THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

^^J^^6'\

THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A, VIEW OF THE

PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN THE

SCIENCES AND THE ARTS^

ROBERT JAME

RKOIUS PROVKSSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOOY, AND KRKPSIl OP
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH;

Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of tht
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France ; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; Fellow of
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wemerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal
Physical, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth ; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mlneralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So-
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadel{>hia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts ; of the Geological
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France ; Member of tht
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &c. &«.

APRIL... OCTOBER 1840.

VOL. XXIX.

TO BE CONTINUED QUABTEELY.

EDINBURGH :

ADAM & CHAKJLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, LONDON.

1840.

PRINTED BY NKILt. & CO., OLD FISHMARKET.

CONTENTS.

Pag:e
Art. I. Summary of the most important Geoguostical Phe-
nomena with which it is necessary to be acquainted
in Preliminary Mining- Operations. By the late
Frederick Mohs, Councillor of Mines at Vienna,
and Knight of the Royal Saxon Order of Civil
Merit, . .... 1

Structure of Granite. Structure of Slate-Rocks. Classes
of Rocks. On Formations. Junctions of Rocks. No
determinate arrangement of the Primitive and Transi-
tion Rocks. Transitions of Rocks. Rocks subordinate
to the Slate Series. Beds and Veins.

II. On the Danish Oyster Banks. By M. Henrik Kro-

YER, . . . .22

III. On the Occurrence of a Fossil Bird in the Chalk-Slate

of the Canton Glarus. By M. Hermann v. M eyer, 27

IV. On the Influence of the Weather in relation to Dis-

ease : 1 . Temperature ; 2. Moisture ; 3. Pressure ;
4. Electricity, ..... 28

V. Upon the Colouring- Matter of Red Snow. By R. J.

Shuttle WORTH, Esq. With a Coloured Plate, 54
VI. Report on a Memoir entitled *' Observations on the
Marine, Land, and River Mollusca of the Sechelles
and Amirantes Islands. By M. Dufo." By M.
Blainville, . ... 64

VII. On the Hair in Man, and the Dermal Covering's of

Animals, ..... 69

VIII. On the Lake of Zirknitz in Carniola, . 72

IX. Notes on some rare Scottish Minerals. By Professor
L. A. Necker of Geneva. Communicated by the
Author, ..... 75

il CONTENTS.

X. Account of the Capture and Death of a large Alli-
g-ator at Manilla in the Island of Luconia, one of
the Philippines, . . . .77

XI. Researches on Embryology ; third Series : a Contri-
bution to the Physiology of Cells. By Dr Martin
Barry, ...... 84

XII. On the frequency of Thunder- Storms in the Polar

Reg-ions. By M. Von Baer, . . .90

XIII. Notice of Elevated Sea-Beaches. By Alan Steven-
son, LL.B., F.R.S.E., Civil Engineer, . . 94

XIV. On the difference of €ievel between the Dead Sea and

the Mediterranean, . . . .96

XV. Report on the Geology of Newfoundland. By J. B.

Jukes, Esq., B.A., F.G.S., . . .103

XVI. Comparative View of the Skulls of the various Abo-
riginal Nations of North and South America. By
S. G. Morton, Professor of Anatomy at Philadel-
phia, . . . . . .111

XVII. On Earthquakes. By M. Edouard Biot, 139

XVIII. Results of the last Russian Expedition, sent to de-
termine the difference of Level between the Black
Sea and the Caspian, . . . .144

XIX. Notice of Professor Schouw's Work on the Climate

and Vegetation of Italy, . . .147

XX. On the Climate of the portions of Europe and Africa
which are situated between the Equator and 60°
North Latitude. By Professor Schouw, . 150

1. Thermographical Conclusions, . . .150

2. Hyetographical Conclusions, . . . 151
XXI. Researches on the Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Ani-
mals. By M. Dutrochet, . . .152

XXII. Extraordinary Land-Slip and great Convulsion of
the coast of Culverhole Point, near Axmouth. By
the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, . . 160

XXriI. On the Lines of the Ancient Level of the Sea in Fin-
mark. By M. Bravais, . * .164

liXIV. Death of Olbers, . . . .166

COKTENTS. 1»

XXV. Zoological Notices regarding the Cephalopoda,
Pyrosoma, Salpa, Cariiiaria, Echinus, Holo-
thuria, Hydrostatic Acalepha;, Beroe, and Cora-
line Polypidoms. By Messrs Milne Edwards
and Peters, . . • .167

XXVI. Description of several New or Rare Plants which

have lately flowered in the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic
Garden. By Dr Graham, Professor of Botany, 171

XXVII. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History

' Society, .... 175

XXVin. Scientific Intelligence, .' . . 178

METEOROLOGY.

1. On the Odour of the Electric Fluid. 2. Polar Lights.
8. On Terrestrial Ttmperature. 4. Mirage in New
Holland, . . • . .183

GEOLOGY.

5. Agassiz' Tour to the Swiss Glaciers. 6. Origin of Fis-
sures in Glaciers. 7. Sefstrom's Investigations. 8.
Geological Constitution of North-eastom Africa. 9.
Distribution of the Mammoth in Siberia, . 184

MINERALOGY.

10. Dysodolite. 11. Pihlite, a New Mineral 12. Pyrrhite,

a New Mineral, . . . • 187

ZOOLOGY.

13. On the Zoological Labours of M. Sars, of Floroe in
Norway. 14. Aristotle's History of Animals. If). Mi-
grations and Capture of the Rein-deer in North Sibe-
ria. 16. The Flying Squid or Cuttle-Fish (Loligo Sp).
17. The Pilot Fish (Gasterosteusductor,Zmn). 18. The
Luminous Shark (Squalus fulgens, N. Sp.), 19. The
" Trochilus and Crocodile" of Herodotus, . 188

ARTS.

20. The Indian Mode of preparing the Perfumed Oils of

Jasmine and Bela. 21. Preservation of Timber 193-199

XXIX. New Publications, . . .200

1. Sketch of the Geology of North America. By Charles
Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany and Che-
mistry in the University of Oxford, . . 200

CONTENTS.

2. Supplement to the Introduction to the Atomic Theory,

comprehending a sketch of certain opinions and disco-
. veries bearing upon the General Principles of Chemi-
cal Philosophy, which have been brought into notice
since the publication of that work. By C. Daubeny,
M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany. 8vo,
pp. 62. Oxford. Murray, London, and Parker, Ox-
ford. 1840, .... 200

3. A Manual of the Land and Fresh-Water Shells of the

British Islands, with Figures of each of the kinds.
By Wm. Turton, M. D. A new edition, revised and
enlarged by J. G. Gray, F.II.S. London, Longman
jmd Co. 8vo, pp. 310, . . 200

4. The Genera of Birds, with an Indication of the Typical

Species of each Genus. By G. R. Gray, Ornitholo-
gical Assistant British Museum. London, R. & J.
G. Taylor. 8vo, pp. 80, . . 200

5. An Introduction to the Modem Classification of Insects,

founded on the Natural Habits, and corresponding Or-
ganization of the difierent Families. By J. O West-
wood, F.L.S. &c. &c. London, Longman & Co., 200

6. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited by the

Acting Secretaries. Year 1839. . . -201

XXX. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 18th

March to 18th June 1840. . . 201

ERRATUM in Mr Connell's paper on Greenockite.
Vol. xxviii. p. 393, line 10, /or removed r^c^ renewed.

CONTENTS.

Page

Art. I. On the Diminution of Temperature with Height in

the Atmosphere, at different seasons of the year.

By James D. Forbes, Esq., F. R. SS. L. & E.,

Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University

of Edinburgh, .... 205

»

- II. On the Comparative Illuminating and Heating
power of different kinds of Coal-gas Burners, and
on the use of Coal- gas as a source of Heat. By
Andrew Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E. Communicated
by the Society of Arts, . . 214

I. On the Comparative Illuminating Power of Gas-

Bumers, . . . . .214

II. On the Comparative Heating Power of Gas-BumerS; 227

III. On the use of Gas as a source of Heat, . 231

III. Beryl Mine of Paddioor, and Geognostic Position

of this Gem, in Coimbatoor, Southern India. By
Lieutenant Newbold, Madras Army, A. D. C. to
Brigadier-General Wilson, C. B. Communicated
by the Author, . . . .241

IV. On the Construction of Circular Towers. By Ed-

ward Sang, Esq., Civil-Engineer, Edinburgh,
M.S.A. Communicated by the Society of Arts, 245

V. Of the Relation of Tradition to Palaetiology. By

the Rev. William Whewell, B.D., 258

1. Importance of Tradition. 2. Connection of Tradi-
tion and Science. 3. Natural and Providential

11 CONTENTS.

History of the World 4. The Sacred Narrative.

5. Difficulties in interpreting the Sacred Narrative.

6. Such Difficulties inevitable. 7. Science tells us
nothing concerning Creation. 8. Scientific views,
when familiar, do not disturb the authority of
Scripture. 9. When should old Interpretations be
given up 1 10. In what Spirit should the change
be accepted 1 11. In what Spirit should the change
be urged 1 12. Duty of Mutual Forbearance. 13.
Case of Galileo.

VI. On some Phenomena of £he Diluvian Epoch. By

M. Studer, .... 274

VII. Description of an Improvement on Rutherford's
Registering Thermometer. By Mr John Dunn,
Optician, Curator to the Society of Arts. Com-
municated by the Society of Arts, . . 279

VIII. On the Glaciers which anciently covered the south-
ern side of the Mountain-chain of the Vosges. By
M. Renoir, . . . . 280

IX. On the Origin of Granite, and on the application of
the Huttonian Theory to the present state of Geo-
logy. By M. B. Studer of Berne. In a Letter
to Professor Bronn, . . . 296

X. Physical and Chemical Examination of Three In-
flammable Gases which are evolved in Coal-Mines.
By Dr Gustav Bischof, Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Bonn. Communicated by the
Author, . . . . . 309

Physical Relations of the Inflammable Gaseous Exha-
lations in the Coal-pits of Scaarbriicken, . 310

Chemical Analysis of the Pit-gas from the Welles-

weiler Mine, . . . . .316

§ 1. Examination for Oxygen Gas, . 316

§ 2. Examination for Carbonic Acid Gas, . 317

§ 3. Examination for Olefiant Gas, . . 317

§ 4. Pit-gas and Chlorine exposed to the light, 318

§ 5. Examination for Carbonic Oxide Gas, . 320

§ 6. Effects of exposure to a red heat on Inflammable

Pit-gas, . . . . .322

CONTENTS. lU

§ 7. Attempts to decompose Pit-gas by Electric

Sparks, ..... 330

§ 8. Phenomena exhibited by Pit-gas with Sulphuric

Acid, ... ... 333

XI. On the Effects of the Curvature of Railways. By
Edward Sang, Esq., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh,
M. S. A. Communicated by the Society of Arts, 334

XII. On the Physical Geography, Geology, and Cli-
mate of the Island of Madeira. By James Mac-
AULAY, A. M. and M. D. Communicated by the
Author, . .... 336

XIII. On the Functions of the Colouring Matter of the Skin
in the Dark Races of Mankind. By Robert Mor-
timer Glover, M.D., Lecturer on Chemistry in
the Newcastle- on-Tyne School of Medicine. (Read
to the British Association at the Newcastle Meet-
ing.) Communicated by the Author, . 376

XIV. Description of several New or Rare Plants which
have lately Flowered in the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and chiefly in the Royal Botanic Gar-
den. By Dr Graham, Professor of Botany, 383

XV. Proceedings of the Society of Arts, Session 1839-40, 390
List of Prizes for Session 1840-41, . . 412

XVI. Scientific Intelligence, . . . 413

METEOROLOGY.

1. Mr Espy's Theory of Atmospherical Phenomena

claimed by H. Meikle, Esq. A. M., of Edinburgh, 413

GEOLOGY.

2. Temple of Serapis. 3. Enormous Soundings at Sea.

4. Living Barnacles above the Sea-Level. 5.
Height of Tides in the Mediterranean, . 414

mineralogy.

6. Hydrargillite, a new mineral species. 7. Barsowite,
a new mineral species. 8. Discovery of the repo-
sitory (lagerstatte) of the Sun-Stone on the Selen-
ga in Siberia. 9. Plumbiferous Aragonite. 10.
Tachylite. II. Bucklandite or Black Epidote.

IV CONTENTS.

12. Chrysoberyi of the Urals. 13. Discovery of
considerable Veins of Strontianite in Westphalia.
14. Euxenite, a new mineral species. 15. Native
Gold in Sutherlandshire. 16. Tschewkinite, a>ew
mineral species. 17. Uranotantalite, a new mineral
species. 18. Perowskite, a new mineral species. 415

PHYSIOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

19. On the Corpuscles of the Blood. By Dr Martin
Barry. 20. Researches in Embryology. Third Se-
ries. By Dr Martin Barry. 21. Form of the
Blood-particles of the Omithorhynchus hystrix.
By Dr John Davy. 22. On the Minute Structure
and Movements of Voluntary Muscles. By W.
Bowman, Esq., Demonstrator of Anatomy in
King's College, London, &c. 23. Abundance of
Wild Swans in the Highland Lochs does not ne-
cessarily indicate a severe Winter in Iceland. 24.
Zoophytes on the coast of Arran, . . 419

XVII. List of New Publications, . . . 424

1. Illustrations of the Zoology of Southern Africa.

No. XI. By Dr Smith. Smith, Elder, & Co.,
London. ..... 424

2. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited

by the Acting Secretaries. Year 1839. . 424

3. Madras Journal of Literature and Science, pub-

lished under the auspices of the Madras Literary
Society, and the Auxiliary Royal Asiatic Society.
Edited by the Secretaries of the Asiatic Depart-
ment. Number from July to September 1839. 424

XVIII. List of Patents granted from 25th June to l7th Sep-
tember 1840, .... 424

Index, ..... 429

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Summary of the most important Geognoatical Phenomena with
which it is necessary to be acquainted in Preliminary Mining
Operations. By the late Frederick Mohs, Councillor of
Mines at Vienna, and Knight of the Royal Saxon Order of
Civil Merit, &c.*

It is quite natural that when we seek for any thing, we must
know what we are to seek for, and where we are to seek for it.
I shall afterwards speak of what is to be the object of our search.
The where determines the places in which preliminary mining
operations, or the investigations generally, are to be undertaken.

These districts are either whole groups of moimtains or por-
tions of them, or they are low tracts of country, distinguished
by their external aspect, which lie between two or more moun-
tain groups, and separate these from one another, generally by
means of inconsiderable inequalities of surface, which gradually
become lower, and finally disappear. They are termed plains.

A mountain group is composed of mountain-chains, which,
in a certain order, or by certain combinations, form more or
less considerable elevations above the surrounding more level
tracts, or above the level of the sea. Its external form depends
on its internal constitution, and is imdoubtedly very important
to the geognost in a general point of view. It is also not with-

* Geognostical views similar to some of those advanced by the late M.
Mohs in this article, and in the other portions of the summary, afterwards to
be published, were proposed by us to the Wemerian Society in the year 1813 ;
and accounts of them are to be found in the 2d vol. of the Memoirs of the
Wernerian Society, the 1st vol. of the Philosophical Journal, and the early
volumes of Thomson's Annals. — Editor.

VOL. XXIX, NO. LVII. JULY 1840. A

2 M. Molis's Summary of Geognostical Phenomena.

out its value in the search for useful minerals. But the rules
and instructions which are derived for this object from the ex-
ternal form of individual mountainous districts, or from indi-
vidual mountain ranges, or from the nature of the acclivities of
the valleys separating those from one another, &c., possess no
universality, and are merely abstracted from a few observations
made by those who have given such examples, and are therefore
chiefly local, and even in this limited point of view not to be
depended on. Whoever will cast a glance over the important
mining districts of .Joachimsthal, Freiberg, Clausthal, Schem-
nitz, and Redruth, will be convinced of this, and will find phe-
nomena, at a short distance from one another, which both sup-
port and contradict such rules.

Structure of Granite. — It is of much greater importance, to
consider the manner in which various rocky masses or for-
mations are arranged in the mountainous tracts, or what is
generally termed the superposition {Lagerung) of these moun-
tain-masses. We can generally distinguish a mass which
forms a nucleus, or a centre in a geognostical sense, around
w^hich, to certain limits, the other rocky masses are arranged
and distributed. The centre very frequently consists of a
more or less extensive mass of granite, sometimes oblong,
and sometimes of a massive form, that is, its horizontal
extent is greater in one direction, or it is pretty much the
same in all directions. Sometimes this portion of granite is
the only one of this mountain-rock which makes its appearance
in the combination of rocks forming the tract ; but at other
times there are several of them, at more or less considerable
distances from one another, which occur on a line correspond-
ing more or less to the longitudinal direction of the moun-
tain-group ; or they lie in such a manner, that a continuous
straight line does not unite them.

Generally these portions of granite occupy the high moun-
tain-ridges, that is, those parts of the mountain group from
which, towards both sides (in oblong groups), or towards all
sides (in massive mountain-groups), the height diminishes gra-
dually, though very rarely in a uniform ratio, until the base
of the mountains is reached. There are, however, cases in
which the granite masses present themselves only on one or the

Structure of Granite. 3

other, or on both sides, tliat is, on the declivities of the moun-
tain groups, while they do not appear at all in the highest re-
gions ; or, if they do so, are associated at the same time with
other mountain-rocks.

These granite masses often exhibit a remarkable internal
structure. They consist either of tabular, or of cubical and
cuboidal, or of irregularly-formed masses, so that in the last
case they are bounded by an indefinite number of surfaces
placed in an entirely indefinite position. These surfaces are
by some regarded as rents (kluften), that is, bounding sur-
faces which have been produced by external agency after the
formation and induration of the rock. When, however, we
break a piece of granite bounded by such surfaces, and compare
the fractured surface thus produced with these surfaces, we find
that the two are of an entirely different description, and there-
fore must have had a different origin ; and, when we carefully
examine the first, we remarlv that the individual component
parts, that is, the individual parts of which granite consists, in
so far as they appear in these so-termed rents, are bounded by
surfaces which correspond essentially with those by which the
individuals of a twin crystal, or by which granular or columnar
distinct concretions of calcareous spar, are separated. What
were formerly termed abgesonderte stucke (distinct concre-
tions) in mineralogy, are now termed zusammensetzungs-
stucke (literally, composition-pieces), because the massive
portions of minerals, twin crystals, &;c., are composed of the
same ; and the surfaces which bound these are termed sm*-
faces of distinct concretions ( zusamniensetzungsjidchen). ♦
Besides granite, excellent examples of this structure are
afforded by syenite, porphyry, basalt, greywacke (especially
the large granular varieties), &c. The indeterminately angu-
lar pieces of which a mass of granite is composed, are bounded
by surfaces which consist of the distinct-concretion-surfaces
of the individual component parts which meet there ; and

* Ab we are not in possession of such refinements in our geognostical no-
menclature, wc must throughout this article, as we did in a former one,
vol. 28, p. 334_, continue to employ the expression distinct concretions for
^K^ammmsetzuuf/s-stiickc, and suifaces of distinct concretion for ^Ksammcinet'
zwigs-fidcMiu — ^Edit.

4 M. Mohs's Summary of Geognostical Phenomena,

as such surfaces (as we are taught by the consideration of com-
pound minerals, twin crystals, &c.)> can only be produced when
the individuals or component parts of the one compound mass
come in contact with those of the other, in and during their
original formation, so it follows that these angular pieces of
granite, throughout its whole mass, and with them the surfaces
pointed out, have not only been produced at the same time, but
also, that the bounding surfaces or rents, as they have been
termed, are not true rents (zerspaltungen), but surfaces of dis-
tinct concretions, of a higher order, however, than those which
bound the individual concretions of which a rock is composed ;
and that these angular pieces are actually distinct concretions.
Compound mountain-masses likewise, that is, those consisting
of dissimilar substances, such as granite and limestone, por-
phyry and gneiss, basalt and chalk, &c., are often bounded by
distinct-concretion-surfaces, whichbelong to a still higher order.
From these considerations the following deduction has been
drawn, and it is one which is of great consequence for the
whole of geognosy : that when two similar or dissimilar moun-
tain-masses, or any other kind of simple or compound mineral
substances, come into contact with one another, in such a man-
ner, that they are only separated from one another by surfaces,
regarding which it can be shewn that they possess the charac-
ters of surfaces of distinct concretions, these rocks or minerals
must be of contemporaneous origin ;* and this deduction, con-
taining one of the most important criteria of contemporaneity
of formation, is of the most extensive utility, more particularly
for the correct determination of the relations of the beds of
rocks, an acquaintance with which is the only guide that we
can follow, without fear of getting into a wrong path, when we
wish to investigate mountains, or to search in them for useful
minerals.

• We do not understand by contemporaneous origin, an origin at a fixed time,
but one during an uninterrupted time, in which no pause occurred in the for-
mation, of whatever longer or shorter duration it may have been, and which
admits of farther determination. Hence, two rocky masses can have been
produced at once, or the one can have been formed at an earlier or later pe-
riod than the other ; if their periods of formation are not separated by a
sensible interval, they are considered by us as contemporaneous.

Structure of Granite, 5

To this investigation likewise, and therefore to the attain-
ment of the object which has caused the present treatise, be-
longs the accurate knowledge of what has generally been
termed stratification (schichtung). Of the surfaces which
bound the cubic or cuboidal masses of granite, one, and gene-
rally that one whose position deviates least from horizontality,
is considered as what is termed a seam of stratification ( schich-
tung skluft)^ and the tabular masses contained between two of
such seams are considered as actual strata ; while the others,
which are nearly perpendicular to them, are regarded as mere
rents (zerspaltungen). The first of these conclusions is just
as inaccurate as the last ; for, when we compare with one an-
other the three different surfaces of separation which are dis-
tinguished by their position and direction, and when we com-
pare them with those which bound the indeterminately angular
pieces, we find that they correspond with one another per-
fectly in all essential properties or relations. But we cannot
regard any of the surfaces bounding the angular distinct con-
cretions as seams of stratification, as there are no strata pre-
sent which they could bound. And just as little can the one
or the other of the surfaces enclosing the cuboidal masses be a
seam of stratification, as they are not only nothing else than that
of which we have just spoken, but because they also all possess
equal claims to be considered a seam of stratification, while
only one of them can be so. Not one of them, therefore, is really
a seam of stratification. We certainly find that some varieties
of granite are somewhat more easily split in one direction
than in another. We might, therefore, be induced to regard
as seams of stratification those separating surfaces, which cor-
respond to this direction, and which are thus sometimes dis-
tinguished from the others. But this appearance is a mere
feature of the stony structure, and occurs only in those varie-
ties of granite in which the first commencement of a transition
into gneiss is noticeable in the somewhat lengthening form of
the portions of mica and felspai*. Where this does not take
place, the surfaces of separation, or the distinct-concretion-
surfaces, are all alike, and hence, not one of them can be re-
garded as a seam of stratification. This surface of separation,

ft M. Mohs's Summary of Geogmstical Phenomena,

however, disappears entirely in gneiss itself, while the others
are distinctly seen.*

It is now easy to make the application to the tabular masses
into which granite appears to be sometimes divided. The sur-
faces which bound these, have precisely the characters of the
surfaces of distinct concretions, and the divisions considered as
strata, are here nothing else but tabular distinct concretions.
The appearance can be explained without difficulty. We fre-
quently find, particularly in masses of limestone, that a two-
fold composition ( zusammensetzung ) or structure is present,
from which tabular distinct concretions can be produced, and
that sometimes the one, sometimes the other, is more deve-
loped and becomes more apparent, or that it becomes more
and more indistinct, and disappears ; whence proceed many, at
first sight, apparently remarkable phenomena. This may also
be supposed in granite, in order to understand easily in what
connection the tabular distinct concretions stand with the
massive, and in order to be convinced that the one proceeds
from actual stratification just as little as the other.

The granite masses, in whatever form they appear, are ge-
nerally surrounded by thick masses of slaty rocks. The cases
in which other features present themselves, may here be
passed over. The slaty rocks exhibit the extremely remark-
able phenomenon, that, in respect to their structure, and the
relations of their beds on the great scale, they present the same
features as if granite-masses were not jjresent. It was believed
that the slate rocks surround the granite masses in a mantle -
shaped manner, and that the latter had exercised such an in-
fluence on the first, as to determine the form of arrangement
of their beds. But further investigations have proved that
this occurrence so rarely takes place, that, where it has actu-
ally been found by accurate observation to occur, it may be
merely regarded as an exception ; and that, on the contrary,

* Thus gneiss, and most of the slaty and other mountain masses are not
stratified, but the tabular divisions observable in them are referable to struc-
ture, and are mere distinct concretions. TJie criteria for distinguishing real
from apparent stratification, derivable from the ideas of the formation of this
rock, cannot be fully discussed in this place. "What has been already said
is sufficient to shew, how necessary it is to take care not to regard all as
etratification which possesses its external aspect.

Structure of Slate-Bocks, 7

in the usnal cases, the masses of the slate rocks are just M
little disturbed by the granite as if that rock differed from the
slaty mass only in structure.

Structure of Slate-Bocks. — The various relations exhibited
in the arrangement of the beds of the slate-rocks, are the most
important which can be ascertained, in order to aid the search
for useful minerals ; for these are the rocks which chiefly con-
tain such repositories.

These relations, when viewed on the large scale, consist
more especially in the following : — That the various masses,
which constitute the slate rocks, generally preserve through-
out the whole mountainous tract a uniform direction (a si-
milar strike) ; and that the deviations from this direction,
which are frequently met with, and which often amount to
a considerable number of degrees, mutually neutralise one
another, as they are just as much on the one side as on the
other. This remarkable phenomenon sometimes even exists
on a larger scale. It is frequently observed, that in neigh-
bouring mountain-groups, that is, such as are separated from
one another by less elevated tracts (plains in the sense men-
tioned above), the general direction is identical or similar ;
and most mountain-groups are thus united into a whole, or
as it were into a unity, which is the largest that is reached
by geognosy in considering the constitution of mountain-masses.
But we must beware that we do not extend this process of
generalization beyond its limits, at least that we do not extend
it over the whole earth, that is by assuming that this direction
is the same round the whole earth.

Classes of Bocks. — The slate-rocks consist of a considerable
number of mountain-masses, which are regarded by geognosts
as belonging to different formations, and separated by them into
two classes, of which the one is termed Primitive and the other
Transition. The mere name of the latter class, which presup-
poses a third, and which, as derived from the nature of the moun-
tain-rocks and of the mountain-masses, is quite correct as a
mere name, leaves it to be understood how it stands in respect
to the division of classes. When we have two unities (two
species or genera in the mineral or vegetable kingdom, or two
cImms in the geognostical systems), which are combined by

E M. Mohs's Summary of Geognostical Phenomena.

means of a third unity of the same degree of extent, there can
exist between these three unities no sharp boundaries ; and
nature confirms the idea in the case of the different classes of
mountain-masses, that there are really no sharp boundaries
between them. The division, therefore, has no sufficient foun-
dation, and therefore no value. It is necessary, in the search-
for useful minerals, to have this well in view, in order that we
may not lay too much weight on the division of mountain-
masses, and especially on the classes of the primitive and tran-
sition rocks, inasmuch as we might thus be restrained from
making a search for any thing in a mountain-mass of one
division, regarding which he believes that it is only to be
found in one belonging to the other.

On Formations. — With respect to the subdivision of the
classes, or of the mountain-masses generally, into forma-
tions, whose limits are chiefly founded on a certain sequence
of superposition, it is not much better, especially in the pri-
mitive and transitive classes, for this sequence (which is also
termed the series in regard to relative antiquity of the
mountain-masses), in respect to the masses which are dis-
tinguished, is not only not constant^ and on the contrary
subjected to a diversified change, but the mountain-masses
of these different formations pass into one another ; as all
geognosts know and admit, without sufficiently attending
to the consequences. It is always dangerous, and quite con-
trary to a scientific mode of proceeding, to employ a notion
of whose correctness and precision we are not convinced ;
and it is so much the more unsafe to do this in an occupa-
tion which is so difficult, and which requires so much at-
tention, as the searching after useful minerals, especially
when we previously know the untenable nature of such a no-
tion. Nevertheless, the idea of formations, although it can-
not succeed in determining the individual formations with the
requisite certainty and sharpness, is not only very useful for
those who devote themselves to this occupation, but also ver}^
important as a valuable guide ; and I shall, in another place,
speak at greater length of this utility and importance.

The mountain-masses which constitute the slate rocks are
more particularly gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, with its asso-

On Junctions of Bocks. 9

ciated talc and chlorite slates, greywacke-slate, if there is suf-
ficient reason to separate it from clay-slate, and greywacke,
which is directly connected with the greywacke-slate.
Junctions of Bocks, — We generally find thegneiss next the gra-
nite ; but this is not without many exceptions, of which we have
remarkable examples in the Hartz, where greywacke-slate is in
direct contact with granite, and in Cornwall, where thekillas, a
rock intermediate between mica-slate and clay-slate, occupies
that position. Where gneiss and granite bound one another,
these rocks, which moreover are merely difi^erent in structure,
often pass directly into one another ; more rarely they are se-
parated from each other by true distinct-concretion-surfaces.
The stony structure of the gneiss generally changes in the
vicinity of the granite, and is bent for a short distance, be-
cause it as it were presses closely on the granite, whence ob«
servers have frequently deduced the existence of a mantle-
shaped arrangement of the beds ; and even the structm*e of the
granite itself not unfrequently undergoes a change, inasmuch
as it becomes sometimes more coarsely granular (as in what
are termed Stockscheidern), and sometimes more finely granu-
lar (as we find in the granite masses of Stockwerks in gneiss),
but generally it presents a tendency to the slaty structure.
However, there are likewise cases in which none of all these
phenomena exist, and where both rocks, with their prevailing
characters, are sharply joined and firmly grown together.

The structure of the mountain-masses of gneiss, under which
is here understood what is generally termed stratification in
this and the other slaty rocks, is frequently cut by the granite,
or, as it is also expressed, the strata of gneiss abut against the
granite ; and this latter is far more correct, for cutting through
is merely a figurative idea, w^hieh includes more than can be
observed. Here, therefore, we have not the phenomenon of a
conformability , but that which has been termed unconformahi-
lity of the beds; but the consequences do not follow which
are generally drawn from a deviating disposition of beds :*
viz. that granite and gneiss are not of simultaneous origin, and

* These consequences could only take place if the tabular structure of
gneiss and the other slaty rocks were real stratification.

10 M. Mohs's Summary of Geopiostical Phenomena.

even that they are dissimilar in nature ; for the forms * in
which the former appears in the latter, and the above-men-
tioned transitions, incontrovertibly prove the contrary.

In the vicinity of the mutual boundary sometimes the one,
sometimes the other, sometimes both of the above-mentioned
mountain-rocks, contain minerals which do not belong to their
component pai'ts, such as garnet, tourmaline, and hornblende ;
the last more especially, when the granite is syenitic, or is ac-
tually a syenite, a rock which is almost too closely connected
with granite to entitle it to be distinguished by a separate name.
Connected with this occurrence, but of more importance for
the search after usefiU minerals, is the fact that, at the junc-
tion of the rocks, repositories of these minerals not unfre-
quently occur, which do not belong to the composition of the
general mass. Such junctions, therefore, must be carefully
attended to, and where there is an opportunity, must be mi-
nutely examined.

When mica-slate is in immediate contact with granite, the
phenomena are essentially almost the same as we have de-
scribed above. Only the granite is not unfrequently very
rich in quartz, and the mica-slate often acquires felspar near
the junction, and is thus converted into gneiss. Clay-slate
often exhibits a greater diversity of aspects near the granite.
It sometimes assumes the characters of gneiss or hornblende ;
and what is called greywacke-slate becomes converted into a
rock which is called hornfels in the Hartz, which passes di-
rectly into the greywacke-slate, and is yet connected with the
granite, inasmuch as it contains some felspar. This rock,
moreover, occurs at a greater distance from the granite in
greywacke rocks, and hence is not connected with the imme-
diate vicinity of greywacke rocks to granite.

No determinate arrangement of the Frimitive and Transition
Bocks. — The individual mountain-rocks of the slate series usual-
ly alternate with one another in the form of beds ; but there is
no fixed sequence in this alternation. Sometimes the mica-
slate lies on the gneiss, then the clay -slate on the mica-slate,

* Some of these forms arc among the characters by which contempora-
neous formation is^dircctly recognised.

No Fixed Sequence in Slate-Formaiions. 11

and finally the grey wacke on the clay-slate. From single ob-
servations of this kind, a general rule ha& been laid down.
But the exceptions from this rule are just as numerous, if they
are not more numerous, than the cases conformable to it. In
order, however, to find a conformability to rule in this irregu-
lar alternation, and in order to deduce from it determinable
formations, not only have rocks, which, in another series,
would have been termed gneiss and clay-slate, been denomi-
nated grey wacke or grey wacke- slate, but it has been assumed
that to granite there succeeds first an alternation of granite
gneiss, then pure gneiss ; to it an alternation of gneiss and
mica-slate, then pure mica-slate, &c. But none of all the possi-
ble combinations of these, and, if regard were paid to the series
of beds included in them, none of the double or more compound
combinations of included beds amongst themselves or with
others, should be passed over, if the diversity of nature were
to be represented ; and it would then result from these that
this diversity includes all possible sequences, and that therefore
a certain determinate order, and one which is sought as a con-
sequence of a theory, cannot exist.

Hardly any one can misapprehend the importance, in reference
to the search after, and discovery of, repositories of useful mi-
nerals, of the knowledge, that a fixed order in the superpo-
sition of the mountain-rocks, from which a fixed sequence had
been deduced, does not exist in what are termed the primitive
and transition series. For when, for example, we know that
in a certain district, the beds or veins, of which we are in pm--
suit^ only occur in mica-slate, and not in the gneiss and clay-
slate, and we find the gneiss on the lying side, and the clay-
slate on the hanging side, of the rocky mass in which we have
hitherto instituted our investigations, we could not hope for a
fortunate result either beyond the former or the latter, if we
should adopt as correct the assumption of the invariable se-
quence of the rocks, and would hence perhaps consider as su-
perfluous the further investigation of the neighboiu:hood. But
mica-slate can make its appearance under the gneiss and above
the clay-slate. So long as we remain within the boundaries
of the slaty rocks, we may expect generally to meet with every
succession of the individual members, and must acquire a

12 M. Mohs's Summary of Geognostical Phenomena,

knowledge by direct observation, of the phenomena of a par-
ticular mountain-district or a particular portion of it, without
allowing ourselves to be guided by any theory or by any sys-
tem ; and this knowledge is, as the sequel will shew, of the
utmost importance.

Transitions of JRocks. — The rocks composing the individual
members of the slate series pass immediately into one another.
The transitions of the gneiss into mica-slate, and of the mica- slate
into clay-slate (including grey wacke-slate) are generally known.
But these rocks likewise pass into the common or granular grey-
wacke, and this transition deserves to be more attentively con-
sidered. The gneiss first of all has its structure altered, and
becomes granular, without acquiring any resemblance to gra-
nite (for there are other varieties of gneiss which form the
passage into granite), the mica loses its usual characters, more
especially the perfection of its cleavage, and begins to resem-
ble clay-slate, and the felspar and quartz appear of a grey
colour passing into green, which is generally the colour of the
whole mass. The structure is at first angulo-granular, but
not without occasionally passing back into the slaty ; and the rock,
when the size of the concretions is diminished, bears so great a
resemblance to some sandstones that we are hardly able to discri-
minate between them. On the other hand, the concretions or
grains lose less in size than in the sharpness of their edges; the
mica becomes closely united to them, and as its quantity and that
of the felspar gradually diminish, rocks are formed, which it
would not appear strange to us to meet with in the most cha-
racteristic greywacke district. This transition, which occurs
very frequently under all modifications, only admits of a gene-
ral account here ; and we need not further explain in what
consists the application of its knowledge in aid of the search
for useful minerals.

But, nevertheless, another circumstance, connected with
these transitions, deserves some observations. It is generally
the case, that the mountain-masses pass into one another just
as they lie on and over one another ; and in such a manner,
that when on a bed of gneiss there reposes a bed of mica-slate,
and on the latter a bed of clay-slate, the first passes into the
second, and the second into the third. We may term this the

Transitions of Bocks. 13

transition in the direction of the thickness. But the occurrence
is often met with of transitions in the direction of the strike and
of the dip. When we are occupied with a bed of gneiss, and ad-
vance in the direction of its strike, we not unfrequently find
that the rock is gradually changed into mica-slate, into clay
or hornblende- slate, or even into a (sometimes red) sandstone.
Transitions of the last-mentioned kind are, however, more fre-
quent in the direction of the thickness. Since we know how
different are the features of repositories of useful minerals
in different mountain-masses (although this is certainly not
without exception), we can easily understand with what care
we should observe the transitions in the direction of the
strike and dip ; and how little confidence should be placed
in sifigle sections, which have been prepared to assist the in-
vestigation of a district, although they have been sketched with
all possible exactness, and which, taken by themselves, are
therefore quite accurate ; and hence, that it is indispensably
necessary to become possessed of as many of these sections as
possible. Thus, no lateral valley should remain imexamined
in reference to such transitions ; and if the mountain ridges
between them possess too considerable a breadth, they also
should be sufficiently investigated, so that all means may come
into operation which serve, or at least can give assistance, in
accomplishing a task of so uncertain an issue, with that de-
gree of precision which is necessary, if a decisive result is to
be expected. *•»*****

Bocks subordinate to the Slate Series. — The slate series,
which we have hitherto been considering according to the
relations that are presented in reference to the discovery of
useful minerals, is, as it were, the general repository of
several other mountain-rocks, which appear imbedded in
it ; and a knowledge of which, as well as of the phenomena
of the arrangement of their beds, is just as indispensable
as that of the slate series itself. Some of these agree so
perfectly with the slate rocks, from which they are separated
by some observers, and are so directly connected with them,
that, in a purely geognostical point of view, they need
hardly be enumerated. These are the masses of talc-slate
and chlorite-slate, which generally occur in great variety in

14 M. Mohs's Summarj/ ofGeognoitical Phenomena.

the slate series. In regard to the search for useful minerals,
the distinction of these mountain-masses is not a matter of such
indifference ; for some of the particular repositories, namely
some of those which are of a bed-like nature or constitution,
seem not only to be more frequently contained in them than in
the other slaty rocks, but appear to be as it were peculiar to
them. But it must be remarked that this circumstance is a very
general one, and that, therefore, it becomes necessary for us to
study, particularly in this respect, a district which is to be exa-
mined, andnot merely to transfer the result obtained in other dis-
tricts, even of one and the same mountain-group ; because one
and the same zone or region, which here consists of such moun-
tain-masses, or at least contains such mountain-masses in con-
siderable quantity, there consists of others, or contains little
or none of them. There is often occasion to make the obser-
vation, that a bed of this description (likewise of many other
kinds of rocks, which cannot here be specially detailed), with-
out possessing considerable thickness, or any other distinguish-
ing features, is continued for very considerable distances, dis-
appears here and there, or becomes so little noticeable, that
we can scarcely recognise it ; that afterwards, however, it
makes its appearance in its full extent, and that it, perhaps,
undergoes this change several times throughout the extent of
its prolongation. Although, also, there may be nothing to seek
for in the bed, yet not unfrequently it affords us indications
which will be valued by those who are engaged in pursuits of
this description.

Another portion of the imbedded mountain-masses dif-
fers more in its nature from the slate-rocks than those of
which we have hitherto spoken. I allude more especially
to granite, porphyry, the trap rocks,* limestone, and some

* These rocks, on account of a particular form of an-angement, in which
they frequently present themselves, have been regarded as of a peculiar ori-
gin, inasmuch as they are supposed to have issued from the interior of the
earth as burning liquid or molten masses. Limestone sometimes exhibits
the same geognostical relations. But it is not contrary to theory to attri-
bute the same origin to it, — an origin which, indeed, can perhaps only
be denied to a formation which has evidently been formed in a mecha-
nical way. The large granular greywacke, consisting of pebbles as large

Subordinate Bock 8. 15

other rocks of inferior consequence, sucli a« serpentine,
quartz, &;c. Granite appears frequently at the boundaries of
the central masses in individual beds in the slate series, of
whatever nature the latter may be, and its phenomena are
generally the same as those of the beds which we have already
considered ; but it also occurs at a greater distance (geo-
gnostical, not geographical distance reckoned by miles), and,
in this case, it is found more rarely in regular beds than in ir-
regular masses of all sizes, of which the larger, in reference
to the above relations, are to be duly attended to.

Connected with the granite there are two other mountain-
rocks, which, it is true, do not occur everywhere, but w^hen
they are met with, are not unfrequently worthy of notice. The
first of these is porphyry, the other syenite. We might also
include here the greenstones (dolerite and diorite), which, in
all their relations, resemble syenite, porphyry, and granite ; but
they appear to stand in somewhat nearer connection with other
mountain-masses, and hence can be more properly enumerated
with them. What are termed trachytes are partly to be con-
sidered as porphjTv, partly as granite, and partly as a sort of
greenstone, for their determination as a peculiar kind of moun-
tain-rock is founded on a purely theoretical assumption, which
is proved by no direct observation, and can still less be recog-
nised from the nature of the rock. " That kind of porphyry
is trachyte which is of Plutonic origin."*

Porphyry is nothing but a porphyritic granite, whose basis
consists of so intimate and fine a compound, that the indivi-

as Lazol nuts, united together by a cement of very quartzoee clay-slate,
is, without doubt, evidently a mechanical rock, at least it is generally regard-
ed as such. But it has been observed, that irregular masses of it, like the
masses of gi-anite, porphyry, and trap, penetrate the slate-rock (a thin, slaty
groywacke-slate), distinctly and decidedly cut through its structure, and,
although sharply separated from it, yet closely adhere to it. They do
not throw the structure of the slaty rock into the smallest disorder, just like
the other rocks mentioned above ; and they present the same phenomena as
these. Why should a common origin not be assigned to all these mountain
masses 1 As to whether this common origin was Plutonian or Neptunian,
or if it can have been one of the two, is another question.

• Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Theology, by the
Kers'. "William BucklantU

IS M. Mohs's Summary of Geog not Heal Phenomena,

dual component parts can no longer be distinguished from one
another. The transitions to be observed prove this. As the
granites, in reference to the relative quantities of their con-
stituent parts, are so extremely different, porphyries with dif-
ferent kinds of basis are thence produced, which are distin-
guished as hornstone, felspar, and claystone porphyries. Oc-
casionally, portions of granite, syenite, or gneiss, arise in the
general porphyry-mass, partly as irregular masses, partly as
apparent fragments, thus affording a direct proof of the ori-
gin of the porphyry. Porphyries appear as beds, as veins,
and also as irregular masses in slate-rocks ; and the last are
often of such extent, that not only do slate and other moun-
tain masses arise from among these porphyries, also in more or
less regular bed-like forms, but they supplant the latter for con-
siderable distances. The beds and veins of these mountain-mas-
ses do not appear to be of much importance in reference to the
discovery of useful minerals ; but their large masses, on the con-
trary, are worthy of particular attention, because, as we know
from experience, in many districts they are very rich in ores.
At their meeting with the slate series, they present the same
phenomena as granite does, inasmuch as both the rocks in con-
tact are partly reciprocally altered, partly pass directly into each
other, just likewise as similar passages take place between gra-
nite and porphyry, and these sometimes are so gradual, that we
must pass through a great number of varieties before we find
the transition completed. Very frequently, extensive masses
of porphyry replace the whole, or, at least, a portion of the
slate rocks. The consequence of this is, that generally on one
declivity of a mountain-group there are no porph)T['ies what-
ever, and we meet only with slaty rocks ; whereas on the
other side, large tracts of porphyry present themselves. The
porphyries also pass into sandstones, viz. the red sandstones,
and into conglomerates, whose cement is often very much like
sandstone, and which alternate many times in regular beds with
the most characteristic porphyries. Phenomena of this de-
scription may undoubtedly create doubt as to the generally
received opinion of the nature of such conglomerates, I mean
the opinion that they consist of pebbles derived from previ-
ously existing mountain-masses ; but such discussions are not

Subordinate Bocks, 17

appropriate in this essay, which is not so much intended for
the correction of geognostical knowledge, as for the applica-
tion of that knowledge to a particular object.

Syenite occurs more rarely in well characterized beds and
veins than in irregular masses, but then the relations it exhi-
bits are almost the same as those of porphyry, associated with
which it is often found, and into which it passes, as it does
into granite. Regular beds of this rock, and also well cha-
racterized veins, which, as has been already remarked, not
unfrequently occm*, are not of special consequence. Exten-
sive irregular masses, however, are to be carefully noticed as
in the case of porphyry.

What are usually called traps consist chiefly of two rocks,
which, in respect to their component parts, correspond at least
so far, that they contain hornblende and, more rarely, augite
in preponderating quantity, which determines the colour of the
rock. These tw^o are greenstone and hornblende-slate. Some
others, as amygdaloid, wacke, greystone, porphyry-slate, ba-
salt, &c., of which several are generally included under the
trachytes, may here be passed over, as they rarely contain
repositories of useful minerals. The greenstone, for the
most part, partakes of the features described as belonging to
the rocky masses, which occur imbedded inthe slate series ;
it is found in veins and beds, but especially in extensive irre-
gular masses ; it passes into porphyry, into syenite, into horn-
blende-slate, and also into gneiss ; and sometimes it abounds
in ores. Hornblende-slate itself agrees with the slate rocks in
its geognostical relations, and what has been said here of them
applies likewise to it. It passes into gneiss, into mica-slate,
and into clay-slate, in the direction of its thickness, as well
as of its strike and dip, and the transitions are so similar to
those described above, that it would be superfluous to dwell
longer upon them. In some districts, both hornblende slate
and greenstone have proved rich in metalliferous contents,
and they ought, therefore, on no account to be passed over
unnoticed.

Limestone is a mountain rock of especial importance. It
occurs partly in the central granitic mass, especially when the
latter possesses a tabulai* structure, or, according to the usual

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVn. ^JULY 1840. »

18 M. Molis''s Summary of Gao^nostical Fhenomena.

expression, when it is stratified. It is found in a similar
way in the various slaty mountain masses, and there pre-
sents very remarkable relations. It has been supposed,
that the limestones lying next the central mass (what are
termed primitive limestones) possess the most distinct, and
frequently a large granular structure ; those more remote
(what are termed transition limestones) a less distinct struc-
ture, at least one which is less coarsely granular ; and the se-
condai-y limestones, to speak generally, more of an earthy com-
position ; and there are undoubtedly very many examples which
countenance such an opinion. But nevertheless, the pheno-
menon is not one of universal occurrence, and, even in masses
which are connected together, all these diiferences of structure
present themselves next one another. It would, therefore, be
a fallacious mode of proceeding, to take the size of the grains
of the limestone as the test of its geognostical distance from
the central mass, a distance which can only be determined by
superposition.

Limestone occurs partly in pretty regular beds, partly in
irregular masses, both of which have very various dimensions,
— the first being sometimes of almost inconceivable extent.
They seem to increase in thickness and extent as their dis-
tance increases from the central masses, or, where such do
not exist, from the central chain ; and they, as it were, ac-
quire one of the chief characteristics of the slate-rocks, inas-
much as they generally form on both sides of the central
chain, a peculiarly long and high chain, in which again many
mountain masses are contained in the same, and not unfre-
quently, very remai'kable manner, as the slate series includes
porphyry, syenite, and some other mountain rocks.

Beds ami k^eins. — The beds of granite, porphyry, syenite,
greenstone, limestone, &c., which occur in the slate-rocks,
and which are generally conformable to their structure on the
small and on the large scale, nevertheless very frequently cut
this structure at some places, thus proving directly that it is
not stratification ; for true stratification can be cut by no bed,
which itself must be regarded as a stratum possessing parti-
cular characters, — as directly follows from the idea of stratifi-
cation. It follows from this phenomenon, that beds of this

Beds and Veins. 19

kind must very often be irregular, especially as to their thick-
ness, and observation confirms this, inasmuch as it teaches us,
that such beds sometimes increase in their dimensions, some-
times become contracted, and sometimes are interrupted for
more or less considerable distances. The slate series of rocks
does not generally undergo thereby any change in the direction
of its structure, — at least any important change, and the change
it may present is only near these beds. If the increase of thick-
ness of such beds be considerable, and if an interruption im-
mediately ensue, the portions assume the form of irregular
masses, or of what are termed, lying irregular masses (Jtegen-
de stocke), and it not unfrequently happens, that the structure
of the slaty rocks abuts against these irregular masses : that is,
they are cut off by them. This happens sometimes by means
of a transition, somevv^hat in the manner above described ; some-
times, however, it happens in such a way, that the different
mountain masses are sharply united together, or are sepa-
rated from each by a distinct-concretion-surface. In the
first case, the rocky mass sends forth vein-like branches of
granular rock into the slaty mass, — such as are known more
especially in respect to granite, porphyry, greenstone, &;c., and
it is not unfrequent to find separate portions of the slate in
the mountain mass in contact with it, and likewise separate
portions of it in the slate. In the other, the phenomenon ac-
quires the aspect of a shift, and many examples of this kind
have been explained by shifts. But when we examine nar-
rowly the distinct concretion-surface, and sufficiently attend to
its nature in respect to its general aspect (viz. that it consists
of the distinct concretion-surfaces of the separate individual con-
cretions composing the rocks, and not of fracture or superficial
surfaces) ; when we attend likewise to its streaking (where such
exists), to its position, and to the bendings which it generally
makes, and which, in all the other hitherto mentioned relations,
are not compatible with the notion of a displacement of the rocks
in regard to each other ; we are easily convinced, that both
masses have been originally formed with the same relations,
and in the same position as at present,* and this conviction is of
great moment for the search after repositories of usefulminerals,
because all the other phenomena of superposition stand in ex-

* Sec aate, p. 4.

20 M. Mohs's Summary of Geognostlcal Phenomena.

act correspondence with this original formation, and we shall
therefore not thus be misled to regard this appearance in an er-
roneous point of view. It is known that there are phenomena
of this kind, which seem to prove incontrovertibly a displace-
ment of the rocky masses. But when we follow up such ap-
pearances in their full connexions, we meet with such as pre-
sent the same phenomena, and yet directly make known to us
that an actual displacement could not have taken place. In
order not to become discursive on this subject, whose further
elucidation does not belong to the present subject, we must
content ourselves with the remark, that we not unfrequently
find apparent displacement at such points where limestone and
granite are directly in contact. We see that these mountain
masses are partly bounded by the most characteristic distinct-
concretion-surfaces (and these are, when we do not consider
the nature of these sm-faces, the most deceptive appearances),
partly, intimately, and strongly united with one another, and
combined in such a manner as to render it impossible accu-
rately to assign boundaries to the two ; and, finally, we see
them so dovetailed into one another, and as it were fastened
together, that every thought of a movement having taken place
must disappear.

The tabular stinicture of the limestone next the contact with
the granite, is generally, where present, in the greatest regula-
rity, and the changes which the two mountain-masses produce,
are mutual. But what completely overturns the opinion that
phenomena of this kind are produced by the actual movement or
displacement of the parts of the mountain-mass, are the obser-
vations which have been made on veins which seem to be dis-
placed, while the portions of the mountain-mass in which their
different parts occur have preserved their original position.
We ascertain this from the fact that bed-like masses in the
mountain-mass through which the displaced veins or fissures,
or, in one word, the separating surfaces proceed, and which must
accordingly have also been necessarily displaced, have suffered
no shift. Since, then, phenomena of this kind cannot be ex-
plained by shifts, while those mentioned above (together with
these) can be explained in a manner more consonant with the
phenomena of nature, we must, in reason, consider well before

Beds and Veins, 21

we admit actual movements or displacements of a portion of
the mountain-mass at a bounding-surface, whether that be a
mere distinct-concretion-surface, a rent, or even a distinct vein,
although appearances may be favourable to a belief in such a
shift.

It is evident from the above, that mountain-masses of in-
considerable dimensions, which, generally speaking, lie con-
formably to the structure of the slaty rocks, and hence are
considered as bed-like, and are termed heds^ yet neverthe-
less cut this structure here and there, sometimes for shorter,
sometimes for longer distances ; sometimes under greater,
sometimes under smaller angles. When the places, in a
series "of beds, where this occm's, are several, and the cut-
ting angles are greater than those at which the mass lies
conformably to the beds, it assumes a vein-like character, and,
in one w^ord, becomes a vein. Vice versa, a vein is defined to
be a bed- (/, e. table-) shaped mass, which cuts the structure
of the mountain-masses of slaty rocks, for, in others than the
slaty rocks, the cutting through cannot be observed. But
there are many otherwise extremely characteristic veins, which
partly do not do this ; and even some which, throughout their
whole extent, lie generally conformably to the slaty structure.
Under these circumstances, it is difficult, when the beds and
veins contain merely rocks like granite, porphyry, greenstone,
basalt, &c. to assign the limits between the bed and vein ; and,
without entirely throwing away the distinction, the conse-
quence has been drawn, and it is a useful one, even for the
present investigation, that we ought not to attribute too much
importance to this distinction. In regard to the beds and
veins which have hitherto been considered, this is of less con-
sequence. It may serve, how^ever, to direct attention to the
essential difference between beds and veins of ore ; and, should
it thence perhaps appear that it likewise is not so great as it
is generally assumed to be, this may certainly acquire some
influence on the procedure which is to be followed in search-
ing for such repositories.

( To be continued in oar next number,)

( 22 )

On (he Danish Oyster Banks. By M. Henrik Kroyer.

The active editor of the Naiurhistorisk Tidskrift, whom we
have to thank for so many valuable contributions to the Fauna
of Denmark, gives us a full account of the condition of the
Danish oyster-banks, in a little work published at Copenhagen,
entitled De danske Osterbanker, et Bidrag til Kundskab om Dan-
marks Fiskerier. While his treatise is more especially interest-
ing as discussing a subject of political economy, and must have
possessed double interest for Denmark just at the moment of
its appearance, because the period for farming out the royal
banks, as they were considered, had partly elapsed, and was
partly impending, and because an opinion had been expressed
in Jiitland in favour of throwing open the oyster fishery ; yet,
at the same time, it is not without importance for the natural
history of the oyster. It gives us a clear idea of the mode of
occurrence of this species of shell-fish ; it weakens and over-
turns many hitherto received prejudices respecting their mode
of living ; and, even in its statistical and historical portion, is
calculated to afford the naturalist much information and amuse-
ment.

In the first section of his work, the author treats of the na-
tm*al history of the oyster ; and, in the second, of the Danish
oyster banks — of the mode of taking the oysters, and the re-
quisite apparatus — of the oyster trafiic in Schleswig and Jut-
land— and of the oyster dams. The third part contains histo-
rical, notices of the oyster-banks in Schlesw ig and Jutland. An
engraving represents the various fishing implements; and a
particularly interesting illustration of the essay is a map of
Denmark and its ducal possessions, in which the banks that
are at present fished, as well as those which have been aban-
doned, are represented. As M. Kroyer not only visited the
various oyster localities, and collected many notices on the
spot, but has likewise made use of the register and minutes of
the Board of Management of the Rents, the results of his in-
vestigations are undoubtedly as accurate and exact as can be

* From Wiegmann's Archiv/iir Naturgeschichte for 1839.

M. Kroyer on the Danish Oyster'Banks. 23

required in a statistical inquiry of this kind, although certainly
they open up no very agreeable prospect for the revenue or fdr
the lovers of oysters. But let us now direct our attention to
the separate portions of the treatise, in so far as they are suited
to our objects.

The first part, which is dedicated to the natural history of
the oyster, contains, besides much that is already known, also
much that is new, by which previous statements are enlarged,
restricted, and partly corrected. In the Jutland oysters, the
author found six pearls, two of which were of the size of pead,
and the others of small shot ; but, generally speaking, they
are rare, and of small dimensions. In the oyster-banks of
Schloswig, the Ostrea hippopits occurs ahmg with the Ostrea
edulis ; but, as its taste is inferior, it is of inferior value as an
article of trade. There is no new information respecting the
organs of generation. Kegarding the period of propagation, it
resulted from the investigations of the author, that it does not
appear to take place simultaneously. He found, in July and
August, individuals which, on opening the shell, contained a
milky fluid, which exhibited, under the microscope, very mi-
nute but perfectly formed young ones, provided with a thin
shell ; but such oysters were rare, for hardly one was met with
in ten. The opinion, that oysters, at the period of their propa-
gation, are lean and of a bad watery taste, is fully proved to be
erroneous ; when newly taken out of the sea, their taste is just
as good in summer as in winter ; and there is no foundation for
the belief that the eating oysters in summer is unhealthy. The
statement, that oysters only live in such places as are never
uncovered during the greatest ebb of the tide, is limited by
the author. In northern districts, they cannot endure the cold
at low water, and hence they live at a greater depth. But
several of the oyster-banks of Schleswig have so low an amount
of water, that they are bare during a great ebb, or during cer-
tain winds. The author has ascertained similar facts on the
Norwegian coast. On the west coast of Schleswig, it has often
been remarked, that, in summer, oysters occupy spots which
are even frequently laid bare, and that the oysters in- these
places can thrive a considerable time when the winters are
mild ; but if a frost take place, they speedily succumb. An

24 M. Kroyer on the Danish Oyster-Banks.

examination of the position of the oyster-banks of Jiitland and
Schleswig does not confirm the idea that oysters flourish more
especially at the mouths of rivers. M. Kroyer very correctly
remarks, that we are not to regard oyster-banks as elevated
portions of the submarine land, or as rocks or sand-banks, &c.,
to which the oysters are attached by their valves ; but merely
to understand by them those parts of the bottom of the sea on
which oysters occur in large numbers. Where the submarine
land consists of rocks and loose stones, the oysters adhere
partly to the projecting portions of the rocks and to the sepa-
rate stones ; but many likewise lie loose on the bottom : the
latter is, of course, always the case when the bottom consists
of loam, sand, or mud, except when several have grown toge-
ther in irregular heaps of three, four, or five individuals. More
than five or six are not united ; because, were they to grow
together in too large masses, the lowest would be prevented,
not only from being developed, but likewise from opening their
shells. It is likewise not correct that they always rest on the
valve which is turned downwards. The circumstance of a
much larger number of young individuals not being met with
on the banks of Denmark, the author is inclined to attribute
to the numerous enemies of the oysters, of which the worst are
the voracious sea-stars Cliona celata of Grant is so far pre-
judicial to oysters, that its groups penetrate the shells, and
pierce holes in them, thus rendering them soft and brittle, so
that their inmates are deprived of their protection, and more
exposed to their enemies. Such pierced oysters are also not
willingly taken by dealers, as they are easily broken in the
packing. The author discusses the circumstances that are
favourable and unfavourable to the prosperity of oysters, and
states, as the place best adapted for their development, a flat,
firm bottom, at a depth of from five to fifteen fathoms, where
the current is not violent. Too strong a current carries away
the young brood : a flat bottom, and an inconsiderable depth,
facilitate the fishing.

The second part treats of the Danish oyster-banks in parti-
cular. The term Danish is employed in the Danish sense, in-
asmuch as the banks of Schleswig are included under it, the
oysters from which are known throughout Northern Germany

M. Kroyer on the Danish Oyster-Banks. 25

by the name of Holsteiii oysters. The inhabitants of the
Schleswig-Holstein duchies will not be altogether pleased;
and their provincial assemblies may perhaps regard this trea-
tise as an insult to their nationality, just like the map of Cap-
tain Olsen, which represented the duchy of Schleswig incor-
porated with Denmark, under the name of South Jiitland.
But joking apart, the author may answer for this to the natives
of Schleswig. It is a matter of indiiference to us whether these
banks are termed Danish or Schleswigian, so long as they con-
tinue to afford us good Holstein oysters, and while we know
that of all the banks belonging to the Danish crown, they are
the most productive and the most numerous. Their number
amounted to fifty-three ; but several of them have been aban-
doned, being partly sanded, and partly exhausted, so that now
there are only about forty which are available. They lie on
the west coast of the duchy of Sehleswig, nearly opposite the
line of coast between Tondern and Husum, between the small
islands Sylt, Amrom, Fohr, Pelworm, Nordstrand, &;c. Almost
all these islands are surrounded by shallows, termed Watten,
which are dry at low water. These watten are traversed by
deep channels, in which, or on whose slanting edges the oysters
occur. The largest and richest among the available banks is
Huntje or Huncke, to the east of the island Sylt ; and its oys-
ters are excellent in quality. Unfortunately, however, this
bank has but a shallow covering of water, and suffers in severe
winters. In the winter of 1829-30, on this bank alone, there
were more than 10,000 tons of oysters, or about eight millions
of individuals destroyed by frost; although this estimate is
perhaps an exaggerated one, as it was furnished by a person
in the service of the overseer belonging to the lessee of the
fishery.

The Danish banks, properly so called, lie on the east side of
the northern extremity of Jutland, opposite Skagen. It may
be said that they stretch along parallel to the east coast of the
peninsula of Skagen, from its northern extremity to Hirtshol-
men, and in such a manner that the fishing village Aalbeck
lies opposite their middle. Three banks are enumerated, viz.
the lower chiefly to the north, and opposite Skagen ; the mid-
dle, opposite Aalbeck ; and the upper, to the south. Accord-

28 M. Kroyer on ths Danish Oyster-Banks.

ing to some statements, these banks reach down past Hirts-
holmen, east and west, round Laso to Anholt. According to
statements made, oyster-banks would seem also to extend round
the west coast of Jutland to Hirtshals. It is only the banks
lying on the east coast opposite Skagen which are let and
fished. Their produce is much smaller than thai of the banks
of Schleswig ; and their sale is limited to Jutland itself and
Copenhagen .• whereas the oysters of Schleswig are exported to
Hamburg, and thence over the whole of Northern Germany ;
and formerly, likewise, they were sent to all the sea-ports of
the Baltic, as far as Reval and Petersburg, Of late years,
however, the English and Dutch oysters have done them great
injury, even in Hamburg, which is now the great mart of the
Schleswig oysters. The term deputat-oysters (i. e. oysters
forming an allowance made to certain persons at the public
expense), generally applied to the best Schleswig oysters, had
its origin in the circumstance, that the lessee of the oysters
was not only bound to deliver twenty-five tons to the royal
kitchen, but likewise from 1000 to 3000 individuals to the
privy councillors, the presidents of the public boards, and a
number of other official persons, which amounted altogether to
56,000 individuals, or seventy tons. The lessee was likewise
responsible for the goodness of these oysters ; for, in the histori-
cal portion of the work, we find that, on one occasion, a lease was
not lengthened to a lessee because he had sent bad deputat-
oysters to Copenhagen. There is no wonder, therefore, that this
appellation was bestowed on the best kind of oysters. The lessee
is bound to give up the banks in as good a condition as they
were when he received them. To effect this object, the banks
are examined by an official commission ; and they are fished at
three fixed points by fishermen who are bound by an oath.
The condition of the bank is determined by the quantity of
oysters taken. The results of the various examinations from
1709 to 1830 are given by M. Kroyer in two tables. They
lead to the conclusion that the productiveness of the banks has
diminished in an extraordinary degree ; and that if it should in
future diminish in the same proportion, there will soon be no
oyster-banks in existence in Denmark.

( 27 )

On the Occurrence of a Fossil Bird in the Chalk-Slate of the
Canton Glarus. By M. Hermann v. Meyer.

The Ornithichnites made known by Hitchcock in North Ame-
rica, can afford no proof of the occurrence of birds in rocks
antecedent to the tertiary period to me, who am a decided op-
ponent of the view, that the appearances presented by the older
sandstone formations, which have made so much noise at the
present day, and which undoubtedly deserve attention, have
been certainly produced by the footsteps of animals. There
is also, however, the fragment of bone from the Hastings-sand
of Tilgate forest, which has been examined by Owen, who has
declared it to be the tarso-metatarsal bone of a wader, resem-
bling a heron, on account of the bone presenting an oval spot,
denoting the articular surface or place of attachment of the pos-
terior or opposable toe, and of the indications of the longitu-
dinal ridges of bone, which, in the metatarsals of birds, afford
attachment to the aponeurotic thecae, that tie down the tendons
as they glide along the metatarsus of the toes.* But in this
bone the actual lower extremity of the bone is awanting, and
the other bones found along with it seem to have belonged to
a Pterodactylus, rather than to birds, although they have been
referred to the latter. Besides these bones, there is preserved
in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia, a fragment of bone found by Mr S. W. Conrad, near
Arneytown, New Jersey, in a friable green marl, considered
as belonging to the greensand formation by Mr Morton, and
which is regarded by the latter as the tibia, but by Mr Har-
lan as the femur of a bird of the genus Scolopax.t But re-
specting this last bone, there are neither figures nor a particu-
lar description, by means of which the necessary comparison
can be made.

Thus the important question as to the occurrence of the re-

* Vide description and figure in the Geological Transactions, 2d series,
vol. V. part 1st, p. 176.

t Vide Morton's Synopsis of the Organic Eemains of the Cretaceous group
of the United States, p. 32 ; and Harlan's Medical and Physical Researches,
p. 280.

28 Influence of Atmospheric Temperature

mains of birds in formations antecedent to the tertiary series,
was b}^ no means satisfactorily determined, and in consequence
of the striking approximations to birds, lately discovered by me
to exist in the Pterodactyles,* I had so much the more reason
for believing fossil birds to be confined to the tertiary strata.

I was therefore not a little surprised at the sight of a slab
of Glarus slate, lately sent me for examination by the kindness
of M. Arnold Escher von der Linth of Zurich. This rock has
been rendered remarkable by its fossil fishes, and by its Che-
Ionia Knorrii ; it was formerly, on account of its petrographical
characters, considered of great age, but subsequently, from
the nature of the fossil fishes it contains, has been determined
by Agassiz to be a formation of the age of the chalk. On the
slab forwarded to me, T found the remains of the skeleton of
an animal, which can have been nothing else but a bird ; and
this view is placed beyond all doubt by the distinctly preserved
bones of the wing and the foot. The feet cannot have been
adapted for wading, and the bird cannot, therefore, have be-
longed to the GralloB ; it would seem rather to have been one
of the PasserinWy and it must have had the size of a lark. —
(From Leonhard and Bronn's Jahrbuch^ 1839.^

On the Influence of Weather in Relation to Disease. 1 . Tempe-
rature ; 2. Moisture ; 3. Pressure ; 4. Electricity.'^
1. Temperature of the Atmosphere. — The influence of tempe-
rature is the most familiar of the conditions we have to examine,
and that which has been chiefly studied ; in its direct effects on
the body, and indirectly through the diseases of climate. As
respects the former, it seems certain that changes^ sudden or
frequent, are principally concerned in these restdts.f The

* In regard to the air-cells in the bones, see the Jahrbttch/iir Mhieralogiey
1837, p. 316 ; and respecting the structure of the anterior extremities, the
same work, 1838, p. 668.

t This interesting article \vc have taken from a volume of rare merit lately
published by an accomplished physician, entitled " Medical Notes and Reflec-
tions by H. Holland, M.D. F.R.S., Physician Extraordinary to the Queen,"
&c. &c. 8vo, p. 628. Longman, Orme, & Co., London. — Editor.

X A/ (/.ITtiZiXcu fAKklffTOi riKTOUfI )IOVffHf4,tirti, KM M fAiytVTM fj(,K^tfTK,-^Hippo-

cratet.

in relation to Disease. 29

power of accommodation in the body, depending on the gene-
ration of animal heat, and on the functions of the lungs and of
the skin, provides in the healthy state against all which are not
in excess. But where these functions are impaired, or the body
otherwise disordered, every such change has influence ; either
by disturbing the balance of circulation between the external
surface, and the membranes or different glandular structures
within the body ; — or by checking or augmenting the discharge
of perspirable matter ; — or in part, it may be, by more imme-
diate action on the nervous system ; though of this we have less
certain proof.

The degree in which external cold may alter the balance of
circulation, — directly, by contracting the capillaries and smaller
arteries of the surface ; or indirectly, by the effect of this altered
balance upon the action of the heart itself, — is scarcely enough
regarded in its various details.* It is to be presumed, on the
most common grounds of estimation, that the differences thus
made may vary, (according to the degree of cold and the powers
of re-action from within) from the smallest assignable amount
to that of several pounds of blood, changed in its manner of
distribution through the vessels of the body. The importance
of such fluctuations must be obvious on the most general view.
And they include, it may be added, not merely the repulsion
of blood from the surface by the contraction of the capillaries,
but also the effects of the re-action and return of blood to the
part ; the latter consequences often very remarkable in their
influence on the bodily functions.

The tendency of sudden changes of temperature to produce
topical inflammation, is doubtless owing chiefly to these disturb-
ances in the balance of circulation, which arise from changes,
general or partial, in the capillaries of the surface. Rheumatic
affections, whether inflammatory or not, are usually attributed
to the same cause ; rightly, as respects some states which bear
the name ; not so, as to others, which are undoubtedly of dif-
ferent origin. Many disorders of the serous and mucous

* The experiments of M. Poiseuille, in his treatise on capillary circular
tion, confirmed by those of M. Magendie, show the efiect of a low tempera-
ture in retarding or preventing the passage of blood through these extreme
vessels.

30 Influence of Atmospheric Temperature

membranes, of the lungs, of the alimentary canal, and other
viscera, depend more certainly on changes in the distribution
of blood thus made ; either suddenly, or by continuance and
repetition. And these also are among the changes which have
direct influence on the brain ; the result of various averages
shewing that apoplectic seizures are most frequent when either
heat or cold are severe in degree ; — the mode of action doubt-
less different in the two cases ; yet in each depending princi-
pally on disturbance excited in the movements of the blood.*

The influence of external temperature on the functions of
the skin, whether those of transudation or simple evaporation,
is scarcely yet fully estimated ; though the researches of Dr
Edwards and others have done much to extend our knowledge
on the subject. The changes so made, either in augmentation
or diminution of the natural discharge, are obvious and often
very great. Without reciting the observations directed espe-
cially to these points, it may be remarked that a natural pro-
vision against injury exists here, as in the case of the tempe-
rature of the body, in the diminution of other excretions, and
in the relation of absorption to the matters perspired ; — a re-
medy inadequate, indeed, to repair extreme or continued losses,
but sufficient for all the ordinary occasions of life. This sub-
ject belongs, subordinately with that of heat, to the general
doctrine of climates ; the influence of which on the animal eco-
nomy is regulated, in part, by the provisions just named ; in
part, by actual changes in the state and texture of the integu-
ments of the body ; exclusively of those modifications which
depend on the usages of life in each country or community.

The effects of perspiration suddenly checked by external
cold, are the subject of general apprehension, and influence
many of the details of medical practice. Though in some in-
stances mischief may arise from this source, I believe the alarm
to be unwarranted in degree ; and many of the effects, so at-

* Regarding the Coup de soleil, usually cited as one of the most striking
examples of the effects of heat on the brain, we have some recent evidence
(though hardly decisive), to show that the change, thus suddenly induced,
belongs rather to the pulmonary circulation, than directly to the head. This
is contained in a paper by Mr Russell, surgeon of the 68 th Regiment, at
Madras ; read before the College of Physicians two years ago*

in relation to Disease, %\

tributed, to be due to other causes acting concurrently ; such
as exhaustion from fatigue, the perspired fluid left on the body,
and the influence of cold itself in suddenly changing the balance
of circulation between external and internal parts. The latter
effect may equally happen, independently of perspiration ; and
there is no ascertained reason why this, previously occurring,
should alter or change its amount. The customs of some coun-
tries, and the necessary habits of particular avocations, shew
how suddenly these changes may be made without any injury,
if other causes of mischief are excluded ; and prove the useless-
ness or wrong selection of many of the cautions current on the
subject. This is a point on which just views are very desirable
to the practitioner. It is in every case important that his
judgment should be unfettered by common opinions, exaggera-
ted or unproved ; — and though here, as in other instances, it
may be well to concede sometimes, yet must he ever maintain
the prerogative of applying his better knowledge, when cir-
cumstances require it.

To the more common results of variations of temperature,
hitherto noticed, may be added those which depend on ex-
tremes of heat or cold, suddenly, or continuously, applied to
the body ; the observations regarding which have been much
extended of late years. The recent voyages of northen disco-
very furnish many as to the effect of high degrees of cold, of
great interest to physiology ; but as these are now familiar,
and do not apply to practice, I merely allude to them as one
portion of the inquiry.

There are other parts of this subject, more practical in kind,
which, though better considered now than formerly, do yet
not receive all the notice they deserve. Such are the direct
applications of cold as a remedy ; possessing certainly great
value, and admitting of much more general and defined use
than is made of them. Common prejudices, fostered to a sin-
gular degree on this point, are not only a great hinderance to
the physician, but often do much to pervert his own views and
practice. Accordingly we find that the effect produced for a
time by the writings of Dr Currie, on the application of cold
in fevers (exanthematous as well as others), has been only par-
tially sustained; and that the common course of treatment

32 Influence of Atmospheric Temperature

scarcely goes beyond the removal of the old and noxious errors
of close atmosphere, hot rooms, and thick clothing ; — doubtless
a very beneficial change, but not precluding the more direct
and extensive application of cold to the surfaces of the body.*
Whatever the theory of this action, the benefits gained are in-
contestible ; — familiar to all who have fairly employed it, and
well recognised by patients themselves. Almost may it be
taken as a rule, that wherever there is a hot and dry skin, cold
in one degree or other may safely and expediently be applied
to change its state. The benefit of simple abstraction of heat
is great in such cases ; and the fact is not sufficiently adverted
to, which I have often put to thermometrical test, of the ex-
tent to which this influence is diffused beyond the surface to
which the cold is immediately applied. There is no real risk
here to countervail the good gained. We are sedulous in pro-
viding for and varying the application of heat to the body ;
while, from one cause of alarm or another, little provision is
made for the opposite remedy, though not less capable of being
actively and beneficially employed.

A point subordinate to this, which has had less notice than
its practical importance deserves, is the influence of cold or
hot air respectively, upon wounds or open surfaces. The
greater sensibility of parts so exposed, and the more direct ac-
tions on their vascular texture, make this condition a very im-
portant one. And accordingly we have much proof in private
practice — still more from the experience of hospitals and mili-
tary campaigns — of the eff^ects produced by heat and cold se-
verally, or by changes from one to the another. I have seen this
remarkably in the army hospitals in Portugal ; where in sum-
mer, the general rate of recovery from wounds was accelerated
or retarded, as the temperature became suddenly cooler, or
the reverse. It is singularly attested in the instance of the
wounded, left exposed on the field of battle. Though the better
understanding of ventilation has contributed towards this ob-
ject, yet might much more benefit be derived from the direct

* I say mrfaces, because in fact cold acts reraedially on the lining of the
alimentary canal, as "^ell as on the outer skin ; is often as imperatively re-
quired by the sensations of the patient ; and not less sanctioned by the good
obtained.

in relation to Disease. 38

effects of cold as an antiphlogistic means ; either through the
atmosphere, or by immediate application to parts affected.
The employment of cold water externally, as a dressing to
fractured limbs, gives one proof among many of the benefits
of the latter practice ; and we have reason to infer, that the
liquid form is the best in which such application may be made
for the relief of inflammation in open wounds, or other inflamed
surfaces. Here also prejudices are to be overcome ; the best
assistance towards which is often derived from the sensations
of the patient himself.

While thus briefly referring to some of the effects of tem-
perature, and chiefly on points of practical import, it must be
repeated, that we can rarely view them separately from the
other conditions before noticed. Every change as to heat or
cold in the atmosphere must either be the effect of, or produce,
other changes of atmospheric state ; and none of these, it may
be affirmed, are wholly indifferent to the body. Even in the
simple case just mentioned, of the influence of warm or cold
weather on open sores, though the atmosphere be admitted as
the source of change, the effects are probably not due to tem-
perature alone. Still less can it be supposed in regard to cer-
tain winds of our own climate ; such as those from the east and
south ; the relations of which to the body are in no wise inter-
preted by the thermometer. The same remark extends more
remarkably to the Sirocco of the South of Europe ; and gene-
rally, perhaps, to the dominant or more peculiar winds of every
locality over the globe. Where any one is especially noxious
in producing epidemics, or in its effects on the general health,
there, probably, is the direct influence of temperature on the
body least in proportion to the other causes concerned.

Even in the endemic diseases of particular climates, the same
view may be entertained. We have no certain proof that the
fevers of the West Indies, or the Guinea coast — or the dysen-
tery, remittent fevers, and liver diseases of different parts of
India — or the malaria-fevers of Italy and Greece, are owing to
the heat merely of these several climates. Hepatic disorders,
indeed, generally, may be considered as having closest con-
nexion with this influence ; but in others of the above examples,
the best evidence we possess leads us to causes, in which tem-

VOL. XXIX, NO. Lvn— auLY 1840. c

S4 Influence of Atmospheric Temperature

pefature is only indirectly concerned.* And though this evi-
dence be notoriously imperfect, yet is it valuable in the direc-
tion thus given to further inquiry. We have no direct cogni-
zance of those miasmata, whether of animal or vegetable origin,
or simply chemical in kind, which form the material of epide-
mic disease; but we know that such material emanations
exist ; that they differ in different localities ; and that varia-
tion of temperature is the condition seemingly most essen-
tial to their several forms and various activity. We have evi-
dence, both experimental and of natural occurrence, of the
effects of a certain degree of heat in producing or evolving these
agents ; and of a higher degree in destroying them, or suspend-
ing their action. Such results might be inferred as probable,
from what we have cause to presume of their nature ; looking
here, as the nearest analogy, to the chemical constitution of the
known poisons, whether of animal or vegetable origin, — to the
feeble affinity by which their elements are generally united, —
and the facility with which they are decomposed, and enter
into new combinations from slight changes of temperature alone.
I need not refer to the many illustrations of this subject
furnished by the history of disease. They are continually mul-
tiplied, as observation becomes more exact ; and it is likely that
the estimate of effect from this source will enlarge in propor-
tion to our knowledge. The unequal influence of equal averages
of heat in different localities might itself suggest doubts whe-
ther too much is not attributed to its direct action, too little
to its operation through other agents. All examination of par-
ticular local conditions, such as soil, elevation, general humidity,
quantity and kind of vegetable growth, manner of culture, and
extent of running or stagnant water, shews the singular import-

* Here I may again refer to Dr J. johnslon's book on the Diseases of
Tropical Climates, in which he shews how vaguely these relations of disease
and locality are often considered, and made the subject of inference. AVe
speak of hepatitis and remittent fevers as diseases of India, without advert-
ing to the fact that the true hepatitis (or tliat which is not a sequel to fever)
is ten times more prevalent on the coast of Coromandel, than in the plains
of Bengal ; — intermittent and remittent fevers in an equal ratio more fre-
quent in the latter locality. The medium annual temperature of Madras is
known to be amongst the highest on the globe (88° Fahr.) ; that of Calcutta
about ten degrees lower.

iti rotation to Dii^aki. Sl'^

ance of these circumstances, as determining the endemic disorders
and average health of different localities, exclusively even of
the habits and employment of the people in each. Every coun-
try and district furnishes such instances ; and all concur in
proving that we must estimate the influence of temperature
upon the body, and especially of heat, subordinately in great
part to these more varied conditiohs. Isothermal zones would
afford a very uncertain measure of the character or prevalence
of disease.*

But it is a further question here, whether variations of at-
mospheric temperature may not induce a state of body, render-
ing it more liable to teceive specified infections, however ge-
nerated by agents without ? That there are such differences
of bodily condition, however vaguely known to us by external
signs, must be admitted. And it is perhaps not a rash infer-
ence from the temporary effect of exposure to great heat, in
quickening the circulation and augmenting the animal tem-
perature, that continued exposure to the same cause, even
much less in degree, may keep the constitution in a state prdttfe
to morbid actions, when the exciting causes are present. The
uncertainty in this case depends in part on our ignorance of the
equality of the causes, and of the relative degree of exposure
to them ; and can only be met by strong presumption, or actual
observation of change in the bodily state. But I think it im-
probable, seeing especially the small increase of animal tem-
perature from elevation of that without, that heat alone is con-
cerned in producing such alterations : and, if depending on at-
mospheric causes, it is likely that these are of mixed kindi
and blended with other actions more peculiar to the body it*
self.t

* Many excellent papers on this subject have appeared of late in the
Transactions of our provincial Medical Associations, based on that statisti-
cal method which alone is capable of affording sound results. They all shew
the intirtiate relation between the nature of the surface and the prevalence
or infrequency of particular diseases in given localities ; a point in which
external temperature is only indirectly concerned, but where the effects arc
of singular importance in a practical view. Long and careful averages can
alone be effectual in expounding them, by removing gradually all extrinsic
or accidental circumstances.

t Thfe best observations we possess, shew that the change of temperature
in the human, body, made by extremes of natural climate, does not exceed

36 Influence of Atmospheric Temperature

The action of cold, regarded in the same general light of
locality or season, is perhaps less remarkable than that of heat,
as not equally involving those physical agents which become
the direct causes of disease. But, besides its effects on the
balance of circulation already noticed (and which, though more
strikingly shewn by sudden changes of temperature, are also
a result of continued cold), we have to notice its indirect in-
fluence in producing certain habits and necessities of life which
variously affect the health ; and more especially the alteration
it makes in all that relates to food in those countries, where it
gives the predominant character to the climate.

The same manner of reasoning on the morbid effects of heat
and cold, whether immediate, or such as depend on long ex-
posure, must lead us to make large allowance for the momen-
tary condition of the body, and the general habits of life. A
man under strong exercise, or with habits of such, is very dif-
ferently affected from one in repose. Protection from, or ex-
posure to, the causes which augment the direct influence of
temperature, as the open sun, wind, and rains, — comfort or
privation in the manner of life, — habits of temperance or sen-
sual excess, — even the different occupations and temper of
mind ; — all these conditions modify more or less the effects of
heat and cold on the body ; and some of them, in particular
cases, so powerfully, as almost to invert the accustomed results
of such exposure.

In practice also, and for a rule in the habits of life, regard
is not sufficiently paid to the different power which different in-
dividuals possess, of generating animal heat. This function,
whether depending on changes in the blood and manner of cir-
culation, or more directly on the nervous system, is as various
in its power and exercise as any other of the body, and requires

one or two degrees. , The experiments of Berger and Delaroche, on the
effects of exposure to higher and more sudden heat, prove that a temperature
of 80° Fahr. above that of the body may raise the animal heat eight or ten
degrees ; a grade still below that evolved in some fevers, and under particu-
lar lesions of the nervous system. It is important to notice, that the same
conditions produced different results in the two experimentalists ; an effect
that might have been anticipated, seeing its probable dependence in part on
the excitement to circulation, which is so various in different individuals
from the same causes.

in relation to Disease, 37

to be dealt with as such. Each age, too, has its changes in
this respect, as well as every condition of health ; and precau-
tions founded on them cannot expediently be neglected, pro-
vided they are not so minute as to interfere with other parts of
the economy of life, equally essential to the welfare of the whole.
In a brief outline like this, it is needless to particularise in-
stances. They are familiar to common remark ; cited in me-
dical works (though not always so specifically as the subject
requires) ; and are very striking in the more extreme cases,
where the struggle between the agency from without, and the
powers of resistance from within, is most strongly marked.
For we must ever revert to those great provisions in the con-
stitution against all extreme or sudden changes of external
temperature, by the laws which govern the production of ani-
mal heat ; the action of the exhalants of the lungs and skin %.
and possibly also the secretions of other organs.* No correct
results can be obtained as to the agency of heat and cold upon
the body, without keeping these powers of balance constantly in
view ; and as they again are perpetually undergoing modifica-
tions from the various conditions of life, so is there a circle of
relations, tending altogether to equality of average, though
greatly broken and interrupted in its several parts.

2. Moisture of the Atmosphere. — We have no evidences of
equal provision, as respects the second of the general condi-
tions of the atmosphere ; viz., its hygrometrical state. t But,
on the other hand, there is every reason to infer that no simi-
lar need exists for it. The simple agency upon the body of dry
or humid air, is doubtless much more limited in every sense
than that of heat and cold ; — restricted, as far as we can see,
to certain organs, and less powerful in its influence on these.
It is still more difficult also to detach it in observation from
the influence of other causes. Sudden and considerable changes

* Taking the record, seemingly well authenticated, of the two extremes
of temperature of the human body, as determined by diseases affecting the
blood, we find them to include a range of nearly 40° of Fahrenheit.

t Unless, indeed, we admit as partially and indirectly such, the apparent
relation between perspiration and absorption ; the latter process balancing,
by its increase or diminution, any changes the former may undergo from the
different conditions of the atmosphere as to moisture or dryness.

38 Influence of Atmospheric Moisture

do not occur in the hygrometrical state of the air, without cor-
responding changes in its temperature, weight, and electrical
condition. Even the common fog, or mist, is far from being
a single or simple phenomenon. In some instances it is the
cloud already formed, and brought by currents of air or other
causes to a lower level ; — in other instances, as in the fogs
which occasionally intervene between thunder-storms, the re-
sult apparently of a change going on in the electrical relations
of the earth and atmosphere at the spot, producing alterations
in the hygrometrical state of the latter. Science has not yet
assigned their proper place to these several changes, as regards
the relation of cause and effect. But however this be deter-
mined hereafter, the complex nature of their action on the
body still remains, and wiU long retard any certain conclusions
on the subject.

Another source of ambiguity, in considering the effects of
different degrees of humidity of the air, is the influence of local
circumstances of soil and surface in modifying this ; especially
in that lower stratum of the atmosphere, with which man has
chief concern : — and this modification regards not merely the
quantity of water taken up by the air, or precipitated from it,
according to the several conditions of the surface, and the
action of external sources of temperature ; but also the various
miasmata disengaged, or otherwise acted upon, by the same
processes. I have already adverted to these material causes
of disease, in their more particular relation to heat. What-
ever their nature (and we have every thing still to learn here),
it seems certain that the presence of moisture, either on the
surface or near it, under the form of vegetation, damp air or
soil, and acted upon by a certain degree of temperature, con-
tributes much to their production, if not indeed essential to
it. And to these conditions, conjoined perhaps with the elec-
trical state of the atmosphere, we may chiefly attribute the
greater unhealthiness of the rainy seasons in tropical climates,
which the mere quantity of rain falling will not equally ex-
plain.

But further than this, there is some cause to presume that
aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, whatever its mode of com-
bination, i^ much concerned in giving activity and spread to

in relation (o Disease. 30

these miasmata as the cause of disease. It is idle to speculate
upon physical relation here (whether tliat of solution, or of
independent elasticity, according to Dalton^s theory of va-
pours), while so entirely ignorant of the chemical constitution
of these agents. We can only affirm that the conditions which
concur to their production, are likely to aid their diffiision and
action on other bodies : and though the proofs are by no means
assured, yet there is evidence that a foggy and humid state of
atmosphere is that in which contagious or epidemic diseases
are most readily and extensively spread. Other causes, hpw-
ever, doubtless operate, and produce many apparent or ireal
exceptions to the fact.

Recurring to the more direct influence of air, loaded with
moisture, on the body, we have reason to expect it to be great-
est on the functions of respiration and of the skin ; and obser-
vation, as far as it goes, confirms this view. The effects in
each case are probably owing chiefly to the altered amount of
discharge from the exhalant vessels of the organs concerned ;
in part also, especially when the external temperature is low,
to the greater effect of cold, conjoined with moisture, on the
capillary vessejs and sentient ei^tremities of nerves of the
surface exposed. The difference to the feelings between a
temperature of 45° Fahr., in dry or in damp air, is one which
cannot escape the most ordinary attention. It is a difference
equally marked as that between steam, and air heated to 212°,
in their respective application to the body. The membrane
lining the air passages is obviously most liable to these effects
and to disorders depending upon them ; as the experience pf
patients suff'ering under asthma and bronchitis, however vary-
ing in details, painfully testifies in its general results.

For the reasons already given, we are rarely indeed entitled
to speak of humidity alone as a morbid cause ; but it undoubt-
edly concurs with and renders others more effectual. And in
the case of very damp air received into the lungs, it is proba-
ble that it may act expressly by retarding or impairing the
changes made in respiration ; and especially those depending
on exhalation, which form so important a part of this process.
Modern research, in shewing the facility with whicji tli^so
changes take plaoe (not merely by vascular structure, bui

40 Influence of Atmospheric Pressure

through intervening membranes, and in dependence on more
general physical laws), exposes in the same ratio their liability
to be altered or impeded by causes, which before scarcely came
into our view.

The action of very dry air on the body is even less certainly
known to us. There is reason to believe that the effects of the
Simoom wind (exaggerated, perhaps, in common narrative) are
due in part to this cause ; — in conjunction with its singular
heat, the quantity of minute sand it conveys, and above all, the
electrical condition of the current air. There are more familiar
reasons, however, for presuming that the atmosphere may oc-
casionally be too dry (becoming so either naturally or by arti-
ficial means), for the healthy state of the functions of the skin
and respiration. Without referring to the question, still un-
decided, whether absorption of atmospheric moisture through
the surfaces of the body does occasionally or habitually take
place as a natural process, — and without affirming that the ef-
fect is derived from pulmonary evaporation unduly increased, —
we have various proofs that a state of air is often created by
artificial heat, insalutary to the body ; and that this condition
may be removed by means which restore to it a certain degree
of humidity. Houses or apartments heated by stoves (parti-
cularly under the style of domestic architecture in England),
are liable to suspicion on this score ; and if the fact be ascer-
tained, which is not difficult with the better hygrometers now
in use, it becomes expedient in every case to remedy it ; either
by exposure of a surface of water for the benefit of slow eva-
poration, or by other means. What is merely an inconveni-
ence for the hour or day, may pass into a serious injury to the
health, when there is long-continued exposure to it.*

3. Pressure of the Atmosphere. — The influence of the atmo-
sphere in producing morbid conditions of body, through its

* In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1836, on the ventilation of
the Custom-House of London, Dr Ure states the peculiarities of atmosphere
in the Long Room, warmed with hot air, and where 200 persons are always
present, to he its extreme dryness (sometimes 70 per cent, of DanielPs hy-
grometer), and negatively electrical state ; — the general effects produced being
vertigo, with a sense of fulness and tension about the head ; a quick but
feeble pulse ; and deficient circulation in the lower extremities.

in relation to Disease. 41

changes of weight, is a curious subject of inquiry in many points
of view. Tt is chiefly and most familiarly noted, in disturbances
of the balance of circulation throughout the body ; and parti-
cularly in that of the head and lungs ; from obvious causes as
respects the economy of these organs. The functions of the
lungs, indeed, are subject to this influence in several ways ; even
the mechanical part of the process being in sone part concern-
ed ; as well as the balance between the external air and that
within the bronchial cells ; and the relation of the whole to the
quantity of blood in the pulmonary circulation. While the ac-
tion of the heart must necessarily be affected by all which thus
tends to disturb the equal movements of the circulating fluid.

Another consideration again regards the relative effect of air
of different density, in producing the proper changes on the
blood. It is clear that there exists a point of rarefaction, at
which this quantity of oxygen is insufficient for the purposes
it has to fulfil. Or, giving the statement its most general form,
there must be a particular specific gravity of air (concurring
probably with the medium barometrical pressure), which is best
fitted for the necessities of the function ; and all deviations
from which, in one degree or other, interfere with the complete-
ness of its performance.

These eflfects, however, under ordinary circumstances, and
in healthy state of body, are slight or inappreciable in amount ;
limited by the range of barometrical variation, and by the
usual slowness of the changes taking place. They are aug-
mented of course when the variation is more rapid and of
greater extent ; — still, however, depending on changes in the
state of respiration ; and on irregular distribution of blood,
from the altered balance of pressure between the external and
internal parts of the body. The latter cause might be ex-
pected to affect most the vascular system ; seeing its structure,
functions, and the mechanical principles which in part deter-
mine the motions of fluids, even in the vessels of the living
body. The common observations with the air-pump and cup-
ping-glasses shew the facility with which these vascular tex-
tures, and the contained fluids, yield to any such change of
balance; and in the effects in the diving bell, on the head
more especially, produced by an increase of only one-fifth, or

42 Influence of Atmosphenc Pressure

onersixth, in the atmospheric pressure, inq-y be receive^ as
proof, though less obvious, of the same fact.*

But in less peculiar cases than these, notable effects may
occur, when the changes in the weight of the air are frequent,
sudden, and considerable, even v^ithin the ordinary range of at-
mospheric variation. Regarding merely the average pressure
upon the whole body, it is to be supposed that any very sudden
fluctuation, to the amount perhaps of one- thirtieth, may pro-
duce temporary changes in the balance of circulation between
external and internal parts, of much moment to the latter.
And these are particularly to be looked for, when there is in-
dividual liability to certain diseases, or close approach to them
at the time ; a point requiring to be kept in mind more than
it usually is, in estimating the influence of exciting causes,
whatever then' nature.

This observation, as I have already stated, appears especially
to apply to aff*ections of the brain. I have made note of two
or three periods, since I began practice, during which there
has been a more than wonted frequency of apoplectic or para-
lytic seizures within my immediate knowledge ; so marked
as to make it difficult to attribute the fact to mere casu-
alty, notwithstanding the many circumstances which tend to
invalidate such results when not verified by large averages.
The same fact, observed by others, has generally been attri-
buted to external heat alone. But allowing what has already
been assigned to this cause, the particular character of the
weather at these times will scarcely support the inference ; nor
has the result in question been equally apparent even under
higher degrees of atmospheric temperature. While, on the
other hand, I have observed at these periods frequent and rapid
changes in the barometer, often with great depression of its
level ; and have noticed at the same time the very common
occurrence of lesser affections of the head, — vague and uneasy
sensations, oppression, vertigo, and what may be termed a feel-

* Tlie suggestions of Sir James Murray (Report of the British Association,
1835J, for the use of artificially rarefied or condensed air, in application to
the surface of the body as a remedial agent, deserve much attention. The
cases are numerous, where changes in the local distribution of the blood,
thus rea4ily im^de, would b« of inuch value ia th^ treatment of disease.

in rehdon (o Dise(^8$. 43

ing of want of proper balance to the frame-^all indicating some
cause present which tends more or less to disturb the equality
of circulation through this organ.

In fact, the ordinary phrases of heaviness and lightness of
air (however misplaced or even inverted their use) prove the
general consciousness of these changes in their slighter influ-
ence on the body. It may be difficult to say through what
organ or function this feeling is chiefly conveyed ; but probably
it is a compound effect of the changes in circulation, in which
the sensorium, the lungs, and the muscular system, all partici-
pate. Even the organs of digestion seem to be affected, di-
rectly or indirectly, by the same causes. Without referring
to the doubtful instance of vomiting produced in highly rare-
fied air, 1 think I have observed frequent disturbance both in
the sensations and functions of the alimentary canal, under any
rapidly diminished weight of the atmosphere, or where its
changes were more frequent than usual. I have remarked in
the preceding chapter on the indications of disturbance to sleep
from the same cause.

All these inferences, however, are rendered uncertain by the
great difficulty of simplifying the conditions which belong to
them, where the physical causes concerned are so unceasingly
blended in their operation. It may be, for instance, that what
is attributed to changes of weight of air, really belongs to elec-
trical changes in the atmosphere, producing or attending the
former. Another more familiar case of ambiguity, is that of the
sensations experienced in reaching a high mountain- summit.
Though often attributed to rarefaction of the air breathed,
I doubt not (on my own observation as well as that of others),
that they are chiefly owing to the expenditure of bodily power
that has been incurred by muscular action, hurried breathing,
and quickened action of the heart. These sensations in great
part subside, when the immediate causes of lassitude and dis-
order are removed. Or, if we yet need explanation of that
singular sense of fatigue in the limbs, which is alleged to occur
when walking in elevated regions, even without the toil of as-
cent, we may perhaps find it in a suggestion of Humboldt ;
whose sagacity is ever awake to all natural phenomena, even
such as pass unheeded by others from their seeming familiarity.

44 Influence of Atmospheric Pressure

He conjectures that this sensation may depend on the mecha-
nism of the joints and equipoise of the bones being disturbed
by the low atmospheric pressure ; and the experiments of the
two Webers, recently made at his suggestion, have afforded a
singular confirmation of this idea.*

The observations in ascent by balloons, now become so fa-
miliar to us, shew, even unexpectedly in degree, the extent
to which the body can undergo the most sudden changes of at-
mospheric weight, without any very obvious effect, where the
health is unimpaired, and no causes of bodily fatigue are con-
joined. In the note below, I have stated some facts derived
from the best authority we now possess on this curious subject, t

* Po^endoriPs Annalen fiir 1837, No. I. These experiments, made upon
the hip-joint after the tAvo bones had been detached by cutting the capsular
membrane through, shew that the pressure of the air will still retain the
head of the thigh-bone firmly in the socket, from which it sinks down when
the air is artificially rarefied underneath ; the joint thus becoming a sort of
air-pump, in which the head of the thigh-bone acts as a piston. [We pub-
lished an account of the above-mentioned very curious experiments, by Pro-
fessor Wilhelm Weber, in vol. xxv. of this Journal, p. 254. We would also
refer our readers to M. Boussingault's account of the effects of the air of high
elevations on the human frame, published in this Journal, vol. xix. p. 98. —
Edit.]

t I have been recently favoured with these observations by Mr Green,
whose boldness and ability as an aeronaut have given him such general and
well-merited reputation. Having now ascended in balloons with more than
400 persons, under every possible variation of height, rapidity, and state of
atmosphere at the time, his evidence on the points in question is far more
complete than any other we possess.

IVIr Green informs me that he has found none of these individuals sensibly
affected, otherwise than by the sudden change of temperatiire and by a noise
in the ears, compared by some to very distant thunder ; the latter sensation
occurring only during rapid ascent or descent of the balloon, and, when great-
est in degree, far less distressing than that produced by descent in a diving
bell. He has never felt his own respiration hurried or oppressed, except
when exerting himself in- throwing out ballast, or other management of the
balloon, or when suddenly passing into a very cold atmosphere. His pulse
is occasionally quickened ten or fifteen beats, but this only when some such
exertion has been sustained. He mentions to me expressly, that in no in-
stance have his companions experienced vertigo or sickness ; thus rendering
doubtful one of the statements current on this subject, and shewing how little
the two great functions of circulation and respiration are disturbed, under
circumstances where much effect might have been anticipated.

Though the inference is limited to two persons, yet it may be worth while
to mention the great experiment made by Mr Green and Mr Rush in Sep-
tember 1838, in ascending to the height of 27,136 feet, or b\ miles above the
level of the sea ; the greatest elevation ever reached by man, and very exactly
correspondingwith the highest ascertained summit of the Himalaya mountains.

' . in relation to Disease. 45

These observations lessen any suq)rise at the great power of
accommodation by habit to a constant high degree of rarefied
atmosphere. The city of Mexico stands 7,460 feet above the
level of the sea ; and there are inhabited points in the Andes
of Peru even 6,000 feet still higher.* It must be admitted,
however, that we have no sufficient knowledge of the diseases
in these localities, or of the average rate of mortality, to jus-
tify inferences as to effects on the body derived from this single
physical cause, when forming what may be termed a constant
condition of climate.

On a general view of the circumstances stated, there is rea-
son to conclude that the influence of the different degrees of
atmospheric pressure in disturbing the bodily functions and
general health, is rather derived from the frequency of fluc-
tuations, than from any state long continued, either above or
below the average standard ; — that, of the two conditions, sud-
denly incurred in any extreme degree, the human frame is bet-
ter capable of withstanding a rarefied than a condensed at-
mosphere ; — and that, in every case, the previous health, and
proneness to disorder in particular organs, are greatly concerned
in determining the results on the body.

4. Electricity/ of the Atmosphere. — Little though its influence
has yet been defined, I believe that the electrical state of the
atmosphere is that of all its conditions which has most im-
portant and diffused effects on the animal economy ; more rapid
and pervading than any other ; and, as one of the vital stimuli,
more intimately allied to the functions of the nervous system.
It is that, further, which most closely blends itself, either as
cause or effect, with all other meteorological changes ; produc-
ing thereby many of the difficulties already noticed in estimat-
ing then- relative amount of influence. When modern science
has shewn us that every chemical action is attended by, if not
identical with, electrical change ; — that the processes of vege-

The fii'st 11,000 feet were passed through in about seven minutes. Yet,
under these remarkable circumstances, Mr Rush suffered no inconvenience
but from cold ; and Mr Green little other than from the toil of discharging
ballast and gas at different intervals, which huiried the respiration during
the time.

* Mr Pentland, in 1826, ascertained the height of the town of Potosi to be
13,260 feet above the Pacific. Humboldt mentions inhabited places on the
Cordilleras at equal elevation.

4^ Influence xtf Atmoipherie Elettricity

tatidii, as well as tlloso of aniffial life, iiivolve unceasing altera-
tion in its states ; — that no twt) bodies can be present to each
other of different temperature, nor even separate parts of the
same body be differently heated, without evolution of this
agent ; — that every act of evaporation or deposition of Water
on the surface of the globe has similar effect of change, even
the spray of a waterfall sensibly altering the balance of electri-
city around it ; — we may well understand how wide is the circle
of these mutual changes, and how important in the econbttiy
of nature, including in this the existence and functions of dl'-
ganic life itself.

It is difficult to advert to the effects of atmospheric electri-
city on the body, either as a vital stimulus or cause of disease,
without noticing the question, whether this great natural agent
is not itself directly engaged in the functions of the nervoUs
system ? If this Were eventually determined to be so, the re-
lation of the actions without, to those of the same agent with-
in, would become of still more complex kind, and little amen-
able to our present means of research. But, taking at present
the simplest view of the influence of electrical states of air on
the human frame, many circumstances occur, well deserving
notice, though yet wanting the certainty needful to give them
a place in science.

The natural history of the animal kingdom through its whole
extent, furnishes numerous examples (exclusively of those in
which there exists an especial organization for electrical pur-
poses) of the singular susceptibility of different animal species
to electrical changes in the media which surround them ; and
many particular cases of instinct, hitherto unexplained, may
doubtless be traced to this source. In man the effects are ge-
nerally less marked, yet nevertheless certain. Without ad-
verting to those singular cases in which the balance of electri-
city with external objects seems altered by the production of
an excess of it within the body, it is obvious that changes of
atmospheric electricity have much influence both on the sensa-
tions and voluntary powers,* producing results variously ana-
logous to those which attend certain morbid states of body

* Of the various instconccs on record of the curious fact alluded to above,
lltfe most tciftarkable and best attested is that related in the American Jfour-

ivt relation to Initiate. 4T

tnore familiar to us. A few may be noticed in illustration
from among those most easily recognised.

An atmosphere, proved by other phenomena to be highly
charged with electricity, produces in many persons sensations
resembling those of slight incipient fever; vague alterations of
chill and warmth on the skin, general languor of the frame,
debility and aching of the limbs, oppression or other uneasiness
about the head. In other instances, the feelings created in
the muscles of the trunk and limbs have more of rheumatic
character ; the resemblance being such as to justify a suspicion
that some of the muscular affections, often so tetmed, are ac-
tually derived from this cause. In some persons the suscepti-
bility is so great, that even the approach of a thunder- cloud
produces bodily feelings akin to those just described, together
with a sense of fulness and pricking about the eyes, and a slight
tingling over the whole body, which I have often noticed in
such cases.

The effects of electricity, artificially applied, may be brought
into illustration here. The feelings of numbness or aching that
remain for some time in the muscles or joints, after the elec-
tric current has been passed through them (whether derived
from the machine, from voltaic, or electro-magnetic combina-
tions), much resemble those which occur in the early stage of
fever, or under other morbid conditions of the body ; while the
sensations on the skin which some persons feel in the vicinity
of a powerful electrical machine in action, — or by being electri-
fied on an insulated stool, with much conducting material
around, — are very similar to others of familiar occurrence, ob-
served especially in certain states of the atmosphere, while
electrical changes are going on. And in cases of this kind,
there is also a certain degree of languor, or CA^en diminished
frequency of the pulse; varying in different individuals, but
still uniform enough to prove the reality and nature of the effect.
One of the best tests of the actual operation of atmospheric

lial of Medical Science for January, 1838. A lady, without any adequate
cause, passed suddenly into a state in which she throw out electric spai-ks
to any conductor around her, sometimes to the distance of an inch and a half,
with the ordinary sensations attending electrical action ; this state continuing
for several months, and subsiding by gradual diminution of the power.
Other singular details of this case are given, on authority which appears to
be good, and without any obvious sources of Callacy.

48 Influence of Atmospheric Electricity

electricity on the body is, as I think, that mixed sensation of
heat and cold which most persons must recollect at some time
to have felt, — or rather, the consciousness of sensations which
cannot clearly be defined to be either.* Concurrently with
such state of atmosphere, which the thermometer does not in
any way interpret to us, there generally occurs more or less of
the lassitude before described ; the muscles are readily fatigued ;
some degree of headach is often felt ; and other vague uneasi-
ness of the bodily feelings, varying much in different habits,
and doubtless influenced by the condition of health at the time.
Though these effects are in general more distinctly expe-
rienced previously to, or during, thunder-storms, yet are they
also sometimes attested in other states of weather where no
such storms occur. Certain winds, very common in our own
climate, will sustain, even for weeks together, this peculiar
character of atmosphere ; in degree sufficient to be marked by
the results just described, and having still more singular and
obvious influence on other animals inferior to man, and on ve-
getable life. These winds, which may be described, generally,
as coming from all eastern points of the compass, but more
especially from the quarter lying between north-east and south-
east, deserve inquiry under all the aids which modern science
can afford. Their various effects on the human body, and on
all living organization, are in no wise explained by the tempera-
ture or weight of the air. The great dryness of some easterly
winds may give better reason for certain of the phenomena,
but will scarcely explain the peculiar sense of muscular aching,
uneasiness, and languor, they produce in many habits ; the al-
most instant perception of their effects by some, even without
any exposure to the external air ; and as rapid consciousness
of change when they cease. Such sensations belong much more
to what we know of electrical agency than to any other cause
we can assign ; but they need observations more exact than

* It is certain that the sensation of itching depends on several different
causes acting on the extremities of the sentient nerves ; and it seems pro-
bable, from various familiar instances, that one of these is the state of elec-
tricity on the skin, in relation to that of the air or particular articles of cloth-
ing without. If the assertion of Donn^ be correct, that there is an opposite
electrical state of the two surfaces of the skin, it might lead to further
inferences on the subject.

in relation to Disease. 49

have yet been made, and a careful comparison of these with the
physical properties of the winds in question, which future re-
search may also better determine.

Whatever the natural causes which render some of our east-
erly winds thus peculiar, that from the south-east may certainly
be considered to have direct connexion with the Sirocco, as it
sweeps with greater or less intensity over the southern half of
Europe. This very singular atmospheric current, which, on its
more distant border, has probable relation to the Simoom and
Harmattan, the hot winds of African desert, — and passes over
the Mediterranean Sea under the names of the Levant wind
and Sirocco, — reaches England on the opposite side, — its pe-
culiar qualities much mitigated, yet still shewing the same
origin in its general direction, in its hygrometrical conditions,
and in what I believe to be its electrical influence on animal
life. No sufficient explanation has yet been given of these pe-
culiarities, nor are they perhaps definite enough as facts to
warrant much theory on the subject. I cannot doubt, however,
from my own observations, that the electrical state of these
great atmospheric streams, whencesoever derived, is that to
which their effects are mainly due. I have witnessed in dif-
ferent parts of the Mediterranean such singular and repeated
proofs of this as to give assurance of the general fact, though
there are yet wanting the exact determinations required to fix
its place in the history of physical phenomena.

Our knowledge of atmospheric electricity is, in truth, still
in its infancy. What was written on the subject by Mr Luke
Howard and others, at a comparatively early period in the
history of the science, is still an authority to which little has
been added, in proportion to its progress in other parts. The
causes of production, distribution, and change ; — its relation
to that electricity which circulates in magnetic currents, or
otherwise appertains to the earth, or may possibly exist in space
beyond the atmosphere ; — its connexion with atmospheric heat,
moisture, or weight ; with the formation of clouds ; and tho
phenomena of wind, thunder-storms, and rain ; — and, above
all, the relation of its positive and negative states — each one
of these conditions is still largely open to inquiry. The latter
especially, which has most assured and closest relation to all

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII.— JULY 1840. D

60 Influence of Atmospheric Electricity

the rest, is the great mystery still hanging over electrical
science ; the solution of which would not merely determine
these particular questions, but probably, in its connexion with
the general doctrine of polarity, enlarge our whole view of the
attraction and combinations of matter, whether in atoms or
masses, throughout the universe.

What has been thus far said regards chiefly the influence of
electrical states of the atmosphere on the sensations and mus-
cular powers. Unless justified in considering as such the oc-
casional effects of lightning on the body, I know no express ex-
ample of disease which we can affirm to be produced by this
agency. Some authors, indeed, have attributed to it certain
epidemics of singular character, and not easily referrible to any
known cause. But in this opinion they have hardly defined,
whether it is to be considered as directly producing the dis-
ease, or merely a state of body predisposing to receive it ; leav-
ing open still the third contingency of its simply evolving from
other sources the virus or material cause of disease. I have
elsewhere shewn that it is difficult, if not impossible, to con-
nect these erratic disorders with any state of weather or known
quality of the atmosphere ; and the reasons derived from their
history, apply as distinctly to electricity as to any other pro-
perty of the element which surrounds us. We must, however,
admit the possibility, both as to these and other disorders, of
the two latter contingencies just stated. Electricity may be
concerned in favouring the generation of malaria, whatever its
nature ; or it may induce a state of body more liable to be af-
fected by this, or by other causes of disease in activity at the
time. We have no proofs on w hich even to approach towards
assurance, but presumption from several sources that this great
agent cannot be wholly inert as respects either of the condi-
tions in question.

Though unable then to affirm any one disease to be actually
produced by electricity, yet, considering the subject in its whole
extent, it is impossible not to see the likelihood of its influence
on the body in many ways hitherto undistinguished, or not un-
derstood. If a stroke of lightning can in an instant destroy
muscular irritability throughout the system, — prevent, in great
part, or altogether, the coagulation of the blood, — and hasten

in relation to Dlseane. 51

putrefaction, — it is clearly to be inferred that lesser degrees of
the same action must have definite effects, bearing proportion
to the intensity of the electrical changes or transferences tak-
ing place. The conclusions, best warranted by the facts we
possess, would direct us towards the blood and nervous sytem
generally, as the parts of animal economy most liable to be
thus affected. The influence of atmospheric electricity on the
latter is shewn in the various effects, already mentioned, on
the sensations and muscular power ; and the proof is greatly
strengthened, though indirectly, by the numerous experiments
which prove the influence upon these two functions, of electric
action from different sources, applied directly to the nerves
themselves.* The quantity or tension of the agent, as affect-
ing the body through the air, may be less, and its application
not so direct on the nervous system. The low average intensity
of animal electricity, as ascertained experimentally, must also
be taken into account. But with all these allowances, it is im-
possible that the effect should be wholly absent or different in
kind ; and circumstances may often greatly augment its degree,
disordering in the same ratio that balance which is most con-
ducive to the general well-being of life.

The same reasoning applies equally to its influence on the
blood ; and though this part of the subject is even more ob-
scure, yet is there presumption that here the effects occur which
are of greatest import in the history of disease. All that che-
mistry has recently done to determine the nature and relation
of parts in the blood (concurrently with that great result which
Faraday has established of the identity of electrical and che-
mical action) justifies the belief that every material change of
balance between the electricity without, and that within the
body, must have effect on the state of the circulating fluid ;
transient and wholly inappreciable, it may be, in the great ma-
jority of cases ; in others, possibly, of longer duration and more
extensive in degree. The general relation of acid and alkali,

* The researches of Humboldt, Miiller, Prevost and Dumas, Dr Wilson
Philip, Becquerel, and other physiologists, might be referred to in this place ;
— not equally certain in results, nor conducting their authors to the same con-
clusions, but concurring to shew the remarkable nature of this agency as a
stimolus oathe nervous and muscular systems^ if indeed it be nothing more.

52 Influence of Atmospheric Electricity

as important in the chemistry of life as in that of inorganic
matter ; — obvious, not only in the blood itself, but in the ma-
terials and processes by which it is formed, and in the secre-
tions and excretions derived from it, — this relation is one in
which we have peculiar and constant evidence of electrical
agency. The coagulable property of the blood, in whatever it
consists, is closely affected by the same cause, even when act-
ing through various intervening tissues. Though we have no
equal proof as to the globules, yet their definite form, size, and
other pecuHarities (necessary as it would seem to the existence
of each species), make it probable that they are liable to alter-
ation from an agent, which seems more than any other to de-
termine all definite combinations and changes in the material
world.

The tenor and extent of the argument here must be rightly
understood. We have no proof of the action of atmospheric
electricity, in any of its ordinary states, upon the blood. But
the effects of lightning, and the influence of the same principle,
proved by experiment in other modes of application to this
fluid, warrant the belief that such action may exist ; and, if
existing, that it must be a frequent cause of disorder through-
out every part of the animal economy. We cannot trace dis-
eases with certainty to this source, but how rare are the in-
stances in which we can affirm their real causes ! The actual
void of knowledge justifies our seeking them through all the
new agencies which physical science may disclose ; and none is
more likely to afford successful results than that now before us.

Two classes of facts, neither of them yet sufficiently examined,
are obviously very important to the inquiry. The first includes
the indications which diseases themselves may give, in their
progress, of alteration of electrical state in the body. The se-
cond involves the more general question as to the develop-
ment of electricity in the animal frame ; its natural variations
from age, sex, temperament, and connexion with particular
bodily functions ; and its manner [of relation to the electricity
of the air without. With the exception of some curious ob-
servations of Humboldt and Pfaff on the electrical state of
rheumatic patients, we have nothing that approaches to cer-
tainty on the former subject. On the latter we possess more

in relation to Disease, 53

results, but all requiring revision and extension by fur^iher ex-
periment. We still have no averages sufficient to shew the re-
lative frequency of positive or negative states of the body ; —
still less what determines this difference, or the changes taking
place in the same person.* And this involves directly the
question as to manner of relation with the electricity of the
atmosphere ; one made less difficult, perhaps, since the saga-
city of Faraday has reduced all the phenomena of induction to
functions of the conducting power ; but still requiring much
care and research for its complete solution ; and a regard, not
merely to the changes of state within the body, but to those
also ever occurring in the positive or negative conditions of the
atmosphere without; of which the comparative excess of positive
electricity during the day may be taken as a well marked ex-
ample.

I have dwelt so far in detail on this part of the subject of
the chapter, as being that on which our knowledge is most de-
ficient ; and from persuasion also of its future importance in
solving many obscure questions in pathology. I might further
plead its obvious connexion with all the uses, which may even-
tually be ascertained of electricity as a remedy in disease ; a
point where it must be owned that much successful research
is needed, to remove that imputation of failure which has been
the result of the partial and often abortive trials hitherto made.

Throughout the whole of this chapter, I have been consider-
ing the influence on the body of those atmospheric conditions
which are commonly termed weather ; exclusively of all chemi-
cal changes in the air itself ; of the admixture of other gases ;
or of the presence of ingredients of animal or vegetable origin,
forming the miasma of disease. Even with these exclusions,
and merely touching on the several parts of the subject, it will
be seen how vast is its extent, and how important its relations
to the history of disease. My principal object has been to in-
dicate the latter ; and to suggest some of the topics on which
more complete knowledge is to be desired. Here, as already
remarked, the progress of physical science is ever lending fresh

* Tlxe experiments of my friend Professor PfafF of Kiel, in conjunction
with Ahrens, are more complete than any others I know on this subject.

54 Mr Shuttlefworth en the Colouring Matter

aids to that of pathology ; and the unexpectedness of some of
the results is the best augury of what may be looked for in fu-
ture, from the enlarging scope of the inquiry, and the new in-
struments and means with which it is pursued.

Upon, the Colouring Matter of Bed Snow. By R. J. Shuttle-
worth, Esq.* (With a Coloured Plate.)

On the 25th of August 1839, being at the Hospice du
Grimsel, I learned that some patches of snow in the neigh-
bourhood were beginning to acquire a red tint. The weather
for some days previous had been very bad ; and quantities of
snow had actually fallen, which, at the same time, soon began
to melt under the influence of milder weather, and of warm
rains. The 24th was a day of thaw and mist ; the 25th was
clear, the temperature being agreeable, and even hot in the
sun, the gentle breeze which prevailed being by no means cold.
Accordingly, I hastened to visit the spot, accompanied by my
friend Dr Schmidt, and by MM. Muehlenbeck, Schimper,
Bruch, and Blind, distinguished Alsace naturalists, who that
day, to my agreeable surprise, arrived at the Grimsel.

It w^as in those places where the snow never entirely melts
that we found the patches in which the red snow was begin-
ning to appear. The patches were somewhat inclined, with -
an exposure towards the east and north-east. Their surface
was more or less bestrewed with small earthy particles, which
gave them that dirty grey appearance which old snow always
presents at inferior heights, and in positions which are over-
looked by more elevated ground. The surface was, moreover,
furrowed, and slightly hollowed out, owing to the eifects of
the wind, and the run of water produced by the partial thaw
on the surface, which was much promoted by the great absorp-
tion of heat by the earthy particles. Here and there spots
were remarked, of a rosy hue, or of the colour of very pale
blood, whose form and extent were indeterminate, but which
were most conspicuous in the furrows and hollow places. Old
snow being always more or less coarsely granular in its nature,

* Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, No. 50. Fevrier 1840.

of Bed Snow. 55

we observed that the colouring matter was contained in the
intervals between the particles, and this gave to the surface,
when viewed near, somewhat of a veined appearance. The
coloured spots descended beneath the surface of the snow to
the depth of several inches, and often almost a foot ; some-
times the colour was most conspicuous on the surface, but
at other times it was most remarkable some inches below
it. Wherever rocks or stones had occasioned little wells in
the snow, the perpendicular sides of these wells were also
coloured to the depth of many feet. On the whole, however,
the colouring matter penetrated only to a very trifling extent
into the substance of the snow, which became more and more
compact in proportion to its distance from the surface.

A sufficient quantity of this coloured snow having been col-
lected and placed in vessels of earthenware, that it might
melt, I impatiently waited for the time when I might subject
it to the examination of the microscope. As the snow melted,
the colouring matter gradually deposited upon the sides and
bottom of the vessels, under the form of a deep red powder ;
a fact which alone rendered the existence of a gelatinous mat-
ter very improbable. After two or three hours, the snow be-
ing partially melted, I introduced a portion under a micro-
scope of the power of 300 diameters. Expecting to see nothing
more than inanimate globules of Protococcus, I was not a little
astonished to find, that the colouring matter was composed of
organised bodies of different forms and natures, some of which
were vegetables, but by much the larger proportion, endowed
with swift movements, belonged to the animal kingdom. The
colour of the greater number was a bright red, approaching
sometimes to a blood colour, at other times to crimson, or a
very deep brown and almost opaque red. Besides these co-
loured bodies, there were others not less organized, which
were colourless or greyish, the largest of which were evidently
of an animal nature, but whose number was so small, that I
suspected that their presence was accidental ; and, moreover,
there was an immense number of very minute spherical ob-
dies, and colourless, evidently of a vegetable nature, which filled
up all the spaces unoccupied by the others.

As the infusoria were much more numerous than the alga?,

56 Mr Shuttle worth on the Colouring Matter

I shall with them begin my description of the organized sub-
stances which formed the red snow.

1*/, The bodies by much the most striking, and which,
from their great number, and deep colour, mainly produced
the red tint of the snow, were small infusoria of an oval form,
whose colour was a very deep reddish-brown, and which were
nearly opaque. Measured by the micrometer, their greatest dia-
meter was about -^^ of a millimetre, and their smallest about xiiy.
(Fig. 3. pi. 1.) They traversed the field of vision with asto-
nishing rapidity, and in all directions. Although the majority
were perfectly oval, with rounded extremities, there were some
pear-shaped — that is to say, having one of their ends rounded
and obtuse, whilst the other gradually became more slender
towards a point, where it was apparently obliquely truncated.
The motion of the former was horizontally progressive, whilst
the others often stopped in the middle of their course, and for
an instant revolved rapidly on their pointed extremity without
changing their places. In some of the infusoria of the oval
form, T observed, near one of the extremities, or the centre,
two small oval spots, which were reddish and almost transpa-
rent, and which, after the example of M. Ehrenberg, I regarded
as stomachs. Besides this, I could discover no other sign of
organization ; and on returning home, where I had an oppor-
tunity of consulting the great work on the Infusoria, I have
not hesitated to regard them as a yet undescribed species of
Ehrenberg' s genus Astasia, for which I propose the specific
name of Astasia nivalis. (See Ehrenb. Infus. p. 101, tab. 7,

f. 1.)

2^, There were among these infusoria, though in very limited
numbers, some bodies which were much larger than those above
described, in shape round or oval, of a beautiful blood-red co-
lour, inclining to crimson, and which were, to a considerable
extent, transparent, and surrounded with a margiii or colourless
membrane. Their dimensions varied from ^^ to jq of a milli-
metre. (Fig. 4. pi. 1.) Although I have not been able to observe
any movement, nor the slightest trace of internal organiza-
tion, I have no doubt that these are infusory animals, and I re-
gard them as constituting a new species of the family of Volvo-
cians, and of the genus Gi/ges of MM. Bory and Ehrenberg (Cf.

of Bed Snow. 67

Ehrenb. 1. c. p. 51, tab. ii. %. 31), to which I shall give the
name of Gyges santjuineus. I am inclined to think that Gre-
ville had these same infusoria under his inspection, possibly
the identical species, and that he has figured them in his Scot.
Crypt. Flora, vol. iv. pi. 231, fig. 8, and partly figures 5 and
6. If, moreover, I rightly understand the passage in which
M. De Candolle describes the red snow which was sent to him
by M. Barras from Saint Bernard, it would appear that this
celebrated naturalist has also observed these animals ; and the
same form evidently appears in the coloured drawing which
Dr Schmidt took at Grimsel in the year 1827.

3fl?, I also found under the microscope, a small number of other
still more minute bodies, which were perfectly spherical, and
of a beautiful blood-red colour, though somewhat transparent.
Viewed in certain positions, they exhibited at one of their edges
a small cleft or very narrow opening. Their diameter was
about -f 1 0 of a millimetre. Their movement was progressive, and
in circles, and they turned upon their axes at the same time.
(See fig. 5. pi. 1.) I cannot decide to which of Ehrenberg's genera
of infusoria T ought to ascribe this animal. According to the de-
scriptions of many authors, who assign very different dimen-
sions to the globules of the Protococcus nivalis, and on compar-
ing it with the drawing of Dr Schmidt already alluded to, I have
no hesitation in affirming that this organized substance has
been regarded as the diminutive globule of the Protococcus.

4///, Among the other infusoria, I have observed, though very
seldom, some bodies perfectly spherical, of a very deep crimson
colour, slightly transparent at their edges, and surrounded with
a membrane, which was without colour. At one determinate
point, towards the edge, the colouring mass exhibited an open-
ing, which was transparent, and almost colourless, in the shape
of a half moon, and which communicated with the membra-
neous border. (See fig. 6. pi. 1.) I have not been able to de-
tect any motion in these bodies, and I do not know to what
genus I should refer them, although, like the previous ones,
they probably belong to the volvocian group.

Besides those infusoria which contributed the colouring tint
to the red snow, there were some others which were destitute
of colour, or greyish. As I have obser\'ed these very rarely,
it is possible they were accidental in the specimen. The first

58 Mr Shuttle worth on the Colouring Matter

of these was, (5M) an infusoria of an oval form, colourless and
transparent, enclosing, near one of the extremities, a greyish
granular mass. Its greatest diameter was about ^ of a milli-
metre, its smallest about -^^. (See fig. 7. pi. 1.) 6M, Some
other smaller bodies were spherical, or slightly oval, without
colour, transparent at their edge, likewise containing an indis-
tinctly granular, greyish mass, and possessing a diameter of
about 10 0 of a millimetre. (See fig. 8. pi. 1.) This form has
a striking resemblance to the Pandorlna hyalina of Ehrenberg
(1. 0. p. 54. tab. ii. fig. 34.). 7M, Finally, I have observed a
single individual, colourless and transparent, apparently com-
posed of two spherical globules, united together without any
trace of contents, or any organization whatever. The dia-
meter of one of these globules might be about ^^o of a milli-
metre, or somewhat more. (See fig. 9. pi. 1.) It is possible
that this form should be referred to the Manas gliscens of
Ehrenberg (1. c. p. 13, tab. i. fig. 14.). In these three colour-
less infusoria, 1 cannot affirm that I could discover any motion.

After having thus described, as accurately as I can, the or-
ganic forms which I believe belong to the animal kingdom, I
now proceed to describe the true algae of the red snow, and ano-
ther devoid of colour, v/hich is to be found in many other situ-
ations, and which, in my apprehension, has given rise to nume-
rous errors in the description of the Protococcus nivalis.

Sth, I have observed in small number, but without fail,
upon all opportunities, some spherical globules of a brilliant
blood-red colour, evidently full of a granular mass, and conse-
quently possessing an imperfect degree of transparency. They
had all nearly the same dimensions, their diameter being from
jIjj to J 5 of a millimetre. (See fig. 2. a. pi. 1.) I have never
detected in them either a gelatinous matrix, or a membranous
border, or any movement whatever. When bruised, they allow
their colouring matter to escape under the form of infinitely
small granules, which are very numerous, and the membrane
remains torn and colourless. The same efi^ectwas produced by
the evaporation of all the water which was under the microscope.
(Fig. 2. b. pL 1.) This was the Protococcus nivalis of Agardh,
who did not perceive the contained granules, on account of his
not employing a sufficiently powerful microscope.

9th, In the midst, and around all the bodies already alluded

of Bed Snow, 59

to, whether animal or vegetable, there was an incalculable mul-
titude of very small spherical globules, which were colourless,
detached, or united in groups, without any trace of motion, or
any contents whatsoever. Their diameter is not more than the
J J jf of a millimetre. (Seefig. 10. pi. 1.) On isolating one of the
larger bodies from the rest, a considerable quantity of these
minute globules collected round it, and often assumed a fila-
mentous, articulated, or cellular appearance. (See fig. 2. c. pi. 1.)
In proportion as the water, contained between the two plates
of glass, evaporated, the same effect continued to be produced ;
the primitive structure becoming indistinguishable ; if again
moistened, these bodies reassumed their appearance very im-
perfectly. This was the Protococcus nebiilosus of Kutzing.
(Linnoa 1833, p. 365, tab. 3. fig. 21.) I have no doubt that
it is to this organism we should refer the minute colourless glo-
bules observed by Bauer, and others which float upon the sur-
face of the water. No more do I doubt that, in many cases, it
is these small globules, become obscure by the effect of drying
and decomposition, and mixed with the colourless remains of
the globules of the Protococcus nivalis, which have led many
naturalists to believe in the necessary pre-existence of a ma-
trix or gelatinous substratum.

I ought to remark that it was about 4 p.m., and in cloudy
weather, that I made the preceding observations, and that
coming darkness obliged me to delay taking drawings till the
morning. Even at 11 p.m., the snow contained in the vessels
was not quite melted. At an early hour, however, next morn-
ing, it was so ; and the colouring matter was deposited on
the bottom of the vessels ; and I perceived by the microscope,
that all life had terminated in the different objects ; and the
globules of the Protococcus could not be distinguished from the
infusoria of the fifth figure of the plate, except by their colour,
which was brighter, by their great transparency, and their
contents being evidently granular. The figures, therefore,
were made from individuals who had been for some time dead.

In the hope that the weather would improve, and that the
red snow would continue to grow, I delayed next day going
again in quest of it ; but, in the evening, the weather was worse,
and next day fresh snow descended in great flakes.

Having prepared for my herbarium, upon mica, a number

60 Mr Shuttleworth on the Colouring Matter

of specimens of the colouring matter, the remainder was put
into a concave watch-glass, and there allowed to dry. Pro-
tected against the action of light by being wrapped in white
post paper, the colour did not change ; and when moisture was
added, the globules of the Protococcus nivalis and the Astasia
nivalis might still be distinctly recognised. I found also the
globules of the Protococcus nehulosus under the form of fila-
mentous debris ; but all the other organized bodies could not
be distinguished, at least with any certainty. The specimens
upon the mica exhibit a somewhat singular phenomenon ; for,
having occasion subsequently to examine them, I found that
two kinds of paper having been employed in covering them,
the one vellowish, and the other bluish, the red snow had lost
nothing of its colour in those in the former kind of paper ;
whilst, in the others, all that remained were colourless or
greenish globules ; a result probably owing to the chemical
composition of the different kinds of papers.

The existence of this remarkable fact, which I believe has
not hitherto ever been suspected, viz., that, in the red snow,
there exists an infinite number of microscopic beings, which
are evidently animals, and at a temperature rarely elevated more
than a few degrees above the freezing point, and often probably
far below it, shews how much yet remains to be discovered in
this new world, the limits of which will be extended in pro-
portion as our microscopes become more perfect. Unfortu-
nately the great work of Ehrenberg, indispensable for all who
would prosecute the study of these organisms, is, from its form
and cost, inaccessible to many naturalists, — a circumstance
which will much retard the progress of this branch of science.

The coexistence of these infusoria along with the Protococ-
cus nivalis, the contents of which appear to supply them with
nourishment, will, I trust, destroy, if it really exist, the opinion
of those who still maintain the theory of the transformation
of vegetable into animal organisms ; a theory which, in my
opinion, is based upon false appearances, and which ought never
to have been broached, being wholly opposed to every thing
like true philosophy.

The extreme sensibility of these infusoria to the action of
heat, by which they are destroyed at a temperature a few de-
grees above that of the surface of the snow, and perhaps also

of Bed Snow. 61

an incapacity of supporting all displacement and jolting, ai^e
probably the causes why their presence, as in part a cause of
red snow, has hitherto remained unknown. On the other
hand, I do not mean to maintain, that the infusoria above
described are always to be found bearing so large a portion of
the colouring matter of the red snow (in my observations
the globules of the Protococcus nivalis were to the infusoria
in about the proportion of 5 or 10 to 1000) ; on the contrary,
it appears to me probable, that the number of the globules of
the Protococcus often surpasses that of the infusoria ; for, in an
analogous production, viz. the Hcematococcus Noltii, Ag. (dis-
covered in the year 1838, by Dr Smith, in the water of the
turf diiichQ^, fosses de la tourbiere, of Gumlingen, near Berne),
with which a species of the Astasia was found intermixed,
and also the Protococcus nebulosus, the relative quantities of
the two productions presented considerable differences ; some-
times the Astasia was found there almost to the exclusion of
the Hcematoccocus^ and sometimes the granules of this latter
predominated considerably.

In comparing my observations with those of others, it ap-
pears evident that Bauer especially, and Unger, have described
as a gelatinous matrix the colourless remains of the Protococ-
cus nivalis and nebulosus ; for, so far as oiu* Alps at least are
concerned, the general distribution of the colouring matter in
the substance of the snow, to considerable depths, and its gra-
dual deposition upon the sides and bottom of the vessels, in
proportion as the snow melts, demonstrate that it can have no
substratum whatever in the fresh state.

As to the reproduction of flakes of this same gelatinous and
filamentous matrix, and the fresh development of new colour-
less organised bodies, observed by Bauer, I doubt not that the
organisms were on these occasions altogether new, and quite
independent of the red snow. For all observers, however
little they may have been engaged with the study of micros-
scopic organisms, whether vegetable or animal, must know
with what wonderful celerity the species of Hygrocrocis^ Pro-
tococcus, &c. on the one side, and the Chenas, and other infu-
soria, on the other, develope themselves ; so much so, that I
believe the Protococcus nebulosus might readily develope it-
self during the short time the snow remained in the vessels

62 Mr Shuttleworth on the Colouring Matter

where it was melted, without having previously co-existed
with the other organised bodies of the red snow.

Although the celebrated Algologue Agardh has stated that
the Lepraria kennesina of Wrangel is the same production
with his Protococcus nivalis, yet this identity I consider to be
still doubtful. It is possible ; but I confess I am inclined to
believe, that we shall succeed in demonstrating that the pro-
duction found hitherto only upon stones, and the decomposed
remains of other plants, is a quite distinct organism. After
what I have already said, I need not dwell upon the animality
of the globules observed by Wrangel, and upon the supposed
transition of vegetable globules into infusoria, and vice versa.

The Scottish plant figured by Dr Greville (which had pre-
viously been noted by Agardh as belonging to a distinct genus),
and probably even the plant discovered upon the stones and
mosses of the polar regions, and described by Hooker, under
the name of Palmella nivalis, appear to me not only distinct
species, but, if the existence of the gelatinous substratum ob-
served by Hooker in the polar plant, and so distinctly figured
by Greville, both in it and the other, be verified, then these
plants (notwithstanding Mr Harvey's remarks), cannot be con-
founded with the Protococcus nivalis, any more than they can
even enter mto the genus Hcematococcus, The plant observed
upon the stones, «Sjc. near Prague, and figured by Corda, had
been before noted by Kutzing (in the Linnea 1833, p. 372),
as his Microcyrtis sanguinea {Hcematococcus sanguineus, Ag.
Ic. Alg. Eur. No. et Feb. 24.), and apparently correctly.

Upon the whole, then, it appears necessary to distinguish
the different Algae which have been confounded under the
name of Protococcus nivalis ; and as, according to my obser-
vations, the diagnoses of the genera appear to me no longer
satisfactory, I shall now endeavour to propose others, begin-
ning with the most simple organization.

Protococcus, Agardh, Syst. Alg. p. xvii. Globuli liberi
sporulis repleti. Protococcus nivalis, Ag. 1. c. p. 13. Icon.
Alg. Eur. No. et tab. 21. Pr. nivalis, tabula nostra, f. 2.
Uredo nivalis, Bauer, 1. c. Nees ab Esenb. in Brown's Verm.
Schrift. i. p. 578, cum icone excl. f. 9.

The character of this genus will exclude, so far as we ac-
tually know, a great portion of the other species w^hLch are

of Bed Snow. ^

usually introduced into it, as tlie Frotococcus nebulosus^ Kutz.
1. c. and fig. 10 of our plate ; but I have no doubt that more
powerful magnifiers will enable us to perceive internal sporules.

Hcematococciis, Agardh, Ic. Alg. Eur. No. et tab. 22 et 24.
Globuli liberi sporidia sporulis repleta includentes. Hcema-
tococcus sanguineus, Ag. 1. c. No. et tab. 24. Microcyrtis
sanguinea, Kutz. in Linn. 1833, p. 372. Protococcus nivalis,
Corda in Strum D. Fl. et Kutz.

The Scottish plant figured and described by Greville, is
also placed in this genus by Agardh, under the name of Hce-
matococcus Greinllii, on account of the large granules which
it contains. These granules, judging from the Hcematococcus
Noltii already mentioned, which I have examined in the fresh
state, should be sporidia, that is to say, not sporules, but thecce,
in which the true sporules are contained, as in the genus
Hcematococcus, such as I have defined it. But the presence
of a gelatinous substratum, as to the accuracy of which (in
virtue of the confidence I place in the observ^ations of my
friend Dr Greville) I am inclined not to entertain a doubt,
must naturally exclude it from this genus, and place it in a
higher one of the system. Approximating closely to the Pal-
niella, it will be distinguished from this genus principally be-
cause the globules are external, and not inclosed in the gela-
tine. For this genus, then, 1 shall propose the name of —

Gloiococcus, Shuttl. Globuli massa? gelatinosae affixi, ses-
siles, sporidia sporulis repleta includentes. Gloiococcus Grer
villii, Shuttl. Protococcus nivalis, Grev. Scot. Crypt, flor. No.
et tab. 231. excl. syn. Hcemalococcus Grevillii, Ag. Icon. Alg.
Eur. No. et tab. 23. Microcyrtis Grevillii, Kutz. Linn. 1833,
p. 372.

I do not know if the 9th figure of Bauer's plate belongs to
this last description, but it is the more probable, in that Har-
vey regards the plant of the polar regions as identical with
the Scottish, and I am inclined to believe that the Palmella
nivalis of Hooker (1. c.) is probably to be referred to this
group.

Before concluding, I must remind my readers that nothing
is so uncertain as observations ntade on microscopic organisms
which have been dried for the herbarium, or which are dead.
I hope, therefore, at some futiu-e period, to be able to c<Mn-

64 M. Dufo on the Mollusca of the

mimicate a more detailed account of the organization of the
infusoria of red snow, upon my obtaining an opportunity of
examining this remarkable production under more favourable
circumstances.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

Fig. L A portion of the colouring mat-
ter of the red snow.
Fig. 2. a, Globules of the Protococcus
nivalis Ag.
by A globule whence the spo-

rules are escaping.
c, A globule surrounded with
globules of the Protococcus
nebulostis of Kutz.

Fig. 3. Astasia nivalis, Shuttl.

Fig. 4. Gyges sanguineus, Shuttl.

Fig. 5. "1 Other coloured infusoria of

Fig. 6. J red snow.

Fiff' 8 I ^^^^^ uncoloured do.
Fig. 9. Monas gliscens, Ehrenb. 1
Fig. 10. Protococcus nebulosus,
Kutz.

It is to be observed that all these figures were examined through a micro-
scope which magnified 300 diameters.

Beport on a Memoir entitled " Observations on the Marine^ Land^
and Biver Mollusca of the Seclielles and Amir antes Islands,
By M. Dufo." By M. Blainville.

The knowledge of animals does not consist merely in an ac-
quaintance with their external and internal organization, their
specific distinction, and their position in the natural series.
The consideration of these may be said to be reserved for pro-
fessed zoologists, because, in order to do it aright, preliminary
study is requisite, the inspection of collections, books of de-
scription, and especially of iconography. But the knowledge
of the manners and habits of animals is equally required, things
which, although often the evident deduction from peculiarities
of organization, are not always certainly ascertained from that
source. The study therefore, of living animals in their natural
haunts, their relations with the soil, with the medium in which
they live, with the other organized bodies on which they sub-
sist, or to which they afford nourishment, and their mode of
propagation, is of so much importance, that, in the common
opinion and language, it seems to form the whole science.

It is to this important part of our knowledge of the mollus-
cous animals, or to their natural history, that the labours of
M. Dufo are calculated to add a considerable number of new
facts, which will be doubly augmented in value when we re-
flect that, in order to acquire them, it was necessary to have

V\.\ T K I . J-:,lmrN,'Hrrha.,/onr.Vol^2S).p. O-/.

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F. Mu.h,:! Sr

Sechellea and Amirantes Islands. 65

the energy to reside for many years in places purposely se-
lected on account of the great abundance of molluscous animals
which they afford ; and the places most favourable for the
multiplication of these animals, be it remarked, are commonly
most remote from human habitations, especially from the ha-
bitations of civilized man ; and this circumstance renders great
devotion to the subject, and also considerable expense, requi-
site, in order to obtain the opportunities most favourable to
observation.

With this object in view, M. Dufo, induced by his love for
conchology more than any thing else, and with no other mis-
sion than the desire to be useful, took up his residence among
the Sechelles and Amirantes Islands, which present a great
number of creeks and rocks, sandy flats and shoals, which
are but rarely visited by navigators. Taking along with him
a few negroes and suitable provisions, he could here deliver
himself up, without fear of interruption, to long and repeated
observations on many points in the natural history of the con-
chyliferous moUusca, and among others the operculum, and
the different modifications through which shells pass from
youth to their decline.

The first point, so long neglected, to such a degree, indeed,
that the study of it may be said to have commenced in our
days, and, in the works of one of the present reporters, has ac-
quired great importance since it has been demonstrated that
it may be employed not only for the distinction of species of
which we possess only the shell, but for confirming truly na-
tural generic groups. M. Dufo has established, in regard to
a great number of species of the genera Fusus, Turbinella,
Murex, Purpura, Buccinum, &c. that this view of the matter is
correct. Thus, he has shewn by the operculum of the so-called
Buccmum undosum^ that it is a species of the genus Turbinella,
and by that of Cerithium palustre^ which differs, by the composi-
tion of the imbricated circular elements, from that of the true
Cerithiums, that it does not belong to this genus. In like manner,
he has confirmed the genus Potamides, established by M. Alex-
ander Brongniart, for the fossil shells regarded before his time
as Cerithiums, and which the fluviatile naturp of the locality in
which they are found, as well as some peculiarities in the form

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII. JULY 1840. B

66 M. Dufo on (he Mollusca of the

of the opening, had caused to be separated from the Oerithiums,
which are marine. In truth, C. palustre, as the name indicates,
inhabits the fresh waters of marshes.

Science will likewise be indebted to M. Dufo for a positive
knowledge of the fact, that the operculum is wanting in the
genus Terehelhim (T'arier^), which formerly rested on supposition
merely.

The second point on which M. Dufo's observations have
most essentially borne, is that of the successive forms through
which shells pass, from the earliest age of the animal which
bears them, till its decay. This is a point of extreme import-
ance, and evidently connected with the fact of the diminution
of the lobes of the mantle with age, as M. Dufo has again con-
firmed.

In truth, from the time that geology, while passing into the
state of a science, acquired, in the organized bodies whose
fossil remains exist in the superficial strata of the earth,
one of the most powerful means for solving the problems of
the identity or antiquity, or even the origin of these strata,
the study of shells, which, from their chemical nature, may
form extensive rocks, has acquired a very great importance.
But, unfortunately, since M. Lamarck, so justly celebrated,
has regulated fossil conchology by the distinction and naming
of the species, many geologists, who are often but little ac-
quainted with natural history, have seized upon this part of
the science ; and then, sometimes constrained rather by the
wants of geology than enlightened by a real knowledge of
zoology, they have established and named as species a great
number of fossil shells, without taking into account the limits
of variation which those parts of molluscous animals undergo,
and, in fact, before malacology was at all in a condition to
meet the wants of science. One of ourselves, during the few
years he occupied the place of M. Lamarck in the Museum of
Natural History, having felt how important it was to examine
the limits of variation, before adducing laws, had begun to
form series of shells of the same species, having a regard not
only to the age, but likewise to the sexes of the dioecious kinds,
as well as to their localities. Guided by these attempts, M.
Dufo has gone much farther. In the collection of shells brought

Sechellea and Amifantes Islands. (17

by this zealous observer, we observe series of a considerable num-
ber of species, the variations of each of which amount to upwards
of fifty ; and the variations affect not only the size, but all the
distinctive peculiarities which shells can present. In this re-
spect, M. Dufo's collection is of great interest, particularly in
the genera Purpura, Ricinula, Turbinella, Murex, Cyprsea,
Strombus, and Pterocera, since it enables us to appreciate
the limits of variation of which one species of shell is suscep-
tible, even in climateric and other circumstances absolutely
alike. To what would this lead, if to these were added the
varieties which the same species exhibits when living in moi*e
or less distant localities I

Besides these two important points in malacology, M. Dufo
has directed his attention to many others not less interesting,
and has filled up some blanks in the natural history of the
mollusca.

Thus the (tepth and nature of the parts of the sea which
different mollusca prefer, have been carefully noted by M.
Dufo. He has remarked, for example, that the bivalves which
live in the sand bury themselves deeper as they advance in
age ; that certain species of Oerithium live solitarily, and others
in society.

He has likewise paid attention to the kind of nourishment
preferred by each species ; and if in this respect M. Dufo has
confirmed in a great measure Lamarck's division of the
Trachelipods into zoophagous and phytophagous, he has like-
wise removed some of the errors of that skilful zoologist. Thus,
according to him, the Cerithiums are exclusively phytophagous,
as well as the Cones and Cypi-seas, contrary to what Lamarck
supposed.

Finally, it is not the same with regard to the mode and
celerity of locomotion in a considerable number of species ob-
served by M. Dufo. Thus the strombi and pterocerse advance
by what may be called successive bounds ; the cones are very
inactive, while it is otherwise with the Cyprseas, as might
have been anticipated from the gi-eat difference in the extent
of their locomotive disc.

The considerable period (four years) during which M. Dufo
continued his observations, enabled him to judge of the dom-

68 M. Dufo on the Mollusca of the

tion of the life of some of the species by the slowness of their
development. This presumption refers more particularly to
Cerithium palustre.

Among the peculiarities which it would be difficult to class
under any of the above heads, we may mention the following :

Buccinum arcularia has its operculum finely denticulated
round the edges, and this it seems inclined to use as a defence
when one is about to seize it.

The double foot of the Harpse (first noticed by M. Quoy, to
whom the science is indebted for a great number of new facts
in malacology), which appears to replace the operculum, want-
ing in this genus, falls and breaks on the slightest effort, and
thus seems to afibrd the animal a means of escape from the vo-
racity of its enemies, by leaving to them this part of its body.

In the Cyprseas, the lobes of the mantle are in a singular
state of continual vibration, which does not take place in those
of the Ovula, a genus so nearly allied to the Cyprsea.

The aeriferous vesicles in the foot of the Janthinse are
completely empty when the animal is at a certain depth in the
sea.

The Achatina ma ritiana deposits its eggs in a column form-
ing a train of some length ; but the most remarkable fact of
this kind observed by M. Dufo, is, that certain Helices are
ovoviviparous, like several species of Littorina, the Paludina
mmpara of our rivers, the Partulas, &;c. : that is to say, that
the eggs are evolved in the end of the oviduct, and the young
issue from the mother in a living state.

Some species of Calyptrsea are provided with a support dis-
tinct from the rock on which the animal rests, while among the
living Hipponices, the support forms part of the rock, and is
hollowed on the surface.

Finally, M. Dufo seems to have ascertained that certain
bivalves, provided with a byssus, detach their byssus piece by
piece, as was previously conjectured.

While limiting ourselves to this simple enumeration of the
principal facts determined by M. Dufo, we may be permitted
to add, that if, among the truly immense number of shells
which M. Dufo has brought with him, we find only forty or
fifty new species, — which are both more easily obtained, and

Sechelles and Amirantes Islands, 69

more highly vahicd for collections, — he has not failed to fur-
nish us with information regarding species already known
which will greatly advance their history, and which was much
more difficult to bo acquired. To attain the latter object,
much more is necessary than to collect these animals, and to
put them among a liquid fitted for preserving them, as is al-
most always done by travelling naturalists. It is necessary to
pass days, months, and years in observing the animals, and
carefully noting all their peculiarities. M. Dufo's work must
be admitted not to bo essentially scientific ; to that the author
makes no pretension : but his researches are of real import-
ance, first, in themselves, and, secondly, in their rarity ; and
they will tend not a little at once to enrich the works of na-
turalists, and the collections of our museums.

We think it our duty to propose to the Academy, that its
thanks should be given to M. Dufo for the zeal with which he
has fulfilled his self-imposed mission; and to invite him to
continue it, if he can ; and, in that case, to turn his attention
to the animals themselves in their relations to the shell, — to
the differences of sex, and to the eggs of each species, matters
hitherto but very little known in the history of molluscous ani-
mals, and which will exercise a great influence on the ulterior
progress of the science.

The conclusions of this report were adopted by the Acade-
my. The commissioners were MM. Dumeril, Milne Edwards,
and Blainville. — Gomptes Bendus, N. 10. March 1840, p. 392.

On the Hair in Man, and the Dermal Coverings of Animals.

During several of the late meetings of La Societe Philomatique
of Paris, there have been animated discussions concerning the
growth of the hair, and some of the phenomena connected
therewith, a summary of which we shall now endeavour to sub-
mit to the notice of our readers. These discussions have origi-
nated in the recent publication of M. Mandl '•' on the Hair and
other Tegumentary Coverings," and the learned author has
borne his share in these disputations. One of the propositions
which M. Mandl is disposed to maintain, is, that the hair, and

70 On the Hair in Man

other dermal coverings, shoot up or vegetate, not from the bulb
or root only, but grow also from the point. In proof of this,
at the meeting of the 22d of February last, he particularly in-
sisted upon the result observed after some careful experiments,
viz., that although hair cut clean across presents at first a
completely truncated extremity, yet at the end of several weeks
it acquires the form of a fine point. Hence he contends that
there is a movement of the nutritious juices in the interior of
the canal of each hair ; he is at the same time of opinion, that
the growth of the bulb is carried on by a kind of intus-susceptio.
In opposition to this view, M. Huzard remarked, that his fa-
ther having made some experiments on the effects of dyes
applied to the wool of living animals, was led also to make ob-
servations upon the growth of the wool ; and he found that
after having dyed the wool of one year's growth with one co-
lour, and tinged that of a second year with another, that at
the end of the third he could not perceive that the spaces
marking the growths of the previous years had increased in
the slightest degree, — whence it followed that the wool shot
out only at its base.

Another point discussed, was the cause of the hair becoming
white ; and one or two additional facts, bearing on the point,
were mentioned. M. Koulin stated, that he was acquainted
with an individual, who, being terrified at the prospect of
losing his fortune, in one night the hair on one-half of his head
became white, the half being the one on which he had reposed.
M. Roulin also stated another very striking fact, quoted from
the London Magazine, viz., that a cock which had been cap-
tured by a fox, and rescued again in life, speedily lost all his
feathers, which, however, grew again, but all of a white colour.
The true cause of hair becoming white, in the estimation of
this gentleman, was the disappearance of the colouring oily
fluid, which generally' fills the tubes of the hair. This explana-
tion, however, in the opinion of M. Doyere, was in no degree
satisfactory, inasmuch as even although the absence of this co-
louring fluid were conceded, yet this would not render the hair
white but only transparent, and it is well known that hoary
hair is not only white but opaque also.

But, by far the most interesting opinion elicited during these

and the Dermal Coverings of Animals, 71

debates was, that hoary looks, sometimes again become black,
and that there was a process by which the change could be arti-
ficially induced, and whereby red and light coloured hair could
bo made black. Several statements were made, whence it
would appear, that the Chinese have long been familiarly ac-
quainted with this art. One instance of which we shall detail.
M. L'Abbe Imbert, now favourably kno>vn as having given an
account of the manner in which the Chinese make their arte-
sian wells, or spouting fountains, came to Paris in the year
1823, to make preparations for his mission to China. At that
time his hair was of a glaring red colour ; on arriving, however,
at his destination, those interested in his success, to prevent his
immediate detection as a stranger and foreigner, amidst a people
universally black-haired, supplied him with a secret retreat,
and subjected him to a constitutional and internal treatment
which speedily turned into black the hair over his whole body ;
in which state he was seen by L'Abbe Voisin and many others.
This extraordinary transformation being effected on the carroty
locks of M. Imbert, we are the more prepared to admit its
possibility in hair that has become blanched. M. Roulin ac-
coixiingly mentioned a fact which was communicated to him
by L'Abbe Voisin a missionary, who had long resided in
China, and who was himself the subject of the transformation.
On his arrival in the Celestial Empire, his locks had already
become grey, and before he was allowed to hold intercourse
with the inhabitants, " he was subjected to a treatment, con-
sisting of internal remedies only, the result of which was to
blacken his hair not temporarily only but permanently." M.
Guerin also, in confirmation, stated, that he was acquainted
with two missionaries, who had hoary locks when they set off
for China, and who, on their return, had hair perfectly black.
He understood that the remedy, as it is called, for the produc-
tion of this effect, consists in an infusion of three kinds of plants,
followed up by a peculiar regimen. Several of the members,
notwithstanding the evidence adduced, could not overcome their
incredulity in the matter ; and M. Velpeau adduced the case
of M. Rochoux, whose hair at one time was white, whilst now
it is as decidedly black. In his case, it was not the result of
any remedy or any course of treatment. M. Roulia, to shew

72 On the Lake of Zirknitz in Carniola.

that the agents used might have the effect attributed to them,
quoted the cases of several individuals who had laboured under
indisposition, and who had observed a change of the colour of
their hair, under the treatment to which they had been sub-
jected ; whilst finally it was cited that the bright feathers of the
bullfinch become quite black if the little songster be subjected
to the long continued use of hemp-seed alone as food.

On the Lake of Zirknitz in Carniola.

In the fifth volume of the " ZeitscTirift fur Physih;' M. Le-
ander Knopfer gives a description of the Lake of Zirknitz as
he found it during a visit in 1837. He says, that when he ob-
tained a view of the village of Zirknitz, and the small towns
lying around it in the plain, he looked in vain for a sheet of
water resembling a lake ; he could only see on the opposite
hills a longitudinal white stripe, which at a distance had the
aspect of a sandy steppe. This was in fact the deep bed of the
lake, in which the small quantity of water remaining behind
flowed in separate large channels like artificially formed canals
(which rendered impossible an ascent for any great distance),
towards several larger openings, into which it fell with a rum-
bling noise. Two of these breaches were distinguished by
their size and considerable depth. Several, perhaps all, of
these passages for water, might soon unite, in their subterra-
nean course, into one and the same canal, or might soon again
separate, according as the power of the water could, by its na-
tural pressure, form passages in the weathered and perforated
beds of limestone. Eventually the water again makes its ap-
pearance in Freudenthal, near Ober-Laibach, from copious
springs, and forms, by being united in a channel, the river
Laibach, which, with exception of the time during which the
lake is dry, is navigable at its very source.

As the whole bottom of the valley in which the lake lies is
so shut in all round by mountains, which are branches of the
Julian Alps, that the water flowing together can find an exit
at no lower point in it. Nature, as it has likewise done in many
other places where the same relations exist, formed here a

On the Lake of Zirknitz in Carniola, 73

large deep lake, which would only have found an exit at a
height of several hundred feet on the north-eastern side, had
it not been for the loose and perforated ground which admitted
of a subterranean passage [for the water. When the mass of
water flowing into it is smaller, as in the height of summer, and
when, consequently, the subterranean flowing ofi* is greater
than the amount collected, the lake falls, like a pond which
has been artificially emptied, and so much the more rapidly in
proportion to the smallness of the water poured in. If at this
time there should be violent storms or continued rain, the
sinking of the water of the lake ceases, and the level of the
water either remains for some time without a perceptible dif-
ference, or it even becomes higher, and anew fills the whole
basin. It must hence be evident, that no fixed time can be
assigned, at which the water of the lake flows away, or again
fills its basin. It can as easily be understood, that the water
forcing itself through the'subterranean canals, should more and
more enlarge the cavities in the soft limestone ; should separate
smaller or larger portions from the walls of these cavities, and
carry them away ; and should thus, at narrow places, interrupt
the channels for a period. At present, the water of the lake,
when the sinking begins, flows away in a much shorter time
than it did 150 years ago, and it likewise takes a longer time
than at that period to fill the lake. We may, therefore, con-
clude with great probability, nay, almost with certainty, that,
in the course of time, though probably not for centuries, the
Lake of Zirknitz will altogether cease to exist.

The author has the praiseworthy desire to correct the won-
derful narrations which occur in the older works by Sartori,
Valvassor, &c., and which have been, within a few years, re-
peated by some authors; and especially to contradict the
statement that the ebb and flow of the lake are somewhat pe-
riodical— that they are in some degree regulated by the day
and hour, and that the water makes its appearance from the
same apertures by which it flowed ofil With this object in
view, he adds the following information. The Carthusians of
Freudenthal, to whom the Princes of Eggenberg, at that time
lords of Zirknitz, had, towards the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury, relinquished and ceded the right of fishing in the lake,

74 On the Lake of Zirknitz in Carniota.

knew well how to employ for their advantage what has just
been said regarding the lake and its flowing off. Their strict
rules forbade them to partake of a meat diet, and hence a
good take of fish at all times of the year was of great con-
sequence to them. The drying up of the lake was thus parti-
cularly inconvenient ; and they, therefore, endeavoured to pre-
vent it, by covering, when the basin was empty, all the open-
ings with iron grates, then placing on these several slabs of
stone secured by means of clay, and filling up the cavities with
earth. In this manner they often succeeded in actually keep-
ing the lake at its high level for years together, which could
not have been possible had Valvassor's view been accurate.
The Monks sought out most indefatigably all apertures which
presented themselves from time to time, in order to stop them
up anew, until the dissolution of the fraternity left the lake to
its fate.

The opinion now given is, undoubtedly, the correct one, and
ought to be made generally known. But it ought likewise to be
remarked, that Tobias Gruber, who visited the Lake of Zirknitz
in April 1773, expressed essentially the same view in his
" Brief e Hydrographischen und Physikalisclien Inhalts am
Krain^'' pubHshed at Vienna in 1781. His full description of
the lake, which is illustrated by plates, coincides perfectly with
that given by M. Knopfer. According to him, it is, nwre par-
ticularly, two large caverns at the foot of the mountain Jator-
nik (Jauernik)^ called Vranja Jama^ and Sucha Duha (Seka
Dulka)^ from which the water, when much rain has fallen on
the mountains, or much snow has been melted there, rushes
out with great violence and hastens to the lake ; and in the
same manner, according to the same author, it again flows away
through many small cavities, but especially through two passages
at the east end of the lake, the larger and smaller Karlauza
{Mala and Velka Karlouza). But Gruber likewise only saw
the lake at the period of its ebb ; and it were nmch to be
wished that a naturalist should be a witness of its flow. — {Pog-
gendorff^a Annalen^ 1840.)

( 75 )

Notes on some rare Scottish Minerals, By Professor L. A.
Necker of Geneva. Communicated by the Author.

1. Crystallized hydrate of magnesia occurs at Swinaness, in
the island of Unst. The crystals are small hexagonal tables,
which are parallel to the lamellae of the lamellar specimen of
hydrate of magnesia, of which they form part. These are
very short six-sided prisms, having their three alternate termi-
nal edges truncated by planes which are oblique to the axes,
thus seeming to indicate a rhomboid as the primitive form of
this mineral. I did not find the specimen myself, as the vein
is now exhausted from which this substance was formerly ob-
tained for collections, but I procured it from a native of the
neighbourhood of Swinaness, who had collected it. On one of
the small crystals, there are feeble traces of an oblique face on
the terminal edges, which are not modified in the others.

2. Arragonite crystallized in simple forms occurs, lining the
walls of a small fissure, in the serpentine of Swinaness. The
crystals are rhomboido-prismatic, are terminated by diedral
summits (sometimes by four-sided pyramids ?), and are placed
on their matrix parallel to one of their lateral edges, or to one
of the sides of the prism. They are accompanied and covered
by a yellow translucent matter, which seems to me to present
passages to the white aragonite, and which effervesces with
acids. Is it not a ferruginous aragonite, or the jimokerite of
Dufrenoy ? The prisms of aragonite of Swinaness have six or
eight sides.

3. Gallinace of Beal in Skye. — This massive mineral, or ra-
ther this apparently homogeneous rock, has been taken for a
retinite or pitchstone by Messrs Murchison and Sedgwick, in
their excellent description of this part of Skyo ; and nothing,
indeed, can bear a greater resemblance to pitchstone than this
substance, but it differs essentially from it in its specific gra-
vity, and by its fusion before the blowpipe into a black sco-
riaoeous enamel. It forms a crust or rind of two or three
inches in thickness, on a basaltic dyke, which traverses the
whole valley of Beal, like a prominent wall composed of hori-
zontal prisms. Probably the vitreous crusts of the dykes of

76 Professor Necker on some rare Scottish Minerals.

Carsaig, in the island of Mull, and of Lamlash, are also of
Gallinace, The Gallinaces present the same relations to the
basalts, as the pitchstones do to the trappean and felspathic
porphyries, the vitreous lavas to the compact, and the obsi-
dians to the trachytes. The gallinaces are vitreous basalts,
while the pitchstones are vitreous felspathic traps.

4. Green diopside is found in the upper part of the valley of
Beal. It is of an impure green tint, is very translucent, pre-
sents a form analogous to that of augite, and replaces the
common augite in a large grained basalt, being often mixed
with a bluish calcedony.

5. Levyne^ in small crystals, similar to the form figured in
Allan'^s edition of Phillips' Mineralogy, of a milk-white colour,
and semi-translucent or opaque, occurs in cavities in the beau-
tiful basaltic amygdaloid of the Storr in Skye, and in the whole
basaltic northern portion of the island ; also at Quiring. In
both these localities, the chabasite and levyne are always se-
parate. I have only seen one or two cases where isolated
crystals of chabasite were found in the cavities occupied by the
levyne, and I have never seen the levyne in those of chabasite.

6. Lumachella marhle, analogous to that of Bleyberg in
Carinthia, is met with at Loch Shiant, on the west side of
Loch Staffin, in Skye. The pieces of ammonite, of a high
lustre and brilliant colour, which give it the peculiar charac-
ter, are of rare occurrence, and the bed in which they are met
with is below high water-mark.

7. Very large portions of mica are found in Glen Shiel,
near the road leading from Glenelg to Fort Augustus, and
about half-way between the inns of Shiel House and Cluny.
The plates are nine inches in length by six in breadth, and
three-fourths of an inch in thickness ; but, as I did not pro-
cure them myself, I cannot say if they are found in the gneiss
itself, or in granite veins. There are on the surfaces very dis-
tinct traces of cleavage, forming strise arranged in equilateral
triangles, as in specular iron-ore ; a circumstance which would
have led me to believe it to be uno-axial or rhomboidal, but
an experiment made along with Professor Forbes proves it to
be diaxial or prismatic.

8. Garnets. — The talc or chlorite slate of the Glen Shant

Capture and Death of a large Alligator. 77

rock, at the lower extremity of Glen Rosa in Arran, has af-
forded me brown and yellow grossulaire garnets, red translu-
cent almandine garnets, and massive colophonite garnet.

7. Blocks of very fine granular granite, near Brodick, in-
clude very minute bluish-^r^^w heryU* and white and honey
yellow topazes,

10. Med ferruginous augite or pyroxene occurs in large
blocks of basalt, at the northern entrance of the village of
Corrie, in the island of Arran.

Account of the Capture and Death of a large Alligator., at
Manilla., in the Island of Luconia., one of the Philippines.

In the course of the year 1831, the proprietor of Halahala,
at Manilla, in the island of Luconia, informed me that he fre-
quently lost horses and cows on a remote part of his planta-
tion, and that the natives assured him they were taken by an
enormous alligator, who frequented one of the streams which
run into the lake. Their descriptions were so highly wrought,
that they were attributed to the fondness for exaggeration to
which the inhabitants of that country are peculiarly addicted,
and very little credit was given to their repeated relations.

All doubts as to the existence of the animal were at last
dispelled by the destruction of an Indian, who attempted to
ford the river on horseback, although entreated to desist by
his companions, who crossed at a shallow place higher up. He
reached the centre of the stream, and was laughing at the
others for their prudence, when the alligator came upon him.
His teeth encountered the saddle, which he tore from the
horse, while the rider tumbled on the other side into the water,
and made for the shore. The horse, too terrified to move,
stood trembling when the attack was made. The alligator,
disregarding him, pursued the man, who safely reached the
bank, which he could easily have ascended, but, rendered fool-
hardy by his escape, he placed himself behind a tree which

* We found in the island of Arran, many years ago, a specimen of graphic
granite, containing blue beryls, one of the crystals nearly an inch long. — Edit.

78 Capture and Death of a large Altigator.

had fallen partly into the water, and drawing his heavy knife,
leaned over the tree, and, on the approach of his enemy, struck
him on the nose. The animal repeated his assault, and the
Indian his blows, until the former, exasperated at the resist-
ance, rushed on the man, and seizing him by the middle of the
body, which was at once enclosed and crushed in his capacious
jaws, swam into the lake. His friends hastened to the rescue ;
but the alligator slowly left the shore, while the poor wretch,
writhing and shrieking in his agony, with his knife uplifted in
his clasped hands, seemed, as the others expressed it, " held
out as a man would carry a torch." His sufferings were not
long continued, for the monster sank to the bottom, and soon
after reappearing alone on the surface, and calmly basking in
the sun, gave to the horror-stricken spectators the fullest con-
firmation of the death and burial of their comrade.

A short time after this event, I made a visit to Halahala,
and expressing a strong desire to capture or destroy the alli-
gator, my host readily offered his assistance. The animal had
been seen a few days before, with his head and one of his fore
feet resting on the bank, and his eyes following the motion of
some cows which were grazing near. Our informer likened
his appearance to that of a cat watching a mouse, and in the
attitude to spring upon his prey, when it should come within
his reach.

I would here mention, as a curious fact, that the domestic
buffalo, which is almost continually in the water, and, in the
heats of mid-day, remains for hours with only his nose above
the surface, is never molested by the alligator. All other
animals become his victim when they incautiously approach
him, and their knowledge of the danger most usually prompts
them to resort to shallow places to quench their thirst.

Hearing that the alligator had killed a horse, we proceeded
to the place, about five miles from the house. It was a tran-
quil spot, and one of singular beauty, even in that land. The
stream, which, a few hundred feet from the lake, narrowed to
a brook, with Hs green banks fringed with the graceful bam-
boo, and the alternate glory of glade and forest, spreading far
and wide, seemed fitted for other purposes than the famihar
haunt of the huge creature that had appropriated rt to himself

Capture and Death of a large Alligator, 79

A few cane huts were situated a short distance from the
river, and we procured from them what men they contained,
who were ready to assist in freeing themselves from their dan-
gerous neighbour. The terror which he had inspired, espe-
cially since the death of their companion, had hitherto pre-
vented them from making an effort to get rid of him, but they
gladly availed themselves of our preparations, and, with the
usual dependence of their character, were willing to do what-
ever example should dictate to them. Having reason to be-
lieve that the alligator was in the river, we commenced opera-
tions by sinking nets, upright, across its mouth, three deep,
at intervals of several feet. The nets, which were of great
strength, and intended for the capture of the wild buffalo, were
fastened to trees on the banks, making a complete fence to
the communication with the lake.

My companion and myself placed ourselves with our guns
on either side of the stream, while the Indians, with long bam-
boos, felt for the animal. For some time, he refused to be
disturbed, and we began to fear that he was not within our
limits, when a spiral motion of the water, under the spot
where I was standing, led me to direct the natives to it, and
the creature slowly moved on the bottom towards the nets,
which he no sooner touched than he quietly turned back and
proceeded up the stream. This movement was several times
repeated, till, having no rest in the enclosure, he attempted to
climb up the bank. On receiving a ball in the body, he yt-
tered a growl like that of an angry dog, and plunging into the
water, crossed to the other side, where he was received with
a similar salutation, discharged directly into his mouth. Find-
ing himself attacked on every side, he renewed his attempts to
ascend the banks, but whatever part of him appeared was bored
with bullets, and feeling that he was hunted, he forgot his own
formidable means of attack, and sought only safety from the
troubles which surrounded him.

A low spot, which separated the river from the lake a little
above the nets, was unguarded, and we feared that he would
succeed in escaping over it. It was here necessary to stand
firmly against him ; and in several attempts which he made
to cross it, we turned him back with spears, bamboos, or

80 Capture and Death of a large Alligator.

whatever first came to hand. He once seemed determined to
force his way, and foaming with rage, rushed with open jaws,
and gnashing his teeth, with a sound too ominous to be de-
spised, appeared to have his full energies aroused, when his
career was stopped by a large bamboo thrust violently into his
mouth, which he ground to pieces, and the fingers of the holder
were so paralyzed, that for some minutes he was incapable of
resuming his gun. The natives had now become so excited as
to forget all prudence, and the women and children of the little
hamlet had come down to the shore to share in the general
enthusiasm. They crowded to the opening, and were so un-
mindful of their danger, that it was necessary to drive them
back with some violence. Had the monster known his own
strength, and dared to have used it, he would have gone over
that spot with a force which no human power could have with-
stood, and would have crushed or carried with him into the
lake about the whole population of the place.

It is not strange that personal safety was forgotten in the
excitement of the scene. The tremendous brute, galled with
wounds and repeated defeat, tore his way through the foaming
water, glancing from side to side, in the vain attempt to avoid
his foes, then rapidly ploughing up the stream, he grounded
on the shallows, and turned back frantic and bewildered at his
circumscribed position. At length, maddened with suffering,
and desperate from continued persecution, he rushed furiously
to the mouth of the stream, burst through two of the nets, and
I threw down my gun in despair, for it looked as though his
way at last was clear to the wide lake. But the third net
stopped him, and his teeth and legs had got entangled in all.
This gave us a chance of closer warfare with lances, such as
are used against the wild buffalo. We had sent for this weapon
at the commencement of the attack, and found it much more
effectual than guns. Entering a canoe, we plunged lance after
lance into the alligator, as he was struggling under the water,
till a wood seemed growing from him, which moved violently
above, while his body was concealed below. His endeavours to
extricate himself lashed the water into foam, mingled with blood ;
and there seemed no end to his vitality, or decrease to his resist-
ance, till a lance struck him directly through the middle of

Capture and Death of a large Alligator. 81

the back, which an Indian, with a heavy piece of wood, ham-
mered into him, as he could catch an opportunity. My com-
panion, on the other side, now tried to haul him to the shore,
by the nets to which he had fastened himself, but had not suf-
ficient assistance with him. As I had more force with me,
we managed, with the aid of the women and children, to drag
his head and part of his body on to the little beach, where the
river joined the lake, and giving him the " coup de grace," left
him to gasp out the remnant of his life on the sand. I regret
to say, that the measurement of the length of this animal was
imperfect. It was night when the struggle ended, and our exa-
mination of him was made by torch-light. I measured the
circumference, as did also my companion, and it was over eleven
feet immediately behind the fore-legs. It was thirteen feet at
belly, which was distended by the immoderate meal made on
the horse. As he was only partly out of the water, I stood
with a line at his head, giving the other end to an Indian, with
directions to take it to the extremity of the tail. The length
so measured was twenty-two feet, but at the time I doubted
the good faith of my assistant, from the reluctance he mani-
fested to enter the water, and the fears he expressed that the
mate of the alligator might be in the vicinity. From the dia-
meter of the animal, and the representations of those who exa-
mined him afterwards, we believed the length to have been
about thirty feet. As we intended to preserve the entire
skeleton, with the skin, we were less particular than we other-
wise should have been. On opening him, we found, with other
parts of the horse, three legs entire, torn off at the haunch
and shoulder, which he had swallowed whole, besides a large
quantity of stones, some of them of several pounds weight.

The night, which had become very dark and stormy, prevent-
ed us from being minute in our investigation ; and leaving direc-
tions to preserve the bones and skin, we took the head with us
and returned home. This precaution was induced by the
anxiety of the natives to secure the teeth ; and I afterwards
found that they attribute to them miraculous powers in the
cure or prevention of diseases.

The head weighed near three hundred pounds ; and so well
was it covered with flesh and muscle, that we found balls

VOL» XXIX* NO, LVII.— JULY 1840, t

82 Capture and Death of a large Alligator.

quite flattened, which had been discharged into the mouth and
at the back of the head, at only the distance of a few feet, and
yet the bones had not a single mark to shew that they had
been touched.

At the time of our expedition against the alligator, the pe-
riodical visitation of locusts, which occurs about once in seven
years, was devastating parts of the island ; and, on the follow-
ing day, the place where I resided was doomed to share in the
distress. We were flattering ourselves that the scourge would
not come near us, when the dark clouds were seen far over the
lake approaching noiselessly, save in the rushing of wings, and
soon the sun was hid, and night eeemed coming before her
time. Mile upon mile in length moved the dark broad column
of this insect army ; and the cultivator looked and was silent,
for the calamity was too overwhelming for words. The sugar
cane, the principal crop of that country, gave promise of un-
usual productiveness when the destroyer alighted. In a mo-
ment nothing was seen over the extended surface but a black
mass of animated matter, heaving like a sea over the hopes of
the planter. And when it arose to renew its flight in search
of food for the hungry millions who had had no share in the
feast, it left behind desolation and ruin. Not a green thing
stood where it had been, and the very earth looked as though
no redeeming fertility was left to it. Human exertions availed
nothing against this enemy ; wherever he came he swept like
a consuming fire, and the ground appeared scorched by his
presence. Branches of trees were broken by the accumulated
weight of countless numbers, and the cattle fled in dismay be-
fore the rolling waves of this living ocean. The rewards of
government, and the devices of the husbandman, for his own
protection, were useless. Myriads of these insects were taken
and heaped together, till the air for miles was polluted, with-
out apparent diminution of their numbers.

The typhon was the irresistible agent which at last termi-
nated their ravages, and drove them before it far into the Pa-
cific. This remedy prostrated what the locust had left, but still
it was prayed for as a mercy, and received with thanksgiving.
Of the Philippine islands, Luconia is the one best known ; but
the world of nature there is yet unexplored, a^nd the few men

Oapture and Death of a large Alligator, $6

of fioience who have been permitted to carry their researches
into the interior, have either been too easily satisfied with the
wonders they encountered at the outset, or have not been
spared to give the result of their labours. The one best fitted
for the work, who visited that country during ray residence in
it, was an Italian. He penetrated where the white man had
not been seen since the earliest days of the colony, when the
followers of Magellan made the circuit of the island with the
daring spirit of investigation which distinguished that age of
discovery.

He made his way to the wandering Negro tribes which roam
through a tract of mountain country near the middle of the
island ; and who, uninfluenced by the semi-civilization around
them, pass an erratic life without fixed habitations, gathering
their food from the wild fruit-trees, and offering wide field for
conjecture on their origin and insulated position.

The individual I allude to returned from his interesting ex-
cursions stored with most valuable information. His indefati-
gable spirit was undaunted at the great plan he had laid out
before him, and he left Manilla with the determination to
penetrate to the centre of Borneo — -that unknown world, whpse
savage inhabitants have not been overcome or softened, even
by the cupidity of commerce, and whose resources can only be
imagined from its magnitude, situation, and the exceeding
fruitfulness of its coasts. He had scarcely entered on his new
discoveries, when approaching too near a volcano, he slipped
into the hot ashes of its burning crater, which in a few days
caused his death.

If, ip recnrring to some of the incidents of my life jp Lu--
conia, I have inclined to dwell on what may seem irrelevant to
the object of this communication, it is that I am fond of re-
membering the days J have passed in the solitudes pf that
lovely land. The dreams of fancy have never pictured scenes
of more romantic beauty than are there lavishly spread around ;
where the principle of life is profusely scattered, and every
thing is glowing with apimated being — where the bla^d air
makes mere existence enjoyment ; and the day, with its miW
sky and refreshing sea breeze, gives place to the more serene
nig^t, w^ her ,cleAr brilliancy, when, the eye )^Q^ deep into

84 Dr Barry's Besearches on Embryology.

heaven, and the stars glitter with a radiance unknown in less
genial climes — where the land wind rises, and is felt, but not
heard, for the stillness of midnight is not broken as its soft
breath comes from the untrodden depths of the wilderness,
laden with the fragrance of the spice tree and the wild flower.
But in that luxurious region. Nature at times shews herself
in the power and sublimity of her convulsions, and awes by the
earthquake, the tornado, and the thunder-storm. Her hours
of anger are fearful, but are soon forgotten as she resumes her
almost permanent tranquillity.*

Researches on Embryology ; Third Series : A Contribution to the
Physiology of Cells, By Martin Barry, M. D., F. R. SS.
L. &; E., Member of the Wernerian Natural History So-
ciety, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in Edin-
burgh.

In the second series of these researches, of which an account
is given in the twenty-seventh volume of this Journal, the
author had traced certain changes in the mammiferous ovum
consequent on fecundation. The object of his present very
interesting communication, which was read before the Royal
Society of London on the 7th of May 1840, is to describe their
further appearances, obtained by the application of higher
magnifying powers ; and to make known a remarkable process
of development thus discovered. In order to obtain more
exact results, his observations were still made on the same
animal as before, namely, the rabbit, in the expectation that,
if his labours were successful, it would be comparatively easy
to trace the changes in other mammals. By pursuing the
method of obtaining and preserving ova from the Fallopian tube,
which he recommended in his last paper, he has been enabled
to find and examine 137 more of these delicate objects ; and has
thus had ample opportunity of confirming the principal facts
therein stated. He has now procured in all 230 ova from the
Fallopian tube. But being aware that repeated observations

* Sillimaa's American tToomal of Science and Arts, vol. xsjiLyiii, p. 315 .

Dr Barry's Besearches in Embryology. 85

alone do not suffice in researches of this nature, unless extended
to the very earliest stages, he again specially directed his at-
tention to the ovum while it is still within the ovary, with a
view to discover its state at the moment of fecundation, as
well as immediately before and after that event.

The almost universal supposition, that the Purkinjian or
germinal vesicle is the essential portion of the ovum, has been
realized in these investigations ; but in a manner not antici-
pated by any of the numerous conjectures which have been pub-
lished. The germinal vesicle becomes filled with cells, and
these again become filled with the foundations of other cells ;
so that the vesicle is thus rendered almost opaque. The mode
in which this change takes place is the following, and it is one
which, if confirmed by future observation, must modify the
views recently advanced on the mode of origin, the nature, the
properties, and the destination of the nucleus in the physiology
of cells. It is known that the germinal spot presents, in some
instances, a dark point in its centre. The author finds that
such a point is invariably present at a certain period ; that it
enlarges, and is then found to contain a cavity filled with fluid,
which is exceedingly pellucid. The outer portion of the spot
resolves itself into cells ; and the foundations of other cells
come into view in its interior, arranged in layers around the
central cavity ; the outer layers being pushed forth by the
continual origin of new cells in the interior. The latter
commence as dark globules in the pellucid fluid of the cen-
tral cavity. Every other nucleus met with in these re-
searches has seemed to be the seat of changes essentially the
same. The appearance of the central portion of the nucleus
is, from the above process, continually varying ; and the author
believes that the nature of the nucleolus of Schleiden is to be
thus explained. The germinal vesicle, enlarged and flattened,
becomes filled with the objects arising from the changes in its
spot ; and the interior of each of the objects filling it, into
which the eye can penetrate, presents a repetition of the pro-
cess above described. The central portion of the altered spot,
with its pellucid cavity, remains at that part of the germinal
vesicle which is directed towards the surface of the ovum, and
towards the surface of the ovary. At the corresponding part,

16 Dr Barry'^s jResearthes in FMhryolog^,

the thick transparent membrane of the ovum in some instances
appears to have become attenuated, in others also cleft. Sub-
sequently, the central portion of the altered spot passes to the
centre of the germinal vesicle ; the germinal vesicle, regaining
its spherical form, returns to the centre of the ovum, and a
fissure in the thick transparent membrane is no longer seen.
From these successive changes, it may be inferred that fecun-
dation has taken place ; and this by the introduction of some
substance into the germinal vesicle from the exterior of the
ovary. It may also be inferred, that the central portion of
the altered germinal spot is the point of fecundation. In fur-
ther proof that such really is the case, there arise at this part
two cells, which constitute the foundation of the new being.
These two cells enlarge, and imbibe the fluid of those around
them, which are at first pushed further out by the two central
cells, and subsequently disappear by liquefaction. The con-
tents of the germinal vesicle thus enter into the formation of
two cells. The membrane of the germinal vesicle then disap-
pears by liquefaction.

Each of the succeeding twin cells presents a nucleus, which,
having first passed to the centre of its cell, resolves itself into
cells in the manner above described. By this means, the twin
cells, in their turn, become filled with other cells. Only two
of these in each twin cell being destined to continue, the others,
as well as the membrane of each parent-cell, disappear by li^
quef action, when four cells remain. These four produce eight,
and so on, until the germ consists of a mulberry-like object,
the cells of which do not admit of being counted. Nor does
the mode of propagation continue the same with reference to
number only. The process inherited from the germinal vesi-
cle by its twin offspring, reappears in the progeny of these.
Every cell, whatever its minuteness, if its interior can be dis-
cerned, is found filled with the foundations of new cells, into
which its nucleus has been resolved. Together with a doubling
of the number of the cells, there occurs also a diminution of
their size. The cells are at first elliptical, and become glo-
bular.

The above mode of augmentation, namely, the origin of cells
\xk cells, appears by no means to be limited to the period in

Dr Barry's Researches in Embryology. S7

question. Thus it is very common to meet with several varie-
ties of epithelium-cells in the oviduct, including those which
carry cilia, filled with cells ; but the whole embryo at a subse-
quent period is composed of cells filled with the foundations of
other cells.

In the second series of these researches, it was shewn that
the mulberry-like object above mentioned is found to contain
a cell larger than the rest, elliptical in form, and having in its
centre a thick-walled hollow sphere, which is the nucleus of
this cell. It was further shewn that this nucleus is the rudi-
mental embryo. From what has been just stated, it appears,
that the same process by which a nucleus in one instance
transforms itself into the embryo, is in operation in another
instance, where the product does not extend beyond the inte-
rior of a minute and transitory cell. Making allowance, in-
deed, for a difference in form and size, the description given
of the one might be applied to the other. It was shewn in
the second series, that in the production of the embrj^o out of
a nucleus, layer after layer of ceils come into view in the inte-
rior, while layers previously formed are pushed further out ;
each of the layers being so distinctly circumscribed as to ap-
pear almost membranous at its surface. The same membranous
appearance presents itself at the surface of the several layers
of a nucleus in many situations. Further, in the formation of
the embryo, a pellucid centre is the point around which new
layers of cells continually come into view ; a centre con*espond-
ing to that giving origin to similar appearances in every nu-
cleus described in the present memoir. It was shewn that in the
embryo this mysterious centre is present until it has assumed
the form of the cavity, including the sinus rhomboidalis, in the
central portion of the nervous system.

The process above described, as giving origin to the new
being in the mammiferous ovum, is no doubt universal. The
author thinks there is evidence of its occurrence in the ova of
batrachian reptiles, some osseous fishes, and certain of the
mollusca ; though the explanation given of these has been of
a very different character. It has hitherto been usual to re-
gard the round white spot, or cicatricula, on the yolk of the
bird's laid ^^g^ as an altered state of the discus vitellinus in

88 Dr Barry's Researches in Embryology,

the unfecundated ovarian ovum. So far from thinking that such
is the case, the author beUeves the whole substance of the ci-
catricula in the laid agg to have its origin within the germinal
vesicle, in the same manner as in the ovum of mammalia.

There is no fixed relation between the degree of development
of ova, and their size, locality, or age. The variation with re-
gard to size is referable chiefly to a difference in the quantity
of fluid imbibed in different instances by the incipient chorion.
Vesicles filled with transparent fluid are frequently met with
in the Fallopian tube, very much resembling the thick tran-
sparent membrane of the ovarian ovum. These vesicles are
probably unimpregnated ova, in the course of being absorbed.
The so-called " yelk " in the more or less mature ovarian ovum,
consists of nuclei in the transition state, and exhibiting the
compound structure above described. The mass of these be-
comes circumscribed by a proper membrane. They and their
membrane subsequently disappear by liquefaction, and are
succeeded by a new set, arising in the interior, and likewise
becoming circumscribed by a proper membrane, and so on.
This explains why some observers have never seen a membrane
in this situation. After the fecundation of the ovum, the cells
of the tunica granulosa, that is, part of the so-called " disc,"
are found to have become club-shaped, greatly elongated, filled
in some instances with cells, and connected with the thick
transparent membrane by their pointed extremities alone.

That the thin membrane described by the author in his se-
cond series as rising from the thick transparent membrane in
the Fallopian tube, and imbibing fluid, is really the incipient
chorion, was then shewn by tracing it from stage to stage, up
to the period when villi form upon it. There remained, how-
ever, two questions undecided ; viz., whether the chorion is
formed of cells, and if so, whether the cells are those of the so-
called " disc,'* brought by the ovum from the ovary. The
author now states that the chorion is formed of cells, which
gradually collect around the thick transparent membrane, and
coalesce ; and that the cells in question are not those of the
" disc," brought with the ovum from the ovary. The cells
which give origin to the chorion are intended to be more par-
ticularly described in a future paper.

Dr Barry's Besearches in Embryology, 89

The existing view, namely, that a nucleus, when it leaves
the membrane of its cell, simply disappears by liquefaction, is
inapplicable to any nucleus observed in the course of these in-
vestigations. The nucleus resolves itself into incipient cells in
the manner above described. In tracing this process, it ap-
pears that the nucleus, and especially its central pellucid ca-
vity, is the seat of changes which were not to have been ex-
pected from the recently advanced doctrine, that the disappear-
ing nucleus has performed its entire ofl&ce by giving origin at
its surface to the membrane of a single cell. It is the myste-
rious centre of a nucleus which is the point of fecundation ;
and the place of origin of two cells constituting the foundation
of the new being. The germinal vesicle, as already stated, is
the parent cell, which, having given origin to two cells, disap-
pears, each of its successors giving origin to other two, and so
on. Perpetuation, however, at this period, consists, not merely
in the origin of cells in cells, but in the origin of cells in the
pellucid central part of what had been the nucleus of cells.

The author shews that neither the germinal vesicle, nor the
pellucid object in the epithelium, is a cytoblast. He suggests,
that the cells into which, according to his observations, the
nucleus becomes resolved, may enter into the formation of se-
condary deposits, for instance, spiral fibres ; and that they
may contribute to the thickening which takes place, in some
instances, in the cell-membrane.

The germ of certain plants passes through states so much
resembling those occurring in the germ of mammiferous ani-
mals, that it is not easy to consider them as resulting either
from a different fundamental form, or from a process of deve-
lopment which, even iiQ its details, is not the same as what has
been above described ; the fundamental form in question in
Mammalia, and, therefore, it may be presumed, of Man him-
self— being that which is permanent in the simplest plants — the
single isolated cell.

( 90 )

On the Frequency of Thunder-Storms in the Polar Begions.
By M. Von Baer.

M. Arago, in his elaborate work on thunder, published in the
year 1838, has stated it as an established fact, " that^ in the wide
ocean^ and in islands, it never thunders beyond the 75° of N, lati-
tude ; and that at the 70^ the phenomenon is very seldom heard —
Bcarcely once a-year^ M. de Baer, who was travelling in the
extreme north of Europe in 1837, having had occasion to make
observations which exhibited the limit of storms, if such limit
there is, much nearer to the pole, has communicated to the
Imperial Academy of Petersburg in a note, and under form of
a letter, dated the 7th of May, to M. Jacobi, the remarks he
himself has made on this subject, and those he has collected
from other authors. Of these we shall supply a summary in
as few words as possible.

M. de Baer commences by directing attention to the cir-
cumstance, that M. Arago has based his general conclusion
upon an insufficient number of documents. " In truth," he
remarks, " M. Arago has only consulted the English voyages
undertaken in our own times to the northern parts of Ameri-
ca and Spitzbergen, and the observations made in Iceland by
M. Thorstensen for a period of two years only. At the same
time, many of these voyagers were for a long time on the wide
ocean, or in islands of no great extent, and no one knows bet-
ter than M. Arago that the farther you are removed from con-
tinents, the more rarely do you encounter thunder-storms.
But, in addition to this, more extended observations prove,
that in the very same spots where these. passing voyagers have
not heard thunder, it has from time to time been heard by
others, so that this proposition may be stated, ' That no north-
ern latitude has been attained by man in which thunder is not
known to occur? It even thunders at Spitzbergen, though cer-
tainly very rarely. In Nova Zembla, I have witnessed a thun-
der storm beyond the 73°, and the narratives of the hunters of
the walrus contain many accounts of it.""

We shall commence, however, with Iceland. M. Arago'^s
notice of this island is as follows : — *' Iceland is often adduced

Thunder-^ forms in the Polar t^egiOns. SI

as a country in which thunder never occurs. The word ne'cer
here used, however, should be altered, fdr in an interval of about
two years we find, in the meteorological observations of M.
Thorstensen, there was one day, the 80th of November, ift
which thunder was heard/' Upon this sentiment M. Baer re-
marks, " That if there be those who adduce Iceland as a coun-
try where no thunder occurs, it is evident that they have not
consulted the numerous works which have been written regard-
ing it. Thunder-storms are in reality frequent there, though
not so common as in most other parts of Europe. It is not to
be forgotten, say Olafsen and Povelsen, as a memorable fact,
connected with the northern part of Iceland, that thunder-
storms prevailed there, and terrible lightnings, during the u'hole
of the summer of the year 1718, and that, on the 11th of June,
a man was killed by a thunderbolt. The same observers, who
dwelt long in Iceland, assert, that lightnings are frequent in
the northern parts, and that thunder is heard there from time
to time. In the western peninsula storms are rare, and thun-
der is only heard at distant intervals of time. Thunder is
more frequent on the southern portion of the island ; there it
has twice destroyed the cathedral of Skalholt, and in 1634, it
removed the roofs from a number of houses. Anderson* tells
us that it thunders in those countries usually only in winter ;
and Olafsen and Povelsent repeat the assertion.

" In Greenland, thunder is more uncommon, according to
the statements of Egede and Crantz.| The former of these
missionaries resided in the country for fifteen years ; and the
latter remarks, that you sometimes observe lightnings, but
thunder is but seldom heard.

" Upon the continents in the same latitude as Iceland,
thunder is much more frequent than in that island. In
America, on the coasts of Hudson's Bay, Ellis and James
Hudson have witnessed thunder-storms. § On the thunder-

* Anderson ; Nachrichten von Island, Groenland und der Strasse Davis,
1747. s. 123.

t Voyage en Islande fait par ordre, &c. S. M. D. 1. 1. p. 13.

X Egede, Beschrcibung und Naturgeschichte von Gronland, s. 79. Crantz
Historie von Groenland, b. i. s. 62.

I Scowsby's Account of th© Arctic Regidiis, vol. i. p. 415.

92 M. Von Baer on the Freqtiency of

storms of Labrador, the observations of Latrobe may be con-
sulted.* M. Arago founds his conclusion upon the circum-
stance that the observations of Captain Franklin, made at
Fort Franklin, in latitude ^5" 12' N. (and not in 67i°» as he
has indicated by mistake), and which state the occurrence of
thunder only once (29th May) during a vv^hole year ; but he
seems to have overlooked the fact, that the month of June is
omitted in the tables, the month in which, of all others, such
storms are apt to occur in the northern regions of the Oonti-
nent.-(- In Europe, in the same latitudes as Iceland, thunder-
storms are still more frequent. Julin heard thunder eighty-eight
times during twelve years, at Uleaborg (Lat. Q5° N.), in other
words, 7.3 times a-year.J At Archangel (Lat. 64° 34' N.),
according to the observations of M. KupfFer, there were 121
thunder-storms in eighteen years, or in the ratio of Q.5 a-year.
At Beresow (Lat. 64°) there were, in 1832, six storms. At
Jakutsk (Lat. 62° N.) it thundered six times in the year 1838.
At Nertschinsk it occurred eighteen times in six years, or at
the rate of 3 times a-year. These observations seem to prove,
that the frequency of thunder-storms is regulated by the iso-
thermal, or still more by the isotheral lines, rather than by
the degrees of latitude.

" To these facts we now add a few other observations which
were made further to the north, and which prove that, in
Europe, thunder-storms are not so rare as they appear to be
in America, according to the observations of Captain Frank-
lin. We first extract some of the notes of M. Schrenk, a tra-
velling botanist, who, in the year 1837, traversed the terri-
tories of the Samoyedes : — ' On the 3d of June, upon the banks
of the river Rotschuga, Lat. Q5^° N. experienced a thunder-
storm : on the 8th of June, on the banks of the Sylma, same lati-
tude, thunder occurred along with rain, but without lightning ;j|
on the 17th July there was another thunder-storm, in the de-

* Phil. Transact, vol. Ixix. and vol. Ixxi.

t Franklin's Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar
Sea, in the years 1825, 1826, 1827. Append. Ixix and Ixx.
, X ^^^ Kongl. Schwed. Acad. Neue Abhandlungen. Bd. x. (Jahrg. 1789)
S. 109.

II Geoi^i's Bemerkungen einer Beise im Buss : Beiche, Bd. i. e. 427 to 435.

Thunder-storms in the Polar Eegions. 93

aerts destitute of trees, which are called Tundras in Eussia, in
the latitude of 68° and a trifle more ; and, lastly, on the 21st
July, in the latitude 69°. the same traveller witnessed much
lightning, but without thunder. During a journey of a week'*s
continuance, which was made the same year in Russian Lap-
land, along with M. Lehman, there was on the 23d of June,
near the mouth of the river Ponoi, at an inhabited port which
is called Tri Ostrowa, Lat. 67°, a thunder-storm which continued
for three hours, and which appeared to extend as far as Lat.
68° N. M. Reinecke, Captain of the Russian Marine, who,
during his examination of the coasts of the White Sea and of
Russian Lapland, dwelt at Kola, and upon the north coasts
of that part of Lapland, from the middle of March to the end
of summer, heard in this country, between 69° and 70% eight
storms in 1826; and at Utsioki, Lat. 70°, Wegelius heard
thunder thrice in the year 1758.

" If it be true that there are a greater number of storms
in the interior of the Arctic countries than upon their shores,
they, nevertheless, are not altogether wanting even in the
midst of the Polar ice. Admiral Wrangell, in one of the pe-
rilous journeys which he made upon the ice of the Polar Sea,
to the north-east of Siberia, observed a thunder-storm upon
the ice, even when out of sight of land.

** M. Ziwolka and I witnessed a storm in the centre of Nova
Zembla, at the western embouchure of Matotschkin-Schar
Strait, in Lat. 73» 10', on the 26th of July 1837. Rakhmanine
heard thunder three times in the southern part of Nova
Zembla, between the latitudes 71» and 73i% in the course of
the voyages he made during the last century, and which oc-
cupied two summers and twenty-six winters.

." Finally, it sometimes thunders at a higher latitude than
75°, and even as far north as Spitzbergen. This we learn from
the recital of four shipwrecked Russians, who found an asylum
on the eastern isle of Spitzbergen, on which three of them
lived for six years and three months. They heard thunder
once, but once only, during this long period."

i U )

Notice of Elevated Sea-Beaches. By Alan Stevenson, LL.B.,
F.R. S. E., Civil Engineer. Communicated in a Letter to
Professor Jameson.

Skerryvobe Lighthouse Works,
20 Miles Seaward of lona,
My Dear Sir, April 28. 1640.

As you invited me, when I had the pleasure of seeing you
before I left Edinburgh for my summer expedition, to commu-
nicate (no matter how imperfectly) any observations which
might occur to me, or facts which might come under my notice
in my exile, I beg leave to trouble you with the accompanying
section of two ancient beaches in the Island of Mull, which
are situated not far from the quarries, the property of his
Grace the Duke of Argyle, that supply the materials for
Skerryvore Lighthouse. My attention was directed to this spot
by an intelligent person, Mr Charles Barclay, who is foreman
of our quarries, and who recognised in the spot to which the
sketch refers, a resemblance to some of the principal features
described by Captain Basil Hall, as having been observed by
him on the coast of Chili. This beach is in a district of the
parish of Bunessan, called the J^oss of Mull, about half a mile
NW. from the loch where we opened our quarries. The district
of the Boss is entirely composed of granite, which closely re-
sembles, both in its structure and the mode of its arrangement,
the celebrated granite of Peterhead ; and as it is in some places
tinged of a deep red, and but thinly and partially covered with
moss, it gives the whole coast a reddish appearance, from
which I believe it has acquired its name. The length of the
face of the lower of these two beaches is about 700 feet, and
its distance from the highest point reached by the tide is about
250 feet, while the level of its top is 25 feet above the highest
level of any tide that I could trace. What 1 suppose to be a
second beach, is less distinctly defined than the lower one,
and is situated fully 40 feet above the level of high water. It
is more extensive in its face-wall (if I may so speak) ; but I
did not take any measurement of its length. The heights in
the accompanying section were determined by actual measure-
ment with a spirit-level.

Mr SUven80»'» NQtke of Ehvated ^€a'B$ache8. 95

A is the top of the higher Ancient Beach, which is 40^ feet ahove the present
high water of spring-tides at C

B is the top of the lower Ancient Beach, which is 25.8 feet above the present high-
water of spring tides at C.

The dimensions in the section are given in feet and decimals.

I have but little time to speculate on the subject of these
beaches, and I shall therefore only trouble you with a few
observations which occurred to me on the spot. The upper
beach is terminated at both ends by the hill country of the
Boss, and is also, in its middle, broken by a round hillock
which on one side appears to be rising out of the level plain
which forms the top of the beach. Upon digging, I found the
game species of boulders as those which lie on the present
shore, and they were only covered with a thin but tough coat
of mossy grass, which the spade penetrated with difficulty.

The lower beach has much more marked features than the
upper one ; and its appearance is such as can hardly fail to
strike the most careless observer. It has somewhat the look
of an artificial mound, the ground being lower at the back of
it than at its face or crest. Two projecting tongues, in which
the adjoining lines of the beach unite, are very remark-
able, and are obviously produced by the action of the waves
from the sides of two small bays opposite each other, and an
inlet between them, at each of which the face of the beach
is concave. This beach is also composed of boulders, which,
however, appear more rounded than those of the other beach,
or indeed than those which compose the present shore. This
may arise from the stones having been longer exposed to the
action of the sea before being raised to their present level.
The contour of both these beaches, but more especially that of
the lower one, is characterized by the slightly concave form
which distinguishes sea-beaches composed of gravel and sand ;
and I have not the least doubt that these ridges are of marine
origin, while their position, in an almost land-locked bay, ren-
ders it highly improbable that the accmmtdation of gravel could

96 On the Difference of Level between the

have been produced by any temporary storm. As to whe-
ther these changes have any connection with those which have
convulsed the neighbouring volcanic districts, I will not even
hazard a guess. I have not been able as yet to detect any traces
of marine organic remains on any part of this coast, although 1
looked for them in connection with the levels of the beaches,
nor could I find any traces of a vertical dislocation of the strata
in the neighbourhood. This, however, need not discourage
others, as my glances were very hasty. I have engaged Mr
Barclay, who enters zealously into the inquiry, to exaamine
the neighbouring rocks, with the view of detecting any ap-
pearances which may be interesting in connection with the
beaches, or may in any way tend to illustrate their history ; and
I shall not fail to apprize you of any thing he may pick up in
his frequent perambulations of the coast ; nor shall I neglect,
when my affairs again call me to Mull, to prosecute the sub-
ject as far as I can. I am, my dear Sir, very faithfully yours,

Alan Stevenson.
Professor Jameson, &c. &c. &c. Edinburgh.

On the Difference of Level between the Dead Sea and the Medi-
terranean.

It is a remarkable coincidence, that, at the very time when
the last Russian Expedition was occupied in determining the
problem of the relative level of the Caspian Sea, a less exten-
sive, but equally interesting example of a great depression was
discovered in Palestine. Professor Schubert of Munich, two
Englishmen, Messrs Moore and Beek, and M. J. de Bertou, a
Frenchman, almost simultaneously, and quite independently
of one another, have made the discovery, that the Dead Sea,
and likewise the entire lower valley of the Jordan, are situated
considerably under the level of the Mediterranean Sea. The
newspapers have already made occasional mention of this dis-
covery, but the scientific journals have hitherto been silent on
the subject, owing to the absence of authentic information.
We are now, however, in possession of the latter, and it ap-

Dead Sea and the Mediterranean.

97

858
350

pears to be desirable, to present a short analysis of the pre-
sent state of our knowledge upon this interesting subject of
physical geography.

In the third volume of his Travels in the East in 1836 and
1837 (Reise in das Morgenland in den Jahren 1836 and 1837.
Erlangen 1839), Professor Schubert, among other barometri-
cal results, gives the following : —

Parisian Feat
aboTe the Sea. vmder the Sea.
Edge of the mountains of the upper valley of

the Jordan, in a limited sense,
Jacob's Bridge on the Jordan,
Lake of Tibei;jas or Genezareth,
Plain of the Jordan near Jericho,
Northern comer of the Dead Sea,

During the last observation, the mercury ascended beyond
the scale of the barometer, which was not suited for so great
a rise, and hence its height could only be calculated by the
eye. The observations moreover, are only incidental, in Schu-
bert's work,* and the data afforded by observation are not
given, although a detailed account is promised in the Munich
Transactions.

The observations of M. Bertou are shortly given in the Bul-
letin de la Societe de Giographie, Jan. 1839, vol. x. p. 274, &c.
The following series of results is extracted from them.

536

600

1

r»_i._ J T _- I'i -

Barometer.

Temperature.
Cent.

Parisian Inches.

Millimetres.

March 3.

Beirut, ....

28

757.96

2r

6.

Sidon, ....

28

757.96

6.

Acre (Latin Monastery).

27 03

737.66

16

12.

Jerusalem, . . .

25.09

697.05

15|

12.

Jericho, ....

28.11

782.78

2U

13.

Jericho, ....

29.00

785.03

13|

13.

{ Northern extremity \
\ of the Dead Sea, /

29.06

798.56

2H

13.

Jericho, . . .

29.00

785.08

27i

14.

Jerusalem, ...

25.09

697.05

16

The numbers here are inches and lines of the old French
measurement, as is evident from the column of millimetres. M.

* The following is the account of the level of the Dead Sea given by Dr
Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert in his amusing narrative : — '' We were not a
little astonished at Jericho, and still more at the Dead Sea, to see the mer-
cury in our barometer (which, as I shall afterwards mention more particu-
VOL. XXIX NO. IVII..— JULY 1840/ ^

9^ On (he Difertnce of Level between the

Bertou has thus read off no smaller parts than whole lines ;
and neither the temperature of the barometer, nor that of the
air, seems to have been determined. His observations, there-
fore, have no claim to great accuracy.* Notwithstanding this,
and perhaps other deficiencies in the measurements, the great
height of 20J Parisian inches, observed at the Dead Sea, can
only be explained by its low position.

In the Comptes Eeiidus, vol. vii. p. 798, M. Callier has cal-
culated the above-mentioned height of the barometer (which,
however, he gives as only TO/'"'".^, instead of 798™"'.5G), and
thence, assuming 760™"^.0 as the mean height of the barome-
ter at the level of the sea, he has deduced 406 metres =1249.8
Parisian feet (about 1330 English feet) for the depression of
the Dead Sea ; which is more than double the amount assigned
by Professor Schubert.

Shortly after his first excursion to the Dead Sea, a little
air unfortunately entered M. Bertou's barometer, and he there-
fore performed his subsequent measurements, during a journey
from Hebron to Akaba and back again, by means of the boil-
ing point of water, as determined by a thermometer of Lede-

larly, was not adapted to such observations) ascend beyond the scale. We
were obliged to calculate the height by the eye, and although we reduced the
calculation as much as possible, owing to the extremely unexpected nature
of the result, yet the level of the Dead Sea hence deduced, was at least 6984,
or, in round numbers, GOO Parisian feet : that is nearly 640 English feet un-
der that of the Mediterranean. We endeavoured to explain away this con-
clusion in every possible way. First of all, we supposed an accidental un-
usually high state of the barometer on the very day of our observation ; but
the previous day's storm ought rather to have produced a fall than a rise of
the mercury. We next imagined that there must be something wrong with
our instrument, exposed as it had been to so many mischances ; but, on our
return to Jerusalem, it exhibited the same mean height as before our jour-
ney to Jericho. Notwithstanding all this, however, I could not have ven-
tured to make public so extraordinary a measurement after my return home,
although the measurement of the height of the Lake of Tiberias corresponded
with it, had it not been, that some of my friends published a notice of it
in the Allgemeine Zeitung. And scarcely had this taken place, when imme-
diately public confirmations made their appearance, of the abnormal depres-
sion of the Dead or Salt Sea, first of all from Mr Beek, and afterwards from
other observers ; confirmations which, nevertheless, make our determination
appear the most moderate." (Vol. iii. p. 80). — Editor.

* M. Bertou himself is surprised at the great difference of the results for
Sidoii and Acre, two places lying on the sea-coast.

Dead Sea and the Mediterranean. W

bours, which was evidently not accurate enough for such a pur-
pose. Of these measurements, the following have the greatest
interest : —

Boiling point. Temp, of the air.

April 3. Southern extremity of the Dead Sea, 100°.6 32^6 Cent.

6. Water-shed, el Sateh, . . . 98.0 25

8. Akaba, on the Bed Sea, . . . 99.9 29

May 1. Jerusalem 96.0 20

The boiling point at 100°.6 0. corresponds to a height of
the barometer of 776'""™.45 (at 0°), and gives for the Dead Sea
a depression = 166 metres = 510 Parisian feet (upwards of
540 English feet), a result which, if either of the previous ones
be at all correct, must be much under the truth.

But the result obtained by thermo-barometric means, by
Messrs Moore and Beek, differs still more from the other de-
terminations. According to M. Callier (Comptes Bendus, vol.
vii. p. 798) these observers found the boiling point on the
banks of the Dead Sea = 216°.5 F. = 102°.5 Cent. This tern-
perature would indicate, according to him, an atmospheric
pressure of 815"^™.6, and assuming a mean height of the baro-
meter of 760"^™.O at the level of the sea, would give for the
depression of the Dead Sea 608 metres = 1872 Parisian feet
(nearly 2000 English feet),* an estimate three times as great
as that by Professor Schubert.

From these data it is clear, that although there can be no

* The amount of depression deduced by Messrs Moore and Beek them*
selves, from their own observations, is very different from the result of th«ir
experiments given by M. Callier, as appears from the following extract from
Mr W. R. Hamilton's address delivered to the Royal Geographical Society
of London, on the 27th May 1839. " The exact level of the surface of the
Dead Sea, is a point of increasing interest not yet satisfactorily cleared up.
Mr Moore, by thermometric obserN'ations, has estimated it at about 500 feet
below the level of the Mediten-anean ; Professor Schubert, by barometric
observations, at GOO feet ; whilst Mr Russegger, an Austrian naturalist, has,
also from barometric obserATitions, recently stated it to be at a depression of
no less than 1400 feet below the Mediterranean ; but we trust that this point
will not long remain a stumbling-block for geographers, as I am happy to
acquaint you that more than a month since, your Secretary, not unmindful
of the interest attached to what appears to be one of the most remarkable
features in the physical geography of the globe, placed an excellent barometer,
made by Newman, and compared with the Royal Society's standard, in the
hands of two young Englishmen about to visit Palestine, with a special re-
quest that they would endeavour to settle the point in question.''— Editor*

100 On the Difference of Level between the

doubt of the low position of the Dead Sea, yet that the amount
of the depression is as yet by no means ascertained. Travel-
lers have lately started from England for Palestine provided
with good barometers ; but it is evident that no great certainty
can be obtained on the subject, unless observations are made
for at least some months, and unless corresponding observa-
tions are made at some neighbouring point on the coast of the
Mediterranean, which have been awanting in all the measure-
ments hitherto made.

The fact of the depression of the Dead Sea will, at the same
time, decide another question, which has of late years been a
subject of discussion among geographers. It is well known
that it was discovered in 1805 by Seetzen, and afterwards con-
firmed by Burckhardt, Bankes, and many other travellers, that,
from the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, a continuous
longitudinal valley, like a trough, runs down to the Gulf of
Akaba, the eastern branch of the bifurcation of the Red Sea.
This very distinct valley, which has quite the appearance as if
it were a continuation of the Gulf, has for some time given rise
to the opinion, that the Dead Sea formerly stood in connection
with the Red Sea, and hence, that the Jordan formerly flowed
into the latter.* The low position in which it is now proved
that the Dead Sea is placed, shews, however, that, at least in
the present condition of the surface of the earth, it must al-
ways have been an inclosed basin. This opinion receives a
further confirmation from the nature of the longitudinal valley
just spoken of. M. Bertou, who was the first to travel through
it in its whole extent, found that it by no means presents a
continuous flat surface, but that it consists of three distinctly
separated portions, Wadi el Ghor, Wadl el Araba^ and Wadi el
Akaba; and that, nearly in the middle of its length, it contains
a water-shed called El Sateh (the roof), whence the streams flow
on the one side to the Red Sea, and on the other to the Dead
Sea. The northern portion TFadi el Ghor^ which is, upon the
whole, very fruitful, is, as it were, a continuation of the Dead
Sea, and salt streams descend from the mountains to its mar-
gin, which evidently give rise to the great saltness of this sea.

* Vide Von 1105*8 Oeschichte der natiirlichen vdvUnderungen der Erdoher-
MchCf ToL ii. p. 118 ; and other authoriti6$.

Dead Sea and the Mediterranedv, 101

The middle valley WadielAraha^ has, in its northern portion,
a long narrow furrow, which, at the first glance, might be taken
for a continuation of the valley of the Jordan, in which, how-
ever, in the winter time, the waters flow from the south to the
north, towards the Dead Sea. A fuller elucidation of the rea-
sons for the original separation of the basin of the Dead Sea
from that of the Red Sea, is given by M. Letronne in the
Nouvelles Annales des Voyages for 1839.

Finally, it ought further to be mentioned here, that the
Dead Sea is distingxiished by its great depth ; for, in the 7th
volume, p. 456, of the Journal of the Geographical Society of
London, it is stated, that the soundings of Messrs Moore and
Beek shewed a depth of upwards of 300 fathoms. — (Poggen-
dorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1840.)

On account of the great interest excited by the fact of the
depression of the Dead Sea, it may not be out of place to in-
troduce here Russegger's account of his observations. — " I sus-
pended, with some degree of eagerness, a barometer on the
turret of an old castle in the small town of Richa (Jericho).
The mercury, at half-past five o''clock in the evening, and at a
temperature of the air of 18" R. (72o.5 F.), stood at 786.1
millimetres (that is 29" 0'".42 Parisian measurement), and at
eight o"* clock in the evening, it stood at 786.8 millimetres (or
29" 0'".77) at an atmospheric temperature of 14° R. (63°.5 F.).
During the morning, I rode to the Jordan ; and at the usual
bathing-place of the pilgrims, the barometer ascended to 801.8
millimetres (or 29" 7'".42) at an atmospheric temperature at
mid-day of 21°.8R. (81.05° F.) I then proceeded to the coast of
the Dead Sea, and on suspending the barometer, I could no longer
make an observation, for the mercury stood close to the top
of the tube, which was too short for the great depth at which
I then was below the level of the sea. Taking into considera-
tion the temperatures of the mercury at each observation, and
calculating the average of simultaneous observations at Jeru-
salem, the following are the results of the heights or depths :
The town of Richa in the valley of the Jordan 774 Paris feet
(about 825 English feet) ; bathing-place of the pilgrims at the
Jordan 1269 Paris feet (about 1350 English feet) ; and the
Dead Sea about 50 feet lower than the last, which is about

X02 On the Difference of Level between the

two English miles distant from it, or 1319 Parisian feet (up-
wards of 1400 English feet) below the level of the Medi-
terranean Sea. It ought not to be left without notice, that
the results of Schubert, or rather of Erdl, rest only on esti-
mates, and not on observations. Thus, in a manuscript, now
lying before me, it is said: ' 1837, April 12. Jericho, dur-
ing a violent storm in the evening the mercury stood so high
as to be covered by the wooden mounting. As far as could
be estimated by inclining it, it must have reached at least to
347'"=28" 11'" ; thermometer 25 f E (88°.o3 F.). April 13.
at mid-day in fine weather, the same circumstance took place
ftt the Dead Sea, that the glass tube was visible for too short
a distance, and that the scale could not be observed to a suf-
ficient height. According to the estimate of its height formed
by inclining it, the mercury must have stood at 348'" = 29" 0'" ;
thermometer = 23|° R. (85o.l5 F.).' From these estimated
a.nd not observed heights of the barometer, Steinheil has cal-
culated the depression of Jericho at 527.7, and that of the
surface of the Dead Sea at 598.5 Parisian feet under the level
of the Mediterranean. As Russegger''s barometer still ad-
mitted of the actual reading of the height of the mercury, we
might certainly be inclined to give his results the preference,
or at all events the number assigned by him to Jericho. It
seems, however, doubtful, and not reconcilable with appear-
ances, that the Dead Sea should lie 545 feet lower than Jericho.
What Eussegger termed a castle, at which he made his obser-
vations, is a tower of about 30 feet in height, and if we esti-
mate the difference of height between the surface of the earth
at Jericho, and that of the Dead Sea, at 80 or 90 (180 or
190 ?) feet, we obtain for the surface of the latter, at the
most, a depression of 990 Parisian feet (upwards of 1050
English feet) imder the level of the Mediterranean, whi<;h
corresponds well with the depression of the Sea of Galilee,
deduced from the observations of Erdl. On the 23d April
1837, at 5 o'clock p.m., at the Lake of Genezareth, the height
of the mercury was actually observed to be 28" 10'". 5, at a
temperature of 15f R. (67°.15 F.). Hence Steinheil finds
th3 level of tho lake to be 535.3 Parisian feet under the
level of the Mediterranean ; therefore, compared with the
mbove amount (990 feet), we have 455 feet for the height of

Dead Sea and the Mediterranean, 103

the lake above the level of the Dead Sea, which gives a con-
siderable but not extravagant amount of descent for the Jor-
dan. Schubert's expedition arrived in Jerusalem, on the 28th
March, and quitted the Holy City on the 15th April. During
this period, Dr Erdl made 31 barometrical and thermometrical
observations, on the first floor of the Latin Monastery of St
Salvator. These indicated a variation of only 2". 9 ; for the
greatest height was 3i0"'.5, and the smallest was 307'". 6. The
height of Jerusalem, as deduced from these observations, and
according to SteinheiFs calculation, is 2472.9 Parisian feet
(2634 English feet) above the level of the Mediterranean Sea,
which agrees perfectly with Russegger's determination, who
assigns a height of 2470 Parisian feet to St Salvator. The
highest summit of the Mount of Olives is, according to Erdl,
only 83 feet (88 English) higher than the Latin Monastery;
but the bed of the Kedron, at the tomb of Jehosaphat is 333 feet
(355 English) lower than St Salvator. Damascus lies nearly
2200 feet (2344 English), the pass of Lebanon at Dschebel
Makmel 7154 feet (7G24 English), and the grove of the cedars
of Lebanon, 5878 feet (6264 English) above the Sea—CFrom
Berghaus's Almanack^ fur 1840.

Rej^rton the Geology of Newfoundland. By J. B. Jukes, Esq.
RA. & F.G.S.*

In the present state of geological science, an observer com-
mencing an investigation of a country at a distance from those
which have been already described, is very much in the condi-
tion of one who begins the science afresh. The nomenclature
and classifications with which he has been familiar, have to be
discarded, or at all events held as of uncertain application to
the things he has now to examine ; and instead of tracing and

* The copy of the report sent to us was accompainied by the following letter :
— " Secretarifs Office, Newfoundlandy I7lh February 1840.— Sir, I am directed
by the (jfovernor, to transmit to you a copy of a report on the Geology of this
Island, made by Mr J. B. Jukes, who is prosecuting a geological survey
under a provision made for that purpose by the Legislature of the Colony. I
have the honour to be. Sir, your obedient humble servant,

(Signed) James Crojtdy^

" The Professor of Geology in the University of Edinburgh.**

104 Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfoundland,

mapping down a series of rocks the order of which is known,
and in which the identification of one affords a ready clue to
the interpretation of the rest, the geological surveyor has to
labour at long, uninteresting and perplexing details, in order
to acquire the preliminary knowledge with which to begin his
work. If to these considerations be added that of the difficul- ^
ties arising fr6m an uncleared country and a dangerous coast,
increased during the latter part of the season by unfavourable
weather, I hope the small part of the survey which has been
completed during the past summer, compared with what I had
expected to accomplish, will be sufficiently accounted for.

The best form into which the materials collected can be
thrown, will, I think, be, first of all, a general account of the
different formations met with in the course of the survey, and
then a sketch of the portions of the country occupied by each,
their local varieties, and then their relations one with the other.
As I have not yet been able to connect the eastern and western
sides of the Island, I will describe them each separately, as far
at least as regards the stratified rocks. And inasmuch as any
names which can be given to the several formations must be
for the present provisional, and I wish by all means to steer
clear of that fruitful source of error, hasty generalization, I
shall apply to the different formations, names derived either
from those places near which they are best exhibited, or from
some obvious and general character.*

Stratified Rocks of the Eastern part of Newfoundland.
(In the descending order.)

1. The Bell Isle Shale and Gritstone Formation. — This forma-
tion is the newest or highest in the series of stratified rocks
on the eastern side of the Island. It consists of a great mass
of dark brown and black shale, interstratified with beds of a
fine-grained gritstone. The shale is of various degrees of
hardness, sometimes crumbling beneath the finger and in very
thin laminse, at others in thicker plates, requiring a sharp blow

* Our readers will find some interesting geognostical information regard-
ing Newfoundland, in vol. x. p. 156 of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
by William Corraack, Esq. ; and in vol. iv. p. 151 of Memoirs of Wemerigji
Natural PCistory Society, by Mr John Baird. — ^Edit.

Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfoundland, 105

to break them. It is frequently micaceous, and some portions
of it put on precisely the appearance of some mica-slate,
having a curved or wrinkled lamination, and being entirely
composed of scales of white silvery mica. Some slabs of this
shale are covered with singular markings in relief, at first
sight resembling the leaves and branches of small plants or
sea- weeds ; they are, however, I believe, concretionary, and not
organic. The softer parts of the shale frequently decompose
in situ into a dark brown earth, which lodges in the crevices
and on the ledges of the cliffs, and has precisely the appear-
ance of fine vegetable mould. The beds of gritstone which
occur at various intervals in this mass of shale, are univer-
sally fine-grained, grey internally, but weathering brown out-
side, generally thin-bedded, being rarely more than two feet
thick, and are divided by joints into sharp angular blocks.
These joints are almost invariably at right angles to each other,
and when also perpendicular to the beds, the blocks are of
course rectangular, and form good building stone. If not thus
naturally square, however, the stone will not readily admit of
being made so artificially, as it is of a brittle splintery charac-
ter. In the upper part of this formation, the shale is much
more abundant than the gritstone, which latter frequently oc-
curs in single beds, with regular intervals of shale between each ;
in the lower portion the beds of gritstone are more grouped
together, forming a thickness sometimes of 20 or 30 feet, and
the shale bears a less proportion to the stone than in the upper
part. The thickness of the whole formation must be consider-
able : but owing to the want of a continuous section, and other
difficulties, it must be left to conjecture. It cannot, however,
be so little as 600 feet. The Bell Isle shale and gritstone is
in some places seen to graduate or pass down by regular de-
grees into the next inferior, or that which I shall term the varie-
gated slate-formation. One formation is said to graduate down-
wards or upwards into another, when, at their junction, the beds
of each alternate the one with another, and no positive line of
separation can be drawn between the two.

2. The Variegated Slate- Formation coii&\s>iBoid^md^%BO^TOQk^,
the most remarkable and abundant of which are some bright
red and greenish-grey slates. The upper part of this fonna-

10$ Mr Jukes on the Geology of Netvfoundland,

tion is almost invariably of a very fine grain, but here and there
contains coarser beds, or even patches of small conglomerate.
The fine-grained beds are generally traversed by a slaty clea-
V2Lge, but, from their brittle character, seldom split into large
slates, and are never sufl&ciently durable to be used for econo-
mical purposes. Some of the beds are slightly calcareous.
The bright red colour generally characterizes certain b^ds, each
bed, or group of beds, being only of one hue ; sometimes, how-
ever, a sudden change takes place, the red colour ending in
one or more broad streaks, and the remainder of the mass
being greenish-grey. The colours are likewise in variable pro-
portions in difierent localities ; the predominating hue being
red in one place, green in another, and becoming in some places
brown, cream-coloured, or yellowish. The slaty cleavage is
most frequently developed in the upper part of the formation ;
the lower beds, though retaining something of their charac-
teristic colouring, are rather coarser, more siliceous, and become
compact slate-rock or gritstone. The total thickness of this
formation must certainly exceed a thousand feet.

3. The Trinity Bay Sandstone-formation.^This is the rock
which usually occurs next below the variegated slates ; I can-
not, however, as yet state whether the two pass into each other
or not. The Trinity Bay sandstone-formation is composed of
materials of which the following section is an example : —

Feet.

1. Dull red sandstone or gritstone, containing a few pebbles, in
enormously thick beds, some being so much as 30 or 40 feet,... 400

2. Alternating beds of coarse and fine grained rock, the finer beds
exhibiting an impeifect slaty cleavage, and the beds generally

verj' thin, sometimes not more than three inches, 400

{Dark red sandstone, \
Light purple ditto, ( j^q
Dull red sandstone and conglomerate, C
Gritstone with a dull red and white stripe, /

4. Greenish slaty rock, 50

6. Dull red sandstone and conglomerate, 100

C. A continued alternation of beds similar to 3, 4, and 5, for a

thickness of at least 500 or 600

1700
These gritstones and sandstones are generally hard and in-
tractable, having a dull fracture, and being not well adapted
for building purposes. The slaty beds are siliceous and the

Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfoundland, 107

slaty cleavage imperfectly developed, the whole series being
characterised by as few features of interest as can well be ima-
gined. It seems somewhat to change in the nature of conglo-
merate beds in some places, as great masses of a grey colour,
with small red pebbles imbedded, were observed, belonging ap-
parently to this formation. As we descend to its lower beds,
moreover, the quantity of the slaty rock increases. From
these two circumstances, it may happen that the Trinity Bay
sandstone-formation may be identical with the rocks I shall
mention next. As, however, there is no direct evidence, except
mineral character, in favour of this supposition, and some cir-
cumstances seem to militate against it, I shall describe these
rocks separately.

4. The Signal Hill Sandstone and Conglomerate, — This forma-
tion consists of a group of rocks generally of a dull red colour,
very hard and intractable, and thick-bedded. Its upper por-
tion is principally a coax'se-grained sandstone, frequently con-
taining beds of conglomerate of quartzose pebbles, some of
which are as large as a man's fist. In the lower part, the con-
glomerate rs generally smaller, and it is interstratified with
masses of a very fine grained gritstone of a very light grey co-
lour, hard and splintery, the beds of which are commonly very
thick, and in a limited section scarcely discernible. This grey
stone may be seen at Quidi Yidi, Signal Hill, and the base of
the South-side Hill of St John's. It is there used as building
stone, but, like the gritstone of the Bell Isle formation, its uti-
lity for that purpose chiefly depends on the direction of the
joints which traverse it, as it is difficult to trim it into shape.
From all parts of the formation large square blocks might be
frequently obtained fit for the construction of piers and break-
waters, or for similar purposes. The thickness of the formation,
or of that part of it exhibited near St John's, must be about
800 feet.

5. The St Johns Slate-formation, — The gradation downwards
of the Signal Hill sandstones into this formation is perfect.
At their junction, beds of dull red and greenish fine-grained
gritstone alternate with each other^ passing upwards into a
coarser red sandstone, and downwards into a compact greenish
rook, that gradually acquires a slaty cleavage, and assumes

108 Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfoundland.

all the aspect of clay- slate. This slate-formation varies con-
siderably in character in different beds, and it is possible that
the beds themselves may vary in different portions of their
course. They are sometimes very thin, and split easily along
the lines of stratification ; in this case the cleavage is frequently
absent, or, if present, its plane appears generally to coincide
with that of the stratification. Other beds, again, are very thick,
the marks of stratification being confined to those bands of
colour technically called the stripe, and having a fine cleavage
crossing them at various angles, and splitting them into large
and excellent roofing slates. The colour of these rocks varies
from a greenish hue to a dark blue, or that which is commonly
understood by slate colour. The thickness of the whole forma-
tion cannot be ascertained, as I do not know that I have any-
where seen the base of it ; that part which is exposed, however,
must be 2000 or 3000 feet thick. It is the lowest stratified
rock anywhere to be seen on the eastern side of the island.

Stratified Bocks of the Western part of Newfoundland.

The series of stratified rocks on the Western shore of New-
foundland is very different from that of the Eastern side. It
consists of four or five formations in the following order : —

1. The Newfoundland Coal- formation, — This interesting and
important group of rocks resembles in its higher portions
the coal-formation of Europe, and consists of alternations of
shale and clunch, with various beds of gritstone, and here and
there a bed of coal. Interstratified with these rocks, however,
there occur in Newfoundland beds of red marl ; and as we de-
scend to the lower parts of the formation, there come in alter-
nations of red and variegated marls with gypsum, dark blue
clays with selenite, dark brown conglomerate beds, and soft and
red and white sandstones. This inferior portion of the New-
foundland coal-formation so greatly resembles the new red
sandstone of England (which in that country lies over the coal-
formation), that it was not till I got the clearest evidence of
the contrary, that I could divest myself of the prepossession of
its being superior to the coal in this country also. That no-
thing might be wanting to complete the resemblance, a brine
spring is known to rise in one spot on the south side of St

Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfoundland. 109

George's Bay, through the beds of red marl and sandstone.
It is certain, however, that, in Newfoundland, the beds con-
taining coal are above these red marls and sandstones, with
gypsum and salt springs, the whole composing but one forma-
tion, which it is impossible to subdivide by any but the most
arbitrary line of separation. The total thickness of this for-
mation must be very considerable : I by no means have any
reason to suppose that I have as yet seen its highest beds,
while the thickness which I have seen must amount altogether
to at least 1000 or 2000 feet.

The group of rocks which I believe to be next below the coal
formation, is one that I shall call —

2. The Port au Port Shale and Gritstone. — This is a very large
formation, something similar in character to that which, on the
eastern side of the island, I have called the Belle Isle shale and
gritstone ; and it is perfectly possible that the two may be dif-
ferent portions of the same beds. The Port au Port beds, how-
ever, are not so regularly bedded as those of Belle Isle, the shales
are less micaceous and more sandy, and many of the gritstone
beds are laminated and schistose. The total thickness of the
beds seen must exceed 1500 feet.

3. The Humher Limestone. — This group of rocks lies below
the Port au Port shales and gritstones, and in the Bay of Is-
lands it is the one next inferior ; I cannot say whether the one
graduates into the other, or whether other beds may not be in-
terposed between the two in other localities. The highest part
of the Humber Limestone which was visible, was a thin
bedded mass, about thirty feet thick, of a hard slaty limestone
of a dark grey colour, with brown concretions that, on a surface
which had been sometimes exposed, stood out in relief. Be-
low this are some beds of hard subcrystalline limestone, the
colours of which are white or flesh coloured with white veins.
These would take a good polish and would make very orna-
mental marbles, and from the thinness of the beds, are espe-
cially adapted for marble slabs. This series of beds has a thick-
ness of about 200 feet. Below these are a few feet of similar
beds of black marble, which rest on some grey compact lime-
stone, with bands or thin beds, and irregular nodules of white
chert; and these latter beds pass down into a large mass of simi-
lar limestone, without chert, and in very thick beds. This masg

110 Mr Jukes on the Geology of Newfonndiand.

of rock forms hills four or five hundred feet high, in nearly hori-
zontal beds. Its upper part continues to be regularly bedded,
but in its lower portion all distinction into beds is lost, and the
limestone becomes perfectly white and saccharine. This great
mass of white marble is frequently crossed by grey veins, so that
I cannot say that I saw any block pure enough for the statuary.
There is little doubt, however, that, in so large a quantity, some
portions might be discovered fit for statuary marble ; and for
all other purposes to which marble is applied, the store is in*
exhaustible.

On the north side of St George's Bay, there is a limestone-
formation, which I believe to be in the same situation as the
Humber limestone, with respect to the Port au Port shale and
gritstone ; but which differs in character so very much from
any beds I saw on the Humber, that I forbear to class it with
that rock without further evidence. It consists principally of
a light yellow magnesian limestone, having, however, interstra-
tified beds of grey carbonate of lime. The grey beds fre-
quently contain bands and nodules of chert or calcedony, and
the yellow magnesian beds are frequently marked with light red
concentric rings, which are sections of spheroidal bands of
colour, but which do not appear to differ, except in colour,
from the rest of the mass. These bands or rings are of rather
irregular form, something resembling the bands of colour in a
fortification agate, but being frequently three feet in diameter.
The following is the most complete section I could get ; but as
it was cut off* by the sea below, and concealed by the woods
above, it affords no criterion as to the total thickness of the
formation.

Feet.

Tliick-bedded light yellow magnesian limestone, 15

Thin-bedded ditto, with horizontal pink stripes, and having part-
ings of indurated marl, 8

Thick-bedded light yellow magnesian limestone, 10

Thin-bedded pinkish-yellow ditto with light red concentric rings, 20

Light grey limestone with a band of chert, &

Yellow magnesian limestone, 2

60
4. Mica-slate and Gneiss. — This formation, in whatever coun-
try it appears, is the lowest of the stratified rocks. Mica-slat©
is a laminated rock, made up of flaJkes of mica. Gneiss may

Comparative View of Crania of Aboriginal Americans. Ill

be described as stratified granite. As is often the case, they
have in this country chlorite-slate and quartz-rock associated
with them. The description of these rocks to be found in any
elementary work on Geology, will equally apply to those of this
country.

I have not made any mention of the igneous or unstratified
rocks in the above summary. Those met with in the course of
the above survey are basalt, greenstone, porphyry, hypersthene,
syenite, and granite. It is of course entirely foreign to my plan
to enter on a description of these rocks, as their characters are
constant in all countries. Any remarkable varieties in them
will be noticed in treating of the several localities in which they
were found. — (To be continued.)

Comparative Fiew of the Skulls of the various Aboriginal Na-
tions of North and South America. By S. G. Morton,
Professor of Anatomy at Philadelphia.*

Dr Morton (formerly a pupil of our University), who has
been for years actively employed in investigating the natural
history of the native inhabitants of the New World, we rejoice
to learn, has just published the i'esults of his labours in this very
interesting field of science, in a work which aifords ample
proof of his zeal, learning, and acuteness. As no copies of the
" Comparative View''' have as yet reached this country, we now
submit to our readers, and nearly in its original form, an ample
and judicious account of it, just published in the 78th Number
of Silliman's American Aurnal of Science and Art.

The principal design of the work, says Dr Morton, has been,
" to give accurate delineations of the crania of more than forty

* The following is the full title of the work of Dr Morton :— " Crania Ame-
ricana ; or a Comparative View of the Skulls of various Aboriginal Nations
of North and South America ; to which is prefixed an Essay on the varieties
of the Human Species; illustrated by seventy-eight plates, and a coloured
map. By Samuel George Morton, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in Pennsyl-
vania College at Philadelphia." Philadelphia : J. Dobson» London : Simp-
kin, Marshall, and Co. Pp. 296, folio, 1839.

112 Comparative View of

Indian nations, Peruvian, Brazilian, and Mexican, together
with a particularly extended series from North America, from
the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic, and from Florida to the re-
gion of the Polar tribes. Especial attention has also been
given to the singular distortions of the skull caused by mecha-
nical contrivances in use among various nations, Peruvians,
Charibs, Natches, and the tribes inhabiting the Oregon Terri-
tory." His materials in this department, are so ample, that
he has been enabled to give a full exposition of the subject.
He has also bestowed particular attention on the crania from
the mounds of this country, which have been compared with
similar relics, derived both from ancient and modern tribes,
" in order to examine by the evidence of osteological facts,
whether the American aborigines, of all epochs, have belonged
to one race, or to a plurality of races."

The introductory Essay, " on the varieties of the human
species," occupies ninety-five pages. It is learned, lucid, and,
like the whole work, classically written. The author notices
the great diversities of opinion that have existed among natu-
raUsts regarding the grouping of mankind into races ; Lin-
naeus referred all the human family to five races ; Buffon pro-
posed six great divisions ; subsequently, however, he reduced
it to five ; while Blumenbach, adopting the arrangement of
Buffon, has changed the names of some of the divisions, and
designated, with greater accuracy, their geographical distribu-
tion. Cuvier admitted three races only, the Caucasian, Mon-
golian, and Ethiopian.

Dr Morton adopts the arrangement of Blumenbach in so
far as regards the great divisions, substituting, however, the
word race for the term " variety" of the German author, and
changing the order in which Blumenbach considers some of
them. He considers the human species as consisting of
twenty-two families, which he arranges under the heads of the
Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and Ethiopian races.

I. "The Caucasian Race is characterised, by a naturally
fair skin, susceptible of every tint ; hair fine, long and curling,
and of various colours. The skull is large and oval, and its
anterior portion full and elevated. The face is small in pro-
portion to the head, of an oval form, with well proportioned

Crania of Aboriginal Americans, 113

featiu*es. The nasal bones are arched, the chin full, and the
teeth vertical. The race is distinguished for the facility with
which it attains the highest intellectual endowments.'*

The subdivisions of this race are into — Xst^ The Caucasian ;
2d, The Germanic; Scl, The Celtic; Ath, The Arabian; 5M,
The Lybian ; 6lh, The Miotic, (Egyptian) ; and 7M, The In-
dostanic families.

II. " The Mongolian Race. This is characterized by a
sallow or olive coloured skin,* which appears to be drawn tight
over the bones of the face ; long, black, straight hair, and thin
beard. The nose is broad and short ; the eyes are small, black
and obliquely placed, and the eyebrows arched and linear ; the
lips are turned, the cheek bones broad and flat, and the zygo-
matic arches salient. The skull is oblong-oval, somewhat
flattened at the sides, with a low forehead. In their intellec-
tual character the Mongolians are ingenious, imitative, and
highly susceptible of cultivation."

The subordinate divisions are into — 8//i, The Mongol-Tar-
tar ; 9fh, The Turkish ;f 10th, The Chinese ; 11 M, The Indo-
Chinese ; and 12th, The Polar families.

III. " The Malay Race. It is characterized by a dark com-
plexion varying from a tawny hue to a very dark brown. Their
hair is black, coarse, and lank, and their eyelids are drawn
obliquely upwards at the outer angles. The mouth and lips
are large, and the nose is short and broad, and apparently
broken at its root. The face is flat and expanded, the upper
jaw projecting, and the teeth salient. The skull is high and
squared or rounded, and the forehead low and broad. This
race is active and ingenious, and possesses all the habits of a
migratory, predaceous, and maritime people."

The subdivisions embrace — ISth, The Malay; and 14/A
The Folynesian (or South Sea Island) families.

IV. " The American Race is marked by a brown com-
plexion, long, black, lank hair, and deficient beard. J The eyes

* The olive colour does not occur in the skin of any of the races.— Edit.

t Cuvier places the Turkish family in the Caucasian race, which is a pre-
ferable arrangement. — Edit.

X The colours of the Malay and American races, as given by our author,
are far from being correct, owing evidently to the employment of a faulty
colour-system. — Edit.

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII. ^JULY 1840. ^H

IH Comparative View of

are black and deep set, the brow low, the cheek bones high,
the nose large and aquiline, the mouth large, and the lips
tumid and compressed. The skull is small, wide between the
parietal protuberances, prominent at the vertex, and flat on
the occiput. In their mental character the Americans are averse
to cultivation, and slow in acquiring knowledge ; restless, re-
vengeful, and fond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime
adventure."

The families into which this race is subdivided, are two ;
Ibth, The American ; and 16M, The Toltecan.

V. " The Ethiopian Race is characterized by a black com-
plexion, and black, woolly hair. The eyes are large and pro-
minent, the nose broad and flat, lips thick, and the mouth wide.
The head long and narrow, the forehead low, the cheek bones
prominent, the jaws projecting and the chin small. In dispo-
sition, the Negro is joyous, flexible, and indolent ; while the
many nations which compose this race present a singular diver-
sity of intellectual character, of which the far extreme is the
lowest grade of humanity.

This race is divided into — 17M, The Negro; 18M, The
Caffrarian ; l^th, The Hottentot ; 20th, The Oceanic Negro ;
2\.st, The Australian ; and 22d, The Alforian families. The
latter family is most numerous in New Guiana, the Moluccas
and Magindano.

Dr Morton gives a brief but clear description, extending to
his 91st page, of the leading characteristics of each of these
families, accompanying his text by references to the authorities
from which the information is drawn. The labour and accu-
racy of the true philosopher are here conspicuous. After per-
using these details, however, we are strongly impressed]with the
conviction that this branch of science is still only in its in-
fancy. The descriptions of the mental faculties which distin-
guish the difi'erent families of mankind, given even by the best
travellers, are vague and entirely popular. There is scarcely
an instance of the specification of well defined mental faculties,
present or absent in the races, or possessed in peculiar com-
binations ; nothing, in short, which indicates that the travellers
possessed a mental philosophy, under the diff*erent heads of
which they could classify and particularize the characteristic
qualities of mind which they observed, as the botanists describe

Crania of AloH^innl Americans. 116

and classify plants, or the mineralogists minerals. The anato-
mical characters of the races, also, are still confined to a few
particulars, and many even of these have been drawn from the
inspection of a very limited number of specimens. The sub-
ject, however, possesses so much inherent interest and import-
ance, that we inay expect rapid advances to be made in its
future development.

The unity of the human species is assumed by Dr Morton.
It is known that the black race possess an apparatus in the
skin, which is wanting in that of the white race. Flourens
states, that there " are, in the skin of the rchite race, three
distinct laminse or membranes — ^the derm^ and two epiderms ;
and in the skin of the Mack race, there is, besides the derm
and the two epiderms of the white race, a particular apparatus,
an apparatus which is altogether wanting in the man of the
white race, an apparatus composed of two layers, the external
of which is the seat of the 2^i<Jine7itnm, or colouring matter of
negroes.-'* " The colouring apparatus of the negro is always
found in the mulatto." Flourens adds, *' The white race and
the black race are then, I repeat, two essentially distinct races.
The same is true of the red, or American race. Anatomy
discovers, under the second epiderm of the individual of the
red^ copper- coloured^ Indian, or American race (for this race
is called indifferently by all these names), a pigmental appa-
ratiis, which is the seat of the red or copper colour of this race,
as the pigmental apparatus of the negro is the seat of his black
colour."

Dr Morton does not advert to the existence of this pigmen-
tal apparatus in the American race. The investigations of Dr
M'CuUoh, he observes, " satisfactorily prove that the designa-
tion * copper-coloured,^ is wholly inapplicable to the Americans
as a race." " The cinnamon is, in Dr M'Culloh's apprehen-
sion^ the nearest approach to the true colour" of the native
Americans. Dr Morton considers that the " brown race" most
correctly designates them collectively. '' Although," sajs he,
" the Americails thus possess a pervading and characteristic
complexion, there are occasional and very remarkable devia-
tions, including all the tints from a decided white to an une-

* AttttftleS des Sciences Nat t. x. Dec. 1838, pp. 361, &c. Edinburgh
New Philosophical Journal, voL xxvii, p. 353,

11^ Comparathe View of

quivocally black skin." He shews, also, by numerous autho-
rities, that " climate exerts a subordinate agency in producing
these diversified hues." The tribes which wander along the
burning plains of the equinoctial region, have no darker skins
than the mountaineers of the temperate zone. " Again, the
Puelches, and other inhabitants of the Magellanic region, be-
yond the 55th degree of south latitude, are absolutely darker
than the Abipones, Macobios, and Tobas, who are many de-
grees nearer the equator. While the Botocudys are of a clear
brown colour, and sometimes nearly white, at no great dis-
tance from the tropic ; and, moreover, while the Guyacas,
under the line, are characterized by a fair complexion, the
Charruas, who are almost black, inhabit the 50th degree of
south latitude ; and the yet blacker Californians are 25 de-
grees north of the equator." " After all," he adds, " these
differences in complexion are extremely partial, forming mere
exceptions to the primitive and national tint that character-
izes these people from Cape Horn to the Canadas. The cause
of these anomalies is not readily explained ; that it is not cli-
mate, is sufficiently obvious ; and whether it arises from par-
tial immigrations from other countries, remains yet to be de-
cided."

Bufibn defines species — " A succession of similar individuals
which reproduce each other." Cuvier also defines species —
" The union of individuals descended from each other or from
common parents, and of those who resemble them as much as
they resemble each other." " The apparent differences of the
races of our domestic species,*' says Cuvier, " are stronger
than those of any species of the same genus." " The fact of
the succession, therefore, and of the constant succession, con-
stitutes alone the unity of the species.'^ Flourens, who cites
these definitions, concludes that " unity, absolute unity, of the
human species, and variety of its races, as a final result, is the
general and certain conclusion of all the facts acquired con-
cerning the natural history of man r''^

Dr Morton, while he assumes the unity of the species, con-
ceives that " each race was adapted from the beginning (by
an all-wise Providence) to its peculiar local destination. In

* Flourens's article before cited, and the Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal, vol. xxvii. p. 358, October 1839.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans, 117

other words, that the physical characteristics which distinguish
the different races, are independent of external causes."

Dr Morton describes the general characteristics of the Ame-
rican, under the head of the " Varieties of the Human Spe-
cies," and then enters on a special description of the " crania'*
of upwards of seventy nations or tribes belonging to that fa-
mily, illustrating the text by admirable plates of the crania,
drawn from skulls, mostly in his own possession, and of the
full size of nature.

He regards the American race as possessing certain physi-
cal traits that serve to identify them in localities the most
remote from each other. There are, also, in their multitudi-
nous languages, the traces of a common origin. He divides
the race into the " Toltecan family," which bears evidence of
centuries of demi-civilization, and into the " American family,"
which embraces all the barbarous nations of the new world,
excepting the Polar tribes, or Mongol Americans. The Eski-
maux, and especially the Greenlanders, are regarded as a par-
tially mixed race, among whom the physical character of the
Mongolian predominates, while their language presents ob-
^dous analogies to that of the Chippewyans, who border on
them to the south.

In the American family itself, there are several subordinate
groups ; 1*^, The Appalachian branch includes all the nations
of North America, excepting the Mexicans, together with the
tribes north of the river of Amazon and east of the Andes.
2d, The Brazilian branch is spread over a great part of South
America east of the Andes, viz., between the rivers Amazon
and La Plata, and between the Andes and the Atlantic, thus
including the whole of Brazil and Paraguay north of the 35th.
degree of south latitude. In character; these nations are war-
like, cruel, and unforgiving. They turn with aversion from
the restraints of civilized life, and have made but trifling pro-
gress in mental culture or the useful arts. In character, the
Brazilian nations scarcely differ from the Appalachian ; none
of the American tribes are less susceptible of cultivation than
these ; and what they are taught by compulsion, in the mis-
sions, seldom exceeds the humblest elements of knowledge.
3</, The Patagoniari branch includes the nations south of the
La Plata, to the Straits of Magellan, and the mountain tribes

118 Cimparative View of

of Chili. They are for the most part distinguished for their
tall stature, their fine forms, and their indomitable courage, of
all which traits the Auracanians possess a conspicuous share.
4M, The Fuegian branch, which roves over a sterile waste,
computed to be as large as one-half of Ireland. Forster com-
putes their whole number at only two thousand souls. Their
physical aspect is altogether repulsive, and their domestic
usages tend to heighten the defects of nature. The expression
of the face is vacant, and their mental operations are to the
last degree slow and stupid. The diiference between them
and the other Americans is attributed by Dr Morton to the
effects of climate and locality.

Thus far, Dr Morton has travelled over ground previously
occupied by other naturalists ; but we proceed to a field in
which he has had the courage and sagacity to enter boldly on
a new path. He has added to his text numerous and minute
measurements of the size and capacity not only of each entire
cranium, but of its different parts, with a view to elucidate the
connection (if there be any) between particular regions of the
brain and particular mental qualities of the American tribes.
In his dedication to John S. Phillips, Esq., of Philadelphia,*
he observes : " It may, perhaps, be thought by some readers,
that these details are unnecessarily minute, especially in the
phrenological tables ; and again, others would have preferred
a work conducted throughout on phrenological principles. In
this study I am yet a learner ; and it appeared to me the wiser
plan to present the facts unbiassed by theory, and let the
reader draw his own conclusions. You and I have long ad-
mitted the fundamental principles of phrenology, viz., that the
brain is the organ of the mind, and that its different parts
perform different functions ; but we have been slow to ac-
knowledge the details of cranioscopy as taught by Dr Gall,
and supported and extended by subsequent observers. We
have not, however, neglected this branch of inquiry, but have
endeavoured to examine it in connection with numerous facts,

* Dr Morton acknowledges himself to be under many obligations to Mr
Phillips in the prosecution of his inquiries, and says that it was he who in-
rented the machines used in making the measurements, and executed many
of them himself.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. 110

which can only be fully appreciated when they come to be
compared with similar measurements derived from the other
races of men." We shall state, in a subsequent part of thig
article, the conclusions at which Dr Morton has arrived, in
consequence of his observations and measurements ; mean-
time it is important to state the principles on which he pro-
ceeded.

In a few years, it will appear a singular fact in the history
of mind, that in the nineteenth century, men holding the emi-
nent station in literature occupied by Lord Jeffrey and Lord
Brougham, should have seriously denied* that the mind, in
this world, acts by means of material organs ; yet such is the
case ; and the denial can be accounted for only by that entire
neglect of physiology, as a branch of general education, which
prevailed in the last century, and by the fact that the meta-
physical philosophy in which they were instructed, bore no
reference to the functions of the brain. We need not say,
that no adequately instructed naturalist doubts that the brain
is the organ of the mind. But there are two questions, on
which great difference of opinion continues to prevail ; 1*/,
Whether the size of the brain (health, age, and constitution
being ec[ual) has any, and if so, what influence, on the power
of mental manifestation i And, 26?/y, Whether different
faculties be, or be not, manifested by particular portions of
the brain.

The first proposition, that the size of the brain, other con-
ditions being equal, is in direct relation to the power of mental
manifestation, is supported by analogy, by several well known
facts, and by high physiological authorities. The power of
smell, for example, is great in proportion to the expansion of
the olfactory nerve on the internal nostrils, and the volume of
the nerve itself bears a direct relation to the degree of that
expansion. The superficial surface of the mucous membrane
of the ethmoidal bone, on which the nerve of smell is ramified,
is computed in man to extend to 20 square inches, and in the
seal, which has great power of smell, to 120 square inches.

* Lord Jeffrey, in the Edin. Review, No. 88, and Lord Brougham in his
Discourse on Natural Theology, p. 120;

120 Comparative View of

The optic nen'e in the mole is a slender thread, and its vision
is feeble ; the same nerve is large and thick in the eagle, ac-
companied by intense powers of sight. Again, the fact admits
of demonstration, that deficiency in the size of the brain is
one, although not the only, cause of idiocy. Although the
brain be healthy, if the horizontal circumference of the head,
with the muscular integuments, do not exceed thirteen or
fourteen inches, idiocy is the invariable consequence. Dr
Voisin states that he made observations on the idiots under his
care at the Parisian Hospital of Incurables, and found that in
the lowest class of idiots, where the intellectual manifestations
were null, the horizontal circumference, taken a little higher
than the orbit, varied from eleven to thirteen inches, while
the distance from the root of the nose backwards, over the
top of the head, to the occipital spine, was only between
eight and nine inches ; and he found no exception to this fact.
If, therefore, extreme defect of size in the brain be invariably
accompanied by mental imbecility, it is a legitimate inference
that size will influence the power of manifestation through all
other gradations of magnitude, always assuming other condi-
tions to be equal.

Physiological authorities are equally explicit on this subject.
Magendie says, " the volume of the brain is generally in direct
proportion to the capacity of the mind. We ought not to sup-
pose, however, that every man having a large head is neces-
sarily a person of superior intelligence ; for there are many
causes of an augmentation of the volume of the head besides
the size of the brain ; but it is rarely found that a man dis-
tinguished by his mental faculties has not a large head. The
only way of estimating the volume of the brain, in a living
person, is to measure the dimensions of the skull ; every other
means, even that proposed by Camper, is uncertain."

The difference of mental power between young and adult
minds, is a matter of common observation. The difference in
the weights of their brains is equally decided.

According to Cruveilhier, in three young subjects, the
weights of the brains were as follows :

In the first, the brain weighed 2 lb. 2 oz. ; the cerebellum,
4i oz. ; together, 2 lb. 6J oz. In the second, the brain weighed

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. 121

2 lb. 8 oz. ; the cerebellum, 3J oz. ; together, 2 lb. llj oz. In
the third, the brain weighed 2 lb. 5 oz. ; the cerebellum, 5 oz. ;
together, 2 lb. 10 oz.

In the appendix to Dr Monro's work on the brain, Sir Wil-
liam Hamilton states the average weight of the adult male
Scotch brain and cerebellum to be 3 lb. 8 oz. troy.

Again, a difference in mental power between men and wo-
men is also generally admitted to exist, and there is a corres-
ponding difference in the size of their brains.

Sir William Hamilton states the average weight of the adult
female Scotch brain and cerebellum, to be 3 lb. 4 oz. troy ;
being 4 oz. less than that of the male. He found one male
brain in seven to weigh above 4 lbs. ; and only one female brain
in a hundred exceeded this weight.

In an essay " on the brain of the negi'O, compared with that
of the European and the ourang outang," published in the Phi-
losophical Transactions for 1836, part 2, Professor Tiedemann,
of Heidelberg, adopts the same principle. After mentioning
the weights of fifty-two European brains, examined by him-
self, he states that " the weight of the brain in an adult male
European, varies between 3 lb. 2 oz. and 4 lb. 6 oz. troy. The
brain of men who have disting-uished themselves by their great
talents, is often very large. The brain of the celebrated Cuvier
weighed 4 lb. 11 oz. 4 dr. 30 gr. troy, and that of the distin-
guished surgeon Dupiiytren weighed 4 lb. 10 oz. troy. The
brain of men endowed with but feeble intellectual powers is,
on the contrary, often very small, particularly in congenital
idiotismus. The female brain is lighter than that of the male.
It varies between 2 lb. 8 oz. and 3 lb. 11 oz. I never found a
female brain that weighed 4 lb. The female brain weighs on
an average from four to eight ounces less than that of the male ;
and the difference is already perceptible in a new-born child."''

We have adduced these proofs and authorities in support of
the proposition that size influences power, because we con-
ceive it to be a principle of fundamental importance in every
investigation into the natural history of man, founded on the
physiology of the brain. One of the most singular features
in the history of this continent, is, that the aboriginal races,
with few exception.--, have perished or constantly receded, be-

122 Comparative Viem a}

fore the Anglo-Saxon race, and have in no instance either
mingled with them as equals, or adopted their manners and
civilization. These phenomena must have a cause ; and can
any inquiry be at once more interesting and philosophical than
that which endeavours to ascertain whether that cause be con-
nected with a difference in the brain between the native
American race, and their conquering invaders ? Farther, some
few of the American families, the Auracanian, for instance^
have successfully resisted the Europeans ; and the question is
important, whether in them, the brain be in any respect su-
perior to what it is in the tribes which have unsuccessfully
resisted ?

It is true, that Dr GalFs fundamental principle, that size in
the brain (other conditions being equal) is a measure of the
power of mental manifestation, is directly involved in these
inquiries ; but we can discover no reason why it should not be
put to the test of an extensive and accurate induction of facts.

Di* Morton reports the size in cubic inches, of the interior
of nearly every skull described by him. " An ingenious mode,"
says he, " of taking the measurement of the internal capacity,
was devised by Mr Phillips. In order to measure the capacity
of a cranium, the foramina were first stopped with cotton, and
the cavity was then filled with white pepper seed* poured into
the foramen magnum until it reached the surface, and pressed
down with the finger until the skull would receive no more.
The contents were then transferred to a tin cylinder, which
was well shaken in order to pack the seed. A mahogany rod
(previously graduated to denote the cubic inches and parts
contained in the cylinder) being then dropt down, with its foot
resting on the seed, the capacity of the cranium, in cubic in-
ches, is at once read off on it."

Dr Morton gives also measurements of particular regions
of the brain, as indicated by the skull.

Secondly. The most distinguished philosophers on the mind,
divide the human faculties into the active and intellectual
powers ; and some admit even subdivisions of the feelings into

* " White pepper seed was selected on account of its spherical form, its
hai-dness, and the equal size of the grains. It was also sifted, to render the
equality still greater."

Crania aj Aboriginal Americans. 123

propensities common to man with the lower animals, and mo-
ral emotions ; and of the intellect, into observing and reflect-
ing faculties. Dr Thomas Brown's division of the intellectual
powers into simple and relative suggestion, corresponds with
this last classification. If, then, the mind manifest a plurality
of faculties, and if the brain be the organ of the mind, it ap-
pears to be a sound inference that the brain may consist of a
plurality of organs. The presumptions which arise, in favour
of this idea, from the constitution of the external senses and
their organs are strong. Each sense has its separate nervous
apparatus. Nay, when the function of a part is compound,
the nerves are multiplied, so as to give a distinct nerve for
each function. The tongue has a nerve for voluntary motion,
another for common sensation, and the best authorities admit
a third nerve for taste, although the precise nerve is still in
dispute. The internal nostrils are supplied with two nerves,
the olfactory, and a nerve of common sensation, ramified on
the mucous membrane, each performing its appropriate func-
tion. The spinal marrow consists, by general consent of phy-
siologists, of at least two double columns, the anterior pair for
voluntary motion, and the posterior pair for common sensation.
Sir Charles Bell has demonstrated the distinct functions of
the Aerves proceeding from these columns. Farther, every
accurate observer distinguishes diversities of disposition and
inequalities of talents, even in the same individual. The re-
cords of lunatic asylums shew numerous instances of partial
idiocy and partial insanity. These facts indicate that the
brain consists of a plurality of organs, and this idea is counte-
nanced by many high authorities in physiological science.
" The brain is a very complicated organ," says Bonnet, " or
rather an assemblage of very different organs.'^* Tissot con-
tends that every perception has different fibres ;f and Haller
and Van Swieton were of opinion that the internal senses oc-
cupy, in the brain, organs as distinct as the nerves of the ex-
ternal senses.J Cabanis entertained a similar notion,§ and so
did Prochaska. Cuvier says, that " certain parts of the brain,

* PalingeHc^sie, 1334. t (Euvres, III. 33. | Van Swieten, I. 454.)
i Rapports du Physique et du Moral de I'Homme, 2de Edit. I. 233-4.

124 Comparative View of

in all classes of animals, are large or stnall, according to certain
qualities of the animals f^* and he admits that Gall's doctrine
of different faculties being connected with different parts of
the brain, is nowise contradictory to the general principles of
physiology, t

If, then, there be reason to believe that different parts of
tlie brain manifest different mental faculties, and if the size of
the part influence the power of manifestation, the necessity is
very evident of taking into consideration the relative propor-
tions of the different parts of the brain, in a physiological in-
quiry into the connection between the crania of nations and
their mental qualities. This position is further illustrated by
the fact, that the native American and the European brains
differ widely in the proportions of their different parts.

We have entered more minutely into the reasons why we
regard these measurements as important, because we conceive
that the distinguishing excellence of Dr Morton's work con-
sists in his having adopted and followed out this great princi-
ple. It appeared necessary to dwell upon it at some length,
also, because Professor Tiedemann, in his comparison of the
European with the Negro brain, has entirely neglected it, and
in consequence has arrived at physiological conclusions which
we regard as at variance with the most certain psychological
facts, viz., he says, that '' there is undoubtedly a very close
connection between the absolute size of the brain and the
INTELLECTUAL pov/ERS AND TUNCTioNS of thc miud ;" aud pro-
ceeding on this principle, he compares the weight of the whole
brain, as ascertained in upw^ards of fifty Europeans of differ-
ent ages and countries, with its weight in several Negroes,
examined either by himself or others. He gives extensive
tables shewing the weight of the quantity of millet seed ne-
cessary to fill Ethiopian, Caucasian, Mongolian, American, and
Malay skulls ; and adds that " the cavity of the skull of the
Negro in general, is not smaller than that of the European and
other human races." The inference which he draws is, that,
intellectually and morally, as well as anatomically, the Negro

* Anatomie comparee, tonic ii.

t Rapport Historique aur les Progrea des Sciences Naturelles, &c. p. 193.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans, 126

is naturally on a par with the European ; and he contends that
the opposite and popular notion is the result of superficial ob-
servation, and is true only of certain degraded tribes on the
coast of Africa.*

We entertain a great respect for Prof. Tiedemann, but we
cannot subscribe to his principle that the whole brain is the
measure of the intellectual faculties ; a proposition which as-
sumes that the animal and moral feelings have no seat in this
organ.

We shall now present a brief view of the manner in which
Dr Morton applies his own principles, and of some of the con-
clusions at which he has arrived.

He divides the native American nations into two great fa-
milies, the Toltecan and American. " It is in the intellectual
faculties," says he, " that we discover the greatest difference
between them. In the arts and sciences of the former we see
the evidences of an advanced civilization. From the Rio Gila
in California, to the southern extremity of Peru, their archi-
tectural remains are every where encountered to surprise the
traveller and confound the antiquary ; among these are pyra-
mids, temples, grottos, bas-reliefs, and arabesques ; while their
roads, aqueducts, and fortifications, and the sites of their
mining operations, sufficiently attest their attainments in the

* Tiedemann's Essay has been critically exjiminedby Dr A. Combe, in the
Phrenological Journal, (vol. xi.) who shews not only the error of principle
committed by the author in assuming the whole brain to be the organ ex-
clusively of the intellectual faculties, but the more striking fact that Tiede-
mann's own tables refute his own conclusions. Tiedemann's measurements
are the following :

li
Average length of brain in 4 Negroes,
do. do. do. 7 European males, .

do. do. do. 6 European females,

do. greatest breadth in 4 Negroes,
do. do. do. 7 European males,

do. do. do. 3 European females,

do. height of brain in 3 Negroes,
do. do. do. 7 European males,

do. do. do. 4 European females,

The inferiority of the Negro brain iu size, is self-evident from these di'
mentions.

les.

Lines.

5

11

6

24

5

104

4

81

5

u

5

^

2

llj

3

4

2

H

126 Comparative P^tew of

practical arts of lite." P. 84. The desert of Atacama divides
the kingdom of Peru from that of Chile, and is nearly a hun-
dred miles in length. A river, abounding in salt, runs through
it. This desert was the favourite sepulchre of the Peruvian
nations for successive ages. The climate, salt, and sand, dry
up the bodies, and the remains of whole generations of the
former inhabitants of Peru may now be examined, after the
lapse perhaps of thousands of years. Dr Morton has been
enabled to examine nearly one hundred Peruvian crania, and
concludes that that country has been, at different times, peo-
pled by two nations of differently formed crania, one of which
is perhaps extinct, or at least exists only as blended by adven-
titious circumstances, in very remote and scattered tribes of
the present Indian race. " Of these two families, that which
was antecedent to the appearance of the Incas is designated
as the ancient Peruvian, of which the remains have been
found only in Peru, and especially in that division of it now
called Bolivia. Their tombs, according to Mr Pentland,
abound on the shores and islands of the great Lake Titicaca,
in the inter-alpine valley of the Desaquadera, and in the ele-
vated valleys of the Peruvian Andes, between the latitudes of
14° and 19° 30' south." Our knowledge of their physical ap-
pearance is derived solely from their tombs. They were not
different " from cognate nations in any respect except in the
conformation of the head, which is small, greatly elongated,
narrow in its whole length, with a very retreating forehead,
and possessing more symmetry than is usual in skulls of the
American race. The face projects, the upper jaw is thrust
forward, and the teeth are inclined outward. The orbits of
the eyes arfe large and rounded, the nasal bones salient, the
zygomatic arches expanded ; and there is a remarkable sim-
pUcity in the sutures that connect the bones of the cranium."
P. 97. Dr Morton presents the following cranium. Fig. 4
of his series, " as an illustrative type of the cranial peculiari-
ties of the people f and he is of opinion that the form is
" natural, unaltered by art."

Crania of Aboriginal Americans.
Ancient Pbeuvian, Fig. 4.

m

He gives the following description of this cranium : —
" Though the forehead retreats rapidly, there is but little
expansion at the sides ; and from the face to the occiput, in-
clusive, there is a narrowness that seems characteristic of the
race. The posterior view represents the skull elevated in that
region, without any unnatural width at the sides, and the ver-
tical view sufficiently confirms the latter fact.

Measurements,*

Longitudinal diameter.
Parietal do.

7.3 inches.
5.3 ...

* The measurements are thus described by Dr Morton. The longitudinal
diameter is taken from the most prominent part of the os frontis to the oc-
ciput ; the parietal diameter from the most distant points of the parietal
bones ; i\iQ frontal diameter from the anterior-inferior angles of the parie-
tal bones ; the vertical diameter from the fossa, between the condyles of
the occipital bone, to the top of the skull ; the inter-mastoid arch is mea-
sured with a graduated tape, from the point of one mastoid process to the
other, over tlie external tables of the skull ; the inter-mastoid line is the dis-
tance, in a sti-aight line, between the points of the mastoid processes; theom-
pito-frontal arch is measured by a tape over the surface of the cranium, from

128

Comparative Vien of

Frontal diameter,

4.3 inches.

Vertical do.

6.3 ...

Inter-raastoid arch.

14. ...

Inter-mastoid line.

4.3 ...

Occipito-frontal arch,

16. ...

Horizontal periphery.

19.8 ...

Extreme length of head and face,

8.2 ...

Internal capacity.

.

81.6 cubic inches

Capacity of the anterior chamber.

. 31.6

Capacity of the posterioi

• chamber.

. 50.

Capacity of the coronal i

region.

. 16.25 ...

Facial angle^

.

73 degrees."

This skull was found by Dr Ruschenberger, about a mile
from the town of Arica, on the south side of the morro, a ce-
metery of the ancient Peruvians. " The surface is covered
with sand an inch or two deep, which being removed discovers
a stratum of salt, three or four inches in thickness, that spreads
all over the hill. The body (to which this head belonged) was
placed in a squatting posture, with the knees drawn up and
the hands applied to the sides. The whole was enveloped in
a coarse, but close fabric, with stripes of red, which has with-
stood, wonderfully, the destroying effects of ages, for these in-
terments were made before the conquest, although at what
period is unknown."

Dr Morton states that the average internal capacity of the
Caucasian or European head is at least 90 cubic inches. In
three adult ancient Peruvians, it is only 73. The mean capa-
city of the anterior chamber is about one-half of that of the
posterior, or 25 to 47, while the mean facial angle is but 67,
degrees.

the posterior margin of the foramen magnum to the suture, which connects
the OS frontis with the bones of the nose ; the horizmital peripheini is mea-
sured by passing a tape round the cranium so as to touch the os frontis im-
mediately above the superciliary ridges, and the most prominent part of the
occipital bone : the length of the head and face is measured from the margin
of the upper jaw, to the most distant point of the occiput ; the zygomati
diameter is the distance, in a right line, between the most prominent points
of the zygomce ; the facial angle is ascertained by an instrument of ingenious
construction and easy application, invented by Dr Turnpenny, and described
by Dr Morton. Dr Morton took nearly all the anatomical measurements
with his own hands.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. 129

" It would," he continues, " be natural to suppose, that a
people with heads so small and badly formed, would occupy
the lowest place in the scale of human intelligence. Such,
however, was not the case." He considers it ascertained that
" civilization existed in Peru anterior to the advent of the
Incas, and that those anciently civilized people constituted the
identical nations whose extraordinary skulls are the subjects
of our present inquiry.

If these skulls had been compressed by art, we could have
understood that certain portions of the brain might have been
only displaced, but not destroyed. The spine, for instance,
may be bent, as in hump-back, yet retain its functions ; and
we might suppose the anterior lobe, in cases of compression,
to be developed laterally, or backwards, and still preserve
its identity and uses. This, indeed, is Dr Morton's own con-
clusion, in regard to the brain in the flat-headed Indians.
He gives an interesting and authentic description of the in-
strument and process by means of which the flat-head tribes of
Columbia River compress the skull, and remarks, that " besides
the depression of the head, the face is widened and projected
forward by the process, so as materially to diminish the facial
angle ; the breadth between the parietal bones is greatly aug-
mented, and a striking irregularity of the two sides of the
cranium almost invariably follows ; yet the absolute internal
capacity of the skull is not diminished, and, strange as it may
seem, the intellectual faculties suff*er nothing. The latter fact
is proved by the concurrent testimony of all travellers who
have wTitten on the subject." Dr Morton adds, that in Janu-
ary 1839, he was gratified with a personal interview with a
full blood Chenouk, in Philadelphia. He is named William
Brooks, was twenty years of age, had been three years in
charge of some Christian missionaries, and had acquired great
proficiency in the English language, which he understood and
spoke with a good accent and general grammatical accuracv.
His head was as much distorted by mechanical compression,
as any skull of his tribe in Dr Morton's possession. "He
appeared to me," he adds, " to possess more mental acuteness
than any Indian I had seen, was communicative, cheerful,
and well mannered." The measurements of his head were .

VOL/ XXIX. NO, LVII.— JULY 1840. I

130 Comparative View of

these : longitudinal diameter, 7.5 inches ; parietal diameter'
6.9 inches ; frontal diameter, 6.1 inches ; breadth between
the cheek bones, 6.1 inches ; facial angle, about 73 degrees.
Dr Morton considers it certain that the forms of the skull
produced by compression, never become congenital, even in
successive generations, but that the characteristic form is
always preserved, unless art has directly interfered to distort
it. Pp. 206, 207.

The extinct race in Peru, was succeeded by the " Inca, or
Modern Peruvians." This race dates its possession of Peru
from about the eleventh century of our era ; and as this pe-
riod corresponds with the epoch of the migration from Mexico
of the Toltecas, the most civilized nation of ancient Mexico,
Dr Morton concurs in the opinion expressed by other authors,
that the modern Peruvians were of a common origin with the
ancient Mexicans. " The modern Peruvians," says he, " dif-
fer little in person from the Indians around them, being of the
middling stature, well limbed, and vrith small feet and hands.
Their faces are round, their eyes small, black, and rather dis-
tant from each other ; their noses are small, the mouth some-
what large, and the teeth remarkably fine. Their complexion
is a dark brown, and their hair long, black, and rather coarse."'
P. 115. The civilization and comparative refinement of the
Incas was blended with some remains of the ferocity of the
savage. " Matrimonial engagements were entered into with
very little ceremony or forethought, and they were as readily
set aside at the option of the parties. Polygamy was lawful
but not prevalent." Among the people, incontinence, sen-
suality, and child-murder were common. Their diet was
chiefly vegetables. The people were indolent, filthy, and neg-
ligent in their persons. The hair of their mummies, in many
instances, is charged with desiccated vermin. Their religious
system was marked by great simplicity, and was divested of
those bloody rites which were common with the Aztecs of
Mexico. They believed in one God, whom they called Vira-
cocha, in the immortality of the soul, and in rewards and pun-
ishments in the next life. They worshipped both the sun and
moon, in whose honour they erected temples and formed idols.
They consecrated virgins, in the same manner as practised in

Crania of ^borigiii,Ql Americans. 181

modern convents. Their funeral rites were barbarous and
cruel : when theii* chief men died, they buried a number of
human victims, women, boys, and servants, to attend on the
departed in the next world. They were conquered by Pizzaro
with a force which consisted of ^2 horsemen and 102 foot sol-
diers. P. 124. The following is given as a strikingly charac-
teristic Peruvian head.

Modern Peruvian, Fig. 5,

*' The skull in these people," says Dr Morton, " is remark-
able for its small size, and for its quadrangular form. The
occiput is greatly^ compressed, sometimes absolutely vertical ;
tlie sides are swelled out, and the forehead is somewhat ele-
vated, but very retreating. The skulls are remarkable for

their irregularity. The dimensions of th

IS skull are as i

Longitudinal diameter.

6.1 inches

• Parietal do.

6. ...

Frontal do.

4.7 ...

* • Vertical do

6.6 ...

Inter-mastoid arch.

16. ...

Inter-mastoid line,

4.6 ...

Occipito-frontal arch.

14.1 ...

Horizontal periphery.

19.6 ...

132 Comparative View of

Internal Capacity, . . . 83. cubic inches.

Capacity of the anterior chamber, . 33.5

Capacity of the posterior chamber, , 49.6

* Capacity of the coronal region, . . 16.75

Facial angle, . . . .81 degrees."

Dr Morton gives the result of the measurement of twenty-
three adult skulls of the pure Inca race. " The mean of the
internal capacity is 73 cubic inches, which is probably lower
than that of any other people now existing, not excepting the
Hindoos." The mean of the anterior chamber is 32, of the
posterior 42, of the coronal region 12 cubic inches. The
highest measure of the coronal region is 20.5, and the smallest
9.25 cubic inches. The mean facial angle is 75 degrees. The
heads of nine Peruvian children appear to be nearly, if not
quite, as large as those of children of other nations at the same
age. P. 133.

The small size of the brains of this race, compared with that
of the Europeans who invaded them, is in accordance with the
ease with which the former were overcome and retained in
subjection. The deficiency in the posterior region of the brain,
in which the organs of the domestic affections are situated,
corresponds with their feeble conjugal attachment and indif-
ference to the Uves of their children. The diameter from
constructiveness to constructiveness, is stated by Mr Phillips
to be 4.5 inches, and from ideality to ideality 5.1. These
organs give a talent for art, and are considerable. The same
measurements in the Naumkeagh, the race which occupied
New England, and whose skulls are still dug up near Boston
and Salem, and which never made any attainments in the arts,
are 4.1 and 4 inches, respectively. Dr Robertson, in his his-
tory of America, mentions that the modern Peruvian race was
distinguished for its extraordinary powers of concealment and
secrecy. Mr Phillips states the breadth from secretiveness to
secretiveness to be 5.6 inches, which is large ; the longitudinal
diameter is only 6.1. The region of combativeness also ap-
pears to be deficient in these skulls.

* The chambers and coronal region of the cranium are explained by a figure,
which we regret the hurry of publication prevented us copying into our
Joursal.rxEpiT,

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. " J33

The Iroquois confederacy consisted originally of five na-
tions, the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Sene-
cas. They were intellectually superior to the surrounding na-
tions, passionately devoted to war, and victorious over the other
tribes. They forced their women to work in the field and
carry burdens ; they paid little respect to old age, were not
much afi^'ected by love, were regardless of connubial obligations,
and addicted to suicide. " They were proud, audacious, and
vindictive, untiring in the pursuit of an enemy, and remorse-
less in the gratification of their revenge. Their religious ideas
were vague, and their cautiousness and cunning proverbial.
They were finally subdued and nearly exterminated by the
Anglo-Americans in 1779. Some miserable remnants of them,
ruined by intoxicating liquors, still exist in the state of New
York." The following is the skull of a Huron, one of these
nations.

Huron, Fig. 6.

The following are average measurements of the five skulls
of these nations given by Dr Morton : internal capacity, 88 ;
coronal region, 15 ; anterior chamber, 31.5 ; posterior chamber,
50 cubic inches.

The Araucanians are the most celebrated and powerful of

134 Comparative P^ierv of

the Chilian tribes. They inhabit the region between the
rivers Biobio and Valdivia, and between the Andes and the sea,
and derive their name from the province of Arauco. " They
are a robust and muscular people, of a lighter complexion than
the surrounding tribes. Endowed with an extraordinary de-
gree of bodily activity, they reach old age with few infirmities,
and, generally, retain their sight, teeth, and memory, unim-
paired. They are brave, discreet, and cunning to a proverb,
patient in fatigue, enthusiastic in all their enterprises, and fond
of war as the only source of distinction." " Their vigilance
soon detected the value of the military discipline of the Spa-
niards, and especially the great importance of cavalry in an
army ; and they lost no time in adopting both these resources,
to the dismay and discomfiture of their enemies. Thus in
seventeen years after their first encounter with Europeans, they
possessed several strong squadrons of horse, conducted their
operations in military order, and, unlike the Americans gener-
ally, met their enemies in the open field." " They are highly
susceptible of mental culture, but they despise the restraints
of civilization, and those of them who have been educated in
the Spanish colonies, have embraced the first opportunity to
resume the haunts and habits of their nation." P. 241. The
following is one of three Araucanian skulls delineated in the
work.

Araucanian, Fig. 7.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. 136

The average measurements of the three skulls are as fol-
lows : internal capacity, 79 ; coronal region, 15.4 ; anterior
chamber 32.2 ; posterior chamber, 48.50.

We have no space to enter into any description of the skulls
found in the ancient tombs, or of those of the Flat-headed In-
dians and Charibs ; suffice it to say, that Dr Morton's mate-
rials are full and satisfactory on these topics, and his facts
and conclusions highly interesting. We subjoin a few of the
general results at which he arrives from a survey of his entire
field.

" The intellectual faculties," says he, " of the great Ame-
rican FAMILY, appear to be of a decidedly inferior cast, when
compared with those of the Caucasian or Mongolian races.
They are not only averse to the restraints of education, but
for the most part incapable of a continued process of reason-
ing on abstract subjects. Their minds seize with avidity on
simple truths, while they at once reject whatever requires in-
vestigation and analysis. Their proximity, for more than two
centuries, to European institutions, has made scarcely any
appreciable change in their mode of thinking or their manner
of life ; and as to their own social condition, they are probably
in most respects what they were at the primitive epoch of
their existence. They have made few or no improvements in
building their houses or their boats ; their inventive and imi-
tative faculties appear to be of a very humble grade, nor have
they the smallest predilection for the arts or sciences. The
long annals of missionary labour and private benefaction be-
stowed upon them, offer but very few exceptions to the pre-
ceding statement, which, on the contrary, is sustained by the
combined testimony of almost all practical observers. Even
in cases where they have received an ample education, and
have remained for many years in civilized society, they lose
none of their innate love of their own national usages, which
they have almost invariably resumed when chance has left
them to choose for themselves." " However much the bene-
volent mind may regret the inaptitude of the Indians for civili-
zation, the affirmative of this question seems to be established
beyond a doubt. His moral and physical nature are alike
adapted to his position among the races of men ; and it is as

186 Comparative View of

reasonable to expect the one to be changed as the other. The
structure of his mind appears to be different from that of the
white man ; nor can the two harmonise in their social rela-
tions except on the most limited scale. Every one knows,
however, that the mind expands by culture ; nor can we yet
tell how near the Indian would approach the Caucasian after
education had been bestowed on a single family through seve-
ral successive generations." P. 82.*

The following are parts of Dr Morton's table of "mean re-
sults," given from his whole measurements.

Toltecan

nations,

and skulls

from
mounds.

Barbarous
nations,

with skulls

from the

valley of

Ohio.

American
race, em-
bracing
Toltecau
and barba-
rous na-
tions.

Flat head
tribe of
Columbia

river.

Ancient
Peruvians.

1^

'Si

II

II

1

'Si
II

i

II

73.2
25.7
47.4
14.6

58.6

Internal capacity in 1
cubic inches, )

Capacity of anterior 1
chamber, )

Capacity of posterior
chamber.

Capacity of coronal
region.

Capacity of sub-coro-
nal region.

57
46
46
46
46

76.8
32.5
43.8
14.0
61.8

87
73
73
71
71

82.4
34.5
48.6
16.2
66.5

144
119
119
117
117

79.6
33.5
46.2
15.1
64.5

8
8
8
8
8

79.25
32.25
47.00
11.09
67.35

3
3

:

3

Bemarks. — " The barbarous nations possess a larger brain
by 54 cubic inches, than the Toltecans ; while, on the other
hand, the Toltecans possess a greater relative capacity of the
anterior chamber of the skull, in the proportion of 42.3 to
41.8. Again, the coronal region, though absolutely greater
in the barbarous tribes, is rather larger in proportion in the
demi-civilized tribes ; and the facial angle is much the same
in both, and may be assumed, for the race, at 75 degrees.

" In conclusion, the author is of the opinion that the facts con-
tained in this work tend to sustain the following propositions :

" 1*^, That the American race differs essentially from all

* Dr Morton adds, that the Indians are extremely defective in compre-
hending every thing relating to numbers ; and we may remark, that Mr
Combe, in his lectures in New Haven, shewed the great deficiency of the
organ of number in their skulls.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans, 137

others, not excepting the Mongolians ; nor do the feeble ana-
logies of language, and the more obvious ones, in civil and
religious institutions and the arts, denote any thing beyond
casual or colonial communication with the Asiatic nations ;
and even those analogies may perhaps be accounted for, as
Humboldt has suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from
similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar lati-
tudes.

" 2d, That the American nations, excepting the polar tribes,
are of one race and one species, but of two great families,
which resemble each other in physical, but differ in intellec-
tual character.

'* 3d, That the cranial remains discovered in the mounds
from Peru to Wisconsin, belong to the same race, and proba-
bly to the Toltecan family." Dr Morton subjoins the follow-
ing

"Note on the internal capacity of the cranium in the differ-
ent races of men. Having subjected the skulls in my posses-
sion, and such also as I could obtain from my friends, to the
internal capacity measurement already described, I have ob-
tained the following results. The mean of the American race
(omitting fractions) is repeated here, merely to complete the
table. The skulls of idiots, and persons under age, were of
course rejected.

Races.

No. of skulls.

Meaii internal capa-
city in cubic inch.

Largest in
the series.

Smallest in
the series.

1.

Caucasian,

62

! 87

109

76

2.

Mongolian,

i 10

83

93

69

3.

Malay,

18

81

89

64

4.

American,

147

80

100

60

5.

Ethiopian,

29

1

78

94

65

'* 1st. The Caucasians were, with a single exception, de-.
rived from the lowest and least educated class of society. It
is proper, however, to mention that but three Hindoos are ad-
mitted in the whole number, because the skulls of these peo-
ple are probably smaller than those of any other existing na-
tion. For example, seventeen Hindoo heads give a mean
of but seventy-five cubic inches ; and the three received into
the table are taken at that average. To be more specific, we

138 Comparative View of

will give, in detail, the number df individuals of each natiofi*

as far as ascertained.

Anglo-Americans, . . . . . . 6

German, Swiss and Dutch, 7

Celtic, Irish, and Scots, 7

English, 4

Guanche (Lybian), , . . . . . 1

Spanish, 1

Hindoo, 3

Europeans not ascertained, 23

Total, 52

" 2d. The Mongolians measured, consist of Chinese and Es-
kimaux, and what is worthy of remark, three of the latter give
a mean of 86 cubic inches, while seven Chinese give but 82.

"3d. The Malays embrace Malays proper and Polynesians,
thirteen of the former and five of the latter ; and the mean of
each presents but a fractional difference from the mean of all.

" 4th. The Ethiopians were all unmixed negroes, and nine
of them native Africans, for which I am chiefly indebted to
Dr M'Dowell, formerly attached to the colony at Liberia.*

" 5th. Respecting the American race, I have nothing to add,
excepting the striking fact that, of all the American nations,
the Peruvians had the smallest heads, while those of the Mexi-
cans were something larger, and those of the barbarous tribes
the largest of all, viz.

( Peruvians collectively, 76 cub. inch.

Toltecan nations, < Mexicans collectively, 79 do.

(^ Barbarous tribes, as per table, 82 do.

* Dr Morton states the mean internal capacity of the European, or Cau-
casian skulls, to be 87 cubic inches, and of the Ethiopian, or Negro race,
to be 78 cubic inches. We observe that Dr Andrew Combe, in his " Re-
marks on the Fallacy of Professor Tiedemann's Comparison of the Negro
brain and intellect with those of the European," arrives at results coin-
ciding with those obtained by Dr Morton. Tiedemann gives the weight
of only four Negro brains. "The average European," he says, "runs
from 3 lb. 2 oz. to 4 lb. 6 oz. ; while the average of the four Negro
brains rises to only 3 lb. 5 oz. 1 dr. ; or 3 oz. above the lowest European
averages ; and the hiffJust Negro falls 5 oz. short of the highest average Eu-
ropean, and no less than 10 oz. short of Cuvier's la-ain." Phren. Jouni.,
vol. xi. We have already shewn, p. 357, that Tiedemann's linear dimen-
sions of the European and Negro brain also contradict his theorj^ of equal-
ity, an are in harmony with Dr Morton's results.

Crania of Aboriginal Americans. 139

" An interesting question remains to be solved, viz. the re-
lative proportion of brain in the anterior and posterior cham-
bers of the skull in the different races ; an inquiry for which I
have hitherto possessed neither sufficient leisure nor adequate
materials." P. 261.

Our readers will discover in the length and minuteness of
this article, the great value which we attach to Dr Morton's
work. We regard it as an honour to the country, and as a
proof of talent, patience, and research in himself, which place
him in the first rank among natural philosophers. We rejoice
to see that he does " not, even now, consider his task as w^holly
completed f but hopes to publish a " supplementary volume,
in which it will further be my aim to extend and revise both
the anatomical and phrenological tables, and to give basal views
of at least a part of the crania delineated." We sincerely
trust that the favourable reception of this volume will induce
him to execute these intentions.*

On Earthquakes. By M. Edouard Biot.

M. Edouard Biot lately read an interesting memoir to the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, upon the ancient deluges
which are mentioned in the historical annals of China, to-

* Postscript. — On page 3G3, wo remarked that " there is a discrepancy
between the description of the ancient Puruvian skulls, and the civiliza-
tion ascribed to their possessors, which is unique in Dr Morton's work."
When the present sheet was in the press, we received a letter from Dr
Morton, in which he says, " Since that part of my work which relates to
the ancient Peruvians was written, I liave seen several additional casts of
skulls belonging to the same series, and although I am satisfied that (Fig.
4, p. 127) represents an unaltered cranium, yet, as it is the onhj vnaltered
one I have met with, among the remains of that ancient people, I wish
to correct the statement, too hastily drawn, that it is the cranial tijpe of
their nation. My matured opinion is, that the ancient Peruvians were a
branch of the great Toltecan family, and that the cranium had the same
general characteristics in both. I am at a loss to conjecture how they
narrowed the face in such due proportion to the head ; but the fact seems
indisputable. I shall use every exertion to obtain additional materials for
the further illustration of this subject."

Signed, Samuel George Morton.

^Philadelphia, 3d March 1840.

140 M. E. Biot 071 Earthquakes.

gether with a catalogue of the earthquakes, and the moun-
tainous elevations and depressions which have been observed
in the Celestial Empire. Concerning this memoir, M. Bous-
singault, in his own name, and in that of MM. Arago and
Elie do Beaumont, presented a report, which we shall now
(from L'Institut, 21. Mai 1840) present to our readers.

In the former part, the author examines the facts and tra-
ditions collected in the archives of literature, concerning two
great inundations which have devastated the Chinese world.
The more recent of these reaches back as far as the twenty-
third century before our era, and the older is obscured in the
heroic period. M. Biot undertakes to explain these catastro-
phes by the same phenomena of elevation, the traces of which
have been pointed out by M. de Humboldt in that part of
Central Asia which borders on China. The chief considera-
tion upon which he maintains this opinion, is the coincidence
whicli exists between the direction of the principal axis of the
great American Cordillera, and the general direction of the
Chinese ranges. It is this identity of direction, together with
the similitude and frequency of the terrestrial commotions,
which have led M. Biot to conclude, that very probably the
crust of the earth is still but little consolidated, and, conse-
quently, not very stable throughout the extent of this great
circle, and that, therefore, there may have been a simultaneous
elevation in the Cordilleras of the Andes and these Chinese
mountain ranges which have the same direction.

This correspondence of the principal chains of the Asiatic
and American continents, had not hitherto been pointed out
in a way that was at all precise or satisfactory. Regarding the
cause of the extreme mobility of the surface in these countries,
perhaps it is to be discovered, remarks the reporter, in that
volcanic zone which embraces so extended a portion of our
planet, and in which we find comprehended the high moun-
tainous ranges which constitute the most salient projections
of both these continents. In truth, this zone forms an im-
mense mountainous elevation, which runs between the Pacific
ocean on the one hand, and the continents of America and
Asia on the other, following, from Chili to the Burmese em-
.pire, the direction of a great semicircle of the earth. This

M. E. Biot on Eartfiquakes, 141

long and uninterrupted ridge of the earth's crust, serves as a
central axis to this volcanic zone, without sensibly departing
from the coast line ; and, as M. de Buch has already remarked,
is really the natural limit of Asia ; it may, in truth, be con-
sidered as separating w^hat is now the most continental part of
the globe from the portion which is the most maritime.

In the second part of his memoir, M. Biot has engaged in
the collection of facts, and in proving, by human testimony,
that many real modifications and changes, the dates of which
are known with precision, have occurred on the surface of the
globe. This is an important result, since it is thereby esta-
blished, both that phenomena of a similar kind have operated
in epochs which were before all tradition, and also that those
catastrophes which these movements of the earth occasion,
may yet again be produced. The long catalogue of events
which he supplies, is made up of earthquakes, of mud erup-'
tions, the appearance of deep gaps or clefts, of elevations oc-
curring in the midst of plains, and of the downfall and sinking
of many elevated mountains.

The catalogue of earthquakes is to be found in the 301st
book of the great collection Wen Hiom^ Thong Khao^ made by
Ma Touan Lin, a celebrated author in the 13th century of
our era, whose plan was to compile together all the most
esteemed works, and to classify the facts they contained, ac-
cording to the Chinese notations of time. M. Ed. Biot re-
duces these periods to the corresponding years of our era.
The catalogue of Ma Touan Lin had been brought down to
the 17th century by Les Lettres, and M. Biot has continued it
to the present time ; he has likewise been so happy as through-
out to add various accounts which had escaped the attention
of former chronologists.

In perusing the observations of M. Biot, we are struck witii
the resemblance of the phenomena, and the analogy in the
appearances which preceded and accompanied them ; and the
events of the same kind which so often occur in the Cordilleras
of the New World. In Asia, as in America, after a long re-
pose, there is seldom a solitary earthquake ; there is almost
invariably a succession of shocks, which follow each other at
very short intervals. The first shock is only the presage of

142 M. E. Bipt on Earthquake^,

another, so that it has become a kind of proverb with the
mountaineers of the Andes, that el temblor is always followed
by la temblora. As to the physical accidents which result
from the phenomena, we might almost say that the Chinese
writers describe the convulsions of South America. In proof of
this, we shall supply a few quotations.

" In the year 234 of our era there was an earthquake ; imme-
diately a great noise was heard towards the eastward. In
the year 1314 there was another, which was accompanied by
an explosion resembling thunder." These explosions, which
it is necessary to distinguish from subterranean noises, appear
to be produced in the atmosphere itself ; sometimes they sound
like thunder, whilst frequently they produce the sensation pro-
duced by discharges of artillery. During the great earthquake
in. New Grenada in 1827, M. Boussingault had the opportunity
of hearing explosions of this kind. The shock occurred on the
16th of November, at six o'clock in the evening. The earth
was violently agitated for about five minutes ; immediately af-
terwards there were heard towards the south sixteen detona-
tions, which were in every respect similar to the noise of heavy
artillery. ' These detonations succeeded each other with a
wonderful isochronism ; and, although it was almost night, no
light was perceived, and all the phenomena which could be col-
lected after the event on being examined, there was no evi-
dence that any of the neighbouring volcanoes had been the
subject of an eruption : some days after, there was again ^
heard, at eight P. M., a very loud noise, which appeared to
proceed from the atmosphere. " Seventy-eight years A. c, a
new peak was observed to have risen upon the Tag-Chan^
mountains. This peak was upwards of fifty feet high. In the
year 780 B. c, a number of mounds of earth lengthened, and
suddenly elevated themselves many feet. In the year 1599, a
mountain sank down, and a lake was formed in its place ; and
in the middle of a flat country, five heights, great and small,
appeared.'** It is impossible, says the reporter, at this place,
not to recognise in these citations elevations analogous to those
of Jorullo in Mexico, which occurred in September 1759, and
of which M. de Humboldt has given a description. " In 771,
a violent commotion was felt, which continued for three days ;

M, K. Biot on Earthquakes. 143

in many places the earth was cleft, and from these openings
sand issued, and stones and water, which covered all the flat
country. In 1305, the earth opened up in two places, and
thence issued water, which was quite black. In 1567, the
earth opened in many places, and from these fissures there
flowed torrents of water and black sand. In the year 125, the
hill You Tone tumbled down and killed more than 400 persons.
In 634, a mountain fell from top to bottom, and was broken
into mere fragments. In 887, another mountain fell, and the
sun's light was obscured by the dust. In 999, near the Yel-
low River, and during a time of much rain, the side of a moun-
tain slipped down, and destroyed twenty-two families.

In regard to these latter observations, M. Boussingault
makes the following remarks : " The downfall of mountains
is often noticed in the Catalogue of M. Ed. Biot. These
falls have not always been preceded or accompanied with oscil-
lations of the soil. The same phenomena, and equally inde-
pendent of earthquakes, frequently occurs in the Andes, espe-
cially in those regions which consist of porphyritic and trachy-
tic rocks. Geologists have probably not sufficiently directed
their attention to the fragility of the mountains of the zone in
question. A number of examples might be quoted which de-
monstrate the identity of the phenomena. Thus, in the year
1818, at seven in the morning, a portion of the peak of Tacon,
at the north-eastern extremity of the Vega de Zupia, slipped
down, and carried along with it a hundred Indians who culti-
vated the sugar-cane at the foot of that porphyritic mountain.
This crash produced a thick dust, which by many was mis-
taken for smoke. Even at the present day the debris of the
rock forms a kind of slope which occupies an extent of many
furlongs."*' M. Boussingault cites many examples of this kind,
and then continues : " The geological catastrophes collected
together in M . Biot's memoir appear, therefore, similar in their
effects to the analogous phenomena which have occurred, and
which still continue to occur, in South America ; and since, in
spite of the labours of the modern schools, there are still those
who hesitate, and even refuse, to admit the occurrence of ele-
vations and depressions of the earth's surface, and who, in a
word, maintain the stability of the crust of the earth, it was

144 Level of the Black Sea and the Caspian.

fitting to collect, as the author has done, a considerable series
of authentic facts, that they might bo added to those already
in our possession. The documents collected by M. Biot, by
demonstrating that the still imperfectly consolidated zone of
our planet is prolonged from the shore of the Pacific Ocean to
the mountains of China, and that oscillations and terrestrial
movements have been observed throughout this extent for
nearly 200 years, will thus have contributed to supply a much
more ample basis for the discussions which will yet occur con-
cerning this portion of the physical history of the globe.
Hence the members of the Commission think that they cannot
too much encourage the author to pursue the course he has so
happily commenced, by making his erudition and acquaintance
with the oriental languages subserve the progress of science/'

Results obtained hy the Last Russian Expedition^ sent to deter-
mine the Difference of Level between tJie Black Sea and the
Caspian*

The measm-ements made by Messrs G. Fuss, Sadler, and
Sawitsch, were commenced on the 31st October 1836, at the
town of Kagalnik, a little to the south of Azov, at the mouth
of the Kagalnika, which falls into the Sea of Azov, in latitude
47°4'26".3 N., and longitude 2^21' 5^". 5 East from Paris.
Thence they were continued by Stawropol (where the expedi-
tion passed the winter), Georgijewsk, Mosdock, and Kisljar,
to the town of Tschernoi Rynolc,\ on the shore of the Caspian,

* From Poggendorff^s Annalen, 1840, and it is there stated, that the infor-
mation contained in the article is derived partly from the Bulletin Scientl-
Jiqtte de VAcademie de St Petersboiirg, vol. ii. p. 254 ; vol. iii. p. 27, 117, 366 :
Vol. iv. p. 241 ; partly from the Dissertation by M. Alexis Sawitsch, entitled
Ueher die H'ohe des Cagpisclien Meeres und der Hauptspitzen des Caucasischen
Oebirges (Dorpat, 1839) ; and partly from M. G. Sadler's Dissertation en-
titled, Beohachtungen uber die irdische StraJdenbrechung und uber die Oesetze der
Veranderung derselben (Dorpat, 1839.) — Edit,

t In the country around Tschernoi Rynok, the observers found a general
conviction among the inhabitants of the shores of the Caspian, that that sea
was gradually receding. The older peasants of this fishing town know, that,
thirty years ago, the water reached quite close to the town, while at present

Level of the Black Sea and the Caspian, lib

a little to the north of the mouth of the Terek, where the
operations were terminated. The whole extent of this line is
about 800 versts (about 600 English miles).

The measurements were of two kinds, — Trigonometrical
and Barometrical; and the following are the results obtained : —

Height of the Sea of Azov above the Caspian.

Calculated by M. G. Fuss {^BulL Scient. de I'Acad. de St Petersh., 1838,
vol. iv. p. 241.)

According to the method of simultaneous^ reciprocal. Zenith-dis-
tances, .... 73.1 feet English.
According to the method of the mean of the Zenith-
ES5 distances, .... 76.2
Calculated by M. Sawitsch (in his Dissertation, 1839, p. 22.)
According to the method of simultaneous, reciprocal, Zenith-dis-
tances, .... 78.1 feet English.
(Probable error =: 3.6 feet.)
According to the method of the mean of the Zenith-
distances, . , . 82.6
(Probable error = 6.2 feet.)

Calculated by M. Sadler (in his Dissertation, 1839, p. 33.)
According to the method of simultaneous, reciprocal Zenith-dis-
tances, .... 83.3 feet English.
(Probable error = 2.4 feet.)
According to the method of the mean of the Zenith-
distances, . . . 81.3
(Probable error := 3.9 feet.)

The discrepancies in these results arise from the way in which
the observers have calculated the measurements for the pur-
pose of removing the effect of terrestrial refraction. We can-
not decide as to which of these results is most probably the
correct one ; but it is evident that, as the uncertainty amounts
only to a few feet, we shall not be very far wrong in assuming,
as the number most nearly approaching the truth, the mean
of the four last (which are those that agree the best with one
another), viz., 81.3 English feet. Even should this number

there is an intervening piece of extremely flat ground, three or four versts in
breadth (two or three miles English). When, likewise, they reached the
point forming the water-shed of the two seas, they were struck by the dif-
ferent aspect of the surface of the country presented to them. The tract is
doubtless the former bottom of the Caspian.

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII.— JULY 1840. K

146 Level of the Black Sea and tlie Caspian.

not be reg arded as a definitive result, yet, at all events, by
means of this first trigonometrical survey of the Caucasian
Isthmus, the fact is established, that the surface of the Caspian
Sea is actuallij at a lower letel than that of the Ocean, an opinion
which has been lately disputed ; and it is likewise ascertained,
that the depression is only about one quarter so great as the older
measurements led us to believe.

Respecting the Barometrical measurement, or the second
portion of the operations of this expedition, M. Sawitsch has
communicated the following information to Baron A. von
Humboldt : — •*' Besides the result of the Trigonometrical sur-
vey, we are also in possession of two Barometrical results. The
first was obtained by means of observations made at all the in-
termediate stations, — stations which were nearly a German
mile apart (about 4f English miles). Our instruments were
cistern-barometers, like those employed by Parrot. They, as
well as the thermometers, were compared daily. At each sta-
tion, three observations at least were made between half-past
three and half-past six P.M. The difference of level between
two adjoining stations generally afforded a satisfactory ap-
proximation ; but, during high winds, errors occurred, which
for some time were all on one side. These errors of the par-
tial measurement were particularly great when a violent gale
prevailed, or when there was a regular storm. The definitive
result is far removed from the truth, inasmuch as it assigns
as the difference of level of the two seas, three hundred English
feet, instead of only eighty, which it, in fact, amounts to.
The discrepancy between the two results is too great to ad-
mit of its being ascribed solely to accidental errors of observa-
tions. The sum of these errors cannot amount to more than
80 or 40 feet. It may, probably, be rather attributed to at-
mospherical influences, which are not always of the nature as-
sumed in the usual formulae for the calculation of observations.
The second barometrical result is founded on a year's ob-
servations made with compared instruments at Taganrog and
Astrachan. These give, as the difference of level, nearly one
hundred and forty English feet, a result which comes nearer to
the truth than the first- At present, an excellent series of ob-
servations is in the course of being made at Astrachan and Ni-
colajej-, which promises to afford a valuable result."

( 147 )

Notice of Professor Schoum's Work on (he Climate and Vegeta^
Hon of Italy.

The present happy state of development of the physical
sciences, allows us to treat collectively of different portions of
physical geography which were formerly separated. The floras
of our time are more than mere pieces of nomenclature ; and
the meteorological observations are more than mere figures,
without meaning.

The labours of Humboldt," Buch, and Wahlenberg, which
have chiefly contributed to this union of the physical sciences,
excited an early interest on the part of the author in the geo-
graphical part of phytology. A journey to the mountains of
Norway, undertaken in 1812 in company with Christian Smith,
who afterwards fell a victim to his zeal for the sciences at
Congo, further contributed to decide the direction of his stu-
dies. Humboldt had presented a picture of the great physical
relations in the tropical regions of the New World, — Von
Buch and Walilenberg had described Scandinavia, the Car-
pathians, and the northern portion of Switzerland ; and it
therefore appeared to the author that an account of the phy-
sical relations of an intermediate region could not fail to be
of great interest ; and no country seemed more suited to this
object than Italy, from its presenting so much variety, owing
to its considerable extent from north to south, and from its
possessing the Alps as its frontier, being traversed by the
Apennines, including various volcanic tracts, and exhibiting
such a development of coast. Moreover, there is no other
country in the same latitude where plants have been so much
examined, and where so many meteorological observations have
been made, investigations essential for the exact determina-
tion of general- physical relations. So early as the year 1815,
the author sketched out a tour in Italy with this object, a
journey which met with the approbation of his master and
paternal friend Mr Hornemann ; and, by the advice of his scien-
tific counsellors, the King of Denmark, always zealous in the
cause of science, was pleased to present the author with the
means of realizing his projects.

148 "Prof. Schouw on the Climate and Vegetation of Italy.

Having prepared himself for his undertaking at home and
in Germany, the author arrived at Trieste in the spring of
1817, and employed the summer in exploring the southern
portion of the Alps between Carniola and Mont Cenis. In
the autumn he crossed the Apennines to Genoa, traversed va-
rious portions of the Ligurian mountains, and passed the win-
ter at Pisa and Florence. In 1818, he penetrated the Apen-
nines, ascended their highest summits in the Abruzzi and in
the States of the Church, and followed the whole chain to the
most southern part of Calabria. Thence he crossed to Sicily,
ascended Etna, traversed the interior of Sicily, and visited
the Nebrodic Mountains. He passed the winter of 1818-19
at Rome and Naples ; and in the succeeding spring he returned
to Sicily, occupied himself with the southern and eastern
coasts, and again ascended Etna, where he was the spectator
of a considerable eruption ; after which, he took a general
view of the mountains of the north-eastern portion of the
island. While traversing Italy on his way homewards, he
had again an opportunity of examining sctfne parts of the
Apennines and of the Alps. He crossed the latter in the au-
tumn of 1819 ; and, after passing some time at Geneva and
Paris, he returned to his native country in the beginning of
1820.

The author commenced the preparation of his materials ;
but his labours advanced but slowly, and were interrupted by
his various other studies. The latter, and particularly his
treatise on the Universal Geography of Plants, and his de-
scription of the climate of Denmark, led him to investigations
intimately connected with those which necessarily formed the
object of his work on the climate and vegetation of Italy.
During his studies, he felt more and more the necessity of
again visiting Italy ; and the munificence of the king enabled
him to undertake his second journey, which he commenced in
1829.

The first summer was chiefly employed in visiting a portion
of the Apennines of Tuscany and Modena, and the following
spring in exploring the coasts of Sicily and the environs of
Naples: the next summer was occupied with researches in
the mountains of Sora, the Apuanian mountains, those of

Prof. Schouw on the Climate and Vegetation of Italy. 149

Carnia, and many other portions of the Apennines and Alps,
which he had no opportunity of seeing during his first jour-
ney. His collection of meteorological observations was consi-
derably augmented by his second journey.

It is the results of these different journeys which the author
proposes to include in a work on the climate and vegetation
of Italy, of which the first volume is at present published.
But it is only by comparing different countries that the cli-
mate ' and vegetation can appear in their true light : it is
the comparative method which has rendered the physical re-
searches of our times so superior to those of former periods,
both in precision and in compass. The climate and the vege-
tation of Italy will not be discussed in an insulated manner,
but along with the climate of the rest of Europe, and of Nor-
thern Africa. The work will be composed of two chief parts,
the one devoted to the climate, and the other to the vegeta-
tion, each forming an independent treatise. The present vo-
lume contains an account of the temperature and the rain ;
and, as the configuration of the surface exercises an essential
influence on the climate, it has been premised by an orographi-
cal summary ; although it must be mentioned that this sum-
mary, and the illustrative map, are not so complete as they
ought to be for the special orography of Italy. The second
volume will contain the other elements of climate, and a com-
parison of the diff*erent years relatively to their meteorologi-
cal character^ which will lead me to treat of the interesting
question of the variations attributed to climate. The third
volume will be entirely dedicated to Phyto-geography.

Several years have elapsed since the author''s second journey ;
but the duties of his office, and occupations of quite a different
description, have retarded the publication of the work. The
observations collected in Italy were, however, calculated seve-
ral years ago, and partly printed in the supplement. Thus
the author has been very rarely able to take advantage of ob-
servations and writings of a more recent date.

The author was perfectly aware of the great difficulties to
be encountered by a traveller in giving an account of the phy-
sical state of a country, and of the imperfections which neces-
sarily result. Much local and detailed information, within the

150 Prof. Schouw on the Climate of Europe and Africa.

reach of an inhabitant of a country, escapes a traveller, espe-
cially when he is exploring a very large country, and cannot
remain a sufficient time at each station. But the author
hopes for an equitable and indulgent judgment ; and he flat-
ters himself that the scientific men of Italy will receive the
work with the same kindness that they shewed to the author
himself. A great part of the work belongs, of right, to Italy,
for it could not have been written without the numerous ob-
servations and researches of Italian sa'nans, and without their
kindness.*

.0/i the Climate of the portions of Europe and Africa which
are situated between the Equator and 60° North Latitude:
By Professor Schouw.

1. Thermographical Conclusions.

1. At the level of the sea the mean temperature of the year
in Europe and Africa, between the equator and 60° N., varies
from 81°.5 to 32° F.

2. The isothermal lines are the most separated (that is the
temperature diminishes the most slowly) between the equator
and latitude 25° N. ; between 30-° and 45° they approach one
another more ; and in a higher latitude the intervals again
become more considerable.

3. In advancing from west to east in the above-mentioned
part of the globe, the isothermal lines have equatorial inflexions
but these inflexions become more considerable as the Polar
Circle is approached. The most northern point (the polar
summit) in the curve of the isothermal lines between 32° and
59° F. is on the coasts of the Atlantic ; and this point in the
lines of more elevated temperatures is situated more to the
east (on the shore of the Mediterranean between Spain and
Italy, and in the interior of Africa).

* This notice forms the introduction to the 1st volume of this valuable
and important publication. The title is ; Tableau du Climat et de la Vege-
tation de V Italic, par J. F. Schouw, Profcsseur de Botanique a VUnivergite de
Copaihague. Copenhague, 1839. — Editor. '

Prof. Schouw on the Climate of Europe and Africa. 151

4. The difference of the temperatures of the seasons, and
of the months, augments not only from the equator towards
the Polar Circle ; but, in the portion of the globe under consi-
deration, it likewise increases from west to east, i. e. from the
coast of the Atlantic towards the interior of the continents.

5. Between 60° and the Tropic of Cancer, the hottest months
of the year occur at a later period in proportion as the geo-
graphical position is more northern.

G. In the same latitude the hottest months occur at a later
period in proportion as the sea is approached. Thus in com-,
paring the months of June and September we have,

Sept. = June.

Sept. = June.

Sept.

=June.

Ullonsvang, — 3°.96F.

Stockholm, — 5^22 F.

St Petersb.

— 7°.92F.

Edinburgh, — 1°.26

Copenhagen, — 3". 6

Moscow, . -

-19°.98

Paris, . . —2°. 7

Carlsruhe, — 4°.32

Ofen, . .

— 5°.58

Bordeaux, + 0M8

Nice, . . +1°.44

Florence, .

— 1».62

Lisbon, . 0.0

Palermo, . + 1°.62

Canea, . ,

— 1°.98

St Cruz, . + 3°.42

Tunis, . +3°.06

Cairo, . .

— 0°.54

HyeiograpJiical Conclusions,

The zone of summer rain extends in Africa from the equator
to the 15th degree N. latitude. The quantity of pluvial water
is very considerable, but the rains do not fall except in the
months of northern declination of the sun.

The zone tcithout rain includes Northern Africa, between
15° and 30° N. It is the zone of deserts, and is either entirely
devoid of rain, or the rains are very rare, and entirely acci-
dental.

The zone of winter rain includes Northern Africa and South-
ern Europe, between 30° and 45° N. latitude. The rains are
almost confined to the months of low temperature (in the
southern portion of the zone), or they are very frequent in
these months, and rare in those of an elevated temperature.
The quantity of pluvial water augments towards the Atlantic,
but still more towards the mountains; above all, it is very
considerable on their northern and western slopes, but very
small on the plateau of the Spanish peninsula.

The zone of continued rain includes the portion of Europe
between 45° and 60° N. The aqueous prccipitationiS are fre-

152 M. Dutrochet on the

quent in all seasons, and the difference in quantity between
these is not considerable. In the islands and on the western
shores the rain is most abundant in autumn, and pretty abund-
ant in winter ; in the interior of the continent it is the sum-
mer which presents the greatest amount of rain. The coasts
of the Baltic exhibit intermediate relations in this i:espect.
The annual quantity of rain depends more especially on proxi-
mity to mountains. In the great northern plain of Europe,
while the annual quantity augments towards the Atlantic, it
only presents slight differences ; but its increase becomes very
considerable as we advance from the plains towards the se-
condary and less elevated masses of mountains (for example,
the Vosges and the Sudetic mountains), and it is still greater
towards the great systems (the Alps and the Scandinavian
system). The largest quantities known are those of some
places on the northern slope of the Alps and the Apennines ;
and on the western slope of the Scandinavian system, and of
the mountains of the British Islands.*

Researches on the Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Animals.
By M. Dutrochet.

Animals may be divided into two great sections in reference
to the degree of their vital heat. 1. Those of a high tempera-
ture— the so-called warm-blooded, — a section containing birds
and mamraifera ; 2dly5 those of a low temperature, — the cold-
blooded,— a section including reptiles, fishes, and all inverte-
brate animals. The vital heat of animals of a high tempera-
ture can be easily determined, because it is usually much above
the temperature of the surrounding medium. It is otherwise
with animals of a low temperature; and is very difficult to de-
termine, on account of its slight elevation above the surround-
ing medium, the temperature which the animal acquires, and
to which it adds that which is peculiar to itself. I shall not
here consider all the difficulties which must be overcome, in

* These general conclusions axe given by Processor Schouw in tlie Atlas
prepared for his work on Italy by Captain O. N. Olsen.— Editor.

Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Animals* 153

order to distinguish accurately the faint heat peculiar to the
animal among the anomalies produced by the heat continually
communicated to it or excited in it, by the surrounding me-
dium, and by the heat which it is always receiving or losing
by radiation. All these matters shall be explained in my Me-
moir, as well as the reasons which have led mo to think, that
the thermo-electrical apparatus is much preferable to the ther-
mometer, for determining the vital heat of animals with a low
temperature. This apparatus I have accordingly used, and I
have followed the same plans of experiment which I have de-
scribed in detail in my researches on the vital heat of vege-
tables. I have taken care, likewise, to prevent the cold caused
by evaporation, by placing the animal under observation in air
saturated with water. Without this precaution, I could not
have obtained the whole vital heat of the animal, which, in
many circumstances, would have been found to be even colder
than the surrounding air. I now proceed to give a very brief
notice of the results of my observation.

Reptiles. — Different observers have estimated the proper
heat of the frog (Rana esculenta) Linn., from 0°.59 F. to 4°.o
F., (from J of a degree to 2^ degrees centesimal) above the
temperature of the surrounding medium. Berthold alone found
that this reptile, when observed in the air, was colder than
that medium, and when in water, it had the same tempera-
ture as the liquid. He found no exception to this but when
the frogs were copulating, when their internal heat was raised,
1*^.8 F. (a centesimal degree) above the temperature of the
water in which they were living. I have had no opportunity
of observing the vital heat of frogs during copulation ; I have
experimented on them only in a single state, and not in the sea-
son of their copulation. I thrust one of the needles of the th'er-
mometrical apparatus, sometimes into the abdomen, at other
times into the muscles of the thigh. In this manner I have
ascertained, that, in the open air, the frog is about 1°8. F. (1°.0
Cent.) colder than the surrounding air ; and that, when placed
in air saturated with water, it indicates a vital heat of from
0.054, to 0.09 of a degree of Fahrenheit (from 0.03 to 005
of a Cent, degree) above the temperature of the ambient me-
dium. I obtained the same result from experiments on a frog

154 M. Dutrochet on the

plunged in water. The relative cold of the animal placed in
the open air arises, therefore, from the coldness produced on
its surface by evaporation.

The tadpoles of the frog presented no appreciable degree of
vital heat.

Bufo ohstetricans^ observed in the open air, was found colder
than that medium by 1°.35 F (| of a cent, degree) ; in air sa-
turated with moisture, its proper heat was 0°.22 of a degree
of F. (0°.12 Cent.). Its tadpole offered no appreciable vital
heat.

The vital heat of the grey lizard (Lacerta agilis^ Linn.) has
been estimated by Czermak to be, from 2''.25 F. to 14°.61 F.
(from 1°.25 0. to 8°.12 C.) The striking difference in the re-
sults obtained, leads us to suspect that there must have been
some error. In my own experiments, I have found that this
same lizard, in the open air, was colder than the surrounding
medium from 0°.32 F. to 0°.305 F. (0M8 0. to 0°.20 C). In
air saturated with water, the vital heat appeared to be 0°.38
of a degree of Fahrenheit (0°.21 of a cent, degree).

It will be remarked, in these observations, that the feebler
the vital heat is in reptiles, the more decidedly they are aqua-
tic. The lizard, which has the greatest degree of heat of the
three reptiles made the subjects of observation, inhabits dry
places ; the toad frequents holes in moist earth, and its vital
heat, inferior to that of the grey lizard, is higher than that of
the frog which lives in water. Finally, the tadpoles, which
live exclusively in water, have such a low degree of vital heat,
that it cannot be appreciated by any thermoscopic means.

Fishes. — I describe in my memoir the researches made by
various observers on the vital heat of fishes ; and shall refrain
from introducing them again in this extract. The result of
these researches assigns pretty generally to fishes, a vital heat
somewhat higher than the water in which they live. Certain
observers, however, of higb. repute, have found their tempera-
ture to be similar to that of the surrounding water. Such was
the conclusion arrived at by MM. Humboldt and Provencal,
by MM. Prevost and Dumas, and by M. Berthold. The only
fish which I have subjected to experiment, is the Cyprinus
alburnus, and I have always found it, when in water, preserve

Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Animals. 155

the same temperature as that liquid, manifesting no appre-
ciable vital heat.

Mollusca and Annelides. — Berthold has shewn by experiment
that the Helix poniatia and slugs have a temperature inferior
to that of the surrounding air, and that these mollusca, when
plunged in water, have the same temperature as the liquid.
He obtained the same results with Anodonta anatina^ with
the medicinal leech, and earth-worms. My own experiments
have demonstrated that the Limax rufus^ Helix pomatia, and
Hirudo medicinalis, when observed in the air, are colder than
that medium, and that when placed in air saturated with water
they manifest no proper heat.

Crustacea. — All observers, with the exception of M. Valen-
tin, agree in attributing no vital heat to crustaceous animals.
All these Crustacea possess only the temperature of the water
in which they live. I have been led to the same result by ex-
periments made on the craw-fish {Astacus flwciatilis). Neither
in moist air nor in water have I observed in it any vital heat .
The needle of the instrument was inserted into the abdomen.
It is well known that the Crustacea breathe by bronchiaB like
fishes ; the absence of appreciable vital heat in both is probably
owing to this mode of respiration.

Insects. — The most extensive researches that have been
made on the vital heat of insects are those published by Mr
Newport in the Philosophical Transactions for 1837. This
observer employed small thermometers, one of which, usually
inclosed in a glass-phial, was applied to the body of the insect,
while another themometer, not inclosed, indicated the tempe-
rature of the surrounding air. Once only he introduced the
ball of the thermometer into the body of the cockchaffer. My
own researches on the subject have been made by inserting
the needle of the thermo-electrical apparatus into the abdomen
of the insect. I have in this manner obtained the exact de-
gree of its internal heat. Nobili and Melloni had formerly
appHed this instrument to ascertain the vital heat of insects,
but only by measuring the radiated heat that emanated from
their bodies. They have neither given the names of the in-
sects subjected to observation, nor any measurement of their
heat : they are satisfied with saying, " It may be admitted as

156 M. Dutrochet on the

an indisputable fact, that insects have a temperature, although
little higher than that of the surrounding medium."'' *

According to Mr Newport, the vital heat of insects is
greater in the perfect state than in the larvae ; higher in a
state of excitement than of repose ; higher when the insect is
awake than when it sleeps ; it is diminished by want of food,
and increases with the frequency of the pulsations of the dor-
sal vessel, and with the activity of respiration. Mr Newport
thinks that, by augmenting at pleasure the activity of respira-
tion, insects can by that means voluntarily increase the degree
of their vital heat.

I have been unable to repeat all Mr Newport's experiments.
The mode of experimentation employed by me necessarily
threw the insects I was observing into a state of excitement ;
they were either fixed immoveably to the spot, or in a state
of agitation, although retained in a particular place, I refer
to my memoir for an explanation of my method of proceeding;
I limit myself here to a comparison of the results at which I
arrive with those of Mr Newport. I have reduced the degree
of Fahrenheit's thermometer, which the English observer made
use of, to centesimal degrees: I cannot notice all his experi-
ments, for they are very numerous.

Mr Newport found in the Bombus terrestris a vital heat of
from 0'.99 F. to 1)°.36 F. (0°.55 to 5°.2 C), according as it was
in a state of rest or excitement. In my experiments, the heat
of this insect was not raised above 0.45 of a degree of F. (a
quarter of a centesimal degree). I found the same vital heat
in Bombus lapidarius,, Bomhus hortorum^ and Xyhcopa molacea.

The larva of the common cockchaffer (Alelolontha valoris)
afforded to Mr Newport a heat of 0.59 of a degree of Fahren-
heit, or 0.33 of a centesimal degree ; in my experiments it did
not exceed 0.04 of a centesimal degree, equal to 0°.07 F. The
cockchaffer, in its perfect state, having the ball of the thermo-
meter sunk in its abdomen, was found by Mr Newport to have
a vital heat of 2°.79 F. to 4°.68 F. (1°.55 to 2°.6 Cent.). I never
saw it exceed 0.32 of a degree of F., or 0,18 of a centesimal
degree, the insect being in an immoveable state. When in a
state of agitation, Mr Newport found that the cockchaffer had
a heat of 9° F. (5° Cent.) above that of the surrounding air ;

* Annales de Physique et de Chiniie, t. 48, p. 207.

Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Animals. 157

while, in similar circumstances, I found it not to surpass a
quarter of a Centesimal degree. Melolontha solstitialis possesses
nearly the same vital heat as M. vulgaris.

Mr Newport studied the vital heat of Lucanm cervus by
placing the ball of a thermometer under its elytra ; he found
it to be about 1°.58 of F. (0.88 of a degree Cent.) when the
insect was in repose, and 2°.52 F. (1°.4 C.) when agitated.
In my experiments on the same insect, fixed in an immoveable
posture, there appeared a proper heat of 0.39 of a degree of
F. (0.22 of a degree Cent.), and this rose to 0.9 of a degree
F. (half a degree Cent.) in another example of the insect in a
state of the most violent agitation.

In all these experiments, the insects I observed were placed
in air saturated with water ; when I placed them in the open
air, their internal heat became scarcely superior to that of the
surrounding atmosphere, and was even at times below it.

The following are the degrees of vital heat I have ascertained
to exist in certain other Coleoptera, placed in saturated air.

Carabus auratus, Fab. 0.32 F. (0.18 C.) of a degree.

mobilis, do. 0.32 F. (0.18 C.) do.

Blaps mortisaga, do. 0.21 F. (0.12 C.) do.

Cetonia aurata, do. 0.45 F. (0.25 C.) - do.

Chrysomela tenebricosa, do. 0.61 F. (0.34 C.) do.
Scavabacus vernalis, do. 0.38 F. (0.21 C.) do.

According to Mr Newport, the vital heat of Gryllus mridim-
mus rises to 4° .68 F. (2°. 66 C.) ; in my experiments on the same
insect I did not find it above 0.61 F. of a degree (0.34 of a
degree Cent.) In the open air this insect is colder than the
surrounding medium.

Gryllus 'csrrucivorous^ Linn., and G, campestrls, appear, by my
observations, to have a vital heat of about 0.9 F. (0.4 E.) of
a degree. That of Gryllus grillotalpa, Linn., is less, not ex-
ceeding 0.28 F., or 0.16 of a degree Cent.

The following are the degrees of vital heat which I have
found in certain Lepidoptera, respectively in the larva, nymph,
and perfect insect.

Sphynx Stellarum, Linn, larva, . 0.198 F. (0.11 C.) of a degree.

Id. perfect insect, . . 0.52 F. (0.29 C.) do. ^

Sphynx Tiliae, larva about to undergo

its metamorphosis, . . 0.77 F. (0.43 C.) do.

Id. nymph a month old, . 0^1 F. (0.34 C.) do.

158 M. Dutrochet on the

Sphynx Atropos, 24 hours after assum-
ing the perfect form, . . * . . r.04 F. (0.58 C.)

The latter is the highest degree of vital heat which I have
observed among insects.

These observations shew, that the vital heat of animals, with
a low temperature, is generally tery much inferior to what had
been previously assigned them, for it is found that, at its maxi-
mum, it does not reach 1°.08 of Fahrenheit.

On taking a general glance at living beings with a low tem-
perature, whether vegetable or animal, it is seen that their
vital heat is in relation with the activity of their respiration,
and also with the physical condition of the respired air. It is
almost always appreciable in animals which respire elastic air ;
there is no exception to this heat in the gasteropodous mollus-
ca, whose lungs are very small, and seldom renew the air which
they contain. With regard to animals which respire air un-
der water by means of gills, their vital heat is so low, that it
does not manifest itself, even by employing the most delicate
thermo-electrical instruments. It is allowable to suppose that
this want of appreciable vital heat, is owing to oxygen in the
water, when it becomes fixed in the act of branchial respira-
tion, giving out only a small quantity of caloric comparatively
to what it yields when fixed by the act of pulmonary respira-
tion, or by that of tracheal respiration which is peculiar to
insects.

Vegetables likewise respire elastic air, by respiratory or-
gans, in a state of high development, and, moreover, it is not
atmospheric air which they introduce into their organs, but
the oxygen gas disengaged by their green parts under the
influence of light. Their vital heat, therefore, ought to be at
least equal and sometimes higher than that of certain insects
or reptiles. This is what I have observed, and not without sur-
prise. Is it not, in fact, surprising that a plant, EupJiorbia
lathyris^ for example, should have a vital heat, which, at its
maximum, is ten times greater than that of a frog, and infi-
nitely greater than those of fishes, and all other animals that
breathe by gills l The family of Aroides, among plants, has a
vital heat in the spadix of their flowers, of so high a tempera-

Vital Heat of Cold-blooded Animals, 15J)

ture, that it surpasses what has been observed among animals,
excepting those with warm blood, insomuch that, in this point
of view, vegetables exist which hold the first rank among liv-
ing beings with a low temperature.

Why do living beings present only two conditions of ex-
istence in regard to the degree of their vital heat ? Why are
some of a high temperature, while in others it is very low,
without any existing which, in their normal state, possess a
temperature intermediate between these two extremes ? I am
aware that warm-blooded animals, in a state of hybernation,
have an inferior vital heat to that which attends their normal
condition, and higher than that of cold-blooded animals ; but
that does not constitute a normal condition of existence in-
termediate to that of warm-blooded animals in their normal
state, and that of animals with cold blood. The warm-blooded
animal, whose vital heat is diminished while in a state of hy-
bernation, enjoys life but imperfectly, and would soon perish
if that state were prolonged. It may therefore be established,
as a general law of nature, that the vital heat of living beings,
whether vegetable or animal, must either be so faint, that it is
often impossible to recognise its presence, or so elevated as to
approach that degree in which the existence of life, and espe-
cially of animal life, becomes impossible. The degree of con-
stant heat, which is incompatible with the normal and perma-
nent existence of animal life, appears to be about 122° F. (50°.
Cent.) ; for the vital heat of birds is so high as 111° F. (44° Cent.)
To possess an extreme degree of vital heat^ or almost none^ appears,
therefore, to be the law to which all living beings are subjected.
The existence of this law is inferred wholly from the fact of its ge-
nerality ; for we perceive no reason for its necessity. Living crea-
tures with a loxo temperature^ in order to live in their normal con-
dition, must necessarily derive heat from the surrounding me-
dium ; living heings with a high temperature, on the contrary, in
order to live in their normal state, must necessarily lose heat
by imparting a portion of what they produce to the medium
which surrounds them. The former must, therefore, be placed
in a medium warmer than themselves, and the latter in one
colder ; for no animal with a high temperature or warm blood
can live in a medium equal in warmth to its own, and much

160 Rev. W. D. Conybeare on the Landslip of the

less in one that is always superior. The injurious effect which
it would experience from the elevated temperature, would be
greater in proportion to the density of the surrounding me-
dium. It has been ascertained by observation, that animals
of a low temperature, can endure, in certain cases, a constant
ambient heat much greater than that which warm-blooded ani-
mals could resist for any great length of time. Thus, certain
fishes living in thermal springs, the temperature of which
rises to 104° F. (40° C). Even a higher temperature is assigned
to some of the springs in which fishes live, but we may be per-
mitted to presume that there is some error in the observation.

Extraordinarg Land-Slip and great Convulsion of the Coast of
Culverhole Point, near Axmouth, By the Rev. W. D.
Conybeare.

The recent season of Christmas has been marked on the
neighbouring line of coast by a convulsion so remarkable, from
the extent, magnitude, and picturesque changes it has produced
in the surface and general configuration of a line of country,
extending at least a mile in length, by half a mile in breadth,
(including the farms of Dowlands and Great and Little Ben-
don), that I conceive some account of it cannot fail to be
acceptable. Although this convulsion can only be ascribed to
the less dignified agency of the land-springs constantly under-
mining the substrata ; yet in the grandeur of the disturbances
it has occasioned, it far exceeds the ravages of the earthquakes
of Calabria, and almost rivals the vast volcanic fissures of the
Val del Bove on the flanks of ^Etna.

Convulsions of a similar nature have in former centuries
impressed on the whole line of coast between Lyme and Ax-
mouth, a character of wild and romantic picturesque combina-
tions of scenery scarcely rivalled in any other portion of the
British coast. The Undercliff in the south of the Isle of Wight,
affords another example of the similar effects resulting from
the agency of the same causes on rocks of the same geological
formations, and having a like position in relation to the line of
coast ; it may, however, be confidently asserted, that the Un-

Coast o/Cuherhole Point, near Axmouth, 161

dercliff of South-eastern Devon, in the acale and picturesque
effect of its features, is far superior to that of the Isle pf
Wight.

It will be necessary, in order to give a clear idea of the
causes which have produced these convulsions, to premise a
few words as to the nature and distribution of the rock masses
on which they have acted. The tract of Downs ranging along
the coast is here capped by a stratum of chalk, this rests on
series of beds of consolidated sandstone, alternating with seams
of that variety of flints called Chert ; beneath these more than
one hundred feet of loose sand, locally (from an obvious etymo-
logy) termed fox mould ; this bed affords the principal cause
of the disturbances in question, for it imbibes all the atmo-
spherical water falling on the surface, and as it rests on reten-
tive beds of clay (belonging to the lias formation) these
waters are here held up and flow out in springs along the
margin of this deposit wherever it is exposed by the slope
of the ground, as is necessarily the case all along the face of
these Downs where they break down to the sea ; the springs
thus issuing wash out with them a very sensible portion of the
loose deposit of fox mould, through which they flow — and such
an action is of course greatly aggravated by the inordinate con-
tinuance of wet weather in a season such as has lately prevail-
ed. Thus considerable portions of the fox mould being gra-
dually removed along the lines through which these subterra-
nean springs have found their course, the superstrata will re-
main completely undermined ; and as an excessively wet season
will, by saturating the whole with moisture, increase the weight
of the incumbent mass, at the same time that (as we have seen)
it withdraws the support, it is easy to conceive that cracks will
in process of time be formed, and that the undermined por-
tions of the superstrata will be precipitated into the hollows
prepared beneath them. And further, as the adjacent masses
of rock, even where not thus completely undermined, rest on a
slippery basis of watery sand, the motion originally impressed
by the falling in of an actually undermined tract will readily
be propagated to a considerable extent in an internal direc-
tion.

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII. ^JULY 1840. L

ld2 R6V. W. D. Conybeare on the Land-dip of the

These causes having acted through centuries, have produced
a series of dislocations affecting all the seaward face of the
range of hills lining this part of the coast for an interval of
more than a furlong, from the sea-beach inland. The whole
of this interval presents the wildest scene of ruin imaginable,
— " crags, knolls, and mounds, confusedly hurled^' in a succes-
sion of broken terraces, separated by deep and thickly wooded
dingles, an inland range of chalk cliffs mantled by luxuriant
screens of ash and elm, wherever the declivity will allow a
root to fix itself, forming the upper stage and general back-
ground of the scene, and extending to the very summit of the
hills. This general character prevails through the undercliffs
of Pinhay, Whitlands, E-owsedown, Dowlands, and Bendon,
the latter of which has been the principal scene of the convul-
sion, which in the last Week has added new features of such
magnitude and interest to those which previously marked this
range of coast. I proceed to my narrative. On the morning
of Tuesday the 24th, at about three o'clock a.m., the family
of Mr Chappie, who occupied the farm of Dowlands, about
half a mile from the commencement of the disturbances which
ensued, was alarmed by a violent crashing noise ; but nothing
farther was observed through that day. On the following-
night, however, about the same hour, some labourers of Mr
Chappie, the tenants of cottages built among the ruins of the
adjoining undercliff, hurried to the farm, with the information
that fissures were opening in the ground around, and the walls
of their tenements rending and sinking. Through the course
of the following day (Christmas)' a great subsidence took place
through the fields ranging above Bendon Undercliff, forming
a deep chasm or rather ravine, extending nearly three quarters
of a mile in length, with a depth of from 100 to 150 feet, and
a breadth exceeding 80 yards. Between this and the former
face of the undercliff extends a long strip, exhibiting frag-
ments of turnip-fields, and separated from the tract to which
they once belonged by the deep intervening gulf, of which
the bottom is constituted by fragments of the original surface,
thrown together in the wildest confusion of inclined terraces
and columnar masses, intersected by deep fissures, so as to
render the ground nearly impassable. The insulated strip of

Coa6t of Culverhole Point, near Axmouth. 16S

fields alno which has been mentioned, is greatly rent and shat-
tered. The whole of the tract which has been subjected to
these violent disturbances, must be estimated, on the most
moderate computation, as exceeding three quarters of a mile
in length by 400 feet. The extent of injury sustained by the
adjoining farms, may be readily estimated from these data —
which, from the fear of exaggeration, I am, however, persuaded
I have greatly understated. The whole of the adjoining un-
dercliff between this new fissure and the sea has been greatly
affected by the lateral movements to which I have before al-
luded : the whole surface is corrugated by new ridges and fur-
rows, and traversed at every step by new ' fissures ; and the
whole line of sea-cliff has completely changed the features it
possessed a week ago, and been very generally moved bodily
forward for many yards. A remarkable pyramidal crag off
Culverhole Point, which lately formed a distinguished land-
mark, has sunk from a height of nearly 100 to 20 feet, and
the main cliff, before more than 50 feet distant from this in-
sulated crag, is now brought almost close. This motion of the
sea-cliff has produced a further effect, which may rank among
the most striking phenomena of this catastrophe. The lateral
pressure thus occasioned, has urged the neighbouring strata
extending beneath the shingle of the shore by their state of
unnatural condensation, to burst upwards in a line parallel to
the coast ; thus an elevated ridge, more tlian a mile in length,
and rising more than forty feet, covered by a confused assem-
blage of broken strata, and immense blocks of rock, invested
with sea-weed and corallines, and scattered over with shells
and star-fish, and other productions of the deep, forms aji
extended reef in front of the present range of cliffs : this ter-
minates at its eastern and western extremity in two deep
basins of water. The western of these basins is encircled by
the extreme arm of the new reef, in such a manner as nearly
to resemble the Cobb at Lyme ; which, however, it exceeds in
size.

The singularity and picturesque effect of tlie new combina-
tions produced by this remarkable convulsion, must be suffix
ciently evident from tlie above description, without swelling a
communication already too long, by any vain attempt to deli-

I6i M. BravaL* on the Lines of the

neate by the pen that which wore a fitter subject for the pen-
cil.^

Axmimter, Dec. 31. 1839.

On the Lines of the Ancient Level of the Sea in Fimnark.
By M. Bravais.

In a memoir communicated to the French Academy of
Sciences, M. Bravais has brought together the results of mea-
surements of height made of the lines which denote the former
level of the sea in Finmark in Norway, between the 70th and
71st degi-ees of northern latitude. These observations were
carried on during a residence of a year in that district, and
during the leisure left him while fulfilling the special mission
assigned him of prosecuting meteorological and astronomical
researches ; and his other occupations prevented him from col-
lecting a more complete amount of information on this question.

The field of his researches embraced an extent of about 18
marine leagues, from the small tow^n of Hammerfest to the
mines of Kaafiord, at the inner extremity of the bay of Alten.

The author distinguishes two lines of ancient level extremely
w^ell marked. The upper line has an elevation of 67.4 metres t
in the Kaafiord, and its elevation diminishes gradually as far
as the mouth of a river called the Jern-elv, where it is not
more than 42.6 metres. From that point it diminishes in a
much more rapid manner as far as Hammerfest, where the
height is only 28.6 metres. The lower line follows similar
phases, but its inclination is regular, and about 35" of a de-
gree ; its altitude near Bossekop in the Altenfiord is 27.7

* We are glad to remark the announcement of a series of plates illustra-
tive of the above described subsidence of land, and which is to be accompa-
nied by a geological memoir, descriptive of this and similar phenomena, from
the pen of the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, the whole to be revised by Dr Buck-
land. We have seen two of these plates, viz. *' A View of the Axmouth
Landslip from Dowlands," and " A View of the Landslip from Grand Bin-
don ;" both of which are from drawings by Mrs Buckland, and are not only
remarkable for their beauty of effect, and for the skill in delineation they
exhibit, but likewise bear marks of minute geological accuracy. — Editob.

t A metre, equal to 3 feet 3.37 inches English,

Ancient Level of the Sea in Finmark. 165"

metres, and at Hammerfest it is only 14.1 metres. Thus these
lines are neither liorizontal nor even parallel with each other.

There is also a third line which is less evident, and whose
reality may be disputed ; it has a height of 40.5 metres in the
bay of Alten, but only 21 metres near Hammerfest.

The marks by which these lines are recognised are the fol-
lowing : 1*/, At the mouths of important valleys, horizontal
plateaus, formed of heaped-up loose matter, and termed ter-
races ; these are the ancient deltas of the river-courses which
flowed in the valleys. 2d^ Lines of erosion on the rocks ; these
are spaces sensibly horizontal to the eye, where the rocks are
corroded and full of holes for a height of one or two metres ;
seen from a little distance these lines appear like great black
streaks, ^d. Lines which the author terms lines of redresse-
ment or of resaut (projection), on account of the movement
which elevates the surface above the line. The line itself ge-
nerally forms a sort of band more or less even, which mnds
horizontally along the declivity of the mountains, and which
resembles the bank of a canal or the banquette of a fortification.

These three kinds may be substituted for one another, or
may be placed in juxtaposition, according to the variation of
local circumstances ; thus, to a terrace may succeed a line of
erosion, or of projection, or conversely. The coincidence of
the extreme portions of the two modes of formation can be
recognised at a simple glance, or at least by ascertaining that
the level has remained the same. There are also long inter-
vals in which no vestiges of these lines are to be met with ;
but they reappear a little further on, in such a manner as to
leave no reasonable doubt of their identity with those pre-
viously observed.

After some remarks on the circumstances which may deter-
mine these interruptions, and the marine shells met with in
these raised sea-beaches, the author examines rapidly the prin-
cipal hypotheses which can afford a key to these phenomena,
and is of opinion that that of soultvenients is the most probable.
A list follows of the facts of the same kind noticed by other ob-
servers on the coast of the kingdom of Norway ; and the me-
moir is terminated by a table of hypsometrical measurements,
a map of the locality, and a plate of sections.

186 ^ Death of Olbers,

From all the facts enumerated it would seem to result, in
accordance with the opinion of Professor Keilhau, that Norway
has been elevated by jerks (par saccades), and that the entire
change is the sum of a certain number of successive changes,
which have alternated with long periods of perfect repose.
The same phenomenon must have been common in Sweden, at
least in the southern portion of that country. — (Comptes Ren-
dus, 1840, ler Sem., p. 691.)

* Death of Olbers.

Astronomy has sustained a great loss by the death of the
learned and venerable Dr Olbers, which took place at Bremen
on the 2d of March 1840, in the 82d year of his age. Until
sufficiently full biographical notices give an account of his life
and labours, we think it our duty to pay a short tribute to his
memory. William Olbers was born on the 11th October 1758,
at Arbergen, near Bremen, where his father was clergyman.
He took the degree of doctor at Gottingen, on the 28th De-
cember 1780, after having previously made himself known as an
astronomer ; and, while he practised medicine with success in
his native country, he continued to pursue his favourite science
with ardour. The discoveries which have the most contributed
to his celebrity, are those which he made, in 1802 and in 1807,
of the two small planets Pallas and Vesta, of which the first is
so remarkable for the greatness of its inclination and for the
eccentricity of its orbit, and the second for the intensity
of its light, compared to the extreme smallness of its di-
mensions. These discoveries are so much the more remark-
able because he only possessed a small observatory at the top
of his house, and because it was while following up his theo-
retical ideas, that he was led to the discovery of Vesta, the last
planet which has been recognised up to the present time.
But the astronomical labours of Olbers were also extended to
other subjects, in which he has rendered very important ser-
vices to science. He occupied himself particularly with the
theory and observation of comets ; and he has given, for the

Zoological Noticet. JUT

determination of the elements of their orbits, a simple and con-
venient analytical method, published in 1797, at Weimar, un-
der the care of the Baron de Zach, and which is still the mogt
generally followed, especially in Germany. He was also much
interested in the periodical appearance of falling stars, a sub-
ject which has excited great attention of late years ; and his
last letter, dated 19th August 1839, and published in Schu-
macher''s Journal (Astronomische Nachrichten No. 384) related
to that topic* He preserved to a very advanced age his re-
markable intellectual faculties and his scientific zeal. His cha-
racter was modest, benevolent, elevated, and independent. His
death was calm ; and the Bremen Gazette, in announcing the
mournful event, adds the following words, which embrace a
simple but honourable encomium on this celebrated philoso-
pher, in his public and his social relations. " During his long
and brilliant career, he always enjoyed, as a medical practi-
tioner, as a citizen, and as a man, the confidence, the grateful
attachment, the esteem, and the friendship of his fellow-citi-
zens."— ( Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, March 1840.)

Zoological Notices regarding the Cephalopoda, Pgrosoma, ScU-
pa, Carinaria, Echinus, Holothuria, Hydrostatic Acalephoe,
Beroe, and Coralline Polypidoms. By Messrs Milne Eb-
WARDS and Peters.

1. Cephalopoda. — It is well known, that in the male appa-
ratus of the Cephalopoda, there are certain singular bodies
which were discovered by Swammerdam and Needham, and
which, when they are extracted from the membranous pouch,
where they are lodged side by side, perform various brisk
movements, change their form, and speedily burst. Some na-
turalists have thought that these filiform bodies were sperma-

* The 50th year of the doctorship of Oibers was celebrated at Bremen by
a grand /c/c, the 28th December 1830. Numerous testimonies of esteem and
respect were offered him on that occasion; both at home and abroad, and two
medals, struck in his honour, were presented, the one by the Museum of Bre-
men, and the other by MM. de Zach and Lindenau.~(See the Astronomiseh:
Nachrichten, No. 192.)

168 Zoological Notices,

tic animalcules of gigantic size, whilst others regarded them
as parasitic worms. Their nature, however, was ill understood,
and their use is altogether different, as we shall proceed to
shew. MM. Milne Edwards and Peters have studied toge-
ther all the Cephalopoda of which they could procure males.
These were the Octopus vulgaris, the long armed Octopus, the
Octopus moschatm, the Sepia officinalis, and the common Cal-
mar {Loligo vulgaris.) In all these animals the spermatic
filaments, or Needham's bodies, were encountered in abun-
dance, and presented a very complicated structure. But there
was always to be distinguished a case in form of a pod or husk,
which was composed of two coats, and which inclosed a long
tortuous tube like an intestine, filled with a white opaque mat-
ter, and connected with an apparatus which was more or less
translucid. This intestine-looking tube is a spermatic reser-
voir containing thousands of zoosperms, and the apparatus to
which it is attached at its anterior extremity, serves to burst
the case, so producing the escape of the reservoir itself. The
structure of the ejaculatory instrument and its mechanism

varies in the different species These bodies,

which Cuvier called the famous filamentary machines of Need-
ham, are neither spermatic animalcules, nor parasitic worms,
but instruments of fecundation, such as, according to our know-
ledge, there is no similar example of in the animal kingdom.
We propose to designate them Spermatophorce, and they can-
not so well be compared to any thing as to grains of pollen
which likewise inclose feeundatory corpuscules, and which also
burst, to discharge themselves when the male apparatus comes
in contact with the female organs of the flower. In all pro-
bability, these spermatophora3 are, in the Cephalopoda, also a
means by which the seminal liquor reaches the female appa-
ratus, notwithstanding the absence of an external organ. Re-
specting the spermatic animalcules, which are inclosed in the
interior of these singular bodies, they differ in no respect from
those of other animals. — Milne Edwards and Peters.

2. Circulation of Blood in the Pyrosoma. — I have re-
cently collected in the Bay of Villefranche, a small speci-
men of the singular aggregation of animals so well described,
first by Peron and Lesueur, and afterwards b} M. Savig-

Zoological Notices. 169

ny, under the name of Pyrosoma. Having preserved it in
sea-water, I could examine it in a living state. I had pre-
viously studied some of these Tunicata preserved in alco-
hol at Paris, but then, they have not that crystalline trans-
parency which they present during life, and I could acquire
but an imperfect idea of their organization. Nothing can be
more curious than to obsc^rve the respiratory apparatus of
these small animals, when the vibratile ciliae with which each
of the branchial openings is furnished, move all at once and
turn about with extreme rapidity and perfect harmony.

But what proved most interesting to me, was the manner
in which the circulation of the blood is effected among the Py-
rosomas. The heart, which I believe has hitherto escaped the
researches of anatomists, is placed in the lower part of the
body at the side, and below the mass of the viscera ; its dis-
position is analogous to that of the Ascidias. It contracts
likewise in a peristaltic manner, and here the direction of this
vermicular movement still changes periodically. The direc-
tion of the circulating current itself also changes periodically,
quite in the same manner as among the Ascidias, and, as in
these, the same vessels execute alternately the function of ar-
teries and veins.

Such, then, is the anomalous mode of circulation established
in all the great natural divisions of the Tunicata of Lamarck.
It has been interesting to me to perceive, that a physiological
phenomenon of so remarkable a kind, and which has not hither-
to been observed in any other type of the animal kingdom, is
not wanting in any of the animals composing the group inter-
mediate between the time mollusca and the polypes. — Milne
Edwards.

3. Girculation and Nervous System in the Salpa. — Since
I made researches on the circulation of the Pyrosoma, I
have had occasion to study the same function among the
(Salpa., and I am certain that the description which authors
have given of it is far from being correct. 1 have likewise as-
certained the existence of a nervous system in these animals,
a fact which had escaped M. Savigny, and which, I believe has
not been remarked by any other anatomist. — Milne Edicards.

4. Carinaria, — All the Mollusca of the order Heteropoda

170 Zoological Notices.

have hitherto been considered as hermaphrodites ; nevertheless
we have found no difhoulty in satisfying ourselves, that in
these mollusca the sexes are perfectly distinct. The males
and females even differ by the most evident external charac-
ters. In fact, in the males, we discover on the right side
(the animal lying on its abdomen), underneath the visceral
nucleus, a very distinct copulating apparatus, an organiza-
tion which is wholly wanting in the female ; but she, on the
other hand, presents near the anus a genital organ of which
the male is destitute. The testis occupies the same posi-
tion as the ovaria, and very much resembles it, but instead
of ovules characterized by the presence of a vitellin sac and a
vesicle of Purkinje, it contains membranous capsules full of
zoosperms. These animalcules have a very long tail, and are
very rapid in their movements. The same observations apply
to the Pterotrachea. — Milne Edwards and Peters,

5. Echini. (Les Oursins.) — Males and females perfectly
distinct, also exist among these animals. Externally the tes-
ticles of these Echinodermata differ in nothing from the ova-
ries ; but the liquid they enclose is white Hke milk, instead
of being of an orange colour as in the females : and crowded
with zoosperms whose tail cannot be seen without difficulty,
although their movements are quite characteristic. — Milne Ed-
wards and Peters.

6. Hydrostatic Acalephw. — M. Edwards states, that he is
convinced that these singular productions, which have been
drawn under the name of Physophores, and which resemble
long garlands of flowers intermixed with roundish bay leaves
and stipules spirally contorted, are not simple animals ; but on
the other hand, aggregations of a great number of individuals
produced by buds, and living united together as a compound
polypidom. It is also probable that they possess a distinction of
sex, for in some, in which it was impossible to perceive any
trace of ovaries, organs were discovered full of spermatic ani-
malcules.— Milne Edwards and Peters.

7- Holothuria. — The circulation in these creatures differs from
the description given by M. Tiedemann, and very nearly ap-
proaches to the sketches given of it by M. Delle Chiaje.

8. Gircuhtion in Beroe ovatm. — In this medusa there exists a

Zoological Notices. 171

double system of vessels much developed, so that the circula-
tion can take place in a complete manner. In certain circum-
stances the current is very rapid ; but there is nothing that can
be compared to a heart, and the circular movement is deter-
mined by the vibratile ciliai which cover the inner side of the
vessels situate at one extremity of the system. This, as will
be seen, is a mode of circulation of which we have as yet no
example. — Milne Edwards.

9. Coralline Polypidoms, (Poly piers coralligenes,) — The
stony polypidoms, of which M. de Blainville has formed his ge-
nus Dendrophyllia, have a structure both external and internal,
which differs but little from that of the Actinia, and especially
of the Caryophyllia properly so called. They possess, as do the
animals higher up the scale, distinct sexual organs. Some arc
provided with ovaries, whilst others possess in the usual situa-
tion of the female organs, testes of the same form as these last,
and inclosing spermatic animalculi, instead of ova. — Milne
Edwards and Peters,

Description of several New or Bare Plants which have latelj/
Flowered in the Neighbourhood of Edifiburgh, and chieflg
in the Boyal Botanic Garden. By Dr Graham, Professor
of Botany.

\Oth June 1840.

Bossiflea tenuicaulis.

B. tenuicavlis ; ramis teretibus, dilFusis, filiformibus, foliisque ovatis
subacutis rigidis mucronulatis, adpresse pubescentibus.

Description. — Shruh procumbent, branches long, slender, straggling,
round, leafy, with adpresscd pubescence. Leaves subsessile, ovate, sub-
acute, mucronulate, dark green above, paler below, rigid, denticulate
and recurved in their edges, having adpressed pubescence on both sides,
slightly bullate above, middle rib and reticulated veins prominent be-
low. Stipules filiform, marcescent, reflected. Flotvers solitary, axillary,
pedunculate, crowded into pseudo-spikes at the extremities of the
branches. Peduncles rather shorter than the leaves, with two minute sub-
opposite bracteolae above the middle. Calyx glabrous, keeled along the
upper side, bilabiate ; the upper lip divided into two broad rounded lobes,
each with a tooth at its outer edge ; lower lip of three small revolute
ovate acute teeth. Corolla (7 lines across) handsome ; vexillum reflect-
ed, slightly revolute in its sides, kidney-shaped, notched, yellow, behind
and in the throat streaked with red, claw obconical ; alse half as long

172 Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants,

as the voxillum, elliptico-obovate, yellow streaked with red, claws very
slender ; keel as long as the alse, boat-shaped, blunt, dark red, its pe-
tals only connected with each other in the middle, and there slightly,
claws slender and colourless. Stamens monadelphous, included within
the keel ; tube slit along its upper part, pale red ; anthers ovate, yel-
low ; pollen pale orange-coloured. Pistil as long as the stamens, sti-
pitate, glabrous ; germen compressed laterally ; ovules about three.
This plant was raised at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from Van Die-
men's Land seeds sent by|Mr Cooper, Went worth House, in April 1836,
and flowered for the first time in the greenhouse in March 1840. It
seems to flower abundantly.

Cystanthe.

Generic CifARACTER. — Calyx foliaceous. Corollse clausa, calyptrae-

formis, transversim dehiscens, basi truncata persistenti. Stamina

hypogyna, persistentia. Squamulse nullse hypo^yna?. Capsula pla-

centis ab apice columnse centralis pendulis, salutis.

Frutex habitu Springelise, Ponceletim, et Cosmelice, nisi quod rami dum

denudati annulati sunt. — Broun, Prodr. i. 555.
Cystanthe sprengelioides, Br. 1. c.
Description. — Shrub and its branches erect, glabrous, rigid. Leaves scat-
tered, crowded, sessile, stem clasping, ovate, acuminate, rigid, mucro-
nate, reflected, serrulate, shining, persisting, many-nerved, nerves dia-
phanous. Flowers solitary, axillary, but crowded into capitula at the
extremities of the branches. Braciece several, erect, distichous, in
oiher respects resembling the leaves but smaller, and gradually passing
into the submembranous sepals, which are still smaller. Corolla longer
thaa the calyx, pale greenish-yellow, opening by circumcision about
the middle, the upper portion crispid at its lower margin, and rising
like a calyptra upon the summit of the elongated style, the lower part
marcescent, marked by brown nerves. Stamens 5, hypogynous ; filaments
as long as the corolla, approaching below, somewhat spreading above,
flattened, subspathulate, but pinched laterally at the apex, crystalline up-
wards ; anthers erect, attached by their back near the base, ovate, yellow,
bisaccate at the base, cleft at the apex, and opening within the cleft ;
pollen yellow, granules minute, spherical. Pistil longer than the sta-
mens ; stigma with five minute points ; style colourless, tapering up-
wards ; germen green, 5-lobular, 5-locular, loculaments tumid and ragged
at the top, surrounding the base of the style ; placentae suspended from
the column at the apex of the loculaments, green, and naked on their
outer-side, but covered Avith suspended ovules on their inner.
This very curious shrub was discovered in Van Diemen's Laud by Mr
Brown. The specimen described (now 34 feet high, and growing freely),
Avas raised in 1836 at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from seeds
obligingly communicated in the autumn by N. B. Ward, Esq. London.
As Mr Brown notices only one species of this genus, and gives no de-
scription excepting what is contained in the excellent generic character,
I cannot be certain that this is the species which he saAv ; nor, if it be,
have I any means of ascertaining to which of the varieties mentioned
by him it belongs.

Janipha Loeflingii.

J. Lcejlinfjii ; foliis cordatis, 5-partitis, laciniis acuminatis integerrimis

intermedia panduncformi, floribus racemosis.
Janipha Loeflingii, Humboldt, Nov. Gen. 2. 85. — Spr. Syst. Veget. 3. 77.
Janipha frutescens Loeflingii, It. 309.
Jatropha Janipha, Linn. Mant, \26.— Willd. Sp. PI. 4. 563.— Pm.

Synops. 2. 587-
Jatropha Cailhagenensis, Jaeq. 256. 1. 162. f. 1.
$ muftifida, foliis 5 IS-partitis, circumscriptione suborbiculatis.

Dr Grahftm'8 LUt of Bare Flants: 173

Dbscription. — Shrub (10 feet liigh in the specimen described) erect,
everywhere glabrous, bark on tlie stem brown, cracked, and exfoliating;
branches spreiiding, twigs pruinosc, juice milky. Letiveg (C-13 inches
across) petiolate, glaucous behind, darker and more green in front, pal-
mate, 5-13-partite, in circumscription suborbicular, segments obovato-
cuneate, the outer the smaller, many of the middle ones often fiddle-
shaped, quite entire in the edge, apiculate, each with a strong middle rib
very prominent behind, slightly so in front, with many oblique, obscurely
reticulated, pale, and subdiaphanous veins. FHioles spreadmg or pendu-
lous, pruinose, round, considerably longer than the diameter of the leaf,
having a large quantity of pith in its centre, and terminated with a tuft of
short colourless hairs on the level of the front of the leaf. Stijmles long,
straight, erect, subulato-filamentous, cut in their edges, caducous. Ra-
cemes terminal, clustered, many-flowered, unilateral, spreading. Flowers
monoecious, cemuous. Bractem 2, subopposite above the base of the
pedicel, about equal to it in length, similar to the stipules, but smaller,
entire and marcoscent. Perianth smgle, glabrous, coriaceous, yellow-
ish-green, with ten broad longitudinal red stripes about the middle,
eonnivent in pairs towards their upper extremities. Male flowers : Pe-
rianth campanulate, 5-cleft, 10-ribbed, segments ovate, slightly overlap-
ping, blunt, revolute, the ribs passing alternately to their apices and
towards the sinuses, on approaching which they are cleft, and being af-
terwards repeatedly subdivided, they pass in scarcely reticulated lines
along the adjoining edges of two lobes. Stmnens 10, hypogynous : fila-
ments alternately shorter, more slender, eonnivent, scarcely reaching
as high as the sinuses of the perianth, alternate with the lobes ; the
longer stamens opposite to the lobes, follomng the course of the tube,
adpressed but not adherent to it, and reaching nearly to the middle
of the lobes ; anthers yellow, oblong, bilocular, emarginate at both
extremities, the loculaments on the inner side separated by a broad
connective, on the outside nearer each other, opening along the sides ;
pollen granules rather large, spherical. Dish largo, hai-d, orange-co-
loured, flat and depressed in the centre, marked round the ed^es
with ten notches for the passage upwai'ds of the filaments, which
are inserted below it. Female flowers fewer than the male, expand-
ing before them, placed at the lower part of the raceme ; perianth
single, pentaphyllous, caducous ; foliola ovato-lanceolate, rather un-
equal (the two inner being a little smaller than the three others), blunt,
spreading wide, undulate, revolute in their edges in their upper half,
concave in their lower half, or there sub-bisaccate and nectariferous,
each with three ribs, and several smaller ones towards the edges. Sta-
mens altogether awanting. Disk as in the male flowers, but only in-
dented on its lower side by the ribs of the perianth. Stigmata large,
multifid, colourless, orbicular -reniform, the sinus on the upper side.
Styles 3, short, united at the base. Oemien sessile in the centre of the
disk, green, glabrous, oblong, little more than half the length of the
perianth, 3 -celled, 3-lobed, the lobes becoming obscure as the germ en
enlarges. Ovides solitary, pendulous by a curved fleshy stalk from the
inner angle of the cell.

Seeds of this shrub, whose foliage is renuurkably handsome, and the
flowers not without beauty, were received at the Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Edinbui^h, in 1830, from Mr Dick of Irvine. They were obtained
by him from Mr Tweedie, but in what part of South America they
were collected I cannot learn. The plant has been cultivated in sandy
peat soil, and kept in the stove, where it flowered abundantly at the
end of almost every branch in the end of May 1840, and again towards
the middle of June, before the first crop had wholly disappeared. It is
not probable that the plant will be long-lived, though at present in
great vigour, but there is every reason to believe that it will ripen
seed.

In a genus known to vary so much as Janipha does, I have thought it
better to consider the plant now described as a variety of J, Loeflingiif

174 Dr Graham's List of Bare Plantt.

rather than one entitled to rank as a species. It may be right, how-
ever, to put in contrast characters which Jacquin states to belong to
the plant which he describes, and those which belong to our plant.

Janipha Loejlingii.

«. /S multifida.

Longer stamens equal to the co- — reaching nearly to the middle of

rolla. the segments.

Flor.fmn. filaments 10, shorter than — not a vestige of filament.

the gernien.

Geruicn with 6 blunt angles. — with 3 rounded lobes.

Leaves perfumed like walnut. — less strongly and less agreeably.

Leaflets five. — five to thirteen.

Petiole 6 inches long. — of larger leaves above 13 inches.

Stem scarcely br^mched. — many spreading branches.

Juices watery. — milky.

Pimelia nana.

P. nana : foliis altemis, rarius suboppositis, spathulato-linearibus, utrin-
que pilosis, uninervibus, floralibus rameis similibus ; capitulis termi-
nalibus^multifloris; stylo staminibusque limbo perianthii sequantibus.

DESCRIPTION. — Stem (8 inches high) woody, slender, erect, with alternate
ascending branches, its whole surface, excepting the inside of the corolla,
the stamens and style, covered with soft white and spreading simple
hairs, mixed with others which are much shorter and more dense. Leaves
(h inch long, about 1 line broad) scattered, spathulato-linear, glaucous,
rather paler and more hairy below than above, spreading, flat, with a
conspicuous middle rib, but no lateral nerves. Capitnlum terminal,
many-flowered ; involucre similar to the stem-leaves. Perianth white ;
tube green where it covers the germen, rather longer than the involucre,
slender, having long spreading hairs externally, and only short dense,
hairs within ; limb somewhat irregular, segments imbricated, the upper
and lower outermost, ovato-lanceolate, glabrous on their upper surface,
the two lateral ones deflected. Stamens as long as the perianth : fila-
ments glabrous, at first erect, afterwards spreading along the upper and
lower segments of the limb, white ; anthers broM n, rhomboideo-oblong,
attached by their back near the base, bursting along their sides : pollen
granules spherical, of the same colour with the anthers. Stigma blunt.
Style glabrous, subterminal, exserted, as long as the stamens. Germen
pale green, ovato-oblong, with a small tuft of erect hairs on its apex,
elsewhere glabrous. Ovule solitary pendulous, filling the germen.

We received this plant at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in 1839, from
Mr Low of Clapton. It is a native of the Swan Kiver settlement in
Australia, and flowered abundantly in the greenhouse in the end of
April, and in May and June. It is allied to P. longijlora, Hooker, Bot.
Mag. 3281, but is easily distinguished from this by its much more
humble grov^^th, its single-nerved leaves, and its exserted stamens and
style. It will probably be short-lived.

Verbena tuberosa.

Y.tvherom.; radice tuberifera ; caule suffiniticosa, erecta; foliis petio-
latis, ovato-ellipticis, utrinque obtusis, inciso-serratis ; spicis termi-
nalibus, solitariis, floribos verticillatis.
Description. — Root perennial, creeping, the fibres having many rounded
tubers about the size of filberts. Stem herbaceous, branched, erect,
square, green, slightly glutinous. Leaves opposite, decussating, petio-
late, concave in front, slightly rough, inciso-serrate, ovato-elliptical, of
bright green, paler below where the midrib and veins are very promi-
nent, channelled above. Petiole more than half the length of the leaf
below, shorter upwards. Flowers in terminal, verticellate, solitary
i^ikes ; pedicels very short, each with an ovate, undulate leafy ^ractee

Dr Graham's Litt of Bare Plants, 176

below its base. Calyx cun'ed, witli five blunt but prominent angles,
coloured above, green below ; teeth five, subulate, unequal, the lowest
the longest. Corolla flesh-coloured, agreeably perfumed; limb very
oblique and very unequal, above glabrous, except towards the throat,
where, especially on the lower side, it is pubescent, below very slightly
hairy ; lobes obovato -linear ; tube curved, scarcely longer than the ca-
lyx, hairy both within and without, excepting where inclosed within
the tube of the calyx, where, both within and without, it is glabrous.
Stamens very unequal, the longer rising from the lower side of the
flower, and projecting into the faux ; filaments hairy, those of the shor-
ter stamens adhering to the middle of the corolla, the longer some-
what farther ; anthers ovate ; pollen granules small and round. Pistil
rather shorter than the stamens, eveiywherc glabrous ; germcn ovate,
green ; style slightly curved, colourless ; stigma bilobate, the upper
lobe very small, the lower curved downwards.

We received this plant, without name, at the Royal Botanic Garden,from
the gai-den of the Dublin Society, and understood it had been imported
from Buenos Ayres. It flowered in the greenhouse. In the arrange-
ment of the species it should probably stand next Verbena platensis.

Before I was aware of the tubers on the root, I had given this plant the
specific name of lohcUoides, and I believe it exists in various collections
so marked; but as no account of it has been published, I do not hesi-
tate to substitute the far more appropriate designation now given.

Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society.
(Continued from vol. xxviii. p. 414.)

March 21. 1840 — Dr Traill, V. P. in the Chair.— Mr James
Wilson read an account of Mr Shaw's experimental observations
on the fry of the Salmon ; illustrating the same by specimens of
the fish in its various sta^s

Api-il 4. — Professor Jameson, President, in the Chair. — ^Mr
William Nicol stated the result of his observations on the opti-
cal properties of Greenockite. The specimen employed was a
cleavag-e plate, extremely thin, and so narrow as barely to cover
an aperture of about the thirtieth part of an inch in diameter. It
was highly transparent, and of a de^p yellow colour. On trans-
mitting through it the polarized light of dullish clouds, or that
of a deep blue sky, it did not appear to depolarize the light ; but
when placed between two single vision prisms of calcareous spar,
and exposed to the bright light of a gas burner, or to that of
bright white clouds, it depolarized light in the same manner as
was done by similar minute poi-tions of crystals possessing one
axis of double refraction. On account of the extreme thinness
and limited extent of the specimen, the coloured rings could not
be brought into view.*

* An examination of some additional specimens of Greenockite leaves
little doubt of that mineral belonging to the rhombohedral system of crys-
tallimtion. — Editor.

176 Proceedings of the JFernerian Society,

Mr Robert Bald, mining engineer, then read a paper regarding
the edge coals, near Edinburgh. In particular, he noticed the
position and great aggregate thickness of these coals in the lands
of Duddingstone and Brunstain, the property of the Marquis of
Abercorn. The coals in this property, bounded by the sea on the
east, lie at an angle of about 65° with the horizon, dipping to the
south. They consist of two distinct groups, viz., the Dudding-
stone group on the north, and the Brunstain group on the south.
The North Green coal, which reaches within a few hundred yards
of the town of Portobello, is the most northerly, and lies within
a few fathoms of the mountain limestone. It yields the chief
supply of parrot or pitch coal for the gas-works. The limestone
encircles the whole of the great coal basin of the district, and is
held as a sure index for the finding of the coals in the basin. The
most southerly coal of the two groups is that named Greymechan,
which reaches within a few yards of the flat coals in the valley
of the Esk. The edge coals pass under the flat coals, and again
rise along the elevated ground in the Dalkeith district, dipping
to the north at an angle of from 13° to 18°. These are termed
half-edge coals. The Duddingstone coal seams are twenty in
number, and their aggregate thickness is sixty-eight feet. Those
of Brunstain are six in number, and their aggregate thickness
fifty-two feet. Hence these two groups of coal constitute together
120 feet thick of coal. Mr Bald mentioned, that the most strik-
ing geological feature of this coal-field, including the two groups,
is this : — That the distance from the seven-feet coal in Brunstain,
to the south parrot-coal in Duddingstone, is no less than 622 yards ;
that in this vast space there are only two thin beds of coal found,
the one being merely two feet, and the other two feet seven inches
thick. The author then shewed, that in each square yard of surface,
measured parallel with the dip of the coals, and taking into ac-
count the aggregate thickness of the coals, there exist no less than
thirty-six tons of coals ; and that, therefore, less than two impe-
rial acres would yield above 300,000 tons, equal to the whole an-
nual consumption of Edinburgh, Leith, and the surrounding towns
and villages. Upon these rich coals, collieries had been established
centuries ago. About forty years ago, they were drained by power-
ful atmosphere steam-engines ; but these being overpowered with
water, were abandoned, and no coal has been wrought there for
many years past. Now, however, the coal-fields have been let to
a capitalist in London, who is much engaged in mines ; and there
is no doubt that the workings will forthwith be revived with vigour
^r\^ efficiency^

Proceeditu/s of the Wernerian Society. 177

Dr Traill next conimuMicated some remarks on the food of the
genus Trochilus, and stated, that having; frequently dissected dif-
ferent species of Trochilus, which had been put up in spirit when
recently killed, he had invariably found the expansion of their
ttjsophag-us corresponding- to the crop of gianivorous birds, to con-
tain insects, and, in some instances, to be completely stuffed with
them, among which he had never observed any apterous insect.
In a specimen of Trochilus viridissimus, opened in presence of the
meeting-, two species of dipterous insects were found. From these
observations he inferred, that Alexander Wilson and some other
naturalists were not only rig-ht in asserting that insects v/ere oc-
casionally eaten by humming-birds, but that the chief object of
their fluttering about flowers was more for the purpose of obtain-
ing insect food than for the alleged object of sucking the honey
from the nectaries of plants.

Professor Jameson directed the attention of the members to the
height of the coast-line of fuci or sea-weeds; remarking, that im-
portant geological results would seem to have been obtained by
the French northern scientific expedition, from observations made
on the variations it presents in Norway, as mentioned in the April
number of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, p. 420. It
was recommended that comparative measurements should be made
on the coasts of Scotland and its islands, with the view of collect-
ing information regarding a phenomenon which appears to bear
so directly on the question of the supposed elevation of the land,
or the depression of the sea. The Professor then exhibited the
skin of a species of sheep from the lofty Himmalayan range, much
resembling the argali of Siberia, but differing from the argali of
North America. He observed, that if the animal could be intro-
duced alive into Scotland, it would probably thrive in our High-
lands, and become valuable, not for wool certainly — the fur being-
hairy and like that of the deer — but for its flesh, which is described
as delicate and excellent for food.

April 18. — Dr Robert Hamilton in the Chair. — Mr Edward
Forbes communicated observations on certain rare British Zoo-
phytes ; illustrating his remarks by drawings.

Professor Jameson read a communication by Professor L. A.
Necker on some rare Scottish minerals (published in this Number,
p. 75). He likewise exhibited specimens of the lead and iron ores
of Craigengillan, in the parish of Carsphairn and Stewartry of
Kirkcudbright.

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVH. JULY 1840. M

( 178 )
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

METEOROLOGY.

1 . On the Odour of the Electric Fluid, By M . Schoenbein. M.
Sclioenbein, at the beginning of May last, presented to the Royal
Academy of Paris, a communication concerning the odour connect-
ed with the electric fluid, of which we shall now present a short
account.

Being struck with the resemblance which exists between the
odour which is developed when common electricity issues from the
point of a conductor to the surrounding air, and that which is dis-
engaged when water is decomposed by the galvanic current, M.
Schoenbein instituted a series of experiments, on the results alone
of which we shall now dwell. The following are the facts, and,
according to the author, they afford a complete explanation of the
phenomenon.

1^^. The phosphoric odour which is developed during the elec-
trolyzation of water, is disengaged only at the positive wire.

2d. The disengagement of the odoriferous principle, depends,
1*^, upon the chemical nature of the substance which affords the
positive electricity ; 2c?, Upon the chemical constitution of the fluid
employed in the trough ; and M, Upon the temperature of this
same fluid. Regarding the first condition, the author has found
that, of all the metals he has examined, gold and platinum alone
produce the disengagement of the peculiar odour. Those metallic
substances which are very readily oxydized, do not furnish the
slightest trace of it, and charcoal, which is an excellent conductor,
also belongs to this category. Respecting the connection which
exists between the fluids employed, and their power of disengag-
ing the odorous principle, the experiment of M. Schoenbein has
demonstrated that the electric odour is developed at the positive
wire, when the fluid consists of distilled water mixed with sul-
phuric, phosphoric, or nitric acids, or with potash, and a variety of
oxydized salts. The odour, on the other hand, is not observable
when the water contains chlorides, bromides, iodides, fluorides,
the protosulphate of iron, or any substance whatever which has a
strong affinity for oxygen. No more does it occur, if the fluids
which have just been enumerated in the former of these lists are
mixed even with small quantities of the protosulphate of iron, or
with nitrous acid, or with any other substance whose affinity for
oxygen is equally great. Lastlyy Those fluids which abundantly

Scientific Intelligence — Meteorology. 179

disengage the electric odour at a Io\v temperature, ddso iio longer
when heated to their boiling point.

3c?. The odoriferous substance which is disengaged from the
positive wire, may be inclosed and preserved in a well- corked ves-
sel.

4th. When into a vessel containing this substance, there is thrown
a small quantity of powdered charcoal, or filings of iron, zinc, tin,
lead, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, or a few drops of mercury or ni-
trous acid, or of a solution of protosulphate of iron, or of proto-
chloride of tin or iron, the odour is nearly in a moment entirely de-
stroyed ; and at a high temperature, gold and platina produce the
same effects. When a plate of gold or platina, whose surface is
quite dry and free from tarnish and cold, is plunged into a jar con-
taining this substance, the metal becomes negatively electrified, or,
in other words, a plate of platina heated in this way, forms with
another plate of the same metal in its natural condition, a voltaic
element. The metals which are readily oxydized, are not nega-
tively polarized in the same circumstances. The author, in the
course of the previous year, had demonstrated that the precious
metals assumed negative polarity when they are plunged for a little
time into an atmosphere, of chlorine or bromine. This negative
polarity of platinum is destroyed when the plate is plunged for a
i\i\Y instants into an atmosphere of hydrogen.

M. Schoenbein regfirds the odorous principle which he has been
examining, as a distinct body which ought to be classed with the kind
of bodies to which chlorine and bromine belong, among elementary
and halogenous substances. He proposes to give it the name of
Ozone. He considers it certain, that this body is always disengaged
in the air, and in very considerable quantities during the time oC
thunder storms.

2. Polar Lights. — Some of the labours of the French Scientific
Expedition to high northern latitudes, have been lately submit-
ted to the attention of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and from
these interesting documents we now select a i'GW particulars on
Polar lights. Between the 12th of September 1838, and the 18th
of April 1839, 153 appearances of the aurora borealis were ob-
served ; sometimes the phenomenon was noticed as early as half-
past three in the afternoon, and sometimes it continued till five in
the morning. It has often afforded light to read a printed book,
and frequently, of nearly the smallest type. Parallactic observa-
tions, which have been taken at Dupvig and Bossekop, the two ex-
tremities of a base eight and a half miles long, between the 9th
and 22d of January 1839, seem to assign to those auroras which

180 Scientific Intelligence — Meteorology.

were seen at this epoch, an inferior limit, notably higher than
the result of the observations of Franklin and his companions.
The particulars of its colouring have also been noted with care,
and the results may be thus stated. The usual colour is a yel-
lowish tint, which may become whitish or greyish, especially to-
wards the conclusion of the phenomenon. The more striking ex-
hibitions of colour are produced by red tints or green ; and these
are witnessed only in the most beautiful auroras, which occur, in com-
parison to the others, in the proportion of one to five. This kind
of colouring seems to require, as a condition, great vivacity of
splendour, and very rapid undulatory movements or vibrations.
The mode of the distribution of the colours has also been studied,
and is very remarkable. When an arch is very brilliant in a clear
sky, it forms at the lower part a light reddish shade, and at the
upper a very slight greenish tint, and the general shining light con-
tinues imprisoned between the two small coloured zones ; ere long
the rays appear ; but this phenomenon, upon the whole, is far from
common. Even when the vibratory movement is perceptible, if
there be any shooting of the rays, the red tint occupies the base of
the ray, the green the summit, and the yellow the intermediate
space. In proportion as the splendour increases, the more the co-
lours at the extremity extend, and at the expense of the colour be-
tween them. If the splendour diminishes, these colours retreat to
the extremities of the rays, and then disappear. If, on the other
hand, the ray is following an undulatory motion, and is moving
along parallel to itself, of the two lateral faces one exhibits the red
tint, and this is the anterior one, whilst the other and posterior one
is of a green hue.' These two tints have not at all appeared iden-
tical with their homonyms of the solar spectrum. Possibly the red
aurora of our climates may be explained by the appearance of arcs
or rays, whose lower part alone is visible to us. Three or four
times the aurora borealis has been seen, apparently placed between
the observer, on the one hand, and the clouds or the mountain snow
on the other.

The influence of the aurora borealis upon the magnetic needle
has been studied with the greatest care : that of the more brilliant
ones was very conspicuous; the needle almost always traversed to-
wards the west, then returned to its point of equilibrium, and ad-
vanced towards the east, and did not definitively return to its ori-
ginal position, till after a series of oscillatory movements which
were usually very irregular. The maximum deviation observed has
been 4^ 30', and this on the evening of the 22d of February ; and
it is especially during the appearance of coronas that these striking

Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorology. 181

deviations appear. Those examples of the aurora borealis which
are not brilliant, whose glare is difFused, or which do not leave the
northern horizon, have, on the contrary, little influence upon the
magnetic needle. Finally, there has been no instance during the
prevalence of a pure sky, and free from the aurora during the
course of the night, which has coincided with a magnetic agitation
of any extent, a fact which goes to support the opinion that all the
incessant and irregular perturbations of the needle (with the excep-
tion of the regular, daily, monthly, and annual variations) are owing
to the aurora borealis.

Major Sabine, in a Report on " Observations made on the Aurora
Borealis at Alten, in Finmark, by Mr S. H. Thomas," just laid
before the Royal Society, remarks — " On examining Mr Thomas's
Register, with a reference to Mr Erman's important remark, that

* in Siberia two kinds of aurora are distinguished, one having its
centre in the west, and the other in the east, the latter being the
more brilliant,' I find that twenty-eight nights occur in the course
of the two winters, viz. 1837 and 1839, in which the formation of
arches of the aurora is noticed, and their direction recorded ; of
these ten are to the west, having their centres rather to the south-
ward of west, the arches extending from NW. to S.S.E. and SE.;
seven are to the east, or more precisely to the southward of east, the
arches extending from NE. to SE. and S VT. : of the five others, ^wr
are said to be from east to west across the zenith, and cannot, there-
fore, be classed with either of the preceding ; and one is noticed
generally as being to the north. The facts here recorded appear to
afford an evidence of the same nature as those mentioned by Mr
Erman, as far as regards there being two centres of the phenomena.
In respect to the relative brillian(;y of the eastern and western au-
rora, nothing very decided can be inferred from the register. If,
as Mr Erman supposes, that they may be referred respectively to

* les deux foyers magnetiques de I'hemisphere boreal,* it is proper
to notice that the position of Alten is nearly midway between these
localities. There can be no doubt that the frequent appearance of
the aurora, and the peculiarities of the phenomena observed there,
render it a most desirable quarter for a magnetical and meteorolo-
gical observjCtory."

3. On Terrestrial Temperature, — Mr Dove lately read to the Ber-
lin Royal Academy a memoir upon the changes of form which the
isothermal lines undergo during the course of the year, of which we
present the following notice : —

The immense influence which currents of air exercise, and the
fall of the temperature of the place which accompanies them, do

182 Scientific Intelligence. — Meteorology.

not, as is known, manifest themselves in the course of a single year,
to such a degree as very sensibly to affect the temperature as com-
pared with that of another year. The mean monthly variations of
a single year are infinitely more considerable. For tlie purpose of
estimating them with certainty, a series of annual observations is
required, such as is, as yet, collected for a, very small number of
places. There are, therefore, for the construction of lines of equal
monthly heat, out of the observations which we possess, three cor-
rections to be made; 1st, To free the observations which extend to
too short periods of the accidental deviations of the true means ;
2d, the elimination of the daily variations ; and 3d, The reducing
the observations to the sea-level.

The researches which were submitted the preceding year to the
Academy, upon the extent which the same meteorological phe-
nomenon embraces, have demonstrated, that the wide differences
of different mean temperatures, are never a local phenomenon,
hut extend simultaneously over a large surface of the globe. We
may hence then conclude, that the deviations that are remarked
In a given place, will be observed also in another neighbouring
place. In the first of the tables formerly printed, there was cal-
culated the deviations of each month of the interval between the
year 1807 and 1824, upon the general means during that inter-
val for the following places, viz., Madras, Palermo, Nice, Mil.in,
Geneva, Carlsruhe, Stuttgard, Munich, Ratisbon, Paris, Placentia,
London, Carlisle, Dunfermline, Berlin, Dantzic, Stockholm, Tor-
neo and Salem. Let us suppose, for example, a spot placed in
the neighbourhood of Nice, and for which we are furnished with
observations from the year 1810 to 1815, it may be understood,
that the difference of the monthly mean of Nice in the same inter-
val of 1810-15 and that from 1807 to 1824, may he employed as
the element of correction for the observations made in this neigh-
bouring locality. By the combination of five different systems of
analogous observations, simultaneous in the interval of fifty years
in the district which embraces them all, it becomes possible to eli-
minate the non-periodic and purely fortuitous changes, whilst the
corrections dependent on the daily period, are calculated by parti-
cular tables prepared for this purpose for every month. The re-
duction, however, to the sea-level has presented the greatest diffi-
culties on account of its many varieties and its local circumstances.

The final result of these researches may be expressed in the fol-
lowing terms : The cold poles of the earth, which, in the depth of
winter, are at their greatest mutual distance, and from the common
pole of rotation, in the summer approach nearer and nearer to each

Scientific Intelligetice, — Meteorology, 18S

other, till they almost appear to unite, or the space between them
is upon a line placed at a right angle to the primitive line which
united them.

The isotiiermal lines, consequently, are composed like the iso-
chromatic curves of certain crystals, when their temperature is gra-
dually raised. At the same time, the observations of high lati-
tudes are as yet too general to enable us to decide definitively on
this question.

At certain epochs of the year, accordingly, the earth has only one
cold pole. The isothermal lines of the mean zone turn so much in
their progress, that in some countries they become perpendicular
during half the year, in relation to the direction they maintained
during the other half. We are unacquainted with any parts of the
earth, whose temperature does not fall, during some of its month?,
below the freezing point ; and there are places whose temperature
is so low, that the mean of a whole month descends below the point
which freezes mercury. — E Institute 8 an. No. 323, p. 106.

4. Mirage in New Holland, — There was one other district exa-
mined by us, which possesses such peculiar characteristics, that
even in this short report I am induced to call your Lordship's at-
tention to it. I have named this the district of Koo-heni-triet,
that is, the district of Falsehood or Deceit. It is situated between
a point lying about ten miles to the north of the northern mouth
of the Gascoigne and Cape Cuvien The whole extent of its sea-
coast is bounded by a range of lofty sandy dunes, having a width
inland of not more than from two to two and a half miles. The
first time that I ascended this range, was on the morning of the
8th of March 1839, at a point about fifteen miles south of Cape
Cuvier. On looking to the eastward, I was surprised to see an ap-
parently boundless expanse of water in that direction. I hurried
back to the boats, and selected three men to accompany me in my
first examination of the shores of this inland sea. When we gained
the top of the sandhills, the surprise of the party was as great as
my own, and they begged me to allow them to return, and endea-
vour, by the united efl^orts of the party to carry one of the whale-
boats over the range, and at once launch it on this body of water.
I, however, deemed it more prudent, in the first instance, to select
the best route along which to move the whale boat, as well as to
choose a spot which aff^orded facilities for launching it. In pursu-
ance of this determination, we decended the eastern side of the
sandhills, which abruptly fell in that direction, with a slope, cer-
tainly not much exceeding an angle of 45°. I now found that the
water did not approach so near to the foot of the hills as I had at first

184 Scientific Intelligence. — Geology.

imaf^ined, but that, immediately at tlie foot of these hills, lay ex-
tensive plains of mud and sand, at times evidently flooded by the
sea, for on them lay dead shells of many kinds and sizes, as well as
large travelled blocks of coral. The water now appeared to be
about a mile distant ; it was apparently boundless in an easterly
and north-easterly direction, and was studded with islands. We still
felt convinced that it was water we saw, for the shadows of the low
hills near it could be distinctly traced on its unruffled surface. As
we continued to advance, the water, however, constantly retreated
before us, and at last surrounded us. We had been deceived by
mirage ! — The delusive appearance of water of the desert.

GEOLOGY.

5. Agassi^ Tour to the Swiss Glaciers. — After the Bern meeting,
I went with Studer to Monte Rosa and to the Matterhorn, and af-
terwards, when he proceeded to Piedmont, I visited the Aletsch
glacier behind the Jungfrau, then the Rhone glacier, and finally ex-
tended my expedition as far as Hugi's hut on the Aar glacier. I
found my previous observations everywhere confirmed, and in-
tend publishing a full account of the results of my tour. I have
had sketches drawn by a skilful artist who accompanied me, so
that I shall be able to give faithful representations of all the phe-
nomena. The most important new fact which I have observed
is, the forward movement of Hugi's hut. Since the year 1827, it
has advanced upwards of 4000 feet. In 1830, Hugi found it some
hundred feet from the spot where it was built; in 1836, it was
above 2000 feet from it; but this year I found it removed to a dis-
tance of 4000 feet from its original position, and still the glacier is
very little inclined, and the mass pressing from behind is very in-
considerable compared with the lower mass, so that the explana-
tion of the progressive movement of glaciers, by sliding and pres-
sure from behind, goes for nothing. I recommend every one who
wishes to learn any thing of glaciers, to examine more particularly
the Lower Aar glacier and the glaciers between l^lonte Rosa and
the Matterhorn. But the Aletsch is the most imposing, on account
of its great size and the frightful desolateness of its vicinity. No-
thing can surpass the polish of the Serpentine over which the Gorn
glacier is advancing or has advanced. Hugi's hut prove;:, in the
most distinct manner, that the deeper the glacier the more rapid is
its movement. During this journey, my friends Desorand Nicolet
likewise accompanied me, so that the observations were not merely
made but were fully discussed. I think that I could now convince
any one, who would accompany me for a few weeks to the Alps,
of the correctness of my views ; and as I propose visiting them

Scientific Intelligence, — Geology. 186

every year until I have distinctly made out every thing about the
matter, friendly society were much to be wished on a tour which
cannot well be made alone. — {Letter from M. Agassizin Leonhard
and BronrCs Jahrhuch^ dated September 18. 1839.)

6. Origin of Fissures in Glaciers — At a recent meeting of the
Philomathic Society of Paris, M. Martins read a memoir on the
glaciers of Spitzbergen, compared with those of Switzerland and
Norway. This communication gave rise to a discussion on the
nature of the cause which produces the fractures in glaciers. M.
Martins attributes them to the unequal dilatation undergone by the
different parts of these masses of ice, combined with the manner in
which they are enclosed by the surrounding mountains. M. Elie
de Beaumont defended the opinion of geologists, who consider the
sliding of these masses of ice on inclined planes as the principal
cause of the fractures. He remarked, that the rents are precisely
in the direction of this sliding, that is to say, they are in a direc-
tion perpendicular to the axis of the valley, whereas they would
ba perfectly irregular if they were produced solely by unequal di-
latation in the different parts of the glacier. M. Martins replied
to this observation, that, first of all, imperceptible fissures are
formed in all directions, but that those having a transverse direc-
tion alone present the conditions necessary for enlargement ; that,
undoubtedly, the weight of the ice above contributes to the pheno-
menon, but that the greater part of the action ought to be attri-
buted to the water which falls into the fissures, and which, becoming
consolidated, acts as a wedge on their walls.

7. Sefstrom's Investigations. — Sefstrbm continues his observations
on the furrows on rocks. The return is expected of one of his
scholars, who is occupied with similar investigations in the northern
portions and on the sea-jcoast of Norway. I cannot coincide with
the objections which have been made to the views of Sefstrom.
Although great rushes of accumulations of water have produced
the boulders and furrows of the Swiss valleys, yet this only proves
that boulders and furrows are produced exactly in the manner as-
sumed by Sefstrom. But we cannot thence draw the conclusion,
that the enormous rolled masses, and the almost unvaried direction
of the furrows, throughout the whole of Scandinavia and Finland,
owe their origin to such comparatively small accumulations of wa-
ter as exist in Switzerland. The high position of such accumula-
tions is entirely awanting in Scandinavia ; and how prodigious a
mass of water it must have been, that polished and furrowed over
all Sweden, hills of more than 300 feet in height. — Berzelius, in
Leo7)kard and Brcnns Jahrbuch.

186 Scientific Intelligence. — Geology,

8. Geological Constitution of North-eastern Africa. — The follow-
ing is a brief statement of the results obtained by Russegger, from
his geological investigations made in the north-eastern portion of
Africa, from the Mediterranean to near the Equator, and of which
a full account is given in a recent number of Leonhard and Bronn's
Jahrbuch. 1. Chalk and tertiary formations. Plains and moun-
tainous deserts. The cultivated land of the Nile and of the Oases.
Egypt. From the 31st to the 26th degree north latitude. 2.
Miischelkalk and bunter sandstone. Mountain-chains of abnormal
rocks. Plains and mountainous deserts, and, in the southern por-
tion, a transition to the Savannahs. The cultivated district of the
Nile. Egypt, Nubia. From the 26th to the 15th degree. 3. Bun-
ter sandstone and alluvial formations. Rarely outbursts of abnor-
mal rocks, although they form the fundamental basis of the country.
Savannahs. Plains north of Kordofan and Senaar. 15th to 13th
degree. 4. Granite and porphyry forming isolated mountain
groups in plains which are covered by alluvium. Savannahs.
Plains 1100 feet above the sea. South from Kordofan and Senaar,
Roserres. From the 13th to the 12th degree. 5. Granite, gneiss,
mica and chlorite slates of the Alps, with auriferous alluvium.
Mountain land south from Kordofan and Darfur. Great plain of
the White River. High mountain land on the Blue River. Ethio-
pian high land. The Plateaus reaching to a height of 3000 feet,
and the mountains to a height of 7000 feet, above the level of the
sea. Presenting the animal and vegetable development peculiar to
the tropics. The country of the Nubas, — the plains of the Binkas,
Fassokl, — the country of Berta, — the country of the Gumuss and
the Galla. From the 12th to the 10th degree. 6. Extensive un-
known plains south from Nuba, and in the countries of the Dinka
and Galla, traversed by large rivers. Savannahs. Beyond the lOtli
degree north latitude.

9. Distribution of the Mammoth in Siberia. — Without entering in
this place into any speculations concerning the manner in which
these probably antediluvian remains came into their present situa-
tions, I would call attention to the remarkable fact, that the teeth,
tusks, and bones, which are called by the general name of Mam-
moth bones, but which probably belong to several different species
of animals, are not distributed equally over Siberia, but form im-
mense local accumulations, which become both richer and more ex-
tensive the farther one advances to the north. They are found in
the greatest abundance in New Siberia and the Lachow Islands, as
mentioned by Reschetuikow and Sannikow. Many hundred pood
(pood equal to 36 lb. avoirdupois) weight are collected there every

Scientific Intelligence. — Geology. 187

year, whereas, on the Continent, they are much scarcer, and are
hardly ever met with in the southern part of Siberia — Wrangell,
p. 185.

10. Dysodolite. — This mineral, arranged in systems of mineralogy
under the name Foliated Mineral Pitchy Ehrenberg has shewn to
consist of bitumen, or mineral pitch, mixed with siliceous shells of
infusoria, and occasionally with pollen of pines, &c. The wax-
yellow variety found in Sicily is made up of shells of navicula and
mineral pitch : the nearly black-brown coal of the Westerwald is a
variety of dysodolite, so also is^^the foliated leather-like bituminous
coal of the Gesteinger Busch at Rott and Siegburg in the Sieben-
gebirge, and a foliated brown coal from the Vogelsberge. Hence
the mineral species named dysodolite appears to be a poller slate,
impregnated with bitumen. Its colours are black, brown, or black.
It never forms very thick beds, but sometimes widely spread de-
posits. It is used as fuel.

11. Pihlite, a New Mineral. — Sefstrom has discovered at Fahlun
a new mineral, which replaces niica in granite, and which he has
termed Pihlite in honour of the late M. Pihl, director of mines.
It is an intermediate substance between talc and mica, and its com-
position is expressed by the following formula :

— BerzeliuSy in Leonhard and Broun s Jahrbuch.

12. PyrrhitCy a New Miner aL — Only one example of this sub-
stance is known, and occurs in a splendid drusy cavity of felspar,
which is in the possession of Vice-President Perowski of Peters-
burgh. While the cavity chiefly contains felspar crystals several
inches in size, finely defined, and of an ochre-yellow colour, it
likewise includes six-sided tables of reddish-white, pearly lithion
mica ; white translucent crystals of albite ; crystals of clove-brown
rockcrystal; and a i^\Y white topazes. The crystals of the new
mineral are superimposed on the felspar, are eight in number, and
are octahedrons of about three lines in length. Their surfaces are
smooth, but possess little lustre, so that their angles cannot be mea-
sured with great accuracy ; but, from observations made on several
angles, the mean may be regarded as 109° :>8', so that we may pro-
bably assume that the crystals are regular octahedrons. No clea-
vage is observable. The colour is orange-yellow, and the lustre
feebly vitreous. The substance is translucent on the edges ; its
hardness is that of felspar, but the specific gravity could not be de-

188 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

termined. It occurs at Alabaschka near Mursinsk, and, on account
of its yellow colour, has been named Pyrrhite. — G. Rose in Fog-
gendorff's Annalen.

ZOOLOGY.

13. 0)1 the Zoological Labours of M. Sars, of Floroe in Norway.
— In the high north, beyond the 60th degree of northern latitude,
there is a clergyman at Floroe, almost entirely cut oif from the
learned world, and distant about 280 miles from a zoological library,
who, by his indefatigable zeal, has made himself acquainted with
all the most important zoological discoveries, and has himself in-
creased the number of these discoveries in a most remarkable man-
ner. It is the sea animals of the lower classes which he accurately
and judiciously describes, and admirably represents* In 1835, he
published his work entitled Beskrivelser og Jagttagelser over Nogle
Maerkelige eller nye i Ha vet ved den Bergenske Kyst levende Dyr^ af
M, Sars, and which is illustrated by fifteen plates. Two things
are to be regretted ; that he writes in the Danish language, and
thus prevents the diffusion of his discoveries, and that the litho-
graphy of Bergen is not capable of producing the sharp outlines
which are necessary in minute zoological objects. He previously
published a contribution to the natural history of marine animals
in 1829, and an account of it was given in the Jsis of 1833. In
his last published work, mentioned above, he has improved much
of what he formerly made known ; but the greater portion of it is
quite new, and at the same time very instructive. His observations
were made between 60° and QO}/ north latitude, and the subjects of
them have been the Polypi, Acalephae, Asteridae, Annulata, and
MoUusca.

Most of the species described are figured both entire and in their
different parts. The descriptions are very full, and are made with
a perfect knowledge of the most recent investigations in the same
field, so that the determinations are to be depended on. This re-
markable book contains several new genera and many species,
some of which really fill up gaps in the orders of the zoological
system. It is much to be wished that the active author were
placed in a locality more suited to the cultivation of the sciences,
and in one more congenial to his nature and acquirements, such as
Christiania or Copenhagen. — {^Abridged from Oken^s Isis,)

14. Aristotles History of Animals Dr Osborne, in a memoir

read before the Royal Irish Academy, commenced by observing,
that this work was composed under circumstances more favourable
to the acquisition of natural knowledge than any work on the sub-
ject ever published. According to Pliny, some thousands of men

Scientific Intelligence, — Zoology. 189

were placed at the disposal of the author, throughout Greece and
Asia, — comprising persons connected with hunting and fishing, or
who had the care of cattle, fish-ponds, or apiaries, — in order that
he might obtain information from all these quarters, ne quid usqicam
ge7itium ignoraretur ah eo. A^nd according to Athenaeus, the same
prince gave him, on account of the expenses incurred in composing
it, 800 talents, — a sum which, taken at the lowest, that is, the
lesser Attic talent, amounts to above L.79,000. The work com-
posed under such auspices, is such as might have been expected.
The extent of the observations is prodigious ; and we cannot read
far in any part of it, without being constrained to exclaim with
Cicero, Quis omnium doctior^ quis acutior, quis in rebus vet invenien-
dis veljudicandis acrior Aristotele ?

Shortly after the introduction of Greek literature to Europe,
and when this book was first printed, those sciences which have
nature for their object were in the lowest condition. There was
at that time no taste diffused for the study of zoology or compara-
tive anatomy ; and at later periods, when the value of these studies
came to be better appreciated, the Aristotelian philosophy had fal-
len into disuse. Thus this work has, from this combination of cir-
cumstances, been passed over ; is seldom quoted except at second
hand ; and no edition of it, distinct from the other works of the
author, or illustrated as the subject required, has appeared since
that of Scaliger, published in 1619, — except one, accompanied
by a French translation by Camus, in 1782, which is said to be in-
correct, and is become scarce.

Dr Osborne proceeded to make a short analysis of the contents
of this work, and shewed that Aristotle had anticipated Dr Jenner's
researches respecting the cuckoo, as also some discoveries with re-
spect to the incubated q^^, which have been published within the
last year. His observations on fish and cetaceous animals are cu-
rious in the extreme, as might be expected from the variety of
these animals abounding in the Grecian seas. Those on insects it
is difficult to appreciate, from uncertainty as to the names. He
describes the economy of bees, as we have it at present ; but mis-
takes the sex of the queen. He holds the doctrine of spontaneous
generation in^'those cases in which he could not detect the ovary ;
an inevitable conclusion, arising from the want of the microscope,
to which, and the want of knowledge of pneumatic chemistry, his
principal errors are to be referred. The various organs are de-
scribed as modified throughout tlie different classes of animals,
(beginning with Man, the 'BwXivriKcv ^o»«»), in nearly the same or-
der as that afterwards adopted by Cuvier.

190 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

As specimens of the interesting matter treated of in the wo^k,
Dr Osborne selected the animal nature of sponges ; the ages of va-
rious animals; the movements of the nautilus (the same doubt ex-
isting in the author's mind as to the origin of the shell, which has
divided the opinions of Messrs Blainville, Owen, Gray, and Mad.
Power, within the last year) ; the localities of animals, as affording
data for ascertaining the rate at which they have extended them-
selves over the globe ; particulars relating to artificial incubation as
practised in Egypt ; the management of cattle ; a mode of fattening
hogs with rapidity, by commencing with a fast of three days; the
mohair goat located in Cilicia, as at present; hybernation and mi-
grations of various animals and fish ; description of the fisher-fish
(^Lopliius piscatoiius), and of the torpedo, with the proof that they
catch their prey in the extraordinary manner described; many in-
genious modes of taking partridge, and of fishing, detailed ; the
friendships which have been perpetuated between different classes
of animals — as the trochilus and the crocodile, the Pinna muricata
and the Cancer pinnotheres, the crow and the heron; their ani-
mosities, as between the crow and owl ; the diseases of animals
traced throughout the series, extending even to fish ; hydrophobia
described, as being communicated by the bite of a rabid dog to all
animals except man, which appears to be the correct statement with
respect to hot climates, and not (as has been represented by some
modern travellers) an entire absence of the disease.

These detached specimens of the contents of this work, furnish,
however, a very inadequate idea of its real value. There are in it
whole sections, the separate sentences of which would furnish texts
for as many Bridgewater Treatises. The freshness and originality
of the observations taken from Nature herself, and not made up
from quotations of preceding writers ; the extent of the views, not
bounded by any necessity for complying with preconceived or pre-
valent notions, but capacious as the author's mind itself, and fre-
quently leading the reader into the most interesting under-currents
of thought branching off from the great fountain ; these are all
merits belonging to the work, but not constituting its chief value,
— which is, that it is a collection of fapts, observed under peculiar
advantages, such as have never since occurred, and that it is at the
present day to be consulted for new discoveries.

Now that Greece is, for the first time since the revival of letters,
in possession of a government capable of appreciating scientific in-
vestigations, a favourable opportunity offers for preparing an edi-
tion of the work, at once worthy of the age in which it was com-
posedj and of that in which we live ; and perhaps some individual

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology, 191

may be found possessing a competent knowledge of the- Greek
language, and of zoology and comparative anatomy, who, after a
suflficiont examination of the animals now in Greece, shall under-
take the task of editing and illustrating this g?eat work. Such a
a performance, properly executed, would be the resuscitation of a
body of knowledge which has lain buried for above 2000 years,
and would certainly be no less acceptable to zoologists and anato-
mists than to the cultivators of classical learning. — Report of apa-
per read before the Royal Irish Academy on the 1 \th May last.

15. Migrations and Capture of the Rein-deer in North Siberia. —
The two most important epochs of the year, says Admiral Wran-
gell, are the spring and autumn migrations of the rein-deer. About
the end of May they leave the forests, where they had some degree
of shelter from the winter cold, in large herds, and seek the north-
ern plains nearer the sea, partly for the sake of the better pasture
afforded by the moss tundras (great deserts without any vegetation
but moss and lichen), and partly to fly from the musquitoes and
other insects, which, literally speaking, torment them to death.

The hunting at this season is not nearly so important and valu-
able as in the autumn ; as it often happens that the rivers are still
frozen over, they afford no opportunity of intercepting the deer,
and the hunters can only lie in wait for them among the ravines, to
shoot them with guns or arrows. Success with the latter weapon
is rathei^ uncertain, and the high price of powder and ball is an ob-
jection to the use of guns ; the more so as at this season the rein-
deer are very thin, and so injured by insects that nothing but the
extremity of hunger can render the flesh palatable ; the animals
killed in spring are commonly only used for the dogs. The true har-
vest, which we arrived just in time to see, is in August or September,
when the rein-deer are returning from the plains to the forests.
They are then healthy and well fed, the venison is excellent, and,
as they have just acquired their winter coats, the fur is thick and
warm. The difference of the quality of the skins at the two sea-
sons is such, that whilst an autumn skin is valued at five or six
roubles, a spring one will only fetch one, or one and a half rouble.

In good years the migrating body of rein-deer consists of many
thousands ; and though they are divided into herds of two or three
hundred each, yet the herds keep so near together as to form only
one immense mass, which is sometimes from fifty to a hundred
wersts in breadth. They always follow the same route, and in
crossing the river near Plotbischtsche they choose a place where
a dry valley leads dowta to the stream on one side, and a flat sand j
shore facilitates tBeir landing on the other side. As eadi separate

192 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

lierd approaches the river, the deer draw more closely together,
and the largest and strongest takes the lead. He advances, closely
followed by a few of the others, with head erect, and apparently
intent on examining the locality. When he has satisfied himself,
he enters the river, the rest of the herd crowd after him, and in a
few minutes the surface is covered with them. Then the hunters^,
who had been concealed to leeward, rush in their light canoes from
their hiding places, surround the deer, and delay their passage,
whilst two or three chosen men, armed with short spears, dash into
the middle of the herd, and dispatch large numbers in an incredibly
short time, or at least wound them so that^ if they reach the bank,
it is only to fall into the hands of the women and children.

The office of the spearman is a very dangerous one. It is no
easy thing to keep the light boat afloat among the dense crowd of
the swimming deer, which, moreover, make considerable resistance ;
the males with their horns, teeth, and hind legs, whilst the females
try to overset the boat by getting their fore feet over the gunnel ;
if they succeed in this the hunter is lost, for it is hardly possible
that he should extricate himself from the throng ; but the skill of
these people is so great that accidents very rarely occur. A good
hunter may kill one hundred or more in less than half an hour.
When the herd is large, and gets into disorder, it often happens that
their antlers become entangled with each other ; they are then un»
able to defend themselves, and the business is much easier. Mean-
while the rest of the boats pick up the slain, arid fasten them toge-
ther with thongs, and every one is allowed to keep what he lays
hold of in this manner. It might seem that, in this way, nothing
would be left to requite the spearmen for their skill, and the danger
they have encountered ; but, whilst every thing taken in the rear is
the property of whoever secures it, the wounded animals which
reach the bank before they fall belong to the spearman who wound-
ed them. The skill and experience of these men is such, that, in
the thickest of the conflict, when every energy is taxed to the ut-
termost, and their life is every moment at stake, they have suffi-
cient presence of mind to contrive to measure the force of their
blows so as to kill the smallest animals outright, but only to wound
the larger and finer ones, so as they may be just able to reach the
bank. Such proceeding is not sanctioned by the general voice, but
it seems nevertheless to be almost always practised.

The whole scene is of a most singular and curious character, and
quite indescribable. The throng of thousands of swimming rein-
deer, the sound produced by the striking together of their antlers,
twift canoes dashing in amongst them^ the terror of the frightened

Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology. 103

anlmali, the danger of the hiintsinen, the shouts of warning, adviee,
or applause from their friends, the blood-stained water, and all the
accompanying circumstances, form a whole which no one can picture
to himself without having witnessed the scene.

When the chase is over, and the spoils are distributed, the deer
which have been killed are sunk in the river, the ice-cold water of
which preserves them for several days, till there is time to prepare
them for winter use. For this purpose the flesh is either dried in
the air, smoked, or, if early frosts set in, frozen. The Russians
sometimes salt the best pieces ; the tongues are considered the
greatest delicacy, and are reserved for special occasions.

Again, at page 203-4 of his Narrative, Admiral Wrangell gives
the following account : —

The migratory rein-deer had not yet passed the river Aniuj at
this place. Their arrival was expected with the utmost anxiety,
for scarcity was already severely felt. It is not easy to imagine
the fearful excess which famine reaches among a people whose sup-
port depends on one precarious incident. It often happens that
many among them have to subsist during the latter part of summer
almost entirely on the skins which form their bedding and clothing ;
and if happily a single rein-deer is killed, it is immediately cut up,
divided among the whole tribe, and literally eaten, skin and all, the
hair being just singed off. The contents of the stomach, and even
the horns are used as food. Fish are not caught till later in the
year, and even then only in small numbers ; and few of the inha-
bitants venture to go off to the tundras in quest of game, for fear
of missing the passage of the rein-deer, on which their support so
essentially depends.

On the 12th of September, the hungry people were filled with
joy by immense numbers of rein-deer approaching the right bank
of the river opposite to Lobasnoji. I never saw such a multitude
of these animals. At a distance their antlers resembled a moving
forest. Crowds of people flocked in on every side, and hope
beamed on every countenance as they arranged themselves in their
light boats to await the passage of the deer. But whether the
animals had seen and were terrified at the crowds of people, or
whatever the reason may have been, after a short pause, they turn-
ed, left the bank, and disappeared among the mountains. The
utter despair of the poor starving people was dreadful to witness.
It manifested itself among these rude children of nature under va-
rious forms. Some wept aloud and wrung their hands; some threw
themselves on the ground, and tore up the snow; others, and
amongst them the more aged, stood silent and motionless, gazing
with fixed and tearless eyes in the direction where their hopes had

VOL. XXIX. NO. LYU. ^JULY 1840. N

194 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology.

vanished. Feeling our utter inability to offer any alleviation to
their misery, we hastened to quit this scene of woe, and resumed our
voyage on the 39 th — Wrangell's Narrative of an Expedition to the
Polar Seas in the years 1820-1--2-.3. 8vo. Pp. 413. Madden & Co.
London 1840.

16. The Flying Squid or Cuttle Fish (Lollgo Sp.) — Many different
kinds of Loligo are called by sailors Flying Squid, from a habit they
have of leaping from the water, and proceeding throngh the air to
some distance in a horizontal direction, like the flying fish. One
kind of Loligo, or Flying Squid, which we captured in the Pacific
Ocean, in Lat, 34° N., measured six inches in its entire length.
The upper surface of the body is grey, freckled with purple, the
under white ; iris silvery, pupil jet black and prominent. It has
eight arras and two tentacles. Each arm is furnished with a double
row of suckers on its entire length; and all, with exception of the
first or dorsal pair, have a loose membrane floating from their pos-
terior surface. The two tentacles are round, slender, and twice
the length of the arms, and have at their extremity a broad sickle-
shaped membrane, covered with two rows of yellow hooks of diffe-
rent sizes.

This individual leaped from the sea over the high bulwarks of
the ship and alighted on the deck, at a time when vast flocks of the
same species were seen leaping around and often striking with vio-
lence against the bows of the vessel, the sea being comparatively
smooth. The creature was much injured by the violence with
which it had struck the deck, and shewed little animation ; it did
not attempt to leap or swim when put into a bucket of sea water,
though it emitted a quantity of inky fluid*' through a canal in the
body, opening by a large orifice immediately below the neck. The
prehensile power of the suckers on the arms was retained for a con-
siderable time after the death of the animal ; from which I should
judge that, like the buckler of the sucking fish, their function in a
great measure depends upon solely mechanical causes.

A second species, which we also obtained in the Pacific, resem-
bled the above in size and form, but its two long tentacles, furnished
at their extremities with rows of suckers (acetabula), instead of
horny hooked appendages. The prevailing colours of this species
are silver- white and steel-blue, spread with red spots and tints of
violet and purple, a brilliant and very beautiful spot of emerald-
green being placed immediately above each eye. We noticed ex-

* This secretion is contained in a narrow oblong bag, of silvery hue, and
placed isuaediately below the stomach..

Scientific Intelligence, — Zoology. 196

amples of this family of Cephalopodes, from the equator to Lats.

34^ N. and 16^ S., Pacific Ocean Bennetts Whaling Voyage,

vol. ii. p. 290.

17. The Pilot Fish {Gasterosteus ductor, Linn.) — The average
length of this fish is about six inches, though we took one example
in the Pacific which measured one foot two inches. The body is
somewhat cylindrical, and neatly formed. The colour of the head
and back is steel-blue ; abdomen silvery ; sides marked with five
broad black bands ; fins mottled black and white, and mostly tipped
witli white ; inner circle of the iris hazel, outer gold-yellow. A
single row of teeth in each jaw. Three short spines in front of the
dorsal fin, and two in front of the anal. The lateral line is oblique,
and terminates posteriorly in a semi-cartilaginous ridge, projecting
from either side of the tail. The female is oviparous.

Pilot-fish are almost invariably found in attendance upon the
shark, though the nature of their connexiou with that ferocious fish
is somewhat mysterious. They will accompany ships for a consi-
derable time after their patron shark has been destroyed ; but I am
not aware that they have ever been, like the Remora, attending
upon other large fish, whales, or miscellaneous floating bodies.
The structure of their mouth, and the contents of their stomat:h,
which are usually small fish, denote that they are accustomed
to seek their food in a very indepeudent manner. We cap-
tured many of them also by hook and line, baited with flesh ; nor
did they refuse the bait even when they were in company with a
shark.

The reputation this fish has obtained of being the shark's pilot
or provider (and which has sanctioned its trivial name), would ap-
pear to be groundless, were we guided only by the want of similar
precedents in the animal kingdom. A fact, however, which came
under my notice during a voyage from India, in the year 1832, led
me to believe that there is some just foundation fur this popular
opinion. While we were becalmed in the Atlantic Ocean, a shark
was seen close to the ship, and attended by two pilot-fish, which
generally swam one above the other below him, and occasionally
went off to some distance, as if to explore the surrounding sea ; al-
though it was seldom long before they returned, and resumed their
former positions ; the shark in the mean time, by its unwieldy
form, slow movements, and lethargic aspect, offering a strong con-
trast to the spri<^htliness of his scouts. A baited hook was lowered
from the bow of the ship ; but the shark, when alone, passed it se-
veral times without notice, and apparently without seeing it. One
of the foraging pilot-fish then approached the bait, and imiuecliately

196 Scientific Intelligence. — Zoology..

swam off to where the shark was headed in a contrary direction ;
when the monster instantly turned, and followed his informant,
which now swam a-head of him, in a direct line towards the sus-
pended hait. He did not then hesitate a moment, but seized it,
and was captured. While the shark was being hauled on board,
the pilot-fish expressed the greatest concern, almost leaping out of
the water in their endeavours to follow him, and swimming near
the surface with every demonstration of anxiety. These faithful
little fish were observed to attach themselves to the ship, but at-
tracted little attention until some weeks afterwards, when we spoke
the Thomas Grenville, East Indiaman, and lowered a boat to com-
municate with her. One of the fish was then seen to accompany
the boat to and from the stranger ship, and so devotedly did it at-
tend upon what it might have believed to be its lost shark, as to
lead the officers of the Thomas Grenville to remark that we had a
pilot fish painted on the rudder of the boat.

Their attendance upon sharks is somewhat capricious ; we have
seen more than five associated with one shark, while many others
of the latter tribe, and assembled in the water at the same time,
have not been accompanied by one of these fishes. They have evi-
dently nothing to dread from the voracious companion they select,
but swim around, and often a few inches a-head of him, as either
their convenience or caprice may dictate. — Bennetts Whaling Voy*
age, vol. ii. p. 274.

18. The Luminous Shark {Squalus fulgens, N. Sp.) — There are
so few well authenticated instances of a phosphorescent power ex-
isting in fish, as an attribute of life, that it is with some surprise
we find this peculiarity inherent in the shark, a family so generally
well known and described. The squalus which I have to notice is,
however, a nondescript species, and one that certainly possesses a
luminous power in a very high degree.

Two examples of this fish were accidentally taken, at different
periods of the voyage, by a net towing on the surface of the sea.
The first was obtained in Lat. 2|° S., Long. 163° W., and was
ten inches in length. It was captured in the day-time, and, con-
sequently, although its novel appearance attracted my attention, its
phosphorescent power was not then noticed. The second specimen
was taken at night, in Lat. 35° N., Long. 110° W. Its entire
length was one and a half foot. Both fishes were alive when ta-
ken on board. They fought fiercely with their jaws, and had torn
the net in several places. When the larger specimen, taken at
night, was removed into a dark apartment, it afforded a very ex-
traordinary spectacle. The entire inferior surface of the body and

Scientific Intelligence. — -Zoology. 197

head emitted a vivid and greenish phosphorescent gleam, imparting
to the creature, by its own light, a truly ghastly and terrific ap-
pearance. The luminous eflFect was constant, and not perceptibly
increased by agitation or friction. I thought at one time that it
shone brighter when the fish struggled, but I was not satisfied that
such was the fact. When the shark expired, (which was not until
it had been out of the water more than three hours), the luminous
appearance faded entirely from the abdomen, and more gradually
from other parts ; lingering the longest around the jaws and on the
fins. The only part of the under surface of the animal which was
free from luminosity was the black collar around the throat ; and
while the inferior surface of the pectoral, anal, and caudal fins
shone with splendour, their superior surface (including the upper
lobe of the tail-fin) was in darkness, as also were the dorsal fins, and
the back and summit of the head. I am inclined to believe, that the
luminous power of this shark resides in a peculiar secretion from
the skin. It was my first impression that the fish had accidentally
contracted some phosphorescent matter from the sea, or from the
net in which it was captured ; but the most rigid investigation did
not confirm this suspicion, while the uniformity with which the lu-
minous gleam occupied certain portions of the body and fins, its
permanence during life, and decline and cessation upon the ap-
proach and occurrence of death, did not leave a doubt in my mind
but that it was a vital principle, essential to the economy of the
animal.

The small size of the fins would appear to denote that this fish
is not active in swimming ; and since it is only predaceous, and
evidently of nocturnal habits, we may perhaps indulge the hypo-
thesis, that the phosphorescent power it possesses is of use to at-
tract its prey, upon the same principle as the Polynesian islanders
and others employ torches in night fishing. — Bennefs Voyage,
vol. ii. p. 255.

19. The " Trochilus and Crocodile'* of Herodotus.. — Mr Wilkin-
son, in his excellent work on Egypt, vol. iii. p. 79, says : " Hero-
dotus enters into a detail of the habits of the crocodile, and relates
the frequent repeated story of the trochilus entering the animal's
mouth during its sleep on the sand banks of the Nile, and relieving
it of the leeches which adhere to its throat. The truth of this as-
sertion is seriously impugned, when we recollect that leeches do
not abound in the Nile ; and the polite understanding supposed to-
exist between the crocodile and the bird, becomes more improbable
when we examine the manner in which the throat of the animal is
formed ; for having no tongue, nature has given it the means of
closing it entirely, except when in the act of swallowing, and,

198 Scientific Intelligence* — Arts,

during sleep, the throat is eonstantly shut though the mouth is
open." Now, on this passage, says Mr W. C. Hurry, I have to
observe, Jirst, that I have seen many crocodiles caught, but very
few that had not many leeches adhering to the inside of tlieir
mouths, and that these animals also infest the argeelah^ and other
animals which feed in the Ganges. Secondly, These leeches are not
the Hirudo medicinalis, which Mr Wilkinson is probably correct in
asserting not to be common in the Nile, as that species is usually
found in running streams. The leech in question probably belongs
to the genus Pontobdella, one species of which infests cod, skate,
and other fish on the coasts of England. I have no doubt these
creatures will be found as abundant in the Nile as they are in the
waters of Bengal. Thirdly^ Herodotus says, " the trochilus en-
tering the crocodile's mouth devours the leeches." The crocodile
is not said by Herodotus to be sleeping during the operation, as
Mr Wilkinson asserts, otherwise the observation " that, pleased
with the service, lie never injures the trochilus," would be absurd.
Fourthly, As to the polite understanding which Mr Wilkinson
presumes, I may remark, that I believe the common paddy bird of
Bengal to be the trochilus of Herodotus, or a bird of the same ge-
nus. Now, both Europeans and Bengalees agree in asserting, that
this bird is constantly seen standing on the head of the crocodile;
and though 1 never heard any one assert that he saw it in the act
of picking his teeth for him, I think it will be admitted that the
visit is not without an object. — W. C* Hurry, Journal of Asiatic
Society of Bengal for July 1839.

ARTS.

20. The Indian Mode of preparing the Perfumed Oils of Jasmine

and Bela Dr Jackson of Ghazeepore, in a letter to the editors of

the Asiatic Journal of Calcutta for June 1839, says : — In my last
communication on the subject of rose-water, I informed you that the
natives here were in the habit of extracting the scent from some of
the highly-smelling flowers, such as the jasmine, &c., and that I
would procure you a sample, and give you some account of the man-
ner in which it is obtained.* By the present steamer, I have dis-
patched two small phials, containing some of the oil procured from
the Jasmine and the Bela flower. For this purpose the natives never
make use of distillation, but extract the essence by causing it to
be absorbed by some of the purest oleaginous seeds, and then ex-
pressing these in a common mill, when the oil given out has all the
scent of the flower which has been made use of. The plan adopted
is to place on the ground a layer of the flower, about four inches

* Vide Edin. New Phil. Joum. vol. xxviii. p. 326, for accoimt of culti-
vation of Roses, &c.

Scientific Intelligence, — Arts, 199

thick and two feet square ; over this they pnt some of the Tel or
Sesamum seed wetted, about two inches thick and two feet square ;
on this again is placed another layer of flowers, about four inches
thick, as in the first instance; the whole is then covered with a
sheet, which is held down by weights at the ends and sides. In
this state it is allowed to remain from twelve to eighteen hours ;
after this the flowers are removed, and other layers placed in the
same way; this also is a third time repeated, if it is desired to have
the scent very strong. After the last process, the seeds are taken
in their swollen state and placed in a mill ; the oil is then expressed,
and possesses most fully the scent of th^ flower. The oil is kept
in prepared skins, called dubbers, and is sold at so much per seer.
The Jasmine and Bela (Jasminum zamba) are the two flowers from
which the natives in this district chiefly produce their scented oil; the
Chumbul (Jasminum grandiflorum) is another, buti have been un-
able to procure any of this. The season for manufacture is coming
on. The present oils were manufactured a year ago, and do not
possess the powerful scent of that which has been recently prepared.
Distillation is never made use of for this purpose, as it is with the
roses, for the extreme heat (from its being in the middle of the rains
when the trees come into flower) would most likely carry oft' all the
scent. The Jasmine, or Chymhele^ as it is called, is used very largely
amongst the women, the hair of the head and the body being daily
smeared with some of it. The specimen I send you costs at the
rate of two rupees per seer.

21. Preservation of Timher. — M. Bouchirie has lately presented
to the Royal Academy of Paris a memoir on the preservation of
timber, in which he describes a process which he has invented, and
which promises to be highly important. We have no space for
details, but now remark that the process consists in imbuing, by
means of absorption, the tissue of the wood with the pyrolignite of
iron, immediately after the tree is felled, or even while still stand-
ing. This very simple operation is, it would appear, possessed of
very extraordinary efficiency, 1*^, In protecting timber against dry
and humid rot; ^Id, In augmenting its hardness; 3</, In preserving
and increasing its flexibility and elasticity ; 4M, In rendering its
warpings, and consequently the fissures and disijointings which are
so often witnessed after it has been wrought, nearly impossible,
though freely exposed to great atmospheric changes of tempera-
ture ; bth. In greatly reducing its inflammability and combustibility;
6M, In conferring upon it colours and odours which are various
and persistent. M. Bouchirie exhibited to the Academy a variety
of specimens prepared according to his method^ which were in>
trusted to a committee for examination.

( 200 )
NEW PUBLICATIONS.

1. Sketch of the Geology of North America. By Charles Daubeny, M.D.,
F.R.S., Professor of Botany and Chemistry in the University of Ox-
ford.

This sketch, the perusal of which has afforded us both instruction
and pleasure, we recommend to the attention of geologists.

2. Supplement to the Introduction to the Atomic Theory j comprehending a
sketch of certain opinions and discoveries bearing upon the General Prin-
ciples of Chemical Philosophy, which have been brought into notice since
the publication of that work. By C. Daubeny, M.D., Professor of Che-
mistry and Botany. 8vo, pp. 62. Oxford. Murray, London, and
Parker, Oxford. 1840.

Dr Daubeny's " Supplement to the Introduction to the Atomic
Theory," like that work itself, noticed in a former volume of our
journal, will particularly interest those who cultivate this important
branch of Chemical Philosophy.

3. A Manual of the Land and Fresh-Water Shells of the British Islands,
with Figures of each of the kinds. By Wm. Turton, M.D. A new
edition, revised and enlarged by J. G. Gray, F.R.S. London, Long-
man & Co. Bvo, pp. 310.

Mr Gray has made nearly a new work of this by his numerous ad-
ditions and corrections. It is the best guide for this department of
the British Fauna.

4. The Genera of Birds ^ with an Indication of the Typical Species of each
Genus. By G. R. Gray, Ornithological Assistant British Museum.
London, R. & J. G. Taylor. Bvo, pp. 80.

This little volume will aid the young ornithologist and collector in
threading their way through the never-ending mazes of Ornithologi-
cal systems of arrangement.

5. An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects, founded on the
Natural Habits, and corresponding Organisation of the different Families.
By J. O. Westwood, F.L.S. &c. &c. London, Longman & Company.
2 vols. Bvo.

Mr Westwood's valuable, important, and learned work, by this time
in the Hbrary of every lover of entomology, commences with interest-
ing general observations on insects, and then proceeds to divide them
into ordei'S ; each order is then taken up separately, and divided into
families. The characters, habits, transformations, andfgeneral dis-
tribution of the insects comprised in each family are given with great
accuracy, and in a very interesting manner ; as are also the charac>

New Publication)!, 201

teristic anatomical details, and preparatory states. The numerous
figures with which these volumes are illustrated, which add so pre-
eminently to its value, are, in almost every instance, original, and
drawn by the author himself. Mr Westwood, with great modesty,
says, " I have endeavoured to make my work a fitting " Sequel" to
the " Introduction to Entomology of Messrs Kirby and Spence."

6. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited by the Acting Secre-
taries. Year 1839.

Number for June contains — 1. Narrative of an Expedition into
the Naga territory of Assam. By E. R. Grange, Esq. — 2. Report
by Lieut. J. Glasfurd, Engineer, on the progress made up to the \st
May 1839, ow opening the Experimental Copper Mines of Kumaon.
— 3. Account of a Journey from Sumbulpur to Mednipur, through
the forests of Orissa. By Lieut. M. Kittoe (continued) — 4. Mr Mid-
dleton on the Meteors of August 10. 1839. — 5. On the mode of pre-
paring the Perfumed Oils of Jasmine and Bela. By Dr Jackson.
— 6. Report on the Assam Tea Plantations. By C. A. Bruce, Esq.
Number for July. — 1. On the Bora Chung, or the Ground Fish
of Bootan. By J. T. Pearson, Esq. — 2. On the Gale and Hurri-
cane in the Bay of Bengal, on the 3c?, 4^/*, and bill of June 1839,
being a first Memoir in reference to the Theory of the Law of Storms
in India. By H. Piddington, Esq. — 3. Note on the " Trochilus and
Crocodile* of Herodotus. By W. C. Hurry, Esq. — 4. Documents
relative to the application of Camel-Draught to Carriages ; com-
municated by C. B. Greenlaw, Esq 5. Continuation of Lieut. M.

Kittoe^s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. — 6. Meteorological
Register.

Number for August. — 1. Part 2c? of Researches on the Gale and
Hurricane in the Bay of Bengal on the 3d, 4th, and 5th June 1839.

By H. Piddington, Esq 2. Extracts from Mr M. M'Clelland's

paper on the India Cyprinidce. — 3. On the Smelting of the Iron-
Ore of the District of Burdwan. — 4. On the habits of the Coel, and
on the Discovery of Isinglass. By Major Davidson. — 5.' Note on the
Scapes of Xanthorheea and Fossil Stems of Lepidodendra. By Lieut.
N. Vicary. — 6. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. — 7. Meteorologi-
cal Register,

List of Patents granted in Scotland from \Sth March to l%th

June 1840.

1. To Joseph Schofield of Littleborougli, in the county of Lancaster,
cotton-spinner and fustian manufacturer, and Edmund Leach of Little-
borough, aforesaid, manager of cotton-spinners and weavers, for an inven-
VOL. XXIX. NO. LVII. JULY 1840. O

202 List c/ Patents,

tion " of certain improvements in looms for weating Vaiious kinds of cloth."
—18th March 1840.

2. To William Maltby junior, of Mile-End, chemist, and Richard
CuERTOx, brassfounder, of Percy Street, in the county of Middlesex, for
an invention of " improvements in extracting and concentrating the colour,
tanin, and other matters contained in vegetable and animal substances." —
18th March 1840.

3. To Sir William Burnett of Somerset House, in the county of Mid-
dlesex, Knight Commander of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order, for
an invention of " improvements in preserving animal, vegetable, woollen,
and other fibrous substances, from decay." — 25th March 1840.-

4. To Peter Lomax of Little Bolton, in the county of Lancaster, weaver,
for an invention of " certain" improvements in looms for weaving'." — 26tii
March 1840.

5. To Peter Bancroft of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, mer-
chant, and John MacInnes of the same place, manufacturing chemist, for
an invention of " an improved method of renovating or restoring animal
charcoal, after it has been used in certain processes or manufactures, to
which charcoal is now generally applied, and thereby recovering the pro-
perties of such animal charcoal, and rendering it again fit for similar uses."
— 6Lh April 1840.

6. To William Hunt of the Portugal Hotel, Fleet Street, in the city of
London, manufacturing chemist, for an invention of " improvements in the
manufacture of potash and soda, and their carbonates." — 11th April 1840.

7. To Thomas Robinson Williams of Cheapside, in the city of London,
gentleman, for an invention of '' certain improvements in the manufacture
of woollen and other fabric or fabrics, of which wool or fur form a principal
component part, and in the machinery employed for eiFecting that object." —
11th April 1840.

8. To Henry Philip Rouquette of Norfolk Street, Strand, in the
county of Middlesex, merchant, for an invention, communicated by a fo-
reigner residing abroad, for an invention, " being a new pigment." — 18th
April 1840.

♦ 9. To Pierre Auguste Ducote of No. 70 Saint Martin's Lane, in the
county of Middlesex, lithographer, for an invention of " certain improve-
ments in printing china, porcelain, earthenware, and other like wares ; and
for printing on paper, calicoes, silks, woollens, oilcloths, leather, and other
fabrics ; and for an improved material to be used in printing."— 20th April
1840.

10. To William Stone of Winsley, in the county of Wilts, gentleman,
for an invention of " improvements in the manufacture of wine." — 20th
April 1840.

11. To John Inkson of Ryder Street, St James's, in the county of Mid-
dlesex, gentleman, for an invention, communicated by a foreigner residing
abroad, of " improvements in apparatus for consuming gas for the purposes
of light."— 20th April 1840.

12. To Jean Francois Victor Fabien of King William Street, in the
city of London, gentleman, for an invention, communicated by a foreigner
residing abroad, of " improvements in rotary engines to be worked by steam
or other fluid."— 20th April 1840.

13. To Matthew Uzielli of King William Street, in the city of Lon-
dQU, merchant^ for aa, invention, communicated by a foreignei; residing

Litt of Patenii. 20lB

abroad, of " certain improvements in the arrangement and construction of
ships' hearths, or apparatus for cooking, and for obtaining distilled or pure
water from salt or impure water." — 22d April 1840.

14. To Thomas Aitken of Chadderton, in the county of Lancaster, ma-
nufacturer, for an invention of " certain improvements in the machinery or
apparatus for drawing cotton and other fibrous substances." — 22d April
1840.

15. To Anoibr March Perkins of Great Coram Street, in the county
of Middlesex, civil-engineer, for an invention of " improvements in appara-
tus for transmitting heat by circulating water."— 6th May 1840.

16. To Orlando Jones of the City Road, in the county of Middlesex
accountant, for an invention of " improvements in treating or operating on
farinaceous matters to obtain starch and other products, and in manufac*
turing starch."— 6th May 1840.

17. To Francis Gybbon Spilsbury of Wallsall, Staffordshire, chemist,
Marie Francois Catharine Doetzer CoRBAuxof Upper Morton Street,
in the county of Middlesex, and Alexander Samuel Byrne of Montague
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, for an invention of " im-
provements in paints or pigments, and vehicles, and in modes of applying
paints, pigments, and vehicles." — 7th May 1840.

18. To Joseph Clinton Robertson of 166 Fleet Street, in the city of
London, patent agent, for an invention, communicated by a foreigner re-
siding abroad, for " an improved method or methods of obtaining mechanical
power from electro-magnetism, and the engine or engines by which the said
powef may be made applicable to motive purposes." — 7th May 1840.

19. To John Wilson of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, lecturer
on chemistry, for an invention of " an improvement or improvements in the
process or processes of manufacturing the carbonate of soda." — 11th May
1840.

20. To Antoine Blanc of Paris, in the kingdom of France, merchant,
and Theophile Gervais Bazille of Rouen, in the same kingdom, mer-
chant, now residing at Sablioniere's Hotel, Leicester Square, in the county
of Middlesex, for an invention, communicated by a foreigner residing abroad,
of " certain improvements in the manufacturing or producing soda and other
articles obtained by or from the decomposition of common salt, or chloride
of sodium."— 11th May 1840.

21. To Robert Gill Ranson of Ipswich, paper-maker, and Samuel
Millpourn of the same place, foreman to the said Robert Gill Ranson,
for an invention of " improvements in the manufacture of paper." — 13th
May 1840.

22. To James Knowles of Little Bolton, in the county of Lancaster,
coal-merchant, for an invention of *' an improved arrangement of apparatus
for regulating the supply of water to steam-boilers." — 13th May 1840,

23. To Thomas Myerscough of Little Bolton, in the county of Lan-
caster, manager, and William Sykes of Manchester, in the county of Lan-
caster, machine-maker, for an invention of " certain improvements in the
construction of looms for weaving or producing a new or improved manu-
facture of fabric, and also in the arrangement of machinery to produce
other descriptions of woven goods or fabrics." — 13th May 1840.

24. To Henry Trbwhitt of Newcastle-on-Tyne, in the county of Nor-
thumberland, Esq., for an invention of " certain improvements in the fabri-
cation of china or earthenware, and in the machixiery or apparatus applicable
tiiereio»"-»15tb May 1840.

204 Li$t of Patents.

26. To William Winsor of Kathbone Place, in the county of Middlesex,
artists' colourman, for an invention of " a certain method or certain methods,
process or processes, of preparing, preserving, and using colours." — 15th
May 1840.

26. To William Craig of Glasgow, in the kingdom of Scotland, engi-
neer, and William ^Douglas Sharp of Stanley, Perthshire, in the same
kingdom, engineer, for an invention of " certain improvements in machinery
for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotton, flax, wool, and other fibrous
substances."— 18th May 1840.

27. To Alexander Angus Croll of Greenwich, in the county of Kent,
manufacturing chemist, for an invention of " certain improvements in the
process of manufacturing gas, and in the production of ammoniacal salts." —
19th May 1840.

28. To John Davidson, salt-manufacturer, Leith Walk, near Edinburgh,
in the county of Edinburgh, for an invention of " an improvement in the
method of preserving salt." — 19tli May 1840.

29. To Thomas Walker of Galashiels, in the county of Selkirk, mecha-
nic, for an invention of *' improvements in apparatus applicable to feeding
machinery employed in carding, scribbling, or teazing fibrous materials." —
26th May 16 0.

30. To James Hadden Young of Lille, in the kingdom of France, at pre-
sent residing at 32 Norfolk Street, Strand, in the county of Middlesex, mer-
chant, and Adrian Delcambre of Lille aforesaid, manufacturer, for an in-
vention of " an improved mode of setting up printing types." — 28th May
1840.

31. To John Hawley of Frith Street, Soho Square, in the county of
Middlesex, watchmaker, for an invention, communicated by a foreigner re-
siding abroad, of " improvements in pianos and harps." — 29th May 1840.

32. To Thomas Edmondson of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
clerk, for an invention of " certain improvements in printing presses." — 1st
June 1840.

33. To William Potts of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, brass-
founder, for an invention of " certain apparatus for suspending and moving
pictures and curtains." — 2d June 1840.

34. To Elijah Galloway of Water Lane, Tower Street, in the city of
London, engineer, for an invention of " improvements in steam-engines." —
9th June 1840.

35. To Francois Vouillon [of Prince's Street, Hanover Square, in the
county of Middlesex, silk-mercer, for an invention, communicated by a
foreigner residing abroad, of " improvements in the manufacture of orna-
mental woven fabrics." — 9th June 1840.

36. To William Daubney Holmes of Cannon Row, in the city of West-
minster, and county of Middlesex, civil engineer, for an invention of " cer-
tain improvements in the construction of iron ships, boats, and other vessels,
and also in means for preventing the same from foundering, also in the ap-
plication of the same improvements, or parts thereof, to other vessels." —
18th June 1840.

37. To John Crighton junior of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
machine-maker, for an invention of " certain improvements in machinery
for weaving single, double, or treble cloths, by hand or power." — 18th June
1840.

THE

EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

On the Diminution of Temperature with Height in the Atmo-
sphere, at different seasons of the year. By James D.
Forbes, Esq. F.R.SS.L. &E., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Edinburgh.*

In the year 1830, I succeeded in establishing a Register of
the Thermometer at the Bonally Reservoir, which formerly
supplied the city water-works, being at a distance of five miles
in a direction south-west from Edinburgh. This station is on
the northern acclivity of the Pentland Hills, at a height of
1100 feet above the sea. The following year I obtained cor-
responding observations at the village of Colinton, situated a
mile and a half north of the preceding station, and above 700
feet lower. Although this difference of level be not very con-
siderable, yet, as these comparative registers have been kept
for nearly five years with pretty uniform results, some confi-
dence is evidently due to the conclusions, even although consi-
derable difficulties opposed themselves to obtaining registers
quite free from exception. The interest attaching to them is
the greater, that, although registers have been kept at Lead-
hills and other elevated stations, I do not recollect any strictly
comparative observations in Scotland, perhaps not even in
Great Britain, at two stations near one another, and differing
considerably in level, from which the important meteorological
element of the decrement of temperature in the atmosphere
could be deduced.

* From Transactions of tho Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiv. ; read
1st April 1839.

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVIII.— OCTOBER 1840. F

206 Prof. Forbes on the Diminution of Temperature

The Bonally station is situated on the exposed northern ac-
clivity of the Pentland Hills, without any kind of shelter. Its
elevation above the mean level of the sea was very accurately
determined by myself trigonometrically, and the thermometer
hung a height of precisely 1100 feet. The exposure was the
north side of a cottage, which has since been allowed to fall to
ruin. The observations were made by Mr Johnston, the offi-
cer appointed by the Water Company for the inspection of
their works, and by his family. I have every reason to believe
that they were made and registered with perfect fidelity, al-
though, from want of practice, they may have been occasion-
ally erroneously entered. They were made daily at 8 A.M.
and 8 p.m. The thermometer was a mercurial one, now in my
possession, which, by comparison with a standard one, I find
reads pretty constantly 0°.35 too high.* The readings have
therefore been diminished by that quantity.

The Colinton station was at the School-house there, and the
observations were carefully made and registered by my friend
the Rev. R. Hunter. The height of the thermometer above
the mean level of the sea, ascertained by myself, is 364 feet.
The hours of observation were the same as above. The ther-
niometer has been carefully compared with a standard, and
the error in different parts of the scale not being uniform, it
has been ascertained, and a corresponding correction applied.
By far the greater part of the calculation of these observa-
tions was performed by my late friend and pupil Mr John
Spens, son of Dr Thomas Spens, who, had he lived, must ul-
timately have distinguished himself in a profession which rarely
fails to reward real talent. Much of the remaining calculation
was kindly undertaken by Mr John T. Harrison.

The mean temperature of each month at each station at 8
A.M. and 8 p.m. being taken, the mean difference for each
month of the year for the whole period is deduced, and hence
the mean for the entire period, which gives a decrement for
736 feet of ascent, amounting to 3°.27 for the morning obser-
vations, 3°.18 for the evening, or 8°. 22 for both, which corres-
ponds to 229 feet of ascent for 1° of decrement of temperature.

* For one year only .i spirit tliermometer was employed.

with Height in the Atmosphere. 20T

This decrement is rather rapid, and is, no doubt, partly to bo
accounted for by the comparatively sheltered situation of the
lower station.

The influence of the season of the year on the decrement of
temperature is particularly striking, as the following Table
shews ; and that the discrepancies it contains are not generally
errors of observation, is pretty clear, from the agreement of
the morning and evening columns, and various other tests,
which it is not necessary to mention.

Table I.
Calculation of the Mean Temperature of each Month durincf the Years 1831-
S2-33-34-35, at Bonally and CoUnton, and corrected for the errors of Qra-
duatimi of Thermometers.

Date.

8 A. M.

8 p. M.

1

'A

a

-2 ~
.9

1

►.l

§8

i

1

a

o

n

.s

1

^1
1 ^

31

5

Jan. 1832
^ 1833
^.. ISM
^^ 1835

Feb. 1831
^ 1832
_ 1833
^, 18;34
_ 183^5

Mar. 1831
.^ 1832
_ 1833
_ 1834
^ 1835

Apr. 1831
-^ 1832
^ 1833

^ isat

-^ 1835

35.61
31.58
37.74
33.97

39.29
31.77
39.32
36.39

Mean

35.26
31.23
37.39
33.62

38.97
31.23
39.00
36.00

3.71
0.00
1.61
2.38

35.93
32.64
38.06

38.39
33.77

40.16

35.58
32.29
37.71
34.36

38.06
33.32
39.86
37.82

2.48
1.03
2.15
3.46

34.71

35.75
37.00
36.36
37.46
36.43

38.45
37.68
35.39
37.9Ji
36.45

42.34

41.13

, 39.90

' 40.43

1 40.00

38.16
Mean

137.50
34.38

145.20
36.30

7.70
1.92

139.94
34.98

149.06
37.26

9.12

2.28

a4.93
36.31
35.14
36.43
36.89

37.61
36.68
34.87
39.16
36.26

37.11
39.00
37.86
37.46
39.78

Mean

34.58
35.96
34.79
36.08
36.54

36.75
38.68
37.J30
37.10
39.48

2.17
2.721

2.71
1.02 i
2.94

37.64
38.45
38.61
89.50
40.21

Mean

35.40
36.65
36.01
37.11
36.08

37.29
38.12
38.28
39.19
39.92

1.89
1.47
2.27
2.08
3.84

177.95
35.59

189.51
37.90

11.56
2.31

181.25
36.25

192.80
38.56

11.55
2.31

42.42
42.48
38.48
42.61
38.35

Mean

37.26
36.33
34.52
38.81
35.91

42.24
42.28
38.15
42.40
38.02

4.98
5.95
3.63
3.59
2.11

43.00
40.64
37.48
41.84
38.42

Mean

38.10
37.33
35.04
37.58
36.13

42.82
40.37
37.13
41.60
38.10

4.72
3.04
2.09
4.02
1.97

182.83
36.56

203.09
40.61

20.26
4.05

l&t.l8
36.83

200.02
40.00

15.84
3.17

41.30
42.13
41.37
41.37
40.97

45.47
46.63
44.67
46.53
45.60

Mean

40.95
41.78
41.02
41.02
40.62

45.38
46.56
44.55
46.46
45.51

4.43
4.78
3.53
5.44
4.89

45.10
44.63
43.83
46.23
45.80

Mean

41.99
40.78
39.55
40.08
39.65

45.00
44.50
43.68
46.15
45.72

3.01
3.72
4.13
6.07
6.07

205.39
41.08

228.46
45.69

23.07
4.61

1;

202.06
40.41

226.05
45.01

23.00
4.00

1

808 Prof, Popbei on the Diminution of Temperature

Table I. — continued.

D.

\TE.

8 a.m.

8 p. M. 1

>>

a

J

o

-6

11

ll

.1

1

ll

ll

o 5?

i

1

pq

6

« S

6 8

«

m

o

m 8

5 8

Q

May 1831

46.48

50.39

46.13

50.40

4.27

46.58

49.93

46.23

49.93

3.70

.v^

1832

45.48

50.93

45.13

50.95

6.82

45.19

49.32

44.84

49.31

4.47

~v«

1833

52.06

56.97

51.71

57.20

5.49

51.74

55.19

61.39

55.40

4.01

..^

1834

49.41

53.97

49.06

54.10

5.04

49.90

53.80

49.55

53.95

4.40

~

1835

45.61

50.10

45.26

60.10

4.84

45.39

49.87

45.04

49.87

4.83

237.29

262.75

25.46

237.05

258.46

21.41

June 1831

Mean

47.46

52.55

5.09

Mean

47.41

51.69

4.28

55.23

58.97

54.88

59.24

4.36

55.77

68.27

66.42

58.52

3.10

—

1832

53.97

57.83

53.62

58.09

4.47

53.07

67.00

52.72

57.24

4.52

—

1833

53.50

57.37

53.15

57.62

4.47

52.30

65.90

61.95

56.12

417

vw^

1834

54.43

57.57

54.08

57.81

3.73

54.97

56.97

54.62

57.20

2.58

~

1835

53.37

55.43

53.02

55.64

2.62

51.90

55.27

61.55

55.48

3.93

268.75

288.40

19.65

266.26

284.66

18.30

July 1831

Mean

53.75

57.68

3.93

Mean

53.25

66.91

3.66

57.68

60,06

57.33

60.36

3.03

58.27

60.77

57.92

61.07

3.15

1832

55.16

59.03

54.81

59.30

4.49

55.52

57.84

55.17

58.09

2.92

^^

1833

57.03

59.61

56.68

59.90

3.22

55.68

58.55

55.33

58.82

3.49

.,^

1834

56.16

59.19

65.81

59.47

3.66

57.00

59.26

56.65

59.54

2.89

"^^

1835

55.77

57.64

55.42

57.90

2.48

54.81

67.07

54.46

57.31

2.86

280.05

296.93

16.88

279.53

294.83

15.30

Aug

.1831

Mean

56.01

59.38

3.37

Mean

55.90

58.96

3.06

67.08

59.71

56.71

60.00

3.29

65.90

69.55

55.55

59.84

4.29

i~^

1832

55.23

57.52

54.88

57.77

2.89

53.68

55.48

53.33

55.70

2.37

1833

52.06

55.55

51.71

55.76

4.05

50.45

64.97

50.10

55.16

5.06

— ^

1834

55.84

59.87

55.49

60.17

4.68

54.48

69.19

54.13

59.47

5.34

"~*

1835

57.58

58.84

57.23

59.12

1.89

66.00

68.97

65.65

59.25

3.60

276.02

292.82

16.80

268.76

289.42

20.66

Sept

.1831

Mean

65.20

58.56

3.36

Mean

63.75

67.88

4.13

50.87

54.27

50.52

54.44

3.92

50.97

64.14

60.62

54.30

3.68

v^^

1832

51.77

53.87

61.42

54.02

2.60

50.63

63.40

50.28

53.64

3.26

-«vv

1833

49.13

52.83

48.78

52.95

4.17

48.57

62.47

48.22

52.57

4.35

i.~.%

1834

50.83

52.70

50.48

52.80

2.32

50.07

62.87

49.72

52.98

3.26

****

1835

50.03

50.80

49.68

60.83

1.15

49.17

51.27

48.82

51.32

2.50

250.88

265.04

14.16

247.66

264.71

17.05

Oct

1831

Mean

50.18

53.01

2.83

Mean

49.53

52.94

3.41

49.71

53.10

49.36

53.22

3.86

50.06

52.13

49.71

52.21

2.50

--.

1832

47.03

50.77

46.68

50.80

4.12

46.45

49.16

46.10

49.14

3.04

1833

45.61

48.06

45.26

48.03

2.77

45.32

47.45

44.97

47.40

2.43

.^

1834

45.58

48.87

45.23

48.85

3.62

45.52

48.87

45.17

48.85

3.68

1835

42.51

44.77

42.16

44.66

2.60

41.87

44.46

41.52

44.33

2.81

228.69

245.56

16.87

227.17

241.93

14.46

Mean

45.74

49.11

3.37

Mean

45.49

48.38

2.89

with Height in the Atmosphere,

Table I. — continued.

209

Date.

8 a.m.

8 p. M. 1

^

1

-1

•a g
Is

II

1

1

j

II

2

Nov. 1831
^^ 1832
^ 1833
^ 1834

36.73
38.20
38.17
40.30

40.03
39.40
40.67
41.37

Mean

36.38
37.85
37.82
39.95

39.73
39.09
40.39
41.13

3.35
1.24
2.57
1.18

37.73
38.67
38.63
40.23

39.50
40.10
39.70
42.53

Mean

37.38
38.32
38.28
39.88

39.19
39.80
39.40
42.33

1.81
1.48
1.12
2.45

152.00
38.00

160.84
40.08

8.34
2.08

153.86
38.46

160.72
40.18

6.86
1.72

Dec. 1831
^ 1832
^ 1833
^ 1834

39.23
36.19
35.87
39.35

41.81
39.61
38.42
39.77

Mean

38.88
35.84
35.52
39.00

41.57
39.30
38.09
39.47

2.69
3.46
2.57
0.47

38.93
36.81
36.10
39.35

41.81
39.93
38.53
41.35

Mean

38.58
3646
35.75
39.00

41.58
39.63
38.20
41.10

3.00
3.17
2.45
2.10

149.24
37.31

158.43
39.61

9.19
2.30

149.79
37.45

160.51
40.13

10.72
2.68

Table II. — General Synopsis,

Feet of

Month.

8 A. M.

8 p. M.

Mean
Diff.

Ascent

for
1° Fahr.

Bonally.

Colinton.

Diff.

Bonally.

Colinton.

Diff.

January .

34.38

36.30

1.92

34.98

37.26

2.28

2.10

351

February .

35.59

37.90

2.31

36.25

38.56

2.31

2.31

319

March . .

36.56

40.61

4.05

36.83

40.00

3.17

3.61

204

April . .

41.08

45.69

4.61

40.41

45.01

4.60

4.60

159

May . . .

47.46

52.55

5.09

47.41

51.69

4.28

4.69

157

June . . .

53.75

57.68

3.93

53.25

56.91

3.66

3.79

194

July . . .

56.01

59.38

3.37

55.90

58.96

3.06

3.22

229

August . .

55.20

58.56

3.36

63.75

57.88

4.13

3.74

197

September

50.18

53.01

2.83

49.53

52.94

3.41

3.12

236

October .

45.74

49.11

3.37

45.49

48.38

2.89

3.13

235

November .

38.00

40.08

2.08

38.4^

40.18

1.72

1.90

387

December .

37.31

39.61

2.30

37.45

40.13

2.68

2.49

296

531.26

570.48

39.22

529.71

567.90

38.19

38.70

General Mean

44.27

47.54

3.27

44.14

47.32

3.18

3.22

229

I have compared the results of this Table, which are pro-
jected in the uppermost curve of Plate II., with the results ob-
tained on the far larger scale of a difference of level of 6836
English feet, between Geneva and the Convent of St Bernard,
as given by Kaemtz in the second volume of his Lehrhuch der
Meteorologie. Considering the different circumstances of the
two, these curves (which I have purposely reduced to a similar
range) approximate wonderfully. They both indicate a most

210 Prof. Forbes on the Diminution of Temperature

rapid increase of the Difference of Temperature between Fe-
bruary and March, and a most rapid decUne in November, the
maximum being about May.

That the decrement of temperature with height is most ra-
pid in summer, and least in winter, has been long known ;* but
I am not aware of any attempt to account for the law of its
variation at different seasons. The following considerations
will probably be found satisfactory.

If we* examine the annual curves of mean temperature at
Colinton and Bonally, projected in the lower part of Plate 11. ,
we shall find that they differ in three respects, whilst there is
a remarkable coincidence in their general features. (1.) The
entire Bonally curve stands lower on the paper than the Colinton
curve, because the mean temperature of any and every part of
the year is lower. (2.) It is a flatter curve than the Colinton
curve, or the range of the thermometer is less ; consequently the
minima differ less than if the two curves had been similar, and
the maxima differ more. This is the reason why the decre-
ment of temperature with height is most rapid in summer, and
least so in winter. (3.) Not only is the Bonally curve lower
than the Colinton one, and flatter, but it is shifted to the right
hand, so that the maxima occur later, as well as the minima
and mean temperatures. A little attention will likewise shew
that a gap or vacuity must be left between the curves, greatest
whilst the temperature rises, and least whilst it falls ; and also
that the difference of the vertical ordinates of the two curves
will be greatest when they form the greatest ascending angle
with the horizontal axis, and least when the descending angle
is greatest, that is, as inspection shews, in May and Novem-
ber respectively, which agrees with the results of the upper-
most curve of the plate.

The examination of these curves furnishes us with some data
of the most important kind for meteorology, which it is best
in the first place to state, and afterwards to consider how we
can explain.

The first fact is the familiar one, that mean temperature di-
minishes as we ascend in the atmosphere. The second is, that
ii .1 — ■ ■

* See my Report on Meteorology in the fii-st voluhie of the British Asso-
" tifttion Reports.

with Height in the Atmosphere. 211

th6 annual range diminishes as we rise, and, at a certain height,
would probably sensibly vanish. The third is, that the influ-
ence of seasons begins to be felt at the plains, and is later
communicated to the mountains. The two former of these
facts obtain with reference to the diurnal as well as annual
variation of temperature ; the last appears to be in that case
reversed.*

The shift of the annual curve, or retardation of epochs, and
likewise the decreased range, is common to the strata of the
air above the surface of the earthy and to those of the soil be-
neath it. Both ultimately, no doubt, exhibit a limit, first
where the diurnal variations disappear, then the annual. The
cause, however, is very different in the tWo oases, the one being
chiefly the result of the radiation and the other of the conduc-
tion of heat.

It is only curious that the diurnal curve seems to follow so
different a law, at least in summer ; — perhaps the reason is,
that the direct solar radiation is more energetic in that case,
and the vehicular conveyance of heat by the air (or convection)
less. Thus, with respect to the process of annual heating, the
earth's surface (considered as an extensive plain) is the point
where the sun's rays freely transmitted by the atmosphere first
become productive of any considerable warmth. That warmth
is propagated slowly and progressively by conduction to the
inferior strata of earth, and by convection to the superior
strata of air ; in either case, as I have said, a later and v^ feebler
impress of the annual curve is found. The diurnal tempera-
ture is probably much more modified by the direct effects of
radiation. The detached mountain tops, more exposed and
less massive, receive and part with the solar heat more rapidly
than the low country, presenting a complete analogy, the for-
mer with an insular, the later with a continental climate. The
summits change temperature rapidly, the extremes are less ;
but the changes of the heat of the plain follow later, and are
more marked. This is not conjecture ; many facts might
be quoted to support it, but the following is sufficient, that

^ Saussurc, Voyages dans les Alpes, torn. iv. § 2050; &c. See also
Kaemtz, Lehrbucli, band ii. s. 133,

212 Prof. Forbes on the Diminution of Temperature

Saussure, in the part of his work already cited, finds, that,
whilst the minimum temperature occurred at 4 A. M. (in the
month of July) both at the Col du Geant and at Geneva, the
former station had acquired the mean temperature of the day
at 6 A. M., which at Geneva occurred three hours later ; and,
during the decline of temperature in the afternoon, the mean
recurred at the Col du Geant from half an hour to an hour
sooner than at Geneva.

There are other causes besides those just mentioned which
contribute to distinguish the daily from the annual curve. Of
these the more important are the more gradual character of
the annual change of temperature, and the influence of humi-
dity. The former affects our experiments by preventing the
ascending and descending currents from being instantly esta-
blished, in the manner that the law of specific gravity would
assign ; and when radiation is least intense (as in winter), and
the moving power therefore small, this transfer is often im-
peded, and even the law of densities violated altogether. Thus
we know to be often the case in winter and in cold climates,
that the higher strata are the warmer. To place this in a
clear point of view, I shall add a table shewing the number of
times in each month that this has occurred, which is indicated
under the column headed " Number of times negative :" con-
sidering the differences of temperature simultaneously observed
at Bonally and Colinton as positive when the former (the
higher station) was colder than the latter ; and vice versa. I
have also added the extreme positive and negative values for
each month ; and though here, more than any where else,
errors of observation and registration are likely to have crept
in, yet we cannot but be struck with the number of times in
which the common law of density has been reversed, and the
great excess of warmth observable at the higher station on
some occasions, especially in autumn and winter. I would re-
peat, however, that the observation of these extremes is less
likely to be invariably correct than any other part of the tables.
Dividing the year into four seasons, the following summary,
which includes both morning and evening observations, is, from
the extent of the induction, entitled to considerable confidence.

tvith Height in the Atmosphere,

213

Mean
Difference.

Mean of great-
Times out of 100 j est + values
negative. | in each
1 Month.

Mean of great-
est — values
in each
Month.

Spring )
(March, April, May) ]

Summer J
(June, July, August) ]

Autumn (
(Sept., October, Nov.) ]

Winter 1
(Dec, January, Feb.) ]

4°.30
3°.58

2^72
2''.30

7.1 per cent.
13.5
15.0
15.6

10°.5

10°.3

9°.8

9°.8

2^87
4°.8
7°.4
5°.9

These numbers have been obtained from the following Table,
which contains the details.

Table III.

8a

. m.

8p

. M.

Sa

. m.

8p

pi

o

>

?

%

1

o

.is

i

>
+

1

<0

1
t

1

li

i

1
+

i

1
1

1

1

1

+

i
1

a
.2

1

li

a °
1 ^

i
1
+

i
1

•s

. §

1

1

'S

^1

5

%

1

•

!-1

1

1

■s

o ^

1

o

o

u

6

o

u

o

o _

^

d

6 '^

u

f^

525.5

C5

O

Jz;

'^a

o

o

;z5

;?;.«

O

o

^

55.2

O

o

Jan. 1832

31

1

16

— 1

31

4

13

— 2

July 1831

31

7

9;-2

30

5

10

— 3

>v^ 1833

31

9

4

— 7

31

5

5

— 7

^ 1832

31

2

12 — 2

31

5

10

— 3

^ 1834;

31

7

13

— 9

31

12

10

— 7

--^ 1833

31

3

8,— 5

31

4

8

— 3

^ 1835

31

2

10

-7

31

3

16

— 5

^ 1834
^ 1835

31
31

2
11

6-4
13-5

31
31

5
8

9
11

—12
— 8

Feb. 1831

28

4

8

— 7

28

6

9

— 8

Aug. 1831

31

5

10 — 2

31

1

10

- 3

^ 1832

29

3

9

- 7

29

9

7

— 4

_ 1832

31

6

7-4

31

6

6

— 8

^ 1833

28

2

8

— 1

28

3

12

— 4

^ 1833

31

1

10 — 2

31

2

11

-3

^ 1834

28

8

5

-6

28

7

15

— 7

_ 1834

31

2

17 — 6

31

2

15

— 5

>^ 1835

28

2

12

—10

28

2

12

— 6

^. 1836

31

9

10 — 6

31

5

12

— 5

Mar. 1831

31

1

14

— 2

31

1

14

— 2

Sept. 1831 30

3

9-4

30

1

8

- 2

^ 1832

31

1

10

— 1

31

2

8

— 6

^ 1832 30

4

12—13

30

4

18

— 5

^ 1833

31

1

7

— 1

31

1

6

— 2

^ 1833

30

2

15! -2

30

1

11

-2

^ 1834

31

3

12

— 6

31

2

17

— 7

^ 1834

30

5

6i-6

30

6

9

— 8

^ 1835

31

7

6

— 5

31

6

7

— 2

^ 1835

30

11

7|-7

30

9

11

— 6

Apr. 1831

30

2

8

— 2

30

2

6

— 3

Oct. 1831

31

0

7i„

31

2

4

— 6

^ 1832

30

3

9

— 2

30

3

13

— 3

_ 1832

31

2

15

— 6

31

3

13

— 2

^ 1833

30

3

7

— 1

30

0

9

0

^ 1833

31

5

10

— 4

31

6

12

— 7

^ 1834

30

0

14

- 0

30

0

15

0

^ 1834

31

4

14

— 7

31

5

17

- 7

^ 1835

30

2

13

— 3

30

2

17

— 2

^ 1835

31

3

5

—10

31

4

10

— 7

May 1831

31

2

10

— 2

31

3

9

— 1

Nov. 1831

30

2

7

— 8

30

6

7

— 9

^ 1832

31

1

9

— 3

31

1

11

— 3

^ 1832

30

5

6

-10

30

6

5

—10

^ 1833

31

3

11

— 2

31

4

12

— 9

^ 1833

30

7

9

-19

30

8

12

—20

^ 1834

?-.

-»

^

^ 1834

30

10

8

— 7

30

6

12

— 6

^ 1835

31

3

lb

— 6

31

2

lb

— 4

June 1831

30

0

10

0

30

5

11

— 3

Dec. 1831

31

2

7

— 8

31

6

7

— 9

.^ 1832

30

3

11

— 8

30

4

17

— 2

_ 1832

31

1

11

-3

31

1

10

— 1

^ 1833

30

2

9

— 4

30

1

8

— 1

_ 1833

31

1

7

-3

30

5

9

— 7

^ 1834

30

3

6

— 4

30

6

10

—12

^ 1834

31

9

6

—13

31

10

13

- 6

-^ 1835

30j 4

9

-10

30

6

16

-9

_

214 Dr Fyfe mh the Illuminating and Heating Fewer of

The influence of humidity I believe to be very important in
modifying the results. The distribution of moisture as we
rise in the atmosphere varies extremely at dififerent seasons.
In spring the hills are chilled by continued condensations of
moisture, whilst the plains are comparatively dry ; and in
autumn the reverse often occurs. I believe that the actual
fall of rain on low and high grounds confirms this view, the
autumnal rains being often heaviest in the plains, whilst in
spring and summer the excess is amongst the hills. '^

The curve in Plate II.,t representing the mean daily range
for five years, is deduced from careful observations made at
Edinburgh by ^Ir Adie, with self-registering instruments. +

On the Comparative Illuminating and Heating power of dif-
ferent kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ and on the use of Coal-gas
as a source of Heat. By Andrew Fyfe, M. D., F. R. S.E.
Communicated by the Society of Arts.

I. On the Comparative Illuminating Power of Gas Burners.^

It is well known that coal-gas varies in its composition and
quality, according to the process followed in its manufacture.
After being freed from impurities, it consists chiefly of hydro-
gen, carbonic oxide, and different varieties of hydro-carbons.
The hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and light hydro-carbons, con-
stitute by far the largest proportion ; but it is the heavy hydro-
carbons that are the true source of light, for though all of
them are inflammable, yet the former give very little light
during their combustion.

* Professor Forbes in a postscript appended to this memoir, adds, " I am
glad to find that the reasoning I have employed in page 211, to account for
the diurnal variations of the decrease of heat in the atmosphere, is entirely
confirmed by the observations of Eschmann, Kaemtz, and Homer in Swit-
zerland, recorded in Poggendorf 's Annalen, xxvii. 345, and in Dove's Reperto-
rium, iii. 331." Edit.

t The vertical lines in the plate correspond to the middle of each month.

X The latter part of this paper has been remodelled since it was read. —
Dec. 1839.

§ Read before the Soeiety of Arts fof Scotland Uth March 1840,

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners, Sfc. 215

Tt may naturally be supposed, that if these gases are sup-
plied with a due proportion of air for combustion, the amount
of light should bo always the same ; and that, consequently,
when the gas is completely burned, it is of little consequence
in what sort of burner it is consumed. This is not, however,
the case. No doubt, when the gas is completely burned by a
due admission of air, we arrive at the greatest amount of light
that is to be expected, but we may err in supplying air too
freely; and though by this the whole of the elements are
united with its oxygen, and carbonic acid and water are
formed to the same extent as before, yet we may find that
much less light is afforded. Hence, also, the reverse will
occur, when the supply which has been too liberal is dimi-
nished ; the light for the same consumpt of gas is then in-
creased^

This must be accounted for on the principle established by
Sir H. Davy, that a gas burns with a white light when it con-
tains an ingredient, which is not volatilized by the heat gene-
rated during its combustion. The element of this nature in
coal-gas is carbon, which, though in union with hydrogen, may
be set free, and in its tmcombined state be then ignited and
burned, in which case it will afford white light. Unless, there-
fore, the gas be so consumed that it will undergo decomposi-
tion before it is actually burned, it will not afford much light ;
and it is chiefly this which causes the difference in the illumi-
nating power of burners differently constructed.

From what has been said, it is evident that coal-gas may
be burned in two ways. In the one, it may be burned strictly
as a hydro-carbon ; by which, both the hydrogen and carbon
will at once, and as if simultaneously, unite with oxygen ; in
the other way, it may, during the combustion, be so far de-
composed, that the hydrogen will first combine with oxygen,
and set the carbon free, and in this free and uncombined state
it will then unite with oxygen : now, in the former case, it
will burn and not give much light, in the latter the light will
become intense ; and hence the necessity of attending to this
in consuming coal-gas for the purposes of illumination.

That what has been said with regard to the decomposition
of gas really occurs, is shewn by setting fire to it, and holding

^16 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating Power of

a piece of wire-gauze in the flame. When held in the white
flame, carbon, in the form of smoke, instantly appears, but
when put in the blue flame there is no smoke. Or if the gauze
be held over the burner, and at a little distance from it, so as
to allow the gas before it is kindled to mix with air, and a
flame is then applied above the gauze, the combustion goes on
also without smoke, but with very little light, — the ingredients
at once entering into union with the oxygen of the air, without
the carbon being previously set free from the hydrogen.

It is evident then, that when gas is to be used for affording
light, it ought to be so consumed that there will be decompo-
sition; that, in fact, it must not be burned as a hydro-carbon,
by the ingredients at once and at the same instant entering
into union with oxygen, but by the hydrogen first combining
with oxygen, and setting the carbon free, which is then to
unite with oxygen ; and this is to be accomplished by the due
admission of air. Hence it is, that not only do different bur-
ners afford very different light for equal consumpt of gas, but
the same burners will, under different circumstances, also vary
in their illuminating power.

The truth of these observations has been fully and satisfac-
torily illustrated, in an elaborate and interesting paper pub-
lished by Drs Christison and Turner in the Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Journal, 1825. While engaged in a series of experi-
ments on the illuminating power of coal-gas and oil-gas, they
were led to examine the circumstances affecting the emission
of light, — such as the height of flame, the peculiar construc-
tion of burners, and the shape of the glass chimney ; their ex-
periments relating chiefly to argands. With regard to the
length of flame, they found that the light was' not always in
proportion to the consumpt, even when the same burner was
used. Thus taking a jet flame of three inches as the standard,
and considering its light and consumpt as 100, the light afford-
ed for equal expenditures was, for a flame of two inches, 100 ;
three inches, 109 ; four inches, 131 ; five inches, 150 ; six
inches, 150.

In these trials, by lengthening the flame, there was of course
an increased consumption of gas, but then the light was in-
creased in a greater ratio. When of five inches in length, the

different kindt of CoaUgaa Burnen^ ^e, 217

light was as 150 to 100 ; in other words, there was a gain of
50 per cent. Beyond this, there was no farther gain by the
farther lengthening of the flame.

The same was found to occur with argands, and in a greater
proportion. Thus, with a five-holed burner, varying from half
an inch to five inches, the light for equal consumpt of gas was,
for a flame of half an inch, 100 ; one inch, 282 ; two inches,
560 ; three inches, 582 ; four inches, 582 ; five inches, 604 :
so that, by raising the flame from half an inch to three inches,
the light for the same quantity of gas burned was nearly six:
times greater. Beyond this length of flame there was little
farther increase. In this last trial the standard was a four-
inch jet, and, as before, the light and consumpt were taken
as 100.

These experiments I have myself verified repeatedly, as will
be afterwards noticed.

It may be considered, then, as a rule with regard to argandsy
that the higher the flame is made, without smoking or ac-
quiring a dingy hue, the illuminating power becomes greater
in proportion than the increase in consumpt occasioned by the
lengthening, and this is to be accounted for on the principle
already stated ; for when the flame is low, too much air is ad-
mitted in proportion to the escape of gas, and consequently
most of it is burned without being decomposed; whereas,
when the flame is high, the air is in less proportion ; decom-
position is effbcted, and the carbon is separated from the hy-
drogen and then burned, and gives by its combustion in this
way the white light, and thus adds to the illuminating power.

It is evident, however, that the flame cannot always be kept
at its highest elevation ; for as light draught or shaking of the
lamp is apt to occasion smoke, or a sudden change in the
flame, by which the chimney is apt to be broken ; and this is
more likely to occur in open apartments as in shops.

The different circumstances detailed in the paper alluded
to, regarding the size of the apertures in argands, their proxi-
mity to one another, the width of the glass chimney, and its
distance from the sides of the burner, have left Httle farther
to be done with regard to the best means of consuming gas itt
this way. These experiments relate almost exclusively to ar-

218 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating PoQver of

gands. I have thought that it would be equally interesting to
extend the investigation to other forms of burners, such as
those with flat flames, and which are used without chimneys,
so as to shew their illuminating power compared with jets and
argands, and also the most economical way of using them.
The chief object, then, which I have had in view in the expe-
riments which I am now to relate, is to point out the illumi-
nating power of different kinds of burners as compared with
one another ; and I have thought it necessary to make these
preliminary observations, to shew the necessity of attending to
the circumstances which affect the consumpt and combustion
of the gas, by which the light afforded is so materially in-
fluenced.

In conducting these experiments, I have invariably used the
coal-gas as supplied by the Gas Company. Though it varies
occasionally a little in its illuminating power, yet as the expe-
riments are merely comparative, and as the results of the
trials made on the same day are contrasted with each other,
this slight difiference does not affect them ; besides, it must be
borne in mind, that it is not my wish to fix with numerical
precision the amount of light afforded, but merely to ascer-
tain the comparative degrees of light given by the different
burners.

In all of the trials I have used a single jet burner as my
standard; and to secure this giving forth always the same
light, it was connected with a gasometer, so adjusted as to
burn exactly one foot per hour, when the flame was five inches.
The gasometer employed for this purpose was on the usual
construction, — a copper vessel suspended in water, and coun-
terpoised by weights attached to cords passing over pulleys.
I am aware that it may be objected to this apparatus, that
as the gas-holder sinks in the water it becomes of less and
less weight, proportionally to the counterpoises, and that con-
sequently the pressure is not always the same. I was of
course aware of this, but I found on trial that, for short dis-
tances, the gas-holder moved, the difference in pressure was
trifling, particularly when the gas from it was used when the
gas-holder was not very much out of, or very much sunk in,
the water. Accordingly, I found that, for equal times, the

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners, ii^^c. 219^

consumpt was the same, or so very nearly so that the differ-
ence was unworthy of notice, in the experiments of the nature
of which I was engaged.

I have already mentioned, that, according to Christison and
Turner, when the flame of a jet is gradually lengthened, the
light becomes in & greater and greater ratio than the consumpt
of gas, till it reaches five inches, beyond which there is no far-
ther gain ; and that this is the case, I have myself verified by
numerous trials. We may consider, then, five inches as the
most economical height for a single jet. Accordingly, in using
it as my standard, I have invariably so employed it, that I
might the more easily be enabled to compare the lights given
by other burners with it, and with each other, for equal con-
sumpts of gas.

The method to which I resorted for judging of the illumi-
nating power is that of Rumford ; the depth of shadow af-
forded by the flames; of course, attending to the circum-
stances noticed by him which are necessary to secure ac-
curacy.

I am aware that many object to this method, as being in
several respects fallacious; but these objections are of little
force, when the instrument is used for ascertaining the com-
parative illuminating power of lights, such as gas flames, where
the shadows do not vary much in their colour from each other.
The standard jet was generally kept at a fixed distance; the
other lights, after being brought to the proper height, were
moved till the shadows were the same ; and in doing this, I
was assisted by others in whose accuracy 1 could rely. I men-
tion this, to shew that I did not trust entirely to my own ob-
servation in judging of the shadows, and that reliance may the
more readily be placed in the results detailed.

The gas used in the moveable burners was measured by a
gas-meter; and to secure still farther accuracy in the results,
a cubic foot passed through the metre was thrown into the
gasometer connected with the standard jet, and accurately
marked off on its scale. The pressure on the gas from the
metre varied from 15 to 19-lOths of an inch of water; that
on the standard gasometer was kept at 17.

In the paper by Drs Christison and Turner, and also in

220 Dr Fyfe en the Illuminating and Heating Power of

that publifihed by Professor Brande in Phil. Trans. 1820, it
10 shewn, that, when an argand burner contains a few holes,
and at such a distance that the flames from them do not meet,
it may be considered as so many single jets ; but when the
holes are nearer, and the flames are united, then the combus-
tion is carried on differently ; hence the superior efficacy of
the burners now used compared with those formerly recom-
mended. By that now in general use, which has twenty- four
holes, of about the 40th of an inch in diameter, the flame,
however short, is one continued ring, and, when high, there is
little of the blue flame, shewing that the gas is properly con-
sumed, so as to afford a comparatively great amount of light.

One of these argands of twenty-four holes l-40th of an inch,
the diameter of the circle of holes being 7-8ths of an inch, and
the diameter of the central air aperture 6-8ths of an inch, was
compared with the standard jet of five inches ; and burning one
foot per hour. I found that, when the flame was only 1^ inch,

The consumpt was as . 1 jet to 3.4 argand

The light . . . 1 ... 2.65

With another of the same kind, the flame being If of an
inch,

The consumpt was as . 1 jet to 3 argand
The light . . . 1 ... 2.85

In both of these trials, there was a loss compared with the
light given by the jet, — thus confirming the experiments of
Christison and Turner already alluded to.*

With the same burner used in the last experiment, when
the flame was raised to 2^ inches.

The consumpt was as . . 1 to 3.75
The light, . . . . 1 to 5.512

Now, as 3.75 : 5.512 : : 1 : 1.46 ; so that, in this case, there
was actually a gain of 46 per cent, for equal consumpt of gas.
The same burner, with a 3-inch flame, ;;;

Consumpt, . . . . 1 to 4.137
Light, . . . . 1 to 7.441

And as 4.137 : 7.441 : : 1 : 1.79— Gain 79 ;

* The area of the apertures recommended by Drs Christison and Turner
is 1-32 of an inch, but about l-40th is that now generally used in this town.

different kinds qfJCoaUgas Burners, ^c. 221

with a flame of 3 J inches,

Consumpt, . . . . 1 to 4.36
Light, . . . . 1 to 8

And 4.36 : 8 : : 1 : 1.83— Gain 83.

The width of the glass chimney was 17-lOths of an inch.

Another burner of a similar nature, but having more holes,
was tried. The central aperture for air was 17-20ths of an inch
in diameter ; the diameter of the circle of holes 21-20ths ; the
number of holes 42 of the 50th of an inch in diameter. The
flame in the first trial was 1 inch.

Consumpt, . . . 1 jet to 2.86 argand
Light, . . . 1 ... 2.146

so that there was a loss in this case as compared with the jet.
When burned with l^-inch flame,

Consumpt was . . 1 to 3.15

Light, . . . 3.24 very little gain ;

with flame of 2 inches,
Consumpt, .
Light, .
And as 4 : 6.304

with flame of 2| inches,

Consumpt,

Light,

And 4.8 : 7.035 : : 1 : 1.46^Gain 46 ;

with 3i-inch flame,

Consumpt, . . . 1 to 6.46
Light, . . . . 1 to 9.94
And 6.46 : 9.94 : : 1 : 1.82-^ain 82.

This burner, then, having a greater number of holes, and
consuming gas in the ratio of 5.45 per hour to the other as
4.36, did not yield a greater light for the same consumpt. It
is remarkable, however, how very nearly the trials with these
burners agree, when the gas is burned under favourable circum-
stances, and they shew, also, how much saving there is by the
use of burners of the kind mentioned, the light of a jet and
of these burners being, for equal consumpt of gas, in the ratio
of 100 to about 182 ; consequently^ to procure the same light,
there is an immense saving when properly constructed argands
are used.

Other argands were tried, but, though these were found to

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVIII.— K)CTOBEK. 1840. Q

1 to 4

1 to 6.304

1:

1.32— Gain 32.

1 to 4.8

.

ltoY.035

222 Dr Fyfe mt the Illuminating and Heating Power of

vary in their illuminating power according to the height of
flame, yet they did not, when burned with the flame high,
come up in their illuminating power to the burners already
noticed.

A ten-holed argand, for instance, when burning with a two-
inch flame, and consuming 2.85 feet per hour, did not give
so much light, in proportion to the consumpt, as the jet ; but
when the flame was raised till the consumpt became 3.75 feet
per hour, the

Light was as 1 jet to 4.9 argand

Consumpt, 1 ... 3.75

And as 3.75 : 4.9 : : 1 : 1.30— Giving a gain of 80.

The next kind of burner tried was the hat-idng. In this
the gas escapes by a slit instead of minute apertures ; of course
the quantity of gas consumed must depend very much on the
size of the slit. Those I employed were the bat-wings in com-
mon use, the slit being such as to admit a piece of watch-
spring.

In the first trial the gas was burned in much smaller quan-
tity than the burners would allow to escape, and compared
with the standard jet of five inches as before.

In the first trial.

Consumpt, . 1 jet to 1.876 bat-wing

Light, . . 1 ... 2.626

And as 1.876 : 2.626 : : 1 : 1.40— Gain 40.

In the second trial,

Consumpt, . 1 to 2.807

Light, . . 1 to 3.403

And 2.307 : 3.403 : : 1 : 1.42— Gain 42.

In the third trial.

Consumpt, . 1 to 3.75

Light, . . 1 to 6.16

And 3.76 : 6.16 : : 1 : 1.64— Gain 64.

Another bat-wing, of rather smaller dimensions,

was tried.

Consumpt, . 1 to 2.14

Light, . . 1 to 2.88

And as 2.14 : 2.88 : : 1 ; 1.34— Gain 34.

Again,

Consumpt, . 3.63

Light, . . 6.618

And 3.53 : 6.018 : r 1 : 1.69«-Gain 69.

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ ^-c. 223

In these trials the results so far agree with those obtained
by argands, viz. that, when the flame is low, the gas is not so
profitably consumed as when it is high ; the air most probably
being supplied too freely, by which the gas is not sufiiciently
decomposed before it is burned.

The results also shew, that, for equal consumpts, the bat-
wings do not afford so much light as good argands. Taking
the jet as 100, the argand gave a light as about 180 ; whereas
the bat-wing did not exceed 1G4, for equal consumpts.

The next burners tried were fish-tails, or the decussating
jets. In this burner, the apertures, of the same diameter as
those in the single jets, pass in a slanting direction out from
the tube of the burner, and as the gas rushes out, it is, as it
were, twisted round, so that a line passing along the flame is
diagonal to one passing in the direction of the holes.

The standard jet, as usual, burning one foot per hour. The
fish-tail was made to burn so as to give the full flame, but
without any flickering.

In the first trial,

Consumpt, . 1 jet to 2.3 fish-tail
Light, . . 1 ... 3.16
And 2.3 : 3.16 : ; 1 : 1.37— Gain 37.

In another,

Consumpt, . 1 to 2.14
Light, . . 1 to 2.98
And 2.14 : 2.98 : : 1 : 1.39— Gain 39.

In a third trial,

Consumpt, . 2.18
Light, . . 3.16
And 2.18 : 3.16 : : 1 : 1.40— Gain 40.

Numerous other trials of a similar nature were made with
fish-tails^ from which I have found that the gain, by using this
burner instead of the jet, is, on an average, about 40 per cent.
It is of the utmost consequence, however, to be careful in keep-
ing the apertures clean, more especially when the flame is
burned low, as in bed-rooms, when it is wished during night
merely to keep it burning. In this case the holes are apt to
become clogged with a carbonaceous deposit, and the gas is
then burned unprofitably ; indeed this is the case with almost
all burners.

224 Dr Fyfe on the Bluminating and Heating Power of

Thus, in one case where a burner was tried, which had been
long in use in a bed-room, the

Consumpt was as 1 jet to 2.14 fish-tail

Light, . . 1 ... 2.44

And 2.14 : 2.44 : : 1 : 1.14— Gain only 14.

Now, in this case, the consumpt of the gas was the same as in
one of the former instances, but the light was very inferior ;
the former, when consuming 2.14, giving a gain over the jet
of 39, whereas this, consuming the same, gained only 14.

Hence, then, the absolute necessity of keeping the burner
clean ; the easiest method of doing which is pushing occasion-
ally a bristle into the holes ; or, which is perhaps preferable,
rubbing the surface of the burner with a hair-brush.

When, instead of using a single fish-tail, the flames from
two fish-tails are brought together by their flat surfaces, the
light is very much increased, as is at once evident by the in-
crease of illumination in the apartment. It occurred to me
that a burner constructed on this principle might be used with
advantage, provided the increase of light is not attended with
a proportional increase in the consumpt. On trial I did not
find this to be the case. Thus, when two fish-tails were burned
separately, the consumpt of gas was by both 4.44, compared
to that of the standard jet as 1 ; and when burned with their
flames united it was as 5, but the light was much increased :
thus, compared with the jet, the

Consumpt was . 1 jet to 6 fish-tails

Light, ... 1 ... 8.192
And as 6 : 8.192 : : 1 : 1.63— Gain 63.

In another trial the gain on the jet was 59 ; thus making
the average 61. Now, in the experiments with single fish-
tails already given, the gain did not go beyond 40 ; so that
by this double fish-tail burner there is an evident increase of
light ; but, though this occurs, the gain is not greater than
when a good bat-wing, burning with its full allowance of gas,
is used ; besides the flame is by no means so steady.

Other kinds were also tried, with the view of improving the
light, when small quantities of gas are required. The first
of these was composed of jets formed by drilling holes in a
straight line, at such a distance that the flames from them

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ S^c, 225

united. I had burners of this kind made with two, three, four,
and five holes ; but I did not find, when they were allowed to
bum with a flame of the same height as the jet, that there
was any increase in the light, over and above that from the
increased consumption.

Thus, with a burner with three holes, of the same size as
that in the single jet, and the flame about three inches, the

Consumpt was . 1 jet to 3 .07 jets

Light, ... 1 ... 1.10

so that the gain was a mere nothing.

With a four-inch flame it was the same.

With four holes and five holes, when the flames were from
three to five inches, there was a loss of light compared with
the jet ; the increase in light not keeping pace with the in-
creased consumpt.

When, however, these burners are made to give the same
light as the jet of five-inch flame, there is a saving ; for, when
the single jet consumes gas as 100, these compound jets con-
sume only as from 80 to 90 ; thus giving a saving for the same
amount of light of from 10 to 20 per cent. They might, there-
fore, be used advantageously, but they are liable to one objec-
tion,— the flame is not so steady as that of the single jet, un-
less when used with a chimney.

Considering the superior efficacy of the bat-wing, I was in-
duced to try a burner constructed on the same principle, but
so made as to consume a much smaller quantity of gas ; and I
have found this to answer well. I have had them made of
different sizes, but the chief object I had in view was to get
one which would consume the same, or nearly the same, as a
single jet. I did not, however, find, when this was done, that
there was any saving. When, for instance, the slit is small,
the flame is similar to that of a jet ; but, when the slit is
larger, then the flame becomes broader, and, though more gas
is consumed, there is an increase in light beyond the increased
consumpt.

Thus, with a burner having a small slit, when compared
with the standard jet, in one instance, the consumpt was 1
jet to 0.97 slit ; in another^ 1 to 1.07 ; but the light was the
same.

226 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating Power of
The slits were then enlarged a little, and the results were

Consiimpt,

1 to 1.76

'

Light, .

1 to 2.52

1.76 : 2.52 :

: 1 : 1.43— Gain 43.

With another burner,

Consumptj

1 to 1.66

Light, .

1 to 2.485

1.66:2.485: :

1 : 1.49— Gain 49.

In a third,

Consumpt,

1 to 1.66

Light, .

1 to 2.55

1.66 : 2.55 : : ^

L : 1.53— Gain 63.

In a fourth,

Consumpt,

1 to 1.46

Light, .

1 to 2.278

And 1.46 : 2.278 :

: 1 : 1.56— Gain m.

In a fifth,

Consumpt,

1 to 1.57

Light,

1 to 2.5

1.57 : 2.5 : : 1

: 1.59— Gain 59.

So that, for equal consumpt of gas, there was a gain varying
from 40 to 60 per cent.

I consider a burner of this kind as extremely useful, where
no great degree of light is required. Not that I prefer it to
the large bat-wing, or even to the fish-tail, though it gives
more light than the latter for the same consumpt of gas ; but
for many purposes it may be found useful, as for street lamps,
instead of jets.

In making these remarks on the comparative illuminating
power of gas-burners, I wish it to be borne in mind, that it
has not been my object to fix them with numerical precision.
It must be evident, from what has been said, that the state-
ments given must be considered merely as general results^ for
we must always recollect that the light afforded depends not
only on the kind of burner, but, even with the same burner,
on extraneous circumstances ; as the height of flame, the free-
dom of the burner from carbonaceous deposit, the form of
chimney when argands are used, and many others.

It is not my intention at present to enter upon the practical
applications resulting from these experiments. I will refer to
them after detailing the experiments on the heating powers of

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ Sfc. 227

the gases. I may here merely remark, that, looking at the re-
sults of the trials now given, we may consider the argand as
by far the most economical way of consuming gas when illu-
mination is the only object in view ; besides, the appearance of
the burners naturally gives it a preference to others. As to
the kind of argand, that now in general use, with 24 holes
about one-fortieth of an inch, seems to answer the purpose
better than any other hitherto recommended, but the area of
the aperture must be increased or diminished a little according
to the illuminating power of the gas. Of course, much must
depend on the height of the flame and the kind of chimney.
For general purposes, the flame ought to be such, that the gas
will burn without smoke, and without the flame acquiring a
dingy hue. This will be found to be about three inches in
length. As to the chimney, it ought to be such as will supply
the air in due proportion, but not in excess, otherwise the gas is
not decomposed previous to its combustion, and consequently,
is burned unprofitably, but for particulars on these points, I
must refer to the paper by Christison and Turner.*

For other purposes, the bat- wing or the fish-tail ought
to be preferred, as where it is not convenient to use chim-
neys, as in shops and manufactories. As to the single jet
burner, it is evidently the most unprofitable way in which gas
is consumed. Where the light required is not great, instead
of the single jet, a burner with three apertures on a line and
near each other, ought to be employed, because with these to
get the same light as with a jet a smaller quantity of gas is
requisite.

II. — On the Comparative Heating Poioer of GaS'Burners.f
I have already mentioned that when gas is used for the
purpose of illumination, it is not merely necessary that it be

* Since the experiments related in this paper were performed, a paper
has been published in the last number of the Journal, by Sir John Robison,
giving the results of his trials with argands of different kinds. To this
communication, the reader is referred for valuable information on the con-
struction of burners, and on the comparati\'e amount of light afforded by
them. The general results will be found to agree with those above recorded.

t Read before the Society of Arts for Scotland, 13th May 1840.

223 Dr t'yfe on the Illuminating mid Heating Power of

perfectly consumed ; the supply of air must also bo properly
regulated, otherwise the gas does not undergo that degree of
decomposition which is necessary for the separation of the car-
bon from the hydrogen, by the combustion of the former of
which white light is produced. A question therefore natu-
rally arose at the outset of the investigation on the heating
power. Is this subject to the same law \ or, when the gas is
completely consumed, is the heat evolved the same, whether
there is or is not previous decomposition ? I conceived it ne-
cessary to establish this first, because if it were found that the
heating power is not subject to the same law, the subsequent
steps of the investigation would be much facilitated.

In the experiments on the heating power, the gas was mea-
sured by passing it through the same meter that was used for
the illuminating power. To ascertain the amount of heat
evolved, the method which most naturally occurred, was merely
to use the same quantity of water in the same vessel, always
at the same temperature, and to find the degree to which it
would be raised by the consumpt of equal quantities of gas.
This would not, of course, give the actual amount of heat, but
as the abject in view was merely to ascertain the comparative
heating power, it was considered sufficiently correct. The ap-
paratus which I used was merely a boiler, B, with its sides
extended farther down than the bot-
tom, and hollow, so as to form a ca-
vity A, into which the flame was
placed ; CO is a tube to carry off the
products of combustion. This was
preferred to a common pot or flask,
because the flame being in a great
measure surrounded by water, the
heat that would otherwise be lost by
radiation was absorbed ; besides, the
heated products were transmitted by
the tube 0 through the water, so as

to give off the greater part of their heat. In using this appa-
ratus, when the flame of the gas is placed too far up in the
cavity, owing to the products of combustion not being carried
off quickly, there is frequently a good deal of smoke ; it is nc-

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ 6sc.

229

cessary, therefore, to attend to this, so as to secure the com-
plete combustion of the gas, which is done by bringing the
burner a little lower. In the comparative trials, the same
quantity of water at the temperature 45, was put into the
boiler, which was always covered with a lid. Of course the
flame of the gas was at different distances from the bottom of
the boiler, according to the kind of burner used, and according
to the length of the flame.

The first experiments were made with jets, fish-tails, bat-
wings, and argands, burning under- most favourable circum-
stances for affording light. For equal consumpts of gas, the
experiments on the illuminating power have shewn, that, taking
the jet as the standard, and giving light as 100, the fish-tails
give light as 140, the batwings as about 160, and the argands
as about 180. In each experiment, a quarter of a gallon of
water at 45° was put into the boiler, and half a foot of gas was
consumed by each burner. The temperature of the room va-
ried from 58° to 62°.

Burners.

Time required.

Temp,

Degrees gained.

Jet,

30min.

140

95

Fish-tail,

13 ...

146

101

Bat-wing,

9 ...

142

97

Argand 10 holes,^ .

12 ...

142

97

... 24, . .

9 ...

142

97

... 42, . .

7 ...

144

99

The results of these experiments do not exactly coincide,
but as the flames of some of the burners were more within the
cavity of the boiler than others were, there may have been a
slight loss of heat by radiation. Supposing this to be the case,
it would appear that the heating power is not affected by the
same circumstance as the illuminating power ; that, in other
words, the heat afforded by different kinds of gas-burners is
not in proportion to the light they afford, but to the quantity
of gas they consume. Whether or not this was the case, was
to be proved by farther trials with the burners used in different
ways, so as to make them consume different quantities of gas
in the same time, or to require different times for the same con-
sumpt. In the following trials the gas used was half a foot.

230 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating Power of

Burners.

Flame.

Time.

Temp.

Gain.

1

Jets, . .
Fish-tail, .
Bat-wing, .
Argand, .

3 inches

half full

quarter full

1 inch

40 min.
40 ...
30 ...
16 ...

147
132
134
142

102
87
89
97

In the above, the results with the jet and argand nearly
agree with the former. Those with the fish-tail and bat-wing,
though they coincide with themselves, yet do not agree with
the others. In the two first, the whole of the gas was con-
sumed ; in the two others, there was occasionally a little smoke,
which may account for the deficiency.

The following trials were made with the 42~holed argand,
at various heights of flame, a quarter of a foot of gas being
used.

Flame.

Time.

Temp.

Gain.

3 inches, with chimney,

4 min.

100

55

1 inch, do.

12 ...

100

55

1 inch, none,

12 ...

100

65

\ inch, none.

15 ...

100

55

Just visible, none,

30 ...

90

45

All blue.

In all of these, with the exception of the last, the heat
evolved was exactly proportionate to the consumpt of gas.
In the last, we may account for the deficiency by the time re-
quired, in consequence of which part of the heat that the wa-
ter had gained must have been given off to the surrounding

an*.

From the experiments »that have been given, there can, I
think, be no doubt with regard to the conclusion to be drawn,
— that the heating power of the different kinds of burners now
in use, is just in proportion to the quantity of gas that they con-
sume, provided of course the combustion is perfect ; in other
words, it is of no consequence whether the gas is consumed
with previous decomposition so as to give much light, or with
a bluish flame aflbrding little light ; the heat is always the
same for equal consumpts. Experiments to be afterwards
mentioned, will still farther prove the truth of thii^. Allowing
that this is the case, it is evident that, when gas is used solely

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners, cjr. 231

for affording light, and when at the same time it is of conse-
quence to avoid as much as possible its heating effect, argands
ought to be employed, because, for equal consumpts, they give
much more light than other kinds of burners ; consequently,
to get the same light, a smaller quantity of gas is requisite,
and the heating effect will be proportionally less. On the
contrary, when, along with light, it is desirable also to have
as much heat as possible, then fish-tails should be used, be-
cause, to give the same light as the argands, a larger quantity
of gas must be consumed.

III. On the tise of Gas as a source of Heat

From what has been said, it appears that, for equal quanti-
ties of gas consumed by the different kinds of burners now in
use, the same amount of heat is evolved, and that, therefore,
it is of no consequence how the gas is burned, provided the
combustion is perfect ; but in using gas as a source of heat,
other methods have been recommended, and different means
have been resorted to for economizing it ; and from the due
application of which, we may be enabled to answer the im-
portant question, whether gas may be employed with economy
for this purpose ?

For many purposes, the argand burner with a copper chim-
ney will be found a very convenient method of applying heat.
It has, however, this objection, that, unless used with caution,
it is apt to smoke. The object to be warmed ought never to
be brought too near the top of the chimney.

For most purposes, a much more convenient form of burner
is the rose jet, which is merely a tube terminated by a hollow
flat top, of an inch or two inches in diameter, according to cir-
cumstances, and the sides of which are perforated with aper-
tures, at the distance of about a quarter of an inch from each
other. By this means we have a series of jets, burning nearly
horizontally, so that the flame may be spread out to a greater
or less extent, as it may be required. The only precaution
necessary, is to take care that the apertures are at such a dis-
tance from one another, that the flames shall not rush to-
gether when they are burned low, and by which smoke is
occasioned.

232 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating Power of

This burner I found by numerous trials, like those previous-
ly mentioned, gives heat just in proportion to the consumpt of
gas, whether burning with the flames large or small.

There is still another method of using gas as a source of
heat. It is that recommended by Sir John Robison, and de-
scribed in the paper alluded to. For this purpose, a piece of
fine wire-gauze is placed on a tube of about two or three inches
in diameter, and of about thirty inches in length. The tube,
open below, is put over the pipe from which the gas issues
which, as it escapes, mixes with the air in the tube, and pass-
ing along with it through the gauze, is then consumed, the air
for the combustion being supplied up through the tube.

From the results of the trials with the burners already
mentioned, there was every reason for believing, that the heat
afforded would be the same when the gas was consumed on
gauze, but as the general impression is the reverse, it was ne-
cessary to put it to the test of experiment.

In the different trials, I made use of gauze of various dia-
meters, on tubes of different lengths, and also consumed the
gas, sometimes with the flame barely visible in day light, at
other times with more or less admixture of white. The water
in the boiler, as before, was a quarter of a gallon, at tempera-
ture 45. With gauze of three inches diameter, on a tube of
twenty mches in length, the gas burning with a blue flame a
little way up in the cavity of the boiler, half a foot, in fifteen
minutes, water rose to 145.

In another trial, the flame on the gauze being larger, the
same quantity of water was raised to 151. In numerous other
trials, the temperature varied a little, the elevation ranging
from 145 to 150. The discordance in the results may be sa-
tisfactorily accounted for from the manner in which the flame
was placed. When large, it cannot be all within the cavity of
the boiler ; of course there is a considerable loss, and there is
also frequently an escape of part of the gas unconsumed, either
owing to its not being thoroughly mixed with air, or owing to
the products of combustion not being carried off with sufiicient
rapidity, by which the perfect combustion is prevented. Hence
the difficulty of getting accurate results when the gas is burn-
ed in this way. We may, however, from the experiments,

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners, S^c, 233

draw the conclusion that the heat evolved when the gas is con-
sumed on gauze, is the same as when it is burned in any other
way ; and, consequently, when used as a source of heat, it is,
generally speaking, of little consequence how it is consumed,
in so far as regards the heat evolved ; the evolution depending,
not on the manner in which the gas is burned, but on the
quantity^ provided of course that the combustion is complete ;
and it is of the utmost consequence to attend to this, for when
any of it escapes combustion, not only is there a loss of heat,
but there is also an offensive smell, more especially when gauze
is used.

With respect to the method of combustion to be preferred,
much must depend on the object to be heated. When it is
small, as a glass flask or a pot, and it is wished to heat it
quickly, I prefer the argand with a copper chimney ; for larger
objects, the rose jets or wire-gauze may be used. The former
of these may be of different sizes, according to circumstances,
but the apertures must always be at such a distance from each
other, that, when the gas is inflamed, the flames shall not run
together, so as to cause smoke. In using these burners, the
nearer the flames are to the object to be heated the better,
but they must not come in contact with it, because then there
is smoke. With regard to the gauze, air must be freely sup-
pHed from below, and the gauze ought not to be near the ob-
ject, otherwise the gas is not all consumed.

Though gas, when consumed by these means, gives out heat
in proportion to the consumption, much must depend on the
form of vessel employed, as, in one case, more of the heat may
be successfully applied than in another. When, for instance,
the burner, whether a common burner or gauze, is placed be-
low a common pot or a glass flask, much of the heat is lost by
radiation, and also by the current of warm air, which, though
striking the sides of the vessel, is carried off without having
time to communicate its heat to it. Hence, if we employ a
vessel so formed as to surround the flame, much of the heat
that would otherwise be lost is saved. Thus, when a 24-holed
argand was placed under a pot, with the chimney half an inch
from the bottom of the pot, by half a foot of gas consumed in
seven minutes, water was raised from 45 to 80, giving a gain

234 Dr Fyfe on (he Illuminating and Heating "Power of

of 35. When the same flame was put under the boiler already
described, the same quantity of water was raised to 110, giving
a gain of ^^. With other burners the results were similar,
the heat communicated to the boiler being nearly double o'f
that acquired by the common pot.

There is another circumstance of material consequence to be
attended to. When gas is burned, watery vapour is formed
by the union of the oxygen of the air with the hydrogen in the
gas. As long as this is kept warm by the products of com-
bustion, it is retained in the aeriform state, but if by any
means the products of combustion are cooled, then the watery
vapour is condensed, and gives forth its latent heat; and
hence the increased effect, when the boiler already described
was used, is not owing merely to the retention of the heat that
otherwise would have been lost by radiation, but also to the
products of combustion being so much cooled, as to cause the
condensation of part of the vapour generated. In using this
apparatus, the air from the tube passing through the water,
escaped at a temperature varying from 120 to 130, according
to the kind of burner and the quantity of gas used ; the more
rapidly the gas was burned, the higher was the temperature
of the air from the escape tube. It is evident then, that, even
in this way of applying the heat, much of it was lost ; and
hence it appeared, that, by transmitting this heated air and
steam also through the fluid, there would be a still farther in-
crease of temperature, provided the draught could be kept up,
so as to carry off the products of combustion.

To put this to the test, I had another vessel adapted to the
boiler ; it was merely a tin trough capable of holding half a
gallon, through which there was passed a tube that fitted on
to the escape tube of the boiler.

When the gas was consumed under the boiler in this way,
the boiler containing one gallon, and the other part of the ap-
paratus half a gallon, at 45, by the combustion of 1^ foot of
gas, the temperature of the water, when mixed, was 118. The
air, as it escaped from the tube, was 70, that of the atmo-
sphere of the room being 58. By adapting another vessel of
a similar nature to the preceding, and also containing half a
gallon of water, the temperature was still farther elevateds

different kinds of Coal-gas Burners^ <5rc. 235

Using in all 2 gallons of water, by 2 feet of gas, the tempera-
ture of the fluid when mixed was 122. The air, as it escaped
from the tube, was of the same temperature as that of the
room, shewing that the whole of the heat generated by the
combustion was taken in by the water, with the exception of
that lost by radiation downwards from the burner, which is
not great.

With respect to the heat thus lost, it must depend on the
mode of combustion. When the flame is small, it may be put
far up in the cavity of the boiler ; but when it is large, it must
be placed lower down, to admit of sufficient current, otherwise
there is smoke. The farther up in the cavity the better, pro-
vided there is no smoke ; but when a small flame is used,
owing to the time required, there is a loss of heat from the
boiler, so that the one, to a certain extent, counter-balances
the other. By having recourse to these contiivances, it is
evident that much of the heat that would otherwise escape
may be successfully applied ; at the same time, for common
purposes, these methods are not likely to be adopted, because
they make the apparatus complicated, and their use is attend-
ed with trouble. A boiler of the form I have already describ-
ed, may, however, be easily employed, and will answer most
of the purposes for which gas, as a source of heat, is likely to
be used. With this apparatus, I have found, taking the ave-
rage of numerous trials, that, by the combustion of 1 foot of
gas, 1 gallon of water may be raised from 50 to 105, or even be-
yond that, consequently 3 feet would bring it up to the boiling
point. To boil off^ the whole of the water would require 5J
times as much as is necessary to raise it from 32 to 212
and 3 X 5.5 = 16.5, which added to 3 = 19.5, but less than
this would be required, were the water at 50 instead of 32.
In one trial I found that 1 gallon might be boiled off" by 16.5
feet, and I consider this as the utmost that can be expected,
allowing for the loss always consequent on the use of gas by
any of the methods mentioned. Of course, in stating this as
the quantity to be evaporated, it applies solely to the gas with
which I operated.

From these data we are enabled to ascertain whether gas
is, or is not, an economical source of heat. Let us i^uppose that,

236 Dr Fyfe on the Illuminating and Heating Power of

on an average, 18 feet would be required to boil off 1 gallon,
i. e. 10 lb. of water. In this town 1000 feet cost 9s., 18 feet
would therefore cost 1.9 of a penny, say 2d.

It is generally allowed, that 1 lb. of coal, were the heat gene-
rated during its combustion all applied, would evaporate about
14 lb. of water, but this is never done in practice. It is con-
sidered as a good result when it evaporates from 6 to 8 lb.
Now, suppose a ton of coal to cost 128., 1 lb. will cost about
the fourth part of a farthing, so that a quantity of coal which
costs little more than a fourth of a farthing will evaporate as
much water as gas which cost 2d. Perhaps the same proportion
will be found to hold at other places, for where coal is dearer
gas is also more expensive. But though gas, as a source of
heat, is much more expensive than fuel, yet there are occasions
where it may be applied where the expense will not be found
to be very great ; indeed, in some instances not more than
would be requisite were coal used, besides having many advan-
tages. When it is required to warm water when there is no
fire at hand, a gallon may be boiled by the consumpt of about
3 feet of gas, at a cost, therefore, of little more than a farthing.

With regard to the use of gas for cooking, we are, of course,
enabled so far to judge of its expense. In the paper pub-
lished in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, and in
the Transactions of the Society, by Sir J. Robison, already
alluded to, it is proposed to burn the gas on gauze of from 3
to 4 inches in diameter ; the flame being larger or smaller ac-
cording to circumstances. Suppose a pot is used holding a
gallon of water, and it is wished to bring this to boil in half
an hour, and to keep it boiling, then the gauze will consume
6 feet per hour ; so that, for each hour the gas is in use, each
gauze-burner will cost a little more than a halfpenny, and we
may perhaps consider this as an average ; the gas being at the
rate of 9s. per 1000 feet. Suppose a larger consumpt of gas
required, then each burner would cost, say about Id. per hour ;
but this is, I believe, beyond what a burner of the kind men-
tioned is capable of consuming, without waste of gas from
smoke, or from part of it escaping without being burned. If
six of these burners are in use, say for three hours at a time,
then the expense would range from 9d. to Is. 6d. : say, on an

Different Kinds of Coal-gas Burners, SfC, 237

average, about Is. Of course, the expense will be much di-
minished, if, instead of keeping the gas burning all the time,
at the rate stated, the flame is reduced so as merely to keep
the object warm, after bringing it to the due degree.

Now, though this is no great expense, especially considering
the cleanliness and other advantages, yet, were it to be used
as the only source of heat for cooking, the expense would far
exceed that incurred by the use of coal. Where, therefore,
economy is an object, I fear that cooking by gas ought not to
be recommended ; but where convenience and cleanliness are
more desired than economy, then, certainly, gas may, for many
purposes, be employed, particularly as the expense, keeping in
view the quantity used, is by no means great. It has been sup-
posed by some, that, in addition to the expense, another ob-
jection against the use of gas for cooking, arises from the time
required. In a common pot, half a gallon of water can be
made to boil in from five to seven minutes, according to the
state of the fire ; whereas with gas, suppose the consumpt at
the rate of 3 feet per hour, it requires in the same vessel a
quarter of an hour ; the time being as about three to one.
But though there is a difference in the time required for boil-
ing water, there is not the same diff'erence with regard to the
cooking. When, for instance, potatoes with one-fourth of a
gallon of water, were placed in a pot on a fire, the water was
boiled in about five minutes, and in about thirty minutes more,
the potatoes were cooked. The same quantity of potatoes
and of water when put over a gas-burner, required a quarter of
an hour to boil the water, and the same additional time as be-
fore for the potatoes being ready. Though, -therefore, the
time required for boiling the water is greater, yet there is not
much diff'erence in the whole time ; in fact, it is just the ad-
ditional time necessary for causing the water to boil.

There is another application of gas as a source of heat,
which, so far as I know, has not yet been put in practice, but
which, I have every reason to believe, will be found beneficial.
I allude to heating water for a bath.

I have already mentioned, that, by the consumpt of a foot of
gas, one gallon of water may be raised from 50° to 100°, or a

VOL, XXIX, NO. LVIII.-— OCTOBER 1840. B

238 Dr Fyfe 07i the Illuminating and Heating Power of

few degrees above it. A slipper-bath holds in general from
25 to 30 gallons. Provided, therefore, the gas can be burned
in sufficient quantity, we have an easy method of heating the
water. In the trials which I have made, I have used a bath
into which were put 24 gallons of water at 50° ; beneath the
bath, and at a little distance from it, there was passed a tube
of about 2 inches diameter, having six rose-jet burners at-
tached to it. The gas was kindled, and in three-quarters of
an hour the whole of the water was brought to 100°. The
gas consumed was 17 feet, at a cost, therefore of nearly 2d.

I consider this as a much more easy, and altogether, a far
superior method to the heating of baths by burning a small
fire placed within the bath ; for in this case, there must be a
tube conveyed to a chimney to carry off the smoke, a part
of which, in spite of all our attention, often escapes into the
apartment ; besides, owing to the great heat immediately over
the fire, the water there becomes very warm, and gives off a
great deal of steam, which is not the case with the gas, the
heat being uniformly applied under the water. I do not mean
to recommend this as a method of heating baths for general
use ; but where a bath is required, as in a bedroom, I consider
it an easy and convenient means of procuring one. All that
is necessary is to attach a flexible tube to the pipe in the room,
and to take care that it is of such a size, that it will supply
gas to the extent of from 30 to 40 feet per hour, according as
the bath may be required. Six rose-jet burners with sixteen
holes each will be sufficient ; for each of these will burn about
8 feet per hour. I believe the rose-jets will be found more
convenient than gauze, because the gauze requires to be placed
on tubes, which would require the bath to be raised to an in-
convenient height.

I may mention that, instead of the common bath, I had one
constructed with a tube passing through the water, and through
which the products of combustion passed, but I did not find
much advantage from its use. I would, however, recommend
that, instead of having a flat bottom, as is usual, the sides of
the bath be extended downwards, and made to contain water,
so as to prevent loss of heat by radiation, I am aware that

different kinds of Coal-gat Burners^ ^c. 239

some may object to the use of gas in a bed-room, owing to
the production of carbonic acid ; but their fears on this ac-
count are groundless. Suppose that 40 feet of gas are con-
sumed, and that the whole of the products of combustion
escape into the apartment, these will, on an average, yield less
than their own bulk of carbonic acid gas, which, when diluted
with the air of the apartment, is too small to have any inju-
rious effect on the system.

From what has been said, we are enabled also to ascertain
the comparative expense of the method some time ago pro-
posed, of heating apartments, such as churches, manufactories,
&c. by gas. This was done by burning the gas as it escaped
from a number of small apertures in a circular tube, which
was surrounded by a large box of sheet-iron, from which the
heated air was conveyed by tubes through the apartment.

It has been already stated, that a pound of coal will eva-
porate about 14 lb. of water, were the whole heat taken up by
the water. But this is never done.

Let us suppose that, in heating a large apartment by a
stove throwing in hot air, only one-half of the heat generated
by the combustion of coal is available, that is, that as much
heat is available as would evaporate only about 7 lb. of water
for the pound of coal ; then, to produce the same heat by gas,
as before stated, the comparative cost of the coal and of the
gas would be as one-fourth of a farthing and 2d., that is, in
the ratio of 1 to 82.

It is evident from this that gas, as a means of warming
apartments, is by far too expensive to allow it to come into
use.

That I am correct in what I say, is proved by the results of
experiments in which I have been lately engaged in heating
apartments by stoves.

In one trial, I found that several large apartments were kept,
during winter, at the temperature of about 60°, during twelve
hours each day, by the daily consumpt of half a cwt. of coal.
Suppose this cost 10s. per ton, then the daily expense is only 3d.
But small coal, at from 58. to Gs. per ton, may be used for this
purpose, which would still farther dimmish the expease. The

240 Dr Fyfe on the Bluminating a?id Heating Power of

cubic area of the apartments alluded to was in all 36,780 feet ;
now, for 3d. only about 25 feet of gas is purchased, the heat
from which would not be more than sufficient to boil off IJ
gallons of water.

Before concluding, I have one observation to make in refe-
rence to the heat evolved by coal and by coal-gas, irrespective
of the economy.

I have already stated, that it is generally allowed that 1 lb.
of coal will evaporate about 14 lb. of water, supposing all
the heat evolved were applied. From the experiments of
Despretz, it is concluded that, by the combustion of 1 lb. of
pure carbon, 12.3 lb. of water will be evaporated. The supe-
rior evaporative power of coal must therefore be owing to the
bituminous matter which it contains, which bitumen is the
source of the gaseous matter evolved when the coal is heated ;
hence the necessity, when using coal as fuel, of so burning it,
that the whole of the gaseous matter evolved during the
heating of the coal shall be consumed ; for, when any of it
escapes combustion, the loss is considerable. I have already
mentioned, that 1 gal. water may be boiled off by the con-
sumpt of about from 17 to 20, say, on an average, 18 feet of
gas. The quantity of gas which coal affords varies much ac-
cording to its quality. Of course, the quantity of coke or
carbon which coal will leave after being deprived of its gaseous
ingredients, must also vary. It is generally allowed that 1 lb. of
coal will, on an average, yield about 5 feet of gas, which, at the
rate above stated, will evaporate rather more than one-fourth
of a gallon, that is 2J lb. ; but, in addition to the gas which is
collected by the decomposition of coal, a large quantity of tar
and volatile oil is set free, all of which also give forth much
heat during their combustion ; and hence it is, that the more
perfect the combustion of the coal, the greater is its evapora-
tive power ; for, while the whole of the coke, which is a fixed
principle, is always consumed, with the exception of the cinder,
yet more or less of the volatile and gaseous matter may escape,
and as these generate a great deal of heat during their com-
bustion, the loss becomes great when much of them is allowed
to fly off unburnt.

( 241 )

Beryl Mine of Paddioor^ and Geognostic Position of this Gem,
in Coimhatoor^ Southern India. By Lieutenant Newbold,
Madras Army, A. D. C. to Brigadier-General Wilson, C. B.
Communicated by the Author.

The Beryl mine of Paddioor, or Patialey as it is sometimes
termed, is situated at the eastern extremity of a village of the
same name, in the Kanghyum Taluk, in the Coimbatoor CoUec-
torate, about forty miles E.N.E. from the town of Coimbatoor,
which lies in Lat. 11° N., and Long. 77° V E. The surrounding
country is an undulating plain, studded with a few short clusters
of hills, principally of gneiss and quartz rock. The surface of the
plain is intersected by a few ravines and rivulets, flowing to-
wards the Noel river, which, rising in the Nilgherry Chain, pur-
sues an easterly course to the Canvery. The latter river flows
through the midst of this great plain, which is bounded by the
Nilgherries to the west, and the Shevaroy and Salem Moun-
tains to the east. All these ranges consist of normal rocks, prin-
cipally gneiss, hornblende-slate, and mica-slate, associated with
granite, greenstone, and basalt in dykes. The rocks that occur
in the plain are of a similar description, with beds of quartz
distinctly stratified, sometimes highly ferruginous, and passing
into garnet rock. Garnets, regularly crystallized, often occur
in the gneiss and hornblende slate. Primitive crystalline
limestone and a talcose rock occur, though rarely, interstrati-
fied with the gneiss and hornblende slate. A remarkable fea-
ture is the prevalence of basaltic dykes, accompanied by large
travertine and tufa-like deposits of carbonate of lime. The
influence exerted by these dykes over crystalline and metalli-
ferous developments in these districts is interesting and instruc-
tive. Dykes, or veins, of a porphyritic granite too, traverse
the gneiss in various directions. The larger veins are gene-
rally from W. to E., varying a few degrees to the S. of E. The
metallic ores and minerals found associated with these rocks
are chiefly the magnetic or black iron ore, disseminated and
interstratified with quartz rock in a state of great purity. It
sometimes occurs in octahedral crystals, with a whitish mica-
ceous looking endail. Both varieties are often highly magnetic

242 Lieut. Newbold on the Beryl Mine of Paddioor.

with polarity. Manganese also occurs in the form of the black
oxide ; also garnets, corundum, magnesite, nephrite, asbestus,
chromate of iron, adularia, pyrites, &c. Rubies have been found
associated with the corundum which occurs imbedded in gneiss.
I am not aware that the other beautiful variety of rhomboidal
corundum, viz. the sapphire, has ever been discovered ; but,
from certain indications, I should be led to suppose its exist-
ence. Gold-dust is found in many of the rivulets flowing down
the sides of the Nilgherry and Salem Mountains.

I will now proceed to describe the bed, and minerals with
which the Beryl is more immediately associated in the parti-
cular locality which has already been adverted to, viz. Paddioor.
The mine has been sunk through a bed or dyke in the gneiss
and mica-slate on the line of contact ; it is about eighteen
paces long, by fourteen broad ; it has about seven feet of water
covering the lower part, and is about twenty-four deep to the
surface of the water. The dyke is composed of a highly crys-
talline porphyritic granite, the component minerals of which
are generally beautifully characteristic and distinct. The quartz
is sometimes regularly crystallized, but usually in amorphous
translucent masses, imbedded in large tabular crystals of pale
rose-coloured felspar, with cleavlandite, garnet, and white,
black, and bottle-green mica. A crystallized pyramidal prism
of quartz that had been dug out of this mine measured 2 feet
3^ inches in length, and 1 foot 3 inches in diameter ; it had,
however, been fractured, and four only of the sides were tole-
rably perfect. The mica occurred both in six-sided tables and
in large irregularly-shaped nests, one of which measured 2 feet
in length ; the laminae highly elastic and transparent. A few
of the garnets were crystallized in dodecahedrons, sparingly
disseminated in the rock ; one of these crystals measured 2
inches in diameter. The crystals of cleavlandite were remark-
ably fine, and characteristic of this beautiful variety of felspar.
The various minerals composing this bed pass from the por-
phyritic structure into a curiously fibrous arrangement : the
quartz, felspar, and cleavlandite occurring in alternate prisma-
tic lamina? ; sections of this rock, at right angles with the long
axis of the prisms, exhibit on their surfaces the appearance of
graphic granite. Where this arrangement is observed, the
mica is partially and irregularly distributed in thin pyramidal

Lieut. Newbold on the Beryl Mine of Paddioor. 243

nests, rarely in direction with the laminae of the rock. The
quartz and felspar, where they meet with a large nest of mica,
usually lose their laminar structure, becoming confused and
lumpy. The felspar and cleavlandite is both white and trans-
lucent, and opaque and reddish ; the latter is often crossed by
microscopic fissures, inclined at a great angle to the axis of the
prism. Ghunpore, in the Nizam's dominions, is the only other
locality in India where I have met with this fibrous rock ; it
was there also associated with gneiss and granite. The cleav-
landite often occur in large masses, with small cavities partly
formed by the decomposition of the rock, and partly by the
intersection of the longer and more distinct crystals of the
cleavlandite ; it is in this gangue, and in these cavities, that
the Beryl, or aquamarine, is almost invariably found, in long
deeply striated hexahedral prisms, with small crystals of quartz.
The whole of the rock, composing the dyke, is divided by
seams, almost horizontal, intersected by fissures, thus dividing it
into cuboidal masses. Many of the seams are filled by a whitish
earthy incrustation of carbonate of lime, that has a tendency
to collect in nodules. The larger calcareous veins attenuate
as they ascend in the rock, and appear to have penetrated it
from below, rather than to have been deposited from above.
On reaching the surface, which it often overspreads, in beds
of great extent, underlying the present soil, it assumes a closer
texture, with a nodular or pisiform surface, the interior having
a spheroidal structure, not unfrequently assimilating that of
the travertine of San FiUppo. It has been deposited, no doubt,
by springs of water ascending through the subjacent strata,
charged with carbonic acid, and holding lime in solution.

Small springs are still observed percolating upwards through
the fissures of the rock ; and, as they trickle over its surface,
depositing a thin black crust composed of carbon, a little iron,
calcareous and saline matter ; the latter contained both the
muriate and sulphate of soda; which salts, and nitrate of
potass, exist abundantly in the soil of the adjacent district.
The water at the bottom of the mine is sufficiently pure for
irrigation and the purposes of life.

There are marks of other excavations in this vicinity, and
in the same bed. The natives, however, assert their perfect

244 Lieut. Newbold on (he Beryl Mine of Paddioor.

ignorance of their use. Judging from the high barren situation
in which I found them, these excavations could hardly have
been made for wells. Blocks of the cleavlandite, which forms
the matrix of the gem, had been thrown out, and evidently
broken up in search of what it might be supposed to contain.
The excavations were shallow, but extensive, and the quan-
tity of the broken up gangue very large ; it (the cleavlandite)
can be traced in the rocks in the vicinity to an extent, east
and west, of about thirty-eight miles ; and it is likely that, in
ancient times, antecedent to Mahomedan conquest, when rights
to landed property were more secure, the gem was obtained
in abundance. Now, the surface veins appear to be completely
exhausted in all the excavations I examined ; but it is proba-
ble, from the inquiries I made, that it is still secretly procured
by natives from certain localities in this district, as it still
forms an article of traffic in Indian bazaars. It has been
thought, with some reason, that the largest crystallized Beryl
ever known, weighing six ounces, and costing L.500, and
which was supposed to have been brought to Europe from
Ceylon, was the produce of the Beryl mines of Coimbatoor,
as neither Davy, nor any of the authors conversant with the
mineralogy of Ceylon, mention its existence on that island. It
has been stated positively that it does not occur there.

To Mr Heath the merit is due of having first brought these
mines under the notice of government. Mr Fisher, the enterpri-
sing land-proprietor of Salem, informed me that the gem was
first discovered by the diggers of a well on the estate of the
village Potail, who sold them secretly to the itinerant jewellers
and chittys, who purchased them in large quantities for a mere
trifle, and sold them at an immense profit at Madras, Pondi-
cherry, and other European settlements. This, coming to Mr
Heath's knowledge, afibrded a clue by which he was enabled
to trace the beryl to its situs. He lost no time in obtaining
the conditional consent of government, and arranging with
the native owner of the land. Mining operations were carried
on for about two years, and were discontinued in consequence
of the mines being exhausted, and the expense of draining off
the water. It has now (1840) reverted to its original purpose
of irrigation, and is still the property of the Potail who origi-

Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers. 245

nally caused it to be dug. This venerable old Hindoo, Chin-
nana Gouda, whose hair and beard are blanched by age, paid
me a visit at the mine. He informed me that it is upwards of
forty years ago since he dug it ; and that„ until Mr Heath's
discovery, about twenty-two years ago, he had not the slightest
idea of the treasures contained in his own well, and of which
he had been robbed for eighteen years by the people he em-
ployed.

In India, the beryl appears to be almost confined to this par-
ticular district. The natives, however, inform me that it oc-
curs at Vaniambadi, at the northern base of the Nilgherries, in
rocks of a similar age and petrographical character. In Europe
it occurs also in the primitive rocks — in the granite and gneiss
formations.

On the Construction of Circular Towers. By Edward Sang,
Esq., Civil-Engineer, Edinburgh, M. S. A. Communicated
by the Society of Arts.*

Some years ago I submitted to the Society of Arts an essay
on the construction of Oblique Arches, in which the complete
theory of cylindroid arches was developed, and the applica-
tion of that general theory to some particular cases was given.
From that inquiry, there resulted several beautiful general
propositions concerning the voussoirs of which arches are to
be built; in particular, it was found that in a properly con-
structed arch, where the bed of the stone is proportioned to
the strain which it has to bear, the cross sections of the arch
stones are all equivalent to each other.

The investigation of the oblique arch is only one case of
the general theory of Vaults ; and I would have devoted this
paper to that general theory, had I not felt that an abstract
generality is best appreciated after a few of its special cases
have been examined. In the present paper it is, therefore^
proposed to examine another practically important case of
vault, namely, that which occurs in building a circular signal
tower.

* Reatl before the Society of Arts for Scotland 15th April 1840.

246 Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers,

Before proceeding to analyze the proper mode of construc-
tion, it may be useful to view the defects of the forms hitherto
adopted ; the utility of the inquiry will be seen, when it is
shewn that the common construction introduces into the build-
ing one element of self decay.

All the building materials with which we are acquainted
consist of granular particles united by a cement, or of crystals
closely impacted among each other. The formation of sand-
stone, and the composition of granite, serve well to exemplify
the two classes.

The grains of quartz, of which sandstone is composed, may
be regarded as possessing absolute strength, provided their
lateral spreading be resisted ; thus, if a quantity of sand be
put in the bottom of a cylinder, and if a piston be brought
down upon it, no conceivable pressure will, so long as the
bounding cylinder remains, destroy the particles of sand. Ima-
gine these grains to have been deposited from a gently agi-
tated fluid, and it will appear that each successive particle
seeks a position the most conformable with the contiguous
ones, so as to give nearly the greatest possible compactness
to the whole. After this deposition has taken place, other
matters is gradually accumulated above, until the body of sand
be subjected to an intense pressure. In this state of things
a slow infiltration of water, containing calcareous or siliceous
matter, goes on, and there is gradually formed around the
grains of sand, and between their contiguous surfaces, a calc
or silico-sinter, acting like glue in inducing a cohesion pre-
viously awanting.

A slight attention to the circumstances under which this for-
mation takes place, shews that while the cement is formed under
the hydrostatic pressure due to the depth of the waters, the
sand particles, around which it is placed, are subjected to that
pressure, and also to the weight of the superincumbent solid
material.

What, then, will be the consequence of removing the sand-
stone from the position in which it was originally formed ?

So soon as the hydrostatic pressure is removed, both the
grains and the cement will expand, the expansion being pro-

Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers. 247

portional to the height of the hydrostatic column, and to the
compressibility of the substance.

When the cement is of the same nature with the grains,
both expand alike ; and hence the mutual action of the parts
is not affected ; but when the cement is of a different nature
from the grains, the removal of the hydrostatic pressure will
occasion one of two classes of effects. If the cement be
more compressible than the grains, it will expand more, and
separate them somewhat from each other ; the aggregate will
possess all the cohesive power of the cement. If, on the other
hand, the cement be less compressible than the grains, the
superior expansiveness of these will, on the removal of the
hydrostatic pressure, distend the cement, and the cohesiveness
of the mass will be diminished. The sandstone having been
dried, let the weight of the superior strata be removed ; the
cement was not subjected to any strain on account of that
weight, it will not expand ; but the grains which supported
the whole of this weight will expand vertically, and will thus
distend the cement, and diminish its cohesion.

In all cases, then, the cohesion across the strata, of a stra-
tified rock, must be diminished by the simple removal of it
from its site, while, in some cases, the cohesion in the direc-
tion of the strata is also diminished by the mere drying of
the rocks.

The accuracy of these inferences is well established by
many familiar examples, among which the spontaneous crum-
bling of various shales is conspicuous. It is to be regretted
that we have as yet no accurate experiments on the compressi-
bilities of mineral substances, otherwise the comparative cohe-
sive strengths of various species of stratified rock might be to
some extent inferred.

It thus follows, generally, that stratified rocks are capable
of but slender resistance to distension ; besides, having but a
limited range of stretching, they can resist but a very slight
blow, — a circumstance which our stone-masons ai-e in daily
habit of rendering available, and of which the more conspi-
cuous phases are illustrated in the freestone and the slate
quarries.

The formation of igneous or massive rocks is less intelli-

248 Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers,

gible ; their strengths must necessarily have reference to the
material of which they are formed, to the relative thermal
expansions of their component parts, and to the compressibi-
lity and distensibility of these. When in a state of fusion all
the parts of such rocks are subjected to a hydrostatic pressure,
so that we may expect less difference of cohesive strengths in
various directions than is exhibited in stratified rocks.

In general, then, we arrive at this conclusion, that stones
are less able to bear distensions than compressions ; that it is
nearly indifferent in what direction stones from massive rocks
may be placed, but that stones from strata ought always to be
so placed that the greatest pressure to which they are subject-
ed may be perpendicular to the plane of stratification.

Keeping these principles in view, let us examine the ordi-
nary construction of signal towers.

These towers are built in horizontal courses, gradually
spreading out at the base to resist the greater strain ; now
here it is apparent that the weight of the central part of the
tower must be sustained only by the foundation immediately
under it, unless the projecting stones be bent downwards at
their inner ends, so as to cause their outer extremities to bear
some part of the load placed on them. It is in this way alone
that the weight of the structure can be distributed over the
extended foundation when the courses are horizontal. The
ordinary mode of constructing such towers thus call into
action that species of strain which stones are least of all ca-
pable of resisting ; the inequalities in the mechanical states of
the integrant parts has leave to act, and the necessary conse-
quence must be a shortening of the duration of the building.
When such towers are subjected to the action of the waves,
the outer stones, which resist the first and heaviest blows, are
much less securely fastened than otherwise they might be,
and thus another imperfection makes its appearance.

The inefficiency of the horizontal courses in preventing
dislocation by heavy seas is so obvious, as to have given rise
to the introduction of dovetails and dowalls, for the purpose
of locking the stones of one course, and also the different
courses together. The formation of dovetails occasions a great
waste of material, is expensive in workmanship, and, after all,

Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers. 249

depends for its efficacy on the worst quality of stone, and on
that quality exhibited in its worst form. The dovetail has,
in fact, the advantage of a wedge, and tends to break over a
piece of stone at its narrow part ; nor does the dowall appear
under a more promising aspect. I question whether the re-
sistance to dislocation obtained in this way, be comparable
with that which results from the friction of one stone upon
another under an enormous pressure, assisted as that friction
must be by the consolidation of good mortar.

The greatest strength and maximum stability of a structure
are obtained when the parts are so formed as that a perfect
equilibrium would exist although there were no friction be-
tween the contiguous surfaces. The friction and the cohe-
sion of the mortar are then over and above what is needed
for stability ; whereas, by any other arrangement, part of the
latter elements must go to give mere stability, the remaining
part only serving to resist extraneous influences.

On the supposition that the whole of the weight is equably
distributed over each horizontal section, the form of a tower
of solid masonry, which shall have each portion equally press-
ed on, has long been known to be that of a logarithmic conoid.
But it cannot at once be inferred, that the same form will
hold when the internal structure of the parts is taken into
account. The same form was given by Professor Robison as
that required for a suspended rod, and lately Professor Forbes
has again proposed it for the shape of Gothic pendants, for-
getting, it would appear, that such pendants do not hang by
the cohesion of the stones, but that they are built upon an
internal rod.

The form which would result as the correct one for a solid
tower may not be applicable to the situation and purposes of
the building. There is no need for restricting ourselves to
this or to any other particular form, since, the form being
given, we may set ourselves to inquire what ought to be the
mode of construction.

By way of lemma, I shall first consider the law of strain
among the parts of a curved wall, regarded as very thin.

Let CDEF be the end view of a curved wall ; then, in or-
der that the pressures may be transmitted along the line

250 Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers.

CDEF, it is requisite that the joints
of the stones be perpendicular to that
curve : let GHIK represent one of
these stones. The upper surface GH
is subjected to a pressure in the di-
rection of the tangent to the curve at
the point D ; the under surface KI to
a pressure upwards in the direction
of the curve at the point E. Put p
for the pressure 2A,D\ p-\ dp for that
at E ; put also i for the inclination
of GH, i+di for that of KI to the
horizon.

The pressure on GH may be de-
composed into two, one vertically
downwards, represented by p cos i,
and one horizontally towards the concavity of the curve p
sin i. Again, the pressure on KI is decomposed into

(p + dp) cos {i-\-di)=p cos i-\-dp cos i—pdi sin i
vertically upwards, and

(jt? + dp) sin (i + di) ~p sin / + dp sin i-\-p di cos i
horizontally from the concavity. Let dw be the weight of the
stone ; then we have, as the sums of all the actions hitherto
considered,

dw — dp cos i+pdi sin i upwards,
dp sin i+pdi cos i horizontally

from the concavity.

It thus appears that there cannot be an equilibrium from
these three sources, unless i and di be each zero ; that is, un-
less the wall be vertical throughout. In all cases, either of
inclined or of curved walls, there must be some means of sup-
plying a pressure from the convex side.

There are three ways in which this pressure may be ob-
tained : two of them relating to a cylindrical wall, such as we
have been considering ; and one to a wall curved in two di-
rections.

In the first place, we may conceive the end^GK of the stone
to be dressed vertically, and to abut against some firm ob-

Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers. 261

stacle, capable of resisting a horizontal thrust. Let that ho-
rizontal thrust be dh\ then have we,

</«? — <//? cose +j»c?i sin « = 0 . . (A.)

dh^dp smi—pdi cosi—0 . . (B.)

or, dw = d {p cos i) (A.)

dh = d (p sin i) (B.)

whence, integrating,

TV sec i=p (C.)

h=p sin i=w i2in I (D.)

conclusions which might easily have been obtained without
the assistance of the integral calculus.

In the second place, the stone GHIK may be supposed to
abut upon an inclined surface ; that is, the wall CDEF may
be supposed to be laid into a site ready prepared for it. The
retaining pressure is now not horizontal, but inclined to the
horizon at the angle i-\-^di. Let that pressure be dq \ then,
decomposed in the vertical direction upwards, it is dq . sin /;
and in a horizontal direction outwards, it is dq cos i : hence
the equations of equilibrium now are,

dw = dq sin i+d (p cos 0 . . . (E.)
0 =dq cos i-\- d (p sin i) . . . (F.)

equations which are no longer integrable without a knowledge
of the nature of the curved surface, and of the law according
to which the thickness of the wall varies.

As the theory in which 1 am at present engaged is essen-
tially that of retaining-walls, I may be allowed to pass be-
yond the lemmatic limits, and to exhibit the actual adaptation
of the strength to the strain.

In the first case, when the retaining pressures are horizon-
tal, the investigation presents little or no difficulty. If t be
put for the thickness of the wall, and / for the length of the
curve, tdl will be proportional to the weight of the stone :
indeed, if we take one cubic foot of the stone as the unit of
weight, and consider only a length of one foot of wall, td!
will tiike the place of dw in equations (A.) and (B.).

Hence we have, supposing ju to be proportional to t, that is,
p + nr.

252 Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers.

^= - sec / ; or, dw=z- wdl sec i ;
n n

hence niv — l dw = dl sec /, and thus n . Nap. log w= Idl sec /.

On the other hand, when the retaining pressure is perpen-
dicular to the surface of the wall, equations (E.) and (F.) be-
come

tdl—dq sin i^rnd {t cos 0 . . (G,)
0 =c?y cos/+w^ (/ sinO . . (H.)
by help of which equations the laws of thicknessing in any
particular case may be discovered.

To return now to our origi-
nal subject, that of circular hol-
low towers : — ^let AB be the
axis of the tower CDEF, the
outline of the thin wall which
forms it; D5sE one of the
stones having its beds D 5 and
E g perpendicular to the curve
of the wall. Since the tower
is supposed to consist of a mere
shell, there is no substance to
oppose a resistance on the sur-
face DE : yet, without some out-
ward pressure, the building *"r"
cannot possibly be stable ; how |

is that resistance to be obtain- |

ed?

The tower being conoid, the |

stone may be conceived to be bI
included between two vertical planes passing along the axis
AB, and inclined to each other by some angle 3a. The stone
will thus be wedge-shaped, and the pressure on its ends, one
of which is D^sE, will prevent it'from advancing to de.

In the case of the straight wall, we considered the action
of a portion of it one foot long, that is, included between two
parallel vertical planes one foot apart ; but in the case of a
circular tower, we cannot have recourse to the same expe-
dient, and must take, instead, a portion included between two

Mr iSang on the Construction of Circular Towers. 263

vertical planes passing through the axis AB, and inclined at
some small angle a. It is quite obvious, that the weights of
the parts under, consideration will be proportional to a, and
that, on this account, a must enter as a multiplier.

Putting r for the radius c?D, the area of the upper bed of
the stone must be rat; and if n be the pressure on each
square foot of that area, nrat must take the place of p in our
former investigation, while ratdl takes place of dw.

The tower being hollow, there is no substance to resist di-
rectly the advance of the stone towards de : that resistance is
afforded by the pressures against the ends of the stone, or, so
to speak, against the two bounding vertical planes. Put <r for
the end strain, and each square foot of D hi E, and the whole
end strain will be atdl, which, acting at an inclination a, is
decomposed into atdl sin a, in the direction dT> ; this ex-
pression atdl sin a, or, on account of the smallness of a,
6tdla takes the place of dh ; and we thus have

w = I artdl = nart co^i .... (I.)

A = / <r/fl?/ = nart^mi .... (K.)

observing that ar^ = — -, we find
dl

drv . ^ .

w — n-— cos «, or (L.)

dl sec i = n — (M.)

w

as before, so that if the structure be equilibrated, that is, if n
be constant, we must have as before

n nep log w — I dl sec i ;

but the thickness no longer follows the same law, for the re-
sisting surface, being extended in proportion to the radius r,
as well as to the thickness t, rt takes now the position which
t alone formerly occupied. To fix this point more firmly in
the mind, I may remark, that, in the case of a circular tower,
the thickness does not necessarily increase with the depth,

VOL, XXIX. NO. LYIII.— OCTOBER 1840, B

254 Mr Sang oh the Construction of Circular Towers.

since the augmentation of the resisting surface, from the

gi'eater spread of the circle, may be sufficient to compensate

for the increased strain.

In the circular tower, there is a new element, the strain c

on each square foot of the end of the stone. Observing

that, in the equation (K.) a is constant, we find

iftdl= d(nrt sin i) (N.)

whence, it is evident, that in an equilibrated tower,

d (r t sin i)
<rdl = n — ^i ^, or

(fdl = {sin i dr + r cos i di -I- - sin idt]

(O.)

so that the strain a must increase with the radius of the tower,
the outline of the wall remaining the same ; and thus the end
strain upon the stones of a curved wall is greater with the
greater radius of curvature. In practice, it is important to
provide that the end tension c do not exceed the bed tension
n : were it to do so, the stones would need to be set up edge-
ways.

Having now given the general theory of circular towers
formed of a single shell, I may now proceed to apply that
theory to a few special cases.

Hollow Conical Tower.

In this case we have i constant,

and counting t = AD from the

apex of the cone, we have ;• = /

sin i, and thus in the equilibrated

building,

n . nep log w = I sec i + c, or

, sec i , Ic

nep log w = I + '- and

n n

thus

c + seci7

= e

where the arbitrary constant c
must be determined in reference
to some starting point of the sys-

Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers, 265
tern. The equation may be put in the form

c sec i . I
rv-^''. e ^

and on making / zero, that is, on taking the state of matters
at the apex of the cone,

c

{w) = ^

and thus it appears, that, even at the apex of the cone, there
must be some extraneous weight. Substituting, we have,

sec i . I

w ~ iw) e "
sec i

or, if we put e '* = E,

and thus it appears, that the weights above two given points
D and E have their ratio measured by the intervening dis-
tance DE.

Having ascertained the entire weight piled above a given
point D, we can proceed to inquire how the thickness of the
wall is to be regulated so that this arrangement may be
brought about.

Differentiating, we have,

- . V sec i •j^ ,, .

dro = (fv) E dl;

^ n

but dw = r,2crtdlf taking the weight for the whole circuit
of the building, and hence

(w) E = livrt = 2'!rtl sin 2,

^ n

(w) f!

or, t = -- V^. -y
nsui2t I '

A glance at the above value will shew that the thickness /
has a minimum value. We have in fact

ftsm2» /«

256 Mr Sang on the Construction of Circular Towers,

w sin 2 2 P

and hence / is a minimum when

, sec i 1 1 ,

/ = 1, or when I =.n qosi',

* n

now, it is to be observed, that n is the height of a column of

stone sufficient to produce the actual strain upon any part of

the bed, and thus, having laid off this distance w = A w, and

drawn the perpendicular wN to AF, N is the point at which

the thickness of the wall is the least.

2. Logarithmic Conoid.
Let (Fig. p. 252.) CDEF be a logarithmic curve, having

AB for its axis, then putting Ac? = ^r, r = (r) Z*'^, (r) being
the radius at the top, and m some arbitrary constant. We
have now, equation (M.),

n . nep log w = fdl-z-

dz

now, here, dr — (r) me^^ dz

— rmdz;
whence, d?^ = ?^m^ dz*, and

fl?/* = (r^rn^ + 1) dz*; whence

n . nep log w = / dz (r* m^ + 1)

=fdz{(rye^'^' + 1)
, va 1 2mz

r^

■/:

Putting z — 0,w = (w), we have
n . n(
whence subtracting,

n . nep log (w) = 0 + ^ + c;
si tn

={1

+ )J-(2me
2m ^

-(1

+ (rye'""')dz

= (1

+ r*)dz;

Mr Sang oti the Construction of Circular Towers, 257

, w r'-irY

n . nep log -— = « + — —^ —

(rY / 2mz ^ \ .
= ^ + ^(^ -1)'

2m ^ '

hence the logarithm of the ratio of the weight at D to the
weight at C consists of two parts, one proportional to the
depth A d, the other proportional to the excess of the area of
the horizontal section at D above the area of the horizontal
section at C.

Differentiating the above equation, we have

dw f , (rY /o 2w^x ) -
w V 2m ^ ' i

whence

1 [z + llziWl
d?v = (^w)e'^ ^"^ ^ (1 + 7^)dz',

so that, taking the weight all round, we have dw^2 icrtdl—
2ncrt^{r^m^ + 1) . </.-, or

3. Parabolic Towers.
In the first place, I shall consider the case of a conoid
formed by causing a parabola to revolve upon its axis ; the
tower will then present a convex appearance.
In this case, we have

2fr = -s', or
2fdr — zdz

whence

n nep log w =J ^ 1 + ^ j dz

258 Mr Sang <>n the Construction of Circular Towers,

1 -^

Here we observe at once that

n nep log (w) = c ; whence,

^neplog-r-r = ^ +

Now, taking the weight all round,

dw = 2'!e^ tdl\ while, from the above equation,

71) — e ^ -^

dw

n

i(:.^.) ..<",$-.),..

and dl=^ oJ''^ ^^

dw — -^ jJ^ ~ dz ; so that

-0

^=

vz

JJl^^P + ^'^

irz'^ (w)
This expression gives the thickness infinite at the summit.

Of the Belation of Tradition to Talcetiology. By the Rev.
William Whewell, B. D.*

1. Importance of Tradition. — 'Since the Palaetiological
Sciences have it for their business to study the train of past
events produced by natural causes down to the present time,
the knowledge concerning such events which is supplied by the
remembrance and records of man, in whatever form, must havo

* From Professor Whewell's valuable work, entitled, " The Philosophy of
the Inductive Sciences founded upon their History." 1840. Vol. 2.

Of the 'Relation of Tradition to Talcetiology 259

an important bearing upon these sciences. All changes in the
condition and extent of land and sea, which have taken place
within man's observation, all effects of deluges, sea- waves,
rivers, springs, volcanos, earthquakes, and the like, which come
within the reach of human history, have a strong interest for
the palgetiologist. Nor is he less concerned in all recorded
instances of the modification of the forms and habits of plants
and animals, by the operations of man, or by transfer from one
land to another. And when we come to the Palaitiology of
Language, of Art, of Civilization, we find our subject still more
closely connected with history ; for in truth these are histori-
cal, no less than palsetiological investigations. But, confining
ourselves at present to the material sciences, we may observe,
that, though the importance of the information which tradi*
tion gives us, in the sciences now under our consideration, as,
for instance geology, has long been tacitly recognised ; yet it
is only recently that geologists have employed themselves in
collecting their historical facts upon such a scale and with such
comprehensive views as are required by the interest and use of
collections of this kind. The Essay of Von HofF,* On the Na-
tural Alterations in the Surface of the Earth which are proved
hy Tradition^ was the work which first opened the eyes of
geologists to the extent and importance of this kind of investi-
gation. Since that time the same path of research has been pur-
sued with great perseverance by others, especially by Mr Lyell ;
and is now justly considered as an essential portion of geology.
2. Connection of Tradition and Science. — Events which we
might naturally expect to have some bearing on geology, are
recorded in the historical writings which, even on mere human
grounds, have the strongest claim to our respect as records of
the early history of the world, and are confirmed by the tra-
ditions of various nations all over the globe, namely, the for-
mation of the earth and its population, and a subsequent de-
luge. It has been made a matter of controversy how the nar-
rative of these events is to be understood, so as to make it
agree with the facts which an examination of the earth's sur-
face and of its vegetable and animal population discloses to us.
Such controversies, when they arc considered as merely arch-

Vol.i.,1822j vol. ii., 1824.

260 Of the delation of Tradition to Falcetiology.

seological, may occur in any of the palsetiological sciences.
We may have to compare and to reconcile the evidence of exist-
ing phenomena with that of historical tradition. But under
some circumstances this process of concihation may assume an
interest of another kind, on which we will make a few remarks.

3. Natural and Providential History of the World, — 'We may
contemplate the existence of Man upon the earth, his origin
and his progress, in the same manner as we contemplate the
existence of any other race of animals ; namely, in a purely
palsetiological view. We may consider how far our knowledge
of laws of causation enables us to explain his diffusion and mi-
gration, his differences and resemblances, his actions and works.
And this is the view of man as a member of the natural course
of things.

But man, at the same time the contemplator and the subject
of his own contemplation, endowed with faculties and powers
which make him a being of a different nature from other ani-
mals, cannot help regarding his own actions and enjoyments,
his recollections and his hopes, under an aspect quite different
from any that we have yet had presented to us. We have
been endeavouring to place in a clear light the Fundamental
Ideas, such as that of Cause, on which depends our knowledge
of the natural course of things. But there are other Ideas to
which man necessarily refers his actions ; he is led by his na-
ture, not only to consider his own actions, and those of his
fellow-men, as springing out of this or that cause, leading to
this or that material result; but also as good or bad, as what
they ought or ought not to be. He has Ideas of moral rela-
tions as well as those Ideas of material relations with which we
have hitherto been occupied. He is a moral as well as a na-
tural agent.

Contemplating himself and the world around him by the
light of his Moral Ideas, man is led to the conviction that his
moral faculties were bestowed upon him by design and for a
purpose ; that he is the subject of a moral government ; that
I^Jie course of the world is directed by the Power which go-
verns it, to the unfolding and perfecting of man's moral na-
ture ; that this guidance may be traced in the career of indi-
viduals and of the world ; that ther<i is a providential us weli
M a natural course of thinge.

Of the Belation of Tradition to Palcetiologt/. 261

Yet this view is beset by no small difficulties. The full de-
velopment of man''s moral faculties ; — the perfection of his na-
ture up to the measure of his own ideas ; — the adaptation of
his moral being to an ultimate destination, by its transit
through a world full of moral evil, in which each has his share ;
— ^are effects for which the economy of the world appears to
contain no adequate provision. Man, though aware of his
moral nature, and ready to believe in an ultimate destination
of purity and blessedness, is too feeble to resist the tempta-
tion of evil, and to restore his purity when once lost. He
cannot but look for some confirmation of that providential
order which he has begun to believe ; some provision for those
deficiencies in his moral condition which he has begun to feel.

He looks at the history of the world, and he finds that at a
certain period it offers to him the promise of what he seeks.
When the natural powers of man had been developed to their
full extent, and were beginning to exhibit symptoms of decay ;
when the intellectual progress of the world appeared to have
reached its limit, without supplying man's moral needs ; we
find the great Epoch in the Providential history of the world.
We find the announcement of a Dispensation by which man's
deficiencies shall be supplied and his aspirations fulfilled : we
find a provision for the purification, the support, and the ulti-
mate beatification of those who use the provided means. And
thus the providential course of the world becomes consistent
and intelligible.

4. The Sacred Narrative. — But with the new Dispensation,
we receive, not only an account of its own scheme and history,
but also a \vritten narrative of the providential course of the
world from the earliest times, and even from its first creation.
This narrative is recognised and authorised by the new dispen-
sation, and accredited by some of the same evidences as the
dispensation itself. That the existence of such a sacred narra-
tive should be a part of the providential order of things, cannot
but appear natural ; but naturally also, the study of it leads to
some difficulties.

The sacred narrative in some of its earliest portions speaks
of natural objects and occurrences respecting them. In the
very beginning of the course of the world, we may readily be-
lieve (indeed as we have seen in the laat chapter, our ecientific

262 Of the Belation of Tradition to Talcetiology,

researches lead us to believe) that such occurrences were very
different from anything which now takes place ;- — different to
an extent and in a manner which we cannot estimate. Now
the narrative must speak of objects and occurrences in the
words and phrases which have derived their meaning from
their application to the existing natural state of things. When
applied to an initial supernatural state, therefore, these words
and phrases cannot help being to us obscure and mysterious,
perhaps ambiguous and seemingly contradictory.
. 5. Difficulties in interpreting the Sacred Narrati'ce, — The
moral and providential relations of man's condition are so
much more important to him than mere natural relations, that
at first we may well suppose he will accept the Sacred Narra-
tive, as not only unquestionable in its true import, but also as
a guide in his views even of mere natural relations. He will
try to modify the conceptions which he entertains of objects
and their properties, so that the Sacred Narrative of the su-
pernatural condition shall retain the first meaning which he
had put upon it, in virtue of his own habits in the usage of
language.

But man is so constituted that he cannot persist in this pro-
cedure. The powers and tendencies of his intellect are such
that he cannot help trying to attain true conceptions of objects
and their properties by the study of things themselves. For
instance, when he at first read of a firmament dividing the
waters above from the waters below, he perhaps conceived a
transparent floor in the skies, on which the superior waters
rested which descend in rain ; but as his observations and his
reasonings satisfied him that such a floor could not exist, he
became willing to allow (as St Augustine allowed) that the
waters above the firmament are in a state of vapour. And
in like manner in other subjects, men, as their views of nature
became more distinct and precise, modified, so far as it was
necessary for consistency's sake, their first rude interpretations
of the Sacred Narrative ; so that, without in any degree losing
its import as a view of the providential course of the world, it
should be so conceived as not to contradict what they knew of
the natural order of things.

But this accommodation was not always made without pain-
ful struggles and angry controversies. When men had con-

Of the delation of Tradition to Falcetiology, 263

ceived tho occurrences of the Sacred Narrative in a particular
manner, they could not readily and willingly adopt a new modo
of conception ; and they resisted all attempts to recommend
it to them, as attacks upon the sacredness of the Narrative.
They had clothed their belief of the workings of Providence
in certain images ; and they clung to those images with the
persuasion that without them their belief could not subsist.
Thus they imagined to themselves that the earth was a flat
floor, solidly and broadly laid for the convenience of man, and
they felt as if the kindness of Providence was disparaged,
when it was maintained that the earth was a globe held toge-
ther only by the mutual attraction of its parts.

The most memorable instance of a struggle of this kind is
to be found in the circumstances which attended the introduc-
tion of the Heliocentric Theory of Copernicus to general ac-
ceptance. On this controversy I have already made some re-
marks in tho History of Science,* and have attempted to draw
from it some lessons which may be useful to us when any simi-
lar conflict of opinions may occur. I will here add a few re-
flections with a similar view.

6. Buck difficulties inetitaUe, — In the first place, I remark
that such modifications of the current interpretation of the
words of Scripture appear to be an inevitable consequence of
the progressive character of Natural Science. Science is con-
stantly teaching us to describe known facts in new language,
but the language of Scripture is always the same. And not
only so, but the language of Scripture is necessarily adapted
to the common state of man's intellectual development, in
which he is supposed not to be possessed of science. Hence
the phrases used by Scripture are precisely those which science
soon teaches man to consider as inaccurate. Yet they are not
on that account the less fitted for their proper purpose : for if
any terms had been used, adapted to a more advanced state
of knowledge, they must have been unintelligible among those
to whom the Scripture was first addressed. If the Jews had
been told that water existed in the clouds in small drops, they
would have marvelled that it did not constantly descend ; and
to have explained the reason of this, would have been to teach

♦ Vol. i 401.

264 Of the Belation of Tradition to Falcetiology,

Atmology in the Sacred Writings. If they had read in their
Scripture that the earth was a sphere, when it appeared to be
a plain, thoy would only have been disturbed in their thoughts
or driven to some wild and baseless imaginations by a declara-
tion to them so strange. If the Divins Speaker, instead of
saying that he would set his bow in the clouds, had been made
to declare that he would give to water the property of refract-
ing different colours of different angles, how utterly unmeaning
to the hearers would the words have been ! And in these
cases, the expressions, being unintelligible, startling, and be-
wildering, would have been such as tended to unfit the Sacred
Narrative for its place in the providential dispensation of the
world.

Accordingly, in the great controversy which took place in
Galileo's time between the defenders of the then customary in-
terpretations of Scripture, and the assertors of the Copernican
system of the universe, when the innovators were upbraided
with maintaining opinions contrary to Scripture, they replied
that Scripture was not intended to teach men astronomy, and
that it expressed the acts of divine power in images which were
suited to the ideas of unscientific men. To speak of the rising
and setting and travelling of the sun, of the fixity and of the
foundations of the earth, was to use the only language which
would have made the Sacred Narrative intelligible. To ex-
tract from these and the like expressions doctrines of science,
was, they declared, in the highest degree unjustifiable ; and
such a course could lead, they held, to no result but a weaken-
ing of the authority of Scripture in proportion as its credit was
identified with that of these modes of applying it. And this
judgment has since been generally assented to by those who
most reverence and value the study of the designs of Provi-
dence as well as that of the works of nature.

7. Science tells us nothing concerning Creation. — Other appa-
rent difficulties arise from the accounts given in the Scripture
of the first origin of the world in which we live : for example,
light is represented as created before the sun. With regard
to difficulties of this kind, it appears that we may derive some
instruction from the result to which we were led in the last
chapter ; — namely, that in the sciences which trace the pro-
gress of natural occurrences, wc can in no case go back to an

Of the Belation of TracUUon to Falcetiology, 26 ^

origin, but in every instance appear to find ourselves separated
from it by a state of things, and an order of events, of a kind
altogether different from those which come under our experi-
ence. The thread of induction respecting the natural course
of the world snaps in our fingers, when we try to ascertain
where its beginning is. Since, then, science can teach us no-
thing positive respecting the beginning of things, she can nei-
ther contradict nor confirm what is taught by Scripture on that
subject ; and thus, as it is unworthy timidity to fear contradic-
tion, so is it ungrounded presumption to look for confirmation
in such cases. The providential history of the world has its
own beginning, and its own evidence ; and we can only render
the system insecure, by making it lean on our material sciences.
If any one were to suggest that the nebular hypothesis coun-
tenances the Scripture history of the formation of this system,
by shewing how the luminous matter of the sun might exist
previous to the sun itself, we should act wisely in rejecting such
an attempt to weave together these two heterogeneous threads ;
— the one a part of a providential scheme, the other a fragment
of physical speculation.

We shall best learn those lessons of the true philosophy of
science which it is our object to collect, by attending to por-
tions, of science which have gone through such crises as we
are now considering ; nor is it requisite, for this purpose, to
bring forward any subjects which are still under discussion.
It may, however, be mentioned that such maxims as we are
now endeavouring to establish, and the one before us in parti-
cular, bear with a peculiar force upon those Palsetiological
Sciences of which we have been treating in the present Book.
8. Scientific views, when familiar, do not disturb the authority/
of Scripture. — There is another reflection which may serve to
console and encourage us in the painful struggles which thus
take place, between those who maintain interpretations of
Scripture already prevalent, and those who contend for such
new ones as the new discoveries of science require. It is this ;;
—that though the new opinion is resisted by one party &&
something destructive of the credit of Scripture and the reve-
rence which is its due, yet, in fact, when the new interpreta-
tion has been generally established and incorporated with men's
current thoughts, it ceases to disturb their views of the autho-

266 Of the Belation of Tradition to Falcetiology ,

rity of the Scripture or of the truth of its teaching. When
the language of Scripture, invested with its new meaning, has
become familiar to men, it is found that the ideas which it calls
up are quite as reconcilable as the former ones were with the
most entire acceptance of the providential dispensation. And
when this has been found to be the case, all cultivated persons
look back with surprise at the mistake of those who thought
that the essence of the revelation was involved in their own
arbitrary version of some collateral circumstance in the re-
vealed narrative. At the present day, we can hardly conceive
how reasonable men could ever have imagined that religious
reflections on the stability of the earth, and the beauty and
use of the luminaries which revolve round it, would be inter-
fered with by an acknowledgment that this rest and motion
are apparent only.* And thus the authority of revelation is
not shaken by any changes introduced by the progress of
science in the mode of interpreting expressions which describe
physical objects and occurrences ; provided the new interpre-
tation is admitted at a proper season, and in a proper spirit ;
so as to soften, as much as possible, both the public contro-
versies and the private scruples which almost inevitably ac-
company such an alteration.

9. When should old Interpretations he gwen up f — But the
question then occurs, What is the proper season for a religi-
ous and enlightened commentator to make such a change in
the current interpretation of sacred Scripture ? At what pe-
riod ought the established exposition of a passage to be given
up, and a new mode of understanding the passage, such as is,
or seems to be, required by new discoveries respecting the laws
of nature, accepted in its place ? It is plain, that to introduce
such an alteration lightly and hastily would be a procedure
fraught with inconvenience ; for if the change were made in
such a manner, it might be afterwards discovered that it had
been adopted without sufficient reason, and that it Was neces-
sary to reinstate the old expositions. And the minds of the
readers of Scripture, always to a certain extent and for a time
disturbed by the subversion of their long-established notions,
would be distressed without any need, and might be seriously

* I have here borrowed a sentence or two from my own History.

Of the Belation of Tradition to Paloitiology. 267

unsettled. While, on the other hand, a too protracted and
obstinate resistance to the innovation, on the part of the scrip-
tural expositors, would tend to identify, at least in the minds
of many, the authority of the Scripture with the truth of the
exposition ; and therefore would bring discredit upon the re-
vealed word, when the established interpretation was finally
proved to be untenable.

A rule on this subject, propounded by some of the most en-
lightened dignitaries of the Roman Catholic church, on the
occasion of the great Copernican controversy begun by Galileo,
seems well worthy of our attention. The following was the
opinion given by Cardinal Bellarmine at the time : — " When
a demonstration shall be found to establish the earth's motion,
it will be proper to interpret the sacred Scriptures otherwise
than they have hitherto been interpreted in those passages
where mention is made of the stability of the earth and move-
ment of the heavens." This appears to be a judicious and
reasonable maxim f?)r such cases in general. So long as the
supposed scientific discovery is doubtful, the exposition of the
meaning of Scripture given by commentators of established
credit is not wantonly to be disturbed : but when a scientific
theory, irreconcilable with this ancient interpretation, is
clearly proved, we must give up the interpretation, and seek
some new mode of understanding the passage in question, by
means of which it may be consistent with what we know ; for
if it be not, our conception of the things so described is no
longer consistent with itself.

It may be said that this rule is indefinite, for who shall de-
cide when a new theory is completely demonstrated, and the
old interpretation become untenable \ But to this we may
reply, that if the rule be assented to, its application will not
be very difficult. For when men have admitted as a general,
rule, that the current interpretations of scriptural expression.' j
respecting natural objects and events may possibly require,
and in some cases certainly will require, to be abandoned, a nd
new ones admitted, they will hardly allow themselves to CK)n-
tend for such interpretations as if they were essential parte of
revelation ; and will look upon the change of exposition, whe-
ther it come sooner or later, without alarm or anger. And
when men lend themselves to the progress of truth in this

268 Of the Belation of Tradition to Palcetiology,

spirit, it is not of any material importance at what period a
new and satisfactory interpretation of the scriptural difficulty
is found ; since a scientific exactness in our apprehension of
the meaning of such passages as are now referred to is very
far from being essential to our full acceptance of revelation.

10. In what Spirit should the Change he accepted ? — Still these
revolutions in scriptural interpretation must always have in
them something which distresses and disturbs religious com-
munities. And such uneasy feelings will take a different shape,
according as the community acknowledges or rejects a para-
mount interpretative authority in its religious leaders. In the
case in which the interpretation of the Church is binding upon
all its members, the more placid minds rest in peace upon the
ancient exposition, till the spiritual authorities announce that
the time for the adoption of a new view has arrived ; but in
these circumstances, the more stirring and inquisitive minds,
which cannot refrain from the pursuit of new truths and exact
conceptions, are led to opinions which, bmng contrary to those
of the Church, are held to be sinful. On the other hand, if
the religious constitution of the community allow and encour-
age each man to study and interpret for himself the Sacred
Writings, we are met by evils of another kind. In this case,
although, by the unforced influence of admired commentators,
there may prevail a general agreement in the usual interpre-
tation of difficult passages, yet as each reader of the Scripture
looks upon the sense which he has adopted as being his own
interpretation, he maintains it, not with the tranquil acquies-
cence of one who has deposited his judgment in the hands of
his Church, but with the keenness and strenuousness of self-
love. In such a state of things, though no judicial severities
can be employed against the innovators, there may arise more
angry controversies than in the other case.

It is impossible to overlook the lesson which here offers it-
self, that it is in the highest degree unwise in the friends of
religion, whether individuals or communities, unnecessarily to
embark their credit in expositions of Scripture on matters
which appertain to natural science. By delivering physical
doctrines as the teaching of revelation, religion may lose
much, but cannot gain anything. This maxim of practical
wisdom has often been urged by Christian writers. Thus St

Of the Belatlon of TtadUion to Falcetiology. 269

Augustin says ;* " In obscure matters and things far removed
from our senses, if we read anything, even in the divine Scrip-
ture, which may produce diverse opinions without damaging
the faith which we cherish, let us not rush headlong by positive
assertion to either the one opinion or the other ; lest, when a
more thorough discussion has shewn the opinion which we had
adopted to be false, our faith may fall with it : and we should
be found contending, not for the doctrine of the sacred Scrip-
tures, but for our own ; endeavouring to make our doctrine to
be that of the Scriptures, instead of taking the doctrine of the
Scriptures to be ours." And in nearly the same spirit, at the
time of the Copernican controversy, it was thought proper to
append to the work of Copernicus a postil, to say that the
work was written to account for the phenomena, and that peo-
ple must not run on blindly and condemn either of the oppo-
site opinions. Even when the Inquisition, in 1 616, thought
itself compelled to pronounce a decision upon this subject, the
verdict was delivered in very moderate language : — that " the
doctrine of the earth's motion appeared to be contrary to
Scripture r'** and yet, moderate as this expression is, it has
been blamed by judicious members of the Roman church as
deciding a point such as religious authorities ought not to pre-
tend to decide ; and has brought upon that church no ordi-
nary weight of general condemnation. Kepler pointed out,
in his lively manner, the imprudence of employing the force
of religious authorities on such subjects : Acies dolahrw infer-
rum illisa, postea nee in lignum valet amplius. Capiat hoc cujus
interest. " If you will try to chop iron, the axe becomes unable
to cut even wood."

11. In u'hat Spirit should the Change he urged^ — But while
we thus endeavour to shew in what manner the interpreters of
Scripture may most safely and most properly accept the dis-
coveries of science, we must not forget that there may be errors
committed on the other side also ; and that men of science, in
bringing forward views which may for a time disturb the minds
of lovers of Scriptm*e, should consider themselves as bound by

* Lib. i. dc Qeneiij cap, 18.
VOL. XXIX, NO. LVIII. OCTOBER 1840. t

270 Of the lielatioii of Tradition to Palcetiology.

strict rules of candour, moderation, and prudence. Intention-
ally to make their supposed discoveries a means of discrediting,
contradicting, or slighting the sacred Scriptures, or the autho-
rity of religion, is in them unpardonable. As men who make
the science of Truth the business of their lives, and are per-
suaded of her genuine superiority, and certain of her ultimate
triumph, they are peculiarly bound to urge her claims in a
calm and temperate spirit ; not forgetting there are other kinds
of truth besides that which they peculiarly study. They may
properly reject authority in matters of science ; but they are
to leave it its proper office in matters of religion. I may here
again quote Kepler's expressions : " In Theology we balance
authorities, in Philosophy we weigh reasons. A holy man was
Lactantius who denied that the earth was round ; a holy man
was Augustin, who granted the rotundity, but denied the anti-
podes ; a holy thing to me is the Inquisition, which allows the
sraallness of the earth, but denies its motion ; but more holy
to me is Truth ; and hence I prove, from philosophy, that the
earth is round, and inhabited on every side, of small size, and
in motion among the stars, — and this I do with no disrespect
to the Doctors." I the more willingly quote such a passage
from Kepler, because the entire ingenuousness and sincere
piety of his character does not allow us to suspect in him any-
thing of hypocrisy or latent irony. That similar professions of
respect may be made ironically, we have a noted example in
the celebrated Introduction to Galileo's Dialogue on the Coper-
iiican System ; probably the part which was most offensive to
the authorities. " Some years ago," he begins, " a wholesome
edict was promulgated at Rome, whicli, in order to check the
perilous scandals of the present age, imposed silence upon the
Pythagorean opinion of the mobility of the earth. There were
not wanting," he proceeds, " persons who rashly asserted that
this decree was the result, not of a judicious inquiry, but of
passion ill-informed ; and complaints were heard that coun-
sellors, utterly unacquainted with astronomical observation,
ought not to be allowed, with their sudden prohibitions, to clip
the wings of speculative intellects. At the hearing of rash la-
mentations like these^ my zeal could not Iceep silence.'''' And he

Of the Bdation of Tradition to Palcetiology, 27 1

then goes on to say, that he wishes, in his Dialogue^ to show
that the subject had been fully examined at Rome. Here the
irony is quite transparent, and the sarcasm glaringly obvious.
I think we may venture to say that this is not the temper in
which scientific questions should be treated ; although by some,
perhaps, the prohibition of public discussion may be con-
sidered as justifying any evasion which is likely to pass un-
punished.

12 Duty of Mutual Forbearance. — We may add, as a further
reason for mutual forbearance in such cases, that the true in-
terests of both parties are the same. The man of science is
concerned, no less than any other person, in the truth and im-
port of the divine dispensation ; the religious man, no less than
the man of science, is, by the nature of his intellect, incapable
of believing two contradictory declarations. Hence they have
both alike a need for understanding the Scripture in some way
in which it shall be consistent with their understanding of na-
ture. It is for their common advantage to conciliate, as Kep-
ler says, the finger and the tongue of God, his works and his
word. And they may find abundant reason to bear with each
other, even if they should adopt for this purpose different in-
terpretations, each finding one satisfactory to himself; or if
any one should decline employing his thoughts on such subjects
at all. I have elsewhere* quoted a passage from Keplert
which appears to me written in a most suitable spirit : " I be-
seech my reader that, not unmindful of the Divine goodness
bestowed upon man, he do with me praise and celebrate the
wisdom of the Greater, which I open to him from a more in-
ward explication of the form of the world, from a searching of
causes, from a detection of the errors of vision ; and that thus
not only in the firmness and stability of the earth may we per-
ceive with gratitude the preservation of all living things in na-
ture as the gift of God : but also that in its motion, so recon-
dite, so admirable, we may acknowledge the wisdom of the
Creator. But whoever is too dull to receive this science, or too

* Bridffeivaffr Tr., h. 314. f CWi. &tfJEU Mart,, Introd*

272 0/the delation of Tradition to Falcetiology,

weak to believe the Copernican system without harm to his
piety, him, I say, I advise that, leaving the school of astro-
nomy, and condemning, if so he please, any doctrines of the
philosophers, he follow his own path, and desist from this
wandering through the universe ; and that, lifting up his na-
tural eyes with which alone he can see, he pour himself out
from his own heart in worship of God the Creator, being cer-
tain that he gives no less worship to God than the astronomer,
to whom God has given to see more clearly with his inward
eyes, and who, from what he has himself discovered, both can
and will glorify God."

13. Case of Galileo. — I may perhaps venture here to make a
remark or two upon this subject, with reference to a charge
brought against a certain portion of the History of the Indole-
tive Sciences. Complaint has been made* that the character
of the Roman church, as shewn in its behaviour towards Ga-
lileo, is misrepresented in the account given of it in the His-
tory of Astronomy. It is asserted that Galileo provoked the
condemnation he incurred ; first, by pertinaciously demanding
the assent of the ecclesiastical authorities to his opinion of the
consistency of the Copernican doctrine with Scripture ; and
afterwards by contumaciously, and, as we have seen, contume-
liously violating the silence which the Church had enjoyed upon
him. It is further declared, that the statement which repre-
sents it as the habit of tho Roman church to dogmatize on
points of natural science is unfounded ; as well as the opinion
that, in consequence of this habit, new scientific truths were
promulgated less boldly in Italy than in other countries. I
shall reply very briefly on these subjects ; for the decision of
them is by no means requisite in order to establish the doc-
trines to which I have been led in the present chapter, nor, I
hope, to satisfy my reader that my views have been collected
from an impartial consideration of scientific history.

With regard to Galileo, I do not think it can be denied that
he obtruded his opinions upon the ecclesiastical authorities in
an unnecessary and imprudent manner. He was of an ardent

* Dublin Review f No, ix., July 1838, p. 72.

Of the Belation of Tradition to Faluetiology, 273

character, strongly convinced himself, and urged on still more
by the conviction which he produced among his disciples, and
thus he became impatient for the triumph of truth. This
judgment of him has recently been delivered by various inde-
pendent authorities, and has undoubtedly considerable founda-
tion.* As to the question whether authority in matters of na-
tural science were habitually claimed by the authorities of the
Church of Rome, I have to allow that I cannot produce in-
stances which establish such a habit. We, who have been ac-
customed to have daily before our eyes the Monition which the
Romish editors of Newton thought it necessary to prefix —
Ccetertim latis a summo Pontifice contra telluris motum Decretis^
nos ohsequi profitemur — were not likely to conjecture that this
was a solitary instance of the interposition of the Papal au-
thority on such subjects. But although it would be easy to
find declarations of heresy delivered by Romish Universities,
and writers of great authority, against tenets belonging to the
natural sciences, I am not aware that any other case can be
adduced in which the Church or the Pope can be shewn to have
pronounced such a sentence. I am well contented to acknow-
ledge this ; for I should be far more gratified by finding my-
self compelled to hold up the seventeenth century as a model
for the nineteenth in this respect, than by having to sow en-
mity between the admirers of the past and the present through
any disparaging contrast.f

With respect to the attempt made in my History to cha^-

* Besides the Dublin Review, I may quote the Edinhiirgh Review, which 1
suppose will not be thought likely to have a bias in favour of the exercise
of ecclesiastical authority in matters of science ; though certainly there is a
puerility in the critic's phraseology which does not add to the weight of his
judgment. " Galileo contrived to surround the truth with every variety
of obstruction. The tide of loiowledge, which had hitherto advanced in peace,
ho crested with angry breakers, and he involved in its surf both his friends
and his foes." — Ed. Rev., No. cxxiii. p. 126.

t I may add that the most candid of the adherents of the Church of Borne
condemn the assumption of authority in matters of science made, in this one
instance at least, by the ecclesiastical tribunals. The author of the Ages of
Faith (Book viii. p. 248), says, " A Congregation, it is to be lamented, de-
clared the new system to be opposed to Scripture, and therefore heretical,*'

874 M. Studer on some Phenomena of

racteriso the intellectual habits of Italy as produced by hor
religious condition, — certainly it would ill become any student
of the history of science to speak slightingly of that country,
always the mother of the sciences, always ready to catch the
dawn and hail the rising of any new light of knowledge. But
I think our admiration of this activity and acuteness of mind
is by no means inconsistent with the opinion, that new truths
were promulgated more boldly beyond the Alps, and that the
Bubtilty of the Italian intellect loved to insinuate what the
rough German bluntly asserted. Of the decent duplicity with
which forbidden opinions were handled, the reviewer himself
gives us instances, when he boasts of the liberality with which
Copernican professors were placed in important stations by the
ecclesiastical authorities, soon after the doctrine of the motion
of the earth had been declared by the same authorities con-
trary to Scripture. And in the same spirit is the process of
demanding from Galileo a public and official recantation cf
opinions, which he had repeatedly been told by his ecclesiasti-
cal superiors he might hold as much as he pleased. I think
it is easy to believe that, among persons so little careful to re-
concile public profession with private conviction, official deco-
rum was all that was demanded. When Galileo had made his
renunciation of the earth's motion on his knees, he rose and
said, as we are told, E pur si muove — '' and yet it does move.''
This is sometimes represented as the heroic soliloquy of a mind
cherishing its conviction of the truth, in spite of persecution ;
I think we may more naturally conceive it uttered as a play-
ful epigram in the ear of a cardinal's secretary, with a full
knowledge that it would bo immediately repeated to his mas-
ter.

On some Phenomena of the Diluvian Epoch, By M. Studer.

The members of the Geological Society (of France) who
were present at the meeting at Porrentruy, will doubtless re-
collect the calcareous rocks of Neuveville, polished and marked
with furrows and striae, on which M. Agassiz has partly founded

the Diluvian Epoch, 278

his argument in favour of a period when ice covered the entire
surface of the earth. Granting all the importance which is
due to this opinion, whether in the theory of MM. Venetz
and Charpentier, who simply admit the former extension of
our glaciers to the foot of Jura, or in that of M. Agassiz ; and
an inspection of polished and striated rocks near actually ex-
isting glaciers, being in some measure a necessary addition to
our observations on the lake of Bienne ; it afforded me the
highest gratification to make a journey, this summer, to Mount
Rosa, in company with M. Agassiz and many of our friends
who took part in the discussion the preceding autumn.* We
visited in company Zermatt, in the bottom of the valley of St
Nicholas in the Valais, and devoted two days to the examina-
tion of the extensive and magnificent glaciers which descend
from Monte Rosa and Mont Cervin, towards the bottom of this
great amphitheatre surrounded by the highest peaks of the Alps.
After these excursions, we separated, and I then made a jour-
ney round Monte Rosa and Mont Blanc, passing by Monte
Moro, Val Sejia, Ivrea, Col du Bonhomme, Sixt, and Evian.
Although the study of rocks was the principal object of this
journey, I did not fail to attend to every thing calculated to
throw more light on the great question of diluvial phenomena,
and the transportation of rolled masses of rock. Convinced
that we are still deficient in data to enable us to come to a
determinate opinion on this difficult problem, I do not hesi-
tate to add my small contribution to the general stock, by
presenting to the Society my observations relating to these
subjects. Should they be considered of little importance,
they will at all events escape the imputation of having been
influenced by my too great predilection for any particular
glacial system, whatsoever name it may bear.

We commenced at Zermatt with the examination of the rocks
in contact with the great glacier of Gorneren, the lower part of
which is formed by the union of the glaciers of theCima de Jazi,
Monte Rosa, and Breithorn. When we had ascended about

For a uotice of this tour, by M. Agassiz, see Inst number, p. 184.— Edit.

276 M. Studer on some Phenomena of

fifty feet on the right or eastern margin of the glacier, it was
in such a state as to allow us to approach near its contact
with the rock in situ, and to observe the state of the latter
even under the glacier. Notwithstanding the mineralogical
difference of the rock, which is here a rather compact green
slate, 1 must say that I was struck with the perfect resem-
blance of the condition of the surface with that of the calca-
reous rocks of the lake of Bienne ; there are the same smooth
spaces, the same grooves with smooth edges, and the same
fine striae ; the whole undoubtedly produced by the friction
on the rock of boulders and gravel urged forward under a
strong pressure by some agent or other, and in this locality
that agent may well be considered the glacier itself

On the following day we ascended the crest of the Rifiel,
which overlooks the upper part of the glacier of the Gorneren,
in the continuation of its right edge. There we were elevated
about 500 feet above its surface, and separated from it by a
very steep, somewhat peak-shaped, declivity. The prevailing
rock of the crest is an imperfectly slaty serpentine. The
height of this place above the glacier prevents us supposing
that the glacier ever rose so high, since the commencement
of the present epoch ; and yet we saw the surface of the ser-
pentine rocks polished like a mirror and covered with furrows
and striae nearly horizontal, and in every respect resembling
those in contact with the glacier itself The supposition of
currents of water carrying along stones, to which this condi-
tion of the surface may be attributed, is in like manner ren-
dered a very improbable explanation, in consequence of the
isolation of the crest between two very deep valleys of ice,
and the proximity of the summits of all this group of moun-
tains. At a league distant from this place, below Zermatt,
near the bridge over wliich the road passes, from the left to
the right bank, we again find, on granitic gneiss, the same
polished surfaces, furrowed and striated, and those rounded
prominences which Saussure calls 7noutonnees.

On the southern slope of the Alps we have observed the
same phenomenon, both in the immediate proximity of the
glaciers, and at continually increasing distances from them, to

the Diluvial Epoch. 277

which they cannot reach in the existing physical conditions.
On the route from Cormayeur to the Col de la Seigne, for
example, we find one of these surfaces opposite the glacier of
the Brenva, which may, however, even in the present times,
advance tliat length, and shut in the Allee-Blanche, as hap-
pened within our recollection with the glaciers of the valleys
of Bagne and Saass. But this supposition cannot be admitted
in regard to the polished and striated rocks which we have
noticed between Macugnaga and Pesterena ; nor in regard to
those of Val-Quarrazza, at the northern base of Monte-Turlo;
and still less in relation to the distinctly marked ones which
we observe near St Vincent in the vale of Aosta, on issuing
from the defile of Mont Jovet.

What must we, then, infer from the series of the same phe-
nomena continued, with little interruption, from the bottom
of our glaciers, to such distances as that from St Vincent to
Mont Cervin, or rather from the lake of Bienne to the gla-
ciers of Savoy ? Shall we be obliged, by assigning the same
causes to the same effects, to believe that the former exten-
sion of our glaciers was much beyond the most advanced li-
mits they now attain ; or rather that a covering of ice had en-
veloped the whole of the terrestrial globe, if it be true that the .
same phenomenon likewise appears in Sweden, England, and
other countries very remote from high mountains ? It must be
confessed that this inference, drawn from a single series of
facts, acquires great weight by the consideration, that it is
likewise the same which MM. Venetz and Charpentier have
deduced from the examination of ancient moraines, and by the
facility with which, by adopting it, we solve some of the most
difficult questions relating to the diluvial era. But it must
not, at the same time, be concealed, that, by adopting this
explanation of these facts, we place ourselves in opposition to
what seem the best established opinions respecting animal
and vegetable life before and during the diluvial period, and
to all that physics and astronomy have taught us regarding
the laws which regulate the temperature of our climate, and
of the terrestrial globe in general.

Among the different facts relative to the dilutium observed

278 M. Stiider on some Phenomena of the Diluvial Epoch,

during my journey of this summer, there is still one which
appears to me deserving of the greatest attention from geolo-
gists. This is a large bank or range of hills which separates
the basin of Ivrea from that of Biella, * extending to the foot
of the Alps, over a length of five or six leagues, as far as
Santja, in the plain of Piedmont. The height of this range,
on the road from Mongrande to Bolengo, cannot be estimated
at less than a thousand feet above the neighbouring plain ; it
then diminishes in height as it recedes from the ridges of the
Alps, in such a manner that the latter, when seen at a dis-
tance, appear like a very uniform talus, which had been cut on
its two sides by the rivers which it separates. The declivity on
the side of Ivrea is steep, and the road therefore descends in
zigzags ; it is here also that the elevation of the bank or range
is greatest. The back of the hill is rendered very unequal
by longitudinal valleys, which seem to have been produced by
erosion, and an hour is spent in crossing from one declivity to
the other. The entire mass of this hill appears to be com-
posed of Alpine debris. Blocks of gneiss, and other rocks of
all sizes, many of them from 15 to 20 feet in length, with their
edges little worn, are scattered over the whole surface, and
wherever the soil itself is disclosed, nothing is to be seen but
unstratified gravel and sand, inclosing a great number of
these same blocks. If we traverse the plain of Ivrea, and
ascend Lessolo to the plateau of Vico and Brosso, we perceive
a like number of alpine blocks covering the whole of this ra-
ther steep declivity, which rises to a height nearly equal to
that of the opposite edge above the soil of the plain. It is
rather remarkable, that, in the same plain, this transported
deposit seems to have completely disappeared, and that the
fixed rocks, syenite and limestone, shew themselves in nu-
merous places. Nor is it less surprising that, at a very
short distance from this ancient theatre of the violence and
overflowing of diluvial waters, we find on the east, between
Biella and Masserano, and on the west, near Castellamonte,
tertiary hills composed of a partly moveable and partly
argillaceous deposit, yielding to the action of the smallest

Mr Dunn*s Improvement of Butherford^^ Thermometer. 279

rivulets, and inclosing subapennine fossils of the most delicate
structure.

De Saussure, after having described these hills and alpine
detritus, adds the following reflections : " Do not these two
hills which converge under an angle of about 100°, at the en-
trance of the vale of Aosta, evidently mark out the margins
of a current which became widened on issuing from this val-
ley \ I know not whether I am giving way to an illusion, but
it appears to me, that, in the want of the testimony of ocular
witnesses, we cannot imagine monuments more forcibly pro-
ving the truth of a fact." Notwithstanding the entire con-
viction of our celebrated geologist, the founder of the theory
of glaciers, I am almost disposed to believe that the partisans
of new doctrines respecting moveable rocks or boulders, will
see in these hills a classical example of the colossal grandeur
of ancient moraines, and that, if they happen to examine the
moutonnees and striated surfaces in the neighbourhood of Ivree
they will declare their conviction that the ancient glacier, of
which we discovered traces at St Vincent, had extended as far
as the edge of the great plain of Piedmont.*

Description of an Improvement on HutherforcTs Registering
Thermometer. By Mr John Dunn, Optician, Curator to the
Society of Arts.t Communicated by the Society of Arts.

The maximum and minimum registering thermometers of
Rutherford are not only the simplest, but by far the best yet
invented ; indeed, all that is required in their construction,
beyond an ordinary mercurial thermometer for the maximum,
and a spirit of wine one for the minimum, is, to place them
horizontal, and introduce into each a small index, in the one to
be pushed up by the mercury, and to be dragged down by the
alcohol in the other. No difficulty has been felt in executing

* Bulletin de la SociHi Ocologiquc de France for February 1840.
t Read before the Society of Arts for Scotland, loth January ia40.

280 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges,

the minimum one so as to act with certainty ; this is not the
case, however, with the mercurial one, for it has heen found
that the glass enamel index used by Rutherford himself is
drawn back by the mercury, and the same happens witli
various substances. The material usually employed, and
which answers best, is steel ; this, however, is often rendered
useless by the mercury amalgamating with it. Various fluids
have been introduced to get the better of this, but all of these
are liable to the objection of mixing with the mercury. Af-
ter various unsatisfactory efforts, I at last found that, like the
story of Columbus and the ^^^^ it was the easiest thing in the
world, for it so happens, that, although mercury attracts glass
and amalgamates with steel, there is (for our purpose) no at-
traction between glass and steel, and mercury does not amal-
gamate with glass ; it is therefore only necessary to introduce
or interpose betwixt the mercury and steel a small piece of
glass, or second index, as is done in the thermometer on the
table.

On the Glaciers which anciently covered the southern side of
the Mountain-chain of the Vosges, By M. Renoir.

I have long remarked, at the foot of the ballon of Alsace,
on an arkose formation called the Tete-de-Flanches^ which
overlooks the town of Giromagny, a great number of trans-
ported blocks of stone, some of the accumulations of which have
a volume of 125 or 128 metres, and the height above the pre-
sent level of the valley amounts to 107 metres.

I was accustomed to regard these blocks as having been
transported by some great currents ; this was the theory most
generally received ; but Captain Le Blanc, after having heard
the debates which took place respecting glaciers, at the meet-
ing of the Geological Society at Porrentruy, in September
1838, was the first, as far as I am aware, who considered the
blocks of Giromagny as possibly belonging to the ancient
moraine of a glacier.

This view of them did not correspond to my notions, and
as M. Le Blanc had not at that period seen any moraines, his

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Votges, 281

opinion could not modify mine ; and it was almost with regret
that, in the month of July last, I made a first examination
round the ballon., and in the valley of St Amarin. This ex-
amination somewhat modified my former notions, and gave
rise to some uncertainty, which made me feel the necessity of
studying existing glaciers more particularly. The Society
will permit me to enter into a few details in this place, in
order to shew the process through which I went to establish
my convictions.

We now know, from what has been pointed out by Messrs
Venetz, Charpentier, and Agassiz,* that the marks which gla-
ciers leave behind them as they retire, are, 1*/, Terminal mo-
raines^ composed of sand, gravel, pebbles, and even at times
a great number of boulders, the whole more or less rolled,
forming banks and curved lines throughout the whole width
of the valley, whose concavity is turned upwards, higher
towards the middle than towards the extremities, of a tri-
angular form, and having the exterior face generally more
inclined or steeper than the interior. 2^/y, Lateral moraines,
nearly of the same composition as the former, but arranged
in longitudinal mounds, deposited on the two flanks of the
valley at the same height, two by two, following all the con-
tours of the windings, entering every sinuosity, and having an
inclination which represents that of the surface of the glacier.
3G?/y, Median moraines^ resulting from the junction of the la-
teral moraines of two glaciers uniting. These moraines pre-
sent the form of a triangular prism, whose axis is in the di-
rection of the valley, and the nearer its middle, the nearer the
size of the glaciers approaches to equality. Athlt/, Whenever
the nature of the rocks permits, the bottom and sides of the
valley exhibit perfectly polished surfaces, together with par-
ticular indentations, in the direction of the glacier's motion ;
also stricB, or fine parallel lines, likewise running in the same
direction, that is to say, in the direction of the valley's in •
clination, but never following the greatest inclination of its

* Many of the memoirs illustxative of this subject have appeared in the
previous numbers of this Journal. — Edit.

282 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges,

sides. These striae are particularly characteristic. Lastly^
Large blocks not rolled^ often resting, as in equilibrio, on one
of their smallest faces, and forming lines, &c. more or less ex-
tensive, on the sides and bottom of the valleys.

These marks I had to re-examine more carefully than I had
done at a period when they w^ere less knovrn, and when less im-
portance was attached to them. I therefore traversed, during
last September, a part of the glaciers of the Bernese Alps, that
of the Rhone, &c. I endeavoured, more particularly, to become
acquainted with the character of moraines, from those which
our glaciers yet deposit, to those from which they have for a
long period retired. I examined with the greatest attention,
the rocks polished by the motion of ice over them, as well as
the parallelism and general direction of the fine striae which
are to be seen almost everywhere. I have found these polished
stones above the glaciers, at heights greatly superior to the
surfaces of the latter, which would seem to prove that they
have been much more considerable than they are in the pre-
sent day. I have likewise observed that, even when taking
into account the nature of the rocks, the polished surfaces are
more numerous and more extensive in the higher parts of the
mountains than in the valleys, an appearance contrary to what
would be produced by attributing the polishing of these rocks
to water, since, in the latter case, it would be most frequent
and perfect when the pressure would be greatest, that is to
say, in the depth of the valleys. It is impossible not to per-
ceive, as was done by the philosophers who first observed them,
tliat the surfaces are better polished, and the striae more dis-
tinctly preserved, the nearer we approach the glaciers, a cir-
cumstance which seems to prove that they have been more
recently left by the latter than those in the low parts of the
valleys ; which, again, is the reverse of what would have hap-
pened with currents of water.

Immediately above Ober-Gestelen, are to be seen the re-
mains, still perfectly recognisable, of a terminal moraine ; the
village itself is built on another of greater extent, and better
preservation. I think I discovered at Viesch the remains of
a median moraine, which must have been formed by the unioa

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges, 283

of two lateral moraines, which belonged, the one to the gla-
cier of Viescli, the other probably to the glacier of the Rhone,
although this point is seven leagues distant from the latter.
We likewise notice the remains of terminal moraines imme-
diately above Sierre.

With regard to lateral moraines, I met with them less fre-
quently than the others, owing, no doubt, as M. Agas^z says,
to their usually being much above the heights which we com-
monly ascend to. No one, however, can fail to remark the
one to be seen between Lavey and Morcle. It is, as it were,
stratified, and the strata, as well as the blocks of stone, are in-
clined to the side of the mountain, because the exterior side of
this moraine alone remains. M. de Charpentier attributes this
kind of stratification to the water which existed between the
glacier and the mountain. I am indebted to this distinguished
savant for the most valuable information. I had the advan-
tage to visit, along with him, some of the lateral moraines
which lie in the neighbourhood of the salt district of Devans ;
they are very recognisable, and even well preserved in many
places ; the prevailing nature of the blocks which partly com-
pose them, is the conglomerate of Valorsine ; we likewise notice
calcareous blocks brought down from the neighbourhood of
Martigny,

I likewise visited, ^ pointed out to me by M. de Charpentier,
the numerous and beautiful transported stones collected to
the north-west of the town of Mouthey. The blocks, many
of which are of the cubic dimensions of 1300 and 1400 metres,
have proved to me, in the object of my researches, as a ray of
light, for never could such masses be transported to the height
where they are now found by a current, however great and
impetuous it may be supposed to have been. Besides, a con-
siderable number of the stones are resting, as if in equilibrio,
on one of their small faces ; others, and these of the largest
size, are supported by two or three points at most, and in such
precarious positions, that it is difficult to conceive how they
can continue permanently in such a state. They must then
have been deposited quietly and slowly, and are evidently the
remains of an ancient lateral moraine.

284 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Voigea.

As to polished rocks, I have traced them in the valley of
Hasli, and in that of the Rhone, from its origin to near Bex.
I have uniformly observed, that they lose something of their
polish, and that the striae disappear more and more in propor-
tion as they recede from the origin of the glaciers.

I took all possible care not to confound the ancient moraines
with mbunds formed by water and the deposits produced by
avalanches ; and I have settled in the conviction, that glaciers,
of much greater extent and force than any now existing, for-
merly occupied the valleys of the Alps throughout their whole
extent. This first conviction was of the greatest value to me,
and the observations I had made, and the knowledge I had ac-
quired, were indispensable for the solution of the question I
had charged myself with. I asked myself whether, after having
ascertained the former existence of glaciers at the foot of the
Alps, at only four hundred and a few odd feet of absolute
height, it would be surprising again to find traces of them at
the same height at the foot of the Vosges, and, a fortiori^ at
the height of 1250 metres on the hallon of Alsace ? The re-
collection of what I had seen among these mountains, would
perhaps be sufficient to establish a comparison between their
appearances and those I had observed in the Alps, and thus
determine my opinion ; but, in order to do this with more cer-
tainty, I now return to the consideration of the former of these
two chains.

The valley of St Amarin, entered by Thann, presented me
with nothing remarkable till reaching the village of Moosch,
where are to be seen a great number of granitic blocks, dis-
posed on the summit, and on the west and south-west sides, of
a mountain of transition- slate, known by the name of La Tete^
at the bottom of which the road passes. Some of these blocks,
resting on one of their small faces, appear to have been depo-
sited tranquilly. They have been little rolled, and it may be
observed, that they are generally deposited in the direction of
the great Valley.

Higher up, we come to Wesserling, built on an extensive
deposit composed of sand, pebbles, and large blocks more or

M. Renoir on tUe Glaciers of the Vosges. 285

less rolled. This deposit has the form and position of a ter-
minal moraine, if we pay attention to the axis of the upper
part of this valley ; but, as it extends to some distance like a
table-cloth, it might likewise be regarded as a bank or deposit
formed by water, the more so as it occurs at a point where
the valley becomes greatly widened ; however, no trace of
stratification is here visible. What has determined my opi-
nion in favour of a moraine, independently of the particular
disposition of tlie large blocks and angular fragments, is the
discovery of beautiful polished surfaces with their striae, on the
right bank of the rivulet of Thur, at about a kilometer above
the great buildings of Wesserling. I ought, however, to add,
that, with the exception of these surfaces, which are of small
extent, and which have escaped the notice of those who pre-
ceded me, because they were not searching for them, this de-
posit, and that of which I am about to speak, are the most
equivocal of all that I have met with.

At the opening of the transverse valley which descends from
the Col de Bussang into that of St Amarin, we meet with a new
collection of stones, which may likewise be taken for a bank,
but which seems to us, fi'om its form, and on account of the
polished surfaces of which we shall afterwards speak, to be,
with more propriety, regarded as the lateral moraine of a gla-
cier which descended from this transverse valley, proceeding
from the surrounding summits, such as Drumont, Tete de
Perche, or even perhaps from the ballon of Giromagny, which,
by uniting to that of the glacier of the great valley, descend-
ing, probably, from the great Veutron or the high summits of
the other side, would have formed a median moraine ; very
short, it is true, because the two glaciers united immediately,
as is proved by a terminal moraine to be seen a little further
down, imperfectly preserved, but recognizable at its two extre-
mities.

Continuing to ascend the valley, we soon find, above the
village of Oderen, the remains of a new moraine, disturbed by
waters, but still well characterised. But it is immediately be-
low the village of Gruth, or rather, at the commencement of
the village, that a beautiful terminal moraine is to be seen in,

VOL. XXIX. NO LVIII. OCTOBER 1840. U

286 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges.

a state of good preservation. It must have been a powerful
one ; for, notwithstanding the great sinking which the melting
of the ice it necessarily contained in its interior, as is the case
with all other moraines, must have caused, it is still of consi-
derable height. The centre of the village is likewise situated
on another moraine parallel to the first ; but the form of it is
less obvious. Lastly, at the north-west point of the rock which
bears the ruins of the Chateau de Wildenstein, are still to be
seen the remnants of a fourth.

One of the reasons which led me to consider these accumu-
lations of stones as moraines, is. that their absolute height is
greater in the middle than towards the rocks which encompass
the valley, as is the case with all the moraines of existing gla-
ciers. The cause of this peculiar form is known, and has been
stated by the savans who have occupied themselves with gla-
ciers ; a form peculiar to moraines, and which is the very oppo-
site to that which deposits formed by rapid currents would
assume. Moreover, polished rocks appear along the whole
right bank x)f the rivulet Thur, at heights more or less consi-
derable, whenever the rocks have been sufficiently hard to pre-
serve their polish, or when they have been somewhat protected
by their position from the action of atmospheric agents. It
is true that this polish is no longer perfect, and has, conse-
quently, been incapable of preserving the striae ; but we have
noticed, that the same deterioration is observable not far from
glaciers, when the rocks are not very hard, or when they have
for a long time been left by the glaciers. We see nothing of
them on the south-west declivity, because, being there more
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, the surface is entirely
decomposed, covered with debris, and in a state ready to slip
downwards in numerous places.

To the south of the villages of Oder en and Fellering, and
at a great height, are to be seen a considerable number of
blocks of all sizes, a little scattered on the declivity of the
mountain, many of the largest of which appear to support
themselves by a few points only on others of smaller dimen-
sions. I regret much that time did not allow me to study
their state and position nearer.

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges, 287

From the bottom of the valley of St Amarin, I returned to
the lateral valley of which I have already spoken, which leads
to that of the Moselle by the Col de Bussang. I immediately
perceived, above the village of Orbey, near the road, several
polished surfaces, of small extent it is true, and not so well
preserved as those of Wesscrling ; but their small extent is of
no importance, since these vestiges, as we have already stated,
are not necessarily any thing else than the remains of broad
surfaces almost entirely destroyed. Higher up, near the point
where the road turns abruptly, I again found similar surfaces,
better preserved, and their strige quite visible at upwards of
500 metres above Wesserling.

From this point, as far as the village of St Maurice in the val-
ley of the Moselle, and even as far as the summit of the height
of Alsace, I met with nothing characteristic, unless the debris,
more or less rolled, and in unstratified masses, intersected in
different directions by ravines, and covered with some blocks
which encumber the valley of Bussang to St Maurice, be not
the remains of a long moraine, which rested on the south-
cast declivity of the small chain of Tete des Corbeaux, opposite
to that of Tete de Perche^ or of the height from which the gla-
cier may have descended.

It is in descending the southern declivity of the height of
Giromagny, and towards the bottom of the declivity, that the
proofs of the ancient existence of a glacier become evident,
A little below the Saut de la Truite^ we begin to discover,
even in the ditch by the roadside, the first traces of a polished
surface, with well preserved stria?. A little farther down, these
same surfaces appear well developed, and extend throughout
the whole breadth of the valley, as far as the outlet of the
gorge which incloses the road ; but they are not so well pre-
served, and, doubtless for that reason, exhibit no striae. They
are seen even on the rocks of the left bank of the Savour euse,
at a greater height than that of the rocks of Tete des Planches,
that is to say, at upwards of 130 metres above the valley of
Giromagny, on all the places sufficiently hard and sheltered
against this action of the atmosphere to have remained entire,
and not fallen into an earth v detritus.

288 M, Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges.

But it is here in particular — that is to say, from the outer
side of the gorge as far as Giromagny — that the moraines shew
themselves in the best preserved and most unequivocal manner ;
as much so indeed as perhaps could be expected when we enu-
merate all the causes which have tended, and still tend, to de-
form and destroy them, — such as the melting of the ice which
they contained at their formation, currents of water, culti-
vation, &c.

A first terminal moraine first shews itself ; it is the worst
preserved and least important, it is broken in many places,
and a fixed rock found in its interior, may afford a pretext for
doubt ; but three beautiful terminal moraines of considerable
size, nearly quite parallel and conformable to the general type
of modern moraines, make their appearance in the valley, like
three undeniable v/itnesses, before arriving at the village of Puy ;
that is to say, extending over a space of half a league. And
lastly, the northern part of Giromagny, at about 400 metres
from the tower, is likewise built on a great terminal moraine,
interrupted by the bed of the Savoureuse and by the cut of the
road, and which, in spite of these, as well as building and cul-
tivation, is still in good preservation.

Now I think I can afford an explanation of the manner of
transportation and the precarious position on one of their small
faces, not only of the boulders deposited on the mountain which
overlooks Giromagny, but likewise of all those to be seen on
the two declivities of this part of the valley. These blocks
are the remains of two lateral moraines, of which that on the
right has been the most considerable. Taken together, they
form at the same height, two lines inclined towards the plain
as the surface of a glacier must have done, penetrating into
the sinuosities to be seen near Puy, precisely as we observe
in actual moraines. If these blocks had been transported by
currents, they could not have penetrated into these anfractu-
osities, when they are surmounted by heights transverse to
the current, and on which they would necessarily have been
deposited. It may be useful to observe, that the blocks of
Tete-des-planches, which are the largest and most numerous,
are placed in relation to the valley of Giromagny as those of

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosgea. 289

Mouthey in the Valais, of which I have spoken, and which cer-
tainly belong to ancient glaciers, are placed relatively to that
of the Rhone : that is in regard to the upper part of the val-
ley at the point where it turns. The same observation ap-
plies to those to be seen above Fellering and Oderen.

Time and the nature of my engagements did not allow me
to explore again the part of the beautiful valley of the Moselle
which extends from St Maurice to Epinal and beyond it. Si-
tuate below the heights of Giromagny and Servance, I doubt
not but that it presents fine and numerous traces of extensive
glaciers, which it has for so long a time no doubt contained
on its sides. I have traversed it twice, but almost exclusive-
ly occupied with the study of crystalline rocks, I would not
afford sufficient attention to orographical appearances of the
nature of those which now occupy us ; so that my recollection
does not enable me to come to any conclusion regarding it.
I purpose next spring to study it in this new point of view,
and to give the result of my observations in the notice which
will accompany the topographical and geognostic chart of the
environs of Belfort, which I hope to be able to publish forth-
with. Meanwhile, Avhat we find concerning this valley under
the title of groupe des blocs erratiques, in the work of M. H.
Hogard on the Mountains of the Vosges,* allows us to dis-
cern, especially if provided with M. Rozef s good topographi-
cal and geognostic chart, the remains of terminal moraines in
those accumulations of stones in ancient lakes, and lateral mo-
raines in the deposits of pebbles and blocks lying at different
heights on the flanks of the valley, and even on the sides of the
neighbouring mountains, and which run in the direction of the
valley, and stop suddenly instead of descending to the lower de^
clivities which are near them. This judicious observer rightly
judges that the hypothesis of the transportation of blocks of
stone by currents was inadmissible, for he says, in the article
on deposits in elevated places, p. 194 : — *' Besides sands, rolled
pebbles, and fragments of rock, composing these transported

* Description mineralogique ct geologique des regions granitique et ar«-
nactt'e du systeme des Vosges. Epinal, 1837.

29t> M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges.

deposits, of which I have spoken, we likewise find blocks of
large dimensions, sometimes exceeding twenty cubic metres,
the transportation of which ^ in the places rohere they are found,
cannot he explained by means of the same forces which have con-
veyed the others''' Thus, in order to explain the great height
at which these collections are found, M. Hogard has recourse
to another hypothesis, — that' of a change of level in the diffe-
rent parts of the valley, subsequently to the transportation of
these debris.

The strongest consideration indicative of the origin of all
these remains, is derived from considering them collectively.
In fact, if we see in our valleys only collections of stones which
we ascribe to moraines, we might, perhaps, in conformity to
one of the old systems, regard them as the remains of the
banks of ancient lakes. But in regard to these huge tran-
sported blocks, deposited at great heights on the declivities of
mountains, their transportation by means of water and muddy
currents, would always remain incomprehensible ; for we can-
not cite as an example, even on a small scale, the last break-
ing up of the Dent-du-Midi in the Valais. In that case, the
blocks only descended in obedience to the law of gravitation,
aided merely by a muddy current, and in reality they surmounted
no obstacle nor ascended again ; on the contrary, the residuum
and debris were extended in the manner of avalanches, with-
out any resemblance to the forms of a moraine. But do we
here find only the forms of a moraine and transported blocks ?
Shall we regard these lateral banks, all of them inclined, and
often considerably so, as having contained the waters of lakes \
Can the latter ever have inclined surfaces ? Shall we say
that they have been deposited by currents having this inclina-
tion ? In such a case the currents must have been very ra-
pid, and could not have formed, in the midst of their course,
heaps of stones corresponding to the bottom of the valley-
Lastly, these round surfaces, small as well as large, polish-
ed on the faces which must have been opposed to the cur-
rents, quite as perfectly, as on those which would have been
directly exposed to them ; equally worn on every part of the
same heterogeneous rock, without any difference resulting from

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges, 291

solubility in water, hardness, the presence of crystals, fossils,
&c., and presenting all the characters of rocks which are still
polished every day by our glaciers ; in particular, fine and pa-
rallel striae, constantly running in the direction of the gene-
ral movement, and similar to what diamond points fixed to-
gether in a large frame, would trace upon polished marble ;
striae which could not therefore be traced otherwise than by
angular fragments of hard rock, fixed in a solid body having
a regulated movement, such as takes place in the mass of a
glacier. And let it not be said that these surfaces have been
worn by the friction of blocks in their passage, for in that case
they would not rise into nipple-like prominences, often form-
ing a hemisphere of rather small diameter. Let it not more-
over, be said, that the stria? have been engraved by the hard
angular points which often project from the surface of these
blocks ; in such a case, they could not exhibit the sustained
direction now observed, since a block rubbing upon a rock and
driven forward by a violent current, rolls upon itself, or continu-
ally turns upon the rubbing surface, by continually changing
its direction. When, therefore, we see so many proofs accumu-
lated in the same point, as in the valley of Giromagny, it is
impossible to resist conviction, and there is scarcely anything
save a geometrical demonstration, that could be attended with
greater weight.

A proof of another kind is derived from the state of the soil
at the bottom of the two dechvities of the chain. M. Henry
Hogard, observing that no debris of calcareous rocks was found
in the ancient alluvium which covers the soil at the bottom
of the north declivity, remarks :

" The current which has carried along the blocks of which
I speak (boulders), has followed the direction from SE. to
NW. ; it ran parallel to the general direction of the valleys of
the Vosges, in which the deposits of ancient alluvium have
been made by the movements of the waters which flowed, as
they do now, towards the north-west. Of this fact we may
be convinced by studying the nature of the deposits, and of the
materials composing them"

" Thus we see the rocks of the high regions descend to-

*i92 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges

wards the plain, and the debris of calcareous rocks are never
found ascending,^^

Now, I had myself long since remarked, that the ancient
alluvium or terrain de comhlement of the southern declivity,
which descends the mountains, following likewise the slopes of
the valleys in the directions north, south, north-west, and south-
east, is exclusively composed of the debris of the superior
rocks, without ever presenting specimens of calcareous rocks
before reaching the level of the latter. From this I am like-
wise entitled to conclude, that these debris have been carried
along by a current coming from the north-ivest parallel to the
general direction of our valleys^ since no calcareous fragment
has ascended.

Here, then, are two currents directly opposite to each other,
descending from the same point of the Vosges, the source of
which we must consider as having been at the summit, a sup-
position incomprehensible, and altogether inadmissible.

All these difficulties disappear, and every thing admits of a
natural explanation, if we place on the heights (ballons) of
Giromagny and Servance, and on the neighbouring elevations,
glaciers, which, by their continual movement, would transport,
without effort, all the fragments of rocks detached from the
summits, and the melting of which would furnish, for a long
period, torrents and powerful rivers, conveying to a distance
from both sides of the ridge of the chain all the substances
which we now call ancient alluvium.

All the other great valleys of the Vosges affording grounds
for similar observations, it is easy to perceive that in these
mountains, as in the Alps, boulders and rolled pebbles extend
in a fan-shaped form all round the system, which could never
be the effect of a current.

Thus, then, as appears to me, the existence of ancient gla-
ciers on the Vosges mountains is established, and yet we know
that the height of Giromagny, the culminating point of those
we are considering, does not exceed 1250 metres.

If this phenomenon of cooling belongs to the earth, has its
temperature, at one time, been capable of sinking to such
a degree ? Or have the valleys, at some period or other,

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges- 293

changed their level, and done so without entirely altering their
place ? Was the epoch when ice could continue permanent at
about 400 metres of absolute height, between St Maurice in
the Valais and Bex, the lowest point at which I could observe
its traces among the Alps, the same as that when glaciers de-
scended to the same level among the Vosges at Wesserling
and Giromagny ?

Now, we know that, oftener than once, upwards of fifty
spots have been counted on the sun's disc, many of which have
been calculated to occupy a surface quadruple the extent of
that of our globe, and continued for many years. It is on re-
cord that about the year 535 the light of the sun was diminished
during fourteen months, and that in 625 the half of the disk
was obscured for a whole summer. There is no reason to
regard this last spot as a maximum ; could the sun, by en-
veloping himself entirely in a sombre veil, at one time, have
plunged us and our planets into thick darkness and universal ice \

Finally, in the planetary spaces, the temperature being un-
equal, like the dispersion of matter, could our sun, in its move-
ment, now known, round a centre with which we are yet un-
acquainted, have drawn all his system along with him into a
colder medium, from which he issued only to be plunged into
it again, at determinate epochs, which we may perhaps one
day be able to calculate ?

It is not in a simple note like the present that we can at-
tempt to discuss such questions as these ; besides, M. de Char-
pentier will soon supply us with reasons which will satisfy all
our requirements on the cause, probably accidental, of the for-
mation of large glaciers.

Since M. Agassiz has discovered polished surfaces on the
southern declivities of the chain of Jura, which the Society
verified at its meeting at Porrentruy, we may believe with
him and M. de Charpentier, that glaciers formerly covered all
the great Swiss valley ; but considering that I cannot find
traces of the ancient existence of glaciers in plains remote
from mountains, I am led to believe that, at least in our
southern parts of Europe, glaciers have never extended much
beyond the foot of these chains ; that they may have con^ti"

294 M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges.

tuted immense masses, but distinct, and generally not con-
tinued from one chain to another, and perhaps even from one
mountain to another.

With regard to the mode of the transportation of blocks, I be-
lieve that if they had slidden, as has been asserted, by their own
weight over an inclined and continuous surface of ice from the
summits of the Alps, as far, for example, as the first southern
slopes of the Jura, the face exposed to the friction in all those
of large size would necessarily be polished, but I have never
observed this effect in any of them.

If there still issue from beneath our glaciers, reduced as they
now are, rivers of which, in the favourable season, many are
of great power from their origin, how much greater must those
have been which emanated from those immense masses of ice
which covered perhaps entire countries, particularly during
the melting which reduced them to their present condition, a
melting which would be rapid, if the return of heat was sud-
den. Now, the torrents of our glaciers sometimes carry along
with them, from beneath the latter, such considerable quanti-
ties of sand, coarse gravel, and even pebbles, that the country
at a distance is covered with them ; may we not, then, be
permitted to ascribe to the great currents which proceeded
from the ancient masses those great mixtures of sand and
rolled pebbles which still encumber our lower valleys, and
which may be traced without interruption to the height of
existing glaciers, or the places which have borne ancient ones,
without having recourse to the hypothesis of a deluge, the ef-
fects of which would be different from what we now witness.

After the secretary of the Society had read the above pa-
per, M. Constant Prevost stated that he had seen on the road
to Chambery the surfaces of calcareous rocks deeply furrowed.
On these surfaces he had observed pebbles foreign to the
country, and in particular a block of greenish slate, v/hich
might be fifteen feet in diameter. He was of opinion that
these effects might be produced by causes analogous to those
just described.

At the request of M. de Roissy, M. Leblanc gave some ex-

M. Renoir on the Glaciers of the Vosges. 295

planation respecting the character and length of the striae
which have been spoken of above. These short and fine striae,
he said, have been produced by insulated angular stones harder
than those on which they have left their marks, in consequence
of the double action of friction and pressure. The mamellatcd
parts (^parties mamelonnees), on the contrary, would result
from the friction of the glacier itself, moving on its under
side. I may add, continued M. Leblanc, that M. Fergeaud,
Professor of Physics to the Faculty of Strasburg, has disco-
vered analogous phenomena in the mountains of the Black
Forest in those of the Vosges and Pyrenees, which he has
lately examined, and which he also endeavours to explain by
the theory of glaciers.

M. Voltz has remarked, in deposits of granular iron-ore,
striae, which were terminated by a grain of that substance.

M. de Roys said, that in the chain of the Alpines, between
St Remy and Aries, he has noticed a great number of these
polished surfaces looking as if overspread with a varnish, and
presenting a few striae. These hills do not rise beyond 100
or 150 metres above the Mediterranean, and he does not think
that this effect can be attributed to glaciers.*

On the Origin of Granite^ and on the application of the Hutto-
nian Theory to the present state of Geology. By M. B. Stu-
DER of Berne. In a Letter to Professor Bronn.t

The letter you sent me at the close of last year, contains so
much that is calculated to excite, and touches upon so many
important geological inquiries, that, throughout the whole
winter, I have been anticipating much pleasure in the prospect
of answering it. Since, however, my approaching journey to
Italy has been determined upon, I have been so much occu-
pied, that I have been unable to command time for the calm

* Bulletin de la Societd Geologique de France, for Feb. 1840.
t From Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, &c. Jahrgang 1840.

296 M. B. Studer on tJie Origin of Granite.

consideration of scientific subjects. But for this, I would
willingly have supplied for your Journal, not a hurried let-
ter but a well-considered paper, in answer to your doubts
concerning the origin of granite ; and the more so, as these
doubts, in a still greater degree, are entertained by many
of our colleagues. The time, in fact, seems to have arrived,
when the question of the origin of granite should receive a
full consideration, or, at all events, a discussion as to the prin-
ciples on which the inquiry should be conducted. While then,
in the mean time, I renounce every thing like profound re-
search, you are truly welcome to my more cursory thoughts,
although at the risk of a modification of my views, or an entire
abandonment of them, — after I have heard the objections that
shall be offered, and more searching and deliberate inquiry.

Although the older notions respecting the origin of gra-
nite, and especially of the crystalline siliceous rocks — and
which regard them as mechanically formed aggregates, or
aqueous deposits, are for ever laid aside, a difference of
views may still exist as to the place in which these rocks
were formed, and as to their original nature. Thus, it
might be supposed that granite was produced by the meta-
morphosis .or fusion of the more ancient deposits, and that
its place of formation lay only in the outermost crust of
the earth ; — or, it may be regarded as the earliest solid crust
of the as yet molten globe, and so be the basis of tlie
oldest deposits ; — or, as you remark in your letter, it may par-
take of both of these origins, which, being conceded, we might
thus regard the more recent granites, partly as new uprisings
of the original and still fluid matter under the general granitic
crust, and partly as the transformed product of the sedimen-
tary deposits. But to proceed to your inquiry — whether I ac-
knowledge any difference between original granite and that
more recently formed, between granite which forms the basis
of the sedimentary deposits, and that produced by transfor-
mation, I answer, so far as mineralogical characters are con-
cerned, most decidedly not. I am well aware that there are
keen partisans of the theory of metamorphosis who pretend
that they can distinguish, by hand specimens alone, between

M . B. Studer on the Origin of Granite. 297

a primitive gneiss or mica-slate, and one which is the product
of metamorphosis, and between a primitive and a more recently
formed granite. To such skill as this, however, I make no
pretensions ; and all such discriminations have hitherto inva-
riably appeared to me altogether arbitrary, and the result of
far too limited observation.

Turn we therefore from these mineralogical characters, at
least till better taught, to geological ones : And here we must,
on the one hand, state it as an undisputed and observed fact,
that granitic syenites, granitic gneisses, diallage or gabbro-
rocks, gabbro-slates, talc and mica-slates, cover for miles
sedimentary deposits containing petrifactions ; it must also
be allowed that there is an intimate union between these
rocks and sedimentary rocks, through the medium of gradual
transition : these facts allowed, it may then be inquired
whether the dogma that granite forms the general basis or
ground-work of all formations, and is peculiarly the original
rock of the earth, reposes on a very sure or fixed foundation.
Probably, we should not entertain any doubt about this con-
clusion, were we to consult oiu' elementary treatises only, or
were we simply to notice upon our elegantly coloured sections,
the large red masses on which the name of granite is pre-emi-
nently conspicuous. On more mature reflection, however, this
opinion cannot but be regarded as doubtful, nor recognised as
any thing more than a mere dogma or article of belief, not an
object of actual observation. For, were we to bring forward
ever so many examples, in which the deepest deposits disco-
vered in numerous points are not granite but some other rock,
still it would be objected that granite may lie beneath ; could
we demonstrate that most of the minutely examined granitic
districts, are evidently of recent formation, as well as the
strata which lie immediately beneath and above them, still it
might be asserted that these upraised granites prove nothing
more than the presence of a deeper lying general granitic
mass ; and were we to extend this conclusion to all massive
rocks, that we might gain a wider field for the action of me-
tamorphosis, then we ai'e called to believe in the unpropor-
tionably greater distribution of granite by including all por-

2^ M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite,

phyries, diorites, serpentines, and trachytes. AH these postu-
lates, however, it will be observed, rest, in the last instance,
upon the necessary demand of our reason for a fixed founda-
tion for the first sedimentary deposits, and a sufficiently cooled
stony bottom for the primeval ocean ; and in what rock, it may
be asked, if not in granite, shall we seek for the material of this
basis.

The doctrine is grounded upon the philosophy of the past
century, which assumed that the foundation of all things, in-
cluding the sea, had been narrowly and sufficiently examined ;
that it was as easy to give an account of the history of man,
and the organic world, as it was to ascertain the intentions of
nature in matters the most insignificant and most important.
Far more useful, however, would it be, than many of those
sections which geologists are in the custom of hanging about
their rooms, were they supplied with a representation of a
large circle, exhibiting, exactly in due proportions, the semi-
diameter of the earth, with the extent of its crust so far as it
is accessible to us. A glance of this plan would be much
more instructive to many of us, than the display of the
coloured profile of the MM. Webster and Noggerath; and
it would go far to overthrow the belief of many who ima-
gine that we have succeeded in penetrating, through the
diversified surface, to the primitive mass beneath. If geo-
logists are content to be ignorant of the primitive condition
of the globe, and to recognise nothing but chaos anterior to
the oldest sedimentary formations, then the above-mentioned
facts remain the only supporting points of our explanations.
When we see the common Fucoid slate and Macigno sand-
stone, passing into chlorite-slate, serpentine, and gabbro, we
shall, till additional observation teaches us otherwise, assign
the same kind of origin to all serpentines and gabbros. And
when, in other places, the same strata change into mica-slates
and gneiss ; and in others still, the gneiss becomes converted
into gneiss-granite, then must we also regard granite univer-
sally as the product of metamorphosis. It by no means sur-
prises us that the most perfect granite is principally to be
found at great depths, at the base or nucleus of the crystalline

M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite, 299

strata : for it is there that the product of the most complete
transformation must necessarily occur.

Although I affirm that the metamorphosis of Flysch rock
into crystalline quartzose rocks is a fact, yet I am far from
pretending that I can explain this process. Chemistry has
indeed furnished us with some important explanations con-
cerning many hitherto enigmatical appearances, but it is not
yet in a condition to solve the higher problems of geology ;
and observation has far outstript theory. To deny facts for
any such reason as this, however, as is actually done, is to imi-
tate those who rejected the laws of Kepler, before Newton
had deduced them from gravitation. The Newton of Che-
mistry, I may add, has yet to appear, who, resting upon geo-
logical observations, has to demonstrate the higher, principles
upon which the construction {Slochiologie) of the System of the
Alps is regulated. All endeavours of this kind have hither-
to been unsuccessful, and the cause of failure may in part be
discovered. For, supposing that our elements could be reduced
to still simpler ingredients — and no chemist will assert the con-
trary (?) — and that under the pressure of the whole weight of
the sea, and at temperatures which lie far beyond the limits
with which we are acquainted, forces were in action, of which
we can scarcely form an idea, as certainly existed at the time
when our mountains were raised from the depths of the ocean
to the regions of eternal snow, — then, to subject these condi-
tions, and all the appearances and processes which accompa-
nied this great event, to the laws of our Chemistry, could have
a result similar only to our exposition of the planetary move-
ments, in the times of Galileo, when it was sought for solely
in the empirical laws of gravitation. Besides, we are placed
here in far more disadvantageous circumstances, for the mighty
processes now under consideration do not pass along the sphere
of our observation, as do the phenomena of the heavenly bo-
dies, but become known to us only in the traces they leave
behind them.

The formation of crystalline rocks from sedimentary depo-
sits, has been compared to the changes which are produced by
trap-dykes in the neighbouring rocks, or by tlie smelting fire

300 M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite.

on the walls of furnaces ; and hence it has been supposed that
every transformed mountain-mass must have been in contact
either with apparent or concealed plutonic rocks. It is quite
possible that high temperatures may have essentially contri-
buted to the process under review ; but, in otlier respects, the
adduced comparison appears exceedingly defective ; and chief-
ly, as it has often enough been stated, because the influence
of the dykes, extending at most but a few feet, bears no pro-
portion to the metamorphosis of a whole mountain. Besides,
our physical and chemical theories are in most cases satisfac-
tory in the explanation of the observed influence, whilst the
metamorphosis of the Fli/sch-rock into gneiss or serpentine is
based merely upon hypothesis alone. But the complete dif-
ference of the two processes is made evident by the simple ob-
servation, that ivt so far as the crystalline silicates have been
produced from sedimentary deposits, we cannot ascribe the me-
tamorphosis to their influence, that is to say, to their own pro-
duction. There is still another fact, hitherto little insisted on,
which appears to denote a very striking difference between
the two appearances ; for it seems quite incompatible with this
theory of contact, that in the Alps, at all events, the change has
peculiarly manifested itself in the external and higher masses,
whilst the inner and deeper strata are nearly unchanged, —
the rocks in which the metamorphosis is most conspicuous,
are entirely separated from the alleged sources of the change
by great masses more than 1000 feet thick, and without our
being able to perceive any internal or concealed uprising of
massive rocks in the form of veins. Thus, in the Southern
Alps, dolomite forms the highest rocky precipices ; and it is
only after passing over a long range of stratified deposits
which contain fossils, that we descend to the red or black por-
phyries. And how striking is it that in those places where
the different kinds of rocks are in juxtaposition, as at Pre-
dazzo, the limestone passes not into dolomite, but into granu-
lar marble ; exactly as in the Grisons, where the limestone
lying close upon serpentine, or surrounded by it, is always free
from magnesia, though often white and transparent, like a pro-
duct of contiguity : at a somewhat greater distance, the same

M. n. Studer on the Origin of Granite. 301

limestone forms immense exposed masses of dolomite. In the
Grisons and Glarus, the common Fucoid slates prevail as tlie
principal underlying rocks, crystalline strata of hornblende,
syenite, und gabbro overlying it. In the Bernese Oberland^
the uppermost portions of the older Jura limestone have been
converted into marble, cipolin, and talc-slate; and, at a greater
distance from the gneiss of the Alps, and separated from it by
the system of the nummulite limestone, which is 10,000 feet
thick, and by the Niesen chain, we find likewise the upper
masses of the newer Jura limestone, in the Simmcn Thai and
the Saane Thai, converted, sometimes into a calcareous cipo-
lin, sometimes into red or green iron-shot slate ; among these
slates there occurs a light-coloured limestone, which is several
hundred feet in thickness, unstratified, fissured in all direc-
tions, and of a scaly granular structure ; and it is only deeper
still that we find the common black limestone, compact, dis-
tinctly stratified, and destitute of any organic remains. We
should hence be led almost to suppose that electro-polar pro-
cesses had been exerting their agency in the upper and exter-
nal parts of the mountain, whilst, contemporaneously, the deep-
est foundations had been subjected to the influence of agents
acting from beneath ; and we can see no reason why such op-
posing agencies should be confined solely to the Alps.

In connection with the puzzling appearances of the meta-
morphosis of whole mountains, the facts which have hitherto
been regarded as principally supporting the upraising theory
can take only a subordinate place. The formative act of the
Alpine system is also a phenomenon which originally differs
essentially from all the volcanic processes with which we are
acquainted, and with which the foregoing facts are allied, but
is probably calculated to diffuse light upon these processes
themselves. When we see sedimentary deposits in the inte-
rior of the Alps passing into serpentine, which, farther on,
forms dykes, and thus overflows, lava-like, and produces con-
tiict phenomena, why are we not entitled to assume that, in
other regions where we can follow the dyke masses into a com-
mon rocky trunk, the connection of tliis trunk with tlie origi-
nal sedimentary deposit remains hid from us, because it is only

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVIII. — OCTOBEa 1840, X

302 M. B. Studer 07i the Origin of Granite.

in the Alps that the internal laboratory appears to have been
broken open ? When, in the Grisons and in the Simmen Thai,
we see limestones, which, at one extremity, shew themselves
in undisturbed stratification, and at the other, split into many
layers, or passing into breccias and conglomerates^ and as such
swelling into high mountain-masses, or extensive irregular
masses, the suggestion arises, that, in consequence of some
subterraneous conglomerate formation, there may take place a
swelling and upraising of the surface resting upon it, followed
by an explosion, and that the pent-up debris is thrown out.
In this stoechiological convulsion of rocks, it may well be sup-
posed there is a much greater increase of volume than in one
which is merely mechanical ; and in this, perhaps, we find the
cause of the very marked extent of the mica-slate and gneiss
formations, — the great height to which they rise, — their in-
cluding the neighbouring limestones, and also the dislocation
of these latter over the molasse. It would thus be much more
simple to recognise the cause of the outpouring of the lava in
the pressure of the walls upon the rocks which had become
fluid, than, with Cordier, to suppose, that the whole of the
crust of the earth is put into action, for the purpose of forcing
out a portion of the still fluid central mass of the globe. Such
a tremendous machinery could not fail to produce results, in
comparison of which our mightiest lava streams d^vindle into
utter insignificance.

Respecting a theory which, like the one of metamorphosis,
promises to assume a conspicuous place in science, it becomes
us to inquire into its origin, and to trace its previous develop-
ment.

The principle of metamorphosis was first, it would appear,
at the end of the last century, suggested by Hutton, and with
the full merit of originality. It is necessarily involved in the
proposition that all stratified rocks are not primitive, but have
proceeded from the destruction of older rocks; — ^that they
have thus become more or less consolidated by the internal
heat of the globe, and have thereby been transformed into
masses possessing a crystalline and slaty appearance. Hutton,
moreover, regarded granite and trap as substances which had

M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite. 303

issued from the interior of the earth in a liquid state ; and he
felt embarrassed by their sometimes assuming the appearance
of stratification. His opponents, also, it should be noted, have
particularly dwelt upon the close connection between granite
Paid gneiss, and have properly shewn how inconsistent it was
with nature to assign an entirely different origin to the two
rocks. Playfair, long ago, answered this objection in words
we might still use (see paragraph 146 of the Illustrations), by
assuming that in stratified granite, as in gneiss, the lines of
stratal separation in the original sedimentary deposit of the
beds have still been preserved, whilst the mass itself under-
went a metamorphosis by crystallization, whereas in masses of
unstratified granite these traces are wanting. Playfair, more-
over, believed, that granite itself had its origin from older se-
dimentary deposits.

After the re-opening of literary intercourse with Britain,
tliese views spread upon the Continent, chiefly by means of the
French translation of " The Illustrations," which appeared
in the year 1815, — of the work of Boue in 1818, and of Necker
in 1821, both of whom studied geology carefully in Edin-
burgh under Professor Jameson, and also of MacCulloch's
work, and the Transactions of the Geological Society. They
found a general acceptance, however, only after the dominion
of the Wernerian geology was completely overthrown by Voa
Bucli's celebrated treatise on the southern Tyrol, and when
tlie original Plutonic principle of the theory of rocks, origi-
nating in Italy, was again restored to its proper place. In the
same work, Von Buch has made a more decided and most in-
teresting application of the principle of metamorphosis, and,
at the same time, has essentially extended it, as he has done
the theory of elevation itself, by the important agency he as-
signs to sublimation, and the power of vapours.

On one occasion, I well remember, as M, Merian and I
were wandering in the Glarner Alps, in tlie summer of 1826,
the origin of gneiss and mica-slate from sedimentary rocks
was frequently the subject of our conversation ; and in a short
notice which I gave of that journey in the Zeitschrift fur
MtJieralogie^ our opinion as to tke correctness of tliese viewa

304 M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite.

is clearly declared. In that notice, the metamorphosis of se-
condai'}' slates into mica-slate and gneiss, was, perhaps for
the first time suggested, not as a theoretical view, but as an
ascertained fact ; in the same way as Von Buch had previously
proved the transformation, in nature itself, of limestone into do-
lomite. In our tour through Glarus, we happened to pass into
a part of the mountains where this metamorphosis is exhibited
in a more striking way, perhaps, than in any other part of
Europe, — where, on the extended sides of the mountain, the
eye can, at a glance, follow the whole of the changes, from
the greyish-black of the Glarus-^loXe, through violet and
purple to the brightest red ; and from the light grey of the com-
mon limestone to the brightest straw- yellow of the dolomite,
— where, on the Kdrpfstock, even a still higher degree of trans-
formation appears, as we find the strata have now become
particoloured and shining, containing quartz masses, which
include druses of rock-crystal, felspar, garnet, and hornblende,
— until, finally, we find ourselves surrounded with rocks such
as we observe at St Gothard and in Chamounix. This is
so much the more remarkable, because it was in the black
slate quarries of Matt, at the foot of these mountains, that
the slate containing fossil fishes was first observed as the
predominant rock of the bottom of the valley, and also be-
cause, on the southern declivity, as we descend from the
Kdrpfstock, to the Bind valley, the common Fhjsh soon again
presents itself in great thickness among the variegated rocks.
I shall here take the liberty of quoting the following sen-
tence of a letter which M. Elie de Beaumont did me the
honour of addressing to me in August 1838, with the pur-
pose of adducing it as an invaluable testimony as to the cor-
rectness of our views ; " I have particularly examined," writes
the distinguished French geologist, " both during the past
year and the present, the environs of Spitzmeileti and Murts-
chenstock^ and, with much pleasure, have recognised all that
you described some twelve or fifteen years ago, in a me-
moir which I requested the editor of the Annates des Sciences
to translate and publish in French. You have there sig-
nalized one of the most curious and most evident instances of-

M, B. Studer on the Oriyin of Granite* 305

metamorphosis which the Alps present, and, at the same time,
one of those which most decidedly proves that these phenomena
are of recent origin in the Alps, since a part of the rocks
which exhibit them rest upon the nummulitic system." Now
that the theory of elevation has become so universally popu-
lar, the principle of metamorphosis, which is so closely con-
nected with it, finds many supporters, especially among those
geologists who have had frequent opportunities of studying the
slaty crystalline rocks. Keilhau, in the years 1836 and 1837,
pointed out many remarkable and extraordinary facts observed
in the neighbourhood of Christiania, which likewise go far be-
yond the reach of the present state of chemistry ; although they
refer more to the consequences of immediate contact than to
those changes which are produced upon the great scale. It,
moreover, would perhaps have been desirable that Keilhau
should not have been so minute in his explanations, because
the learned world is very apt to throw away, with a theory
which it may deem untenable, the facts which are intended to
elucidate that theory. The views, also, which M. Elie de Beau-
mont advanced in 1828, regarding the metamorphosis of the
secondary rocks of the Tarentaise into cipoUn-Umestones and
crystalline slates, have produced a very considerable effect. *
As in the Alps, so in the Pyrenees, the principle of meta-
morphosis was to M. Dufrenoy a strong point of support in
the explanation of the most important relations and now
scarcely a year passes over our heads, during which, in moun-
tains and districts which had not previously been examined,
or, at all events, in relation to this point, new support to our
theory is not procured. In Italy, the practical geologists Sis-
monda, Pareto, Guidoni, and Savi, have become converts to
the new belief ; and the last-named individual, in his latest
writings, shews himself much inclined to suppose that serpen-

* From that time especially has the spell been broken, which, from the
earliest date, induced the belief that the highest Alps were to be considered
as the first-bom of the earth's formations ; and, witli this notipn, has Uio
opinion vanished, that, from the appearance of a rock itself, the epoch of its
formation may be determined.

806 M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite.

tine and gabbro were derived from macigno. With what energy
Hoffman has adopted these views is evident from all he has
written, and especially from his works upon Italy. Through
his means the Apuanian Alps have become classical for the
study of metamorphosis.

It is rather surprising that these views, which have not been
put in a peculiarly strong light in the writings of Hutton and
his followers, should have spread so widely, whilst another prin-
ciple of Mutton's doctrine, notwithstanding its greater simpli-
city, finds much difficulty in obtaining the consideration it me-
rits. I allude to the fundamental law that geology cannot scan
the origin of things, but can observe only the succession of
transformations which has arisen from Neptunian and Plutonic
influences, and that there is not to be found in the earth's
crust within our reach any thing that is primitive, — any ori-
ginal rocks, but only newly formed, or transformed fragmen-
tary ones ; a principle which, after so many and such import-
ant discoveries, we may still class with the most considerable,
as it comprehends the change from organic into inorganic
matter, and that of the latter again into the former. The great
talent with which Mr Lyell has demonstrated the doctrine
of periodic change in regard to the nature of the earth's
surface, and the general approbation bestowed on his work,
have not been able, even in Britain, to induce many who
are zealous advocates of metamorphosis, to abandon the old
path ; and still less has the principle extended over the
Continent. For this unfortunate result, a great part of the
blame is, I think, due to the expositions of geology which
are supplied in books, and by lectures. Although nearly
the whole ground upon which Werner based his system has
been demonstrated to be untenable, still his footsteps arc
pursued in relation to geology ; and this science, as it has
long done, maintains the character of a history of the globe.
Whether we proceed with Werner, from the oldest formations
to the newest, or, as is now generally done, reverse the pro-
cedure, the historical representation always requires a begin-
ning and an end as epochs of time, and one is opposed to the
idea of a chapter on tertiary and secondary formations without

M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite, 307

a concluding chapter on primitive rocks. What, however, shall
we say if, sooner or later, this science, which at present is
regarded as so important, and which disputes the palm even
with sublime astronomy, — if geology or geognosy should cease
to be enumerated among the natural sciences ? However grie-
vous the prospect must be for the geological courses of my
learned colleagues and myself, still I fear that the mournful
consummation cannot, in the long run, be prevented.

If we more narrowly examine the right and title which geo-
logy possesses to the field which has hitherto been assigned to
it, we find in the enumeration, first of all, a constantly increas-
ing succession of formations, enumerated like so many differ-
ent portions of the earth's surface. According to the unani-
mous opinion, the species of rocks are of very^inferior import-
ance among the characteristics of these formations ; and those
rocks of the Wernerian school, which are still taken into con-
sideration, must continue to decrease in proportion as the for-
mations lose their local character, by more extensive research.
On the other hand, the doctrine of the earth's formation ap-
pears more clearly distinct, in proportion as it is divested of all
extrinsic considerations, among which I reckon whatever re-
lates partly to the rock itself; that is to say, in so far as is not
closely connected with the organic characters, and partly to all
the changes and transformations to which it has been subject-
ed ; and in proportion to our endeavours to comprehend and
exhibit the formations as they may have been originally consti-
tuted. But, thus regarded, the doctrine of the earth's forma-
tion comes necessarily to be included in the province of orga-
nic natural history, and becomes organic geography, whose pro-
vince is the consideration, not only of the present world as now
constituted, but also of the previous and the earliest develop-
ments of the organism. Whatever occurs in these inquiries
regarding kinds of rocks, reduces itself to the sandy and clayey
formations which we see originating in our moors, lakes, and
seas, and which neither require great mineralogical knowledge
nor expensive collections. A work like the Lethaea, but giving
somewhat more prominence to the organic formations of a more
general kind, such as coral-reefs, infusoria, peat, and so forth,

308 M. B. Studer on the Origin of Granite »

and still more to the local description of those regions which
have become classical from their particular formations, as for
example, the Parisian basin for the lower tertiary, Thuringia
for the Zechstein group, &c., would better correspond with
what is desiderated, than those disquisitions which abound in
geological books, whose authors not being zoologists, occupy
themselves chiefly with descriptions of the mountain rocks, and
the relations of stratification, and thereby confound every thing.
What remains after the separation from our science of the doc-
trine of the earth's formation, has assumed, in our latest works,
more and more the aspect of physical geography, and must in-
deed altogether coincide with this science. To treat separate-
ly, of the effects of erosion, and of the doctrine of sedimentary
deposits, as something independent of all that is necessarily
associated with this subject in physical geography, is altoge-
ther unscientific. The eff*ects of heat and pressure in produ-
cing the consolidation of these deposits, and in inducing pecu-
liarity of structure, different coloration, and so forth, — how
they, by stronger influence, produced metamorphosis, or par-
tial fusion ; the formation of mountain-chains from these depo-
sits, and their elevation from the bottom of the ocean, — the
outpouring of the molten masses in dykes and streams — all
these agencies of the new theory can be satisfactorily described
only in accordance with the principles of general physics, and
arc entirely incongruous with historical-organic-geography ;
and, in these matters, mineralogical skill will find ample scope
for its due exercise.

And now this letter, which should have been a short one,
has exceeded all bounds. This day four weeks, I start di-
rectly over Mont Cenis for Turin, whence I proceed to Ge-
noa, and other places.

Bern, March 2. 1840.

( 309 )

Fhi/sical and Chemical Examination of Three Inflammable
Gases which are evolved in Coal-Mines, By Dr Gustav
BiscnoF, Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Bonn. Communicated by the Author.

The financial department of the Prussian ministry com-
missioned me to investigate the inflammable gas which forms in
the Prussian coal-mines what is termed Fire-damp, and to make
experiments in explosive mixtures with Davy's safety- lamp.
Chemists, from investigations made in England, regard this
inflammable gas merely as carburetted hydrogen, and even,
after marsh gas, as the purest carburetted hydrogen gas that
can be obtained ; but the analyses of the gases from the
English coal-mines by no means justify the assumption, that
the inflammable gases from other coal mines are invariably of
the same nature.

It is but rarely that a good opportunity presents itself in
mines, of collecting this gas in a perfectly pure condition. If
the mines in which it is evolved be damp, its evolution is
rendered evident by a peculiar sound which may be exactly
compared to the noise caused by the movement of a number
of crabs in a basket. We also perceive, on the floor or the
roof of the galleries, bubbles, which, by bursting, cause this
noise, and which can often be ignited by the lamp. Should,
however, the mines be perfectly dry, the evolution of this gas
can only be ascertained by the formation of fire-damp. Be-
sides these evolutions, extending over a greater or smaller
extent, by means of which the fire damp is produced at such
places, when no strong current of air exists, there are also
particular points where the inflammable gas flows out in
greater or less abundance, from fissures in the coal-strata or
neighbouring rock. Such places, which are termed blowers
(blaserj, are, however, but rare in our mines. It is evident
that it is such blowers alone which admit of the collection of
a perfectly pm*e gas.

In the year 1837, while visiting some of the coal-mines in
the vicinity of Saarbriicken, I found a gaseous exhalation of
thia description issuing from a fissure in sandstoae of the

310 Dr Bischof s Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

coal-formation in Gerhard's stollen. By inserting in the fis-
sure a tube, and luting it with clay, the evolved gas could be
ignited, and it burned with a blue flame three or four inches
in height. The flame was so perfectly blue and without a
trace of yellow, that, when it was compared with the bluish-
yellow flame of the inflammable marsh gas, one was inclined
to regard the evolved gas rather as carbonic oxide gas than
as carburetted hydrogen. I endeavoured, by means of a small
pneumatic trough, to collect some of it ; but it was not pos-
sible, as the gas could not overcome the pressure of the small-
est column of water. Having become aware of this circum-
stance, I turned my attention to other means in order to be
able, on my second visit to Gerhard'' s Stollen in the autumn
of 1838, to collect the desired quantity.

Physical Relations of the Inflammahh Gaseous Exhalations in the
Coal-pits of Saarhrilcken.

I have already described the mode in which the inflam-
mable gas issues forth in Gerhard s Stollen in Louisenthal.
When, in the year 1838, I visited the place for the second
time, a tube was inserted with greater care than before, and
the fissure, as far as it could be followed up, was spread over
with clay. The gas now burned with a flame which was
twelve to fifteen inches in height, but which was not as for-
merly of a pure blue colour, but was only blue beneath, and
yellow above. I shall afterwards shew that the same inflam-
mable pit-gas can burn with diff^erent coloured flames under
diff'erent circumstances.

If we allow a continuous stream of the gas to be directed
on the tongue or into the nose, we can neither remark a dis-
agreeable taste nor smell. It was tasteless, and without
odour. The miners told me that they had never noticed a
peculiar smell in fire-damp, but they had experienced a pres-
sure on the eyes and the temples. This induced me to allow
the gas to flow into my eyes for some minutes. I experienced,
however, nothing peculiar in the eyes ; but others, who re-
peated this experiment, said that they felt a peculiar sensa-
tion in the eyes or temples. ;;

The high flame of the gas, as it issued either directly from

which are evolved in Goal- Mines. 311

the fissure, or from the tube, which was five lines in diameter,
could, with facility, be extinguished. It was extinguished by
blowing upon it at a distance of from three to six feet, or by
making a movement in the air with the hand. This appear;^
less remarkable when we take into consideration, that the
gas flows out with no higher pressure than that of the atmo-
spheric air. The slightest current of air, therefore, is suffi-
cient to blow out the burning gas. It is different, as is well
known, when inflammable gases are evolved from apparatus
intended for the formation of gases, and when they issue out
under a greater or less degree of pressure. In order to ex-
tinguish such a current of gas, a current must be employed
which is greater than that of the gas itself. It is further
known, that this current must be so much the greater in pro-
portion as the inflammable gas evolves heat during its igni-
tion, and as it is more easily inflamed. Hence, of all the in-
flammable gases, hydrogen is the most difficult to extinguish.
The heat evolved by the flame of the burning pit-gas is in-
considerable ; for one can extinguish it by slowly closing the
tube with the finger, without burning himself. •

The current of gas can neither be set on fire by lighted
tinder nor by a lighted cigar, even when we attempt to
kindle it by strongly blowing with the mouth. If we do not
blow, both are speedily extinguished by the current of gas.

The temperature of the current of gas was ascertained by
me to be 55°.7 F., by placing, for some time, the bulb of a
delicate thermometer in the gas. The same thermometer
indicated a temperature of 54°. 7 F. in a bore in the rock
near the fissure, which was eight inches deep ; as deduced from
three observations made in the morning, at noon, and in the
evening. It being assumed that the gas brings with it the true
temperature of the place where it is originally evolved, that
the mean temperature of the ground of the outer crust of the
earth at SaarbriJcken is 49°. 5 F., and that the increase of
temperature towards the interior of the earth amounts to
1° F.,* for fifty-one Parisian feet, it would result that the

* The place where the gas comes out, is of course, at a depth where no
changes of temperature occur. However, the communication by the air

312 Dr Bischof 8 Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

gas comes from a depth of 322 feet. The place where the
gas issues forth is 210 feet under the surface of the earth ;
and hence it would appear that the gas comes from a depth of
112 feet under the gallery. It may however, with probability,
be assumed, that the gas on its passage is exposed to refrige-
rating influences, inasmuch as it passes through colder strata
and meets with colder water ; hence the original temperature
of the gas may have been higher than 55°.7 F. ; and the
current may have come from a greater depth.

A second blower occurs in an old deserted mine near
JVellesweiler^ about twenty English miles from Saarbriicken.
It was reached about forty or fifty years ago, and since
1816-17 has been included in a copper funnel with a pro-
longed pipe. It occiu-s in a principal fissure in slate-clay at
the bottom of the gallery. At some distance from the blower,
a bore has been made for 119 feet under the floor of the mine,
and a stratum of coal from seventy to eighty inches thick has
been found at a depth of forty -five feet.

I found this current of gas still surrounded by the above-
mentioned funnel, which I employed for the collecting of the
gas. This current is much smaller in quantity than that in
Gerhard's Stollen^ for the flame of the gas was only 2 to 3
inches high. But the gas was just as devoid of smell and
taste, and burned like the other, with a flame that was yellow
above and blue beneath.

The temperature of the gas was 54°.6 F., and that of the
rock 51°.6 F. The above-mentioned data being assumed,
the gas must have come from a depth of at least 155 feet.
The same remarks are applicable to this case as to the other,
and hence it is likely that the depth is greater than I have
just stated.

I have already mentioned, that the gas in Gerhard's Stollen
cannot be collected in the usual manner, in a pneumatic
trough. The apparatus which I employed for the purpose.

between the galleries and the external atmosphere doubtless causes the
stone, to the depth of several feet, to partake of the changes of temperature
of the external atmosphere. On the 30th September, when I made the
above observationB, the temperature of the surface of the earth was some
degrees above tlie mean. The observed temperature of the rock (64°.7 F.),
therefore, was also of course above the mean^

which are evolved in Coal-Mines.

315

consisted of a large bell-glass B, which was closed below with

a plate luted to it P, and was

provided with a stopcock c. A

second stopcock b was luted to

the bell-glass above, into which

a hollow pipe (Hiilse) a, to which

a leaden tube was luted, could

be screwed. The tube t was

luted into the fissure of the rock,

and after the bell-glass was filled

with water, the current of gas

was absorbed. I found that, even

when the cock was entirely open,

not nearly so much water flowed

out, orso much gas was absorbed,

as there issued gas from the fissure. It was easy to become

convinced of this by lighting the gas which had been again

forced out from the cock 6, by means of insertion in a vessel

filled with water ; for the flame was then only 2 inches high.

As this issuing out of the gas took place in nearly the same

time as the flowing in, while the gas coming direct from the

fissure burned with a flame of 12 or 15 inches in height, only

a small portion could be absorbed. I was thus well assured

that no atmospheric air had been absorbed along with the gas:

With the assistance of two sets of apparatus, by means of
which the gas could be alternately absorbed and again forced
out by insertion in water, fifty ordinary wine bottles of it could
be filled in one day, which, being carefully closed, were trans-
ported to Bonn, secured in vessels by means of water.

In the mine of Wellesweiler, these pieces of apparatus for col-
lecting the gas were not necessary. The circumstance that this
gas was evolved from the floor of the mine, which was covered
by water to the depth of several inches, gave me good ground
for supposing that it must flow out with a pressure greater than
that of the atmosphere. I surrounded the funnel with a layer
of clay several inches deep, conducted the leaden tube luted
to it into a pneumatic trough filled with water, and found that
the gas could still overcome the pressure of a column of water
3 inches high. In three or four minutes, an ordinary bottle

314 Dr Bischof s Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

was filled with gas. I took advantage of the favourable op-
portunity, and filled a hundred bottles, and in the same man-
ner transported them to Bonn, well closed, and secured by
water.

It thus appears that the difference between this stream of
gas and that of Gerhard's Stollen is, that the former issues
with a pressure which is somewhat greater than that of the at-
mospheric air, while the pressure of the latter is just equal
to that of the atmosphere. This difference can be easily
explained. While the gas from the Wellesweiler mine is
evolved from the floor covered with water, all the fissures
which descend from this level, and which communicate with
the above-mentioned principal fissure, must be filled with
water. Hence, all the gas which ascends from beneath is
hemmed in by water. This chief fissure, which is probably
variously ramified beneath with other gas canals, presents the
smallest amount of hindrance to the evolution of the gas, be-
cause, in a wide fissure, gas and water can be more easily se-
parated than in a narrow one. Hence, the gas is evolved from
this fissure only, and the remaining narrower canals are in-
terrupted by water. In Gerhard'' s Stollen, on the contrary,
the current of gas is evolved about 7 feet above the floor of
the mine. Hence, also, when up to that floor, all the gas ca-
nals are filled with water, this can cause no hindrance, inas-
much as the fissure is probably continued to the surface and
is ramified.* An interruption, therefore, which meets the cur-
rent of gas flowing outwards, will cause it to remove to ano-
tlier place. It is possible that, during continued wet weather,
where the fissures communicating with the surface are ob-
structed by water, the gas exerts a pressure superior to that
of the atmospheric air. Such relations, at least, are presented
by the exhalations of carbonic acid gas, of which several exam-
ples are known to me in the neighbourhood of the Laacher
S^e, and of the volcanic Eifel, both of which districts are so
rich in very large gaseous evolutions,

* This suppositibn has been completely confirmed. An officer of the mine
informs me, that the blower has ceased to flow in ; doubtless because a stra-
torn of coal has lately been, worked 28 feet above the said blower.

wMch are evolved in Coal-Mines. 315

As the blower in the mine of Wellesweiler affords a bottle
of gas in three minutes, the current thus amounts to about
18 Parisian cubic feet in twenty-four hours. I found that one
volume of this gas still formed an explosive mixture with 15
to 16 volumes of atmospheric air. In twenty-four hours, there-
fore, such a mixture of 306 cubic feet can be formed, which
would occupy a length of 14 feet. Should, therefore, such an
issue of gas continue for months, without the inflammable gas
being removed by means of a current of air, we may well ima-
gine what powerful effects the explosion of so considerable an
amount of fire-damp can produce. Notwithstanding the con-
siderable evolution of gas, which, in Gerhard's mine, judging
from the size of the flame, amounts to at least twenty times
as much as in the Wellesweiler mine, yet both mines can be
visited with the usual miner's lamp without the least danger.
One cannot even perceive the presence of the inflammable gas
in the miner's lamp.. Hence, we see that, by means of a
strong current of air, which exists in both mines, the most
considerable evolutions of inflammable gas can be made com-
pletely harmless.

On account of its inconsiderable specific gravity, the in-
flammable gas is always collected at the top of the gallery,
and there forms the fire-damp. Hence, in general, the miner
can visit without dread, places which are filled with weak fire-
damp, with the ordinary miner's lamp, if he keep the same,
near the floor ; and it is only when he approaches it to the
upper part that an explosion ensues. This is only the case,
however, in places where either there is no movement of the
air, or only a feeble one ; for, in an atmosphere which is in a
state of movement, the pit gas is either entirely removed, or
so mixed with the atmospheric air, that the whole space is
filled with fire-damp.

The ascent of the inflammable gas to the higher portions of
a mine, is turned to account in the working of beds, in order
to protect the miners from the frightful effects of fire-damp.
Thus, should an inclined stratum, proceeding from a principal
gallery, be worked from below upwards, and should there be an
evolution of inflammable gas, an accumulation takes place gra-
dually at the working place, and the mining must be suspended.

316 Dr Biscliof s Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

If, on the contrary, the mining operations should be carried on
from the opposite side, proceeding from another gallery, and
continued from above downwards, the inflammable gas removes
from the working place, and the miners can without difficulty
perfect their work to the previously abandoned point. If the
strata should be very much inclined, so that the mining opera-
tions are carried on through such highly inclined shafts, there
is no fire-damp to contend with, because, in such a case, the
inflammable gas escapes through these shafts, immediately
after its evolution.

I may be allowed to take this opportunity of communicating
some observations on exhalations of carbonic acid gas, which
present the same phenomena, but only in the opposite sense.
When carbonic acid gas is evolved in recesses, or in inclosed
spaces, which do not at all, or but slightly, partake of the ex-
ternal movements of the air, this heavier gas is collected, and
the entering such places is attended with danger to life. The
celebrated Grotto del cane, the gas grotto (Dunst/iohle) near
Pi/rmont, and several similar places in the vicinity of the
Laacher See, and in the volcanic Eifel, present like pheno-
mena. When, however, such exhalations of carbonic acid gas
take place in flat situations, and even in much larger quan-
tity, the gas becomes distributed through the atmosphere as
soon as it is evolved, and the rapidity of its diffusion hardly
admits of the presence of this mephitic gas being made known
by its smell. Thus, there is a spot at the village of Wehr,
about five English miles from the Laacher See, where car-
bonic acid gas is evolved in immeasurable quantity from hun-
dreds of mineral springs, close to one another, and wliere, at
many points, bubbles as large as the head scatter the water
to a height of more than a foot, and where, in the middle of
the marsh, the smell of the gas is hardly perceptible.

Chemical Analysis of the Pit-gas from the JVellesweiler Mine.

§ 1. Examination for Oxygen Gas.

Nitric oxide gas mixed with the pit-gas did not produce the
slightest yellow colour. By adding 54 volumes of nitric oxide
gas to 100 volumes of pit-gas, the mixture amounted to

which are evolved in Coal-Mines, 317

According to the first experiment, 163.6 volumes.

second ... 154.0
third ... 153.1 ...

Mean . . . 153.6

If this inconsiderable absorption be entirely ascribed to oxy-
gen, the latter would amount to only about 0.002 volume. It
is evident, however, that this slight absorption proceeds chiefly
from the water through which the nitric oxide gas passed.
Hence I believe that the pit-gas contains no oxygen, or at
least no appreciable quantity. The evolution of this gas must
therefore take place without any co-operation of the atmo-
spheric air. This likewise followed from the circumstance, that
this gas is evolved with a pressure greater than that of the
atmospheric air. When agitated for twenty minutes with a
solution of sulphuret of potassium, the absorption amounted
to 0.058 volume. But it is plain that the solution had ab-
sorbed a portion of the pit-gas. Th. de Saussure, at least,
had previously remarked, that inflammable gases are absorbed
in considerable quantity by sulphuret of potassium. It was on
that account that I was obliged to employ the very imperfect
agency of nitric oxide gas for determining quantitatively the
oxygen.

§ 2. Examination for carhonic acid gas.

The pit-gas renders lime-water turbid. The absorption by
means of caustic potash amounted to from 0.041 to 0.043 vo-
lume. The original quantity of carbonic acid gas, however,
must undoubtedly have been much greater, as the gas in its
course comes in frequent contact with, and as it is also collected
over, water.

§ 3. Examination for defiant gas.

This examination was performed by means of chlorine gas, and
in a flask composed of black opaque glass, of the kind called hya-
lite glass. After the pit-gas had been freed from caibonic acid
gas by agitation with liquid potash, it was mixed with chlorine,
and, after the mixture of gases had stood for several minutes
over the water used for retaining it, the chlorine was again re-
moved by agitation with caustic potash. Another portion of chlo-
rine was tested as to its containing atmospheric air, by means

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVIll. OCTOBER 1840. Y

S18 Dr Bischof s Examination of Three Itiflammahle Gases

of liquid potash, and this gas was subtracted from the residue.
The following is the detail of two experiments.

Pit-gas free from carbonic acid gas, . 154. y. 142. v.

Chlorine gas added, . . . 136. v. 137. v.

After washing the gaseous mixture with liquid potash, 156.6 v. 141. v.
136 volumes of chlorine, however, contained of at-

leric air, . . . 8.35 4.86

Hence the true residue of pit-gas after treatment with

chlorine was .... 148.16 136.64

Absorption .... 6.86 6.86

If we regard the gas absorbed as olefiant gas, its quantity
amounts to .... 0.038 0.038

The original quantity of olefiant gas must have been much
greater before the pit-gas came in contact, in a variety of
ways, with water in the gas-canals, because it is more abun-
dantly absorbed by water than is carburetted hydrogen gas.

Two other experiments on pit-gas which had been collected
a day later in the JFellesweiler mine, afforded, by means of
chlorine, an absorption of 0.028 and 0.037 volumes.

An examination of pit-gas for olefiant gas by means of su-
perchloride of antimony over mercury, yielded less satisfactory
results, and I shall not therefore communicate any of the details.

§ 4. Pit-gas and cldorine exposed to the light.
^ s I do not know that a perfectly pure inflammable pit-gas
has ever before been subjected to this experiment, I took ad-
vantage of the opportunity afforded me, to make the trial with
the almost pure carburetted hydrogen from the Wellesweiler
mine.* To 158 volumes of pit-gas, previously washed with
liquid potash, were added, over water, about double the volume
of chlorine, and exposed for five hours to the diffused day-light.
The volume was diminished to 94, After having been agi-

♦ Gay-Lussac and Thenard (Eecherclies Pliysico-Chimiques, t. 2, p. 191)
Iiave only performed experiments with gas " provenant de la decomposition
de Palcohol, ou d'uno huile, a travcrs un tube rouge de feu, ou enfin avec les
gaz inflammables compose's qu'on obtient en distillant une substance vege-
tale ou animale quelconque. Tonjours il y a eu d' action instantan^e a la
lumi^re solaire, et en m^me temps qu'il y a cu detonation riolcnte dans ce
cas, il y a qu un depot sovvcnt ti<s covsidaxdk de charbon."

nhich are evolved iti Coat-Mines, 319

tated with liquid potash, the residue amounted to 75 volumes.
This residue burned, as it appeared, with a flame which was
more blue and less yellow than the pit-gas which had not been
treated with chlorine. The chlorine had, therefore, decom-
posed only about the half of the pit-gas employed in the expe-
riment.

Equal Volumes of pit-gas and chlorine did not act on each
other in the light of the sun ; but one volume of pit-gas and
two volumes of chlorine detonated over water with a very
feeble explosion, by which carbon was deposited, and muriatic
acid was produced in white vapours. Sometimes the detona-
tion ensued instantaneously, and in other instances not for
some minutes. The detonation seemed to depend chiefly on
tlie purity of the chlorine. If it was rendered impure by at-
mospheric air, no detonation ensued, and the water merely
rose slowly. The detonation also took place more readily
M hen the chlorine had been first admitted into the receiver,
because, in that case, the specifically lighter gas was forced to
ascend through the chlorine, and thus to become better mixed
with it. This was particularly the case in narrow receivers.
The detonation was best eff*ected in a cylinder 18 inches high,
and 1^ inch wide, when the mixture of gases occupied a space
10 inches high. Whenever it was exposed to the sun's light,
an instantaneous explosion was the result. The mixture at
first was expanded, white clouds were formed, and then the
water ascended, while a large quantity of carbon was depo-
sited. If the sun was only a little obscured by a cloud, there
was merely visible a white mist, which descended more espe-
cially from a small projection at the closed end of the cylinder.
The water, however, did not fall as in the rapid action, but
gradually rose while the mist was in the course of being
formed. If, even during this action, the cloud was removed
from before the sun, and a strong ray of sunshine fell on the
cylinder, still no detonation took place. During such a slow
action of the two gases on each other, carbon was never depo-
sited. If the mixture was left standing in the light of the
sun so long that the chlorine was entirely absorbed by the
water, a strong smell of oil of turpentine became percep-

320 Dr Bischors Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

tible.* The deposited carbon had a peculiarly sharp taste,
which had some resemblance to that of mustard. The cylin-
der in which the carbon was deposited had the smell of chloric
ether.

These experiments were performed during some clear days
at the beginning of November. On the 6th and 7th of Decem-
ber T endeavoured to repeat them, but in vain. On the 6th
there was a thick fog, and although the sun shone brightly
and broke through the mist, yet it was not possible to accom-
plish the decomposition of the pit-gas with deposition of car-
bon. On the 6th there was less fog, and it became concen-
trated on the Rhine, but a light vapour in the whole atmo-
sphere so weakened the sun's light, that, although the gaseous
mixture sank and afterwards again ascended, yet it was not
possible to produce a deposition of carbon, however frequently
the attempt was renewed. It is known that a mixture of hy-
drogen and chlorine gas likewise cannot be decomposed by
detonation, when the light of the sun is weakened even by
the most slender cloud or by a light vapour.

§ V. Examination for Carbonic Oxide Gas,

The strong blue colour of the flame of the pit-gas was in favour
of the presence of carbonic oxide gas. 1 tested for it by potas-
sium. After the pit-gas had been freed from carbonic acid gas
by agitation with liquid potash, it was, according to the process
of Gay Lussac and Thenard, introduced into a somewhat bent
tube filled with mercury, it was dried by means of chloride of
calcium, and a portion of potassium was made to ascend. The
potassium was then heated to the melting point. It was found,
however, after the tube was cooled, that not only was there

* Dr Henry (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xviii. 1821), like-
■\vise remarks, that the smell of the liquid, which is collected on the surface
of the glass receiver in which the oil or coal-gas has been mixed with chlo-
rine, indicates the presence of a compound of carburetted hydrogen with
chlorine, and of another fluid which seems to have a great resemblance to
oil of turpentine. When we take into consideration that pit-gas only re-
quires to give up 0.4 of its hydrogen, in order to be converted into oil of
turpentine, we can easily under.stand the possibility of the production of this
combination of carburetted hydrogen by means of the action of chlorine.

which are evolved in Coal-Mines. 321

no diminution of the volume, but even an increase of 0.109
volume.

As in this increase of the volume a trace of moisture in the
mercury might have had a part, in the second experiment I
boiled the mercury in the tube, and proceeded after the cool-
ing in the same manner as before. In order to remove the
naphtha, the potassium was melted in a narrow glass tube. In
this case, likewise, there was an increase of the volume after
the heating of the potassium, but it only amounted to 0.036.
Two other experiments, with imboiled and boiled mercury,
gave the same results.

Hence it seemed to follow that the pit-gas contained no
carbonic oxide gas. Further experiments, which I shall after-
wards detail, have however proved, that the potassium cannot
be employed for the separation and determination of carbonic
oxide gas, when the latter is mixed with carburetted hydro-
gen gas.

The circumstance, that, according to the experiments of M«
Despretz,* the oxides of iron, zinc, and tin, are reduced by
means of carbonic oxide gas, afforded some, though but little
hope, that, perhaps, by employing one of these oxides, a sepa-
ration might be effected of this gas from the carburetted hy-
drogen gas. As, by experiments which I shall subsequently
describe, I obtained the conviction that the inflammable gas
from the Welles vveiler pit, is an almost pure carburetted hy-
drogen gas, I took* occasion to examine the phenomena pre-
sented by it in reference to the above-mentioned oxides. I
conducted it very slowly through a tube filled with chloride of
calcium, and then through a glass tube which was filled with
pure oxide of zinc, and was heated to a bright red heat. This
tube was, as in the analysis of organic substances, placed in
connection with a tube filled with chloride of calcium, and
with the well known apparatus of Liebig, for the absorption
of carbonic acid. Some water was in fact produced, whose
weight amounted to 3.6 grains, and the solution of potash had
absorbed 24.05 grains of carbonic acid. According to this re-
sult, the composition of the pit-gas would be as follows : —

^ Annalci dc Chiaiio ct Uc Physique, t. xliiL p, 222«

322 Dr Bischof's Examinaiion of Three Inflammable Gases*

Hydrogen, .... 0.0567

Carbon, .... 0.9433

1.0000

But, as we shall see below from the analysis of the pit-gas,
only about Jth of the hydrogen of the carburetted hydrogen
is oxidised, and f ths escape unoxidised. The gas which passed
through the solution of potash also burned with a very feeble
flame. The carburetted hydrogen gas was then decomposed
in the tube, which had been heated, and was filled with
oxide of zinc, and the carbon was entirely, while the hydro-
gen was only partially, oxidised. We thus see that the oxide
of zinc is by no means adapted for the separation of the car-
buretted hydrogen from the carbonic oxide gas.

§ VI. Ejects of Exposure to a red heat on Inflammable Pit- Gas.

It is well known that chemists generally assume that car-
buretted hydrogen gas, when it has been repeatedly conducted
through a red hot tube, is converted into double the volume
of pure hydrogen, and that carbon is deposited. As the car-
bonic oxide gas suffers no decomposition under the same cir-
cumstances, it appeared that the presence of this latter gas,
could be most readily ascertained, and its separation most
certainly effected, when a mixture of the two gases is con-
ducted through a red hot tube.

I placed a porcelain tube in a furnace, provided it at each
end with a tube which was filled with chloride of calcium,
and connected these two tubes with two gasometers. In
this manner the pit-gas could be always conducted in a dry
state through the red hot tube. After a quantity of inflam-
mable pit-gas, previously washed with liquid potash, had
been conducted through the apparatus, in order to remove
the atmospheric air as much as possible ; the porcelain tube
was heated to a white heat, the gas was made to pass very
slowly through it, and was collected in the opposite gasometer.
The gas was then sent back again, and this was continued so
long as the volume increased. The volume of the gas was
most enlarged by the first passage through the heated porce-
lain tube, but less by the second and third, and after the

which are evolved in Coal^Minea. 323

fourth not all, however often (10 to 12 times) the process
might be repeated.

In these experiments, there was no difficulty in excluding
the atmospheric air in the tubes to a minimum,* for it was
only necessary to repeat frequently the flowing through of the
pit-gas. But it is very difficult to determine directly the vo^
lume of the tubes, viz. those tubes which are filled with chlo-
ride of calcium. This determination can, however, be made
by an indirect method. Thus, if we perform the experiment
twice, but with unequal quantities of gas, and if we measure
each time the increase of volume, we can thence determine
the quantity of gas which was contained in the tubes. Let
a and a! be these two portions of gas which have been mea-
sured in one of the two gasometers, and let b and U be the
additions to the volumes after the decomposition of the gas
in the heated porcelain tube, then, if x indicate the volume of
the tubes, and should the increase of volume in the two expe-
riments have taken place under the same circumstances :

X -\-a'.h — x + a' : b',
,1 ha' — 6'a

consequently .... x=z ^, __^— «

I have performed several experiments, but soon found that
the increase of volume had not always taken place in perfectly
similar circumstances, whether it was that there had been a
variation in the heating of the porcelain tube, or that the car-
bon remaining behind from previous experiments exercised
influence over the decomposition. Thus, I did not in each
new experiment take the apparatus to pieces, and remove
the deposited carbon, because the volume of the latter was
too small to affect that of the porcelain tube in a sensible
manner. Out of many experiments, I select two which pre-
sented the greatest agreement. The measured volumes, re-
duced to 28 inches barometer, and 32° F. were the following :

a = 42.97 vol. d = 8.58

a' =43.71 ^'=8.69

Hence z = 14.75 vol , and the increase of the volume amounts
to 0.149 of the original volume.

* The presence of the atmospheric air would naturally have caused a par-
tial ignition of the inflammable gae in the heated porcelain tube.

324 Dr Bischors Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

The carbon which was deposited in the porcelain tube con-
sisted of extremely thin foliated particles, which had become
so rolled, that they formed thin little tubes, which were from
a few lines to an inch in length. They had a steel-grey co-
lour, and a strong metallic lustre, and were perfectly similar
to graphite, both as that substance is found in nature, and
as it is artificially formed in many iron slags. An empyreu-
matic smell was perceptible in the porcelain tube.

I ignited the portion of gas obtained from one of the above
experiments in the detonation tube. I mixed 1 volume de-
composed gas with 3 volumes oxygen, and obtained, in two
experiments, the following results :

Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Mean 3.

Volumes. Volumes. Volumes.

Gaseous mixture, . . 4 4 4

Disappeared by detonation, . 1.45 1.477 1.4635

Disappeared by use of liquid potash, 0.638 0.613 0.6205

The 0.6205 carbonic acid gas which was produced, corresponds
to a similar quantity of carburetted hydrogeli gas. Upon the
supposition that no other inflammable gas was present except
carburetted hydrogen and hydrogen, the latter would amount to

1. 1.4635- \ . 0.6205 = 0.1484 v.*
o o

The gas decomposed by heat thus consisted of undecomposed carburetted
hydrogen, ...... 0.6205

Hydrogen gas, . . . . . . 0.1484

Foreign gas, . . . . . . 0.2311

1.0000

According to what has been assumed 0.1484 v. hydrogen must
proceed from the decomposition of the half volume = 0 0742
carburetted hydrogen gas. Upon this principle the increase
of volume would amount to 0.11 v. Regarding the foreign
gas, there is no other supposition admissible, but that it is
partly decomposed atmospheric air. It is true that the ana-

* Thus, should a given gaseous mixture consist of a; volumes hydrogen gas,

and y volumes carburetted hydrogen gas, and ifa represent the volume lost by

detonation, and h the volume of the carbonic acid gas which is formed, it is

2 4

easy to perceive that « = - a —• :- (>.

a o

which are evolved in Coal-Mines. 325

lysis which follows below of the pit-gas not decomposed by
heat, exhibits only a very inconsiderable amount of a foreign
gas ; but, if we consider that the gas submitted to the pre-
vious experiment remained nearly 24 hours* in contact with
a large quantity of water, it must be evident that a portion
of the gas must have been absorbed by the water, and, on the
other hand, that atmospheric air must have been given out
by the water. This must happen so much the more, because
the surface of contact between the water and the two gases
was great. The atmospheric air which, during the experi-
ment itself, was added to the gas, must naturally cause a par-
tial burning of the pit-gas in the porcelain tube, so that a
smaller increase of volume must have taken place than result-
ed from the above calculation. All these unavoidable circum-
stances must affect considerably the general accuracy of the
numerical results, and hence these can possess but a small
value. Besides, the following experiments shew that the de-
composition of the inflammable pit-gas is accompanied by other
peculiar phenomena.

The empyreumatic smell which I had perceived in the por-
celain tube after the decomposition of the pit-gas, allowed it
to be supposed, that during the process, a peculiar hydro-car-
biu'etted compound might have been produced. As in the
earlier experiments only small quantities of pit-gas were con-
ducted through the heated porcelain tube, I repeated the ex-
periment with a larger quantity. The apparatus was some-
what altered. With the porcelain tube, which had a much
greater diameter (1 inch) than that employed in the previous
experiments, I united the previously described apparatus with
which I had collected the pit-gas in Gerhard's mine, and I
opened the cock so little, that only about a drop of water
flowed out in a second. The gas in the gasometer was there-
fore conducted through the chloride of calcium and the por-
celain tube with great slowness. In this manner nearly three
bottles of ^'A^ were conducted, but without being caused to
return as in the former experiments.

* The experiment itself Instccl some hours, and as the gas could net be
measured until the nhole apparatus had cooled, it was neccseaiy to allow it
to itand orer night.

326 Dr Bischof'b Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

After the cooling of the apparatus, I perceived the same em-
pyreumatic smell as iu the former experiments, but in greater
intensity. It was not unlike that of oil of turpentine or of
petroleum. The partially decomposed gas had likewise an
empyreumatic smell, quite similar to the products of the dry
distillation of wood, or still more of sugar. The gas burned
with a feeble bluish flame, which was coloured yellow only at
the tip. The carbon which was deposited in the tube pos-
sessed the same metallic lustre, and presented the same ap-
pearance of rolled up lamellae, as in the former experiments.
Some of these lamellae had a diameter of 2 lines. I likewise
found a dull soot-like powder. The internal surface of the
tube itself had a black coating, which adhered very strongly.
I attempted to loosen it by means of a feather moistened with
alcohol, but I only succeeded with a very small quantity. By
filtering the liquid, little portions of carbonaceous dust remain-
ed behind, and the filtered alcohol was coloured slightly yel-
low. Ether seemed to have no eftect. Sulphuric acid was
rendered somewhat brownish when a glass rod moistened with
it was rubbed upon the coating.

It must likewise be remarked, that at the end where the
dry pit-gas entered, the coating was brownish-yellow, but in
the other parts of the porcelain tube, quite black. Hence it
appears that the feebler heating of that portion of the tube
gave rise to other products than the stronger heat of the other
parts. The little tubes of carbon exhibited a certain consist-
ence. They could be strongly shaken in a glass without be-
ing broken, and I had even difficulty in dividing them with a
glass rod. On being rubbed, they coloured paper like gra-
phite, and the mark was removed by Indian rubber.

The deposited charcoal was not acted on by nitric acid in
the cold. When exposed to a boiling temperature, there ap-
peared to be a feeble action. At least, after the boiling had
ceased, the evolution of some gas bubbles could be remarked,
which probably consisted of carbonic acid. The metallic glance
of the carbon was, however, not destroyed in the acid.

It follows from these experiments, that the carburetted hy-
drogen is decomposed by heat not merely into hydrogen and
carbon, as has been hitherto generally believed, but that, be-

nihich are evolved in Coal- Mines. 327

sides, products of dry distillation (solid or liquid carburetted
hydrogen compounds) are formed, as in the decomposition of
organic substances.

In order to ascertain somewhat more exactly the nature of
these carburetted hydrogen compounds, I repeated the pre-
ceding experiment with this difference, that between the col-
lecting appai'atus and the porcelain tube, the well-known ab-
sorbing apparatus of Professor Liebig, filled with concentrated
sulphuric acid, was introduced, and was carefully united to
both, the whole being made air-tight. Six bottles of pit-gas
were conducted through, and the experiment lasted from five
to six hours.

After the passage of the gas through the heated porcelain
tube had commenced, there appeared in the first ball of the
absorbing apparatus, white vapours, which soon rendered the
sulphuric acid brown. There then appeared in the glass tube
of this apparatus, which was united with the porcelain tube,
yellow drops which gradually flowed down into the ball. Af-
terwards, greenish drops were condensed over the sulphuric
acid in the first ball. The acid in the three remaining balls
also gradually assumed a brown tint, and, after the termina-
tion of the experiment, it became deep brown in colour. I
allowed the apparatus to remain at rest until the porcelain
tube was entirely cooled.

The decomposed gas burned with the same flame as the for-
mer, only with this difference, that the yellow portion was
somewhat smaller, and that the flame afforded less light. It
thus seems to follow, that the substances, which, in this ex-
periment, were absorbed by the sulphuric acid, but which, in
the former, at least partially, remained mixed with the gas in
the form of vapour, increased the burning power of the flame.
The gas had, moreover, still an empyreumatic smell, which,
however, seemed to be feebler than in the preceding experi-
ment. Hence it results that the sulphuric acid did not absorb
all the products of the decomposition.

On the following day I separated the apparatus ; I was much
surprised at finding in the porcelain tube only some triflino-
little spangles of carbon, whereas, in the former experiment,
with a smaller quantity of gas, there was a considerable quan-
tity of carbon. There was likewise a coating, which, however,

328 Dr Bischof s Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

throughout its whole extent, was browner than in the former
experiment. It adhered strongly to the tube, so that it was
extremely difficult to get it out. Water did not remove it,
but oil of turpentine was a little more effectual. It could
only be scoured out with sand, and even then some dark por-
tions remained in the hollows of the porcelain tube.

What can be the reason, that in this experiment so little
carbon was deposited I As all the circumstances were the
same, with this difference only, that, in the previous experi-
ment, the heated gas could move on without hindrance, where-
as in this one it was restrained by a column of sulphuric acid
two inches in height, one might be inclined to seek for the
cause of the difference of the result, in this difference of cir-
cumstances. In fact, by means of the flowing off of the wa-
ter from the collecting apparatus, the gas between it and the
receiving apparatus must always first be so much rarified, as
to be able to overcome the pressure of the acid.

The flowing through of the gas can, therefore, take place
only by jerks, and it must remain longer exposed to the heat
of the tube than in the preceding experiment. But other
causes can be adduced for this difference of result.

The greenish little drops of which mention was made above,
were partly hardened and partly formed a uniform coating to
the ball. It resembled a green-coloured solidified oil. On the
sulphuric acid in the first ball, viz., that one turned towards the
porcelain tube, a whitish pellicle floated, which, when a move-
ment was made, adhered to the inner surface. This pellicle so
entirely covered the acid, that it appeared swimming on it like
a solid body. Likewise on the mercury which preserved the
gas before it reached the apparatus, and also on the under
side of the receiver, there was a white covering.* This pel-

* The absorbing apparatus terminated in a tube a ; and a similarly bent tube,

r

which are evolved in Coal-Mijies, 320

licle, which had been deposited from the gas after it had passed
through the sulphuric acid, had a peculiar empyreumatic smell.

The sulphuric acid also had a strong empyreumatic odour,
which, however, as the acid became diluted with water, was
diminished, so that at last only a feeble sweetish smell, as
when sulphuric acid and alcohol are united, remained behind.

The diluted acid was neutralized with carbonate of potash.
The evolved carbonic acid had also a sweetish smell. The
solution had a light brownish colom\ After it was filtered, a
brown coating remained behind on the filter, which, however,
was too inconsiderable in quantity to admit of its examination.
The filtered liquid likewise had still a feebly brownish tint.

As the preceding experiments had proved, that peculiar
carburetted hydrogen compounds can be produced when in-
flammable pit-gas is transmitted through a heated porcelain
tube, and that these compounds, at least in part, are also ab-
sorbed by sulphuric acid, I performed an experiment to ascer-
tain if these combinations are also absorbed by alcohol. I
made use of precisely the same apparatus, but filled the ab-
sorbing apparatus with alcohol of 92°.5 per cent.

In the first ball, viz., that turned towards the porcelain tube
of the absorbing apparatus, there soon appeared, after the gas
passed through the heated porcelain tube, white vapours, which
were condensed into brownish-yellow small drops. Afterwards
there was formed on the cooler side of the ball a yellow co-
vering, in which were perceptible many small yellow drops.
The alcohol gradually assumed a wine yellow colour, and the
colour increased. In the tube which was fixed in the cork of
the porcelain tube, there was condensed a light brown scaly

bf was united with the collecting apparatus. These two tubes entered a
small glass-receiver r, in which quicksilver was poured up to c d, so that the
openings of the tubes were above the level of the metal. I have employed
such an arrangement for several years, in all experiments with gases which
require an apparatus composed of several parts, as, for example, in the ana-
lysis of organic substances. The connection is, of course, perfectly air-tight,
i easily made, and easily again removed. I prefer it in most instances to
the connection by means of caoutchouc tubes, which must always be proved
regarding their air-tightness, and which often remain air-tight for a short
time onlv.

330 Dr Bisehof s Examination of Three Inflammable Gases

mass, or it seemed rather as if a white sublimate had been co-
loured of a brownish tint by another substance.

Nothing presented itself on the other side of the absorbing
apparatus. It thus appeared as if all products of the decom-
position had been absorbed by the alcohol. The hot gas merely
caused a little alcohol to evaporate, which was condensed on
the mercury.

In the porcelain tube, as in the former experiment, only a
little carbon was deposited.

Whether these carburetted hydrogen combinations, which
are formed from strongly heated pit-gas, agree with the known
carburetted hydrogen combinations which are produced by
means of heat from the decomposition of organic substances,
or whether they are of a peculiar nature, can only be deter-
mined when we are able to obtain them in larger quantity.
Such a quantity might be prepared by transmitting a very
large quantity of gas through a porcelain tube for several days
in succession, and by collecting the products of the decompo-
sition in a receiver. As these products are for the most part
condensed directly behind the porcelain tube, it will scarcely
be necessary to cool the receiver with ice. It will neverthe-
less be advisable to select the winter for this experiment, and
I hope to devote next winter to this purpose, when I shall
have obtained a large quantity of pit-gas.

There can be no doubt that olefiant gas also is not decom-
posed by heat into hydrogen and carbon merely, as has hither-
to been generally supposed, but that also from it, similar pro-
ducts of decomposition are produced. I hope, therefore, to
extend my investigations also to that gas.

§ VII. Attempts to decompose Pit-Gas hy Electric Sparks.

When I performed these experiments, I had not acquired
the conviction that no carbonic oxide gas can exist in pit-gas.
Since, according to the experiments of Dalton,* the volume
of carburetted hydrogen gas, when it has been electrified for
some time, will be increased to exactly the double, and the
whole gas will then consist of pure hydrogen, while carbon is

* New System of Chcniistry, vol. if. p. 258.

which are evolved in Coal-Mines. 33l

deposited ; and since, according to Henry,* carbonic oxide gas
undergoes no change from 1100 small sparks ; it appeared to
me, that to electrify the pit-gas, would be a very appropriate
method of ascertaining the presence or absence of the latter.
Pit-gavS, which had been purified by washing with a solution
of potash, was introduced into a detonation tube over mercury,
and dried by means of chloride of calcium. 6200 sparks from a
a charged jar were passed through the gas, for which a period of
thirty hours was required. Long before this large number of
sparks had been transmitted, I could remark no farther increase
of volume. Every thing, therefore, had been accomplished
which could be attained by this method. One might other-
wise easily be deceived respecting the actual increase of vo-
lume, when, as is the case during so long a continuance of tlie
electricity, interruptions occur ; for the gas expands somewhat
in consequence of the heat excited by the sparks, and again
contracts during the interruption. Besides, the increase of vo-
lume during continued electricity always goes on diminishing,
so that towards the end, hundreds of sparks may pass through
without a change of volume being perceptible. Unfortunately
I could not measure the true increase of volume, as the de-
tonation tube was not quite air-tight, for, during the long
continuance of the -experiment (four to five days), some atmo-
spheric air gained admittance between the platinum wires and
the glass, t

• New System of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 177.

t Detonation tubes may bo perfectly tight for mercury, and yet not air-tight.
I have very frequently found that they were filled with mercury, or that the
hermetically sealed end was turned downwards, and that not a drop was allow-
ed to get through for some days ; but that, in the opposite iiosition, when
standing in the pneumatic trough, after some days some air entered. This
air frequently amounted to so little, that it was only after some days that the
mercury in the tube fell a few lines. There is no doubt that the pressure
of the atmosphere, which in the last case acts on the tube, not only causes
this, but that the greater subdivision of the air, in comparison with the mer-
cury, has a share in it. I had previously tried the detonation tube employed
in the above experiments, and found that no air entered in twenty-foui*
hours. I can, therefore, make no other supposition, but that, during the
shock of so lai^e a number of electric sparks, a space, however small it may
have been, was opened between the platinum wires and the glass. I may
further remark, that, at the commencement of the experiment, the mercury
Btood at 12, and at its termination at 8 inches above the external leveL

332 Dr Bischof s Examinatioyi of Three Tnflammahle Gases

The carbon which was deposited in the tube had a strong
smell of oil of turpentine.

One volume of this decomposed gas afforded by the deto-
nation an absorption of 1.1477 volume, and hydrate of po-
tash absorbed 0.3197 volume. The formation of carbonic
acid proved distinctly that in the electrified gas there was
still present a gaseous compound of carbon. As the analysis
has not discovered any carbonic oxide, it is evident that all
the carburetted hydrogen gas was not decomposed by the
electricity. According to the results of the detonation of
the electrified gas with oxygen, its composition was as fol-
lows :

Hydrogen, .... 0.339

Carburetted hydrogen gas, . . . 0.320

Foreign gas (nitrogen), . . . . 0.341

1.000

Therefore only about -J of the carburetted hydrogen gas had
been decomposed. Without doubt, however, a part of the
hydrogen gas was burned at the expense of the admitted at-
mospheric air ; for no portion of the carburetted hydrogen gas
could be burned, because the electrified gas, previous to its deto-
nation with oxygen, was not diminished by hydrate of potash.

It appeared to me to be of no interest to repeat an experi-
ment that cost so much time and labour, in order to ascertain
the relations under which the carburetted hydrogen is decom-
posed by electricity. It would have been to be apprehended,
besides, that a new detonation tube would likewise have been
rendered leaky by the electricity. For me the result sufficed,
that a complete decomposition of the pit-gas is not possible
by this process, and hence that this method is unsatisfactory
for ascertaining the presence of carbonic oxide gas in a given
inflammable gas.

If electric sparks produce a decomposition of compound in-
flammable gases by the heat which they evolve, it was to be
anticipated that they could effect no perfect decomposition ;
for the experiments in the preceding section have proved that
red heat can also produce no perfect decomposition. In both
cases there seems to have been produced a carburetted hy-
drogen compound resembling oil of turpentine. The forma-

which are evolved in Goal-Minea. 333

tion of such a compownd stands, without doubt, in connection
with the decomposition of the carburetted hydrogen gas.

Wlience, then, does it arise, that the results of my experi-
ment differ sojnuch from those obtained by Dalton ? Henry
states, that it is only moist carburetted hydrogen gas which can
be expanded to double its volume, by means of electric sparks.
Afterwards, however, he remarks,* that this is also the case
with extremely dry gas. The dissimilarity of results cannot,
therefore, be accounted for, from Dalton having probably
electrified moist gas, while I operated on perfectly dry gas.
I can hardly believe that a more powerful effect can be pro-
duced by electricity than by red heat. As I did not at all
succeed in completely decomposing pit-gas by means of red
lieat, although I repeated the experiment so frequently, the
results of the English chemist still seem to me somewhat
puzzling.

§ VIII. Phonomena exhibited by Pit-Gas with Sulphuric Acid.

A bottle of pit-gas was transmitted through a tube 1 foot
in length, filled with chloride of calcium, and then through
Liebig's absorbing apparatus, which was filled with concen-
trated sulphuric acid. The acid was not rendered in the least
brown, and was not increased in weight. The gas, therefore,
contained no non-permanent gas which is absorbed by sulphuric
acid. Hence, it follows, that the substance which had render-
ed the sulphuric acid brown in a former experiment (§ 6.), did not
exist originally in the gas, but was only produced after the ap-
plication of heat.

The absence of a gas capable of being absorbed by sulphu-
ric acid, does not support the opinion that the inflammable
pit-gases can be products of a sort of dry distillation.
(To be concluded in next number.)

* Gilbert's Annalen., vol. ii. p. 194.
t Idem. vol. xxxvi. p. 298.

VOL. XXIX* NO. LVIir. OCTOBER 1840,

( 334 )

On the Effects of the Curmture of Baihvays. By Edward Sang,
Esq., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh, M. S. A. Communicated
by the Society of Arts.*

The prodigious velocity which is now attained on railways,
brings out prominently all the defects of their construction,
and renders it necessary to attend to every minute circum-
stance. It is well known that when a railway train is moving
upon a curve, there is a tendency to go off the rail, and to con-
tinue the rectilineal motion. To prevent the bad effects of
this, the outer rail is raised to such a degree as that the line
laid across the rails may be perpendicular to the resultant of
gravity, and the centrifugal force. This precaution completely
removes all tendencyof the waggons to move off the rail, and
all pressure against the ends of the axes. The point to which
I wish to draw the attention of the Society is the transition
from a straight line to a curve, or from one curve to another.

It is considered by some to be sufficient that the straight
part of the rail be tangent to the circle which forms the curve ;
or that the circular parts of the rail have a common tangent
at their junction. By this means any sudden angle is avoided ;
but this is far from sufficient for the exigencies of railway
travelling.

To see the nature of the defects of this plan, let us follow
a waggon in its course from one direction to another. The
instant that it leaves the straight line and comes upon the
circle, there is the centrifugal tendency ; and there must be
a rise in the outer, or a depression in the inner rail. Suddenly
the passengers, endeavouring (without being aware of it) to
continue moving in a straight line, feel themselves pressed to
the one side of the carriage — slightly it may be — 'but still sud-
denly. The rise in the rail cannot be instantaneous ; and
thus, either before or after the change of curvature, there is a
want of proper adaptation. Such must necessarily be the re-
sult wherever the transition from one degree of curvature to
another is sudden.

This inquiry therefore offers itself ; What ought to be the
nature of the curvature of railways ?

* Kead before tUe Society of Arts for Scotltmd, 27tU May 1840.

Mr Sang m the Effects of the Curvature of BaUways. 335

One thing is certain, that the change of curvature must
never be abrupt, and that the junction of circular arcs is in-
admissible.

Viewing the distance measured along the rail as the ab-
sciss, the curvature may be regarded as a function of that
distance ; and this function must be of such a nature that
the curvature may be zero at the point where the deviation
from the straight line commences. Putting / for the length
reckoned from this point, and ^ for the curvature, the simplest
function which satisfies this condition is ^—nL That is, the
curvature is proportional to the distance from the said point.
But this function is insufficient for the purpose, since it would
give a perpetually increasing curvature, while the general ob-
ject of a railway curve is to lead us from one direction to an-
other— to join two straight parts of the line. For this purpose
the curvature must increase, reach a maximum, and again
diminish to be zero at the place where the second straight
part is reached. The simplest function which possesses the
requisite properties for this is ^ = nl (L — /), where L is the
whole length from the one straight part to the other. A
curve possessing this characteristic would be entirely free from
the fault to which I have pointed ; yet, pushing our exami-
nation still more narrowly, it would not be altogether free
from defects, since the vertical projection of the outer rail
(supposed stretched in a straight line) would be parabolic.

S

Thus, A and B representing the two ends of the curved part,
and AB the level of the inner rail, the parabola ACB would
represent the level of the outer rail ; in the case of the circular
sweep, the line a /3 would represent it wdth a sudden stop at
each end. The curve ACB must undoubtedly be preferable to
the line A a /3B (which, in fact, never can be adopted in prac-
tice), yet even it must give a hai'shness at the points A and
B ; which harshness must augment as the second power of the
velocity.

The curve ACB ought to have touched the straight line at

•33G Dr James Macaiiiay oti the Physical Geography,

the two points A and B, it ought to have presented an appear-
ance of this kind.

Let us retrace the steps of the successive improvements at
which I have hinted. First we have the function p=- (con-
stant), of which the first derivative is zero. Second, g=w/,
of which the second derivative is zero ; and, thirdly, g = w/
(L— /) of which the third derivative is zero ; the softness of
the action increasing with the number of derivatives. For
further improvement, we must take a function of an order still
higher. Now, supposing these functions to be completely re-
soluble into factors, the curve given by them will have as many
points of reflexure (or of straightness) as the function has di-
mensions, and the curve will present a waved appearance. I
need not indicate to those who are acquainted with the higher
analysis, how the thorough investigation of such curves sur-
passes the present powers of that powerful science. Such per-
sons will at once recognise in the curve of sines, a transcen-
dental function, having an interminate succession of derivatives,
and whose form, easily submitted to calculation,] embraces all
the essentials of which we are in search.

I therefore submit, as the proper sweep for joining two
straight parts of a railway, that portion of the curve of sines
which is contained on one side of its axis, and I subjoin a few
practical rules for its adaptation.

Notes on the Physical Geography^ Geology, and Climate of the
Island of Madeira. By James Macaulay, A.M. and M. D.
Communicated by the Autho r.

Few foreign stations are better known in this country, by
name and general description, than the Island of Madeira.
Its fruits and wines, and other productions of the soil, have
long enjoyed a merited celebrity. The remarkable salubrity
of its climate has been established by the number of invalids
who have there sought and found relief from disease, and pro-
longation of life. The boldness of its mountain outline, and

Geoloyy, and Climate of the Island of Madeira.

the beauty of its landscape^, have from the earliest times been
themes of admiration to the navigators of the Atlantic ; and
no country yet described delights the eye of the traveller with
features more striking and lovely. In this paper I propose to
note some points that are interesting or peculiar in the physi-
cal geography and geology of the island, and advert to those
circumstances which determine the felicity of its climate, and
the grandeur of its scenery.

Funchal, the chief town of the island, is situated in 32° 38' 11"
of north latitude, and in 16° 54' 11" west of Greenwich ; is dis-
tant from Cape Cantim, on the coast of Africa, about 360
miles ; and is about 240 miles north-east of TenerifFe. In its
greatest length the island is 45 miles, and 15 in its greatest
breadth ; the circumference about 100 miles ; with a popula-
tion of about 115,000, a fourth part of whom reside in Funchal
and its adjoining district.

In its general configuration, the island presents the appear-
ance of a range or mass of mountains, of considerable height
in its whole extent, above which, in the centre, there rise va-
rious peaks and ridges, which mark the water-sheds between
the north and south sides of the island. This central mass is
everywhere deeply riven by ravines, which are separated from
each other by branch ridges running down towards the coasts,
and terminating, generally abruptly, in sea-cliffs of immense
height. The slope of the land is for the most part more abrupt,
and the cliffs are more precipitous, on the north than on the
south coast of the island ; to which, however, at certain points,
the branches of the central mountain reach down without great
diminution of their elevation, and form some of the most gi-
gantic sea-cliffs in the world. The headland of Cape Giram,
for example, is about 1600 feet in height, and not far from
perpendicular.

The loftiest point of the island is the summit of the PicoRuivo.
Concerning the altitude of this mountain there has been much
discordance of statement (from 5162, Smith, to 8250, Gour-
lay), but the authority generally followed has been that of Mr
Bowditch, who gives 6164 feet as the result of barometrical
observation. Of the various accounts since presented, 1 con-
sider as most worthy of confidence that of Lieutenant Wilkes,
and a party belonging to tli© U. S. Navy, who vieitcd the

338 Dr James Macaulay on the Physicai Geography^

island in September 1838. Observations were made at the
American Consul's house in the town of Funchal, while the
party were on the mountain. They remained on the summit
four hours, so that several simultaneous observations were ob-
tained. The result was, G181 feet above the lower station,
which is 5Q feet above the level of the sea ; or 0237 feet as
the height of the Peak. The Torrirhas, the Pico Orande,
and several other summits, are within a few hundred feet of
the same altitude.

The mountain-range is in most places cut in the most irre-
gular manner, and in general to a great depth, by valleys and
ravines, which form the most striking portion of the scenery
of the island. The ridges by which the valleys are bounded,
are often of the most trifling breadth, standing up like 'vvtiHs
of partition between the abysses on either side of them. At
one place a road lies across a crest or dike of this sort, which
separates the Corral and the Serra d'Agoa, two of the most
magnificent valleys of the island.

Although the island is thus in great part deeply intersected
by irregular ravines, there are one or two upland plains or
table-lands of considerable extent. That called the Paul de
Serra, in the west part of the island, is from nine to ten miles
in length, and three broad ; and its elevation is upwards of
5000 feet. It is a wild, uncultivated, and uninhabited tract,
during great part of the year veiled in mist and cloud. The
exterior parts are clothed with vaccinium and broom, and
other brushwood, but these become rarer in advancing towards
the interior and higher ground, and scarcely a moss relieves
with its verdure the rocky waste of the Campo Grrande. The
only objects met with are one or two untenanted huts, built
by a benevolent English merchant, as places of shelter for be-
wildered or benighted travellers.

On the east side of the island is another upland plain, the
Serra de San Antonio. Its elevation is in general from 2000
to 3000 feet above the sea. In its aspect it is more like an
English heath. On the parts not occupied in cultivation, there
is a good turf, and abundance of heath and other indigenous
shrubs and trees. Of these the most remarkable are the tree-
heath, Erica arhorea^ and a large species of bilberry, the Vac-
cinium Madereme, The Erica grows to an astonishing size,

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 339

many of the trunks being from five to six, and some eight feet
in circumference. In the ground adjoining to the chapel of
St Antonio and the pilgrims' house, is a forest of old trees of
great size, and many of them upwards of forty feet in height.
The stems are covered with the beautiful fern, Davallia Ca-
nariensis, climbing the trees with its rough creeping root ; and
various species of rare or interesting flowering plants are found
in the neighbourhood. The Vaccinium Maderense also grows
to a great size, forming beautiful thickets or little woods, in
many places from twelve to fifteen feet in height.

The slope of the land, I have said, is more gradual on the
south than on the north side of the island. Here the central
mountain sends down to the shore lofty ridges, but only at in-
tervals ; so that between them are left spaces or basins, in
which the land rises to the central heights by a series of gra-
dual slopes, interrupted here and there by ravines and pro-
jecting ridges. In a semicircular basin of this kind, bounded
by the high ridges that terminate in the lofty sea-cliffs of Cape
Giram on the west, and Cape Garajam on the east, lies the dis-
trict and town of Funchal. The town is situated round the
margin, and in the immediate vicinity of a large bay, open to
the south ; and immediately behind it the land rises gradually,
forming terraces of vineyard and garden ground on the sides
of the amphitheatre of hills by which the bay is surrounded.
The dark and rugged ravines by which these sloping grounds
are deeply intersected, stand in strong contrast to the verdure
that is interrupted by them. The lower hills are covered with
vines, which are here trained over trellis-work of cane, sup-
ported by rows of stone pillars. These rows of white pillars,
and the beautiful quintas or villas which are scattered on the
hill sides, give a fine appearance to the ground above the city.
About the upper limit of the vineyard-ground, built on an
eminence about 1900 feet above the sea, is the Mount Church,
the most conspicuous object in the landscape from the bay of
Funchal. Beyond this are forests of chestnut and pine, and
other trees ; and the scene is bounded by a ridge of moun-
tains nearly 4000 feet in elevation. Between this ridge and
the sea, along a great extent of the southern coast, are ranges
of low hills and elevations such as those in the neighbourhood

340 Dr James Miicaulay ott the Fhysical co g raphy^

of Funchal, and generally under similar cultivation. Among
the vineyards are every where interspersed orchards of orange,
lemon, almond, and other fruit trees ; and a great variety of
. vegetables are cultivated, chiefly for the supply of the city.
Among these are observed the following : Convohulus edulis,
the batata, the tuberous roots of which are much used by tho
peasants ; Allium cepa, garlic, of which the Madeiranese arc
great consumers ; the churches, and other places of public re-
sort, being always redolent with its odour ; Sechium edule,
choo-choo, a species of gourd, the fruit of which, when boiled,
much resembles our " vegetable marrow ;" the Dioscorea, or
Tamnus edulis^ yam ; and many others. The beds of tho
rivers, and moist places, are covered with an arum, the Gala-
diuin nymphccifolium^ and with the Arundo donax, which is
tended for the making of trellis-work for the vineyards. There
is also some corn, wheat, and barley ; and here and there
patches of sugar-cane, which was formerly the prevailing pro-
duce of the island.*

The difference between the north and south sides of tho
island is, in every respect, very remarkable. In crossing from

* The Portuguese chroniclers relate, that, at the time of the discovery of
the island, its whole surface was covered with laurels, dragon-trees, cedar?,
and other forest trees. The first colonists burnt great part of this wood, in
order to clear the surface for cultivation. The gi-eat Prince Henry of Pcr-

• tugal, whose enterprise and genius in devising and directing maritime dis-
coveries, were excelled only by his sagacity and judgment in applying thcni
to purposes of importance and benefit to his country, immediately on hear-
ing the report of his navigators, projected the introduction of the cultivation
of the vine and the sugar-cane. The latter Avas brought from Sicily, where
the Arabs had attempted its culture. There were formerly upwards of a
hundred|mills in the island ; now there is but one, and only a few patches of
cane, in the country round Funchal. The vine has long been the chief pro-
duce of the island, although, probably, the culture of the sugar-cane will be
soon much increased. Of the gi*ain gi'own in the island, the quantity is not
sufficient for more than two or three months' consumption. For flour and
com, the inhabitants depend for supply on North American, Sardinian, and
other trading vessels, I left the island in a Greek ship, belonging to tlie
Bay of Nauplia, which had brought a cargo of Avheat all the way from tlie
Sea of Azoph. A considerable quantity of milho, or Indian corn, is iiri-
portcd from tljo Azores. The attention of the public authorities in Funchal
is at present much directed to the condition of its agriculture, by which tlie

fy*ej»oiuccs of the island are capable of great improvement.

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 341

one coast to the other, which can be easily done in a day's jour-
ney, one seems to be in altogether a different land, so changed
is the climate, the vegetation, and the whole aspect of the
country. From the city there are two roads to the north of
the island, leading to the two villages of St Vincento and
St Ann''s. In going by one of these and returning by the
other, the traveller who has only a few days to spend in the
island may see its finest and most interesting scenery. The
expedition, however, depends on the state of the weather in
the mountains, which are not always passable ; and, at any
time, few passing visitors who find themselves after a sea voy-
age thrown for a few days upon a spot of such varied delight
as Funchal, are willing to brave the cold, and fatigue, and in-
convenience of many kinds, by which the pleasure of viewing
the remote scenery must be purchased.

From Funchal to St Vincente it is about nine hours'* ride.
For some miles the road lies eastward along the sea-cliffs,
conunanding in most places a fine view of the sea. The coun-
try is here in cultivation ; the vine and corn being the princi-
pal produce, with occasional gardens of fniit and vegetables
for the supply of the city. At the ravine of the Socorridos
river, the route leaves the direction of the coast, and proceeds
inward by a continuous ascent, often considerably steep. The
road being paved and inclosed by loose stone walls, is compa-
ratively uninteresting till the upper limit of the vineyards is
passed. The path, now more open and wide, runs across
mountain turf and heath, and sometimes through forests of
chestnut and other trees, till it passes above the Jardini, the
beautiful villa of Mr Veitch, long the British Consul in Ma-
deira. Shortly after this we come to the Corral, one of the
finest pieces of Madeira scenery, and which, being within a
ride of the city, most strangers are able to visit. Leaving the
path we ascend the brow of a hill to the right, and come sud-
denly upon the edge of a precipice of great height, forming
part of the wall of a vast ravine or hollow in the shape of a
crater, enclosed almost entirely by lofty mountains, from the
rugged sides of which, crags and cliffs jut out into the valley.
These cliffs are clothed with forests of laurel and other cvei--
yrcoii trcoS) nciirly to the summits of tlic mountain sides. GUi

842 Dr James Macaulay on the Fht/sical Geography,

every spot where a projecting ledge, or a fissure in the preci-
pice, permits of their growth, are seen the trunks of aged trees,
the dark foliage of which overshadows the gulf beneath.
These trees are so far scattered, that the traveller in looking
down into the gloomy shade, here and there gets a glimpse
far beyond of lighter and less rugged scenery, even down to
the cottages, and gardens, and vineyards by the river side in the
valley, more than two thousand feet below him.

On returning from this view, we cross the narrow ridge al-
ready mentioned, having on the one side the Corral, and on
the other side the Serra d'Agoa, also a magnificent valley,
more like a ravine in its aspect, and the sides clothed in a si-
milar manner with native wood. The path is only a few feet
wide, so that the traveller looks directly down into the immense
depth on either side. The grandeur of the prospect from this
point of view may be readily imagined.

The north side of the Serra d'Agoa is bounded by the pre-
cipitous side of the Pico Grande, a mountain of great height
and most imposing grandeur. For some way the path is cut
in the face of the cliff, which in some parts so much overhangs
the road, that one feels little inclination to pause sufficiently
to notice the various wonders of the scenery, or to gather the
rare and beautiful flowers and ferns that abound upon the
moist rocks in the locality. Amongst these mountain plants,
some of the most conspicuous in the spring are the Ranunculus
grandifolius^ Lowe, a fine species with yellow petals larger than
those of our Great Spear wort (R. Lingua) ; Riiscus hypoglos-
8um ; Asplenium Canariense ; Gymnogramma Lovei.

After winding round the Pico Grande, the ride continues
for several hours through the mountain district ; every turn of
the path presenting new and diversified combinations of sce-
nery. Having descended from the high grounds, and passed
a tract clothed with modern plantations of fir, birch, and un-
derwood, we enter the lovely valley of St Vincente. It lies
between two parallel chains of mountains, which run down to-
wards the sea from the central chain of the island. These are?
throughout, of great height, and wild and rugged in their form
and outline. In some places the valley is much contracted,
and at its outlet only a narrow pass is left for the escape of the

Geology, and Climate of the Island of Madeira, 343

river. In a more open space formed by the recession of the
mountains to the west, immediately before the approximation
of the opposite ridges in the sea cliffs which form the outlet of
the valley, is situated the parish church and part of the vil-
lage of St Vincente. The road down the valley runs by the
side of the river, or of water-courses derived from it, through
a most charming district of garden and orchard ground. The
vine is hero trained on trees, principally chestnuts, instead of
on trellis-work as on the other side of the island. The bana-
na, the cactus, and other plants of the south are absent, but
the orange and citron still flourish. A considerable quantily
of flax is grown, from which the coarse cloth of the island is
manufactured. The gardens present some variety of culture
and produce, both as to flowers and vegetables. On the
whole, there could hai'dly be conceived a more lovely spot than
this valley. The road, as it runs through the orchard grounds,
is overcanopied by the foliage of the vines which cross and in-
terlace in every direction from the upper parts of the lofty
trees, forming lines of natural arbour-work to shade and shel-
ter from the sun ; while through breaks in the foliage are seen
glimpses of the bright blue sky, or the dark rugged outlines
of the mountains by which the valley is bounded.

Between St Vincente and St Ann's some of the finest parts
of the northern shore are seen. All along this coast the cliff's
are of great height, and extremely rugged and precipitous.
Here and there they are cleft down to the level of the sea by
ravines in which mountain streams have found a channel. The
sides and summits of the rocks are in most places covered with
the dark foliage of the island trees. During the winter sea-
son, when in the high grounds the clouds and mists furnish a
perpetual supply of water, numbers of small streams precipitate
themselves from the top of this line of clifls, forming a series
of most beautiful cascades. Several of these sometimes occur
within a short distance of each other, where the height of the
fall is many hundred feet of nearly perpendicular descent. In
some places where the summit of the cliff* overhangs conside-
rably, the stream is seen to sweep over, but becoming broken
and scattered in its descent, is gradually altogether dispersed
in mist ; so that the dark volume of water seen at the top, ap-

344 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography ^

pears farther down in the form of a white cloud borne by the
wind alone the face of the rock.

At some places, there is between the cliff and the beach a
nan'ow tract of soil through which the road is carried. In
passing these places, with such a scene of wild magnificence
on the one hand, and on the other, the waves of the Atlantic,
here ever troubled and boisterous, breaking in immense surges
on the steep shore — the feeling inspired into the traveller is
one of gloomy and desolate grandeur. During the greatest
part of the year the wind blows with violence on the shore
from the north ; and there being no bays or anchoring ground
for ships, and scarcely any shelter for boats, the coast is ever
dangerous, and the sea altogether inhospitable for vessels.

The aspect of the island from the water, in approaching it
from the north, is, however, extremely striking. The range
of cliffs appears like a huge rocky wall, the base of which is
lashed by the surges of the ocean, while its summit is crowned
with a rich and luxuriant verdure. Beyond, appear successive
heights, rapidly rising towards the central ridge of the island.
A zone of clouds frequently rests about the middle of the
mountains ; while, far above, the apparent height greatly in-
creased by this interception from the base, are seen a few of
the peaks and lofty summits of the island. When these hap-
pen to be covered with snow, the effect of the view must be
further increased ; but the intercepting zone of cloud is not
likely to be then present.

The road to St Ann's sometimes runs through the narrow
tract between the rocks and the sea, which is partly cultivated
ground ; sometimes is carried across the high ground above ;
and in one place is at a great height cut in the face of the
cliff for a considerable distance. It is much lengthened by the
winding up and down the sides of the steep ravines by which,
from time to time, it is interrupted. The site of the village of
Ponta.Delgada ; the Arc and the ravine of St Jorge, are points
of especial magnificence ; but throughout, the road is of great
interest. In approaching St Ann's, the path lies through a
country more open and cultivated, at a con:tiderable elevation
above the sea ; and the house where travellers find accommo-
dation is situated in a district of extreme loveliness. The

Geology ^ and Climate of the Uland of Madeira. 345

plantations,* and gardens, and vineyards form a paradise of
rich and graceful scenery ; and the beauty of the place, like
that of the valley of St Vincente after crossing the mountains,
is the more striking from the contrast with the wild and
gloomy grandeur of the scenes through which the day's journey
has lain.

Between St Ann's and Funchal are also some fine scenes, es-
pecially in approaching the neighbourhood of the principal river
of the north coast, the Ribeiro Frio, the steep banks of which
are covered with evergreen forests. At a little distance from
the road, neai* the Ribeiro Frio, a path at the side of a Levada
or water-course, leads through a pass in the mountains, at the
end of which we look down upon the Meyo Metada, an abyss
like the Corral, yet on a scale still more gigantic. This is
certainly the finest point in all the scenery of Madeira. The
depth of the valley must be very great, because the distance
from the sea is not great, and the river has not a very rapid
descent after escaping from the mountains ; while the wall of
the ravine opposite to where we stand, is formed by the preci-
pitous sides of the Pico Ruivo and other highest summits in
the island. It would be needless to attempt to describe the
efi'ect of the combination of rock and ravine, cascade and fo-
rest, which constitute this marvellous scene. Indeed, all of
the mountain-district of Madeira presents to the traveller, at
every step, scenes of which the pen of the poet or the pencil
of the painter t could give but a feeble conception. The scenery

* " In the North," remarks Mr Lowe (in Bot. Miscellany), " I have wit-
nessed whole acres in the woods completely covered, in October, with the
lovely flowers of the Amaryllis Belladonna ; a scene exceeding in beauty
even the dreams of poets."

t Many artists have endeavoured to delineate the scenery of Madeira, but
of the views hitherto published, I have seen scarcely any that might not be
set down as failures. Mr Bowditch, who has given some sketches in his
work on Madeira, speaks, in reference to the Corral, of the " interest in a
geological point of view of a delineation of the place ;" and hopes that some
" skilful hand will yet be able to give the world a coiTect view of that won-
derful scene." By far the most successful attempt to eflcct tliis, has been
made by Mr Picken, a young artist of great genius, who has resided for se-
veral winters in the island on account of his healtli. He has made some
admirable paintings of the principal scenes, including the city of Funchal,
the Corral, the Ravine of Bi Jorge on the north const, and other sitos alluded

rU(5 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography ^

at the same time is of a kind different from what, in ahiiost
any other country, can be met with, from the pecuHar geologi-
cal character of the formations of which it is composed, of
which I will now give some description.

Geology,* — To the geological observer the island of Madeira
everywhere presents the marks of igneous action. Whether

to in this paper ; and is at present preparing eight lithographic views for
publication. To the geologist, these will give a very good idea of the ap-
pearance and physical geography of the island, and will be generally inte-
resting as representations (as far as art can imitate nature where she has
played at will her sU-angest fancies, wild above rule and art) of the most re-
markable natural scenery in the world.

* For my information regarding the geology of the island I am chiefly in-
debted to Mr Smith of Jordanhill, who was in Madeira last winter, and in
wliose company I enjoyed many agreeable excursions in the island. Mr
Smith wrote some letters on the geology of the island, which were translated
into Portuguese, and published in a newspaper of the island, the Flor
d'Oceano. In the same paper was reprinted, from the Transactions of the
Lisbon Academy, a memoir by Senhor Mousinho d' Albuquerque, formerly
Governor at Funchal. Sr. Mousinho's memoir is very valuable for tlie mi-
nute and accurate description given of the various pyrogenous rocks and
minerals. Mr Bowditch gives some geological observations in his " Excur-
sions in Madeira." In the first vol. of the Geological Transactions of Lon-
don is a paper by the Hon. Mr Bennet, which refers only to one or tM'o sec-
tions and appearances on the south coast. Many scattered remarks occur in
the works of travellers, both English and foreign, who have touched at the
island ; but, for the most part, their observations are exceedingly limited,
and often erroneous. Mr Smith first pointed out, fr.om some fossils found
at St Vincente, Mr Bowditch's error in describing the limestone there as
transition ; and determined the age of the island as an extinct volcano of the
tertiary epoch. Mr Smith's remarks on this and other points were published
in the Portuguese Journal already mentioned, which was conducted last
winter by a young militaiy engineer, Sr. Antonio Azevedo, a man of sci-
ence and of varied acquu*ements, who labours for the promotion of science
and the introduction of improvements in the island. The natives could not
yet, perhaps, support a scientific association ; but Sr. Azevedo and one or
two of his friends published, in the FJor d'Oceano, papers and letters of an
ideal academy, " The Philosophical and Mechanical Institute of Madeira,"
which, we trust, may soon be converted into a real and useful institution in
this little " Nova Atlantis J^ We endeavoured last winter to establish an
English journal of literature and science, " The Stranger ;" but, from the
want of workmen and printing materials at the time, had to desist after pub-
lishing one small number. Every encouragement was given to the under-
taking. "We had the use of the Government printing-press ; abundant mate-
rials were contributed, and the support obtained of many of the Portuguesa

Geology, and Climate of the Island of Madeira: 347

he examines the ravines in the centre of the island, or the
cliffs on the coasts which the action of the sea has exposed to
his view, the rocks of which the whole mass of the land is com-
l)0sed are found to be of volcanic origin. Some marine for-
mations there are, but in a comparatively small proportion.
Of the volcanic products, some have been thrown out in the
form of fused lavas, others have been projected into the air,
and others deposited in a state of aqueous suspension. With-
out giving any detailed description or enumeration of the va-
rious rocks, I may here state some of the more interesting
points in the geological appearances of the island.

I. Volcanic Formations,

Basalts.— The igneous rocks are all of the basaltic class.
They present great variety of structure, according to the tem-
perature and pressure to which they have been exposed, their
contact with atmospheric aii* or other gases, and other influ-
ences to which they have been subjected. The basalt is, for
the most part, compact ; but much of it is more or less vesi-
cular, and some also scoriaceous. The compact basalts are
sometimes, in structure, altogether homogeneous, but fre-
quently contain a variety of minerals, especially crystals of
olivine, which occurs in great abundance. In the vesicular
basalt, the gaseous interstices, while compressed by the force
of gravity, are also generally elongated in the direction of the
current of the fluid rock. Observation of this is important in
reference to the origin of these currents. The scoriaceous and
cellular basalt occurs wherever the lava has been much ex-
posed to the air, as in the smaller streams, and in the upper
and outer surfaces of the great deposits. In such situations

TV.

as well as of the English, of whom (including; the strangers who reside in
Funchal during the winter) there are about 500 in the island It is much to
be wished, that, when circumstances permit, tliis undertaking should be re-
sumed, for (apart from the amusement that the literary department Avould
afford in a place where there are not many sources of occupation to the
strangers) there ai-e few foreign stations from which, on many points in na-
tural history, horticulture, and other subjects, a greater mass of valuable ob-
servations would be readily contributed, if a loc^ modium of scientific coni-
municntioa were established.

348 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

the iron contained in the mineral also becomes peroxidated, so
that the dark colour is changed to various hues of brown and
red. In regard to the position of the basalt, the greater part
exists in layers, or stratiform bed^, of different degrees of
thickness. These beds do not seem to follow any one general
direction, but lie in an irregular manner throughout the island.
They are also in various position with relation to the other
formations, being interstratified with some, overcapping others,
and appearing amongst others in the form of veins and dykes
and amorphous masses. In some places the columnar form is
assumed in great perfection. Of the basaltic dykes, some
magnificent specimens may be observed on the road to St Vin-
cente after passing the ravine of the Serra d'Agoa, where they
are seen rising through the whole of the formations to the
very summits of the mountains.

Basaltic Conglomerates. — Basaltic conglomerates of various
kinds form the great mass of the mountains, and whole surface
of the island. These conglomerates resemble each other in
containing fragments of the same pyrogenous rocks, but pre-
sent an immense variety, according to the nature, size, and
quantity of the basaltic fragments which they contain, and the
proportions of the volcanic mud and other products of igneous
eruptions which enter into their formation. In some cases the
compact dark basalt predominates, existing in globular masses,
or in irregular fragments. In others the scoriaceous and cel-
lular structure is more prevalent. Sometimes the fragments
contained are so minute, that the conglomerate has a compact
and homogeneous texture. With the various conglomerates
the compact basalt everywhere alternates, and traverses them
by veins and dykes. The position of these formations may be
seen in the sections which are presented everywhere, both in
the interior and along the coast. In the magnificent sea-cliff
of Cape Giram, formerly referred to, various species of conglo-
merate, with basaltic dykes penetrating ^them, are finely dis-
played. The great mass of the high land of Madeira is of a
structure analogous to what is there seen.

Along the sea-cliffs, towards Cape Grajam, various beds of
rocks are seen, which, from the manner of their stratification,
have evidently been deposited from aqueous suspension. They

Geology i and CHmate of the Island of Madeira. 349

are composed of the same materials with some of the igneous
rocks, but which, in a comminuted state, have been borne
down during volcanic eruptions by the torrents of water pro-
duced by the condensation of the vast volumes of vapour then
evolved. The Cape is named by the English "• Brazen Head,"
from the red colour of the strata, which in that situation being
much disturbed, and intersected by dark basaltic dykes, pre-
sent from the sea a very peculiar appearance. Immediately to
the west of the Pontinha, a similar aqueous deposit may be ob-
served along the chff. In this locality it is overcapped by a
thick bed of compact basalt, which has been poured out over
it. The heat of this superincumbent mass has given rise to an
interesting appearance. The upper part of the layer of the
red aqueous stratum, which has been in contact with the ba-
salt, has been altered by the intense heat, and, in cooling, has
assumed the columnar structure. A very fine effect is thereby
produced, the dark amorphous mass of basalt being supported
by lines of small red pillars of an angular form. This is seen
for a considerable distance along the coast, but the appearance
is especially beautiful at the mouth of the small stream the
Ribeiro Seco, where a large extent of this columnar formation
is exposed."

Aerial Volcanic Rocks. — Between the points just mentioned,
the Pontinha and the Ribeiro Seco, may be also observed a
series of aerial volcanic products. They consist of pumice,
sand, and the various matters ejected by the expansive force
of vapours or gases. The different layers, some of which are

* Mr Bowditch (Excursions, p. 24) remarks, that the red tufa, which has
undergone this change of form, is increased in specific gravity from 1.75 to
2.0G. I am not aware whether this effect of volcanic streams, in thus de-
termining a columnar structure in previously deposited rocks, is of frequent
occurrence, or whether it has been described in reference to any other loca-
lity. Mr Smith informs me, that near Glasgow a whin dyke passing througli
a coal bed has deprived the coal of its bitumen, and rendered it columnar.
Since being in Madeira, I have observed (Juno 1840) a line appeai'ance of the
same kind on the south side of the hill of Gcrgovia, ne:vr Clermont in Au-
voi-gne, where the basalt has flowed over limestone, and caused it to assume,
in like manner, the columnar form, the little pillars for some distance pro-
nenting considerable regularity.

VOL. XXIX NO, LVm. OCTOBER 1840. A a

350 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography,

several feet in thickness, are well marked, denoting successive
volcanic showers of different materials. Some of the layers
consist of white lapilli of pumice, which have very small specific
gravity, and float on the surface of water. These layers of
light pumice alternate with various beds of heavy dark tuffs
and sand. This disposition of the layers proves that they have
been deposited on the land and not at the bottom of the sea,
where they would have taken their place in relation to their
specific gravity. In several places the beds dip down under
the present level of the ocean, proving, that, since their depo-
sition, there have been depressions in the surface of the land in
these parts.

II. Formations not Volcanic.

Along the same soa-cliffs, in the vicinity of Funchal, are
seen beds or strata of matter, not of volcanic origin, lying be-
neath some of the basalt and other pyrogenous products. In
these beds are found the roots of plants encrusted with mineral
matter. From the number of such vegetable remains, it is
probable that the chief materials of this earthy deposit consist
of the old vegetable soil which covered the island. At the
eastern extremity of the island there exists a remarkable for-
mation, which has been thought analogous to these earthy
beds, but to contain vegetable remains in far greater abun-
dance. It is termed generally the Fossil Forest of Cani9al,
which is the name of the parish in which it occurs. Believing
the general opinion regarding its nature to be erroneous, I will
refer at greater length to this formation.

Fossil Formation of Cani(;al. — The Point St Louren9o, which
forms the eastern extremity of the island, extends about three
miles into the sea with an inconsiderable breadth. The land,
immediately before where it becomes contracted to form the
Point, and nearly to the Cape at the extremity, consists of
beds of basalt and of conglomerates, as I have described most
of the high grounds to be composed. In sailing along the south
coast from the town of Machico, from which visitors generally
set out to visit the fossil bed, the structure of the formations
on the lofty coast are finely seen ; different layers of conglome-
rates, globular and scoriaceous, traversed every where by veins

Geology, and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 351

of compact basalt ; and in some places there appear masses of
the latter rock in the columnar form. The rocks are of less
height as we advance eastward ; but the line of the coast is at
intervals marked by masses of basalt, and in one place a hill of
^onie height remains, the last high ground on the south coast,
on the summit of which is a chapel of the Virgin, from which
the rock takes its name, Monte de Nossa Senhora da Piedade.
On the north side of the island, the cliffs retain a great eleva-
tion, for some distance beyond this point.

Immediately to the west of this chapel mount we land in a
small bay, where is the only piece of sand beach I believe in
the island. The distance to the opposite coast may here be
about a mile or more, the ground sloping gradually from the
north coast, where the cliffs are from two to three hundred feet
in elevation. Over the whole of this extent, and for a consi-
derable space to the eastward and westward, the pyrogenous
rocks are covered with a deep bed of calcareous sand, contain-
ing vast quantities of what has been described as remains of
former vegetation. The formation is thus described by Mr
Bov.ditch : — " The sands have been in some degree fixed or
bound by the numerous branches of forest trees which they
have enveloped ; for these branches (which have preserved their
lateral twigs) are so numerous, that they are spread over the
surface, like a network of stoloniferous roots. It is scarcely
possible to set the foot on the ground without treading on them.
Both the branches and the trunks (which stand on their roots
in their natural position) are encased in a thick hard sheath of
agglutinated sand, which has followed the external configura-
tion of the wood like a cast. In some instances, the wood has
entirely perished, and the envelopes are found void like tubes,
but most frequently the wood is found within, as a distinct
mass, and has become sufficiently siliceous to scratch arrago-
nite. Sometimes imbedded in the envelopes of the wood, but
generally in the loose sand of the surface, were innumerable
fossil shells, intermingled promiscuously, two species terrestrial,
the third belonging to a marine genus. The Delphinula ap-
proaches the D. sulcata of Lamarck, only known in the fossil
state, and found at Grignon. Both helices belong to the group
LameUatcc of De Ferrussac'*8 subgenus Heltcosti/la, Those sheila

352 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography ,

are perfectly distinct from the existing helices of Madeira. Ail
the branches and wood appear to belong to the same sort of
tree (of which there seems to have been a small forest on that
Bpot), and that evidently a dicotyledon ; but more than that I
do not think our present knowledge of the comparative ana
toray of timbers is sufficiently advanced to determine."*

Albuquerque also describes the locality in great detail, and
has the same view of its nature ; mentioning that the branches
and roots, even the minutest ramifications, are so obvious, as to
leave no doubt of its being a vegetable formation. He consi-
dered it as coeval with the beds of vegetable soil which I have
alluded to as occurring along the coast in the vicinity of Fun-
chal.

The formation has quite the appearance of what it is repre-
sented by Bowditch to be. The masses contained in the sand in
form and structure seem to be the stems and roots, not of forest
trees, indeed, but of a tract of heath or underwood. Of this I
was so much satisfied, that in my notes made at the place, I
find I have marked it as probable that the plant was the Vac-
einium Maderense^ which, throughout the island at present,
forms large thickets, similar in appearance to what we can con-
ceive this to have been. I visited the formation in company
with Mr Smith, Mr Buchanan Hamilton of Leny, and Dr John
Russel of Edinburgh, and none of the party had any doubt as
to the vegetable origin of the remains.

Concerning the theory of the formation various opinions have
been submitted. Bov^ditch says " it must evidently have been
from an irruption of the sea, from the heaps of terrestrial shells
mingled with the marine ; and from the trees being found stand-
ing on their roots, and not deposited promiscuously, or flatten-
ed as by pressure of a superincumbent stratum afterwards re-
moved.'' The calcareous sand he thought to be derived either
from destruction of fragments of limestone in the bed of the
ocean, or from comminuted shells ; more probably the former.
Mr Smith, with much more probability, thought that it was an
ancient wood, sanded up b}^ a blown sand, composed of minute
fragments of basalt and comminuted shells, the same as forms
.. t

* Bowditch's Excursions, pp. 139, 140.

Geology i and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 353
the beach in the little bay or landing place. The structure of
the plant thus sanded up he thought to be replaced by carbo-
nate of lime from the percolation of water ; the lime possibly
supplied by the decomposition of the shelly fragments.

To these, or any of the explanations that have been oftered,
various objections might be made ; but the chief difficulty left
unremoved by them, seemed to me the accounting for the vast
([uantity of calcareous matter in the formation ; far more than
the lime borne along with an irruption of the sea, or resulting
from the decomposition of the scattered specimens of shells
could possibly supply. For not merely the fossils, but the great
mass of the sand-formation in which they lie is calcareous.

Calcareous deposits, similar to that of Madeira, have been
described by voyagers as occurring at the Cape of Good Hope,
and in New Holland. Of the latter, the most recent account is
given by Mr Darwin in the valuable and interesting volume
recently published, containing the observations in Geology and
Natural History, made in the expedition of H. M. Ship Beagle.
In speaking of Van Diemen's land, he says :* " One day (March
J 836) I accompanied Captain Fitzroy to Bald Head, the place
mentioned by so many navigators, where some have imagined
they saw coral, and others petrified trees, standing in the posi*
tion in which they grew. According to our view, the rock was
formed by the wind heaping up calcareous sand ; during which
process, branches and roots of trees, and land shells, are en-
closed ; the mass being afterwards consolidated by the perco-
lation of rain-water. When the wood had decayed, lime was
washed into the cylindrical cavities, and became hard. The
weather is now wearing away the softer rock, and in conse-
([uence the casts of roots and branches project above the sur-
face. Their resemblance to the stumps of a dead shrubbery
was so exact, that, before touching them, we were sometimes at
a loss to know which were composed of wood, and which of cal-
careous matter."

I have examined the accounts given by former travellers of
this place. It was Vancouver who first observed it in 1790*

* Journal of Kesearches, &c., by Charles DarTvin> Et>q. Sec. Geological
Society* London, 1839, p. o37>

453 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

He describes it* as " a formation of* sand, extending over
about eight acres, through which protrude branches of coral,
with ramifications of different sizes, some not half an inch,
others four or five inches in circumference." The top pieces
are soft, and easily reduced to powder ; the lower are more
compact in texture. Sea shells abound over the whole surface.
Captain Flinders also visited the locality. t A French naviga-
tor, Peron, accounts for the formation in the same way that
some have supposed that of Oanigal to have been formed. He
supposes X that " shells cast on shore are decomposed, and
having lost a portion of their carbonic acid, approach to the
state of the lime used in some calcareous cements ; and in this
state unite into a compost with quartz, and form incrustations on
the surfaces of plants. As the wood is destroyed, the mass
becomes gradually a mere sandstone, and nothing but an arbo-
rescent form indicates the ancient state of vegetation."

Of the formation in South Africa, Mr Clarke Abel gives an
account in his Chinese Journal. " Somewhat to the eastward
of Simon's Town is a large bank, which rises from the sea to
the height probably of a hundred feet, and seems to have been
formed by an accumulation of shells and sand brought up by
the south-east wind. On this bank a great number of cylin-
drical bodies lie scattered about, and at first sight resemble
the bones of animals bleached and disorganized by exposure to
the air. On a closer examination, many of them are found to
be branched, and others are discovered rising through the soil,
and ramifying from a stem beneath thicker than themselves.
Their vegetable origin immediately suggests itself, and is con-
firmed by further inquiry."

Mr Abel says,§ that he " compared a specimen from New
Holland with those from the Cape, and could trace no essen-
tial difference in their external character, and that, when sub-
jected to a similar chemical analysis, they gave precisely simi-
lar results. As this specimen," he adds, " has a remarkable

* Vancouver's Voyage, vol. i. p. 48. Ed. 4th. 1798.
t Flinders' Voyage, vol, i. p. 63.

X Quoted in Abel's Narrative of a Journey to China, p. 308.
§ Abel's Narrative, p. 311.

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 365

resemblance to coral, both in form and closeness of texture, it
may perhaps be considered a fair example of those substances
considered coral by Vancouver and Flinders. If this be ad-
mitted, it will follow that the reasoning is incorrect which is
founded on their supposed submarine origin."

After returning home from Madeira, I had some sections of
the Oani9al structure made, thinking that they would form
good objects of microscopic inspection, as specimens of fossil
wood. In these sections there appeared, however, not the
slightest form or aspect of vegetable structure. The arrange-
ment of the calcareous matter was altogether similar to what
is found in corallines and marine animal productions. Their
vegetable structure was therefore rendered somewhat doubt-
ful. On heating a fragment in a glass tube, a great quantity
of ammonia was given off; which confirmed the idea of the
animal structure of the specimen, and shewed that the organic
matter had not, as was supposed, been wholly replaced by the
carbonate of lime and mineral deposits.* The formation is,
therefore, a tract of fossil coral, belonging probably, from the
appearance of the structure, to the family of Alcyonidse : tho

* The folloAving is a detailed analysis which Mr Thomas Anderson of
Leith has had the kindness to make for me.

"When heated to redness in a tube open at both ends, the fossil gave out a
strong smell of burning animal matter, becoming after a little powerfully
ammoniacal.

; Dissolved in diluted nitric acid, a brown powder remained, which, wlien
ignited, left silica, the organic matter being dissipated. "*

To the solution, rendered nearly neutral by evaporation, an excess of
ammonia was added, which threw down phosphate of ammonia.

Carbonate of ammonia precipitated cai'bonate of lime.

Quantitative Analysis : —

Carbonate of lime, . . 73.15

Silica, .
Phosphate of lime,
Animal matter,
Sulphate of lime, .

"98.11

This analysis, along with the sections, I think satisfactorily establishes
the animal origin of the formation.

356 Dr Jsmes Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

species being perhaps allied to, if not, the Alcijonium arhoreum
of the present time.

The Madeira formation is, therefore, either different from
those with which it has been classed ; or the observations of Abel,
Darwin, and others, who have sought to establish their vege-
table origin, have been imperfect. Of this I cannot determine,
not having seen specimens from the other localities. The Ma-
deira formation, however, is an interesting one, although it be
different from the others, on account of the extent of the tract
which it covers. With regard to the shells that abound on the
surface of the formation, I have already quoted Mr Bowditch's
observations. Mr Lowe has added many to them. I have not
a catalogue of those determined by Mr Lowe, but remember his
stating that about one-fifth of them are extinct species. They
belong, therefore, to the upper tertiary or Pleistocene epoch of
Lyell. This, too, argues against the vegetable nature of the
formation ; for it is not likely that a wood of dicotyledonous trees
or shrubs (to the appeal ance of which alone the specimens bear
resemblance) would have existed at a time anterior to the ex-
tinct shells that have been deposited above them.

This, then, seems to have been the origin of the formation.
A large tract of coral, of the Alcyonian tribe, has been up-
heaved, by the elevation of the pyrogenous rocks from sub-
marine volcanic action. The death and decay of the Alcyonia
ensued, leaving the soil covered for a great extent with a forest
of coral, the surface of which, from exposure to the sun and
elements, has been in great measure worn, and still is rapidly
crumbling down, forming a calcareous sand similar in compo-
sition to that of the specimen. Mr Darwin describes an ana-
logous formation (" considerably more than a mile square,
covered with a forest of branching coral," p. 547.) produced in
Reeling's Island, and by a similar cause, namely, the death of
the coral over a large extent, from exposure to the sun, arising
from change of level in the surface. There, however, the ani-
mal is that of the connnon coral, and the change of surface
was produced by a gradual change of the surface of the ocean
at the place. In Madeira the coral is an Alcyonium, and the
exposure was produced by a violent change of level from volca-

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 357

nic agency. The extinct species of sliells, and other appear-
ances (such as a fragment of an extinct monocotyledonous vege-
table, apparently a Lycopodium, found by Mr Smith) presented
on the surface of the formation, shew that its age is b'^fore the
latest part of the tertiary epoch. If this account of the mat-
ter be correct, I think the difficulty is satisfactorily removed
as to the enormous amount of calcareous matter (the origin of
which Mr Bowditch and others have had to account for by
such inadequate causes as the comminuted sand of distant
limestone beds, or the decomposition of the shells scattered on
the surface of the ground), for the Alcyonia would give from
their own structure all the carbonate of lime which appears ;
and, indeed, in many places, the coral may be seen in every
stage of decomposition, the specimens everywhere crumbling
down into the amorphous soil of calcareous matter of which
great part of the surface of the formation is already composed.

Thus far an induction from observed facts seems to lead.
Whether the coral be an extinct species, or the Alcyonium ar-
horeum : whether the formation be similar to those with which
it has been classed, or of a nature not elsewhere as yet ob-
served : how there come to be found on the surface such a vast
number of land molluscse : "' and various other questions, — re-
main for future investigation.

Between St Jorge and St Ann's there appears a bed of lig-
nite, on the bank of the river of St Jorge, immediately before
the entrance of a stream called the Ribeiro de Tabaco. Sr.
Mousinho describes it as lying above a bed of hard clay im-
pregnated with lignitic matter, which rests immediately on

* It has been observed that calcareous rocks have more influence than
any others in increasing the number and propagation of molluscap- (See Ed-
ward Forbes' Report, p. 128, in Transactions of British Association for
1839.) The presence of this calcareous tract in a country almost wholly ba-
saltic, may account for the remarkable accumulation of shells in this spot,
while they occur scattered rarely in the rest of the island.

Mx Bowditch wa« wrong in stating tlint marine shells occur here. Mr
Lowe states (Primitifc Fauncc et Fionc Madorensis, Camb. Trans., vol. iv,
p. C4), " Nullam quidcm specicni mnrinam cum illis (terrestribus) commix-
tam vidi. Dclph inula sulcata (Bowd. Excursions, p. 140^ est Heliris spc*
cies (H^ delphiuulu Nob)." All the couIchI sbellb are ttiTestrial f^peciea*

358 Dr James Macaulay on the Fhijsical Geography^
basalt ; the layer of lignite itself being covered by a thick ba-
saltic formation.

The last and most important of the non-volcanic formations
is the limestone occurring near St Vincente. About two miles
up the valley, in a narrow branch ravine on the eastern side
of the river, and at an elevation of more than ICOO feet above
the sea, there is exposed by the mountain torrent a mass of
limestone surrounded on every side by the basaltic rocks. The
remains of one or two small kilns are near the spot. The small
extent of the formation that can be exposed, and the great
difficulty of transportation, must have led to the abandonment
of the working of the lime for building purposes. Mr Bow-
ditch' s account of " a bed of transition limestone seven hundred
feet tliick^'' and referred to by Dr Daubeny (in his book on
Volcanoes, p. 261.) and others, is altogether erroneous. The
account he gives is as follows : '* This limestone is crystalline
in its texture, contains very little siliceous matter, and scarcely
any compact masses ; yet, from the great depth of the bed (being
nearly 700 feet from its junction with the superincumbent ba-
salt, to my last glimpse of it in the bed of the torrent, nearly
level with the sea), without a single alternation, I have no
doubt of its being transitive rather than primitive limestone."
P. 51. With regard to the extent of this formation, I believe
that only a small portion of rock is exposed, and that quite
isolated by the igneous rocks which have raised it to so remark-
able an elevation. Mr Bowditch may have observed other
portions in situ 700 feet below the upper station ; but assu-
redly there is no bed of that thickness " without alternation."
In ascending the bed of the mountain stream, I observed large
masses that had been borne down from above, which may have
been the source of the mistake. If the limestone existed " in
the bed of the torrent nearly level with the sea," the lime-
kilns would not have been built at the upper limit of the for-
mation, where the difficulty of transportation has partly caused
them to be abandoned. Again, with regard to the structure
of the rock, it contains many fossils of the tertiary series. Mr
Smith obtained specimens of the following genera, Venus, Tel-
lina, Crassina, Astrea, Pecten, Cardiuni, Fasciolaria, Murex,

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 9

Voluta, Cypraea, most of the apparently extinct shells, with
some corallines and zoophytic remains. The conclusions of
Mr Bowditch (at page 68, " Excursions," &;c.), with others
founded on them, based on the idea of " a vast bed of transi-
tion limestone of a depth of 700 feet," therefore, fall to the
ground.*

From the preceding notes, although I have not entered into
any details, it will bo readily perceived that the island presents
a tine field for geological study. Even from the few facts that
have been referred to, many interesting conclusions might be
drawn.

It appears probable, from the similarity of their volcanic
rocks, that there exists between the Madeira and the Azores,
the Canaries, and other islands in that part of the Atlantic,
an intimate geological connection. In all, there abound tho
same basalts and conglomerates, and layers of scoriae. In Te-
neriffe and St Michael, and other islands where the volcanic
action is still in activity, these formations are covered by many
series of more recent deposits, the ancient and modern lavas
being distinguished from one another. Tho volcanic action
having been long extinct in Madeira, there are found none of
these modern deposits, but its rocks are tho same with the
older series in the other islands. This similarity has led some
geologists to revive the speculation concerning a former conti-
nent or large island existing in these parts ; the Atlantis per-
haps of the ancients. In addition to what has been urged in
this matter by Bory St Vincent and previous writers, Sr. Mon-
sinho, in the memoir already quoted, supports the idea, and
considers Madeira as a portion of a vast region which has been
broken up and in a great part swallowed by the ocean. If this
fancy were not by many other proofs shewn to be groundless,
a very slight consideration of the geological appearances of the

* In the adjoining island of Porto Santo, there is a recent tertiary lime-
stone, also abounding in fossil shells. I did not visit this ; but at the lime-
kiln near Funchal, which is supplied from it, I collected many specimens.
I have not yet had ray specimens determined. One or two appear tho same
as species found at St Vincent's. Many of them are probably different spe-
cies from any that have been elsewhere discovered.

360 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

island would prevent its being seriously entertained. The na-
ture and the amount of the non-volcanic formations, the posi-
tion they occupy amidst the pyrogenous products, and the
manner in which the various rocks are situated, sufficiently de-
monstrate that no former track of land has been submerged,
but that the island has, by the force of submarine volcanic ac-
tion, been raised to its present state ; and that the older strata,
fragments of which now appear even at a great elevation, were
originally formed at the bottom of the sea, and remained there
till disturbed and heaved up by the igneous agency. That the
present Archipelago of Madeira is but the fragment of a greater
region, Sr. M. d' Albuquerque further argues, from the absence
of any focus of divergent currents, and the general inclination
of all the beds of lava, which he says is in the direction of
south-west. This inclination is certainly far from obvious ; for,
as already stated, the beds lie in various directions, and seem
to diverge not from one but from many foci of volcanic energy.
There is certainly no where to be seen anything like a well-
marked crater, such as those of Auvergne and other districts
of extinct volcanic action. Some have considered the Corral
to be the crater of the island. I believe it to have been only
one of the several centres of eruption indicated by the direc-
tions of the basaltic beds. Another, for instance, and equally
well-marked, seems to have had its site in the present bay of
Funchal. The outline of this crater may be traced partly by
the line of basaltic rock at the Pontinha,, which, running out
into the sea, forms the pier there, and part of the continuation
of which is seen in the basaltic island on which the Ilheo fort
in the bay is built. Other centres of eruption are obvious in
different parts of the island. The only difficulty in the way of
supposing these to have been the volcanic craters of the island
is their immense size. But every thing around bears token of
the gigantic scale on which the igneous agency must here have
been in operation. The vast volume of the basaltic formations,
the thickness of the strata of conglomerate and volcanic sand,
and the enormous quantities oi' scoriae and other ejected mat-
ters, prevent any surprise as to this matter. Even in the com-
paratively tranquil state of things since the commencement of

Geology, and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 361

the present geological epoch, these seas have been the site of
subterranean and submarine volcanic action on the vastest
scale. Since the year 1445, when the Portuguese navigators
found a new island of great size raised above the sea, till our
own times, as in the instance of the island of Sabrina, which
was more than three hundred feet above the sea and a quarter
of a league in circumference, many similar occurrences have
been recorded, proving the extent and power of the igneous
agency, yet* operating in this district of the eastern Atlantic.

In regard to the geological age and history of the island,
the fossils are not yet sufficiently known to admit of great pre-
cision of statement. From the fossils of the limestone of St
Vincente, the oldest formation that has been observed, it ap-
pears that the island was first raised from the sea during the
tertiary epoch.

The volcanic fires must have remained in activity, with in-
tervals at least of repose, during a long series of ages, because
the different formations indicate many eruptions distinct in
their character. Much of the island seems to belong to the
very latest or Pleistocene ages of the tertiary epoch.

It seems further probable, that the conglomerates, of which
the great mass of the island is composed, as well as much of
the compact basalt, were formed beneath the ocean, and raised
by the force of elastic vapours and the upheaving of successive
volcanic products ; the island being chiefly the product of sub-
marine volcanic action. The beds of scoriae and light lapilli,
and the series of basaltic formations subsequent to them, shew
that the island was for a long period also a subaerial volcano.
It is farther apparent from those pumice beds (originally de-
posited horizontally above the sea level, but afterwards dis-
turbed, and now dipping down at considerable angles under

* Last winter, on the 5th of December, the whole of the south coast of
St Miguel, one of the Azores, was inundated by the sea, which suddenly
rose upon the land with prodigious force, destroying many houses, bridges,
and other buildings, and causing great havoc and loss of property. We
heard of the disaster soon after in Madeira, but no trace of the submarine
disturbance was obser\'ed there.

2G2 Dr James Macanlay on the Physical Geography^

the ocean) that, after the time of their deposition, the relative
level of sea and land was in many parts by violent means
altered, and the island partially exposed to the influence of
those causes, by the operation of which, many volcanic tracts
that have been raised above the sea have been again made
wholly to disappear. This violent agency on the surface of
the land is further manifest from the vast size of the valleys
and ravines, which the small streams that now run in them
could never in any course of time have been able to excavate ;
as well as from the abrupt and rugged character of the gigan-
tic cliffs which now form in most parts the outline of the
island. These could only be the effects of earthquakes or
other great convulsive agencies. Since the commencement of
the present geological epoch, the island has been in repose,
there being no indication of recent eruptions, and none of the
products observed in modern volcanic districts.

The changes at present operating on the surface of the land
arc only those of a gradual nature. For many years no shock
of an earthquake or other violent disturbing cause has been
experienced. When these have occurred, they have been con-
nected with distant volcanic action. In many places, the wa-
ters of the ocean are rapidly wearing the sea-cliffs. In the
interior, the rivers work a considerable change at times upon
tlie surface. From the steepness of the sides of the ravines,
there are frequent slips of the soil, the havoc of which adds to
the romantic wildness of the scenery of these places. A Ithough
none of the rivers are ordinarily of great size or power, they
are sometimes swollen so much as to bear down immense quan-
tities of soil and rock, and work great damage in their course.
In the year 1803, for instance, all the streams were swollen by
a great flood, by which an immense amount of damage to pro-
perty was sustained, and in some places bridges were destroyed
and many houses borne down by the force of the waters.

The sea around the island is almost every where immediately
deep, as might be expected from the abrupt declivity of the
shores. The configuration of the adjacent submarine tract, so
far as known, is extremely irregular, there being no plains of
great extent, and those which do exist being composed of rough

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira, 363

and rocky surface, without any sand or comminuted detritus.
In the Bay of Funchal, which is the principal, and indeed the
only station for large ships, the depth of anchorage is from
forty to fifty fathoms, and the bottom broken and rocky. In
those places where the soa does not wash the face of the cliffs,
there is a bank of coarse shingle, formed of rounded masses of
basaltic rocks. With one or two trifling exceptions, there is
no spot with a gravel far less a sand beach. The absence of
a beach in a maritime station is one of the few wants felt by
stranger invalids in Funchal. The want is in a great measure
supplied by the terraces that have been made along the shore,
which, when the trees have grown sufficiently to afford shelter
from the sun, will prove most delightful places of resort for
walking. The sea bank is generally very steep, and over it
there is every where more or less of a surf. In the bay of
Funchal, which is well sheltered from most winds, this surf
does not give rise to much annoyance ; but even there it is
often difficult to land a boat with safety. It is most amusing
to observe the skill with which the islanders convey to shore
boats heavily laden with fruit or other cargos which the in-
gress of the sea water would destroy. The surf breaking close
into shore, the boat is kept in the smooth water immediately
beyond it, within a few feet of the beach, till the boatman
on the look out, who has patiently allowed many a wave to
break, descries one approaching which he deems favourable,
and the signal having been given, the boat is borne on it se-
curely to land, and immediately drawn up out of reach of the
succeeding wave. The process seems a very easy one ; but I
have more than once seen English sailors, who thought so and
tried it, fail, and get thoroughly ducked, to the great amuse-
ment of the native boatmen.

The prevailing winds of the island are northerly and easterly.
Perhaps two hundred days in the year may be noted as be-
tween the N.E. and N.W. points ; and about fifty more due
east. From this it is obvious that the island is within those
limits in which the trade winds blow with considerable regula-
larity. Occasionally there are violent irregular winds which
do considerable damage to the vines and other property.
These hurricanes, are, however, of rare occorrence. There

364 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography,

is one kind of east wind denominated L'Este, similar to
the Harmattan of the African continent. It is a warm, dry
wind ; and, from the rapidity with which it increases evapora-
tion, it is apt to cause great oppression to some constitutions,
and in all to give rise to a parched and uncomfortable sensa-
tion of the surface of the body. Sometimes it blows for a con-
siderable period, and with violence ; and on these occasions,
birds and showers of locusts are often borne with it from the
continent of Africa. Twice during last winter, I procured spe-
cimens in this way. During the continuance of the L'Este,
the hills present a peculiarly clear and cloudless aspect, from its
rapidly dissolving all moisture in the atmosphere. During win-
ter and spring, the upper parts of the island are generally
colder than the atmosphere that is continually moving south-
ward over, it, much of the vapour of which is, therefore, preci-
pated, so that clouds and mist frequently envelope the tops of
the mountains. In summer, however, the island always pos-
sesses temperature sufficient to suspend all the aqueous vapour
borne over it by the winds of the sea ; and weeks and months
of sunny sky and cloudless weather, therefore, follow in unin-
terrupted succession.

The nights in Madeira are of surpassing beauty. The moon
displays a radiance, to the brilliancy of which any approach is
seldom made in this country. Venus, too, shines with beauti-
ful refulgence, casting a shadow from objects. The lunar rain-
bow, a meteor never or rarely seen in our country, is said to
be there of frequent occurrence, which indicates a remarkable
clearness of the atmosphere. Twice during last winter, I observed
the appearance. On one of the nights, in the month of March,
it was visible, on mist or clouds, on the mountains for two or
three hours, in distinct and beautiful display, while the full
moon was not far above the horizon. The brilliancy of the
heavens, the serenity of the air, the genial mildness of the at-
mosphere, render the nights, especially " when the moon with
more pleasing light, shadowy sets off the face of things,'' more
inviting even than the day to be abroad in. The absence of
chillness and damp here, permits one with safety to enjoy this,
" the pleasant time, the cool," but not " the silent ;" for many
of the natives, indolent during the day, then delight in their

Geology, tmd fUlimate of the Island of Madeira, 366

gardens and terraces ; and the air is filled with the music of
the guitar, and a sweet little instrument, peculiar to the island,
the machettinho. Thfi^ak-is then, too, redolent with the sweet
aroma of* the orange and citron groves ; and heliotropes, da-
turae, jessamines, roses, with many a " flowery odour'' besides,
unite their tribute to increase the delicious fragrance of the
atmosphere.

The climate of Funchal and its immediate neighbourhood,
which is the only part of the island in which invalids reside
during winter, has been ascertained by many series of most
accurate observations. The advantages it presents over the best
climates on the continent of Europe, have been set forth in a
very clear light by Sir James Clark in his work on CHmate. *' The
mean annual temperature of Funchal is 64°, being only about
5° warmer than the Italian and Provengal provinces. This
very moderate mean temperature, relatively to its low latitude,
arises however from the summer at Madeira being proportion-
ally cool ; for, while the winter is 20° v/anner than at London,
the summer is only 7° warmer ; and, whilst the winter is 12°
warmer than in Italy and Provence, the summer is nearly 5°
cooler. The mean annual range of temperature is only 14°,
being less than half the range of Rome, Pisa, Naples, and Nice.
The heat is also distributed through the year with surprising
equality, so that the mean difference of the temperature of
successive months is only 2^.41 ; this at Rome is 4^30, at Nice
4°.74, at Pisa 5°.7o, and at Naples 5°.08. Whilst there is
much equality in the distribution of temperature through the
year, there is no less so in the progression of temperature for
the day ; the mean range for the twenty-four hours being 10°
by the register thermometer, while at Rome it is 10"", at Naples
13'', at Nice 9", by the common thermometer, which gives only
the extremes observed during the day. The steadiness of tem-
perature from day to day also exceeds that of all the other
climates. In this respect, it is not half so variable as Rome,
Nice, or Pisa, and is only about one-third as variable as Naples.
The degree of variableness from day to day at Madeira is l°.ll,
at Ronie it is 2".80, at Nice 2°.33, and at London 4°.01. The
annual range of atmospheric pressure is aloO very small, being
about the same as that of Rome and Naples. Nearly the same

VOL. XXIX. NO. LVIII.— OCTOBER 1840* B b

366 Dr James Macaiilay on the Physical Geography^

quantity of rain falls annually at Madeira as at Rome and
Florence, but at Madeira there are only 73 days on which any
rain falls, while at Naples there are 07, at Home 117, and at
London 178. The rain at Madeira falls at particular seasons,
chiefly in the autumn, leaving the atmosphere, in general, dry
and clear during the remainder of the year. From this com-
parative view of the climate, it must be readily perceived, how
great are the advantages which this island presents over the
best climates on the continent of Europe. It is warmer during
the winter, and cooler during the summer ; it has less differ-
ence between the temperature of day and night, between one
season and another, and between successive days ; it is almost
exempt from keen, cold winds, and enjoys a general steadiness
of weather, to which the best of these are strangers ; the rains
are circumscribed, and generally fall at regular and stated
periods.'*'

I have examined several meteorological registers kept with
great accuracy and regularity, and have not observed the tem-
perature in Funchal to have been, above three or four times
in many years, below 50° Fahr. The lowest that wo had last
winter was 49°, on the morning of the 29th March, when there
was snow on the mountains to within about 2800 feet above
the sea. The station was, however, at a little distance from
the city. The greatest monthly range during last winter was
also in March, the maximum being on the 25th of March 70°.
During the summer, the thermometer is as rarely above 80°,
except during a continued Teste, when it has been observed
several degrees higher in the shade.

I have not seen any good series of hygrometrical observa-
tions regarding the climate of Funchal. Judging empirically,
from such effects as the rapid rusting of certain instruments,
and the great difficulty of drying and preserving my botanical
specimens, as compared with experience in other places, I
should say, that, in general, the atmosphere is charged with
an unusual amount of moisture. It never, indeed, appears in
mist or fogs, or any other form of sensible humidity, because
the temperature of the air by which it is suspended is so ad-
mirably regulated. The large amount of moisture, combined
thus with a temperature capable of always retaining it in a

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 367

condition in which it is not injurious to those states of dis-
ease, for which invalids ought to be sent to Madeira, I consi-
der one of the chief elements in the excellence of the climate
of Funchal. So effectually is the temperature adequate to
prevent the appearance of any sensible humidity, maintained
by the perpetual motion and mingling of the regular breezes
and atmospheric currents, that, notwithstanding the great
quantity of moisture in the air, and the facility of radiation in
the extraordinary clearness of the nights, dew is scarcely ever
deposited.*

The nature of the vegetation around Funchal displays the
genial warmth of its climate. The surrounding country has,
in many respects, quite a tropical appearance. The hill sides
are covered indeed with vineyards, amidst which are scattered
orange trees and cypresses and fig-trees, with hedges of rose
and myrtle ; and the inhabitants of the flower-beds, too, are
nmch the same as in the south of Europe. But, at the same
time, over the cottages and cabins of the peasants, the banana
waves its broad leaves ; the gardens are filled with the custard
apple, the guava, and other fruits of the West Indies ; there
are large plantations of coffee ; the cotton-tree and the sugar-
cane flourish ; the rocks, to a great height above the sea, are
covered with a southern cactus (the opuntia tuna) ; and every
where tropical flowers, in the greatest luxuriance, abound.t

• These remarks, and most of what is said in different works concerning
the " climate of Madeira," refer, it is to be noted, only to the immediate vici-
nity of Funchal. They may not be applicable at a very short distance above
the city, or in other places on the coast.

t In Loudon's Gardeners' Magazine for October 1838, vol. xiv., p. 449, there
is a description by Dr Lippold (a German botanist and natural history col-
lector in Madeira and the Canaries), of the villa and garden of Dr Renton'
at tlie Val. This garden is nearly 500 feet above the sea, and is in a most
beautiful situation. The ground is laid out in terraces ; and the culture, ir-
rigation, and all the arrangements of the place, indicate great skill and t ste
in tlie management of a garden which has the richest natural advantages.
The luxuriimcc and the diversity of the vegetivtion is astonishing. Dr Lip-
pold's list contains a great variety of rare fruits and flowers, and shews how
remarkably the trees of Australia, and of most other warm countries, thrive
in the climate of Madeira, The garden of the Mount Villa (belonging to Web-
ster Gordon, Esq.) is also extremely rich iu valuable plants. The groonda
are laid out with great tuste^ and present more variety of suxface and expo-

068 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography ^

The vine is not much cultivated beyond 2000 feet above the
sea. From this height to the summit of the first range of
mountains (which form the boundary of the view from Fun-
chal) there are forests of chestnut, pine, and other European
trees, with thickets of broom, heath, and furze ; and the violet,
foxglove, thyme, vinca, are among the flowers that charac-
terize the zone of vegetation. The Serra de St Antonio is in
altitude about the upper limit of the region ; and on it, as I
have said, the tree heath and Madeiran bilberry grow luxu-
riantly. At the same elevation begin to prevail the laurels
and other native evergreens. Of these the most conspicuous
are the Laurus hidica, or Madeira Mahogany tree ; the Til
(Laurtis foetens), the Laiirtts Canariensis ; the Myrica Faya ;
and some of the Taxew. Between the upper limit of the vines
and that of the laurels a great variety of ferns, and also many
indigenous Compositse and Labiatse, are found. On the highest
summits, the verdure seems chiefly to consist of grasses or of
heaths.

From these few remarks the variety of climate, as indicated
by the vegetation, is sufficiently obvious. The range of eleva-
tion, however, is too limited ; and the vegetation presents too
few marked transitions, to render the description of any fixed
zones of distribution a subject of much interest or importance.
That which strikes every one is the astonishing combination of
climates, and this depending more on particular aspects and
situations than on mere elevation. On the north side of the
island there is little variety of vegetation perceptible, except-
ing in some of the valleys and sheltered recesses ; and it is
only in a few spots of the south that tropical plants can flourish,
and the range of vegetation be thereby increased. The extent
of this range is remarkably illustrated by the variety of fruits
that come to perfection. Dates, guavas, limes, citrons, bana-
nas, and a host of other tropical fruits, are in the gardens be-
low ; while above, the apple, nectarine, gooseberry, chestnut,

sure than most of the Madeira quintas possess. The height above the sea
beiug about 2000 feet, the cultivation of many of the plants of colder climates
is permitted ; and part of tlie ground has quite the appeai-ance of an English
garden. There arc also some plantations of European forest-trees. The
orange-tree flourishe?, but the cultiration of the vine does not reach so high.

Geology i and Climate of the Uland of Madeira,

strawberry, and our European fruits and esculent plants of
every sort flourish.

" Whatever Earth, all bearing mother, yields
In India East or West, or middle shore
In Pontus or the Punic coast, or where
Alcinous reigned ; fruit of all kinds, in coat
Rough or smooth rind, or bearded husk, or shell, — "

Paradise Lost, v. 338.

— the produce of every clime is heaped together; and the
flora * presents a like union of endlessly varied vegetation.
In this respect, indeed, the happy confusion of climate de-
scribed by the poet is exemplified :

Hie ver assiduum atque alienis maisihus a^tas, — Georg. ii. 149.

To an English botanist it is delightful to go forth at a sea-
son of the year when at home scarcely a moss will reward his
laborious search, and speedily fill his box with plants in full
flower, and most of them entirely new to him. The change is re-
markable, from being within a distance of only eight or ten days
from home. On one morning in December, on the sea-cliff's, a
little east of the city, I gathered, along with many other good
plants, the following in flower : — Matthiola Maderemis^ Latan-

* The indigenous flora of the island is now with difficulty distinguished,
on account of the multitude of plants that have been introduced. It does
not seem so rich as the variety of climate might lead one to expect. Pro-
bably it does not much exceed 300 species of phenogamous plants ; but many
of them are interesting to the botanist, as being peculiar to the island, or
common to it only witli the Canaries. The ferns arc the most conspicuous
of the natural families, there being about forty species. As yet there is no
published flora of the island. Tb.e following are the chief sources of infor-
mation : — Bowditch's Excursions in Madeira, chapter iv. and Appendix,
In the Botanical Miscellany (Hooker's), Part I. of New Series, a list by M.
Frederick IIoU of Dresden, with Notes by the Rev. R. T. Lowe, A. M.,
Cantab., and clergyman of the English Chapel at Funchal. In the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. iv. part i. (" Primitioe Faimse et
Florae Madenc et Portus Sancti"), and in vol. vi. part iii. (" Novitiae Florae
Maderensis"), many new or rare species are described by Mr Lowe. The
great work on the Fishes of Madeira, since undertaken by Mr Lowe, has
prevented his fulfilling the purpose, expressed in his Cambridge papers, of
publishing a Flora Maderensis, — a work which, from the botanical acquire-
ments, learning, and varied accomplishments of the author, as well as from
the peculiar interest of the locality, could not fail to be one of the moit
valuable lc£al floras ever published*

S70 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

dula Maderensis^ Gompkocarpusfmticosus, Chamcemorus coriacea^
a beautiful tree belonging to the Rosacese, and closely allied
in character and appearance to our hawthorn (Cratwgus),
Gnaphalium crassifolium^ Contohulus althoeifolius^Jasrninum odo-
ratissimum (rare), a magnificent plant, both as regards the
beauty of its dark foliage, and the colour and fragrance of its
yellow flowers ; and along with these the Cassia bicapsularis,
Pelargoniums, and many introduced plants thoroughly natu-
ralized. This short extract from the list of a day's collectanea
in December, may shew what pleasure the botanist can derive
from his field pursuits, even in the winter, in Jiladeira.

In ascending from the coast, the temperature of course di-
minishes with the increase of elevation. From the mountains
rising almost immediately from the sea, the stations of differ-
ent tempei-ature are, in aspect and to observation, brought
close together. The resulting difference in vegetation I have
already described. Many other effects of this union of various
climates are remarkable. In the vicissitudes of the times and
seasons of the year, too, are presented some peculiar and in-
teresting appearances. Whether spring is now anywhere on
the earth to be met with in that form in which poetry loves to
paint it, and tradition describes it as having reigned in the
primal ages of the world, may indeed be doubted. In our
own climate the season is marked by the bursting forth of
fresh verdure, and the renewal of woodland melody, and all
those delightful changes by which the wakening earth starts
into new life and gladness ; but we know nothing of the
" ethereal mildness," of the " balmy softness," of the " bland
zephyrs," of the spring of poesy. In those regions of the
south again, where the chilling sensations and the various un-
genial accompaniments of our season are absent, there is not
enjoyed the pleasure arising from the sudden vicissitude in the
aspect of nature that is here so striking. In Madeira, and
especially in the district around Funchal, most of the elements
of vernal delight are in a remarkable degree united, and a
nearer approach made to the fancied perfection of the season,
than in any other climate could be met with ; for, while there
has been throughout the winter little perceptible alteration of
temperature, and the abundant verdure of the native evergreens

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 371

has prevented any thinp^ of the appearance of wintry gloom
and desolation, there is yet in spring a marked and rapid change
in the freshness and verdure of the landscape. The vine then
puts forth its young shoots in luxuriance ; and, by concealing
with its verdure the trellis- work and soil on the sloping grounds,
greatly adds to the beauty of the landscape. The orange, the
almond, the citron, and a multitude of plants, are covered with
profusion of blossom. The leaves of the oak, the plane, and
other trees, elsewhere deciduous, but which here hang withered
on the boughs through the winter, are displaced by the shoot-
ing of the new foliage. While this change is beginning to
take place on the ccast, the air being the while more genial,
and the verdure as beautiful as is ever presented by an English
summer, one looks up through every gradation of temperature
and vegetation to bleak and barren waste, upon the snow-
covered hills in the distance. Or, again, in the declining
months of the year, while on the coast the summer foliage is
yet unaltered, and the influence of the sun yet little dimi-
nished, there have already begun to be felt chilling colds upon
the heights above the town, and the upper parts of the land-
scape present the variegated tints and the fading foliage of
autumn. In places about 2000 feet above the sea, such as the
Quinta of the Palheiro, or the villa of the Mount, the appear-
ance is then quite like that of our northern autumnal scenery.
Towards the close of the summer, in going up thither from the
vineyards and orchards, and tropical vegetation of Funchal,
we get amongst plantations of oak and pine, and other Euro-
pean trees ; and the sloping grounds are clothed with heath,
and broom, and furze ; the note of the blackbird is heard ;
and the wood strawberry covers the banks ; and many other
sights and sounds bring recollection of scenes different from
those by which we are surrounded. There is luxury even in
seeing the sparkling of the dew-drops on the upland lawn, and
in hearing the rustling of the falling leaves, both of which are
absent on the low grounds. In going up to this place, which
is within an hour's ride of the city, one might call it riding up
to an English autumn, so many of the appearances and plea-
. sures of our season are there gathered together.

On the highest parts of the island, again, all the severity of

372 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

a northern winter may be presented. The cold experienced
there is often extremely intense. Snow sometimes covers the
hills for a considerable period, and scarcely a winter passes in
which some of the inhabitants do not perish amidst storms,
while crossing the mountains. On the desolate upland of the
Paul de Serra such accidents are especially frequent, so that
the natives regard that tract with feelings of gloomy and su-
perstitious dread. On one occasion a party of us narrowly
escaped adding another to the list of dreary legends connected
with the place. We had set out from the village of St Vin-
cente early in the morning of the 2d of April, intending to
cross the Paul de Serra to the springs of Raba^al, and to re-
turn the same evening. During the latter part of March there
had been much snow on the hills ; but a few days of warm sun-
shine had removed it so far as to enable us to cross from Fun-
chal to the north of the island, on the previous day, without
any difficulty. The weather was, however, still disagreeable,
and the morning so far suspicious as to induce us to provide
against being overtaken by a storm, by carrying along with us
additional clothing and other comforts. The mountain summits
being clear, and our time in that part of the island being then
limited, we did not wish to postpone our visit to Rabagal. The
party consisted of three strangers, with our three native bour-
roquieros or horsemen, a carrier, and a peasant who professed
to act as guide. After proceeding a short way up the beauti-
ful valley of St Vincente, we struck off to the right by a steep
road, if such a name may be given to the path by which wo
ascended the mountains. Accustomed as we had been to the
rudeness of the island roads, and to the feats of the horses, wo
were yet astonished to see them achieve this rocky ascent
About two hours' riding brought us to the upper limits of tho
forest ground, and we entered on the more open heath. In
ascending, we had encountered one or two heavy showers, but
the wind drove the clouds rapidly on, so that we still had in
the intervals a clear view of the valleys and villages beneath
us, and of the wide ocean in the distance. Gradually, how-
ever, the weather began to thicken, and, after proceeding some
'miles across the Serra, we were wholly enveloped in mist. Wo
soon found need for all our spare coverings ; and eo picrcin^^

Geology, and Climate of the f stand of Madeira. 373

was the cold, that our rough pilot-coats, on the side exposed
to the keen north wind, were completely cased with hoar-frost
from the congelation of the mist. We had, of course, dis-
mounted, and walked or ran, to keep up circulation and anima
heat ; but the depressing influence of the cold was so great as
to render necessary a good deal of trouble to persuade our-
selves and each other to continue our exertions. The hope of
the weather clearing, together with a repugnance to returning
to some friends at St Vincente without having accomplished
our purpose, made us resolve, at all events, to push on till a
prudent portion of the daylight had been spent in advancing.
An accident, however, happening to one of the horses, deter-
mined our speedy retreat. The Portuguese, having no other
clothing than their usual light dress, had suffered severely from
the cold, and were so helplessly benumbed as to be able to give
us little assistance. They had been speaking dolefully about
*' dying on the mountains," *' perishing in the snow," and so
forth ; but we had not sooner been led to observe their suffer-
ings, from suspecting that they were partly feigned, in order
to induce us to return. We had quieted them, and prevented
them leaving us, by telling them that sooner than do that, we
would go on to pass the night at Seisal, or descend from the
Paul by some other route. On reflecting that the delay now
experienced might involve risk if occurring later in the day,
we resolved to return as speedily as possible. Any improve-
ment in the weather was now hopeless ; the miserable mono-
tony of the mist being relieved only by occasional horrid pelt-
ings of hail and sleet. We soon, too, found that our guide had
for a long time been advancing without knowing anything of
the path, and that he, therefore, could be of no use in leading
us along the most expeditious line of return. Our only plan
was to endeavour to return as nearly as possible by the way
which we had come. We had been passing over a broken stony
surface, 'covered almost entirely with water from the melted
snow; and there were no objects to note in any way the route.
Wc therefore formed into line, leaving as much space between
each as the thickness of the mist admitted, for keeping within
sight and communication of each other, and in this way began
anxiously to look for footsteps. On euch a bui face it was ditficult

37-4 Dr James Macaulay on the Physical Geography^

to discover any trace ; and after we had been successful, the
same search had to be continued, as there was perhaps only
the mark of a single hoof to direct us onward. While groping
our way through the mist in this manner, we came to a piece
of snow, the traces of our path across which, made us sure of
our direction, and allowed us to proceed more rapidly. At
length we reached a stone hut, which we had passed in the
morning, and which lies at the commencement of the Oampo
Grande. I shall never forget the howl of joy which the Por-
tuguese raised when they descried the house ; a joy in which
we participated, for if night had overtaken us, of which we had
been seriously apprehensive, our situation must have been peril-
ous. The hut, in its present state of decay, would have afford-
ed little protection during the night, but we were glad to find
shelter a while from the piercing wind ; and the remainder of
the contents of our basket gave us force enough to complete
our journey homeward with comparative comfort. It was late
in the evening before we arrived at our quarters at St Vin-
cente, the cheerful comforts of which we enjoyed all the more,
after the unexpectedly rough treatment we had met with from
the elements in the April of Madeira.

But although, during the winter and spring, the weather may
be thus unsteady and inhospitable among the mountains, the
residents on the sea-coast almost invariably enjoy their uniform
excellence of climate. In returning, for example, to Funchal,
after an expedition of ten days, one of which was that which I
have just described as spent upon the Paul, and the weather
having been generally wet and stormy, and especially on the
last day, while recrossing the mountains from St Ann's, — as
we descended towards the coast, we gradually emerged from
the clouds and mist into a most beautiful evening, and were
surprised to learn that the weather had been fine ever since
our departure. Throughout the winter, very few days indeed
occur in which even the feeblest invalid need be confined to the
house. To those who have, in this country, been accustomed
to a climate so variable and inauspicious that a reference to
the weather is the most frequent theme of passing conversa-
tion, and a succession of really fine days is a matter of surprise
and common congratulation, it is. delightful to look forward.

Geology^ and Climate of the Island of Madeira. 375

with little chanco of disappointment, to day after day of clear
and cloudless sunshine ; while every degree of temperature can
be readily enjoyed on the adjacent heights ; and even on tho
coast, the sea-breeze prevents any excess of heat from being
annoying, and tho rich verdure of the almost tropical vegeta-
tion affords a shelter from the direct influence of tho sun. In
such a climate, it is not surprising that the foot should tread
lightly, and the heart beat gladly ; that the approach of inci-
pient disease should often be checked, and the constitution
strengthened, so as to resist its future influence ; and that alle-
viation of suffering and prolongation of life have here been found
by many whom a rapid fate would have carried off in a less*
genial situation. Those who have visited Madeira have rarely
been disappointed in what they had been led to expect regard-
ing the climate, and many have been surprised to find its scene-
ry also the finest in the world. To this many travellers have
given their testimony ; and certainly no combination of natu-
ral objects could be conceived more grand than some of those
in the north of the island. So far as the geological structure
is connected with the general aspect of the island, I should
say that that which constitutes the peculiar feature in Ma-
deiran scenery, and is the cause of its surpassing grandeur, is,
that the country has all the air of rude and rugged wildness
resulting from the confusion and havoc of comparatively recent
volcanic action, while its scenes are at the same time on a scale
of alpine magnificence. When we find, amongst this wild
scenery, landscapes of a grace and variety of loveliness no-
where else surpassed, and a climate proverbially the finest in
the world, we need not be surprised at the enthusiastic way in
which many travellers have described the island, or at the
names by which the Portuguese love to designate it, as the
" Flower of the Ocean,"' the " Queen of the Atlantic."

( 376 )

On the Functtotis of the Colouring Matter of the Skin in the
Dark Baces of Mankind, By Robert Mortimer Glover,
M.D., Lecturer on Chemistry in the Newcastle-on-Tyno
School of Medicine. (Read to the British Association at
the Newcastle Meeting.) Communicated by the Author.

Various hints and hypotheses have been put forth as to the
functions performed by the peculiar organization of the skin
in the dark races of mankind. The opinions of Sir Everard
Home, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821,
have been generally adopted by physiologists as apparently
founded on a methodical attempt to investigate the subject by
direct experiment, and to elucidate it by analogical reasoning.
The experiments of Sir Everard give results certainly quite
opposed to what has been determined by physical observers
respecting the laws which aifect the radiation from, and ab-
sorption of, heat by coloured surfaces. This circumstance
drew my attention to the subject, and led me to repeat some
of the experiments related by Sir Everard.

It may be mentioned, before entering on the subject, that
this inquiry was proposed by Lord Bacon.

The structure of the skin and of its layers is yet involved
in some doubt as to many particulars ; but so far as our in-
quiry is concerned there is no doubt whatever. It is clear
that there is a spongy or vascular layer between the cuticle
and true skin ; or on the surface of the latter, constituting a
portion of it. It is also certain that the colouring matter of
the skin resides in this region. And that the intensity of
shade is the greater or less abundance of the colouring matter.
Hence the European and the Negro furnish extreme instances
in this inquiry ; since in the one the colouring matter is in
small quantity or of light shade, whereas the other has it so
abundantly that in him we speak of the pigmentum nigrum.
Between these extremes exi-^t many curious varieties, in whom
the functions of the colouring matter are well worthy of con-
sideration, but we have data to reason only with regard to the
European or White, and the Negro. Indeed, in many of the
coloured races, the existence of something analogous to the

On the Skin in the Dark Paces of Mankind, S77

dark pigment is only inferred, although the occurrence of Al-
binoes in all races should induce us to believe the presence of
a pigment universal. So that what is said of the colouring
matter in the Negro may be extended to all varieties of colour,
reasoning by analogy.

It is scarcely possible to regard the dark colouring matter
otherwise than as a provision for, in some way, enabling those
who possess it in abundance to withstand the heat of the cli-
mate they inhabit. Accordingly, there are facts which prove
such individuals to be more capable of withstanding the heat
of torrid regions than acclimatized Europeans, or other whites
born there. There are also facts to connect this power of
withstanding excessive heat with the development of the dark
colouring matter. Thus, Albinoes of Guinea, differing from
both Europeans and their countrymen in this, that they totally
want the colouring matter, according to many authors, are
even less capable of resisting the heat of their native country
than European strangers ; indeed their skins are said to crack
and blister on exposure to the sun's rays. And I am informed
by Mr Granidgo of Barbadoes, that he has observed the same
fact in that island.

Now, when we reflect that the European cannot be without
some colouring matter between the true skin and cuticle, since
he must differ in this respect from the Albino, it seems as if a
relation were established between the development of the pig-
ment, and probably of the rete mucosum along with it, and
the power of resisting the sun''s heat in torrid regions.

It is clear that in this inquiry we should regard, not merely
the physical properties of the organization we consider, nor
its vital properties only, but the action and reaction of the
whole, and their effect on the system of the individual. For
want of a consideration of all circumstances, before the publi-
cation of Sir Everard Home's views, it was not conceived how
the tint, which, on analogy, should absorb more heat than any
other, could, in the hottest regions of the earth, confer any
exemption on its possessor. And perhaps before this paper is
concluded, it may bo apparent that, since Sir Everard pub-
lished, the matter has been misunderstood.

57S Dr Glover on the Colouring Matter of the

The notions entertained at present by physiologists, with
regard to the operation of this pigment, are implicitly those of
Sir Everard. And what they are, will appear from the fol-
lowing brief quotation from an elementary work : — " The se-
cretion on the cutis vera, which gives the black colour to the
skin, appears to assist in fitting men for residence in hot cli-
mates, because although such skin, by absorbing more caloric,
rises to a higher temperature under the sun's rays than w^hite
skin does, yet it does not inflame so readily from a rise of tem-
perature." Dr Alison's meaning is, that although the skin of
a negro may rise to a higher temperature under the sun's
rays than a white skin in the same circumstances, yet the dark
skin is less likely to inflame at that higher temperature than the
white skin at that lower one. This, then, is the conclusion of
Sir Everard Home, whose paper I now proceed to examine.

The paper of Sir Everard Home contains alleged facts and
experiments, tending to prove the Negro more capable of with-
standing excessive heat of the sun's rays than the white man,
and attributing this to a supposed property in dark surfaces
of destroying the scorching and blistering effect of the sun's
rays. The former conclusion has already been admitted. The
facts by which Sir Everard supports his second position are to
be considered.

Sir Everard having fallen asleep on the deck of a vessel ex-
posed to a tropical sun, found, on awaking, his thigh scorched
through a pair of thin white linen trousers. From this simple
observation, the extravagant conclusion is drawn of black be-
ing a better protection against the sun's rays than white.

An experiment is next related, in which Sir Everard found,
on exposing his hand to the sun's rays for 45 minutes, while a
thermometer attached to it stood at 90°, that blisters rose and
coagulated lymph was exuded, I have attempted to produce
the same effect by the concentrated rays of the sun at the same
temperature indicated in a similar way, and kept up to within
one or two minutes of the time, when my patience was ex-
hausted, without any result except slight reddening. Six years
ago, while off the coast of Algiers, I sat for half an hour im-
moveable in the sun, having the greater part of my faco ex-

Skin in the Dark Paces of Mankind. 379

posod, the thermometer in the sun's rays being considerably
above 100°, and though my face was scorched, nothing like the
effect described by Sir Evcrard took place.

Sir Everard next attempted to compare the inflaming and
blistering power of the sun'*s rays with that of hot water. He
says, that water at the temperature of 120° was painful to the
body, and became unbearable when still further heated. From
this experiment and the preceding, he wishes us to infer a power
of vesicating in the sun's rays not in proportion to their tem-
perature.

In a third experiment, he exposed the backs of his hands to
the sun with a thermometer on each, the one hand being un-
covered, while the other had a covering of black cloth under
which the thermometer was placed. After ten minutes, the
degree of heat on each was marked, and the state of the sur-
face examined, and this was repeated three times. During the
last trial, the thermometer which had its ball covered by the
cloth stood at 106°, while the other was at 98°. The exposed
hand was scorched, that covered was unaffected in all the trials.
' I have not repeated this experiment because it is subject to
an obvious fallacy, for the ball of the thermometer being be-
tween the cloth and the part, a space intervened, and across
this space the heat from the cloth could only pass by radia-
tion or by transmission through the thermometer, but not di-
rectly from the cloth to the hand, so that the heat might not
accumulate on the skin.

In a fourth experiment, a Negro bore the sun''s rays on his
hand when a thermometer on the part indicated 100° without
any scorching being the result. As the scorching of which Sir
Everard speaks could be only a slight blush, it might not be
observed on a sable skin. However, I do not question the re-
sult of this experiment.

Sir Everard observed in his next experiment, during the
course of an eclipse, as the darkness on the sun's disk dimi-
nished, the scorching power of the rays, concentrated by a lens,
increased in a ratio which is assumed to be greater than could
be accounted for by the mere rise of temperature during the
time of the experiment. Whence it is to be inferred that the
excess of effect is due to the increased quantity of light pre-

380 Dr Glover on the Colouring Matter of the

sent with the heating rays at each advance of time. A refe-
rence to the original paper will convince the reader that this
assumption is established without sufficient data.

Most stress has been laid by Sir Everard, and those who have
adopted his views, on the seventh experiment. We are told
that, on the 9th of September, at 11 a. m., thermometer 90° in
the sun, the concentrated rays applied to a piece of black ker-
seymere wrapped round the arm, gave no real pain, as it is ex-
pressed, during 15 minutes ; and at the end of that time left
no appearance on the arm ; whereas, when white kerseymere
was substituted, during the same time, and the concentration
we are led to suppose being the same, the heat of fi thermo-
meter in the sun only 86°, yet blisters were formed. From
this experiment, taken along with those preceding, it is sup-
posed to be fully proved that although black surfaces rise to a
higher temperature than white under the sun's rays, yet they
scorch the surface of the body less ; the scorching effect de-
pending on a union of the rays of heat with those of light, the
latter being supposed, by way of explanation, to be excluded by
the black surface. First, I shall state my repetition of the
experiment, and then attend to Sir Everard's explanation of
his supposed fact.

I have attempted to ascertain the rise which the absorption
of heat by black and white cloths respectively gives to the
thermometer ; to compare this observation with the effects of
the same cloths under the sun's rays upon the body, and with
the effect of the sun's rays on the naked skin. When the ther-
mometer stands at about 80° in the sun, the solar rays con-
centrated on white cloth over the ball of a thermometer, to a
space of an inch and a half in diameter by a burning-glass,
caused a rise of the thermometer to 125° in a quarter of an
hour. When black cloth was substituted the rise during the
same period was to 172°. In five minutes, with the white, the
rise was to 108°, with the black to 140° ; and in some experi-
ments in a proportion nearer that given by the longer period.

When the black and white cloths were applied to the skin
at the same temperature, and with the same degree of concen-
tration, as already mentioned, the black cloth generally caused
intense pain in the couise of a few minutes, and on being al-

Skin in the Dark Baces of Mankind, 381

lowed to remain for five or at most seven minutes, produced
blisters. During the same period very little apparent effect
followed the application of the white cloth, though consider-
able pain was sometimes produced. The experiment was at
different times performed on several individuals, all of whom
found the black cloth give the sensation of pain sooner than
the white. On the whole, I found nothing like the difference
described by Sir Everard, though certainly the vesicating ef-
fect of the black surface appeared to be much greater than that
of the white. From many experiments I conclude, that the
rays of the sun will scorch when they are applied to the 8Ui*» '
face so as to cause a heat of about 130° and upwards. And
from the experiment related by Sir Everard, it appears that
hot water is capable of producing a similar effect at that tem-
perature. From all this, I am inclined to deny the existence
of a scorching power in the sun's rays, independent of the heat
they contain, or at least of the effect they produce on the ther-
mometer. Moreover, if such a power do exist, black cloth
should yet scorch more than white, since it will absorb all the .
rays of light, whereas the other surface will reflect tiiem. "^'*^

In those experiments which I performed, care was taken to
have the white and black cloth nearly of the same density. Sir
Everard does not appear satisfied with his explanation of the
extraordinary yac^ he relates, for he gives another furnished by
Davy, who, indeed, is made to ascribe the alleged difference in
vesicating power between black and white surfaces, to the for-
mer rendering the heat sensible. Were I not quoting from the
Philosophical Transactions, a misprint might be suspected. I
conclude that a black skin will absorb more heat than a white
skin, and were it not for other accompanying circumstances,
would produce inconvenience precisely in the ratio of the amount
of heat absorbed. It must not be overlooked, however, that in
the Negro the pigment is not superficial, but covered by a
layer of translucent cuticle. The experiments of Dr Stark
prove that colours absorb heat in proportion to their depth of
shade through transparent media. It only remains to shew
the cuticle to be a medium in the condition of those. For
this purpose, I covered the balls of a differential thermometer,
one witli cuticle, the other with cuticle of the same thickneaSy

VOL. XXIX. NO. LYIII. — OCTOBER 1840. * C C

382 On the Skin in the Dark Traces of Mankind.

having ivory black rubbed on its inner surface ; on bringing
the themiometer into the sun''s rays, the column of liquid de-
scended rapidly in the stem, the ball of which was covered
with the blackened cuticle.

It is evident, from the result of experiments which I have
related, that a much less degree of heat can be borne when
the heat is applied locally, or so that the perspiratory process
is not excited over the whole system, than Sir Joseph Banks
and others were able to bear in heated apartments where per-
spiration was fully excited.

This circumstance leads me to offer an explanation of the
functions, or, not to speak mincingly, of the uses served by the
peculiar colouring matter in the dark races. Blumenbach and
Dr Winterbottom concur in stating the Negro to perspire
more readily than the European or White, and Dr John Davy,
in the 3d vol. of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, gives
its due influence to this property. After noticing that the
excessive perspiration in dark people must keep down the tem-
perature, he proceeds, " In the inhabitants of the tropics, the
exhalant arteries of the skin seem unusually expanded, and the
whole apparatus peculiar to this secretion unusually developed ;
and I believe that the blood itself is less viscid, more fluid, and
flows more readily through the vessels, so as to promote per-
spiration, and by that means contributing to the cooHng of the
surface, and being cooled itself, it contributes again when it
flows back upon the heart, to the reduction of the temperature
of the internal parts."

Were the inhabitant of the tropic not possessed of this or-
ganization, his system could not respond to the stimulus of
heat, by a determination of fluid to the surface of the body.
And the heat absorbed by the skin being prevented from en-
tering the system by the perspiratory process, the greater ra-
diating power of a dark skin must be beneficial in cooling.

Again, the dark skin places the Negro in the conditions of
his climate by causing him to radiate heat at night, and be-
come at that time cooler than a White in the same circum-
stances. This is a fact which has been observed of the Ne-
groes. Their propensity for exercise in the open air at night
has been remarked. Thus we road that when the fleet of

Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants, 383

Hauno approached the shores of Negroland, the counti^ which,
during the day, presented only silent woods without the least
trace of man, at night was lighted up with immense fires, while
the woods resounded with the sounds of festivity. In a cli-
mate where, during the day, vegetation appears burnt up, the
earth is cracked by the heat, and all living creatures languish ;
but where at night breezes refresh the air, and cheer exhausted
nature, plants run with dew, and animals leave their haunts,
man also, fitted by the structure of his skin to throw off heat,
issues forth animated by the irresistible propensity to exercise
which is always given by the bracing air of colder climates.

Description of several New or Bare Plants which have lately
Flowered in the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and chiefly in
the Boy at Botanic Garden. By Dr Graham, Professor of
Botany.

lOtA Septemher 1840.

Elseodendron Capense.

E. Capense ; erectum, glabrum ; ramis scabro-punctatis ; foliis subop-
positis, petiolatis, latis, inapquiluteris, coriaceis, obtusiusculis, mar-
gine subrevolutis, utrinque reticulato-venosis, ovato-oblons^s, acu-
minatis, bicrenato-serratis, v. ovalibus et ellipticis repando-serratis,
serraturis inflexo-subaculeatis, paniculis axillaribus, simplicibus,
dicbotomis. Ecklon ^" Zeyher.
Eljeodendron Capense, Ecklon ^ Zeyher, Enumeratio PI. Afric. Aust.
127.
Description. — A tree in the specimen described, 18 feet high, and
growing freely, its trunk 4 inches in circumference near the base, and
almost cylindrical for a considerable height, perfectly straight, its bark
pale brown and warted, the branches spreading and pendulous. Leaves
(2^ inches long, 1 ^ broad) pctiolate, subopposite, lanceolato-elliptical,
the sides somewhat unequal, coriaceous, distantly spinuloso serrulate,
slightly revolute in the edges, dark green above, paler below, and often
becoming rusty ; petiole about ^ of the length of the leaf, channelled
above. Corymbs axillary, dichotomous, a single flower standing in
the fork, and the branches supporting three flowers each ; peduncle com-
pressed. Bracts lanceolate, opposite, resembling greatly diminished
leaves. Flmvcrs minute, green. (Jali^x 4-partite, green, flat, seg-
ments oblong. Corolla 4-parted, twice as long ay, and more delicate
than, the calyx, but in all other respects similar to, and alternating
with it. Stamens 4, opposite to the segments of the calyx, at first
erect, shorter than the corolla, afterwards reflected between its s^-
ments, as well as the corolla and calyx persisting; fllameuts greea :
aiUhers oblong, yellow, bilobular, bursting along the face. Germtn
imbedded in a flat, green, fleshy disk, stylo single, shorter than the
stamens, erect, stigma inconspicuous. Fruit yeilow, oval, about the
sisc of a filbert, fleshy, and containing a hard nni whh. l-Z cells.

384 Dr Graham's List of "B are Plants.

Seeds erect, compressed, almond-shaped, covered with a tliick brown
testa, having copious albumen and a central embryo, which is slightly
curs'cd, and passes from side to side of the greatest breadth of the
seed, and from one extremity to the other.
This, notwithstanding its insignificant flowers, is a handsome evergreen,
but will not endure our climate, even with the protection of a wall.
Wo have three varieties, all free growing, differing cliiefly in the
breadth of the leaf and the depth of the serratures, but though grow-
ing in different degi-ees of heat, not, I think, varying from this cause.
We are indebted for the possession of the plants to Captain Macadam,
Koyal Marines, who sent seeds from the Cape of Good Hope to the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in October 1828. The plant in
common cultivation as Elrcodendron Capense, is nothing else than a
narrow-leaved variety of the common Bay. How this blunder came
to be made and diffused I cannot conjecture.

Grevillea dubia.

G. dubia, foliis ellipticis, marginibus refractis ; ramis ramulisque to-
mentosis, floriferis racemoque abbreviato-recurvis ; pistillis uncia
brevioribus. — Brown.
Grevillea dubia, Broum in Linn. Trans, x. 169. Ibid. Prodr. i. 376.
Roem. et Schultes, Syst. Veget. iii. 410.— Bot. Mag. 3798.
Description, — Shrub (5 feet high) erect, with pendulous branches,
twigs covered with brownish pubescence, hairs adpressed, attached
by the middle. Leaves elliptical or obovato-elliptical, mucronulate,
spreading, having adpressed pubescence similar to that on the twigs
on both sides, but silky and chiefly abundant below, lateral nerves
near the margins. Racemes short, dense, terminal, becoming lateral
and opposite to the leaves from the prolongation of the branches.
Bracts subulate, falling very early. Flowers rose-coloured, geminate,
on recurved pedicels, the lowest expanding first ; perianth pubescent
on the outside, 4-phyllous, united in the throat by a dense tuft of
white wool less than half the length of the revolute limb, which on
the inside is glabrous. Stamens small, white, sessile in the apices of
the perianth. Pistil pedicellate, including the pedicel less than eight
lines long, surrounded at its base on the lower side by a pale semi-
lunar disk, everywhere glabrous, except at the top of the style, where
it is slightly pubescent, stigma oblique, flat ; germen green, obscurely
furrowed above and below.
Mr Brown considers this plant scarcely specifically distinct from his Gre-
villea punicea ; Roemer and Schultes repeat the doubt, and Sprengel
unites them ; but these writers have probably no additional information
on the subject. A specimen which I received from New Holland with-
out name, in 1824, and which I considered G. punicea, is distinguished
from this by its leaves being broader, larger, and minutely dotted, but
otherwise glabrous on the upper surface, where also the marginal
nerves are less conspicuous ; the raceme, too, is less dense, and the
style longer. Our plant was raised at the Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh, from seeds sent by Mr Cunninghame as a new species, and
has flowered freely in the end of the season during several years. The
figure in the Botanical Magazine is excellent.

Musa superba.

M. superba, subacaulis; spica nutante, bracteis cordato-ovatis, concavis,
obtusis, inferioribus persistentibus ; perianthii labio superiore 3-par-
tito, lateribus revolutis ; labio inferiore multo breviore, 3-lobo, lobo

Dr Graham*8 List of Fare Plants, 385

intermedio subulate, lateralibus multo longiore, filamentis 5, cylin-
draceis.

Musa superba. — Roxh. Coromandel, t. 223. Ibid. Fl. Indie, j. 607.
Idem Lib. Ed. Car. et Wall, ii. 489. Schultes Syst. Veget. vii. 1294.

Description. — Stem scarcely any, the petioles spreading nearly from
the root upwards on all sides, and forming a pseudo-stem of nine inches
in diameter at the base of the specimen described. Floiver-stalk (about
5 feet high from the ground) cemuous. Leaves (5 feet long, by 1 foot
7 inches broad) lanceolate-elliptical, slightly unequal at t!ie base, of
lively green on both sides, rather darker above, with a very narrow red
edge, middle rib very strong, semicylindrical behind, Avith a deep round-
ed groove in front, transverse veins waved especially near the base ;
petioles of the lower leaves fully one-third of the length of these, and of
the same shape as the middle rib, slightly clasping stem at their origin ;
floral leaves gradually smaller till the petioles pass into lai^e ovate
bracts, the lower of which only retain a small portion of the leafy
expansion at the apex, but these, like the others, spread in a roseate
manner, green without, red-brown within, forming, after a few only
have expanded, a large elegant cemuous imbricated circular basin, of
a foot in diameter, in the centre of which is the cordato-ovate mass of
unexpanded bracts, sun'oundcd by the flowers, which are half con-
cealed among the imbricated expanded bractese. Those are persistent,
and always concave forwards, never reflexed ; a few of the lower are
empty, next are several with female flowers, the stamens being abortive,
and then follow many, expanding in slow succession, deciduous, and co-
vering flowers having the stamens fully developed, but with the pistil
incomplete. Perianth single, superior, bilabiate ; the upper lip (1^ inch
long) coriaceous, linear, erect, revolute in the sides, reflected at the apex,
ultimately 3-partite, with two slender linear internal segments laid
along the fissures, the segments usually twisted together ; lower lip
embraced by the base of the upper, loss than half its length, membra-
nous, diaphanous, colourless, deflected, 3-lobed, the centre lobe subu-
late, and very slender, the lateral lobes scarcely half the length of the
other, ovate, subacute, spreading. Filaments 5, epigynous, round, stout,
erect^ parallel to each other, and ranged in a row within the upper lip
of the perianth. A large quantity of transparent, colourless, deli-
quescent jelly is discharged from the faux, between the style and the
lower lip of the perianth. Male Flower. — Anthers twice as long as the
filaments, their apices reflexed, and projecting beyond the upper lip of
the perianth, bilobular, the lobes narrow, red, laid along the face of the
flat linear connective towards its edges, and bursting anteriorly ; pol-
len yellow, abundant, granules spherical. Pistil abortive, style subu-
late, equal in length to the filaments, and having a small dry stigma.
Female Flower. — Filaments rather shorter than in the male flower, with
scarcely any appearance of abortive anthers on their conical summits.
Stigma large, white, slimy, capitate, irregularly and incompletely lobed.
Style stout, erect, twice the length of the abortive stamens, and two-
thirds of the length of the upper lip of the perianth. Gertiien angular,
3-celled. Oviiles very numerous, globular, shortly pedicellate, their
attachment being in two rows to a central placenta in each cell.

I think there cannot be any reasonable doubt that the plant I have de-
scribed is the M. mperba of Roxbui^h ; though the description of the
size and form of the stem, as drawn by him, does not accord with our
plant. His plant is described as 13 feet high ; ours, though remark-
ably vigorous, is only 5 ; his has a most remarkable conical base, 7^
feet in circumference close to the ground, and 4 J immediately under
the leaves \ ours is scarcely 2^^ feet in circumference at the ^ound^

386 Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants.

fmd scarcely tapers at all. In almost every other respect the descrip-
tion of Eoxburgh, where it docs not contradict itself, is minutely ap-
plicable to our plant, very imperfectly indeed to his figure, Avhich also
differs greatly from the specimen I now describe. It is probable thnt
the difference in the form of the stem arises from the age of the re-
spective plants when they floAvered. The figure in the Coromandcl
Plants is probably taken from a plant which llowered in the Botanic
Garden, Calcutta, thirty-three months after the seeds from a; hence it
sprung Avere sown; our plant blossomed in the end of August 1G40,
fourteen months after the seed from which it sprung was put into
the gTOuud.
Every one who has visited the Botanic Garden for some years past, has
been struck with the brilliant success which has attended the cultiva-
tion of the many forms of Banana under the judicious management
of Mr M'Nab, and the great quantity of high-flavoured fruit which has
been produced; but nothing has afforded a greater triumph than the
rapid perfection of this beautiful species from imported seed, though
we learn from Dr lloxburgh that it does not yield a fruit which can
be eaten, but one which resembles a dry capsule, rather than a berry.
We learn from the same authority, that it is a native of the valleys in
the southern part of the Peninsula of India. In cultivation in the
Botanic Garden, this and all the varieties of fruit-bearing Bananas
have been planted in large tubs containing extremely rich soil, have
had much water, and been kept in great heat. The flower bud, as
I have proved by cutting down full grown plants of Mnsa rosacea and
CavancUsii, and I think also of 31. jyaradisaica, remains at the root till
a time after the plant has attained its full size varying according to
its treatment, and then pushes its way upwards — its appearance at
the top of the stem being preceded by the evolution of one or more
leaves smaller than the rest.

Orthosiphon.

Generic Character. — Calyx ovato-tubulosus, 5-dentatus, dentis su-
perioris ovato-membranacei marginibus decurrentibus alatus, post
anthesin deflexus. Corolla tubo exserto recto vel incurvo, nee gib-
boso, nee defracto, fauce a3quali vel rarius inflata, bilabiata, labio
superiore 3-4 fido, inferiore integerrimo concave. Stamina 4, de-
clinata. Filamenta libera, edentula. Antherao ovato-reniformes,
loculis confluentibus. Stylus apice clavato-capitatus, subinteger
vel breviter emarginatus, stigmatibus in emarginatura subconfluenti-
bus, nunc minutis, nunc incrassato-capitatis. Achenia minutissime
pimctulato-rugosa.

Herbce perennes, suffruticesve. llacemi simplices, sa?pius elongati,
rarissime ovato-spiciformes. Verticillastri sex-flori, distantes, laxi.
Folia floralia bractea3formia, ovata, acuminata, reflexa, pedicellis
scepius breviora. Pedicelli fructiferi recurvi. — Benth. Labiat. 25.

Orthosiphon incurvus, caule basi procumbente adscendente, foliis pe-
tiolatis, oblongis, crenatis, utrinque angustatis, tenuissimepubescen-
tibus ; verticillastris subsecundis ; corollis villosis, incurvis, calyce
triple longioribus, fauce subaequali ; staminibus corollam subsequan-
tibus — Benth.

Orthosiphon incurvus. — Benth. Wall, PI. As. Rar. ii. 1 5. Ibid. Labiat. 28.
Description — Stem suffruticose, erect, branched. Leaves (3 inches
long, 1| inches broad) ovate, petiolate, bright green, paler behind,
rough on both surfaces, coarsely serrato-crenate, entire and wedge-
shaped at the base, middle rib and oblique veins strong and very per-
manent behind, transverse reticulations, distinct, though much moie

Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants, 387

slender, ^pike racemose, tonninal, much elongated, many-flowered
unilateral ; rachis furrowed, pubescent with dissimilar hairs, most of
them being very short, others longer. Bracts ovate, acute, reflected,
green, persisting. Whorls 4-flowered ; flowers arising in pairs from
one point, but having no common peduncle. Pedicels as long as the
bracts. Cali/x lO-nervcd, bilabiate, the upper lip 3-nerved, rounded,
reflexed, entire, mucronulate in the centre, decurrent along the sides
of the tube, between whicli narrow wings the tube is flat above ; lower
lip of four slender subulate teeth, of which the lateral ones are shorter
than the others and broader at the base ; nearly the whole of the ca-
lyx, as well as the pedicels, has similar pubescence to that on the
rachis, and is reddish-gi-een with a pink tinge on the upper lip, which
alone is glabrous. Corolla pale pink ; tube greatly exserted, covered
Avith dense uniform pubescence, equal to the longer hairs on the rachis,
compressed laterally ; dilated a little upwards, but contracted at the
throat ; limb bilabiate, the lower lip spoon-shaped, slightly undulate,
entire, projecting forwards in a line with the lower side of the tube ;
the upper 3-lobed, of which the central is notched, the lateral ones being
entire and reflected. Stamens four, didyn;imous ; filaments glabrous,
adherent along the whole of the lower side of the corolla, in whose
substance they seem to be lost, free in the throat and there divarica-
ted after shedding the pollen, and scarcely exserted ; anther lobes diva-
ricated, reddish, and applied face to face before bursting. Pistil inter-
mediate in length between the longer and shorter stamens ; stigma
white, capitate ; style curved a little upwards at the apex, glabrous,
and lying with the filaments along the lower side of the tube. Ger-
men of four small erect lobes, rising from a white fleshy disk, which
is much enlarged on the lower side, and curved upwards, forming a
large blunt, fleshy, covering to the germen, notched at the apex for the
passage of the style.
This plant, native of the mountains near Silhet, was received at the
Botanic Garden from the collection of his Grace the Duke of Nor-
thumberland at Syon House in October 1839, and flowered at intervals
in the Stove during the whole of the following summer. Its structure
is very curious, and the generic character therefore remarkably distinct.

Oxalis mandioccana.

O. mandioccana, caulescens, erecta ; foliis simplicibus, subcordato-
ovatis, acutis, subglabris, ciliatis ; petiolis, peduncnlisque umbel-
latis, compressis, subpubescentibus ; pedicellis unifloris ; staminibus
monadelphis, intcrioribus pubescentibus stylos superantibus.

Oxalis mandioccana. Raddi, Mem. Bras. p. 21. — DC. Prodr. i. 696.

Oxalis impatiens \ Fl. Fluminensis, tab. 181.

Oxalis aliena, Spreng. Syst. Veget. ii. 4231— i)C. Prodr. i. 6961

Description. — Stem shrubby, erect. Leaves (3 inches long, 1^ broad)
petiolato, crowded at the apices of the branches, simple, subcordato-
ovate, acute, slightly bullate, glabrous and shining, ciliated, brij^ht
green in front, paler behind, and with a few short hairs on the veins ;
middle rib and oblique primary veins distinct, secondary veins ob-
scure. Petiole half tlie length of the leaf, flattened, having two sharp
edges placed laterally, articulated near the apex, and near the base
sli;;htly pubescent, especially on the edges. Peduncles precisely simi-
lar to the petioles, and not distinguishable from them, having a simi-
lar origin, crowded as they are, solitary, and not always dSstinctly
axillary, at first deflected, afterwards erect, abrupt at the apex where
the petiole is jointed, and supporting there a number of small green

388 Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants.

tooth-like erect bractoas, and several pedicels; pedicels ginglc-flowerod,
at first cemuous, afterwards erect. Cahjx 5-phyllous, of uniform pale
yellowish-green colour ; leaflets ovato-lanceolate, like the pedicels
minutely and sparingly glanduloso-pubescont, somewhat unequal, the
two innermost smaller than the others and blunt, the others subacute.
Gwolla twice as long as the calyx, white, orange-coloured on the in-
side near the base, cylindrical below, spreading above ; petals emar-
urinate, below cohering for a considerable way above their slender
claws by the inflection of their edges, forming plates projecting inter-
nally. Stamens 10, monadelphous, the five outer glabrous, less than
half the length of the others, which are glanduloso-pubescent in the
upper half of their filaments, and equal in length to the calyx ; an-
thers of both sots perfect, incumbent ; pollen yellow. Pistils longer
than the shorter, shorter than the longer, stamens ; germens five, ovate,
gradually attenuated into diverging styles, each crowned with a green
capitate stigma.
This curious species was received from Dr Fischer of St Petersburg in
1839, and flowered abundantly in the stove of the Boyal Botanic Gar-
den in May 1840, and from that time to this date, producing a long suc-
cession of blossoms. It is a native of mountain woods near Rio de Ja-
neiro. Sprengcljinhis SystemaVegetabilium, quotes Oxalis mandioccana
as a synonyme for his 0. aliena, and Decandolle doubts whether they are
different ; but, if he is right in attributing to Sprengel's plant a prostrate
stem, it is probable that they are. I have not seen the work of Sprengel
which Decandolle quotes — Neue Entdeckungen im ganzen Umfang
der Pflanzenkunde. The Syst. Yeget., however, is published five years
after it, and takes no notice of this character. The species must, at
the least, be nearly allied to Oxalis impatiens, — Flora Fluminensis,
tab. 181. I think it is identical with it.

Peristeria cerina, var. sordida.

-£StF. cerina ; scapo brevi pendulo, racemo dense, labelli lobo medio mar-
• •'■ gine crispo, columna aptera. — Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 1953.

Var. sordida, perianthio sordide fulvo, maculate.

Dkscription, — Pseudo-hulh ovate, compressed laterally, scarcely sulcatc,
sheathed at the base. Leaves (in our specimen) three from the apex,

- lanceolate, much attenuated at the base, with about seven nerves,
which are very prominent below, furrowed above. Scape short, pen-
dulous, sheathed with scales, several (in our specijnen 5) flowered.
Perianth compressed laterally, brownish-yelloAV, with dark circular
spots, many ribbed. Sepals united, the upper with the lateral ones
about one-third of their length, the two lateral with each other to
about the middle, subacute, subeqr.al. Petals elliptical, rather shorter
than the sepals, and similar in colour to them. Lip with two ovate
acute wings at the base, extending upwards along the sides of the
column, where this is connected with the lateral sepals, articulated in
the middle, above which it is concave, blunt and sharply crenate in
the upper half of this portion, applied along the face of the column,
but when fading occasionally deflected between the sepals. Column
erect, half terate, v/inged along its anterior edges, toothed at its apex
only. Anthir-case rhomboid ; pollen masses 2, obovate, sulcate along
their outer sides ; gland ovate, fleshy ; stigmatic fissure narrow, trans-
verse.

Tfiip, 1 tliink, must only be considered a variety of Peristeria cerina, with
lurid spotted flowers. The whole structure is precisely the i^amc, for
I conceive the absence of wings to the column mentioned by Profes*

Dr Graham's List of Bare Plants, 389

sor Lindley only means the absence of the dilatation of the wing-like
edges towards their apex. Like Peristeiia petufnlaf its blossoms are
of short duration ; and I did not at any time find it to be perfumed.
We received the plant at the Botanic Garden from Mr Knight, King's
Road, Chelsea, in 1830. It flowered for the first time towards the end
of March 1840.

Pithecoseris.

Generic Character. — Capitula 3-4-flora in glomerulura ovatum
dens^ congesta, sessilia, subspicata, ebracteata. Invol. oblongi
squamre erectas glabriusculaj acuminata?, ext. carinatff», int. plana;
lanceolato-linearcs. Receptaculum nudum. Cor. tubus extus hir-
sutus, lobi glabri. Achenia in iisdem capitulis difformia, alia (ju-
niora aut sterilia 1) scriceo-villosa, pappo duplici, ext. brevissimo
palcaceo, int. pluriseriali setaceo, alia (matura aut fertilial) glaber-
rima oblonga compressa, pappo setiformi caducissimo I Herba.
Folia fere lyrata seu sinuato-pinnatjfida, — DC. Prodr. v. 84.

Pithecoseris pacourinoides, — Martius in Herbar. — DC, 1. c.

Description. — Stalk (3^ feet high) herbaceous, striated, erect, branched,
round, nearly glabrous above, below covered with soft, glandular,
waved, spreading, colourless hairs. Leaves (9 inches long, 4 broad)
smaller upwards, membranous, sinuato-pinnatifid, subglabrous on both
sides, much attenuated at the base, where they degenerate into the
appearance of a narrowly winged petiole ; semiamplexicaul and au-
ricled, the segments projecting forwards, much reduced below the
middle of the leaf, acute, intipo-lobate, the divisions mucronulate,
middle rib and veins very prominent behind, the secondary veins chan-
nelled in front. Peduncles terminal, elongated, swelling upwards,
hollow ; head of flowers at first nearly flat, afterwards elongated, and
densely subspicate ; general involucrum awanting ; partial involucrum
ovato-acuminate, 3-5 flowered, the scales ovato-lanceolate, spines-
cento-mucronate, the outer the shorter, and subcarinate at the apex.
Receptacle naked. Corolla pale lilac colour, funnel salver-shaped,
the tube longer than the involucre, hairy without, limb glabrous, seg-
ments linear-lanceolate. Stamens exsertefl, the filament neai'ly as
long as the limb of the corolla, distant, glabrous, of the same colour
as the corolla, but rather darker; the anthers of still darker colour,
and rather more red. Style twice as long as the corolla, straight, slen-
der, of the same colour as the filaments, slightly pubescent upwards ;
stigma bifid, revolute, Achenia dissimilar ; some abortive, clavate,
pubescent ; others fertile, obovate, plump, compressed, striated, gla-
brous and shining. Pappus deciduous ; in the abortive achenia double,
the exterior of one row of minute chafls, the interior hair-like, in many
rows, on the fertile achenia of the latter form only.

This curious and ornamental stove-plant, native of Pemambuco, flowered
in the nursery of Mr Cunningham, Comelybank, in April 1840. f
could not learn when or by whom it was introduced. It is the only
known species of the genus, was discovered by Martius, and first, if I
am not mistaken, described in the fifth volume of Decandolle's Pro-
dromus.

( 390 )

Proceedings of the Society of Arts, Session 1839-40.

The Society of Arts held the first meeting of its Nineteenth
Session in the Royal Institution, on Wednesday the 13th No-
vember, 1839.— Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kt. F.A.S., Presi-
dent, in the Chair.

The President, in opening the Nineteenth Session of this
Society, expressed his confidence that the long recess had been
prolific of invention. Animadverting on the great importance
of the Arts, he shewed the indifference of mankind to their
real value from being nurtured amidst their refinements. But
were the season of privation to come, even of those deemed of
little account, they would soon discover the worth of what they
had enjoyed ; they would feel how difficult it was to part with
conveniences and benefits which had been in a manner incor-
porated with their existence. Various obstacles opposed the
progress of invention and improvement of the Arts. First,
the want oi encouragement ; secondly, the want oi protection.
It was the special province of the Society to obviate the former,
for even the most humble devices were acceptable — as none
could predict their ultimate worth ; — and in regard to the lat-
ter, were the law of Patent to undergo revision, it might prove
very profitable to the public.

The following commmiications were laid before the So-
ciety : —

1. Narrative of the Suggestions and Experiments of the late Mr James
Taylor of Cumnock, in company with the late Mr Miller of Dalswinton,
for the application of Steam to Navigation. Edin. 1834. Presented by
Sir John Robison, K.H.j Sec. R.S.E. — Sir John Robison read the statement,
and exhibited the original drawings from which tbe first engine was made.
Sir John also exhibited the first model of the paddle-wheel boat, the dif-
jficulty of working which by manual labour led Mr Taylor to propose the
substitution of steam power. Sir John received the thanks of the Society,
and he was requested to draw up a short abstract of the narrative, with
some additional facts which he stated verbally to the Society, and not
generally known to the public, in order that they might find a place in
the Transactions of the Society. (G66.)

2. Notice of a Polyphotal Lamp, and Reflector of Single Curvature, for
steam-vessels, and otherpurposes. By JohnScott Russell, A.M.— -V.P.S.A.,
Greenock. This Lamp has been used for some years past with much suc-
cess, on the Union, and Forth and Clyde Canals, and is about to be

Proceedings of the Society of Arts. 391

introduced into steam-vessels. The reflector is so contrived as to throw
a strong light forward, and to the right and left, within a certain range,
and prevents the beams of light from being scattered upwards and down-
wards. It is thus calculated also to be used for a stationary light for pier-
heads, &c. where a considerable portion of the horizon is wished to be
illuminated. — The Lamp and Reflector were exhibited. (671.) Tlianks
voted.

3. Outline of a Plan for securing to the Manufacturers of Scotland pro-
tection against piracy of Patterns. By Mr John Whyte, pattern-drawer,
Edinburgh. (GG9.) Referred to a Committee.

4. Mr Adie exhibited a Daguerreotype Plate of the Place de Chatelet,
Paris, executed (*a«t<? 5o/ei/) by Vincent Chevalier. (670.) Thants voted.

5. M. Le Sage also exhibited another French Plate. (672.) Thanks
voted.

6. Donation. — The Mechanics' Magazine, Vol. XXX. 1839. Presented
by the Proprietor and Publisher. (6C8.) Thanks voted.

7. Sir John Robison exhibited a set of Castors of a new construction,
patented by Handcock. (G67.) Thanks voted.

1. The following Candidates were balloted for and admitted
Ordinary Members, viz : —

1 . Mr Alexander Auchie, upholsterer, 26 George Street ; 2. Mr Tliomas
Brown, Architect, 3 North Charlotte Street; 3. George T.Mitchell, M.D.,
4 Fettcs Row ; 4. Cunningham Borthwick, Esq. Actuary, 5 North St
David Street ; 6. Mr John White, Pattern Drawer, 39 Clerk Street ;
0. Mr Wra. Cunningham, Jeweller, 88 Lauriston Place.

2. Mr Samuel Leitli, lithographer, Edinburgh, presently an
Associate, was admitted an Ordinary Member, in terms of his
own request, under Law II.

3. The Report of the Committee appointed to purge the
Lists of Arrears was read and approved of. The Treasurer,
Convener.

4. The Members received a list of the Ordinary Members
of the Society as at 1st November curt

5. The Society elected the Office-Bearers and Councillors
for Session 1839-40, viz.

The Queen, Patroness.
Sir Jo«N Graham Dalyell, Kt. F. A.S., President.
David Maclagan, M.D., F.R.S.E.,| jrice- Presidents.
Richard Hunter, Esq., H. E. I. C. J
James Tod, W. S., 21 Dublin Street, Secretary.
MuNGo Ponton, F. R. S. E., 30 Melville Street, Foreign Secretary,
John Scott Moncrieff, Accountant, 4 Albjn Place, Treasurer.
John Dunn, 63 Hanover Street, Curator of Museum,

Sfe Proceedings of the Society/ of Arts,

Ordinary Counsellors,

Professor Forbes. Lt.-Col. Blanshard.

W. Galbeaith, a. M. David Stevenson.

Alexander Black. Jas). Hunter, M. D.

Sir J. RoBisoN, K. H. Robert Maxton.

Gilbert L. Finlay. C. H. Wilson.

John Bell, junior. Alex. Bryson.

November 27- 1839.— David Maclagan, M. D., F. R. S. E.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

1 . Essay on the Form, Method of Laying, and Width of Gauge, of
Rails on Railways, calculated to increase the advantages of Railway tra-
velling— with drawings. By Mr James A. Emslie. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
(665.) Referred to a Committee.

2. Specimen of Writing made with Mr E. A. Smith's (of Portsca)
*' Indelible Ink." Communicated by James Johnston Darling, Esq. W.S.
(662.) Mr Smith to forward a bottle of his Ink, and an account of his
mode of preparing it. To be submitted to the Experimental Committee.

3. Mr John St Clair's improved method of placing and tuning the ad-
ditional open Strings, in his method of increasing the Tone of the Violin.
The Violin, with the improved adjustment, was exhibited, and the Re-
port of the Committee thereon was read and approved of. Sir John
Graham Dalyell, Kt. Convener. (588.)

4. Donation. — Report on the various modes of Printing for the Blind.
By the Rev. William Taylor of York, F.R.S., Hon. Mem. Soc. Arts
1838. From the Seventh Report of the British Association. Presented
by the author. (663.) Thanks voted.

6. Donation. — Magazine for the Blind, No. I., printed in raised cha-
racters (Roman Capitals and Lowercase.) August 1839. Conducted by
one of the Blind. Presented by the Rev. William Taylor, York, F. R. S.
-—Hon. Mem. Soc. Arts. (664.) Thanks voted.

6. Dr D. B. Reid reported to the Society what arrangements are in pro-
gress for the Exhibition of Models, processes in the Arts and Manufac-
tures, &c. and he stated that this exhibition is to be held in the Assem-
bly Rooms, Edinburgh, about Christmas next, the whole suit of apartments
having been engaged for that purpose by the Sub- Committee. The exhi-
bition is intended to be on a grand scale, and to be open to the public
for ten or fourteen days, at a very small charge.

The following Candidates were admitted Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. —

Mr James Brown junior, 36 Drummond Place ; Mr Thomas Russell,
ironmonger, 7 Hunter Square.

16//* December. — The annual General Meeting. Sir John

Froceedings of the Society of Art». 393

Graham Daly ell, F.A.S., President, in the chair. The fol-
lowing communications were made : —

The Repcfrt of the Prize Committee, awarding the prizes for
Session 1838-9, .was read; and the prizes were delivered by the
President to the successful Candidates, with appropriate ad-
dresses.

In conformity with the Report of the Committee on Premiums,
the following prizes were awarded : —

1. To William Davidson, M.D., Glasgow; for his " method of

Decolorizing Palm Oil," and of removing the "bitter taste and
lichenous odour of Iceland Moss ;" both read 20th June, 1838.
— The Society's Honorary Silver Medal. (555 and 657.)

2. To Martyn J. Roberts, Esq. of Bryn-y-caerau, Wales; for

his " new method of Re-shipping a Rudder at Sea ;" — read
10th April, 1839, with a Model ; — printed in the Society's
Transactions. — The Society's Honorary Silver Medal. (618.)

3. To Andrew Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E., V.P.S.A., lecturer on Che-

mistry, Edinburgh ; for his Experiments on Photography, and
his Demonstrations on that subject, given to the Society on
27th March, lOth and 17th April, and 3d July 1839. The
results printed in the Society's Transactions. — The Societi/s
Hon<yrary Silver Medal. (632, 636, 641, and 658.)

4. To William Galbraith, A.M., C.S.A., teacher of Mathema-

tics, Edinburgh ; for his two papers on " Geodetical Survey-
ing and Trigonometrical Levelling;" — read 14th November
1838, and 13th February 1839; — printed in the Society's

Transactions The Society's Honorary Silver Medal.

(586 and 613.)

5. To Edward Sang, Esq., F.R.S.E., M.S.A., Edinburgh; for his

" Waving Bar" for Engravers' Ruling Machines ; — exhibited
30th January, 1839 ; — a Description, and Drawing or Model,
to be lodged. — The Society's Honorary Silver Medal. (615.)

6. To Messrs John Bryden and Sons, bell-hangers, Edinburgh ;

for a description of their ♦* Bank-Safe Lock and Key ;" — read
and exhibited 29th May 1839.— 7%e Society's Honorari/ Silver
Medal y and three Sovereigns for a Lock and Key on this prin-
ciple, to be furnished for the Museum. (647.)

7. To Mr Dakibl Macpherson, Edinburgh ; for his ** new Ma-

394 Proceedings of the Society of Arts,

chine for lifting Stereotype Moulds from the Types," and for
his "new method of Baking- the Moulds;" — read and ex-
hibited 13th February 1839 ; — a Model to be furnished for the
Museum — The Society's Silver Medal, value Ten Sovereigns.

(610.)

8. To Mr James Marshall, eng-ineer, North Leith ; for his Mo-

del, Drawing-, and Description of an " Improvement in the
common Smith's Vice;" read and exhibited 24th April 1839.
— The Society's Silver Medal, value Eight Sovereigns. (637.)

9. To Mr John Gilchrist, Middle Arthur Place, Edinburgh ;

for his Model and Description of " Substitute for Door
Springs," applied by him with much success to produce the
action of self-closing on Doors of Public Offices, Lobbies, &c.,
and which may open either way ; — read and exhibited 27th
March, 1839 — The Societi/s Silver MedaU value Five Sove-
reigns. (631.)

10. To Mr John Whyte, pattern-drawer, Edinburgh; for his
" Essay on the State of Art, as applied to British Manufac-
tures;"— read 17th and 24th April and 15th May, 1839 ; and
his great labour and trouble in bringing this important sub-
ject before the Society. — Seven Sovereigns. (601.)

11. To Mr D. T. Hope, Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh; for his
trouble and drawings of a method of Increasing and Dimi-
nishing the distance of the Floats from the centre of the

Common Paddle-Wheel ;— exhibited 29th May, 1839 Three

Sovereigns, (583.)

12. To Mr John St Clair, teacher of music, Edinburgh; for a
model to be furnished for the Society's Museum of his " Arti-
ficial Method of Augmenting the Tone of the Violin ;" — ex-
hibited 12th December, 1838, and in an improved form on
27th November, 1839 Three Sovereigns. (588.)

13. To Mr William Bulloch, bookbinder, Edinburgh, for a
model, to be furnished for the Society's Museum, of his
" Moveable Stamp and Sliding Frame," — suggested by him
as a means of diminishing the expense of Embossing the
Boards of Books, particularly in Cloth Binding ; — exhibited
10th April 1839.-— TVjo Sovereigns, (629.)

Further, while thanks were due to all who have sent communi-

Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 395

cations to the Society during Session 1838-9, the special thanks
of the Society were given to the following gentlemen for their re-
spective communications, although not lodged in competition for
Prizes : —

1. To Sir John Robison, K.H., Sec. R.S.E., for his communi-

cations •' on the best method of burning gas for supplying
heat ;" — read 13th March 1839 ; and '* on the best method of
burning gas for the purpose of illumination ;" — read 27th
March 1839. (581 and 582.)

2. To John Scott Russell, A.M., F.R.S.E., V.P.S.A., Virginia

House, Greenock, for his paper ** On the Vibration of Sus-
pension Bridges, &c.," and suggestions for " preventing in-
jury from this cause;" — read 16th January 1839. Printed
in the Society's Transactions. (590.)

Note. — From the great importance of this subject, the Com-
mittee humbly but strongly recommended to the Society
to request Mr Russell to give them notice whenever an
opportunity may occur of observing the effect, on the
great scale, of a construction on the principles here laid
down by him ; and that, after such observation shall
have been made, the subject should be again taken up
by the Society.

3. To John Scott Russell, A.M., F.R.S.E., V.P.S.A., Green-
ock, for his Description and Drawings of a " Perfect Parallel
Motion for the Land and Marine Steam-Engine ;" — read 13th
March, and Model exhibited 3d July 1839. (626 and 655.)

Note, — The Committee recommended that a sum, not ex-
ceeding Ten Sovereigns, be laid out for a Model of an
Engine on this principle, to be furnished by Mr Russell
for the Society's Museum.

4. To John Alston, Esq. of Rosemount, Hon. M.S.A., Hon.

Treasurer to the Asylum for the Blind, Glasgow, for his
** Specimens of Printing in Relief for the Blind, with Archi-
tectural Embellishments;" — read and exhibited l7th April
1839. (639.)

5. To MuNGo Ponton, Esq., W.S., F.R.S.E., Foreign Sec. &A.,
for his " Notice of a cheap and simple method of preparing
Paper for Photographic Drawing, iu which the use of any

396 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

Salt of Silver is dispensed with ;" — read, and specimens ex-
hibited, 29th May 1839. Printed in the Society's Transac-
tions. (654.)

The Society desired it to be understood, that all the Models
to be furnished for their Museum, for which the above sums have
been set apart, should be made to a Scale, and to the satisfaction
of the Curator of the Museum.

The President having delivered the premiums to the suc-
cessful candidates, accompanied by a suitable address, concluded
with observing, *' That many fair testimonies had been afford-
ed of the progress of ingenuity, invention, and improvement
of the Useful Arts, by the claims on the Society's patronage
for the preceding season. Numerous valuable and interesting
communications had been also made, models and drawings ex-
hibited, though not in competition. It appeared, likewise, that
the natives of Scotland were by no means of inferior genius,
as might be well expected, to those of other countries ; their
education being excellent, their ardour and perseverance in-
surmountable, invested them with qualities which could not
but lead to distinction and success.""

The Models, Drawings, &c., of Inventions, &c. (Session 1838-
9), for which the Prizes have been awarded, were exhibited.

The following communications were then read and exhi-
bited, viz. : —

1. Part I. of a Notice on the Law of Mortality in England and Wales, as
deduced from the First Report of the Registrar-General. By Edward
Sang, Esq., actuary, 6 North St David Street, M.S.A. Illustrative draw-
ings were exhibited. (676.) Part II. of this paper to be read at next
meeting.

2. Notice of a Simple Copying Press. By James Hunter, M.D., Couns.
S.A. The machine was exhibited, and also specimens of its performance.
(676.) Thanks voted.

3. Donation. — Brief Remarks illustrative of the evils arising from Piracy
of Designs. By Mr T. B. Holdway, teacher of practical drawing to the
Honourable the Board of Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland. Edin-
burgh, 1839. Presented by the Author. (677.) Thanks voted.

4. Donation. — A Model, on a scale of one inch to a mile, illustrating the
country round the Menai Straits, with a Medallic Engraving ruled from

Ih^ceedlngs of the Society of Arts. 397

the Model, by Freebairn, with Bate's Patent Anglyptograph. Presented
by Captain Henderson, R. E. (679.) Thanks voted.

The following Candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. : —

Henry David Hill, Esq. W.S., 2 Picardy Place; William Thomas
Thomson, Esq., manager of the Standard Life Assurance Company,
2 George Street ; James RoUand, Esq. W. S., 14 Shandwick Place.

In terms of Law XIII. the Societj- appointed a committee to audit the
Treasurer's books, and to report thereon, and generally on the state of
the funds of the Society ; the report to be given in at next meeting, viz.,
on 16th January 1840. The books were laid on the table.

\bth January 1840.—David Maclagan, M. D., F.R.S.K.,
Vice-President, in the chair. The following communications
were made : —

1. Description of an Improvement on the Mercurial Registering Thermo-
meter of Rutherford, by which the injury frequently caused by the conti-
nued contact of the steel index with the mercury is completel}'^ prevented.
By Mr John Dunn, optician, 50 Hanover Street, Cur. S.A. The instru-
ment was exhibited. (683.) Referred to a committee.

2. Essay on Life Assurance, No. II., being on the Errors of the Bonus
System. By Edward Sang, Esq., actuary, 6 North St David Street,
M.S.A. (076.) Tlie objection urged in this paper against the present
sj^stcm of bonus is, that it places the interests of different classes of mem-
bers in opposition to each other ; and that it enables the present members
to declare additions to their own policies, that may have to be paid out
of the funds contributed by succeeding members ; and a case was men-
tioned in which confessedl}' a draft of this kind to the amount of upwards of
L.126,000 was made upon the future members of a Mutual Assurance
Society, and was paid by them. The objection was endeavoured to be
strengthened by the remark, that, on account of tlie intricacy of the sub-
ject, such injustice may be committed without the smallest intention or
knowledge of evil. — Essay III. to be read at next meeting.

0. Verbal Exposition of Daguerreotype. By Andrew Fyfe, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., M.S.A. (678.) After explaining briefly the mode of con-
ducting the process, Dr Fyfe stated the results of experiments in which
he had been engaged, with the view of illustrating its rationale. The
golden colour given to the silver surface is, in his opinion, not a mere
coating of iodine, but an iodid of silver, and when this is subjected to the
agency of light in the camera, the affinity between the silver and iodine
is weakened on those parts on which the light impinges, and hence the
iodine is, as it were, loosened from the silver; consequently, when the
plate is exposed to the mercurial vapours, the mercury adheres to those
parts only from which the iodine has been detached ; of course where

VOL. XXIX. NO. I.Vlir. OCTOBER 1840. D d

S9B Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

tbe light has not been strong, and the iodine not completely loosened,
the mercurial coating is less dense. On putting the plate into the hypo-
sulphite, the iodine is washed off, and there arc then exposed two distinct
metallic surfaces, a silver and a mercurial one ; which, reflecting the light
differently, brings out the image. That this is really the nature of the
action, Dr Fyfe considered to be proved from the results of the experi-
ments detailed by him, by which he shewed that representations similar
to Daguerreotype can be procured by placing on one of the^polished plates
of silver without iodine, any object, such as a profile on paper, moistening
the paper to make it adhere to the silver, and then mercurialising as re-
commended by Daguerre. In this case the mercury adheres to the me-
tallic surface exposed, and when the paper is removed, the highly polished
silver covered by it, is left resplendent, and thus gives the dark profile on
the white ground. Specimens of this kind were exhibited. Similar effects
are produced by exposing other plates, such as tinned iron, glass, and
many others. If, when silver is used, the temperature to which the mer-
cury is subjected be raised to about 400, the mercury adheres firmly to
the silver, and accordingly the image is not apt to be rubbed off as in
Daguerreotype — Experimentalillustrations were exhibited. Thanks voted.
Dr Fyfe was requested to give in writing a short account of his interesting
experiments.

4. The large model of Mr Ponton's Galvanic Telegraph was exhibited,
and the principles of its construction explained, previous to its being de-
posited in the Society's Museum. (682.) Thanks voted.

The following Candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. : —

1. Mr George Potts, cabinet-maker, 14 Scotland Street ; 2. Thomas
Thomson, Esq. W. S., 25 Melville Street ; 3. Alexander Fleming, Esq.
W. S., 2 South Charlotte Street.

A Committee was appointed on the subject of the Ventilation of the Hall.

2dth January, 1840.— David Maclagan, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
Vice-President, in the chair. The following communications
were made : —

1. Essay on Life Assurance, Part III. being, — On what constitute the
Profits of a Mutual Assurance Society. By Edward Sang, Esq. Actuary,
6 North St David Street, M.S.A. (67G.)

2. Description of a process for multiplying Photographic Drawings.
JSy Mr C. Galpin, 1 Lowther Arcade, London. Specimens were exhibit-
ed. (680.) Referred to a Committee.

3. A Map of England and Wales, for the use of the Blind. By John
Alston, Esq. of Rosemount, Honorary Treasurer to the Institution for the
Blind, Glasgow, Hon. M.S.A. (G84.) Referred to a Committee.

4. Donation. — The Transactions of the London Electrical Society.
Part I. Comprising Papers read during 1837. Presented by Mr E, M.

Proceedingt of tlie Society of Arts. 399

Clarke, pliilosophical instrument-maker, Strand, London. (086.) Thanks
voted.

The following Candidates were balloted for and admitted as Ordmary
Members, viz.

1. Sutherland Mackenzie, Esq., 24 Charlotte Square. 2. Charles Pear-
son, Esq., Accountant, 69 George Street. 3. William Wood, Esq., Sur-
geon, 9 Darnaway Street. 4. Alexander Sprott, Esq., yr. of Garnkirk,
14 Coates Crescent. 5. Walter Calverley Trevelyan, Esq. (of Walling-
ton, Newcastle-on-Tyne,) 108 Prince's Street. G. Robert Christie, Esq.,
Accountant, 15 St Andrew Square. 7. William Wood, Esq., Account-
ant, 8 South Charlotte Street. 8. Thomas Sprott, Esq., W. S, 23 Rutland
Square. 0. Henry George Watson, Esq., Accountant, St Andrew Square.
10. George Crosbie, Esq., National Bank, St Andrew Square. 11. Mr
William Nichol, Lithographer, 27 Hanover Street. 12. James Brown,
Esq., Accountant, 94 George Street. 13. James T. Murray, Esq., W. S.,
81 Queen Street. 14. Andrew Tawse, Esq., W.S., 15 York Place.

John Alston, Esq. of Roscmount, Glasgow, was, at his own request,
added to the list of Ordinary Members. The Society resolved that he
sliould still hold the distinction of Honorary Member previously conferred
upon him.

The Report of the Committee appointed to audit the Trea-
surer's Books, and to report thereon, and generally on the state
of the funds of the Society, was read and approved of. Mr
Home, Convener. Thanks voted to the Committee.

The President granted discharge to the Treasurer, in terma
of the above Report.

Vlth February, 1840. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, President,
in the chair.

The draft of an Address by the Society to her Majesty the
Queen, upon the occasion of her marriage with his Royal
Highness Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg and Gotha, which had
been prepared by the President at the request of a Committee
of the Council, was read and unanimously approved of; and
after being written out, and signed by the President, Vice-
President, Secretary, and Treasurer, and sealed with the seal
of the Society, was ordered to be presented in any manner the
President may think proper. The Address is of the following
tenor, viz. : —

" To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty.
" Most Gracious Sovereign,
" We, the Society, under yonr royal patronage, instituted for tlic En-

400 FvGceedlngs of the Society of Arts.

couragement of the Useful Arts in Seotlaiidj humbly approach the Throne
to offer our fervent congratulations on your Majesty's union with an il-
lustrious Prince adorned by every moral virtue.

" We joyfully hail so auspicious an event, as one affording the fairest
promise of contributing to your Majesty's personal felicity, and of con-
ferring permanent benefits on the British empire.

" The public and private welfare of your Majesty — a Sovereign whose
transcendent excellence has rooted the affections of her loyal people —
excites in us the deepest interest, and calls forth the loudest testimonies
of our anxious love, our duty, and veneration.

" We doubt not that the distinguished partner whom it has pleased your
Majesty to select from among the Princes of Europe, eagerly profiting by
your wise and worthy example, will emulate an equal favour for the good
and virtuous ; and that the same solicitude for the national prosperity,
which your Majesty has ever manifested, shall be alike cherished in his
breast.

'* Thence do we augur a new and glorious epoch for Britain, in the
praise and admiration of the world.

"We trust in the benignity of Heaven to soften your pillow, and to
strew your path with flowers ; that 3-our Majesty and your Royal Con-
sort shall reap all the happiness which an earthly condition can bestow ;
and that the precious fruits of your union, inheriting the virtues of their
parents, shall be reserved to embellish the splendour of the Throne.

" That the Almighty Disposer of human destinies may guard your
Majesty with an impenetrable shield, and that, under His Divine protec-
tion, you may be long preserved in uninterrupted security, peace, and
comfort, to sway the Sceptre over this renowned and powerful Empire,
is our earnest prayer.

'' Signed in our name and by our appointment, by the President, Vice-
Presidents, Secretary, and Treasurer, and sealed at Edinburgh the twelfth
day of February, in the year one thousand eight hundred and forty.
(Signed) " John Graham Dalyell, President,

" David Maclagan, M.D., Vice-President.

" Rd. Hunter, Vice-President.

■' James Tod, Secretary/.

" John Scott Moncrieff, Treasurer."

The following communications were then made : —
1. Essay on Life Assurance, Part IV. being, — On the only equitable
method of distributing the Profits of a Mutual Assurance Society among
the Members. By Edward Sang, Esq., actuary, 5 North St David Street,
M.S.A. Thanks voted. (076.) This branch of the subject of Life As ^
surance being now concluded by Mr Sang, a debate followed, in which
Messrs Wood, More, Finlay, Eraser, and Gibson, took a part. While
several of the speakers differed from Mr Sang in many of his views, they
k\\ agreed that the thanks of the Society were* due to him for bringing the

Proceedhiffs of the Society; of Arts. 401

subject of Life Assurance before the Society, and in particular for his ex-
position of the errors of the honus sj'stem. It was understood that papers
taking, in some respects, an opposite view of this intricate subject are to
be given in and read before the Society.

2. On a new Scale for the Thermometer. By James Hunter, Esq. of
Thurston, M.S. A. Thanks voted, and referred to a Committee. (G88.)

3. On a new kind of Ink, obliterated with great difficulty. By Andrew
Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E., M.S.A. Thanks voted, and referred to a Commit-
tee. (691.)

4. Donation — An Account of a Series of Experiments made with a
large Magneto-Electrical Machine. By Mr E. M. Clarke, philosophical
instrument-maker. Strand, London. Presented by the Author. Thanks
voted. (686.)

The following Candidates were admitted as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. : —

John Cockburn, Esq. 6 Douno Terrace ; John Fraser jun. Esq. (of
Standard Life Assurance Office), 23 Sciennes Street ; Thomas Scott, Esq.
accountant, 19 St Andrew Square; Hugh S. James, Esq. Edinburgh.

26M February, 1840. — Sir John Graham Dalyell, President,
in the chair. The following communications were made : —

1. Notice on the use of Brass or Copper Plates, having their surfaces
Silvered, for producing Pictures by the process of Daguerreotype. By Mr
John Adie, optician, 58 Prince's Street, M.S.A. A specimen was exhibited.
(692.) Referred to a Committee, and to be printed.

2. Model and Description of an Improved Railway Crossing. By Mr
John Meiklejon, engineer, 39 Home Street, Edinburgh. (689.) Re-
mitted to Messrs Grainger and Miller to try practically.

3. Verbal Notice of Sir W. Burnet's Process for the prevention of Dry
Rot ; with illustrative specimens. By Dr D. B. Rcid, F.R.S.E., M.S.A.
(695.) This process consists in applying a solution of Muriate of Zinc
to the cloth or other substance to be preserved. It is very much cheaper
than where preparations of Mercury are used ; and to shew how well it
acted, Dr Reid exhibited two sets of specimens, in every respect alike, of
soldiers' cloth, sail cloth, ropes, &c., which were placed and kept for u
year in one of the dampest cellars in Somerset House, the one set being
in their natural state, and the other impregnated with the Muriate of
Zinc ; and while the former were quite rotten, had lost their colour, and
were easily torn to fragments, the latter were as fresh in colour, and as
strong in texture, as when they were put in. It is understood that a
patent has been taken out to secure this valuable invention. The thanks
of the Society were given to Dr Reid for exhibiting the specimens.

1. The Report of the Committee on Mr Dunn's Improvement on the Re-
gistering Thermometer was read and approved of. Dr Fyfe, Convener.

5. The Report of the Committee on Mr Galpin's Photographic proccii
was read ivnd approved of. Dr Fyfe, Convener*

4(y2 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

C. The Report of the Committee on Mr Hunter of Thurston's new
Scale for the Thermometer w.'is read and approved of. Dr Fyfe, Con-
vener.

7. Mr Sang obtained leave to print the remaining" part of his Essay on
Life Assurance, which is to be read at next meeting.

I. The following Candidates were admitted as Ordinary
Members, viz. : —

1. John G. M. Burt, M. D., 8 Bank Street ; 2. Robert Cowan, Esq.
W.S., Great King Street ; 3. Hugo Reid, Esq., lecturer on Chemistry,
24 Nicolson Street.

II. The Experimental Committee reported the election of
their Office-bearers for 1840. Mr Ponton, Convener.

III. A letter from the Secretaries of the intended Exhibi-
tion of Arts and Manufactm'es at Newcastle-on-Tyne was read.

The Secretary and Curator were appointed a Committee to
answer the letter, and with power to send any models, &C.3
which the Newcastle Committee may desire.

Wth March, 1 840. Sir John Graham Dalyell, President, in
the Chair. The following communications were made : —

1. On the Comparative Illuminating Power of different kinds of Gas
Burners. By Andrew Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E., M.S.A. (694.) In trying
the comparative illuminating powers of different Gas-Burners, Dr F3 fc
stated that he took a single Jet-burner, burning with a flame of 5 inches
in length as the standard, in which case he had it so adjusted as to burn
exactly one foot per hour. Assuming the light given by this burner, as
thus used, to be as - - - - 100

The light given by a Fish-tail for an equal consumpt

of gas is - - - ^ 140

By a Bat- wing, about - - - » 164

By an Argand (24 holes) - - - 180

Accordingly, for equal consumpts of gas, the additional light given,
over and above that afforded by a jet, is, by the Fish-tail 40, by the Br.t-
wing upwards of 60, and by an Argand 80 per cent. For this purpose,
however, it is necessary to use the Fish-tail and Bat-wing, burning with
their full supply of gas, and to have the Argand with a flame of about
three inches. On increasing the number of holes in the Argand, though
the quantity of gas consumed becomes greater, the comparative illumina-
ting power is not augmented ; the increase in light being merely proj)or-
tionate to the enlarged expenditure. From the numerous experiments
^ich he had performed, Dr Fyfe stated that he had come to the conclu-
sion, that the Argand is by far the most economical method of consuming

Proceeding 8 of the Society of Arts. 403

gas when illumination is the only object, and provided, of course, so much
lig-ht is required ; and that the single jet is the most unprofitable, and
ought never to be used. When the light of a single jet only is required,
he mentioned that it is much better to liave a. burner with two or three
holes so near each other that there shall be only one flame. When this
is so used as to give the light of a jet, it consumes from 10 to 20 per cent,
less of gas, thus causing a great saving to those who burn by meter.
Thanks voted, and to be printed in the Transactions.

2. Model and Description of Apparatus for saving the lives of persons
falling into any loch or standing water, on the ice giving way. By Mr
Gavin Kay, Plumber and Gas-fitter, 18 Preston Street, Newington, Edin-
burgh. (603.) Referred to a Committee.

3. Essay on Life Assurance, Part IV. — On the money values deduced
from the various Bills of jNIortality. By Edward Sang, Esq. Actuary,
Edinburgh. (676.)

Note. — Mr Sang obtained permission from the Society, at a former
meeting, to print this part of his Essay, along with the pre-
ceding Parts, in order that those inclined to discuss the subject
might have the whole fullj'' "before them.

A discussion followed upon these Essays, in which Messrs Borthwick,
Wood, Finlay, and Sang took a part. Mr Wood opposed some of Mr
Saug's doctrines. Thanks voted to Mr Sang, and the Essays ordered to
be printed in the Transactions.

4. Remarks on a portion of an Essay read before the Society of Arts
for Scotland, January 1840, on the subject of" What constitute the Pro-
fits of a Mutual Assurance Society; and on the only equitable method of
dividing these among the Members." By a Member of the Scottish Pro-
vident Institution. Printed at London, February 1840. Communicated
by Alex. Bryson, M.S.A. (701.)

Note. — Mr Bryson proposed that this printed paper should be read,
by permission of tl\e Society.

The Society held that the Paper being anonymous, could not be read
as an original Communication. Mr Sang then moved, that the Paper be
read as part of the discussion on his Essay. Agreed to.

I. The following Candidates were elected as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz.

1. Wm. Wallace Fyfe, Esq. Writer, 11 Clarence Street: 2. Patrick
Shaw, Esq. Advocate, 62 North Frederick Street ; 3. David Cormack,
Esq. S.S.C, 4 Pitt Street ; 4, Wm. TumbuU, Esq. (of Royal Biink)
20 Great Stuart Street ; 5. D. Berwick, Esq. Insurance Company of Scot-
land, 10 St Andrew Square.

II. Mr Alexander Rose, Lecturer on Mineralogy and Geo-

404 Fruceedihgs of the Society of Arts.

logy» Edinburgh, presently an Associate Member, was elected
an Ordinary Member^ in conformity with Law II.

III. The Members received the printed Annual Abstract of
the Receipt and Expenditure of the Society, — and of the
Funds under its management, — for the Session 1838-39.

2hth March, 1840.— David Maclagan, M. D., F R. S. E.,
Vice-President, m the Chair. The following communications
were made : —

1. Remarks on the Profits of Life Assurance Companies, and on the
Division of those Profits. By William Wood, Esq. accountant, Edin-
burgh, M. S. A. (703.) The subject was discussed by Mr Sang and Mr
Wood. Thanks voted to Mr Wood, who was requested to print the paper.

2. Description of a Method of Drawing, by a new process, called
" Drawing in Carbon." Invented by Mr C. Galpin, 1 Lowther Arcade,
London. Specimens were exhibited. (681.) Thanks voted.

3. Mr Moon exhibited a plan of a Dioptric Orrery, on an entirely new
principle — invented by him. (706.) Thanks voted.

4. The Report of the Committee on Mr Whyte's Outline of a Plan for
protecting Patterns from Piracy, was read and approved of. Mr Why tock,
Convener. A copy of Mr Whyte's Outline and of the Report, were or-
dered to be transmitted to Mr Emmerson Tennant, M.P., who has turned
his attention very much to this subject.

5. Mr Ponton made a verbal communication relative to his having ob-
tained a Daguerreotype impression on the lithographic stone. He was re-
quested to give in a written notice of it, or to exhibit specimens.

6. A Letter-slit and Box for house or office doors, arranged to meet
the demands of the new postage system, warning the family that the

. letter-carrier has been there, without detaining him, or requiring the at-
tendance of the servant of the family, and at the same time providing for
the safety of the letters, by Mr Spence, 50 Great King Street, M.S. A.
The one made by Mr Dunn, for Mr Spence's door, was exhibited. (702.)
Thanks voted.

7. Donation. — Remarks on M. Arago's Statements regarding the in-
vention of the Steam Engine, in the Historical Eloge of James Watt.
By Hugo Reid, Esq. ]M.S. A. lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh. Printed
at Glasgow 1840. Presented by the author. (705.) Thanks voted.

8. Donation. — Description and Plates of Hearn and Davies' Patent Im-
proved Boiler for Generating Steam, Heating Water, and other Fluids.
Presented by Mr E. M. Clarke, philosophical instrument-maker. Strand,
London. (687.) Thanks voted.

9. Donation. — Specimen of Maps for the Blind. Printed at the Insti-
. tution at Boston, United States. Presented by John Alston, Esq. of

Roscmount, Hon. MiS.A. (690.) Thanks voted.

Proceeding m of the Society of Arte. 405

The following Candidates were elected as Ordinary Mem-
bers, viz. :-r-

1. Mr William Biaikic, engineer, Panmurc Foundr}-, Edinburgh; 2.
Thomas Lebum, Esq. S. S. C, 7 Teviot Row ; 3. Holmes Ivory, Esq.
accountant, 13 Gloucester Place; 4. Thomas G. Scott, Esq. W.8., 33
Heriot Row.

15M April, 1840. — William Galbraith, A.M., Counsellor, in
the chair. The following communications were made : —

1. On the construction of Circular Signal Towers. By Edward Sang,
Ksq., M.S. A. (700.) Mr Sang promised to give a Model. Thanks voted,
and the Paper ordered to be printed in the Transactions.

2. Remarks on the method proposed by Mr Sang for deducing the law
of mortality in England and Wales from the mortuary registers for 1838.
By William Inglis, Esq., S.S.C. 18 George Street, of Licensed Victuallers'
-Assurance Company. (712.)

A discussion followed, in which Mr Sang and Mr Jnglis took a part.
Thanks voted ; and Mr Iriglis was requested to print his papers.

3. Donation — On the influence of artificial light in causing impaired
vision ; and on some methods of preventing or lessening its injurious ac-
tion on the eye, by James Hunter, M.D. (M.S.A.) surgeon to the Eye
Dispensary of P]dinburgh. Edinburgh, 1840. Presented by the author.
(711.) Thanks voted.

4. Donation — A series of eight engraved portraits of eminent horolo-
gists, viz., Tompion, Graham, Berthoud, Harrison, Ellicot, Mudge, Ar-
nold, and Reid. Presented by William Auld, Esq., 67 Great King Street,
Edinburgh. (708.) Thanks voted.

In consequence of the time occupied in reading the previous communi-
cations, several others were postponed till next meeting.

1. The following candidate was elected as an Ordinary
Member, viz.

John A. Macrae, LL.D., W.S., 25 Duke Street.

2. Motion by Robert Stevenson, Esq. " That from the
commencement of next Session, the days of meeting be ©hanged
I'rom Wednesday to Monday, at the usual hour, keeping clear,
as at present, of the day on which the Royal Society hold their
meetings." This motion was [)artly discussed, and adjourned
till next meeting, to give time to consider of the proposed
change.

3. In terms oF Law XX. the list of prizes for Session 1840-
-11, as prepared by the Council, was submitted to the Society
for approval. It was adopted as altered.

406 rroceedlnijii of the iSociett/ of Arts.

An answer was read from Mr Emmerson Tennent, M.P. to
the Secretary's Letter sending him Mr White's outlines of a
plan for preventing piracy of design, with the Society's Report
thereon, acknowledging the communication as being one of
great importance, and that he would lay it before the Com-
mittee of the House of Commons for their consideration.

29M April 1840. — Being the last Ordinary meeting for
the Session. Sir John Graham Dalyell, President, in the
chair. The following communications were made : —

1. Model and description of improvements in connection with his
substitute for door-springs for doors opening either way ; particularly for
double doors. By Mr John Gilchrist, 14 Middle Arthur PlacCj Edin-
burgh. (713.) Referred to a committee.

2. Model, drawings, and description of the best form of rails for rail-
waySj and of the best manner of laying them. By Mr Thomas Evans,
Dowlais iron-works, Merthyr Tydvil, Wales, — the patentee. (099.) —
Messrs Grainger, Sang, &c., requested to give their opinion of these rails
at next meeting.

3. Description and drawings of a new turret clock, in which the smallest
watch, or chronometer, or a common clock, may be made to move the
largest dial hands and striking hammer with the utmost accuracy, even
in stormy weather ; with a new apparatus for lighting the hands and dial
at night, and a plan for having the clock wound up by the force of the
wind. Bj Mr James Gall, junior, printer, Edinburgh. (7l7.) Thanks
voted.

4. The report of the committee on Mr Gavin Kay's boat and apparatus
for saving persons immersed in the water by the breaking of ice was read
and approved of. Mr Crawford, Convener. (693.)

5. Donation. — The Polytechnic Journal, Vol. II. No. III. for March
1840, containing an account of the art of printing for the blind. Presented
b}^ John Alston, Esq. of Rosemount, Hon. M.S. A. (709.) Thanks voted.

6. Donations. — Specimens of printing from types in the office of Neill
& Co. printers and typefounders, Old Fishmarket, Edinburgh, 1840.
Presented by Messrs Neill & Co. (710.) Thanks voted.

1. The following Candidates were admitted as Ordinary
Members, viz. : —

1. John Forrester, Esq. W. S., 8 Drummond Place ; 2. John Macandrew,
Esq. S.S.C, 28 Dublin Street.

2. On the motion of Robert Stevenson, Esij., it was resolved,
almost unanimously^ "That from the commencement of next

Proceedings of the Soclett/ of Arts, 407

session, the day of meeting be changed from Wednesday to
Monday, at the usual hour, keeping clear, as at present, of the
days on which the Royal Society hold their meetings."

3. On the motion of Mr Dunn, curator of the Museum, it
was resolved unanimously, '* That a committee be appointed
to inquire and report, whether the present arrangement for
bringing out its printed Transactions should be continued, or
whether some other arrangement should be substituted." —
Committee appointed.

4. The list of prizes to be offered by the Society for session
1840-41, as altered according to the resolutions of last meeting,
was submitted in proof, and, after some alterations, was adopted,
and ordered to be printed and advertised as usual.*

13M Mai/ 1840. — First Extraordinary Meeting for this Ses-
sion. Sir John Graham Daly ell, President in the Chair.
The following Communications were made : —

1. On tlic comparative Heating Po^er of cUfTerent kinds of Gas-burners
used for Illumination ; and on the best means of burninn^ Gas as a source
of Heat. By Andrew Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E., M.S.A. (707.)— In a pre-
vious paper Dr Fyfe stated, as tlie results of his experiments on the illu-
minating power of different kinds of gtis-burners, that, for equal con-
sumpts of gasj the light given by jets being considered as 100, that by
fish-tails is as about 140, by bat-wings as about IGO, by argands, so con-
structed that as the flame must form one continued ring, about 180.
From the numerous experiments on tlic comparative heating power of
the same burners, he found that the heat evolved was in proportion, not
to the light which they afford, but to the quantity of gas consumed, and
that the same is also the case where the gas is burned on wire gauze,
a practice now generally followed where gas is used as a source .of
heat. Accordingly, when gas is to be used for this purpose, it is of no
consequence, in so far as the evolution of heat is concerned, in what
manner the gas is burned, provided the combustion be complete, and
provided means be adopted for preventing as much as possible the loss
of heat. With regard to expense, Dr Fyfe stated that he had been able
to evaporate one gallon of water by the combustion of from sixteen to
eighteen feet of gas, which, at the rate gas is sold in Edinburgh, would cost
twopence, or nearly so. Were coal employed for this purpose the expense
would not exceed about the fourth of a farthing. Though gas is much
more expensive than coal, yet where expense is not an object, it may be
used advantageously, as in some processes of cooking. When the gas is
burned on a gauze of about three inches in diameter, the expense of the
gas on each gauze will vary from one halfpenny to a pennj' per hour, ac-

* Vide p. 412.

408 Froceedings of the Society of Arts.

cording to the quantity consumed. Six of these tubes in use for three
hours would, therefore, cost from 9d to Is. 6d., — say an average about Is.
Dr Fyfe strongly recommended the use of gjis for heating water baths,
particularly in bed-rooms. In the trials he had made he found that a
bath which held 24 gallons of water, could be raised from 60 to 100 de-
grees by from 17 to 18 feet of gas, at a cost, therefore, of nearly 2d. The
gas was burned for this purpose by rose jet-burners attached to a tube
passed under the bath, which method of consuming it he prefers to the
wire gauze, — the bath was ready in three-quarters of an hour. By using
burners sufficiently large, the time may be shortened to half an hour or
less if required. Some remarks were afterwards made on the time re-
quired for cooking by gas, and also on the necessity of burning coal, so
that the whole of the gaseous matter evolved from it shall be consumed
by the due admission of air. — Thanks voted, and to be printed in the
transactions.

2. Description and Drawings of his new method of Manufacturing Per-
sian Rugs, by which a great saving in material and workmanship is ef-
fected. By Mr John Whyte, pattern-drawer, 39 Clerk Street, Edinburgh,
M. S. A. Specimens of the Rugs were exhibited. (718.) Referred to a
Committee.

3. There was exhibited a Face-cover for the use of Stone-cutting
Masons, intended to prevent the destructive effects of inhaling the dust
arising from the stone. By Mr John Bailie, 28 Cumberland Street, Edin-
burgh. (719.) Referred to a Committee.

4. Donation. — The Former and Present State of Glagow. By" James
Clelland, LL.D., President of the Glasgow and Clydesdale Statistical So-
ciety, Hon. M.S. A., &c. Glasgow, 1840. Presented by the Author.
(714.) Thanks voted.

5. Donation. — Lighthouses; being the article ''Sea Lights" in the
Seventh Edition of the Encj'clopaidia Britannica. By Alan Stevenson,
LL.B., F.R.S. E., civil-engineer, Edinburgh. Edinburgh 1840. Pre-
sented by the Author. (715.) Thanks voted.

6. Donation. — Observations on the application of Catadioptric Zones
to Lights of the First Order in the System of Fresnel : with Tables of the
Elements of Zones adapted to these Lights. By Alan Stevenson, LL.B.,
F.R.S.E., civil-engineer. Edinburgh 1840. Presented by the Author.
(716.) Thanks voted.

I. The Members received copies of the List of Prizes of-
fered by tlie Society for Session 1840-41, which they were
requested to make as extensively known as possible.*

II. Motion by Robert Stevenson, Esq. for changing the day
of Meeting from WedncFday to Monday, from the commence-
ment of next Session, which was carried nearly unanimously
at last Meeting, was at this Meeting carried unanimously.

• Vidttp. 412.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 409

III. In terms of a motion by William Crawford, Esq. se-
conded by Claud Russell, Esq. the Society made a Donation
of L.20 to the funds of the Exhibition Committee connected
with the late Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, &c. in the
Assembly Rooms, in aid of the deficiency arising after paying
the expenses of that interesting Exhibition.

The Exhibition Committee in return, presented to the So-
ciety the Model of Mr Ponton's Galvanic Telegraph, which
had been constructed for that Exhibition.

21th May 1840. — Second Extraordinary Meeting for this
Session. Sir John Graham Daly ell in the Chair. The fol-
lowing communications were made : —

1. Reply to Mr Wood's Remarks on the Profits of Life Assurance So-
cieties. By Edward Sang, Esq. actuary, Edin. M.S. A. (724.)

2. Verbal Remarks on Photography with the Camera. By Andrew
Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E., M.S.A. Specimens by Mr Talbot were exhibited.
(727.) Thanks voted.

3. Remarks on Photographic Drawing. By William Frascr, Esq.
Aberdeen. (722.) Thanks voted.

4. On the effects of the Curvature of Railways. By Edward Sang, Esq.
(723.) Thanks voted, and to be printed in the Transactions.

6. A Specimen of Native Caoutchouc from the East Indies, the largest
Sheet which has yet arrived in this country. Sent for exhibition by Mr
James Dowie, bootmaker, 67 Frederick Street, M.S.A. (720.) Thanks
voted.

0. Description and Drawing of an Oil Lamp for the Table, made by
Messrs Smith, Blair Street, for Sir George Mackenzie of Coul, Bart., con-
structed on the same principle as one brought by Sir George from France.
The Lamp was exhibited, by desire of Sir George Mackenzie. (725.)
Thanks voted.

7. Description and Drawing of a new Method for Shutting Doors whichf
open either way, — without the use of Springs, and requiring no additional
space to what is necessary for the door itself. By Mr Daniel Macpherson,
24 Salisbury Street, Edinburgh. A Model was exhibited. (726.) Re-
ferred to a Committee.

8. By permission of the Committee of the Association for the Encou-
ragement of the Fine Arts, Mr Tod exhibited the Globes constructed under
his superintendence (on Law's principle), to be used at the distribution of
the Pictures on 30th current, instead of the old octagonal wheels, as in-
suring by their globular form and double motion, a more perfect mixing
of the tickets. The Globes and machinery constructed by Mr Kirkwood,
St Andrew Street, (729.) Thanks voted.

410 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

9. A Fancy Table was exhibited, curiously made with small pieces of
Straw, cut out with a penknife. Designed and executed by Lieutenant
Titus Gaszynski, Polish exile, 4 Hill Place, Edinburgh. (728.) Thanks
voted.

1*/ July 1840.— rThe Society held its last Extraordinary

Meeting for this Session in the Royal Institution, on the 1st
inst., — Sir John Graham Dalyell, President, in the Chair, —
whQii the followhig communications were made : — •

1. On the formation of Life Assurance Societies in localities where tlie
law of mortality is unknown. By Edward Sang, Esq., actuary, Edin-
burgh, M.S. A. (732.) Thanks voted.

2. Description of a simple Apparatus for copying letters, or other writ-
ten papers. By G. F. Grahamc, Esq., 81 Gilmore Place, Edinburgh.
(704.) Thanks voted.

0. Letter on the subject of Protection of Patterns and Designs from
Piracy, — with a copy of his observations and proposals for amending the
Act 2d Vict., cap 18 and 17, 1839, submitted to the Select Committee of
the House of Commons in January 1840, and copy of recommendation
of liis Proposals by various Manufacturers. By T. B. Holdway, Esq., 44
Hutchison Street, Glasgow. (731.) Thanks voted.

4. Opinion by Mr Sang and Mr Grainger on Mr Evan's Patent Rail for
Hallways. (G99.) Read and approved of.

.5. The Report of Committee on Mr John Adie's Daguerreotyping on
Brass and Copper Plates with Silvered surfaces, was read and approved
of, and thanks voted to the Committee for their very excellent Report. —
Mr C. H. Wilson, Convener. (692.)

G. The Report of Committee on Mr Gilchrist's mode of opening and
shutting Double Doors without springs, was read and approved of. Mr
Cvawfurd, Convener. 1^718.)

7. The Report of Committee on Mr Baillie's Face-cover for Stone-
Masons, was read and approved of. Dr Douglas Maclagan, Convener.
(719.)

8. The Report of Committee on Mr Maepherson's Plan for Shutting
Doors without Springs, was read and approved of. Mr Crawfurd, Con-
vener. (726.)

9. The Report of Committee on Mr Why te*s method of manufacturing
Persian Rugs, was read and approved of. Mr C. H. Wilson, Convener.
(718.)

10. The Report of Committee on Mr Alston's Map of England and
Wales for the Blind was read and approved of. Mr W. Eraser, Convener.
(684.)

1 1 . The Report of Committee on Dr Fyfe's New Ink, of difficult oblitera-
tion, not being readj', was delayed. Mr Ponton, Convener. (691.)

12. Donation. — An Account of the Archimedes Steamer, of London,
which is propelled by means of a Screw working altogether below water ;

Proceedings of the Societi/ of ArU, 511

with a Description and Plate of the Apparatus. Presented by Richard
Hunter, Esq., Vice-President. (721.) Thanks voted.

13. Donation. — Notice of Experiments made in August 1839, on the
comparative merits of Mr Rcnnie's Conoidal Propeller, and the Screw
Propeller used on board of the Archimedes. Presented by Richard Hun-
tor, Esq., V.P. (097.) Thanks voted.

14. Donation. — Notice of the Patent Trapezium or Trapezoidal Paddle-
Wheel, and of the results of Mr Rcnnie's experiments with it and the
Common Paddle- Wheel. Presented by Richard Hunter, Esq., V.P. (696.)
Thanks voted.

16. Donation. — Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, &c., London, during Session 1838-9. Vol LII. Part II. Presented
by that Society. (730.) Thanks voted.

16. Donation. — Two Coloured Prints of the Archimedes Screw Steamer.
Presented by F. P. Smith, Esq., the Patentee. (733.) The thanks of
the Society were voted to Mr Smith, and to Captain Chappel, R.N., who
commands the Archimedes, for their kindness in inviting so many of the
members of the Society on board of that Steamer, in her experimental
cruises in Leith Reads ; and the good wishes of the Society for Mr Smith's
continued and increasing success in this meritorious undertaking. The
thanks were given from the Chair.

17. Memorandum by Robert Stevenson, Esq., civil- engineer, M.S.A.,
relative to the Archimedes Steamer, on a trip from Leith, on 30th June
1840, was read. (734.) Thanks voted. — A good deal of interesting dis-
cussion then toak place on the subject of the propulsion of vessels by
means of the Screw acting entirely under water, in which Mr Smith, Mr
Stevenson, Mr Sang, and others, took part.

On the motion of Sir John Graham Dalyell, the President,
seconded by David Maclagan, M.D., Vice-President, the So-
ciety, by acclamation, conferred upon F. P. Smith, Esq., of
tlie Archimedes Screw Steamer, tlie distinction of Honorary
Member, which being announced to him from the Chair, Mr
Smith made an appropriate reply, in the course of which he
bore testimony to the very polite attention he had received in
Scotland, wherever he had touched in the course of his voyage.

In terms of Law XX. a Committee of Twelve Ordinary
Members was appointed as a Prize Committee, for the purpose
of awarding the Prizes for Communications made during the
current Session.

The President then delivered an excellent valedictory ad-
dress, and adjoiurned the Society to the Second Monday of
November next ; but with liberty to hold a meeting for Private
Business in the course of the present month.

412 Proceedings of the Society of Arts.

List of Frizes for Session 1840-41.

The Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts in
Scotland, announces the following Prizes for Session 1840-41.

I. For the most important Invention, Discovery, or Improve-
ment in the Useful Arts ; — The Keith Medal, value Thirty Sove-
reigns,

II. The Society proposes also to expend the sum of One Hun-
dred and Twenty Sovereigns, in various Pecuniary Prizes, and
Honorary Medals, in rewarding approved Communications on the
following subjects, — or any other Inventions or Improvements, —
or Essays or detailed Accounts of Public or other Undertakings
of great National importance (not previously published), which
may be submitted to them.

1. For the best series of Experiments applicable to the Useful

A rts.

2. For the most important Communication of any useful Inven-

tion, Process, or Practice, from foreign countries, not yet
known or adopted in Great Britain.

3. For Improvements on Instruments for measuring minute

quantities of Heat, on the principle of the Thermo-Multi-
plier, or otherwise. The essentials especially to be kept
in view are. Sensibility, Comparability, and Promptness
of Action.

4. For a method of procuring Small Intense and Constant

sources of Heat, for Philosophical purposes, — whether from
obscure or luminous sources.

5. For Improvements in the Hardening of Iron, and Tem-

pering of Steel.
G. For the best series of Experiments on Photography, parti-
cularly as to the Preserving and Multiplying of the im-
pressions. Specimens to be deposited.

7. For the best method of obtaining a supply of Artificial Light

under Water, suitable for the purposes of Divers engaged
in submarine operations at considerable depths below the
surface.

8. For Specimens of Lithography or Zincography, bona fide

drawn and printed by Artists resident in Scotland. Three
copies of each specimen to be lodged 'ow or before 1st March
1S41. Prizes will be given to the best and second best in
compel ition, if approved.

Proceedings of the Society of Arts, 41S

General Ohservatioiu. — All Communications shall be entitled
to compete for the Keith Medal which comply with the terms
of the announcement of that Prize, although falling under any
of the above specified subjects.

The descriptions of the various inventions, &c. to he full and
distinct, and, when necessary, accompanied by Specimens, Draw-
ingsy or Models.

The Society shall be at liberty to publish in their Transac-
tions copies or abstracts of all Papers submitted to them. All
Models, Drawings, &c. for which Prizes shall be given, shall be
held to be the property of the Society, — the Society being in the
practice of taking the value of the Model into account in fixing
the amount of the Prize, — and these and all others which shall
be approved of, shall be entitled to a place in the Museum.

All Communications must be written on Foolscap paper, leaving
margins at least one inch broad on both the outer and inner sides
of the page, so as to allow of their being afterwards bound up with
others ; and all Drawings must be on Imperial Drawing Paper,
unless a larger sheet be requisite.

The Society reserve to themselves the power of determining
whether any Communication be of sufficient merit to entitle it to
the Prize for which it competes, and of modifying the amount of
the Prize.

All Communications to be lodged as soon aftei^ \st November
1840 as possible (except as in No. 8.), in order to insure their
being read during the Session; but those which cannot be lodged so
early, will be received till 1st March 1841.

Communications, Models, &c. to be addressed to James Tod,
Esq. the Secretary, at the Museum of the Society of Arts,
G3 Hanover Street, Edinburgh, Postage or Carriage paid.

Royal Institution, Edinburgh,
29th AprU 1840.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

meteorology.

1. Mr Espy^s Theory of Atmospherical Phenomena claimed by
MrMeihle of Edinburgh. — Respecting Mr Espy's theory of atmosphe-
rical plicnomena, the leading feature of which is the faU of tempei*a-
tiue which occurs in an ascending current of air, wo arc requested
by Mr Meikle, to state, that, in the Loudon Quarterly Jouinal of

VOL. XXIXr NO. LYIII.^-OCTOBER 1840. B 6

414 . Scientific TnteUigenee. — Geology.

Sciences, for April 1829, and in the article Hygronietry of the En-
cyclopaedia Britannica, vol. xii. p. 132, he has distinctly laid down
the same theory in detail, and accompanied with various calculations
and illustrations, which shew how it will satisfactorily account, not
only for the production of clouds, mountain-caps, rain, snow, &c., but
also thunder, lightning, and water-spouts, if not some of the pheno-
mena of volcanos, and the northern lights.

GEOLOGY.

2. Temple of Serapis. — In a letter addressed to Professor Leonhard,
from Naples, by Russegger, and dated December 1839, there is the
following statement regarding the Temple of Serapis ; — " In respect
to this temple, I differ entirely from Arago and others, who maintain
that the surface on which it stands has been depressed, has remained
under the sea, and has again been elevated. There is nothing either
in the vicinity of the temple, or in the temple itself, which affords
proofs, to justify this too bold hypothesis. Every thing rather leads to
the belief that the temple has remained unchanged in the position in
which it was originally built, but that the sea rose, surrounded it to a
height of at least twelve feet, and again retired. The elevated position
of the sea continued sufficiently long to admit of the Pholas boring
the pillars. This view can even be proved historically ; for the Cav.
Niccolini has this year published a memoir, in which he gives the
heights of the level of the sea in the Bay of Naples for a period of
1900 years, and has, with much acuteness, proved his assertions his-
torically. The correctness of my opinion can be demonstrated and
reduced to figures, by means of the dates collected by the Cav. Nic-
colini."

3. Enormous Soundings at Sea. — Captain James Ross, in a letter
to the Geographical Society, gives an account of some enormous sound-
ings made by him at sea ; one of these, 900 miles west of St Helena,
extending to the depth of 5000 fathoms or 30,000 feet, the weight em-
ployed amounting to 450 lb. Another made in Lat. 33° S. and Lon.
9° W., about 300 miles west of the Cape of Good Hope, occupied
49^ minutes, in which time 2226 fathoms were sounded. These
facts w^ere thought to disprove the common opinion, tliat soundings
could not be obtained at very great depths.

4. Living Barnacles above the Sea-Level. — When in the island
of Elba, in the summer of 1837, 1 observed on rocks exposed to the
mid-day sun, at the height of at least six feet above high water-mark,
and in situations where they could be reached by the spray of the
waves in rough weather only, numerous small living specimens of a
common barnacle (Lep)as halanoides P). This fact may perhaps be
worth recording, as likely to mislead, on a cursory examination of
a foreign shore, into the opinion of there having been a recent eleva-
tion of the coast. — W. C. Trevelyan.

5. Height of Tides in the Mediterranea^i. — I may also take this
opportunity of remarking, that veiy eiToneous opinions appear to pre-

Scientific Intelligence. — "Mineralogy. 416''

vail with regard to the tides of the Mediterranean. In the article'
on '* Physical Geograpliy," in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, it is
stated, that ** tides are but little felt in the Mediterranean, seldom
rising to six inches above the mean level," and that they are •• irre-
gular." I believe the idea is very general that no tide occurs in that
sea, but I ascertained, by a series of observations I made at the an-
cient port of Antium, on the coast of the Roman states, in the sum-
mer of 1836, that the tides ^vq perfectly regular; and the rise amount-
ed there to about fourteen inches. In the more eastern parts of the
Mediterranean, they are, I believe, shewn by some of the recent sur-
veys (to which I have not had an opportunity of referring), to be
much greater, though in the extreme west they are probably scarcely
sensible, as observed in the article on Physical Geography, though
the remark appears there to be erroneously applied to the whole
of that sea.

In the narrow Adriatic, the tides are, of course, larger than in the
Mediterranean ; they appear to have been well known to the ancients,
and, in more modern times, have been satisfactorily investigated by
Dr Bianchi of Rimini, whose work * is for the number and accuracy
of the observations, quite worthy of a philosopher of the present day.
He proves not only the regularity of the tides in that sea, but their
rise to nearly four feet (English) at new and full moon, and half that
amount at neap-tides. The observations of Galileo must be familiar
to many of your readers ; he ascertained the difference between high
and low water at Venice, to amount to as much as six or seven feet
(English), and he also observed that there were tides in the Mediter-
ranean.— W. C. Trevelyan.

MINERALOGY.

6. Hydrargillitey a new mineral species. \ — Description. Colour
reddish-white ; occurs crystallized in crystals belonging to the rhom-
bohedral system ; the forms are the six-sided prism, feebly trun-
cated on the lateral edges by the faces of the second six-sided prism.
The faces of the first six-sided prisms are feebly longitudinally
streaked, the other faces smooth. The crystals are perfectly cleav-
ablo in the direction of the terminal faces. Lustre on the terminal
faces .splendent and pearly, on the other faces shining and vitreous,
and least on the faces of the first six-sided prism. Translucent, but
transparent in thin folia. Hardness, examined by means of the file,
appears less than that of calcareous spar, but the different fiices vary
in hardness, for the straight terminal faces are easily scratched by

* " Jani Planci Ariminenisis de Conchis minus notis liber. Cui accessit
speciiuen sestus reciproci maris superi ad Littus Portumque Arimini. Edi-
tio altera, Roma) 17(iO," 4to. James Plancus was a name assumed by Dr
Bianclii, in accordjince, I believe, Avitli the custom of the members of the
Lynca>an Academy, of whom he was one of the most active, about the
middle of last century.

t This and several of the following mineralogical notices arc prepared
from Poggmdorff''s AwnaUn^ — Edit,

416 Scientific Intelligence. — Mineralogy,

calcai'eous spar, while the lateral faces are scarcely affected by it.
Chemical Composition. — According to Gustav Hose, it appears that
this mineral consists of alumina and water, witii a trace of lime, so
that in a chemical view it may be arranged with Diaspore and Gibb-
site, from which, however, it is distinguished by external characters.
It is named Hydrargillite, from vdug water, and a^yiXkog alumina.
Geognostic and Geographic Situations. — Occurs near Slatoust in the
Uralian Mountains along with magnetic iron-ore.

7. Sarsowite, anew mineral species. — Description. Colour snow-
white. Occurs massive, and in granular distinct concretions. Lustre
of the granular varieties feebly pearly, the compact dull. Fracture
splintery or imperfect foliated. Translucent on the edges. Hard-
ness between that of apatite and felspar. Specific gravity =z. 2.740
to 2.752. Before the blowpipe it melts, but only on the edges, with
difficulty ; with borax it melts slowly and calmly into a transparent
glass. Pounded and heated with muriatic acid, it is easily decom-
posed, and forms a thick jelly. Chemical Compositiofi. Lime —
18.16 ; alumina = 32.76 ; silicic acid = 49.08 = 100.00. Geog-
nostic and Geographic Situations. — Hitherto it has been found only
in loose blocks, sometimes several cubic feet in size, in tlie gold sand
of Barsowskoj, in the Urals. Blue crystals of corundum, greyish-
black grains of zeilanito, and white folia of mica, occur imbedded in
it. It is named Barsowite, from its frequent occurrence at Bar-
sowskoj. Both externally and in chemical composition, it much re-
sembles scapolite, but is distinguished from it by its structure, and
by its relations before the bloAvpipe and to acids.

8. Discovery of the repository (lagerstdte') of the Sun-Stone on
the Selenga in Siberia. — The sun-stone is a variety of felspar, which,
when viewed in the direction of its chief cleavage planes, displays
mmiberless golden spangles, which are distinctly seen in sun-light, or
better by the light of a candle, while in other directions it shews
only a brown colour. It occurs on the Selenga, forming, with quartz,
considerable veins. The sun-stone in these veins, it is believed, may
be found in masses sufficiently large to allow of their being fashioned
into vases two feet high. These will be of great value, as ring-
stones of this variety of felspar sell at a considerable price.

9. Plumhiferous Aragonite. — This curious mineral occurs in pris-
matic distinct concretions, intermixed with lead-glance. Its colour
is greenish-grey, and it is translucent on the edges. Specific gravity
= 2.977 (at 11° cent.), and 2.986 (at 13° cent.). It is a compound
of 95.940 carbonate of lime; 3.859 of carbonate of lead, and water
of decrepitation = 0.157 = 99.966. It occurs at Tarnowitz in
Upper Silesia.

10. Tachylite. — This mineral, first described by Breithaupt, from
specimens found near Gcittingen, has since been found in the Vogels-
gebirge. TIio folbwing is an analysis of a specimen from the latter
locality by C. G. Gmelin, silica 50.220; titanic acid 1.415; alu-
mina 17.839 ; lime 8.247 ; soda 5,185 ; potash 3.866 ; magnesia

Scientific Intelligence , — Mineralogy, 417

3.374 ; oxide of iron 10.266 ; oxide of manganese 0.397 ; animo-
niacal water 0.49? = 101.306.

11. Bucklandite or Black Epidote. — Some years ago Mr Witham
of Lartington discovered in the porphyry of Glencoe a beautiful car-
mine red transparent variety of epidote (Withamite of some authors) ;
and more lately a velvet black opaque variety, named BuckhnditOy has
been met with at the iron-mines of Arendal, also aggregated with
ryakolite, among the volcanic masses of the Laacher See, and im-
bedded in the granite of Werchoturgi in the Urals.

12. Chrysohcryl of the Urals. — The same mica-slate which affords
the beautiful crystals of Emerald and the Phenakite has lately been
found to contain crystals and groups of crystals of chrysoberyl of
considerable size, sometimes upwards of two inches in length. Gus-
tav Rose found the crystals to have a grass-green colour, to bo only
translucent, and traversed by rents ; so that they could not be used
in jewellery. They are dichroitic : the specific gravity = 3.689,
which is less than that given by Mohs, which = 3.754 ; the differ-
ence probably depends on the small cavities in the Uralian chryso-
beryls.

13 Discovery of considerable Veins of Strontianite in Westphalia,
— Very lately veins of this interesting, but comparatively rare mine-
ral, have been discovered near to Hamm in Westphalia. The veins,
which traverse rocks of the chalk series, are from one inch to two
feet in breadth, but their other dimensions have not been ascertained.
Its colour is white. It occurs in granular distinct concretions, from
two to three inches in diameter ; and these again are composed of
scopiformly disposed prismatic concretions. OrystaUized varieties
are also met with. According to Professor Becks, it affords, on
analysis, in 100 parts, 94.700 carbonate of strontia, 5.220 carbo-
nate of lime, and a trace of iron and water. The carbonate of lime
appears to be mechanically mixed. It is collected in hundreds of
pounds, and hence these veins promise to yield strontianite in such
quantity as render them important in an economical point of view.

14. EtLxenitCy a new Mineral Species. — The only known locality
of this mineral is near to Jolster in northern Bergenhuus-amt in
Norway. It was sent by Professor Keilhau to M. Th. Scheerer,
from whose account of it in Poggendorf's Annalen. No. 5, 1840,
p. 149, &;c., we extract the following pailiculars : — Description.
Colour brownish-black ; lustre metallo-resinous ; fracture imperfect
conchoidal. In thin splinters it is translucent and reddish- brown,
and, when pounded, exhibits the same colour, but in a feebler degree.
Its specific gravity is equal to 4.60. It exhibits no traces of cleav-
age or crystallization. The above characters shew its close resem-
blance to thorite, but it is harder than that mineral, and distinctly
scratches it. On careful analysis, the following result was obtained :
— Tantalic acid, 49.66 ; titanic acid, 7.94 ; yttria, 25.09 ; oxide of
uranium, 6.34; oxide of cerium, 2.18; oxide of Iftnthan, 0.00;
lime, 2.47 ; magnuMa, ss 0.29 ; >vRter, 3.^7 a 98.90. It Uuiiintd

418

Scientific Intelligence.— ^Mineralogy .

euxenito from eu^svog, on account of the many rare substances it con-
tains. It is most nearly allied to the yttro-tantalite, yet it is distin-
guished from it by its specific gravity, its proportion of water, and
by its containing titanic acid, cerium, and lanthan.

15. Native Gold in Suthcrhindsldrc. — A rounded piece of native
gold, weighing rather more than half an ounce, v*^as found some years
ago in the bed of the burn of Kildonan, a rapid mountain stream in
Sutherland. — Statistical Report of Kildonan,

16. Tschewkinite, a new Mineral Species. — Description. Colour
velvet-black; in thin splinters, translucent and brown ; streak black-
ish-brown; lustre splendent and vitreous; nearly opaque; rather
harder than apatite; sp. gr. — 4.508 — 4.549. Occurs in the
Ilmengebirge near Miask, probably as a constituent of the miascite
which occurs there. Chemical Composition. — It appears from expe-
riments of Gustav Rose, to be principally a compound of silica, oxide
of cerium, oxide of lanthan, and oxide of iron. Externally, it much
resembles gadolinite, orthite, allanite, and thorite. All of them have
a black colour, conchoidal fracture, shining lustre, and gelatinise
with muriatic acid. We have, therefore, in the following table,
placed together the characters by which they are distinguished from
one another.

I Gadoiimite. I
I (from Ytterby.) !

Orthite.

Allanite.
(Greenland.)

Thorite. I Ttsewkinite.

Hardness,
Specific
Gravity,

Relation to
Light, . . '

Colour of
the Powder.

6.5

4.238

Pretty strongly
translucent on

6.5

3.1

Feebly trans-
lucent on the

. the edges, and edges, and tlun
I then it appears j it appears grcy-
, leek-green. ish green.

j 1

Mountain green.! Greyish-green.

Relations

before

Blovvpiije.

•ns ]
the >
pe, j

Incandesces,
becomes grey-
ish-yellow, and

is not fused.

Swells and

melts with

frothing into a

black glass.

I 6

I 4.173

' Feebly trans-
lucent on edges,
and then it ap-
pears brown-
ish-green.

Dark greyish-
I green.

I Swells violently
I and is easily
1 melted into a
black globule,
which is attract-
iCd by the magnet.

4.63

Very feebly
translucent on
the edges, and
then it appears
brown.

5.3

4.549

Very feebly
translucent on
the edges, and
then it appears
brown.

Reddish-brown. Blackisli-brown .

Becomes brown

ish-red, but is

not melted.

Incandesces,

swellsviokntly,

becomes brown,

and is melted

into a black

shining globule.

17. Uranotantalite, a new Mineral Species. — Description. Colour
velvet-black ; streak dark reddish-brown ; occurs in imbedded flat
grains, sometimes the size of a hazel-nut; lustre splendent and im-
perfect metallic ; opaque; hardness between that of apatite and felspar ;
specific gravity = 5.025. Chemical composition. — From the expe-
riments of Gustav Rose, it appears to be chiefly composed of tanta-
lum and uranium, and is probably a tantalite of uranium ; hence
Rose names it uranotantal, according to the analogy o^ yttrotantal.

18. Perowskitc, a new Mineral Species. — DescHption. Colour
greyish-black and iron-black ; streak greyish-white ; crystallized in
hexaJiedrons ; cleavage parallel with the faces of the crystals, and

Scientific Intelligence. — FhysitHogy and ideology, 419

pretty perfect ; lustre on the faces of the crystals, shining and me-
tallo-adamantine ; . on the cleavage faces feebly shining; opaque;
scratches apatite strongly, but is scratched by felspar : the hardness,
therefore, is about 5.8 ; specific gravity = 4.017. It is infusible,
•per se, before the blowpipe. Chemical composition. — From the ex-
periments of Gustav liose, this mineral appears to contain titanium
and lime. Gcognostic and geograpliic situations. — It occurs along
with crystallized chlorite and magnetic iron-ore, in chlorite-slate,
at Achmatowsk in the vicinity of Slatoust in the Urals. Namc.—^
It is named Perowskite, in honour of M. Von Perowski, an intol-
liorent Russian mineralogist.

PHYSIOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

19. On the Corpuscles of the Blood. By Br Martin Barry. — .
The author, in the course of his researches in Embryology, detailed
in his '• third series,"* observed that some of the corpuscles of the
blood undergo progressive alterations in their structure. The cor-
puscles so altered ho believes to be of the same kind as those described
by Professor Owen ; and having found that the alterations in ques-
tion terminate in a separation of the corpuscles into globules, ho
thinks this fact confirms the idea of Professor Owen — that the blood-
disc undergoes spontaneous subdivision. The author farther ob-
served that the corpuscles of the blood, in certain altered states, un-
dergo rapid and incessant changes of fonii, which cannot be traced
to the action of neighbouring cilia. A corpuscle will sometimes as-
sume the figure of an hour-glass, as if it were preparing to divide
itself into two parts, but it instantaneously either regains its previous
form, or assumes a new one. These motions are incessant, and so
rapid that it is not easy to catch and delineate any of the resulting
forms ; they are compared to the writhings of an animal in pain.
The author has seen them in a rabbit, as late as two hours and a half
after death, and thinks it probable that they may continue for a
longer time, although, when under the microscope, they gradually,
and in a short time, cease ; the rapid changes of form, which are at
first apparent, passing into gentle undulations, and being succeeded
by an alternation of rest and motion. Should these facts be thought
to confirm the opinion of John Hunter, that the blood " has life
within itself," or ** acquires it in the act of forming organic bodies,"
because its corpuscles in certain states exhibit ** vital actions," still
his assertion that ** the red globules" are the least important part
of the blood will appear to have no just foundation.t The author
finds that the phenomena attending what is called ** vital turgescence"
of tlie bloodvessels, depend not merely on an accumulation and stag-
nation of blood, but on changes in the condition of its corpuscles,

• Vide page 84 of this volume of Philosophical Jounial.

t Later observations, the author informs us, induce liiiu to believe the
rapid and incessant changes in the form of the corpuscles, to bo caused by •
contiguous cilia. — Edit.

420 Scientific Intelligence, — Physiology and Zoology,

which assume a more or less globular, or elliptical appearance resem-
bling cells. Their interior is dark, from a great increase of red co-
louring matter, which accumulates around a pellucid and colourless
point, corresponding in situation to that of the central part of nu-
clei in other cases; and so completely do the corpuscles fill their
vessels, that the fluid portion of the blood is excluded, and the cor-
puscles are compressed into polyhedral forms. This condition of tlio
blood-corpuscles during vitalturgescence of the vessels theauthorthinks
deserving of consideration, in connexion with many of the phenomena
attending local accumulations of blood, both in health and in disease ;
and more especially with reference to increased pulsation, the exuda-
tion of colourless fluid, and the heat and redness of inflamed parts.
According to the views of the author, the formation and nourishment
of organs is not effected merely by the fluid portion of the blood,
for he has discovered that the cells which he shewed in his " Third
Series of Researches in Embryology" form the chorion, are altered
blood-corpuscles ; and he has farther found that muscular fibre (that
is, the future muscle-cylinder, not the fibril) is formed by the coa-
lescence of cells, which also are derived from corpuscles of the blood.
Ho has seen and figured every stage of transition, from the unaltered
blood- corpuscle to the branched cells forming the chorion, on the one
hand, and to the elliptical or oblong muscle-cells, on the other. Th j
colour is not changed, except that the bood-corpuscles, when passing
into cells for the formation of muscle, become of a much deeper red.
There seems to occur in these an increase of red colouring matter.
Valentin, in describing the mode of the formation of muscle, had
stated that globules approach one another and coalesce to form thready,
which in many places have the appearance of a necklace, but subse-
quently lose the traces of division, and become cylinders. Schwann
had conjectured that the globules just referred to — as having been
observed by Valentin — are cells, and that these cells coalesce to
form a secondary cell, that is, the muscle- cylinder. The author
confirms the observations of Valentin and the conjectures of Schwann,
with the addition, that the globules coalescing to form the muscle -
cylinder are blood-corpuscles which have become cells. The fibrils
appear to be subsequently formed within the cylinder, which thus
becomes the muscular fasciculus. The medullary portion of tlie
cylinder appears to be composed of the pellucid objects, one of which
is contained within each altered blood- corpuscle. Some of the.>ie
pellucid objects, however, continue to occupy a peripheral situation.
The author thinks it is not probable that muscular fibre and the
chorion are the only tissues formed by the corpuscles of the blood ;
he is disposed rather to inquire, hov/ many are the tissues whicii
they do not form ? Nerves, for instance, are known to arise very
much in the same manner as muscle-cylinders ; and epithelium-cells
sometimes present appearances which have almost suggested to
the author the idea that they were altered corpuyeles ol' the IJood.
Schwann had previously shewn, that *' for all the cWnmntaiy parts

Scientific Intelligence »''^Fhy Biology and Zoology, 421

of organisms there is a common principle of development/'— tho
elementary parts of tissues having a like origin in cells, however
different the functions of those tissues. The facts made known in
the present memoir, not only afford evidence of the justness of tl e
views of Schwann, but they farther shew that objects, such as the
corpuscles of the blood, having all the same appearance, enter im-
mediately into the formation of tissues which physiologically are ex-
tremely different. Some of these corpuscles arrange themselves into
muscle, and others become metamorphosed into constituent pai*ts
of the chorion. But the author thinks it is not more difficult to
conceive corpuscles having the same colour, form, and general ap-
pearance, undergoing transformations for very different purposes,
than to admit the fact made known by two of his preceding memoirs,
— namely, that the nucleus of a coll, having a central situation in
the group which constitutes the germ, is developed into the whole
embryo, while the nuclei of cells occupying less central situations in
the group, form no more than a minute portion of the amnion. It
is known that in the bee-hive a grub is taken — for a special purpose
— from among those born as workers, which it perfectly resembles
until nourished with peculiar food, when its development takes a
different course from that of every other individual in the hive. —
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

20. Researches in Embryology. Third Series. — Additional Ob-
sanations. By Dr Martin Barry. — Having, in the paper to which
the present is supplementary, made known the fact that the germinal
spot in the mammiferous ovum resolves itself into cells, with which
the germinal vesicle becomes filled, the author has since directed his
attention to the corresponding parts in the ova of birds, batrachian
reptiles, and osseous fishes, which he finds to be the seat of precisely
the same changes. The numerous spots in the germinal vesicle of
batrachian reptiles and osseous fishes are no other than the nuclei of
cells. The cells themselves, from their transparency, are at first not
easily discerned, and appear to have hitherto escaped notice ; but after
tho observer has become aware of their presence, they are, in many
instances, seen to be arranged in the same manner, and to present
the same interior themselves as the corresponding cells in the ovum
of mammalia. In the representations given by Professor Rudolph
Wagner, the discoverer of the germinal spot, the author recognises
evidence of the same changes in ova throughout the animal kingdom.
He confirms and explains the observations of R. Wagner, that in thv
ova of certain animals an originally single spot divides into many,
and that in the ova of other animals the number of spots increases
as the ovum ripens. But he expresses also the opinion, that in all
ova there is originally but a single spot, this being the nucleus of the
germinal vesicle or cell. The analogy between the ova of mammalia
and the animal above mentioned, extends also to the subatince Rur-
rounding the germinal vesicle, which consistw of nucleated cuUt>.

21, Form of the Bhod^particles of the Om\thorht/n<:hus hystrUt

422 6cientijic InteUic/ence. — Physiology and Zoology,

By Dr JoJin Davy. — A portion of the blood of the Ornithorhynchiis
hystriv, mixed when fresh with a strong solution of common salt,
being examined by the author, exhibited a few globules of irregular
•shape. Another portion, preserved in syrup, contained numerous
globules, most of which had an irregular form, but mnny were cir-
cular ; none, however, were elliptical, like those of birds. Hence
the author concludes, that in form they accord more with those of
Mammalia. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

22. On the Minute Structure and Movements of Voluntary Mus-
cles. By W. Bowman, Esq., Demonstrator of Anatomy in King^s
College, London, S^c. — The objects of the author, in this paper, are
the following, — \st, To confirm, under some modifications, the view
taken of the primitive fasciculi of voluntary muscles being composed
of a solid bundle of fibrillse. 2dly, To describe new parts entering
into their composition : and, Zdly, To detail new observations on the
mechanism of voluntary motion. He first shews that the primitive
fasciculi are not cylindrical, but polygonal threads ; their sides being-
more or less flattened where they are in contact with one another ;
he next records, in a tabular form, the results of his examination of
their size in the different divisions of the animal kingdom. It ap-
pears that the largest are met with in fish ; they are smaller in rep-
tiles, and their size continues to diminish in insects, in mammalia,
and lastly, in birds, where they are the smallest of all. In all these
instances, however, an extensive range of size is observable, not only
in different species, but in the same animal, and even in the same
muscle. He then shews that all the fibrillse into which a primitive
fasciculus may be split, are marked by alternate dark and light points,
and that fibrillse of this description exist throughout the wholethickness
of the fasciculus ; that the apposition of the seo-ments of contiguous
fibrillse, so marked, must form transverse stria?, and that such trans-
verse strise do in fact exist throughout the whole interior of the fasci-
culus. He next inquires into the form of the segments composing the
fibrillse, and shews that their longitudinal adhesion constitutes ^6n7?a%
and their lateral adhesion discs, or plates, transverse to the length of
the fasciculus ; each disc being, therefore, composed of a single seg-
ment from every one of the fibrillse. He shews that these dies always
exist quite as unequivocally as the fibrillse, and gives several exam-
ples and figures of a natural cleavage of the fasciculus into such discs.
It follows that the transverse strisc are the edges, or focal sections
of these discs. Several varieties in the strise are then detailed, and
the fact noticed that in all animals there is frequently more or less
diversity in the number of strise in a given space, not only on con-
tiguous fasciculi, but also on the same fasciculus at different parts.
The author then proceeds to describe a tubular membranaceous
sheath, of the most exquisite delicacy and transparency, investing
each fasciculus from end to end, and isolating it from all other parts ;
this sheath he terms Sarcolcmma. Its existence and properties are
•^hewn by sevei-al modes of demonstration ; and among others, by a

Scientific Intelligence, — Physiology and Zoology. 423

specimen in which it is seen filled with parasitic worms (Trichinae),
which have removed all the fibrillse. The adhesion of this sarco-
lemma to the outermost fibrillse is explained. R is also shewn that
there exist in all voluntary muscles a number of minute corpuscles
of definite form, which appear to be identical with, or at least analo-
gous to, the nuclei of the cells from which the development of the
fasciculi has originally proceeded. These are shewn to be analogous
to similar bodies in the muscles of organic life, and in other organic
structures. The author next describes his observations on the mode
of union between tendon and muscle ; that is, on the extremities of
the primitive fasciculi. He shews that in fish and insects the ten-
dinous fibrilla? become sometimes directly continuous with the ex-
tremities of the fasciculi, which are not taper, but have a perfect ter-
minal disc. In other cases the extremities are shewn to be oblique-
ly truncated, where the fasciculi are attached to surfaces not at right
angles to their direction. Lastly, he states his opinion, and gives
new facts on which it is founded, that in muscular contraction the
discs of the fasciculi become approximated, flattened, and expanded:
the fasciculi, of course, at the same time becoming shorter and thicker.
He considers that in all contractions these phenomena occur ; and
he adduces arguments to shew the improbability of the existence of
any rugae or zigzags as a condition of contracting fasciculi in the liv-
ing body. The paper is abundantly illustrated by drawings of micro-
scopic appearances. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,

23. Abundance of Wild Swans in the Highland Loclis does not
necessarily indicate a severe Winter in Iceland and Faroe. — In the
notice of the proceedings of the Wcrnerian Society in No. 56 of your
Journal, p. 411, 1 find it was stated at the meeting of December 21st,
that wild swans were abundant in the Highland Lochs, '• indicating a
severe winter in Iceland and Faroe." That this is not necessarily in-
dicated by the presence of an abundance of swans in this country, the
following extract from a letter I last month received from Faroe will
shew : my friend Mr Sohroter, who has resided there many years,
says, *' The winter has bpen without frost and in every respect the best
winter I or any body now living can remember. From the Solstice in
December till the Equinox (vernal) we had no storm, very little snow,
and less frost ; especially from January 28. till March 23., it was sur-
prising how dry the weather was without frost. You may imagine
it from this, that in many places the turf moor was cracked into
prismatic divisions, and some peats I had by chance dug up Fe-
bruary 11. were quite dry March 17-, so that I could use them
for fuel. I never heard of that before ; the frost commonly spoils
the pits in May, often in June, but there was no frost to be seen on
the pits in the heart of this winter." — W. C. Trcvelyan,

24. Rare Zoophytes on the Coast of Arran. — We lately picked up
on the beach at Brodick in Arran, a specimen of the beautiful Gonias-
tcr Templet oni, and of the Luidia fragilissiina of Forbes in Werne-

424 New Publications.

rian Transactions ; tho specimen of the latter fortunately did not
shew its fragile tendency, so that I have been able to preserve it
entire. We have also found numerous specimens of the very beauti-
ful and curious Actinia maculata of Johnston's British Zoophytes,
and always accompanied by the hermit crab, inhabiting the shell and
the horny extension of it, to which the Actinia is attached. — W. C.
.Trevclyan,

NEW PUBLICATIONS.

1. Illustrations of the Zoology of Southern Africa. No. XI. By Dr Smith.

Smith, Elder, & Co., London.
The first plate of this number represents the Gerbillus aurlcularis,
a new species, found in the western districts of Southern Africa, prin-
cipally north of the Orange river. The description is given with the
author's usual r.bility ; it harmor.izes with the coloured figures in the
plate, a merit of rather a rare occurrence, even in some works on Na-
tural History of high pretensions. Six species of the Petrel Family/
are beautifully represented and well described : these are, of the genus
PrQcellaria, the following species — P. (^lacialoides, P. macroptera, P.
Forsterity P. turiur ; of the genus Pachyptila, the following — P.
Banksii ; of the genus Paffinus, the P. cinereus ; of the beautiful ge-
nus Cinnyris, one species, viz. C. verroxi, is figured and described.
Of Fishes, the following are figured and described, \ . Flops Capefisis of
Smith, also Bagrus Copensis of Smith.

2. Journal of the Asiatic Socictj of Bengal. Edited by the Acting Secre-
taries. Year IC 39.

Number for September contains — 1. On Fifteen Varieties of Fossil
Shells found in the Sanyor and Nerbudda Territories. By George
G. Spilsbury, Esq. Surgeon. — 2. Note on the River Goomtee with a
Section of its Bed, By V. Tregear, Esq. Jounpore — 3. Memoranda
relative to Experiments on the Commtmication of Telegraphic Signals
induced hy Electricity. By W. B. O'Shaughnessy, Esq. Assistant-
Surgeon, Professor of Chemistry, Medical College, Calcutta, and offi-
ciating Joint-Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. — 4. Extract
from a Memoir on the Preparations of the Indian Hemp., or Gunjah
(Cannabis Indica) ; their effects on the Animal System in health, and
their utility in the Treatment of Tetanus, and other convulsive Dis-
eases, By Dr W. B. O'Shaughnessy. — 5. Memoir on the Climate,
Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of Afghanistan, and the neighbouring
Countries. By Lieut. Irwin. — tj. Meteorological Register,

Number for October contains — 1 . Continuation of the acco?/r/^o/'4/J'^^'^5"
nistan. By Lieut. Irwin. — 2. March between Inhowand Sangor, \^?,^.
— ?>, On an Aerolite presented to the Society. — 4. Extracts from the
Mohit (the Ocean), a Turkish IVork on 'Savigatioji in the Indian Seas.
Translated and communicated by I. Von Hammere, Baron Purges-
tall, &c. — 5. Description of an Astronomical Instrument, presented by
Rajah Ram Sing, of Khota, to the Goveruinent of India, By T. J.
Middleton» Esq. of the Hindoo College, Calcutta. — G. Continuation of
Assiatant-Surgeon O'Shaughncc-sy on Indian Hemp, — 7« On the tx*

LUt of Patents. 425

plosion of Gunpowder muler Water by the Galvanic Battery^ &c. By
Assistant-Surgeon O'Shaughnessy. — 8. Proceedincfs of the Asiatic So-
cieti/. — p. Meteorologicaljovnial.

Number for November contains — 1. Continuation of Lieut. Irwin'a
Memoir on Afghanistan, — 2. Journal of a Trip through Kunavur
JJvngrung, and Spiti, undertaken in the year 1 838, under the patro-
nage of the Asiatic Society of Bengal » for the purpose of determining
the Geological Formation of those Districts. By Thomas Hutton, Lieut.
37th Kegiment, No. 1. Assistant-Surveyor of the Agi*a Division. —
3. Notes on imrious Fossil Sites in the Nerbudda ; illustrated by Spe-
cimens and Drawings. — 4. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. — 5. Me-
teorological Register,

3. Madras Journal of Literature and Science^ published under the auspices
of the Madras Literary Society, aud the Auxiliary lloyal Asiatic So-
ciety. Edited by the Secretaries of the Asiatic Department. Num-
ber from July to September 1839.

The following are the papers in this number: — 1. Uepoi-t on the
Mackenzie MSS. — 2. Essay on the iMnguage and Literature of the
Telugus. By Charles P. Brown, Esq., of the Madras Civil Service. —
3. Catalogue of the Birds of the Pejiinsula of India y arranged accord-
ing to the Moderfi System of Classification ; with brief Notes on their
habits and geographical distribution, and description of new, doubtful,
and imperfectly described species. By T. C. Jerdon, Assistant-Sur-
geon, 2d Madras Light Cavalry. — 4. // Catalogue of the Species of
Mammalia found in the Southern Mahratta Country ; with their Syno-
nymes in the native languages in 2tse there. By Walter PJlliot, Esq.,
Madras Civil Service. — 5. Some account, Historical, Geographical, a?id
Statistical, of the Ceded Districts. By Lieutenant Newbold, A. D. C
to General Wilson, &c. — 6. Journey of the Russian Mission from
Orenbourg to Bokhara. Translated by Colonel Monteith, K.L. S.,
Chief Engineer of the Madras Army. — ^. Report on the Manufacture
of Tea, and the extent and produce of the Tea Plantations of Assam,
I3y C. A. Bruce, Esq.. Literary and Scientific Intelligence. — 8. Ho-
rary Meteorological Observations, made agreeably to the suggestions of
Sir J, Herschel By T. G. Taylor, Esq. H. E. L C. astronomer.— 9.
Horaty Meteorological Observations made at the Summer Solstice 1 839,
at the Trevandrum Observaton/. By G. Sperschneider, Superintendent.
—-10. Meteorological Jo2irnal kept at the Madras Observatory.

List of Patents granted for Scotland from 25 th June to 17 th
September 1840.

1. To William Neale Clay of Flimby, in the county of Cumberland,
gentleman, "certain improvements in the manufacture of iron." — 25th
June 1840.

2. To Rice Harris of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, gentle-
man, " certain improvements in cylinders, plates, and blocks used in printin;;
and embossing." — 25th June 1840.

3. To Robert Cook of Johnston, in Renfrewshire, engineer and mill-
"Wright, " for the making of bricks by machinery, to be wrought either by
steam or other power."' — 30th Juno 1840.

4. To John Hkmming of North Bank, Regent's Park, in the county of
Middlesex^ gentleman, "improvements in gas meters.'*— 30th Juno 1840.

420 List of Patents,

5. To Thomas Richardson, of the town, and county of the to'.vn, of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, chemist, " a preparation of sulphate of lead, appli-
cable to some of the pui-poses for which carbonate of lead is now ai^plied."
— 30th June 1840.

G. To David Morrison of Wilson Street, Finsbury, in the county of
Middlesex, ink-maker, ''improvements in printing." — 30th June 1840.

7. To Jonathan Sparke of Langley Mills, Northumberland, agent, " cer-
tain improved processes or operations for smelting lead- ores." — 2d July
1840.

8. To AViLLiAM M'Murray, of Kinleith Mill, near Edinburgh, paper-
maker, " certain improvements in the manufacture of paper." — 2d July
1840.

9. To Robert Stirling Newall of Dundee, in the county of Forfar in
Scotland, being partly a communication from abroad, and partly by inven-
tion of his own, " certain improvements in wire ropes, and in machinery
for making such ropes, which ropes are applicable to various purposes." —
2d July 1840.

10. To Charles Greenway of Douglas, in the Isle of Man, Esquire,
" certain improvements in reducing friction in wheels of carriages, wdiich
improvements are also applicable to bearings and journals of machinerv."
~2d July 1840.

1 1. To John Lothian of Edinburgh, geographer, " improvements in ap-
paratus for measuring or ascertaining weights, strains, or pressure." — •
7 th July.

12. To John Swain "Worth of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
merchant, being a communication from abroad, "improvements in rotator}'
engines to be worked by steam and other fluids, such engines being also
applicable for pumping water and other liquids." — 7th July 1840.

13. To Thomas Peet of Bread Street, Cheapside, in the city of London,
gentleman, being a communication from abroad, " certain improvements in
steam-engines." — 10th July 1840.

14. To Edward Thomas Bainbridge of Park Place, St James, in the
county of Middlesex, Esquire, "improvements in obtaining power." — 10th
July 1840.

15. To John Juckes, of Shropshire, gentleman, " improvements in fur-
naces or fire-places, for the better consuming of fuel." — 10th July 1840.

16. To James Harvey of Basing Place, Waterloo Road, in the county
of Surrey, timber-merchant, '• certain improvements in paving streets, roads
and ways, with blocks of wood, and in the machinery or apparatus for cut-
ting or forming such blocks." — 13th July 1840.

17. To William Henry Bailey Webster of Ipswich, in the county of
Suftblk, surgeon in the Royal Nav}', " improvements in preparing skins and
otiier animal matters for tlie purposes of tanning, and the manufacture of
gelatine."— 13th July 1840.

18. To Alexander Bow of Crown Street, Hutchesontown, Glasgow, in
the county of Lanark, Scotland, builder, " improvements in furnaces and
flues by the introduction and application of hot air thereto, and for the
consumption of smoke and economising fuel." — 14th July 1840.

10. To Christopher Nickels, of the York Road, Lambeth, in the coun-
ty of Surrey, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, " improve-
ments in the manufacture of braids and plats." — 23d July 1840.

20. To William Palmer of Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, in the county
of Middlesex, candlemaker, " improvements in the manufacture of candles,
and in apparatus for applying light." — 23d July 1840.

21. To Daniel Gooch of Paddington Green, in the county of Middle-
sex, engineer, " improvements in wheels and locomotive engines to be used
on railways.'" — 24th July 1840.

22. To Henry Dircks of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, engi-
neer, " ccrtaia improveraeuts in the construction of locomotive steam.-en~

Liit of Patents. 427

gines, and in wheels to be used on rail and other ways, parts of which ira-
provoments are applicable to f- team-engines generally." — 24th July 1840.

23. To JosKPii TuNNicLiFF of Chfirles Street, in the City Road and
county of Middlesex, engineer, " certain improvements in the machinery
or process for the reduction or comminution of dye woods, for facilitating
the extraction of their colouring matter." — 27th July 1840.

24. To John George Bodmer of Manchester, in the county of Lancas-
ter, engineer, of an extension of seven years from 18th August 1824, of a
patent granted to him for " certain improvements in the machinery for
cleaning, carding, drawing, roving, and spinning of cotton and wool." —
27th July 1840.

25. To Richard Smith and Richard Hacking both of Burj', in the
county of Lancaster, machine-makers, " certain improvements in machin-
ery, for spinning cotton r.nd other fibrous substances." — 28th July 1840.

26. To Richard Smith and Richard Hacking both of Bury, in the
county of Lancaster, machine-makers, " certain improvements in machi-
nery or apparatus for drawing, slubbing, roving, and spinning cotton, wool,
llax, silk, and other fibrous substances." — 30th July 1040.

27. To John Aitchison of Glasgow, in Scotland, at present residing at
No, 144 Minories, in the city of London, merchant, and Archibald
Hastie of West Street, I'insbury Square, in the county of Middlesex,
merchant, " certain improvements in generating and condensing, heating,
cooling, and evaporating fluids." — 31st July 1840.

28. To Richard Beard of Egremont Place, New Road, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, " improve-
ments in apparatus for taking or obtaining likenesses and representations
of nature and of drawings, and other objects." — 4th August 1840.

29. To Richard Hodgson of Salisbury Street, Strand, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, " improve-
ments in the forms or shapes of materials and substances used for building
and paving, and in their combination for such purposes." — 4th August 1840.

30. To John Rapson of Park Street, Park Place, Limehouse, in the
county of Middlesex, engineer, " improvements in steering ships and ves-
sels."— 4th August 1840.

31. To Thomas Oram of Lewisham, in the county of Kent, gentleman,
" improvements in the manufacture of fuel." — 4th August 1840.

32. To Samuel Lawson of Leeds, in the county of York, and John
Lawson of the same place, engineers and co-partners, being a communica-
tion from abroad, " improvements in machinery for spinning, doubling, and
tv.'isting flax, hemp, wool, silk, cotton, and other fibrous substances.*' —
6th August 1840.

33. To George Clarke of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
manufacturer, " certain improvements in the construction of looms for weav-
ing."— 6th August 1840.

34. To RoBiRT Hampson of Mayfield Print- Works in Manchester, in
the county of Lancaster, calico-printer, " an improved method of block-
printing on Avoven fabrics of cotton, linen, silk, or woollen, or of any two
or more of them intermixed, with improved machinery, apparatus, and im-
plements for that puqiose." — 13th August 1840.

35. To Colin Macrae of Comhill, Perthshire, Scotland, gentleman,
being a communication from abroad, " improvements in rotatory engines
v»orkcd by steam, smoke, gases, or heated air, and in the modes of aj^ly-
ing such engines to useful purposes." — 13th August 1840.

36. To Downes Edwards of Surbiton Hill, Kingston, in the county of
Surrey, farmer, " improvements in preserving potiitoes and other vegetable
substances." — 13 th August 1840.

37. To William Crane Wilkins and Matthew Samuel Kendrick of
Long Acre, in the county of Middlesex, lamp manufacturers, " certain im-
provements in lighting and iu lamps." — 13th August 1840.

428 List of Patents,

38. To Charles Wheatstoxe of Conduit Street, Haaevwr Square, in
the county of Middlesex, Esq., and AVilm am Fothergill Cooke of Copt-
hall Buildings, in the city of London, Esq., " improvements in giving sig-
nals and sounding alarums at distant i)hices, by means of electric currents."
— 21st August 1840.

39. To George Saunders of Hooknorton, in the county of Oxford,
clerk, and James Wilmot of the same place, farrier, " improvements in
machinery for dibbling or setting wheat and other grain." — 25th Au2:ust
1840.

40. To Charles Wye "Williams of Taverpool, in the county of Lan-
caster, gentleman, " improvements in the means of generating heat prin-
cipally applicable to the production of steam and the prevention of smoke."
—28th August 1840.

41. To Thomas Gadd Matthews of the city of Bristol, merchant, and
Egbert Leonard of the same place, merchant, " certain improvements in
machinery or apparatus for sawing, rasping, or dividing woods or tanners'
bark." — 31st August 1840.

42. To Miles Blrry of the Office of Patents, 66 Chancery Lane, in the
county of Middlesex, patent agent, being a communication from abroad,
" certain improvements in the strengthening and preserving ligneous and
textile substances." — 1st September 1840.

43. To Peter Fairbairn of Leeds, in the county of York, engineer,
being a commmiication from abroad, " certain improvements in macliinery
or apparatus for heckling, combing, preparing, or dressing hemp, flax, and
such other textile or fibrous materials." — 7th September 1840.

44. To Thomas Milner of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, " cer-
tain i^nprovements in boxes, safes, or other depositories, for the protection
of paptirs or other materials from fire." — 8tli September 1840.

45. To John Johnston of Glasgow, in the county of Lanark, North
Britain, gentleman, " a new method (by means of machinery) of ascertain-
ing the velocity of, or the space passed throxigh by ships, vessels, car-
riages, and other means of locomotion, part of whicli is also applicable to
the measurement of time." — 14th September 1840.

46. To Edwin Travis of Shaw Mills, near Oldham, in the county of
Lancaster, cotton-spinner, " certain improvements in machinery or appa-
ratus for preparing cotton and other fibrous materials for spinning." — 15th
September 1840.

47. To Henry Curzon of the borough of Kidderminster, in the county
of Worcester, machinist, "improvements in steam-engines." — 16 th Sep-
tember 1840.

48. To George Gwynne of Portland Tei-race, Regent's Park, in the
county of Middlesex, gentleman, '• improvements in the manufacture of
candles, and operating upon oils and fats." — 16th September 1840.

49. To Henry Waterton of Fulmer Place, Gerard's Cross, in the
county of Buckingliam, Esq., " certain improvements in the manufacture
of sal ammoniac." — 16th September 1840.

50. To John Gibson and Thomas Muir, both of Glasgow, in the king-
dom of Scotland, silk-manufacturers, " improvements in cleaning silk and
other fibrous substances." — l7th September 1840.

61. To James Stirling of Dundee, engineer, and Robert Stirling,
clerk, D. D. of Galston, Ayrshire, " certain improvements in air-engines."
— I7th September 1840.

62. To James Harvey of Bizing Place, Waterloo Road, in the county
of Sun-ey, gentleman, " improvements in extracting sulphur from pyrites
and other substances containing the same." — 21st September 1840.

83. To Gerard Ralston of Tokenhouse Yard, in the city of London,
merchant, being a communication from abroad, " improvements in rolling
imddle-balls or other masses of iron." — 22d September 1840.

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( 429 )
INDEX,

Aboriginal nations of North and South America, comparative view
of their skulls, 111.

Agassiz, his Tour to the Swiss glaciers, 184.

Africa, North- Eastern, its geological constitution, 186.

Alligator, great, capture and death of, at Manilla, in the Island of
Luconia, 77.

Aragonitc, plumbiferous, described, 416.

Aristotlo,his History of Animals, observations on, by Dr Osborne, 188.

Arts, Society of, their proceedings, 390.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, journal of, noticed, 201, 424.

Atmospherical Electricity in relation to disease, 45.

— Moisture in relation to disease, 37.

Pressure in relation to disease, 40.

Temperature in relation to disease, 28 ; according to

height, 205.

Baer, M. Von, on the frequency of thunder-storms in the Polar Re-
gions, 90.

Bald, Robert, civil engineer, on edge coal-seams, 176.

Barnacles, living, above the sea-level, 414.

Barsowite, a new mineral species, described, 416.

Barry, Dr Martin, his researches on embryology, third series, 84, 421.

Barry, Dr Martin, on the corpuscles of the blood, 419.

Beaches, sea, elevated, account of, by Alan Stevenson, LL.B, 94.

Beryl, mine of, at Paddioor, in India, described, 241.

Bird, fossil, in the chalk-slate of the Canton of Glarus, noticed, by
M. H. V. Meyer, 27.

Bischof, Gustav, Professor, physical and chemical examination of
three inflammable gases which are evolved in coal-mines, 309.

Black Sea and Caspian Sea, observations on their difference of level,
144.

Blood, corpuscles of, described by Dr M. Barry, 419 ; also by Dr
J. Davy, 421.

Bowman, W., on the minute structure and movements of voluntary
muscles, 422.

Bravais, M., on the lines of the ancient level of the sea in Finmark,
164.

Bucklandite, or Black Epidote, noticed, 417.

Caspian Sea and Black Sea, their difference of level, 144.

Chrysoberyl of the Urals, noticed, 417.

Climate of the portions of Europe and Africa between the equator
and 60° N. Lat., observation, by Professor Schouw, 150.

Coal-beds, edge, near Edinburgh, observations on, 176.

Coal-gas Burners, observations on, by Dr Fyfe, 214.

Coal-mines, examination of three inflammable gases evolved there-
in, 309.

Cold-blooded Animals, researches on the vital heat of, 162.

VOL. XXIX, NO. LVIII. OCTOBER 1840. F f

430 Index,

Conybeare, W. D., his account of the extraordinary land-slip and great
convulsion of the coast of Culverhole Point, near Axmouth, 160.

Daubeny, C, M.D., his supplement to the introduction to the atomic
theory, and also his geology of North America, noticed, 200.

Dead Sea and the Mediterranean, their difference of level, 96.

Dermal coverings of animals, observations on, 69.

Diluvial epoch, on some phenomena of, by Studer, 274.

Dunn, John, optician, his description of an improvement on Ruther-
ford's registering thermometer, 279.

Dutrochet,M., researches on the vital heat of cold- blooded animals, 152,

Dysodolite, or foliated mineral pitch, account of, 187.

Earthquakes, observations on, by M. Edouard Biot, 139.

Electric fluid, the odour of, as examined by M. Schoenbein, 178.

Electricity of the atmosphere, in regard to disease, 45.

Embryology, researches in, by Dr Martin Barry, 84, 421.

Espy, Mr, his theory of atmospherical phenomena, claimed by Mr
Meikle of Edinburgh, 413.

Euxenite, a new mineral species, described, 417.

Flying squid, or cuttle-fish, account of, 194.

Forbes, Professor James, on the diminution of temperature, with
height in the atmosphere, at different seasons of the year, 205.

Fyfe, Dr A., on the comparative illuminating and heating power of
different coal-gas burners, and on the use of coal-gas as a
source of heat, 214.

Gas, coal, on the comparative illuminating and heating powers of its
different kinds, and its use as a source of heat, 214.

Gases, inflammable, of coal-mines, their examination, 309.

Geology of Newfoundland, report on, by J. B. Jukes, Esq., 103.

of North-eastern Africa, 186.

Glaciers of Switzerland, observations on, 184.

which anciently covered the southern side of the mountain-
chain of the Vosges, considered, by M. Kenoir, 280.

Glover, Robert Mortimer, M.D., on the dark races of mankind, 376.

Gold, native, found in Sutherlandshire, 418.

Graham, Dr, description of new and rare plants, 171. 383.

Granite, observations on, by Fr. Mobs, 2.

its origin considered, by M. B. Studer, 295.

Gray, J. G., F.R.S., manual of the land and fresh- water shells of
Britain, noticed, 200.

Gray, G. R., genera of birds, noticed, 200.

Greenockite, observations on, by Mr William Nicol, 175.

Hair in man, observations on, 69.

Huttonian theory, observations on, by Studer, 295.

Hydrargillite, a new mineral species, described, 415.

Jukes, J. B., Esq., on the geology of Newfoundland, 103.

Kroyer, Henrik, on the Danish oyster-banks, 22.

Lake Zirknitz, in Carniola, account of, 72.

Land-slip near Axmouth, described, 160.

Level of the sea, ancient lines of, 164.

Index. 431

Macaulay, James, M.D., his notes on the physical geography, geo-
logy, and climate of Madeira, 336.

Madeira Island, account of, 336.
Madras Journal noticed, 425.

Mammoth, its distribution in Siberia, 186.

Mediterranean and Dead Seas, their relative levels, 96.

Meikle, Mr, of Edinburgh, claims Mr Espy;s theory of atmospheri-
cal phenomena, 413.

Meyer, Hermann Von, on the occurrence of a fossil bird in the chalk-
slate, 27.

Migrations of the rein-deer in North Siberia, 191.

Mirage in New Holland, account of, 183.

Mining operations, observations on, 1.

Mohs, Sir Frederick, summary of the most important geognostical
phenomena with which it is necessary to be acquainted in pre-
liminary mining operations, 1.

MoUusca, the marine, land, and river kinds of the Sechelles and Ami-
rantes Islands, examined by M. Dufo, 64.

Morton, T. G., Professor of Anatomy at Philadelphia, comparative
view of the various aboriginal nations of North and South Ame-
rica, 111.

Muscles, voluntary, their minute structure and movements, by W.
Bowman, Esq., 422.

Necker, L. A., Professor, notes on some rare Scottish minerals, 75.

Nicol, William, observations on Greenockite, 175.

Newbold, Lieutenant, his account of the beryl mine of Paddioor in
Southern India, 241.

Newfoundland, report on the geology of, 103,

Olbers, death of, 166.

Oils, perfumed, of Jasmine and Bela, how prepared, 198.

Oyster-banks, Danish, account of, 22.

Palsetiology, its relation to tradition, by W. Whewell, B.D., 258.

Patents, list of, from 18th March to 18th June 1840, 201 .

Patents, list of, from 25th June to 17th September 1840, 424.

Perowskite, a new mineral species, described, 418.

Pihlite, a new mineral, noticed, 187.

Pilot fish, account of, 195.

Polar lights, observations on, 179.

Pyrrhite, a new mineral, described, 187.

Races, dark, of mankind, observations on, by Dr R. M. Glover, 876.

Railways, on the effects of the curvature of, 334.

Rein-deer, migrations of, in Nortli Siberia, 191.

Renoir, M., on the glaciers which anciently covered the southern side
of the mountain-group of the Vosges, 280.

Sang, Edward, M.S. A., his account of circular towers, 245.

Sang, Edward, M.S. A., on the effects of the curvature of railways, 334.

Sars, M., of Floioe in Norway, his zoological labours, 188.

Schouw, Professor, his work on the climate and vegetation of Italy,
noticed, 147.

432 ^ Index.

Schouw, Professor, observations on the climate of the portions of
Europe and Africa which are situated between the equator and
60° North latitude, 150.

Sea-beaches, elevated, notice of, by Alan Stevenson, civil-engineer,
94.

Sefstrom's investigations on the furrows on rocks, 185.

Serapis, temple of, observations on the, 414.

Shark, luminous, account of, 196.

Shuttleworth, R. X, his observations on the colouring matter of red
snow, 54.

Smith, Dr, Illustrations of the Zoology of Southern Africa, noticed,
424.

Snow, red, observations on, by Mr Shuttleworth, 54.

Soundings, enormous, at sea, 414.

Stevenson, Alan, LL.B. on elevated sea-beaches, 94.

Strontianite, considerable veins of, noticed, 417.

Studer, M., on some phenomena of the diluvial epoch, 274.

on the origin of granite, and on the application of the

Huttonian theory to the present state of geology, 29j

Sunstone, discovery of its repository, 416.

Sutherland, discovery of native gold in, 418.

Swans, wild, observations on, 423.

Tachylite, a new mineral species, described, 416.

Temperature of the atmosphere, observations oiT^*sfil5^:.JE&^sor
Forbes, 205.

Terrestrial temperature, observations on, by M. Dove, 181.

Thermometer, registering, improvement of, by John Dunn, optician,
279.

Thunder-storms, on the frequency of, in Polar regions, 90.

Tides of the Mediterranean, their height, 414.

Timber, on the preservation of, 199,

Tschewkinite, a new mineral species, described, 418.

Towers, circular, on the construction of, by Edward Sang, A.M.,
245.

Traill, Dr, on the food of the humming bird, 177-

Trochilus and crocodile of Herodotus, remarks on, 197-

Urano-tantalite, a new mineral species, described, 418.

Wernerian Natural History Society, proceedings of, 175.

Westwood, J. 0., F. L. S., his introduction to the modern classifi-
cation of insects, noticed, 200.

Whewell, W., B.D., on the relation of tradition to palsetiology,
258.

Zirknitz, lake of, in Carniola, described, 72.

Zoological notices regarding cephalopoda, 167. — Circulation of
blood in pyrosoma, 168. — Circulation and nervous system in the
salpa, 169. — On carinaria, 169. — Echini, 170. — Hydrostatic
acalephse, 170. — Holothuria, 170. — Circulation in Beroe ovatus,
170. — Coralline polypidoms, 171-

Zoophytes found on the coast of Arran, 423.