitution of bodies, are derived, ac-
cording to all appearances, from a single principle of an ethereal
nature, spread throughout space and through all bodies.

On Profeasor Ehrenberg and Hausmann' s Discoveries regard-
ing two varieties of Siliceous Earth found near Oherohe in
the Hanoverian Province of Liineberg.

On the 8th January 1838, Professor Hausmann communi-
cated to the Royal Society of Sciences of Gottingen, a prelimi-
nary notice, on a discovery connected with our own country,
which is undoubtedly among the most remarkable facts lately
added to the science of geognosy.

In the month of November this year, Colonel von Hammer-
stein, President of the Provincial Agricultural Society at
Uelzen, in the territory of Liineberg, the able author of seve-
ral prize essays, and the zealous promoter of the agriculture
of his native country, had the goodness to send to Professor
Hausmann two specimens of varieties of earth, which were
dug out near Oberohe during an excavation made by the
above-mentioned society in the district of Ebstorf. The ex-
treme lightness of these varieties of earth rendered it improba-
ble that they were of an argillaceous nature ; but their state of
aggregation did not permit us to conclude that they consisted
of pure silica, although, notwithstanding this, they really have
such a composition, according to the chemical examination
kindly instituted by Dr Wigners in the academical laboratory.
The specimen No. 1. according to this investigation, is chemi-
cally pure silica. It has, at the same time, a fine, extremely
loose, earthy, flaky consistence, and a chalk- white colour. It
has a soft and meagre feeling, somewhat like starch, and does
not grate between the teeth. On water it swims for a moment,
then sinks down, and gradually swells up. Mixed with a little
water, it acquires a pasty consistence, without being adhesive.
The specimen No. 2 is also silica, but contains likewise a very
insignificant quantity of a matter destructible in fire. Its frac-
ture is fine-earthy ; the colour brownish-grey, slightly inclining
to green, becoming darker by the addition of moisture. It is

ST6 Ehrenberg and Hausmann on the Varieties of

friable, meagre, but soft to the touch, and adheres to the tongue.
It swims on water for some minutes, but it afterwards sinks, ab-
sorbing water with a noise, giving out many air-bubbles, and
then expands gradually by irregular splitting of the laminae,
without being altogether separated. When exposed to heat, it
rapidly assumes a white colour. Here and there it is traversed
by veins of a pure, chalk-white, fine-earthy sihca, filled with
smaller or larger cavities.

According to the information communicated by Colonel von
Hammerstein to Professor Hausmann, this silica has been
found in astonishing quantity in six different places of the
above-mentioned district, on the edge and first acclivity of the
great plateau of the Litnehurger Haide, covered to the depth
of only one foot and a half by the soil. The pure white silica
forms the upper bed, and has a thickness of 10 feet to 18 feet.
The coloured portion is beneath, and has been already pene-
trated to a depth of 10 feet, without the lower boundary having
been reached.

The peculiar state of aggregation of this silica led Professor
Hausmann to conjecture that it might be analogous to the
Kieselguhr found in the turf at Franzensbad in Bohemia, and
that, like that substance, it might be composed of the siliceous
shields of infusory animals. A preliminary microscopic exa-
mination seemed to confirm this notion. In order to attain cer-
tainty on this subject. Professor Hausmann sent specimens to
the distinguished investigator of the infusory world. Professor
Ehrenberg of Berlin, who, by his extraordinary discoveries re-
garding the occurrence of fossil infusoria, has opened an en-
tirely new field of the most interesting investigations. He
requested that naturalist to examine these specimens of earth
more minutely, with a special view to these objects, and he re-
ceived, through his kindness, the intelligence, that hath earths
are entirely composed of beautiful and perfectly preserved in-
fusory coverings ; that these are very various, but still belong
only to known species, and to such as af'e found in a living
state in fresh water at the present day. In the earth No. 1
they are free from foreign admixture ; but in No. 2 they are
mixed with organic slime, and with the pollen of pines. During
even his first examination, Professor Ehrenberg succeeded in de-

Siliceous Earth found near Oherohe. 377

termining several species of infusoria, whose coverings form this
silica, and in ascertaining that there occurs, in the lower bed, a
species of infusoria found in the polishing slate of Habichtswald
and Hungary ; and another peculiar to the Kieselguhr of Bo-
hemia; both of which seem to be entirely wanting in the
upper bed : but upon these points we shall defer further re-
marks, in order that we may not anticipate the pubHcation of
the completed investigation of Professor Elirenberg.

That a mass more than twenty feet in thickness should
consist almost entirely of the coverings of animals which are
invisible to the naked eye, and which can only be recognised
with the assistance of a high magnifying power, is an extraor-
dinary fact, and one which the mind cannot fully comprehend
without some difficulty. The farther we attempt to pursue the
subject the more we are astonished. That which occurs in an
invisible condition in the fluid element, and which cannot be
recognised by the human senses without the assistance of art,
becomes, by immense accumulation and solidification, one of
the circle of phenomena which are witnessed by us in the ordi-
nary way ; a compact mass is formed, which can be weighed,
felt, and seen ; and this mass is presented to us in such quan-
tity, that, when regarded only in one direction, it surpasses
by three times the height of the human figure. Who could
venture to calculate the number of infusory animals which
would be required to produce even one cubic inch of this mass ?
And who could venture to determine the number of centuries
during which the accumulation of a bed of twenty feet in thick-
ness was taking place ? And yet this mass is only the product
of yesterday compared with the other more compact siliceous
masses for which the infusoria of a destroyed creation affbrded
materials. But what would have become of that loose, light
silica, — which, by its great porosity and its power of absorbing
water in quantity, in some measure indicates its origin, — if, in-
stead of being covered by soil one foot and a half in thickness,
it had been covered by a great mass of earth or rock ; or if an-
other power, such as the action of fire, had caused its solidifi-
cation ? In that case, we should have had no bed twenty feet
in thickness, but should perhaps have found a compact stony
mass, capable of scratching glass, affording sparks with steel,

378 Ehrenberg and Hausmann on Siliceous Earth.

and polishable, — a substance, which, were it not for the abun-
dant evidence furnished by the discoveries of Ehrenberg, it
would be still more difficult to suppose had resulted from the co-
verings of invisible animals. Such a consolidation and hardening
of this loose silica, might perhaps be partly accomplished in an-
other way, by making the experiment of employing it for the ma-
nufacture of glass, or as one of the ingredients in porcelain ; by
which means a discovery so very remarkable in a natural -histo-
rical point of view might at the same time become of practical
importance. Glass for med from the coverings of iifusory ani-
mals ! Who would a few years ago have believed in the pos-
sibility of this substance, by whose assistance invisible life in
water is revealed to us, being prepared from a material derived
from the same world of extremely minute animated beings; or
that we should be enabled, by means of a substance furnished
by an invisible creature, to investigate the smallest and most
obscure, as well as the largest and most remote bodies in crea-
tion?— (Communicated to us by Professor Hausmann from the
" G'dttingische gelehrte anzeigen^'' 25th January 1838.)

On the Last Changes in the relative Levels of the Larid and Sea
in the British Islands, By James Smith, Esq. of Jordan-
hill, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. & M.W.S.*

The occurrence of recent marine remains at higher levels
than those at which they could have been deposited by our pre-
sent seas, early attracted the notice of the Wernerian Society ;
and its memoirs contain a valuable collection of facts illustra-
tive of this subject. The communications of Messrs Stevenson, t
Bald, t Home Drummond, || Blackadder,§ and others, 5[ furnish
numerous observations respecting indications of changes in level
on the eastern coasts of Scotland, whilst those of Captain Las-
key** and Mr Adamsontt record similar phenomena in the ba-
sin of the Clyde and Lochlomond.

* By permission, from vol. viiL of ** Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural
History Society," about to appear.

t Warn. Mem. iii. 327. :;: lb. i. 483 ; and iii. 125. || lb. v. 440.

§ lb. V. 424, 672. ^ lb. ii. 342, 348 ; v. 572, 575.

**Ib. iv.5C8. ttlb. iv. 334.

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea, 379

My attention was first called to the subject by the discovery
of marine shells, agreeing in general with those of the adjoin-
ing seas, embedded in blue clay, at Ardincaple, the seat of
Lord John Campbell, in Dumbartonshire. At that time it was
usual to ascribe all such appearances to diluvial action ; and
although the shells bore no marks of violent transportation, the
bivalves being entire, with the epidermis uninjured, and in their
natural position ; yet, as the distance from the sea was small, I
imagined they might have been protected from injury by having
been lodged in an eddy. Two of the shells appeared to differ
from any known species; one of them, a Tellina {T. approxi-
ma)y is so common, as in many localities to become character-
istic of this deposit. It resembles the T. tenuis, but is dis-
tinguished by a brown epidermis. The other resembled a Na-
tica, but was destitute of the umbilicus. The only specimen
procured of this shell I unfortunately broke, but not until a
sketch of it had been taken.* Lord John Campbell was kind
enough to order a new excavation to be made, in hopes of
finding other specimens, but without success.

Soon after this, Mr Thomas Thomson gave an interesting
description of a similar deposit at Dalmuir in Dumbartonshire,
in the Records of General Science.t He collected twenty-nine
species, which were submitted to the inspection of Mr Sowerby ,
who pronounced three of them to differ from any known recent
British shells ; one of them was said to be Natica glaucinoides,
a crag fossil ; another, Fusus lamellosus, which had only been
observed about the Straits of Magellan ; and a third, Bucci-
num striatum, an unknown species. This remarkable fact,
coupled with my own observations, led me to imagine that the
term " recent,"" which had usually been applied to such depo-
sits, was perhaps not rigic^ correct. In order to ascertain how
far it was so, I determined to collect as many of the shells be-
longing to them as I could. In a fresh excavation I made at
Dalmuir, I increased the number of species, from that locality
alone, to upwards of seventy. The Rev. Mr Landsborough
of Stevenston, in Ayrshire, was kind enough, at my request,
to collect marine remains from the elevated shelly deposits in

• Plate XLV. Fig. 18. t Vol. i. p. 131.

380 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

his parish ; and Mr Witham sent me a collection from similar
beds on the Yorkshire coasts. In order to render the compa-
rison between the existing and more ancient races of testacea as
exact as possible, I determined, at the suggestion of Mr Lyell,
to avail myself of the facilities which the possession of a yacht
afforded, to collect and form a catalogue of those now existing
in the same seas. Amongst the shells dredged up, several new
species have been discovered. I failed, however, in finding any
of the unknown subfossil ones. As by far the greatest number
of the shells, from the ancient deposits, have been found in the
basin of the Clyde and north of Ireland, I have confined the
catalogue of recent shells to those which are now to be found in
the same seas ; a comparison of the two catalogues will thus
shew how far their former inhabitants coincide with the existing
species.

In the prosecution of this inquiry, I discovered marine re-
mains so frequently, that any attempt to describe or enumerate
the localities would exceed the bounds of this paper. When
once I was furnished with a clue, I found them in places where
their presence had never before been suspected ; sometimes in
great numbers, whilst at others the very same beds were alto-
gether destitute of them. This is peculiarly remarkable in a
finely laminated clay, which I have traced to a great extent in
the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton. It is equi-
valent to the carse clay of the Forth and Tay, and must have
been deposited at the bottom of a tranquil sea, at such a depth
as not to have been disturbed by the agitations of the surface.
The shells and other marine remains with which it abounds are
almost invariably found in the lower part of this bed, a circum-
stance which can only be accounted for by supposing a sud-
den depression, which has converte^^ a half- tide deposit into a
deep-sea one. The testaceous animals have thus been entomb-
ed alive in the beds subsequently formed, and their remains
are preserved with all the perfection of recent specimens. As-
sociated with this clay, we frequently find extensive beds of
pure gravel and sand also destitute of organic remains, although
there can be no doubt of their marine origin. Mr Lyell has ob-
served the same thing in similar beds in Sweden.*

♦ Phil. Trans. 1836, pp. 11 and 15.

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea, 381

We must be cautious, therefore, in concluding that alluvial
beds in which we do not find such remains, are fresh-water
ones ; and, of course, equally so in deciding on their marine ori-
gin, till confirmed by the presence of their appropriate remains.

These deposits are much more extensive, both as to the
amount of change of level and superficial extent, than has been
generally supposed. We have conclusive evidence that the
whole of the British islands have, at periods which, geologically
speaking, are by no means remote, been subjected to changes
both of depression and elevation. The submarine forests which
have been observed on so many parts of our coasts, are proofs
of the former kind of changes, whilst those of elevation are evi-
denced by raised beaches, sea-worn cliffs and caves, stratified
beds of sand, gravel, and clay, and, above all, by the marine
exuviae which they contain.

The deposits thus formed must, in Scotland at least, be in-
tercalated between the two first groups in Mr De la Beche's clas-
sification of rocks, viz., the modern group and the erratic block
group. We infer that they are posterior to the latter, from
their superposition, and that they do not belong to the former,
from the absence of the remains of man or of works of art.
The erratic block bed, which has also been termed diluvium,
has in Scotland received the provincial name of Till. It is very
accurately described by Mr Bald,* under the name of the old
alluvial cover, in his paper on the coal formation of Clackman-
nanshire. It generally consists of stiff unstratified clay and
gravel, confusedly mixed with water-worn masses, and also with
angular fragments of sandstone, shale, and coal, which have
not suffered from attrition, although comparatively soft in their
structure. Organic remains are excessively rare in it. Mr
Bald, who remarked this, afterwards found the tusk of an ele-
phant embedded in it in the excavation of the Union Canal ;
but, unwilling to draw an important inference from a solitary
fact, he supposed it might have been placed in the situation in
which it was found, from some accidental cause. Since that
time, however, elephants' bones and tusks have been found
near Kilmarnock, and at Kilmaurs, in Ayrshire. I am assured

* Wern. Mem. vol. i. p. 481 ; vol. iii. p. 126.
VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 1838. C C

382 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea,

by Dr Scouler of the Royal Society of Dublin, and Dr Cowper
of the University of Glasgow, who visited these localities, thai,
in both instances, they were embedded in the till. At Kilmaurs
they were associated with sea-shells ; and, on one occasion, I
also found shells embedded in it, much broken, and deprived of
their colour. Mr Trimmer, in describing the diluvial deposits
in Caernarvonshire, in the proceedings of the Geological So-
ciety,* states that he found broken shells in the diluvium of
the low cliff near Beaumaris. He also found broken shells in
a bed of sand, on the summit of Moel Tryfane, 1400 feet above
the level of the sea. The expression seems to imply alluvial
rather than diluvial agency. Mr Trimmer, however, informs
me that he ascribes their presence at so high an elevation to
the latter cause, the beds having all the appearance of violent
action, and the subjacent rocks worn and scratched by friction
of transported pebbles. Mr Phillips also is inclined to tliink
that in Holderness the irregularity of deposition of the shelly
gravel seems to point to diluvial currents rather than to change
of level, t

It is not, therefore, a necessary inference that the mere dis-
covery of sea-shells at high levels is a proof of permanent sub-
mergence. Their fragments, like those of coal, sandstone, and
shale, mark that the distance from which they have been trans-
ported is a short one. It is only when found in situ in regu-
larly stratified beds that we are entitled to draw such conclu-
sions; but their presence in diluvial beds must be held as an
exception to the general rule.

Although this is not the place to offer any speculation re-
specting the origin of the till, I think it evident that it must
have arisen from causes altogether different from those which
have produced the marine alluvia. Whatever they were, they
must have been violent and transitory. Of their violence we
have ample proof in the size of the fragments they have trans-
ported, as well as the erosion of the rocks over which they
have passed, but that they suddenly ceased must be inferred
from the confused manner in which the different parts of the
till are arranged. Submarine currents might indeed have moved

>' ' —

* Vol. i. p. 332. t Treatise on Geology, p. 198.

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea. 383

the largest boulders, but they must have been deposited some-
what in the order of size and gravity; the sand, clay, and
smaller fragments being swept forward till the diminished velo-
city of the current was unequal to bear them farther, and banks
of gravel, sand, and clay, would be formed. No inference can
therefore be drawn from it as to the former level of the land, as
rushes of water capable of producing such effects must have
disturbed the alluvial covering both above and below the sur-
face of the sea.

All observers concur in supposing that the cause which pro-
duced the diluvial covering of the great-coal field of Scotland,
must have had its origin to the westward, modified, however,
by the form of the ground. Near Glasgow, it is quite evident
that its action must have been from the north-west. In level-
ling a mass of it, the workman laid into a heap all the boulders
which were too large to be lifted by the spade : this afforded an
opportunity to estimate the relative proportions of the differ-
ent rocks, which I found to be as follows : —

White sandstone and shale,

60 per cent.

Trap,

30 ...

Clay-slate and greywacke,

10 ...

Granite, - . -

1 ...

101

The sandstone was evidently derived from the subjacent coal-
formation, the trap boulders from the Kilpatrick hills, which
are about ten miles to the north-west, their identity being
proved by the zeolitic minerals whicli they contained ; the slate
and greywacke from hills in Dumbarton and Argyleshires,
about double that distance ; the granite blocks must have been
transported from still greater distances. Beyond the Kilpatrick
Hills the trap and white sandstone boulders disappear, and are
replaced by greywacke, clay- slate, and red sandstone, whilst
those of granite and mica-slate become numerous. Near
Helensburgh, twenty-three miles to the north-west of Glasgow,
the granite strongly resembles that of Ardnamurchan. At
Roseneath, I have seen rolled fragments of a compact reddish
granite so much resembling that of Inverary, as to leave little
doubt of its identity. In all of these cases, the bearing of the

SS4 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

supposed original rocks is north-west, but in all of them the
intervening space is intersected by deep arms of the sea and
steep precipitous mountain ranges. It appears to me, therefore;
that the till is as ancient as the period of their elevation, and was
most probably caused by the violent geological action by which
it was accompanied.

It is, at all events, in Scotland anterior to the marine alluvia
which I am describing, and which have been observed reposing
upon it in many places. It is proper, however, to observe, that
in some instances we find stratified alluvium below the till. I
have observed this near Glasgow, and on the west coast of Ire-
land ; and Mr Bald, in describing that of the Forth, remarked,
that in one case, when it was cut through to the depth of 162
feet, the lower bed appeared to have been deposited in water in
the most quiescent state, as it was divided into the finest laminae.
In neither of these cases were marine remains detected, but Mr
Mantell has described an ancient beach as passing under the
elephant bed in Sussex, and Sir Philip Egerton found a bed of
shells under the ordinary sand diluvium of Cheshire.* These
facts do not invalidate the conclusion, that the changes in the
level are posterior to the deposition of the till ; they only prove
that it has not swept away the whole of the pre-existing alluvia.
I have observed the marine beds resting on Till near Glasgow,
and in the excavations of the railway from Edinburgh to
Newhaven. Mr Thomson has observed it in Dumbarton-
shire.-|- At Johnstone, near Paisley, in digging a well, a ma-
rine deposit, containing the bones of fishes and sea-fowl, the
claws of crabs, sea- weed, and shells, was found to rest upon a
bed of it, upwards of 70 feet in thickness. Mr RobberdsJ
and Mr Rose || have observed the same order of position in the
county of Norfolk.

We can, therefore, have no hesitation in considering that in
these localities changes of level have occurred posterior to the
deposition of the diluvial covering, although it is not improba-
ble that in some parts of the British islands it may have been
lodged on the surface subsequent to the period when the sea

* Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 190. t Records of General Science, i. 132.
+ Phil. Mag. Oct. 1827, p. 281. 11 lb. Jan. 1836, p. 34.

Mr Smith on (he Changes of the Level of the Sea, 385

had become stationary at its present level. I am inclined to
think that this has been the case on the west coast of Ireland ;
in the counties of Clare and Kerry I observed no stratified beds
above the diluvium, and, on the shores of the Shannon which
divides them, no terraces except those forming at present.
These facts, however, seem rather to prove different periods of
diluvial agency than of elevation and depression.

The changes of level must have taken place anterior to the
historic period, which in this country dates from the invasion of
the Romans. Diodorus Siculus,* who wrote during the reign
of Augustus, describes St Michaers Mount in Cornwall under
the name Ixng, as an island connected with the mainland by a
space covered every tide, but dry at low water, — a description
Avhich would apply accurately at the present day. In Scotland,
the Roman wall, which crosses the island from sea to sea, has
evidently been formed at botli ends with reference to the pre-
sent level. The same observation applies to British tumuli and
vitrified forts, which are perhaps of still greater antiquity. It
is, therefore, highly probable, that no changes of level have
taken place since the British islands have been tenanted by
man.

We have ample proof that traces of these changes occur in
every part of our coasts. In England, the observations of Messrs
Phillips, -|- Rose, J Ilobberds, || Sedgwick, § &c., on the east
coast ; Messrs Mantell, H De la Beche,** Sedgwick, and Mur-
chison,tt on the south ; and Sir Philip Egerton, Messrs Mur-
chison, Gilbertson, &c.,tt on the west, shew, that in all parts
of the English coasts they are to be met with. In Scotland, in
addition to the Notices, in the Wernerian Memoirs, already ad-
verted to, the Statistical Account abounds in direct or inciden-
tal notices of similar phenomena. My own observations, and
those of every well qualified observer, confirm their universality
in this part of the island.

* Diod. Sic. Book v. Quoted in Thomson's Outlines of Mineralogy and
Geology, vol. ii. p. 45.

t Geol. of Yorkshire, vol. i. p. 23. t Phil. Mag. Jan. 183G, p. 30.

11 Phil. Mag. March 1827, p. 223, &c.

§ Geol. Soc. Proceedings, vol. i. p. 409.

*l Geol. of Sussex, 285. Geol. Proc. ii. 203. •* Geol. Manual, 140.

ft Proc. Geol. Soc. Dec. 1836.

386 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

In Ireland, I have seen them on the east, north, and west
coasts. I am informed by Mr Griffiths, that he has observed
them in Cork and Waterford, and Captain Portlock has recent-
ly found them in stratified beds at an elevation of 400 feet.
Proofs of such changes have also been observed in the Channel
Islands and on the opposite shores of the Continent, all proba-
bly referable to the same geological epoch.

These marine beds have been discovered at every elevation,
from that of the present level of the sea to a height of at least
400 feet above it ; and in the solitary instance of Moel Try-
fane shells have been found at the height of 1400 feet; but as
the cause of their occurrence in that situation is doubtful, we
may conclude that the highest elevation at which proofs of
such recent changes have been hitherto discovered is limited to
400 feet.

At this height Mr Gilbertson found sea-shells in stratified
beds of gravel and sand near Preston in Lancashire. Mr Mur-
chison,"* who visited this locality, observed " similar pheno-
mena over a very considerable tract of country occupying the
ancient estuary of the Ribble. Sands, marls, and gravels, occa-
sionally forming terraces, are spread over this great area, some-
times in finely laminated beds, but for the most part loosely ag-
gregated, and bearing a great resemblance to the arrangement
of the same materials now in the act of formation on the adjoin-
ing shores. Many of the shells found in these beds far inland,
and at heights extending to 300 feet above the sea, are perfectly
identical with existing species.*" Mr Murchison justly infers,
that such appearances must be ascribed to actual elevation ra-
ther than to the action of diluvial currents. Sea-shells were
found by Mr John Craig, mineral surveyor, at Airdrie about ten
miles to the east of Glasgow, at the height of about 350 feet ;
they were found between a mass of blue till and a bed of yellow
stratified clay, which rested upon it. Mr Craig was inclined to
suppose they belonged to the till, the shells having been filled
with blue clay ; but I have observed th& same thing in shells
which certainly belonged to the stratified deposit, and it is easily
accounted for. The action of the sea upon such a bottom would

* Address to Geological Society, Feb. 1832.

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea, 387

naturally stir up the clay so as to fill dead shells. Those found
in this locality do not bear marks of violent transportation, and
the distance from the sea is so great that it is difficult to sup-
pose that such fragile shells as the Mytilus edulis and Tellina
approxirna could have been borne along uninjured by diluvial
action. I am, therefore, inclined to consider, that the shells
found at Airdrie belong to the alluvial beds, and have been
confirmed in this opinion by having had some specimens of
the Tellina appronima, a species which has only been found in
this deposit, sent to me from the same locality.

Mr Prestwich* also found, at the height of 350 feet, in beds
of sand, gravel, and clay, at Gamrie, near Banff, the following
recent shells : Astarte Scotica, Tellina tenuis, Buccinum unda-
turn, Natica glaucina, Fusiis ttirricola, Deiitalmm dentalis.
They were extremely friable, but perfectly uninjured.

The promontory of Brayhead, in the county of Wicklow, is
formed by a cliff of alluvial strata of coarse gravel and sand,
containing sea shells ; it is at least two hundred feet high, and
the hill of which it is a part, and which is evidently composed
of the same beds, is perhaps a hundred feet higher. Here,
therefore, this deposit reaches to the height of three hundred
feet. At Howth, on the north side of Dublin Bay, are similar
cliffs, at the height of about a hundred feet, also containing
shells and other marine exuviae.

In the Isle of Sheppey,f recent shells have been found in
a bed 140 feet above the present level. In Norfolk,} and in
5rorkshire,|| they have been found at the height of a hundred
feet Near Berwick, Mr Milne § observed a tract of table-land
at the height of a hundred feet above the level of the sea. It
consists of vertical strata, which have all had their edges worn
down to a level plain, just as would have been the case if the
rocks had been exposed to the action of marine currents inces-
santly sweeping over their edges. When the tide is far out,
exactly the same appearance is presented by the vertical rocks
which form the bottom of the shore for a considerable distance
out from the existing cliffs, and were there to be an elevation

* Proceedings Geol. Soc. May 3. 1837. t lb. voL i. p. 410.

t Phil. Mag. Jan. 183G, p. 30. || PhiUip's Geology, p. 198.

§ Fourth Report Brit. Assoc, p. 638.

388 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

of the coast, another table-land would be formed exactly re-
sembling, but a hundred feet above, the former.

In the basin of the Forth, beds of razor-fish {solen\ and
bones of the seal, have been found at the height of ninety feet.*
At that of seventy feet, marine remains have been found on
the banks of Loch Lomond, t on the Yorkshire coast, J in
Devonshire, || and in the Island of Skye.§ I have found them
in several localities in the basin of the Clyde, at the height of
from seventy feet to the present high- water mark.

At an elevation of about forty feet there has been observed
on many parts of our coasts a series of raised beaches and ter-
races, which, by their magnitude, indicate the prodigious length
of time at which the sea level must have been stationary at this
height; and if we may judge of its duration from the relative
size of the ancient terraces with those now forming, it must have
exceeded the recent period of which two thousand years is but
a part, by an immense amount ; but this is but one of the
epochs in the history of this formation ; between the great ter-
race and the sea several subordinate ones and beaches have
been observed, each of them marking long continued periods
of repose, whilst a sudden deepening, two or three fathoms be-
low the low-water mark, is probably caused by another line of
terraces now covered by the sea.

The great terrace, the base of which seems very generally
to be between 30 and 40 feet above the sea, forms a marked
feature in the scenery of the west of Scotland, in those parts
where the violence of the Atlantic has not swept away the
plateau of marine alluvia which, in the less exposed situations,
is always interposed between it and the sea.

The northern part of the county of Ayr, which is composed
of a coarse red sandstone or conglomerate, has been worn by
the former action of the sea into a magnificent range of cliffs,
in some places rising to the height of 300 feet ; the two islands
of Greater and Lesser C umbra, lie opposite to it, and have cor-
responding terraces. The former of these islands is composed

* Wern. Mem. vol. v. p. 572. t Letter from Mr Buchanan of Arden.

;|; By Mr Witham of Lartington. Phillip's Geol. of Yorkshire.

II Geol. Soc. Proc. Dec. 14. 183G.

§ M'Culloch's Western Islands, vol. i. p. 293.

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level qftlie Sea. 389

of the same sandstone intersected by trap veins ; both the trap
and sandstone have been worn away, but in different degrees,
and the dykes are left standing out from the cliffs like ruined
walls, affording no doubtful evidence of the length of time du-
ring which the sea formerly washed their bases.*

Similar phenomena have been observed in Jura, Mull, and
Isla, at elevated levels, as well as at that of our present seas,
and they furnish, as Mr M'CuUoch observes, " the most per-
fect record which geology affords of the wasting action of the
sea upon the land.""t After remarking that the destroying
causes of such as are found on our present shores are so obvious
that it would be superfluous to point them out, he offers the
following speculations on the origin of those in question. " The
other case, that of outstanding inland dykes, such as those of
Cumbray, and the more conspicuous examples in Isla and Mull,
is more difficult of explanation ; it is equally evident, however,
even in these two instances, that the surrounding strata must

* The time is not yet gone by with geology, as it has with astronomy,
when the conclusions drawn from its phenomena are supposed to be incon-
sistent with the word of God. I rejoice, however, to feel assured that, in
yielding to evidences which it is impossible for me to resist, I am neither
denying its truth, nor wresting it to my own purposes. That interpretation,
which admits, to the fullest extent, the remoteness of the " beginning,'*
was not invented to meet a geological difficulty, but has been held by learn-
ed and pious men of all ages. To those who, unacquainted with the science,
think the conclusions drawn from its investigation too uncertain, and too
contrary to each other, to be worth attending to, I would say, that such dis-
crepancies of opinion are every day disappearing ^B the science advances ;
and on the point in question, there is no controversy which deserves the
name. There is, indeed, no rule >vithout exception. At the meeting of the
British Association held last year at Liverpool, I remember an elaborate
paper was published to prove that the theory of gravitation was contrary
to Scripture : it, of course, called forth no remark. At Newcastle, a gentle-
man, well entitled from his labours in one department of the science, to be
listened to with respect, more especially as he did not impugn opinions
differing from his own, took what I must call the sceptical side of this en-
quiry, by endeavouring to prove the uncertainty of geological evidence.
The paper was honoured by a reply from Professor Sedgwick, whose rea-
sonings were responded to by an audience containing a greater amount of
liigh geological authority, than perhaps was ever before congregated under
one roof, in a manner which proved that on this point at least there was
no dispute.

t M'CuUoch's Western Islands, vol. ii. p. 480.

390 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

once have existed at least at the same level as the summits of
the present dykes. Nor can any obvious causes now be traced
by the operation of which so great a removal of land has been
effected ; there are no rivers in any of the instances enumera-
ted, to which it could be attributed, nor, indeed, could any ac-
tion of a river be imagined capable of producing those effects
on surfaces so irregular." He supposes they may have result-
ed from the tedious operation of the atmosphere, but the actual
change of level affords an easy solution of the difficulty, and in
each of the cases cited, we have the additional evidence of such
an origin from marine remains, embedded in the alluvial strata
which accompany them.

Although we have traces of changes of level on every side of
the British Islands, it would be premature to say whether or
not they are all universal, or whether some of them may not be
confined to particular districts. There can, I apprehend, be
no doubt as to the lower levels under the great terrace ; the
plateau at its base, except where since worn away by the action
of the sea, is invariably composed of marine beds of sand, gra-
vel, or clay ; but the case is doubtful as to those at higher ele-
vations ; and if the shells at the top of the mountain of Moel
Tryfane be considered as a proof of elevation, we may safely
assume that it must have been a local one. * Although we do

* Since writing the above, I have read with much pleasure Mr Trimmer's
paper on the diluvial drift in Wales and Ireland in the Journal of the Dub-
lin Geological Society. I agree with him entirely as to the well-marked
difference between diluvial deposits and those caused by permanent sub-
mergence ; and if I differ with him as to the origin of the gravels of Howtk
and Bray, it does not in the slightest degree affect the argument. He ap-
pears, for he has not come to that part of the subject, to consider them the
result of diluvial action, whilst I agree with my friend Dr Scouler, with
whom I visited them, that they are proofs of elevation. Mr Trimmer,
after noticing the ready reception of the diluvial theory of Buckland, re-
marks, that " the interest excited by these new and striking facts {i. e. proofs
of change of level) had now diverted the current of geological speculation
into an opposite direction from that in which it had lately flowed, and from
the one extreme of having generalized too hastily on diluvial phenomena,
geologists began to run into the other, of endeavouring to exclude diluvial
action from the list of geological agencies, — to expunge the very name from
geological nomenclature, — to forget all the evidence which had been col-
lected of the passage of large bodies of water over the land, and, in every
mass of transported gravel in which marine shells of existing species were

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea. 391

not observe any such marks of violence as are indicated by ex-
tensive inclinations of the stratification, or by the fractures,
erosions, and unstratified deposits which have been produced
by diluvial agency, it is quite evident that some of these
changes must have been sudden ; and beds of testaceous ani-
mals have been entombed alive by the subsequent deposit of
clay or sand from a considerable depth. This is particularly
observable in the laminated clay in which marine remains are
so frequently found in the basin of the Clyde. The upper parts
seem quite destitute of them, and it is only when the excava-
tions are made deep enough, such as in digging wells or coal-
pits, or in the lower beds of brick- works, that they may be ex-

discovered, to see a raised beach, or a marine formation, of gradual accu-
mulation, regardless of the proofs which, in many cases, existed of such de-
posits being due to the sudden and transient action of the sea." It is im-
possible to examine the diluvial deposits which I have formerly noticed,
without remarking the evident effects of such sudden and transient action,
so perfectly resembling those which we know must have been owing to si-
milar causes. In the summer of 1818, I had an opportunity of observing
the deposit caused by the eruption of the lake which had been formed by a
glacier in the Valley of Bagne, and which was spread over the valleys of
the Dranse and the Rhone before it was covered by vegetation or oblite-
rated by cultivation. No word could so well express its appearance as di-
luvium, except that the occurrence of works of art formed a prominent
feature, especially below the village of Martigny, where several houses were
destroyed, and where beams, hewn stones, and fragments of furniture, were
confusedly mixed with gravel and clay. At Greenock, in 1834, 1 witnessed
the eflfects of an inundation, caused by the breaking down of the head of a
reservoir, in which upwards of thirty lives were destroyed in its tract to
the sea. It exhibited all the phenomena of diluvial action. The streets
and walls were marked with furrows, masses of stone, and even of cast-iron,
were mixed up with clay and gravel without regard to their gravity, whilst
within the houses every thing was covered with a thick layer of fine silt
exactly as in the diluvial caves. Were this covering, therefore, to occur
in insulated patches, we might seek in similar causes for similar effects ; but
where could the lake have existed so vast as to have swept away nearly the
whole of the alluvial covering of the great coal basin of Scotland from sea
to sea, and lodged in one confused mass in some places hundreds of feet in
thickness ? It must, I apprehend, be sought for in some sudden geological
action of a magnitude far surpassing any like event recorded in the short
page of human history. The long continued action of submarine currents
could not have been the cause of the beds in question, although I have no
doubt that they often have given origin to coarse beds of gravel improperly
termed diluvium.

392 Mr Smith 07i the Changes of the Level of the Sea.

pected to be found. In the brick-works near Glasgow, I am
often told by the workman that they are not deep enough for
shells.

Such sudden changes we know have in recent times taken
place on the west coast of America, and in Cutch ; and no
doubt earthquakes have accompanied the ancient changes as
well as those of a modern date. Fissures and dislocations are
occasionally to be observed in the beds of sand and clay, pro-
duced probably by such causes. In an excavation made in
the line of the Edinburgh and Leith railway, in cutting through
a ridge of about 400 yards long, 100 yards broad and 10 yards
high, the section, which was at right angles with its length, ex-
hibited numerous rents traversing the beds, which could only
have been produced by a sudden upheaving. A horizontal
section would have represented the fissures as parallel with its
length, whilst the cross one shews them radiating, as it were,
from a centre. The inclination of the beds is too great to be
ascribed to original inequalities in the mode of deposition. In
some cases they form an angle of more than 60 degrees with the
horizon. Some of them consist of fine and coarse sand or clay,
and others of small fragments of coal. The section presented,
a beautiful miniature model of the stratification, fissures, slips,
and faults of a coal-field. These beds are covered by another
of gravel, which lies unconformable to them, and has evidently
been deposited immediately after, filling from above some of
the open fissures. It is impossible to account for these appear-
ances, without supposing that they are the effect of a local up-
heaving.

Although, however, the changes in level might in some cases
have been sudden and attended with earthquakes, it is probable
that in others they have been slow and gradual, like those tak-
ing place in Sweden at the present day. Indeed, with the ex-
ception of the absence of works of art, nothing can more per-
fectly agree with the appearances of the ancient marine alluvial
beds than Mr LyelPs description of similar, but more recent

Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level of the Sea. 393

ones in Sweden. I have often met with beds of shells imbed-
ded in marly clay, which had received a violet colour from the
decomposition of the common mussel {Mytilns edulu), exactly
as described by him.*

The question as to the identity of the flora and fauna of the
present period, with that of submergence, is an important one.
It would perhaps be premature to say with certainty, whether
they are identical or not. With regard to the vegetation no
observations which have yet been made shew any difference be-
tween it and the existing race of plants. But too little has
been done in this department to be of any value in settling the
question. The same observation applies to the remains of birds
and land animals ; or to those of cetaceae, Crustacea, algae, zoo-
phytes, and other marine remains which have been found in
these deposits. I have endeavoured to institute as rigorous a
comparison as I could between the testacea of the two periods,
and refer to the catalogues which I have appended to this pa-
per for the results. It will be observed that, although the
greatest proportion of the shells are identical with existing spe-
cies, there is a certain proportion which differs from them.-f*
Of those which are unknown, some may probably yet be disco-
vered in a recent state ; while others, in place of being specially
different from their recent congeners, may be only varieties
arising from the different circumstances under which they were
placed. Still, as the per-centage of unknown shells is greater
than that of the newer pliocene of the Val di Noto in Sicily, it
appears highly probable, therefore, that some change in the
fauna must have taken place.

The organic remains belonging to these deposits have been
termed Quaternery by M. Risso^ and subfossil by other geolo-
gists. Professor Phillips includes the beds in Avhich they are
found amongst the post-tertiary and modern deposits, — although
with some doubt ; observing, that it is difficult to *' discriminate

• Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 1.

t At the late meeting of the British Association at Newca.stle, I had au
opportunity of clearing np some points of interest respecting the unknown
species of shells belonging to these deposits, and have to acknowledge the
advantage I derived from the kind assistance of [Messrs Adamson and
Alder, and from my visits to the Museum of Natural History, which is ar-
ranged in a manner well worthy of the scientific reputation of that splendid
city.

394 Mr Smith on the Changes of the Level erf the Sea,

between the SiciHan tertiaries with 95 per cent, of existing spe-
cies of shells and the conchiferous gravels and sands of Holder-
ness and Lancashire, in which, among twenty species of shells
now living in the German Ocean, one occurs which is not yet
known. If the Lancashire shells are, like those of Specton,
Udevalla, and the coasts of Devon and Calvados, raised beaches,
and to be classed in the modern epoch, why are the Sicilian
ranked as tertiary .?""* It appears to me that Mr Lyell has
solved the difficulty, by classing amongst the tertiary formations
" all those geological monuments which cannot be proved to
have originated since the earth was inhabited by man."" The
appearance of man on the surface of the earth is an event of
such transcendent importance, as to justify its being used as
the separating line of the recent or human period, and those
which preceded it. Changes of level have occurred in every
stage of the earth's history : those of which I have been treat-
ing must have taken place during that which immediately pre-
ceded the recent period, and, of course, the organic remains be-
longing to that division of the tertiary group, which he has
named the newer pliocene. It is of great importance that
every circumstance connected with this deposit should be care-
fully observed and recorded, as an accurate knowledge of it
cannot fail to throw much light on that hitherto obscure branch
of geology, the nature and origin of the different alluvial beds
which compose the earthy covering of the more ancient forma-
tions; and, as it must be the object of the science to proceed
from what is known to what is unknown, we cannot too mi-
nutely investigate that part of it which forms the first step in
the descending series, in order that we may obtain firmer foot-
ing in prosecuting our researches into the more remote epochs
of the history of the earth. t

* Treatise on Geology, p. 263.

+ The catalogues which accompany the memoir consist of one of the re-
cent marine shells in that portion of the British seas which extends from
the Firth of Clyde to the north coast of Ireland, containing 276 species, of
which five are new to the British Fauna ; and another of the fossil shells
described in the paper, chiefly found in the same geographical region, con-
taining 180 species, of which about fourteen are unknown or extinct. These
catalogues, with figures and descriptions of the unknown species, will we ex-
pect appear in a future Number, accompanied, it is hoped, by a notice from
M. Deshayes on the subject.

( 395 )

Proceedings of the Royal Society,

1838, January 15. — Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart., President,
in the Chair. The following Communications were read : —

1. Notice regarding the Composition of Dr James's Fever

Powder. By Dr Douglas Maclagan, F. II. C. S. E.

2. Observations on the Cysticercus Celluloste inhabiting the

Human Muscles. By Dr Knox.

3. Examination of certain Objections to the Theory of Iso-

morphism. By Henry Madden, Esq.

February 5. — Sir George Mackenzie, Bart., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read.

1. Observations on the Parr and Young of the Salmon.

By Dr Parnell.

2. Notice of the remarkable Mathematical Properties of a

certain Parallelogram. By John Scott Russell, M. A.,
F.R.S.E.

February 19. — Dr Hope, V. P., in the Chair. The following
Communications were read :

1. On the Composition of a new Ink. By Professor Traill.

2. Abstract of first part of Memoir on the Mid-Lothian and

East Lothian Coal Districts. By David Milne, Esq.

The author commenced his communication by stating, that he
should divide his memoir into two parts, the first being devoted to
a mere narrative of facts, the second to explanations of these facts.

In describing the geological features of the district, he noticed
first the stratified and next the unstratified rocks.

The STRATIFIED cousist of sandstone, shales, limestones, coal,
and clays; which rocks seemed severally to abound or prevail, in
the order now stated.

These stratified rocks overspread the district from Portobello to
Gladsmuir, in an east and west direction ; and from the Firth of
Fortli to the Lammermoor Hills, in a north and south direction.
Within these limits there are two basins, — the basin of the Esks,
and the basin of the Tyne ; and which basins are divided by the
ridge or high ground that runs from Prestonpans (on the shore of
the Firth) by Tranent, Fjilside, Carberry, and the Roman Camp,

The Esk basin contains between sixty and seventy coal-seams,
exceeding one foot in thickness. The Tyne basin contains not

396 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

more than ten or twelve, being those which appertain to the lower
part of the deposit. The vertical depth of the Esk basin in its
trougli, — or, in other words, the thickness of the deposits composing
it, is between 1000 and 1050 fathoms ; but this thickness diminishes
rapidly to the south, arising chiefly from the coal-seams and sand-
stone strata thinning away in that direction ; and which diminution
is compensated in but a trifling degree, by the increased thickness
of the limestone in the same direction.

The Tyne basin comprehends only the deposits lying below the
Great Seam of coal, and the entire thickness of these, is greatly less
than in the Esk basin, arising chiefly from the sandstones and coals
thinning away towards the east.

The strata on the west side of the Esk basin, dip to the east and
south-east at a very steep angle, and are in some places absolutely
vertical. On the opposite or east side of the Esk basin, they
slope to the west at an angle varying from 20° to 40°.

The strata on the west side of the Tyne basin dip to the east, at
an angle varying from 15° to 20° ; and on the opposite or east side
of the same basin, they dip to the west at an angle of only 5° or 6°.

In the intervening ridge which runs from Prestonpans to the
Roman Camp, the strata mantle over from the one basin into the
other, and are there occasionally broken so as to shew an anti-
clinal line.

The different kinds of coal were described ; and it was stated,
that each kind was characterized by differences in the fissures or
joints intersecting them.

The principal slips in the district were next pointed out ; and
the author referred to a table he had constructed, shewing the di-
rection of each, and the amount of dislocation produced on the in-
tersected strata. Between eighty and ninety of these were also
laid down on the map accompanying the memoir.

In describing the unstratified rocks of the district, the author
mentioned, there were no hills or amorphous masses of trap within
the proper limits of the Lothian coal-field ; and that the trap shewed
itself only in dykes, which run in straight lines intersecting the
strata. He pointed out three or four such dykes, varying from 60
to 120 feet in width, — all of which appeared gradually to thicken
towards the west, and all of which run in nearly an east and west
direction.

March 5. — Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart. P. in the Chair.
The following Honorary Fellows were elected :

Prof. Tiedemann, Heidelberg. Prof. Miiller, Gottingen.
The following Communications were made :

1. Notice regarding a New British Species of Coregonus.

By Dr Parnell.

2. Abstract of Part II. of Memoir descriptive and explana-

tory of the Mid-Lothian and East Lothian Coal-fields.

Proceedings of the lloyul Society. 397

This part of the memoir was devoted exclusively to an attempt
to explain or account for the facta described in the first part of
the memoir.

The geological epoch when the strata composing the coal-measures
of this district were deposited, was first noticed. It was stated
that these coal-measures were deposited at a period immediately
following the deposition of the old red sandstone formation ; and
that this older formation was to be seen both on the north and on
the south sides of the Lammermuir Hills, dipping under the coal-
measures, and resting on the upturned greywacke strata of these
hills. The lowest member of the old red sandstone group is a
coarse conglomerate, evidently formed by the denudation of these
greywacke hills ; and the uppermost members consist of soft argil-
laceous sandstone, of a deep red colour.

The coal-measures of this particular district extend also over
the whole of East Lothian, though towards the north and north-
east, they are much broken and shattered by eruptions of trap. Be-
yond the east and south-east crop of the Tyne Coal Basin, there
are no members of the coal-measures proper, except those which
occupy the lowest part of the series. The limestone known in the
Esk and the Tyne Basins, as lying under the North Greens Coal,
undulates along or near the surface, throughout all the country be-
tween Haddington and the sea, towards North Berwick, as well as
Dunbar and Dunglass, except at those places now occupied by trap
hills.

It appears that along the east margin of the Tyne B.isin there is
an anticlinal line, from which the limestone just spoken of dips
gently to the east, so as to form in some measure a third basin, but
one very flat and much broken.

The author proceeded next to speculate on the probable mode
in which the strata of the coal-measures had been severally formed.
It was inferred from various circumstances, that they must have
been all deposited at the bottom of an aqueous medium, which in
certain parts, or at certain periods, was calm and tranquil, and which,
in other parts, or at other periods, was agitated by currents.

The shales and clays, it was said, might have been formed of se-
diment washed down from the Lammermuir Hills ; but it was
thought that the siliceous sediment necessary for the enormous de-
posits of sandstone must have come, not from the greywacke hills
chiefly, but from primitive formations, and which were probably
situated far off^ towards the west and north.

In regard to the origin of the limestone strata in the district, it
was inferred, that they had been formed by a precipitate of carbo-
nate of lime, held in solution by the aqueous medium which over-
spread the district. Water, it was said, would hold carbonate of
lime in solution, if there was an excess of carbonic acid ; and on
the application of heat, a part of the carbonic acid gas would be
liberated, and a precipitate occasioned. To account for the remark*
able fact, that the limestone underlying the North Greens coal
thickened as it approached the Lammermuir Hills, it was suggested

VOL. XXV. NO. L. — OCTOBER 1838. D d

398 Proceedings of the Royal Societg.

that the water may have been warmer near them, not only from its
being shallower there, and thus more capable of being acted on by
solar and atmospheric influence, — but also from the subterranearu
heat being there more intensely felt or more frequently evolved.
The same theory might account for the formation of limestone
in the upper part of the basin, though in proportion to the dis-
tance between the subterranean heat and the water, the precipi-
tates of lime would become less abundant and less frequent ; a
consideration which would explain why the five or six beds of lime-
stone that occur in the district, are all situated in the lower half of
the basin.

With regard to the origin of the cooiZ-seams, it was observed,
there could be no doubt of their having been formed from ac-
cumulations of vegetable matter, which, at different periods, had
been drifted from a distance. The fact of these accumulations ha-
ving taken place at the bottom of the same sea or aqueous medium
in which the other strata of the basin were successively deposited,
seemed to be placed beyond dispute, by the discovery in the sub-
stance of the coal itself, and about four inches below the top of a
seam of coal, — of quantities of the teeth, bones, and scales of fish.
These remains belong to the same species, the remains of which
had been found in the shales of this coal-field by Lord Greenock,
and in the Burdiehouse limestone by Dr Hibbert.

The vegetable matter which formed most, if not all, of the coal-
seams of the district, appeared to have been drifted from the west
or north-west, because in these directions the seams get gradually
thicker.

As all the vegetables found in the coal-seams and adjacent shales
are terrestrial, it seemed probable that they had been torn off or
swept away from their native sites by periodical inundations : —
that they had been carried out into a great lake or estuary, where,
after floating about for a considerable time, they subsided in tran-
quil waters, but not before parting with the clay and other earthy
matters attached to their roots, and not before the sediment carried
off^ by the inundation, and mechanically suspended in the water, had
time to subside. It was inferred from this circumstance, that be-
neath every seam of coal there ought to be a bed of fire-clay, — an
inference which agrees with the fact.

After these vegetable accumulations had taken place, and pro-
bably after all the other strata of the basin were deposited, the
entire series of rocks had evidently been operated on by some
powerful agent, so as to give to each its peculiar crystalline struc-
ture, and many of the other known peculiarities in their consti-
tution. That some such agent must have operated appears to be
proved, (1.) By the formation of joints and fissures intersecting
the strata ; (2.) By the conformity of direction in these joints and
fissures ; (3.) By the internal movement of the particles or ingre-
dients of the vegetable mass among each other, whereby diff'erent
kinds of coal were formed in the same seam ; and (4.) By the fis-
grures and cavities in the coal being generally filled with pearl-spavy

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 899

which could only be derived from an aqueous medium impregnating
the vegetable mass, and holding carbonate of lime and magnesia in
solution. It was inferred from these and other circumstances, that
the agent which had operated on the strata after their deposition,
was subterranean heat.

The rest of the paper was occupied with an explanation of the
convulsions which had occurred after the deposition of these strata,
and in consequence of which they had been thrown into the form
and position now presented by them. It was mentioned that the
very steep dip to the eastward, which the strata on the west side of
the Esk basin presented, was occasioned by the eruption of Arthur
Seat, Blackford Hills, and the other trap masses that occur along
almost the whole extent of the west side of that basin.

It was next shewn, that before the enormous quantity of vol-
canic matter which burst forth emerged from beneath the strata of
the district, these strata must have suffered dislocations or cracks,
which would account for the slips and dykes that intersect the dis-
trict. It was also shewn, how these slips and dykes behoved to run
generally in a direction between N. and W., and cause the dislocated
strata to sink down on the north side of them, rather than on their
south sides. An explanation also was offered of the invariable rule
which had been found to prevail in this district as in others, that
if a slip haded or sloped from the vertical, the strata were always
lowest on the upper side of the slip. A reason was also assigned
for the fact, that in this district, the strata are not deranged (or in
other words, " thrown down" on either one side or other) by dykes^
but only by slips.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts for Scotland,

The Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts met
in the Royal Institution on Wednesday the 10th January 1838,
at eight o'clock p.m. Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., president,
in the chair. The following communications were laid before
the Society : —

1. Model and Description of an Improved Electric Telegraph. By
Mungo Ponton, Esq., F.R.S.E., Vice-Pres. See. Arts. Remitted to a com-
mittee.— Dr Hunter made some interesting remarks upon an American
Electric Telegraph described in Silliman's Journal.

2. Remarks on the Geographical Position of some Points on the West
Coast of Scotland. By William Galbraith, teacher of Mathematics, Edin-
burghj, Couns. S.A. — Thanks.

3. Notice of the Precautions to be tiiken while using Mr Adie*s Ane-
mometer. By Edward Sang, Esq., civil engineer, F.R.S.E., M.S.A. —
Tlianks.

400 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

4. Notice of a Method of determining tlie Velocity of the Wind. By
Mr Sang.— -Thanks.

The following candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. :—

Richard Hunter, Esq., Bengal Civil Service, 1 Doune Terrace ; Mr
Walter Nicholl, teacher of Mathematics, 82 South Bridge; Mr William
Todd, bookbinder, 1 Forth Street ; Mr J. W. Lyon, Merchant, 85 Great
King Street; David Stevenson, Esq., civil engineer, 1 Baxter's Place; Mr
Charles Macgibbon, builder, 83 East Claremont Street ; John Clark, Esq.,
M.D., Dep. Inspector-Gcn. of Hospitals, 24 Heriot Row ; Mr Robert Max*
ton, engineer, 4 Albany Street, Leith ; Mr William Lithgow, painter, 60
Hanover Street ; William Carmichael, Esq., late assistant-clerk of Session,
18 Castle Street ; J. C. R. Duddingston, Esq., 28 St Andrew's Square ;
Mr James Cooper, glass-merchant, 18 Picardy Place ; Charles J. Ander-
son, Esq., 60 Albany Street.

Jan. 24. 1838. — Mr Dunn, curator of museum, in the chair.
The following communications were laid before the Society : —

1. Specimens of an Improved Alphabet for the Blind, consisting of the
capitals and lowercase combined ; with remarks on the principles which
regulate the tangibility of raised characters, as ascertained by experiment
and experience; by.Mr James Gall, junior, printer, Edinburgh, M.S.A. —
A few experiments were made to shew the extraordinary tangibility of
the improved Alphabet, by means of a blind boy who has only been eight
months at School.— Thanks.

2. Brief Remarks on the Progress of the Useful Arts at home and
abroad, with some suggestions in reference to the Society of Arts ; by Dr
D. B. Reid, F.R.S.E., Vice-President Society of Arts. Illustrative Speci-
mens were exhibited. — Thanks, and a committee appointed to take the
suggestions into consideration.

3. Donation — A Letter to the Directors of the Institutions for the Blind
in Great Britain and Ireland ; by John Alston, Esq. of Rosemount, trea-
surer to the Institution for the Blind at Glasgow — Hon. M.S.A. Dated
4th July 1837 ; from the Author.— Thanks.

4. Donation — The Gospel according to St Mathew, printed in raised
letters for the use of the Blind; Printed at the Institution Press, July
1838 ; witli a relative letter from John Alston, Esq., and specimen of new
type therein referred to. Presented by Mr Alston. — Thanks.

5. Donations— The First Class-book, printed for the Blind by J. Gall ;
published by the Sunday School Union of London. The Gospel accord-
ing to St Luke ; printed by J. Gall for the British and Foreign Bible So-
ciety. Both of the above are printed in the improved Alphabet for the
Blind, and presented by Mr Gall. — Thanks.

The following candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers :— -

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 401

George Lorimer, builder, Keir Street, Edinburgh ; George Dundas, en-
gineer, Dundas Castle; J. B. Blyth, student of medicine, 32 Dundas
Street; C. D. May, punch-cutter, 26 Clarence Street; Bindon Blood,
M.R.I. A., F.R.S.E., 22 Queen Street.

Feb. 14. — Sir John Graham Daly ell, Kt., President, in the
chair. The following communications were laid before the So-
ciety : —

1. Notice of a singular phenomenon connected with the rotatory mo-
tion of fluids. By Edward Sang, civil engineer and machinist, Edinburgh,
F.R.S.E., M.S.A.— Thanks voted.

2. Observations relative to a model of a vessel to be propelled by oars
in place of tlie common paddles at present in use in steam navigation. By
James Kilpatrick, engineer, Musselburgh. A working model was exhibit-
ed.— Referred to a committee.

3. Drawing and Description of a grinding machine, which is used in-
stead of a turning-lathe for giving a truly cylindrical form to the rims of
pulleys and drums.

Also Drawing and Description of a machine for grinding pulleys round
on the rim. By James Whitelaw, 18 Russell Street, Glasgow. — Referred
to a committee.

4. Four methods of palpable printing for the use of the Blind. By Mr
M'Farlane, Comrie.

5. The committee on Mr Thomas Robertson's improved vertical watch,
lever do., chronometer, reported.

6. An arbitrary alphabet for the Blind. By Richard Hunter, Esq.,
H.E.I. C. Service, Doune Terrace. — Thanks voted.

The following candidates were admitted as ordinary mem-
bers, viz. : —

Mr Hugh Morton, engineer, Leith Walk ; Mr James Trotter, teacher,
10 North St David Street ; Andrew Dunlop, Esq., W.S., Scotland Street;
John Wilkie, Esq. of Foulden ; W. F. Lindsay Carnegie, Esq. Kinbleth-
mont ; Mr Alexander Beattic, smith, 35 Canal Street ; Mr Thomas Sum-
mers, merchant, 107 South Bridge.

Feb. 28. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., President in the
Chair. The following communications were laid before the So-
ciety;—

1. Description (Part 1st) of the Phoroscope, an instrument for measur-
ing Time and Velocity. By Edward Sang, civil engineer and machinist,
Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., M.S. A. The instrument in an unfinished state was
shewn.

2. A method of taking the Plaster of Paris from the Types after Stereo-
typing, without injuring the Tj-pes. By Mr George Richardson, ^6 Mil-
ler Street, Glasgow. — ^Referred to a committee.

402 Proceedings of the Society of Arts,

3. Notice of a mcthed of Preventing the effects of Frost on Gas-meters.
By Edward Sang, Esq. Kirkaldy. Communicated by Mr E. Sang, Edin-
burgh, M.S.A. — Thanks voted.

4. Essay on the best mode of depriving the Mucilage of the Fuci of dis-
agreeable Taste and Odour. By Mr G. Black, College Post-Offiee, Edin-
burgh. With illustrative Specimens in Bottles. — Referred to a Committee.

5. Verbal notice of M. D'Arcet's Process for the extraction of Gelatine
from Bones, and the importance of introducing it into Hospitals, and
other Public Institutions in this country. By Dr D. B. Reid, F.R.S.E.,
V.P.S.A. — Referred to a committee.

The following candidates were admitted as ordinary mem-
bers, viz. : —

His Grace James Duke of Roxburgh; David Maclagan, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
John Scott Moncrieff, accountant, 68 Queen Street ; James Kilpatrick,
engineer.

March 14. -Dr D. B. Reid, V. P., in the chair. The fol-
lowing communications were laid before the Society : —

1. A Shower-Bath to be used either with hot or cold water; and
which can be made at a trifling expense. By Mr James Milne, brass-
founder, Chalmers' Close, Edinburgh, — Couns. S. A. The bath was
shewn, and Mr Milne, in the most handsome manner, agreed to furnish a
model bath for the Museum; his object being, that any tinsmith having
access to see the model, may thus be able to make up a bath so cheap,
that even the working classes may avail themselves of it. The Secretary
observed that, on visiting Mr Milne's extensive manufactory lately, he
was exceedingly pleased to see a lying hot-water hath in preparation, for
the express purpose of enabling his workmen to avail themselves of this
salubrious and agreeable detergent, which promises so materially to im-
prove both their health and comfort ; and that he hoped Mr Milne's
example might be followed in other large factories.

2. An arbitrary Alphabet for the Blind. By Richard Hunter, Esq.,
H.E.I.Co.'s Service. Thanks. Remitted to standing committee on print-
ing for the blind.

3. Suggestions regarding a Rotatory Steam or Water Engine, — the
Barometer, the Quadrant, and the Hygroscope, &c. in a letter from Mr W.
C. Cunningham, Missionary to Sir David Brewster, dated Rarotogna, South
Seas, Lat. 21 deg. 14 min. S. ; Lon. 160 deg. W. : March 6 1837. Com-
municated by Principal Sir David Brewster, K. H., F. R. SS. L. & E.,
M. S. A. Thanks. Referred to a committee.

4. Model, Description, and Lithographic Drawing of a Patented Improve-
ment on Ships' Anchors, to prevent the chain cable getting foul of the
arm. By Mr James Allen, shipmaster, Greenock.— Thanks. Model to
be placed in Museum.
5. Specimens of (French) Ornamental Paper for the use of Bookbinders,

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 403

Casemakers, &c. ; also of Paper Hangings with Metallic and other groundfl
were exhibited and presented to the Society by Sir John Robison, K. H.,
Sec. R. S. E.j M. S. A. The special thanks of the Society were given
from the Chair to Sir John, for the donation of these very beautiful and
elegant specimens (some of them priced), and for the interest he has all
along felt for the improvement of the useful arts in this country, by in-
troducing whatever is new and useful from foreign countries.

5. A new Gimblet (French) not liable to burst the wood it passes
through, and not requiring to be drawn out until the hole be completed^
was also exhibited by Sir John Robison. This gimblet M'as much ad-
mired ; cuts clean, and makes a beautifully smooth circular hole. Sir
John mentioned that he hoped they would be soon manufactured in this
country, as he had sent patterns to some of the English tool-makers.
— Thanks voted.

7. Mr Bald exhibited — 1. An ancient piece of Point-work (needle-
work) by a Nun, and supposed to be some hundred years' old, at least
in the time of the Charleses of England. Also a specimen of modem
Point-work, worthy the attention of Ayrshire embroiderers, as a work for
females, or ladies retired, as an occupation yielding emolument. Mr
Bald also read a Dissertation upon this kind of work, sent him by two
ladies. At the request of the members, Mr Bald agreed to place these
specimens in tlic shop of Mr Blackwood, 43 George Street, for the in-
spection of the ladies. 2. An ancient Fan, the work of France or Italy,
at least 160 years old ; the drawing upon it in Indian ink is exquisite,
representing the union of philosophy with religion. 3. Two Busts, cut
in Ivory, from France, a male and female figure, most exquisitely and
symmetrically carved. Thanks were voted to Mr Bald for the exhibition
of these specimens.

8. Donation. — General Tables for computing the Obliquity of the Eclip-
tic ; converting Mean Solar into Sidereal Time, &c. &c., with the Cata-
logues of Bessel and Brinkley, &c. By William Galbraith, M.A. Se-
cond Edition. Edin. 1836. From the Author. — Thanks.

9. Donation. — Barometric Tables for the use of Engineers, Geologists^
and Scientific Travellers. By William Galbraith, M.A. Edinburgh, 1833.
From the Author. — Thanks.

Onesiphorous Tyndall Bruce of Falkland, F.R.S.E., was admitted as
an Ordinary Member. The Society adjourned to 28th March.

March 28. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., President, in
the chair. The following communications were laid before the
Society : —

1. On the expediency of forming national establishments for moulding
and casting works of art, with observations on the improvements which
would result from the adoption of such a measure. By Charles H. "^^'il*
son, Esq. R.I.A. & A.S.A. Communicated by Sir John Robison, K.H.,

404 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

Sec, R.S.E., M.S. A. — Thanks. Referred to a committee. The object of
tins interesting paper, was to shew the advantages that would result from
the formation of such establishments in Great Britain, which, by the faci-
lity they afforded to the diffusion throughout the country of the purest
models for instruction and imitation, would improve the taste and execu-
tion, not merely of artists, but of artisans and manufacturers, and at the
same time raise the standard of public feeling, and create a demand for
works of a superior class, in every department of the arts. The benefits
which had resulted from the adoption of this plan in France were satis-
factorily shewn, where the artisan, when he wants to aid his invention,
can easily procure from the Louvre, at a cheap rate, such classic models
US suit his purpose, and, working with these before his eyes, fresh in his
recollection, or within reach of constant reference, his hand becomes ac-
customed to obey the eye and the imagination in producing chaste and
"beautiful forms with fidelity, promptitude, and facility.

After remarks from the President and several members in approbation
of Mr Wilson's communication, and of the measure it proposed, a com-
mittee was appointed to consider in what manner the Society could best
promote its success. The Society unanimously resolved that Mr Wilson's
paper should be printed.

It appears that the formation of such establishments in this country
had been suggested by the author's father, Mr Andrew Wilson, now re-
siding in Italy, and well known as a distinguished artist and man of
taste, in a communication made to the Board of Trustees here last sum-
mer. It is understood that this board, which deserves so much credit for
the taste and judgment with which they have selected the admirable col-
lection of casts in the gallery of the Institution, and which they have
opened with so much liberality to the public, are taking a warm interest
in the promotion of the measures.

2. A Substitute for a Mortoise Lock was exhibited, being an im-
proved specimen of a construction which was formerly shewn to the So-
ciety. By Sir John Roblson. Thanks.

3. On a mode of depriving the Mucilage of Lichens of disagreeable
taste and odour. By Mr G. Black, College Post-Office, Edinburgh.
With illustrative specimens in phials. Referred to a committee.

4. Description of an improved Nut for leading screws. By Edward
Sang, civil-engineer and machinist, Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., M.S.A. The
nut and drawings were exhibited. Referred to a committee.

5. Letter on the subject of Alphabets for the Blind ; with specimens
of an alphabet, the letters of which are raised with a stllletto, which she
has employed in teaching the blind to read. By Miss Margaret Banks,
formerly of Newlngton, Edinburgh, now at Bewdley. — Thanks. Re-
mitted to the standing committee.

6. Donation. — The eleventh Report by the Directors of the Asylum for
the Blind, Glasgow ; dated 15th January 1838. Presented by John Al-
ton^ Es(j. of Rosemount^ Hon. M.S.A. — Thanks.

Proceedi7igs of the Society of Arts. 405

7. Donation. — Report by the Directors of the Edinburgh Society for
the industrious Blind of Scotland for 1837. Presented by D. J. Mac-
braire, Esq. Thanks.

The following candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers : —

The Right Hon. James Forrest of Comiston, Lord Provost of the City
of Edinburgh; Thomas Henderson, Esq. of Press, 11 Melville Crescent ;
Eagle Henderson, Esq. Coates Crescent ; Mr Lawrence Hyslop, mer-
cliant, Stockbridge ; Mr John Low, plumber, 39 Lothian Street.

April n. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., President, in the
chair. The following communications were laid before the So-
ciety : —

1. On a formula to obtain the Decrease of Temperature according to
the height above the earth's surface. By William Galbraith, M. A. —
Couns. S.A., teacher of Mathematics, Edinburgh. (546.) Thanks.

2. Description of a Method of making a good copying Ink. By Mr J.
Scott, 9 Bank Street, Edinburgh. With a specimen bottle, and impres-
sion. (540.) Referred to a committee.

3. A specific prize (the 4th) having been offered for '' A convenient
mode of filling the Boilers of Steam-vessels with water while the vessel
is at rest, so as to remove a frequent cause of explosion ;" the following
communications were received and read, viz. —

(1.) Mr N. P. Comins, Madeira Place, North Leith. (474.)

(2.) Mr Andrew Carrick, Calton, Glasgow. With a drawing. (506.)

(3.) Mr Robert Mudie, 14 Fountainbridge, Edinburgh. With a

drawing. (509.)
(4.) Mr John Combe, late of Edinburgh, presently in Leeds. With

a drawing. (529.)
(6.) Mr John Rose, North Leith. With a drawing. (537.)
(6.) John Scott Russell, M.A., F.R.S.E. With a drawing. (Not

competing.) (543.)
(7.) Mr James Gall jun., printer, Edinburgh, M.S.A. With a draw-
ing. (548.)
(8.) Robert Bald, Esq. F.R.S.E., M.S.A. With a drawmg. (549.)
All referred to a committee.
The following candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers : —

George Watson, Esq., Secretary National Bank of Scotland ; Cliarles
H. Wilson, Esq., A.S. Acad., Artist, York Place, Edinburgh.

April 25.— Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., President, in the
chair. The following communications were laid before the So-
ciety :—

406 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

1. Mr Beattle exhibited two specimens of Two-way Door-Springs, on
the construction formerly submitted by him, but in which the improve-
ment suggested by the Committee of the Society of Arts has been adopt-
ed, along with some further ones. (647.) Sir John Robison explained
these improvements, and Mr Beattie and he received the thanks of the
Society.

2. Notice of a Dioptric Light erected at Kirkaldy ; with Description
of Apparatus used for giving the true Optical Curve. By Edward Sang,
F.R.S.E., M.S. A., civil-engineer, Edinburgh. The apparatus was exhi-
bited. (552.) Referred to a committee.

3. Description and Drawing of a Plan for keeping the Boilers of High-
pressure Steam-engines always filled with water up to the required level,
both when the engines are working and when they are not at work ; to-
gether with Remarks as to how the plan may be applied to the Boilers of
Condensing Steam-engines. This method of feeding boilers will, it is
said, also answer in a steam-boat, although it is only used, in this case,
to keep plenty of water in the boiler at any time the steam is up, and the
engine not in motion. By Mr James Whitelaw, engineer, late of Glas-
gow, now 7 King's Terrace, Bagnigge Wells Road, London. (553.) Re-
ferred to a committee.

4. Mr Bald exhibited a specimen of Iron- wire Rope sent to him lately
from the Fahlun Copper Mines, Sweden, each link of which is fifty fa-
thoms, or 300 feet, in length. (554.) Thanks.

5. Mr Bald also exhibited a Pump Bucket, or Valve, from Sweden, —
so constructed that the pressure on the stuffing or leather is in proportion
to the column of water lifted ; the principle being applicable in a variety
of cases, particularly in engine-pits. Mr Bald contrasted this Swedish
Valve with those presently in use in Scotland, of which he exhibited spe-
cimens. (545.) Thanks. Mr Bald, at the request of the Society, agreed
to put his remarks on these two subjects in writing, and to furnish a
drawing of the Swedish Valve, to be engraved for the Society's Transac-
tions.

6. The Committee on Mr C. H. Wilson's paper on the Expediency of
forming National Establishments for the Moulding and Casting of Works
of Art (Dr Maclagan, convener) gave in their report, which was read and
approved of. A Memorial to Government, prepared by the Committee,
and founded on the report, was also read and approved of, and remitted
to a committee to carry it into effect. (535.)

7. Donation — The Suburban Gardener and Villa Companion. By J.
C. Loudon, Esq. F.L.S., Hon. M.S.A., &c. From the Author. (471.)
Thanks.

8. Donation — Description of a Conical and Grooved Pulverising Land
Roller. By J. S. Hepburn, Esq. of Colquhalzie, M.S. A. From Transac-
tions of Highland Society, vol. xi. Presented by the Author. (498.)
Thanks.

Mr Robert Caldwell, builder, Edinburgh, was admitted as an x)rdinary
member.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 407

May 16. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt., President, in the
chair. — Sir John stated, that certain letters on the present de-
fective and oppressive state of the Law of Patent for Inven-
tions had been addressed to him as President of the Society ;
but the omission of his correspondent, a very inteUigent per-
son, to specify his place of abode, had hitherto precluded him
from communications in return. As nothing could be more de-
sirable to those who valued truth and expediency than being
guided to both through whatever channel, he should now pro-
pose the appointment of a special committee to investigate the
subject. — Agreed to.

The following communications were then laid before the So-
ciety : —

1. On the best Method of Constructing the Interior of Buildings in-
tended for the accommodation of Auditors and Spectators, and its appli-
cation to Lecture-rooms, Churches, and Music- rooms, by arranging the
Seating according to certain Isacoustic and Iseidomal Curves. By John
Scott Russell, M.A., F.R.S.E., M.S.A. Drawings were exhibited. (542.)
Thanks. To be printed.

2. Mr Sang concluded his paper on the Construction of Obhque Arches.
Thanks. To be printed.

3. Description and Sketch of a new Instrument for sharpening and set-
ting the Teeth of Saws. By Mr Alexander Proudfoot, Newbigging, near
Carnwath. (541.) Referred to a committee.

4. Model and Description of an Improved Bottling Cock, suitable for
wines, ales, porter, &c. By Mr R. Rettie, brassfoundry, 20 Royal Ex-
change Square, Glasgow. (502.) Referred to a committee.

5. Drawing and Description of a proposed Rotatory Steam-engine. By
Mr J. B. Montrose. (558.) Referred to a committee.

6. A Musical Catechism, with Tunes for the use of the Blind. Printed
in Raised Characters at the Glasgow Asylum, 1838. By John Alston,
Esq. of Rosemount, Honorary Treasurer to that Institution, Hon. M.S.A.
(559.) Referred to a committee.

7. Letter on Moulding and Casting Works of Art. By Nicholas P.
Comins, Esq. Madeira Place, Leith. (564.) Thanks.

8. Donation. — A Multiplication Table for the Blind. Printed in raised
Characters at the Glasgow Asylum, 1838. Presented by John Alston,
Esq. (560.) Thanks.

9. Donation. — Lehrbuch zum Unterrichte der BUnden. By Johann
Wilhelm Klein, Director of tlie Institution for the Blind at Vienna ; with
6 copperplates. Printed at Vienna, 1819. Presented by John Alston,
jEsq. (561.) Thanks.

. 10. Donation. — The Gospel according to St John, printed in Embossed

408 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

Stenographic Characters for the use of the Blind. Edited by Mr T. M.
Lucas of Bristol. Embossed at Bristol, July 1837, and published by the
Bristol Society for Embossing and Circulating the authorized version of
the Bible. Presented by that Society, per Mr F. W. B. Rcid, the Secre-
tary. (562.) Thanks.

11. Donation. — Instructions for teaching the Blind to read with the
Britannic or Universal Alphabet, and Embossing their Lessons, &c. By
T. M. Lucas, inventor and teacher of the system. Printed at Bristol, June
1837. Presented by the Bristol Society for Embossing, &c. the Bible for
the Blind. (663.) Thanks.

Mr John Adie, optician, Edinburgh, was admitted as an ordinary
member.

May 30. — Mungo Ponton, Esq. F.R.S.E., Vice-President,
in the chair. — The following communications were laid before
the Society : —

1. On the " Principles of Propelling Vessels by Machinery." By John
Scott Russell, M. A., F.R.S.E.,Couns.S. A. Thanks. To be printed. (551.)

2. A Specific Prize (the 7th) having been offered for *^ A convenient
and simple method of increasing or diminishing the distance of the floats
from the centre of the common paddle-wheels, during the motion of the
vessel, so as to adapt them to changes in the load and draft of water ;"
there had been received, and were read, the following communications,
viz. from

(1.) Mr Nicholas P. Comins, Madeira Place, North Leith. With a
drawing. (475.)

(2.) Mr Dixon Vallance, Libberton, Lanarkshire. (488.)

(3.) Mr John Henderson, South Bridge, Cupar-Fife. With a model.
(510.)

(4.) Mr George Wilson, 3 Hanover Street, Edinburgh. With mo-
del and drawing. (534.)

(5.) Mr John Rose, 2 Great Junction Street, North Leith. With a
drawing. (538.)

(6.) Mr Andrew Black, watchmaker, Leslie, by Markinch. With a
drawing. (550.) All referred to a committee.

3. Drawing and Description of a "New Method of constructing a
Paddle-wheel" for Steam-vessels. By Mr Andrew Carrick, Calton, Glas-
gow. (607.) Referred to a committee.

4. Drawing and Description of a " Hydrostatic Safety-valve for Steam-
boilers." By the same. (505.) Referred to a committee.

5. A Specific Prize (the 10th) having been offered " For the best and
simplest method of ascertaining the quantity of absolute alcohol in any
mixture." The following communication having been received, was
read, viz. from Mr Nicholas P. Comins, Madeira Place, North Leith.
(478.) Referred to a committee.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 409

6. Model, Description, and Drawing of a " Sink-box for preventing of-
fensive effluvia from sinks and sewers. By Mr R. Ilettic, brassfoundry,
20 Royal Exchange Square, Glasgow. One of the sink-boxes of the full
size was also exhibited. (503.) Referred to a committee.

7. The Committee on Mr Rettie's " Bottling Cock" reported. Read
and approved.

8. The Committee on Mr J. Scott's " Copying ink" reported. Read
and approved.

Patrick Wilson, Esq. architect, 15 St Andrew's Square, was admitted as
an ordinary member.

The Report of the Committee appointed to regulate the de-
tails connected with the formation of an Experimental Com-
mittee was taken into consideration, and, after some alteration,
was approved of, and the Rules ordered to be printed.

June 26.— Dr D. B. Reid, F.R.S.E., Vice-President, in the
chair. — The Secretary read a letter from Lord John Russell,
saying he had presented the Address of this Society to her Ma-
jesty the Queen on her accession to the Throne, and that it had
been very graciously received by her Majesty.

The Address is of the following tenor : —

" Unto her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, •
" Most Gracious Sovereign,

" We, the Society for Encouragement of the Useful Arts in Scotland,
humbly approach your august person, to offer our ardent congratulations
on your Majesty's accession to the Throne.

" From the fruit of those transcendent virtues already adorning your
Royal mind, we confidently augur, in this auspicious event, increasing
honour and glory to the British empire ; — that its destinies shall flourish
under your Majesty's dominion ; — that it shall preserve its proud pre-
eminence amidst the most illustrious of nations.

'' Through the medium of our Institution, we seek to foster industrj',
find to reward distinguished merit, by encouraging inventions or improve-
ments of the useful arts. In these we behold the elements of trade and
commerce, the sources of civilization, of wealth and independence ; and
in teaching the benefit of interesting pursuits, we find the harbingers of
tranquillity, content, and comfort j — thus strengthening the pillars of the
state, and contributing to the firmest foundation of national prosperity.

" We humbly implore the Divine protection of your Majesty in the
enjoyment of a peaceful and a happy reign; — that you may be long
spared for the profound reverence and the unabating affections of your
loyal people.

410 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

*' Signed in our name, and by our appointment, by the President,
Vice-Presidents, Secretar}', and Treasurer, — at Edinburgh, in
the year of our Lord, 1837, on the 6th day of December.
(Signed) " John Graham Dalyell, President.

" David Boswell Keid, Vice-President.
" M. Ponton, Vice-President.
'' James Tod, Secretary.
(L.S.) " Gilbert Marjoribanks, Treasurer."

The following communications were laid before the Society :

1. Mr Ponton's Electric Telegraph, in an improved form, was exhibited
in action, and a brief explanation of its principles was read, after which
Mr Ponton presented his Model to the Society, to be placed in their
IMuseum. (492.)— Thanks.

2. On the Adulteration of Fixed Oils. By William Davidson, M.D.^
West Nile Street, Glasgow. Specimens were exhibited. (654.)

8. On the Decolorization of Palm Oil. By the same. Specimens were
exhibited. (555.)

4. On the Removal of the Fetid Odour of Fish Oils. By the same.
(556.)

5. On the Removal of the Bitter Taste and Lichenous Odour of Iceland
Moss. By the same. (557.)

These four papers by Mr Davidson were referred to a committee.

6. Note on Ventilation ; being a sequel or appendix to a former paper
on that subject. By J. Stewart Hepburn, Esq. of Colquhalzie. (567.)
Thanks.

7. Specimens of a Series of Fables, with Woodcut Illustrations, now
in progress of being printed for the Blind at the Glasgow Asylum. By
John Alston, Esq. of Rosemount, Hon. M.S.A. (568.) Referred to a
committee.

8. Donation. — Researches on Heat. Third Series. 1st, On the un-
equally Polarizable Nature of the different kinds of Heat. 2d, On the
Depolarization of Heat. 3d, On the Refrangibility of Heat. By Jas. D.
Forbes, Esq. F.R.SS. L. and E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh, M.S.A. From the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 1838. From the Author. (569.) Thanks.

9. Donation. — Observations on the Employment, Education, and
Habits of the Blind ; with a comparative view of the benefits of the
Asylum and School Systems. By Mr Thomas Anderson, late Manager
of the Asylum for the Blind, Edinburgh, and Master of the Wilberforce
Memorial School for the Blind, York (now at Manchester). Printed in
1837. From the Author, per D. J. Macbraire, Esq. (566.) Thanks.

10. Donation. — A method, by means of a Time-keeper, for finding-
Greenwich Time, and Latitude and Longitude, at any place by sea or
land. By Mr John Johnstone. Printed at London, 1838; with two
Lithographic Plates. {565.) Thanks.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 411

1. The following candidates were admitted as ordinary mem-
bers, viz. : —

Mr Robert Grant, bookseller, 82 Prince's Street ; Mr Alex. G. Wighton,
jeweller, 24 James's Square ; James Malcolm, Esq. S.S.C. 30 Dundas
Street ; Mr William Phillip, watchmaker, 48 Hanover Street ; Lieut.-Col.
Tho. Blanshard, Royal Engineers, 135 George Street; Mr K. Mathieson
jun. contractor, Glasgow, presently at Buckhaven Harbour Works.

2. The rules and regulations connected with the formation
and proceedings of the Experimental Committee approved of
by the Society at last meeting, were circulated to the members
of the Society.

3. Museum. — The Curator announced to the members, that
they and their friends should have access to the Museum, du-
ring the summer, on Saturdays, from ten to twelve o'clock, a.m.

Jtdy 18. — Sir John Graham Daly ell, Kt. President, in the
chair. The following communications were laid before the
Society : —

1. Mr Macpherson (of Smiths', Blair Street) exhibited in operation a
simple Washing Machine, on a construction used in America, and be-
lieved to be originally from Russia, which is found to save time and
fatigue, and to do the work much more efficiently. (578.) Thanks
from the chair.

2. Donation. — Elemens de Lecture ou Exercices Syllabiques a Tusage
des jeunes aveugles, &c. Par M. Guillie. Paris, 1820. Presented by
Mr George Hay, brother of the late Mr Alexander Hay, author of Papers
on an Alphabet and method of printing for the Blind, submitted to the
Society in the year 1832-33. (570.) Thanks.

3. Donation. — A Chinese Hat and Pea- Jacket, such as are worn by the
Steersman in the Chinese Junks. Presented by Mr J. W. Lyon, M.S.A.
(571.) Thanks.

4. The following reports of committees were read and approved ot\
viz. : —

(1.) On Mr Alexander's Electro-Magnetic Telegraph. (489.) And

on Mr Ponton's Improved Electric Telegraph. (492.)
(2.) On Mr J. Kilpatrick's Method of applying Oars instead of

Paddles to Steam-Vessels. (496.)
(3.) On Mr J. Whitclaw's Grinding Machine. (512.) To be printed.
(4.) On Mr Richardson's Method of taking Plaster of Paris from

T^'pes after Stereotyping. (516.)
(5.) On Mr Black's Paper on the Mucilage of the Fuci. (500.)
(6.) On Mr Cunningham's Rotatory Steam-Engine, Barometer,

Quadrant, and Hygroscope. (530.)

412 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

(7.) On Mr Black's Paper on the Mucilage of Lichens. (501.)
(8.) On Mr Sang's Nut for Leading Screws. (418.)
(9.) On Mr Sang's Dioptric Light erected at Kirkaldy. (552.)
(10.) On Mr Beattie's Rotary Steam-Enginc. (558.)
(11.) On Mr Alston's Musical Catechism for the Blind. (559.)
(12.) On, 1st, Mr Comins' Floats for Paddle-Wheels. (^5.)

2d, Mr Vallance's ditto. (488.)

3d, Mr Henderson's ditto. (510.)

4th, Mr Wilson's ditto. (584.)

6th, Mr Rose's ditto. (538.)

6th, Mr Black's ditto. (560.)
(13.) On Mr Carrick's New Paddle-Wheel. (507.)
(14.) On Mr Carrick's Hydrostatic Safety- Valve. (505.)
(15.) On Mr Rettie's Sink-Box. (503.)
(16.) On Mr Alston's Fables, with Wood-cuts for the Blind. (568.)

1. The following candidates were admitted as ordinary
members, \iz. : —

Mr James Adam jun. engineer, 5 Scotland Street ; the Rev. Tho,
Monro, A.M., George Watson's Hospital.

9.. The report of the Committee appointed to prepare a List
of the Prizes to be offered for Session 1838-39, was read and
approved of, and the list was ordered to be immediately printed
and advertised as usual.

Aug. 1. — Mungo Ponton, Esq. F.R.S.E., Vice-President, in
the chair. The following communications were laid before the
Society : —

1. The report of Committee.

(1.) On, 1st, Mr Comin's Boiler-Feeder. (474.)
2d, Mr Carrick's ditto. (506.)
8d, Mr Mudie's ditto. (609.)
4th, Mr Combe's ditto. (529.)
6th, Mr Rose's ditto. (573.)
6th, Mr Russell's ditto. (543.)
7th, Mr Gall's ditto. (548.)
8th, Mr Bald's ditto. (549.)
Mr W. Steele, Convener. — Not being ready, was remitted to
Prize Committee when lodged.
(2.) On Mr Whitelaw's Boiler-Feeder. Mr W. Steele, Convener.
(633.) Not being ready, was remitted to Prize Committee
when lodged.
(3.) On Mr Proudfoot's Mode of Sharpening and Setting the Teeth
of Saws. Mr P. Steele, Convener, (641.) Not being ready,
was remitted to Prize Committee when lodged.

Prcceidirigs of the Sccieiy of Arts* 413

(4.) On Mr ComiDs' paper on determining the quantity of absolute Al-
cohol in any Mixture. Dr Fyfe, Convener. (478.) Read
and approved.

(6.) On Dr Davidson's Paper on Adulteration of Fixed Oils. Mr
Ponton, Convener. (554.)

(6.) On Dr Davidson's Paper on Decolorization of Palm Oil. Mr
Ponton, Convener. (655.)

(7.) On Dr Davidson's Paper on removing the fetid Odour of Fish
Oil. Mr Ponton, Convener. (556.)

(8.) On Dr Davidson's Paper on removing the Lichcnous Taste and
Odour from Iceland Moss. Mr Ponton, Convener. (557.) —
These four papers by Dr Davidson were remitted to the Ex-
perimental Committee — Mr Ponton, Convener, — ^to report to
Prize Committee.
2» Donation. — A Mute Converser, to enable the Seeing to communicate
with the Deaf and Dumb. By W. H. Vilhcrs Sankey, Esq. Newington,
Edinburgh. (574.) Thanks voted.

]» The following candidates were elected ordinary mem-
bers:—

J. B. Gallic, merchant. Gray Street, Newington ; Lieutenant-Colonel
Jftmes Ferguson, Hon. E.I.C.S., 53 Frederick Street.

S. Copies of the list of Prizes offered for session 1838-39,
were distributed to the members.

3. The laws of the Society, as altered by the Committee,
revised by the Council, and approved of by the Society at last
meeting (18th July 1838), were again taken into consideration
at this meeting in terms of Law XVII., and were finally con-
sidered and adopted.

After an appropriate address from the Vice-President at the
dose of a session of unprecedented length and interest, and
during which no fewer than fifty-five new members had joined
the Society, the Vice-President adjourned the Society till next
session, which commences on Wednesday, 14th November next.

hist of Prizes offered by the Society for the Encouragement

of the Useful Arts in Scotland for Session 1838-9.

The Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts in

Scotland, announce the following Prizes for the Session 1838-9.

I. For the most important Invention, Discovery, or Improvement

In the Useful Arts ; — The Keith Medaly value Twenty Sovereigns*

VOL. XXV. NO. L OCTOBER 1838. EC

414 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

II. The Society proposes also to expend the Sum of Eighty
Pounds, in various Pecuniary Prizes, and Honorary Medals, in re-
warding approved Communications on the subjects hereafter men-
tioned,— and likewise on any other Inventions or Improvements
which may be submitted to them, — and for Essays or detailed Ac-
counts of Public or other undertakings of great National import-
ance, not previously published.

1. For the best series of Experiments applicable to the Useful

Arts.

2. For the most important Communication of any useful Inven-

tion, Process, or Practice from foreign countries, not yet
known or adopted in Great Britain.

3. For an improvement in the methods used in Great Britain for

Currying and Tawing certain kinds of Leather, so as to ren-
der them equal to those done in France.

4. For the best method of burning Gas for the purpose of illu-

mination.

5. For the best means of burning Gas for supplying heat.
General Observations. — All communications shall be entitled to

compete for the Keith Medal which comply M'ith the terms of
the announcement of that Prize, although falling under any of the
the above specified subjects.

The descriptions of the various inventions, &c. to he full and dis-
tiiict, and, when necessary, accompanied by Specimens^ Drawings,
or Models.

The Society shall be at liberty to publish in their Transactions
copies or abstracts of all Papers submitted to them. All Models i
Drawings, &c. for which Prizes shall be given, shall be held to be
the property of the Society ; and these, and all others which shall
be approved of, shall be entitled to a place in the Museum.

All communications must be written on Foolscap paper, leaving
margins at least one inch broad, so as to allow of their being after-
wards bound up with others ; and all Drawings must be on Imperial
Drawing Paper, unless a larger sheet be requisite.

All communications to be lodged a^ soon after \st November 1838
as possible, in order to insure their being read during the Session ;
but those tvhich cannot be lodged so early, will be received till \st
March 1839.

Connnunications to be addressed to the Secretary, at the Mu-
seum of the Society of Arts, 63 Hanover Street, Edinburgh.

JloTAL Institution, Edinburgh, 18t/i July 1838.

( 415 )

Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh.*

April 12. 1838. — Robert Maughan, Esq. Member of the Wer-
nerian Society, in the Chair.

Mr Forbes read a paper on the specific claims of Primula acaulis,
veris and elatior.

Professor Christison presented some observations on the preser-
vation of fruits and other botanical specimens in the moist state.

Mr Hamilton read a paper on the Gardens of the Ancient He-
brews.

May 10, — Professor Graham, President, in the Chair.

Mr Macaulay read the first part of a Paper " On the effects of
Vegetation on the Atmosphere."

Dr Graham read a description of Cata^etum discolor, var. luteo-
aurantiacum, and offered some general observations on the genus
Catasetnm.

June 14. — Dr Balfour, V.P., in the Chair.

The Secretary stated that a letter had been received by the Presi-
dent from William Gibson-Craig, Esq, M.P., inclosing a communi-
cation from Lord John Russell, intimating that Her Majesty had
been graciously pleased to become Patroness of the Botanical Society,

Dr Balfour then read a paper by W. B. Carpenter, Esq. of Bris-
tol, containing a general view of the Function of Reproduction in
Vegetables.

July 12 — Professor Graham, President, in the Chair.

Mr Falconer read an account of a Botanical excursion to one of
the Islands of Hyeres, by Mr Percy in the year 1836, with a list of
most of the species observed

Mr Macaulay read some observations on several of the species of
the genus Tortula, communicated by Mr Robert Stark of Cirences-
ter.

Mr Brand read a paper, containing his views on the proper mode
of arranging the Society's Herbarium, and forming a catalogue for
reference.

The Society then adjourned till Thursday the 8th of November.

* We have refrained, in our report, giving particulars, as we are happy
to find that the first volume of the Transactions of the Botanical Society, con-
taining these, will appear about the same time with this number of the Phi-
losophical Journal.

( 416 )
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

METEOROLOGY.

1. Temperature of the Globe in the Polar Regions and upon
the tops of Lofty Moimtarns. — In our climates the mean
temperature of caves, wells, and common springs, very nearly
corresponds with the mean temperature of the place where they
are situated, as determined by the thermometer placed in the
shade in the open air. This, however, no longer holds true in
certain countries near the pole, and in all places near the limit
of perpetual snow. There, as the observations of Messrs Wall-
lenberg and Leopold de Bitch have especially proved, the tem-
perature of the soil, and consequently the temperature of the
springs, are notably higher than the mean temperature of the
atmosphere.

This anomaly had been explained in a manner which was
apparently satisfactory. The thick bed of snow which, in the
northern regions, or in those whose height above the horizon is
considerable, covering the soil during a considerable part of
the year, cannot fail, it is said, on account of its small conduct-
ing power, to prevent the extreme cold of winter from pene-
trating into the earth, or at all events from propagating itself
there to such depths as it would have reached, if the surface had
not been covered over with such an envelope. The snow, in
short, however strange the result may at first appear, is, all
things considered, a cause of real heating in those regions where
it remains for a long time.

Can any thing, it may be inquired, be opposed to an ex-
planation so rational and evident ? There may. For first,
there is a great want of express specification. And again,
since the recent epoch when M. Erman communicated to the
Academy, his concordant comparative observations concerning
the temperature of the air and of the earth, made in Siberia,
we have, moreover, to oppose to the same explanation, that it
leads, as a matter of necessity, to differences of sensible caloric
for places where no such difi^erences exist, as, for example, at
Yakutsk, as we have lately learned. Those of the Scientific Com-
mission who propose to winter near the northern extremity of Eu-
rope, may hope, therefore, to resolve an important problem in

Scientific hitelligence. — Meteorology. 417

meteorology. If they remain in Finmark, at Kielvik, at Ham-
merfest, or at Alten, whose mean temperature is below the freez-
ing point, they ought to investigate why water never freezes
in well closed caves ? The stream of Hammerfest, which, ac-
cording to M. de Buck, never ceases to flow in the midst of win-
ter, will also engage their attention ; finally, they will not fail,
were it only by making use of the simple holes which are made
by the miners' borer, to examine how the temperature of the
earth varies daily at different depths. These observations, I
believe, have never been made in regions where, for whole
months, the sun never sets. Thus, these observations will be
an interesting acquisition for science, independently of their *
possible connection with the anomaly in the terrestrial tempe-
ratures, to which I have especially wished exclusively to devote
these remarks. — Arago."'

2. Depth of the Frozen Ground in Siberia. — At page 435
of vol. 24th of Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, we in-
8erted Professor I3aer*s communication to the Geographical So-
ciety of London, " On the Frozen Soil of' Siberia.''^ We have
now to add, that a further communication on this subject, also
by M. Baer, was read at the meeting of the British Association
at Newcastle. After stating very shortly the nature of the ex-
periments to be made at Yakutsk by order of the Petersburg!!
Academy of Science, he remarks, " It seems to me very import-
ant for physical geography, to ascertain the thickness of per-
j)etually frozen ground in countries whose mean temperature is
considerably below 0^ R, I will merely mention one point : if,
as is the case at Yakutsk, the ground never thaws at the depth
of from 300 feet to 400 feet, all the small streams whose super-
ficial waters only are kept in a fluid state in the summer, must
be in the winter entirely without water ; and, vice versa^ we
may conclude that all rivers which do not come far from the
south, and whose course is entirely within those countries which
preserve perpetual ground-ice, and yet do not cease to flow in
winter, must receive their waters from greater depths than those
which remain in a frozen state. It is, then, clear that these
veins of water penetrate the perpetual ground-ice. This cir-

• The notices with signature Armjo were drawn up by that philosopher
for the use of the French Scientific Expeditions, at present in the north of
Europe, and in Northern Africa.

418 Scienttjic Intelligence. — Meteorology.

cumstance strikes me as one not devoid of interest in the theory
of the formation of springs ; and it would be very desirable
that some researches upon this subject should be set on foot in
high nortliern latitudes. In the narrative of Admiral Wran-
geFs Travels, still in MS., there occurs a remarkable instance
of very considerable rivers in very cold countries being with-
out water in winter, like our ditches and small brooks. He
was riding, to the north of Yakutsk, in about Q5° lat. over the
ice of a large river, when the ice suddenly gave way, and his
horse went under. He was himself saved by being thrown up-
on the ice at the moment his horse fell. He was lamenting the
loss of his horse to the Yakutskis who accompanied him, as he
knew not where to get another, when they laughed, and as-
sured him they would soon get his horse back, and with a dry
skin too ! They got some poles and broke away the ice, under
which the bed of the river was perfectly dry, as well as the
horse and his saddle. The Yakutskis were therefore aware that
there was no water in the winter-time at the bottom of rivers of
this size ; and in this case the water must have disappeared be-
fore the ice had gained sufficient thickness to bear a loaded
horse. Similar accidents, and similar results must doubtless
have frequently occurred, during the many journeys which the
English have made in North America ; and the agents of the
Hudson's Bay Company must be well acquainted with the real
state of the small rivers in winter, in these high latitudes ; i. e,
whether all of them are in a fluid state below the ice or not.
I am collecting materials to ascertain the southern limit of per-
petual ground-ice in the Old World ; those I have are not yet
very complete ; but I am already aware that this phenomenon
extends much farther in a southerly direction in Siberia than in
Europe. The farther we go east, the more southerly we find
the limit of perpetual ground-ice. Humboldt found at Bogos-
lovsk, in lat. 59° 45' N., at the eastern foot of the Ural Moun-
tains, small pieces of ice at the depth of six feet in the summer.
No permanent ice has been found in Tobolsk in 58"" N. ; but
at Beresow, in 64" N. where Erman found the temperature
of the ground above -j-l°R. at the depth of 23 feet, we learn
from the observations of M. Belowski, that the lower dis-
tricts are never without ice in the ground, so that it is pro-

Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorology. 419

bable that Beresow is near the limit of perpetual ground-ice.
Farther east, this frozen soil extends much more to the south-
ward, even to the shores of the lake Baikal ; indeed, the whole
of the south-eastern angle of Siberia has perpetual ground-
ice. Captain Frehre states that, in 1836, he there found the
ground frozen at some distance below the surface, and that this
frozen stratum was continued uninterruptedly quite to the un-
derlying rock, to a depth of from 10 feet to 40 feet. But, as he
always found rock there, it would be difficult to say how thick
the layer of frozen mud would be in the lat. of 52°. It thawed
on the surface of the banks of the river, to a depth of from
2J feet to 6 feet, and from 6 feet to 9 feet on the naked heights ;
but, in the forests, where the rays of the sun were intercepted,
the thaw reached only from | foot to 1 foot deep. If it be true
that there are places in forests where the ground is never thaw-
ed one foot deep, it would demonstrate how little is necessary
for the ground to be thawed for trees to grow on it. The de-
velopment of the leaves and vegetation depends less on the tem-
perature of the soil than on that of the air in the spring ; it on-
ly requires that the ground should be so far thawed that the
tree may be able to draw from it a sufficient quantity of mois-
ture for its growth.*""

3. On the Aurora Borealis. — When in our climates, the au-
rora borealis is complete, — when one part of its light pictures
on space a well-defined arch, the culminating' point of this
ARCH is in the magnetic meridian, and its two points of appa-
rent intersection with the horizon are at equal angular distances
from the same meridian.

When it projects luminous columns from different portions
of the arch, their point of intersection^ called by certain meteo-
rologists the ceiitre of the cupola, is found in the magnetic meri-
dian, QXidi precisely upon the prolongation of the dipping needle.

It is very important to repeat these kind of observations ;
and less with the object of establishing between the aurora bo-

• Mr De la Beche remarked, that, considered geologically, this paper of
Prof. Baer was an important one. It shewed that the temperature of those
regions hud changed since the deposit of the dctrital matter (for that was the
character of the frozen ground), inasmuch as, under the condition of a perpe-
tually frozen surface, no such deposits could take place.

420 Scientific Intelligence, — Meteorology,

realis and terrestrial magnetism a general connection, which no
one now doubts, than with the view of supplying additional in*
formation concerning the intimate nature of the phenomenon^
and the geometric methods by which its absolute height has
sometimes been determined.

These methods, founded upon the combinations of parallaxes,
suppose that every where the same arc is seen, by which I mean
the same material particles congregated into a radiating condi-
tion by unknown causes. This hypothesis, unless I am deceived>
when examined with becoming scrupulosity, will be found to
be beset with many well-grounded difficulties.

The magnetic bearing of the aurora horealis arch proves
nothing more than that the phenomenon is placed symmetrically
in relation to the magnetic axis of the globe. As to the kind
of displacement which the centre of the cupola undergoes for
every change of the observer's position, it cannot be explained
by the play of the parallaxes This displacement is such that
an observer who proceeds from Paris towards the north mag-
netic pole, sees the centre of the cupola, situated to the south of
his zenith, elevate itself more and more above the horizon ; but
precisely the contrary would happen if the cupola were a radu
ating point, and not a simple effect of perspective.

So soon as it is established that in the aurora borealis, one of
the portions at least is a mere illusion, we do not perceive why
we are at once to adopt the notion that the luminous arc of Paris
is that which will be perceived at Strasburg, at Munich, Teeri-
na, &c. And what an immense step would be made in the the'-
ory of these mysterious phenomena if it were established that
each observer sees, as it were, his own aurora borealis, as each one
perceives his own rainbow ? And what would this be else than
freeing our meteorological catalogues of a multitude of the de-
terminations of elevation which cannot be considered as having
any real foundation, though they have for their authors such
men as Mairan, Halleyy Krafft, Cavendish^ and Dalton.

Before bringing this article to a close, in which the question
of the absolute height of the matter in the midst of which the
aurora borealis is formed has been introduced, I ought not to
omit to state, that on one occasion Captain Parry had the con-
viction that he witnessed the luminous jets proceeding from the

Scientific Intelligence, — Meteorology. 421

aurora projecting themselves upon a mountain which was at no
great distance from his vessel. This observation well merits
being confirmed and repeated. — Arago,

4. On Winds. — The variations in the wind may supply me-
teorologists who are travelling, by land or by sea, many subjects
of the deepest interest.

First of all it is important to ascertain concerning every place,
what is the direction of its prevailing winds, and what the differ-
ent epochs of the year during which each wind is most common.

None of our meteorological instruments measures the velo-
city of the wind with any thing like desirable accuracy. When
the sky is quite overcast, the observer who wishes to ascertain
the rapidity of the progress of a tempest, finds himself reduced
to the necessity of throwing light substances into the air, and
with his watch in hand, following them with the eye till they at-
tain different objects, the distances of which are known. When
the sky is only partially covered with clouds, the course of their
shadow upon the earth, for ten seconds for example, will give
a very close approximation to the distances they have been
moved in that time by the power of the wind.

The observation of these shadows, then, may be recommend-
ed with confidence ; they afford the velocity of the wind much
better than the use of light bodies, which scientific men have
been under the necessity of rejecting, because their movements
near the surface are complicated by the influence of innumerable
whirlwinds and counter-currents.

In the year 1740, Franklin discovered that the hurricanes
which so often ravaged the western parts of the United States,
propagated themselves in a course contrary to the direction in
which they were blowing. Thus a hurricane from the north-
east might begin at New Orleans ; after a time it would arrive
at Charleston : and two or three hours later it would reach
Philadelphia ; then after many hours it would be felt at New
York, and at a still later period would reach the more northern
towns of Boston and Quebec, in all this course proceeding back-
wards, for it always blew from the northward.

It results from this observation of Franklin that the hurricanes
of America are winds of aspiration. Is not the same phenome-

422 Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorology.

non produced in other places, and upon a very extensive scale ?
I say upon a great scale, because it appears to me beyond doubt
that the land breeze which is regularly perceived during the
night in certain seas, and the sea breeze which succeeds it in the
morning, are likew^ise winds of aspiration or of suction.

Saussure, during his sojourn at the Col-du-Geant, was assail-
ed by the wind of an extremely violent tempest, which inter-
vals of the most perfect calm periodically interrupted. As the
stormy winds suddenly changed their direction to the extent of
30 or 40 degrees, the illustrious philosopher of Geneva explain-
ed the strange intervals of calm which he witnessed, by suppos-
ing that sometimes the wind blew according to the direction of
one or other of the Alpine ridges which protected his station at
the Col.

This explanation of the intermission of the wind cannot be
general, for Captain Cook has observed the same phenomenon
in the open sea. Thus he writes in his second voyage. " When
the ship was in 45° S. lat., and 28° 30' E. long, from Paris, the
night proved exceedingly stormy. The wind blew from the
south-west in most violent squalls. In short intervals between
these, the wind almost completely died away, and then recom-
menced with such fury that neither our sails nor rigging could
stand it."

Captain Duperre has stated that he has sometimes seen the
same thing : and this forms one curious subject of observation.
It is also desirable to attend to the winds upon land, which often
blow for whole days in the plains, if not with intervals of per-
fect calm, at least with changes in intensity, which Saussure
estimated at the half, or at least two- thirds, of the usual intensity.

Meteorology and physiology have still much to gain from the
zeal of travellers on the subject of the hot winds of the desert,
known in Africa under the names of Seimoum, of Kamsin^ and of
Harmattan^ winds which, in attaining the several islands of the
Mediterranean, or the coasts of Italy, France, and Spain, become
the Sirocco. The description which certain travellers have given
of the effects of the seimoum are evidently exaggerated. It also
appears evident that these effects, whatever they are, depend in
a great degree upon their high temperature, and the extreme dry-
ness which the shifting sands communicate to the atmosphere ;

Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorologp, 423

but it will be highly useful to complete, by accurate thermorae-
trical and hygrometrical observations, the vague accounts with
which we are now obliged to be satisfied. Burckhardt men-
tions that, during an invasion of the seimoum, he saw the ther-
mometer at Esnc in the shade rise to 131° Fahr., a temperature
which would perfectly justify all the assertions of Bruce, if the
British traveller had not added, that the air never continued in
that state longer than a quarter of an hour.

In conclusion, is it true, as Burckhardt assures us, that the
hues of the atmosphere where the seimoum prevails, the colours
of the sun, whether red, yellow, bluish or violet, as mentioned
by so many other travellers, depend on the nature and colour of
the ground, whence the wind has raised the sand which it trans-
ports along with it ? — Arago.

5. Fall of Ram from a serene STcy. — M. Wartmann has in-
formed M. Arago, that, on the 31st day of May last, at two mi-
nutes after seven o^clock in the evening, there was a shower at
Geneva, which lasted six minutes, the sky being perfectly clear
at the zenith, and no cloud being visible in the neighbourhood
of the place. This rain, whose temperature was lukewarm, fell
vertically in drops, at first sufficiently large and numerous, and
gradually became smaller and smaller till it ceased. The ther-
mometer at the time indicated a temperature of Q^°.5 Fahr. The
day had been one of frequent showers and sunshine.

6. Uncommon Atmospherical Refraction at Dover. — When the
dense fog which overspread the horizon here on Friday se'ennight
had cleared away, about ten o'clock, the sky became so bright
that one of the most imposing views of the opposite coasts pre-
sented itself that ever was witnessed from our shores. It was dead
low water, which favoured the view, and it seemed as if a curtain
had suddenly been witlidrawn, exhibiting the whole line of the
French coast as distinctly as if it had only been a few miles off.
Calais was so plainly distinguishable that comparatively minute
objects were plainly discernible. Boulogne piers were perfectly
visible ; the sails of the vessels in that harbour were observed out-
spread, and the whole of the villages along the coast seemed so
close at hand that the spectator on Dover pier might fancy
them as near as the martello towers immediately adjacent to
Folkstone. — September 1838, Dover Chronicle,

424i Scientific Intelligence, — Hydrology.

HYDROLOGY.

7. Submarine Currents, — The temperature of the lower
depths of the ocean, between the tropics, is from ^2° to 25°
Cent, below the lowest point at which seamen have observed
the thermometer at the surface. Thus, this very cold bed at
the bottom is not maintained by the precipitation of the super-
ficial layers ; and it hence seems impossible not to admit that
submarine currents transport the watfer of the icy ocean to
beneath the equator.

The consequence of this is important ; and its reality is
confirmed hy the experiments which have been made in the
Mediterranean. This inland sea cannot receive the cold cur-
rents which proceed from the polar regions in any other way
than through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. Hence, in the
Mediterranean, the temperature of the greatest depths is never
so low, aeteris paribus, as in the wide ocean. We may go
further, and state that in no situation does the temperature
of the bottom of the Mediterranean appear to descend lower
than the mean temperature of the place. If this last cir-
cumstance be confirmed, it will follow that no portion of the
icy stream coming from the poles enters the tln-eshold, so to
speak, of the Strait of Gibraltar. When Captain Durville
sailed, some years since, in the first voyage of V Astrolabe, I
conceived it would be useful to examine if the phenomena of
the ocean, as to the temperature of great depths, exhibited them-
selves in all their purity immediately to the westward of the
Straits. The Academy then seconded my views ; and upon this
recommendation some observations of the required nature were
made at a short distance from Cadiz. The result was an entire
correspondence with those performed in the Mediterranean.

This curious fact seems to admit of two different explana-
tions. It may be supposed either that the polar current is com-
pletely repelled by the submarine current which proceeds from
the Mediterranean to the ocean, the existence of which seems
scarcely doubtful. Or, it may be supposed also, that the bold
projection of the southern coast of Portugal does not permit the
current of cold water coming from the north to sweep round
almost at a right angle to reach the parts which approach the
mouth of the Guadalquiver. In this state of the question, the

Scientific InieUigence. — Hydrology. 425

importance of thermonietric soundings to the west and east of
Cape St Vincent, will be apparent. Hence it appeared desirable
that the Academy should recommend this series of observations
to the Minister of Marine, and that a vessel should make a
hydrographical survey of the coasts of Morocco, whose com-
mander, M. Berard, is already occupied in ascertaining the
temperature of these seas at all depths, and with a degree of
success which the scientific world will fully appreciate. Never
did a more favourable occasion occur for the solution of the
great problem of terrestrial physics whose elements we have
now dwelt upon. — Arago.

8. Water- Spouts. — The connection of water-spouts with elec-
tro-magnetism, a favourite subject with some German natural-
ists, has been brought forward by Colonel Reid in his memoir
on storms, read before the British Association, and we hope it
will not be lost sight of. The double cones in water-spouts,
one pointing upwards from the sea, the other downwards from
the clouds, are interesting features in the phenomenon ; these
ought to be more particularly examined, and we should also
ascertain whether the cloud above and the sea below revolve
in the same direction with each other. We also suggest to
those who may have an opportunity, to examine whether the
rain which the spout projects in all directions is salt or fresh.

9. Hpt-Springs. — If we admit, with some naturalists of our
time, that hot-springs borrow their high temperature from the
terrestrial strata which lie deep below them, many of these springs
may then throw no trifling light upon the ancient thermome-
tric state of the globe. An example, one of the most favourable
that can be adduced, will exhibit the alliance of the two phe-
nomena very distinctly.

In the year 1 785, M. Desfontaines discovered, at some dis-
tance from Bona, in Africa, a hot-spring whose temperature
was at 96° 3' Cent. This spring was known to the ancients ;
for the ruins of baths, in the immediate neighbourhood, leave
no doubt upon that point. This circumstance, combined ^vith
the temperature 96° 3' Cent., leads, I conceive, to the conse-
quence that during 2000 years, the temperature of the ground,
in Africa, has not varied 4*> Cent. For, let us admit for a
moment, that during the 2000 years it had diminished 4« Cent.

426 Scientific Intelligence. — Hydrology.

the terrestrial strata whence the water now issues, must have
possessed at the time of the Romans and Carthaginians a tem-
perature of 100°.3 Cent , and consequently the water would have
appeared at the surface in the state of steam, as in the geysers of
Iceland^ and not in the state of hot water only. But who can
admit the existence of so extraordinary a phenomenon, when
Seneca, Pliny, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, &c. are wholly silent
reo^ardinff it.

Our argument seems liable only to one kind of difficulty ;
solutions will not boil at a temperature of 100° Cent,, as pure
water does, and the difference will increase in the ratio of the
quantity of saline matter which is dissolved. And this is the
precise reason why new observations on the hot-spring in
the neighbourhood of Bona are indispensable. It is on this ac-
count necessary to add to the determination of temperature, a
chemical analysis of the water, an analysis which, however, can
easily be made at Paris, upon specimens inclosed in bottles hei-
metically sealed. If, at the present time, the water of the
spring reaches the surface very nearly saturated with the cal-
careous matters which it deposits, every difficulty will disap-
pear, and an important problem in climatology will then be
resolved. — Arago.

10. Electricity near Waterfalls, — In the year 1786, Tralles
found, near the waterfall of the Staubbach, that the extremely
fine rain, which was detached from it, gave manifest signs
of negative electricity. The Reichenbach also presented the
same phenomena. Shortly after, Volta verified the accuracy
of the observation of Tralles, not only at the waterfall of
Pissevache, but also every where when a fall of water, how-
ever insignificant, gave occasion, by the intervention of the
wind, to the dispersion of the minute globules. It appeared to
him, as it did to Tralles, that the electricity was always nega-
tive. The philosopher at Berne at first attributed the electri-
city of the watery vapour, with which all great cascades are
surrounded, to the friction of the globules upon the air ; but
shortly afterwards he saw, along with Volta, the true cause of
this electricity in the evaporation which these same globules
experienced in the act of falling. This explanation has lately
been combated by Professor Belli. Without denying that

Scientific InteUignce. — Hydrology. 427

evaporation may have some effect upon the phenomena, M.
Belli ascribes the principal influence to the action which atmo-
spheric electricity must exercise upon running water. Water,
he says, will be by influence, by induction, in a state of nega-
tive electricity, when the atmosphere is, as usually happens,
charged with positive electricity. At the moment in which
this water is divided into a thousand globules, it cannot fail to
convey the electricity, with which the impulsion of the atmo-
sphere had impregnated it, to every object which it encounters.
The theory of Professor Belli is susceptible of a proof which,
at once, will demonstrate either its truth or its inaccuracy. If
it be true, the electricity of the vapour with which waterfalls
are surrounded, will not be always of the same kind ; it will be
negative if the atmosphere is positive; and, on the contrary, it
will be found positive when the clouds are negative. It must,
then, be observations made in the time of storms, and not under
a serene sky, which will enable us to ascertain the comparative
merits of the theories of Volta and M. Belli. — Arago.

11. Tides in the Mediterranean. — The theory of tides, bor-
rowed from the principle of universal attraction, can leave no
doubt as to its general truth. What it still wants in sim-
plicity and accuracy will be afforded by geometry. Observers,
at the same time, have a great field of inquiry before them,
in the local circumstances which considerably modify the tide-
tables of different ports, and the changes in the height of the
water, where it is not easy to state what is the influencing cir-
cumstance, and what its mode of action. Are there any sensi-
ble tides in the Mediterranean properly so called.'^ To this
question some individuals respond yes ; as it concerns, for ex-
ample, the harbour of Bouc ; but the calculations on which
they rest give a contrary result. According to some researches
made at Naples, in the year 1793, there was there a very ob-
servable tide to the extent c)f about a foot in the straight canal
which is called the river Styx^ and which establishes a com-
munication between the port of Mistne and the Mare-Morio.
Blagden regarded these data so certain that he even proceeded
to deduce from them the hour of its establishment in the Bay
of Naples. These observations deserve to be repeated in differ-
ent parts of the coast of Algiers ; and the want of success in
some harbours ought not to prove discouraging as it regards

,428 Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

others. If we had been restrained by the remark, so often re-
peated, that the Mediterranean is too confined to allow tides to
be observed, we should not now have known that they are quite
sensible in the Achiatic ; and we should have been ignorant that
at Chioggia and Venice they rise more than a yard. — Arago.

GEOLOGY.

12. Geology of the Zahara Desert. — From M. Elie de Bemi-
mon^s Instructions to the Scientific Commission to Algiers. — M.
Rozet, from the observations he has himself made upon the ter-
tiary strata in the neighbourhood of Algiers and Medeya,and ac-
cording to the information he has received from the celebrated
traveller M, Rene Caillie, thinks it highly probable that the
tertiary formation of the district of Algiers constitutes the soil
of the Great Desert of Zahara. He considers that sandstones
and the tertiary limestones will be met there in horizontal beds,
covered with great masses of sands, which will be found to be
nothing more than those which very frequently appear at the
upper part of the sub-Atlantic tertiary formation,* with this
difference, that to the south of the Great Atlas the sands will
have acquired an exceedingly great development. The argil-
laceous marls, which, according to M. Rozet, must exist at the
lower part of the tertiary series in the Zahara Desert, as well
as near the Atlas, as they readily retain water, make it highly
probable that abundant springs would appear upon boring.
Draw-wells might thus be easily established. Mr Shaw even
mentions, that in the villages of Wad-reag they are in the habit
of procuring water by machinery, which reminds us of our
Artesian wells, or spouting fountains. This fact is alluded to
by M, Arago in his able article upon Les Puits Artesiens in
the Annuaire for 1834f This possibility of establishing spout-
ing-fountains, not only in the Zahara Desert, but also in many
places throughout the Algerine district, not excepting many
near the coast, is so important, that it deserves to be particu-
larly recommended to the attention of those who superintend
the geological department of the commission. Again, the sands
of the Desert of Zahara, and of those much smaller deserts

* Rozet names the Tertiary deposits of Algiers sub- Atlantic,
t A translation of this Memoir is published in vol. xviii. of Edinburgh
New Philosophical Journal.

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology, 4^

which lie between the mountains of Algiers, should be exa-
mined, with an especial relation to the sands of downs ; so that
the differences which exist between these two varieties of sands
may be ascertained, both as it regards their present circum-
stances and their respective origins. It has long been known that
the sands of the deserts near Egypt contain trunks of silicified
trees. Some indications would lead to the supposition, that
these may also be found in the deserts of Algiers ; and it would
be interesting to come to a definite conclusion on this point, as
the presence of such silicified trees would tend to establish the
tertiary origin of the sands. A great sandy desert, viz. that of
Anga, separates, on the east, the regency of Algiers from the
kingdom of Fez. This desert is undoubtedly analogous in its
geological origin to the Great Desert of Zahara, and it would
be of much easier access to the members of the scientific expe.
dition than the other. One of the most curious-facts which the
deserts of Africa and Asia present is, that their soil is frequently
salt. Chloride of sodium is spread over the soil of Barbary in
surprising abundance. According to M. Desfontaines, the
ground, throughout nearly the whole extent of the regency of
Tunis, is impregnated with so great a quantity of sea-salt, that
the majority of the springs are salt-springs. It is by no means
rare to observe, when the summer heat has evaporated the
stagnant waters of low places, that a considerable extent of the
surface is encrusted with the salt which had been dissolved and
accumulated by the winter's rains. These plains are usually
denominated Sibkah, in other words, salted earth. In winter
they are usually covered with water, and then appear like so
many great lakes ; but when dried in summer, they very much
resemble great bowling-greens covered with beautiful turf.
Some of these Sibkahs have a hard and solid bottom, without
any mixture of earth or gravel, which retains the salt, and forms
a crystalline crust after the rains. Saline deposits of this sort
occur near Arzew, and in several other localities. It would be
interesting to examine the relations which exist between the
salt that is thus superficially spread over the surface, and the
masses of rock-salt which also exist in the district of Algiers.
Shaw considers them nearly allied, for he remarks that the
salt of the Lake Marques, which is also called Bahirah-Pha*

VOL. XXV. NO. L. OCTOBER 1838. F f

4S0 Scientific lntelUge?ice. — Zoology.

rao?ine, and of some other less considerable plains of the same
nature, resemble rock-salt, both in taste and quality.

13. Fossil Organic Remains in Sutke?'Iand, and Fluor-
spar in the Ord of Caithness. — A letter from one of our pupils,
Mr Clarke junior, of Eriboll, informs us that he has found or-
ganic remains in a quartz-rock connected with the limestone of
Sutherland. This is, we believe, the second time petrifactions
have been found in a part of Scotland, so interesting from its
display of transition-rocks. Another of our pupils, Mr R. IL
Cunningham, has discovered veins of fluor-spar in the granite
of the Ord of Caithness.

ZOOLOGY.

14. Hydrophobia in Mohammedan Countries. — M. Serres,
in his instructions to the medical department of the proposed
African expedition, makes the following remarks concerning
hydrophobia : — " Is it true that dogs in warm countries, and
especially among Mussulmans, are less subject than elsewhere to
hydrophobia ? If they verify this fact, the Commission ought
also to inquire into its cause ; because in France it is almost
always during warm weather, or after long droughts, that the
disease appears among these animals. Without anticipating
the explanation which may be supplied, we may here mention
a fact which possibly may bear upon it. It has been remarked
in Paris, that, since the establishment of running fountains, hy-
drophobia has become less frequent; and this has been attri-
buted to the limpid streams which run down the streets, and to
the facility which this affords to the dogs at all times to quench
their thirst. For it is known that dogs drink frequently, and
at the same time will but rarely partake of muddy or soiled
water. It has moreover been observed, that the hydrophobic
cases which have occurred in later years have been witnessed
among dogs belonging to the precincts of the town, where the
ponds, fed with rain water, are almost wholly dried up in sum-
mer. It has also been noticed that the time of their amours is
that in which they are most liable to the complaint. If the
assertion of the comparative rarity of the disease among Mus-
sulmans be correct, may not the cause be partly owing to the
great care which these people take of their dogs, and partly to
the abundance of water which the daily prescribed ablutions of

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology, 431

the Koran requires ? May not these circumstances, connected
with the observation made at Paris, and with the not less im-
portant one, that the disease scarcely ever oripjinates in large
kennels, direct us to the prevention of the malady among dogs,
and consequently among men ? For it is to the 'prevention of
this complaint that we should apply all our energies, since the
unsuccessful results of the experiments which have been made
in the Hotel-Dieu during the last twenty-five years, almost lead
us to despair that we shall ever discover any remedy whereby we
may arrest its fatal result.**' — At the next meeting of the Aca-
demy, M. Larrey supplied the following note : — " Hydropho-
bia, though common in hot climates, is not seen in Egypt, and
but rarely upon the northern shores of Africa. So far as
Egypt is concerned, the absence of the disease, undoubtedly
depends upon the peculiar variety of the dog which prevails in
that country, and upon its habits and modes of life. In all
these particulars it is very nearly allied to the fox; and hence
it is remarked that they appear always in a state of inaction.
The truth is, they always remain quiet in the shade during the
day, close to the cisterns of cold water, which are filled every
twenty-four hours, and preserved in great order by the inhabi-
tants. During the nights again, these animals are all alive ;
they are also but seldom in heat, and but for a short time. If
we found a vast number of these animals on our arrival in
Egypt, this was owing to their being tield in so much re^ct
in the country, as are many other animals, and to their never
being destroyed. They never enter into any of the houses.
During the day they lie quiet, as stated, in the confines of the
street, and during the night they range into the country, and
devour the carcasses of those animals which have not been in-
terred. They are gentle and peaceable, and seldom fight anx)ng
themselves. It is possible that all these circumstances raise
these animals above the attacks of hydrophobia. Another re-
markable circumstance, however, is this, that the camels in
Egypt, as M. Magendi has observed of the dogs in Paris, are
subject to a variety of the complaint during the rutting season.
They are then liable to a copious thick white discharge ; they
bellow unceasingly, they do not drink, and appear to have a
horror for water ; they then, too, pursue other quadrupeds,
and even man, for the purpose of biting ; they become very

432 New Publications.

lean, and their hair stands on end and falls off. They are often
feverish ; and if in this state they are in any way violently ex-
cited, after some days of severe suffering they die in convul-
sions. When they are labouring under this disease, the bites
of these animals are very dangerous. To prevent its fatal ef-
fects, the camel-drivers are in the habit of muzzling them at
these times, and are scrupulously cautious lest they be bitten.

15. Experiments upon the Torpedo. — M. Matteucci, in a
letter addressed to M. Dulong, announces that new experiments
which he has recently made upon the torpedo completely con-
firm the results he had previously obtained respecting the un-
equal po^ver of different parts of the brain in the production of
shocks ; thus the hemispheres of the cerebrum may be touched,
wounded, and even removed without a discharge taking place.
Again, it may be obtained, but only whilst the animal is very
lively, from the thalami nervorum optkorum (couches optiques)
situated between the hemispheres of the cerebrum and cerebel-
lum. As to the cerebellum (quatrieme lobe J, it cannot be touched
without producing a discharge ; the effect is still produced,
some time even after the death of the animal, and when this
part is removed all discharge ceases.

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

1. Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagie, under the command of Capt.
Fitzroy, during the years 1832 to 1886. No. II. of Part II. Recent
Mammalia. By George R. WaterhousEj Esq. Smith, Elder & Co.,
London.

This part 2d of No. II. of the Recent Mammalia of the Beagle
Voyage contains descriptions and histories of the Canis Magella-
nicus,Julvipes, and Azarce ; of Felis Yagouarofidi and pnjeros ;
of Delphinus FHz-Royi ; also remarks on the Guanaco of the
aborigines of Chili; and an account of the Cervus campestris.
There are six very interesting and beautifully executed co-
loured engravings of nine species of Muridae, to be described
in a future part.

No. 1st of part 3d, which has just reached us, contains ac-
curately drawn and beautifully coloured representations of
birds, by Mrs and Mr Gould ; with notices of the habits and
ranges of the tribes and species, by Mr Darwin. But our par-
ticular notice of this part must be delayed until our next number.

New Publications. 43S

2. Illuetrations of the Zoology of South Africa, S;c. S^c. By Andrew
Smith, M. D., Surgeon to the Forces, and Director of the Expedition
into the Interior of Africa. In 4to Parts. To be published periodi-
cally by Smith, Elder & Co., London.

This is another of those important and elegant original works
on natural history at present in tlie course of publication. Dr
Smith, the chief author and conductor of the Illustrations, is a na-
turalist of established reputation, and a traveller distinguished for
zeal, activity, and judgment. Being stationed at the Cape of Good
Hope as a medical officer in the military service, Dr Smith had
ample opportunities of indulging his taste for natural history.
Fortunately for science, he was selected by the Cape of Good
Hope Association Jbr exploring Central Africa^ as chief of an
expedition sent out by that Society, for the purpose of extend-
ing our knowledge of Southern Africa to the north of the Cape
district. I'he expedition, consisting of thirty-four persons,
after an absence of nineteen months, and penetrating as far as
23'' 28' south latitude, returned to Cape Town, with an ex-
tensive and valuable collection of objects of natural history.
Descriptions and figures of the new and more interesting spe-
cies of animals are to be laid before the public in the '' Illus-
trations of the Zoology of Southern Africa.'*

The work will consist of pictorial illustrations of between two
and three hundred subjects of the animal kingdom, all of which
have been collected to the south of 23° 38' of south latitude,
and will comprise, first, and principally, unknown animals ;
secondly, animals known, but not yet figured ; and, lastly, such
as have been imperfectly figured, but of which Dr Smith is in
possession of accurate drawings. The entomological part of
the work will be written by W. S. Macleay, Esq. ; the rest of
the descriptions by Dr Smith, who will add a summary of Afri-
can zoology, and an inquiry into the geographical range of the
species in that quarter of the globe.

Part 1st contains ten beautifully drawn and coloured plates,
and descriptions of the following animals :

PI. 1. Rhinoceros Keitoloa. — This colossal animal, although
nearly allied to the Rh. bicornis, is evidently a distinct species.

PI. 2. Rhinoceros Bicornis, Linn, — On this species DrSmith has
the following interesting remarks. " The present species, under
the name Rhinoster^ has been familiarly known to the colonists
of the Cape of Good Hope ever since 1652. In that year, when

434 New PuhUcatwns.

the Dutch first formed their settlement on the shores of Table
Bay, this animal was a regular inhabitant of the thickets which
clothed the lower slopes of Table Mountain. The abandonment
of those spots by this animal, as a measure of safety, probably
constituted the commencement of a forced migration, which has
continued to extend ever since, and which has led not only to the
disappearance of the species from the districts within the present
colonial limits, but also in a great measure to its removal from
countries bey ond those limits, as far as hunters, efficiently armed,
are accustomed to resort. If a system, such as has hitherto pre-
vailed, continues to exist, and the larger animals persevere in
flying to avoid the effects of fire-arms, the time may arrive when
the various species which formerly may have been scattered,
each in a particular locality of a large continent, will be huddled
together ; and indeed an advance towards that period is in pro-
gress, as may be inferred from the concentration which is at
present taking place in the interior of Southern Africa. Until
lately, the present was the only species of the genus which was
known to be receding from its native country, but of late ano-
ther has been led to a like course ; and the Rhinoceros Simus,
which, but a few years ago, was common in the neighbourhood
of Latakoo, has, since the more general introduction of fire-arms
into that country, almost entirely ceased to approach within a
hundred miles of it. From a consideration of the various facts
which we have collected in relation to the species now under
consideration, and which we shall detail more at length else-
where, we feel disposed to regard it to a certain extent as a pri-
soner in the country it now inhabits, and are inclined to believe
the southern extremity of the continent, and the country along
the western coast towards Benguela to have once formed a fa-
vourite residence."

PI. 3. Falco semitorquatus, Smith. — Of the Falcon tribe, eight
species appear to be natives of Southern Africa, of these one is
our Falco peregrinuSj^or Peregrine falcon, another the Hobby,
Falco subbuteo; and two are new species,, viz. the present and
the Falco rupicoloides of Smith.

PI. 4. Chizaerhis concolor. Smith. — This beautiful bird is a
new species of the genus Chizaerhis of Wagler.

PL 5. Pterocles gutturalis ; and, PI. 6. Otis ruficrista, Smith.
Both new species. PI. 7. Sternotherus sinuatus, Smith, This

New Publications. 435

new species of the Tortoise tribe was met with in greatest
abundance between 24° and 25° N. lat.

PI. 8. Varanus albogularis, Dmul. This reptile, which is from
four feet to live feet in length, occurs but rarely within the li-
mits of the Cape Colony. It is usually discovered in rocky
precipices, or in low stony hills, and when surprised seeks con-
cealment in the chinks of the former, or in the irregular cavities
of the latter ; and when any irregularities exist upon the sur-
face of the rocks or stones, it clasps them so firmly with its toes
that it becomes a task of no small difficulty to dislodge it, even
though it can be easily reached. Under such circumstances, the
strength of no one man is able to withdraw a full-grown indivi-
dual ; and I have seen two persons required to pull a specimen
out of a position it had attained, even with the assistance of a
rope fixed in front of its hinder legs. The moment it was dis-
lodged it flew with fury at its enemies, who by flight only saved
themselves from being bitten. After it was killed, it was disco-
vered that the points of all the nails had been broken previous-
ly, or at the moment it lost its hold. It feeds upon frogs, crabs,
and small quadrupeds.

PI. 9. Bucephalus viridis, Smith. This beautiful snake, but
once met with by Dr Smith, he considers a distinct species of
his genus Bucephalus.

PI. 10. Echinorhinus obesus. Smith. This plate represents
a species of a new genus of the Shark tribe.

The second and third numbers, equally interesting, will be
considered in our next.

3. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicumj or the Trees and Shrubs qfBH'
tain, native and foreigUy hardy and half hardy, pictorially and botani-
cally delineated, and scientifically and popularly described ; with their
propagation, culture, and management, and uses in the arts, in useful and
ornamental plantations, and in landscape gardening ; preceded by a hiS'
torical and geographical outline of the trees and shrubs of temperate cli"
mates throughout the world. By J. C. Loudon, F.L. and H.8., &c. In
eight volumes 8vo. Illustrated by above 2600 wood-cuts, and 297 fi-
gures of Trees and Shrubs. Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Long-
mans, London.

We have many good books on gardening, but, with exception
of Evelyn s Sylva, now antiquated, few or none on the natural
and economical history of the trees and shrubs of Great Britain

436 Nexo Publications,

and Ireland. Mr Loudon (by the bye, a very remarkable man)
has, by the publication of these important, interesting, very
useful, generally' accurate, and beautifully illustrated volumes,
contributed to the literature of this country a work not sur-
passed by any within the range of our reading. To the pro-
fessional forester, the improver and embellisher of estates or
pleasure grounds, Mr Loudon''s work will afford on all occa-
sions useful and accurate information, for there is not a subject
connected with these operations, that is not to be found amply
discussed there ; even the amateur will consult the Arboretum
with great pleasure and much advantage. We do not say more
than the work merits, if we add, that it should form the ma-
nual of the professed forester and embellisher of grounds, and
find a place in all our public libraries, and the Hbrary of every
country gentleman.

4« Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures , and Mines ; containing a clear
exposition of their principles and practice. By A. Uee, M. D., F. R. S.,
&c. Part I. 8vo. pp. 120. Longman & Co., London.

We expected from a chemist of Dr Ure's celebrity, a work of
a superior cast, and in this we have not been disappointed. ^On
perusing the number now before us, we find it promises to meet
the high expectations of the public, and to increase the reputa-
tion of the author. The chief articles in this Part are the fol-
lowing : — Acetic Acid, Alcohol, Alum, Anchor, Assay, Baths,
and Beer. Where necessary, the descriptions of apparatus and
processes are amply illustrated by engravings. It is the inten-
tion of Dr Ure to complete the work in ten monthly parts,
and to illustrate it with upwards of one thousand engravings
in wood.

5. A History of the British Zoophytes. By George Johnston, M.D., Edin.
F.R.C.S., R. M.S. Ed. With 44 plates and 61 figures. W. H. Lizars,
Edinburgh. 8vo. pp. 341.

Dr Johnston has done a great service to the Fauna of Bri-
tain, by the pubHcation of this valuable' volume. Since the
time of Ellis ^the zoophytes of our country have occasionally
engaged the attention of observers, and their observations have
been laid before the public through various channels. Now,
ipr the first time since the publication of the celebrated " Essay

New Publications. 487

towards a natural history of Corallines, and other productions
of the like kind, commonly found on the coasts of Great Bri-
tain and Ireland, published in 1755,*' Dr Johnston has brought
together in a separate volume, and with much additional origi-
nal information, a full natural history of our British Zoophytes.

The work is divided into five parts. Part I. contains an
amusing history of Zoophytology ; a general account of the
structure and physiology of zoophytes ; and their classification,
a dry subject, which is made readable by the skill of our author.
He divides the British Zoophytes into the following sub-classes
and orders, viz.: — Sub-class I. Radiated Zoophytes. Order 1.
Hydroida. Order 2. Asteroida. Order 3. Helianthoida. Sub-
class II. Molluscous Zoophytes. Order 4. Ascidioida. Parts
II. III. IV. and V. are appropriated to the natural history of
the species.

Each of these four parts is devoted to the consideration of one
of the orders,^ with all its families, genera, and species. We do
not here, as is too often the case in systematic works, meet only
with dry details ; on the contrary, great accuracy of discrimi-
nation is combined with valuable anatomical and physiological
observations, and beautiful views in natural history.

The accompanying plates do honour to the artist, without
whose assistance this work would in all probability never have
seen the light. Our author was fortunate indeed in having the
aid of such a pencil as that of Mrs Johnston.

A delightful feature in the " History of the British Zoo-
phytes," cannot pass unnoticed ; we allude to the interesting
biographies of known and also of unknown, but most merito-
rious observers, agreeably distributed throughout the work.
They recall to our imagination the times which have past — the
Linnaean epoch — and give an antique and fascinating air to
this classical work, ere long to be in the hands of every British
naturalist.

( 438 )

List of Patents granted in Scotland subsequent to
\Wi June 1838.

1. To Milks Berry of the Office for Patents, Chancery Lane, in the
county of Middlesex, patent agent and mechanical draftsman, in conse-
quence of a communication from a foreigner residing abroad, for an inven-
tion of " certain improvements in the means of economizing heat and fuel
in furnaces or closed fire-places." — 15th Jxme 1838.

2. To David Cheetham junior of Ilollins Mill, Staley Bridge, in the
county of Chester, cotton-spinner, for an invention of " certain improve-
ments in the machinery applicable to the preparation of cotton and other
fibrous substances for the purposes of spinning." — l5th June 1838,

3. To Edmund Butler IIowlev of Chorlton upon Medloch, in the pa-
rish of ^Manchester and county of Lancaster, surgeon, for an invention of
" certain improvements applicable to locomotive engines, tenders, and car-
riages to be used upon railways, and which improvements are also appli-
cable to other useful purposes." — 19th June 1838.

4. To William Sanford Hall of Strathearu Cottage, Chelsea, in the
county of Middlesex, Lieutenant (on half-pay) in her Majesty's royal army,
for an invention of improvements in paddle-wheels." — 21st June 1838.

5. To Joseph Rock Cooper, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
gunmaker, for an invention of " improvements in firearms." — 21st June
1838.

6. To JoHK William Fraser of Arundel Street, Strand, in the county
of Middlesex, for an invention of " improvements in diving, or descending
and working in water, and for raising or floating sunken and stranded ves-
sels, and other bodies."— 21st June 1838.

7. To Joshua Taylor Be ale of No. 11 Church Lane, Whitechapel, in
the county of Middlesex, engineer, for an invention of " certain improve-
ments in and additions to his former invention, known by the title of a
lamp applicable to the burning of substances not hitherto usually burned in
such vessels or apparatus." — 26th June 1838.

8. To Edward Cobbold of Long Melford, in the county of SuiFolk, clerk.
Master of Arts, for an invention of " certain improvements in the manufac-
ture of gas for afibrding light and heat, and in the application of certain
products thereof to useful purposes." — 27th June 1838.

9. To Stephen Geary of Hamilton Place, New Road, in the county of
Middlesex, architect, for an invention of " improvements in the preparation
of fuel."— 27th June 1838.

10. To William Gossage of Stoke Prior, in the county of Worcester,
manufacturing chemist, for an invention of " certain improvements in ma-
nufacturing sulphuric acid." — 29th June 1838.

11. To Francis Thorpe, of Knaresborough, in the county of York, flax-
spinner, for an invention of " certain improvements in machinery or appa-
ratus for heckling, preparing or dressing hemp, flax, and other such like fi-
brous materials." — 29th June 1838.

12. To Peter Fairbatrn, of Leeds, in the county of York, machine-
maker, for an invention of " certain improvements in the machinery or ap-
paratus for roving, spinning, doubling, and twisting cotton, flax, wool, silk,
or other fibrous substances." — 6th July 1838.

13. To Henry Davies of Stoke Prior, in the county of Worcester, engi-
neer, for an invention of " certain improved apparatus or machinery for ob-
taining mechanical power, also for raising or impelling fluids, and for ascer-
taining the measure of fluids." — 11th July 1838.

1 4. To Edward Davy, of Fordton, near Crediton, in the county of Devon,
merchant, for an invention of " certain improvements in saddles and har-
ness."—11th July 1838.

15. To Joseph Frederick Burnett of St Mary, at Hill, in the city of
London, ship insurance agent, and Hippolyte Francois Marquis de
Bouffet Montauban, colonel of cavalry, now residing in Sloane Street,
Chelsea, in the county of Middlesex, in consequence of a communication
from a foreigner residing abroad, for an invention of " certain improve-
ments in the manufacture of soap." — 11th July 1838.

List of Scottish Patents. 439

16. To William Battkat of Aberdeen, North Britain, manufacturiniv

chemist, for an invention of " certain improvements in the manufacture of
the preparations called gelatine size and glue." — 12th July 1838.

17. To Henry Count de Crony, of the Province of Picardy, in the
kingdom of France, now residing at No. 14 Cambridge Street, Edgeware
Road, in the county of Middlesex, for an invention of " a new and impro-
ved method of filtration," communicated partly by a foreigner and partly
invented bv himself.— 13th July 1838.

18. To Francis Pope of Wolverhampton, in the county of Stafford, fancy
iron- worker, for an invention of " certain improvements for making or
manufacturing pins, bolts, nails, and rivets, applicable to various useful
purposes." — 13th July 1838.

lU. To Bennet VVoodcroi't of Mumps, in the township of Oldham, in
the county of Lancaster, gentleman, for an invention of " improvements in
the construction of looms for weaving various sorts of cloths, which looms
may be set in motion by any adequate power." — 19th July 1838.

20. To Charles Bourjot, of Coleman Street, in the city of London, mer-
chant, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner
residing abroad, for an invention of " improvements in the manufacture of
iron."— 19th July 1838.

21. To Jean Leandre Clement of Rochfort, in the kingdom of France,
but now of Jauuey's Hotel, Leicester Square, in the county of Middlesex,
gentleman, for an invention of " improvements in apparatus for ascertain-
ing and indicating the rate of vessels passing through the water." — 19th
July 1838.

22. To Nicholas Thomas Raper of Greek Street, Soho, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, for an invention of " improvements in rendering
fabrics and leather water-proof." — 19th July 1838.

23. To Luke Hebert of High Street, Camden Town, in the county of
Middlesex, patent agent, in consequence of a communication from a foreign-
er residing abroad, for an invention of " a new and improved method or
methods of uniting or soldering metallic substances." — 19th July 1838.

24. To Joseph Bennet of Turnlee, near Glossop, in the county of Derby,
cotton-spinner, for an invention of " certain improvements in machinery for
carding wool, cotton, flax, or other fibrous substances, which are or may be
carded, part of which improvements are also applicable to machinery for
drawing, doubling, roving, and spinning such fibrous substances as are or
may be subjected to their operations." — 26th July 1838.

25. To Richard March Hoe, late of New York, in the United States of
America, but now residing at the Office for Patents, 66 Chancery Lane, in
the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, in consequence of a communication
made to him from Dr H. H. Sherwood, of New York aforesaid, a foreigner
residing abroad, for an invention of " a new or improved instrument or ap-
paratus for ascertaining and determining the latitude or longitude of any
place, or the situation of ships or other vessels at sea, and the dip or varia-
tion of the magnetic needle, which new or improved instrument he intends
to denominate Sherwood's Magnetic Geometer. — 26th July 1838.

26. To Richard March Hoe, late of New York, in the United States of
America, but now residing at the Office for Patents, 66 Chancery Lane, in
the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, for an invention of " certain im-
provements in machinery or apparatus for giinding and polishing metal sur-
faces."—28th July 1838.

27. To William Barnett of Brighton, in the county of Essex, iron-
founder, for an invention of " certain improvements in the production of
motive power, and in the manufacture of iron." — 31st July 1838.

28. To Richard Badnall of Cotton Hall, in the county of Stafford,
gentleman, for an invention of " a certain improvement in the manufacture
of carpets and other similar woven fabrics, which improvement is effected
by the introduction of a certain article of commerce not hitherto so em-
ployed or used in such manufactures." — 31st July 1838.

29. To Richard Treffry of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
chemist, for an invention of " certain improvements in the methods for
preserving certain animal and vegetable substances from decay, and also ia

440 List of Scottish Patents.

the apparatus for and mode of impregnating substances to be presei*ved." —
6th August 1838.

30. To Robert Sandiford of Tottington-lower-end, in the county of
Lancaster, block-printer, for an invention of certain " improvements in the
art of block-printing, and in certain arrangements connected therewith." —
7th August 1838.

31. To John Thomas Belts of Smithfield Bars, in the city of London,
rectifier, in consequence of a communication from a person residing abroad,
for an invention of " improvements in the process of preparing spirituous
liquors in the making of brandy." — 9th August 1838.

32. To Henry Bessemer of City Terrace, City Road, in the parish of
St Luke, Old Street, and county of Middlesex, engineer, for an invention
of " certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for casting printing-
types, spaces, and quadrats, and the means of breaking off and counting the
same."— 9th August 1838.

33. To Peter Fairbairn of Leeds, in the county of York, machine-
maker, in consequence of a communication from a foreigner residing abroad,
for an invention of " certain improvements in looms for weaving ribbons,
tapes, and other fabrics." — 10th August 1838.

34. To Sir Jajies Caleb Anderson of Buttevant Castle, in the county
of Cork, Baronet, for an invention of " certain improvements in locomotive
engines, which are partly applicable to other purposes." — 18th August 1838.

35. To David Cheetham junior of Staley Bridge, in the county of Ches-
ter, spinner, for an invention of " certain improvements in the means of
consuming smoke, and thereby economizing fuel and heat in steam-engine
or other furnaces, or fire-places." — 22d August 1833.

36. To James Robinson of Iluddersfield, in the county of York, mer-
chant, for an invention of " an improved method of producing by dyeing
various figures or objects of various colours in woollen, worsted, cotton,
silk, and other cloths."— 22d August 1838.

37. To Charles Dod of 21 Craven Street, Strand, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, in consequence of a communication made to him by
a foreigner residing abroad, for an invention of " certain improvements in
the construction of railway tram-roads, and in the structure of the carriages
to be used in the said railways or tram-roads, and also of certain apparatus
applicable to the cleaning and preserving of railways and tram-roads." —
23d August 1838.

38. To Arthur Dunn of Stamford Hill, in the county of Middlesex,
gentleman, for an invention of " certain improvements in the manufacture
of soap."— 24th August 1838.

39. To Ambroise Ador, late of Leicester Square, in the county of Middle-
sex, but now of 29 Rue de Faubourg Montmartre, in the city of Paris and
kingdom of France, chemist, for an invention of " certain improvements on
lamps or apparatus for producing or afibrding light." — 28th August 1838.

40. To Charles Phillips of Chipping Norton, in the county of Oxon,
surgeon, for an invention of " improvements in apparatus or machinery for
punching* bending, cutting, and joining metal, and for holding or securing
metal to be punched, bent, cut, or otherwise operated on, parts of which
machinery are adapted to perform some of these operations on other mate-
rials."—31st August 1838.

41. To Job Cutler of Lady Pool Lane, Sparkbrook, in the borough of
Bii-mingham, in the county of Warwick, gentleman, and Thomas Gre-
gory Hancock, of Prince's Street, in the borough of Birmingham afore-
said, mechanic, for an invention of " an improved method of condensing
the steam in steam-engines, and supplying their boilers with the water
thereby formed." — 31st August 1838.

42. To Charles Fitton, woollen manufacturer, and George Collier,
mechanic, both of Cumberworth Half, Wakefield, in the county of York,
for an invention of " improvements in power -looms." — 6th September 1838.

43. To Charles Hancock of Grosvenor Place, HydePai'k Corner, in the
county of Middlesex, animal painter, for an invejjtjqn, «1, ,v;T5e«^in improved
means of producing and applying figured surffj^^l su^. a4d,jjR relief, and
of printing therefrom, and also of moulding, ^t^}]^»^^1|^ ^nl^ossing." —
13th September 1838.

i:>^>^\^^

( 441 )

INDEX.

Achromatic eye-pieces of spy-glasses, observations on, by Charle*
Goring, M. D., 259.

Action of machines, observations on, by Edward Sang, Elsq., 70.

Agate, on the red colour of, 210.

Analogy between the organized structure and red colour of the
globules in the blood of animals, and of those red vegetable
globules named Protococcus KermesinuSy 209.

Animalculi, microscopic, considered as a cause of putrefaction, 208.

Arabians, their physical constitution, observations on, by Larrey,
318.

Arago on colour of the ocean, 330.

Aragonite and calcareous spar, their mode of formation, 207.

Azara, Don Felix, his natural history of the quadrupeds of Para-
quay and La Plata noticed, 217.

Atmosphere, temperature of the lower strata of, 353.

Atmospherical refraction uncommon at Dover, 423.

Aurora borealis, observations on, 419.

Beagle, zoology of the voyage of, 216, 433.

Bear or Cherry Island, geology of, 309-

Beer. William, and Miidler, J. H., on the lunar mountains, Tycho,
Pictet, Saussure, and on geology of the moon, 283.

Bequerel, M., on the electric origin of metalliferous veins, 167—
on the disengagement of caloric by friction, 377.

Beryl of Aberdeenshire, 206.

Blainville, M. de, his observations on the classification and antiquity
of the Cheiroptera, 21.

Botany of Ireland, brief view of, by J, T. Mackay, 374.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, proceedings of, 199, 415.

Boue, Dr A., his geographical and geological observations on some
parts of European Turkey, viz. Mcesia, Bulgaria, Romelia, Al-
bania, and Bosnia, 174.

Bromhead, Sir Edward, his attempt to ascertain characters of the
botanical alliances, 123.

Bronn, Dr G. H., his Lsethea Geognostica, noticed, 216.

Calcareous spar and arragonite, on their formation, 207.

Caspar, Dr, on the duration of human life, 350.

Casting establishments, observations on, by C. H. Wilson, 28.

Clark, Mr, his discovery of fossil organic remains in Sutherland

quartz-rock, 430.
Clay, its lamination by electricity, by R. W. Fox, 196.
Crystals in the cells of plants, observations on, 19.
Currents, submarine, observations on, 424.

Dislocations, two series of, in Scandinavia, 299,

Earth, temperature of, 202.

442 Index.

Egerton, Sir Phillip, his systematic and stratigraphical catalogue

of fossil fishes, 216.
Egyptians, their knowledge of the manufacture of glass, porcelain,

and false stones, 101.
Erman, extract of his letter to Arago upon the temperature of the

ground in Siberia, 204-,
Euphotide rocks, 296.

False stones, manufacture of, as known to the Egyptians, 101.
Feminescence, observations on, by Dr Mehliss, 277.
Fox, W. Esq. F. G. S., on the lamination of clay by electricity, 196.
Fluor-spar, its discovery in the Ord of Caithness, by R. H. Cun-
ningham, 430.

Gsea Norwegicaof Keilhau, notice of, 215.

Geological Society, annual address to, by Professor Whewell, 1 40.

Geology, descriptive, progress of, 146.

Geological dynamics, progress of, 158.

observations made in European Turkey, 174.

instructions, prepared by Elie de Beaumont for the French

Scientific Expedition to the North of Europe, 292.
Geology of the Zahara Desert, 428.

of the moon, observations on, by Beer andMadler, 288.

Geographical and geological observations on European Turkey, 174.

Glaciers of Spitzbergen, account of, 314.

Glass, manufacture of, as known to the Egyptians, 101.

Goring, Charles, M.D.,on achromatic eye-pieces of spy-glasses, 859.

Granite, theory of, and other massive rocks ; together with that of

crystalline slate, 80. — of Rapakivi, observations on, 206.
Ground, frozen, depth of, in Siberia, 417.

Hausmann, Professor, his account of a great bed of fossil infu-
soria, 384.
Heat, subterranean, 202.
Hoff'mann, Professor, his biography, 1.
Human life, the probable duration of, by Dr Caspar, 350.
Hydrophobia, in Mohammedan Countries, observations on, 430.
Hypersthene, rocks, observations on, 294.

Iceland, its revolutions, political and natural, 324.

Infusoria, fossil, beds of, 305. — Hausmann's account of Ja great

bed of, 384.
Ink, indelible, by Dr Traill, 213.
Ireland, brief view of the botany of, 874.

Jan Mayen Island, account of, 316.

Johnston, Dr George, his History of British Zoophytes, noticed,
436.

Keilhau, Professor, his theory of granite, 80. — -concluded, 263. — his
Gaea Norwegica, 215.

Land, progressive rise of, above the level of the sea, 300. — gradu-
al sinking of the land in Scania, 301.

hidex. 44?3

Larrey* his remarks upon the physical constitution of the Ara-
bians, 318.

Latour, Cagniard, his observations and experiments on vinous fer-
mentation, 368.

Letheea geognostica, by Bronn, noticed, 216.

Level of the sea and land, their last changes, by James Smith,
Esq. of Jordanliill, 387.

Loudon, J. C, his Arboretum et Fruticetum, noticed, 455.

Lunar mountains, Tycho, Pictet, and Saussure, described by Wil-
liam Beer and J. 11. Madler, 283.

Machine, grinding, for giving a truly cylindrical form to the rims

of pulleys and drums, 335.
Mackay, J. T., his brief view of the botany of Ireland, 374.
Manganese mine, at Grandholm, near Aberdeen, re-opened, 207.
Marcet, Professor, his remarks upon the variations which take

place at certain times of the day in the temperature of the

lower strata of the atmosphere, 353.
Medusae, on the stinging powers of, 211.
Mehliss, observations by, on Virilescence, Feminescence, and Re-

juvinescence, 272.
Melloni, Macedoine, his observations upon the cause which pro-
duces the speedy melting of snow around plants, 242.
Metamorphic rocks, 206.
Meteorological observation*, hourly, for thirty-seven successive hours,

at Edinburgh, 136, 364 — at Drachenfels for the same number

of hours, 135.
Meteoric stones, fall of, in Brazil, 208.
Microscopic animalculi as a cause of putrefaction, 208.
Moon, survey of the surface of, by William Beer and Dr J. H,

Madler of Berlin, 38.

Ocean, colour of, by Arago, 330. — phosphoresence of, 212.
Owen, Professor, delivery of the Wollaston medal to him, for his
general services in Fossil Zoology, 140.

Publications, new, noticed: — Gaea Norwegica, 215. — Letha^a
geognostica, 216— Sir Philip G. Egerton's catalogue of fossil

fishes, 216 Zoology of the Beagle, 216.— Quadrupeds of

Paraguay, 217 Illustrations of the Zoology of South Afiica.

483 Loudon's Arboretum et Fruticetum, 436. — Ure's Dic-
tionary of Arts, manufactures, and mines, 436. — Johnston**
British Zoophytes, 437.

Rain, shower of, from a clear sky, 423.

Redfield and Reid, their observations on storms, 342.

Rejuvinescence, observations on, by Dr Mehliss, 279.

Rudolphi, Professor, biography of, by Miiller, 221.

Sang, Edward, Esq., his remarks on some prevailing misconceptions

concerning the actions of machines, 70— notice of a dioptric

light erected at Kirkaldy Harbour, 249.
Sea- water, examination of, 164 — colour of, 330.

I r

444 Index.

Serpentine, on the formation of, 206 — rocks of, 296.

Sinking, gradual, of the land in Scania, 301.

Shells, recent beds (;f, above the present level of the sea, 302.

Snow, the melting of, around plants, by M. Melloni, 243.

Society of Arts of Scotland, proceedings of, 399 — prizes offered
by, 413.

Smith, James, of Jordanhill, his observations on the last changes in
the relative levels of the land and sea in the British Isles, 387.

Smith, Andrew, M. D., his illustrations of Southern Africa, no-
ticed, 433.

Spitzbergen, its geology, 307 — glaciers of, 314.

Spring, intermittent, 208 — hot, observations on, 424.

Storms, observations on, by Redfield and Reid, 342.

Subterranean heat, 202 — temperatures, 202.

Temperature of the lower strata of the atmosphere, 353 — ©f the
globe in the Polar regions and upon the tops of lofty moun-
tains, 416.

Tides of the Mediterranean, observations on, 427.

Torpedo, experiments on, 432.

Traill, Dr, account of an indelible ink, 213.

Trap-rocks, observations on, 295.

Unger, Dr F., upon the formation of crystals in the cells of
plants, 19.

Ure, Dr, his Dictionary of Arts, &c. noticed, 436.

Vice-chuck, description of an improvement in, by R. Wilson, en-
gineer, 280.

Vinous fermentation, experiments and observations on, 368.

Virilescence, observations on, by Dr Mehjiss, 273.

Waterfalls, the electricity of, 426.

Water-house, G. R., description and figure of the mammalia of the
Beagle Expedition, noticed, 216.

Water-spouts, observations on, 425.

Weber, W., Professor, his description of an experiment explana-
tory of the great prostration of strength experienced during
the ascent of lofty mountains, 254.

Wernerian Natural History Society, proceedings of, 198.

Whewell, Professor, his address to the Geological Society on 16th
February 1838, 140,.

Whitelaw, James, his description, with drawings, of a grinding
machine for giving a truly cylindrical form to the rims of
pulleys and drums, 335.

Wilson, C. H., on the propriety of forming national casting esta-
blishments, 28.

Winds, observations on, 421.

2ahara desert, geology of, 428.

Zoology of South Africa, illustrations of, by Dr Smith, 433.

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