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EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
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THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,
EXHIBITING A VIEW. oS THE
be
PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES ‘AND IMPROVEMENTS
IN THE
SCIENCES AND THE ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
ROBERT JAMESON,
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ;
Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta 3 Fellow of
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal
Physical, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland 3 of
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So-
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts ; of the Gunma
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France 3 Member of the
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &c. &c.
JANUARY.... APRIL 1843.
VOL. XXXIV.
TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.
EDINBURGH :
ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, LONDON.
1843.
PRINTED BY NEILL & co., EDINBURGH.
Art. I.
II.
ITI.
IV.
Vi:
XI.
CONTENTS
Fourth Letter on the Glacier Theory to Profes-
sor Jameson. By Professor ForBEs, .
On the Salt Steppe south of Orenburg, and on
a remarkable Freezing Cavern. By Ropr-
rick Impey Murcuison, Esq. Pres. G. S.
Extracts from a Letter addressed by Sir J.
Herschel, Bart., F.G.S., to Mr Murchison, ex-
planatory of the Phenomena of the Freezing
Cave of Illetzkaya Zatchita,
On some Phenomena observed on Glaciers, S84
on the internal Temperature of large masses
of Ice or Snow, with some remarks on the na-
tural Ice-caves which occur below the limit
of perpetual snow. By Sir Joun Herscuen,
Bart., F.G.S., &c.
Analysis of Caporcianite and Phakolite, tire new
Minerals of the Zeolite Family. By THomas
Anverson, M.D.
. M. Doyerr’s Experiments on the Révivifieation
of animals of the types Tardigrada and Ro-
tifera,
. On the light of the Lampyits Italica. By M.
W. PETERS,
. On Coral Islands and Heety 4 as dtsoribed by
Page
1
17
30
Mr Darwin. By Cuartes Macraren, Esq.
F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Author,
Remarks on the preceding paper, in a Letter
from Cuartes Darwin, Esq.,to Mr Macra-
REN,
. Description of an Ht dnnproved Tilting pointe
for emptying Waggons at the Termini of Rail-
ways, Shipping-Places, &c., as used at the
Magheramorne Lime-Works, Ireland. With
aPlate. By James Toomson, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
M.R.LA., F.R.S.S.A., Civil Engineer, ci
gow. Communicated by the his by Scottish
Society of Arts, 4
Description of the Elaps Jamesoni, a Had Spe-
cies of Serpent from Demerara. By Tuomas
33
47
ii
XII.
XII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
CONTENTS.
Page
S. Trait, M.D., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &e. Com-
municated by the Author, . 53
On the Application of the fit ppolliesis of M.
Venetz to the Erratic Phenomena ofthe North;
in a Letter addressed to M. Macaire, Counsel-
lor of State. By M. Jean DE CHARPENTIER,
Fragments of Philosophy. By Sir Wiriiam
Hamittron, Bart., Professor of Logic and Me-
taphysics in the University of Edinburgh, . 74
Notices of Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Bri-
tain, and especially in Scotland, with inferences
suggested by these notices as to the causes of
the Shocks. By Davin Mirnzg, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
M.W.S., F.G.S., &c. Communicated by the
Aetna : me Ss,
Remarks on Bierthauakes,; in British Tuite con-
tained in a Letter addressed to Davin MILNe,
Esq. by Lieutenant R. Barrp Smitu, Bengal
Engineers, Assistant Superintendent of the
Doab Canal, Saharunpore, . ‘ Sz
Remarks on two points in the Theory of Gla-
ciers. By M. Eviz pp Beaumont, Member of
the Royal Academy of Sciences, : - 110
On the Slopes of the Upper Limit of the Erra-
tic Zone, and on their Comparison with the
Slopes of Glaciers and of River-Courses. By
M. Exre pe Beaumont, Member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, ee es
Description of the genus sag and of Two
New Genera nearly ailied to it. By Henry
D. 8. Goopsir, Esq. Communicated by the
Author. (No. V.) With Three Plates, 119
Description of a Self-Registering Tide-Gauge,
invented by Mr Joun Maxton, Engineer,
Leith. Witha Plate. Communicated by the
Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 5 - 130
Historical Remarks on the first Discovery of the
real Structure of Glacier Ice. By Professor
Forses, Corresponding Member of the Royal
Institute of France. Communicated by the
Author, . : 133
On the Natural- Historical Writings of the
Chinese. By M.Scuort, . 3 - 133
Or
co
CONTENTS. iii
: Page
XXII. The Origin and History of the Red Race accord-
ing to Mr Brabrorp, 5 . 155
XXIII. Mean Results of the Thermometer, and thequan-
tity of Rain, for 1841, at Alford in Aberdeen-
shire—-about lat. 57° 13’ N.; 420 feet above
the level of the sea, and 26 miles inland from
the sea at Aberdeen. Also, the number of
fair days, and of days on which rain or snow
fell, more or less. By the Rev. James Far-
aquuarson, LL.D., F.R.S. Communicated by
the Author, . : , 5 . 159
XXIV. Abstract of Meteorological Observations for
1841, made at Applegarth Manse, Dumfries-
shire. By the Rev. Wm. Dunzar, D.D. Com-
municated by the Author, 3 161
XXV. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Continued from Vol. XX XIII. p. 197, 163
On the Action of Water on Lead. By Dr Curts-
TISON, : . 163
Geological Notes on the ne of Dauphiné, By
Professor ForBeEs, ‘ : 2 165
On the Ultimate Secreting Structure of Animals.
By Joun Goonsir, Esq., : 167
Results of Experiments on the Specific Heat of
Certain Rocks. By M. Reanautr, : 169
On the Effect of Snow in apparently increasing
the Force of Solar Radiation. By Professor
ForsBEs, . . . . ° 170
On the Structure, Formation, and Movement of
' Glaciers; and the probable cause of their for-
mer extension and subsequent disappearance.
By James Stark, M.D., < 2 171
On the several ages at which the leaves of tle
Assam and China Tea-plants are used for mak-
ing the different commercial varieties of Black
and Green Tea. By Dr CHRISTISON, . 176
XXVI. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History
Society. Continued from Vol. XXIII. p. 198, 176
XXVIII. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE—
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1. M. Elie de Beaumont on the former low Tempera-
ture of European Winters, . : a 177
2, Determination of the Amount of Depression of the
Dend Sea below the level of the Mediterranean, 17S
1Vv CONTENTS.
3. On the Grooves and Polished Surfaces at the con-
tact of Ancient Secondary Strata, .
4. Geological Maps of Piedmont, &c., . .
5. Humboldt’s “ Fragmens Asiatiques,” .
6. Heights of Localities in the Holy Land ascertained
Barometrically by Russegger, .
MINERALOGY AND CHEMISTRY.
7. Dr Traill’s Collection, Z 7
8. Potash and Lime in Flint, . . .
9. Amphodelite, . . . .
10. Andesine, . : 3 :
11. Arquerite, ‘ ; ; i
12. Bromide of Silver in Mexico, . = :
13. Bromide of Silver in Chili, . ‘ :
14. Bamlite, . . F :
15, Calstron-baryte, , : : :
16. Discovery of Euclase in Connecticut, North Ame-
Tica, 5 :
17. New Locality of Geokronite, . : .
18. Greenovite, - 5 4
19. Blue Colour of Lapis Lagali,
20. Pennine, F . :
21. Platina in the Auriferous Sand of the Rhine,
22. Villarsite, : : 6
23. Xenolite, 2 - . :
24, Sulphuric and Molybdic Acids, : :
25. Calcareous Rocks pierced by Helices, :
26. On the Residuum of the Combustion of the Dia-
mond. By M. PerzHoupt, . °
MISCELLANEOUS,
27. Indian Isinglass, :
28. Ancient Fable of Colossal Kaus pbdaciog Gold,
29, On the Transformations which have been produced
in Turf by the Essence of Turpentine, or by a Com-
position similar to it. By M. ForcuHammeEr,
30. On the Preservation of Flowers, :
XXVIII. New Publications, : 5 ;
XXIX. List of Patents, . : 3 B
Page
178
{79
179
ExRatvm in M. Studer’s paper on the Geological Structure of the Alps, vol, xxxiii. p.
154, line 10 from bottom ; for “ that we recognise it neither mineralogically nor geologi-
cally as the analogue of the macigno of the Apennines ;” read “ that we recognise it both
mineralogically and geologically as the analogue of the macigno of the Apennines,”
error was in the original French memoir,
This
CONTENTS.
Page
Art. J. Sketch of the Writings and Philosophical Cha-
racter of Augustin Pyramus Decandolle, Pro-
fessor of Natural History at the Academy of
Geneva, &e., &c. By Cuaries Davupeny,
M.D., F.R.S., &c., Professor of Chemistry and
of Botany in the University of Oxford. Com-
municated to this Journal by the Author, . 197
Tabular View of the Cruciferz, distributed accord-
ing to their Cotyledons and Seed- Vessels, 224
II. Observations on Subterranean Temperature in
the Mines of Cornwall and Devon. By W. J.
Henwoop, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., &¢., &c., &e., 246
III. Summary of Results on the Fossil Animals of the
Chalk Formation, still found in a living state.
By Professor EnRENBERG of Berlin, . ; 256
IV. On a method of Registering the Force actually
transmitted through a Driving-Belt. By Ep-
WARD SancG, Esq., F.R.S.S.A., Professor of
Civil Engineering, College, Manchester. Com-
municated by the Royal Scottish Society of
Agts,. . , i : : 3 261
V. On the English Are of the Meridian. By Wit-
LIAM GALBRAITH, Esq., M.A., Vice-President
of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, F.R.A.S.,
&e. Communicated by the Royal Scottish
Society of Arts, é 2 5 : 263
I. Of the Bases, . ‘ : : ; 265
II. Trigonometrical Results, . : : 267
III. General Remarks, . : : ; 269
Additional Note, . : ‘ . 274
i
VET
Vil.
VIII.
IX.
XI.
XII.
XITT.
XIV.
CONTENTS.
Description of a Portable Diorama, which may
be viewed by a number of persons at a time.
By Georce Tair, Esq., Advocate, F.R.S.S.A.
With a Plan. Communicated by the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts,
Description of a Marine Salinometer for the pur-
pose of indicating the Density of Brine in the
Boilers of Marine Steam-Engines. Invented by
J. Scotr Russe, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.S.A.,
Civil Engineer. (With two Plates.) Commu-
nicated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,
Observations on the Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco, and
Vicuna. By Marniz Hamitton, Esq., M.D.,
late of Peru. Communicated by the Author,
Vicuna and Guanaco,
Llama and Aipaca,
On the Existence of Raised Beaches in the neigh-
bourhood of St Andrews. By R. Cuamsers,
Esq., F.R.S.E., With a Plate. Communicated
by the Author,
. Brief remarks on the Expediency of Forming
Harbours of Refuge on the East Coast of Scot-
land, between the Moray Firth and the Firth of
Forth. ‘By Joun Fremine, D.D., Professor of
Natural Philosophy, King’s College, Aberdeen,
F.R.S.E., Member of Wernerian Society, &c.
Communicated by the Author, ;
On the Formation of the Diamond. By Dr Aurx-
ANDER PETZHOLDT, of Dresden,
An Attempt to determine the mean height of
Continents. By Baron Von Humso.pr,
Notice of the Great Explosion at Dover. Con-
tained in a Letter to the Earl of Cathcart, by
Captain Sruart, 7th Royal Fusiliers. Com-
municated by Lord Greenock,
On the Introduction into Scotland of Granite, for
Ornamental Purposes, by Messrs Macdonald
and Leslie of Aberdeen. By Professor Tratrtt,
Page
275
278
285
285
290
298
306
317
326
337
CONTENTS,
F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. Communicated by the
Author, 4 ,
XV. Researches on the Comparative Anatomy of the
Chimpanzee. By M. Vrotik, :
XVI. On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders. By Gustav
Prerrer Brom, Member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Drontheim, &c., f
XVII. £ Connection of the Physiognomy of a Country,
with the Character of its Inhabitants, &c.,
I. Belgium,
II. Holland,
IiI. A Midnight Scene on ie peo,
-IV. A Scene in Norway, .
XVIII. Meteorological Tables for the Years 1842-1843, 364-373
XIX. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Continued from last Number, p. 176,
On the Growth of the Salmon. By Mr Anprew
Youna, ; :
On the Geology of Fane este. By Davip
MILngE, Esq., ;
On the Property of Transmitting Lens OR pee
by Charcoal and Plumbago, in fine plates and par-
ticles. By Joun Davy, M.D., &c. : f
XX. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History
Society. Continued from Jast Number, p. 177,
XXI. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE—
METEOROLOGY.
1, Variation of Temperature during the. Russian
Expedition to Khiya, :
2. On the Movement and Structure of the Mer a
Glace of Chamouni, .
3. Climate of Malta, - ;
4, Ignis Fatuus (Will-with-a-Wisp, Jack-with-a-
Lantern, Spunkie) observed near Bolgona,
GEOLOGY.
5. Geological Chronometer,
6. Gold Mines in Ireland,
MINERALOGY.
7. Large mass of Native Gold found in the Oural
Mountains, :
8. Fahlerz containing Mercury, from Hungary,
359
361
362
363
374
379
380
380
382
383
385
386
386
388
iv CONTENTS.
MISCELLANEOUS.
9. Egyptian Bronze, : :
10. On the Production of the Guano of cht as
11. Visit of Columbus to Iceland, in 1477, and his
Conyersations there with learned men,
12. Ethnological Society,
XXII. The Great Comet,
XXIII. New Publications,
XXIV. List of Patents for Inventions, granted for Scot-
land from 23d December 1842 to 22d March
1843, inclusive, : . :
XXV. INDEX,
Page
388
389
391
392
393
394
397
401
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
Fourth Letter on the Glacier Theory, to Professor Jameson.
By Professor Forses-
Geneva, 5th October 1842.
My Dear Sir,—Since my last letter from Zermatt, I have
had an opportunity of examining the glaciers on different sides
of Monte Rosa, particularly those of Lys and Macugnaga, and
those near the Valley of Saas; and on my return to Cha-
mouni earlyin September, I devoted a day to each of the glaciers
of Trient and Argentiére, before resuming my station at the
Montanvert, where I remained until almost the last days of
the month.
What I think it most interesting now to add as supplemen-
tary to my former statements, is not a description of these
various glaciers, but, with particular reference to the Mer de
Glace, to mention what the extended period of examination
which I have been able to give to it, has enabled me to con-
clude beyond what is contained in my previous letters, re-
specting the Theory of glacier-movement generally. Having
accurately observed the condition and motions of this glacier
throughout by far the greater part of the season at which it,
VOL. XXIV. NO. UXViII.—sanuary 1843. A
2 Professor Forbes’ Account of his recent
or indeed any glacier is easily accessible, or sufficiently free
from snow for accurate observations,—having also, especially
during the month of September, observed it under every cir-
cumstance of weather and a great range of atmospheric tem-
perature, I believe that I have obtained the chief data neces-
sary for basing a theory of its motion, upon sound mechanical
principles. The changes which I have witnessed upon its
surface, during the period of above three months during which I
have studied it, are so great and remarkable, and in some re-
spects so unexpected, as to be of capital importance in any
theory which may be proposed.
I was very greatly struck with the change, in the general
appearance of the glacier during my absence, from the 10th
August to the 10th September. I left it comparatively high
and tumid in the centre, at no great depth below the arréte of
its natural boundary, the moraine by its side ; and fissured by
crevasses, deep and rather narrow, with well-defined vertical
walls.—On my return, the icy mass had most visibly sunk in
its bed ; it seemed to me to have a wasted, cadaverous look ;
the moraines protruded far higher than before from its sides ;
and the ice itself clinging to the moraine at a considerable
height above its general level, was covered by the fallen masses
of stone and gravel which had rolled down the inclined plane
formed by this central subsidence. The whole resembled
somewhat the Wye, or some of those narrow tidal rivers
whose muddy banks are left exposed by the retreat of the ocean.
That this subsidence was in a good measure occasioned by the
melting of the ice in contact with the bottom of the valley
in which it lies, and by the falling together of the parts in a
soft and yielding state, owing to a complete infiltration of the
whole mass with water during the warm season of the year,
was proved by a variety of circumstances which I shall not
stop to detail. I may mention however, that the crevasses were
wider but less deep and regular,—excessively degraded on the
side to which the mid-day sun had free access, and in many
places where several crevasses nearly joined, the icy partitions
had sunk gradually towards a level, and thus rendered the
fissured parts of the glacier more easily traversed than at an
earlier part of the season. It is plain, too, that the fact of the
.
Observations on Glaciers. 3
more rapid advancement of the centre of the glacier mentioned
in my earliest letter, implies a subsidence of that part, and a
consequent drain from the lateral ice, to supply the vacuity
which it leaves.
It will at once be understood that the change of which I
speak in the external figure of the ice, its crevasses and ine-
qualities, is an effect due to the season, and must be repeated
every year. Were the summer considerably prolonged, the
annihilation of the glacier would take place from a simple con-
tinuation of the process, namely, the increased velocity of the
central part, the exaggeration of the crevasses in width, and
the falling of their walls, or rather the gradual subsidence of
the elevations, softened by the warmth, into the hollows which
separate them, whilst the moraine would be left in all its
continuity as a witness of the original boundary of the glacier.
The ice must possess within itself some reproductive power
(Gf the phrase may be permitted,) to restore it in spring to the
level from whence it had descended ; and since crevasses thus
form, extend, and again vanish,—perhaps in a single season
but certainly in a very few years,—we must consider the glacier
as a much more plastic body than it has commonly been ima-
gined.
I state it, then, as a result of observation the most direct,
that, in the early part of summer, the glacier level is highest,
and the fissures least numerous. The latter form and widen
especially during the months of June and July; and, in the
beginning of August, the glacier is most difficult to traverse,
(generally speaking), owing to the multitude and sharpness of
these cracks ; but later, the prolonged sunshine and autumnal
rains, not only reduce the ice to water, and thus carry off a part
of its surface, but leave the remainder in a softened and plastic
state, in which the tendency is to a general subsidence of all
the elevations, whilst the prolonged excess of velocity of the
central above the lateral parts, causes an increased hollow-
ness and subsidence there, and produces a great fissuring, the
lateral ice still clinging to the moraines, which it is compelled
gradually to uncover. Before spring, by some process which
it remains to explain, the level of the ice is restored (supposing
the glacier not to be permanently wasting).
4 Professor Forbes’ Account of his recent
Another mode of considering the successive conditions of a
certain portion of the glacier, will lead also to the admission
of the ever-varying state of its aggregation and subdivision.
In a glacier, like the Mer de Glace of Chamouni, which pre-
sents a great many and well-marked “ accidents” of surface
in its different parts, it is yet perfectly well known, that, though
continually moving and changing, the distribution of these
“‘ accidents’’ is sensibly invariable. Every year, and year af-
ter year, the water courses follow the same lines of direction,
—their streams are precipitated into the heart of the glacier
by vertical funnels called “ moulins ;” at the very same
points, the fissures, though forming very different angles with
the axis or sides of the glacier at different points of its length,
opposite the same point are always similarly disposed,—the
same parts of the glacier, relatively to fixed rocks, are every
year passable, and the same parts are traversed by innume-
rable fissures. Yet the solid ice of one year is the fissured
ice of the next, and the very ice which this year forms the
walls of a “ moulin,” will next year be some hundred feet far-
ther forward and without perforation, whilst the cascade re-
mains immovable, or sensibly so, with reference to fixed ob-
jects around. All these facts, attested by long and invariable
experience, prove that the ice of the glaciers'is insensibly and
continually moulding itself under the influence of external
circumstances, of which the principal, be it remarked, is its
own weight affecting its figure, in connection with the sur-
faces over which it passes, and between which it struggles on-
wards. Ht is, in this respect, absolutely comparable to the
water of a river, which has here its deep pools, here its con-
stant eddy, continually changing in substance, yet ever the
same in form.
With reference to the yet more essential modifications of
structure, | mean the veined structure which I formerly de-
scribed ; I shewed in my last letter, that it is equally muta-
ble and subjected to the momentary conditions of external re-
straint ; and, that far from being an original structure in the
higher part of the glacier, variously modified in its subsequent
course, but never annihilated, it owes its existence at any
moment to the conditions of varying velocity in different parts
Observations on Glaciers. is
of the transverse section of the glacier, and that it is not un-
frequently entirely destroyed in one part of the glacier, to be
renewed in a totally different direction in another. A mole-
cule of ice is as passive and structureless a unit as a molecule
of water, so far as it has not that structure impressed by some-
thing external at the time. Like the water in the river, my-
riads succeed one another, and might be mistaken for the
same.
Few words will suffice to shew how intimately what I have
stated is connected with the first rudiments of a theory of gla-
cier motion, which I endeavoured to sketch in my last letter,
and the truth of which all that I have since seen has tended
greatly to confirm. The centre of the glacier stream is urged
onwards by pressure from above (how caused we shall im-
mediately consider), which is there resisted less than at the
sides and bottom, owing to the comparative absence of fric-
tion. The lateral parts are dragged onwards by the mo-
tion of the centre, and move also, but it is quite compatible
with this idea of semifluid motion, that the bottom of the
glacier should remain frozen to its bed, as some writers
have supposed to be the case, though I am far from as-
serting this to be the fact, or even supposing it probable.
Why, then, are the fissures generally vertical, and also where
a glacier is most regular, simply fransverse, and not con-
vex towards the lower extremity ? The first of these ques-
tions had always till lately appeared to me a serious difh-
eulty. The fact stated in the second, combined with the posi-
tive certainty that the centre of a glacier moves faster than
its sides, in the ratio frequently of 5 to 3, shews that an an-
swer must be found, and, therefore, that it offers no insur-
mountable objection. The explanation is to be sought in the
continually varying condition of the glacier, the perpetual re-
newal of the crevasses, the action of water in tending to pre-
serve verticality, and the really small variation of velocity of
different parts of the ice towards the centre of a glacier of im-
mense depth. From these circumstances, it follows that a
crevasse is either renewed or altogether extirpated before its
yerticality is sensibly effected. For the same reason, a stick
several feet long, inserted vertically in the ice, remains sensi-
6. Professor Forbes’ Account of his recent
bly vertical so long as it stands at all; for the velocity of the
surface is sensibly the same as that at 10 or 20, or probably
even 100 feet deep in most glaciers. It is only near the bot-
tom or bed that the velocity is materially affected, as I have
found also, that, in respect to breadth, it is in the immediate
neighbourhood of the sides that the velocity diminishes rapid-
ly, and that, for half its breadth in the centre, the velocity does
not vary by more than from 7, to J; of its amount. It is
farther worthy of notice, that whenever a glacier is of no great
thickness, and, at the same time, highly inclined, that is, in
circumstances calculated to produce a great difference between
the motions of points of the glacier in a vertical line, there
the fissures are not transverse but radiated, as in almost all
glaciers of the second order, and, therefore, the fissures are
not liable to distortion.
I might put it rather as a direct result of observation than
as a hypothesis, that the motion of a glacier resembles that of
a viscid fluid, not being uniform in all parts of the trans-
verse section, but the motion of the parts in contact with the
walls being determined mainly by the motion of the centre ;
but it yet remains to be shewn what is the cause of the pres-
sure which conveys the motion, whether it is the mere weight
of the semifluid mass, or the dilatation of the head of the glacier
pushing onwards. The answer to this question involves the
fate of the rival theories of De Saussure and De Charpentier.
I still entertain the same difficulties with respect to both,
which I have stated in an article in the Edinburgh Review;
but these difficulties amount, I think, to a proof of insufiicien-
cy, if taken in connection with the observations which I have
made this summer. On the one hand, if it were possible that
the glacier could slide by the mere action of gravity in a trough
inclined only 3, or 4, or 5 degrees, it is probable that one of two
things would happen ; either it would slide altogether with an
accelerated velocity into the valley beneath, or else it would move
by fits and starts, being stayed by obstacles until these were over-
come by the melting of the ice beneath, or by the accumulated
weight of snow above and behind. Now, neither of these
things happen; the glacier moves on day and night, or from
day to day, with a continuous regulated motion, which,
Observations on Glaciers. |
I feel certain, could not take place were the sliding theory
true.
But if possible, still stronger, as well as more multiplied,
objections are to be found to the theory of dilatation, and I
trust I shall not be accused of levity in thus, as it were, in a
few lines, dismissing a theory which has so much prima facie
plausibility to recommend it, and which has been maintained
with so much ingenuity by men such as Scheuchzer, De Char-
pentier, and Agassiz. It is essential to the aim of this letter,
that I state briefly the grounds of the conclusions at which I
have arrived, whilst it is equally essential that my observa-
tions should be confined within small compass. In another
place I shall give them all the development that may be re-
quisite. .
Summarily, then (1.) The motion of the glacier, in its several
parts, does not appear to follow the law which the dilatation
theory would require. It has been shewn (Ed. Rev., April 1842,
p- 77.) that the motion ought to vanish near the origin of the
glacier, and increase continually towards its lower extremity.
I have found the motion of the higher part of the Mer de Glace
to differ sometimes very little from that several leagues far-
ther down; whilst in the middle, owing to the expansion of
the glacier in breadth, its march was slower than in either of
the other parts. (2.) Whilst I admit that the glacier is, dur-
ing summer, infiltrated with water in all or most of its thick-
ness (a point on which I had last year great doubts), | feel
quite confident that, during some months of the year during
which the glacier is in most rapid motion, no congelation takes
place in the mass of the ice beyond a depth of a very few
inches, much less during the cold of each night, and least of
all, at a// times, as appears to be now the opinion held upon
the subject. Whilst I say that I am confident of this, I will
state one proof. Less than ten days since I traversed the Mer
de Glace up to the higher part of the Glacier de Lechaud,
whilst it was covered with snow to a depth of six inches at
Montanvert, and three times as much in the higher part. It
was snowing at the time, and for a week the glacier had been
in the same state nearly, the thermometer having fallen in the
mean while to 20° Fahr. Yet I had abundant evidence that
8 Professor Forbes’ Account of his recent
the effect of the frost had not penetrated farther into the ice
than it might be expected to have done into the earth under
the same circumstances. All the superficial rills were indeed
frozen over ; there were no cascades in the “ moulins;’’ all
was as still as it could be in mid-winter ; yet even on the Gla-
cier de Lechaud, my wooden poles, sunk to a depth of less
than a foot in the ice, were quite wet, literally standing in
water, and consequently unfrozen to the walls; and in the
hollows beneath the stones of the moraines, by breaking the
crust of ice, pools of unfrozen water might be found almost
on the surface. Is it possible, then, that the mere passing
chill of a summer night, or the mere cold of the ice itself at
all times, can produce the congelation which has been so much
insisted on ?
But (3), What was the effect of the congelation, trifling as it
was, upon the motion of the glacier? So sharp and sudden a
cold succeeding summer weather, must inevitably, it seems to
me, were this theory true, have produced an instantaneous ac-
celeration of the mean motion of the glacier. But the con-
trary was the fact ; the diurnal motion fell rather short of its
previous value, and so soon as the severe weather was past,
and the little congelation which had taken place thawed, and
the snow reduced to water, than the glacier, saturated in all
its pores, resumed its march nearly as in the height of sum-
mer.
(4.) It has beeninferred from the dilatation theory that whilst
the surface of the glacier continually wastes, it at the same
time heaved bodily upwards from beneath, so that its absolute
level is unchanged. My experiments, as well as the most
ordinary observation (as has been already remarked) disprove
this hypothesis. I find that between the 26th June and the
16th September, the surface of the ice near the side of the Mer
de Glace had lowered absolutely rwenry-rive feet 1.5 inches,
and the centre had undoubtedly fallen more. The observa-
tion of the waste of the surface by the protrusion of a stick
sunk to a determinate depth in a hole, is very inaccurate, and
gives results below the truth.
I am perfectly ready to admit, with M. de Charpentier, that
the congelation of the infiltrated water of glaciers is an im-
Observations on Glaciers. 9
portant part of their functions ; only, I conceive that it occurs
but once a year to any effective extent, instead of daily or con-
tinually, as he supposes. Every thing which I have seen on
the glacier, during cold weather and when covered with snow,
confirms the idea I have always entertained, that the progress
of congelation in the mass of the glacier is very similar to that
of a mass of moist earth, and that, therefore, the daily varia-
tions of temperature can make no sensible impression, with
respect to the mass of the infiltrated ice. The prolonged cold
of winter must, however, produce a very sensible effect ; and
considering that the temperature of the mass is never above
32°, it may be expected that the congelation of the water in
capillary fissures in ice will, in the course of months of tran-
quillity, reach a great depth. I apprehend that there is only
an annual congelation, and that its effect is not to move the
glacier onwards by sliding down its bed—for that the friction
of so enormous a body seems evidently to render impossible—
but (what Mr Hopkins has very well shewn is the only alter-
native, and which he has used as an argument against Char-
pentier’s theory) to dilate the ice in the direction of Jeast re-
sistance, that is, vertically, and consequently to increase its
thickness. The tendency of such a force would, therefore,
be to restore during the winter the thickness of ice lost during
the summer ; and in those winters which are less severe, a less
depth of ice being frozen, a less expansion would occur, and a
permanent diminution of the glacier would result. Nothing
can be more certain than the fact, so well stated by Charpen-
tier in his 10th section, that the glacier does not owe its in-
crease to the snow of avalanches, nor indecd to any snow which
falls on the greater part of its surface.
In conclusion, the admission of semifluid motion produced
by the weight of the ice itself, appears to explain the chief
facts of glacier-movement, viz. (1.) That it is more rapid at
the centre than at the sides; (2.) For the most part, most
rapid near the lower extremity of glaciers, but varying rather
with the transverse section than the length; (3.) That it is
more rapid in summer than in winter, in hot than in cold
weather, and especially more rapid after rain, and less rapid
in sudden frosts ; (4.) It is farther in conformity with what
10 Mr Murchison on the Salt Steppe of Orenburg,
we know of the plasticity of semisolids generally, especially
near their point of fusion. Many examples will occur to every
one of what they have observed of the plasticity of hard bo-
dies,—such as sealing-wax, for example,—exposed for a long
time to a temperature far below their melting heat, and which
have moulded themselves to the form of the surfaces on which
they rest. (5.) When the ice is very highly fissured, it yields
sensibly to the pressure of the hand, having a slight determi-
nate play, like some kinds of limestone, well known for this
quality of flexibility. (6.) I have formerly endeavoured to
shew how such a condition of semirigidity, combined with the
determined movements of the glacier, accounts for the re-
markable veined structure which pervades it. I am, my Dear
Sir, yours very truly,
James D. Forses.
Professor JAMESON.
On the Salt Steppe south of Orenburg, and on a remarkable
Freezing Cavern. By Roprricx Impzry Murcuison, Esq.
Pres. G. S.*
I. Turs salt steppe is distinguished from many of those which
are interposed between the Ouralsk and the Volga, or are si-
tuated on the Siberian side of the Ural Mountains, by con-
sisting not of an uniform flat resembling the bed of a dried up
sea, but of wide undulations and distantly separated low ridges ;
nevertheless it is, Mr Murchison states, a true steppe, being
devoid of trees and little irrigated by streams. The surface
consists of gypseous marls and sands, considered by the author
to be of the age of the Zechstein,} and it is pierced in the
neighbourhood of the imperial establishment of [lletzkaya
Zatchita by small pyramids of rock salt. These protruding
* From the Proceedings of the Geological Society, vol. iii. part 2, p. 695;
haying been read March 9. 1842.
t His extensive surveys of Russia have convinced Mr Murchison, that
rock-salt and salt springs occur in all the lower sedimentary rocks of that
empire, from great depths below the Devonian, or old red sandstone system
to the Zechstein and the overlying marls and sandstones.
and on a remarkable Freezing Cavern. 11
masses attracted the attention of the Kirghiss long before the
country was colonized by the Russians ; but it is only during
a short period that the great subjacent bed has been exten-
sively worked. The principal quarries, exposed to open day,
are situated immediately south of the establishment, and have
a length of 300 paces, with a breadth of 200, and a depth of
40 feet. The mass of salt thus exposed is of great purity,
the only extraneous ingredient being gypsum, distantly dis-
tributed in minute filaments. At first sight the salt seems to
be horizontally stratified, but this apparent structure, Mr Mur-
chison states, is owing to the mineral being extracted in large
parallelopipedal blocks 12 feet long, 3 feet deep, and 3 wide.
On the side where the quarry was first worked, the cuttings
presented, in consequence of the action of the weather, a ver-
tical face as smooth as glass, but at its base there was a black
cavern formed by the water which accumulates at certain
periods of the year, and from its roof were saline stalactites.
The entire range of this bed of salt is not known; but the
mass has been ascertained to extend two versts in one direc-
tion, and Mr Murchison is of opinion that it constitutes the
subsoil of a very large area ; its entire thickness also does not
appear to have been determined, but it is stated to exceed 100
feet. The upper surface of the deposit is very irregular, pe-
netrating, in some places, as already mentioned, the overlying
sands and marls.
In consequence of the salt occurring at so small a depth,
every pool supplied with springs from below is affected by it ;*
and one of them used by the inhabitants as a bath, is so highly
charged with saline contents, that there is a difficulty in keep-
ing the body submerged, and the skin, on leaving the pool, is
encrusted with salt. This brine swarms with animalcules.
II. Mr Murchison then describes the freezing cavern and
the phenomena exhibited by it. The cave is situated at the
* The abundance of these brine springs in various parts of Russia must
lead, the author says, to the abandonment of Pallas’s hypothesis, that the
saline pools and lakes are the residue of former Caspians ; though he admits,
that some of the vast low steppes of the south formed the bottom of a former
condition of the existing Caspian.
12 Mr Murchison on the Salt Steppe of Orenburg,
southern base of a hillock of gypsum at the eastern end of the
village connected with the imperial establishment ; and it is
one of a series of apparently, for the greater part, natural hol-
lows, used by the peasantry for cellars or stores. The cave in
question is, however, the only one which possesses the singu-
lar property of being partially filled with ice in summer, and
of being destitute of it in winter. ‘‘ Standing on the heated
ground and under a broiling sun, I shall never forget,” says the
author, ‘‘ my astonishment when the woman to whom the
cavern belonged unlocked a frail door, and a volume of air so
piercingly keen struck the legs and feet, that we were glad to
rush into a cold bath in front of us fo equalize the effect.”
Three or four feet within the door, and on a level with the
village street, beer and quash were half frozen. A little fur-
ther, the narrow chasm opened into a vault fifteen feet high,
ten paces long, and from seven to eight wide, which seemed
to send off irregular fissures into the body of the hillock. The
whole of the roof and sides were hung with solid undripping
icicles, and the floor was covered with hard snow, ice, or frozen
earth. During the winter all these phenomena disappear, and
when the external air is very cold, and all the country is frozen
up, the temperature of the cave is such, that the Russians state
they could sleep in it without their sheep-skins.
In order to lay before the Society an explanation of these
curious opposite conditions of the cave, the author communi-
eated with Sir John Herschel, and received the documents
which follow this abstract. With respect to the observations
in Sir J. Herschel’s letter, Mr Murchison says, he does not
conceive that the ice caverns at Teneriffe, in Auvergne and
elsewhere, are analogous cases with that at Illetzkaya Zatchita,
the frozen materials in the last not arising from the preserva-
tion of the snow or ice of the preceding winter, but from the
peculiar condition of the cavern during the hottest summer
months. He states also, that he particularly urged the au-
thorities at Orenburg, as well as the directors of the Salines,
to keep accurate registers of the temperature throughout the
year, and to ascertain precisely the changes which the cave un-
dergoes between the extremes of summer and winter. There
and on a remarkable Freezing Cavern. 13
is, he observes, a very marked difference between the climate
of the steppes south of Orenburg and that of Ekaterinburg,
not merely due to the difference of six degrees of latitude, but
arising also from the altitude of the position of Ekaterinburg,
and the shortness of its varying summers, as well as from the
long droughty summers of the steppes, which are removed
from all mountain chains, and possess comparatively no great
altitude above the sea. In the southern region, he conceives,
a substratum of frozen matter cannot exist, there being a most
extraordinary difference between the climate of Yakatsk (lat.
623° N. long 131° E.), and that of Orenburg (lat. 51° 46’ N.),
the winter of the former lasting eight or nine months, with
the thermometer during long periods constantly 30°, and some-
times 40° of Reaumur below zero.*
Respecting the explanation that the difference of tempera-
ture in the cave is due to the propagation through the gypsum
hillock of the heat or cold of the preceding summer or win-
ter season, Mr Murchison conceives that the fissures which
ramify from the cave into the hill, present difficulties to such
a solution. When he was on the spot, the existence of these
fissures led him to speculate upon the possibility of the pheno-
mena being due to currents of air passing over subterranean
floors of moistened rock-salt, and on the effects which would
be produced when such currents came in contact with a stream
of dry heated air.
* Mr Murchison ascertained, during his journey in the North of Russia
in 1840, that much remains to be done relative to the circumstances of the
recorded frozen substratum of Yakatsk; and he states the following as
points requiring attention. Ist, With the exception of about sixty feet of
alluvial soil, the whole shaft to a depth of 350 feet, was sunk through solid
strata of limestone two to six feet thick, and shale with a little coal ; 2dly,
That none of the sinkings took place in summer, although renewed for
several years, on account of the foul air generated in the shaft ; 3d/y, That
when Admiral Wrangel descended the shaft during summer, and the sur-
face was burnt up, he found the thermometer to stand at 6° Reaum. below
ZeYO.
( 4 )
Extracts from a Letter addressed by Sir J. Herschel, Bart., F.GS.,
to Mr Murchison, explanatory of the Phenomena of the Freezing
Cave of Illetzkaya Zatchita.*
That the cold in ice caves (several of which are alluded
to in a part of this letter not published) does nor arise from
evaporation, is, I think, too obvious to need insisting on. It
is equally impossible that it can arise from condensation of
vapour, which produces heat, not cold. When the cold (by
contrast with the external air, ¢.e. the difference of tempera-
ture) is greatest, the reverse process is going on. Caves in
moderately free communication with the air are dry and (to
the feelings) warm in winter, wet or damp and cold in sum-
mer. And from the general course of this law I do not con-
sider even your Orenburg caves exempt, since however ap-
parently arid the external air at 120° Fahr.! may be, the mois-
ture in it may yet be in excess and tending to deposition, when
the same air is cooled down to many degrees beneath the
freezing point.
The data wanting in the case of your Orenburg cave are
the mean temperature of every month in the year of the air, and
of thermometers buried, say a foot deep, on two or three points
of the surface of the hill, which, if I understand you right, is of
gypsum and of small elevation. I do not remember the winter
temperature of Orenburg, but for Catherinenbourg (only 5°
north of Orenburg), the temperatures are given in Kuppfer’s
reports of the returns from the Russian magnetic observato-
ries. If any thing similar obtains at Orenburg, I see no difh-
culty in explaining your phenomenon. Rejecting diurnal fluc-
tuations, and confining ourselves to a single summer wave of
heat propagated downwards alternately with a single winter
wave of cold, every point at the interior of an insulated hill,
rising above the level plain, wili be invaded by these waves in
* From the Proceedings of the Geological Society, vol. iii. part 2;
haying been read March 9. 1842.
Extracts explanatory of the Phenomena, &c. 15
succession (converging towards the centre in the form of shells
similar to the external surface), at times which will deviate
further from midwinter and midsummer the deeper the point
is in the interior, so that, at certain depths in the interior, the
cold wave will arrive at midsummer, and the heat wave in
midwinter. A cave (if not very wide mouthed and very azry)
penetrating to such a point, will have its temperature deter-
mined by that of the solid rock which forms its walls, and
will of course be so alternately heated and cooled. As the
south side of the hill is swnned, and the north not, the summer
wave will be more intense on that side, and the winter less so ;
and thus, though the form of the wave will still generally cor-
respond with that of the hill, their intensity will vary at differ-
ent points of each wave-surface. ‘The analogy of waves is
not strictly that of the progress of heat in solids, but nearly
enough so for my present purpose.
The mean temperature for the three winter months, De-
cember, January, February, and the three summer months,
June, July, August, for the years 1836, 7, 8, and the mean of
the year, are for Catherinenbourg as follows :—
Winter. Summer. Annual Mean.
1836 | — 10°.93 R. + 11°.90 R. + 17.22. RK.
1837 | ~ 12°.90 + 12°.93 + 0°.30
1838 12°.37 + 12°.37 + 0°.60
Mean 12°.07 R. + 12°.40 R. + 0.70 R-
4°.83 al + 59°. 9 Fahr.) + 33°.57 Fahr.
The means of the intermediate months are almost exactly
that of the whole year, and the temperature during the three
winter, as well as the three summer months, most remarkably
uniform.
This is precisely that distribution of temperature over time,
which ought, under such circumstances, to give rise to well-
defined and intense waves of heat and cold; and I have little
doubt, therefore, that this is the true explanation of your phe-
nomenon.
16 Extracts explanatory of the Phenomena, &c.
I should observe that, in the recorded observations of the
Catherinenbourg Observatory, the temperatures are observed
two-hourly, from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m, and not at night. The
mean monthly temperatures are thence concluded by a for-
mula which I am not very well satisfied with ; but the error,
if any, so introduced, must be far too trifling to affect this ar-
gument. The works whence the above data are obtained are—
Observations Météorologiques et Magnétiques faites dans Vinté-
rieur de Empire de Russie, and Annuaire Magnétique et Mé-
téorologique du corps des Ingénieurs des Mines de Russie,—works
which we owe to the munificence of the Russian government,
and which it is satisfactory to find thus early affording proofs
of utility to science, in explaining what certainly might be
regarded as a somewhat puzzling phenomenon, as it is one
highly worthy of being further studied, and being made the
subject of exact thermometric researches on the spot, and
wherever else anything similar occurs.
Sir John Herschel then states, that since he began this
letter he had examined some old documents, and found the
paper which accompanied his letter. “‘ The date of this manu-
script,’ he adds, “as nearly as I can collect it from collateral
circumstances, must have been somewhere about the year
1829, or rather before than after. I remain, &c.
J. F. W. Henscuen,
P.S.—Thermometric observations in the Steppes, of the mean monthly
temperature of the soil at different depths, from 1 to 100 feet (at Forbes’
intervals), would be most interesting. At Catherinenbourg, the mean
temperature of the air being 33°. 6 Fahr., no permanently frozen soil would
probably be reached, but a very little more to the northward that pheno-
menon must occur.
The ‘thinning out” of the frozen stratum would be most interesting
to trace, but in thinning out by decrease of latitude, it might possibly at
the same time “ dip” beyond reach, all above it being occupied by soil
subject to the law of periodic frost and thaw, and giving room, under
favourable circumstances, to ice caverns, pits, or galleries. What deter-
mines the distinct definition of the hot and cold alternating layers, is the
exceedingly peculiar form of the curve of the monthly temperatures, as
given in the tables above referred to.
Gi Nie
On some Phenomena observed on Glaciers, and on the internal
Temperature of large masses of Ice or Snow, with some Re-
marks on the natural Ice-caves which occur below the limit
of perpetual snow. By Sir Joun Herscuet, Bart, F.G.S.
&c.*
In a visit to the glacier of Chamouni in the summer of 1821,
I was struck with the very remarkable positions of several
large blocks of granite resting on the glacier in various parts.
They were perched on stools of ice of less diameter than the
blocks themselves, which overhang their supports on all sides,
asa mushroom does its stalk. The position of these large
masses was rendered the more striking when contrasted with
that of small fragments of stone, equally (to appearance) ex-
posed to all the local heating and cooling influences, but which
were uniformly found to have sunk into the ice, and that the
deeper (within certain limits) the less their size. On consi-
deration, the cause became apparent, and, as it affords a very
pretty illustration of the laws of the propagation of heat through
bad conductors, and the steps by which an average tempera-
ture is attained in large masses from a varying source, I will
here state it as it occurred to me at the time.
With regard to the sinking of small masses into the ice when
heated by the sun, it isthe natural effect of the greater power
of absorbing heat which stone possesses beyond ice. When-
ever the sun shines, the stone will detain more of its heat than
an equal surface of ice would do; and asit gives this out to
the ice below nearly as fast as it receives it, a greater depth
of ice is melted in a given time beneath the stone than in
the parts around. On the other hand at night, ice radiates
terrestrial heat nearly or quite as copiously as stone, and thus
they are on a par in frigorific power.
The elevation of great masses above the general level, which
at first sight would appear to contradict this explanation, is
however equally a consequence of the laws of the propagation
* From the Proceedings of the Geological Society, vol. iii. part 2 ; haying
been read March 9. 1842,
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVII.— JANUARY 1843. B
18 Sir John Herschel on some Phenomena
of heat. To conceive this, let us imagine a very large block
of stone at the commencement of the summer, to lie on a level
surface of ice, in a situation exposed to the direct rays of the
sun, where the meantemperature of dayand night is(eveninsum-
mer) but little above the freezing point, but where, however,
no fresh snow falls during the whole summer. In the day-time
then, while receiving the sun’s rays, the upper surface of the
stone will be strongly heated, and a wave of heat will be propa-
gated slowly downwards through the stone towards the ice, di-
minishing in intensity rapidly, however, as it travels, since each
superior stratum only divides its excess of temperature with
that below. Long before this can reach the ice, however,
night comes on. The surface cools below the mean or even
below the actual temperature of the air by radiation, and a
wave of cold is propagated (or which comes to the same thing,
heat is abstracted from stratum to stratum) by the same laws.
This follows close on the wave of heat below, and travels with
equal velocity. In consequence, the heated stratum parts with
its heat, now both upwards and downwards, and thus the in-
tensity of the wave of heat diminishes with much greater ra-
pidity as it proceeds downwards. It is manifest, that were
the thickness of the stone infinite, the wave of heat being a/-
ways followed close up by the wave of cold, and a perpetual
tendency to an equilibrium of temperature going on between
them, they would ultimately reduce each other to their mean
quantity, and (not to take the extreme case of infinity) at
some very moderate depth, the fluctuations above and below
the mean temperature of the air, as the successive nocturnal
and diurnal waves pass through a particle of the stone there
situated, will be rendered very trifling, and may for our pre-
sent purpose be regarded as evanescent. Beyond this depth,
whatever mass of stone may exist, may be regarded as a slow
conducting mass, interposed between a surface of ice constantly
maintained at 32°, and a surface of stone constantly maintained
at the mean temperature of the air, which by hypothesis is
very little above it. Through this, then, the heat will perco-
late uniformly but feebly, and the ice below will be very slowly
melted, and the more so in proportion to the thickness of the
interposed stratum. Let us now consider what happens to the
_--™”
observed on Glaciers. 19
ice on the parts undefended by the stone. In the day time these
experience the direct radiation of the sun, and therefore melt
and run off in water. At night, it is true, the remaining sur-
face cools by radiation ; but this cold is propagated down-
wards, and on the return of day the superficial lamina is ne-
cessarily put in equilibrium with the air and melted by the
sun, and however cold the interior of the mass may be, the
surface will still be kept all day in a state of fusion. Thus
the degradation of the general surface of the ice will be in
proportion to the direct intensity of the sun’s rays and the
time they shine ; while that of the surface beneath the stone
will only be in proportion to the excess of the mean tempera-
ture of day and night above 32°, diminished by the effect of
the thickness of the stone. This, of course, will produce a
difference of level, and a relative elevation of the stone sunk
as really observed. One curious, and at first sight, para-
doxical consequence seems to follow from this reasoning, viz.,
that the ice of a glacier, or other great accumulation of the
kind, may, at some depth beneath the surface, have a per-
manent temperature very much below freezing, though in a
situation whose mean annual temperature is sensibly above
that point. In fact (continually to use the metaphorical ex-
pression already employed), there is no reason why waves of
cold, of any intensity below 32°, may not be propagated down-
wards into the interior of the ice; but waves of heat above
that point, of course, never can. Thus, the cold of winter
and the frost produced by radiation in the clear nights of sum-
mer, will enter the mass and lower its internal temperature ;
while the heat of the summer air, and that imparted by solar
radiation, will mainly be employed in melting the surface, and
will run off with the water produced.
I am not aware of any observations on the internal tempe-
rature of glaciers ; they are of course difficult from their usual
rifty state ; but the point may not be unworthy the attention
of the scientific traveller. May not this be the cause of those
natural formations of ice which have been observed in caverns
in Teneriffe, and on some elevated points of the Jura chain,
below the level of perpetual snow? It is obviously no matter
whether the interior mass in the above reasoning be ice or
20 On some Phenomena observed on Glaciers.
rock. It is enough that its surface, during the whole or
greater part of the year, should be covered with ice, to bring
down the mean annual temperature of its interior materially
below the temperature due to its elevation, and which it
would have were it not so covered. Conceive, now, a mountain
whose summit is in this predicament, viz. constantly main-
tained at a mean temperature below that due to its elevation.
This intense cold will not break off at the level of the line of
perpetual snow, which is determined by the mean tempera-
ture of the atmosphere due to elevation, but will be propa-
gated downwards in the interior of its mass. Hence, if, at a
short distance below the line of perpetual snow, where the
mean diurnal temperature of the exposed part, taken at a few
feet or a few yards deep in the soil or rock, is a little above
freezing, we drive an adit, or take advantage of a natural fis-
sure, to obtain the internal temperature at a much greater
depth from the surface; we ought to find it below 32°, and
ice ought constantly to form in such cavities.
But even when the summit of a hill is not covered with ice,
and when, therefore, this particular principle does not apply,
it is easy to see, on the same general grounds, that something
of the same kind may obtain. It is obvious, that whenever
a change of temperature on the surface of a solid takes place,
a wave of heat or cold, as the case may be, will be propagated
through its substance ; and if the changes be regularly peri-
odic, the waves will be also. Moreover, it is clear that the
longer the periods of the external fluctuations are supposed,
the greater will be the interval of the waves, so as to make
the time taken for the propagated heat to run over them pre-
cisely equal to the period of fluctuation. Now the rapidity
with which successive waves of heat and cold destroy each
other is inversely as the intervals, and thus the fluctuations
of temperature, depending on long periods of external change,
will be propagated to greater depths than those arising from
shorter periods, nearly in the ratio of the lengths of the pe-
riods. Thus the depths at which the annual fluctuations of
temperature cease to be sensible will be between 300 and 400
times greater than those at which the diurnal ones are neu-
tralized. Now it may happen, from the slowness of propaga-
Dr Anderson’s Analysis of Caporcianite, &c. 21
tion through so considerable a depth, that the winter wave of
cold (consisting of many diurnal waves of alternate, greater
and less intensity) may not travel down to the adit or cavern
till the hottest period of the next summer, or of many sum-
mers; in short, that if at any given time the interior of the
mountain were sounded by thermometers down its whole axis,
these instruments would exhibit alternate deviations + and
— from the mean temperature of the air.
Analysis of Caporcianite and Phakolite, two new Minerals of
the Zeolite Family. By Tuomas Anpvrerson, M.D. Com-
municated by Dr Curistison.*
The minerals of the zeolite family have for many years attracted the
especial attention of men of science, and the class has been rapidly ex-
tended in proportion to the progress made in its study in a ecrystallogra-
phic as well as chemical point of view. The first characteristic difference,
originally observed long since by Cronstedt, and by him considered to
be the distinguishing mark of one single mineral species, which he de-
signated Zeolite,—namely, the property of swelling out by heat previous
to fusion,—has since been found to belong to a great number of other com-
binations. These, although materially different from each other in crys-
tallographic form, have proved to be closely allied in chemical constitu-
tion, in so far as they consist, without exception, of a silicate of an alkali
or alkaline earth in combination with a silicate of alumina and water.
It is evident, then, that the relation of the silicic acid to the base, in both
terms, as well as the quantity of water, is capable of considerable varia-
tion, so that the general mineralogical formula which should embrace
all the members of the zeolite family would be
urSvy+aerASy+2z2Agq
Where r represents the monatomic alkaline or earthy basis, and the
terms u, v, 2, y, and 2, are capable of varying within certain limits.
The minerals Caporcianite and Phakolite form two new members of
the above general formula. Their analysis was conducted in the follow-
ing manner :—
The finely pulverized mineral was dried for several days over sulphuric
acid in an exsiccator, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. A
certain quantity of the dry powder was then weighed in a small tube
retort, and heated to moderate redness for the space of halfan hour. The
water thus driven off was absorbed in a counterpoised tube of chloride
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on April 18. 1842, and
published in part 2, vol. xy. of the Transactions.
22 Dr Anderson’s Analysis of
of calcium and weighed. Another portion of the dry powder was then
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness for the separa-
tion of the silicic acid. The dry mass was then moistened with hydro-
chloric acid, digested for several hours, and dissolved in water, and the
silicic acid filtered off. The purity of the silicic acid was then tested by
solution in a boiling solution of carbonate of soda; the undissolved mat-
ter, which consisted chiefly of silicate of lime, reproduced by the strong
drying necessary for the separation of the silicic acid, was then heated to
redness with carbonate of soda ; and alumina and lime were precipitated
respectively by ammonia and oxalate ammonia. The precipitates thus
obtained, weighed and subtracted from the first weight, gave that of the
pure silicic acid. The solution, after the filtration of the silicic acid, was
precipitated by caustic ammonia; the precipitate, after being filtered,
washed, dried, and weighed, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the
silicic acid left undissolved was weighed ; to the filtered solution potass
was added in sufficient quantity to redissolve the alumina at first preci-
pitated. By this means iron and magnesia were left undissolved, which
were again precipitated from a solution in hydrochloric acid, the first by
succinate, and the second by phosphate, of soda. The weights of -the
silicic acid, peroxide of iron, and magnesia, contained in the phosphate,
being subtracted from the first weight of the ammoniacal precipitate,
gave that of the pure alumina. The solution filtered from the ammonia-
cal precipitate was then treated with a solution of oxalate of ammonia ;
and the precipitate of oxalate of lime, after filtration and washing, was
heated to strong redness, and treated several times in succession with a
solution of carbonate of ammonia at a gentle heat as long as it continued
to gain weight ; and the lime was then weighed in the state of carbonate.
The solution which was left after the separation of the oxalate of lime,
was then evaporated to dryness in a counterpoised platinum crucible,
and the ammoniacal salts driven off by a moderate heat ; after which a
higher temperature was given for the purpose of melting the remaining
salts. These, which consisted of chloride of potassium, chloride of so-
dium, and magnesia, were weighed together. By solution in water the
magnesia remained undissolved, and was filtered off, washed and weigh-
ed ; to the solution, chloride of platinum and spirit were added, when the
double chloride of platinum and potassium fell, which was collected on a
weighed filter, and from which the quantity of chloride of potassium,
and thence that of the potassa, were determined. By subtraction of the
weights of magnesia and chloride of potassium from the first weight,
that of the chloride of sodium was obtained from which the soda was
reckoned.
CaporciaNnitTE.
This mineral was kindly presented to me for analysis by Professor
Berzelius. It was first observed by Dr Paolo Savi at Caporciani, in the
valley of the Ceecino, where it occurs in a copper mine worked by two
Caporcianite and Phakolite. 23
Englishmen of the names of Hall and Sloane, and has been described by
its discoverer in his Memorie per servire allo studio della costituzione fisica
della Toscana, parte 2%, § 53.
Caporcianite conducts itself before the blowpipe in a manner perfectly
similar to other zeolites, in so far as its fusibility and relation to the
fluxes are concerned ; but it differs from them in this much, that, previous
to melting, it swells out only to a very inconsiderable degree ; for it
melts almost at the same instant that the swelling manifests itself.
The analysis yielded the following results :—
Silicic acid, . 52.8 oxygen contained 27.43 8.
Alumina, «21.7 ..ccseeeeeees seen enone 10.15
. : 10.18—3.
Peroxide of iron, O.1 ....-:.sseseeeeeeee eee 0.03 } !
Lime, Bee TEST apts conceere enn 3.23
Magnesia, - Osa vides orscakeoss 0.15
65—1.
Potassa, A 11 AEE CARENO SOLON 0.22 si
Soda, ° (MD ireeaeticclsicck nate res seats 0.05
Water, rie (2S REE Rag ean 11.64 3.
100.7
If we here express by 7 the monatomic bases, then the quantities of oxy-
gen in7, A, S, and Aq are to each other as 1 : 3:8: 8, which evidently
determine the mineralogical formula to be * g2+8AS824+ 38Aq. This,
when transformed to the chemical formula, becomes 7382 + 3 AIST
- om
It thns appears that Caporcianite stands chemically in near relation
with the minerals, Analcime, Ledererite, Potash-Harmotome, Chabasie,
and Levyne, from which it is separated merely by the difference in the
quantity of water which it contains. All these minerals consist of a bisi-
licate of the first as well as of the second term; and the quantity of
oxygen in the alumina is in all of them three times that contained in the
monatomic basis. The formulz of these minerals are as follows :—
Analcime, \ ,
Ledererite, nS? + 3A8°+ 2 Ag { =
Caporcianite, . rS? +3 UNG
Potash-Harmotome, rS?+3AS?+5Aq r= K.C.
h i P
ene \ rS?+3A8? + 6Aq
Levyne, =
The formula r $2 + 3 A So is thus, then, known to exist in no less than
four different combinations with water, namely, with 2, 3, 5, and6 atoms,
the second of which results from the foregoing analysis.
PHAKOLITE.
This mineral occurs in small erystals in the Bohemian Mittelgebirge,
and was from crystallographic investigation believed to be nearly related
to Chabasie. But the following analysis shews that this supposition is
not confirmed by its chemical constitution.
24 Dr Anderson’s Analysis of Caporcianite and Phakolite.
Phakolite, which, in its relations before the blowpipe, agrees in all
respects with the other zeolites, was analyzed after the foregoing method,
with this exception, that the quantity of water was determined simply by
the loss of weight sustained at a red heat. The composition was found
to be as follows :— :
Silicic acid, . 45.628 oxygen contained 23.708.
Aluminay = 92 “L9:480) sc scsctics 0. Seeeuevee 9.097 |
Peroxide of iron, 0.431 ...............::0es 0.144 § se
Lime, ¥ CSBP ES 3.737 |
Magnesia, . OVAS TE etc den oes kOe 0.053 4.442
Patassis: Ws Ay Walt... crs. Ree eos 0.222 \
Soda, ie MEBA Sh CE ey: 0.430
Water, ay) BAGO TG wins ety teen tneeaae 15.982.
99.960
This constitution has little resemblance to that of chabasie; for the
quantities of oxygen in 7, A'S and A q, are to each other in chabasie,
whose mineralogical formula is S? + 3A S? + 6Aq, as1:3:8: 6,
whereas those quantities in phakolite are in the relation of 1: 2: 5: 33.
If we assume that the quantity of water has come out too high, which is
generally the case when it is determined by the simple loss of weight at
a red heat, then the constitution of phakolite would be represented by
the mineralogical formula ~ S?+2AS + 3Aq, which transformed to
the chemical, is 37 Si + 2 A7Si + 9 H.
It appears, then, that phakolite belongs to that class of minerals which
in the first term contain a tersilicate, and in the second, a simple silicate
of the base, along with water. The minerals belonging to this class at
present made out are :—
Gigantolite, . rS'+ AS+ Ag r= fe, mg, K.N.
Harringtonite, . r= CN
Mesotype, } Gite ele tee N.C.
Lehuntite, . rS?+ AS+3Aq r=(NJC.
Phakolite, . rS°+2AS+3Aq r=(C)KN.
Mezolite r= Np 2c,
Scoleuite, \ Mae ORS \; =o
Pyrargillite, . r8'+3AS+4Aq r= fe, mg, K.N.
Antrimolite, . rS'+5AS8+5Aq r= CK.)
From this table it will be seen that phakolite forms a middle term be-
tween lehuntite and mezolite, and differs from them only in the second
or alumina term, which in the three minerals stand to each other in the
ratio of 1, 2, and 3, while the quantities of silicate of the monatomic
bases and water are the same in all three.
( 25 )
M. Doyére’s Experiments on the Revivification of animals of
the types Tardigrada and Rotifera.
Shortly after the existence of swarms of animalcule in
water containing organic matters had been revealed by the
microscope, the use of that instrument led to the discovery of
another fact, equally unexpected, and more difficult of com-
prehension, inasmuch as it still more widely differed from all
the results heretofore arrived at from the study of animated
beings. In fact, by the examination of dry dust collected from
a gutter, Leuwenhoeck ascertained the existence of an animal
which, under the influence of desiccation, ceased to move, lost
its form, and no longer gave any signs of life ; and which, in
this condition, appeared to differ in no respect from a dead
body, as it were mummified, by being deprived of the fluids
necessary for all animal existence ; and yet which, after having
been preserved for a long period in this dried condition, was
restored to life by contact with a drop of water. Leuwenhoeck
did not perceive the whole extent of the singular fact which
he had thus discovered, with respect to the Rotifer of house
roofs, and did not pursue his researches farther on this sub-
ject ; but a phenomenon of this kind could not fail to excite
lively curiosity among zoologists, and to give rise to long con-
troversies, as well as to interesting experiments. It may be
remarked that the discovery of Leuwenhoeck soon ceased to be
an isolated fact in science, for Needham announced that the eels
of mildewed corn possessed, like the Rotifera, the faculty of re-
viving after having been completely dried; and Spallanzani
arrived at the same result, after observation, not only of the
Rotifera and Anguillula, but also of another microscopic ani-
malcule, to which he gave the name of Tardigrade (R. tardus).
The investigations of this skilful observer were numerous,
and conducted with the profoundly scientific spirit which cha-
racterizes all his labours, and might perhaps have been deemed
sufficient to convince naturalists as to the truth of the fact,
and to serve as a basis to subsequent inquiries.
But the results thus obtained carried little weight, and it would
be easy to give a long list of naturalists, who even at present
26 = M. Doyére on the Revivification of Animals of the
deny, in the most positive manner, what has been termed.the
Revivification of Rotifera.
Latterly, it is true M. Schultz has successfully repeated
some of Spallanzani’s experiments, and has furnished many
naturalists with the opportunity of making similar researches ;
but still more lately, M. Ehrenberg has added the weight of
his great authority to the opposite opinion ; and having for-
mally rejected the opinion of Spallanzani, has attempted to
explain the way in which an error of the kind could find its
way into science.
This interesting and much debated question, then, could not
be considered as definitely settled, and appeared to demand
_further investigation. It was necessary to examine carefully
all the circumstances attending the phenomena described by
Leuwenhoeck, Needham, and Spallanzani, to submit to the
proof of experiment, the objections and hypotheses presented
by others, antagonists of these celebrated observers, and to ac-
quire new facts by which one or other of the contradictory
opinions of naturalists might be supported or refuted. This
difficult task has been undertaken by M. Doyere.
The Rotifera and the Tardigrada are found, as is well known,
in the moss growing upon roofs, or in the sand found in the
gutters of the roof, and are seen in the living state when these
matters, after having been for a long time dry, are wetted with
water. The fact of the appearance of these animalculz in a
living state in dust which had been dry during months, or even
whole years, can no longer be disputed, and it is equally well
demonstrated that, with these minute beings as with animals
of a higher class, evaporation of their fluids, carried to a cer-
tain extent, induces the abolition of every sign of vital mo-
tion. The partizans of Spallanzani’s opinion regard the re-
appearance of these living beings as a sort of resurrection ;
and the advocates of the contrary opinion think that the phe-
nomena may be explained in a simpler manner ; the opinion
is, that the Rotifera, &c. are of an amphibious nature, and ca-
pable of living in dry air as well as in water or sand, where
the moss with which they are surrounded would preserve them
from too complete desiccation, so that in fact, in the above
cited instances, the active state of the animalculze would never
Types Tardigrada and Rotifera. 27
even be interrupted, and these little animals buried in appa-
rently dry dust, would still meet with sufficient humidity to
prolong their lives and to allow of reproduction, so that those
which have been supposed to become revivified would be in
reality, to use the expression of Ehrenberg, only the great
grand-children of those observed in the same material at the
commencement of the experiment. According to other na-
turalists, the desiccation of the sand or moss containing the
Rotifera, would infallibly kill the animals themselves, but
would not destroy the vital principle in the ova which they
may have deposited, and consequently, instead of witnessing
the resurrection of the animals themselves, we only see the
ova rapidly developed by the influence of the water, and giving
birth to animalcule whose growth would be equally rapid.
Finally, there are other physiologists who consider that the
Rotifera, &c., of dry sand, do not undergo a complete de-
siccation, but such a degree of it only, as to plunge them into
a sort of torpor, and conceive that these animalcule, although
to all appearance dead, yet preserve a latent life, but still a
real life sufficient to establish a bond of connection between
the active life which precedes the evaporation of the fluids, and
that equally active, when they are restored by the addition of
humidity, to the full exercise of their functions. The obser-
vations of M. Doyére overturn all these hypotheses, and con-
firm, in the clearest way, the results obtained by Spallan-
zani.
Thus, in answer to the arguments employed by Ehrenberg,
it is sufficient to observe, that living Tardigrada are never
found in the dry dust of gutters ; but that, by the aid of the
microscope, corpuscles can be seen which entirely resemble
the dead bodies of these animalculs, deformed by desicca-
tion ; and that in matters where no living being was previously
discernible, living Tardigrada frequently appear on the addi-
tion of a little distilled water. M. Doyeére is even assured
that it is not impossible to revivify these animalcule, if taken
one by one, and dried separately on pieces of glass, without
being surrounded by sand or other material, organic or inor-
ganic, capable of preserving them from the ordinary effects of
eyaporation. In his experiments, he has been able to count
28 M. Doyére on the Revivification of Animals of the
them, and to trace in each separate individual all the phases
of desiccation ; to observe them gradually assume the appear-
ance of dead bodies, and to determine afterwards that these
same bodies, dry and brittle, are susceptible of reassuming
their primitive form, and of returning to life, under the in-
fluence merely of a few drops of water.
This experiment appears to be decisive ; but it may still be
asked, whether the drying which the animalcule have under-
gone has been complete, and if the privation of all the water
contained in their tissue, would not render them incapable of
resurrection, after having in this way passed years in a state
of apparent death ?
In order to determine satisfactorily this highly interesting
and physiological question, M. Doyérehad recourse to the most
powerful means by desiccation employed by chemists in the
analysis of organic substances. He suspended for five days,
in the vacuum of the air-pump, over a vessel containing pure
sulphuric acid, some Tardigrada surrounded with sand, or un-
covered and dried upon slips of glass ; and he left others dur-
ing thirty days, in the Torricellian vacuum, dried by chloride
of calcium ; and in all these instances, he obtained some re-
surrections. These results are of great importance towards
the solution of the question which M. Doyére had proposed
to himself; but he still conceived that they might be con-
sidered as offering only a strong probability in favour of the
complete desiccation of the animalcule, in which the faculty
of becoming revivified was retained ; he continued his experi-
ments, and by studying the influence of elevated temperatures
upon these singular beings, he arrived at the discovery of
most decisive and surprising facts.
It is well known that animals perish when their tempera-
ture is raised above a certain limit ; inferior, however, to that
at which the white of egg coagulates, and which in the ma-
jority of cases does not exceed 50° cent. (122° F.) Animal-
cule capable of resurrection are not exempted from this law.
M. Doyére is satisfied that the Rotifera and Tardigrada perish
when the water in which they swim is heated to 45° cent.
(113° F.), and that they cannot then be recalled to life by any
means. But he has found that this is not the case when the
Types Tardigrada and Rotifera, ; 29
animalcule have been previously dried. If, instead of ex-
perimenting upon Tardigrada in full life, itis done upon indi-
viduals which have lost all their humidity by the ordinary
means of desiccation, and which appear as dead, it is possible,
without depriving them of the faculty of reviving, to raise their
temperature to a degree which would necessarily involve the
disorganization of all living tissue containing any water beyond
that chemically combined with its constituent principles. In
an experiment repeated in the presence of the commission of
the Academy, a certain quantity of moss, containing Tardi-
grada, after having been properly dried, was placed in a stove,
and around the bulb of a thermometer, the stem of which ex-
tended out of the apparatus ; heat was gradually applied, until
the thermometer thus placed in the centre of the moss indi-
cated a temperature of 120° cent. (248° F.) This considerable
heat was maintained for several minutes ; nevertheless, some
of the animaleule contained in the moss returned to life, and
appeared in their usual condition after they had been placed
for 24 hours in a suitable degree of moisture. In other ex-
periments, M. Doyére submitted some dried animalcule to a
heat of more than 140° cent. (284° F.), and still witnessed
some of them revive after immersion in water. These facts
are in themselves of considerable importance towards the solu-
tion of the question at issue, and the result, without doubt,
depends upon the circumstance first pointed out by M. Chev-
reul, that albumen, deprived of its water by previous drying,
can be submitted to a much higher temperature, without, in
consequence, losing its solubility, than it could be if exposed to
the same temperature in the moist state ; and from the simple
fact that a Tardigrade, exposed to the action of a temperature
of 120° cent. (248° F.), can still be made to revive, it may be
concluded, with great probability, that the whole of the water
chemically free in its body had been dissipated, a degree of
desiccation which would preclude all idea of vital movement.
Thus the Tardigrada and Rotifera, when dry, and retaining
the property of living when moistened, cannot be considered
as actually alive ; and their mode of existence can only be com-
pared to that of a seed, which is organized so as to live, and
which will live when exposed to the influence of air, of water,
6
30 M. Peters on the Light of Lampyris Italica.
and of heat, but which, in the absence of one of these excit-
ants, manifests no sign of activity or life, and can be preserved
thus for ages, although the duration of its real life may not
exceed perhaps a few weeks.
M: Doyéere has also given a detailed and excellent account
of the anatomy of these animalcule, including, especially, the
nervous and muscular systems; and his work is illustrated
with beautiful and exact figures.*
On the Light of Lampyris Italica. By M. W. Peters.
The Lampyres have been the subject of a great number of researches
in reference to their luminous organ; but in regard to the Lampyris
Ttalica, we scarcely possess more than the observations of Carrara, ac-
cording to whom this species is provided with a particular aérial sac,
which, proceeding from the mouth, conducts the air to the luminous
organ. ‘This particular apparatus ought to be the cause of the differ-
ences in the luminous state, since the species of the North of Kurope
diffuse a continuous, equal, and tranquil light, while that of the Italian
species is emitted in sparks. “ It is on account of this difference,” says
M. Peters, ‘‘ that I had a great desire to find an opportunity of exa-
mining the last-mentioned animal. This I at last obtained, during a long
stay at Nice, and I did not allow it to escape, in the hope that with a
good microscope I should succeed in discovering something positive, both
respecting the structure of the phosphorescent part itself, and its relations
with the other organs.
From the middle of May till the middle of the month of July, when
walking in the vicinity of Nice after sunset, one is surprised at the
curious spectacle then presented by the millions of small scintillating
lights creeping about in every direction, sometimes illuminating the
point of a rock—sometimes lighting a deep cavity—sometimes suddenly
producing, as with a magician’s wand, a brilliant illumination on the
dark trunks of the olive trees,—a scene which, continually shifting and
changing, is of the greatest interest. This appearance is renewed every
evening ; but it appears to me to be the more brilliant the greater the
degree of humidity in the air. The interval between the scintillations is
variable,—sometimes longer—sometimes shorter ; and if one of these
animals be examined while it is in a phosphorescent state, it is soon
seen that the luminosity is intermittent, and that it only appears when
* Vide Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2d Series, 9th year, tome xiv.
p- 269 ; tome xvii. &c. p. 193 ; tome xviii. p. 54. Microscopical Journal, vol.
ii, No. 20, p. 251.
M. Peters on the Light of Lampyris Italica, 31
the aninal has traversed a space of one or two feet, but that while it
traverses that space, it emits a permanent light, which produces a band
of very brilliant fire. When the animal is in repose, I have often counted
from 80 to 100 luminous discharges in a minute ; it then remains for a
pretty long time without phosphorescence. There always remains a
slight luminosity, which is never wholly extinguished, at the point of
the body from which the luminous discharges are made. The luminous
region, in the male, extends along the under side of the belly, between
the fifth segment (from the anal extremity) and the penultimate one,
with very nearly an equal degree of intensity; but, in the female, it
seareely occupies more than the fifth segment, and is even concentrated
at its sides. If we observe this phosphorescent organ with a glass while
it is emitting sparks, we notice in it a tremulous or undulatory move-
ment, as when molecules are in motion. If we remove the luminous
organs, and expose them to the air free, they shine with the same in-
tensity as in the living animal, until their light becomes gradually ex-
tinguished. If they be rubbed against some body, the place shines for
an instant with a greenish light, which can be made to reappear after
becoming extinct by pouring a little water upon it. When the belly of
the insect is opened, and the adjacent portions of the intestines removed
without injuring the phosphoric organs, the latter continue to shine as
before, but this luminosity ceases on the instant that the head is separated
from the trunk.
According to these observations, are we not permitted to conclude,—
ist, that it is not necessary that a globule of air should proceed from the
head in order to produce these sparks, since the removal of the anterior
and most essential parts of the trunk exercises no influence on the phos-
phorescence ; 2d, Since the removal of the head immediately causes the
luminosity to disappear, is this nota proof that the phenomenon depends
on the will of the animal?
I believe it is quite unnecessary, continues M. Peters, to refute in this
place the opinion of some observers, such as Roda and Murray, who af-
firm that many Coleoptera enjoy the same faculty of absorbing the solar
light, and emitting it again at pleasure, since the Lampyris shines in the
night even when it has been protected all the day from the solar light.
Nay more, I kept some individuals in darkness for upwards of eight
lays, and they shone with as much intensity and splendour as before.
In order to study the organa lucifera more at my leisure, I carefully
removed all the dorsal part of the skeleton, and exposed the intestines,
which were filled with air. In the females, the ovaries immediately ap-
pear, as they fill a large portion of the interior of the body ; while, in the
males, we notice behind the posterior canals the deferential and semeni-
ferous canals rolled upon themselves. Neither the bodies nor fluids con-
tained in these canals possess luminous properties ; and these two organs,
very distinct from those of the phosphorescence throughout their whele
32 M. Peters on the Light of Lampyris Italica.
extent, both open into a rectum of a very delicate structure. It was
probably this delicate structure of the extremity of the intestinal canal
that made Carrara suppose that it communicated with the luminous ap-
paratus ; but with the exception of the alternate dilatation of this con-
duit, we find no bubble of air throughout its whole extent. The phos- .
phorescent organ is even separated from the intestines by a cushion of
white fat, which can be easily raised, when we get a view of this organ,
the colour of which is sulphur-yellow. On the two penultimate segments,
and partially even on that which precedes them, we notice a multi-
tude of tracheal ramifications converging, and these, when examined
with the glass, appear to consist of round corpuscles closely pressed
against each other, in such a way that the whole presents some resem-
blance to the electrical organ of the Torpedo, although I am unable to
determine the degree of resemblance that may exist between the two
organs. Ifa stronger magnifying power be used, we notice in the lumin-
ous part regular series of brownish corpuscles, having a silvery white
point in the middle, which, seen with a still higher magnifying power,
presents itself under the appearance of small ramifications. When a
compound microscope is used, we then distinctly see that the whole or-
gan consists of a regular bed of small spheres, into which the tracheal
ramifications penetrate, and then spread themselves in the most elegant
manner, forming, so to speak, the skeleton. Besides that, we see deve-
loped in this delicate membrane of small spheres a quantity of molecules,
to which is attached the luminous extremity ; the latter, by means of the
considerable interlacement of aérial vessels, may receive an enormous
quantity of air at once.
The luminous substance itself is of a yellow colour; the intensity of
the light is in the direct ratio of the change of the yellow colour of the
organ, which can be easily shewn when we bring the latter in contact
with water. I was unable to trace the progress of the nervous system in
it, because the principal branch consisted of a filet of extreme tenuity.
It must not be here supposed that we witness, in these spheres pro-
ducing the phosphorescence, a transformation of the ordinary corpuscles
of the fatty matter, for the former are completely different from the lat-
ter, as well in respect of form as of colour ; the same in all their contours,
such as they are observed by the microscope ; but it appears to me likely
that the principal matter entering into their structure, independently of
the ramifications of the trachez, is a fatty matter, and that it is to the
latter the luminous and phosphorescent substance is attached.
It therefore appears to me demonstrated, says M. Peters in conclusion,
that the luminous organ in Lampyris Italica, has the most intimate rela-
tion with the organs of respiration ; but I cannot determine if this is
equally the case with the sexual organs.” *
* From L’Institut. No, 432, p. 127, where the paper is translated from
Archiv. fiir Physiol., &c., 1841, p. 229.
Spun)
On Coral Islands and Reefs, as described by Mr Darwin. By
Cuartes Macraren, Esq., F.R.S.E.*
Coral islands are one of the wonders of Natural History.
That masses of rock, many leagues in extent, should be founded
in the depths of the ocean, and built up to the height of hun-
dreds of feet, by minute animalcule scarcely visible to the
naked eye, is a phenomenon calculated to stagger the unlearned,
and which even philosophers were slow to believe. The struc-
ture and arrangement of the mineral masses thus produced,
are not less singular than their origin, and present problems
whieh have puzzled and divided men of science. An excellent
work on the latter branch of the subject has been recently
published by Mr Charles Darwin, in which this able naturalist
has condensed and systematized his own observations and those
of his predecessors, and, for the first time, presented us with a
complete view of these singular objects. The facts have led
him to some new and highly curious conclusions bearing on
the past and future physical history of the globe. An outline
of these may not be without interest.
Corals—What they are.—The term coral includes two objects
—the animal, called the Polype or Polypifer, and the tenement
in which it lodges, called the Polypidom, or, more usually, the
“Coral.” The solid massive corals, which form reefs and islands,
are chiefly found in tropical seas, and it is of these we mean
to speak.
Polypes cannot live unless constantly immersed in water,
or beaten by the surf: even a short exposure to the sun
kills them; and hence the reefs they build terminate below
the surface, sometimes one or two feet, sometimes several
fathoms. Different species inhabit different depths. Some
slender branching corals are found living (that is, tenanted
by living animaleule) at the depth of a thousand feet; but
the massive corals which constitute reefs, do not exist at a
greater depth than 20 or 30 fathoms; and there are species
which delight in the surf, and carry on their labours amidst
breakers which would swamp a boat. All the varieties included
in coral reefs are not known with certainty. Those found
near the top by Mr Darwin were the Porite and Millepore,
* This Article is slightly abridged from the original.
VOL. XXX1Y. NO. LXvi1.—sanuary 1843, c
34 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
and ata greater depth the Madrepore and Astrea are believed
to exist. On the exterior margin of the reef at the surface,
the Porites were in irregularly rounded masses from four to
eight feet broad, nearly of equal thickness, and divided from
each other by narrow crooked channels about six feet deep.
Other parts of the reef were composed of thick vertical plates
(Millepora complanata), intersecting each other at various angles,
and “forming an exceedingly strong honeyeombed mass.”’
Between these plates and in protected crevices, a multitude of
branching corals live, and the lagoon is inhabited by_a distinct
set of corals, generally brittle and thinly branched. The
Nulliporz, which have no visible cells, and though resembling
corals, are supposed to be plants, occasionally cover the
Porites and Millipores up to the level of high water.
Coral Reefs and Atolls.—These reefs are submarine rocks of
coral, usually ascending so near to the surface of the sea that
their existence is indicated to the navigator by breakers. They
are found remote from land, are in vast numbers, and often of
great extent, and generally affect an irregularly circular form,
haying a pool of comparatively still water in the middle, called
a lagoon. Storms throw up masses of broken coral upon them,
which accumulate to the depth of some feet above high-water,
forming chains of islets along the reef. The whole reef in this
condition is called a “‘ lagoon island,” or more conveniently an
“ atoll,” a word borrowed from the South Sea islanders. Some
reefs have many islands upon them, some have few, and some
have none.
A coral reef may be defined a wall or mound of coral rock,
built up in the ocean from a considerable depth, and generally
returning into itself, so as to form a ring, with a sheet of still
water in the interior. ‘“ Every one,” says Mr Darwin, ‘“ must
be struck with astonishment when he first. beholds one of these
vast rings of coral rock, often many leagues in diameter, here
and there surmounted by a low verdant island with dazzling
white shores, bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers
of the ocean, and on the inside surrounding a calm expanse of
water, which, from reflection, is of a bright but pale green
colour.” The wall of coral rock forming the ring, is generally
from a furlong to half a mile in breadth, averaging about a
quarter of a mile. In one rare case it is three miles. The
described by Mr Darwin. 35
diameter of the atoll, or circle formed by the reef, varies from
less than one mile to 30 or 40. There is one 50 miles in length
by 20 in breadth; so that, if the ledge of coral rock forming
the ring were extended in one line, it would be 120 miles in
length. Assuming it to be a quarter of a mile in breadth, and
150 feet deep, here is a mound compared with which the walls
of Babylon, the great wall of China, or the Pyramids of Egypt,
are but children’s toys—and built too, amidst the waves of the
ocean, and in defiance of its storms, which sweep away the
most solid works of man.
The wall of coral is generally breached in one or more places ;
and when the breaches are deep enough to admit a ship, the
atoll affords a convenient and safe harbour.
Some of the atolls are perfect circles. The external side of
the reef often plunges to a depth of 200 or 300 fathoms, at an
angle of 45 degrees or more. At Cardoo Atoll no bottom was
found with a line of 200 fathoms (1200 feet), at the distance
of 60 yards from the reef. The internal side, on the other
hand, shelves gradually towards the centre of the lagoon, form-
ing a saucer-shaped cavity, the depth of which varies from one
fathom to fifty. In no instance has it been found entirely
filled up. Beyond the line where the coral ceases to grow, the
bottom of the lagoon consists of rolled fragments of it, or a
whitish mud consisting chiefly of the same substance in a com-
minuted state. Much of this mud is supposed to be produced
by certain species of fish and molluscous animals which browse
upon the coral; grinding it down to fine meal, part of which
will pass from them and be deposited by the water. From
this description it will be seen that an atoll closely resembles
in form the cone of a submarine volcano, the coral reef repre-
senting the rim, the lagoon occupying precisely the place of
the crater.
The islets formed on these reefs are very singular objects.
In storms, the sea throws up fragments of coral, sometimes
mixed with sand. The outer and lowest stratum of this mat-
ter, which is bathed by the sea at high tide, is sometimes con-
verted into a brecciated coral rock by caleareous infiltrations
from the water. Above this, and generally at the distance of
200 or 300 yards from the outer margin of the reef, the loose
fragments cast up in strong gales, mixed occasionally with sand
36 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
and shells, accumulate till they form a bank rising from six to
twelve feet above high water, with the highest side towards
the sea, from which the surface slopes inward to the lagoon.
The ordinary width of these islets is under a quarter of a mile,
and their length varies from a few yards to several miles.
In the above cut, No. 1 is a plan of Keeling Atoll, in 8. latitude 12°.,
and E. longitude 96.54°, the structure of which Mr Darwin examined
with peculiar care.
a,d,b, r, i,t, f, the coral reef; the scale being + of an inch to the mile,
the largest diameter of the atoll is 9 miles, and the shortest 7.
N, the lagoon, which, a little northward of the centre, is 8 fathoms
deep, as marked in thefigure. The part south of the dotted line is nearly
dry at low water.
i, t, the dark space here on the surface of the reef, is a long narrow
islet of an irregular figure. There are other two between b and ; smaller
ones at f, d, and a; and others of very minute size between f and ¢.
There is a wide breach in the reef between 6 and d, and a narrower one.
between d and a, either of which admits a ship.
described by Mr Darwin. 37
The island abounds in cocoa trees, sprung from nuts brought
by the currents of the ocean from Sumatra or Java, 600 miles
distant. Turtles browse on the sea-weeds which grow in the
lagoon. The islands are inhabited, and these two articles sup-
ply the people with food. What is singular, fresh water is ob-
tained from wells which ebb and flow with the tides. Mr Dar-
win thinks that the rain water being specifically lighter than
the salt, keeps floating on its surface, and is subject to the
same movements.
Barrier Reefs— Besides the atolls, which have merely a sheet
of water in the interior, there are many reefs in the Pacific
and Indian Oceans which encirele one or more islands of pri-
mary, secondary, or volcanic rock. To these Mr Darwin gives
the name of ‘‘ barrier reefs,” and the water which separates the
islands from the reef is called “‘ the lagoon channel.” These
reefs resemble the others inall respects. They support scattered
lineal islets; they are pierced by breaches ; their exterior sides
are steep and deep, while their interior are shallow and slope
gently. Fig. 2. represents one of these (Maurua) on the same
scale as the last.
1, f, the reef, with two long narrow islets at its northern end, and some
smaller ones at other parts.
N, the lagoon channel. The narrow entrance on its south side ha
from four to five fathoms of water.
L, an island 2 miles long, and 800 feet high in the lagoon.
In this instance, the lagoon channel, separating the island
from the reef, is of small depth and narrow, the breadth rang-
ing from a furlong to a mile; but in other cases, it is 20 miles
broad and 60 fathoms deep ; and, instead of one or two islands,
almost filling the lagoon (as at Raiatea), there are sometimes
four, six, or more, of small size, forming mere spots init. This
is exemplified at Hogoleu and Gambier Islands. There are
two very remarkable barrier reefs known. The first is that
which runs along the north-east coast of Australia 1000 miles
in length. It is divided from the land by a lagoon channel
from 10 to 30 miles broad, and from 10 to 60 fathoms deep.
The other runs parallel to the shores of New Caledonia for a
length of 400 miles. It accompanies the shores for 250 miles,
and continues for 150 miles more in the same direction, afford-
ing presumptive evidence that the island has a submarine pro-
38 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
longation of this extent. At some places it is but a few yards
from the island ; at others it is 20 miles ; and so steep was its ex-
terior side found to be in one instance, that at two ship-lengths
from the reef no bottom was found with a line of 900 feet.
Double and triple Atolls.—There are small atolls sometimes
placed in elliptical rows, with a sheet of water in the centre,
and thus becoming constituent parts of a large atoll. This is
shewn at fig. 8, where 14 small atolls, each with its little
lagoon, are so arranged as to form one large atoll, with a large
lagoon, N, in its centre. The figure is ideal, but we have an
example in the Maldiva Archipelago, where the combination
is carried a stage higher. This group extends over a space of
470 miles in length by 50 in breadth, and forms, as it were,
three orders of atolls. First, you have a hundred of these
little reefs, with pools in the centre, so disposed as to form one
large atoll, 50 or 60 miles long, by 10 or 15 broad, with a
lagoon 25 fathoms deep. Next, twenty of these large atolls
of the second order, are arranged in the shape of a narrow
ellipse, so as to form one vast atoll of the third order, 470
miles in length by 50 in breadth, with a lagoon in the interior
of unfathomable depth.
The atolls and barrier reefs are dispersed in great numbers
over the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Are they the remnants
of a former continent which has disappeared, or is disappearing,
from that vast watery waste ’—or are they the harbingers of a
new continent which is coming into existence? These are the
questions which Mr Darwin has discussed with great learning
and ingenuity.
Fringing Reefs—The third form in which coral-reefs pre-
sent themselves is, that of Pringing Reefs, the difference be-
tween which and the other two must be pointed out. “ Atolls”
are rings of coral-rock, rising nearly to the surface of the
sea, with or without islets of drifted coral generally having a
great depth of water on the outside, and a lagoon from 5 to
50 fathoms deep in the centre. ‘* Barrier reefs” are exactly
similar, except that they encircle one or more islands of sedi-
mentary or volcanic rock, from which they are divided by a
lagoon-channel, which, like the lagoons of the atolls, is gene-
rally from 5 to 50 fathoms deep. “ Fringing reefs” resemble
barrier reefs, except that they have a comparatively small
Described by Mr Darwin. 39
depth of water on the outside, and small shallow lagoon chan-
nels between them and the land. They are generally found
in seas that shelve gradually. The distinction between the
last two classes of reefs has reference chiefly to theoretical
considerations, as will be shewn by and by.
Theory of Atolls—Land that has subsided or is subsiding.—
It must be kept in mind, as already stated, that reef-building
corals do not live at a greater depth than 20 or 30 fathoms,
or, to take the extreme in round numbers, say 200 feet. This
fact is of fundamental importance in reference to every theory
of coral reefs.
1. The earliest opinion was, that these reefs were built up
in the ocean from unfathomable depths. But this is at once
disposed of by the fact just stated.
2. At amore recent period some naturalists, struck by the
generally circular form of the reefs, and the steepness of their
exterior sides in many instances, supposed that they were
based on the eraters of submarine volcanoes. To this idea
there is the conclusive objection, that it does not apply to long
narrow reefs like Bow Atoll, 30 miles by 6, or Menchikoft
Atoll 60 miles in length, or the larger rings, composed of
smaller rings, of the Maldives. That submarine craters, if
they reached the proper height, would afford fit foundations
for atolls, is probable, and such may exist; but that all the
numerous atolls scattered over the ocean rest on such a basis
is inadmissible.
3. It has been supposed that the atolls rest on the sum-
mits of the submarine mountains. But this fails in explain-
ing the existence of those which appear in groups. The low
Archipelago, for instance, contains 80 atolls, scattered over a
space of 840 geographical miles by 420, and not a single
island of ordinary rock. How can we believe that a chain or
group of mountains extending over such a vast area had 80
summits, all reaching within less than 200 feet of the surface,
and not one rising above it? And this is not a solitary case ;
for the objection applies equally to the Gilbert group, 300 miles
in length; the Marshall group, 520 miles by 240; and the
Maldive and Lacadive group, 1000 miles in length by 100 in
breadth—none of which contain a single island of any other
40 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
material than drifted coral, resting on the edge of the sub-
marine reef. The argument holds equally good against the
hypothesis of submarine craters; for so many hundreds of
these could not approach within a few fathoms of the surface,
without some of them rising above it.
4. Banks of sediment might (as some suppose) serve for a
basis to atolls in shallow seas; but to assume the existence of
hundreds of such banks of moveable matter in the profound
depths of the ocean, is absurd ; and it is positively disproved
in the case of those atolls whose exterior sides are steeper
than the cone of a volcano, descending, as some of them do, at
an angle of 40 or 50 degrees.
The theory adopted, whatever it is, should also explain the
existence of barrier reefs, which are analogous to atolls in every
point, except that of having solid land within them. How, for
instance, on any of the theories proposed, are we to account
for the great barrier reef of Australia, with 60 fathoms of
water even on its inner side, and descending on its outer side
to unfathomable depths at a high angle? Are we to assume
that there is a submarine precipice here 1000 miles in length,
on which it rests.
The only hypothesis, Mr Darwin observes, which solves all dif-
Jiculties, is that which assumes that the atolls rest on land which
has subsided, and part of which was once dry. Detached atolls
far from others, may stand on submarine rocks which have un-
dergone no change of position; but those found in groups
mark the site of land which has subsided. In short, the atolls,
according to Mr Darwin’s theory, may be regarded as the ves-
tiges or foot-prints of land which has disappeared ; and the islands,
encircled by barrier reefs, as remnants of land now partly submer-
ged, and perhaps in progress towards final disappearance.
As the coral animalculz do not live at a greater depth than
200 feet, it follows that all reefs, however deep, must have
begun in shallow seas ; in other words, they must have heen
originally of the nature of ‘ Fringing Reefs.”
Let us suppose an island 350 feet high to exist in the tro-
pical seas. The animalcule commence their labours on some
spot, and at a distance from the shore, as turbid water is per-
nicious to them. But since they cannot exist at more than
described by Mr Darwin. 41
200 feet beneath the surface, they are checked in their pro-
gress seaward, and therefore continue their work to the right
or left, keeping always within the requisite depth; and thus
their instinct guides them to form the reef in the shape of a
girdle round the island, following the sinuosities of its shores,
keeping nearer them where the water deepens rapidly, and
farther off where it deepens slowly. Here we have a reason
why reefs may be circular, oblong, or of any other form which
islands assume. Mr Darwin’s plates of Raiatea and Vanikoro
are good examples of the manner in which reefs adapt them-
selves to the outline of the islands they encircle.
The little architects carry up their fabric to the level of the
low water line, and there they stop. Suppose the island now
to subside 200 feet, either suddenly or slowly. They then
commence a new fabric on the top of the old, and again carry
it up to the low water level. But the island itself, besides
losing 200 feet of height, is contracted in breadth from its
low shores being covered with water; the channel between it
and the reef becomes broader and deeper; and the reef hay-
ing its basis at a depth beyond that where living coral exists
becomes a “ barrier reef.”
Suppose the island to subside other 200 feet. A third fa-
brie of coral now rises on the top of the second, till the reef
again reaches the low water level. But the island itself has
disappeared, and the lagoon which occupies its place, with the
encircling reef, now forms an “ atoll.”
The subjoined figures illustrate what has been stated, and
shew the process by which a ‘‘Fringing reef” passes into a
“Barrier reef,’ and a barrier reef into an “ Atoll.”
| First Stage—The Fringing reef.
aba—A section of an island, roughly copied from one given by Mr
Darwin.
S 1—The surface of the sea.
ry r—A fringing reef formed within a small distance of its shores.
A2 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
Second Stage—The Barrier reef.
a b a—The island haying subsided 200 feet, is now more than halfsub-
merged ; but its double summit is still visible.
S 2—The surface of the sea in its second position.
The fringing reef now raised to the level of S 2, forms 7”, a “ Barrier
The small gutter which divided the reef from the island, is enlarged to
the wider and deeper cavity n n, and forms a “ lagoon channel.”
Lis 72 ae Ae Are
0 ee
Third Stage—The Atoll.
a b a—The island having subdivided other 200 feet, is now completely
submerged.
S 3—The sea in its third position.
The barrier reef having 200 feet added to its height, now rises to r 7.
A broad lagoon n, now occupies the place of the island, and the reef
becomes an “ Atoll.”
Mr Darwin endeavoured to collect some positive evidence
of subsidence in the islands, but it is not very satisfactory.
Geology, however, renders it certain that some portions of the
earth’s surface have sunk to a lower level. The subsidence
assumed, therefore, involves no inconsistency ; and it enables
us to account for the otherwise puzzling fact, that though corals
do not live at a greater depth than 200 feet, yet numerous
reefs are found 1000 feet or more in depth, the basis of which,
as the steepness of their sides attest, can scarcely consist of
any thing else than coral.
It explains also the appearance of the atolls in groups.
Suppose a tropical island, like Ireland in size, to sink under
the waves by slow stages. The hills being of different heights,
the corals would begin their work on those first submerged—
that is, the lowest—and new reefs would be founded succes-
sively on the higher ones as they descended, one after another,
described by Mr Darwin. 43
to the proper depth. When the whole island had disappeared,
a group of isolated atolls, scattered over a space of 250 miles
by 150, would mark the place it occupied, and indicate its
figure. All the atolls would be built up to the level of low
water; and while the last founded might be only two or three
fathoms deep, the first might be two or three hundred. In
this way, the lower hills might have their representative reefs
as well as the higher, though the creatures that construct them
can work only at limited depths.
Again, if the principle be correct, we would expect to find
occasionally an unsubmerged remnant of land (an island), ac-
companied with Jarrier reefs, in a region where subsidence was
going on, that is, amidst a group of atolls. Now, this occurs
in the Caroline Archipelago, and one or two other places.
Moreover, as the conditions necessary to the life of corals
(which are imperfectly known) may cease at some spots where
they once existed, we might also expect (admitting the prin-
ciple of subsidence) to find reefs, in which the coral being dead,
could not raise itself to the low water level. Such a case is
met with in the Great Chagos Bank, 90 miles by 70. It has
a border from 5 to 10 fathoms under water, a second border,
or inner ledge, about 16 fathoms under water, and its central
parts, consisting of mud, are from 40 to 50 fathoms deep. It
is conceived to be “a half-drowned atoll.”
In New Caledonia, as Mr Darwin observes, we seem to wit-
ness the effects of subsidence in actual progress. It is an
island 200 miles in length by 45 in breadth, quite straight,
and consisting of a single ridge of mountains. Now, the coral
reefs, which run parallel to its shores on the two sides, instead
of turning round the north end and uniting, as we would ex-
pect, continue in their original north-west direction for 150
miles beyond it in the open sea. The most probable explana-
tion of this anomaly is, that the reefs, in their northern pro-
longation, accompany a part of the ridge, which, owing to the
island having subsided, is now submarine, but consisted of dry
land at an earlier period when the reefs were founded. The
reefs, in short, follow the ancient line of the shore, a large
part of which is now under water, and the process of submer-
gence is perhaps still going on. .
Lands recently raised, or still rising from the ocean.—While
44 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
ancient lands have sunk under the waves in some parts of the
Indian and Pacific Oceans, Mr Darwin thinks that new lands
have risen, or are rising, in others. The corals furnish the
evidence of the latter change as well as the former.
As all corals are formed in the sea, it follows that when we
find them in stu on dry land, they afford distinct proof of the
land having been upraised. Now, coral banks are found in
most of the Sandwich Islands many yards above the sea. In
one they form three strata, each 10 feet thick. In Oahu,
Mr Pierce, an intelligent European who has lived there six-
teen years, is convinced that elevation is at present going on
“at avery perceptible rate.’ Elizabeth Island (S. lat. 24,
W. long. 129) 80 feet high, is entirely composed of coral. Five
of the “Cook and Austral” islands (S. lat. 20, W. long. 160) are
of coral rock. The sixth Mangaia, 300 feet high, is, with the
exception of a little basalt, entirely of coral ; and having a flat
top with a lagoon-shaped cavity in it, is evidently an upraised
atoll. Tongataboo, one of the Friendly Isles, is entirely of
coral; Eoua and Vavyao, in this group, the former 200 or 300
feet high, are of the same substance. Anamouka, another, 20
or 30 feet high, with a salt-water lake in the middle, is, in
truth, an atoll, only a very little elevated. Savage Island, 40
feet high (south-east of the Friendly group), exhibits tree-
shaped corals still unbroken, a proof that its elevation is recent.
In the Navigators’ group (S. lat. 14, W. long. 170) large frag-
ments of coral were found on a steep hill at the height of 80
feet, embedded in a base of decomposed lava and sand. On
the new Hebrides (S. lat. 18, E. long. 168), coral, secmingly of
recent origin, is found at a great altitude. New Ireland (S.
lat. 4, E. long. 153), which belongs to the Salomon group, pre-
sents beds of madreporite rock, with the corals little altered,
forming a newer line of coast modelled round an ancient one.
In the Mariana group (N. lat. 15, E. long. 146), a succession of
cliffs of madreporite limestone present themselves. In the
great circular chain of islands extending from the Bay of Ben-
gal to Japan, embracing Sumatra, Java, Timor, Ceram, the
Philippines, and Loo Choo, corals or beds of sea-shells at
considerable heights, afford abundant evidence of elevation ;
but for details we refer to Mr Darwin’s book. Where reefs
occur on the shores of these islands, they are fringing reefs,
described by Mr Darwin. 45
indicating either that the shores are stationary, or that they
are now rising.
Mr Darwin went painfully over every work in which any
account of coral reefs was to be found, and marked by colours
on a map to which of the three classes they belonged—of
“ fringing reefs,” “ barrier reefs,” or “ atolls.”” On classifying
them in this way, the following general facts arrested his at-
tention :—
1. They are not mingled indiscriminately, but generally those
of each class appear in groups, spread over a considerable area,
2. Where they are mingled, the barrier reefs and atolls,
both of which indicate subs¢dence, are found together.
3. On the other hand, fringing reefs and coral beds on terra
Jirma, indicating that the land is either stationary or uprising,
are generally found together.
4. Active volcanoes, the agents of elevation, are numerous
in the stationary or wprising groups, and, except in a very few
cases, are absent from the subsiding groups.
Mr Darwin was thus led to conclude that the ocean contains
areas of elevation and areas of subsidence ; in other words, that
in some parts its bottom is sinking, and burying ancient lands
under the waves ; while in others, it is rising, and unveiling to
us the germs of future islands and continents. Let us pursue
this idea into a few details.
The Maldive and Lacadive Atolls and Great Chagos Bank,
probably mark the former existence of an island extending
1500 miles from north to south, or equal in length to Britain,
France, and Spain united.
In the Caroline Archipelago, northward of New Britain, we
have perhaps the traces of a second island of similar size, of
which two or three small portions are still above water ; in the
Marshall, and Gilbert, and Ellice groups, traces of a third ;
in the Society Isles and Low Archipelago, a few remnants of a
fourth ; and in the Fidgi Islands, remnants of a fifth. According
to the theory also, New Caledonia and the north-east coast of
Australia have subsided, and may still be subiding.
On the other hand, Sumatra, Java, Sumba, Timor, with Gil-
olo, the Philippines, Formosa, and Loo Choo, which abound in
active voleanoes, and perhaps also Borneo and Celebes, belong
to the category of uprising lands. If we suppose that the ele-
46 Mr Maclaren on Coral Islands and Reefs, as
vatory movement is still proceeding, its ultimate result, some
thousand years hence, may be to unite that vast chain of
islands to one another, and to the continent of Asia, by the pe-
ninsula of Malacca on the one side, and the eastern coast of
China on the other, converting the Chinese sea into a vast in-
land lake. Further eastward, the Salomon Isles, which are
also uprising, may be united into one narrow ridge, 500 miles
long ; and the New Hebrides, Sandwich Isles, and Navigators’
Isles, may undergo a similar change. For other examples we
refer to the work.
This theory explains the phenomena under consideration
better than any other which has been proposed, and it is not
at variance with the principles of geology, which teach us,
that some parts of the crust of the globe are rising, and others
subsiding at the present day. It seems to us, however, that
it is attended with difficulties, of which some are perhaps ap-
parent but others are real.
First, The anomalous facts are rather numerous. An in-
spection of the map shews that atolls and barrier reefs occur
in “areas of elevation,” and fringing reefs and volcanoes in
“ areas of subsidence,” unless we confine these areas within
very narrow limits. We grant, however, that this objection
may admit of an answer. For instance, in an area that is
rising, corals may take root upon a subaqueous rock or bank
when it comes within less than 200 feet of the surface, and
raise upon it an atoll. Again, a volcano like that of Monte
Nuovo, near Naples, may break out in an area that is station-
ary or subsiding; and thus the indications of elevation and
subsidence may be found intermingled.
Secondly, If the theory is correct, we would expect to find
in areas of elevation, fringing reefs in a great variety of stages
—some 2 or 3 feet above low water, some 2 or 3 yards,
some with the lagoon channel almost, and others with it al-
together, obliterated. That there are examples of this transi-
tion from the fringing reef to the coral rock on dry land, and
that corals are found at considerable heights, we do not deny ;
but they occur, in our opinion, much more rarely than they
ought to do, considering that the areas supposed to be upris-
ing are of great extent, and many of them often visited and
well known.
described by Mr Darwin, 47
Thirdly, What seems to us the most serious objection to the
theory, remains to be stated. On the outside of coral reefs
very highly inclined, no bottom is sometimes found with a line
of 2000 or 3000 feet, and this is by no means a rare Case.
Tt follows that the reef ought to have this thickness ; and Mr
Darwin’s diagrams, pages 48 and 98, shew that he understood
it so. Now, if such masses of coral exist under the sea, they
ought somewhere to be found on éerra firma ; for there is evi-
dence that all the lands yet visited by geologists have been at
one time submerged. But neither in the great voleanic chain,
extending from Sumatra to Japan, nor in the West Indies,
nor in any other region yet explored, has a bed or formation
of coral, even 500 feet thick, been discovered, so far as we know.
We state this objection, not as conclusive against the theory,
but as one deserving the able and ingenious author’s consider-
ation.
Spesaietien) od falig WNW Soe) eee eee
Remarks on the preceding paper, in a@ Letter from CHARLES
Darwin, Esq., to Mr Macraren.
Down near Broomley, Kent.
Dear Sir,—I have been so much pleased with the very clear, and, at the
same time, in many points quite original manner in which you have stated
and explained my views, that I cannot refrain from troubling you with my
thanks. Your third objection appears to me much the most, indeed the
only, formidable one, which has hitherto occurred to me. I fear I shall
be tempted to reply to it at great length, but perhaps sometime you will
find leisure to read my attempted vindication. With respect to the first
objection, I can hardly admit that we know enough of the laws of ele-
vation and subsidence to argue against the theory, because the areas of
different movements are not more distinct. Some have been startled at
my view on directly the reverse grounds to your objection, viz. that,
according to their notions of probability, the areas of the same movements
were too large and uniform. With respect to your second objection, all
those who believe that exceedingly slow and gradual elevations are the
order of nature, must admit a great amount of contemporaneous denuda-
tion, which would tend to annihilate the characteristic form of the fring-
ing-reefs during their upheaval, and leave merely a coating on the upraised
land of coral-rock either thicker or thinner, according to the original thick-
ness, rate of growth of the reef at each successive level, and the rate of
elevation ; indeed I am surprised that there exists even one case, viz. at
Mauritius, where the peculiar moat-like structure of a mere fringing-reef
has been partially preserved on dry land.
Your third criticism strikes me as a very weighty and perplexing one.
48 Mr Darwin on Coral Reefs.
It had passed through my head, but I had not considered it with nearly
the attention it deserved, otherwise Iassuredly would have noticed it in my
volume. [had always intended to examine the limestone formations of Eng-
land for comparison, but was prevented by bad health ; I was, however, led
away from the subject, and baffled when I consulted published accounts, for
the limestones all appeared to be uniformly spread out, andmost, if not allof
them, to be associated with layers of earthy matter, whereas a formation
of the nature of a group of atolls, would consist of separate large patches
of calcareous rock, which would be quite pure.—I was thus led from the
subject, and did not reflect on their want of thickness. The want of thick-
ness, however, in any limestone formation, until it be first shewn to be
analogous in structure, form, and composition, to a barrier-reef, an atoll
or group of atolls, evidently cannot be brought forward as any argument
against the theory of the long-continued subsidence of reefs of these
classes. During the elevation of all reefs in open seas, I think there can
be no doubt (as is dwelt on at p. 117, 3d. vol.) that a considerable thick-
ness of the exterior would be denuded, and the only parts preserved would
be those which had accumulated in lagoons or lagoon-channels ; these
would be chiefly sedimentary, and in some cases might contain (p. 117)
scarcely any coral ; within barrier-reefs such beds would often be associated
with much earthy sediment. Mr Lyell, in a note just received, in which he
alludes to your criticisms, speaks of the limestones of the Alps and Pyre-
nees, as being of enormous thickness, namely, about 4000 feet. Ido not
know what their composition is, but I have no doubt that the strata now
accumulating within the barrier-reef of Australia and New Caledonia, are
chiefly formed of horizontal layers of calcareous sediment and not of coral.
I suspect that denudation has acted on a far grander scale than in
merely peeling the outsides of upraised reefs. My theory leads me to infer
that the areas, where groups of atolls and barrier-reefs stand, have sub-
sided to agreat amount and over a wide space. Nowit appears to me pro-
bable, thata subterranean change, producing a directly opposite movement,
namely, a great and widely extended elevation, would be extremely slow,
and would be interrupted by long periods of rest, and perhaps of oscil-
lation of level. When I think of the denudation along the fault, which goes
across the northern carboniferous counties of England, where 1000 feet of
strata have been smoothed away ; when I think how commonly volcanic
islands, formed of very hard rock, are eaten back in cliffs from 100 or 200 to
800 or 1000 feet in height, I hardly see where we can stop, with respect to
the probable limits of erosion on the comparatively soft, generally cavernous,
tabular, though wide, masses of coral rock, standing exposed in great oceans
during very slow changes of level. Most of the atolls which have been
raised a few hundred feet are mere wrecks, and at the Friendly Archipelago
where there are upraised atolls, there are large irregular reefs, also, which I
have always thought were probably the basal vestiges of worn down atolls.
Many submerged reefs, which may have had this same origin, occur out-
side the line of elevation of the Salomon and New Hebrides archipelagoes.
The great steepness of the shores of upraised reefs (p. 65. Ehrenberg
quoted, and p. 51.) would probably be unfavourable to the growth of new
7
Mr Darwin on Coral Reefs. 49
reefs, and therefore to the protection afforded by them. I can conceive
it very possible, that should, at some period, as far in futurity as the
secondary rocks are in the past, the bed of the Pacific, with its atolls and
barrier reefs, be raised in reefs, by an elevation of some thousand feet, and
be conyerted into a continent, that scarcely any, or none of the existing
reefs would be preserved ; but only widely spread beds of calcareous
matter derived from their wear and tear. As a corollary from this, I sus-
pect that the reefs of the secondary periods (if any, as is probable, existed),
have been ground into sand, and no longer exist. This notion will cer-
tainly at first appear preposterous ; its only justification lies in the proba-
bility of upward movements after long periods of subsidence, being exceed-
ingly slow and often interrupted by pauses of rest, and perhaps of oscilla-
tions of land, during all which the soft coral rock would be exposed to the
action of waves never at rest.
This notion, preposterous as it will probably appear, would not have
occurred to me, had I not several times, from independent reasons, been
driven to the conclusion, that a formation to be preserved to a very dis-
tant cera (or which probably is the same thing, to be elevated to a great
height from its original level over a wide avea) must be of great extent,
and must be covered by a great thickness of superincumbent matter in
order to escape the chances of denudation. I have come to this conclu-
sion chiefly from considering the character of the deposits of the long
series of formations piled one upon another, in Europe, with evidence
of land near many of them. Ican explain my meaning more clearly
by looking to the future; it scarcely seems probable, judging from
what I see of the ancient parts of the crust of the earth, that any of
the numerous sub-littoral formations (%. e. deposits formed along and
near shores, and not of great width or breadth), now accumulating on
most parts of the shores of Europe (and indeed of the whole world), al-
though, no doubt, many of them must be of considerable thickness, will
be preserved to a period as far in the future, as the lias or chalk are in
the past, but that only those deposits of the present day will be preserved
which are accumulating over a wide area, and which shall hereafier chance
to be protected by successive thick deposits. I should think that most of the
sublittoral deposits of the present day will suffer, what I conclude the
sublittoral formations of the secondary eras have generally suffered,
namely, denudation. Now, barrier and atoll coral reefs, though, accord-
ing to my theory, of great thickness, are, in the above sense, not widely
extended ; and hence I conclude they will suffer, as I suspect ancient
coral reefs have suffered—the same fate with sublittoral deposits.
With respect to the vertical amount of subsidence, requisite by my
theory to have produced the spaces coloured blue on the map, more facts
regarding the average heights of islands and tracts of Jand are wanted
than all those, even if perfectly known, which this one world of ours
would afford ; for the question of the probable amount, or, which is the
same thing, the probable thickness of the coral-recf, resolves itself into
this,—W hat is the ordinary height of tracts of land, or groups of islands
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVII—Janvuary 1845. D
50 Mr James Thomson on an Improved Tilting Apparatus
of the size of the existing groups of atolls (excepting as many of the high-
est islands or mountains in such groups, as there usually occur of “ en-
circled islands” in groups of atolls)? and likewise what is the ordinary
height of the single scattered islands between such groups of islands >—=
subsidence sufficient to bury all these islands (with the above exception)
my theory absolutely requires, but no more. In my volume, I rather
vaguely concluded that the atolls, which are studded in so marvellous a
manner over wide spaces of ocean, marked the spots where the moun-
tains of a great continent lay buried, instead of merely separate tracts of
land or mountainous islands ; and I was thus led to speak somewhat more
strongly than warranted, of the probable vertical amount of subsidence
in the areas in question.
Mr Lyell in the note alluded to, thinks we are much too irnorant of
intra-tropical geology (and ignorant enough we certainly are) to «firm
that calcareous rocks of the supposed thickness of coral reefs, do not
occur. I am inclined to lay considerable stress on this. I do not expect
the foregoing view will appear at all satisfactory to any one besides my-
self,—I believe, however, there is more in it than mere special pleading.
The case, undoubtedly, is very perplexing ; but I have the confidence to
think, that the theory explains so well many facts, that I shall hold fast
by it, in the face of two or three puzzles, even as good ones as your third
objection. Believe me, my Dear Sir, yours very truly,
Cuartrs Darwin.
Description of an improved Tilting Apparatus for emptying
Waggons at the termini of Railways, Shipping-Places, &c., as
used at the Magheramorne Lime-Works, Ireland. With a
Plate. By James Tuomson, Esq., F.R.S.E., M.R.1A.,
F.R.S.S.A., Civil Engineer, Glasgow. Communicated by
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*
The apparatus may be generally described as consisting of
three parts, viz :—
1st, The cast-iron brackets or quadrants for supporting the
machine, Plate I. aaa.
2d, The tilting-frame upon which the waggon is placed,
6 b,—and
3d, The malleable iron-swings for suspending the frame to
the brackets, ¢ ¢.
The supporting brackets a aa, are bolted to the wooden
frame d d, ofa moveable shipping platform, by means of which
* Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, and working model ex-
hibited, 10th January 1842, and the Society’s Honorary Silyer Medal award-
ed, 14th November 1842,
Hdin. New Pl. Journal.
M® THOMSON’!
fig. 1.
: -Z NS Ui)
a_i =) SY
aa=a=___ SS:
TILTING AP
°
VAXXXIV FlateL Fage F0.
for emptying Waggons at the Termini of Railways, &c. 51
the apparatus is advanced at pleasure, and made to project be-
yond the wharf so as to discharge the waggon immediately
over the hold of a vessel.
The tilting-frame is formed of two cast-iron cheeks or sides,
as shewn in fig. 4, having in each two slots or grooves for at-
taching to the swings, and for adjustment of the apparatus.
These sides of the frame are connected together by two flat
malleable iron stays e e, as representel in fig. 3, with two
bolts in each end, and a light round iron stay f at the curved
ends.
The swings are attached to the frame by means of snubs
9g g, Which are bolted vertically to the lower ends of the swings
and horizontally to the sides of the frame, the bolts passing
through the grooves or slots already mentioned, in which they
are moveable—the upper ends of the swings work upon mal-
leable iron journals fastened in the top of the cast-iron
brackets. When the apparatus is properly adjusted (which
is done by moving the tilting-frame forward or backward
upon the swings by means of the adjusting slots), the waggon,
on taking its position, should be so placed that its centre of
gravity may be slightly in advance of the point of suspension.
The rails to the tilting-frame are laid with a gentle deeli-
vity, so that the waggon may be brought upon it with a slight
impetus just sufficient to set the frame in motion—the waggon
will then immediately fall into a position ready to discharge,
as shewn in fig 2, when by a simple contrivance, which may
be effected in various ways, the door of the waggon is opened
from behind by a handle and connecting-rod communicating
with the door-latch, and the load discharged.
While loaded, the position of the waggon will of itself remain
the same, being in equilibrio; but immediately after it is dis-
charged, and consequently the centre of gravity thrown behind
the point of suspension, the tendency of the waggon is then to
resume the horizontal position, which, however, it is prevented
from doing, by means of the spur /, until completely emptied
—the spur is then disengaged, and the waggon resumes its
level position ready to be removed.
The whole operation of discharging a waggon (of whatever
weight) is effected with perfect safety and facility in a few
seconds, and one very important desileratum is supplied by
52 Mr James Thomson on an Improved Tilting Apparatis.
this apparatus, viz. :—the practicability of discharging waggons
of different dimensions and different sized wheels upon the same
tilting-jrame.
The advantages of the apparatus have been fully tested at
the Magheramorne lime-works in Ireland, where they were first
applied, and have since been in constant operation for the last
three years, discharging waggons of three tons with 24-inch
wheels, and waggons of only 20 ewt. and 20-inch wheels, with
perfect facility and expedition—the cost of each apparatus
not exceeding from £10 to £11 complete.
Rerort of the Committee of the Royal Scottish Society
of Arts, on Mr Thomson's Tilting Apparatus for loaded
Waggons.
Before the termination of the last Session, your Committee
held a meeting to consider the merits of Mr Thomson's im-
proved tilting apparatus, and though they were well satisfied
with the principle on which the apparatus is constructed, in so
far as could be judged from the drawings, yet your Committee
deeming it expedient that they should have a report from the
persons using the machine in the locality named by Mr Thom-
son, deferred coming to a conclusion on the subject, and submit-
ted an interim report. Upon this they were instructed to corre-
Spond with such persons at Magheramorne as might be consider-
ed qualified to give an opinion of the working of the machine.
A correspondence was accordingly opened with Mr Maxwell,
manager of the lime-works at Magheramorne, and the accom-
panying letter, dated 21st October, contains Mr Maxwell’s re-
port of the practical working of the apparatus.
Your Committee have, therefore, now no hesitation in giving
avery favourable opinion of Mr Thomson’s improvements on
this tilting apparatus, and they are the more strongly induced to
report thus favourably, from having lately learned that the im-
proved apparatus is now being introduced upon the coal-wharfs
of the Monkland and other canals; and it is, therefore, humbly
suggested, that Mr Thomson merits the marked approbation of
the Society. All which is humbly reported by your Committee,
James Suicut. Convener,
Edinburgh, 23¢) October 1842.
Professor Traill’s Description of the Elaps Jamesoni. 93
Macuerraworne, 21st October 1842.
Sir,—I am in receipt of your favour of the 17th inst.,
making enquiry in regard to Mr Thomson’s tilting machine,
and in reply, 1 am happy in the opportunity of bearing testimony
to the great value and usefulness of the invention. Five of
them were erected at our works here, about five years ago,
and have been in constant and daily use since, and nothing
could be more admirable than the ease and simplicity with
which they work, or the perfect manner they answer the pur-
pose for which they were intended, and in that time, without
any of them requiring the replacement of almost a single bolt.
Altogether I have seen no apparatus of the kind so well
adapted for loading vessels with coals, limestone, or other
articles of a similar heavy description.—I am, Sir, your
obedient Servant.
Tuo, MaxwELu.
James Suicut, Esq., Edinburgh.
mee i) LSS ee ee
Description of the Hlaps Jamesont, a New Species of Serpent
from Demerara. By Tomas S. Trait, M.D., F.R.S.E.
M.W.S., &e. Communicated by the Author.*
Tuts very elegant serpent was received from Demerara
many years ago, with a collection of other snakes; and ap-
pears to have hitherto escaped the researches of the natural-
ists who have published on the animals of Equinoxial Ame-
rica. I have lately examined it anatomically, and find it pro-
vided with true moveable fangs, and with a gland, not granu-
lar, like the salivary glands of innocuous snakes, but very
much resembling that of our viper, covered with an albugi-
neous tunic, and sending a small but distinct duct to the root
of its fangs. Not having met with a description of this spe-
cies in any work on ophiology, I consider it as an undescribed
species, and propose naming it in honour of the distinguished
Professor of Natural History in this University.
The general form of this serpent, and length of its tail, ap
proximate it to the genus Coluber of M. Schlegel; its physio-
gnomy to his genus Lycodon ; but its fangs, the whole structure
* Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, Dec, 10. 1642.
54 Professor Traill’s Description of the Elaps Jamesoni.
of its mouth, and the fossule in its nasal plates, indicate that
t belongs to the genus Elaps. Perhaps it might form the
type of a new genus of venomous serpents; but unless other
species resembling it be hereafter found, it is better to avoid
the multiplication of genera,—the rage for which has too often
greatly retarded the study of Natural History. Ihave, therefore,
considered it as an Elaps, and beg leaye to designate it
Exars JAMESONI.
The onty specimen which I have seen, and which is in my
possession, measures
Ft. Inches.
From the snout to the anus, : : = 6
From the anus to the extremity of the tail, =1 7.5
Extreme length, . ie las
Circumference of the trunk where thickest, =0 4.5
Length of the head, . : : - —— 1.3
The trunk diminishes towards the neck and tail. The back
is slightly carinated ; the abdomen is large ; the tail tapers gra-
dually ; the scales are lozenge-shaped, smooth, and arranged
in fifteen rows; the scuta are wide, and number 220+108
(the first, as in Schlegel’s work, indicating the abdominal, the
latter the divided caudal scuta). The general colour of the
upper part of the animal is of a bluish-grey; but where the
epidermis has peeled off, the scales are of a brilliant sky-blue.
Each scale on the posterior part of the body, and also on the
whole tail, is edged with deep black; and on the latter they
are, moreover, tipt with the same colour, giving a very ele-
gant appearance to this snake. The general colour of the
under parts of the body is yellowish-white, but the abdominal
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 55
scuta near the anus have their posterior edges black, and the
divided scuta of the tail are deeply edged with the same hue.
The plates protecting the head are nine, of the normal shape ;
the vertical plate is middle-sized; the temporals are rather
large; the occipitals very large; the posterior frontals are
considerably larger than the anterior pair ; the superciliaries
are large; the rostral is rounded, and emarginate below ;
each nasal plate has a sulcus, in which are placed the open,
lateral nostrils; the frenals are wanting. There are four pos-
terior and three anterior orbiter plates. There are eight su-
perior and ten inferior labial plates.
The eye is rather large and prominent; the pupil orbicular.
The fangs are slender, and have a distinct longitudinal fur-
row on their anterior convex surface, as in Schlegel’s first
subdivision of venomous serpents. They are attached to the
maxillary bones, which are, as usual in venomous snakes,
moveable by muscles attached to the pterygoid bones. The
poison-gland, placed at the angle of the jaw, is covered by a
firm albugineous tunic, has a cellular structure, and sends off
a slender poison duct, in the usual manner, to the root of the
fangs.
These particulars are noticed to shew that this serpent
really belongs to the true venomous snakes, not to the Lyco-
dons, with which a superficial view might readily confound it,
as it has several analogies with that genus of harmless ser-
pents.
Epinpurcu University, March 19, 1842.
On the Application of the Hypothesis of M. Venetz to the Er-
ratic Phenomena of the North; a Letter addressed to M.
Macaire, Counsellor of State, by M. Jean de Charpentier.*
Sir—You haye been good enough to take the trouble of
%* From the Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve, No. 78. As we have
all along endeavoured, so far as our space permitted, to convey to our
readers full information respecting glaciers, and the topics more imme-
diately connected with them, we collected, at p. 160 of vol. xxx., references
to the most important papers which had appeared in this Journal on the
subject ; and we now continue that list, premising the titles of some shorter
56 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenemena of the North.
giving in the Libliothéque Universelle de Genéve an account of
my Essai sur les glaciers et le terrain erratique du bassin du
Rhéne.* there remarked with much satisfaction that you
have perused that work with attention, and have completely
understood the ideas which it was my intention to express.
In fact, I think it would be impossible to prepare a better ab-
stract than you have published of a work which, in some mea-
sure, is only a summary of observations. I therefore request
you to accept of my sincere thanks on this account, and also
for all the kind observations regarding me, which, on that oc-
casion, were dictated by your indulgent goodness.
If all my readers had considered the subject with the same
attention and the same sagacity which you have brought to
communications published previously to vol. xxx., but not included in our
former note: Vol. xviii. p. 363, Kl6éden on the Origin of the Erratic Blocks
of the North of Germany. Vol. xxiii. p. 69, Sefstr6m on the Traces of a
vast Aucient Flood (On ésars and Jéittegryttor), Vol. xxiv., p. 438, Von
Baer on the Transported Blocks of the South Coast of Finland. Vol. xxix.
p- 185, On the Origin of Fissures in Glaciers, and on Sefstrém’s Investiga-
tions. Vol. xxx. pp. 160 and 284, Dr Martens on the Glaciers of Spitzber-
gen, compared with those of Switzerland and Norway ; p. 194, Dr Buckland
on the former existence of Glaciers in Scotland; p. 199, Mr Lyell on the
Geological Evidence of the former existence of Glaciers in Forfarshire ;
p. 202, Dr Buckland on the former existence of Glaciers in the North of
England. Vol. xxxi, p. 38, Dr Black on the Antediluyian Congelation of
the Interstitial Water of Rocks; p. 56, Captain Vetch on Icebergs, &c.; p.
77, M. Renoir on the Traces of Ancient Glaciers in Dauphiny and in
Northern Russia ; p. 252, M. Robert on the Grooves and Furrows on the
Rocks of Scandinavia; p. 253, M. Bohtlingk on the Traces of the last Re-
volution in Scandinavia. Vol. xxxii. p. 76, Professor Hitchcock on Glacial
Action, &c., in America ; p. 64, Professor Forbes on a Remarkable Struc-
ture observed by him in the Ice of Glaciers; p. 105, M. Bohtlingk on the
Scratches and Furrows observed on the Rocks of Finland; p. 291, M.
Desor’s Account of an Ascent of the Jungfrau. Vol. xxxili, p. 1, Sir G.
Mackenzie on an Hypothesis to account for the Origin of Glaciers; p. 36,
Professor Bronn on the Glacier Theory of Agassiz; p. 104, M. de Char-
pentier on the Glaciers and Erratic Formation of the Valley of the Rhone;
p. 124, Mr Murchison on the Glacial Theory ; p. 161, M. Studer on the Di-
luvium and Erratic Blocks of Switzerland; p. 217, Professor Agassiz on
the Glacial Theory and its Recent Progress ; p. 338, Professor Forbes’ Re-
cent Observations on Glaciers ; p. 352, Mr Darwin on the Ancient Glaciers
of Caernaryonshire ; p. 399, Professor Agassiz’ Recent Observations on the
Glacier of the Aar.—Epir.
* Jameson’s Journal, yol. xxxiii. p. 104.
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 57
bear on it, the hypothesis of M. Venetz, that is to say, the
hypothesis which attributes the transport of erratic blocks to
glaciers, would certainly by this time have gained a larger
number of supporters. There are, it is true, many persons
who adopt it for the explanation of the erratie phenomena of
the Alps; but this is not the case with regard to the erratic
phenomena of the north of Europe. Nevertheless, there seems
to me to be so great an analogy between the erratic phenomena
of the north and those of the Alps and the Pyrenees, that we
may assert that there is an almost complete identity. Not hav-
ing visited any of the countries of the north, I only know the
erratic phenomenon of Scandinavia by the descriptions that
have been given of it, but the most interesting of these had
not appeared, or at least had not come under my notice, be-
fore the publication of my book. Judging from the descriptions
given by skilful observers and good geologists, the difference
between the erratic formations of the north and those of the
south, consists solely in the extent of the dispersion of the
debris ; that dispersion being in the north spread over a sur-
face incomparably greater than in the south. It appears,
moreover, that in the north, floating masses of ice have had a
share in producing this dispersion, whereas in the south, such
an agent has been so feeble in its operation, if it existed at
all, that traces of its action have not yet been ascertained.
Although I am far from pretending that analogous, or even
:dentical facts, are always the result of a common cause, it
seems to me that the glacier hypothesis explains the erratic
phenomena of Scandinavia quite as well as it does those of
the Alps. The great repugnance which has hitherto been
shewn to the application of this hypothesis to the transport of
the erratic debris of the north, proceeds, sf, From the false
idea that has been adopted of the mode of formation, the de-
velopment, and the movement of glaciers ; and, 2d, From the
error of believing that the glacier hypothesis excludes all
operation of other agents.
Notwithstanding the care I took in the first part of my
book to describe, as clearly as was possible for me, the chief
phenomena of glaciers, and to explain their theory, it never-
theless appears that I have not always been properly under-
58 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
stood, for there are still many persons who never hear the
word glacier, without associating with it the idea of moun-
tains, lofty mountains, mountains of many thousand feet in
height. Such individuals think that mountains are an indis-
pensable condition for the existence of glaciers; but such an
opinion is quite erroneous. Mountains do not exercise any
direct influence on glaciers, except that they sometimes favour
the accumulation of snow drifted by the wind. It is only
their cold, snowy, and rainy climate which causes the for-
mation, development, and movement of glaciers. Now, then,
if from any cause a similar climate existed in a flat country,
were it even at the level of the sea, there would be nothing
to prevent glaciers from being formed and developed. Nor
is the declivity of the surface a necessary condition for their
movement ; for, as I have shewn in my Essai (§ 14), gla-
ciers do not move by the action of their own gravity, nor by
the pressure of the high mevés, or upper snow; this movement
being produced solely by the dilation which the ice undergoes,
when the water that it has absorbed by means of the capillary
fissures traversing its whole mass, becomes frozen. Conse-
quently, if a cold, snowy, and rainy climate existed during a
long course of years in a region forming part of a flat and
smooth country, and if the summer temperature were insufh-
cient to cause the complete melting of the winter snows,
these snows would not fail to be converted into glacier. If
the surface of that region presented a perfectly horizontal
plane, the glacier, as it became developed, would extend in
the direction of rays from the centre to the circumference ;
but if the surface were inclined, that extension, and conse-
quently the principal movement, would take place in the
direction of the line of greatest inclination (#ssa/, § 22).
These considerations render it apparent, that the absence of
high mountains, and the presence of immense plains, in coun-
tries where the erratic debris of the north have been met with,
cannot furnish a valid objection to the glacier hypothesis.
The change of climate supposed by the hypothesis, must
have occurred after the great catastrophe which has modified
the surface of an immense extent of the northern hemisphere,
and has given to the principal chain of the Alps, to the Atlas
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 59
group, to the Caucasus, to the Himalaya, &c., their present
configuration.* It must have been the effect, the inevitable
consequence, of that revolution (Zssa/, § 82). The facts de-
mand this conclusion in so decisive a manner, that it is even
admitted by geologists who do not adopt the glacier hypo-
thesis. Thus M. Durochert supposes, ‘‘ that the winters in
Europe were colder during the geological period which imme-
diately preceded the present one ;” that is to say, the epoch
during which the dispersion of the erratic debris took place.
This opinion is supported in a note at the bottom of the page
by M. Elie de Beaumont. Instead, however, of supposing
with M. Durocher, the existence of colder winters than those
of the present day. I should rather be inclined to believe that
they were more snowy than they now are, but that the sum-
mers were more rainy and colder, so that the difference
between the mean temperature of summer and that of winter
was less considerable than it is at present. Such a climate
must have been very analogous to that of Terra del Fuego,
and the northern coast of the Straits of Magellan ; for, judg-
ing from the work of Mr Darwin,} the climate of the most
southern portions of America is perfectly similar to that which
must formerly have prevailed in the north, if the summers in
the former were a little more cold and more rainy, and the
winters more snowy. If this were the case, these regions
would now present us with the same phenomenon which was
formerly exhibited in the north, that of a vast country entirely
covered by an immense glacier.
There is another difficulty which prevents many persons
from adopting the hypothesis of glaciers for the explanation
of the erratic phenomenon of the north, a difficulty arising
solely from the erroneous idea conceived of the origin of
the snow or the ice that must have formed that immense
glacier. They, in fact, imagine, that the snow which has
formed the ice of a glacier, proceeds entirely from the moun-
tain on which it takes its origin ; and they found this opinion
* Elie de Beaumont in the French translation of De la Béche, p. 659.
+ Report on a Memoir by M. Durocher, entitled, Observations sur le Phino-
mine Diluvien dans le Nord de? Europe, p. 25. (Comptes Rendus, yol. xiv. p.
101, Edit.)
{ Journal of Researches in Geology, &e.
60 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
on the fact, that they find at the foot of the glacier, among
the debris brought down by it, fragments of rock evidently
detached from that mountain. Starting with this idea, they
believe that the hypothesis in question, applied to the erratic
phenomenon of the north, obliges them to admit that the ice
which formerly covered the countries where the erratic debris
are met with, that is to say, the immense extent included be-
tween the north of Scandinavia, Moscow, and Leipsic, came
wholly from the mountains of Norway or of Spitzbergen, or
of some part of the Polar regions. But such a supposition is
quite as inadmissible as that which would attribute to the
source of the Rhone all the water which that river contains
when it falls into the lake, and that because there had been
recognised among the wood it transports, trees evidently de-
rived from near itssource. The absurdity of this supposition,
though based on a fact which is very true, is at once apparent.
It is the same thing with glaciers; for the snow which has
given rise to the formation of the ice, does not all come from
the mountains where they had their origin ; on the contrary,
the ice derived from the hauts-névés (Essai, § 3 and § 10)
only forms a part, sometimes a very small one, of their en-
tire mass. In fact, as the ice of a glacier is chiefly produced
by the congelation of the water which, as often under the
form of rain as of snow, has fallen on it and been absorbed by
it, it is evident that the more surface a glacier presents, the
more the portion of ice having that origin ought to be consi-
derable, compared with that which has really descended from
the mountain. There is therefore no need of supposing that
all the ice of the diluvian glacier of the north came from one
single point ; on the contrary, that vast glacier would be con-
stantly increased by the rain and the snow falling directly
upon it, and its increase must have gone on augmenting in
proportion. as it acquired a larger surface.
We must no longer persuade ourselves that the change in
the snows of the north only commenced its operations at one
single locality, more or less limited. This change must have
taken place simultaneously in the whole region where the
summer temperature was not sufficiently high to cause the
entire disappearance of the winter snows. Such a state of the
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 61
climate must have extended over a large surface, which must
have comprised, as we shall immediately see, Finmark, Lap-
land, Norway, and the greater part of Sweden and Finland.
Consequently, a glacier formed at once over so large a surface,
must, in a short time, have acquired an immense development.
As it crossed the Baltic and extended to the north of Ger-
many, Prussia, and the plains of Russia, as far as Moscow,
there is nothing extraordinary in supposing that the erratic
formation really reaches to Moscow, Stezyka, Oppeln, Leipsic,
&c., and that in the indications of the boundary of this forma-
tion, it may sometimes have been regarded as identical with
the diluvium, as I am almost tempted to believe.
These considerations shew us that the supposition of a
glacier occupying nearly the whole of Scandinavia, and stretch-
ing over a portion of the countries situated to the south of the
Baltic, does not imply any thing impossible or contrary to the
laws of physics. The only thing that may appear at first
sight a difficulty, is the circumstance, that this glacier must
have traversed the Baltic and its gulfs, and that sea must un-
doubtedly have been, at the period alluded to, of much greater
extent than it now is. But what I have said in my Essay
(§ 3805) regarding the lakes which occurred in the course
of the diluvian glaciers of the Alps, is equally applicable to
the sea; while the localities where there were no currents of an
elevated temperature, like the Gulf Stream, could not have
been an obstacle to the progression of a glacier of such vast
breadth as the diluvian glacier of the north.
The erratic formation presents itself in the north under the
same form as in the Alps, and exhibits the same phenomena.
Thus, the debris of the rocks are sometimes scattered widely,
which is most frequently the case, and sometimes accumulated
in bands or mounds. Fragments of all sizes are met with
mixed pell-mell, without any separation, according to their
volume. Many of them have their prominent portions well
preserved, as well as their surfaces. The rocks, as in the
Alps, exhibit marks of wearing and rubbing, smooth surfaces,
striz, furrows, and vertical erosions in the form of caul-
drons.
Deposits of diluvium ave likewise met with, composed of
62 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
beds of pebbles, of sand, and of mud, and not only within the
limits of the erratic formation, but also beyond them, at a
great distance to the south. The Scandinavian diluvium,
indeed, covers a considerable extent of the north-west of
Russia, of Prussia, of Poland, and of the north of Germany.
This formation, whose materials have evidently been trans-
ported and deposited by water, offers a feature which has not
yet been observed in the Alps, and that consists in the pre-
sence of well-preserved angular debris, and of large blocks,
beyond the domain of the erratic formation. The good state
of preservation of their surface, of their angles, and of their
edges, as well as the considerable volume of a large number of
them, do not allow of their being regarded as having been trans-
ported by water. It is therefore to be presumed, that their
transport was effected by floating ice. The external configu-
ration of the region in which the glacier had its origin, and
that of the countries successively invaded, far from being un-
favourable to this supposition, render it, on the contrary, very
probable. In fact, the masses of ice which must from time to
time have been detached from the glacier, and carried away
by the water, had not, as in the Alps, to cross narrow defiles,
or to follow valleys with numerous windings, in which they
would be speedily broken up against the mountains forming
the re-entering angle of the bend.
The marine shells frequently found in the diluyium, prove
that, at the epoch of its formation, the countries where they
are observed must have been submerged by the sea. The
perfect preservation of these molluscous animals, belonging
chiefly to species still living in the seas of the north, and the
stratification, often very regular, of these sedimentary de-
posits, do not allow us to doubt that the materials were trans-
ported by slow currents, or, at all events, by currents of but
little rapidity.
But those who reject the glacier hypothesis, and wish to
explain the erratic phenomena of the north solely by floating
ice and currents, fall, in my opinion, into great improbabili-
ties. First of all, in order to explain the marks of rubbing
and of wearing on the rocks, they are obliged to commence
with the supposition of an enormous current, flowing from
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 63
north and south, and for whose origin they have to seek ‘ to
the north of Scandinavia, perhaps even beyond Spitzbergen
and the neighbouring islands, towards the polar regions.’’*
In order to account for the facts, it is absolutely necessary to
admit that this current, like a flowing tide, had risen on the
coast of Finmark to the height of 2500 feet above the present
level of the sea, because it is at that elevation, on the summit
of the mountain of Raipas and on the high plateau of Nor-
wegian Lapland, that M. Durocher found polished and grooved
surfaces of rock. But pure water cannot polish and scoop
out rocks; and we are thus farther constrained to admit, on
this hypothesis, that the current was charged with matter
from the bottom of the sea to the height of 2500 feet above
its present level.
I confess I cannot conceive what catastrophe could have
produced such a current, a tide so monstrous; nor can [ ima-
gine the current itself, especially when I consider that this
mass of water could not be confined between the mountains
of a valley, but that it must have been accumulated on an
open and boundless sea. The supposition of the sowlevement
of an island, of a vast island, even of a continent, does not
explain to me, in a satisfactory manner, this enormous current.
If the sowlévement was gradual, it could not occasion rapid
currents, and still less so great an accumulation of water on
the surface of the sea. We must, therefore, suppose that this
soulovement was as sudden as the explosion of a mine ; but a
sudden and instantaneous sowlévement seems to me the least
probable occurrence in the world.
But leaving aside the difficulties arising from the cause and
the mode of formation of this current, let us suppose it to
have been such as is required by the hypothesis, that is to
say, endowed with great rapidity, and charged with materials
for rounding rocks, polishing surfaces to a height of 2500 feet,
and forming those accumulations of debris in the form of
mounds or causeways, known in Sweden by the name of dsars.
In this case, I would ask, What has become of these materials ?
Have they, perhaps, been all employed in the construction of
* M. Durocher, Mémoire, p. 32. (Comptes Rendus, vol, xiv. p. 108, Edit.)
i
64 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
the dsars? That cannot be, because the total mass of these
accumulations is much too small compared with the quantity
of rocky debris which the current must have transported.
Perhaps this excess, this surplus of materials, may have given
rise to the deposit of diluvium which is of such extent in the
north of Europe? But neither could that be the case, for
the stratification, often very regular, of this formation, and
** good state of preservation of the shells which it contains,
not allow us to attribute its formation to a current so
sudden and so impetuous as that one must have been which
is supposed to have abraded and furrowed the rocks, and to
have tra. sported the blocks constituting the dsars. How did
these matters not fill up, if not the Gulfs of Scandinavia, at
all events the lakes existing in such abundance in the coun-
tries invaded by this debacle? I am indeed unable to give a
reply to this question.
Perhaps an objection to the glacier hypothesis will be found
in the quantity of debris composing the erratic formation,
for it may be said, and with much reason, that the mountains
which rose above the surface of the glacier were too few in
number, and presented too limited a superficies, to allow of
the eboulements which fell on the glacier, furnishing a mass
of debris so considerable as that now found distributed. This
objection would, indeed, be unanswerable, if the materials
which a glacier transports must necessarily have fallen on its
surface. But it is not so, for the fragments of rock which we
find on the ridge of a glacier are not all derived from eboule-
ments; on the contrary, there are many of them which come
from the bottom or bed of the glacier. As to the manner in
which these stones arrive at the surface from the bottom or bed
of a glacier, I have described it in detail in my Essay (§ 25).
Thus, then, undoubtedly, the largest portion of the debris con-
stituting the erratic formation and the diluvium of the north,
does not owe its origin to eboulements. These fragments
have been detached from the rocks at a period anterior to the
formation of the ice, by the very revolutions which varied the
configuration of Scandinavia, and they have arrived at the
surface of the glacier, not from above by a descent, but from
beneath, having been elevated by the ice.
M. Charpentier on the Evratic Phenomena of the North. 65
The external configuration of the ésars, “ being in the form
of long mounds,” is, mm my opinion, much better explained
by the glacier hypothesis, than by that of a great current and.
of floating ice.
It is the same with the fine strie which have been en-
grayed on the surface of the rubbed and smoothed rocks. If
currents, transporting matter, could produce strie of this de-
scription, these ought also to be met with on the naked rock
of the beds of torrents, where, however, we never find them.
The hypothesis of currents and of floating ice is altogether
insufficient to explain the vertical erosions, haying the form
of caldrons, so common in Scandinavia, where they receive
the name of Jattegryttor, (Riesentopfe, m German) or giants’
boilers.* There is, in fact, no other hypothesis but that
of glaciers, which can account in a manner really satisfactory
for this remarkable phenomenon (Essai, § 35 and § 80.)
If | were not afraid of exceeding too much the limits of a
letter, I could adduce other improbabilities and other diffi-
culties which present themselves, when the whole erratic for-
mation of the north is attributed so/ely to an enormous cur-
rent, and to floating ice. I will do this when I continue (ac-
cording to my announcement, Hssat, preface, p. 10), my work
on glaciers and the erratic formation. I shall then shew that
this astonishing phenomenon can be explained even to its most
minute details by the hypothesis of glaciers, combining it at
the same time with that of floating ice and currents. I
must, however, state, that by currents, I do not mean that de-
bacle, that enormous tide, which must have reached a height
of 2500 feet above the level of the sea, and which I cannot
admit; but I suppose the existence of currents similar to those
of the seas of the present day, and to the great rivers of flat
countries.
If we admit the combination of these three causes, against
which no valid objection can be made, we shall be able to ex-
Miles bin dey aires oS Bi
+ Bergmann’s Physikalische Beschretbung der Erdkugel, vol. ii. p. 193 ; and
Sefstrém, in Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. Xxxvili. p. 614, and in Jameson’s
Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 69.
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVII.—JANvARY 1843. E
66 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
plain the dispersion of the erratic debris of the north in as
satisfactory a manner as we can that of the Alps and of the
Pyrenees. It will be the task of the geologist to assign ap-
proximately the share which each of these agents has had in
the production of this great phenomenon.
The deposits of erratic debris, properly so called, the abra-
sion of the rocks, the marks of attrition, the stri, the fur-
rows, and the erosions in the form of caldrons, are to be at-
tributed to glacier action. Erratic deposits can always be
distinguished from the diluvium by the frequency of well-
preserved angular debris. The dsars serve not only to prove
the existence of the erratic formation in any particular region,
but are also of great assistance in determining its limits.
For this purpose it would be necessary to delineate on a map
the ésars the farthest removed from the north, or, in their
absence, to indicate the localities where the debris cease to be
mixed pell-mell as regards their volume, and where, con-
sequently, a selection, according to relative weight, begins to
be perceptible.* The line joining all these localities would
indicate the limit of the erratic formation properly so called,
that is to say, the limit of the debris dispersed by the glacier.
It would also exhibit the form of the glacier at the period of
its greatest development. Consequently, the regions com-
prised between this line and the north, must have been covered
by ice at the epoch of its maximum of extent.
The sedimentary deposits, whether stratified deposits of
pebbles, of sand, or of clay, situated within or without that
line, are, in my opinion, not the erratic formation, but dilu-
vium, that is to say, a sediment whose materials have been
conveyed and deposited by water. In the countries which
were not submerged by the sea, this transport must have been
effected by the streams which issued from the glacier, and
which, during the period of its melting, doubtless acquired a
considerable volume. But in regions covered by the sea, this
* It will be found that there is rarely an opportunity of observing marks
of attrition in the vicinity of the limit of the erratic formation, because the
regions where it terminates being in the plains, the rock constituting the
surface is generally covered and masked by the diluyium.
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 67
transport could only have been effected by an actual sub-
marine current, produced by the difference of temperature
between the water in the vicinity of the glacier, and that
which was more to the south. Looking at the course of the
current, it must have assumed a direction from north to south,
and traversed the bottom of the sea; the greater part of that
sea having probably had but little depth. Carrying along
with it the comminuted debris, that current deposited the
diluvium which constitutes the plains of the north-west of
Russia, of Poland, of Prussia, and of the north of Germany.
Beyond the limit of the erratic formation, and dispersed on
the surface of the soil or enveloped in the diluvium, we find
fragments of rock which have their surfaces and their pro-
minent portions in a good state of preservation, Rolled
blocks are also met with there, whose volume is too consider-
able to allow us to suppose that they have been transported
by currents, which, judging from the regularity of the stratifi-
cation of the diluvium, cannot have been violent. I attribute,
without hesitation, the transport of such matters to floating ice,
that is to say, tomassesof ice detached from the glacier, of which
some have been transported by rivers, while others, and pro-
bably the larger proportion, having fallen into the sea, have
been forced to the south by the impulsion of the winds from
the north ; in fact, marine currents could not have conveyed
them to the south, because, that of the bottom having pursued,
as I have already said, a course from north to south, the cur-
rent existing at the surface must have hada contrary direction.
The formation of the erratic formation must have com-
menced from the period when the snow was transformed into
ice. But these first deposits were not permanent ; for in pro-
portion as the glacier made progress, it overthrew them and
displaced them anew. It thas continued to destroy its own
work until it reached the maximum of its development.
During the time of its greatest extension, it formed the ter-
minal moraine, that is to say, the moraine farthest to the south.
The circumstance that this moraine probably does not exist
along the whole line indicating the shape of the glacier at the
period of its greatest development, cannot be an objection to
the hypothesis which I defend. In fact, existing glaciers
63 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
themselves are not uninterruptedly skirted by moraines; f-r
the latter cannot be met with except in the localities where
the rocky debris have reached the edge of the glacier, and
where torrents havenot prevented its accumulation. Moreover,
in places where the glacier deposited little matter, the moraine
having remained small and but little elevated, has been after-
wards buried by the diluvium, and thus removed from the
view of the observer.
On each occasion when the glacier, during the process of
melting, was subjected to some oscillation, it gave rise to
new accumulations of debris. In this manner it necessarily
formed other frontal moraines ; these are recognised by their
direction, which is nearly east and west, and they are known
in eastern Prussia by the name of Steinddmme.
Having at last retreated beyond the Baltic, the glacier was
so much reduced as only to oceupy the regions in which it had
originated. The return of a milder climate must also have
gradually produced a melting in these countries. We can
easily conceive that the lower regions were the first that were
freed from ice ; but that the latter kept its ground on the moun-
tains and higher table-lands, until the return of heat had also
reached such elevated points. Previous to this complete melt-
ing, the glacier was, so to speak, lacerated or divided into
shreds, forming so many separate glaciers, of which the largest,
as happens in the Alps, descended into the neighbouring val-
leys, and, depositing on the flanks of the mountains the debris
which they transported, caused the formation of the Sceandi-
navian ésars of the present day. When the mountain which
retained its ice, was more or less isolated, or advanced into the
flat country, so that the glacier which descended from it could
extend freely over a smooth surface, there would result the
phenomenon described by M. Durocher, and which consists in
this, “ that in taking each of the rocks which have furnished
erratic blocks as the centre of a circle, the region which con-
tains blocks derived from that rock, occupies more than a third,
and sometimes nearly a half, of the circumference, so that the
blocks have followed, in certain cases, a line almost perpen-
dicular to the general direction which the power of transport
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 69
from north to south ought to have” (Mém. p. 17.) I quote
this fact, because it explains extremely well the crossing of
the striz which is sometimes remarked on the surface of rocks.
The localities where the strize cross have been covered at two
different times by ice ; the first time, they have been invaded
by the great glacier, which has scratched them in the general
direction from north to south ; and the second time, they have
been so by partial glaciers, whose action has there produced
striz, in some degree anomalous, which cross the first in va-
rious directions.
When two of these partial glaciers became joined together
and united into a single one, they would give rise to a super-
ficial moraine. (Hssaz, § 20 and § 21.)*
The abraded and polished surfaces of rocks, the strie, fur-
rows, and caldron-like erosions, could only be produced dur-
ing the period when the various localities where they are ob-
served were covered byice. The direction of the furrows and
strie being generally from north to south, we are authorized
in believing that the principal movement of the glacier was in
that direction.
In order to assign the cause which determined this direc-
tion, we must turn our attention to the state of the snow in
the north during the epoch of which we are speaking. I have
already remarked that the whole erratic phenomenon obliges us
to admit that some time after the last great catastrophe which
altered the configuration of the northern hemisphere, the cli-
mate became so much colder, that in Scandinavia, perhaps
from the 60th degree, the summer heat was no longer suffi-
cient to cause the complete melting of the winter snows. Ne-
vertheless, the liquefaction was not entirely suspended, and the
water proceeding from it, as well as that derived from rain,
must gradually have converted the snow into a glacier which
invaded countries more to the south and having a milder cli-
* The dsars which have had this origin may be recognised by the fact
that their upper extremity generally rests against the rock or eminence form-
ing the termination of the chain of mountains, which, by separating the two
glaciers, has given rise to the deposit of the superficial moraine (Essai, p. 55,
fig. xii.,c and 1,) This appearance has been supposed to be an evident proof
of the formation of Gsars by a powerful current.
70 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
mate. But it is probable that from the 70th degree the melt-
ing of the snow had nearly ceased, or, at least, that it was
searcely more considerable than it now is on our most elevated
mountains. The snow, beyond the 70th degree, from the im-
possibility of its transformation into glacier, must have corres-
ponded completely with the most elevated hauts nevés (Essat,
§ 3). The fact that the larger portion of the polar regions is
occupied by seas, is not opposed to this supposition ; for, if
these seas, as is very probable, weze then covered by ice, as
they are at the present day from the 80th degree, the snow
could rest there just as well as on solid land.
Nor is there anything which obliges us to restrict the trans-
formation of snow into ice to Scandinavia alone. On the
contrary, it is more probable that the conditions of climate
necessary for the transformation were to be found in the
whole zone, comprised between the 60° and 70° parallel. This
supposition is supported by the existence of the erratic for-
mation in Siberia, and in the North of America. The isother-
mal, and particularly the isotheral lines, have, it is true, ma-
terially modified the northern limit of this zone of permanent
snow; but these modifications, however great they may have
been, do not at all influence the theory of the erratic pheno-
mena.*
* The isothermal lines, and especially the isotheral lines, must have
exercised a considerable influence on the formation and on the development
of the diluvian glacier of the North. Itis, without doubt, in the direction or
course of these lines that we must seek for the cause of the erratic forma-
tion not reaching the same parallel throughout the whole of the north ;
thus, for example, the limit of this formation advances much more to the
south in the north of Germany, than in Russia and in Siberia. It is plain,
that the more these lines ascend to the north, the less could the glacier ad-
vance towards the south. The exact determination of the limit of the er-
ratic formation, would be of great importance for the physics of the globe;
it would throw much light on the climatological condition of the north of
the northern hemisphere during the earliest periods of the present geological
epoch. But in order that this investigation might accomplish its object,
and acquire that scientific interest, it is indispensable that the erratic for-
mation should be accurately distinguished from the diluvium, because, by
confounding these two formations, as is often done, false results are ob
tained, and crroncous conclusions deduced,
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 71
We may admit, therefore, that, some time after the last
great revolution of the globe, the northern hemisphere was
covered by a sheet of snow, from about the 60° parallel to the
pole ; and that the snow of the zone comprised between the
60° and 70° parallels, was transformed into a glacier, which,
in its dilatation, could not extend in any other but a southern
direction, because, in other directions, it had to encounter
the resistance arising from snow and ice themselves (Lssa‘,
§ 11). The movement of the glacier must, therefore, have
been from north to south. This result of the theory is com-
pletely confirmed by the observation of facts, for we know
that the general direction of the furrows and scratches traced
by the great glacier, is nearly in that direction. The slight
deviations, sometimes remarked, have been occasioned by the
slope and inequalities of the surface. There is likewise an-
other fact, which proves conclusively that the movement of
the glacier was from north to south. This consists in the
fact, that the northern flank of the rocks having been ex-
posed to the whole action of the expansive force of the ice,
and to that of the movement, presents marks of abrasion and
attrition of a much more distinct nature than the flank di-
rected towards the south, which, having been more or less
sheltered by the body of the mountain, must have experienced
to a smaller extent the effect of this action. An argument
has been drawn from this fact in favour of the debacle or
great northern current ; but the same phenomenon actually
takes place under our eyes in the Alps, for, when a glacier
encounters a rock or eminence in its passage, we find that the
flank turned towards the side whence the glacier proceeds,
is always more rounded and more rubbed than that turned
towards the opposite direction.
Lastly, as to the formation of the diluvium, which is met
with not only within the limits of the erratic formation, but
also to a great distance beyond it, it must have commenced
in the first periods of the epoch which we are now considering,
and must have gone on augmenting in proportion as the gla-
cier was developed. The materials which were deposited, as
much by the rivers as by the submarine current, in the re-
gions afterwards invaded by the glacier, experienced new dis-
72 M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North.
placements ; because, as in the case of modern glaciers, that
of Scandinavia must have upturned the soil, and pierced to
the solid rock, in the localities where the inequalities of the
formation interfered with its movement. But where it could
extend freely, and where there was no obstacle to the expansion
of the ice, it must have stretched over the diluvium without
raising it, if, at least in the upper beds, the latter was of such
a nature as to afford the water the means of flowing off quickly
(E#ssat, § 16).
Although the deposition of diluvium may have been going
on during the whole period of the existence of the glacier, it
will nevertheless be easily understood, that the largest quantity
of boulders, sand, and clay, was transported during the melting
of the ice; so that, in many localities, the erratic formation
must have been covered by it, especially if it only presented
scattered deposits (Hssai, § 47).
The transport of fragments of rock, by means of floating
ice, must have taken place during the whole period of the ex-
istence of the glacier; but it is when the glacier was most in
contact with the sea, that this transport must have been most
frequent. I have already said, that I attribute to this mode
of transport, the angular and well-preserved debris, and the
blocks of large size, which are both found beyond the limit of
the erratic formation, lying sometimes scattered on the sur-
face of the ground, sometimes disseminated in the interior of
the diluvium. The first must have been carried thither when
the current and the rivers had ceased to convey matters to
the locality where these fragments are found; the others,
when the transport of boulders, sand, and clay, caused by eur-
rents, was still taking place.
You are now, Sir, in possession of my opinion regarding the
mode of origin of the Erratic Phenomenon of the North, which,
however, I have not had an opportunity of examining per-
sonally, but only know from the descriptions that have been
given, and more especially those of Messrs Durocher, Boht-
lingk,* and Sefstrém. However succinct, and therefore im-
perfect, may be the summary which I have now offered, of
* Jameson’s Journal, vol, xxxii. p. 103.
M. Charpentier on the Erratic Phenomena of the North. 73
the manner in which I conceive this great phenomenon to
have been caused, it must suffice, I think, to shew that the hy-
pothesis of M. Venetz, combined to a certain extent with that
of floating ice, accounts for it better than that which attri-
butes it to an enormous current, coming from the polar re-
gions, and which, at the same time, assigns too important a
part in the operations to floating ice. This latter hypothesis,
apart from the improbabilities which it presents, is, even in
the opinion of its defenders, insufficient to explain many facts
that are of importance, and are connected with the erratic
phenomenon ; it thus leaves us in doubt and in uncertainty.
Permit me, Sir, to terminate this long letter by giving, in
a few words, a summary of the principal ideas which I have
now offered :-—
1. In consequence of the last great catastrophe which
altered the configuration of the surface of the northern hemis-
phere over a vast extent, the climate became colder and
moister than it was previously, or is at the present day.
2. During the long continuance of this climatological con-
dition, the summer temperature was insufficient to melt com-
pletely the snows from the 60th parallel.
3. The snows comprised between the 60th and 70th paral-
lels were transformed into glaciers. Beyond the 70th paral-
lel they remained in the state of névé.
‘4. This glacier having acquired a considerable development,
invaded the north of Russia as far as Moscow, Prussia, Poland,
the north of Germany, and perhaps the eastern shores of
England.
5. It transported and deposited the erratic formation, and
produced marks of abrasion, the striae and furrows which have
been observed on rocks. The cascades to which it gave rise
have caused the erosions in the form of caldrons.
6. The most southern accumulations, having the form of
mounds or bands, are the moraines which it deposited during
the maximum of its development.
7. Osars are moraines, some having been formed by the
oscillations to which the great glacier was subjected during
its retreat, others by the ice which remained on elevated
mountains and table-lands, long after the low regions had been
freed from it.
74 Sir William Hamilton’s Pragments of Philosophy.
8. The matters constituting the diluvium, both those within
and those without the limits of the erratic formation, were con-
veyed by rivers and by the submarine current.
9. The great mass of diluvium was deposited during the
melting or retreat of the glacier.
Lastly, 10. The angular debris and the blocks of large size,
dispersed on the surface of the ground or embedded in the di-
luvium, but both beyond the limits of the erratic formation,
have been transported by masses of ice, detached from the
glacier. Of these masses of ice, some have been carried
along by rivers, and others, floating on the sea, have been
propelled towards the south by the force of the winds.
Bex, 26th May, 1842.
Fragments of Philosophy. By Sir Witttam Hamitron, Bart.,
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of
Edinburgh.*
For some years we have heard much of the Scottish and German phi-
losophy, of the former especially, which M. Royer-Collard and M. Cousin
have assisted in making known by means of their eloquent lectures ; but
it happens in this case, as in so many others, that the word is more fami-
liar than the thing, and the first mentioned of these two philosophies not
having yet become the fashion, it has hitherto continued in some degree
of obscurity, from which it is of importance that it should be freed.
The four philosophical dissertations translated in the work, the title of
which has been given above, will be fitted to throw some light on this
important subject: they are from the pen of Sir William Hamilton, Pro-
fessor of Logic and Metaphysics in Edinburgh. This author would have
been almost unknown in France until the appearance of the work in ques-
tion, had not some of our professors mentioned his writings. Messrs
Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Cousin, and Jouffroy, have done us this ser~
vice, which is undoubtedly of some value, when we consider that all
his productions, published anonymously in the Edinburgh Review, are
scarcely known, in regard to their authorship, even in their own country.
Sir W. Hamilton is one of those profound thinkers and true friends of
science, who never think of publishing their works till they conceive them
to be of such a nature as to produce some solid and substantial result.
It happens more frequently still, that writers of this description, thinking
* Fragments de Philosophie, &c. Translated, with a long Preface, Notes,
and Appendix, by L. Peisse. Paris, 1840.
Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy. 70
little of the public, are entirely occupied with satisfying the wants of
their own mind ; having but little anxiety about the effect of their thoughts
on others, their mind dwells only on the intrinsic value of their researches,
and they create for themselves, as Maine de Biran said, “a world in their
own brain.” By this, however, we do not mean to say that Sir W. Ha-
milton is a visionary or a fabricator of fantastical systems ; hitherto, on
the contrary, his career has been one of remarkable activity ; but the
pledges which he has given to science rest almost entirely on the merits
of his teaching ; his publications, hitherto few in number, bear the im-
press of true and original powers of mind. The four dissertations col-
lected in this volume, have been selected from the pieces which the
author has laid before the public ; these pieces altogether do not exceed
the amount of a dozen articles, but all afford proofs of a rich philosophi-
cal erudition, and an excellent method of investigation. Convinced as
we are that the Scotch philosophy is not yet truly known in France, we
do not hesitate to offer a succinct analysis of the fragments translated in
Mr Peisse’s volume ; it will be the means of familiarizing our readers with
this philosophy, which ought not to be strange to us, and also of render-
ing’homage to a modest and laborious philosopher. But, before enter-
ing upon the examination of the volume, let us supply some particulars
regarding the author.
Sir William Hamilton belongs to the great family of Hamilton, which
has given to France one of its classical writers. He commenced his stu-
dies at the University of Glasgow, and concluded them at Oxford. Hav-
ing acquitted himself with honour in the examinations requisite for ob-
taining University degrees, he entered himself at the bar, obtained the
chair of Universal History, and subsequently gave up this charge for
another more suited to the nature of his talents and the character of his
studies. Thomas Brown died in 1820, after having filled, in the capa-
city of assistant, the chair of Dugald Stewart, from which this illustrious
professor developed the principles of moral philosophy. Sir William
Hamilton was among the candidates, but was unsuccessful, notwithstand-
ing the suffrage of Dugald Stewart himself, who had rendered homage to
his rising merits. It was not till 1836, in consequence of the retirement
of Dr Ritchie, that Sir William Hamilton, now properly appreciated,
obtained the vacant chair of logic and metaphysics. It was honourable
for France to witness. at this period, one of our professors, M. Cousin,
supporting Sir William Hamilton’s claims with his influence. Success
crowned his wishes ; M. Cousin had no small influence in the nomination
of the Scottish savant, and he deserves the praise of discovering the
merit of a stranger whom his fellow-citizens had not always judged of
with the favour le deserved.
Among the remarkable circumstances in Sir William Hamilton's lite-
rary life, may be mentioned the discussion between him and the partisans
of the phrenological doctrine, of which the principal representative was
Dr Spurzheim. The occasion of it was two memoirs written by Sir Wil-
76 Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy.
liam Hamilton in 1826-1827, On the Practical Consequences of Dr Gall’s
Theory of the Functions of the Brain. These memoirs, and such as ap-
peared in the English reviews, of which we have formerly spoken, com-
pose all the literary works which Sir William Hamilton has published ;
but of what importance is the quantity of his works? is it not from their
effect solely that the public ought definitively to form a judgment ?
The general character of this; author’s thought is that which marks the
spirit of the whole Scottish philosophy ; the examination of the funda-
mental point of metaphysical science. Now, what is this fundamental
ontological point? It is the very possibility of philosophy, the determi-
nation of its object and its domain. The Scottish school has defined
philosophy to be, the natural history of the human mind. According to
this definition, all that is beyond the reach of observation, is by that very
circumstance without the limits of the science. Sir William Hamilton
has illustrated and developed this idea; he has explained the doctrine of
common sense. He has skilfully taken up a position between scepticism
and dogmatism, and, drawing from the principles of the school of Kant,
he has combined them with those of Reid and Dugald Stewart. He has
perceived how to avoid the rock on which the Scottish philosophy has
struck, the want of a logical tie and connection in the explanation of facts.
It is the absence of this systematic method which has subjected this school
to the reproach of eluding questions instead of answering them—of sup-
pressing difficulties rather than solving them. Restoring dialectic to
its true place, he has replaced it in the rank it ought of right to occupy
at the head of the sciences. The richest erudition in all matters of phi-
losophy likewise distinguishes Sir William Hamilton’s works ; versed in
the study of the German philosophy, he has not neglected antiquity, the
primary source of all our researches and of our means of comparison.
Mr Brandis, a professor of high reputation in Germany, has called him
the great master of peripatetism. Finally, Sir William Hamilton, while
preserving all the philosophical character of his nation, and losing none of
his originality, has been enabled to unite therewith all the benefits that
flow from an enlightened criticism, and the examination of the principal
scientific results among forcign nations.
These preliminary considerations, useful when we are about to enter
upon the examination of a work so important as the present, are pre-
ceded, in the translator's volume, by some general views of the charac-
ter of philosophy in France in the nineteenth century, of which we shall
give a rapid exposition.
According to M. Peisse, the principal schools may be summed up as
the following:—the Sensvalist school, the Spiritualist, the Scotch, German,
the Progressive (celledu progres), and another, which combines the attri-
butes of Scepticism and Mysticism. In his opinion, the first mentioned of
these is the most numerous, the most popular, and the most national.
Sensualism prevails among all the learned professions, medicine, the
natural sciences, and even in political economy. But, banished from the
Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy. 77
Sorbonne, it has particularly established itself in medicine ; it has there
created a new category of applications which, under the name of Phre-
nology, has brought together a pretty considerable number of disciples.
The Spiritualist school, the leading members of which are of considerable.
influence, is divided into two branches, the Scotch and German philoso-
phy. The first was introduced into France, almost suddenly, after the
prelections of M. Royer-Collard (1811 to 1815); afterwards supported
by M. Cousin, then by M. Jouffroy, it has brought into France a method
founded on experience, having for its object the empirical science of the
human mind, facts for its basis, and Bacon and Newton for its masters.
It is exclusively scientific, and consequently gives offence to no received
opinions, which is perhaps the cause of its reception having been so
prompt and easy. Certain points of relation likewise unite it to the sen-
sualist philosophy, and it has contracted an alliance with this school,
which may have promoted its popularity. '
But the same motives to union did not exist between the Scotch and
German school, nor, consequently, between the German school and the
French mind of the nineteenth century ; accordingly, the influence of Ger-
many has been less considerable than that of Scotland. At no period,
moreover, has France much relished the German spirit: Leibnitz, who
wrote a part of his works in French, established no school in France,
while his cotemporary Locke had little difficulty in making an impression
on the mind of the masses. The reason of this is, that the French cha-
racter is more curious to know than desirous of assimilating foreign ele-
ments ; better calculated to judge of than to appropriate to itself the
riches of others. The German philosophy has, nevertheless, taken root
among us by means of some works of detail ; numerous works have been
translated, and certain professors, among whom M. Cousin may be men-
tioned, have adopted a portion of its principles and methods, subjecting
them at the same time to considerable modifications.
The Spiritualist school is the one which, at this moment, can boast of
the greatest number of adepts: represented by professors of no small po-
pularity, it has obtained the support of public opinion. M. Peisse does
not, however, predict for it a very long futurity. He believes it destined
to prevail exclusively within the circle of the official schools. He doesnot
think that it possesses sufficient vitality to exercise a continued influence
over the mind of the masses, and he accuses it particularly of a false en-
thusiasm, and a natural inclination to mysticism and obscurity. The
school called the Theological, created by a spirit of reaction, does not ap-
pear to him to possess in any higher degree the necessary means of long
duration ; but he places more confidence in the elements which consti-
tute the doctrine which people have agreed to call the Doctrine of Pro-
gress ; a kind of ramification of St Simonism, but which has the merit of
extending the field of science, by directing it towards the perfecting of
the whole of humanity. We may here use M. Peisse’s own words, as he
justly characterizes the influence of this new philosophy, by comparing it
78 = Sir William Hamilton’s vragments of Philosophy.
to the known influence of many other systems which have existed in his-
tory :—
** We shall now make one concluding observation. This school (that
ofjprogress), placing its point of departure in the social action, is evi-
dently on the fair way to success and popularity: it rests on the most
active interest of our times—the political. At no epoch, in fact, has
philosophy (whatever definition may have elsewhere been given to what
bears this name), enjoyed any celebrity, splendour, or power, but by its
alliances. In the times of antiquity it never emerged from the schools
till it began to interfere, by its practical action, with public and private
morals, in the forms of Epicurism, Stoicism, and Mysticism. In the mid-
dle ages it had no influence on the public mind but through the channels
of theology and religion. After the Cartesian reform it identified itself
with the scientific movement, and was there almost entirely absorbed.
The philosophers of these times were Copernicus, Descartes, Leibnitz,
Newton, Galileo, Bacon, Gassendi, Huygens; to these may be added
the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and the Royal Society of London. In
the eighteenth century, philosophy introduced itself by every possible
way into the political order ; it is the sign, the name, the standard, and
the lever of the revolutionary movement, in the midst of which we still
live. Its three great philosophers are expounders of public law; one
writes the Essay on the Genius and Manners of Nations ; the other the
Spirit of the Laws; and the last, the Social Contract. Then come Tur-
got, Condorcet, that is to say, the Economists and the Constituents. The
Theological school also mingles with the spirit of the times, but it is by
way of reaction; it is of no influence but by resisting. The Kclectic
school abandoned its active part too early and completely, by refusing or
neglecting to resolve the social questions, and thereby compromised not
only its influence but even,its existence. The St Simonian school, on
the contrary, and all its off-shoots, Fourierism, and its connections,
again took up (under forms, and by means, which it is useless to attempt
to appreciate) the inheritance of the preceding age. Thus, through all,
and even in spite of all their deviations, absurdities, and even follies,
these sects have struck deep roots ; they have warmed the imaginations,
modified the spirit of economical and political science, filled the minds
of statesmen and governments ; they have given a colour to general li-
terature, and even introduced into language new words which haye almost
ceased to be barbarous.
“‘ Up to the present time, in truth, all these doctrines have been rather
borne up by the spirit of the times than supported by their philosophical
value ; they have found no representatives but in minds less original than
eccentric, and have been most frequently produced under the extra-scien-
tific forms of mysticism and illuminism. In a literary point of view, they
have given birth only to works void of taste, infected with neologism,
and in which a false originality is an unequivocal symptom of want of
power. In general, the resourtes of mind, erudition, reasoning, and
Sir William Hamilton’s Mragments of Philosophy. 79
talent in the writers of this school are far from being in conformity with
the gigantic proportions of their undertaking.” (Preface, p. 1x.-Lxiii.)
M, Peisse’s conclusions regarding the present state of philosophy in
France are, that these different schools appear destined to be mutually
tolerant of each other ; they live in peace, or rather in a state of mutual
indifference.
' & Thus, as I have stated at the commencement, all these schools and
doctrines, the existence of which can be discovered by the researches of
the critic and the historian, subsist apart from each other ; they seem re-
signed to tolerate and reciprocally admit each other in virtue of the right
of legitimate concurrence, just as if a place could be afforded for every
one in the region of thought, in the same manner as in the region of space.
Each of these schools, retrenched within its own private domains, will-
ingly consents to make no inroad on the territory of another, provided
that other exercise the same forbearance towards it. By this piecemeal
proceeding, which likewise affects the higher branches of knowledge and
art, philosophy abdicates her highest function, which is a mission at once
universal, directive, organizing, and legislative. Reduced by these ad-
mitted fractional partitions to the restricted proportions of a subordinate
study, she loses her high and independent position. Instead of being the
connecting principle, the key, and the common centre of all the sciences,
insulated from them, and ruling over them all, she permits herself to be
absorbed by them, and can claim no object, notion, orfact which they do
not dispute with her. As a branch of study co-ordinate with all others,
she is far from being in a position to maintain herself even in this equi-
vocal rank, and to advance along with them on a footing of equality ;
rejected on all sides as a superfetation which represents nothing, and
knows not even to what she should affix her name, she will gradually
disappear from the scene; for we may truly say of her, reversing the
words of the poet, that she obeys if she does not command, Paret nisi
imperat.
‘‘ This tendency to decline betrays itself even materially in the exte-
rior means by which it is intended to be taught and propagated. The
few chairs nominally designed for a superior kind of instruction in philo-
sophy, are almost silent, for the masters whose voice was formerly heard
there, have retired and left themempty. ‘The official programme of phi-
losophical instruction is otherwise characteristically insufficient, both in
regard to the number as well as the nature of the courses. The Faculty
of Letters in Paris has only three chairs of philosophy, and two out of
these three are deyoted to the history of the science ; and the only dog’
matic chair existing in the capital has been for many years so neglected,
that it may be said to be vacant. In the College of France, that great
subsidiary to the University, the focus of all the higher studies, philoso-
phy could preserve a place in its extensive programme, which forms a
complete encyclopzedia, in no other way than by presenting herself as a
branch of ancient literature and philology. Finally, there do not exist
80 Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy.
throughout all the rest of France more than five public courses of philo-
sophy in the five Faculties of Letters. There is not a German university
which does not offer almost as many advantages, in this respect, as the
whole kingdom. Does the teaching of private individuals offer compen-
sation? Jf we examine, we shall find that it affords none, absolutely
none. Apart from the means of teaching it, we find the same spectacle,
Philosophy has no avowed organ in the immense machinery of the perio-
dical press, and this is a fact of the most significant description. Its only
public asylum is the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, where it
is, thank God, very worthily represented, but even there it had difficulty
in obtaining a portion of the attention and interest which were disputed
with it by statistics and political economy. Books still remain, which,
by their abundance, may give rise to someillussion, and belie the picture
given above; but it must not be forgotten, as I have already remarked,
that the great majority of these publications belong to erudition, philolo-
gy, history, criticism, in a word, to general literature rather than to phi-
losophy.” Preface, p. lxv—Ixviii.
It is by this interesting discussion, conducted with skill and sagacity,
as well as a careful observance of facts, that M. Peisse introduces us, by
a natural transition, to the examination of the following fragments, which
will afford us a term of comparison between the works of France and
those of other countries, and enable us to judge of the character of the
metaphysical sciences in Scotland. We shall ourselves select from these
fragments what is most new and original.
The first of them, entitled, Cousin-Schelling, is an examination of
M. Cousin’s system of philosophy, in its relations with the German
philosophy, and in particular with that of Professor Schelling. This
article was written on the occasion of the opening of M. Cousin’s course
in 1829. Sir William Hamilton endeavours to seize the prominent points
in the Professor's prelections ; he attributes to him in part the introduc-
tion of the rational philosophy into France, and tries to demonstrate in
what these doctrines, viewed as a whole, consist.
Going back to the state in which philosophy existed in France at the
beginning of the century, he indicates at what point M. Cousin took it
up, and in the midst of what influences he announced his own ideas, and
endeavoured to construct a new rationalism which, making conscience
its starting point, derives from conscience, as interrogated by reason, the
whole of the scientific edifice. He scrupulously analyses the Professor’s
doctrine ; we shall briefly refer to it here for the sake of those who may
have lost sight of the characteristic features of his doctrine.
Three elements are found in intelligence, which reciprocally presup-
pose each other, all of them essential and inseparable from each other.
These elements or principles, recognised by Aristotle and Kant, are the
infinite or unconditional, the finite or conditional ; finally, the relation of
the finite to the infinite, which forms the integral element of intelligence.
Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy. 81
Reason, in which these three principles appear, is not personal nor indi-
vidual, it is absolute and divine ; it is the true manifestation of God in
man. The ideas of which we are conscious, place us in immediate re-
lation with God, and which affords us a means of knowing him; thus
God may be conceived of by us, the relation of God to the universe may
be manifested to our intelligence. God, the absolute and independent
cause of all that exists, may, and must, create ; creation thus becomes
necessary, and affords to our eyes the striking proof of the existence and
action of the Divinity. These ontological principles are likewise those
which govern the moral and material world. Every where these two
elements again appear,—the finite, the infinite, and their common rela-
tion which forms the third element. In psychology, the essence and
point of departure of every science, human and divine, we likewise meet
with three terms of the same phenomenon: 1st, The idea of me and of not
me as finite ; 2d, The idea of some other thing, as infinite ; 3d, The idea
of the relation of the finite to the infinite element. What constitutes
psychological science, likewise constitutes the science of the history of
philosophy itself, for the latter is just the history of human reason, with
all its relations, its laws, and vicissitudes. Four systems or partial views
of human intelligence divide history and include all opinions ; these sys-
tems are, Sensualism, Idealism, Scepticism, and Mysticism. None of them
is false, but in as far as it is incomplete ; thus, all are true, inasmuch as
they affirm, and false, inasmuch as they deny ; the electism founded by
M. Cousin should reconcile them, and bring together the portion of truth
which each presents, without having the power of itself to shew it en-
tire.
Sir William Hamilton has illustrated and discussed what we have here
reduced to a mere skeleton, but the subject has been so often noticed
and commented on by the journals of the time, that this will be sufficient
to recall it to the mind of every reader in any degree familiar with the
progress of philosophical ideas in our times. Sir William Hamilton re-
views the most celebrated professed opinions on the subject of the theory
of the infinite, as the immediate object of knowledge and thought. These
opinions, according to him, are reducible to four: that of the author, that
of Kant, that of Schelling, and that of Cousin. The Scotch Professor
compares them, and makes use of this comparison to remove the faults
and imperfections of those in which he does not concur. He makes an
attack, chiefly in reference to M. Cousin, on the definition of the abso-
lute by absolute cause, undertakes to demonstrate the falsity of his
rational theology, and combats, in particular, his theory of liberty. Ac-
cording to the whole of his observations, he considers it impossible to
realize the attempt of establishing a general harmony among all the sys-
tems ; but, rendering justice to the talents of the author, he pardons him
for the bold and vigorous attempt, common to all men devoted to the
cultivation of thought, and who, wishing to overpass the limits of our in-
VoL. XXX1V. NO. LXVII.—vanuary 1845. F
82. Sir William Hamilton's Fragments of Philosophy.
telligence, would attempt, by a sudden bound, honourable to human na-
ture, to attain even to the knowledge of the infinite.
In a second fragment, still more curious to us, inasmuch as it transports
us into a less known field of the Scottish philosophy, Sir William Hamil-
ton institutes a comparison between two celebrated metaphysicians,
Reid and Brown. Reid, as may easily be scen, obtains all his sympa-
thies ; but this does not prevent him, at the same time, judging of Brown
with that impartiality becoming a philosopher and a man of letters ; but
Reid’s philosophy had been combated by Brown ; and Sir William Ha-
milton takes this opportunity of resenting some unjust attacks, which
would have been calculated, without his efforts to establish the truth, to
lessen, at least for a time, the merit of the founder of Scotch metaphy-
sics, and diminish the number of his followers.
In order to understand this discussion, it must be remembered that
Reid is the founder of a system of philosophy which rests on the obser-
vation of the acts of conscience ; and, by interpreting it better, endea-
vours radically to destroy the scepticism of Hume. The foundation of
Reid’s doctrine, and what constitutes his glory, is his new theory of per-
ception, by means of which we are enabled to conceive and analyse the
foundations of our belief in the existence of exterior objects. According
to him, the act of perception is a pure belief, independent of all demon-
stration, and instinctively determined by the natural constitution of the
human mind.
While Sir William Hamilton assigns to Reid’s doctrine the advantage
over that of Brown, he discovers several errors in the former. He blames
Reid for having classed consciousness among the other intellectual facul-
ties, while all philosophers, Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, have con-
sidered consciousness, not as a particular faculty, but as the condition itself
of intelligence. Sir William Hamilton finds fault with this distinction as
neither very logical nor natural, and he forcibly exposes the defects in the
analysis of this philosopher, who limits the sphere of consciousness by as-
signing to it only the knowledge of intellectual operations to the exclu-
sion of their objects. Reid affirms that we are conscious of an act of
knowledge without being conscious of its object. Sir William Hamilton
opposes this assertion of the Scotch philosopher, because, after having
himself interpreted the part performed by consciousness in the phenomenon
of perception, he reduces the number of the different systems of philo-
sophy, which this interpretation can furnish, to six, and ranks the opinion
of Brown, Reid’s opponent, in the latter of these systems. In this sys-
tem one may conceive the object of perception as a simple modification
of the perceiving subject ; the consequence which naturally flows from
this is the negation of the external world ; and it is against this conse-
quence that the author of the system defends himself by endeavouring to
establish the reality of external things by various hypotheses. This system
may be reduced to the following formula :—The mind has no consciousness
nor immediate knowledge of anything beyond its subjective states, In order
Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy. 83
to enable us to judge accurately of this system, Sir William Hamilton
compares it with all those which the history of philosophy has handed
down to us. He judges of it in relation to the opinions of Descartes,
Locke, Malebranche, and Leibnitz ; and, with this vigorous analysis be-
fore us, it is not difficult to allow ourselves to be drawn over to the opi-
nion of Reid, much more popular in France than that of Brown, but of
which a more accurate estimate will be formed by an acquaintance with
this curious discussion, one which has been so often renewed in the field
of the history of philosophy.
It will be seen that Sir William Hamilton, although a disciple of Reid,
can judge of him with impartiality ; that he can divest himself of all the
influence of sect ; and that, while he assigns in this analysis the prefer-
ence to Reid’s system, he does not believe it to be free from important
defects ; accordingly, the treatise in question is rather intended to refute
Brown than to exalt Reid. We have seen with pleasure some pieces of
the former of these writers collected at the end cf this article under the
form of extracts from his lectures. These extracts form so many vouchers
calculated to throw light on the discussion.
The fragment on Logic, which follows that on Reid and Brown, is but
of accessory interest, notwithstanding the importance of the subject. The
author undertakes the task of passing in review the most remarkable
works published in England of late years on the teaching of this science.
It is a minute critical detail, which only makes us acquainted with the
names of some of the professors in the University of Oxford. We here
learn that, according to Sir William Hamilton’s testimony, the study of
logic has been singularly neglected in the universities of Great Britain.
These criticisms are preceded by some general considerations on logic
and its importance in the study of philosophy, which divest this treatise
of any thing of a technical character which might otherwise have belonged
to it.
But the best fragment we have noticed in the volume is that in which
the author treats of the study of Mathematics. The field which this
question opens up is sufliciently vast to merit a serious attention ; our
author has accordingly devoted to it nearly a hundred pages in this me-
moir, where the subject is thoroughly discussed. This treatise was writ-
ten on oceasion of the publication of a work entitled Thoughts on the
Study of Mathematics as part of a Liberal Education, by the Rey. Wil-
liam Whewell ; Cambridge, 1835.
Do mathematics favour the superior development of the mind? Do
they form it by enlarging its faculties? Such is the question treated of
in this Memoir and answered in the negative. Adducing the testimony of
a great number of authors, and the support of numerous examples, Sir
William Hamilton undertakes to prove, in opposition to the authority of
the Cambridge professor, that mathematics do not afford a general edu-
cation to the mind. This opinion, which is maintained by modern Ger-
man professors of celebrity, is likewise that of Voltaire and Franklin,
84 Sir William Hamilton’s Fragments of Philosophy.
both of whom had cultivated this science. It will probably excite sur-
prise to see the authority of Descartes himself likewise turned against
mathematics, a science which he had cultivated with so much success ;
this is shewn by a fragment of his life by Baillet, quoted in this volume,
and in which the French philosopher acknowledges that his own experi-
ence had convinced him of the small utility of mathematics, especially when
cultivated on their own account, and without applying the means which
they afford us to the acquisition of other kinds of knowledge. Sir Wil-
liam Hamilton then compares philosophy with mathematics, and ex-
amines the aids which they respectively afford to the intellect. Claiming
the whole preference for philosophy, he affirms that a too exclusive study
of mathematics renders the mind incapable of observation, whether in-
ternal or external, of abstraction and of reasoning ; to these disadvantages
he adds that of precipitating the mind either into a state of blind eredu-
lity, or of irrational scepticism.
But, again, if the study of the mathematical sciences cannot, like logic,
fortify the reason against the errors of thought, may it not at least
strenothen the reason itself? Sir William Hamilton does not think that
it can. According to him, the principles of mathematics being self-evi-
dent, every step which the mind takes in the process has the same degree
of evidence ; every step in a mathematical demonstration can be easily
made, and requires only an easy application of thought ; and as a faculty
is always developed in proportion to its degree of exercise, it thence fol-
lows, according to him, that the mathematics, by submitting the intellec-
tual powers to a very feeble degree of activity, develope them in a very
limited manner. Further, relying on the opinions of different writers of
distinguished character, he undertakes to shew that the study of mathe-
matics is accessible to all, and requires no special adaptation. The tes-
timonies cited are those of Berkeley, S’Gravesande, D’Alembert, Gibbon,
Mme. de Staél, and others, who, although less celebrated, nevertheless lend
their authority to countenance this conclusion. He exposes the double ten-
dency to credulity and scepticism, which often leads the individual astray
who gives himself up exclusively to sciences of calculation. We cannot
help thinking that there is somewhat of exaggeration in this assertion,
which is very like a paradox skilfully defended ; but it is pleasant to fol-
low the animated pen of a writer fully master of his subject, while he
draws deductions always well connected, and supported by an accurate
acquaintance with the history and minute analysis of human intelligence.
Sir William Hamilton concludes by blaming the University of Cam-
bridge for giving too much encouragement. to the study of mathematics
in preference to the other sciences. Resting his views on the principles
already explained, he points out the impropriety of directing the minds
of youth to this in preference to every other kind of instruction, seeing
that it is of importance to fortify the intellect with resources adapted to
be useful in every circumstance of life, and not in some one in particular.
Such is the yolume of Fragments we owe to the Scottish Professor.
Mr D. Milne on Earthquake Shocks, ke. 85
Every one will peruse with interest this co'lection of four dissertations,
all of which throw light on the questions of which they treat, and indi-
cate a rare power of analysis, and very uncommon sagacity. We
should be glad to see many similar pieces on the moral sciences adorn
the pages of our periodical reviews ; such memoirs, without pretension
or borrowed splendour, afford real instruction, and familiarize the reader
with all the questions of the science. Thus reduced to less extended
proportions than in a long and elaborate work, the science becomes sim-
plified under a skilful pen, without contracting anything narrow or
mean.*
Notices of Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain, and espe-
cially in Scotland, with inferences suggested by these notices as
to the causes of the Shocks. By Davip Mityz, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
M.W.S., F.G.S., &e. Communicated by the Author.
(Continued from Vol. XX XIII. page 372.)
At Alford Manse, Aberdeenshire, about eighty miles N. E.
of Comrie, “the earthquake was felt at half-past 10 p.m. ;
but owing to the great alarm occasioned in the family, there
may be an error of some minutes. At the moment of the
shock, I was sitting reading at a table, with candles before
me, nearly in the middle of the dining-room, with my back
directly to the south-west, and face to the north-east. Sud-
denly I heard a loud noise behind, and also under my feet,
and immediately felt my chair raised up, and inclined forward
at a considerable angle under me; and as I was catching the
table with my hands to save myself from what I conceived to
be an impending fall, the motion of the chair was as suddenly
reversed, and feeling as if I were in danger of being thrown
backwards, I clung to the table, which I had just seized, to
escape a backward fall,—but the chair directly settled into its
horizontal position without any farther oscillation. As the
noise continued, I became instantly convinced that I had felt
an earthquake, and any danger from it seeming over, I sat
still with the view of analysing, at the moment, all the sensa-
tions I had experienced, and estimating the character and
* From Bibliotheque Uniyerselle de Geneve, No. 60; Sept. 1642, p.
210-225
86 Mr D. Milne on Karthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
duration of the noise. I became aware on reflection, and
when my attention was no longer arrested by the imminent
danger of falling, that the table before me had sustained a
vibration similar to that of the chair on which I sat. The
south-west side of the table had become elevated above the
level, and again immediately became depressed below it. I
became particularly sensible of the depression of the south-
west, having been impressed with the fear that the cat dles
would be thrown down upon me, but the extent of the move-
ment was not such as to make the candlesticks ‘otter. I
could make no doubt that the whole house had undergone a
similar vibration to those of the chair and table of which I
was so sensible,—or rather that the vibration of the house com-
prebended within it those of the chair and table.
“The noise was of two distinct kinds. The front of the
house is about directly southwest, and the first noise heard,
was as if an immense quantity of small but sharp shingle had
been tilted against the foundation of the front wall, and
poured inward below the whole house. The shock instantly
followed, and was accompanied by a crenking and rattling of
the doors, windows, and various articles of furniture, amidst
which a sharp rattling of the slates on the roof was distinctly
sensible. This latter noise was not of a continuous and uni-
form kind, and did not last long—not longer, I think, than
about a second; but that which resembled the grinding noise
of tilted shingle, extended itself, apparently under ground, on
all sides, and became an immense volume of sound, gradually,
however, diminishing in intensity, and dying away first in the
southwest, and finally in the north-east, after an interval of
four or five seconds from its being first heard.
« About a quarter of an hour previous to the shock, Mrs Far-
quharson had gone into the nursery on the same flat with me,
which is that above the ground story ; and a young lady then
in the house had retired to her bed-room on the same fiat,
while my eldest daughter had retired to hers in the flat just
above me. I had scarcely estimated the duration of the noise,
when Mrs F. suddenly entered the room where I was sitting,
and stated that the young lady on the same flat had risen.
from her bed, and come to her in great alarm, saying, that
and especially in Scotland. 87
she had certainly experienced an earthquake. At the same
moment, my daughter descended from the upper storey, say-
ing that there was some person in her room, who, after shak-
ing her bed, made several heayy steps across the floor, and
had at last fallen down in it. I felt it right at the time to
calm these alarms. without acknowledging that there had
been any earthquake. In the morning, I learnt from the
young lady in the lower flat, that while in bed, which stands
lengthwise south-east and north-west, she had felt herself, by
the rising of the west side of the bed, suddenly tossed towards
the east, and as suddenly again thrown down towards the west.
She described the noises she heard at the same time, ina
way similar to that in which I have done above. Mrs F. was
actively engaged at the moment of the shock, which she felt,
and she also heard the noise, but imagined it was a violent
gust of wind, of which there had been several in the previous
part of the evening.
“‘ The house stands upon a bed of shingle, anciently deposited
by the small river Leochal. The rocks, only slightly covered,
over all this neighbourhood, are micaceous schist and granite.”
(5.) Accounts from Districts East of Comrie.
Near Avinross, at Shanwell, ‘the residence of the Rev. Mr
Coventry, the shock is thus described by him :—* At the time
of the shock I was sitting. A noise preceded it as ofa rushing
wind, though the air was perfectly still at the time, and this was
accompanied by a noise as if of cattle or horses running rapidly
past the windows. The duration of the shock was of such a
length, as to give Mrs C. and those who felt it, time to speak
of it as an earthquake, and to express their feelings in regard
to it. She thinks it lasted a minute. The rushing noise
seemed to be in the air, as well as the sound like the tramp-
ling of horses or cattle. But besides these, and following
them, there was heard a rumbling noise as if of carts on a
pavement, but more hollow in the sound; and this latter
sound was in the earth, and began distinctly on the north-west
end of the house, and proceeded gradually to the south-east
side, when it gradually died away. The rushing sound in the
air was heard both on the north and south sides of the house,
88 Mr D. Milne on Larthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
the concussion appeared to follow the same direction as the
rumbling sound in the earth. With regard to the effects of
the shock, Mrs C. felt the floor of the drawing-room to rock
and the window to shake; and, in one of the bedrooms, where
two of my daughters and a servant were, the floor was felt to
beso unsteady, that they were fain to cling to the chimney-piece,
and the doors of the wardrobes and the joists of the roof were
heard to creak, The inmates of this room complained of
being giddy and sick at the time of its occurrence. No ob-
servations were made, as to any walls being cracked. The
weather was very wet, the barometer high, and the night ex-
tremely dark and perfectly still. I understand that at the Old
Manse, our friend David Syme’s residence, at Kinross, the
shock was very violent, and four distinct rockings were felt.
In the town of Kinross, the shock was felt very distinctly by
most of the inhabitants, and is thus described by Mr Syme,
the sheriff-substitute of that county :—‘I was sitting alone in
aroom on the ground-floor in the south-west corner of our
house which fronts the south, when, a few minutes after ten
P.M., my attention was attracted by a strange hoarse rushing
sound inthe south. I laid down my book to listen, and almost
immediately heard a louder sound, as if of a heavy body falling
gently on the floor of the room above, directly overhead, and
continuing to roll along towards the other end—the apparent
motion being thus from south to north. I was not sensible
of any shock or concussion, and did not think of an earth-
quake, but was startled by the strangeness of the noise, and
ran up stairs to inquire, and found that Mrs 8., her mother,
and two female servants who happened to be in the drawing-
room—a very small room on the second floor in the south-east
angle of the house (with one window to the south and one to
the east), had the instant before felt the shock of an earth-
quake most alarmingly. They heard and saw the crystal and
china-ornaments on the chimney-piece in motion, and Mrs 8.
felt four distinct rockings. She thought that the cas¢ wall was
coming ¢o her; and her mother, who was a little farther off,
that it was going from her, and all were sensible of a strong
undulatory motion. They think it began at the east side, and
that the east wall or gable-end was most affected, but there
and especially in Scotland. 89
was no rent of the wall, nor have I heard of anything of the
kind in this neighbourhood. A second shock was experienced
about two o'clock next morning (24th), by some of our neigh-
bours, but not by us: though about an hour and a half after
the first, I fancied I heard the same rushing sound as before,
but less distinctly.
At Perth, as the author was informed by several of the in-
habitants, the furniture in their houses was shaken, and lamps
hanging from the ceilings of their rooms, were made to vibrate.
On the side of the Tay, opposite to Perth, a crack was
formed during the night of the 23d October, on the side of
the turnpike-road, where it runs above a steep bank. This
crack was noticed early in the morning of the 24th October,
and was such as to endanger the integrity of the road. Two
days afterwards, a slice of the road along the line of the crack,
for about twenty-five yards in length, slipped down the bank
altogether.
From S¢ Andrews, in the East of Fife, two accounts were
received.
Dr Govan of the E.I.C.S. writes,—‘ I had just gone to bed,
which was placed, as nearly as I can estimate, N. by W., and
S. by E., when I experienced a smart and sudden movement .
from below upwards, and as I thought nearly at right angles
to the line in which I lay, coming from the S. and W. I im-
mediately said, it was a very smart shock of an earthquake,
and looked at my watch, which shewed 104, 24’ p.m. An undu-
lating movement immediately succeeding, the smart shock was
perceived by those in the room, which caused a degree of gid-
diness. I immediately went to observe the barometer, which
stood unaffected at about 30 inches; without, all was quiet
and more still than usual.
Dr Mudie of St Andrews writes,—“ Colonel Playfair of the
E.I.C.S. was sitting with his family on the night of the 23d Oc-
tober. They all distinctly felt the earthquake, and as both the
Colonel and Mrs P. had repeatedly felt earthquakes in India,
they instantly recognised the nature of the shock. To all of
the company, there was the sensation of the earth rising sud-
denly up, and vibrating before it returned to its former site.
The vibration proceeded from the south-west to the north-
>
90 Mr D. Milne on Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
east, and the gas lamp suspended in the middle of the room
indicated by its oscillation a movement in that direction. The
Colonel instantly pulled out his watch, and found the time
exactly twenty minutes past ten; and whilst he was looking
at his watch, he distinctly felt a second shock, not so strong
as the first, but the vibration was in the same direction.
«« Mrs General Farquharson was in bed at the time of the
shock, and she felt as if a person was under the bed, and lifted
it up; the ewer in the basin gingled with the motion, and
when she rung for her servant, she came in great alarm,
thinking, from the rattling of the windows, that some person
was attempting to break into the house.
« A young man, a student in a lodging-house, was awakened
by the lifting of his bed ;—and thinking it was a trick by
one of his companions, got out of bed, and seizing a golf-
club, continued to strike at the supposed intruder under the
bed.
(6.) Accounts from districts South-East of Comrie.
In East-Lothian, near North-Berwick, as Mr Scougall at Bal-
gone wrote, “ the noise or sound preceded the shock. The shock
was not tremulous, but undulating. Those who were in bed
describe it thus: They felt, as if their beds had been swung
from the top. ‘The shock lasted about two or three seconds.
“Dr Moir of Musselburgh writes,—‘‘ I was sitting in
the dining-room of Loretto with Mr Langhorne; but al-
though there is a gas-chandelier suspended from the centre
of the roof, which readily vibrates in treading across the
room, neither of us were attracted by this or any other cir-
cumstance. Next morning, however, in making my rounds,
I called on Mr Watson of Pinkieburn, who asked me if I
had perceived any thing uncommon on the night before.
I said, No. He then informed me, that, from ten minutes
to a quarter after ten, while seated in his parlour by the
table, he distinctly felt his chair move under him; at the
lapse of about two seconds another movement was distinctly
perceptible, at which time he said to Mrs Watson, who was
walking along the floor, * What is that? Did you observe my
chair moving under me?’ ‘ No,’ she replied, ‘ but there is
and especially in Scotland. 91
somebody knocking at the outside of the house. She then
rang the bell for the servant, who was ordered to open the
front docr, but saw nobody. Here there were two distinct
shocks, between which the noise continued, something like
a rumbling wind, and came from the west.
« During the same forenoon, while at Prestonpans, the same
question was put to me by Mrs Hislop (sister to Mrs Cadell
of Cockenzie), who was at the time confined to bed. While
alone in her bedroom, at nearly a quarter after ten on the
preceding night, she felt as if something was raising up the
bed from the floor, and the sensation was so perfect, that she
involuntarily seized hold of the curtains near her, when a
second, and then a third repetition, caused her to grasp them
more tightly, and exclaim—‘ Have mercy on us ? These
heavings were accompanied by a sound from the south, which
caused one of the windows to rattle during the whole time.
A thimble, which happened to be iying on the stand of a mir-
yor on the dressing-table, kept rattling, as also an empty
jug within the basin of the wash-hand stand. Strange to
say, none of the other inmates of the house perceived any
thing of this, although Mr Hislop himself was at the time,
but not in the same room, only a few yards’ distant. The
family then retired to bed, but, in about half an hour after, a
deep rumbling noise was heard from the west, both by Mrs
Hislop, and by Mr Patrick Turnbull, her nephew, who was
awoke by it, and listened for some time, thinking that it was
some one sent from the distillery, of which he has the charge,
to awake him.
“ Lady Harriet Suttie has since told me, that she and Sir
George were at Newbyth on that evening, and that the tre-
mors and heavings were felt there to a degree, that attracted
the attention of every one.”
At Trinity, near Leith, Lieutenant Forrest, R. N., felt the
shock very distinctly in a house 300 yards from the sea beach.
He described his sensations in a memorandum which he wrote
down next morning. ‘The following is a copy of it. “‘Juast
night, about a quarter past ten o’clock, I had been about ten
minutes in bed, when I felt the bed tremble severely under
me ;so much so, that | asked my wife (who had been confined
92 Myr D. Milne on Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
to bed for two days previously) if she was taken worse ? my
impression being at the moment that ¢hat was the cause. She
answered that she was not trembling, but the noise and shak-
ing, she thought, was caused by the servants shutting in the
doors below (my bedroom is on the first floor) ; the window all
this time was rattling as if from a high wind, although it was
calm at the time; and the furniture in the room creaked, as
if in the cabin of a steamer going over a sea. There was a
tin-case with hot water in the bed, which I heard shaken about
very distinctly. I observed at the time to Mrs F., that I was
convinced it was the shock of an earthquake, and noted the
time in my watch. It must have continued nearly a minute,
as I had time to sit up in my bed, and make the above remarks
during its continuance.”
In Edinburgh, the following persons have communicated to
the author their several perceptions.
Mr Syme, of the Bank of Scotland, when in his house in
North Castle Street, felt the shock, and a noise accompanying
it. The noise seemed to be above his head, in the upper part
of the house. Keys hanging on the key-hole of a book-case
were made to dangle.
Mrs Swinton, in Athole Crescent, was in bed, and felt the
shock. It appeared to come from the north. Her bed rocked
twice or thrice. She has felt several shocks in India, of which
only one was more severe than this.
Mr M‘Callum, of the Bank of Scotland, when in the fifth
storey of the bank (about, 120 feet from the ground behind it)
felt the shock between 10" 5’ and 10°20’. He first experienced
a tendency to fall over towards the east. He distinctly heard
the floor near the east gable shake. One window rattled, fac-
ing towards the east.
At Dunning, about 16 miles SE. of Comrie, the shock is
stated by Dr Martin, physician there, to have been felt about
102 14’ p.m. “It was a kind of double shock, consisting of two
strokes in quick succession, with about half a second between
them. The first was much the strongest blow. In about half
an hour after, another shock was felt, but weaker, and of
shorter duration.
and especially in Scotland. 93
* The first or double shock lasted about 5’; the second about
2” or 3”.
‘© As to the nature of the concussion, it seemed as if some
subterranean element had suddenly struck the solid surface of
the earth from beneath, with such a force as to make it yield
a little upward. The tremor that followed, arose from its
own elasticity and the violence of the impulse. It was both
a tremor or vibration of the earth’s surface, and an undula-
tion of the ground. At the commencement of the shock, it
was a sudden double jolt and tremor of the earth’s surface, the
result of a subterraneous blow quickly repeated, and, at the
end, an undulation or movement of the ground. Objects were
more rocked and shaken by the tremulous motion than by the
undulation ; but none of them were lifted up and let down
again. The surface of the earth and buildings thereon, houses,
and furniture therein, were moved simultaneously, and trem-
bled or shook altogether as one continuous integral.
** With regard to the points of the compass, the first inclina-
tion was nearly in the direction of the north-west. It was the
effect of an invisible sudden force, and was quick. The mo-
tion back again was slower, and appeared to be the mere re-
covery of balance or perpendicularity.
“ It seemed to travel with great velocity, and was loudest at
its termination.
“ The 23d of October 1839 was cloudy, with rain; the hills
were foggy; wind east, with calm intervals. Much more rain
fell than usual in the autumn of 1839.
« About a mile from Dunning, in a farm-house situated on a
high level, and founded on whinstone rock of unknown depth,
the concussion so marred the swing or vibration of the pendu-
lum of the clock, that it stood still.
“The mounds of earth covering potato-pits were cracked from
end to end, and the water of sundry wells was made drumly.”
At Muckhart, situated at the opening of a gorge on the
south side of Ochils, and about 20 miles S.SE. of Comrie, Mr
Harvey heard and felt the shock. He writes,—‘‘ Having been
at Comrie some years ago, when there was a very smart shock,
the moment this of the 23d October commenced, I said to a
friend with whom I was conversing at the time, ‘ An earth-
94 Mr D. Milne on Larthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
quake !’—~‘ It is the same sort of sound (he added) that we
heard the other day in the harvest field.” I took observation
of the time, and all this passed while yet the sound of it was
heard; we concluded that it lasted above 50 seconds. As to
the sort of sound, it resembled in its approach a multitude of
coal waggons on a railroad somewhat as to sound, but chiefly
as to the motion produced ; there was a quick vibration. My
house stands on a bed of channel. There is another near it
on mossy ground, and there the shock was felt as a heave.
The inhabitant imagined, being in bed, that some huge ani-
mal had got beneath his bed and was bearing up the bed to
get from beneath. No walls cracked in this neighbourhood,
so far as I can learn, but there were several bursts of earth,
and slides on the sides of the hills, and breakings of wellheads.
Birds’ cages moved like pendulums. Noise accompanied, pre-
ceeded, and followed the shock. The noise was continuous,
with variation of the sounds. The sound was first like the
distant sound of carriages on the public road ; as it approached
it grew deep and hollow from the earth, and passed away like
the effect produced by a close body of cavalry in quick march
over acommon. It was in the earth. The concussions were
most felt in the upper parts of houses. Doors upstairs in my
house, were thrown open and moved on their hinges. From
all I can collect, it appears it was not so much felt in houses
on the hill sides, as in the houses along the bottom of the range ;
the houses on the hills are mostly built on rock, those along
the bottom of the hills on gravel or loose soil. We had much
rain previously. One night, in the end of September, from
8 in the evening to 8 next morning, as nearly as I could ascer-
tain, there fell about 1 inch of water in thickness on the ground.
Besides shooting stars,some nights after I sawthe most splendid
meteor I ever witnessed. It was passing from the west to the
east, and proceeded in a line parallel to the earth’s surface.”
At Woodeot, near Dollar, about 22 miles S.S.E. from
Comrie, the shocks and the state of the weather at the
time, are thus described by Mr Walker. “ The first con-
cussion felt here was at 10" 10’ p.m. on the 231 of October,
the second about half-an-hour afterwards. The noise pre-
ceding the first, lasted about four or five seconds ; in the second
and especially in Scotiand. 95
the duration of the noise was shorter, and I felt no shock.
The concussion of the first appeared to me to resemble more
the slight lurch of a ship under way, struck by a wave and
righting immediately again, than any other motion. As far
as I can judge from the situation of this house (at the imme-
diate base of one of the Ochils) and the quarter of it whence
the sound and concussion came from, I should say that they
both came from N.NW., and went in the opposite direction
across the room where I was sitting; I was placed in rather
a fayourable situation for ascertaining this, as I was reading at
the time, with my arms leaning upon the table, and both it
and the chair upon which I was sitting were thrown first to
one side and then to the other, or, to speak more correctly,
first towards the S.SE. and then back to where they had been ;
the noise was very loud. It seemed to me to be very like what
would have been occasioned by some one over head dragging
some heavy piece of furniture along the floor from one side of
the room to the other, the sound gradually increasing and
diminishing as it came towards or receded from the position
where I was. The weather on the day of the shock, and also
the one preceding it, was uncommonly calm, very foggy to-
wards the evening, and the air at that time felt much warmer
than, the degree of heat indicated by the thermometer would
have led one to expect, and I thought (but it may have been
fancy) that there was a peculiar odour perceptible. In the
year 1824, when I was at Lisbon, I perfectly recollect having
remarked the same thing, though, from the difference of lati-
tude, the heat and the closeness of the air was much more
oppressive ; and I remember well that the inhabitants of that
city were much alarmed at the appearance of the weather,
the same phenomena haying, they said, been observed imme-
diately before the tremendous earthquake in 1755.”
In a subsequent letter, Mr Walker adds,—* 1 did not per-
ceive any leaning of the house to the N.NW., after recover-
ing the perpendicular,—though I have no doubt it must have
done so, as your explanation appears to me quite consistent in
other respects with what I felt at the time. I was not sensi-
ble of the house being lifted up. It appeared to me, as if it
had been struck by something which caused it to heel sud-
96 Mr D. Milne on Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
denly to the S.SE.;—indeed I can compare it to’ nothing
but the motion of a ship, when she gives a slight lee-
lurch.”
The gardener of the Dollar Academy has given the follow-
ing graphic account of what he perceived. ‘ My family had
retired to bed; I alone sat reading, opposite the fire-place,
which is in the east side of the room. The candle was burn-
ing on the chimney-piece, with the snuffer-tray beside it. I
was startled by an unusual noise towards the NW., like the
rolling of many carriages, or the sound of distant thunder. It
appeared to die away toward the SE., and struck me as being
immediately under or on the surface of the earth,—not over
head. I still looked in the direction from whence the sound
came, and perceived the bed-curtains agitated. The bed stood
in the NW. corner of the room. There was a looking-glass
in the window, which looks to the west.—It also was shaken.
The chair which I sat on, was moved first toward the SE. se-
veral times, the candlestick in the same direction. The snuffer-
tray was nearly thrown down. The motion of the earth was
decidedly undulatory ; and from the circumstance of the bed-
curtains and looking-glass being moved first, and my chair
being next moved toward the S E., and the candlestick in the
same direction, I concluded that the shock was from the NW.
to the SE. I was sitting in a position peculiarly favourable
for observing it. My feet rested on one side of the grate, and
my whole weight was on the chair. My attention was
keenly alive at the time. The noise preceding the shock last-
ed, I think, about 4”; a shorter time] intervened between the
noise and the shock, which lastéd also about 4’.. The strength
of the shock throughout appeared to be the same.”
At Tillicoultry, a considerable village a little farther to the
east than Dollar, also situated on the south base of the Ochil
range, Mr Thomson, surgeon there, writes, that ‘ Those in
Tillicoultry who most distinctly experienced the shock, agree
generally in stating, that there was a decided undulatory mo-
tion communicated to their houses, whereby they themselves,
and objects on the floor, were, or seemed to be, lifted up and
let down again, as if they were rocked in a cradle, or tossed in
a hammock at sea.
and especially in Scotland. a7
** Two considerable masses of rock, it is believed, were de-
tached from the face of one of the Ochil hills here by the
shock of the earthquake, as the shepherd was on the spot
where they now lie, on the preceding day, and did not observe
them till the morning after the event. One of these is esti-
mated at ten tons weight. A large rent, of 4 or 5 yards long,
and about one foot and a half wide at its widest part, was ob-
served, on the succeeding day, running across a potato-heap,
whose whole length might be 12 yards by 2 yards wide. All
the houses in our village, which are nearly 300, were more or
less shaken. The slates upon certain roofs of the higher
houses, and the dishes upon the shelves, clattered against each
other—several bells rang—articles hanging from the ceiling
oscillated—windows shivered—doors moved on their hinges—
individuals walking or sitting, were thrown slightly off their
centre. Many who were asleep or in bed, started up in stupid
amazement. One man says he was pitched from one side of
the bed to the other. In the upper flats of houses, the chairs
on which individuals were sitting, and the beds on which they
were lying, rocked like a cradle, or a boat gently lifted by a
waye.
** It seems to be the prevailing opinion of those who were
in a recumbent posture, or in bed, that the couch was first
moved from the N. or NE., and that the S. or SW. side was
then affected. The motion of dishes,'and the rattling of slates,
was on the north side of the houses chiefly.
* The majority with whom I have'spoken on this topic, think
that the shock came from N. or NE., and travelled to S. or
SW. This was the impression of those who were a-bed, and
is perhaps confirmed by the following facts. The masses of
projected rock referred to took the direction of the S. from the
N. (the face of the hill is steep, and slopes southward). The
rent or fissure referred to, ran from NE. to SW. The persons
felt moved towards the S. who were in bed.
“ In the months of September and October, the aurora bo-
realis, or northern lights, were uncommonly brilliant, and
stretched across the zenith southward farther than I have seen
them before; they had a curious fery colour.”
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXviI.—sanuAnry 1843. G
98 Mr D. Milne on Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
At Alva, as the Rev. Mr Drysdale reports, “ I was moved
upon my chair from one side to the other. I was within half
a foot of a wall-press, the standards and door of which cracked
as if breaking. My house is situated within 300 yards of the
Ochil range. It faces due south. I was sitting in a room at
the west gable. When I heard the noise, I turned my face
towards the east, in which direction it seemed to me coming.
When it came, as it were, around me, I felt very strange, and
as if there was something like a shock of electricity over my
body, beginning at the feet and going to the head. Sitting
still in this position, after the noise seemed to have passed to
the west, I saw the carpet move as it had been a wave of the
sea, and as it undulated along to my chair :—then was my
chair moved to the west, then to the east.”
The Rev. Mr Brown, parochial minister of Alva, who felt
the shock in his manse at the foot of the Ochils, says,—‘* What
I first perceived was a loud and very singular noise, which
lasted 2” or 3’. Immediately after, I felt the house shake
violently.”” I may add, “ That before perceiving the shock,
or thinking that an earthquake was approaching, I felt, during
the continuance of the noise, as if I had been slightly electri-
fied. A quivering sensation pervaded my whole body from
the feet upwards.”
From Alloa, situated on the Forth, about 8. by E. from Com-
rie, various communications were received, of which a few
may be noticed.
One correspondent writes,—* I felt a remarkable sensation
come over me at the time of the shock. But whether it was
connected with the phenomenon, or merely a sensation pro-
duced by the mind, being instantly aware of what the pheno-
menon was, which was taking place, I could not determine.
The leg of a piano in the room distinctly creaked.”
Mr Roy writes,—‘ I was sitting in the dining-room on the
ground floor, reading, one of my arms resting on the table,
and the other on one of the arms of the chair on which I was
sitting, when I suddenly felt a violent shock (as if a very heavy
weight had been thrown on an elastic floor), which made the
table move as if from under my arm in a southerly direction.
I immediately called out, ‘ What was that” to some of the
family who were in the room and also felt the shock. The
and especially in Scotland. 99)
shock was accompanied, or rather succeeded, by a rashing or
rumbling kind of noise, resembling the sound of a carriage,
passing along the road, which continued for a second or two,
and appeared to me to proceed as from north to south or south-
east,—at this period, I must say I felt a peculiar sensation
just as if I had been suddenly exposed to danger ; and when
this had a little subsided, I went to the kitchen to inquire
whether the servants had been up stairs making any noise,
and found them all alarmed, having heard the noise and felt
the shock without knowing the cause ; I therefore concluded
it must have been an earthquake.”
« Another correspondent says,—‘ The first circumstance
that attracted my attention was a sudden and violent gust of
wind, accompanied with a more than ordinary rushing noise,
as from the north-east, against the window. I then felt
the shock, and the doors of the wardrobe, before which I
was standing, which are rather loose, rattled sharply four or
five times, and the noise seemed to pass to the other side or
front of the house, and roll heavily, as if under ground, away
to the south-west. The shock excited a most peculiar sickish
sensation, such as [ think I never felt before.”
Mr Donald, writer in Alloa, communicated several circum-
stances of interest.
(1.) The landlord of the Tontine Inn there was, when the
shock occurred, standing at the door of his stables, which
front the west, and was leaning with his back on the south
lintel. He very distinctly heard the noise, which he thought
came from the north. He then felt a jerk similar to that felt
by a person leaning on a steam-boat when it strikes a quay.
He was precipitated forward about a foot. The bells in his
house were set a-ringing, and the glasses on his tables and
sideboard were put in motion.
(2.) A steam-boat was lashed alongside of a quay, running
nearly east and west. The boat was on the north sideof the south
wall of the quay, and the paddle-box was within two feet of the
wall. There was about a foot and a half of water between her
keel and the bottom of the river. An engineer and a boy were
sitting in the steerage cabin, the former reading. Suddenly
the boat gave “a heavy jerk” on the pier. These two per~
100 Mr D. Milne on Earthquake-Shocks felt in Great Britain,
sons immediately started on deck, to ascertain the cause. The
vessel was then about three or three and a half feet from the
pier, the shock having caused her to recoil, and she was then
moving back to it again. Just before the collision, the engi-
neer heard a distinct rumbling noise, as if under ground,
which seemed to proceed towards the south. The engineer
on looking at his watch, found the time to be between 10 and
20 minutes past 10 o’clock. The shock was felt at the same
moment, by another vessel in the harbour.
(3.) Close to Alloa Ferry there is a small watch-house, the
back wall of which runs parallel with a wall inclosing the
glass-house premises. These two walls are about eleven feet
high, and are about four inches apart. The watch-house has a
sloping roof, and, in order that the rain falling on it may not
run down the back wall, there is an edging of lead which pro-
jects from the roof, making the distance between it and the
glass-house wall only three inches.
The ferryman was, at the time of the shock, sitting in the
watch-house, when he was startled by a noise and concussion,
produced by something striking against the wall or roof of the
house. He supposed, at the moment, that the glass- house people
were playing him a trick, by tumbling some heavy body upon the
house. This thought, however, was almost immediately dis-
pelled by seeing some articles within the house moved, and
in particular the cover of a pot, which was shaken from the
spar of a small table on which it was placed. The noise ap-
peared to come from the N. or NW.
On examination of the premises next day, it was found that
the leaden gutter or edging on the roof of the watch-house,
had been bent upwards by the pressure of the glass-house
wall.
The glass-house wall runs in a direction NE. and SW. It
is built on the thick deposit of diluvial or alluvial clay, which
extends through all the low grounds adjoining the river Forth
in this part of its course.
Considering the height and distance from each other of the
two walls just described, it is plain, that if one remained sta-
tionary and the other leaned over, the deviation of the latter
from the perpendicular, must have been at least 1° 18’, in order
and especially in Scotland. 101
to produce simply a contact, but no pressure of the walls, at
the height of 11 feet from the ground. If then, this deviation
is to be ascribed to a rising of the ground, such as would be
caused by the propagation of a wave along the earth’s surface,
the surface must have inclined or sloped to at least the extent
of the above angle, so that the wave must have formed with
the horizon an angie of more than 1° 18’.
But is it a probable supposition, that one of the walls would
remain stationary, whilst the other leaned towards it? If the
wave came from the north, the glass-house wall would, no
doubt, be first affected ; but would not the back wall of the
watch-house be also made to lean over almost simultane-
ously? It is true that the two walls were at the foundations
only 4 inches apart; but then the back wall of the watch-
house formed one side of a solid building, abutting against
two gables 14 feet long. The back wall of the watch-house,
therefore, would probably not move until the wave had ad-
vanced far enough to affect the whole building. Moreover,
it is plain, that the house would not by the supposed wave
coming from the north, lean over so much as the glass-house
wall.
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Ee and Invented by John Maxton, Leith
es
Tol MD Plate V Fege 130
tine for Registering the Tides. Figs.
I Lith + Lithay Fils
Description of a Self-Registering Tide-Guage. 131
tides. From the mechanism of the machine the studs on the
right hand of the centre or zero line are for registering the
height ; and those on the left the lowness of the tides as
measured from the half-tide level. The figures on the right
and left margins correspond to the days of the month ; and
the drawing represents a register for twenty-eight days’ tides,
or one lunar month. In figs. 1 and 3, f is a pulley with a
cord or small chain passing round it; to one end of the cord
is attached a float g (fig. 3.), and to the other end of the cord
is a weight / (figs. 1 and 3), which acts as a counter balance
to the float. On the axle of the large pulley /, is a pinion 2,
and the smaller the diameter of the pinion is, in proportion
to that of the pulley, the narrower and more compact the re-
gistering plate or table (fig. 1) will be. Letter 7 represents
a rack; the number of teeth and revolutions of pinion x, dur-
ing the whole range of tide, determining the length of the
rack and the proportion of the scales of feet and inches at the
top and bottom of the registering plate (fig. 1.) Connected
with the horizontal rack j, is a vertical guide or traversing
bar 7, which is made to move the whole breadth of the table
by its rack and the pinion. At the top and bottom of the
vertical bar are pullies 1, for running along the guide-rods n.
In the vertical bar there is a groove, in which the sliding bush
2, is made to move freely up and down; to this bush is at-
tached a cord, passing over the pulley p, at the upper end of
the bar, and a constant strain is kept on the cord over the pul-
ley bya weight q, to prevent the bush z, from falling downwards.
In the bush z is a pin which projects into the dovetailed grooves,
between the feathers 4, and slides easily along in them, as the
bar /traverses either way. This pin moves the studscc, to their
proper places for indicating high and low tide. Letter 7, as will
be explained presently, representsmoveable tongues or switches,
having joints at one end, so loose, that when lifted they will fall
down again by their own weight.
We shall suppose that the machine has registered the tides
as far as the second tide, on the 9th of the month, as shewn
in the diagram (the studs below this being all shewn as moved
to their places, and those in the upper grooves remaining un-
moved), and that the tide on the 9th has fallen 7 feet from
the datum line (marked o on the seale), to this position, there-
fore, the pin in the bush « has moved the sliding stud from the
132 Description of a Self-Registering Tide-Gauge.
original position in which it was set. Supposing the tide be-
gan to flow when the machine was in this last position, by the
float g (fig. 3), rising, it would reverse the motion of pulley
and pinion, and bring the rack and traversing bar towards the
right, or towards high water, on the table. After having left
the sliding piece at its position for denoting low water on the
Oth of the month, it is now proceeding towards the sliding
piece for denoting high water on the 10th; and when the
bush and pin come to the tongue or switch, the pin moves up
the inclined plane and on towards the right, moving the slid-
ing piece for denoting high water on the 10th to its right po-
sition for that tide. Supposing now the tide to ebb, the ac-
tion of the float reverses the wheel, pinion, rack, and travers-
ing-bar, and when the bush and pin come to the under side of
the tongue, towards the left, the pin will lift the tongue by
the strain produced by the weight g, on the cord which is at-
tached to the bush; and having lifted the tongue, and passed
on in a straight line, the tongue falls immediately by its own
weight after the pin in the bush z, has passed it; and com-
ing back for the next high water, the pin has to move up the
inclined plane as before, and so on with the whole of them.
The snugs s, are for fixing the machine securely by screws
to any convenient place for its reception.
There is another way that might be adopted for the float
giving motion to the machine than a cord and pulley (see fig.
4.) A vertical rack 0, attached to the float to work a spur-
wheel y, which could be of the same diameter at the pitch-
line as the diameter of the pulley / so as not to derange the
other parts and scales. The vertical rack might be more cor-
rect in the event of a cord being apt to stretch, which, how-
ever, would be obviated with a chain ; but for high tides, say
20 or 21 feet, a rack would be very unwieldy, for it would re-
quire to be equal in length to the highest tides.
The full size of the registering part of the machine is about
2 feet square over all, and 23 inches in depth ; and if made of
brass (as iron is apt to corrode from the action of the moisture
from salt water), the cost of the whole apparatus, including
the float and counterbalance, and the pipes in which they
work, I have estimated at about L 30.
Joun Maxton.
Leimn Excint-Works, 177i Nov, 1842.
Historical Remarks on the first Di covery of the real Structure
of Glacier Ice. By Prorzssorn Forszs, Corresponding
Member of the Royal Institute of France.
I feel myself most reluctantly called upon to state some cir-
cumstances respecting the discovery of a fact in the theory of
Glaciers which M. Agassiz has declared, ina paper printed in
the last number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, to
be erroneously claimed by me.
The first account of “ a remarkable structure of the ice of
glaciers,” by myself, was printed in this Journal for January
1842. A history of this discovery, entirely opposed to mine,
appears at pages 265 and 266 of the last number. By the
kind permission of the Editor, I have now the opportunity
allowed me of stating how the facts really stand, and at the
same time of explaining the circumstances under which the
publication of the original paper, claiming the discovery, took
place,—circumstances which delicacy prevented me from men-
tioning at the time, but which it now appears essential to make
known.
Private report, proverbially exaggerates and misrepre-
sents the history of transactions little interesting to any but
those immediately concerned. I believe that my own con-
duct and its motives have been misunderstood, with refer-
ence to the matter in question. A few extracts from the
ample correspondence of which I am possessed in illustra-
tion of every step of the transaction, will, I hope, suffice to
place the matter clearly before such readers as shall feel
sufficient interest to follow them. I pledge myself to their
accuracy, and to their being fairly extracted in conformity
with the tenor of the letters to which they belong. If any
doubt shall be raised on this point, I shall have only the
disagreeable alternative of publishing the entire correspond-
ence, the length of which would render it unsuitable for
the pages of a scientific journal. But I repeat my belief that
the extracts I shall make, and the narrative with which I
shall connect them, will put the matter in a light sufficiently
clear ; and for the facts which 1 shall have to state, Iam con-
scious of their admitting of no colouring or denial.
In the firs¢ place, I shall briefly state the circumstances
134 Professor Forbes on the First Discovery of the
under which the observation of THE VEINED STRUCTURE IN
THE ICE OF GLACIERS” was made.
In the second place, I shall explain the circumstances under
which I made it public
In the third place, I shall discuss shortly the claims to pri-
ority of observation which have subsequently been made.
I.
In 1840, M. Agassiz invited me to make a tour with him
the next summer amongst the glaciers of the Oberland,
Vallais, and Savoy. I understood the invitation to extend
simply to our mutual companionship on a journey of mutual
interest. Of third parties there was no mention ; and it was
with diffidence that I requested permission for my friend and
fellow traveller, Mr Heath, fellow and tutor of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, to increase the number. It was only after
all preliminaries were arranged, and after I had agreed,
in order to accominodate M. Agassiz, to change the direc-
tion in which I proposed to commence our intended tour,
that I learned that he had several friends in company with
him; and it was not until my arrival at the Grimsel, on tlie
8th of August, that I learned that the plan of a tour, into
which I had originally gone, had been abandoned by my fel-
low-traveller, for reasons which he did not assign, and that I
was expected to unite with the party he had formed at Neuf-
chatel, to spend some time on the glacier of the Aar, instead
of prosecuting the journey originally proposed. I cheerfully
acquiesced, however, in the arrangement, which promised to
give me a good insight into the structure of glaciers, which I
proposed farther to study by prosecuting alone, or with Mr
Heath, my originally projected tour to Monte Rosa and Mont
Blane.
It is to be remembered that the glacier of the Aar was the
one which M. Agassiz had already repeatedly visited in former
years, and on which he had constructed a sort of hut in which
he had lived for some time.
His other friends not having all arrived, M. Agassiz, Mr
Heath, and myseif, accompanied by (I believe) a single guide,
ascended the glacier on the 9th August 1841.
* Soe Edinburgh Philo-ophical Journa', January 1632, p. 69.
veal Structure of Glacier Ice. 135
Fact 1. We had not walked for half an hour on the ice,
when I directed the attention of my companions to what I
called a vertical stratification pervading the ice. It appeared to
me so plain, that it scarcely occurred to me that it could be new
to M. Agassiz, who had so often traversed the same ground.
Fact 2. M. Agassiz having his attention called to the fact,
stated that he thought 1 was deceived in considering that it
penetrated the ice ; that, indeed, the surface of the glacier
seemed to him much changed since last year, but that he had
observed superficial linear markings of the same kind on (I
think) the Glacier du Bois.
Fact 3. At each new crevasse we came to, I took pains to
shew him that the apparent strata penetrated into the mass
of the glacier; but he seemed incredulous, until I noticed a
deep hollow in the ice close to the left margin of the medial
moraine between Hugi’s and Agassiz’ cabins, at least 20
feet deep, to which I called M. Agassiz’ attention, in proof of
the position I had maintained.
Fact 4. To this he assented, but expressed his belief that
it would only be found in the neighbourhood of the moraine,
and not throughout the breadth of the glacier.
Fact 5. In the course of the same afternoon, we ascertained,
by conjoint inspection, that the structure in question was
traceable all across the glacier of the Finster Aar.
Fact 6. M. Agassiz, unwilling to admit that he could for-
merly have overlooked so palpable a structure, expressed a
frequent doubt whether this structure had not been superin-
duced since his last visit.
Fact 7. 1 took the fol-
lowing means of proy-
ing that this could not
be the case. I shewed
him some crevasses, and
asked him how old he
supposed them to be?
He answered, several
years; they certainly
had not opened since
last summer (1840.) I
shewed that the veined
structure crossed these
136 ~=Professor Forkes on the First Discovery of the
crevasses, and was dislocated by them, as in the margin, and,
therefore, must have been anterior to their formation.
Let us hear the evidence of Mr Heath and M. Agassiz, the
only witnesses present besides the guide.
Mr Heath wrote to me thus, on sending him the above
statement of facts :—
Extract First.—Rev. J. M. Heath to Professor Forbes, (printed
by Mr Heath’s permission.)
Trinity CoLunGE, Sth March 1842.
«© * * But those who were there this summer have yery different
evidence that this was a new fact. I remember when it was first re-
marked, Agassiz said he had seen it before, but not to such an extent.
That it had a peculiar relation to the medial moraines, and would not
be found in the centre of the glacier; that it was only superficial, and
owing, as he believed, to the sand which placed itself in parallel straight
lines, and produced these incisions by melting the ice. The afternoon
was taken up in what I then thought a very superfluous endeavour to make
out whether it was superficial or not, and I believe he maintained the
contrary opinion until the discovery of the great hole of which you have
given a drawing.”
It will be observed, then, that the whole question lies in
this, Whether the lined appearance of the ice was due to an
inequality of melting, occasioned by a linear arrangement of
sand on the surface, washed from the moraines, and inter-
cepting here and there the sun’s rays!’—or, Whether it was
occasioned by the unequal action of the weather on alternat-
ing vertical bands of friable and of compact ice, of which the
glacier is composed. M. Agassiz appears, upon Mr Heath's
testimony and my own, to have taken the former view, whilst
I took the latter. According to him, the ice was striated on
its surface, because the sand lay in lines ; according to me, the
sand lay in lines, because the ice has a veined structure through-
out its mass.
M. Agassiz, the other witness, admitted as much himself,
when I requested him to say whether the above-cited facts
were accurately stated or not. In a letter to me, dated 29th
March 1842, he says,—
>
veal Structure of Glacier Ice. 137
Exrracr Seconp.—Professor Agassiz to Professor Forbes, 29th March
1842.
<‘ Comme vous en convenez vous-méme lorsque nous discutames pour
la premiere fois les bandes de glace de teintes diverses que l’on observe
dans le glacier, je vous dis que jen avais remarqué DES TRACES SUPERFI-
cietixs au glacier des Bois en 1838, ce qui est mentionné dans mon livre
p- 121, a l’occasion des moraines médianes.”
It appears, then, that Mr Heath’s memory and my own agree
thus far precisely with M. Agassiz’. Let us see whether the
reference to the “ Etudes sur les Glaciers,” published in 1840,
gives any farther evidence.
Exrracr Tuirp.—Agassiz, Etudes sur les Glaciers, p. 121-2.
“ Les trainées réguliéres et paralléles de grains de sable que Yon pour-
suit quelquefois sur de trés grandes étendues, le long des moraines mé-
dianes, me paraissent étre un effét de la dilatation de la surface chargée
de debris, combiné avec le mouvement progressif de toute la masse. Les
petits grains de sable épars, n’agissant pas comme les gros bloes,* tendent
4 former des series [Qu. stries ?] longitudinales et paralléles qui se trans-
forment quelquefois en rainures, et qui servent méme souvent de lit aux
petits filets d’cau qui coulent le long des moraines. Nulle part je n’ai
observé ce phénoméne d’une maniére aussi frappante que sur la Mer de
glace de Chamonix en 1888 ; je l'ai également remarqué sur le Glacier de
J’Aar, et ce qui m’a confirmé dans l’explication que jen donne, c'est
quwici on remarque sur le cété gauche de la grande moraine une petite
moraine qui lui est paralléle, et qui me parait détachée de la meme
maniere que les trainées de sable dont je viens de parler se détachent des
moraines en général.”
It appears then, that, after three years of observation of the
glaciers, M. Agassiz still entertained, in 1841, the same view
of the cause of a fact which he had observed in 1838, and pub-
lished in 1840. The fac¢ was the superficial arrangement of
lines of sand near the moraines of glaciers, which, according
to him, arose from some molecular dilatation of the ice, which
he does not very clearly explain ; and its effect was sometimes
to produce grooves (rainures), by the heat of the sun acting on .
the sand thus arranged.
The fact which I pointed out to him on the 9th of August
had no reference to the arrangement of sand on the ice, but
* This refers to the well-known action of large blocks of stone in de-
fending the surface of the ice from eyaporation; here, on the other hand,
the sand sunk in the ice.
138 Professor Forbes on the First Discovery of the
consisted in a texture which the ice itself presented through-
out its mass, of harder and softer layers, whose wasting, when
it occurred in the neighbourhood of the moraines where the
glacier was covered with sand, occasioned hollow grooves, into
which, for obvious reasons, the sand was speedily washed, and
there it lay. M. Agassiz was very naturally and properly
slow to admit, in explanation of a fact which had for three
years been before his eyes, the existence of a prevalent struc-
ture to which he had not adverted. Accordingly, his convic-
tions were proportionably gradual; and, as Mr Heath observes,
“the afternoon was taken up in what I then thought a very
superfluous endeavour to make out whether it was superficial
or not.”
Two days after the discovery of the structure, namely, on
the 11th of August, we were joined by Professor Studer, the
distinguished geologist of Berne, and by other friends of M.
Agassiz. The structure in question having been discussed, it
is important to know the impression which it left as to novel-
ty or originality upon the mind of so competent a judge. M.
Studer writes to me :—
Extract Fourtu.—Professor Studer to Professor Forbes, 19th March
1842. Extracted by M. Studer’s permission.
«© M. Desor* m’a écrit il y a quelques semaines de cctte contestation de
priorité ; je lui ai repondu que je ne me mélerais pas de cette affaire, mais
que bien certainement vous m’aviez fait remarquer pour la premiere fois
la structure en question, et que javais cru en effét que son importance
avait échappée a Agassiz, comme a tous ses devanciers.”
I will only cite one other testimony as to the origin of the
discovery on the Glacier of the Aar, also by an eye-witness,
Mr Robertson of Newton House, near Elgin, a friend of M.
Agassiz, whom I did not know before, and whom I have not
seen since, but who, having learnt the nature of the contest
as to priority which has occurred, generously and voluntarily
sent me the following statement of facts, which I have like-
wise his permission to publish.
* A friend of M. Agassiz.
real Structure of Glacier Ice. 139
Exrract Firra.—Mr Robertson of Newton to Professor Forbes.
Newton, 4th May 1842.
“ Before joining you on the 13th August last year, I was pretty familiar,
from reading, with all the ordinary phenomena of glaciers, and, on my
walk to the ‘ Cabane,’ examined each as it presented itself. Among others
I observed the superficial indications of the ribboned structure ; and, dur-
ing the first half hour after my arrival, I recollect perfectly, in walking
from the ‘ Crevasse’ at the end of the Finster Aar glacier (where you had
been preparing the expcriment on the absorption of ice with red wine) to
the left flank of the Lauter Aar (where we exposed, with a hatchet, the
contact of the ice and rock, in order to see the sand, &c. between them),
having asked Agassiz how it was produced? He told me that the sur-
face of the glacier had completely changed since last year, when he had
scarcely observed it,—that it was an effect of the moraines, and probably
caused by the greater variations of temperature to which they were sub-
ject as compared to the rest of the glacier, and that it had nothing to do
with stratification. I remember also asking whether the horizontal lines
at the end of the glacier were those of stratification? and was told ‘ un-
doubtedly.’
“On our return to the ‘ Cabane,’ I pointed out the structure very well
marked, at some distance from the moraines, and, on cross questioning
Agassiz, saw that he was far from satisfied with his theory.
«JT have thus abundant evidence, independent of your ample testimony,
to shew, that, at the date I have mentioned, my friend Agassiz was un-
aware of the general occurrence of the ribboned structure, through the
mass of glaciers; and, in writing to him some days ago, mentioned my
conviction that the discovery, certainly the most important of the recent
ones, was due to you. J shall be glad to find that, as I believe is the
case, M. Desor alone, and not M. Agassiz, could call it in question.”
The “stratification” alluded to at the close of the first pa-
ragraph of the preceding letter, refers to the twisted planes of
structure which I have described in my paper, and which are,
in fact, continuous with the veins which, throughout the
greater mass of the glacier, run parallel to its sides, when
these sides are steep and continuous. The complex form of
the surfaces of the shells into which a glacier is divided by
these bands of compact and friable ice, I was first able to dis-
cover, during a visit to the glacier of the Rhone on the 23d
August 1842. I was accompanied by Mr Heath, and Mr Cal-
verley Trevelyan, but not by M. Agassiz or any of his party.
In the course of a very careful examination of the glacier, |
succeeded in satisfying myself completely of the conoidal form
of the veined surface, and in explaining the apparent frontal
140 Professor Forbes on the First Discovery of the
stratification, which I have since confirmed in every point.*
On our return to the Grimsel, I explained my views to M.
Agassiz, who copied the sketch I had made, which corres-
ponds exactly to that in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
January 1842, p. 89. A month later, I explained this sys-
tem of curves of structure of the glacier of the Rhone to M.
Studer at Berne. His penetration immediately perceived its
importance, and he expressed great satisfaction at the insulated
fact which I had pointed out to him on the glacier of the Aar
being thus generalized.| We both agreed that its explana-
tion must involve, ina good measure, the true theory of gla-
ciers. Ina letter to Professor Bronn of Heidelberg, dated
Ist October 1841, a week after I had quitted Berne, M. Stu-
der gives an accurate account of my observations, being the
first publication on the subject.{
IND
I now come to state shortly the circumstances which led
to the publication of my paper describing this new structure
of glacier ice ; and about which there seems to have prevailed
a misapprehension which I am anxious to remove.
It has been supposed that I resisted every offer to take a
share in a joint publication of the proceedings of the summer,
in order to bring forth a separate notice of the structure which
I had observed ; that even whilst in Switzerland, I contem-
plated such a separate publication ; and having reached Eng-
land, hastened to anticipate M. Agassiz.
The facts are precisely the reverse. The idea of publish-
* See Letters to Professor Jameson in this Journal for October 1842,
p. 346.
t M. Studer, after quitting the glacier of the Aar, had recognized the
structure on several others in the canton of Vallais. I should add that I
pointed out the veined structure to M. Agassiz on the glacier of Gauli, in the
Urbachthal, on the 20th August, and it was afterwards noticed by both of us
on the Oberaar glacier, and that of Aletsch. So that no reasonable doubt re-
mained, at least, on my mind, that, having been observed on no less than
five contiguous glaciers, it was a general and not a particular phenomenon.
This meets M. Agassiz’ statement, that I not only “ erroneously claimed the
discovery,” but “ assigned to it a generality which the facts observed by my-
self did not at all justify.”—Ld. Phil. Jour., p. 265.
t Leonhard’s Jahrbuch, 1841.
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real Structure of Glacier Ice. 141
ing cither this or any original observation of my own, ona
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during any part of my stay abroad. Paes aki soma al ea bl [Pe
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Hence the formula is 4 Mg S + Aq, and the Villarsite is to be re-
garded as a monosilicate of magnesia. Except that it contains water,
this newly discovered substance has the same composition as cryso-
lite; but, while the proportion of water is too large to admit of its
presence being regarded as accidental, the external, crystallographic,
and chemical characters are opposed to its being united with that
species. The Villarsite furnishes a new example of a mineral as-
sociated with Plutonic crystalline products containing water of crys-
tallisation. M. Dufrenoy remarks, that we are already in possession
of analyses which prove the presence of water in rocks evidently vol-
canic, and hence concludes, that it is not necessary to have recourse to
the theory of infiltrations for the explanation of the occurrence of
zeolites in basalts, trachytes, and even in traps.
23, Xenolite.—This new mineral is so named from its not belong-
ing to the locality where it is found. It occurs along with Wérth-
ite, near Peterhoff, in boulders, which are probably derived from Fin-
land. It is crystallized in prisms, united together in very delicate
fibrous masses. On being separated, the fibres are found to be
three-sided prisms, in which two of the sides form an angle of 45°
38’, and the third seems to be at right angles to one of the others.
There is a terminal plane. Hardness = that of quartz. Sp. gr. =
3.58. It is colourless, but occasionally presents greyish or yellowish
portions. Translucent. Fracture uneven, granular. Lustre vitreous,
and, on the more distinct cleavages, pearly, Gives no water before the
blowpipe. Infusible in fragments and in powder. Fusible with diffi-
culty, along with borax and phosphate of soda. According to an analy-
sis by M. Komonen, this mineral consists of silica 47.44, and alumina
(with a little oxide of iron) 52.54 = 99.98. (Poggendorff’s Annal. °
1842, No. 8, from paper by Nordenskiéld in the Act. Soc. Scient.
Fennicer, vol. i. p. 372.)
24, Sulphuric and Molybdic Acids—Dyr Thomas Anderson of
Leith has lately made some experiments on the relations of these
two acids. The molybdie acid dissolves in the sulphuric, but the
combination cannot be made to crystallize by evaporation. How-
ever, on decomposing mmvlybdate of baryta with an excess of sulphuric
186 = Scientific Lntelligence—Mineralogy and Chemistry.
acid, and evaporating the solution over sulphuric acid, a crystallized
compound is obtained, which, according to the analysis of Anderson,
consists of sulphuric acid 57.3, molybdic acid 32.8, water and loss 9.9.
Two isomeric modifications seem to be indicated.—( Berzelius’ Jahres-
Bericht, 1842.)
25. Calcareous Rocks pierced by Helices—M. Constant Prévost
exhibited to the Société Philomatique de Paris, numerous speci-
mens of a very compact grey limestone, which appeared to him to
have been deeply perforated by Helices. He collected these speci-
mens himself, in 1831, on Donte Pelegrino, near Palermo, at an
elevation of about 200 metres above the level of the sea. He at
first supposed that the perforations were the work of marine litho-
phagous mollusca, and that they indicated one of the levels of the
sea at a remote period ; but the irregular and sinuated form of the
cavities,—their depth (extending to 12 and 15 centimetres),—their
dimensions (being from 4 or 5 millimetres to 4 centimetres in
breadth),— and above all, the presence of a Helix of different ages,
belonging to the same species, and each individual lodged in a cavity
exactly proportioned to the dimensions of the shell,—led him to the
belief that the Helices had themselves scooped out their abode. The
difficulty, however, of understanding how they could accomplish this,
made him hesitate in announcing publicly the fact he had observed,
until new facts, and more direct and positive observations, had con-
firmed his opinion. He carefully collected fragments of the perfo-
rated rock, and the Helices which inhabited it.
In 1839, when the Geological Society of France met at Boulogne-
sur-mer, M. Constant Prévost, along with Messrs Buckland and
Greenough, who attended the meeting, discovered perforations pre-
cisely analogous to those of Palermo in an equally hard limestone
in the neighbourhood of Boulogne (the mountain limestone), and Dr
Buckland, on breaking the perforated rock, found many Helices at
the bottom of the cavities.
This new instance, although strenothening the presumption aris-
ing from the fact observed at Palermo, did not yet definitely settle
the question—Had the Helices pierced the stone, or had they merely
taken advantage of the old perforations of marine lithophagous mol-
luses, and converted them into a residence? At the meeting of the
British Association at Plymouth, in 1841, Dr Buckland remarked,
in reference to a Memoir by Mr Walker, on the destructive action
of Pholades, that all the perforations observed in calcareous rocks
are not necessarily the work of marine molluscs, and he mentioned
Helices as likewise perforating stones, supporting this assertion by
the observation made at Boulogne in 1839, and even adding that Mr
Scientific Intelliyence—Mineralogy and Chemistry. 187
Greenough had positively ascertained the action of the Helix aspersa
on limestone.
To the facts above narrated, and the authorities just cited, M.
Constant Prévost adds a circumstance which appears to him to con-
firm his first idea, and to render it unquestionable that the Helices
have themselves scooped out the long canals at the bottom of which
we find them. He pointed out the fact, in one of the specimens
presented to the Society, that the bottom of one of the largest ca-
vities presented an exact counterpart to the form of the Helix which
lodged in it: a small projection corresponds exactly to the depres-
sion at the origin of the column, and, by taking an impression of the
cavity in plaster, he obtained a relief which in no respect differed
from that of the base of the shell.
The Helix found at Boulogne-sur-mer was the common H. aspersa.
That observed at Monte Pelegrino seemed to be a very remarkable
variety of that species, at least it is so regarded by Rosmaesler, who
has figured it under that name in his Tconographia of Land and
Fresh-water Shells, pl. xxii. It is the Helix described and figured
as distinct, under the name of Hilie Mazzuli by Zau and Phillipi,
and under that of H. Retirugis by Menke.
The same Helix, now found alive in the vicinity of Palermo, is
met with in a fossil state in the marine tertiary deposits which
surround the base of Monte Pelegrino. M. Constant Prévost further
remarked, that it is by maceration, or by chemical action, and not by
a mechanical action, that the Helix corrodes the stone. In fact, the
compact limestone of Monte Pelegrino, which is a little argillaceous
and bituminous, is traversed in every direction by numerous veins of
crystalline limestone ; these more resisting parts are seen projecting
like a kind of net-work on the interior walls of the cavities, which
could not have taken place if the calcareous matter had been re-
moved by friction.
M. Constant Prévost terminates his communication by shewing
how important it is that geologists should not confound the perfora-
tions which may have been produced in rocks by marine molluses
with those of Helices, since the former, observed at the present time
on very elevated parts of continents, indicate ancient levels of the
sea, or the relative elevations of the ground, whereas the perforations
of the Helex indicate nothing of that nature—From L’Institut.,
April 1842, p. 132.
26. On the residuum of the Combustion of the Diamond, by M.
Petzholdt.—By repeating the experiments of Messrs Dumas and
Stass, in order to determine the atomic weight of carbon by the com-
183 Scientific Iutell'gence—Mineralogy and Chemistry.
bustion of the diamond, Messrs Erdmann and Marchand have ob-
tained, like these chemists, a residuum of very small volume, scarcely
perceptible in the case of small diamonds, and which consisted of a
reddish substance, the parts of which sometimes presented a brilliant
surface, and seemed as if they had been already formed and enclosed
in the fissures of the burnt mineral. M. Petzholdt found that this
residuum (which was not more than 0.0072 gram. in a diamond of
5.6344), consisted principally of a great number of small plates or
scales, among which were found mingled, but very rarely, softer
and more rounded parts. Under the microscope these bodies ap-
peared some of them black and not transparent, others like-
wise black, but passing into brown, and a little transparent ;
others also were transparent, light brown, passing into yellow,
and, finally, some were yellow or white. With regard to their
internal structure, as far at least as it was disclosed by the micro-
scope, it appeared to differ in an equal degree, particularly in
such as were transparent and semi-transparent; generally it ap-
peared granular in those that were transparent and white, radi-
ated or plicate in the yellow. Sometimes black masses, similar
to grains, might be observed here and there in the substance of the
transparent splinters, as well as in the leaflets, which gave these
portions a brownish aspect when they were looked at with the
naked eye. The most interesting circumstance of all is, that ia
a great number of these bodies, we distinctly perceive a delicate
net-work, black or deep brown, with hexagonal meshes, many of
which often run into each other, and bear an absolute resemblance
to those which the researches of the microscope discover in the
parenchyma of plants. Sometimes this net-work appears to dis-
solve, or rather to have been affected in such a way that its con-
tours appear to become confounded and disappear, while in the
other parts of the same body it was perfectly entire.
These observations give rise to the conjecture, that this net-
work, and the black substances which accompany it, are nothing
more than the debris of vegetable carbon, the combustion of which
could not take place simultaneously with that of the diamond,
because they were surrounded by bodies incapable of burning.
The analysis of this residuum by means of the blowpipe for
sale, shews that it consists of silica, with traces of iron.
On examining the diamonds of commerce at Dresden, and
those of the mineralogical collection at the Royal Museum, M.
Petzhold has again found among many of them the same plates
or scales, and, in the middle of one of them, a small brown,
transparent, triangular leaflet, in which he remarked one of these
Scientific Intelligence—Miscellaneous. 189
reticulations in question, although already in a state of dissolution.
This seems to confirm the opinion of Messrs Erdmann and Mar-
chand, that these bodies are all formed in the fissures of the
diamond in which they are enclosed, and it tends to support the
notions which M. Liebig has expressed in his Organic Chemistry,
respecting the constitution of the diamond.—From L’Institut., 21st
July 1842, p. 260.
MISCELLANEOUS,
27. Indian Isinglass—Isinglass, as is well known, is manufactured
from the swimming-bladders or sownds of certain fish. Of these the
large sturgeon, caught in several rivers of Russia, furnishes the best,
or is the best prepared; selling by wholesale at 10s. to 12s. the
pound, whilst the Brazilian or North American only fetches from
2s. bd. to 3s. 6d., and there are inferior qualities realizing no
more than 9d. The value of this seemingly trifling article to Russia
may be inferred from the annual imports into England, which vary
from 1800 to 2000 hundredweight.
After an occupation of Calcutta of more than a century, and a
territorial possession of Bengal of eighty years, an individual,
writing anonymously in a periodical, acquainted the Indian public
with the nov.1 facts, not merely that the waters of India produced in
plenty fishes that would furnish isinglass, but that a trade in
this commodity had long been carried on (it turns out from time
immemorial) between the Indian fishermen and the Chinese, whe,
not satisfied with the products of the Ganges, ransacked the whole
of the archipelago for parts of fish yielding isinglass, or a gelatinous
substance very much akin to it. They have extended their re-
searches even to Bombay ; whence upwards of 5000 hundredweight
of “shark fins and fish maws” were exported to China in'1837-88 ;
fish maws, though known by name, being quite unknown in their
nature till Dr Royle, after great difficulty, obtained specimens
through the house of Forbes and Co, “ On examination, these
proved to be composed of a sack-like membrane, which had been
split open, of a light colour, and semi-transparent, resembling the
ordinary qualities of isinglass in appearance.” It is also said
that the Chinese, after exporting the roughly-cured Ganges isin-
glass, refine some of it, and reimport it at a large profit.
Attention has also been paid to the isinglass itself, specimens
of which have been forwarded to Europe, some prepared under
the inspection of Mr M‘Cleland, of the Bengal medical service.
The less scientifically-prepared samples were valued at Is. 8d.
and 4s. per pound; that prepared under the inspection of Mr
M Cleland, of the Bengal medical service, produecd Is. 7d.; the
190 Seientific Intelligence—Miscellaneous.
mere cost of which, in India, including the purchase and prepa-
ration, was only Is. 1d. per pound ; but subsequent expenses, and
duties of various kinds, rendered the whole cost threefold the
amount realized by the sale. Subjected to scientific analysis, the
Indian isinglass differs but little from the Russian. It is of so
much less market value, partly because it is new and the supply
uncertain ; partly from the form in which it has been brought to
England, which is favourable to adulteration ; but chiefly from
the want of care in the preparation, an unpleasant fishy smell
remaining, which renders it impossible to bring it into use here
for culinary purposes. Some importations, however, have taken
place, nor is the article now unknown to the London brokers; so
that there is every prospect of a new and profitable source of com-
merce being opened to India, if care and capital be applied to
the preparation of the isinglass.
28. Ancient Fable of Colossal Ants producing Gold.*—One pas-
sage will satisfactorily explain the extravagant fable related by
the Greeks, and repeated by travellers in the middle ages, of ants
as big as foxes, who produc» gold. The passage states, that the
tribes of various names who dwell between the Meru and Man-
dara Mountains, brought lumps of gold, of the sort called paip-
pilika, or ant gold,—so named, because it was dug out by the com-
mon large ant or pipilika, It was, in fact, believed that the
native gold found on the surface of some of the auriferous deserts
of northern India had been laid bare by the action of these
insects ;—an idea by no means irrational, although erroneous,
but which grew up, in its progress westward, into a mon-
strous absurdity. The native country of these tribes is that de-
sciibed by the Greeks, the mountains between Hindoostan and
Thibet; and the names given are those of barbarous races still
found in those localities.
29. On the Transformations which have beenproduced in Turf by the
Essence of Turpentine, or by a composition isomeric with it. By M.
Forchhammer.—Extensive researches have demonstrated that
Denmark was formerly covered with a forest of firs, and that this
vegetation had already disappeared at a period so remote, that
there remains no historical or traditional trace of it. The stems
and roots of magnificent firs are now found in the greater part
of the peat-bogs of the country; and M. Steenstrup has recently
discovered in these some crystals, which have such a resemblance
* From a paper read to the Royal Asiatic Society, by Professor Wilson,
“ On a portion of the Mahabharata,” &c.
seientific Tntelligence— Miscellaneous. 191
to the scheererite of Uznach, in Switzerland, that they were at first
taken for that mineral substance. M. Forchhammer, who has
studied these crystals, has found that they are composed of two
substances, to one of which he gives the name of Tecorctine, on ac-
count of the facility with which it enters into a state of fusion ;
to the other, that of Phylloretine, because it crystallizes in fine
leaflets. ‘These two substances may be separated, by dissolving
the crystals in boiling alcohol.—From L’Institut., June 16, 1842,
p. 217.
30. On the Preservation of Flowers.—To preserve flowers fresh. It
is now, alas! a long eighteen years ago since we first saw, in
the drawing-room of a gentleman now no more, in the hot, dry
weather of the dog-days, flowers preserved day after day in all
their freshness by the following simple contrivance :—A flat dish
of porcelain had water poured into it; in the water a vase of
flowers was set; over the whole a bell-glass was placed, with its
rim in the water. This was a “Ward’s case” in principle,
although different in its construction. The air that surrounded the
flowers, being confined beneath the bell-glass, was censtantly
moist with the water that rose into it in the form of vapour. As
fast as the water was condensed, it ran down the sides of the
bell-glass into the dish ; and if means had been taken to enclose
the water on the outside of the bell glass, so as to prevent its
evaporating into the air of the sitting-room, the atmosphere
around the flowers would have remained continually damp.
What is the explanation of this? Do the flowers feed on the
viewless vapour that surrounds them? Perhaps they do; but the
great cause of their preserving their freshness, is to be sought in
another fact. When flowers are brought into a sitting-room they
fade, because of the dryness of the air. The air of a sitting-room
is usually something drier than that of the garden, and always
much more so than that of a good green-house or stove. Flowers,
when gathered, are cut off from the supply of moisture collected
for them by their roots, and their mutilated stems are far from.
having so great a power of sucking up fluids as the roots have.
If, then, with diminished powers of feeding, they are exposed to
augmented perspiration, as is the case in a dry sitting-room, it is
evident that the balance of gain on the one hand by the roots,
and of loss on the other hand by their whole surface, cannot be
maintained. The result can only be their destruction. Now, to
place them in a damp atmosphere, is to restore this balance ;
because, if their power of sucking by their wounded ends is
diminished, so is their power of perspiring ; for a damp atmos-
192 Scientific Intelligence—Miscellancous.
phere will rob them of no water. Hence they maintain their
freshness. The only difference between plants in a ‘ Ward's
case,”’ and flowers in the little apparatus just described, is this—
that the former is intended for plants to grow in for a consider-
able space of time, while the latter is merely for their preservation
. for a few days; and that the air which surrounds the flowers is
always charged with the same quantity of vapour, but will vary
with the circumstances, and at the will of him who has the
management of it. We recommend those who love to see plenty
of fresh flowers in their sitting-rooms in dry weather, to procure
it. The experiment can be tried by inserting a tumbler over a
rosebud in a saucer of water.—Gardeners’ Chronicle.
NEW PUBLICATIONS.
We have received among others the following works, which
we recommend to the attention of our readers :—
1, W. E. Redfield on Whirlwind Storms ; with replies to the Objec-
tions and Strictures of Dr Hare. New York. 1842.
2. An Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural His-
tory of Insects; by Messrs Kirby and Spence. Two volumes 8vo. Long-
man, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London. 1848. The sixth edition
of these admirable volumes.
8. Descriptive and Historical account of Hydraulic and other machines
for raising water, ancient and modern ; including the progressive deve-
lopment of the Steam Engine ; by Thomas Ewbank. Illustrated by nearly
three hundred Engravings. One volume 8vo, pp. 582. Tilt and Bogue,
Fleet Street, London. 1842. The English edition of a valuable, very in-
teresting, and amusing work.
4, Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens Nomina Systematica Genera
Animalium, Tam viventium quam Fossilium ; auctore Ju. Agassiz. Fas-
ciculus II. continens Aves. Solodur, 1842. This work, when finished,
will become indispensable to every naturalist.
5. Sketch of the Geology of Moray ; by Patrick Duff, Esq. 8vo. With
Plates. Forsyth and Young, Elgin. A lucid geological account of a small
but interesting district.
G6. On the Voltaic Cireuit ; by Alfred Smee, F.R.S.
7. Popular Conchology, or the Shell Cabinet arranged, being an Intro-
duction to the modern System of Conchology; by Agnes Catlow. Il-
lustrated by figures of all the genera. Small 8yvo., pp. 800. Longman,
Brown, Green and Longmans, London. 4 pleasant, useful, and well il-
lustrated volume.
8. The employment of the Microscope in Medical Studies ; by Jolin
Hughes Bennet, M.D., Lecturer on Clinical Medicine, &c. Maclachlan
New Publications. 1938
and Stewart, Edinburgh. An interesting discourse on a very popular sub-
ject.
9. Memoire sur les Kaolins ou Argiles a Porcelaine; par MM. Alex-
andre Brongniart et Malaguti. 4to. Paris, 1841. The most philosophical
essay on the Porcelain Earth we have met with.
10. Rede zum Andenken an Dr Ignaz Déllinger; von Dr Fr. vy. Wal-
ther. Miinchen. 4to. 1841. An excellent biography of a distinguished
physiologist.
11. On the Fossils of the Mountain Limestone in Jreland, as compared
with those of Great Britain; by R. Griffith, F.R.S.E., &ce. 4to. A valu-
able geological document.
12. Recherches sur certaines circonstances qui influent sur la Tempera-
ture du point d’ebuillition des liquides ; par W. F. Marcet. 4to. 1842.
13. Elements of Electro-Metallurgy ; by Alfred Smee, F.R.S. Parts
4,5,6,7. Palmer, London. A work now nearly completed, the best on
Electro-Metallurgy in our language.
14. Ninth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.
184]. J. Trathan, Falmouth. The record of the ninth Session of a very
useful association.
15. What to Teach, and how to Teach, &c.; by H. Mayhew. 8vo-
William Smith, London.
16. American Repertory of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures. 1841.
New York.
17. Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia,
1842.
18. Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association “ to
consider the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be estab-
lished on a uniform and permanent basis.” 1842.
19. Experimental Inquiry into the advantages attending the use of
Cylindrical Wheels on Railways; by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq.,
Civil Engineer. R. Grant andSons, Edinburgh. The first publication of
a young and promising engineer.
20. Memoir of William Maclure, Esq., late President of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ; by S. G. Morton, M.D. Philadel-
phia, 1841. Vhe biography of an excellent man and active geologist.
21. Boston Journal of Natural History. Boston.
22. Professor Silliman’s Address before the Association of American
Geologists and Naturalists. Held in Boston, April 25-80, 1842. The
best view of the present state of geoloyy in America.
23. Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Edited by Charles
Darwin, Esq., F.R.S. Part V. Reptiles by Thomas Bell, Esq., F.R.S.
No. 1.
24, Illustrations of the Zoology of Southern Africa ; by Andrew Smith,
M.D., No. 16.
25. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
26. Report of Mr Owen’s Monograph on the Aptervx Australis.
27. The Maryland Medical Journal.
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXvit —JANU_ ky 1843. N
194)
List of Patents granted for Scotland from 26th September to
22d December 1842.
1. To Cartes Wittram Fircuiup, of Wesley Park, in the parish of
Northfield, in the county of Worcester, farmer, “ an improved propelling
apparatus for marine and other purposes.”—26th September 1842.
2. To Epwix Warp Trent of Old Ford Bow, in the county of Middle-
sex, rope-maker, “an improved mode of preparing oakum and other fibrous
substances for caulking ships and other vessels.” —29th September 1842.
3. To Perer Kacensuscn, of Wetter on Rhur, in Westphalia, in the king-
dom of Prussia, dycr, now residing in the parish of Lyth, in the county of
York, in England, “ certain improvements in the treatment of the alum rock
or schist, and in the manufacture and application of the products derived
therefrom.”—29th September 1842.
4, 'To Henry Bewrey, of Dublin, in the county of the city of Dublin,
licentiate apothecary and chemist, “an improved chalybeate water.”—4ith
October 1842.
5. To Atrrep Jerrenry, of Lloyd’s Street, Pentonville, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, “a new method of preparing masts, spars, and other
wood for ship-building and other purposes.”—18th October 1842.
6. To CLaupE Epwarp Deutscue, of Fricour’s Hotel, St Martin’s Lane,
in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, beinga communication from abroad,
“jmprovements in combining materials to be used for cementing purposes,
and for the preventing the passage of fluids, and also for forming articles
from such composition of materials.”—18th October 1842.
7. To Joun Ripspate of Leeds, in the connty of York, “ improvements
in preparing fibrous materials for weaving, and in sizing warps,”"—20th
October 1842.
8. To Samurt Carson, of York Street, Covent Garden, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, “ improvements in purifying and preserving animal
substances.”—20th October 1842.
9. To Henry Brown, of Selkirk, manufacturer, and Toomas Watrker,of
the same place, manufacturer, “ improvements on woollen-carding engines.”
—20th October 1842.
10. To ALPHONSE DE Trotssprioux, of Great Russel Street, Bloomsbury,
in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad,
“improvements in lithographic and other printing presses.”—20th October
1642.
11. To Joun Vary, of Colne, inthe county of Lancaster, engineer, and
Epmonson Vanrzey of the same place, cotton-manufacturer, “ certain im-
provements in steam-engines.”—26th October 1842.
12. To James Hype of Duckenfield, Cheshire, mechanic, and Joun HypE
of the same place, cotton-spinner and manufacturer, “ a certain improvement
or improvements in the machinery used for preparing cotton, wool, silk, flax
and similar fibrous material fer spinning cotton.”—3d November 1842.
_— ——s
List of Patents. 195
13, To Joux Cray, ef Cottingham, in the esunty of Yerk, gentleman,
and Freperick Rosengore of Sculcoates, in the county of York, gentleman,
“improvements in arranging and setting up types for printing.”—3d No-
vember 1842.
14. To James Pitsrow, of Tottenham Green, in the county of Middlesex,
engineer, “ certain improvements in the application of steam, air, and cther
vapours and gaseous agents to the production of motive power, and in the
machinery by which the same is effected”’—7th November 1642.
15. To Francis Roupitiac Conver, of Highgate, in the county of
Middlesex, civil-engincer, being a communication from abroad, “ improve-
ments in the cutting and shaping of wood, and in the machinery for that
purpose.”—9th November 1842.
16. To Joux M:tcuerz, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, steel-
pen manufacturer, “a certain imprevement in the manufacture of metallic
pens, and a certain improvement in the manufacture of penholders.”—11th
November 1642.
17. To Henry Cranks, of Drogheda, in the county of Louth, in the king-
dom of Ireland, linen merchant, “ improvements in machinery for lapping
and folding all descriptions of fabrics, whether woven by hand or power.”—
17th November 1842.
18. To Joun Spinks, the younger of John Street, Bedford Row, in the
county of Middlesex, gentleman, “an improved apparatus for giving elas-
ticity to certain parts of railways, and other carriages requiring the same,”
being a communication from abroad.—2I1st November 1842.
19. To Tuomas Wriatey, of Bridge Hall Mills, Bury, Lancaster, paper
manufacturer, “ certain improvements in machinery for manufacturing
paper.”—28th November 1842.
£0. To Witti1am Corey Jones of Vauxhall Walk, in the parish of Lam-
beth, in the county of Surrey, chemist, ‘improvements in treating or ope-
rating upon a certain unctuous substance, in order to obtain products there-
from, for the manufacture of candles and other purposes.”—7th December
1842.
21. To Cuarntes MauricE Evizer Saurter, of Austin Friars, in the city
of London, gentleman, being a communication frem abroad, “ improvements
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.”—7th December 1842.
22. To Don Pepro Poucuant, of Glasgow, civil-engineer, “a certain im-
provement or improvements in the construction of machinery for manufac-
turing sugar.”—7th December 1842,
23. To Cuartes Hearp Witp of Birmingham, in the county of War-
wick, engineer, “an improved switch for railway purposes.”’—7th Decem-
ber 1842.
24. To Joun Brownz, of Charlotte Street, Portland Place, in the county
of Middlesex, Esquire, “ improvements in the manufacture of mud-boots
and overalls.’—7th December 1842.
25. To Witutam CoLey Jones of Vauxhall Terrace, in the county of
196 List of Patents.
Surrey, practical chemist, and Grorer Ferausson Witson of Vauxhall,
in the same-county, gentleman, “improvements in operating upon certain
organic bodies or substances, in order to obtain products or materials there-
from, for the manufacture of candles and other purposes.”—7th December
1842.
26. To WitLi1aM Losu, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, Esquire, “ improvements
in the construction of wheels for carriages-and locomotive engines intended
to be employed on railways.”—9th December 1842.
27. To Tuomas CarpweE Lt of Bombay, in the East Indies, merchant,
“improvements in the construction of presses for compressing cotton and
other articles.”—9th December 1842.
28. To CuarLEs Aucustus PRELLER, of East Cheap, in the City of Lon-
don, merchant, being a communication from abroad, “improvements in ma-
chinery for preparing, combing, and drawing wool and goat’s hair.”—9th
December 1642.
29. To Tuomas SEvIL1E, of Royton, in the county of Lancaster, cotton-
spinner, “certain improvements in machinery used in the preparing and
spinning of cotton, flax, and other fibrous substances.’”’—9th December 1842.
30: To WiLLiam Youne of Queen Street, in the city of London, lamp-
maker, “improvements in lamps and candlesticks.”—12th December 1842.
31. To Georce Epmunp DonistHorpe, of Bradford, in the county of
York, top-manufacturer, “ improvements in combing and drawing wool and
certain descriptions of hair.”—12th December 1842,
32. To Joun Bisyopr of Poland Street, in the county of Middlesex, jew-
eller, “improvements in apparatus used for retarding carriages on railways,
parts of which are applicable for portioning power, and improvements in
steam-cocks or plugs.”—12th December 1842.
33. To IsHam Baaas, of Wharton Street, in the county of Middlesex,
chemist, “improvements in the production of light.”—13th December 1842.
34. To Gasriet Hiprortite Moreau, of Leicester Square, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements in steam-generators.”—
13th December 1842.
35. To Joun GeEorGE Bopmer of Manchester, in the county of Lancas-
ter, engineer, “ certain improvements in the manufacture of metallic hoops
and tyres for wheels, and in the method of fixing the same for use, and also
improvements in the machinery or apparatus to be employed therein,”—
19th December 1842.
36. To Witit1amM Lomas of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
worsted-spinner, and Isaac SHIMWELL, of the same place, worsted-spinner,
“ certain improvements in the manufacture of fringes, cords, and other simi-
lar small wares; and also in the machinery or apparatus for producing the
same.”—21st December 1842.
37. To Moses Poote of Lincoln’s Inn, in the county of Middlesex, gen-
tleman, being a communication from abroad, “ improyements in dressing
mill-stones.”—-22d December 1842.
38. To Witt1AM PatmeEr of Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, in the county of
Middlesex, manufacturer, “ improvements in the manufacture of candles.”
—22d December 1842.
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
4
Sketch of the Writings and Philosophical Character of Augus-
tin Pyramus Decandolle, Professor of Natural History at
the Academy of Geneva, &c. &c.* By Cuartes Dauseny,
M.D., F.R.S., &c., Professor of Chemistry and of Botany in
the University of Oxford. Communicated to this Journal
by the Author.
Tur name of Decandolle is, I conceive, familiar to the ears
_ of most persons of education, as that of an individual eminent
in the ranks of modern naturalists—holding a place amongst
botanists of the age which has just gone by, similar to that
which Linnzus and Tournefort might have filled at an ante-
cedent epoch, or which Brown and Hooker occupy in the
present.
But I question, nevertheless, whether those I now address
are in general acquainted with the peculiar grounds upon
which his scientific reputation is based, and whether they
may not regard him simply as one of those individuals who
signalized themselves in their day, either by the discovery of
new plants, or by their extensive acquaintance with those which
the researches of others had already brought to light.
Were such the case, I certainly should not have chosen for
the subject of a communication to the Ashmolean Society a
topic like the present ; for although prompted to the task
* Read before the Ashmolean Society of Oxford, February 13, 1843.
VOL, XXXIV. NO, LXYII.—=APRIL 1843, 0
198 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
now entered upon by a sense of the obligations I owe to this
great botanist, not only in common with all who have studied
his works, but also more particularly for many acts of per-
sonal kindness, and much information liberally afforded me
during my former residence at Geneva; yet I should despair
of being able to interest you in my delineation of his scientific
character, if accuracy of observation, and a retentive memory,
applied to the subject-matter of botany, had constituted the
only traits by which he stood remarkable amongst his fellows.
But I flatter myself, that a sketch of his several contribu-
tions to science, and of the qualities of mind displayed in his
mode of handling the subjects they embrace, will possess
some interest, not only as it ‘may lead to a higher estimate
of the branch of natural history to which they relate, but
also because it will enable you to trace the steps by which a
great mind was enabled to ascend to many important gene-
ral principles, not by mere happy guesses at truth, but by a
gradual and laborious accumulation of facts—a power of as-
Similating, as it were, and combining into an harmonious
whole, the discoveries of other men, together with a singular
sagacity in deducing conclusions from the data he had thus
collected.
Augustin Pyramus Decandolle was born at Geneva in the
year 1778, within a month, it has been remarked, of the death
of Linneeus.* He was distinguished from his infancy by a
most retentive memory,t and by a fondness and aptitude for
study ; but it is remarkable, that his earliest tastes were ex-
clusively literary, and that he had acquired in his boyhood
a great facility in composing verses, which, indeed, he re-
tained ever afterwards, though I am not aware of any poetry
having been published under hisname. To these literary oc-
cupations of his youth, antecedent to his devotion to natural
history, I should be disposed to attribute, the purity of his
language, the remarkable clearness and sustained energy of
* Also, as Flourens states, two months after the death of Haller, and
three months after that of Bernard de Jussieu.
t He has been known to repeat every word of a copy of verses after hear-
ing them once recited.
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 199
his style, and the absence at once of those affectations, and
those involved periods, which too often disgust or embarrass
us in the writings of other men of science.
Those who have perused the works of the late Sir John
Leslie, or of the still more celebrated John Hunter, not to al-
lude to men of less name and distinction, will be sensible, by
the aid of contrast, how much the reception of scientific
truths is promoted by the power which Monsieur Decandolle
had acquired, from an early familiarity with the purest models
of style, no less perhaps than from his own natural clearness
of conception, of presenting before us, without study or pre-
meditation, that copious flow of ideas with which his mind
was fraught on all subjects connected with his favourite
science, in language so perfectly precise, and in an order so
completely methodical.
At length, after he had in some measure satiated himself
with the sweets of elegant literature, a love for botany ap-
pears to have been awakened in his mind by an attendance
on the lectures of Professor Vaucher* of Geneva, who lived
long enough to have the satisfaction, at a later period, of see-
ing his former pupil in undisputed possession of the fore-
most rank amongst European naturalists.
At the age of 18, in the year 1796, he went to Paris,t where
a taste for physical science, which had been suspended for a
while by the atrocities and by the vandalism of the Reyolu-
tion, began to revive.
Here he attended the lectures of Vauquelin, Cuvier, Four-
croy, and others, and contracted a friendship with Desfon-
taines and Lamarck.
The former had, in 1787, established that important gene-
* Flourens, in his Eloge of Decandolle, which has reached me since the
present memoir was drawn up, attributes the awakening of a taste for bo-
tany in the mind of Decandolle to another circumstance, namely, to his
taking refuge, when a boy, with his mother and brother, whilst the French
were besieging Geneva in 1792, in a village situated at the foot of the Jura,
where he amused himself in collecting wild plants, The statement given
in the text was taken from the sketch of Decandolle’slife given in the Fe-
deral newspaper by a distinguished fellow-citizen of Geneva; and it seems
probable that both causes may have contributed to give him this early bias.
t At the suggestion of Dolomieu, according to Flourens.
200 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
ralization, with respect to the essential differences pervading
plants with one cotyledon and with more, which I have ven-
tured on a former occasion* to characterize ‘as the key-
stone of the natural system, and as holding the same rank in
botany, which the discovery of the circulation of the blood,
or the distinction between vertebrated and invertebrated ani-
mals, claims in zoology.”
The latter had already promulgated those singular specu-
lations respecting the origin of inorganic matters, intended
by him to supersede the new chemistry, which Lavoisier had
so recently founded on the basis of experiment.
In these it had been assumed, that life was the original
cause of all combinations, the antagonist to those natural
forces, which tend to resolve the elements of matter into their
simplest forms, and which bring about death in organic, and
dissolution in inorganic substances.
But although such immense effects were attributed to the
operation of life, Lamarck had not yet explained to the
public how he considered this principle to operate ; and it was
only in 1802 that we find him, in his “researches on the
organization of living bodies,’’ attributing to that blind im-
pulse, or creative energy, which he denominates life, the power
of building up, by an indefinite succession of efforts, the com-
plicated organization of an animal or a plant.
It is probable, however, that these theories were floating in
his mind at the time when Decandolle’s intimacy with him
commenced, and must have formed the subjects of frequent
discussion, thus serving to render the latter familiar with
those facts respecting abortive and rudimentary organs, on
which the French Naturalist had raised this fanciful and airy
superstructure.
That a connexion with such persons as I have mentioned,
should impart a bias to the genius and pursuits of a young
man just entering into life, was unavoidable; but what may
be remarked as the peculiar merit of Monsieur Decandolle
was, that whilst we may trace in his writings the impress of
those principles of science, which might be gleaned from the
* See my Inaugural Lecture on the Study of Botany, Oxford, 1834,
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 201
writings of both the above mentioned philosophers, we shall
find them in his writings expanded by more extensive infor-
mation, and corrected by a sounder and severer judgment.
Thus he adopted the distinction between monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous plants from Desfontaines, and the doctrine
of abortive and rudimentary parts from Lamarck; but the
former truth was exhibited by him, not in the form of the bare
announcement of a great principle, but as the very foundation
on which all his systems, both in physiological and descrip-
tive botany, were based ; whilst the latter never became in
his hands the pretext for any such chimerical and dangerous
speculations, as were associated with them in the mind of their
originator.
The earliest publications, however, of a botanical kind in
which Decandolle’s name figures, were calculated to display
his power of accurately discriminating species, rather than the
philosophical character of his genius.
In 1802 he published the first part of the description of
Succulent Plants, drawings of which were supplied by the ce-
lebrated Redouté.
He likewise, about the same time, drew up a description of
the Liliacez for the same author, and published a folio volume
on the Astragalus and its allied genera,
In 1804 he obtained his degree of Doctor of Physic, and
delivered on that occasion a thesis on the Medical Properties
of Plants, which served as the basis of a work on that subject,
brought out by him in 1816, shewing that he was already
alive to the connexion that subsists between the natural
structure of plants and their medicinal virtues.
In the same year he delivered, at the College of France,
his first course of lectures on the Principles of Botanical Ar-
rangement, of which he has given a sketch in the introduc-
tion to the Flore Frangaise published the following year.
Although this essay may not have attracted all the atten-
tion it deserved, in consequence of making part of a Flora, a
kind of work in which persons in general do not look for prin-
ciples of physiology ; yet it contributed in no slight degree to
the establishment of correct principles of classification, and
served as the basis of the Treatise which he published on this
branch of the subject some years afterwards.
202 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
We thus see that the germs of two of his most important
publications existed in the mind of M. Decandolle at an early
period of his life, for in 1804, when he delivered his inau-
gural dissertation, and gave his first course on Botany, he was
only 26 years of age.
The basis also of two other great undertakings was laid at
a period not much later, for in 1805 commenced, as I have
already stated, the publication of the third edition of the
Flore Francaise, under the joint auspices of Lamarck and
Decandolle ; and in 1806, we owe to the subject of this sketch
a Botanical Chart, in which France is divided into six re-
gions, distinguished by the character of their respective vege-
tations, to which are appended some remarks on the geogra-
phical distribution of plants, serving as a prelude to that more
detailed exposition of the subject, which we shall find to have
been given, in the year 1820, in the Dictionnaire des Sciences
Naturelles.
The former editions of the Flore Francaise, as Cuvier ob-
serves,* had no pretensions to be considered as a complete
history of the species of plants indigenous to France,—their
aim was rather that of exemplifying, by means of the plants
which former botanists had enumerated, the peculiar artifi-
cial method of determining the name of a species, which La-
marck had proposed as a substitute for the then popular one
of Linnzus.
This system consists in setting out with the most general
forms, dividing and subdividing always by two, and only al-
lowing the choice between two opposite characters, so as to
conduct the reader, step by step, almost infallibly to the deter-
mination of the plant of which he desires to discover the
name.
The services, therefore, which Decandolle rendered to Bo-
tany by associating himself with Lamarck in the publication
of the third edition, may be easily estimated by this cirecum-
stance alone, that whereas the preceding Floras of France
contained an enumeration of only 2700 plants, he had aug-
mented the number, in the third edition of this work, to no
less than 4700.
* See Memoire of M..de Lamarck.
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 203
a
This, however, was not all; for although, out of deference
to his colleague, he retains, in the first portion of his work,
the artificial method of determining a plant by the system of
dichotomy which Lamarck had invented, he proceeds, in all
the subsequent parts, to arrange them according to the prin-
ciples of that natural arrangement which the great Jussieu
had first reduced to a system.
In his preface to the first volume of the Flore Francaise,
published in 1805, we find him thus contrasting the distinc-
tive merits of the natural and artificial methods.
“ The natural method,” he says, “ endeavours to place each
individual object in the midst of those with which it possesses
the greatest number of important points of resemblance ; the
artificial has no other end than that of enabling us to recog-
nize each individual plant, and to isolate it from the rest of
the vegetable kingdom. The former, being truly a science,
will serve as an immutable foundation for anatomy and phy-
siology to build upon; whilst the second, being a mere em-
pirical art, may indeed offer some conveniences for practical
purposes, but does nothing towards enlarging the boundaries
of science, and places before us an indefinite number of arbi-
trary arrangements. The former, searching merely after truth,
has established its foundation on the organs that are of the
greatest importance to the existence of plants, without con-
sidering whether these organs are easy or difficult of observa-
tion ; the second, aiming only at facility, bases its distinctions
upon those which are most readily examined, and, therefore,
present the greatest facilities for study.”
We thus perceive, that at this early period the mind of
Mons. Decandolle was impressed with those philosophical
principles which his subsequent labours so materially calcu-
lated to establish and to diffuse; and that, at a time when the
school of Sir J. E. Smith in England was still shackled by the
trammels of the Linnzean system, this great botanist was him-
self taking advantage of those methods of arrangement, which,
in a more mature form, he afterwards presented to the world
for the guidance of others.
But I am inclined to regard it as a peculiar proof, at once
of the caution and of the self-control which formed a distin-
204 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
guishing feature in the character of this great botanist, that,
so much in advance as he appears to have been of most of his
cotemporaries, he should have nevertheless abstained for so
many years from the publication of any work expressly designed
for the elucidation, either of the physiology of plants, or of
those principles of classification of which he appears to have
had so clear a conception, and should have confined himself,
as it would appear, exclusively to a laborious accumulation of
facts, calculated to illustrate and to confirm his principles, be-
fore he indulged himself in a fuller development of them.
From the period at which he became associated with La-
marck in the publication of the Flore Frangaise, till the year
1812, he was employed almost incessantly in studying the de-
tails of the botany and agriculture of France ; and in the course
of that time, as he himself assures us, traversed the whole of
that extensive country, herborising in every province, and
presenting each year to the Government a report, embodying
the results of his labours and researches during the preceding
summer.
Nor could he have chosen a better method for at once en-
larging his views of nature, and putting to the test the truths
of his preconceived views ; the compilation of a local Flora,
indeed, may only be serviceable in disciplining the mind to
habits of accurate observation, but the survey of a country so
large as France then was, combining such an extent of geo-
graphical range, and so many differences of local position,
would also expand our views of nature, by furnishing us with
examples of a very large proportion of vegetable forms, speci-
mens of the productions of a considerable variety of distinct
countries.
Thus, the flora of Picardy and Normandy is analogous to
that of the neighbouring coasts of England, or of the Nether-
lands, that of the centre of France approaches, in the charac-
ter of its vegetation, to the south of Germany, and that of
Languedoc to the north of Spain; whilst the neighbourhood
of Toulon and of Hyéres partakes even of the climate of
southern Italy—for the orange and the date, which thrive
along many parts of the Gulf of Genoa, do not reappear till we
reach a latitude somewhat more southern than that of Rome.
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 205
And whereas the Alps of Dauphiny and the Pyrenees exhibit
the influence upon vegetation of an atmosphere rarified by the
elevated nature of their position, the long extent of the coast
may enable us to contrast the productions of a climate modi-
fied by the effect of the sea, with that which belongs more pe-
culiarly to the interior of continents.
It was not till after the completion of this great work, when
his authority, as an accurate, as well as a profound botanist,
had been established throughout Europe, both by the estima-
tion in which his publications were held, and also by the re-
putation of the lectures he delivered at Montpellier, where, in
1810, he had been appointed professor of botany to the Uni-
versity, that he ventured upon that admirable Treatise, which
was intended, at once to establish a code of Jaws for directing
future botanists in their description and arrangement of the
species of plants, and to explain the philosophical principles
upon which such laws were to be justified.
It is far from my intention to ascribe to Mons. Decandolle
the sole merit of the views which he promulgated in the work
alluded to, for of all men certainly he is the one who least re-
quires from his biographer the sacrifice of the reputation of
other philosophers, to enhance the glory of his own.
Linnezus himself, indeed, had expressed in the strongest
terms his sense of the importance of a natural classification,
and had thrown together the greater part of the then known
genera of plants in groups or families, designated by their ap-
propriate names, though without defining the characters of the
latter.
Bernard de Jussieu, in France, had also exemplified this
method, by his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden
at Trianon, although he did not reduce to writing the princi-
ples on which he had proceeded.
Adanson had gone somewhat further, by labouring to estab-
lish the necessity of founding a system of classification, not on
one, but on all the organs of a plant collectively; but he too
stopped short of the mark, by not sufficiently appreciating the
relative importance of the several organs, thus placing them
all, as it were, upon the same level, and estimating the affini-
206 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
ties between plants, by the number, and not by the importance,
of their points of agreement.
Lastly, the younger Jussieu, in his important memoirs pub-
lished in the years 1777 and 1778, laid down correctly the
laws which were to determine the relative value of these or-
gans, by which he afforded a clew to the principles which had
guided himself and his uncle in the classification which they
had adopted.
What remained then for Decandolle to achieve, was the re-
ducing to certain fixed principles those deviations from the
normal structure which are perceived in plants naturally allied
—explaining how it happens, that species or genera, which
approach each other so nearly in the character of those organs
which Jussieu had justly considered the most important, should
differ, nevertheless, both with respect to the number, and even
sometimes in the entire absence, of parts in the one, which
exist in the other.
In short, whilst Jussieu established the general principles of
a correct classification, it remained for Decandolle to remove
the difficulties which interfered with their application to par-
ticular cases.
Nor was this all—for Jussieu contented himself, with laying
down those practical rules which were to guide future bota-
nists in grouping together the several objects which present
themselves in the vegetable kingdom, and with affording in
his works correct models of classification for others to imitate ;
whilst the task which Decandolle undertook, was that of refer-
ring to their first principles the rules and practice of this
school, explaining thereby the reasons on which they were
founded, and vindicating the correctness of the models which
they had presented for our imitation.
“The theory of a natural classification,” remarks Decan-
dolle, ‘‘ has never yet been properly set down in print, even
by those who have contributed most to advance it. Connected,
as it is, with all branches of the science, we can only arrive at
it by dint of laborious investigations and continued reflections,
of which it ought, at this time of day, to be the groundwork,
and not the result. Whatever we are able to learn on the sub-
ject may be reduced to certain general ideas, which botanists
’
Philosophical Character of Decandoile. 207
of an higher order have put forth, and that in their conversa-
tion, rather than in their writings, being still amongst the
number of those opinions which Bacon named floating, be-
cause, having never been methodically expounded, they never
could be seriously discussed.”
Now, the principles on which a natural classification pro-
ceeds, are composed essentially of three parts. 1s¢, An estima-
tion of the relative importance which we ought to assign to the
several organs compared one with the other. 2d, A know-
ledge of the circumstances which may lead the observer astray
relative to the true nature of these organs; and, 3d, An esti-
mation of the importance which ought to be attributed to each
of the points of view under which the same organ admits of
being regarded.
With respect to the Ist and 8d of these,—namely, the
importance of the several organs considered relatively, and
the importance of the several points of view in which the
same organ may be regarded,—Decandolle has done nothing
more, than to reduce to a system the rules upon which Jussieu
and other preceding botanists had proceeded in their natural
arrangements of plants, and to explain the principles upon
which their rules were founded, or by which they admit of
being justified.
But, with respect to the 2d part, namely, the appreciation
of the circumstances which may lead the observer astray as to
the true nature of the organs themselves, he has the merit of
having unfolded a theory, at once ingenious and philosophical,
of the highest practical utility with reference to the details of
botany, and calculated to simplify, as well as to enlarge, our
ideas with respect to the organization of vegetables.
In my Inaugural Lecture on Botany I have already presented
a sketch of this one of Decandolle’s treatises, which, though
concise, may perhaps serve as a sufficient account of it for the
present occasion.
“The causes which bring about a deviation from the
normal structure of a particular part, and thus lead a botanist
to take a mistaken view of its nature, or at least of its struc-
ture, may be reduced to three: 1s¢, The abortion of some one
or more of those organs, which, in the regular course of things,
208. Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
are considered as natural to it; 2dly, An alteration in its
structure, and consequently in its functions ; 3d/y, The union
or coherence of several organs, so as to appear like one.
*“‘ These causes are ranked by Decandolle under the three
general heads of the abortion of organs, their degeneration,
and their mutual coherence; and any one of them may be
considered competent to induce such a change in the general
appearance of a plant, as shall render it altogether different
from another to which it would, on general grounds, appear to
be closely allied.
«“ That particular organs in plants do frequently become
abortive, in consequence of the common accidents of excessive
or defective humidity, light, &c., had been before admitted ;
but to Monsieur Decandolle we are indebted for assigning a
wider influence to this cause, and for shewing, that in many
cases there are forces in regular operation which produce a
constant alteration zm, or obliteration of, certain parts.
«Tf, indeed, we admit, that such effects may and do arise
from internal as well as from external causes, from the effect
of the mere growth and development of parts connected with
its own structure, as well as from the operation of foreign
agents, it is plain that they would extend, not to a few only,
but to all the individuals belonging to the family of plants
possessing the kind of structure which occasions it.
“‘ Thus, for example, we observe in the horse-chesnut three
seed-vessels or carpels, each containing two seeds ; whilst in
the fruit we perceive in all never more than three seeds, and
sometimes only a single one. It is evident, therefore, that at
least three of the seeds have died away, not from any cause
which can be considered accidental, but from something inhe-
rent in the very structure of the tree. We may indeed trace
the gradual decay of these abortive seeds, by opening the seed-
vessel at different stages of its growth. In like manner it is
found to be the rule, that in some cases the terminal, in others
the lateral buds, will arrive at maturity ; but, that the abor-
tion of the one arises merely from the development of the
other, and not from any inherent peculiarity of structure in
itself, has been proved, by removing the bud, which commonly
expands at an early age, by which means the one which is
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 209
commonly abortive is made to develope itself, and to arrive at
maturity.
“ The reality of this occurrence cannot therefore be ques-
tioned, but to pronounce in what cases it has actually happen-
ed, becomes a question of great intricacy.
“ The first principle on which M. Decandolle proceeds, in
order to determine what organs in a particular plant have be-
come abortive, or are deficient, is by observing what are called
the monstrosities to which the species is liable, or its occasional
deviations from the accustomed standard.
** These monstrosities arise in some cases from a return to
he primitive type of the species, in consequence of the re-
moval, by accident, of those forces which usually modify its
natural condition.
“ In the horse-chesnut, for example, the six embryos rarely
ever grow to maturity, because those which first have acquired
-vitality abstract nourishment from the rest, and thus cause
them to die away.
“ It might happen, however, by some singular accident, that
all the six embryos received the principle of life at one and
the same instant of time, on which supposition the existence
of six mature seeds in the two seed-vessels might occur—a
monstrosity which, so far from being a further departure from
the natural form, would be in fact a return to it.
“ The second method, by which the same point is deter-
mined, consists in examining the general analogy subsisting
between the plant and others. If, for instance, all those spe-
cies, which bear the nearest resemblance to the one we are
examining, should have five stamens, whilst this possesses only
four, we might reasonably conclude, knowing the great ten-
dency of this organ to become abortive, that one habitually
dies away, owing to some cause incident to the nature of the
vegetable.
‘¢ The abortions which take place, may occur either from
the plant being nourished in excess, or defectively. By an ex-
cess of nourishment, the growth of the contiguous organs may
be so accelerated, that the part itself is prevented growing,
or becomes stunted; by defect of nourishment, on the con-
trary, the same consequence may directly ensue, and under
210 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
either state of things one of two results will occur, either that
the organ is so diminished, as to be incapable of performing
its proper office, or that it is entirely obliterated. In the
former case it often happens, by a beautiful provision of na-
ture, that it is transformed into some other organ, and dis-
charges certain other functions. Thus branches, petioles of
leaves, petals of flowers, and other parts, degenerate, some-
times into thorns, and at other times into tendrils; thus the
branches, becoming succulent, acquire the appearance, and
perform the functions, of leaves; thus that which is essen-
tially nothing more than one of the envelopes of the kernel of
the peach, becoming pulpy, is converted into a wholesome kind
of fruit.
“ The third cause of deviation from the accustomed stan-
dard is the mutual adhesion of certain parts, a process similar
to that which we produce artificially in the operation of graft-
ing, and which often takes place also under natural circum-
stances.
“It is, therefore, quite intelligible that this same union of
parts should also be produced in consequence of their natural
proximity. Thus, if two ovaries grow very near each other,
it is obvious that they will have a tendency to cohere. M.
Decandolle, therefore, contends, that the corolla and the
calyx are in fact compound organs, made up of a certain num-
ber of petals and of sepals which have grown together, that
a seed-vessel is a congeries of as many distinct organs as there
are cells, and that a flower is no assemblage of individuals
clustered round a common centre.”
The sagacity of our countryman, Robert Brown, had al-
ready led him to point out this principle, so far as relates to
one portion of the subject, for in his Prodromus Flora Nove
Hollandiz, published so long ago as 1810, he pronounces, that
all multilocular capsules are composed of a number of thece
equal in number to the divisions of which they consist, and
differ from each other only in the degrees and modes of their
cohesion or separation.
He also, in his observations on the “ Natural Family called
Composite,” published in the Linnean Transactions for 1816,
between the publication of the first and second editions of
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 211
Decandolle’s Theorie Elementaire, announces the same truth
in more clear and distinct language, stating, that he considers
the pistillum, or female organ, of all phenogamous plants, to
be formed on the same plan, of which a polyspermous legumen,
or folliculus, whose seeds are disposed in a double series, may
be taken as a type. “A circular series of these pistilla,” he
continues, “disposed round an imaginary axis, and whose
number corresponds with that of the parts of the calyx or
corolla, enter$ into my notion of a flower complete in all its
parts.”
Other hints of the same kind thrown out in this memoir,
and likewise in his Appendix to Flinders’ Voyages, published
in 1814, respecting the family Euphorbiacez, shew, that the
doctrine of abortion, which Decandolle has explained so lu-
minously, was present also to the mind of Robert Brown,
and render it probable, that, in the conception of some parts
of the work alluded to, its author may have derived assist-
ance from the writings of our countryman.
The Memoirs of Cassini on the Composite might also have
improved and enlarged, though, as they were brought out in
1814, they could not have originated the ideas of M. Decan-
dolle; but the two sources to which he seems to have been
peculiarly indebted for the general views, and for the train
of thought which he has put forth, were, 1s¢, The system
of crystallography which had lately been developed by the
Abbé Hauy; and, 2dly, The opinions and speculations of
Mons. Lamarck concerning the successive progression of or-
ganized beings.
The Abbé Hauy had shewn, how a number of secondary
forms may be produced by the same mineral species, owing
to an assemblage of crystals possessing the same figure being
piled up one upon the other in a decreasing series.
Thus an octohedral figure may be produced by a mineral
whose primitive form is a cube, in consequence of the number
of little crystals which go to constitute the aggregate which
we see, decreasing in regular proportion from the sides to the
centre.
This principle suggested to Mons. Decandolle the analo-
gous idea of regarding the apparent irregularities of struc-
212 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
ture, which are seen in species of plants belonging to the
same common type, as modifications produced by the causes
above assigned, just as the apparent irregularity of figure
which we observe in the same mineral had been referred by
Hauy to certain crystalline laws acting upon molecules possess-
ing the same type.
Moreover, a similar difference exists between the mode of
considering the organs of plants adopted by Decandolle, and
by antecedent botanists, as that which prevails between the
system of crystallography invented by the Abbé Hauy, and
that previously proposed by Romé de L’Isle.
According to the latter, each crystal was viewed as in itself
a whole, possessing a certain definite figure, which was in
many cases modified by truncation, that is, by having its an-
gles bevelled off.
According to the former, a crystal is an aggregate of a
number of molecules, possessing a particular figure, which,
clustering together in obedience to certain laws, produce a
variety of secondary forms, all, however, bearing some relation
to the primary one.
So, according tothe old mode of considering plants, the
corolla, the calyx, the seed-vessel, &c., was each considered a
simple organ, and the petals, the sepals, the carpels, &c. its
parts—whereas Decandolle regards each of the former as a
compound organ, and the latter to bear the same relation to
it, which the primitive molecules in Hauy’s system do to the
crystals formed by their union.
But the individual, to whom probably Decandolle was most
indebted for the germs of those opinions, which he has so
ably developed in his Théorie Elémentaire, was his colleague
and associate, Lamarck ; and I could hardly fix upon any cir-
cumstance in the whole of his scientific career, more calcu-
lated to exalt his character morally as well as intellectually,
than the use he has made of the ingenious but fanciful views
which he obtained from this source, and the discrimination
which he exercised in separating the pure metal from the base
alloy.
It is foreign to the objects of this Society to enter upon
any discussions connected with religion, nor indeed, if I were
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 213
to allude to that part of M. Decandolle’s character, should I
be able to do justice to him in these respects, not having been
honoured with a sufficient degree of intimacy with him in the
privacy of his domestic circle, to learn his sentiments on those
grave subjects.
This, however, I may venture to assert, that whilst there is
no passage in any of his numerous works, which can even by
implication convey an impression of another kind, there are
many which evince a disposition, on his part, to apply, on every
suitable opportunity, the truths of his favourite science to the
advocacy of the eternal interests of mankind.
The use which he and Lamarck have made of the doctrine
of rudimentary organs common to them both will serve to
illustrate this fact, and evince, not only the greater soundness
of M. Decandolle’s judgment, but likewise the moral truth,
that food and poison may be extracted out of the very same
materials, according to the character of the recipient.
The doctrine of rudimentary organs, that is, the notion
“that parts which exercise some important function in the or-
ganization of animals or of vegetables, may exist in some spe-
cies in so imperfect a condition, as to be apparently of no use
to the individual,” is one that scarcely can admit of dispute
from those who take a wide survey of either of the two king-
doms of nature.
The mammee of male animals in general, the stumps of
wings in birds, which, like the penguin, are unable to fly,
the eyes covered with skin belonging to the mole and the
Proteus anguinus, and the rudiments of toes concealed under
the skin of ruminant animals, are all familiar illustrations of
this position.
But in the use which has been severally made of the above
principle, the genius of the two philosophers alluded to stands
remarkably contrasted.
By Lamarck it was regarded as a confirmation of that ex-
travagant hypothesis of appetencies creating parts, by which,
though without directly denying the existence of a Deity, he
represented his agency as being as little exercised in the works
of creation, as that of the gods of Olympus were according to
the system of Epicurus.
VOL, XXXIV, NO. LXVINI.—APRIL 1845, P
214 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and -
/ Out of deference for the opinions of his fellow men, or per-
haps from some latent sentiment of religion at variance with
his philosophical dogmas, he admitted, that the order of na-
ture emanated from the Deity, but supposed that it proceeded
to do its work, by blind and imperfect, and merely mechani-
eal efforts, productive at first of only rough and abortive
draughts of what, in the course of an infinite succession of
ages, ripened itself into its present wonderful complexity, and
perfection of form and structure.
So even Epicurus, out of respect for the common opinions
of mankind, the innate ideas, as it were, which existed in the
minds of others, admitted that there were gods, but removed
them from all share in the concerns of humanity, by suppos-
ing the whole structure of the universe to result from a for-
tuitous concourse of atoms.
How different in these respects was the proceeding of M.
Decandolle !
He did not indeed attempt to deny the existence of rudi-
mentary organs, from seeing the use which others had made
of the doctrine—to have attempted this indeed would have
been as hopeless a task, as to deny the deductions arrived at by
geologists with respect to the age of the world, because some
persons may have perversely availed themselves of such facts
as a handle against revelation—but, boldly admitting their
reality, and skilfully availing himself of this principle as a clew
whereby to trace the affinities between plants, he vindicated
it from the imputation of being in any degree inconsistent
with the existence of design, or of lending any countenance to
the doubts of the sceptie.
According to his views, all organized beings, when compared
one with another, present groups of greater or lesser extent,
which themselves form parts of groups embracing a still wider
range, and are divisible into others of a subordinate deserip-
tion. Each group is subject to two classes of laws; the first
producing that regular order in which its organs are disposed,
or in other words the symmetry of its organization ; the second
regulating the action of the processes of vitality, from which
often results such a degree of derangement in the symmetry
of its parts, that their natural disposition may thereby be com-
pletely disguised.
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 215
This derangement of the normal structure may be ascribed
—either to the abortion of certain organs—to their alteration
in form and appearance—or to the adhesions between organs
of the same or of different descriptions.
The existence, then, of rudimentary parts, is only a conse-
quence of those general rules, which the divine Author of
Nature has thought fit to impose upon himself in all the arrange-
ments of the universe, and can in no wise be regarded as in-
consistent with the idea of design, if we only can shew, that
the whole proceeds upon a consistent plan, and that plan a
wise one, inasmuch as each organ, in the great majority of
cases, and in its perfect and developed form, is subservient
to some beneficial purpose.
As a consequence, of that general analogy which runs
throughout the whole of organized nature, and of the inter-
ference of causes which in their main result are productive of
good, we find parts existing in a rudimentary or abortive state
in one species, which in others serve some manifestly import-
ant office ; neither would it be any objection to the idea of
design, if it could be proved, that in this rudimentary condition
they were absolutely useless, although it must be considered
as an additional evidence of provision, when, as in many in-
stances, we are able to shew, that they become subservient to
a new purpose, by being unfitted to their primary one.
Thus the parts of the calyx in many composite flowers de-
generate into a pappus, or down, which, being of a light and
feathery texture, serves to waft the seeds attached to it to a
great distance, and in this manner to disseminate the species ;
thus the nectaries, which are regarded as degenerated stamens,
secrete honey, and by this means attract insects, by whose
entrance into the flower, the pollen is dispersed and lodged
upon the pistils.
Perhaps, had not one of the seed-vessels of leguminous
plants been constantly abortive, the seeds would have all been
so stunted in their growth, as to have been unfitted for supply-
ing nutriment to animals.
These, and other facts that might be alleged, prove, that the
degeneration or abortion of particular organs, often serves
some wise purpose with reference to the plant itself, or to
other beings ; and that the same may be the case in other in-
216 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
stances, in which we do not perceive it, jt would be presump-
tuous to deny.
Nevertheless, it does not seem requisite for the argument
as to final causes, to contend, that every organ must have a
definite use in all the individuals in which it occurs, since its
existence may be regarded, as being nothing more than a con-
sequence of that general law of nature above stated, the wis-
dom of which there is no ground for impugning.
« Tf,” says M. Decandolle,* “‘ on a subject so grave and so
elevated, I may be permitted to avail myself of a comparison
somewhat mean and trivial, I shall perhaps render my views
on this subject somewhat better understood.
* T will suppose myself seated at a splendid banquet, and
certainly the repast which Nature sets before us may well merit
this appellation,
“ I endeavour to discover what evidence can be afforded
that this banquet is not the result of chance, but has been due
to the will of an intelligent being. No doubt, I should remark,
that each of the dishes is in itself well prepared (this is the
argument of the anatomist), and that the selection of them
implies a reference to the wants of the individuals who partake
of them. (This is the reasoning of the physiologist.) But may
I not likewise observe, that the dishes that constitute this re-
past are arranged in a certain symmetrical order, such as is
agreeable to the eye, and in itself announces design and
volition ?
“« Now, if on examining the above arrangement, I should
find certain dishes repeated, as for instance in double rows,
for no other apparent reason, than that the one might in a
manner correspond to the other; or observe, that the places
which they should occupy were filled with imitations of the
real dishes, which seem of no use with reference to the object
of the repast, ought I, on that account, to reject the idea of
design ?
** So far from this, I might infer from the very circumstances
stated, an attention to symmetrical arrangement, and conse-
quently the operation of intelligence.
‘“‘Nowthis is precisely what happens on the great scale in na-
* Théorie Elémentaire. 2d edition, page 185.
*hilosophical Character of Decandolle. 217
ture. Considerations derived from the symmetry of parts correct
in great measure what is deficient in the theory of final causes,
and tend, not only to resolve many difficulties, which present
themselves in the general economy of nature, but even to
transform them into evidences of the existence of this very
order.”
And here, perhaps, I may be permitted to make a short
digression, in order to say a few words with respect to the -
general spirit and influence of the writings which have pro-
ceeded from the Republic of Geneva.
Let others, if they please, censure the laxity of opinion which
is attributed to their theologians—my more grateful as well as
more appropriate office in this place shall be, to bear testimony
to the general moral tone, and beneficial tendency of their
literature.
Had it not been for the existence of this independent focus
of learning and talent, all French publications would have been
but a reflexion of the light which radiated from the often cor-
rupt atmosphere of Paris; for in France everything centres
in the metropolis, and in that country, as a witty writer™ has
quaintly expressed himself—the opinions of the provinces are
of little more importance ¢han the opinion of a man’s legs.}
But Geneva, from its high intellectual eminence, its Pro-
testantism, and its independent political position, has always
possessed a school, both of literature and science, exclusively
its own, so that not only those of her sons who have continued
* Heyne.
t M. Flourens has unexpectedly supplied me, in his Eloge of Decandolle;
with an anecdote which may serve to confirm this position. When Decan-
dolle had been appointed by M. Cretet, the Minister of the Interior, to his
professorship at Montpellier, the following conversation passed between the
minister and Laplace, who,by way of expressing his high admiration of Decan-
dolle, began it as follows :—“ Monseigneur,vous nous jouez un mauvyais tour,
nous comptions avoir bientét M. de Candolle, a l'Institut.” “ Votre Institut!
votre Institut! s’écrie M. Cretet.” “Eh quoi!” repond M. de Laplace, tout
etonné, “ Savez vous que j’ai quelquefois envie de faire tirer un coup de
canon sur votre Institut ? Oui, monsieur, un coup de canon, pour en disperser
les membres dans toute la France. N’est ce pas une chose deplorable de
voir toutes les lumiéres concentrées dans Paris, et les provinces en ignorance.
J’envoic M. de Candolle 4 Montpellier, pour y porter l’activité.”
218 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
under her wing during life, but even the offsets she has sent
forth to other lands, have preserved the impress of those na-
tional characteristics which they had acquired from early edu-
cation.
Thus Necker maintained, even in his financial measures at
Paris, the ideas that he has brought with him from Geneva ;
and his illustrious daughter was reproached and almost pro-
scribed by Napoleon, for the singular reason, that her writings
were not written in a French spirit.
Nor will an impartial critic deny, that the literature of
Geneva, whatever may be its faults, possesses a greater purity
and elevation of sentiment, than belongs to the school which
was at one time regarded as essentially Parisian. With one
lamentable exception, no doubt, which we regret the more,
because the gross impurities that sully the works to which I al-
lude, are perceived to have been the offspring of a mind, not
destitute of ‘ some glorious elements,” * or deficient in high
and noble aspirations, the writers who have emanated from the
little Republic of which I speak, may fairly participate in the
praise which the most eminent of her native historians} claims
for himself as his highest merit, namely, “ that of never noticing
vice but with the disgust it deserves, never surrounding it with
seductive pictures, or treating it as a subject of pleasantry ;
and, in the course of the whole of his voluminous publications,
of having never written a single passage which a modest
female might not read aloud without a blush.”
As for Decandolle, he partook fully in that sentiment of
nationality which has kept Geneva distinct from Paris, in
science and literature, as well as in government.
It is related of him, that when, in 1809, he represented the
department of Leman in the Assembly of Notables, convened
by Bonaparte as Emperor, on being presented to the latter,
and asked by him how Geneva was pleased with its union
with France, he had the courage to remain silent ; and no
sooner had the peace of 1814 secured to his native place an
* “ A goodly frame of glorious elements,
Had they been wisely mingled.”
i See Sismondi’s Preface to his * Histoire des Francais.”
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 219
independent existence, than he gave up his emoluments at
Montpellier, and preferred the almost honorary appointment
which he henceforth discharged as Professor of Natural His-
tory at Geneva, to any more lucrative office in a foreign city.
From this period may be dated the commencement of those
important works, upon which his reputation amongst Euro-
pean botanists is principally founded.
In 1818 appeared the first volume of his Systema Naturale,
intended to embrace a detailed description of all known plants,
arranged according to their natural affinities or design,—an un-
dertaking which, since the days of Ray, no botanist had had
the courage to attempt.
He was not, indeed, unaware of the magnitude and difficulty
of such a work, or of the danger lest his labours should be sub-
verted by discoveries made during their progress ; but he was
encouraged to proceed in it, by the consciousness that a trea-
tise of this description, even though imperfect, would be the
one of all others most instrumental in spreading a knowledge
both of general and special botany.
It is indeed a happy circumstance for the cause of science,
when an individual, possessing the comprehensive views and
the powers of generalisation which belonged to Decandoile,
can be induced to enter upon this species of labour; and not
one of the least advantages accruing from it I conceive to be,
that it relieves the pursuit itself from the imputation of frivo-
lousness, to be found worthy of occupying so large a portion
of the attention of one, who had already shewn himself, by his
previous publications, capable of grappling with the more phi-
losophical departments of the science.
It may be remarked, that whilst in the Flore Frangaise,
and I believe in most other works of antecedent date, found-
ed on the natural system, plants of the most simple structure
were placed first, and the more complex ones afterwards, the
contrary order has been pursued in the Systema Nature of
Decandolle.
And in this difference of arrangement I think I can trace
the influence of those general views which he had adopted in
opposition to his distinguished colleague and early master,
Lamarck,
220 : Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
It was, no doubt, quite natural and consistent in the latter,
imagining, as he did, that the more complicated forms of vege-
table life had proceeded out of the simpler ones, by a number
of successive tentative efforts of creative energy, to imagine
that he was following the order of nature in describing, in the
first place, those plants which he conceived to be of earliest
production ; whilst Decandolle, who regarded the whole vege-
table kingdom as equally the result of the same wise and bene-
ficial plan, and who had been taught by the researches of
Cuvier, that the inhabitants of the early periods of the world
were as complicated in their organisation, and as skilfully con-
trived for their respective uses, as those at present in exist-
ence, was led to prefer that mode of considering the subject,
which enabled him to place first before his readers the organs
of a plant, in their most complete state of development, and
therefore in their most intelligible point of view.
He felt, that it was pursuing a mistaken analogy, to ima-
gine that the organs of reproduction or of vegetation could be
studied with more facility in a moss, than in a flower ; it might
be rather said, that in the former they were in a manner in
a rudimentary condition, and consequently that their true
uses could best be inferred by analogy, after we had fully exa-
mined them in plants of a more complicated structure ; just as
we should be at a loss to explain the uses of the eye, from exa-
mining it in the mole, or of the mamme from a dissection of
those in the male subject, instead of beginning with those cases
in which the above organs were in a state of the most complete
development.
Decandolle accordingly commences his system with the fa-
mily Ranunculacez, as that in which the natural symmetry
of plants belonging to the Dicotyledonous division is in the
least degree departed from, the sepals, petals, stamens, and
even the pistils, being here separate and distinct; and he then
proceeds, step by step, to trace the different degrees and kinds
of irregularity which may be perceived in those other natural
families which he places before us in succession.
Nor are the more technical, or, as it may be termed, the
mechanical arrangements adopted in this treatise, selected with
dess judgment and discretion.
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 221
In the Systema Nature, the authority for each description
is scrupulously given ; and it is stated, by appropriate marks,
whether the plant has been observed by Decandolle himself
in a dry or in a living state, cultivated or wild. The syno-
nymes of each species are appended, with a mark affixed to
the name of their author, whenever the identification has been
fully made out by an actual comparison of the specimen refer-
red to with that on which Decandolle’s description is based.
The Aabifat is given with greater accuracy than heretofore,
by appending to it the name of the author on whose authority
it rests, either in italics, where Decandolle himself has seen
the specimen referred to, or in roman letters, included in a
parenthesis, where he has not; whilst, where it rests on De-
candolle’s personal examination, the locality is given without
any name at all.
Another pointattended to scrupulously in this treatise was the
breaking up of the genera into natural sections, so as to group
the species together, as much as possible, according to their
natural affinities ; an idea which has been followed out by sub-
sequent botanists, with regard to the natural families them-
selves, which are now arranged according to their alliances,
and thus serve as links whereby to connect in one consecutive
chain the most general divisions into classes, with the most
subordinate one into species and varieties.’
But even the indefatigable zeal and the steady perseverance
of Mons. Decandolle were found unequal to the herculean
task of describing, in the detailed manner originally proposed,
the enormous catalogue of plants at present enumerated,
swelled, as it has been, by the researches of modern botanists,
from 8000 species known to Linneus, to more than 50,000 ;
and, accordingly, after bringing out two volumes of his Sys-
tema, embracing within their compass 11 natural families, he
determined on carrying on his work in a more compendious
form, under the title of Prodromus Systematis Naturalis.
What the extent of his original work would have been, had
it ever been completed in its original plan, may be estimated
from this calculation alone.
The Prodromus, at the time of his death, consisted of six thickly
printed volumes, each averaging about 700 pages, and of a se-
229 Dr Daubeny on the Writings and
venth of half that size, and yet it includes only 102 natural
families ; whereas the whole number comprehended in his son’s
enumeration of those belonging to the class of flowering plants
is 195.
It is true, that one of those completed is the immense order
of Composite, which alone hasbeen estimated at nearly a quar-
ter of the whole of the Dicotyledonous division; but then, on the
other hand, it must be recollected, that, during the interval
since the work commenced, such vast additions have been made
to the catalogue of plants, that the families hereafter to be de-
scribed would be more voluminous in proportion than the
earlier ones.
We may, therefore, perhaps calculate, that the Prodromus,
had it been completed, would have formed 15 volumes of
700 pages each ; but the plants described in the two volumes
of the Systema are compressed into 236 pages of the latter
work, so that the Systema, if executed on the same plan,
would have oceupied no less than 44 volumes octavo.
For, if 236 pages = 1 yol. — 10,500 (viz. 15 vols. of 700 pages each) = 44 vols.
This great undertaking, commencing with the preparation
of the first volume cf the Systema, which was published in
1818, occupied him till his death, which occurred in 1841;
but the last portion of it which appeared was the concluding
part of the description of the Composite, bearing the date of
1838.
We must not, however, suppose, that the whole business of
his life during so long a period consisted in the exhausting la-
bour of describing and classifying species. From time to time,
for instance, during this interval he brought out those admi-
rable Monographs, in which he has delineated in so masterly a
manner the general characters of particular natural families.
These Monographs were intended to serve as fuller expla-
nations of the grounds of that classification which he had
adopted in his Prodromus, as illustrations of those principles
which he had laid down in his Theorie Elementaire, and as cri-
ticisms on the plans of arrangement which had been proposed
by antecedent writers.
They hold an intermediate place between the mere particu-
Philosophical Character of Decandolle. 223
lar descriptions of species which are contained in the Prodro-
mus, and the general observations on the structure of plants
considered in the aggregate, which are found in the Organo-
graphie ; constituting the groundwork of the former, and the
data upon which the latter was constructed.
Thus, in his Memoir on the Cruciferze, he carries us in de-
tail through the structure of all the parts, first, of vegetation,
and afterwards of reproduction, belonging to this important
natural family ; and he shews, that the only distinction which
can be relied on for separating its members into natural groups,
are drawn, either from the form of the embryo, or from that
of the seed-vessel. ~ If we adopt the former as the basis of our
system, we shall divide the Crucifere into five natural groups,
according to the position of the Radicle with reference to the
Cotyledons ; if we adopt the latter, we shall distinguish them
into six, according to the position of the valves of the Seed-
vessel.
This latter method he shews to be preferable to the old
Linnean division, depending upon the length of the pod, as the
latter admits of no exact limits, and as it places'together gene-
ra in no way allied, and divides others which are naturally con-
nected ; but he nevertheless regards it as of inferior moment
to the distinction founded upon the embryo, both because the
latter is an organ of greater importance than the seed-vessel,
and because there is not such a gradation in its form, as is
found in that of the pod which ineloses it.
He adopts, therefore, as the basis of his classification, the
principle suggested by Robert Brown, with respect to the
manner in which the radicle is folded upon the cotyledons,
and afterwards subdivides the groups so formed according to
the form and mode of opening of the seed-vessel.
He thus, by means of these two characters, constructs
twenty-one natural groups, and satisfies himself of the cor-
rectness of the principles upon which he has proceeded in his
classification, by finding that the genera thrown together by
virtue of this arrangement, are really such as stand most nearly
allied one to the other.
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or about 13” in a degree.
This error arises from slight inaccuracies in the data as-
sumed and methods then practised, but which, by Colonel
Colby, the present conductor, have been long ago abandoned.
It is much to be regretted, indeed, that the later results and
observations have not hitherto been published, for it would be
very desirable that every thing connected with the Survey,
like the astronomical observations made at the Royal Obser-
vatory at Greenwich, and other places, should be annually
published at the public expense, since they are undoubtedly
public property, and the results would enable civil-engineers,
and private amateurs, to reap all the advantages justly expected
from so valuable a source.
From calculation I have found the station at Clifton 4737.59
feet west of the meridian of Dunnose, when the are is deduced
from the azimuth at Dunnose; while, from the azimuth at Clif.
ton, the are passing through that station is 4909.95 feet west
of Dunnose, or conversely, the station at Dunnose is 4909.95
feet east of the meridian of Clifton. Now, if all the opera-
tions and observations have been accurately performed, espe-
cially those to determine the azimuths, these numbers ought
270) = Mr Galbraith on the English Are of the Meridian.
to be consistent; that is, they ought to be proportional to the
radii of their respective parallels.
From this analogy 4787.59 feet become é . 6047.71 feet
But the calculation from the azimuths is, 4 : 4909.95 ...
Difference, . © : : 187.76 feet
Now, from Clifton, at t the issn of Dunnose 137.76 feet,
would subtend an angle of 27’.42. But the accurate deter-
mination of the azimuth by the pole star with the great theo-
dolite, is an operation difficult to be performed in the manner
described by General Mudge in the first volume of the Tri-
gonometrical Survey, page 243. Captain Kater remarks in the
new Survey for connecting the observatories of Greenwich and
Paris, Philosophical Transactions for 1828, page 183: ‘“« There
is, however, another source of inaccuracy to which azimuths by
the pole-star are liable, and which seems to have been wholly
disregarded—I allude to an error in the line of collimation.
This error may, however, be destroyed by inverting the tele-
scope, or placing that end of the axis which was on the east
to the west ; and taking a mean of the observations of the
star in both positions.” Certainly, if this inversion of the axis
was omitted, a considerable error might ensue, as Captain
Kater justly remarks; and though General Mudge does not
directly say the axis was inverted, yet it is difficult to believe
that so experienced an observer was likely to neglect it,
though it is not impossible, unless he rectified it completely by
the usual adjustments, But even though complete adjustment
be attempted, yet the experienced observer will never impli-
citly trust to this, but will regularly invert the axis, as | am
constantly in the habit of doing in all my determinations of
angles, whether in altitude or azimuth. Ifthis precaution, how-
ever, was really neglected, then it would seem to follow, from |
our computations above, that that error had amounted to one-
half of 27”.42, or 13”.71, at each of the stations of Dunnose
and Clifton. Indeed, from a computation which I have made,
if the azimuth at Beachy Head be supposed correct, that at
Dunnose would, by computation, differ from the observed
quantity, by 13”.93; and conversely, if the azimuth at Dun-
nose be considered accurate, that at Beachy Head would, by
calculation, differ from the observed quantity by 13”’.93, or
Mr Galbraith on the English Are of the Meridian. 271
there is a probability of an error of 7” in each, if considered
equal. There is at least, certainly, some inconsistencies in
these operations, for which it is difficult to account on any
other hypothesis. The effect, however, on the length of the
are of the meridian, would be nearly insensible, though it
might in some degree slightly vitiate other deductions, such as
the latitudes, longitudes, and azimuths, dependent upon it.
Indeed it may be remarked, that the peculiar construction of
the old theodolite, by Ramsden, is not favourable to the accu-
rate determination of azimuths by the pole-star. The altitude
and azimuth circle, or transit instrument properly constructed,
would, in my opinion, be greatly superior. A good altitude
and azimuth circle, I believe to be the best instrument for de-
termining the latitude ; and the adoption of a small are, as in
the case of the zenith sectors, hitherto employed in this country,
has always to me appeared not a little singular. A new zenith
sector has lately been proposed by Mr Airy, with several im-
provements over the old instrument, which, if I am rightly
informed, was destroyed by the late fire at the Tower. Still,
however, though in the new instrument the angle be read on
opposite arcs, yet it seems to be doubtful if its results can be
considered equal to those from a circle of much smaller radius,
read from ¢hree or six microscopes, distributed equidistantly
round the circumference, when for every pair of observations it
is reversed in azimuth, and the repetitions carried to four or six
times within proper limits, and nicely reduced to the meridian.
Indeed, notwithstanding the general excellence of the mural
circle, asnow constructed with microscopes attached to the stone
pier for the sake of permanence, yet the circle itself being built
‘up of so many different pieces liable to unequal strain, its ex-
ecution is not entirely conformable to sound mechanical prin-
ciples.* A transit circle, having both ends of its axis sup-
ported on stone-piers, must possess much greater stability,
especially if made, with the exception of the axis, of cast-iron,
with radiating bars, broad at the axis, and tapering towards
the circumference’on which the divisions are cut. The glasses
of the telescope, too, ought to be much more substantially
* It has little or no stability by braces in the direction of the axis.
272 Mr Galbraith on the English Are of the Meridian.
fixed to the circle than in the comparatively slender tube at
present in use. The instrument would then be reversed by a
proper machine in the same manner as the transit instrument ;
while, from the cheapness of the materials, it would be far less
expensive.
While these general objections are made to English instru-
ments, one would be justified in making still stronger to most
of the foreign. The French repeating circle, invented by
Borda, depends upon a principle of great ingenuity, though in
practice it does not equal the sanguine expectations of its
greatest admirers. There is a much greater want of stability
in its structure than in any of our instruments, which, perhaps,
might be improved by the suppression of some of their numer-
ous adjustments ; and though in the French arc of the meridian,
and in the New Trigonometrical Survey of France, under the
title, “‘ Description Geometrique dela France,” it has’played a
very important part; yet there are discrepancies in several of
the observations connected with some of these fine operations,
which would tend greatly to shake our confidence for extreme
precision in its final results, deduced from even ¢housands of
repetitions. In determining the latitude of the Observatory of
Saint Martin d’Angers, as recorded in the Description Geo-
metrique, Deuxieme Partie, page 499, Colonel Corabceuf, with
a thirteen-inch repeating circle of Gambey, from observations
on Palaris, at its upper transit north of the zenith, by about
40° 55’, found the latitude to be . ; 47° 28’ 15”. 21 N.
By « Serpentis, 40° 29'S. of zenith, . 47 27 59 AlN.
—
Half sum or mean, ? L : 47° 28’ 7.31 N.
which is accounted the true ietaaee But there is a difference
between these results, amounting to no less than 15’.8, one-
half of which, or 7”.9 taken negatively, is reckoned the error
of the instrument at a zenith distance of about 40° 40’.
Again, by @ Ursee Minoris, at a zenith distance of about
27° 23’ N. at its upper transit, the latitude by the same instru-
ment was. : 47° 28’ 10’.95 N.
By Arcturus, with Z. Dy o7° 23’ S. itwas 47 28 1.41 N.
—$—$—$$$ ns
Half sum or mean, : ‘ ; A7° 28’ 6.95 N.
Mr Galbraith on the English Are of the Meridian. 273
which is accounted the true latitude, and agrees very closely
with the preceding result. There is, however; between the
two last, a difference of 9’.54, one-half of which, or 4”’.77, is
here, at the zenith distance of about 27° 20’, reckoned the er-
ror. Hence, for a change of zenith distance of 13° 20’, there
is a corresponding change of error of 3”’.13. Some observers
find, or think they find, that these errors vary as the sine of
the zenith distance ;* while others can detect no such law,
though a mean of judiciously chosen observations give remark-
ably consistent results, when the observations are very numer-
ously repeated. Still, however, in this country, observers ac-
customed to British instruments, would greatly suspect their
final accuracy, even from very numerous observations, however
consistent the individual results might be, whenever they in-
volved such remarkable discrepancies. The opposite error
seems applicable to our observers. Generally provided with
large instruments, having powerful telescopes, they trust per-
haps rather too confidently, in a very few observations which
they consider good, and neglect to repeat them sufficiently to
counteract atmospheric irregularities, for which no power of
telescope will compensate. Even the power of the telescope
of Roy’s theodolite, by Ramsden, was not great, as he himself
states, in the Trigonometrical Survey, vol. i. page 123 ; it only
magnified about forty or fifty times, as commonly employed.
I have not seen the power of that belonging to the Board of
. Ordnance anywhere stated.
In taking horizontal angles, “ the errors,” says Captain
Kater, Phil. Transactions for 1828, page 197, “ which may
arise from lateral refraction, have often been suspected, but
never clearly ascertained. In the course of our work, how-
ever, we had such evidence of the fact as to leave no doubt of
its existence. The angle (measured) between the same ob-
jects would differ (when taken) under the most favourable cir-
cumstances, about jive seconds on different days, and perhaps
a second and a-half, or two seconds, may be considered as the
error which may effect an angle from lateral refraction in an
ordinary state of the atmosphere.”
* This coincides nearly with these examples, the difference being only
0’.78 from this hypothesis. ;
274 Mr Galbraith on the English Arc of the Meridian.
These remarks of Captain Kater have been verified by my
own experience, and there is no probable way of obviating the
effects of refraction on horizontal angles, but by combining
the French method of repetition with our own more powerful
instruments on different days under various atmospheric cir-
cumstances.
ADDITIONAL NOTE.
The following remarks have been occasioned by the receipt
of a part of the Ordnance Survey, since the original paper
was delivered to the Secretary :—
After a lapse of thirty years, the publication of the results of the Ord-
nance Trigonometrical Survey of Britain has been resumed. This has
been recommenced by the publication of a part, titled, “ Astronomical
Observations, made with Ramsden’s zenith sector, together with a Cata-
logue of Stars which have been observed, and the amplitudes of the celes-
tial arcs, deduced from the observations at the different stations; and
published by order of the Board of Ordnance.” ;
Of this work a few copies have been distributed, by presentation, to
different individuals, and it is but justice to those employed, to affirm,
that all the deductions are made according to the best methods now used
in that branch of science. Colonel Colby, the indefatigable conductor,
has availed himself of the advice of Mr Airy, the astronomer-royal ; and
Lieutenant Yolland, of the Royal Engineers, under the Colonel, has fol-
lowed up this advice with diligence and care.
The points of which the latitudes and intermediate ares of the meridian
are here given, are Dunnose in the Isle of Wight ; Greenwich Observa-
tory ; Clifton Beacon in Yorkshire ; Arburyhill in Northamptonshire ; +
Delamere Forest in Cheshire ; Burleigh Moor in Yorkshire ; Kellie Law
in Fifeshire ; Cowhythe hill in Banffshire ; and, lastly, the station on the
small isle of Balta in Shetland, comprehending an arc of the meridian
passing from the southern extremity of Britain, to the more northerly of
the islets belonging to it, amounting to above ten degrees, or about one-
ninth part of the quadrantal are of the meridian from the equator to the
pole. This will not only be a most valuable operation for improving the
geography of the country,—a thing much wanted from the great inaccu-
racy of our maps and charts, but a valuable contribution also to astrono-
mical and geodetical science. We are informed by the Colonel towards
the close of his preface,—‘** That the terrestrial observations requisite to
enable me,” says he, “ to complete and publish the geodetic distances
connected with the astronomical results, are now in so advanced a state,
that the printing of them will shortly be commenced.” These being com-
pared with others of a similar kind in different parts of the world, will
enable him to deduce a proper value of the earth’s axes, and thence to fix
Description of a Portable Diorama. 275
geodetically, With precision, the latitudes and longitudes of all the im-
portant points throughout the British Isles.
May all these important labours be speedily brought to a satisfactory
conclusion, for the benefit of both agriculture and commerce, since, in the
present state of our maps, the most palpable and dangerous errors, not-
withstanding all that has been urged for their correction, still continue
to exist, as will readily appear by an examination of the maps now sub-
mitted for inspection.
*,* A few maps and charts were here exhibited, containing glaring
and dangerous errors to navigators.
Description of a Portable Diorama, which may be viewed by a
number of persons at atime. By Grorcz Tair, Esquire,
Advocate, F.R.S.S.A. Witha Plan. Communicated by
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*
A portable diorama which I exhibited to the Royal Scottish
Society of Arts in November 1841 and April 1842, and which
was honoured with their medal, could be viewed by only one
or two persons at atime, the pictures being within the boz,
and being seen through eye-holes.t
I have now made a diorama having the construction modi-
fied so that it may be viewed by a number of persons at a time,
the pictures being placed upon the front of a box, where they
are exposed uncovered. The front light is thrown upon them
from without, and the back light from within, the box; and
both may be increased or diminished at pleasure. Gas is
the most convenient light ; but oil may be employed, by adopt-
ing means for properly increasing or diminishing the light
upon the pictures. The apparatus is used in a dark apart-
ment; and ought to be so placed that the horizon of the pic-
tures may be on a level with the eye. The effect of coloured
sketches of a variety of changes which I made for the former
diorama, is equally satisfactory in this.
The following side-elevation and plan represent a small
diorama made upon this principle :—
* Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, on 23d January 1843,
+ See the printed Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, and
the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for 1841, 1842.
Description of a Rortable Diorama.
276
Description of a Portable Diorama. 277
ABCD, a board to which the apparatus is attached. The
length of the board is 18 inches, and that of the painted sur-
face exposed, 6 inches,—but the larger the more striking.
E F GH, a box for receiving the pictures in front, at E F.
J K, opening in the side of the box, by which the pictures
are introduced successively into a groove in front, behind a
border of black velvet, to absorb stray rays from the front
light. [In the former construction, as in this, the pictures may
be conveniently entered at ¢he side of the box. Both boxes
may be made to receive the same pictures. |
L, front light, compact and bright, in a lantern constructed
to direct and confine it to the pictures. If the flame be flat
and have not a reflector or a lens, its edge may front the pic-
tures. A simple swallow-tail burner, No. 0, gives sufficient
light for this scale, The inside of the lantern is done with
black japan, flat ; and the sides and bottom, and outside of the
bottom, and the supports, so far as necessary, are covered with
black velvet.
M, back light. Swallow-tail No. 1, is sufficient for this scale.
~ A circulation of air is admitted to both flames without al-
lowing the escape of light. Their covers are moveable, and
are represented on the plan as removed.
N O, opening for receiving into a groove a slight frame of
tissue paper, to be used when found of advantage ; particu-
larly, when any part of a picture, for example the moon, is
made transparent.
P Q, opening through both sides of the box, for receiving
into a groove an opaque slider, of a length equal to about
double the breadth of the box, properly pierced, to be drawn
gradually across, in order to represent passing gleams of sun-
shine ; also for receiving a slider or sliders of tissue paper,
painted with various tints in succession, to be drawn gradu-
ally across, in order to represent changes of tints, for evening
or the like, with the back light, where day is represented by
that light, as in fog or snow scenes. The light is not to be
allowed to pass over or under those sliders.
When a slider is used, the tissue paper N O is to be re-
moved ; and the open space in front of the back light is to be
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVIII.—APRIL 1843. T
278 Mr Russell on a Marine Salinometer for indicating the
contracted to about a third part of its breadth, by leaves moved
forward for the time, as represented by R S on the plan, or
otherwise.
A narrow projection immediately before any opening, if
necessary, prevents the light within from being seen in front.
The box is white within, to reflect light.
T M, T L, on the Plan, tubes for gas (the latter consisting
of one of the supports of the lantern, hollow), supplied, when in
use, by inserting the nozle of a flexible tube at T, or other-
wise.
U, V, stop-cocks moved by levers attached, which are closed
by springs and opened by cords extending to the front. The
levers have cheeks adaptable te the variable pressure of the
gas, for example, linen threads attached to pins turning in the
board, so that either flame, when not required, may be reduced
toa blue point. The levers and springs are made to fold back
upon the board when not in use.
The arrangement now shortly described is given merely as
aspecimen. The details of any diorama made upon this prin-
ciple of construction, for example the description, number and
position of the lights, will, of course, be adjusted according to
the judgment of the maker, and will be modified by the size
of the apparatus and other circumstances.
G. Tart.
EDINBURGH, 2d January 1843.
Description of a Marine Salinometer for the purpose of indi-
cating the Density of Brine in the Boilers of Marine Steam-
Engines. Invented by J. Scorr Russert, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
F.R.S.8.A., Civil Engineer. (With two Plates.) Commu-
nicated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*
It was very early in the history of steam navigation that
the inconvenience of raising steam from salt water was ex-
perienced. When the Comet descended below Port-Glasgow
* Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts 28th February 1842,
and the Honorary Silver Medal of the Society awarded 14th November 1842.
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Vol. XNAIVPlate VPage 278.
M® SCOTT RUSSELL'S SALINOMETER OR BRINE GAUGE
peperenee ei
ne
Mul Water Line
Density of Brine in Boilers of Marine Steam-Engines. 279
in 1812, the boiler was found to boil over, or prime, as it is
technically called by engineers, when part of the water is forced
up so violently, along with the steam, as to pass over into the
cylinder of the engine—a circumstance always detrimental,
and sometimes destructive to the engines. This arises from
the thickening of the water, its density being increased by the
retention of the solid substances, which compose sea-water,
and which remain and accumulate in the boiler, while the
fresh portion of the water is passing off in the shape of steam.
This process of accumulation of solid matter in the marine
boiler is by no means slow. The whole of the water which a
marine-boiler usually contains is evaporated in three or four
hours, leaving the solid substances in the cubic content of
boiler behind it, and being replaced by salt water, with an equal
quantity of depositary matter, accumulating as rapidly as be-
fore ; and since it is known the solid matter amounts to as
much as jz of the whole mass of water, it would follow, if the
process of ebullition could continue so long as 150 hours, there
would be deposited in the boiler-a quantity of solid matter
equal to the number of tons of water in the whole content of
the boiler.
Long, however, before this degree of solidification can take
place, evils of a different description intervene to impair and
put an end to the functions of the boiler. The solid consti-
tuents of salt water which are left behind do not diffuse them-
selves uniformly over the whole liquid mass, so as to constitute
a homogeneous brine ; on the contrary, the new supplies of
sea-water, as they enter the boiler, remain secluded from the
former more saturated brine, rise by their less specific gravity
into an upper stratum, while the denser brine forms a bed in the
lower part of the boiler, and surrounds the fire-box and heater-
flues occupying the water-spaces and legs, which are usually
at a high temperature, and which, in double-tiered boilers, are
generally the most intensely heated. The intense heat of the
metal expels the water from the brine in contact with it most
rapidly in the hottest places, and salt is deposited on the hot-
test parts of the furnaces and flues, extending rapidly to those
less heated, and so not only diminishing the evaporative power
of the boiler, but injuring its substance, and endangering its
existence.
280 Mr Russell on a Marine Salinometer for indicating the
The remedy for these evils was very early invented. But
i have not been able to discover the inventor of the cleansing
process commonly called “ blowing down,” or “ blowing off.”
It is almost universal, and is performed in the following way :
—Yhere is forced into the boiler, at each stroke, rather more
water than is required for the supply of steam, so that the
boiler becomes too full. Openings are then suddenly made at
the bottom of the boiler, and the brine at the bottom being
violently ejected, carries with it any solid substances that may
have accumulated near the bottom—the boiler is thus cleansed ;
and before the water has got too low, the openings are again
closed, and the boiler continues to be fed as formerly.
Another remedy, pretty generally adopted, is the brine-
pump, by which, for every portion of water supplied to the
boiler, about one-fourth part of that quantity of brine is with-
drawn from it. This process does not so thoroughly carry off
all the impurities as the former; but it is attended with a
saving of fuel by a contrivance for giving to the feed-water
entering the boiler a portion of the heat of the discharged
brine. The recent introduction of this process is due to
Messrs Maudslay and Field of London.
In whatever way the saturation of the water with solid mat-
ter may be remedied, it is essential to the accomplishment of
this object, that some simple apparatus should be contrived
for the purpose of shewing when the cleansing process is re-
quired, and whether it is successfully applied. If this be not
obtained, the usual consequence of acting on wrong data are
sure to follow.
A contrivance was patented, which was thought promising,
but was found liable to be mechanically out of order when
most wanted ;—a ball of greater specific gravity than salt
' water was connected with an external index, by which there
was indicated on the outside the fact of the brine becoming
sufficiently saturated to float this ball.
Another was to place in the glass gauge of the boiler a glass
hydrometer bead, which would float when the brine became
saturated to a given point, and fall to the bottom in the ordi-
nary state of the boiler. But this fails entirely of accuracy,
although very elegant, for the brine of which we wish to indi-
Density of Brine in Botlers of Marine Steam-Engines. 281
cate the density is in the lower stratum, not the upper one,
where the usual glass gauge is placed, and irretrievable mis-
chief might be done before the indication would shew any
change.
I have lately employed, in some large ships destined for
transatlantic voyages, a species of brine-gauge, or index of
saturation, which is found to possess every advantage, and
which I therefore desire to communicate to the public through
this Society. The drawings sent are such as may enable any
engineer to construct them for himself. The details of the
arrangement of the apparatus were made under the direction
of Mr James Laurie, formerly one of my assistants ; and he
also has obliged me by writing out the annexed description of
the operation of using the index.
The principle I have used is the well-known law, “ that the
heights of equiponderant columns of liquids vary inversely as
the densities of those liquids.”
If I take open glass tubes bent in the form of the letter U.
as in the diagram (fig. 1), and pour one fluid into one of the
sides, and another fluid into the opposite side (taking care to
use the heavier liquid defore the other); the one being mer-
cury, and the other water, they will stand at the height of
1 inch and 13 inches respectively. If I use aleohol and water
(fig. 2), they will stand at the height of 10 inches and 8 inches
respectively, the height of the one fluid being always greater
than that of the other, in the proportion in which its weight,
density, or specific gravity is less.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
| | / ----4 | Alcohol ;
282 Mr Russell on a Marine Salinometer for indicating the
In like manner fresh water and salt water (fig. 3) will stand
at heights of 40 and 41 inches, shewing a difference of 1 inch.
The use which I make of this principle is as follows :—I
reckon the best scale of saltness of a boiler to be that which
takes the common sea-water as a standard. Sea-water con-
tains 1, of saline matter. When the water has been evapo-
rated, so as to leave only half the quantity of distilled water
to the same quantity of saline matter, I call that two degrees
of salt, or brine of the strength of two, and such brine would
shew, in fig. 3, the columns 40 and 42, or double the saltness of
sea-water, indicated by a difference of 2 inches. A farther
saturation would be indicated by a difference of 3, 4, 5, and
6 inches between the columns, and so indicate three, four, five,
six, and any further degrees of saltness—a range which may
be made to any degree of minuteness by the subdivision of the
scale of inches. This scale is that which appears to me most
simply applicable here—and it is that which I adopt for marine
boilers.
The mechanical apparatus which I have employed to give
this indication is perfectly simple, and has the advantage of
being such as the engineer already perfectly understands. To
the marine boiler I apply two water-gauges of glass, instead of
one as at present used ; they both serve the purpose of the
present glass gauges, and the pair would be valuable for this,
if for no other reason, that there would always be a duplicate
when one is broken, an accident not unfrequent. To these
gauges I simply attach small copper pipes, so that one of them
may be placed in communication only with the salt brine in
the lower part of the boiler, and the other with the feed-water
which is entering the boiler ; the one then holds a column of
brine, and the other of pure sea-water, and each inch of dif-
ference shews the degree of saturation.
Without the use of any attached scale, the engineer, by a
little practice, comes to know in his particular vessel what dif-
ference in inches can be admitted without danger, and at what
difference of height it is imperative to blow off. But it is con-
venient to have an attached scale.
It may be satisfactory to state, that the practical range of
seale in an ordinary boiler in the ordinary working, is 6 to 10
inches, a difference sufficiently great to be easily observed.
Density of Brine in Boilers of Marine Steam-Engines. 283
The rule of working them is nearly this :—Continue the
operation of blowing off until, if possible, the difference of the
columns is less than an inch, it will be unnecessary to blow off
again until the difference is at least 6 inches.
As a practical rule, I find that it is necessary to blow off
when the brine at the bottom has about three degrees of salt-
ness. But this will vary exceedingly, according as the con-
struction of the boilers is more or less judicious. When the
heat is greatest in the lowest portion of the boiler, and the
flues return above, they will be most liable to salt, and require
the most frequent cleansing.
The following is Mr Laurie’s description of the instrument.
The drawings give the details of the apparatus.—J. S. R.
The fact that the specific gravity of salt-water is greater
than that of fresh, and that it increases with the degree of
saturation, is what the operation of this instrument depends
on; by its means two columns of water, the one feed and the
other brine, are poised against each other, so as that any dif-
ference of weight betwixt these columns immediately becomes
apparent by the lighter of the two requiring an accession in
quantity to resist the upward pressure to which both columns
are subjected. This is accomplished by having two common
glass gauge-tubes close together, each of which is connected
with a separate tube ; that inside the boiler descends to the
level of the water, the specific gravity of which is to be mea-
sured, and having either or both of these tubes so connected
with the feed-pipe of the boiler, that by opening a cock one of
the pipes will be filled with feed-water, while the other re-
mains filled with brine, which cock being shut, the tubes re-
main so filled ; but inasmuch as feed-water is of less specific
gravity than brine, it will be forced up and stand in the glass
tube at a higher level than the brine, which difference of levels
increases with the saturation—and hence the index to judge
of the saltness.
In Plates VI. and VIL, A, B, are the two glass gauge-tubes ;
C, one of the tubes forming the connection betwixt one of these
glass gauge-tubes and its tube D, that descends inside of the
boiler ; H, the tube forming the connection betwixt the upper
ends of these tubes and the inside of the boiler ; F, G, two cocks
284 Mr Russell on a Marine Salinometer, &c.
so made, as shewn in the drawing, that by their means each of
the tubes inside of the boiler may be shut off from the glass
tubes, and also may be connected with the tube H, leading
from the feed-pipe of the boiler ; I, a cock affording the means
of shutting off the tube E from the glass tubes, and also of
connecting either of these glass tubes with the tube K, lead-
ing to the bilge of the vessel ; each of these cocks has a handle,
and when the instrument is indicating, the three handles hang
perpendicularly downwards. Tobringthe instrument into ope-
o—=s
ration, the three handles must first be put in the position ° °
which has the effect of allowing the brine to flow right up the
glass tube A, and out through the tube K, into the bilge of
the vessel ; this having been done for so long a time as that
A and its tube inside the boiler be thoroughly cleansed and
filled with brine, the handles are then to be put in the posi-
eo
tion © ® , which, in like manner, cleanses and fills B and its
tube inside of the boiler with brine ; finally, bring the handle
of the top-cock into its original position, and put either of the
lower handles horizontal, which forming a connection of the
feed-pipe with one of the tubes inside of the boiler fills that
tube with feed-water ; thus there are in the two tubes inside of
the boiler two columns of water of different specific gravities,
the one being brine, the specific gravity of which is to be
measured, and the other feed-water, the specific gravity of
which is pretty nearly constant, so long as the temperature of
condensation is the same, and does not vary much let the tem-
perature of condensation be what it may; but, inasmuch as
these columns of water are of different specific gravities, the
pressure on the bottoms of them will force the lighter up the
glass tube, until such a quantity of brine has followed it as
makes it of equal weight with the other ; and hence, in the
two glass tubes, the water stands at different heights, the mag-
nitude of which difference becomes known by means of the
scale fixed betwixt the glass tubes, and therefore also the de-
gree of saturation of the brine.
The use of this instrument, which might be called a Sali-
nometer, is not confined to this one object, for it answers
Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama, &c. 285
thoroughly all the purposes of the common glass gauge, the
position of the surface of water in the boiler being midway
betwixt the surfaces of water in the tubes.
When either or both of the glass tubes is broken, put the
eo—=p
handles in the position { , and nothing can escape from
°e ©
the boiler.
i. WY ee
Observations on the Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna.
By Marute Hamitrton, Esq., M. D., late of Peru. Com-
municated by the Author.
Of all the quadrupeds on the elevated regions of the southern
American continent, the most worthy of notice is the Llama
tribe, which includes the Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vi-
cuna. The llama and alpaca are seen domesticated in
Peru, but the guanaco and vicuna only in the wild state, ex-
cept where they are kept as prisoners. When the vicuna
has been kept within doors for a time, it becomes an interest-
ing, frolicksome creature, but it never acquires the tame and
docile habits of the llama or alpaca. A beautiful pet vicuna
lived in the house with me for several months, and was in the
habit of coming into the public room at stated times, and took
bread from my hand, when it often jumped about in the apart-
ment, and put itself in the most graceful attitudes.
Vicuna AnD GUANACO.
The vicuna is much smaller than the guanaco or alpaca,
and is more delicate and handsome in every respect. It has
a large, prominent, glistening eye, which has a peculiar and
expressive softness ; and when running with amazing speed, its
neck, which is long and slender, is carried in a curved positicn
like that of a swan or the letter S. These creatures are ex-
ceedingly difficult to take without having recourse to artifice.
They are seen in small bands of a dozen or more, and are
found chiefly in those uninhabited regions of the Andes, where
286 Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama,
vegetation is hardly sufficient to afford them a scanty subsist-
ence. I never saw either a guanaco or a vicuna on the plain of
Ururo, which is above 100 miles long, and about 12,000 feet
above the sea; nor have I observed them on any part of the
table-land of Bolivia. They were seen chiefly on the journey
across what is called the Cordillera of the coast, which, tra-
velling from Tacna or Arica to Potosi via Oruro, with cargo
mules, requires 6 or 7 days before descending to the table-
land, on which numerous flocks of llamas, alpacas, and sheep,
are seen ; but in the dismal region of the Cordillera the vicuna
is found enjoying its freedom, and frequently indulging in its
peculiar ery or rather whistle. It would seem to be ever on
the watch against danger, for, when on the rout to Potosi, it
sometimes happened, that on turning the shoulder of a moun-
tain, or entering a ravine, I have seen a vicuna peep round
a rock, or view us from an eminence, then immediately its
whistle, not unlike that of the boatswain’s, was heard, and a
troop of vicunas might be seen bounding in the distance,
setting at defiance pursuit.
It may be noticed, that the haunts of the vicuna appear to
be confined to the more elevated regions of Peru only, for
though in the higher lands towards the Equator, about Quito,
we meet with the Ilama and alpaca, the vicuna is not found
so far north, neither is it met with to the south beyond the
tropic of Capricorn. It should also be noticed, that the same
sort of food is used by all these species, and that which is most
relished by them is called by the Indians Jehu, and grows to
the height of several feet; it is a gramineous plant, and is
called Jarava in the Flora Peruana.
No satisfactory reason has been given for the circumstance
of vicunas being seen only within these latitudes. They are
found on the elevated parts of the province of Santa Cruz de
la Sierra, in the interior of Bolivia, near the junction of that
state with Brazil; but they are not seen in the equatorial re-
gions of the Andes, nor in Chili, nor farther south. It is pos-
sible that the greater altitude of the Punas of Peru, or Bo-
livia, where the atmosphere is drier and its pressure less, may
be more congenial to the nature of this interésting animal
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 287
than other parts of the Cordillera, such as about Quito, where
there is more humidity, and several thousand feet less eleva-
tion. In some parts of those sterile solitudes frequented by
vicunas, even the ichu does not grow; and in such places the
mosses afford them a scanty subsistence.
In Peru, the guanaco haunts the same secluded tracts ;
but it does not mingle with the vicuna. The former is
much larger and more powerful, and is found on the high
lands throughout nearly 50 degrees of latitude, even to the
straights of Magellan. The guanaco weighs, on an average,
about 8 arrobas, or 200 lb., and it is much more easily caught
or run down than the vicuna; though extremely shy and
sensitive on the approach of danger, emitting a sound some-
what like the neigh of a horse, warning its companions, and
then galloping off. Its skin is covered with a short coarse
wool of a reddish-brown colour on the back and sides, running
into stripes towards the belly, which inferiorly is white ; and
the neck, which is much stronger than that of the vicuna, is
carried straight while it is running. Its wool is exported, and
is used for domestic purposes. The wool of the vicuna is of
a brown or fawn colour; and though it is shorter than that of
the alpaca, yet it is much more valuable, being exceedingly
fine and soft, so that articles made of it are very handsome.
The real wool of the vicuna sells at a high price in Peru; and
the best hats, gloves, ponchos, &c. are made of it, being more
costly in proportion than the wool ; but that may be a result
of no spurious materials being put into the things manufac-
tured there, and also from the difficulty of working such fine
wool.
The city of La Paz, in Bolivia, is famous for the manufac-
ture of hats ; the finer sort are very well made, having a very
broad brim, and are well adapted both for shading the head
from the solar rays, and also from rain. In 1835, the price
of hats in La Paz varied from one to fifty dollars each; one
of the best, of vicuna wool, cost three doubloons, or L.10 ster-
ling. Such a hat is soft and light, and may last many years.
Ponchos are sometimes made of the same sort of wool, one
of which costs more than fifty cotton ones, which for use
serve nearly as well. The ancient sovereigns, the Incas of
288 Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama,
Peru, and their families, were clothed with the manufactured
wool of vicunas ; for the native Peruvians, and especially the
females, in districts far in the interior, near the confines of
Brazil, are expert weavers.
I have seen cotton goods of superior quality, such as table-
covers, quilts, ponchos, &c. from the province of Moxos, but
these were sold at a much higher price than similar articles
from Europe. The late General Parroisien informed me that
he had a poncho of vicuna wool, which cost 700 dollars, or
L.140. There is reason to fear that now the vicunas will
soon be exterminated, if those who have the power do not
adopt measures for their protection, and prevent that indis-
criminate slaughter which is now being inflicted on these in-
teresting and valuable animals.
From time immemorial, the vicuna has been captured
chiefly in the following manner :—A number of Indians
form themselves into a chaco, or hunting party, together with
some of those small dogs of which almost every family pos-
sesses one or more. They choose the proper time of the
year, and, with a supply of corn and chuno,* resort to those
dreary regions where the guanaco and vicuna are found. Havy-
ing fallen in with their game, the Indians spread themselves
over a wide extent of ground, accompanied by their dogs, and
gradually narrow the circle. At a spot previously fixed on,
there is a sort of enclosure made with ropes attached to poles
brought for the purpose, and which are fixed in the ground
at the necessary distances, and with the ropes at such a height
as the pursued vicunas cannot pass with their heads elevated.
On some occasions, to make the snare more complete, a wide
space near the enclosure is surrounded by a number of small
red flags, raised a little from the ground, and floating in the
air.
The result is, that by means of the shouts of the Indians,
and their gradual approach to the enclosure, with the barking
and movements of the dogs, and the motion of the flags with
the wind, the vicunas being naturally timid, are driven into
the snare, and, neither jumping over nor stooping under the
* Chuno is frosted potatoes in powder, and boiled in water with lard and
spice into a sort of pottage, which is nutritive, and much used by the Indians.
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 289
ropes, they are taken and slain, and skinned on the spot. In
such excursions, the Indians in some cases are many weeks,
and even months, in those inhospitable regions, away from the
haunts of men, and at all times they suffer great privations.
The cold is always severe during night, in consequence of the
great altitude, and they are exposed to terrific storms of light-
ning and thunder, often accompanied with very large hail, or
rather pieces of ice. When unsuccessful in the chase, they
may be short of food and suffer severely.
Though such expeditions are called hunting, yet sport is
not the object in view, but gain only. When the vicunas are
captured, they are not shorn as in olden times, and then let
go; but are killed, and the skins put aside with the wool
on them ; then the Indians gorge themselves and their dogs
with the flesh, and if any portion of the carcase is left, the
condors devour it.
In former times, the Indians were obliged by law to let all
female vicunas escape after being shorn, and also the males,
except a few which were allowed to be retained for food when
necessary ; and thus the continuance of the species was secured.
But for many years past, an indiscriminate slaughter has been
executed, and of course the number of vicunas is diminishing
every year; and if stringent measures are not soon adopted
to give protection, there is reason to fear that the race of
vicunas will, ere long, become extinct, at least in so far as
relates to the obtainment of the wool.
The reason assigned for flaying these creatures, instead of
merely shearing them, is, that the wool is so valuable, that,
when put up in bales, it is fraudulently mixed with other
wool similar in colour, which in some cases is obtained both
from the llama and alpaca ; and, in these circumstances, mer-
chants are not so willing to buy it. The government of Peru
and Bolivia should immediately prohibit, under severe penal-
ties, the destruction of vicunas. These animals might be
shorn of their wool as in the time of the Incas, and as is done
now with other wool producers in those parts, such as llamas,
alpacas, and the common sheep, of which latter there are
millions in Upper Peru.
290 Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama,
Lrama anp ALPACA.
The llama is at present found all over the southern tropic,
from Rio Bamba at the foot of Chimborazo, under the equator,
to beyond Potosi, It is a most important agent for the com-
fort and convenience of the Indian population of Peru. It
affords food, and more especially clothing, and serves as a
beast of burden ; but it is not used for riding on, as has been
erroneously narrated by some authors, for a Peruvian Indian
never makes a journey on any animal, except when he is com-
pelled to do so; and then it ison one capable of conveying
more than 100 Ibs., which is the maximum cargo for a llama
or alpaca. It is not known when these creatures first ap-
peared in those lofty regions where they now abound, but it
would seem that they were in Peru prior to the appearance
of the first Inca, Manco Capac, who reigned in the 12th cen-
tury ; for it is supposed that at an earlier period Peru was in
the possession of a people who, though less advanced in ciyili-
zation, we may conclude were in the habit of spinning the
wool of these animals with the distaff; as, in the absence of
written evidence, we find in their burial-places distaffs made
of wood, indicating an earlier and a more rude state of society
than that which existed under the Incas, whose subjects made
their distaffs of copper, which have been taken from their
huacas, along with the materials for spinning.
It is probable that these more ancient people availed them-
selves of the wool of the llama tribe for domestic purposes,
and that the present race of Peruvians merely copied the ex-
ample, or improved on the manufactures of their predecessors.
Be that as it may, the llama and alpaca still exist in immense
numbers all over the higher regions of Peru and Bolivia, and
are a source both of profit and amusement to the natives.
None but those who have been on familiar terms with the
Peruvian mountaineers, can know the deep interest which
they take in their llamas and alpacas: they exhibit a solici-
tude in the welfare of these creatures, which seems to have
other root than mere pecuniary considerations.
The Peruvian Indian is a mild, kindly being, when not
under the debasing influence of ardent spirits, of which a great
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 291
quantity is now annually consumed in the elevated districts.
He is often insulated from neighbours and from his family
while tending his flocks on the “ichuales,” or on some long
journey with them. In these circumstances, the Indian looks
on his charge more as companions than as mere beasts of
burden. I have often been amused to hear an Indian speak
to a llama or alpaca as if it had understood him; and the
plaintive instrumental music of the Indian, called yaravies,
consisting of a succession of doleful and monotonous sounds,
produced by blowing into one end of a reed, which is held
like a clarionet, is supposed by them to be much appreciated
by the llama. Those brutal acts of cruelty, which are so often
inflicted on the dumb creation in some parts of Europe, are
never imposed by the Peruvian on his fleecy charge ; he rather
adopts every means in his power to make them happy, and on
a march with cargoes, he is ever on the watch to render
assistance to a llama or alpaca whose burden may have shifted
from its place, or where symptoms of weakness or weariness
may appear.
Llamas, in their native clime, are on an average rather
more than four feet in height from the spine to the ground,
and the alpaca is a few inches less ; but the latter is a much
more handsome and interesting animal. There is a brilliancy
and expression in the eye of the alpaca, as seen when on the
punas of the Andes, which are not so striking to the observer
who sees it on the coast only.
Indeed, there is a greater degree of vigour and vivacity in
all the movements of these creatures when on their native
soil, where the atmosphere is little more than half the density
of that at the sea-level. The llama receives the male in the
recumbent position, with its limbs doubled under its body, in
the same manner as when asleep or at rest. Gestation con-
tinues seven months ; one at atime is produced; it begins
to breed the third year, and the duration of life is ten or
twelve years. These animals are invaluable to the Indians
of the Andes, who cannot afford to keep mules, even did the
climate admit, but who, with a troop of llamas and alpacas,
manage both to maintain their position in the social circle,
and to save money when not plundered by the operations of
299 Dr Hamilton’s Odservadions on the Llama,
contending armies. It would appear from the statements of
some of the earlier writers on Peru, particularly Acosta, who.
wrote soon after the Spanish conquest, that llamas were then
used for carrying silver from Potosi to Arica, on the coast of
the Pacific Ocean, prior to its being shipped for Europe ; but
neither llamas nor alpacas have been employed for any such
purpose during a long period, for the distance is so great, and
the march of llamas so slow, as to make some other mode of
transit necessary. Acosta states that the distance from Po-
tosi to Arica is seventy leagues; hence it may be supposed
that he never went over the ground, and that some of the
earlier writers on Peru, like others of more recent date, often
wrote without a competent knowledge of their subject, and
drew on the imagination for facts alleged by them.
Of late years, much care has been taken to obtain more
accurate information as to places and distances in Peru than
can be had either from recorded statements or Spanish maps,
most of which, either from design or ignorance, were often
most erroneously given. The distance from Arica to Potosi,
via Oruro, is 170 leagues, or 510 English miles, and the
distance between the same places, by the Desert of Caran-
ja, which is taking the hypotenuse of the triangle, is 154
leagues, or about 460 miles, by both of which routes I have
travelled to Potosi and the coast. On the Desert route there
is only one village seen, that of Andamarca, which is occu-
pied by Indians, who speak the Amara language, and is
seventy leagues from Potosi, and eighty-four from Arica or
Tacna,
Llamas are not used for the conveyance of silver from Po-
tosi to the coast ; but the ¢in, which is obtained from the mines
of Oruro, is brought to Arica by llamas and alpacas. The
journey from Oruro to Arica, which is 100 leagues, takes one
month with these creatures, for with burdens they travel only
three or four leagues in twenty-four hours, and there are days
of rest.
When a llama or alpaca is tired, he gives vent to his feel-
ings by a peculiar cry, which is different from the sound
which he utters when teased or irritated.*
* These Indians believe, that if the cud or saliya which is ejected to a
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 293
If he is not allowed to rest, or relieved from his load soon
after giving the notice of his weariness, he sinks to the earth
in his usual peculiar manner, all his limbs being bent under
his body, and there he dies. Nokind treatment can induce him
to attempt a renewal of the journey ; and the Indians, knowing
this singular characteristic of these animals, are disposed at
all times to attend to their complaints, and to halt when ne-
cessary. It may be supposed that it would not be expedient
to trust to such a mode of conveyance any thing of much
intrinsic value.
The great motive which the Indian has to employ the llama
as a beast of burden, is the total exemption from expense on
the journey. They do not cost any thing for food or lodg-
ing ; there are no tolls, and the Indian has his own necessaries
carried by one of his pets, so that when one of them comes
down to the coast with a quantity of tin bars or other goods,
he both obtains a sum of money for freight, and also ma-
nages to sell some of his aged fleecy friends to the butcher
to feed Indians resident on the coast.
No locality in Peru was more benefited by the Hama than
the city of Potosi during its greatest prosperity. When I
was there in 1827, the population of that place was only
9000 souls, of whom only 1000 were employed in the mines ;
though so recently as in the year 1800, the population was
80,000, and at that time 20,000 men and boys were engaged in
the mines and the works connected therewith. But it appears
that about the year 1680 the population of the city of Potosi
amounted to 160,000 souls, in consequence of the flourishing
state of the mines at that time—for without these mines there
never would have been a town or any inhabitants in a loca-
lity so very difficult of access as it is, and with such a horrid
climate as is there experienced. However, it is wonderful
what mercenary men will do to obtain the precious metals,
and Potosi, to some extent, still stands a monument of the
enterprise and perseverance of the Spaniards. A mint-house,
distance by the llama when irritated, touches the human cutis, it produces
asrna or itch, or, in the Indian language, carache. But though I have seen
the experiment tried, I never knew a case of psoia so induced.
” YOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVIII.—apPnit 1843. U
294 Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama,
larger than that at London, a palace, a theatre, court-houses,
eighteen parish churches, and other public edifices, still testify
what Potosi has been. This may seem to be a digression
from the llama; but it is not so, for without the services of
that animal, so well adapted to such an extraordinary locality,
the mines could not have been wrought to the extent which
they weré. ‘To understand how the llama was so necessary
there, it should be stated that the cerro of Potosi, whence the
silver ore is obtained, is at one end of the city, and all the
works, where the ore is pounded, ground, roasted, and the sil-
ver extracted, have ever been at the other extremity of the
town, and distant about a league from where the ore is brought
up to the surface by Indians. All the ore is pounded and
ground by means of machinery, acted on by water-wheels,
which are moved by water from a very large reservoir placed
among the hills above the city. The reservoir is supplied
from various sources or ponds among the hills, whence the
water is conveyed to the reservoir by means of aqueducts
and conduits, and descends from the reservoir to the city by gra-
vitation, supplying both the silver works and the town, many
of the houses having the water conveyed into them through
leaden pipes. But with all these advantages, the mines of
Potosi could not have been wrought so easily without the aid
of the llama and alpaca; for the ore, in immense quantity,
had to be carried from the mines to the works, and that, too,
over a most rugged and unequal surface, at an altitude of
nearly 14,000 feet above the level of the ocean: no other ani-
mals in the world are so well adapted for such work in such a
locality. Except water, every thing for the sustenance of
man and beast has to be brought to Potosi from a distance of
many miles over mountain tracts, the nearest spot where fuel
(wood or charcoal) is obtained being thirty miles off. In such
circumstances, the llama was invaluable, its food, pajon, é.e.
iechu in the dry state, was brought by means of mules and
asses, so that these llamas or alpacas cost very little for
maintenance while working at the mines. The result was,
that many thousands of them were employed in Potosi as beasts
of burden between the mines and the places where the ma-
chinery is placed ; and, when necessary, the flesh was used
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 295
for food by the vast Indian population of Potosi, while the
wool was made into warm clothing, so necessary in that rigor-
ous climate, where at night the temperature is below the
freezing point, though, during the day, the solar rays are often
noxious to health.
The number of llamas and alpacas in Bolivia and Upper
Peru is still very great, amounting to several millions, and
the common sheep is also abundant. From the milk of the
latter good butter is made by the Indians, but is little used
by them, it being mostly put into bladders and sent to places
where a good price is obtained for it ; cheese is also made from
the same source. The common sheep there affords a large
quantity of wool; and if proper means were adopted, the
number of llamas, alpacas, and sheep might be increased, and,
of course, there would be a corresponding amount of fleeces.
The Indians are not much in the habit of slaughtering the
llama or alpaca for food so long as they are otherwise useful ;
the sheep and lamb are oftener used for culinary purposes, and
white men seldom wish to eat llama-flesh a second time if they
can get anything better. None of those animals require the
use of tar or any unctuous substance while on the punas of
Peru.
The climate on these heights is very peculiar, for though
during a part of the year there is much rain or snow on the
western slopes of the Andes, and occasionally where the Ilama
and alpaca are mostly seen, yet the air on the punas is singu-
larly dry, so that a want of perspiration, even among the hu-
man species, is a general complaint there. ‘“ No puedo yoa
sudor,”’ is often heard,
Thus, the climate where these animals thrive so well, is
very elastic, and the reverse of damp or humid, which cir-
cumstance, together with the sort of food they get, and the
exceeding rare atmosphere in which they live, may be the
cause of the fine fleece obtained.
When I was in Bolivia much ignorance and carelessness
was shewn by most of the proprietors of flocks relative to the
management of the wool, which, in many cases, was allowed
to drop, or to be torn off, and was not shorn at stated periods,
as should be done under a proper system of management.
296 Dr Hamilton’s Observations on the Llama,
But latterly there has been such a demand for wool that more
attention will be given to the fleece, both of the llama tribe
and the common sheep of Peru; and if this important object
he taken up by competent parties, both the quality and quan-
tity of wools from that quarter may be increased.
It has been suggested that attempts should be made to na-
turalize the alpaca and llama on a large scale in this country
for the purpose of wool-growing, and also for obtaining the
flesh of these animals to eat; but as to the latter, not to no-
tice its cost, the important question arises, would the flesh of
these creatures be relished by people in Britain ; and though I
have no desire again to partake of such ‘ venison,’ yet the ex-
periment may now be made, seeing that a number of these
animals are now domiciled in this country; and as tastes do
differ, it is possible that a joint of a llama or alpaca may be-
come a welcome dish on the Englishman’s table.
But allowing the eatability of alpaca flesh among Eng-
lishmen, another question arises, would it be profitable? and
also, can the wools of these animals be purchased at a much
cheaper rate when sent from Peru than they could be bought
at, if purchased from the speculator in llamas or alpacas,
who would propose to rear them on a grand scale on the
bogs and sterile mountains, or other parts of Britain and Ire-
land? These are important points for the consideration of
all who would involve capital in sucha speculation. I still hold
the opinion expressed at the meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Glasgow, 7. e. that the experiment is worth trying by
those who are able and willing to risk the necessary expense ;
but I fear that it cannot succeed, because, besides other ad-
verse circumstances, the climate of Britain is very unlike that
of the native country of the alpaca.
It may be noticed that many llamas and alpacas are alto-
gether white, but more of them, especially alpacas, are wholly
black, exhibiting as marked a contrast as the black and white
swine which are seen in Piedmont.
Party-coloured Ilamas and alpacas are numerous; and wool
from them of a brown colour has occasionally been mixed
with that of the vicuna.
Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna. 297
The Indians of the mountains manufacture themselves
nearly all their warm clothing from the wool of their animals ;
and so many being all black, they are able to appear in dresses
of a sable hue without the aid of a dyer ; and numbers of them
of both sexes are dressed in black garments, which circum-
stance has induced some persons to suppose, that the Peru-
vians of the present day are still in mourning for their Incas ;
but the true explanation is the fact just noted.
From the wools of different colours, fancy pieces are also
made by these Indians, whose mode of weaving, in so far as
I saw it, is primitive in the extreme. When passing through
the village of Andamarca, I observed a woman weaving a
piece of black cloth : her loom was composed of only four short
bits of wood, which were stuck into the ground in the open
air before her hut; she was resting on both her knees, and
stooping at the work, and conveyed the weft from one side of
the cloth to the other with her fingers—the piece appeared
about 18 inches in width.
A few years ago, there was no fixed price in Bolivia for
alpacas, &c., for that varied with the locality and other cir-
cumstances. In 1827, when on the route from Potosi to the
coast, through the desert of Caranja, we were under the ne-
cessity of occasionally buying a sheep or llama, for we travelled
with a number of mules loaded with silver, and were seventeen
days on the journey. We passed some numerous flocks of
llamas, alpacas, and sheep, and though not a human habitation
was seen throughout one portion of the route of above 200 miles,
yet, as was stated by our guides, all these creatures had owners
who would miss any which might be taken from their flocks.
While on the march one day, our cook first ran down with
his mule, and then picked up a sheep from a herd, for which
he had not paid, as no person was in sight; but after we had
travelled four hours, or above twelve miles from the spot where
our mutton was obtained, an Indian overtook us and held out
his hand for “ quatro reales,” 2s., the price of the sheep, and
was quite happy with his half dollar, though he had to trudge
24 miles for it; at the same time I learned that while half sa
dollar was the price of a sheep there, that of an alpaca was a
dollar, and two dollars that of a full grown llama.
298 Mr Chambers on the existence of raised Beaches
In some parts of those vast solitudes between the eastern
and western Andes, there is no vegetation of any sort, but at
other places the ichu grows in abundance, and there myriads
of llamas and alpacas are seen, thriving in their native but
rigorous climate ; and exhibiting a length of fleece (in some
cases not shorn for years) which would astonish an English
wool-stapler. In these deserts water is rarely seen, except at
some of the halting stations, where a hole dug in the ground
affords a supply of bad quality. I never saw a llama or an
alpaca take a drink.
The price of llamas on the coast of Peru varies at different
times and places. At Tacna, in 1835, the price was three or
four dollars, and I never knew more than six dollars being
paid for those which were shipped for Europe. When we
consider the expense of conveying these creatures from Peru
to England, it is obvious that it will not be profitable to ob-
tain wool from the animals so imported; and it has been
already stated, that an attempt to rear them in this country,
in sufficient numbers, is not likely to succeed.
On the Existence of raised Beaches in the neighbourhood of St
Andrews. By R. Cuampgrs, Esq., F.R.S.E. With a
Plate. Communicated by the Author.*
On coming, in May last year, to reside in St Andrews, I
was much struck at the very first by certain geognostic fea-
tures of the environs, of the same character with those re-
mains of ancient beaches which have excited the attention
of geologists in other parts of the island, but much more
distinct than any which I have had an opportunity of seeing.
Afterwards, as I extended my rambles from St Andrews, I
was much interested in observing continuations of these re-
markable platforms along towards the vale of the Eden, some
way up that vale, and on the country immediately beyond it.
It seemed to me that St Andrews presented unusual oppor-
* Read before the Philosophical Society of St Andrews.
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in the neighbourhood of St Andrenrs. 299
tunities for the study of this particular class of geological phe-
nomena, and that it might be worth while to direct local
attention to these geognostic features, as many young persons,
and others who had not given much attention to geology,
might thus be enabled, at the cost of little more trouble than
that of a forenoon’s walk, to study what is certainly one of the
most curious and wonderful results of geological research and
speculation which have been laid before the public for some
years.
The particular superficial feature which first arrested my
attention in this neighbourhood, was the platform on which
the town stands, with its smooth continuation westwards to
Lawpark, and north-westwards to Strathtyrum. The uniform
linearity of this piece of country is such as might strike the
most careless eye. I also observed that, to the south of the
Kinness Burn, there was a continuation of this platform on
exactly the same level—a vale of from an eighth to a quar-
ter of a mile intervening. It was not long after, that I
found a narrow stripe of the same platform extending be-
yond Strathtyrum, towards the Guard Bridge, and traced,
what appeared, its continuation in Leuchars parish, north of
the Eden. I also could plainly trace, on the ascent towards
Scooniehill, a second or higher platform, less extensive in all
respects, but equally linear and level. Finally, I have found
fainter traces of a third, and even of a fourth platform, the
last being the narrow stripe on which Mount Melville House
and Feddinch Mains are situated.
To speak particularly of the first plateau. It may be described
as a slope of very slight inclination, rising from the verge of the
sea between St Nicholas and the Butts, towards Lawpark, and
extending westwards to the site of Bloomhill and Kincaple.
The town of St Andrews is situated on the part nearest the
sea. But for the deep and wide intersection formed by the
Kinness Burn, and a few similar but smaller intersections, it
would have been a still more remarkable tract of linearly sur-
faced ground. The soil, I am told, is generally of a sandy
character, such as might be expected on a tract like Leith
Sands, or the West Sands of St Andrews, if these beaches
were to be raised above the sea-level, and transformed into
300 Mr Chambers on the existence of raised Beaches
dry land. It is observable to every eye, that scarcely any
stones occur throughout this tract : the fields everywhere seem
composed of a light powdery earth, and the site of the town
itself is so sandy, that rain never rests on the streets for any
length of time.
The second plateau is a comparatively narrow terrace, trace-
able on the hither face of Scooniehill, and for a considerable
way to the eastward, generally about a hundred feet above the
level of the first plateau. I have chiefly observed it opposite
to the town, but I learn from Mr Duncan, land-surveyor, that
it is clearly traceable along by Brownhills farm, and as far
eastward as his own house at Thornbank, three miles from St
Andrews. Its western extremity melts into the slope of
Scooniehill, at a point a little to the westward of Pipeland
farm-house, which is situated upon it.
What I think may prove to be a third plateau is the gene-
rally level piece of ground on which Ballone and Lumbo
farm-houses are situated, and which extends a little to the
eastward of Cairnsmill, overlapping (so to speak) the western
termination of the second terrace. Cairnsmill is situated in
a hollow of this plateau, wrought by the rivulet which passes
it on its way to join the Kinness Burn. I have paid less at-
tention to the fourth plateau, but deem it also tolerably distinct.
As mentioned before, Mount Melville House and Feddinch
Mains farm-house are situated upon it. It seems to be less
elevated above the third than the third is elevated above the
second, or the second above the first; but, on this point, I
only speak by the vague information of the eye.
From what I had previously seen of the ancient beach along
the Firth of Forth, I had, of course, no doubt as to the origi-
nal character of, at least, the first and second plateau at St
Andrews ; but, as many here, from unacquaintance with the
subject, might be unprepared to see the matter as I saw it,
and for the sake of accurate information for myself, I re-
solved to have the levels along these beaches taken by an
unprejudiced and professional hand. Mr Duncan has done
me this service in a highly satisfactory manner. It must
here be remarked, that to take these levels is a very deli-
cate matter, for the plateau is in so many places cut down,
in the neighbourhood of St Andrews. —~ 301
or worn away, by rills, that it is difficult to pitch upon spots
which may be presumed to be near the line of the original sur-
face. When you stand, indeed, upon the plateau itself, you
are apt to be confounded by the undulations which you sce
near you, and it is when you take a somewhat distant view
that the linearity is most striking. There is another effect
of time which adds to the confusion, namely, the wearing
down of the ancient sea-cliffs above and below, which tends
to give the sectional line only a slight wave in some places.
It was necessary beforehand to pitch upon places which, at a
distant view, seemed unworn by the intersecting rills, and to
follow a line sufficiently distant from the ancient sea-cliff, to
be unaffected by its debris. Mr Duncan did his best to walk
by these rules ; but he could not be expected, in the circum-
stances, to work out my wishes with perfect exactness. We
must also be prepared to allow for slight discrepancies, on ac-
count of presumable slight inequalities in even the original
line of the ground. Every here and there, along such an
esplanade as the West Sands, we may observe slight swells and
depressions of the surface. Besides, an uniform degree of ele-
vation is not predicated in the case ; a general linearity with-
in a considerable space or tract, is what we may say is looked
for by the geologist.
The accompanying map (Plate VIII.) contains Mr Duncan’s
marks along the lines of the first and second plateau, namely,
ten marked levels in the first instance, and nine in the second.
Beginning with the first plateauat an interesting crust of it which
overhangs the eastern extremity of the East Sands, he goes west-
ward in a curving line to the south-east corner of the Strath-
tyrum policy, near Balgove, giving the following levels in suc-
cession :—60, 62, 654, 683, 70, 683, 70, 74, 69, 74. The sixth
of these numbers (683 feet) is given at the spot where the line
crosses the Largo road. The eighth of the series (74 feet) is
given near Lawpark. I may here observe, that Mr Duncan
takes, as a datum line from which to mark his levels, the high-
water mark, as presumed to be indicated by the abutment of
the arch which crosses the Kinness Burn at St Nicholas. He
has also found by the spirit-level, that the gently sloping table-
302 Mr Chambers on the existence of raised Beaches
land behind Easter Kincaple is on the same level with the
ground immediately south-east of Strathtyrum. Indeed, the
identity of surface line which exists between Strathtyrum and
Kincaple is remarkable to the unassisted eye, and forms a
phenomenon which it would be impossible at present to ac-
count for otherwise. Mr Duncan’s marks on the second pla-
teau are equally striking, from not only a uniformity in them-
selves, but a uniformity in relation to the first plateau. Com-
mencing here to the eastward of Kingask, and following a
curving line westwards to the termination at Pipeland, he
gives the following series of numbers, expressive of the height
of the various parts above the present high-water mark :—
156, 154, 154, 157, 161, 156, 155, 170, 166. The extreme
variation here is 14 feet ; that between the first and last num-
ber only ten, the places pointed to being several miles apart.
As in the first plateau, the increase of height is towards the
west or inland.
Mr Duncan has made some further observations, not by re-
gular /evelling, as in these instances, but by his eye only and by
the use of the telescopic spirit-level. I here quote from his
notes :—‘ Taking up the first old beach where we left off near
St Nicholas, we have first (going eastward) a break of about a
mile, caused by the steep cliffs and high bold shore under
Brownhills. Passing, however, alittle to the east of Kittock’s
Den, we again come upon land exactly suiting our level, and an-
swering, not only in this particular, but in every other, the cha-
racter of an old sea-bed. This almost level surface, I followed
out for several miles, with no interruptions but what were
perfectly explicable. Where I left off, the same gently slop-
ing land was continued onward, and I have no doubt that it
would be found to go all the way round above Fife Ness, and
for a considerable way up the shores of the Firth of Forth.
The soil, almost everywhere throughout what I have inspected
of this ancient beach, is of a like nature, being light and dry,
and full of small shells, and of excellent quality.”
With respect to the country beyond the Eden, he states as
follows: ** Commencing my levelling from what was pointed
out to me as being nearly about high-water mark, on the
in the neighbourhood of St Andrews. 303
Mottrey Burn, at Milton Saw-Mill, I passed by Milton farm-
house, ascended the hill or steep bank northward, and conti-
‘nued along its flattish ridge, as far as the small round hollow
near its northern extremity. In passing along, I determined
the elevation of the under-mentioned objects, principally by
directing the telescopic sight of the spirit-level towards them,
and making the necessary allowances for dip, &c. This tak-
ing the height by observation, it may be remarked, cannot be
depended upon within a few feet :—
Feet.
1. Elevation of a rounded bank on the Dundee Road, opposite
Milton farm-house, : - 5 3 ‘ f : 50
2. Ground on which Leuchars church stands, ‘ = 5 55
3. A flat bank or surface extending from the west end of Leu-
chars village northward, along the left of the Dundee
Road, ; . . » 5 é 3 - 56 to 60
4. A high flattish bank to the south-west of Milton Saw-Mill, 62
5. A flattish gently-sloping surface, north-east of Pusk (aver-
BEE: Scr oucieaes pn ‘ee The Te So Ae ts - | 60
6. Height of Milton farm-bank, near its south end, : : Tie
7. The same, at the north march of the farm, ; 3 F 91"
Mr Duncan found some other platforms in this neighbour-
hood, which are generally about 107 feet above the level of
the sea. This, it will be observed, does not correspond with
any beach observable near St Andrews: but this may be ac-
counted for in various ways—by none more simple than this,
that that beach may not be marked in our immediate neigh-
bourhood. As our second plateau is not marked on Scoonie-
Hill, west of Pipeland, so may this not have been marked in
that situation at all. The other elevations enumerated by
Mr Duncan, correspond strikingly with those of our first pla-
teau. The remarkable-looking mound on which Leuchars
kirk stands, is composed of gravel and other sea-deposited
materials. It is clearly a fragment of the last sea-bed, left
by accidental causes. Mr Fraser, in his Map of Fife, gives
its height as 57 feet, which is just about that of a large part
of the platform on which St Andrews is situated. The linea-
rity of the surfaces enumerated by Mr Duncan in the Leuchars
district, is extremely striking ; and from that place, the lines
formed by our own second, third, and fourth terraces, are seen
with the greatest distinctness.
304 Mr Chambers on the existence of raised Beaches,
Applying the theory of upheaving forces to our vicinage,
we must presume, that at one time—a time early as compared
with our historical retrospect, but late in geological chrono-
logy—certainly later than any of the trap disturbances, or
even the age of the diluvium—only the tops of some of the
neighbouring hills were above the surface of the sea. The
sea then closely surrounded the heights on which Scoonie-
Hill farm-house and Feddinch House are situated, and the
Drumearrie Hill. It was at that time that the platform on
which Mount Melville house and Feddinch Mains stand, was
formed. An upheaval, to an extent which I am not able at
present to specify, raised a larger portion of the slopes of
those and other heights into the air, and then began the for-
mation of the second platform—that on which Pipeland and
Old Grange are situated. Another upheaval, of about 100
feet, extended the bounds of dry-land still farther, and then
began the formation of what I have called the first or great
plateau. This may be presumed to have been, in our locality,
an extensive sandy-beach, much like that now existing at
Leith. The tide must have every day risen and fallen at
least a mile, namely, along the ground now covered by the
town, and up to the site of Lawpark Cottage, where the traces
of the beach terminate in that direction. Afterwards an up-
heaval of about 60 feet must have taken place, leaving land
and sea in what, generally speaking, may be called their pre-
sent relative situations. The last beach was now dry land.
At the site of the town and to the eastward, the ocean rested
upon the upturned edges of aseries of the lower carboniferous
strata, which, in time, it seems to have cut down into the pre-
sent beach and overhanging cliffs. To the westward of the
site of the town, where these sandstone strata ceased to ap-
pear, the sea rested against a bank of clay, which it, in like
manner, cut in upon; this is the bank which now sweeps
round from Pilmour Row, by Strathtyrum, and along under
Bloomhill and Kincaple, to the Eden. At the one place,
there was a promontory; at the other, a bay. But as the
rocks were worn down at the one place, the bay was filled up
with sand at the other. ‘This effect the waves and winds
in the neighbourhood of St Andrews. 305
would conspire to bring about. We must not, therefore, be
surprised to find the Links of St Andrews, and the whole
ground under the Strathtyrum bank, several feet above the
level of the sea. The whole of that land is one mass of sand,
the lower part of which is probably of aqueous deposition,
while the upper part is evidently an accumulation effected by
high winds blowing from the sea, after the manner of many
similar accumulations in other parts of the world, aided, per-
haps, by occasional tides of abnormal height. ‘Towards the
mouth of the Eden, another cause comes in to help this for-
mation, namely, the silt brought down by the river. The
Tents’ Muir, to the north of the mouth of the Eden, is an ac-
cumulation chiefly of wind-blown sand, like the Pilmour or St
Andrews Links.
Both the beaches and cliffs have here, as usual, been
much cut by water-courses. We have a cut on each side of
Mr Brown’s house of Grange, one on each side of Pipeland
farmhouse, a great one in the line of the Kinness Burn, and
several others. The vale of the Kinness Burn, below Law-
park, has all, of course, been formed since the last upheaval,
and it is easy to see why it has taken the direction which we
find it has taken. The spot at Lawpark has been the bottom
or terminating point of a small bay, where the rivulet was
originally received. The direction of this bay was towards
St Nicolas, or the site of the present harbour ; that is to say,
a line between these two points ran over a somewhat lower
part of the beach than the rest. Along this line, the rivulet
would proceed at the ebb of tide. After the upheaval it would
begin to cut down into its original sandy channel ; and this
process would be continued till, with its small accessories, it
had carved out the present little vale between the site of the ~
town and the opposite bank, nearly (in some places) a quar-
ter of a mile distant. But for the formation of this vale, and
the rearing of the town, we should have had at this place a
piece of ancient beach clearly perceptible to the eye, of an
extent which I have never seen equalled.
The apparatus brought before the society in connection
with this paper, is an humble attempt of my own to illustrate
306 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours
sensibly the upheaving power and its effects. A model in
putty of the country near St Andrews, is formed upon a flat
plate of iron, which is suspended in a trough partially filled
with water, so as to leave the supposed Mount Melville beach
on a level with the surface of the water. By mechanism, the
plate can be raised till the third beach is brought to the same
level, next the second, afterwards the first ; and, finally, by a
further elevation, land and sea are shewn in their present re-
lative situations, excepting that I have represented, as already
formed, that sandy embankment which now keeps the sea
most part of a mile away from the Strathtyrum bank.
Brief remarks on the Expediency of Forming Harbours of Re-
Suge on the Kast Coast of Scotland, between the Moray Firth
and the Firth of Forth.* By Joun Fiumine, D. D., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy, King’s College, Aberdeen,
F.R.S.E., Member of Wernerian Society, &e. Communi-
cated by the Author.
The subject of the following observations appears to be well
calculated to command public attention, whether we consider
the amount of human life, or the value of commercial property
at stake. That no public enquiry should have been instituted
respecting the @xposed state of the East Coast of Scotland,
with a view to the formation of Harnours or Rerucr, when
it was granted elsewhere, may seem inexplicable, unless we
bear in mind that lamentable apathy exhibited by our repre-
sentatives in Parliament, wherever Scottish interests of a
general character are concerned.
The necessity which arises for the construction of harbours
of refuge, involves the consideration of the defects of the ex-
isting harbours, which have been so long resorted to, and which
at one period of our trade might have been deemed sufficient
for every ordinary purpose. But to comprehend the true
* The substance of the remarks on Harbours of Refuge, was communicated
to the Aberdeen Philosophical Society, at their first meeting, February 7.
1840.
of Refuge on the East Coast of Scotland. 307
character of these defects, it is necessary to advert, however
briefly, to a few clementary truths of physical geography,
which may not perhaps be generally attended to, although
highly illustrative of the subject.
When we examine a Vatuey of any extent with the eye of
a geologist, we shall generally find that the rocks which ex-
ist in the trough, are softer and more easily acted upon than
those which form the bounding ridges. Interspersed portions
of harder rock may be occasionally found among the softer
materials, but those will merely cause inequalities in the
valley, and mark, by their elevation, the resistance which has
been offered to the disintegrating forces which have reduced
the contiguous portions to a lower level.
When we examine a Bay, or indentation on the coast, we
generally find analogous appearances. The softer beds have
been acted upon, broken up, and removed by the action of the
ripple or wind-waves ; while the harder materials remain and
constitute those promontories or nesses, which form the lateral
limits of the recess or creek. Even in the bay, as in the
valley, certain portions of harder rock may have existed, and
such will usually be preserved as islets or skerries, to mark
the abrasion which has taken place around.
If, then, the softness of the strata be the primary condition
which gives rise to valleys and bays, we may expect to find
in general a valley, on reaching the sea-shore, terminating in
a bay, while a bay will be a tolerably sure indication of a
landward valley. Several rather interesting examples, in il-
lustration of these statements, may be observed in this imme-
diate neighbourhood.
The bay of Aberdeen, with its lateral nesses of gneiss,
seems to have been excavated in a deposit of old red sand-
stone, several patches of which occur in the neighbourhood,
and attest its former more extended distribution. The
bay of Nigg, with similar lateral nesses, appears to have been
produced by the yielding of soft strata of mica-slate. The
bay of Stonehaven has been excavated in comparatively soft
strata of grey sandstone, with its northern ness of compact
mica-slate, and its southern ness of old red sandstone con-
glomerate. Tothe south of Stonehaven, and in the neigh-
308 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours
bourhood of the ancient and celebrated Dunottar Casile,
several small bays may be observed, deriving their origin
from the beds of soft grey sandstone which alternate with the’
conglomerate, and the latter being less destructible by the
action of the sea, forms the bounding nesses, aided in a few
places by amygdaloid or porphyry. In general, indeed, it will
be found that the observer of nature can seldom traverse any
considerable portion of the coast without, here and there,
meeting with sandy beaches, at the margin of bays, where all
traces of the rock have disappeared, and he may consider
himself fortunate if he succeed in detecting the solid materials
he is searching after, at low water-mark, or in some inland
ravine.
The valleys necessarily form the recipients of the rain water,
and constitute river basins; and the rivers thus formed by
them, and flowing through them, serve, in turn, to augment
their capacity, by carrying to a lower level the disintegrated
materials which have been produced by atmospheric influence.
These materials become accumulated at the junction of the
river with the sea, and constitute, in certain cases, those deltas
which frequently occasion a subdivision of the main stream.
The disintegrated materials of the bay, associated in some
places with those of the valley, and which usually consist of sand
and gravel,are employed in forming the sea-beach. The irregu-
lar but almost constant action of the ripple or wind-waves,
produces a uniform distribution of these materials, and as cer-
tainly restores the breach which disturbing causes may have
produced in its continuity.
These materials, thus exposed toa ripple action variable in
its intensity and direction, are usually arrested in their pro-
gress by the esses which limit the bays, so that the character
of the beaches of two contiguous bays may differ considerably
from each other. The beach of Aberdeen bay, e. g., is sandy,
while that of the neighbouring bay of Nigg consists of very
coarse gravel.
When ariver, on its way to the sea, reaches a bay with its
margin constituted as we have been describing, it has to
maintain a constant warfare with this tendency to continuity
of the sand and pebbles of the beach. If, during a fleod, the
of Refuge on the East Coast of Scotland. 309
river has succeeded in forcing a passage, and in making for
itself a channel towards low water-mark, this new course be-
eomes exposed to ripple action, and will be speedily obliterated
to a certain extent, whenever the quantity and velocity of the
water become reduced. This is strikingly illustrated in the
condition of many of the rivulets which empty themselves into
the bay of Aberdeen, to the north of the river Don, and may
be observed with but little modification in the Don itself.
In general, therefore, it will be found, that when a river, after
traversing a valley, falls into a bay of the sea having its shore
covered with moveable materials, it has to contend with this
character of the beach, to have its contents continuously dis-
tributed, and hence a bar must be formed of the materials
carried into deeper water, while its distance from the shore
will depend on the weakness or strength of the stream, and
its shape be modified by the currents of the passing tides.
The banks of rivers invite the settlement of a population,
from the superior fertility of the soil in the neighbourhood,
the accompanying shelter, and the supply of water for personal
and domestic purposes. Hence the early peopling of the banks
of rivers.
The mouths of rivers were first selected as harbours by the
neighbouring population, being in some measure ready-made,
contiguous to the most fertile spots, and sufficiently convenient
for all the ordinary purposes of a local and limited trade. But,
in an expanded state of maritime enterprize, they exhibit de-
fects of no ordinary magnitude, such indeed as would justify
us in considering a river as a nuisance rather than a benefit
to a harbour.*
The Jars of sand or shingle, to which we have referred, pro-
duce shallow water at the entrance, and prevent the shipping
from passing and repassing, with equal facility, at all times of
the tide. The river, too, in the state of flood, passes out to
* The opinion here expressed receives a practical illustration from the
harbour of Leith, originally selected, from being the mouth of the water of
Leith. Its inconveniences for modern traffic led to the erection of the
Newhayen Pier; then the Chain-Pier; and, lastly, to the magnificent har-
bour of Granton,—excellent, because without a river, and destined at no
distant period to become the Port of Edinburgh.
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVIIL.—aAPRIL 1843. x
310 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours
sea with a velocity which few commanders of vessels, for ob-
vious reasons, care to take advantage of even when the current
is in their favour ; and when the current is in opposition, it pre-
vents vessels from entering the harbour in states of weather
when property and life are in jeopardy.
In the range of coast which we have at present chiefly in
view, viz., from the Moray Frith to the Frith of Forth, there
is not a single harbour which can be taken at all times of tide.
Some have no obstacles, such as bars or river-floods, charac-
ters which destroy the value of Aberdeen, Montrose, and Dun-
dee, as harbours of refuge. But, in the absence of these evils,
the remaining harbours become dry, or nearly so, at low water ;
and, consequently, can only be approached towards high wa-
ter. In such circumstances are the tide-harbours of Peter-
head, Stonehaven, Aberbrothick, and St Andrews.
Should a sailing vessel be overtaken by an easterly gale,
when off the intermediate part of the coast, between Fifeness
and Kinnaird’s Head, her situation would be dangerous in the
extreme. In but few cases could the tide harbours and those
having bars, or under the influence of floods, be approached
with any prospect of safety. She must either stand out to
sea or bear away, if practicable, for Cromarty Bay or the Frith
of Forth. If her course be northward, she has to dread the
possibility of being unable to weather Kinnaird’s Head, as the
turning point of the Moray Frith ; or if she steer for the south,
she has Fifeness as the turning point of the Forth to weather.
Should a failure at either of these points take place, very little
chance would be left of saving either life or property.*
When we consider the vast amount of shipping, at all sea-
sons of the year, frequenting the coast referred to, and keep-
ing in view, that in its whole extent of upwards of a hundred
miles there is not a single harbour of refuge, the expediency
of directing public attention to so great a defect, must at once
be obvious. Besides, it deserves to be kept in view, that, in
* Even steamers are not exempt from the evil above referred to. The
London Steamer, which last week should have delivered her goods and
passengers at Aberdeen on Tuesday morning (February 21st), was obliged
by the easterly gale to seek for shelter in the Frith of Forth, and could not
enter her port until Friday morning (February 24th.)
of Refuge on the East Coast of Scotland. 311
this locality, vessels are exposed to “‘ encountering a sea and
tide (to use an expression of a committee appointed by the In-
corporation of Traders in Leith, relative to the expediency of
erecting a light-house on the Bell-Rock), surpassed in few
places on the globe.”* The truth here stated is too fully cor-
roborated by the shipwrecks which ever and anon are occur-
ring on the portion of the coast referred to, whereby a con-
siderable amount of life and property is annually sacrificed,
which the existence of suitable harbours of refuge might great-
ly reduce.
It is true, that the erection of light-houses on the different
parts of the coast under consideration, from their sites being ju-
diciously selected, and all their arrangements satisfactorily re-
gulated, has furnished to the shipping an important amount
of security. But, in its character, this security is essentially
different from that which a harbour of refuge would afford,
The former merely enables the mariner to ascertain his posi-
tion or his danger, the latter receives him into safety. Se-
parately, each has its excellencies, but when conjoined, then
only is the maximum of protection furnished to the seaman.
The questions respecting the suitable positions, forms, and
materials of the harbours of refuge, cannot, in the present
state of our information, be expected to receive a satisfactory
reply. We take it for granted that the object in view can
only be accomplished by means of a breakwater, protecting a
bay or convenient portion of the coast from the fury of the
waves, and permitting vessels to ride at anchor therein, with-
out strain on their cables, and in comparatively still water.
It may also be assumed that the materials for the construction
of the breakwater must be s¢ones. Logs of timber, it is true,
have been proposed as suitable materials for the construction
of breakwaters, and their claims on this score have met in some
quarters with considerable favour. But although White’s Break-
water, and all its subsequent modifications, may be advanta-
geously employed for a few months, to shelter bathing ground,
or protect a fishing-station ; yet the perishable character of the
timber, in sea-water, must not be forgotten, when the import-
* Steyenson’s Account of the Bell-Rock Light-house, p. 96.
312 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours
ence of the permanency and stability of a breakwater are
duly considered. The little crustacean, termed Limnoria
tcrebrans, which feeds on timber in the sea, and propagates
with amazing rapidity, would prove a foe to breakwaters of
such materials, and render their maintenance troublesome,
precarious, and expensive. Séones, therefore, must be em-
ployed as the material in the construction of the breakwater ;
and fortunately blocks of sufficient magnitude and durability
are not wanting at various places of the coast.
The best positions for harbours of refuge could be ascer-
tained, with the greatest certainty, by an examination of those
mariners who have been accustomed to navigate the coast,
and who are, in consequence, familiarly acquainted with the
dangerous winds, the se¢s of the tides, and the depths of water.
Towards the turning point of the Moray Frith, a situation
oceurs in many respects excellent for the formation of a har-
bour of refuge, viz. Sandford Bay, bounded on the north by
Peterhead, and on the south by Buchanness. Here, by means
of a breakwater, this Bay, which possesses excellent anchor-
age ground, with sufficient depth of water, and affords in its
present state a great amount of protection against westerly
ales, could be made a haven of security equally convenient both
for size and proximity to the ship-stores of Peterhead. Ma-
terials well adapted for the construction of a breakwater are
abundant in the neighbourhood, and the lighthouse on the
south side of the bay at Buchanness, would furnish satisfactory
directions to the mariner running to it for shelter. There are
here no shifting sands to contend against, although an objec-
tion may be urged against the locality, as too near the turning
point into the Moray Frith.
The Bay of Aberdeen offers apparently but few conve-
niences for the construction of a harbour of refuge. The quan-
tity of shifting sand ranging along the coast from Slains on
the north, to Girdleness on the south side, would form obstacles
which, probably, no arrangement of walls could prevent from
accumulating injuriously.
The Bay of Nigg, immediately to the south of Aberdeen
bay, seems to possess several advantages. It is not incom-
moded with moveable sands, has abundant materials for the
of Refuge on the Hast Coast of Scotland. 313
construction of the breakwater in the immediate neighbour-
hood, and possesses a lighthouse on its northern ness. Be-
sides, vessels finding shelter in this locality could readily ob-
tain from Aberdeen a supply of stores, or be taken to the har-
bour by the steam-tug, to receive the necessary repairs. But
it may be added, that the bay itself is rather limited, and tie
depth of water, perhaps, not altogether suitable for vessels of
great draught.
The forms of the bays of Stonehaven, Bervie, and Mon-
trose, do not seem peculiarly adapted for the purpose in view.
Lunan Bay, on the other hand, may lay claim to some consi-
deration. In westerly gales, its south side affords anchorage
and shelter for small craft; but when the wind is easterly, it
is exposed to a heavy sea, and its sandy beach has been the
grave of many seamen.
If now we pass over Aberbrothick, which does not hold out
any advantages, the coast exhibits nothing but moveable sand
onwards to St Andrews. Here a rocky coast commences, ex -
tending to Fifeness, and might probably furnish in some spot
a site for a harbour. But in such a locality the harbour
would be close to the turning point into the Frith of Forth,
and might be speedily injured by shifting sands.
There would be little difficulty, even in the absence of a
survey executed for the specific object, in making a tolerably
close approximation to the best sites for harbours of refuge,
if the sea-charts were constructed as they ought to be. But,
alas! those in use, at present, are not fitted to convey the re-
quisite information respecting the depth of water, or the pre-
vailing currents, and can scarcely be considered adequate for
the ordinary purposes of navigation ; nor have we a near pros-
pect of getting our condition bettered. True it is, that suit-
able materials for the purpose are known to exist; but these
are withheld from the public, and will probably continue to
be so, unless the public voice demands their production. A
Government survey of the east coast of Scotland has been in
progress during the extended period of the last score of years.
This survey is understood to have been completed northwards
to the Pentland Frith. The instruments furnished have been
of the best construction, and entrusted to individuals qualified
314 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours
to use them with success; and I have been informed by com-
petent judges, that the observations and drawings which have
been produced, possess uncommon merit. Yet have the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty hitherto kept the produce of
so much expense and labour in their repositories, regardless
alike of the interests of the shipowners and of science. Like
other public boards, in the absence of a little pressure from
without on the subject, they have become inactive ; while a
share of the reproach ought probably to attach to the cor-
porations of the shipping ports of the east of Scotland, who
have witnessed the survey proceeding, and have failed to en-
quire after the results. Let the magistrates of the burghs and
sea-ports interested, bestir themselves, and accurate trust-
worthy charts would soon be accessible to the mariner, an
additional protection furnished to life and property, and the
limits of physical geography greatly extended.
Having referred to the inactivity of the Lords Commission-
ers of the Admiralty, in not providing accurate charts for the
east coast of Scotland, even after excellent materials have
been procured, I shall close this communication by a few re-
marks on the “time of high water on the full and change
of the moon,” at different places on the said coast, as given
in the Nautical Almanack for the year 1843, p. 556.
As the Zetland Islands are in some degree without the limits
to which the preceding remarks apply, we shall merely ob-
serve that the time of high water at Scalloway (introduced
into the Almanack for the first time in 1841) is made to agree
with Balta in Unst, nearly thirty miles to the north of it, both
being marked 95 45". When the direction of the flood-tide
is considered, the more westerly position of Scalloway will not
explain the coincidence in apparent time. But how shall
we account for the entries relating to “ Brassa Sound,” and
‘‘ Lerwick harbour,” the former having its high water assigned
at 10" the latter 10" 30"! How few who have paid any at-
tention to the harbours of the coast, are ignorant that ‘ Brassa
Sound” is ‘‘ Lerwick Harbour,” and that the two names deno-
minate the same commodious haven !
In approaching nearer the scene to which our remarks have
a more immediate reference, the “‘ Orkney Isles” have a place
of Refuge on the East Coast of Scotland. 315
in the tide-table, the time of high water being 10" 30™ and
then, strange to observe, “ Cairston” and “ Stromness” in the
“Orkneys” have each their time of tide set down at 9".
The time of high water of the ‘“ Pentland Frith’’ is stated
at 108 30", while “ Duncansby Head,” the prominent easter-
ly shoulder of the Frith, has its time of high water set down
abe" A5™.
Passing southwards we find “ Peterhead’’ inserted for the
first time in the Almanack in 1839, having its time of high
water 05 45™, while “‘ Buchanness” is recorded, as of old, at
12™. A difference of 45™ in the time of tide between two
places not a couple of miles apart, and the one situate farthest
to the north, whence the flood-tide proceeds, receiving it later,
may well excite some degree of surprise.
The port of Aberdeen has evidently attracted considerable
notice. In 1839 the time of high water was changed from
its ancient period of 0» 45™ to 1» 12™, and in 1841 reduced
by 1™, and now appears as 14 11™.
Proceeding southwards along the coast, we find by the
table the time of high water stated as the same for ‘‘ Mon-
trose” and “Tay Bar,” viz. 1" 45™. The distance between
the two places, in the direction of the flood-tide, being about
eighteen miles, and the latter being, in time, behind, the for-
mer less than one minute, we should have here, on the sup-
position that the entries in the table are correct, a velocity of
tidal wave at this part of the coast, greater than any known
tidal velocity on the globe, and about thirty-six times greater
than its ordinary velocity in the German Ocean in the neigh-
bourhood, which is stated by good authority to be about thirty
miles an hour, although there is an authority which fixes its
rate at sixty miles.
High water at ‘“‘ Dundee” is stated at 2" 22™, or 37™ later
than “ Tay Bar.” ‘Taking into account the westerly position
of Dundee, the difference will be nearly 38". If we consider
the distance between the two places as little more than a
dozen of miles, we shall here have an example of retardation,
compared with the former acceleration of the tidal-wave, of
truly unlooked for extent, even keeping in view the influence
of depth of bottom.
High water at “ Leith” is likewise stated as 37™ later than
316 Dr Fleming on the Expediency of forming Harbours, &c.
at “Tay Bar ;” now the total difference in time from the po-
sition of Leith would not reach 39™, while the distance is
about forty miles. This would make the velocity of the tidal-
wave from “ Tay Bar” to Leith, compared with its velocity
from “* Tay Bar” to “ Dundee,” nearly as three to one, and
the former more than double its ordinary velocity in the Ger-
man Ocean.
As all the Establishments of the Ports, in the table, are set
down to apparent time, and the actual times of high water when
the moon passes the meridian at the same time as the sun, it is
probable that, inthe reduction, errors may have been introduced
rather than corrected, from the state of the data, and that the
angular distance of the moon from the sun at the times of obser-
vation, may have been overlooked. But some of the anomalies
which have been pointed out, in all probability arise from the
different standards employed for determining high water,
known to be in use. Thus we have the time of high water
marked by one observer, when the tide-wave has reached its
highest elevation, by another when s/ack tide occurs, and by a
third when the reverse current begins to prevail. There is no-
thing, however, in the table to indicate the employment of a
common standard. In illustration of the influence which a
variable standard may exercise on the time of tide, I may re-
fer to that excellent hydrographer, Mackenzie, who, in refer-
ence to the Pentland Frith, says, ‘* On the shore of Swona, it
flows till half-past nine on the east side, and till ten on the
west side, on the days of new and full moon. In the middle
of the Pentland Frith it is séé// or slack water, on the change
days at half-past eleven, but the tide does not turn till
twelve.”
Now, whatever be the cause of the anomalies thus apparent
in the tide-table of the Nautical Almanack, it is surely of im-
portance, for the credit of such a national work, that the en-
tries which it contains should be accurate and intelligible, or
that no tide-table of doubtful character should have a place
there.
I should be sorry if these remarks on the charts and tide-
table of the east coast of Scotland, even although not re-
motely connected with the object in view, led the mind of the
reader away from contemplating the necessity of establishing
Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond. 317
Harzours or Rerucz. This is, indeed, a subject which the
shipping interest, and the friends of humanity, are equally
bound to bring under the notice and favourable consideration
of the British public, and it will be to me a source of pure en-
joyment if the preceding remarks tend in any degree to the
accomplishment of an end in so many respects desirable.
Joun Fiemina.
Kine’s CoLtLeGEe, ABERDEEN,
March 2. 1843.
On the Formation of the Diamond. By Dr Atexanvrr
Perzuo.upt, of Dresden.
Notwithstanding the great diversity of opinion expressed
by authors regarding the mode of formation of the diamond,
yet all the different views entertained may be included under
two principal divisions, viz., those which suppose that it is the
direct product of the action of heat on carbonic acid or car-
_ bon, and others which support the idea of its being the result
of the slow decomposition of plants. It may not be out of place
to give a brief account of the most important of these views,
previous to communicating my own observations.
While Leonhard* asks, if we may not believe that the origin
of diamonds is to be ascribed to carbonaceous sublimations
from the interior of the earth, a question which must, on che-
mical grounds, be answered decidedly in the negative, because
carbon is not in the slightest degree volatile ; Parrott regards
diamonds as products of volcanic action, as the result of the
operation of the heat on small fragments of carbon. Parrot
was first of all led to this view, by his minute examination
Cr
* Leonhard’s Populirische Vorlesungen, vol. iii. p. 498.
t Parrot’s Notice sur les diamans de V Oural, in the Mémoires de V Academie
Impériale des Sciences de St Pétersbourg. Série dixidme. Sciences Mathe-
matiques, tom, i.. p. 32. He says, “ Diamonds are the products of vol-
canic action exercised on small portions of carbon, or on a substance com-
posed of much carbon and very little hydrogen.” See also Leonhard’s Juhr-
buch, 1838, p. 541, where portions of Parrot’s Memoir are published.
318 Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond.
of Russian diamonds, in the course of which he came to the
opinion, that the only way of explaining certain structural
phenomena, such as cracks and flaws in the interior, and a
scaly appearance on the external surface, combined with black
structureless included portions of matter supposed to be car-
bon, was to assume that a strong red heat had fused the car-
bon, and that, in consequence of subsequent rapid cooling, the
cracks in the interior, and, owing to the separation of indi-
vidual pieces from the outer surface, the scaly structure, were
produced.* The black masses recognisable in the interior are
consequently imperfectly fused, condensed, or crystallized car-
bon. Now, although it cannot be denied that, as regards the
Russian diamonds, there is some probability for the supposed
mode of formation, because geognostical investigations have
proved the vicinity of dolomite, a rock whose origin is gene-
rally believed to be connected with volcanic action, and have
shewn the probability of the diamonds having been transported
by water, from their original matrix in that substance, to their
present situation, not to take into consideration the circum-
stance that, according to my own investigations, no well-found-
ed objection can be made to the possibility of a fusion (softening,
liquefaction) of vegetable carbon under certain circumstances ;
yet, nevertheless, much may be urged in opposition to Parrot’s
view. First of all, no signs of volcanic activity are to be met
with in the diamond districts of other countries, although, in
the diamonds produced by them, the same cracks, flaws, and
other peculiarities of structure are equally observable ; hence,
a different mode of origin must, at all events, be assigned to
the non-Russian diamonds. Secondly, no diamonds have been
found actually embedded in the dolomite of the Adolphskoi
valley. Thirdly, the presence of internal flaws and cracks,
and of the scaly structure of the exterior, by no means neces-
sarily involves the assumption of great heat and subsequent
rapid cooling in the formation of diamonds ; and we may more
* See Peteholdt’s Erdkunde (Geologic). Leipsic, 1840, p. 189; Petzholdt,
de Calamitis et Lithanthracibus. Dresdae et Lipsiae, 1841, p. 31; and Pete-
holdt, iiber Kulamiten und Steinkohlenbilding. Dresden and Leipsic, 1841,
p: 27.
Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond. 319
naturally ascribe the cracks, &c., to the blows received during
the transport of so hard and brittle a substance as diamond,
and the external scaling off is solely owing to imperfect crys-
tallization, for the instances of it I have seen have always been
in the modified crystalline forms of the diamond (to which all
the Russian specimens examined by Parrot belong), and never
in the simple octahedrons.
Gébel’s* view of the origin of the diamond is, it is true,
supported by chemistry, in so far that carbon can be obtained
from carbonic acid at a high temperature, by means of the
action of reducing substances, such as magnesium, calcium,
aluminium, silicium, or iron, and a direct experiment of mine
regarding the power of iron to reduce carbonic acid is also
in its favour;t but the geognostical relations in which diamonds
are found, by no means confirm this opinion; for we either
find no phenomena whatever connected with the occurrence
of the diamond, which indicate so high a temperature as would
be requisite for the decomposition of carbonic acid, or where
such present themselves, as in the case of the dolomite of the
Ural, diamonds have not actually been found in the rock. We
have not taken the fact into consideration, that when carbon
is separated from its combinations, as from carbonic acid, it is
always obtained in the form of a black powder.t
Lastly, the opinion expressed by Hausmann§ must not be
passed over in silence, as it is the view entertained by so com-
petent a judge. According to him, electricity has operated
in the formation of diamonds, and that by lightning decom-
posing carbonic acid ; and the argument for this is, that, ac-
cording to the assertion of the oldest diamond seekers, fulgu-
rites or lightning tubes are most frequently met with where
the diamonds are most numerous. Though we should assent
to the possibility of such a decomposition under certain cir-
cumstances, yet we cannot regard as at all admissible, the
* Englehardt’s Lagerstitte der Diamanten, &c.; the chemical portion of
that essay was edited by Gobel, and an extract from it is published in Pog-
gendorfl’s Annalen, 1830, vol. xx., p. 539.
t See Petzholdt’s Hrdkunde (Geologic), p. 133.
} See Lrdmann’s Chemie, 1840, p. 133.
§ Ersch and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopédie, article “ Diamant.”
320 ~=Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond.
formation of the crystal from the separated carbon during the
short continuance of the electrical action of lightning. The
formation of a crystal undoubtedly requires infinitely more
time than could be afforded during a flash of lightning, and
there is not a single instance known of a body crystallizing
suddenly during the continuance of an electric spark.
With regard to the series of opinions according to which
the diamond is of vegetable origin, it seems proper to place at
their head that of Newton, because, so far as Lam aware, it is
the oldest, and is at the same time extremely acute. From
the great refractive power of the diamond, he concluded it to
be a coagulated fatty or unctuous body,* and this idea was
started at a time when nothing was known of the chemical
constitution, or as to the combustibility of the diamond. This,
then, was the first hint of its vegetable origin. Jamesont
spoke more decidedly on the vegetable origin of the diamond ;
for he expressed the opinion, that it must have been separat-
ed, as a form of pure carbon, from the sap of some plant, just
as silica, in the form of tabasheer, is deposited in the joints of
the bamboo and other plants. He adduced, as another proof of
his opinion, the remarkable hardness of some woods, as, for
example, the Metrosideros vera and others, which he ascribed
to carbon approaching the condition of the diamond. Lastly,
Brewster adhered to the hypothesis of the vegetable origin of
the diamond, and thought he was enabled to conclude, from
its polarising properties.} that it must at one period have been
in a soft or pasty condition, but in no degree a product of fire.
He further asserted that the former softness of the diamond
must have approached most nearly that of hardened gum, and
that, like amber, the diamond must have had its origin in the
vegetable kingdom, and been the result of decomposition. The
* Murray’s Memoir on the Diamond, p. 13; and Froriep’s Notizen, vol,
xvi. No. 22, March 1827.
+ Jameson’s Speculations in regard to the Formation of Opal, Woodstone,
and Diamond, in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, vol.
iv. p. 556, and translated in Froriep’s Notizen, vol. xvi. No. 22.
+ Quarterly Journal of Science, Oct. 1820. Froriep’s Notizen, vol. xvi.
No. 22. Philosophical Magazine, 3d Series, vol. vii. p. 249. Poggendorff,
yol. xxxvi. p. 564. Leonhard’s Jahrbuch der Mineralogie, 1834, p. 225.
Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond. 321
crystalline structure of diamonds does not militate against this
conclusion ; for honeystone is regularly crystallized, although
it is undoubtedly of vegetable derivation, as is proved not only
by its chemical composition, but also by its mode of occur-
rence.
Lastly, we now arrive at our own view of the formation of
the diamond, and it coincides completely with that of New-
ton, Jameson, and Brewster; but we base it neither on its
strong refractive power, nor on the great hardness which the
carbon has acquired in the diamond, nor on its polarising pro-
perties, for we are supported by entirely different considera-
tions. We believe that, according to the present state of our
knowledge, the diamond is a product of the newest geological
period, resulting from the slow decomposition of a vegetable
substance. Let us now shortly adduce the proofs of this
opinion.
That the diamond must be a product of the youngest geolo-
gical epoch, of the so-called historical epoch* in a geological
sense, appears from the fact, that hitherto it has only been
met with in stony deposits, which decidedly belong to the
youngest formations, as I have more fully stated in another
place. Its primary repositories, that is to say the places where
it was formed, cannot be very different nor very remote from
its secondary repositories, that is, from those places where we
now meet with it; and all the mineral bodies which we are
in the habit of regarding as the more or less constant asso-
ciates of the diamond in diamond sands, are merely accidental,
if I may so express myself. There is not the slightest reason
for assuming that the formation of the gold or platina, &c.,
stands in any nearer connection with the diamond, for platina
and gold are found in many localities without diamonds. These
bodies were either atthe locality when the diamond was formed,
or they were transported along with that substance by water.
And although it cannot be denied in regard to some of the
other ingredients of the diamond-sand, such as some of the
minerals belonging to the quartz genus, viz., quartz, caleedony,
and hornstone, and also brown ironstone, that they were formed
| tetas ope coy tee EEA ih apes 2 eA)
* Petzholdt’s Exdkunde (Geologic), p. 87.
522 Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond.
contemporaneously (in a geological sense) with the diamond ;
yet this circumstance by no means tends to support the idea
of any sort of connection between their formation and that of
the diamond, because the recent formation of these bodies can
be observed every where, and where no diamonds are to be
met with. The association of all these substances, which we
have termed accidental, is merely caused by the geognostical
constitution of the district through which the river-course of
the present day extends, by the nature of that course itself,
by specific gravity, and by many other circumstances having
not the smallest concern with the formation of the diamond.
The strongest proof, however, of the recent origin of the dia-
mond, is its occurrence in the loose rolled matter in which
and with which it was formed, combined with the want of sue-
cess that has hitherto attended the search for the diamond
embedded in those rocks, regarding which it is so easy, on the
other hand, to prove that from them all the other rolled bodies
had their origin. We leave entirely aside the question, whe-
ther the prevalent popular belief in the East Indies and Brazil,
that diamonds are still produced,* be an instinctive percep-
tion of the truth, or a deceptive notion.
Further, the diamond must have been formed in the moist
way from a liquid, because otherwise it would have presented
none of the included splinters of quartz of which I have
spoken in another place,t and of which some even exhibit
the vegetable cellular texture.
Lastly, from all that we know, the material from which the
diamond was formed, by the separation of crystalline carbon,
could only have been a substance rich in carbon and. hydrogen,
such as, owing to the requisite chemical properties, can only
be looked for in the vegetable kingdom ; and we are forced to
consider the diamond as produced from this substance, con-
sisting of carbon and hydrogen, by means of decomposition.
The determination of the nature of this process is ‘solely a
chemical matter; and Liebig, who has undeniably rendered
the greatest service to our knowledge of the decomposition of
* See Leonhard’s Populdre Vorlesungen iiber Geologie, vol. iii. p. 497.
+ Vide Jameson’s Journal for January 1848, p. 187.
Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond. 323
organic bodies, makes the following remarks :*—* If we sup-
pose decay to proceed in a liquid, which contains both carbon
and hydrogen, then a compound containing still more carbon
must be formed, in a manner similar to the production of the
crystalline colourless naphthalin, from a gaseous compound of
carbon and hydrogen. And if the compound thus formed were
itself to undergo further decay, the final result must be the
separation of carbon ina crystalline form. Science can point
to no process capable of accounting for the origin and forma-
tion of diamonds, except the process of decay. Diamonds
cannot be produced by the action of fire, for a high tempera-
ture, and the presence of oxygen gas, would call into play
their combustibility. But there is the greatest reason to be-
lieve that they are formed in the humid way, that is, in a
liquid ; and the process of decay is the only cause to which
their formation can with probability be ascribed.”
As yet we are ignorant of the nature of the vegetable sub-
stance, rich in carburetted hydrogen, by whose decomposition
the diamond was formed, and as to what were the particular
conditions necessary for the appearance of crystalline carbon.
This only we know, however, that the whole process was an
extremely slow one, and that it could not in any way be has-
tened by an increased temperature, for in that case the carbon
could not have crystallized, but must, on the contrary, have
been separated in the form of a black powder.
The conclusion deduced by Newton from certain optical
properties of the diamond, viz., that it has been produced
from an oily body, is very beautifully confirmed by the newest
and most accurate investigations of chemistry, for, according
to them, the so-termed oily bodies are proved to be the richest
in carburetted hydrogen ; and chemistry, which can alone
explain the decompositions of bodies, and their formation from
their elements, just requires for the formation of the diamond
the decomposition of a substance rich in carburetted hydrogen.
There are two different phenomena connected with the above
* Liebig’s Organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Phy-
siologie. Braunschweig, 1840, p. 285 ; and Playfaix’s Translation, p, 143.
824 Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond.
explanation of the origin of the diamond, which cannot be
left unnoticed, as they are well calculated to place the truth
of our assertions in a clearer point of view. As I have already
stated elsewhere, diamonds not unfrequently exhibit at their
surface blackish spots, which disappear on the application
of heat ;* and, moreover, they very frequently present in
their interior perfectly black, amorphous bodies, which cannot
be considered as any thing else but uncrystallized carbon,—
a fact observed in the course of Parrot’s investigations, as well
as my own. This phenomenon can only be explained by as-
suming a somewhat accelerated decay of the matter containing
carbon and hydrogen ; in the course of which the carbon has
been produced in the form of a black powder, instead of being
separated in a crystalline state. On the other hand, I have on
several occasions had an opportunity of convincing myself of
the tendency of carbon to crystallize, when the combustion
(the accelerated decayt) of a substance rich in carbon and
hydrogen is retarded. Thus, on the wicks of badly burning
tallow candles, I have seen the well-known accumulations of
carbonaceous matter (soot), which have generally globular or
semi-globular forms, assume distinctly an octahedral shape ;
and I believe that this appearance has long been observed by
others, for it is only by the resemblance of an octahedron
to the envelope of a letter that I can explain the popular say-
ing, of there being a letter in the wick of a candle. I have
even preserved, for some time, one of these tolerably well-
‘defined octahedrons, and exhibited it to my class ; but it was
at last broken, and it then appeared that the fragments were
harder than the ordinary soot, although they could still be
easily bruised between the fingers.
Lastly, let me add a few words regarding the experiments
made in recent times on the production of artificial diamonds,
for [I believe that I may say, without exaggeration, that, since
it was discovered that the diamond consists of pure carbon,
* See Parrot, Wotice sur les Diamans, p. 30 and 31.
+ That combustion is only a rapid decay, and decay only a slow combus-
tion, is known to all chemists. Above all, see Liebig’s remarks on this
subject in the second part of his Organic Chemistry.
Dr Petzholdt on the Formation of the Diamond. 3825
there is hardly any chemist ‘who has not performed more or
less extensive experiments on the subject. That the results
of such investigations have been published by but few chemists,
is no proof that few experiments have been made, for human
nature and vanity prefer silence to publicity, where investiga-
tions have failed, and hopes have been disappointed.
All the experiments to form artificial diamonds may be re-
ferred to two methods, viz. the attempt to fuse carbon, and the
endeavour to separate carbon in a crystalline state from a
highly carbonaceous compound, by means of decomposition.
It need hardly be remarked that all the trials have hitherto been
invain. The experiments made with the first view have been
rendered unsuccessful by the infusibility of carbon, and the others
proceeding on the second idea have always resulted in the pro-
duction of carbon in the form of a black substance.* Lastly,
if any one should be of opinion that, by the assistance of a
constantly operating electrical stream, highly carbonaceous
bodies might be decomposed so slowly that carbon might be
separated in a crystalline condition, that is, in the form of
diamond, just as copper and the other metals have been re-
cently obtained, in a crystalline state, from solutions, by Jacobi’s
method, such an expectation will prove to be a vain one; for,
on the one hand, the substances most suited to galvanic de-
composition are non-conductors of electricity, as, for example,
sulphuret of carbon, oil of turpentine, copaiva balsam, &c. ;
and on the other, if we should be successful in separating,
from any compound, crystalline carbon on the conducting wire,
yet, according to theory, at the very moment when even the
most delicate covering of crystalline carbon should be deposit-
ed, all further action on the decomposing liquid would be inter-
rupted, for the matter of diamond itself is known to be a non-
conductor of electricity.t
* A pretty extensive collection of the experiments on this subject, to-
gether with the references, is to be found in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine
Encyclopidie der Kiinste und Wissenchaften, under the article Diamant. See
also in Gmelin’s Handbuch der Theoretischen Chemie, vol. i. the chapter on Car-
bon.
t From Petzholdt’s Beitrige zw Naturgeschichte des Diamantes, 1842,
VOL. XXXIV, NO. LXVIII.—-APRIL 1843. ¥
( 826 )
An Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents. By
Baron Von Humsotpr.
Art the meeting of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, on 18th
July 1842, a memoir by M. de Humboldt was read, of which
we think it necessary to give asomewhat lengthened account.
It is entitled “ An attempt at determining the mean height
of Continents.”
« Among the numerical elements on which the progress of
physical geography appears more particularly to depend, there
is one which no attempt has been hitherto made to determine.
The notion which seemed to prevail, that it was impossible
to come to such a determination, has perhaps been the prin-
cipal cause of the subject being neglected. However, the ex-
tension of our orographical knowledge, as well as the great-
er accuracy of the maps which represent large portions of
country, determined me, says M. de Humboldt, to undertake,
some years ago, a work of great labour, and in appearance
barren in results, the object of which is the knowledge of the
mean height of continents, and the determination of the mean
height of the centre of gravity of their volume. Yn such a case
as this, as with many others, such as the dimensions of the
globe, the probable distance of the fixed stars, the mean tem-
perature of the poles of the earth, the thickness of the atmo-
spheric stratum above the level of the sea, or the enumeration
of the general population of the globe, we arrive at limited
numbers, between which the results must fall. In like man-
ner, it is by the perfect knowledge of the geometrical and
hypsometrical surface of a country, of France, for example,
that we may thus be led, by analogy, to extend the conclu-
sions toa great part of Europe and America, and are en-
abled to establish numerical data, which have recently been
completed in a very satisfactory manner in regard to central
and western Asia.
“ It was likewise necessary to collect, with the greatest care,
astronomical determinations of the height of places, in order
to establish, to about 300 or 400 metres of absolute height,
the limits between the acclivities of the mountains and the
edges of the valleys. I long since demonstrated the possibi-
Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents, 327
lity of such a determination of limits, and, from the comparison
which depends on it, I have deduced the extent of the surface
of the plains, and the horizontal and flat portions of moun-
tains, in my geognostical researches on South America ; a por-
tion of the globe in regard to which the length of the im-
mense wall which forms the Cordillera of the Andes, and of
the elevated masses of Parima and Brazil, was so incorrectly
limited and circumscribed on all maps. In fact, there is a
general tendency in all graphic representations to give the
mountains a greater degree of breadth than they really pos-
sess, and even in the flat portions to confound plateaux of va-
rious kinds with each other.”
M. de Humboldt published, in 1825, two memoirs inserted
in the Memoires dé Il’Académie des Sciences of Paris, on the
mean height of continents, and an estimate of the volume
of the elevated ridges of mountains, compared with the
extent of the surface of the lower regions. An assertion of
Laplace in the Mécanique Céleste (vol. v., book xi. chap. i.
page 13), gave rise to these researches. This great geo-
meter had established in principle, that the agreement ob-
served between the results of experiments made with the pen-
dulum and the compression of the earth, deduced as well
from the trigonometrical measurement of the degrees of the
meridian as from the inequality of the moon, furnished a
proof * that the surface of the terrestrial spheroid would
be nearly that of equilibrium, if that surface became fluid.
Hence, and from the consideration that the sea leaves vast
continents uncovered, we conclude that it cannot be of great
depth, and that its mean depth is of the same order as the
mean height of the continents and islands above its level,
a height which does not exceed 1000 metres” (or 3073
Parisian feet, that is to say, only 463 feet less than the sum-
mit of the Brocken, according to M. Gauss, or a little more
than the most elevated mountains of Thuringia). Laplace
further adds, “ This height is, then, a small fraction of the
excess of the radius of the equator over that of the pole, an
excess which exceeds 20,000 metres. Just as high moun-
tains cover some parts of continents, so there may be great
cavities in the bed of the sea; but it is natural to suppose
528 Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents.
that their depth is less than the elevation of high mountains,
as the deposits from the waves, and the remains of marine
animals, must have tended, in the lapse of time, to fill up these
great cavities.”
Considering the profound and extensive knowledge which
the author of the Jlécanique Céleste possessed in the highest
degree, an assertion of this nature was the more striking, as
he could not be ignorant that the mostelevated plateau of
France, that from which the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne
have risen, does not rise, according to Ramond, to more than
1044 feet, and that the great Iberian plateau is not, according
to my own measurements, more than 2100 feet above the level
of the sea. Laplace has therefore fixed the upper limit at
1000 metres, merely because he has considered the extent and
the mass of the elevations of mountains to be much greater than
they really are, inasmuch as he has confounded the height of
the insulated peaks or culminating points with the mean height
of the mountain ridges; he has admitted much too low a
number for the depth of seas, because, in his time, data could
not be found on the subject, and he has thence inferred the
proportion of the extent of the surface (in square miles) in re-
gard to all continents, to the extent of the projection of the
surfaces covered by mountains.
A very exact calculation has shewn that the mass of the
chain of the Andes, in South America, from where it leaves the
whole portion of the eastern plains of the pampas and forests,
regions whose surface is one-third larger than that of Europe,
does not rise above 486 feet. M. de Humboldt hence con-
cludes, ‘* That the mean height of continental lands depends
much less on those chains or longitudinal ridges of little
breadth which traverse continents, and on their culminating
points or domes, which attract common observation, than on
the general configuration of the different orders of plateaux and
their ascending series, and on those gently undulating plains
with alternating slopes, which have an influence, by their mass
and extent, on the position of a mean surface, that is to say, on
the height of a plain placed in such a manner that the sum of
its positive ordinates shall be equal to the sum of its negative
ordinates.”
Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents. 329
The comparison which Laplace has instituted in the pas-
sage quoted from the Mécanique Céleste between the depth of
the sea and the height of continents, recalls a passage of Plu-
tarch, in the 15th chapter of his Life of Aimilius Paulus (ed.
Reiskii, vol. ii. page 276),—a passage the more remarkable, as
it makes us acquainted with an opinion which generally pre-
vailed among the philosophers of the Alexandrian school.
After quoting an inscription found on Mount Olympus, and
giving the result of the measurement of its height by Xenago-
ras, Plutarch adds, “ But geometricians (probably those of
Alexandria) believe that here is no mountain higher, and no
sea deeper, than ten stadia”’ We can entertain no doubt about
the exactness of the measurement made by Xenagoras ; but it
is striking to observe, that the philosophers of this school esta-
blished in the structure of the earth a perfect equality be-
tween the heights or positive and negative ordinates. Here
the maximum of the heights and depths is alone taken into
account, and not the mean height,—a consideration which
rarely presented itself to the mind of the ancient philosophers,
and which, for variable magnitudes, was applied in a useful
manner to astronomy by the Arabs. Even in the Metereologius
of Cleomedes (i. 10), we meet with an assertion similar to that
of Plutarch ; while in the Meteorolcgicis of the philosopher of
Stagira (Arist. Met. ii. 2), the only point considered is the in-
fluence of the inclination of the bottom of the sea, from east
to west, on its currents.
When we try to determine the mean height of the elevation
of continents above the present level of the seas, it means
that the object is to find the centre of gravity of the volume
of these continents above that level,—an investigation very dif-
ferent from that which consists in searching for the centre of
gravity of the volume of the continental mass, or the centre of
gravity of the masses, seeing that the portion which rises above
the sea, in the crust of the globe, is by no means of the same
density, as has-been demonstrated both by geognosy and ex-
periments with the pendulum. The mode of simple calculation
is as follows :—Each chain of mountains is considered as a tri-
angular prism placed horizontally, The mean height of the
defiles or passes, which determine the mean height of the crest
330 Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents.
of the mountains, is the height of the ridge of the prism ver-
tically above the surface, which constitutes the base of the
chain. The plateaux are calculated as straight prisms, in or-
der to establish their solidity.
For the purpose of giving an example, taken from Hurope,
of this kind of calculation, M. de Humboldt states, that the
surface of France contains 10,087 square geographical miles.
According to M. Charpentier, the Pyrenees cover 430 of these
square miles ; and, although the mean height of the summits
of the Pyrenees rises to 7500 feet, M. de Humboldt makes a
reduction upon it, on account of the erosions produced on the
prism supposed to be lying horizontally, and which have tended
specially to diminish the size of the deep transverse valleys.
The effect of the Pyrenees on the whole of France is not more
than 35 metres or 108 feet ; that is to say, it is to that extent
that the normal surface of the entire plain of France would be
increased, and the elevation of that surface by the comparison
of a great number of very accurate measurements at places
towards the centre (such as Bourges, Chartres, Nevers, Tours,
&c.) has been found to be 480 feet. This calculation, which
M. de Humboldt has made along with M. Elie de Beaumont,
furnishes the following general result, in measures thus given
by the author :—
\ Toises.
1. Effect of the Pyrenees, . 18
2. The French Alps, the Jura, and the Vosges, a tow
toises more than the Pyrenees ; common effect, 20
3. The plateaux of Limousin, Auvergne, the Cevennes,
Aveyron, Forez, Moryant, Cote d’Or; common ef-
fect, nearly equal to that of the Pyrenees, - 18
Now, as the normal height of the plain of France is at
its maximum about : : : ; 80
———
It follows that the mean height of France does not ex- 3
ceed . ; ; : ; . 186 toises,
or 816 feet.
The Baltic, Sarmatian, and Russian plains are separated
from those of the north of Asia only by the meridian chain
of the Oural. It is for this reason that Herodotus, who was
acquainted with the connection of the southern extremity of
Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents. 331
the Oural in the country of the Issidones, called the whole of
Europe to the north of the Altai Mountains, Asia. In the
neighbouring region of the Baltic plains, near the shores of
the Baltic Sea, there are partial elevated masses which deserve
particular attention. To the west of Dantzic, between that
town and Butow, at the point where the shore of the sea ad-
vances much to the north, there are many villages situated at a
height of 400 feet ; the Thurmberg, moreover, the measure-
ment of which has given rise to many hypsometrical contro-
versies, rises, according to the trigonometrical observations
of Major Baeyer, to 1024 feet, which is perhaps the greatest
elevation to be found between the Harz and Oural. It is sur-
prising that, according to the measurements made by M.
Struve of the culminating point of Livonia, the Munamaggi,
this mountain rises only 4 toises higher than the Thurmberg
of Pomerania ; while, on the other hand, according to Captain
Albrecht’s chart, the greatest depth of the Baltic Sea, between
Gothland and Windau, is not more than 167 toises, a mea-
surement almost identical with that of the Thurmberg.
The flat countries exclusively European, the normal height
of which cannot be estimated at more than 60 toises, occupy,
according to exact measurements, a surface nine times that
of France. The extraordinary extent of this low region is
the cause of the mean continental height of all Europe, over
an extent of 17,000 square geographical miles, being 30 toises
below the result we have found for France. As tothe rest,
not to occupy more time with numbers, M. de Humboldt adds,
that an important consideration in the study of the general
phenomena of geology is, that the elevated masses, over ex-
tensive countries, in the form of plateaux, produce an entirely
different effect on the elevation of the centre of gravity of
the volume from that of chains of mountains, when they have
the same importance in breadth and in height. While the
Pyrenees produce scarcely the effect of a single toise on the
whole of Europe, the system of the Alps, which cover a
surface almost quadruple that of the Pyrenees, has the effect
of 33 toises ; the Iberian peninsula, with its compact massive
plateau of 300 toises, produces the effect of 12 toises. The
plateau just named, therefore, has an effect on the whole of
332 Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents.
Europe four times more considerable than the system of the
Alps. This result of calculations is the more satisfactory
as it appears to be deduced without reference to any pre-
vious hypothesis.
We have recently acquired many new ideas respecting the
configuration of Asia. The effect of the elevated colossal
masses of the southern portion is found to be weakened, since
one-third of the whole continent of Asia, a portion of Siberia,
whichalone exceeds by a third the entire surface of Europe, does
not reach a normal height of 40 toises. This is, likewise,
the height of Orenbourg, on the northern shore of the Cas-
pian Sea. Tobolsk does not attain the half of this height,
and Casan, which is five times more distant from the shore of
the Icy Sea than Berlin is from the Baltic, is scarcely half
the height of the last mentioned city. In Upper Irtysch, be-
tween Buktormensy and Lake Saysan, at a point nearer the
Indian than the Icy Ocean, M. de Humboldt has found that
the plains only reached a height of about 800 feet ; this, how-
ever, has been called the plateau of Central Asia, and is not
half the height of the streets of the city of Munich above the
sea-level. The celebrated plateau between Lake Baikal and
the Wall of China (the stony desert of Gobi and Cha-mo),
which the Russian academicians, MM. Bunge and Fuss, have
measured with the barometer, has a mean height of only 660
toises, which is nearly the same as that of the Miiggelsberg at
the summit of the Brocken. There is, moreover, in the centre
of this plateau, at the point where Ergi is situated (lat. 45° 31’)
a cauldron-shaped depression, the bottom of which descends
to 400 toises, that is to say, the height of Madrid. ‘“ This de-
pression,” says M. Bunge, in a memoir not yet published,
“is covered with Halophytes and species of the genus Arundo,
and, according to the tradition-of the Mongolians who ac-
companied us, it was formerly a great inland sea.” The
two extremities of this ancient inland sea are bounded by
steep rocks, just like an ordinary sea, in the neighbourhood of
Olonbaischan and Zukeldakan.
The surface of Gobi, in its masses of uniform elevation, and
from the south-west to north-west, is twice as large as that
of all Germany, and will raise the centre of gravity of Asia
Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents. 333
20 toises ; while the Himalaya and the Houen-lun, which is
a prolongation of the Hindoo-Kho, with the plateaux of Thibet,
which connect the Himalaya with the Kouen-lun, will only pro-
duce an effect of 56 toises. In the examination of the consi-
derable relief between the plains of the Indus and the de-
pressed plateau of Tarim, which, on leaving Kaschgar, in-
clines to the east towards Lake Lop, it is necessary to exa-
mine with more care the point near the meridian of Kaylasa,
and the two sacred lakes of Manasa and Ravana-Brada, on
leaving which the Himalaya no longer runs from east to west
parallel with the Kouen-lun, but takes the direction from
south-east to north-west,and reunites at the projecting ridges of
Tsun-ling. The altitudes of the numerous passes of Bamian,
as far as the meridian of Tschamalari (24,400 feet), by which
Turner reached the Thibetian plateau of H’Lassa, are likewise
known for an extent of 21° of longitude. The greater part
of them present a very uniform height of 14,000 English feet,
or 2200 toises, a height which is not of rare occurrence in the
passes of the chain of the Andes. The great route which M.
de Humboldt followed from Quito, on his way to Cuenca,
was, for example, at Assuay (Ladera de Cadlud), and without
snow, of the height of 2428 toises, that is to say, 1400 feet
higher than this pass of the Himalaya. The passes, as has
been stated, give the mean height of mountains.
In a memoir on the relations between elevated summits or
culminating points, and the height of mountain chains, M.
de Humboldt has demonstrated that the chain of the Pyre-
nees, calculated from twenty-three passes, was 50 toises high-
er than the mean chain of the Alps, although the culminating
points of the Pyrenees and the Alps were in the proportion of
1 tol. As the insulated passes of the Himalaya, for ex-
ample, the Niti-Gate, by which-we penetrate into the plain
of the Cashmere goats, rise to the height of 2629 toises, M.
de Humboldt has not admitted for the height of the Himalayan
chain 14,000 English feet, but he proposes to fix it, although
perhaps the elevation may be still too considerable, at 15,500
feet, or 2432 toises. The plateau of the three Thibets of
Iscardo, Ladak, and H’Lassa, is a prominence between two
chains which unite with each other (the Himalaya and the
334 Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents.
Kouen-Lun). Mr Vigne’s travels in Baltistan, which have just
appeared, the journal of the brothers Gerard, published by
Lloyd, as well as the recent investigations undertaken in India
respecting the relative height of perpetual snow on the Indian
and Thibetian declivities of the Himalaya, have demonstrated
that the mean height of the Thibetian plateaux has hitherto
been greatly exaggerated. In his work entitled “ Central
Asia,” of which only a few pages of the third volume have
been yet printed, and which will be accompanied by a hypso-
metrical map of Asia from the Phasis, as far as the gulf of
Petcheli, and from the common embouchures of the Ob and
the Irtysch to the parallel of Delhi, M. de Humboldt thinks
that he has demonstrated, by bringing together a multitude
of facts, that the prominence between the Himalaya and the
Kouen-Lun (chains which form the southern and northern
limits of Thibet), does not rise above the mean height of 1800
toises, and that it is, consequently, 200 toises lower than the
plateau of Lake Titicaca.
The hypsometrical configuration of the Asiatic continent
is perhaps still more remarkable for its plains and depres-
sions, than for its colossal heights. This continent is distin-
guished by two principal characteristic features; 1st, by the
long series of meridian chains, which, with parallel axes,
but alternating with each other (having perhaps been pro-
jected comme des filons) extend from Lake Comorin, opposite
Ceylon, to the shores of the Icy Sea, in a uniform direction
from south-south-east to north-north-west, under the name of
Ghates, the Soliman chain, Paralasa, Bolor, and Oural. This
alternating situation of auriferous meridian chains (Vigne has
recently visited, on the eastern declivity of Bolos, in the valley
of Basha, in Baltistan, the auriferous sands mined, according
to the Thibetians, by marmots, and, according to Herodotus,
by large ants) reveals to us this law, that none of the meridian
chains just named, between 64° and 75° of longitude, extend
themselves upon the adjoming ones, either towards the east
or the west, and that each of these longitudinal elevations does
not begin to shew its extent, until a point is reached where
the preceding has completely disappeared. 2d, Another cha-
racteristic trait in the configuration of Asia, and which has-
Attempt to determine the mean height of Continents. 335
not been sufficiently observed, is the continuity of a consider-
able elevation, east and west, between 35° and 363° of lati-
tude, from Takhialoudag, in ancient Lycia, as far as the Chinese
province of Houpih, an elevation thrice intersected by meridian
chains (Zagros, in Western Persia, Bolos, in Affghanistan, and
the chain of Assam, in the valley of Dzangho) from the west
to the east of this chain, from the parallel of Dicearchus, which
is at the same time that of Rhodes, Taurus, Elbrouz, Hindou-
Kho, and Kouen-Lun or A-Neoutha. In the third book of the
geography of Eratosthenés, we find the first germ of the no-
tion of a chain of mountains (Strabo, xv. p. 689, Cas.) run-
ning in a continuous manner, and dividing Asia into two
parts. Dicearchus perceived the connection between the
Taurus of Asia Minor and the snow-covered mountains of
Asia, which had acquired so much celebrity among the Greeks
by the false accounts of those who had accompanied the
Macedonians. Importance was assigned to the parallel of
Rhodes, and to the direction of this endless chain of moun-
tains. The chlamyde of Asia ought to be found further on under
this parallel (Strabo, xi. p. 519), and perhaps, says Strabo, a
little more to the east there may be another continent. The
Taurus and the plateaux of Asia Minor disclosed for the first
time to the Greek philosophers the influence of height on tem-
perature. ‘ Even in the southern latitudes,” says the great
geographer of Amasis, (Strabo, ii. p. 73) when the climate of
the northern coasts of Cappadocia is compared with that of the
plains of Argaios, situated 3000 stadia further south, the
mountains and all the elevated lands are cold, even when
these lands consist of plains.” Strabo is the only one among
Greek authors who has made use of the word ogoreda@ or
mountain plain.
According to the final result of the whole of M. de Hum-
boldt’s investigations, the maximum assigned by Laplace for
the mean height of continents is too considerable by two-thirds.
He found the following numerical elements for the three
quarters of the world which have been the object of his cal-
culations (Africa not yet presenting a sufficient number of
data to be included).
336 Adtempt to determine the mean height of Continents.
Europe, 105 toises (205 metres).
North America, 117 ... (228 ... ).
South America, 177... (845 .. ).
Asia, 180: SatT(SEN at
For the whole of the new continent we have 146 toises
(285 metres), and for the height of the centre of gravity of the
volume of all the continental masses (Africa excepted) above
the level of the present seas, 157.8 toises or 307 metres.
Von Hoff, who has measured with extreme accuracy 1076
different points, the greater part of them in the mountainous
portion of Thuringia, over an extent of 224 square geographical
miles, estimates that there are about five heights for each
square mile, but that these heights are unequally scattered.
M. de Humboldt has asked Von Hoff, always for the purpose
of verifying Laplace’s hypothesis respecting the mass of con-
tinents, to calculate the mean height of the hypsometrical
measurements which he has made. This philosopher has found
it to be 166 toises, that is to say, 8 toises more than the result
at which M. de Humboldt had arrived. We ought thence to
conclude, that, since a very mountainous country of Thuringia
was measured, the number, 157 toises, or 942 feet, is a limit
rather too high than too low.
In the certainty in which we now are respecting the. pro-
gressive and partial rising of Sweden (one of the most im-
portant facts in physical geography, for a knowledge of which
we are indebted to M. de Buch), we may suppose that the
centre of gravity will not always continue the same. At the
same time, considering the smallness of the masses which are
raised and the weakness of the subterranean forces in action,
it may be presumed, regarding such variations, that they will
in a great measure compensate each other, and that the posi-
tion of the centre of gravity above the ocean will not be much
changed ; but a new circumstance, which appears to result
from the numerical calculations of this hypsometrical labour,
is, that the smallest heights in our hemisphere belong to the
continental masses of the north. Thus Europe has furnished
105 toises, North America 117 toises. The prominent cha-
racter of Asia between 28° and 40° of latitude compensates
the subtractive effect of the lower portions of Siberia. Asia
Notice of the Great Explosion at Dover. 337
and South America give 180 and 177 toises. We thus read,
so to speak, in these numbers, in what portions of the surface
of our globe vulcanism, that is to say, the reaction of the
interior on the exterior, has been felt with greatest intensity
in the ancient soulévements. (L’ Institut, 5th Jan. 1843 p. 4.)
Notice of the Great Explosion at Dover. Contained in a
Letter to the Earl of Carucarr, by Captain Sruarr, 7th
Royal Fusiliers. Communicated by Lorp Greenock.
Dover, 26th January 1843.
My Dear Lorp,—An operation in engineering was success-
fully performed near Dover to-day, which, from its magnitude
and novelty, must be a subject of deep interest to every person
acquainted in the least degree with practical science. It was
the removal of an enormous mass of the cliff facing the sea,
which formed an obstruction to the line of railroad. To give
you a distinct idea of its position, it may be necessary to in-
form you, that a portion of the cliff which was penetrated by
the tunnel made through Shakspeare’s Cliff gave way about
two years ago. About fifty yards of the tunnel were carried
away, and a clear space was so formed for the line of railroad,
with the exception of a projecting point, which, prior to the
slip alluded to, was the extremity of the part of the cliff pierced
by the tunnel, and to remove which was the object of the ope-
ration in question. Mr Cubitt is the engineer, under whose
management it took place. The expense of clearing it away
by the tedious process of manual labour, would have exceeded
L.12,000, and this consideration, as well as the time that
would have been lost, induced him to try the bold experiment
of blowing it away with gunpowder. It cannot be denied,
that there was apparent danger in the undertaking, for the
weight of the mass to be removed was estimated at 2,000,000
tons, and the quantity of powder used was more than eight
tons, or 18,000 Ibs. 12,000 Ibs. was the quantity used in
blowing up the fortifications of Bhurtpore, and this, I believe,
was the greatest explosion that ever (previously) took place
for any single specific object. I had several opportunities of
338 Notice of the Great Explosion at Doves.
seeing the preparations for this grand event. The front of
the projection was about 100 yards wide; this front was
pierced with a tunnel about six feet in height, and three in
breadth ; three shafts equidistant from each other and from
the entrances to the tunnel, were sunk to the depth of seven-
teen feet, and galleries were run, one from each shaft, paral-
lel with each other, and at right angles with the line of the
tunnel. These galleries varied in length, the longest having
been 26 feet, the shortest 12 feet, and, at their extremities,
chambers were excavated in a parallel direction with the tun-
nel. The following rude sketch may give a clearer idea of it.
1 2 2 2 5 ee *
1. The Tunnel. 2, The Shafts, 3. The Galleries. 4. The Chambers.
In the chambers, the powder was deposited in three nearly
equal quantities ; it was done up in 50 lb. bags, and the pro-
portion in each chamber was contained in a wooden case
nearly as large as the chamber itself. Ignition was commu-
nicated by means of a voltaic battery. Conductors 1000 feet
in length were passed over the cliff, one to each chamber, and
the electric fluid was communicated in a shed built for the
purpose on the top of the cliff about fifty yards from the edge.
The explosion was conducted by Lieutenant Hutchinson, R. E.,
who, you may recollect, was engaged under General Paisley,
in blowing up the wreck of the Royal George. Two o'clock
p.m. of this day, the tide being then at its lowest ebb, was
fixed on for the explosion to take place. The arrangements
were the best that could be made to preserve order, and as far
as possible prevent danger. A space was kept clear by a cor-
don of the artillery, and the following programme was issued :
Signals, Janwary 26. 1843.
1st, Fifteen minutes before firing, all the signal flags will be hoisted.
2d, Five minutes before firing, one gun will be fired, and all the flags
will be hauled down.
3d, One minute before firing, two guns will be fired, and all the flags
(except that on the point which is to be blasted) will be hoisted
again.
Notice of the Great Explosion at Dover. 339
These signals were given exactly at the specified time, and
when the expected moment arrived, a deep subterranean
sound was heard, a violent commotion was seen at the base
of the cliff, and the whole mass slid majestically down, form-
ing an immense debris at the bottom. The success of the
undertaking equalled the most sanguine hopes, and exceeded
the expectations of all. It was a splendid triumph of skill,
and reflects the highest credit on Mr Hutchinson and Mr
Cubitt.
Sir John Herschel also gives an account of this Explosion in
the following letter, addressed tothe Editor of the Athenzeum :—
Having witnessed the great explosion at Dover, on Thursday the 26th,
from the summit of the cliff next adjoining it to the southward, and from
the nearest point to which any access was permitted, I would gladly
place on record, in your valuable journal, some features of its magnifi-
cent operation, which struck me at the time as extremely remarkable,
and which have not, I think, been adequately placed before the public in
any account that I have seen. These features are, the singular and al-
most total absence of all those tumultuous and noisy manifestations of
power which might naturally be expected to accompany the explosion of
so enormous a quantity (19,000 lb.) of gunpowder, and which formed, I
have no doubt, the chief attraction of many who came from great distances
to witness it,—viz. noise, smoke, earthquake, and fragments hurled to vast
distances through the air.
Of the noise accompanying the immediate explosion, I can only de-
scribe it as a low murmur, lasting hardly more than half a second, and so
faint, that had a companion at my elbow been speaking in an ordinary
tone of voice, I doubt not it would have passed unheeded. Nor was the
fall of the cliff (nearly 400 feet in height, and of which no less than
400,000 cubic yards were, within an interval of time hardly exceeding ten
seconds, distributed over the beach, on an area of 18 acres, covered to an
average depth of 14 feet, and in many parts from 30 to 50) accompanied
with any considerable noise, certainly with none which attracted my own
attention, or that of several others similarly stationed, with whom I after-
wards compared notes. A pretty fresh breeze from the south-west might
be regarded as influential in wafting it away, were it not that the fall took
place under the lee of the cliff on whose edge we were stationed.
The entire absence of smoke was another and not less remarkable fea-
ture of the phenomenon. Much dust, indeed, curled out at the borders of
the vast rolling and undulating mass, which spread itself like a semi-fluid
body, thinning out in its progress ; but this subsided instantly ; and of true
smoke there was absolutely not a vestige. Every part of the surface was
340 Notice of the Great Explosion at Dover.
immediately and clearly seen—the prostrate* flagstaff (speedily re-erected
in the place of its fall)—the broken turf which a few seconds before had
been quietly growing at the summit of the cliff, and every other detail of
that extensive field of ruin, were seen immediately in all their distinct-
ness. Full in the midst of what appeared the highest part of the expand-
ing mass, while yet in rapid motion, my attention was attracted by a tu-
multuous and somewhat upward-swelling motion of the earth, whence I
fully expected to’see burst forth a volume of pitchy smoke,{and from which
my present impression is, that gas, purified from carbonaceous matter in
passing through innumerable fissures of cold and damp material, was still in
progress of escape ; but, whether so or not, the remark made at the mo-
ment is sufficient to prove the absence of any impediment to distinct vi-
sion.
Ag regards the amount of tremor perceived, I must confess having
speculated with some little anxiety on the probable stability of the abrupt
and precipitous ridge on which I stood; and might, therefore, have
somewhat underrated the exceedingly trifling movement which actually
reached that point, and which I think I have felt surpassed by a heavy
waggon passing along a paved street. The impression, slight as it was,
was single and brief, and must have originated with the first shock of the
powder, and not from the subsequent and prolonged rush of the ruins,
which I can positively say communieated no perceptible tremor whatever.
I have not heard of a single scattered fragment, flying out as a projectile,
in any direction ; and altogether the whole phenomenon was totally un-
like any thing which, according to ordinary ideas, could have been sup-
posed to arise from the action of gunpowder. Strange as it may seem,
this contrast between the actual and the expected effects, gave to the
whole scene a character rather of sublime composure than of headlong
violence, of graceful ease than of struggling effort. How quietly, in short,
the gigantic power employed performed its work may be gathered from
the fact, that the operators themselves who discharged the batteries were
not aware that they had taken effect, but thought the whole affair a fail-
ure, until re-assured by the shout which hailed its success.
The remarkable absence of noise and tremor which characterized this
operation is explained by the structure of chalk as a material, and by the
rifty state of the cliffas a body. Of all substances, perhaps, chalk is the
worst adapted for conveying sound, and the best for deadening the vibra-
tion propagated through it by a heavy blow. The initial lfammer-like im-
pulse of the newly-created gas on the walls of the chambers of the mines
(of which it must be recollected there were three, simultaneously explo-
ded) was doubtless thus deadened by traversing at least 75 feet of chalk,
even in the shortest direction, or line of least resistance ; and this must
have taken place before the mass could have been sensibly moved from
* It has been stated, that the flagstaff continued erect, but this (if I can credit
the distinct evidence of my own senses) is incorrect.
On the Introduction of Granite into Scotland. 341
its seat by the expansive force generated, which, however vast, proved
incapable (as, indeed, it was expressly provided it should be) to commu-
nicate to its enormous load any greater velocity than barely sufficient to
rift and bulge it outwards, leaving gravity to do the rest. Nothing can
place in a more sigaal light the exactness of calculation which (basing it-
self on a remarkably simple rule, the result of long practical experience)
could enable the eminent engineer (Mr Cubitt), by whom the whole ar-
rangements are understood to have been made, so completely to task to
its utmost every pound of powder employed, as to exhaust its whole effort
in useful work—leaving no superfluous power to be wasted in the produc-
tion of useless uproar or mischievous dispersion, and thus saving at a blow
not less than L.7,000 to the railway company.—I have the honour to be,
&e. J. F. W. Herscaer.
Collingwood, Jan, 31, 1843.
On the Introduction into Scotland of Granite, for Ornamental
Purposes, by Messrs Macdonald and Leslie of Aberdeen.
By Professor Traitt, F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &e.* Communi-
cated by the Author.
The first idea of employing the refractory, but enduring,
material, granite, in sculpture appears to be due to the ancient
Egyptians. Those who have enjoyed opportunities of exa-
mining their colossal buildings have acknowledged the preci-
sion, and even delicacy, of the figures and ornaments, with
which that ingenious people contrived to enrich their archi-
tecture. Specimens of their sculpture in granite, which have
for 3000 years resisted the action of the elements, and the
yet more destructive influence of barbarous invaders, still
astonish us by the high polish of their surfaces, and the deli-
cate finish of their details. Even a visit to the Egyptian Sa-
loon of the British Museum, will prove that in accuracy of mus-
cular delineation, and in the communication of absolute fleshi-
ness to the lips and features of some of the figures there pre-
served, the ancient Egyptians evinced a high perfection in
the art of sculpture, in a material of the most imperishable
kind, on which few succeeding artists have ventured to em-
ploy the chisel.
* Read to the Wernerian Society 18th March 1842.
VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVIII.— APRIL 18438. %
342 Dr Traill on the Introduction into Scotland of .
In our own times, the fabrication of slabs, pedestals, and
vases, in hard porphyries, and in granite, has been carried to
great perfection in Sweden. The quarries of Blyberg at Elfda-
len, for many years, have furnished materials for Swedish inge-
nuityandskill. The elegantforms and high finish of their works
in those refractory materials have contributed greatly to the,
splendour of the Swedish Capital, and are known and admired
over Europe. Yet, though our own mountains yield no less beau-
tiful and durable materials, it is surprising how long we have re-
mained without any attempt to apply them to the purposes of or-
namental art. It is true, that, for more than half a century,
Aberdeen has exhibited a city chiefly built of blocks of hewn
granite ; that more lately, this same material has been employ-
ed in the construction of Waterloo Bridge in London, and in
a few other works; and that Cornish granite appears in the
pedestals of a few statues in some of our towns. But the
idea of giving a polish, equal to that of ancient Egypt, to our
granite in works of considerable size, of introducing this splen-
did material as a domestic ornament in our halls and saloons,
and as lasting memorials of departed worth in our cemeteries, is
undoubtedly due to two citizens of Aberdeen, Messrs Macpno--
natp and Lesuiz, who carry on extensive works in that town ;
where the grey granite of Aberdeen, and the rich red granite
of Peterhead, are cut into an endless variety of ornamental
articles, which receive the highest polish.
A late visit to their establishment convinced me, that these -
gentlemen have reduced to practice the difficult problem of
giving any required form to so stubborn a material as granite,
and of communicating to its surface an exquisite polish, which
shew it to be well suited for domestic ornament, and as a su-
perb decoration for the abodes of rank and opulence. The
rich warm tint of the Peterhead granite, in particular, will
harmonize better with the gilded ornaments and gorgeous
hangings of a modern gallery or superb saloon, either as tables
or as pedestals for works of art, than furniture made of the
most costly woods, or even than the snowy marble of Car-
rara.
For monumental work, this enduring material possesses ad- .
vantages over the best marble. In our climate, the effects of
Granite for Ornamental Purposes. 343
rain, sudden frosts, and succeeding thaws are soon perceptible
on Carrara marble, or any other kind exposed freely to the
weather. Marble thus soon loses its glossy surface, it con-
tracts greenish stains from the vegetation of minute Byss?, and
inscriptions, in a few years, from these causes, become ille-
gible. The-polished granite of Aberdeenshire retains its po-
lish most perfectly under all atmospheric changes, does not
contract any stain from vegetation; and, unless wantonly
mutilated, will transmit the inscription engraven on it to dis-
tant ages. The sharpness of the Egyptian hieroglyphics,
carved ina very similar rock 3000 years ago, at this day, proves
the durability of granite carving. A beautiful cenotaph of
red granite, from the works of Messrs Macdonald and Leslie,
has been exposed to all the vicissitudes of our changeable cli-
mate, for six or seven years, in the church-yard of Falkirk,
and appears in the full lustre of its pHginat polish, as if it
were erected yesterday.
Fine specimens of granite monuments by the same artists
may be seen in the noble new cemetery at Glasgow, which are
chaste in design, beautiful in execution, and seem calculated to
bid defiance to every destroying influence, except wilful injury.
On visiting the establishment of Messrs Macdonald and
Leslie at Aberdeen, I saw several finished specimens, and
many works of this material in progress, as I was conducted
through the different departments, by the intelligent, and most
respectable head of this interesting and new employment of na-
tional art and industry.
- The grey granite is-of a close grain, and contains more mica
than the red. Itis brought from quarries on the Dee, a short
way above Aberdeen. The red granite is of a larger grain,
abounding in felspar and in quartz, intermingled with small
specks of mica, and bears astrong resemblance to the syenitic
rock, of which the finest ancient Egyptian monuments are fa-
bricated. This ‘comes from the vicinity of Peterhead, and is
brought byseato the works. Both aresusceptible of afine polish,
which they retain unimpaired bythe weather. Blocks of almost
any size may be obtained free of flaws or imperfections. In
the sawing room, several blocks were then under the machines,
which are moved,by a14-horse power steam-engine. I observed
one block, 10 feet long, cutting into 6 or 8 slabs. The saws
344 Dr Traill on the Introduction into Scotland of
are, as usual in such works, of soft iron-plates, secured in a
frame; and operate on the stone by means of quartz-sand and
water, applied as in slicing marble. No emery is requisite in
these operations, the particles of siliceous sand being sufficient
to cut the quartz, the hardest material in the granite. Fre-
quently 14 saws are used in a single frame ; and occasionally
they have had as many as 18 employed at once on a single
block of stone. The progress of the work. of course, is slow ;
it requiring a whole day to eut a groove two-thirds of an inch
in depth in thé granite. The slabs, when cut, are polished by
moving one over the other, by appropriate machinery ; siliceous
sand being first interposed, and then emery of various degrees
of fineness, until the requisite degree of lustre is obtained.
The first dressing of the granite blocks into parallelopipeds,
cylindrical masses or other curved forms, is performed by
hand-picks, with short handles, and heads about 4 pounds in
weight ; which the workmen, from long habit, wield with sur-
prising accuracy. The surfaces are then reduced to a regular
form by means of well tempered chisels, urged by iron mallets ;
the chisels require a very particular temper, which must be
neither very hard nor very soft, else they would either lose
their edge by chipping, or fail to cut the stone. I observed
that they frequently require sharpening in the more delicate
kinds of work. The chisel is held by the workman very ob-
liquely to the surface of the stone, and he separates very small
particles at a time.
I have already described the polishing of plane surfaces.
Circular forms, such as sfel@, frusta of columns, as pedestals
for busts, vases, and the like, are fixed in well-contrived
lathes, and are whirled round by machinery, while the sand
and emery are applied to their surfaces by means of thick
plates or bars of iron, previously forged to their various cur-
vatures, when they are not cylindrical.
I saw a large vase, about 4 feet in diameter, prepared by
the chisel for the process of polishing. Its graceful curves
were beautifully and accurately cut by the chisel; the iron
bars, 1 or 13 inch in thickness, neatly forged to its various
curves, lay beside it ready to be applied, when it was fixed in
the lathe.
In the warerooms were many finished articles of great
Granite for Ornamental Purposes. 345
beauty and elegance, such as well executed pedestals for busts
or vases, of red and grey granite ; chimney pieces of the same
material, numerous slabs, tables and seats for halls, and beau-
tiful vases, in a considerable variety of forms, rivalling those
of classic Italy in shape, mural tablets for monuments, and
some altar-formed tombs of magnificent size. These last
were made to order. Some of the chimney-pieces are intend-
‘ed for the Earl of Lauderdale’s residence, Thirlstane Castle,
and some of the slabs for Sir Robert Peel, &c. &e.
I was surprised at the neatness of the /edéering on all the
monuments ; and saw the men at work. The monument is first
finished in other respects: the letters are carefully traced with
a dark or light crayon, according to the colour of the stone, and
the workman traces the outline of the letter on the stone by
light strokes of a fine-edged chisel, held nearly vertically ;
deepens the lines by a succession of similar blows, while the
chisel is held very obliquely, removing the stone in the state
of powder, so as to avoid chipping. Roman capitals are thus
easily formed ; but I saw old English, or German letters, with
a superfluity of curved lines, carved on the eranite with equal
precision.
But the most remarkable work which I saw in this estab-
lishment was, the neatly finished statue of the late Duke of
Gordon, intended to be erected in one of the streets of Aber-
deen. It is 11 fect high, of a single block of granite. This
statue was modelled by Mr Thomas Campbell, the sculptor ;
and has been transferred from the model to the granite by
Messrs Macdonald and Leslie. Two men were at work on
the drapery, at the period of my visit. They worked with
fine chisels, held very obliquely, and urged on by iron mallets
of two or three pounds in weight. The attitude of this statue
is simple, and the features are said to be very like the original.
This, which may be considered as the first specimen of a Bri-
tish statue of a single block of granite, in emulation of the
durable monuments of ancient Egypt, is a memorial by the
County to the late noble and gallant Officer; and, when erected,
will be a distinguished ornament to Aberdeen.
Another great public work, executed by the same artists, is
already erected in that town. In 1842, the splendid public
346 = On the Introduction of Granite into Scotland,
markets of Aberdeen, excelled by none in Europe in elegance,
were first opened. The great saloon, containing the fruit and
vegetable market, a magnificent hall 300 feet in length by
100 feet in breadth, has within it a noble fountain of highly
polished Peterhead granite: An octagonal basin, constructed
of polished blocks, stands about one-third the length of the
hall from the southern extremity. From the centre of this.
basin, rises a shaft 10 feet high, supporting two circular cups
or shallow vases, one placed over the other. The lowermost
is formed out of a single block, 7 feet 3 inches in diameter ;
and the upper has about half that width. A constant-jet: of
water rises from the centre of the upper cup, flows over its
edges into the lower vase, which also overflows, in a thin sheet
of limpid water, into the basin below ; whence water is drawn
for all the purposes of the market. I have seen no fountain
in Britain so fine as this. It resembles in form, and surpas-
ses in material; the finest fountains I saw in Spain: yet it
was erected by Messrs Macdonald and Leslie for L.200.
The same artists are at this moment engaged in executing
a similar fountain for Lord Prudhoe, which, I understand, will
cost about L.200.
Indeed, considering the difficulty of working so hard a ma-
terial, I was surprised at the moderation of their prices, for
articles produced at their interesting establishment.
For instance :—
1. A hall-table slab of polished granite, measuring 4 feet
long by 212 inches wide, costs L.4, 15s.
It may be stated, that slabs may be furnished, of any re-
quired size, for from 12s. to 14s. for each square foot. of sur-
face.
2. Pedestals for busts, square or columnar, with plinth, and
an ovolo when columnar, of the usual size, for L.10.
- 8. Mural monumental tablets, with vase, trusses, &c., from
L.6 to L.9, according to the size.
4. Mural tablets, with base, cornice, and ysis top,
from L.10 to L.12.
Lettering, of the usual size, is charged 4s. ‘6d. per dozen of
letters.
5. An elegant Tazza-formed vase, of classic shape, 4 feet
Researches on the Anatomy of the Chimpanzee. 347
9 inches in diameter, and standing 2 feet 9 inches high on a
beautiful pedestal, costs L.40.
6. They have also executed columns of granite for halls
and vestibules, at prices equally reasonable, in proportion to
the size and style of decoration. But of all the purposes to
which they have hitherto applied the granite, it seems espe-
cially suitable for monuments of every kind, both from the
beauty of the highly polished material, and its imperishable
nature under all vicissitudes of the weather.
The extent and perfection to which these gentlemen have
carried the working of this very refractory but beautiful stone,
may be considered as forming an era in British art ; and re-
quire only to be more generally known, to be appreciated and
encouraged by public taste and munificence.
13 GLovucestER PLace, Epinpures, March 18, 1843.
Researches on the Comparative Anatomy of the Chimpanzee.
By M. Vrouix.*
Tf, in the natural sciences, the study of facts ought to serve
as the basis of general views and as the means of appreciating
natural phenomena taken as a whole, the investigations un-
dertaken with the view of throwing light upon some particu-
lar points of science, and supporting in some way or other a
special object, deserve more than ordinary attention. The
physical sciences geology and botany, present us with nume-
rous examples of these monographs, many of which have been
the means of acquiring the highest reputation to their authors.
Zoology, and, in particular, Comparative Anatomy, are less
rich in works of this description ; it is therefore a duty to no-
tice particularly works which, like M. Vrolik’s Researches on
the Comparative Anatomy of the Chimpanzee, combine a profound
study of the subject with new views and ingenious specula-
tions ; the more especially when, in addition to these recom-
mendations, the mode of execution, the form, and the plates,
* The yaluable work noticed above is entitled, Recherches d’Anatomie
Comparée sur le Chimpansé. Par W. Vro.ix, Chevalier de l’Ordre Mili-
taire de Guillaume, Membre de la Premiere Classe de l’Institut Royal des
Pays-Bas. 1 vol. fol. ayec 7 Planches. Amsterdam, 1841,
348 M. Vrolik’s Researches on the Comparative
are such as to render it worthy of a place by the side of the
most remarkable works of the class to which it belongs.
M. Vrolik enters into no details either respecting the ex-
ternal characters or natural history of the Chimpanzee. Sup-
posing these to be sufficiently known, he devotes himself to
the anatomical examination of this animal, which is rendered
singularly interesting by its great resemblance to man. Avail-
ing himself of the advantages supplied by the fine anatomical
collections of Holland, both public and private, as well as
those offered by the Zoological Garden of Amsterdam placed
under his direction, he has added anatomical observations on
many other species of monkeys, compared their organization
with that of other quadrupeds, and contrasted it with that of
man, in such a manner, that the work we now introduce to
the notice of our readers almost amounts to a treatise on the
comparative anatomy of the quadrumana, and a pretty com-
plete essay on the comparative myology of the Mammifera.
A work of this nature, whose merits depend chiefly on the
number and exactitude-of its details, cannot easily be sub-
jected to analysis. A few quotations of general interest will
render it best known, and will, we doubt not, excite the desire
of studying, in the work itself, the very peculiar organization
of the large quadrumanous animal in question. The seven
beautiful lithographie plates which accompany the descrip-
tions, render them, besides, much more intelligible.
After long and interesting details respecting the osteology
and myology of the Chimpanzee, as well as the comparison of
the organs of motion among different species of monkeys and
other mammifera—between these and the corresponding parts
of man—the following are the general considerations arrived
at by the Amsterdam Professor :—
“In short, it appears proved that the muscles of the ante-
rior extremities become simplified in proportion as animals re-
cede from the human form. Their number and disposition
are modified according to the functions for which these ante-
rior extremities are adapted. In man they are not intended
to support the body. In him they are attached in such a
manner, from the top of the head to the heel, that there is no
part of the individual to which they cannot reach. By the
Anatomy of the Chimpanzee. 349
nature of this attachment, and by all the peculiarities of their
structure, we perceive that they are given to him as instru-
ments adapted either for pushing away from him, seizing, or
embracing objects, and, in particular, as organs of touch. It
is to the hand, in particular, that the duty of fulfilling these
offices is assigned. Every thing concurs, in man, to render it
an organ of the greatest perfection, and in this respect no ant-
mal can rival him. Let us observe, accordingly, that it is for
the purpose of executing these different functions that the
palm is enlarged, radiating, and terminating in fingers, each
phalange of which has its proper motor; that the thumb has
a different direction from the other fingers, is not placed on
the same line with them, but can be opposed to each of them ;
that the hand not only exercises a movement of extension and
flexure, but can be turned forwards and backwards, by a me-
chanism peculiar to the wrist; that the articulation of the
shoulder is formed in such a manner that the movements of
the humerus, and consequently all the upper extremity, be-
come as extensive as possible; that the muscular sides of the
palm are so disposed, that the hand can form the palm into a
hollow. All these arrangements are found in the greatest
perfection in man, and the first result of them is, that he has
the power of seizing an object with only one hand, while the
other mammifera, whose fore-feet have some resemblance to
the upper extremities in man, cannot hold objects but by
using both hands. To this monkeys are the only exception.
In tham the fore-foot resembles the human hand, although it
is Vary inferior to the latter, The palm is longer, and not so
broad ; the fingers are more elongated, and less insulated in
their movements; the thumb is placed farther backwards, and,
in its direction, less opposed to the fingers. Among them, ©
consequently, the hand becomes less an organ of touch and
prehension, than a means of aiding them in their movements
while climbing trees. This imperfection is seen in its greatest
degree among the sapajous and sajous. This is perhaps the
reason why they are possessed of an accessory organ of mo-
tion, formed by the prehensile tail. In the ourang-outang, cn
the contrary, and still more in the Chimpanzee, the hand
makes a much yearer approach to that of man. Although
350 M. Vrolik’s Researches on the Comparative
pretty perfect in the ourang-outang, it exhibits in that animal
a disproportionate length ; but in the Chimpanzee the fingers
are shorter, the thumb better formed, and the palm of the hand
broader. I cannot determine whether the palm of the Chim-
panzee can form a hollow, like that of man, but I have often
satisfied myself that that of the ourang-outang is incapable of
doing so. When the ourang-outang of our Zoological Garden
makes use of his hand, whether it be to seize on any object, or
in any of the artificial movements he is caused to execute, he
does it with a certain degree of awkwardness, which demon-
strates his inferiority in this respect as compared with man.
The last director of our menagerie amused himself by making
it dine at his table ; but although it had learned to imitate all
the movements of a civilized man, to present its empty plate,
hold out its glass, and eat with a spoon, it sufficiently shewed
that its hand would not allow it to attain the dexterity of man.
For example, in taking a plate or any other object, it never
held its hand extended and open, as a man does, but closed
the hand, bending the fingers very much. This mode of curving
the fingers was extremely familiar to it. I never recollect of
seeing its fingers completely extended. All this shews us that
the hand of the ourang-outang is well adapted to grasp the
branches of a tree; that in this respect it is an organ of mo-
tion of great perfection, and in every respect appropriate to
the animal’s mode of life, but that, in all other respects, it is
inferior to that of man. I remarked the same thing in the
ash-coloured gibbons of our menagerie. This inferior degree
of aptitude in the hand of animals to serve all the purposes
which it fulfils in man, is owing to the disproportionate length
of the fingers, and, in particular, the inferior perfection and
the situation of the thumb. By the disposition of its muscles
the thumb of monkeys is not made for that variety and great
freedom of motion peculiar to man. Certainly that of the
Chimpanzee approaches nearest the human thumb, and yet the
great flexor muscle is sometimes wanting, and the smaller
abductor and antagonist of the thumb are much less developed
than in man. In the other monkeys, the great abductor and
small extensor of the thumb are confounded, in so much that
there appears there, as in all the other muscles of the anterior
oY
Anatomy of the Chimpanzee. 351
extremities, a great tendency to become simplified. In man
they are undoubtedly most complicated ; in him also the move-
ments they perform are most varied.”
After the description and detailed comparison of the poste-
rior extremities of the Chimpanzee and other Mammifera, we
find the following considerations respecting these organs.
« By this comparative description of the myology of the
posterior extremities, I think I have demonstrated that their
muscles become simplified in animals in proportion as we re-
cede from their perfection in man. And if we consider atten-
tively what is peculiar and distinctive in the organization of
these posterior extremities, we cannot doubt for a moment that
they are destined to support and move the body. It is for this
reason that the arrangement of their muscles is entirely dif-
ferent from that we have observed in the anterior extremities.
For while we see the force of flexion prevail over that of ex-
tension in the anterior extremities, we witness, on the con-
trary, that of extension prevail over flexion in the posterior
extremities. It is particularly in man that this fact is shewn
in the most conspicuous manner. We have only to compare
the development of the extensor muscles of the leg with that
of the flexor muscles, to be convinced of this, or, if we wish a
proof more conclusive still, we have but to examine the mus-
cles of the leg. It is principally to the great strength of all
these extensor muscles that man owes the power of holding
himself erect and walking on two feet. We again find it, for
that same reason, in animals whose trunk is straight, and
whose movements are principally made with the hinder feet ;
the examples of the kangaroo and sloth prove this. I do
not add the example of the monkeys, because there is none
of them that can hold itself upright and walk without any
other support than the hinder feet. They are all quadrupeds,
with this modification, that the four feet are but ill fitted to
support and move the body on a horizontal plane, but rather
for making it ascend a vertical plane. The movement they
perform in the act of grasping is their true attribute. We have
only to notice the manner in which they grasp the bars of their
cage to be assured ofthis. Their feet are modified for the
purpose quite in a peculiar manner, as I have fully stated in
352 On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders.
the osteological part of this work. And it is for the same
reason that their muscles have the special character which I
have assigned them in this chapter.”
On the subject of the laryngeal pouches, the existence of
which M. Vrolik has shewn in many species of monkey, he
brings forward a new opinion as to their use. He supposes
that these pouches “ are organs fitted for facilitating motion.
Their situation among the muscles of the neck, the prolonga-
tions which they often form in the arm-pits, their increase in
size with age, appear to me so many proofs,” he says, ‘that
they are reservoirs of air, made for the purpose of dimi-
nishing the specific gravity of the upper part of the body, and
consequently to facilitate the act of grasping, in the same
manner as reservoirs of air in birds favour flight.” *
On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders. By Gustay Peter
Brom, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Dron-
theim, &e.
The Laplanders are originally a Nomadic race, supported
by rein-deer, and their principal branch still follows the same
mode of life. Poverty, however, has forced many Laplanders
to quit their native haunts in the mountains, and to descend
to the Norwegian coasts, or to the plains of Lapland, to seek
for the means of living. Thus two kinds have sprung up in
Norway: the Sea-Laps, who live on the coasts, aud are
occupied with fishing, and the Boe-Laps, who have settled
in the valleys, have brought small tracts of land into cultiva-
tion, and support themselves by agriculture and the rearing of
eattle, combined partly with the rearing of rein-deer. The
Laplanders who have withdrawn to Lapland may again be
divided into two kinds; the /orest-Laps, who keep rein-
deer, but take them along with themselves only within a cer-
tain region, and who at the same time are hunters; and
the Fisher- Laps, who have established themselves on the
shores of the great rivers and lakes of Lapland, and are
engaged in the taking of fish. The best shots are among the
Forest-Laplanders, who furnish the yearly markets of Vitangi
* From Bibliotheque Universelie de Geneve, No. 83, p. 170.
On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders. 353
and Kengis with a large quantity of game, which is carried to
Stockholm by way of Torneo.
The rein-deer is the support of the Laplanders, and the ob-
ject of their pride ; in it consist their wealth and their hap-
piness. Whoever is the possessor of many hundred rein-deer,
has attained the highest pinnacle of good fortune; but he
never on this account alters his mode of living in the slightest
degree, or increases his enjoyments, except, perhaps, as re-
gards the quantity of brandy he consumes. Besides the rein-
deer, the whole wealth of the Laplander consists of few ar-
ticles of clothing, his tents for living in and for keeping his
stores, a few wooden stakes with which he forms a kind of fold,
into which the rein-deer are driven when they are to be
milked, a few bed-covers made of rein-deer skins, a copper
vessel in which his food is cooked, a few wooden dishes, and
his provisions, consisting of rein-deer-cheese and milk, which
latter he preserves for the winter in rein-deer stomachs.
When he alters his abode, the whole of this splendour is placed
on the pack-rein-deer, and conveyed to the new place of re-
sidence,
The rein-deer is the most important possession of the Lap-
landers, for it supplies them both with nourishment and cloth-
ing. The Laplander spends his superfiuous money chiefly on
the increase of his herd; and it is only when that is suffi-
ciently large, that he begins to think of collecting silver and
burying it ; but he never dreams of procuring greater personal
comforts, for their value is unknown to him.
The Laplander lives in a tent of a circular conical shape,
provided with an opening above for the escape of the smoke.
The tent is made of coarse woollen cloth, sometimes also of
rein-deer skins, and the richer individuals construct their ha-
bitations with a double covering. The door consists of a curtain
of the same material, The internal arrangement of the tent
is just as simple ; in the middle there are a few stones which
form a sort of fire-place, and at the sides round about, twigs
of birch are strewed, and rein-deer skins spread over them,
so as to forma sofa during the day, and a bed at night. The
dogs also partake of this place of repose. ‘The dishes and
kettles lie scattered about in the tent, and above are suspended
354 On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders.
the rein-deer stomachs filled with milk, which are completely
blackened by the smoke. It is to be expected that cleanliness
should not exist in such miserable dwellings, but the Lapland-
ers have in fact no idea of it. A few of the race, who pasture
their rein-deer on the coasts every summer, have built earthen
huts in the form of tents; but these have no advantage’
over their usual abodes.
_ It is only in autumn that the Haas kills his rein-deer,
for it is only at that season that they are fat, and their flesh
palatable. . In spring the rein-deer has much to endure from
the so-called rein-deer fly,—an insect which penetrates into the
skin of the animal, and deposits its eggs, from which larve
are produced. The animal is thus so much tormented, that
it becomes lean in summer, and the skin is of no value so long
as the larvae exist in it. The insects produce larger or smaller.
tumours on the backs and sides of the rein-deer, and the poor
animals fall on their knees, on oceasion of the slightest touch,
in order to escape the pain. The female produces its young
in the month of March, and from that time it is milked, by
some of the Laplanders once, and by others twice a-day. The
milking of the rein-deer-is one of the most interesting scenes
inthe whole economy of the Laplanders.
Towards evening the rein-deer are driven from the moun-
tains-to the tents. Their arrival is first announced by the’
barking of the dogs, who run round the herd, to keep the ani-
mals together. Soon the whole herd is descried, forming a
closely packed mass, which moves along like a grey cloud.
As the animals approach nearer; the horns become a promi-
nent object, resembling a moving leafless forest, and very va-
rious in their form and size. The fawns push through among the
full-grown animals, and we at last hear a crackling noise, pro-
duced by the movement of their legs, and resembling the
sound of burning fir-trees, or rather that of electric sparks.
Here and there is heard a sound somewhat like the grunting
of swine. Near the tents there is a circular enclosure, pro-
vided with two openings or doors. When the rein-deer ap-
proach it, they press closely together in order to enter, and
one sees only the moving mass and the projecting horns.
Should a deer or a fawn remain behind, or take a wrong path,
On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders. 355
a dog immediately pursues it, and the deserter is soon seen
running back to the herd at full pace, followed by the dog.
The animals now stand closely packed together within the
fence, and are so tame that a stranger even can touch them
without trouble or danger. In the centre of the enclosure
there is a small erection to which the animal is strongly bound
during the milking, in order that it may not become unruly,
and upset both the milk and the milker. The milking is per-
formed by men, women, and children ; but the task of bring-
ing the animals to the milking place belongs exclusively to a
particular man, and is accomplished in the following man-
ner :—
This individual is accurately acquainted with every animal,
even in a herd of several hundred, and knows if it is a male
or female, and if it is milked or not. He goes with a noose
in his hand, and throws it so dexterously over the horns of
the animal he’ wishes to secure, that he never fails in his aim,
even at a distance of fifteen or twenty yards, and when many
other individuals are standing between him and his object.
So soon as the noose is fastened round the horns, the animal
is dragged to the milking-place, and there securely tied ; ano-
ther animal is afterwards taken in the same way, and so till
all have been milked. ‘The skill of the Laplanders in the use
of this noose can only be compared to that of the savages of
Africa, or the bull-takers in Brazil.
But little attention is paid to cleanliness in the milking, and
indeed generally in the economy of the Laplanders. During
the summer, loose hairs fall abundantly into the milk, and
these are but partially removed by sieves. The milk not used
is poured into rein-deer stomachs and suspended in the tent.
The rein-deer understands how to keep back the milk ; and,
in order to prevent her doing so, the Laplander often strikes
her repeatedly with his fist, and thus much additional hair
drops into the milk. But little milk is obtained ; it is, however,
as rich as cream, and the taste is by no means disagreeable, re-
sembling that of the ewe. An exceedingly palatable cheese
is prepared from it, which is used medicinally as a certain
cure of boils produced by frost.
An important animal in the economy of the Laplanders ix
306 On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders.
the dog, and every Laplander has a number proportionate to
that of his rein-deer, amounting to twelve or more. These
dogs protect the rein-deer from wild animals, gives a signal
when these approach, keep the herd together, so that they
may not become scattered, and thus lose themselves in the
mountains, and go in search of them when the latter occurs.
They drive the deer by their barking, but when that is not
sufficient, they bite their legs. In order to prevent injury be-
ing thus inflicted, the canine teeth are extracted when the
dogs are young. It is rather a natural instinct than a regular
training which teaches the dogs their duty. They have a na-
tural inclination to the rein-deer, and so soon as the latter are
in motion, are ready to follow. The dogs are divided into
two sections, of which the one accompanies the herd, and the
other remains in the tents. As soon as the rein-deer return
from their pasture to the tents, the dogs which have been re-
posing start up and enter upon their duties, and those which
are thus relieved lie down quietly in the tents.
The Lapland dog is not large, has long hair, a sharp snout,
a long-haired tail, and erect ears; it has no claims to beauty.
The domestic rein-deer are not always of a grey colont; like
the wild, but vary in this respect like ail domesticated animals.
Although the prevailing colour is grey, there are rein-deer of
a white colour with blue spots. For the most part they have
white markings on the head and feet, by means of which they
are recognized by the Laplanders, and by which the possessor
can not only distinguish his own from strangers, but even
every single animal in his herd.
Males only are used as beasts of burden, and chiefly those
which are castrated, as they are the strongest. The female
is too tender for such work. The rein-deer is most valuable
for dragging, for its power of carrying is not great, and while
its progress when loaded is slow, the burden must also be
small. On the other hand, when the snow is in a good state,
it drags large loads with great rapidity. As is well known,
travelling in Lapland in winter is only performed by means
of rein-deer, and is accomplished at a very quick pace. The
horse is useless at this season, because there are no made roads,
and no places for repose or feeding. Such accommodations
7
On the Rein- Deer of the Laplanders. Soe
are not required for the rein-deer ; for it runs on the untrodden
snow, and when unyoked from the sledge, it scratches the
snow with its feet and refreshes itself with the moss, which
it is always able to discover on the mountains.
The knowledge of locality is just as remarkable among the
Laplanders, as their power of recognising their rein-deer, and
arises from the same cause, viz., from the development of their
senses and perception, which is promoted by the necessity that
exists among them, as among all people in their natural state,
for relying on themselves for extrication from difficulties. A1-
though the Alps of Lapland, and more especially the plains,
offer but few objects which can fix attention, there is no ex-
ample of a Laplander losing himself on a journey; if he has
once travelled over a tract, it becomes known to him for his
whole life. Fog alone, or drifting snow, can lead him into
error; but he takes good care not to travel in such weather,
and his meteorological knowledge enables him to foresee when
anything of the kind is to be dreaded. His acuteness of vision
allows him to descry objects at very great distances, and thus
to pilot himself. His eyes, however, become weakened at an
early period, owing to the smoke in his tent, and partly to
the dazzling whiteness of the snow. When a Laplander is
caught, during a journey by night ora storm, he throws his
kaftan over his head, lies down on the snow, and covers him-
self with it, waiting patiently for a more favourable opportu-
nity of prosecuting his journey.
The mode of living of the Laplanders is simple in the highest
degree, especially in summer ; for at that season they are sup-
ported almost exclusively on rein-deer milk, and a kind of sor-
rel, which they find in abundance in the mountain valleys, and
cook along with milk in an uncoated copper vessel, without,
on that account, suffering bad effects in the stomach. Fish
are very welcome to the Laplanders, but are a dainty which
they do not often enjoy, as the Alpine Laplander occupies
himself but little with fishing. A favourite kind of food is
the stalk of the Angelica archangelica, here named slécke,
which the Laplander eats raw, after removing the outer fibres.
This plant is alsomuch eaten by the Northmen, and is consi-
dered as a good preservative against scurvy.
YOU. XXXIV. NO. LXVIIT.—APRIL 1843, 2A
358 On the Rein-Deer of the Laplanders.
Meal is not used in summer ; but in winter, the Laplander
exchanges his rein-deer flesh for meal in the markets and
coast districts; and he then eats the flesh, or the preserved
milk, cooked with meal, or a kind of soup made of rein-deer
blood and meal. His food in winter is very nourishing, and
it is thus that he is able to endure the hardships and severe
weather with which he has to contend.
Many travellers, and among them Brooke,* have asserted,
that the Laplanders proceed yearly with their rein-deer to the
coasts of Norway, and that it is a matter of necessity that the
animals should drink sea-water every year ; but this is not the
case. The wandering of the Laplanders is by no means re-
gular, and many rein-deer—nay, the greater number—have
never tasted sea-water. It entirely depends on the locality,
whether the Laplander goes to the sea-coast or not, and whe-
ther this takes place in summer or winter. — In the districts
Namdalen and Senjen, whose coasts are surrounded by islands
having high cliffs, the Laplander drives his rein-deer to the
coasts, and thence takes them to the islands in order to pro-
cure food for them. This transport presents an interesting
spectacle. The Laplander attaches one or several rein-deer
to his little boat by means of a rope, which is secured round
the horns. He then rows across the sound, which is often
more than an English mile broad ; and the rest of the animals
having been driven into the sea, swim after their leaders to
the opposite coast. In other localities, the Laplander goes to
the coast in the winter season, when the snow is too deep on
the mountains, and he again quits it in April or May. In a
valley, an English mile or two from the town of Tromsée, a
Laplander remains till the beginning of August, with 700
rein-deer. It is evident, from what has now been said, that
no particular natural impulse takes the rein-deer at fixed
seasons to the sea; on the other hand, it is an undoubted
fact, that the rein-deer will not remain longer than about the
end of August in the coast regions and in the Norwegian pas-
tures—nay, that if the Laplander does not hasten, before the
20th August, towards the mountains, his herd will desert him,
and proceed on their journey to the plains of Lapland.
* For a portion of Brooke’s Account of the Rein-Deer, see Jameson’s
Journal, yol, iii., p. 30.
__
Connection of the Physiognomy of a Country, &c. 359
The wanderings of the Laplanders generally take place in
the following order: In winter, they remain partly in the vast
moorish tracts, partly in the forests of Lapland ; and in spring,
the torment caused to the rein-deer by gnats and rein-deer
flies, forces them to remove to the Norwegian confines, where
these insect-enemies are less troublesome, and where the ani-
mals may enjoy the snow. Some Laplanders proceed to the val-
leys, and to the islands near the coast, In autumn, they re-
turn to the Lapland plains. In some districts, they spend the
winter in the Norwegian Alpine valleys ; but so soon as the
snow drives them away, they seek the coasts, until the spring
again renders the Alps passable. The Laplander always
pitches his tent in the neighbourhood of a forest, in order to
obtain fuel; while in summer, the presence of a river or a
spring, is a necessary condition in the choice of a residence—
melted snow supplying the necessary water in winter.
The fondness of the Laplanders for silver money is well
known, and it is only those who have intercourse with the in-
habitants of the coasts who take paper money. It is asserted,
that they are still in the habit of burying their money in the
mountains, which is easily understood, when we consider, on
the one hand, their timidity and mistrust; and on the other,
that it must be extremely difficult for them to carry articles
of value about with them during their constant wanderings.
The natural consequence is, ‘that considerable sums are lost
among the mountains, as death frequently surprises the Lap-
lander before it is possible for him to reveal to his relations
the spot where the treasure is buried ; and as it is not possible
to indicate it without being actually at the locality—a cireum-
stance which does not often occur.*
I. Connection of the Physiognomy of a Country, with the Cha-
racter of its Inhabitants —I. Belgium.—ITI. Holland.—ITII.
Midnight Scene on the Ocean.—IV. A Scene in Norway.
I. Belgiwm.
Mr Trollope indulges in much censure of the manners and morals of the
Belgians, arid commits the customary blunder of English travellers, in im-
* From Blom’s Kénigreich Norwegen statistisch beschrieben, 1843.
360 Connection of the Physiognomy of a Country,
puting the extortions of tradesmen to the character of the people. The
Belgians have always appeared to us remarkable for stolidity and plod-
ding industry, without much refinement of mind or feeling, or, on the
other hand, any extreme stupidity or coarseness. They are, in our judg-
ment, a race deficient in marked features of character, rather than ob-
noxious to the imputation of any prominent vice. Without pretensions
to high virtues, they are generally exempt from characteristic crimes.
Whether there is any natural connection between scenery and character,
we will not undertake to pronounce ; but a striking analogy prevails be-
tween the productive flatness of the land and the utilitarian mind and capa-
city of the inhabitants. It is no uncommon thing, especially in Flanders,
to see four miles of road with a strip of pavement in the middle, and a
ditch on each side straight before you, and a dead level right and left as
far as the eye can reach. The land, if it be in summer, is blooming with
bean blossoms, or gilded with the rich and ripening corn ; and very agri-
culturally interesting it doubtlessly is, to see so much goodly produce and
evidence of fertility ; but where the land is a dead flat, and roads and
trees run in perfectly straight lines, it is tiresome work to travel there,
and very soporific. To be sure, one does occasionally see a church at
the end of an interminable looking road. You watch it (for it forms a
pleasing variety in the landscape), gradually developing itself, as you jog
nearer and nearer to it, till at length its form, then its shape, its colour, its
weathercock, and its cherubed waterspouts, one by one appear; and at
last the grim countenances of the weather-beaten saints scowl out of
their niches at you as you pass; you then make a slight turn, and another
long flat line opens upon you. The lives of the Flemish women are,
at any rate, akin to the intense sameness and monotony of scenery ;
and Mr Trollope’s description is not very wide of the truth. A Flemish
wife rises in the morning and drinks her coffee, dresses the children and
herself, sends the former to school, and goes to market, where the entire
mental exertion of her life centres ; and something faintly approaching
energy and animation is observable as she higgles in succession with the
poultry woman, the fruit and vegetable women, the butcher, and the egg
merchant. If she be of the easy class, her servant follows and baskets
the purchases as the mistress makes them. When completed, she repairs
forthwith home ; or if she has no servant, with basket on her arm, goes
to church and says her prayers, The personal superintendence of the
preparations for dinner occupy her till noon, when the husband returns ;
and that great event of the day haying been achieved, and the children,
if any, been again dispatched to school, the knitting-needles are plied in-
cessantly till evening, enlivened by a cup of coffee at about four o’clock.
When the husband returns, occasionally in summer half an hour’s walk
is indulged in, or they visit a garden, where the husband smokes and the
wife not unfrequently knits. Supper is served at seven, the children are
sent to bed, and the wife, after another batch of knitting, follows at nine
or ten o'clock, having performed her functions much after the fashion of
the clock, by whose mechanism her own moyemeats are regulated. A
with the Character of its Inhabitants. 361
more mindless set of women it is difficult to find. Their virtues consist
in docility, evenness of temper, and domesticity —Atheneum, No. 779,
p. 848.
II. Holland.
Holland, the land of cheese and butter, is, to my eye, no unpicturesque,
uninteresting country. Flat it is ; but it is so geometrically only, and in
no other sense. Spires, church-towers ; bright farm-houscs, their windows
glancing in the sun ; long rows of willow-trees, their bluish foliage ruffling
up white in the breeze; grassy embankments of a tender vivid green, partly
hiding the meadows behind, and crowded with glittering gaudily-painted
gigs and stool waggons, loaded with rosy-cheeked laughing country;girls,
decked out in ribbons of many more colours than the rainbow, all a-stream-
ing in the wind; these are objects which strike the eye of the traveller
from seaward, and form a gay front view of Holland, as he sails, or steams
along its coasts, and up its rivers. On the shore, the long continuity of
horizontal lines of country in the background, each line rising behind the
other to a distant, level, unbroken horizon, gives the impression of vast-
ness and of novelty. Holland can boast of nothing sublime; but for
picturesque grounds, for close, compact, snug home scenery, with every
thing in harmony, and stamped with one peculiar character, Holland is
a cabinet picture, in which nature and art join to produce one impression,
one homogeneous effect. The Dutch cottage, with its glistening brick-
walls, white painted wood-work and rails, and its massive roof of thatch,
with the stork clappering to her young on her old-established nest on the
top of the gable, is admirably in place and keeping, just where it is, at
the turn of the canal, shut in by a screen of willow-trees, or tall reeds,
from seeing or being seen, beyond the sunny height of the still calm water,
in which its every tint and part is brightly repeated. Then the peculiar
character of every article of the household furniture, which the Duteh-
built house-mother is scouring on the green before the door so indus-
triously ; the Dutch character is impressed on every thing Dutch, and
intuitively recognised, like the Jewish or Gipsey countenance, wherever
it is met with; the people, their dwellings, and all in or about them,
their very movements in accordance with this style or character, and all
bearing its impress strongly—make this Holland, to my eye, no dull un-
impressive land. There is a soul in all you see; the strongly marked
character about every thing Dutch pleases intellectually, as much as
beauty of form itself,—what else is the charm so universally felt, requiring
so little to be acquired, of the paintings of the Dutch school? The objects
or scenes painted are neither graceful, nor beautiful, nor sublime ; but
they are Dutch. They have a strongly marked mind and character im-
pressed on them, and expressed by them, and every accompaniment in
the picture has the same, and harmonizes with all around it. The Hol-
lander has a decided taste for the romantic ; great amateurs are the Myn-
362 Connection of the Physiognomy of a Country,
heers of the rural. Every Dutchman above the necessity of working to-
day for the bread of to-morrow, has his garden-house (Buyteplaats) in
the suburbs of his town (for the Dutch population live very much in
‘town surrounded by wet ditches), and repairs to it on Saturday evening
with his family, to ruralize until Monday over his pipe of tobacco. Dirk
Hatterick, we are told, did so—it is the main extravagance of the Dutch
middle-class man, and it is often an expensive one. This garden-house
is a wooden box gaily painted, of eight or ten feet square; its name,
“ My Delight,” or “ Rural Felicity,” or ‘‘ Sweet Solitude,” stuck up in
gilt tin letters on the front ; and situated usually at the end of a narrow
slip of ground, enclosed on three sides with well-trimmed hedges and
slimy ditches, and overhanging the canal, which forms the boundary of
the garden-plot on its fourth side. The slip of land is laid out in flower-
beds, all the flowers in one bed being generally of one kind and colour ;
and the brilliancy of these large masses of flowers, the white and green
paint work, and the gilding about the garden-houses, and a row of those
glittering fairy summer lodges, shining in the sun, upon the side of the
wide canal, and swimming in human brilliancy in the midst of plots and
parterres of splendid flowers, and with the accompaniments of gaily dressed
ladies at the windows, swiftly passing pleasure-boats with bright burnished
sides below, and a whole city population, afloat or on foot, enjoying them-
selves in their holiday clothes, form, in truth, a summer evening scene
which one dwells upon with much delight. I pity the taste which can
stop to enquire if all this human enjoyment be in good taste or bad taste,
vulgar or refined, I stuff my pipe, hire a boatman to row me in his
schuytje up the canal to a tea-garden, and pass the evening as Dutchly
and happily as my fellow-man.—Laing’s Notes of a Traveller.
Ill. A Midnight Scene on the Ocean.
One more of the beautiful and poetical pictures which Professor Steffens
paints with so vivid yet so soft a touch—once more let us rock our ima-
ginations on the bosom of the deep, before we go back to the world of
men and things. We know of few attempts in prose or verse to describe
the undescribable, the awful majesty, and the profound, mysterious at-
traction of the ocean, equal to the following. Our author was good-
naturedly invited by a party of six fishermen to accompany them on an
expedition to a sand-bank, at a distance of six or seven Norwegian miles
from shore, where they were to pass the night. They sailed in a serene
and beautiful morning: the wind afterwards rose, and the sea was
agitated.*
“The night I passed there I shall never forget. As twilight closed
around us on the tossing waves, we became more and more silent ; the
masts were lowered ; the fishermen were contented with their day’s work,
and I now threw out my net once more ; the kind-hearted fellows pressed
eee eee ee
* British and Foreign Review.
with the Character of its Inhabitants. 363
round me with friendly curiosity as I emptied my rich booty into the
tub, and began to examine it. Ihad to give a popular lecture on the
new and rare productions I had caught. Meanwhile, though the sun had
sunk below the horizon, the bright evening red remained visible the
whole night in the far west, and played on the waves around us — now
gleaming, and then vanishing like a soft lightning. The oars lay still ;
the boat, left to itself, rocked on the waves ; the conversation fell into
monosyllables ; my companions sung a hymn ; T heard the murmur of
their prayers, and then each, folding himself in his cloak, lay down to
sleep: they slept the deep sleep of tired men. The billows dashed against
the boat, and the night-air closed over our heads ; the consciousness that
a fathomless abyss might at any moment swallow up our small bark kept
me awake, and the power of the wondrous ocean—Solitude took posses-
sion of me. It was as if I belonged to the deep whose inhabitants I had
disturbed with my daring curiosity. The dim horizon of my precarious
future—a thousand pictures of the past, appeared and vanished again.
Neither sorrow nor joy could assume a distinct form ; all feelings blunted
each other—all images rocked like the boat, and melted into each other
like the waves: it was a feeling such as I never experienced before or
since. In the twilight, I could not discern the distant shore ; and here
I learned the deep, unfathomable might with which Nature rules the
soul—here, as in no other situation. By degrees all images became
dimmer and more shadowy—the rocking motion of my thoughts more
tranquil, gentle, and calm; the plashing of the waves sounded like a
lullaby, and I sank, like my comrades, into a deep sleep.” —Steffens, in
his “ Was ich erlebte.”
IV. A Scene in Norway.
Tn one of these wanderings, I remember,” says Steffens, “ to have
spent the night in a valley so entirely shut in on all sides by naked,
abrupt, precipitous rocks, that the sun was only visible a few hours in
the middle of the day. A hut of unusual neatness stood in this valley ;
the grass was fresh, green, and luxuriant, from constant moisture ; oats
and barley were growing in sheltered spots ; a few cows were feeding in
the little meadow: everything breathed repose and comfort. The inha-
bitants of this peaceful nook—a hale, active old man, with a white beard,
a good-natured old woman, a married son, with his wife and children—
were so cordial, so delighted at the rare event of a visit from a young
traveller, that I determined. after seeing the early setting of the sun, to
stay for its late rising.
«The old people had not left their valley for years; the young woman
haa seldom been as far as the shore of the island. The son alone some-
times made journeys of business as far as Bergen; but these were by no
means frequent, and their peaceful lives flowed on in the most complete
seclusion. The incident made an indelible impression on my memory ;
because I never had so near a view of the riches of an apparent uniformity
364 Meteorological Tables.
of life—of the completely enclosed tranquil fountain of a simple existence,
cut off from all turbid and stormy waters, as here. Both father and son
had been seamen in their youth. They had seen the world ; knew France,
Spain, and the ports of the Mediterranean, as sailors know them ; they
had carried back into their lonely valley a general picture of the relations
of the external world; but the old man had lived here very long, and
even the son for more than ten years. The events that then convulsed
the world lay at an immense distance. Intervals, whether of time or
space, appeared to have lost their significancy ; and even the events of
their own country and neighbourhood were as strange to them, and
seemed as entirely severed from their own existence, as the events of the
most distant lands. And yet these remote things were as vividly present
to their simple minds, and affected their transparent souls as deeply, as
if they belonged to their own most intimate being. As the infant stretches
out its hands to grasp the most distant object as if it were to close it, so
did their warm guiltless hearts embrace the remotest events as if they
regarded themselves. They asked me a thousand questions. The whole
existence and mind of these people was of such a limpid clearness, that
I knew in a moment what incidents to relate, and how to describe them.
Never had I a more attentive audience—never did I hear sounder judg-
ments. The time passed with extreme rapidity in this soft physical and
mental twilight, and yet, when I left the hut, I felt as if I quitted a long-
accustomed home.”’—Steffens, in his “ Was ich erlebte.”
Meteorological Tables for 1842.
East sIDE oF SCOTLAND.
Mr R. D. Pauvt’s Table.
MerrTroroLoGicaL TaBLe, kept at Edinburgh, in North Latitude 55° 57’ 20”.
Mean Temperature b. f
2S: SPM. Six’s rae a si
1842, _ —<$ $$ | —————_ | —_______________|Rain,| Snow. | Hail.| Days
Barom. | Ther. | Barom. | Ther. | Max. | Min. | Mean. Fair,
Jan, = Se “a is 45° 20° |33.40°|} 4 12 4 17
Feb. ag 533 29.62] $a3 52 92 |38.89 | 10 S Algal. LT
March sists ase 29.506 sec 59 2 43.23 | 22 6 4 8
April oie ast 89.026 sae 68 33 | 47.84 5 ] 1 | 24
May 29.691 |52.89°|} 29.705 |51.00°| 67 40 |53.52 | 19 1. 12
June 29.855 | 56.20 | 29,817 | 51.50 76 45 |58.04 | 16 edt) LA
July 29.748 | 56.93 | 29.753 | 58.96 W7 4G (57.88 | 14 awe 1}; 17
August | 29.802 | 59.25 | 29,833 | 58.16 73 43 (59.88 | 14 ake eect LT
Sept. 29.729 |54.33 | 29.744 | 53.60 69 41 /|54.81 | 18 a Ee 2
October | 29.780 | 45.38 | 29.770 | 44.41 60 28 |45.41 8 2 2.) 22
Nov. 29.543 | 39.83 | 29.574 | 39.20 55 27 «=| 39.63 | 13 3 2) 16
Dec. 29.€83 | 44.00 | 29.700 | 45.03 55 28 |44.80 | 22 1 QT 1
Average} 29.728 |51.10°| 29.731 | 50.20°| 63.00° 33.58°| 48.06°| 165 28 22 |187
Meteorological Tables.
ANNUAL RESULTS.
MORNING,
BAROMETER, THERMOMETER,
OBSERVATIONS. Winp. | . OBSERVATIONS.
Highest, 7th January, 30.38, NW. | Highest, 1@th August, 66°,
Lowest, 25th November, 28.65, EE. Lowest, 6th January, 20°,
é EVENING.
Highest, 8th October, 30.37, NW. | Highest, 13th June, 70°,
Lowest, 22d October, 28.62, W. | Lowest, 23d November, 29°,
ExtreME CoLp anp Heart sy S1x’s THERMOMETER.
Coldest, 6th January, . . - : Wind NE. °
Hottest, 23d July, . : . Do. NW.
Mean temper ature of the year 1842, = 3) 6s . . .
WEATHER. Days. WIND.
Fair, . ; 3 ° 187 N.and NE. . .
Rain, &e. . . ‘ 178 E.and SE. . .
S. and SW. - .
365 W.and NW. . .
365
TIMES.
“47
72
96
140
Barometer during the first four months of the year taken at noon, and the mean
height for that time is 29.850 inch.
The aurora borealis was observed but six times during the year, viz., on the
Ist and 15th February, 3d and 12th April, 18th July, and 26th October.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, 56° 23’ 30” N. L.
Mean Temperature by
PAST 8 A.M. 8 P.M. B
+ Six’s Thermometer.
!
Barom. . |Barom. : : in. | Mean.
Jan. 29,823 | 32. 29.821 | 32. 33.35
Feb, 29.632 | 37.71 |29.616 20 39.28
March |29.525 | 40.00 |29,499 | 29.32 41.48
April 30.013 | 43.63 |30.023 | 42.2 44,70
May .685 | 50, 29.735 | 48. 51.38
June 29,804 | 57.40 |29.738 | 55. 55,86
July 29.759 | 57.22 |29.730 - 56,58
Aug. 29.842 | 58.15 |29.829 5 60,19
Sept. (29.741) 54.56 |29.762 | 50. ; 54.16
Oct. |29.766 | 43.00 |29.749 | 39.: 23 43.70
Nov. |29.582 | 38.96 |29.580 | 37, 39.96
Dee. 29.635 | 42,12 |29,707 | 39, 42.74
Average | 29.732 | 46,29° |29,732 6 i4, 30.50°| 46.94°
366 Meteorological Tables.
ANNUAL RESULTS.
é MORNING.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETER,
OBSERVATIONS. WIND. OBSERVATIONS. WIND.
Highest, 7th January, 30.41, N. | Highest, 13th August, 64°, We
Lowest, 23d October, 28.56, N. | Lowest, 15th January, 23°, E.
EVENING.
Highest, 7th January, 30.40, N. | Highest, 31st July, 65°, N.
Lowest, 22d October, 28.56, W. | Lowest, 15th January, 24°, E.
Extreme Coup Anp Haat By S1x’s THERMOMETER.
Coldest, 16th January, .........scscsccsceseerserceccesenccess ‘Wind, Bi -cceueceeves Loe
Hottest, 18th August, ......csc.cscccsseeeees Neesvtiase Bos | S924. BI 80°
Mean Temperature of the year 1842, .........-:.s.sseeeseeee tees 46.94°
WEATHER. Days WIND. TIMES.
Waiter gece tein dcce cusses sasiesiceess 243 IW. RNG UINE Ie re svc tate ee teenie 45
LEC TIO COC Es aaet Bey ae geen See cesgnengn 122 aM B:, wis ceee asta tewenceniernt 125
— agin SW: .¢i en. coe etal wise 99
365 Wand: NWe)\ accc.sccvacowedaie 96
365
The amount of rain last year at Kinfauns Castle was 31.10 inches; whereas
during 1842, but 23.10 inches fell: the difference being 8.00 inches.
During
1839, a great quantity of rain fell, but was succeeded by a very dry year ; but the
quantity of rain, even then, was greater than during 1842. The mean tempera-
ture of 1841, by the Kinfauns Register, was 45.88 ; 1842 warmer by 1,06°.
RESULTS OF A METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL, KEPT AT HARRABY, NEAR CARLISLE,
BY JosePH ATKINSON, In 1842.
BAROMETER.
Mean height at 9 A.M. ...........
Mean height at 9 P.M.
Mean height of both.............
Highest a.m. on the 8th Oct, ..
Lowest A.M. on the 25th Nov...
Highest p.m. on the 9th April..
Lowest P.M. on the 23d Oct. ..
THERMOMETER.
Mean of Maximum
Mean of Minimum
Mean of both
Lowest, on the 21st October
Total quantity
Average quantity for the same
month for seven years ......
Number of days on which rain
fellas conta dawn cvusilenivese hows.
Average number of days for
seven years
eee ee ener tneeeee
Highest, on the 18th August ..
29,840
. 29.821
. 29.826
30,509
.28.659
30.563
.28.465
..08,0
48,5
48.5
81.3
14,8
21.825
\ 33.056
186
} 224
WIND.
NuMBER oF Days.
N....14} E....22} 8. ... 82) W.... 86
NNE.4} ESE.3} SSW.24} WNW.12}
NE. 36} SE. 40} SW. 702 NW....163
ENE.63 SSE.23 WSW.20i NNW. 13
Days.
Total Masterlys.i2i. sesttde. seen 1505
Total Westerly | 6 30.21 Highest, . ! ~ §1°
Lowest, * ; > 28.23 Lowest, . F Ps 23°
Mean, . : : 29.380 Mean, A Y 4 36.67
WINDS.
W.7; N.W.7; N. 4; N.E. 0; E.0; S.E. 2; 8.1; S.W. 10.
Memoranpa.—January 1. 2. fine. 3. Cloudy; windy p.m.; thermo-
meter 4 p.m. 87°. 5. Windy p.m. 6. Morning hazy. 7. Stormy at in-
tervals, during day, with rain and sleet; snow 7 P..; night stormy.
8. Heavy snow; windy. 9 Snow a.m.; heavy gale after 1 p.m.; snow
Meteorological Tables. 371
again, during night. 10. Fine. 11. Fine; hazy; large lunar halo
half-past 7 p.m. 12. Hazy; a colourless ring round the sun all day; 8
P.M, ground thickly covered with hoar frost ; barometer commenced to
sink 11 p.m., the wind at the same time rose from S.E., and an hour or
two afterwards, increased to the most violent storm, probably ever re-
collected, and, at the same time, considering the short time it lasted, was
productive of immense loss both of life and property, 15. Seven a.m.
stormy, snow occasionally during day, but calm; sleet 10 p.m. 14. 15.
Frosty. 16. Barometer rose very rapidly during last night, followed by
athaw. 17.18.19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy ; thermometer at 5 p.m. 39°.
21. Fine ; thermometer 6 p.m. 82°, but by 10 o’clock p.m. had risen to
88°; night cloudy. 22. Cloudy. 28. Cloudy; stormy at 8 pm. 24.
Windy ; rain 9 p.m. 25, Windy; night stormy. 26. Ditto; tempera-
ture; 1l p.m. 47°. 27. 28. Stormy. 29. The same; barometer again
began to sink at 9 p.m.; wind much higher, with heavy and constant
rain. 80.31. Stormy; nights of both days especially so.
In London the storm of the 13th January last was severely felt. About
three o’clock a.m. a sharp wind sprang up from south, southwest, and
shortly before four o’clock a heavy rain began, which continued until
daybreak. About nine o’clock there was a heavy fall of hail; and as
the forenoon advanced, the wind increased in violence, until between
twelve and one o’clock, it blew a perfect hurricane from the southwest,
which lasted for nearly an hour.
Liverpool, Jan. 14.—During the whole of yesterday the falling of the
barometer gave unerring symptoms of the approach of a severe storm.
The gale increased as the night advanced, and from twelve until five this
morning, a hurricane raged, hardly less fierce, but fortunately less de-
structive as regards life and property, than the memorable one of the 7th
January 1839. At noon, on the 14th, barometer at 28.80, having fallen
from 28.85, at which point it stood at 9 a.m.
The great and long-continued depression of the barometer, during this
month, came to acrisis on the 16th instant. In the morning, it again
began to sink after a sudden rise the night before, the wind having veered
to north. In the evening of the 16th instant, the barometer was again
below 29 inches, and towards midnight the wind went to 8.W., when
the frost went entirely off, the temperature of the atmosphere becoming
extremely mild, without frost even by night ; but to make up for this,
constant gales and rain prevailed, until the morning of the 2d February,
when the frost returned, accompanied by snow from N.W. The de-
pression of the barometer on the 18th was very extensive, the storm not
only extending throughout the kingdom, but also on the Continent,
where it was, in many parts, more destructive than in Britain.
372
eA ELS NE FT LI OIE TTT TENS ORE RT EIT IT ET ABP FSET
ee Awl ee WO fer aL KW Vie Om ae
- Meteorological Tables.
TasiE [J.—FEBRUARY.
Ther. | Ther. | Ther. Barom. Therm. | Bar. | Ther.
Max. | Min. | Med. |dp.8 A. m.J} p.8 A. M.|8 P.M.| 8 P.M.
.1.| 43 | 32 |37 | 2938 | 38° {29.18/38 . |W.
2.| 33 30 31 29.08 32 29.11 | 32 . |N.W.
3.| 32 19 25 28.89 30 29.13 | 32 F ANEW,
4.| 34 29 31 29.53 32 29.81 | 29 .| N
5.| 35 20 27 29.80 31 29.87 | 27 Aiba
6.| 35 33 30 29.93 22 29.96 | 33 .|N.E
7.| 38 37 3 30.10 38 30.15 | 37 .|N.E
8.| 38 36 37 30.10 33 30.05 | 38 .|N.E
9.| 36 30 33 30.08 | 36 30.11 | 32 .|N.E
10.| 35 34 35 30.09 33 30.08 | 34 r|NVE
11.} 38 36 37 30.10 36 30.10 | 36 .|N.E
12.| 40 3 36 30.11 38 30.08 | 35 E
13. |. 35 25 30 29.93 33 29.73 | 32 W.
14.| 28 16 22 29.69 27 29.89 | 21 N
15.) 27 18 22 29.41 24 29.17 | 23 WwW
16.| 28 19 23 29.13 23 29.27 | 24 N
17.) 3: 21 26 29.49 23 29.59 | 28 N
18.| 34 29 31 29.61 25 29.60 | 31 NE
19.| 37 32 34 29.60 30 29.50 | 32 E
20.) 38 35 36 29.41 36 29.39 | 36 E
21.) 37 35 36 29.39 35 29.41 | 35 E.
22.) 39 34 35 29.41 37 29.40 | 35 E.E
23.} 38 35 36 29.49 36 29.52 | 36 E
24.) 39 35 37 29.60 38 29.65 | 35 E
25.| 38 33 35 29.65 36 29.62 | 34 E
26.) 36 33 34 29.57 34 29.38 | 35 E
27.| 35 31 33 29.18 33 29.09 | 34 S.E
28.| 36 27 31 29.22 32 29.49 | 33 N.E
Means, | 35.53] 29.53] 32.21] 29.605 | 32.30 | 29.608/32.39 | 11 4 113 |
RESULTS.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETER.
Highest, . 5 - 30.15 Highest, . = 42°
Lowest, : : : 28.89 Lowest, . 2 . 16°
Mean, ; < 29.606 Mean, : 5 32.21
WINDS.
W.3; N.W.2; N.5; N.E.8; E.9;8.E.1; 8.0; S.W. 0.
Memoranva.— Meteor.—Shortly after eight o’clock, on the evening of
the 5th, a brilliant meteor passed over a considerable part of the north
of the county of Nottingham. Its course was from N.W., and in its
direct path it’ went a little to the east of Grove, near Retford. Its colour
was a dark red, and its velocity not less than 50 or 60 miles in a minute.
—WNottingham Journal.
Tar Late Gates.—Feb. 18.—During the last six weeks, the sacrifice
of life and property at sea has been without parallel in the history of our
mercantile affairs. Upon reference to Lloyd’s books, it appears that the
total number of vessels wrecked during the storm of the 13th January,
was 180, and the number of persons lost, 453. On the coast of Kngland
154 vessels, and 190 lives. On the coast of Sectland, 17, and 30 lives.
On the coast of Ireland 5, and 104 lives, and on the coast of France 4
vessels, and 100 lives. The value of the vessels and cargoes have been
ae estimated at L.585,000, viz. vessels at L,405,000, and cargoes at
-180,000.
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VOL. XXXIV. NO. LXVt1.—aprrit 1845.
(. 874.)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
(Continued from last Number, p. 176.)
1842, December 5.—Sir T. Maxpoveart Briszanez, Bart.,
President, in the Chair.
1. On the Construction of a New Music Hall. By Sir George
S. Mackenzie, Bart.
December 19.—The Right Honourable Lord Greenock, Vice-
President, in the Chair.
1. Letter on Terrestrial Magnetism, addressed to the Secre-
tary. By Professor Hansteen of Christiania.
2. Notice of the occurrence in Scotland of the Tetrao medius,
shewing that supposed species to be a hybrid. By James
Wilson, Esq.
There exists in several northern continental countries a peculiar
kind of grouse, called by foreign naturalists Tetrao medius, on ac-
count of its exhibiting, as it were, a combination of the characters of
the wood-grouse or capercailzie on the one hand, and of the black-
cock on the other. It is never found except in countries inhabited
by the two species last named; and as it presents a union of their
characters, several naturalists have inferred that it is not itself a
distinct kind, but a hybrid, resulting from the casual intercourse of
the other two. But most naturalists have maintained that it is a
distinct species, chiefly upon the principle, that, in the wild state,
birds of different species do not intermingle sexually with each other.
Mr Wilson, however, having discovered that, in certain districts of
Scotland into which Lord Breadalbane has lately introduced the
capercailzie, and in which the black-cock previously existed in abund-
ance, this so-called intermediate grouse has also now made its appear-
ance, he draws the conclusion, that it is not a distinct species, but a
hybrid or mule. ‘It had not been previously known in Scotland,
at least in our times,—it has not been introduced by any one from
abroad,—and yet here we now find it in the very districts inhabited
by the other two.” Mr Wilsou exhibited a specimen recently killed
on the estate of Dunira, and shewed its entire agreement with the
foreign T. medius, by comparing it with a specimen from Norway.
3. On the Coloration of the Blood. By the late Daniel Ellis,
Esq., F-R.S.E. Communicated by Dr Christison.
On the Growth of the Salmon. 375
1843, January 9.—Dr Axszrcromsiz, Vice-President, in
the Chair.
1. On the Growth of the Salmon. By Mr Andrew Young, In-
vershin, Sutherlandshire. Communicated by James Wilson,
Esq.
Mr Young has here taken up the subject of the salmon’s growth
where it was necessarily left off by Mr Shaw. So far as the
earliest or fresh-water state of the fish is concerned, he entirely
agrees with the observer just named. He then states the various
opinions which prevail regarding the more or less rapid growth of
smolts and grilse, and shews by tabular lists (the result of frequently
repeated experiments), that the increase in their dimensions is ex-
traordinary so soon as they descend into the salt water. So far back
as the months of April and May 1837, he marked a number of de-
scending smolts, by making a peculiar perforation in the caudal fin,
by means of small nipping irons constructed for the purpose. He
re-captured a considerable number of them ascending the rivers as
grilse, in the course of the ensuing months of June and July, and
weighing several pounds each, more or less according to the differ-
ence in the length of their sojourn in the sea. Again, in April and
May of 1842, he marked a number of descending smolts, by clipping
off the little adipose fin uponthe back. InJune and July he caught
several of them returning up the river, and bearing his peculiar
mark,—the adipose fin being absent. Two of these speciméns were
exhibited to the Society. One marked in April, and re-captured on
the 25th of July, weighed 7 lb.; the other, marked in May and re-
captured on the 30th July, weighed 33 lb. As the season advances
grilse increase in size, those being the largest which abide the longest
in the sea. They spawn in the rivers after their first ascent, and
before they have become adult salmon.
Mr Young also described various experiments instituted with the
view of shewing the transition of grilse into salmon. He marked
many small grilse after they had spawned in winter, and were about
to re-descend into the sea, He re-captured them in the course of
the ensuing summer as finely-formed salmon, ranging in weight from
9 to 14 |b., the difference still depending on the length of’ their
sojourn in the sea. He has tried these experiments for many sea-
sons, but never twice with the same mark. A specimen marked as
a grilse of 4 lb. in January 1842, and re-captured as a salmon of
9 lb. in July, was exhibited to the Society. It bore a peculiarly
twisted piece of copper wire in the upper lobe of the caudal fin.
376. Proceedings of the Royal Society.
Those marked and re-taken in 1841 were marked with brass wire
in the dorsal fin. With these and other precautions Mr Young
avoided the possibility of any mistake as to the lapse of time. Both
grilse and salmon return uniformly to their native streams ; at least
it very rarely happens that a fish bearing a particular mark is found
except in the river where it was so marked. Salmon in the perfect
state as to form and aspect, also increase rapidly in their dimensions
on again reaching the sea. A spawned salmon weighing 12 lb. was
~ marked on the 4th of March, and was re-captured on its return from
the sea on the 10th of July, weighing 181b. Mr Young is of
opinion that salmon rather diminish than increase in size during
their sojourn in rivers; and he illustrates this and other points of his
subject by numerous experiments and observations.
2. On the Geology of Roxburghshire. By David Milne, Esq.
Mr Milne divided his paper into two parts ; the first comprehending
a description of the leading geological features of the district ; the
second containing the inferences of a cosmological character, which
the facts related in the first part seemed to warrant.
In describing the geology of Roxburghshire, Mr Milne referred,
first, to the stratified rocks; secondly, to the igneous rocks; and,
thirdly, to the superficial, or (as they have been sometimes termed)
the diluvial deposits.
The stratified rocks were stated to consist of the following series,
beginning with the oldest, viz.—greywacke, old red sandstone, and
the coal measures. As to the long-disputed question regarding the
existence of the new-red sandstone formation in this county, Mr
Milne, whilst not wishing to affirm absolutely the non-existence of
any strata whatever belonging to this epoch, referred to the older for-
mation the great mass of the red sandstones abounding in the dis-
trict, adding that he had himself seen none which necessarily be-
longed to a later epoch.
It was stated that no fossils had been found in the greywacke
strata, but that in the old red sandstone formation, scales and bones
of the Holoptychius had been found embedded both in the red and
the white coloured strata.
The igneous rocks consist of all the varieties of felspars, basalts,
and greenstones, known in other parts of Scotland, the first men-
tioned of these being the oldest. All these rocks occur in the form
of dykes, as well as hills, of which the Eildons and Cheviots are the
highest and most extensive.
On the Geolegy of Roxburghshire. 307
The superficial deposits consist, beginning with the oldest, of the
boulder clay, well known in the Lothians,—of sand and gravels,—and
of great blocks or rounded fragments of rocks, all strewed over the
surface. It was mentioned, that, whilst the boulder clay was depo-
sited in tumultuous waters (presenting no signs of stratification), the
sands and gravels being for the most part stratified, have been depo-
sited by waters not in violent action. The greater number of boul-
ders in Liddesdale consist of grey granite, very similar to that of
Criffel, situated between thirty and forty miles to the westward.
In part 2d, the author observed, that the greywacke formation,
presenting as they do enormous foldings, in consequence of which the
formation is traversed by ridges and valleys, all running east and
west by compass, must have been acted on here, as throughout the
rest of this part of the island, by a force or system of forces, which
acted in a particular direction; and that as hardly any igneous rocks
whatever occur, within the limits of this formation, it seemed that
the greywacke strata had not been elevated and folded together by
igneous action, but more probably in consequence of changes in thie
form of the earth’s nucleus, as suggested by Elie de Beaumont.
The elevation of the greywacke ranges was followed by eruptions
of felspathic and a few greenstone rocks, which took place chiefly on
the outskirts of that formation; and from the sediment afforded by
the wearing down of these rocks, still at the bottom of a sea, the stra-
tified rocks surrounding and partly covering these older rocks were
formed. As the heaviest sediment would be deposited first, the sand-
stones filled with oxide of iron, and now constituting the principal
beds of the old red sandstone formation, would girdle the hills of
greywacke and older felspathic recks ; whilst the strata of white sand-
stone, shales, and limestones, being composed of lighter sediment,
would be carried farther, and become members of the coal measures
situated in Liddesdale, Northumberland, and Berwickshire.
The formation of the whinstone dykes, one of which was described
as running in a NW. direction, for about twenty-four miles, was
ascribed by the author to the irruption of igneous matter into fissures
previously formed in the earth’s crust.
The beds of gravel and sand, as well as the boulders, the author
thought might all be explained on the supposition, that the district
had been covered by the waters of the ocean, when they were depo-
sited. He adduced facts and arguments for the purpose of shewing
that certainly none of these deposits could have been formed by gla-
cial action, and that probably submarine currents, or great waves,
such as are known to have been produced by submarine cruptions,
would be sufficient to account for all the phenomena.
378 Proceedings of the Royal Society.
8. On the Property of Transmitting Light, possessed by
Charcoal and Plumbago, in fine plates and particles:
By John Davy, M.D., &c.
The charcoal of the pith of the elder consists of plates of extra-
ordinary thinness. It was in examining this charcoal, that the
author first observed the property which is the subject of his paper.
He detected it by means of the microscope, using a high magnifying
power. By analogy, he was led to infer that the power of transmit-
ting light must belong to charcoal in general, in all its varieties,
when reduced to the state of fine powder or filaments,—an influence
which he found confirmed by experiment in a number of different
instances, as the charcoal of the pith of the sycamore, of the pith of
the rush, the fibre of cotton, flax, &c. He also found it to belong to
lamp-black, to cork in very fine powder, to anthracite, and plumbago.
The light transmitted he found to vary in its hues, from almost
white, as in the instance of the thinnest plates of the charcoal of the
pith of the elder, to brown and red of various shades, in the instances
of lamp-black, anthracite, and plumbago.
He considers the property of translucency belonging to charcoal
and plumbago, in their finely divided state, as favourable to the
opinion now commonly received, that these substances and diamond
owe their marked peculiarities not to difference of chemical mixture,
but of mechanical structure. Incidentally, he notices the specific
gravities of these substances,—stating, as the result of his own ex-
periments, that the specific gravity of charcoal, cork, and anthracite,
is about 1.5; and that of plumbago about the same, making allow-
ance for the ferruginous and earthy matter with which the carbon in
this mineral is mixed.
Tn conclusion, he offers the conjecture, that the coloured tints of
vapour and fluids in which carbon is suspended, may be connected
with the translucency of this substance, and that other bodies, hither-
to considered opaque, may be found capable of transmitting light,
when examined in a manner similar to that which he has employed.
January 23.—The Very Reverend Principal Lez, V-.P., in
the Chair.
1. Chemical Observations on the Flowers of the Camellia
Japonica, Magnolia grandiflora, and Chrysanthemum
Leucanthemum; and on three proximate principles
which they contain. Part I. By Dr. Hope.
Proceedings of the Wernerian Society. 379
2. On the Law of Visible Position in Single and Binocular
Vision, and on the Representation of Solid Figures, by
the union of two dissimilar plane figures on the Retine.
By Sir David Brewster, K.H. Part I.
eee ee
Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society.
~ (Continued from last No., p. 177.)
December 10. 1842.—_Professor Jameson, President, in the Chair.
Mr Torrie read Mr Henry Goodsir’s account of two new genera
of Crustacea, found by him in the Firth of Forth, and to which he
has given the names of Bodotria and Alauna (published in the last
No. of this Journal, p. 119); also Dr Traill’s description of a new
species of Serpent from Demerara, which he has named Elaps
Jamesoni (published in the last No. of this Journal, p. 53). There
was exhibited a very fine specimen of the Squalus vulpes, or Fox-
Shark, 13 feet long, taken in Largo Bay in August last.
January 28. 1843.—The Right Honourable Lord Greenocr, V-P.,
in the Chair.
Dr Neill read a notice regarding the ventriloquistic song of a red-
breast, contained in a letter addressed to him by James Heriot, Esq.
of Ramornie. Dr Hamilton read a paper communicated to the So- .
ciety, entitled, The Ancient Chronology of the World, and its ap-
plication to Geology and the Natural History of Man.
February 25.—Sir Wii1am Newsieeine, V.P. in the Chair.
Mr Torrie read Dr Mathie Hamilton’s observations on the Llama,
Alpaca, Vicuna, and Guanaco of Peru (published in the present No.
of this Journal, p. 285). Mr John Goodsir read a paper by his
brother, Henry D. G. Goodsir, Esq., surgeon, describing the Madre,
or vast accumulation of minute marine animals which precedes the
appearance of a herring shoal, as observed off the Isle of May; and
detailing the characters of a new species of Cetochilus. ‘° Mr Torrie
read Dr Mathie Hamilton’s remarks on the production, &c. of the
Guano of commerce.
March 18.—Professor JAMESON, President, in the Chair.
Mr Torrie read an account of the great explosion at Dover, by
Captain Stuart, communicated by Lord Greenock (published in this
No. of Journal, p. 337). Dr Traill read his paper on the introduc-
380 Scientific Intelligence—Meteorology.
tion into Scotland of granite for ornamental purposes by Messrs
Macdonald and Leslie, Aberdeen (published in this No. p. 341).
Mr Torrie read a communication on the habits and structure of the
Tinamus Guianensis by Dr Frazer, late of Demerara. Various
Meteorological Tables were laid on the table.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
METEOROLOGY.
1. Variation of Temperature during the Russian Expedition
to Khwa.—lIt has been stated to the Academy of Sciences by a
Russian officer who had accompanied the army to Khiva, that dur-
ing the expedition, the thermometer fell to — 43°C. (— 48°.4
Fahr.) ; that for more than three months the mean temperature was
between — 17° and — 18° (+ 1°.4 and — 0.4 F.); and that dur-
ing their return, in the month of June 1840, the thermometer rose
to + 46° C. (+ 114°.8 F.) Thus, in the course of a few months,
the troops were exposed to a variation of 89 degrees Centigrade, or
160 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. On the Movement and Structure of the Mer de Glace of Cha-
mount.—On the 27th February 1843, Professor Forbes read a me-
moir before the Royal Society of Edinburgh ‘ On the Motion of the
Mer de Glace of Chamouni.”
The author detailed in this paper the methods of observation by
which he was enabled to ascertain the daily and even hourly motion
of different parts of the glacier.
The following are some of the principal results :—
I. In the particular case of the Mer de Glace, the motion of ie
higher parts of the glacier are on the whole slower than those of its
lower portion, but the motion of the middle region is slower than
either.
The following table, the result of observations at a series of ascend-
ing stations, will authorize this conclusion.
Velocity.
Lower part, .....s..s.ss00s { ee
Midd e:dos, occ ccnsscun ses 0.479
igher d., eiscncies vetpevee 0.674
II. The Glacier du Géant moves faster than the Glacier de Lechaud
in the proportion of 7 to 6.
III. The centre of the glacier moves faster than the sides. When
Scientific Intelligence— Meteorology. 361
two glaciers unite, they act as a single one in this respect, just as
two united rivers would do,
The author measured the velocities at different places in the
breadth of the glacier, and it was found to increase towards the centre.
The following are the numerical results, assuming the motion of the
ice near the edge as the standard or the unit of reference,
Side. Centre.
1.000 1.332 1.356 1.367
IV. The difference of motion of the centre and sides of the gla-
cier varies (1) with the season of the year, and (2) at different parts
of the length of the glacier.
1. From the observations made, the author concludes, that “the
variation of velocity diminished as the season advanced ; and that it
was proportional to the absolute velocity of the glacier at the same
time.”
2. The variation of the velocity with the breadth of the glacier is
least considerable in the higher parts of the glacier, or near its
origin.
V. The motion of the glacier generally varies with the season of
the year and the state of the thermometer.
Perhaps the most critical consideration of any for the various
theories of glacier motion is the influence of external temperature
upon the velocity. It is shewn in this paper, by a direct numerical
comparison, and by projected curves, that in nearly every instance
the velocity of the glacier, during any period of days, has a refe-
rence to the temperature of the same period. If the thermometer
fell, the glacier advanced slower, and vice versa. It is not, how-
ever, to be inferred that at the same external temperature the velo-
city will always be the same; only at any season, the change will
always be in the same direction, and governed by the thermometer,
though not always the same in amount.
The author also deduced from various indirect considerations, that
it is very improbable that the glacier stands still in winter. Onthe
contrary, he supposes that though its velocity is less than in summer,
it still bears a considerable proportion to it.
On the 20th March 1843, Professor Forbes read a memoir to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, on the structure of glaciers and the
cause of their motion.
With reference to his former paper of the 27th February, the
author stated that he had received a most satisfactory confirmation
of his opinion respecting the motion of glaciers in winter. From
382 Scientific Intelligence— Meteorology.
observations made by his direction on the Mer de Glace of Cham-
ouni, and in which he places entire confidence, it appears that the
ice moved no less than 76 feet between the 12th December 1842
and 17th February 1843, or at the rate of 134 inches, per diem,
whilst its mean motion during the summer was 174 inches.
The author then explained the manner in which he conceives the
conoidal structure of glaciers to be due to the varying velocity of
different points of their section producing discontinuity by minute
fissures, which are infiltrated and ultimately frozen. He had before
satisfied himself that the forms of these surfaces are such as the mo-
tion of the particles of a viscid fluid, obstructed by the sides and bot-
tom of the canal in which it moves, would engender. But to make
this more palpable, he has endeavoured to imitate the motion of a
glacier, by causing a plastic fluid of different colours to mould itself
by the action of gravity in an inclined bed, and he has thus succeed-
ed in reproducing the forms of the structural surfaces of glaciers so
precisely that they cannot be distinguished from the curves which he
had drawn as representing the actual phenomena.—Sce Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, Oct. 1842, pages 346, 347.*
Professor Forbes recapitulated the proofs that the glacier moves
as a plastic mass, the friction of whose parts is less than their fric-
tion upon the surface over which they tend to slide ; and he bases his
theory upon three classes of facts, which he considers that he has
demonstrated. 1. That the glacier moves like a stream, fastest at
the centre. 2. That its velocity is immediately governed by the
external temperature and the state of infiltration of the ice by water
at the time. 3. That the forms which its veined structure assumes
are those due to the movement of a semi-solid mass in the manner
supposed.
3. Climate of Malta—Many of the remarks which have been
made on the Ionian Islands, in relation to climate and seasons, are
necessarily applicable to Malta. Situated farther south, its mean
annual temperature is higher; its surface being less elevated, its
highest hills not exceeding 600 feet; and being farther removed
from lofty mountains, and surrounded by a greater expanse of sea,
its temperature during the greater part of the year is more equable ;
and lastly, being nearer to the coast of Africa, it is more liable to
be invaded by hot winds, and in summer to experience excessive de-
grees of heat.
* Our readers are requested to correct a typographical error at line 6, p. 352,
vol, xxxili, viz., for annular rings, read annual rings.—EpIT.
Scientific Intelligence—Meteorology. 383
As regards temperature, in considering the climate of Malta, it is
necessary to distinguish between the town and the country, the cir-
cumstances of the two being in many respects peculiar, and occa-
sioning a marked difference in the results of the thermometrical ob-
servations. The town of Valetta, by its massive buildings and com-
paratively narrow streets, is well fitted to equalize temperature. The
country, on the contrary, being almost entirely destitute of wood, its
surface rocky, its soil scanty, is better adapted to radiate heat. This
distinction is commonly neglected, and, in consequence, the observa-
tions which have been made in the city have been applied to the
whole island; and an exaggerated idea has been formed of the
equability of the temperature of Malta, and especially during the
heats of summer.*
4. Ignis Fatuus (Will-with-a-Wisp, Jack-with-a-Lantern,
Spunkie) observed near Bologna.—In the Annali di Fisica, &c.
(vol. iii, p. 36), there is an interesting notice respecting this phe-
nomenon by Dr Quirino Barillic Filepauti, from which we think it
proper to make the following extract :—
«« The painter Onofrio Zanotti assured me, that one evening, as
he was walking with some one in the street Lungo-Reno, he saw,
near the house of Professor Santini, globes of fire, in the form of
flames, issuing from between the paving-stones of the street, and
even among his feet. They rose upwards and disappeared ; he even
felt their heat when they passed nearhim. According to the infor-
mation I have collected from many individuals, I have ascertained
that St Elmo’s fire is often seen in the neighbourhood of the town,
* Mountains and valleys, the former considerably below the region of perpetual
snow, the latter moderately open and exposed to sunshine, appear to have an effect
in equalizing temperature somewhat similar to that of massive buildings in towns
and narrow streets. In travelling on the continent late in autumn, and in the
depth of winter, in passing from a low plain country, as from France into Savoy,
or from Lower into Upper Austria, I have been struck with surprise at the mild-
ness of the air of the mountain valleys compared with the cold experienced in the
lower and open country. But, on reflection, is not the difference such as might
be expected, considering the causes in operation which have an effect on atmos-
pherie temperature, and especially those connected with the radiation of heat ?
The damp mountain forests, in absorbing and giving out heat, may act like moun-
tain lakes and streams. The rocks on the mountain sides, besides absorbing and
giving out heat, must throw back heat which they receive from the valleys. In
the economy of nature, the circumstances alluded to seem to be a beautiful provi-
sion for softening the severity of winter, and rendering habitable regions which
the imagination is disposed to conceive the seat of storms and inclemency during
the winter season.—Dr Dary on the Ionian Islands and Malta, vol, i. p, 257.
384 Scientific Intelligence—Meteorology.
and I have learned in what places it appears most frequently. I
have therefore gone in the evening, sometimes to one place, sometimes
to another, and continued my observations for many days, both
during a clear and cloudy sky. I took up my station chiefly at the
entrance to the cemetery, because I was assured that it was there in
particular where it appeared, although, in fact, I did not notice one
at this point. These researches were undertaken in the autumn,
when, according to the general opinion, this luminous phenomenon
shews itself more frequently than at any other season, perhaps on
account of the rapid changes of the atmospheric pressure, which
allow the gases enclosed in the earth to escape more easily, by fa-
vouring their natural elasticity.
I perceived only three of these lights, but on different nights. The
first was one of those which issue from the ground, rise to a certain
height, and then suddenly become extinguished. I can say nothing
more respecting these than that they rise rapidly in a vertical line
to a height of three or four metres, and then become extinct with a
slight detonation. The second moved in a horizontal direction, and
I could not long follow it. The wind carried it to the banks of the
river Idice, where it disappeared. With regard to the third, which
afforded me the opportunity of making the experiments I wished, I
must enter into more circumstantial details.
A place fruitful of ignes fatui is the parish of San-Donino, parti-
cularly in the neighbourhood of the small church of Ascension, about
two miles from Bologna, and especially quite close to a pool, ina
rivulet where, three years ago, three sacrificial vessels of fine Roman
workmanship were found. On many successive nights I have re-
paired to this spot, but in vain. However, one evening in October,
which was succeeded by an aurora borealis and rain, I entered the
house of a peasant on the field where the pool occurs. Shortly after,
I opened the window, which overlooks the place where the phenome-
non most commonly shews itself. About 11 o'clock I saw the light
appear which I was desirous to observe ; and I instantly seized the
stick which I always kept ready for the purpose, and which had some
flax attached to its extremity, and speedily repaired to the spot indi-
cated. When I was not more than about twenty feet from the light,
I stopped a moment to observe it. It had the form and colour of an
ordinary flame, with a slight discharge of smoke, Its thickness was
about a decimetre ; and it was moving slowly in a direction from
south to north. When I approached nearer it changed its direction,
retired from me, and began to rise upwards. TI hurried forward with
Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 385
my stick, and thrust it into the flame, which kindled the flax, Soon
after, the Jack-o’-lantern became extinct at a height of about two or
three feet above the stature of a man. It soon after reappeared of
smaller size (for I was led to believe that it was the same), on an-
other pool placed at a little distance. I ran immediately towards it,
but in vain, as it vanished in a few seconds. I saw no others that
night. The remains of the flax had not that garlick-like smell pe-
culiar to phosphorus, but a faint peculiar odour which I cannot de-
fine, and which appeared to me to be rather of a sulphureous and am-
moniacal nature.*
GEOLOGY.
5. Geological Chronometer.—The Atheneum gives an abstract of a
paper, read by Mr Lyell to the Geological Society, which affords some
data for guessing at the period when the Mastodon lived, the gigan-
tic quadruped whose bones are found in the soil in various parts of
North America. Near Goat Island, which is close to the Falls of
Niagara, and at the Whirlpool, which is four miles further down,
Mr Lyell found a fluviatile deposit, 40 feet thick at the latter locality,
consisting of beds of sand, and containing many recent shells, with
remains of the Mastodon. When the deposit was formed by the
river, its waters must have been 300 feet higher than at present.
Tt follows, that the deep channel from the Whirlpool to Goat’s
Island was then uncut, and that the Falls were below the Whirlpool.
Hence, it appears, that since the bones of the Mastodon were depo-
sited in these beds, the Falls have receded (according to maps in our
possession) four miles, and possibly much more, for when the depo-
sit was formed, the Falls may have been, not at the Whirlpool, but
some miles below it. According to an estimate made some years
ago, the Falls recede (by undermining the rock) about a yard per
annum, but Mr Lyell assigns a foot as the more probable amount ;
and as they have receded in this case four miles, or 20,000 feet, we
may infer that 20,000 years haye elapsed since the bones were de-
posited in the fluviatile sediment, and since the animal lived. If the
estimated rate of recession is accurate, the time cannot be less than
this, but it may be more. The result, though wanting precision, is
not without its value; and there is little doubt that by the aid of
such natural Chronometers as N iagara Falls, and other means, we
shall by and by be able to measure by centuries geological periods of
a en a els Oo) ah
* T Institut, No, 471, 5th January 1843, p. 8,
386 Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy and Geology.
the length of which at present we can form no distinct conception.
Mr Lyell also describes ‘‘ the boulder formation on the borders of
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and in the valley of St Lawrence, as far
down as Quebec. Marine shells were observed in this drift, in se-
veral localities at Montreal, attaining a height probably exceeding
500 feet above the level of the sea, Similar shells were found as
far south as the western and eastern shores of Lake Champlain.
They are all northern species, and imply a former colder climate.
Rocks in contact with the drift are smoothed and furrowed, as be-
neath the drift in Northern Europe.’’—Scotsman.
6. Gold Mines in Ireland.—The origin of the discovery of gold
(in the county of Wicklow) is variously told. Tradition attributes it
to a schoolmaster, who, in consequence of his perpetually wandering
about the adjacent streams, was considered by his neighbours to be »
insane. He grew gradually rich, however; but at length the secret
of his wealth became known, and a similar madness seized the whole
population for many miles round the place where Nature had depo-
sited her treasure. It does not appear that gold was found in any
quantity until the autumn of 1796, when ‘a man crossing a brook
found a piece in the stream, weighing about half an ounce.” The
circumstance was noised abroad, and almost every river, stream, and
rivulet, for miles round the spot, was thronged by eager searchers
after wealth ; the news ran like wildfire through every district of the
country. Young and old, of both sexes, from the bed-ridden to the
babe that could scarcely crawl, were to be seen raking the gravel in
the waters, or pulling away the clay from the hill sides, washing it,
and peering into it for the ‘* sparkles of golden splendour.” Their
search was not unsuccessful: during the period which elapsed between
its commencement and the occupation of the place by troops stationed
there by Government—less than two months—it is conjectured that
2500 ounces of gold were collected by the peasantry, principally
from the mud and sand of Ballinavalley Stream, and disposed of for
about L.10,000.—Mrs S. C. Hall’s « Ireland.”
MINERALOGY.
7. Large mass of Native Gold found in the Oural Mountains.
—Humboldt lately transmitted to the Academy of Sciences of Paris,
a notice by M. de Koscharoff, an officer of the Russian Mines, re-
garding a mass of gold of large size, recently found-in the Oural.
The largest mass of native gold, which had previously been found
Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy and Geology. 387
in the Oural Mountains, weighed about 10 kilogrammes (24 Rus-
sian pounds and 69 zolotnies = 10.117 kil.), or upwards of 22 lb.
English ;* and it is that of which there is a plaster model in the
Muszum of Natural History at Paris. On the 7th November last,
however, there was found in the same mountains a mass of native
gold, weighing more than three times as much, viz. 36.025 kil. (2
pouds, 7 Russian pounds, and 92 ‘zolotnies) = about 80 pounds
English. The mines of Zarevo-Nicolaefsy and of Zarevo-Alexan-
drofsy, situated in the alluvial auriferous deposits of Miass, on the
Asiatic side of the southern portion of the Oural, have already af-
forded more than 6500 kilogrammes of gold. It was in this allu-
vium that, in 1836, the large mass of 10 kil., and several others,
of from 4 to 62 kil. were found at a depth of a few centimetrest
under the surface. Subsequently to the year 1837, the mines of
Nicolaefsy and of Alexandrofsy seeming exhausted, new explorations
were made in the neighbourhood, and especially along the river
Tachnou-Targanna. Great success attended the search for gold in
that marshy plain, and the whole valley had been searched except
that part of it occupied by the building in which the washing ope-
rations were carried on. In 1842 it was resolved to remove the
houses, whereupon sands were met with of immense richness, and
lastly there was discovered under the very corner of a building, and
at a depth of three yards, the enormous mass of gold_ weighing 36
kilogrammes, This mass is already placed in the collection of the
Corps ces Mines at St Petersburgh. According to the information
given by M. de Humboldt, in the third volume of his Examen critique
de la Géographie du nouveau Continent, the mass of gold found in the
Oural in 1826 was inferior in weight to that discovered in 1502 in
the alluvium of the Island of Haiti, and inferior also to that found in
1821 in the United States, in the county of Cavarras, and described
by M. Zoehler, a pupil of the Freyberg School of Mines. The mass
found at Miass, fifteen years ago, weighs 10.117 kil. ; that of Ca-
varras 12.600 kil.; that of Haiti 14 to 15 kil.; but the mass of
gold found in November 1842 in beds of alluvium reposing on dio-
rite is more than twice the weight of the largest of these, as it
weighs no less than 36 kilogrammes. Such has been the prodi-
gious increase of the quantity of gold obtained by washing in Rus-
sia, and especially in Siberia, to the east of the southern chain of
$$$ rn ne Sf
* A French kilogramme = 2.20548 Ib. avoirdupois.—Enpir.
t+ A centimetre = 0.393708 inches.—Epir.
385 Scientific Intelligence —Miscellanéous. |
the Oural, that, according to very accurate data, the total produce
during the year 1842 amounted to 16,000 kilogrammes (970 pouds
= 15,988 kil.) = upwards of 35,000 lb. English, of which Siberia
alone, to the east of the Oural, furnished more than 7800 kil. (479
pouds = 7846 kil.).—L’ Institut, No. 472.
8. Fahlerz containing Mercury, from Hungary. — Professor
Zeuschner procured this remarkable Fahlerz during his geognostical
tour in Hungary, and wished it to be analyzed, on account of its con-
taining mercury. It occurs at Kotterbach, in the vicinity of Iglo, and
is very probably the same compact Fahlerz, containing mercury, from
Poratsch, in Upper Hungary, which Klaproth analysed. The ore is
only found in a massive state, and is frequently interspersed with cop-
per pyrites, from which the portions destined for analysis were carefully
purified. Hr. Scheidthauer performed the following three analyses
of the ore in the laboratory of Professor H. Rose, but it was only in
one of them that all the component parts were determined, In the
second analysis, from particular causes, the whole amount of mercury
could not be obtained ; and in the third the sulphur alone was de-
termined :—~
1. EE Ii.
Sand or grains of quartz, . F 2.73 1,82 1.87
Antimony, . ‘ > - 18.48 18.50
Arsenic, - = : = 3.98 4.10
Tron, . 5 ° C 4.90 5.05
Zine, : - : : ; 1.01 1.02
Copper, . 3 . : » 35.90 85.87
Mercury, 2 . ° : 7.52 Sis ae
Sulphur, . . . - 23.34 73.70 23.90
Silver and lead, : : -\ traces.
97.86
—Poggindorf’s Annalen, 1843, No. 1, p. 161.
MISCELLANEOUS.
9. Egyptian Bronze-—Egyptian bronze consists of copper and
tin, and occasionally a small proportion of silver, For large
tools, it was probably a mixture of the two former metals only, _
This alloy, when first cast, would be extremely brittle and hard,
but may have been tempered, as the Chinese now temper their
bronze articles, viz. by plunging them repeatedly into cold water
whilst at a red heat. To this operation, perhaps, Homer alludes
in his simile of an armourer's forge, though it has been adduced
to prove the use of iron ; but the metal does not, at the later period
of the Trojan war, seem to have been in general use. It even
Scientific Intelligence— Miscellaneous. 389.
then seems to have been viewed as one of the precious metals, as
Achilles proposed a ball of iron as one of the prizes to be awarded
to the victor of the games instituted in honour of Patroclus ;—offer-
ings of iron implements were also made to the gods,
With regard to the early use of bronze in preference to iron, we
cannot forbear transcribing some remarks from Robertson’s History
of North America :—* Gold, silver, and copper, are found, in their
perfect state, in the clefts of rocks, in the sides of mountains, or the
channels of rivers. They were accordingly first known and first ap-
plied to use. But iron, the most serviceable of all metals, and to
which man is most indebted, is never discovered in its perfect form ;
its gross and stubborn ore must feel twice the force of fire, and go ’
through two laborious processes before it becomes fit for use. Man
was long acquainted with other metals before he acquired the art of
fabricating iron,”’
Several small articles of iron have been found in Egyptian tombs ;
but though acquainted with it, they do not appear to have applied
it to any practically useful purpose.
In the British Museum are several chisels, saws, and other tools
of bronze; and the author has a fish-hook of the same material,
found in a tomb, and also several pins of the latest modern improve-
ment, namely, with solid heads. A small bronze knife, found at
Thebes, was highly elastic, and the edge, after being buried at least
2000 years, so perfect, that it was used for a penknife for several
months after its exhumation.—The London Journal and Repertory
of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, No. exxv. No. 296.
10. On the Production of the Guano of Commerce.—The Moro
of Arica is situated close to the town, on the south, and is a bold pro-
montory projecting towards the sea, its base being washed by the surf
of the Pacific Ocean, and its summit being about 600 feet above it.
This Moro presents a precipice nearly perpendicular, with numerous
cliffs or ledges, which during ages have been occupied by myriads of
sea-fowl, called Garza by the Spaniards, but better known by the Peru-
vian name, Guwano,—a term which is also used by the Indians for
the dung of these birds. The front of the Moro of Arica is a most
conspicuous and important object to mariners, who wish to call
there ; for when vessels coming from the south, or windward, as it
is there called, are allowed by those on board to pass the port, the
Space gone over in a few hours may be such as to require several
VOL, XXXIV. NO. LXVIII.—apnriL 1843. 2c
390° Scientific Intelligence—Miscellaneous.
days to beat up again to the roadstead. But in consequence of
Guanos nestling on the face of the Moro, it has a white appearance,
from the accumulation of their droppings, which, when recent and
dry, as it always is in that locality, is of a grey-white colour, and
serves both as a beacon to the navigator who approaches the place,
and also as a magnificent object, when seen under the rays of the set-
ting sun. The dung of the guano has been used for manure by
the Peruvians, from time immemorial, and is highly prized by them,
on account of its fertilizing properties, which are very great. I
have seen some of these inoffensive beings, who had come several
hundred miles, having traversed ravines and tracks over all but
impassable mountains, each one with his donkey or llama, for a
quintal of guano, with which he had to march back again, trudging
on foot, and often rejoicing over his odorous cargo. The guanos
were still to be seen in vast numbers on the Moro of Arica, during
my first’ residence there in 1826, but not in such abundance as
they were a few years prior to that period; for during the war for
independence, Arica was several times attacked, both by sea and
land, when the cannonading had the effect of scaring the guanos
from their haunts on the Moro, Since 1826, Arica has been much
frequented by foreigners, some of whom often fired at, and other-
wise annoyed these birds, which now have all but totally abandoned
that part of the Peruvian coast. The guanos have hitherto existed
on the coast of the Peru, in numbers which would appear incredi-
ble, except to those persons who have seen them. The greatest
mass of guanos I ever saw was in 1836, at the Chincha Isles,
which are only barren frocks in the Pacific Ocean, off Pisco, and
about 100 miles south from Callio. I saw the birds through a
glass from on board a vessel under easy sail, when the rock appeared
to be a living mass; for the guanos seemed to be contending among
themselves for a resting-place. They live on fish, and are expert
fishers, for which they are beautifully formed by nature. The bill
is three or four inches long, according to the age or size of the bird,
and it is about one inch broad at the extremity, much curved, and
altogether well adapted for hooking up the food, which rarely
escapes. The quantity of guano manure accumulated on the Peru-
vian coast must have been very great, and may be estimated thus:
Allowing the average number of these birds to be one million, which
I consider is much within bounds, and that each guano has one
Scientific Intelligence—Miscellaneous. 391
ounce droppings per day, we shall have not less than above thirty tons,
and deducting one-half of the above supposed quantity, for evapo-
ration,an d other casualties, there will still be above fifteen tons of
this valuable substance produced every day- From what has been
observed as to the habits and numbers of the guano, their frequent-
ing promontories, declivities, and insulated rocks, it follows, that
their excrements in certain localities must have accumulated to
such an extent, as might induce those persons who may not have con-.
sidered the subject, to expect that the guano is to be had in un-
limited quantity ; but for obvious reasons, that must be a fallacious
expectation. —Communicated by Dr Mathie Hamilton, late of Peru.
11, Visit of Columbus to Iceland, in 1477, and his Conversations
there with learned men.—Karl Wilhelmi, in his recently published
work on the Northmen, has the following curious passage regarding
Columbus :— The most remarkable, and the most peculiar state
founded by the Northmen, was that in Iceland, as well on account
of the particular northern mode of life which was there freely de-
veloped to its fullest extent, and which preserved, unimpaired for cen-
turies, its laws, language, eloquence, music, and poetry, as of the dis-
covery of America, which was made from that country five hundred
years before Columbus. That immortal Genoese himself sailed from
England, in a ship from Bristol, in the year 1477, and visited the
island of Iceland, where he was confirmed in his conviction of the
existence of land in the West, by the conversations he carried on in
the Latin language, with the Icelandic priests, and other learned
men.” * In regard to this subject, Washington Irving, in his Life
of Columbus, vol. i. p. 69, says,—‘* While the design of attempting
the discovery in the West was maturing in the mind of Columbus,
he made a voyage to the north of Europe. Of this we have no
other memorial than the following passage, extracted by his son
from one of his letters :—* In the year 1477, in February, I navi-
gated one hundred leagues beyond Thule, the southern part of which
is seventy-three degrees distant from the Equator, and not sixty-
three, as some pretend ; neither is it situated within the line which
includes the west of Ptolemy, but is much more westerly. The
a ee ee ROT Te a ee eee SE Se eT ee ee
* Island, Hvitramannaland, Grénland, und Vinland, oder der Norrmdnner Leben
auf Island und Grénland, und deren Fahrten nach Amerika schon tiber 500 Jahre
vor Columbus. Heidelberg, 1842.
392 Scientific Intelligence—Miscellaneous.
English, principally those of Bristol, go with their merchandize to
this island, which is as large as England. When I was there the
sea was not frozen, and the tides were so great, as to rise and fall
twenty six fathoms.’* The island thus mentioned as Thule, is
generally supposed to have been Iceland, which is far to the west of
the Ultima Thule of the ancients, as laid down in the map of
Ptolemy. Nothing’more is known of this voyage, in which we dis-
cern indications of that ardent and impatient desire to break away
from the limits of the Old World, and launch into the unknown
regions of the ocean.”
12. Ethnological Society—We are happy to announce the forma-
tion in London of a society, which promises much for an important
but hitherto much neglected branch of knowledge, The following
was communicated to us by the Secretary :-—
“It is submitted, that among the numerous Literary and Scien-
tific Societies established in the British Metropolis, one is still want-
ing to complete the circle of Scientific Institutions, whose sole ob-
ject should be the promotion and diffusion of the most important
and interesting branch of knowledge, that of man, viz. ErHnonoey.
—* That a new and useful Society might therefore be formed,
under the name of ‘ The Ethnological Society.’
— That the interest excited ‘by this department of science is
increasingly felt ;—that its advantages are of the first importance
to mankind in general, and paramount to the welfare of a mari-
time nation like Great Britain, with its numerous and extensive
Colonies and Foreign Possessions.
—* That although there is a great amount of Ethnological in-
formation existing in Great Britain, yet it is so scattered and dis-
persed, either in large books that are not generally accessible, or in
the bureaux of the public departments, or in the possession of pri-
vate individuals, as to be nearly unavailable to the public.
‘« The objects, then, of such a Society as is now suggested would
be—
“1, To collect, register, and digest, and to print for the use of the
members and the public at large, ina cheap form, and at certain
intervals, such new, interesting and useful facts as the Society may
have in its possession, and may from time to time acquire.
* Hist. del Almirante, c. 4.
The Great Comet. 393
«2. To accumulate gradually a Museum illustrative of the varie-
ties of mankind, and of the arts of uncivilized life—a Library of
the best books on Ethnology—a selection of the best Voyages and
Trayels—a complete collection of Dictionaries and Grammars bear-
ing upon the subject—as well as all such documents and matcrials
as may convey the best information to persons intending to visit
Foreign Countries: it being of the greatest utility to those who are
about to travel, to be aware of what has been already done, and
what is still wanting, in the countries which they may intend to
visit.
“3. To render pecuniary assistance, when the funds will permit,
to such Travellers as may require it, in order to facilitate this parti-
cular branch of their research.
“ 4. To correspond with similar Societies that may be established
in different parts of the world, with Foreign Individuals engaged in
Ethnological pursuits, and with the most intelligent British residents
in the various remote Settlements of the Empire.”
a ap Spear
THE GREAT COMET.
To the Editor of the Times.
TimEs, March 21. 1843.
Sir,—I wish to direct the attention of your astronomical readers
to the fact, which I think hardly admits of a doubt, of a comet of
enormous magnitude being in the course of its progress through our
system, and at present not far from its perihelion. Its tail, for such
I cannot doubt it to be, was conspicuously visible, both last night
and the night before as a vivid luminous streak, commencing close
beneath the stars kappa and lambda (% and A) Leporis, and thence
stretching obliquely westwards and downwards between gamma and
delta (y and 6) Eridani, till lost in the vapours of the horizon... The
direction of it, prolonged on a celestial globe, passes precisely
through the place of the sun in the ecliptic at the present time,—a
circumstance which appears conclusive as to its cometic nature.
As the portion of the tail, actually visible on F riday evening, was
fully 30 degrees in length, and the head must have been beneath
the horizon, which would add at least 26 degrees to the length, it is
394 Nen Publications.
evident that if really a comet, it is one of first-rate magnitude; and
if it be not one, it is some phenomenon beyond the earth's atmo-
sphere of a nature even yet more remarkable.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
J. F. W. Herscuet.
Cotuincwoopn, March 19th.
P.S. Had there been any post last night, this communication
would have been made a day earlier.
8 p.m., March 19.—The tail of the comet, for such it must now
assuredly be, is again visible, though much obscured by haze, and
holding very nearly the same position !
NEW PUBLICATIONS.
The following publications have been received :—
1. Essai sur les Glaciers et sur le terrain Erratique du Basin du
Rhone, par Jean de Charpentier. One volume 8vo, pp. 363. With
Maps and Plates. 1841. From the Author, This valuable work is already
well known in Britain, through the medium of this Journal and the writings
of our geologists.
2. The Year-Book of Facts in Science and Art, exhibiting the most
important discoveries and improvements of the past year. 12mo pp.
283. With numerous Engravings. London, Tilt and Bogue. 1843.
From the Publisher.
3. Travels in New Zealand ; with Contributions to the Geography,
Geology, Botany, and Natural History of that country ; by Ernest
Dieffenbach, M.D., late Naturalist to the New Zealand Company. In
Two yolumes 8vo. London, John Murray, Albemarle Street. 1843,
From John Murray, Esq., Albemarle Street, London. To those who wish
to become acquainted with this interesting country in a statistical, commercial,
and natural-historical point of view, we particularly recommend this valuable
work,
New Publications, 395
_ 4, Explication de la Carte Geologique de la France redigée sous la
direction de M. Brochant de Villiers, Inspecteur-General des Mines.
Par M.M. Dufrenoy et Elie de Beaumont, Ingenieurs en chef des mines.
Publié in 1841 ; par ordre de M. Teste, ministre des travaux publics,
Tome Premiere. Quarto, pp. 825. Witha large coloured Geological
Map of France, and numerous illustrative cuts. Paris. Imprimerie Royal.
1841. From the Authors. This first volume of a national work, which may
be termed the Geognosy of France, is rich in important facts and generali-
zations.
5. Geological Report on Londonderry, and parts of Tyrone and Fer-
managh; by J. E. Portlock, F.R.S., &c. &c., Captain of the Royal En-
gineers conducting the Geological Branch of the Ordnance Survey of
Ireland. One Volume 8vo. pp. 784. With a Geological Map, and nu-
merous tinted Geological Sections. Dublin, Hodges and Smith, College
Green; London, Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1843. From
the Board of Ordnance.
6. Rapport sur un Memoire de M. A. Bravais relatif aux Lignes d’An-
cien niveau de la mer dans le Finmark. Commissaires, M.M. Biot, &c.,
Elie de Beaumont rapporteur. 2to. From the Author.
7. The American Journal of Science and Arts ; conducted by Professor
Silliman and Benjamin Silliman jun. Up to January 1843. From the
Editors.
8. Annalen der Physik und Chemie. Herausgegeben zu Berlin, Von
J. C. Poggendorf. Received up to No. I. 1843. From the Editor.
9. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ; edited by the Secretary.
From the Editors.
10. Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve. Received up to No. 84. 18th
January 18438.
11. Interment and Disinterment ; or a further Exposition of the Prac-
tices pursued in the Metropolitan places of Sepulture, and the Results as
affecting the Health of the Living ; by G. A. Walker, Surgeon, London.
Longman and Company. 1843. From the Author.
12. Explanation of Gravity, or the Great Power causing Gravitation,
Form, and Motion. Glasgow. From the Author.
13. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
From the Academy.
14. Physical, Chemical, and Geological Researches on the Internal
Heat of the Globe; by Gustav Bischof, L.L.D., Professor of Chemistry
and Technology in the University of Bonn. 8vo. pp. 315, Longman,
Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London. This eacellent volume, the
standard work on the subjects enumerated on the title page, will be found
equally acceptable to the geologist and natural philosopher. No geological library
ought to be without it.
15. Vollstandiges Handbuch der Mineralogie ; von August Breithaupt.
Second Volume, 8vo. pp. 406. Dresden and Leipzig. 1841. From the
396 Nei Publications.
Author, An original and valuable work, We much regret the delay in pub-
lishing the remaining volumes.
16. Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles et l’Osteologie du Genre Brochet
ou Esox ; par L. Agassiz. Neuchatel 1842. 2to. From the Author.
17. Recit d’une Course faite aux Glaciers en Hiver ; par M.M. Agas-
siz et E. Desor. 1842. From the Authors.
18. Remarques sur deux Points de la Theorie des Glaciers; par M.
Elie de Beaumont. 1842. From the Author.
19. Description of an extinct Lacertine Reptile, Rhynchosaurus Arti-
ceps (Owen) ; by Richard Owen, F.R.S., G.S., &c. Hunterian Professor
in the Royal College of Surgeons. 1843. From the Author,
20. Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscow. An-
née, 1842. N. iii. Moscow, 1842. From the Societe Imperiale des Natu-
ralistes dz Moscow. 8vo.
21. Apercu General de la Structure Geologique des Alpes; par M.
Studer. Mars, 1842. From the Author.
22. Elements of Electro-Metallurgy ; by Alfred Smee, Esq., F.RS.
No. viii., which completes the work. From the Author.
23. The Climate of the South of Devon, and its Influence upon Health.
With a Geological Map ; by Thomas Shapter, M.D. Small 8vo. John
Churchill, London. From the Author. In preparing this interesting little
volume, our former pupil, Dr Shapter, has hadin view to illustrate the Medz-
cal Topography of the South of Devon, in a manner similar to that in which
Dr Forbes has treated of the Land’s-End, and Drs Carrick and Symonds ‘of
Bristol and Clifton. The author has bestowed much pains in deducing the
averages of climate from the best registers to which he had access, and in the
preparation of his Tables of the Statistics of Life and Disease. The Geology
of South Devon forms a useful chapter of the work.
24. L’Institut, Journal Universel des Sciences. Paris. Received up
to March 2d. 1848. From the Editor.
25. Bibliotheque Zoologique et Paleontologique. Folio. Neuchatel ;
par L’Agassiz. From the Author.
26. Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, up to November
1842. From the Society.
27. Comptes Rendus des Séances de |’ Académie des Sciences. Up
to the end of 1842. From the Academy.
Pao
ie)
oo
“I
Y
List of Patents for Inventions granted for Scotland from 23d
December 1842 to 22d March 1843, inclusive.
1. To Ropert Wixson, manager at the works of Messrs Nasmyths,
Gaskell, & Co., Patricroft, near Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
engineer, “ certain improvements in the construction of locomotive and
other steam engines.”—27th December 1842,
2. To Garret Hrppotyte Moreav of Leicester Square, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, ‘“ certain improvements in propelling vessels.”
—27th December 1842,
3. To James Morris of Cateaton Street, in the city of London, mer-
chant, being a communication from abroad, “ improvements in locomotive
and other steam engines.”—27th December 1842.
4. To Henry Samuer Rusu of Sloane Street, in the county of Middie-
sex, mechanic, “improvements in apparatus for containing matches for
obtaining instantaneous light.”—29th December 1842. °
5. To Joun Ranpv of Howland Street, Fitzroy Square, in the county
of Middlesex, artist, “improvements in making and closing metallic col-
lapsable vessels,’—29th December 1842.
6. To Henry Beaumont Lerson of Greenwich, in the county of Kent,
doctor of medicine, “ improvements in the art of depositing and manufac-
turing metals and metal articles by electro-galvanic agency, and in the
apparatus connected therewith.”—30th December 1842.
7. To Roserr Locan of Blackheath, in the county of Kent, Esquire,
«improvements in obtaining and preparing the fibres and other products
of the cocoa nut, and its husks.’’—9th January 1843,
8. To CuarLes Hancock of Grosvenor Place, in the county of Middle-
sex, artist, “ certain improvements in printing cotton, silk, woollen, and
other fabrics.”—11th January 1843.
9. To James Garpner of Banbury, in the county of Oxford, ironmonger,
“ jmprovements in cutting hay, straw, and other vegetable matters for the
food of animals.”—11th January 1843.
10. To Joun Stepuen Bourtier of Sherborn Street, Blandford Square,
in the county of Middlesex, engineer, being a communication from abroad,
“certain improvements in machinery used in printing calicoes, silks;
paper-hangings, and other fabrics.”—12th January 1843.
398 List of Patents.
11. To Witton Grorce Turner of Gateshead, in the county of
Durham, doctor in philosophy, “improvements in the manufacture of
alum,”’—12th January 1843,
12. To Wirxu1am Woop of Holborn, in the county of Middlesex, ear-
pet-manufacturer, “ a new mode of weaving, carpeting, and other figured
fabrics.” —13th January 1843.
13. To Marturew Grecson of Toxteth Park, Liverpool, in the county
of Lancaster, Esquire, being a communication from abroad, “ an invention
or improvement applicable to the sawing or cutting of veneers.”—I16th
January 1843.
14, To Samvuet Hatz of Basford, in the county of Nottingham, civil
engineer, ‘‘ improvements in the combustion of fuel and smoke.”—18th
January 1843.
15. To JosepH Beaman of Smethwick, in the parish of Harborne, in
the county of Stafford, iron-master, “ an improvement in the manufacture
of malleable iron,””’—18th January 1843.
16. To ALExANDER Jounston of Hillhouse, in the county of Edin-
burgh, Esquire, “‘ improvements on carriages, which may also be applied
to ships, boats, and other purposes where locomotion is required.’”—20th
January 1843.
17 To Joun Tuomas Betrs of Smithfield Bars, in the city of London,
gentleman, being a communication from abroad, “ improvements in cover-
ing and stopping necks of bottles and other vessels.”—23d January 1843.
18. To Tuomas Tompson of Coventry, in the county of Warwick,
weaver and machinist, “‘ certain improvements in weaving figured fabrics.”
23d January 1843.
19. To Junian EDwaxrp DisBproweE Ropsers of Upper Eburv Street,
in the county of Middlesex, chemist, “ certain improvements in the se-
paration of sulphur from various mineral substances,”—25th January
1843.
20. To Grorcze BEengamin TuHornEycrort of Wolverhampton, iron-
master, “‘ improvements in furnaces used for the manufacture of iron and
in the mode of manufacturing iron.”—Ilst February 1843.
21, To James BoypEut Junior of Oak Farm Works, near Dudley, in
the county of Stafford, iron-master, “improyements in the manufacture of
metals for edge-tools.”—I1st February 1843.
22. To James Cxiark, power-loom cloth manufacturer in Glasgow, “an
improved mode of manufacturing certain descriptions of cloths.’”—2d
February 1843.
23, To TAVERNER JOHN Miner of. Mill-Bank Street, Westminster,
i
List of Patents. 399
oil=merchant, “ improvements in apparatus for supporting a person in bed
_ or when reclining.”—13th February 1843.
a
24, To Samuet Kirk of Stalybridge, in the county of Lancaster, cotton-
spinner, “ certain improvements in machinery, or apparatus for preparing
cotton and other fibrous substances for spinning.”’”—13th February 1843.
25. To Cuartes Tuatcuer of Midsomer Norton, in the county of So-
merset, brewer, and Tuomas Tuarcuer, of Kilmersdon, in the said county,
builder, “certain improvements in drags or breaks to be applied to the
wheels of carriages generally.”—22d February 1843.
26. To Joun Craia of Stanhope Street, in the county of Middlesex,
gentleman, being a communication from abroad, “ certain improvements
in machines or apparatus for weighing.” —28th February 1843.
27. To Epwarp Bett of the College of Civil Engineers, Putney, in the
county of Surrey, Professor of Practical Mechanics, “ improvements in ap-
plying heat in the manufacture of artificial fuel, which improvements are
applicable to the preparation of asphalte, and for other purposes.”’—2d
March 1843.
28. To Grorce Bett of the city of Dublin, in that part of the United
Kingdom called Ireland, merchant, “ certain improved machines which fa-
cilitate the drying of malt, corn, and seeds ; also the bolting, dressing, and
separating of flour, meal, and all other substances requiring to be sifted.”
—2d March 1843.
29. To James Buttoven of Blackburn, in the county of Lancaster,
overlooker, “ certain improvements in the construction of looms for weav-
ing, and also in possession of certain improvements in the same which
have been a communication from abroad.”—4th March 1843,
30. To Jonn Tuomas Bers of Smithfield Bars, in the county of Middle-
sex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, “ improvements
in the manufacture of metal covers for bottles, and certain other vessels,
and in the manufacture of sheet-metal for such purposes.”—7th March
1843.
31. To Jures Le Jeuns of North Place, Regent’s Park, in the county
of Middlesex, engineer, “ improvements in accelerating combustion, which
improvements may be applied in place of the blowing machines now in
use.”’—7th March 1843.
32. To Tuomas Howarp of Hyde, in the county of Cheshire, manu-
facturer, “certain improvements in machinery for preparing and spinning
cotton, wool, flax, silk, and similar fibrous materials,’—11th March 1843.
33. ‘To Cuartes Payne of South Lambeth, in the county of Surrey,
chemist, “improvements in preserving vegetable matters when metallic
and earthy solutions are employed.”—13th March 1843.
400 List of Patents.
34. To Witu1am Lonomarp of Plymouth, accountant, “ improvements
in treating ores and other minerals, and in obtaining various products
therefrom, certain parts of which improvements are applicable to the ma-
nufacture of alkali.”—13th March 1843.
35. To WiLttAmM Barker of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
mill-wright, “ certain improvements in the construction of metallic pis-
tons.” —16th March 1843.
36. To JosepH Wuitwortu of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
engineer, “ certain improvements in machinery, or apparatus for cleaning
oads, and which machinery is also applicable to other similar purposes.”
—22d March 1843.
( 401 )
INDEX.
Alford, in Aberdeenshire, meteorological observations made there,
by Dr Farquharson, 159 and 367.
Alps of Dauphiné, observations on, 165.
Amphodelite, account of, 181.
Anderson, Dr Thomas, his analysis of caporcianite and phakolite, 21.
Andesine, analysis of, 181.
Ants, ancient fable of, producing gold, 190.
Applegarth Manse, in Dumfriesshire, meteorological observations
made there, by Dr Dunbar, 161 and 368.
Arquerite, analysis of, 181.
Beaches, raised, near St Andrews, described by R. Chambers, Esgq.,
298.
Beaumont, Elie de, remarks on two points in the theory of glaciers,
110.
—, on the slopes of the upper limit of the erratic zone, and
on their comparison with the slopes of glaciers and of river
courses, 115,
, on the former low ie OS of European winters, 177.
Bamlite, analysis of, 182.
Blom, Gustav Peter, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Drontheim, on the rein-deer of Lapland, 352.
Bradford, M., on the history and origin of the red race, 155.
Bromide of silver in Mexico, 182.
Bromide of silver in Chili, 182.
Bronze, Egyptian, 388.
Calstron-baryte, account of, 183.
Calcareous rocks pierced by helices, 186.
Chalk fossils, account of, by M. Ehrenberg, 256.
Chambers, R., Esq., F.R.S.E., on raised beaches in the neighbour-
hood of St Andrews, 298.
Chimpanzee, account of, by M. Vrolik, 347.
Chinese, their natural historical writings noticed, 153.
402 Index.
Christison, Dr, on the Assam and Chinese tea-plants, 176—on the
action of water on lead, 163.
Climate of Malta, 382.
Columbus, his visit to Iceland in the year 1477, 391.
Comet, great, notice of, 393. bl
Coral islands, account of, by Messrs Darwin and Maclaren, 33, 47.
Craigie, William, meteorological register in Canada, 378,
Daubeny, Professor, his biography of Decandolle, 197.
Davy, Dr John, on the property of transmitting light possessed by
__ charcoal and plumbago, 378 ; and on the climate of Malta, 382,
Dead Sea, its depression below the level of the Mediterranean, 178.
Decandolle, Professor, his biography, 197,
Diamond, on the residuum of its combustion, 187—on its formation,
S17: |
Diorama, a portable one, described by George Tait, Esq., 275.
Doyere, M., his experiments on the revivification of animals of the
types Tardigrada and Rotifera, 25.
Earthquakes, notices of, especially as they occur in Scotland, by
David Milne, Esq., F.R.S.E., 85—earthquakes in British In-
dia, by Lieut. R. B. Smith, Bengal Engineers, 107.
Ehrenberg, Professor, on the fossils of the chalk-formation, 256.
Elaps Jamesoni, a new species of serpent, described by Dr Traill,
53.
Ethnological Society of London, its formation, 392,
Euclase, its discovery in Connecticut, North America, 183,
Explosion, great, at Dover, described, 337,
Fahlerz containing mercury, from Hungary, 388.
Farquharson, Dr, his meteorological table for 1842, 159.
Fleming, John, D.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy, King’s Col-
lege, Aberdeen, on the expediency of forming harbours of re-
fuge on the east coast of Scotland, between the Moray Firth
and the Firth of Forth, 306.
Flint, contains potash and lime, 180.
Flowers, on the preservation of, 191,
Forbes, Professor, his fourth letter to Professor Jameson on the
glacier theory, 1.
historical’ remarks on the first discovery of the real
structure of glaciers, 133.
a
Index. 403
Forbes, Professor, on the effect of snow in apparently increasing the
force of solar radiation, 170.
—_—— on the movement and structure of the Mer de Glace
of Chamouni, 380.
Galbraith, Wm., A.M., on the English are of the meridian, 263.
Geokronite, new locality of, 183.
Geological chronometer, 385.
Glaciers, on the structure, formation, and movement of, by Dr James
Stark, 171—on the glacier theory, 1; and the discovery of
the structure of glaciers, by Professor Forbes, 133—on some
phenomena of glaciers, by Sir John Herschel, 14.
Gold-mines in Ireland, 386.
Gold, large mass found in the Ourals, 386. ee oF \ \
Granite, its cutting and polishing, as effected at Abétdeen, by ‘Messrs
Macdonald and Leslie, described, 341.
Greenockite, account of, 183.
Grooved and polished surfaces at the contact of ancient secondary
strata, by Professor Rogers, 178.
Guano of commerce, Dr Mathie Hamilton’s account of it, 389.
Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., on the Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco, and
Vicuna, 285.
Harbours of refuge on the east coast of Scotland, by John Fleming,
D.D., 306.
Helices pierce calcareous rocks, 186.
Herschel, new comet discovered by, 393.
Holy Land, heights of mountains in, determined barometrically, Lie
M. Russegger, 179.
Humbuvldt, Baron, on the heights of continents, 326.
—— his Fragmens Asiatiques, announced, 179.
Ignis Fatuus observed near Bologna, 383.
Isinglass, Indian, remarks on, 189.
Khiva, variation of temperature during Russian expedition to, 380.
Lapis Lazuli, nature of its blue colour, 183.
Llama, Alpaca, Guanaco, and Vicuna, described by Dr Mathie
Hamilton, 285.
Mer de Glace of Chamouni, Professor Forbes on its movement and
structure, 380.
Meteorological Tables, 161, 364.
Milne, David, Esq. F,R,8,E., on Earthquakes, 85.
oe
Lh?
404 Tiidex.
Milne, David, Esq., F.R.S.E., on the geology of Roxburghshire, 376, -
Patents, list of, 194, 397.
Paul, R. D., his meteorological tables, 364, 370.
Pennine, its chemical composition, 184.
Petzholdt, Alexander, Dr, on the formation of the diamond of, 317.
Physiognomy of a country as connected with the character of its in-
habitants, 359.
Platina in the auriferous sand of the Rhone, 184.
Publications, New, 192, 394.
Rein-deer of Lapland, account of, by Gustav Peter Blom, 352.
Royal Society, Proceedings of, 163, 374.
Russegger, M., on heights of mountains, determined by the barometer,
in the Holy Land, 179. _
Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.E., his description of a marine sali-
nometer, 278.
Salinometer, marine, for the purpose of indicating the density of
brine in the boilers of marine steam-engines, with two plates,
by John Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S.E., 278.
Sang, Edward, Esq., his observations on a method of registering the
force actually transmitted through a driving-belt, 261.
Scientific Intelligence, 177, 380.
Steffens, Professor, midnight scene on the ocean, and scene in Nor-
way, 362, 363.
Traill, T. S., Professor, the sale of his collection of minerals an-
nounced, 180. »
———— on the establishment at Aberdeen for the cutting and po-
lishing of the granites of Peterhead and Aberdeen, 841.
Turf or Peat, on the transformations produced in it by the essence of
turpentine, 190.
V illarsite, account of, 184.
Vrolik, M., his remarks on the comparative anatomy of the Chim-
panzee, 347.
Wernerian Society, Proceedings of, 176, 379.
Wilson, James, Esq., on the Tetrao Medius, 374.
Xenolite, account of, 185.
Young, Mr A., on the growth of the salmon, 375.
PRINTED BY NEILL AND €O,, EDINEURGH.
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ay at WV 7
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4 Woe cn tA
At eles
Misti ¢
ae tts ral
Teteet tte |ty Wah
anbiii
ri