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LOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
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THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,
EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE
PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS
IN THE
SCIENCES AND THE
ROBERT JAMESON,
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH;
Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; Fellow of
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal
Physieal, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So-
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural
History Society of Calyados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanical Arts 3 of the Geologicai
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France ; Member of the
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &ec. &c.
OCTOBER 1849 .... APRIL 1850.
VOL. XLVIILI.
70 BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.
EDINBURGH:
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON.
1850.
eee
EDINBURGH:
PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, OLD FISHMARKET.
CONTENTS.
Art. I. On Columnar Crystallization of Ground-Ice. By the
Rev. Wititam Scoressy, D.D., F.R.SS. Lond.
and Edin., Member of the Institute of France,
&e., &e. (With a Plate.) Communicated by the
Author,
II. On the Tides and Dew-Point. By WriuiAm Gat-
BraiTH, M.A., F.R.A.S., Teacher of Mathema-
tics. Communicated by the Author,
III. Description of New Optical Instruments, viz.: 1. Po-
larizing Spectacles. 2. Picture Polariscope. 3. Po-
larizing Diaphragm for the Microscope. 4. Sur-
gical Polariscope. By ALuxanper Bryson, Esq.
Communicated by the Author,
IV. Notice of a Shooting-Star ; and on a Method of Cool-
ing the Atmosphere of Rooms in a Tropical Cli-
mate. By Professor C. P1azzi Smiru, F.R.S.E.,
&e.,
V. Examination of Professor E. Forbes’s Views on the
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. By
A. D’Arcutac,
VI. On the Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable
Substances. By Jonn Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lon-
don and Edinburgh, Inspector-General of Army
Hospitals, : ; : : .
1. On the Action of Lime on the Textures of the Hu-
man Body, ; ‘| ; : A
2. On the action of Lime on Vegetable Substances,
PAGE
19
20
23
34
35
38
ii
WIT:
Vill.
IX.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
CONTENTS.
Description of Harbour Screw-Cramps, for temporary
use in binding together the Stones in the Con-
struction of Harbour or other Marine Works.
By Tuomas Stevenson, Esq., Civil Engineer,
F.R.S.E., F.R.S.S.A. (With a Plate.) Com-
municated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,
On the Motion of a Lava-Stream observed on the
side of Mount Vesuvius, 27th April 1849. By A.
Mitwarp, Esq. Communicated by the Author,
Synopsis of Meteorological Observations made at
Whitehaven, Cumberland, in the Year 1848. By
J.F. Mirier, Esq., F.R.A.S.,&c. Communicated
by the Author,
. Account of a Halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia,
August 23, 1849. By J. W. Dawson, Esq.
Communicated by the Author, :
Personal Observations on Terraces, and other Proofs
of Changes in the Relative Level of Sea and
Land in Scandinavia. By Roperr CHAMBERS,
Esq., F.R.S.E. and V.PS.A.,Se. (With Plates
and Map.) Communicated by the Author,
A Conjecture as to the Forces which produce the Tails
of Comets. By Witt1am Joun Macauorn Ran-
KINE, Esq., C.E. Communicated by the Author,
On Voleanic and Metalliferous Eruptions. By M.
Evie pe Beaumont. (With a Table),
On the Different States in which Fossil Vegetables
are found,
. Some Particulars respecting the Spheroidal State of
Bodies ; Proof by Fire ; Man incombustible, &c.
By M. Bourieny (p’Evrevux.) Read before the
French Academy of Sciences, 24th May 1849,
PAGE
41
46
55
65
68
92
94
99
104
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
CONTENTS. lil
PAGE
On the Geology of the Valley of Reposoir in Savoy,
and on the Rocks containing Ammonites and
Belemnites lying above the Nummulitic Forma-
tion. By M. A. Favre, Professor in the Aca-
demy of Geneva, . ; : : - 113
Notice of an Intestinal Concretion from a Snake. By
Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., London and Edin-
burgh, &c. Communicated by the Author, 118
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacra-
mento, By M. F. Dz CasrEnnau, 3 119
Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern
Alps, and other Geological Topics. Communicated
in a Letter to Ropert CHAMBERS, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
&c., &c., : é : : 4 : 134
On thé Limits of the Chalk-Formation. By M. Dz
Bucn, . ' : } : : ; 140
On the Geological Signification of the word “ Flysch.”
By M. Sruper, ; : : : : 146
Explanation of the Treatment of an Invention in Litho-
graphy made by Mr Scnenck and Mr Guemar of
Edinburgh, in August 1849. (With a Litho-
graphic Plate.) Communicated by the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts, . é : ; 148
Notice of a Chromatic Stereoscope. By Sir Davip
Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Edinburgh.
Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society of
Arts, : : ; . . : . tee
On the California Gold Region. By the Rev. G. 8.
LyMAN, : ; 5 “ : ; 161
On the Identity of Sillimanite, Fibrolite, and Buchol-
zite, with Kyanite, , : : ‘ 157
iv CONTENTS.
PAGE
XXVI. Theory of Marine Currents. By M. Basiner, 160
XXVII. On the Porosity and Colouring of Agates, Calce-
donies, &. By M. Néeerrartn, : : 166
XXVIII. An Account of the Mineral-Field between Airdrie
and Bathgate, and from Bathgate to Edinburgh
and Leith. By Ropert Baty, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
M.W. Nat. Hist. Society, &c., Mining-Engineer.
Communicated by the Author, ‘ 4 173
XXIX. Scientiric INTELLIGENCE :—
METEOROLOGY.
1. Destructive Effects of a Water-Spout on the Bredon
Hill, North Gloucestershire, on Thursday, 3d May
1849. 2. Fall of Rain in the Lake and Mountain
Districts of Cumberland and Westmoreland, in the
year 1848. By J. F. Miller, Esq., 4 181-1838
MINERALOGY.
3. Black Oxide of Copper of Lake Superior. 4. On
Arkansite. 5. Baierine. 6. Notices of American
Minerals. By Professor C. N. Shepard. 7. Platinum
and Diamonds in California. 8. Californian Gold.
9. Arkose. 10. Total Quantity of Lead Ore raised,
and Lead Smelted, in the United Kingdom, in 1848.
11. On the Decomposition of Trap-Rocks. By M.
Ebelmen, : ‘ : f . 3 183-187
BOTANY.
12. Flora of the Date Country and Sahara, ; 187
ZOOLOGY.
13. Infusoria of the Dead Sea and the River Jordan, 188
MISCELLANEOUS.
14, Alleged Burying Alive, 4 . . 188
XXX. List of Patents granted for Scotland from 22d Sep-
tember to 22d December 1849, : : 189
. CONTENTS.
as
PAGE
Art. I. On the Geography.and Geology of the Peninsula of
Mount Sinai, and the adjacent Countries. By
Joun Hoae, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.; Honorary
Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, Sc.
(With a coloured Geological Map.) Communicated
by the Author, : : § 5 , 193
II. On the Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Aus-
tralian, and Malayu-Polynesian Nations. By G.
Winpsor Fart, Esq., M.R.A.S., : : 219
III. On the Works undertaken by the Governments of
different States, for the Geological Examination
of the Country: A Report on the Journey under-
taken by Himself and Dr Hornzs, at the instance
of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, to Germany,
England, France, and Switzerland. By Franz
von Haver. Communicated by Warineron
Smyru, Esq., F.G.S., &c., ; - ; 227
IV. On the Tides. By Witriam Gacsraitu, M.A.,
F.R.A.S., Teacher of Mathematics. Communi-
cated by the Author, ‘ , : : 239
V. On the Limits of Perpetual Snow in the Himalayas.
By Captain J. D. Cunnincuam, Engineers, 243
VI. Observations upon M. Bouriany’s recent Experiment.
By Professor Priicxer of Bonn, 7 ; 246
VET
VIII.
IX.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
CONTENTS.
. A Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer CaLpE-
coTT,
On the Distribution of the Superficial Detritus of the
Alps, as compared with that of Northern Europe.
By Sir Roperick Impry Mprcuison, F.R.S.,
&c., &c.,
Observations on the Size of the Brain in various
Races and Families of Man. By SaMuEL GEORGE
Morton, M.D., Author of Crania Americana,
&e., &e., :
. Enumeration of the Races of Man. By Cuar.es
PicxertnG, M.D., Member of the Scientific Corps
attached to the United States Exploring Expedi-
tion,
Description of the Chronoscope, an instrument pro-
posed for finding the Time by Observation, and
thence deducing the Latitude and Longitude of
the place of the Observer. By the Rev. WiLL1AM
Hopeson, Old Brathay, Ambleside. Communi-
cated by the Author,
A Description of two additional Crania of the Engé-
ena (Troglodytes gorilla, Savage), a second and
gigantic African Species of a Man-like Ape, from
Gaboon, Africa, By Jerrrres Wyman, M.D.,
Agriculture and Chemistry,
a Centauri, and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars.
By Prazz1 Smytu, Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., &c. Com-
municated by the Author, .
Notice respecting a deposit of Shells near Borrow-
stounness. By Cuartes Maciaren, Esq,,
F.R.S.E., &c. Communicated by the Author,
PAGE
249
256
262
266
269
311
x VE:
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI,.
XXII.
CONTENTS.
On the Waters of the Dead Sea. By Mr TuHornton
J. Herapatu, and Witriiam Herapatu, Esq.,
F.G.S., President of the Bristol Philosophical and
Literary Society, and Lecturer on Chemistry and
Toxicology at the Bristol School of Medicine, &c.,
&c., ‘
On the Chronological Exposition of the Periods of Ve-
getation, and the different Floras which have suc-
ceeded each other on the Earth’s surface. Ac-
cording to the views of M. Broneniarr,
Remarks on Dr Morton’s Tables on the Size of the
Brain. By Sir Wititam Hamitron, Bart., Pro-
fessor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University
of Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author,
Analysis of the Anthracite of the Calton Hill, Edin-
burgh. By Dr A. Voretcxer, Professor of Che-
mistry in the Agricultural College, Cirencester.
Communicated by the Author,
On the Possible Derivation of the Diamond from An-
thracite and Graphite. By Dr Gzorce Witson,
F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Author,
On the proportion of Fluoride of Calcium present in
the Baltic. By Professor Forcuammer of Copen-
hagen. With some Preliminary Remarks on the
presence of Fluorine in different Ocean Waters.
By Dr Gerorce Witson, F.R.S.E. Communi-
cated by the Author,
On the Geology of the Baltic :—
1. Sir Charles Lyell’s imaginary depression and ele-
vation of the Land near Stockholm,—and Profes-
sor Playfair’s hypothesis of the rising of the Land
in Scandinavia, : : A >
2. A Source of Possible Fallacy regarding the Level
of the Baltic, . ;
iil
PAGE
313
320
330
333
337
345
350
352
neoits CONTENTS.
PAGE
XXIII. Chemical Notices. By ALEXANDER Kemp, Esq.,
Teacher of Practical Chemistry, and Assistant to
Dr Gregory, in the University of Edinburgh.
Communicated by the Author :-—
1. On the Purification of Oil of Vitriol from Nitric
Acid, 3 : ; , ;
2. On the Absence of Iron in Hydrochloric Acid, pre-
pared by Professor Gregory’s process, - 356
354
XXIV. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE :—— .
ASTRONOMY.
1. On the Extinction of Light in the Atmosphere. By
W. 8. Jacob, Esq., H.H.I.C. Astronomer, Madras.
Communicated by Professor Piazzi Smyth, . 357
METEOROLOGY.
2, Climate of Australia. By John Gould, Esq., F.R.S.,
RGIS, acy : : . 358
} GEOLOGY.
3. On the Volcanic Formations of the Alban Hills,
near Rome. By Prof. J. D. Forbes. 4. On Infu-
sorial Deposits on the River Chutes in Oregon.
By M. Ehrenberg, : : 3 360- 362
ZOOLOGY.
5. Low State of Development of Mammals and Birds
in Australia and New Zealand. 6. Migratory
Birds of Australia, &c., 3 , 362-364
BOTANY.
7. On the Gamboge Tree of Siam. By Dr Christison, 364
AGRICULTURE.
8. Analysis of Soils. 9. Notes on American Agricul-
ture, : . E : : 366-3 67
MISCELLANEOUS.
10, Funeral Obsequies of the celebrated Danish Poet,
Oehlenschlager. 11. Glass as a Non-conductor.
12, Mean Annual Export of Wool from the Farée
Islands. 13. Outline of the Tamil System of Na-
tural History, . 5 > : 368-370
XXV. List of Patents granted for Scotland from 20th De-
cember 1849 to 22d March 1850, f ; 370
INDEX, . : ; : : ; . . 377
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
On Columnar Crystallization of Ground-Ice. By the Rev.
Wituram Scorgssy, D.D., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin.,
Member of the Institute of France, &c., &e. (With a Plate.)
Communicated by the Author.
The configurations assumed by the crystallization of water,
and condensed aqueous vapour, present, within the limits of
the specific angle of crystallization, an endless variety both
in structure and beauty. Opportunity for examining the
singularly elegant forms exhibited in snow-crystals, was
abundantly afforded me whilst engaged in Arctic enter-
prise and adventures,—so that I was enabled to sketch a
large number of these configurations, out of which nearly a
hundred varieties were selected for publication in the “ Ac-
count of the Arctic Regions.’ Other crystalline forms, de-
rived from the consolidation of dew, in the form of hoar-frost,
have subsequently engaged my attention, and many deli-
eately beautiful specimens have from time to time been figured.
From the feathery ice, too, formed, by the deposition of mois-
ture in rooms, on the inside of the windows, when micro-
scopically examined, many examples of singular beauty of
the dendritical class of figures have been obtained. Buta
curious species of aqueous crystallization, which I had not
previously thought of examining, engaged my attention dur-
ing a recent visit to Gateshaw, Roxburghshire, the residence
of my friend and near connection, William Ker, Esq., which,
from the variety and beauty of configuration, it may not bo
uninteresting to describe.
The species of crystals referred to occurs, generally, just
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. A
2 Rey. William Scoresby on the
within the surface of the ground, so as, except incidentally,
to be hidden from observation. There they form a thin stra-
tum, or sort of platform, of clusters, prisms, or needles, ver-
tically arranged, which, springing out of the earth beneath,
adventitiously push upwards on their summits a pellicle of
the earth, or gravelly surface of the ground.
Instead of attempting to generalize the phenomena, how-
ever, which the limited nature of my observations would
scarcely justify, it may be safer, for the sake of accuracy,
rather to give the results of what I observed on the particu-
lar case referred to.
It was in the morning of the 6th of October, of the present
year 1849, after a clear, frosty night,—leaving the ground
thickly covered with hoar-frost, and the general surface hard
frozen,—when my attention was directed to an unusual dis-
turbance of some parts of the surface of a gravel-walk, on
which I was in the habit of taking exercise. Ofttimes, in-
deed, I had noticed the loosening of the surface of gravel-
walks, or gravel-covered roads, by the operation of a night’s
frost; but I had never observed the disintegration so com-
plete, or the general surface so crisply spungy as on this oc-
easion. The first portion examined was on a wide terrace-
like walk, covered with fine gravel mixed with earth, which
did not usually bind with much compactness. Being ‘ex-
tremely pervious to water, and heavy rains having recently
prevailed, the walk, though pleasant enough for exercise,
contained a large quantity of moisture, and more parti-
cularly on the side next the grass descending into the lawn,
which was little trod upon.
Here I observed the surface of the gravel to be raised an
inch or two above the proper level, appearing rough, and the
elements of which it was composed disjoined ; in some places
the appearance was cauliflower-like ; in others more evenly
rough, but separated by parallel curvilinear striz into corre-
sponding ridges. Occasionally, where the gravel had not been
raised, there were little patches of exposed ice-crystals, from
an inch to an inch-and-a-half high, all standing, closely as-
sociated but separate, in prisms of clustered needles, perpen-
dicularly to the general surface of the ground. On examin-
Columnar Crystallization of Ground- Ice. 3
ing into the cause of the elevation of surface, I found similar
prismoidal or columnar ice-crystals beneath, bearing upon
their points, or upper ends, a portion of earth or fine gravel.
In many cases this earthy superficies was crisp, and, in small
patches, adhesive ; though the adhesion was generally due
rather to a crusty, frozen portion of earth, on which the base
of the crystals rested.
The lower part of a sloping walk, into which much mois-
ture had flowed from above, was, on examination, found to
present the like interesting configurations of crystallization ;
as also, a part of the lower side of the carriage-drive, from
the entrance-gate to the house.
Numerous portions, from these three localities of the
raised surface of the ground, were examined during the
forenoon ; for which examination, the continuance of frost
almost throughout the day, in the shade, afforded favourable
opportunity. Assisted by one of the young ladies of the
family, who dug up a large number of frozen bits with her
penknife, and held them on the back of her hand whilst I
examined them by magnifiers, I was enabled to sketch about
thirty or more varieties.
Of these, seventeen in number are figured in the an-
nexed plate (see Plate I.), generally of the natural size.
It is not presumed, however, that all these, sketched in so
much haste, whilst often falling down by the melting of the
ice, are strictly accurate; strict accuracy, as to any minute
particular, being neither possible nor necessary. But every
figure herein preserved is, as far as I am aware, sfricély cha-
racteristic of the specimen from which it was drawn; whilst
all the peculiar forms, such as the honeycomb and curvili-
near crystals, the pinnacles, arches, and other remarkable
architectural-looking figures, exhibit, I believe, accurate out-
lines of the configurations which fell under my examination.
What may be considered as the general elementary form of
the crystals examined, was a delicate and transparent needle,
or prism of ice, about the thickness of moderate-sized pin-
wire ; these were usually combined in the form of a clus-
tered column, of the diameter, perhaps, of the sixth or the
eighth of an inch, and varying ordinarily in height from half-
4 Rev. William Scoresby on the
an-inch to an inch-and-a-half. Generally, these columnar
fascicule were, to appearance, so/éd, but some were obviously
hollow; and one specimen more particularly (17), was quite
of a hollow prismatic, or honeycomb, formation.
A not unfrequent variety in the form was that of a taper-
ing or pointed needle, of which several examples are given
in the plate. Another variety, often presenting singularly
beautiful architectural forms, was that of a curvilinear prism,
of which examples occur in figures 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17,
and 18. All these were usually fransparenz, and cast more
into separate prisms than clustered. Fig. 11, however, was
an exception, which was a clustered column, about the sixth
of an inch thick, opaque, and almost opalescent in character
and colour. Some, of the arch-like form, and series of
arches, appeared to be perfectly symmetrical, especially the
clustered arches in fig. 9, and the single staple-form of
Fig. 12.
The dark rough portion of the figures at the base repre-
sents, rudely, the frozen platform of earthy or fine gravelly
substance to which the crystals were attached, and out of
which they seemed to have sprung. The corresponding ap-
pearance, at the summits of many of the columnar fascicule,
represents minute portions of earth or gravel which had been
thrust upward, and permanently sustained, by the growth of
the icy crystal.
Most usually the columnar fascicule. were detached, of
which one of the most ordinary examples is represented in
fig. 1. Other instances, in which the columns were more
widely separated, are shewn in the figures 8, 13, 15, We.
Of crystals acuminated to a point, examples appear in Nos.
5,14,16,&e. Fig. 22 isa rude and miniature representation
of a remarkable portion of the surface of the carriage-drive,
in which various parallel and curvilinear ridges occurred, the
dark grooved lines representing the unraised portions of the
surface. The width of these ridges might be about four inches.
The examination of these manifold configurations was at-
tended with singular interest, from the novelty, variety, and
suprising beauty, of many of the incidental portions. The
general columnar structure, combined out of clustered needles
i i
Columnar Crystallization of Ground- Ice. o
or spiculz, and these standing perpendicularly on a base of
frozen soil or gravel, and very commonly capped with por-
tions of earthy matter or particles of gravel, necessarily pre-
sented the miniature forms of architectural remains. In many
portions the resemblance was equal to that of miniature
models of diversified series of columns, sometimes bearing a
rough sort of architrave, sometimes standing separate or
naked. Frequently the eye could penetrate betwixt a double
row of numerous columns, resembling (except as to deviations
from a perfect line in position) the vista of a cathedral nave
or aisle.
Many portions of these crystalline formations afforded strik-
ing representations of the columnar remains of some Grecian
temple, or relics of eastern architectural structures. In
other species of formation were found many resemblances
of ruins of edifices, ornamented with pinnacles or minarets.
Sometimes, by reason of the higher position of the base
of a central portion of an aggregation of columns, a resem-
blance to a doorway was produced, exposing a deep recess
within, as in figure 8; and sometimes, as will be seen in
figures 9 and 12, a happy resemblance of a fine, round-arched
doorway. Nor was tracery or other ornament altogether
wanting ; for some of the thin needles were crossed by narrow
lines or marks singularly approaching the effect of architec-
tural ornament.
Some cavernous arrangements of columns were met with,
which reminded each of our party, who examined them, of
basaltic formations, suggesting a likeness, in one instance,
to Fingal’s Cave.
An humbler resemblance of the general body of these
erystallizations,—as, without particular examination, they
appeared sustaining, in large extents of surface, rough
masses of earth and gravel on their summits,—was that of
the cauliflower. But, whenever examined in detail, this ap-
parent characteristic was immediately resolved into the more
beautiful forms of architectural models.
The continuance of the frost during the day gave, as I have
intimated, every opportunity for examining these varied and
beautiful formations ; for, though the sun shone brightly, con-
6 On the Columnar Crystallization of Ice.
siderable portions of the walks in which these occurred were,
sufficiently fur our purpose, protected by the shade of the
contiguous shrubs and trees.
Of the theory of these beautiful crystallizations, I have
but little to submit. An idea which was intuitively sug-
gested by observing the upraised surface of gravel and earth,
and the interior stratum of columnar crystals, was of growth
or expansion upward. It was hardly possible, indeed, to con-
ceive of any other mode of progress. For in one region to
which my observation was directed—the side of the terrace-
walk—there was an alinost continuous range of these forma-
tions, extending for, perhaps, 15 or 20 yards along the walk,
and of a varying breadth of half-a-yard to a yard, in which the
thin superficies of earth and gravel had been disrupted and
elevated by means of the hidden stratum of diversified and
beautiful crystallizations. .
The surface of the ground, as it seemed, had, by draining
and evaporation, been dried probably to the depth of two or
three tenths of an inch; whilst the materials beneath were
in the condition of a somewhat compressed sponge, having
the pores pretty well, not entirely, filled with water. The
frost of the night acting upon this wetted portion, had frozen
it to no inconsiderable depth ; and the expansion of the water
on freezing was, apparently, a chief cause of the phenomena.
But whilst this might account for the general fact of the
disruption of the gravelly surface, it could hardly account
for the formation and exudation of a vertically-arranged bed
of crystals. Was it that the resistance above being the least,
the crystallization assumed this direction, and was thrust
progressively upward as the consolidation and expansion ad-
vanced below? Or was it that, whilst this least resistance
might facilitate an upward growth of the columnar fascicule,
that certain electric relations betwixt the earth and the air
might dispose to this direction of enlargement and form of
crystalline development ?
To the impression that the latter principle had to do with
the origination of the phenomena described, I much incline ;
for it is hardly to be doubted, but that, if after a long period
of damp weather, the electricities of the air and earth should
pe
r
- Plate 1. Vol. XLVIIL. p.7.
fr. Schenck (dh!
Ry Oe
COLUMNAR CRYSTALS OF GROUND- ICE.
a
ae a3 ee ate ne ee eae —_—r
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it 2a $68 Ss
urn. — :
a
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew- Point. 7
tend, as I suppose, to become assimilated ; so, during a con-
tinuous night of clear atmosphere and dry frosty air, the ordi-
nary diversity of electricity, it may be imagined, would be not
only restored but increased. The engagement of electricity
in the phenomena of chemical operations, and in every change
in the constitution of natural substances, or of combinations
in physical elements, necessarily suggests a reference to this
principle for an explanation of the erystallizations described ;
whilst the ascertained fact of the existence of a prevalent
diversity of electrical condition betwixt the air and the earth,
especially during the night, renders such reference at least
plausible, whilst considering a reason for the vertical position
and elevation of these interesting crystallizations arising out
of the ground.
On the Tides and Dew-Point. By W1LLIAM GALBRAITH,
M.A., F.R.A.S., Teacher of Mathematics. Communicated
by the Author.
I. On the Tides.
The phenomena of the tides have been long known; and it was
frequently inferred, by repeated observations, that they had some re-
lation to the motions of the sun and moon, It was not, however,
till the time of Newton that any approach was made to their true
theory.
The investigations of Euler, Bernoulli, and Maclaurin, contributed
much to perfect Newton’s views. Of late years renewed attention
has been paid to their phenomena by Laplace, Lubbock, Whewell,
Airy, and Daussy. Improved methods of observation and registra-
tion have been introduced, though these are still capable of greater
perfection. Tide-gauges of a superior construction have been
erected at several important points, but not so numerous as could
be desired.
A very able marine surveyor has observed to me, that he could
have wished it had come within my scope, in the new edition of
Ainslie’s Surveying, edited by me, to recommend the general adop-
tion of self-registering tide-gauges, where I gave the requisite for-
mulw of reduction hitherto omitted in all works on the subject in this
country.
These tide-gauges, he observes, can be manufactured for about
£30, complete, including a clock, and along with it such a register
of the tides by night as well as by day. He remarks that Hewitson
of Neweastle possesses a beautiful instrument of this kind; and my
8 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew- Point.
friend, Mr John Adie, assures me he could furnish an excellent one
at the same price, or even lower, though these not quite of a supe-
rior quality.
Our friends, Messrs Brysons, have already put up apparently a
most complete one at Glasgow, giving a register of both tides and
winds. From its position near the Broomielaw Bridge, I am afraid
the register of the winds cannot be very accurate, by reason of the
adjacent buildings ; which is the fault of the proprietors, not that of
the constructors. I have been informed that they could furnish a
pretty good and complete tide-gauge for about £25, or £9 less than
what has hitherto been charged in England.
I shall here, then, endeavour to supply the omission formerly al-
luded to, by urging the propriety of erecting self-registering tide-
gauges, and wind-gauges at all our sea-ports and lighthouses hitherto
unfurnished with them, wherever there is free access to the flowing
and ebbing of the tide, and the unbiassed direction of the wind.*
It requires great caution and perseverance to record properly the
rise and fall of the tide, as well as the precise time of high and low
water, without these properly constructed gauges, though this may
be sometimes indispensable in certain localities, or where they cannot
be conveniently placed. If a calm bay be selected, to which there
is free access of the tide, these may be recorded with tolerable ac-
curacy in moderate weather. On rocky shores there are frequently
narrow openings among the rocks, where a suitable position may be
selected. The irregularities may be often obviated, or greatly modi-
fied, by laying a quantity of sea-weed or wreck across the entrance,
through which the tide must percolate; and a little care and inge-
nuity will generally (except in storms) so regulate the flow as to en-
able an observer to estimate both the time and the height with con-
siderable accuracy.
According to the theory of Newton and Laplace, the sun and
moon, by their attraction, exercised upon the waters of the ocean,
produce the tides which we observe. The tide may therefore either
be produced by the sum of their attractions or by their difference,
according to their relative positions in reference to one another and
to the earth. The compound tide is very great towards the syzygies,
that is, about new and full moon, for then it is the sum of the
partial tides caused by the sun and moon respectively, and are com-
monly called spring tides, while those at the quarters are called
neap tides, and are the smallest, because they are caused by the ea-
cess of the lunar tide above the solar.
The spring tides are not all equally great, because the partial
tides which concur to produce them vary with the declination of the
* Without barometers and wind-gauges no accurate conclusions, in particu-
lar cases, can be deduced from tide-gauges.
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point. 9
sun and moon, and the distance of these bodies from the earth. They
are, in fact, proportionally more considerable when the sun and moon
are nearer the earth, and in the plane of its equator. It may be
remarked that, in general, on our coasts, the highest tides follow the
times of new and full moon by about a day and a half or thirty-six
hours, except perhaps in some peculiar localities in rivers and deep
bays or salt water lochs, intersected by shallows and narrows, in
which there are several tides at the same time.
The time of high water at new and full moon is therefore a very
important element in the computation of the time of high water on
a given day, and is generally called the establishment of the port
when the moon is at her mean distance, or when her horizontal
parallax is 57’ nearly.
On observing attentively the height of the tides, which happen
thirty-six hours after the syzygies at the equinoxes in any port, when
the sun and moon are at their mean distances from the earth, we
find, from a mean of all the heights, a certain quantity u, the unit
of height, which varies with each port or place, and its application
is shewn in page 398, &c., of my edition of Ainslie’s Surveying,
published by Messrs Blackwood in 1849.
I shall now proceed to shew the method of determining the value
of u, the unit of height, and of the height of a given point above
mean tide, though for want of the necessary apparatus of the best
kind, and my limited time, at a period of the year when I could not
have the sun and moon both on the equator, the final result will not
be that required correctly. If the method indicated be followed
nearly by others who are more favourably situated, considerable ad-
vances may be made to greater precision. The requisite allowance
for the effect of the height of the barometer and thermometer has
never, in this country, to my knowledge, been at all applied, though
when accuracy is required it is indispensable. The merit of the dis-
covery of the constancy of the mean level of the sea has been re-
cently claimed by the writer of a book on Marine Surveying, for his
father, who made it about the year 1830. Why, the investigations
of Laplace depend upon this constancy ; and it is stated annually in
the Connaissance des Tempes, that the unit of height, u, at Brest,
is known with great accuracy, because it was determined from a
series of sixtcen years’ observations, from 1806 to 1823!!!
To allow for the effect of the height of the barometer, it must be re-
collected that the specific gravity of mercury at 30 inches of the baro-
meter, and 50° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, is 13-574, while that of
sea-water varies, in different parts of the ocean, from about to 1:026 to
13:574
ints
1:027
nearly, the ratio of the specific gravity of mercury to that of sea-
water, at the above pressure and temperature. Whence the formula
for the effect of the pressure of the atmosphere, on the rise of the
1-028, and 1-027 may be taken as the mean. Whence,
10 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew- Point.
tide, assuming 30 inches for the mean standard height at the level
of the sea, will be
— 13-2 (b—30 in.) in inches ; or
=. 1:1(6—30.in.):in feeticncay © aay), (1.)
Since it is the more convenient method to record the rise and fall
of the tide in feet and decimals, the last form will be the more ap-
propriate, though the former is that given in Ainslie’s Surveying.
To shew the use of this formula, we shall give one or two ex-
amples.
1. Suppose the tide, when the barometer stands at 30 inches, to
be 24 feet, what would it be if the barometer stood at 28 inches 2
Here, —1:1(6—30)= —1+1 x (28—30)= —1-1 x —2= +422
feet.
Hence, 24 + 2:°2= 26:2 feet, the real height.
2. Suppose the tide under 30 inches rises 24 feet as before, what
would it rise under 31 inches 2
Here, —1+1 (6>—80)=—1:1x 1=~—1°'l feet.
Hence, 24-0 —1:1=22°9, the actual rise.
The difference of these two, or 26:°2—22-9=3°3 feet. Hence
the difference of the predicted heights given in our almanacs must
be liable to an uncertainty in this case of 3-8 feet, independent of
the effects of the wind ; and this should always be allowed for when
the exact height is of importance.
When the rise of the tide is observed under a given barometric
pressure, and it is required to reduce it to the standard,* which we
have assumed at 30 English inches, the correction from formula
(1.) must be applied with a contrary sign, that is, it becomes
+1:1 (6—380 in.) ipl! ‘Sos. lestdet te eae
3. Suppose the barometer stood at 28 inches when the tide rose
26°2 feet, what would be the rise at the standard pressure of 30
inches 2
From formula (2.) we have
+1:1 (6—30 in.) = +1:1 x (28—30) = 4+1:1x —2=-—2-2
feet.
Hence, 26:2 feet — 2-2 feet = 24-0 feet at 30 inches,
4. Suppose the barometer stood at 31 inches when the tide rose
22-9 feet, what would be the rise at the standard pressure of 30
inches ?
* In the valuable article on the Tides, in the Admiralty Manual, by Dr
Whewell, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, edited by Sir John F. W.
Herschel, he says, p. 123, article 28, that “ 2, of an inch of mercury is equiva-
lent to 1 inch of salt water,” and the coefficients would, instead of 1:1, be 1°67, or
about one-half too great, while he gives no standard to which they ought to
be reduced,
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point. 11
From formula (2.) there will be found
411 (6—30 in.) = +11 (31 in.—30 in.) = +1l1x1
= +1°1 foot.
Hence, 22°9 feet + 1:1 foot =24 feet, at 30 inches.
In this manner, all registers of tides should be uniformly reduced,
otherwise considerable irregularities would be unaccounted for.
There is another irregularity to which the rise of the tides is sub-
jected, and that is the force and direction of the wind, which, in some
localities is very considerable, and is more difficult to be estimated
correctly. But if tide and wind gauges were always combined with
barometers, as they certainly ought to be, the effects of the baro-
meter and force of the wind could be eliminated, and each effect ac-
curately known and determined.
I shall now shew the method of determining the height of the
mean tide, or the mean level of the sea, as if there were no tide, and
of referring a given point to it, from which point a series of levels
may be carried over a country, and referred to the mean level of
the sea. (See Ainslie’s Surveying, new edition, 1849, p. 397, &c.,
Broddick, Arran, 30th July 1849.
Method of Determining the Height of the Mean Tide, and of referring
a given point to it.
Barometer 29-42 inches, Thermometer 64° F.
D
24 Divided
23 Staff in
22 Feet.
First High Water
t
H
H
1
i
'
'
1
1
1
|
!
'
1
'
'
'
'
1
1
1
1
'
1
'
'
'
1
~
a
SES SONA Go nH
BSS RABKS
Seco: igh W .
Divided oC nd High Water Sie See OSNews Sessa 8
slag 9\] 85 feet Mean Tide 9
eet. || ------------—----------- ---- p00 ---- == === 8
7 7
silt Intermediate “Fy Low Wate, 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
(Vl cet EE Se 8 tg NE 2 Se re a eS ae aE et o
BE
If the observations be made at a pier or quay-wall, and the height of
the tide can be read at both high and low water ; one divided gauge,
as AB, will be sufficient. Also the height of the point p, may, by
the usual spirit-level, be transferred to any rock or public building
in the vicinity which may be convenient, and there permanently
marked for future reference.
12 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Den- Point.
In the diagram, A B is the divided staff, like the common levelling
staff, into feet, tenths, &c., fixed on the shore, near high water mark
in spring tides; CO, another, near low water mark, or such other
convenient position as may be thought necessary, with such others,
intermediate if need be, and SHO, the sloping shore or beach.
Then the first high water, marked A in the diagram and formule of
reduction in Ainslie, rises on the staff A B to 13 feet, the next ob-
servation or intermediate low water, marked H, falls to 5 feet on
the staff C O, and the next or second high water rises to 11 feet on
the staff AB. From these it is required to find the mean height
of the level of the sea, 8-5 feet on the staff A B, or 12°5 on DE,
the height of the given point p, above the mean tide, the barometer
being at 29°42 inches, and the barometer at 64° Fahrenheit.
Likewise the height of the point p above mean tide, when the baro-
meter stands at 30 inches, and Fahrenheit’s thermometer at 50°.
Barometer observed, . 29:42 inches. Thermometer 64°.
Reduction from 64° to 50° — 04
Barometer ‘ - . = 29°38 inches at 50° Fahr.
Whence by the formula, Ainslie, page 397,
h=13 feet on the seale of the divided staff.
h’=11, and
2H=10
4)34
Height of mean tide=8°5 feet above zero of the scale A B.
Height of p=21°0 feet above zero.
Height of p=12°5 feet above mean tide on D E.
By formula (2.) +11 (29:38—30)= + 1-1 x —0°62= — 0682
feet.
Hence 8°500 feet — 0-682 feet= 7-818 feet on AB, the mean height
of the tide reduced for the barometer and thermometer, and 12-500
feet + 0°682= 13-182 feet, the true height of p above the reduced
mean tide.
In this manner both the position of the mean level of the sea and
the height of a given point above it, may be readily obtained, due
allowance being made for the state of the barometer and thermo-
meter.
It occasionally happens that an observer cannot command the
assistance of the best apparatus to conduct the observations in the
preceding manner, as was the case with myself at Broddick this
year; yet I was anxious then, as well as on former occasions, to
determine the position of the mean level of the sea as nearly correct
as possible, in the circumstances in which I was placed. For this
purpose I selected the upper surface of Broddick Quay as my point
p, and on a kind of rude, inclined jetty, at right angles to the sea-
eer ee
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point. 13
wall, I chose a large stone exactly, by levelling, eight feet lower
than the pier. I then determined, by a level, the height of the
high water below the top of the pier, and the fall of the low water
by a level and divided staff below the stone; whence, by adding
8 feet, I got the measure of the low water below the pier. By
this means I could get the number of feet and decimals the high
and low water was each below the pier in the usual manner, as be-
fore indicated by the divided rods, and the following table contains
the results, though the mean Greenwich time cannot claim any very
great precision.
Remark.—Without precise operations of this kind, carefully exe-
cuted, no confidence can be placed in the relative positions of land
and water, or whether there be any gradual change of the land and
sea levels so much insisted upon by popular writers, giving them-
selves little trouble about the proper means of investigation.
Register of the observed Heights of the Tides, as previously
explained, under the top of Broddick Quay in 1849.
Greenwi High Low Baro- hermo-
RAPE: ori ame acter: meter. eae Weather.
H. M. Feet. | Feet. | Inches. e
Aug. 2,| 11°0 a.m. | 6°40 | 30°20 | 60 F. | Calm.
2, 5°5 P.M. 12°60 | 30°20 | 60 ... Do.
2,\11:20 em. | 5°67 30°20 | 60...| Do.
3,| 5°25 a.m. 12°80 | 30°20 | GO... Do.
3,| 11°40 a.m. | 6°41 30°20 | 60... Do.
3,| 5°50 P.M. 13°00 | 30°20 | 60 ... Do.
3,| 12°0 p.m. | 5°45 | 30°20 | 60 ... Do.
4,| 6°20 a.m. 14°10 | 30°20 | GO ... Do.
4,| 0°30 p.m. | 5°83 30°20 | 60... Do.
4,| 6°45 p.m. | 13°00 30°10-| 61 ... Do.
b; 10am. | 4°30 30°10 | 62 ... Do.
5,| 7°10 p.m. 13:70 | 50°00 | 60... | Do.
6,| 1:20 pm. | 4°70 30:00 | GO... Do.
6,| 7°35 p.m. 13°00 | 30°00 | 60... Do.
7,| 1°45 4m. | 4°50 50:00 | 60 ... Do.
7,| 755 am. | ° 13°50 | 30°00 | 60... Do.
Wo\ 2i0 pwr, | O20 30°00 | 60... Do.
8,| 2°35 p.m. | 5°20 30°00 | 60 ... Do.
9,| 3°10 p.m. 5°25 30°00 | 60... Do.
10,| 9°45 a.m. 13°80 | 29°80 | 65 ... Do.
10,| 3:55 pm. | 5°33 29°80 | 64 ... Do.
12,| 5°35 pm. | 3°50 29°35 | 64 ... |Fresh Breeze.
13,| 6:20 a.m. | 410 29925. \62\..5 Do.
13,| 0°45 p.m. 12:00 | 29°20 | 62... Do.
14. Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew- Point.
DATE. Greenwich High
Time. water.
H. M. Feet.
Aug. 18,| 6°55 p.m. | 440
14,| 740 a.m. | 5°40
14, 2°0 P.M.
14,; 815 pm. | 5°50
15,| 9°30 a.m. | 5°50
15,| 3°40 p.m.
16,| 10°30 a.m. | 5:40
17,| 11°45 a.m. | 5°40
17,| 5:15 pm.
18,| 11°50 a.m. | 5°50
18,| 5°55 p.m.
20,| 7°10 a.m.
20,| 1°20 p.m. | 5°40
20,| 7:30 em.
21,| 7°50 a.m.
21,| 2°10 p.m. | 5°50
21,| 8°20 p.m.
The method of reduction is as follows :—
Feet.
First high water, 6°40
Second high water, 5°67
Sum, 12°07
Half Sum, 6°03
Intermediate low water, 12°60
Sum, 18°63
Half sum, = SY
Barom. cor. for 30°2in., 0°22
Mean tide, 9°54
Inches.
Barometer, ‘ 3 e0:20
Standard, 30°00
Difference, +0°20
Hence by formula (2.),+1°1
x 0°2=0°22 foot, the cor-
rection for the barometer,
as stated above.
Low | Baro- |Thermo- Weather
water. | meter. | meter. i :
Feet. | Inches. 3
29°05 | 62 F. |Fresh Breeze.
29-50 | 62... Do.
2 : Very fresh
12:80 | 29-40 | 62 .. { pines
29°60 | 61.. Do.
29-70 | 60 ... Do.
12°80 | 29°80 | 61 ... Do.
29°60 | 60 ... Do.
30:10 | 61 ... | Moderate.
13°60 | 30°10 | 60 ... Do.
SO 20 uous Do.
13°80 | 30°20 | 60 ... Do.
14°20 | 30°30 | 61 ... Do.
30°30 | 62 ... Do.
14:05 | 30°30 | 61 ... Do.
14°40 | 30°00 | 64 ... Do.
30°32 | 64 ... Do.
14:00 | 30°30 | 65 ... Do.
Feet.
or, First low water, 12°60
Second low water, 12°80
Sum, : : . 25°40
Half Sum, + 21270
Intermediate high water, 5:67
Sum, 18°37
Half sum, ‘ ; 9:18
Barometric cor. 0°22
Mean tide, 9°40
Thermometer about 60°.
It is hardly necessary to correct
the barometer for this tempe-
rature, except in cases of great
accuracy, when the observations
are made with the best appara-
tus.
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point. 15
Whence the position of mean tide or level of the sea below the top
of Broddick Pier, can be determined by two different methods, of
which the results are given in the following table, from 2d August to
5th August inclusive. ‘
The whole has not been reduced, because I had not an apparatus
to record the times and heights of the tides at those hours which I
have found it either inconvenient or dangerous, such as at 11, 125,
at night, or 1h, 2h, 3", &., in the morning.
No.
~
SOON OOF ON eH
Date. | Time. |.noter.(Fahr| water-|waver.| Rise | Garr | Risst (Second! trate erage
Tide. | Tide.
1849.| a. mu. In. ° | Feet. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet. | Feet.| Feet. Feet. | Feet.
Aug. 2,) 11:0 a.m.|30°20| 60 | 6°40 Ai at Ae ah She dais
2,| 5:5 P.M.|30°20} 60 | ... |12°60| 6°57|+0:22| 6-79] ... Sb4u\s <2:
2,/11-20 P.M.|30:20| 59 | 5:67] ... ae I? FRO al haze tll eae 9-40
3,| 5°25 A.M./30°20} 60 | ... |12°80] 6:76/4+0°22| 698]... 9:64 eee
3,/11-40 a.m.|30°20] 60 | 6:41] ... ee oi See, Gre Pees 9:88
3,| 5°50 P.M./30-20| 60 | ... {18:00| 7-07 |+0:22| 7:29] ... S69N) 22
3,| 12:0 P.m.|30°20} 60 | 5-45] ... ts a Rese ess sai i 9-72
4,| 6:20 a.M./30°20] 60 | ... {14°10} 8:46/+0°-22| 8-68] ... |10:09 | ...
4,) 0°30 p.m.|30-20] 60 | 5°83] ... ot Ses 7°94 Son 9:91
4,| 6°45 p.m.|30°10} 61 13°00 aae pele
Mean position of half tide under the Pier,
The rise of the tide each day is also given, of which
4)38-96|4)38-91
“974 973
that on the m
orning of
the 4th is the greatest, being 8-68 feet near the time of full moon, though the
highest is generally later than this.
The highest by far, that I observed, was that on 12th August
1849, the day on which, I believe, the Queen left Belfast Loch,
and run for safety over to Loch Ryan.* By the table it will
be seen that the barometer stood very low, 29°25 in., or, corrected
for temperature, 29°20 inches, while the wind was blowing fresh,
and increasing almost to a gale, nearly in the direction of the coming
tide. That is, two circumstances combined to produce the very high
tide, which rose to within 3:50 feet, or 3 feet 6 inches of the top of
the pier. To allow for the effects of the low barometer we have
* | first observed the Royal squadron come in sight of Broddick at about
8 o’clock of the morning of 13th August 1849,
16 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point.
Barometrical observations, . ; . 29°25 inches.
Reduction from 64° to 50° Fahr., : . —"05
Barometer at 50° Fahr. > : . . 29:20
Standard barometer, . 2 ; é . 30°00
Deficit, . : : : d : Sees)
Hence the correction = +11 x 0°8=0°88 foot and 3-50 + 0°88
= 4-38 feet, the depression of the tide under the pier after allowing
for the state of the barometer and thermometer. But, according to
the best estimation I can deduce from a consideration of the cireum-
stances of the case, the depression would have been about 5°40 or
5-50 feet. Hence 5:-45—4:38=1°07 foot, the effect of the wind
upon the tide. If, however, experiments were made with a register
tide-gauge, combined with a wind-gauge, the exact quantity of rise
caused by the state of the barometer and winds respectively, could
be accurately determined. ‘Till these machines are erected in all
eligible places round our coasts, there will always be much uncer-
tainty in the time and height of the tides.
What I have here said is, I fear, far from satisfactory to the
public, who take an interest in these matters ; and I freely admit,
from the inadequacy of my means, it is not much so to myself. It
may, however, be the means of drawing attention to this most inte-
resting subject, especially to a maritiine country like this, whose in-
terests are so much involved in trade and commerce.
It may also be inferred that the greatest rise of the tide by our
observations was 8°68 feet on 4th August 1849, near full moon;
and one-half of this, or 4°34 feet is the unit wu of the height
of the tide above the mean level of the sea, as understood by Laplace,
&c., and explained in the new edition of Ainslie’s Surveying, page
398, while that of the neaps is about 3-36 feet, and the establish-
ment is near noon, Greenwich, mean time, or 11" 34™, Broddick,
apparent time.
TI. On the Dew-Point.
Another interesting subject is the determination of the dew-
ing point, that is, the temperature at which, in a given atmosphere,
dew will be deposited from it on material objects. ~Daniell’s Hygro-
meter is a very convenient, though rather an expensive, instrument
for this purpose. It has therefore been an object with many to de-
termine this with simpler and less expensive instruments. Accord-
ingly, two thermometers have been repeatedly proposed for this pur-
pose, one whose bulb is covered with wet cloth, and another dry and
uncovered. After a good many experiments and attempts with
various success, I have found the following formula to give results
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew-Point. 17
pretty conformable to the best hygrometric instruments. The ther-
mometers used were made by my friend, Mr John Adie, optician.
New Formula.
Let f’ represent the force of aqueous vapour at the dew-point.
Ff, the force of aqueous vapour, at the temperature of eva-
poration.
r, the temperature by the dry thermometer.
t, that by the thermometer with the wet bulb.
+ — t = 6¢, the difference of these two;
And 6, the height of the barometer, then
Ff =f — b (0:000356 + 0:0000005 ¢) 6t it? pero a Goer
Where the value of f’ will give, by a table of the force of aqueous
vapour at different temperatures, such as that in my Mathematical
Tables, page 64, Table IV., or that of Dalton, the corresponding
dew-point.
1st, f/ = 0-4817 — 30-2 (0:000356 + 0:0000005 x 581°) 5:7".
Or f = 0°4817 — 0:0663 = 0°4154, which, by the table, gives
d the dew-point at 53°°8 Fah., and so on “wit the others as in the
following table :—
Table of Results from the preceding Formula in August 1849.
iz |
| No. Date. ~ Time. Nero mee Barometer. Dew-Foints)
H. M. 2 | 2 In |
1 | Aug. 6,| 10°O04m. | 6383 | 581 30:20 | 53:8
2 | 6,| 650 pm.| 640 | 560 30°20 48°6
3 | 7, | 11°40 am 60°0 57°6 30°10 55:2
4 8, | 0°45 pm 65:0 | 62:0 30:00 601
| 5 8, | 4°45 pm 68:0 64:0 29°80 61:6
| 6 10, | 11:0 a.m 650 | 62:0 29°80 6071
| 7 | 10,|- 7-0 rm. | 640 | 61:0 29°75 | 591
| 8 10, 9-0 Pm 66°5 63-0 20°75 61-7
9 11, Great rain from 5 a.m. till late.
10 13, 590 | 574 | 29°50 | 563
11 17, 62-0 54:0 | 30:10 | 51:3
| 12 18,| 5°30 p.m. | 565 | 50°0 30°20 44:0
| 13 20, SOam. | 59:0 | 56:0 | 30°30 | 55°3
| Weather wet. | |
In this way it is hoped I have shewn how a number of interesting
results may be obtained by a little diligence and attention, with very
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. B
18 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides and Dew- Point.
moderate means. It is clear, from a comparison of the dew-point
temperature with that of the atmosphere, as they approached to
equality, rain certainly followed.
Note 1.—It has often struck me how much useful matter might
be obtained by gentlemen possessing pleasure yachts, provided they
had a little taste for, and knowledge of branches of useful science,
instead of wasting their time in indolence, or at most, pleasant
amusement.
Note 2.—On the Height of Mont-Blanc.—In the preceding paper
I have shewn the method I pursued in determining the height of a
given point above the mean level of the sea, whence my heights in
Arran were derived trigonometrically, and a like plan must be fol-
lowed in all similar cases claiming the requisite accuracy. In this
way, too, a series of levels was carried from the Atlantic Ocean,
through France towards Switzerland, from which the height of Mont
Blanc was determined, as shewn in the Description Geometrique
de la France, by the late M. Puissant.
From data contained in these works, I gave a computation in the
new edition of Ainslie’s Surveying, in which I regret there are one
or two typographical errors, but not in the final results, which may
be considered correct. Since then I have revised the whole, and
find the mean from Plana’s observations to be 15817:86* feet above
the mean level of the sea; Colonel Corabceuf’s give 15788°05 feet,
forming a mean of 15802°96 feet, nearly what I formerly gave, with
a difference of 29°81 feet, and the half of which, about 15 feet, may
be reckoned the probable error in the final result, as in Johnston’s
Physical Atlas.
I may remark, however, that Mrs Somerville, in her Physical
Geography, vol. i., p. 67, edition of 1849, gives 15759°8 feet.
Again, in her Appendix, vol. ii., p. 418, she gives 15739 feet, on
the authority of the Piedmontese Surveys, published in 1645, and
Eichman’s Swiss Surveys in 1846.
This shews the difficulty of determining accurately the heights of
mountains of great altitude.
Professor Forbes gives, in his book of Travels through the Alps,
15744 from the French engineers.
The mean of all these will give about 15760 feet for the culmi-
nating point of central Europe, though I prefer 158038, the mean of
Plana and Corabeouf’s results.
* This differs from Plana’s own results, because the heights of Mont Colom-
bier and Mont Granier had not been then definitely fixed, and were 8-81 metres,
or 29 feet, too small, as has been latterly found by the French engineers.
ta a
Description of New Optical Instruments, viz.: 1. Polarizing
Spectacles. 2. Picture Polariscope. 3. Polarizing Dia-
phragm for the Microscope. 4. Surgical Polariscope. By
ALEXANDER Bryson, Esq. Communicated by the Au-
thor.
1. Polarizing Spectacles.
By the aid of this instrument, the naturalist, engineer, or
salmon-fisher, is enabled to distinguish objects beneath the
surface of the water. It consists of a pair of Nicol’s prisms,
so adapted as to prevent the transmission to the eye of the
horizontally polarized ray reflected from the surface of the
water, and thus to destroy the glare which prevents the light
from penetrating below the surface. When the surface of
the water is smooth, and the instrument so arranged as to
form an angle with the water of 52°, the effect is complete ;
at other angles, half of the incident ray passes through the
prisms. The prisms are fitted into common spectacle frames,
or used in the hand like a double opera-glass. When used
by the engineer, for examining the bottoms of rivers or canals,
where the water is sufliciently clear to admit the reflected
rays from the bottom to permeate, and where the depth is
known, the terminal planes of the prisms can be modified so
as to destroy the effect of the refraction of the water, and ex-
hibit the objects at the bottom in their true places.
The prisms used are those last invented by Mr William
Nicol, as they give a larger field of view than those formerly
described in this Journal. The angles being 71° and 93°.
2. Picture Polariscope.*
This instrument is the same in construction as the preced-
ing, except that the prisms are placed so as to prevent the
admission of a perpendicular instead of a horizontal polarized
* Since this instrument was constructed, I find I have been anticipated in
this application of Nicol’s prism by Professor Dove of Berlin.
20 Notice of a Shooting-Star.
ray. By means of an endless screw, by which the prisms
may be rotated equally on their axis, through an angle of
90°, the polarizing spectacles may be used as a picture po-
lariscope. By the aid of this instrument, a picture hung in
a bad light, or too highly varnished, appears fla¢, and can be
perfectly seen.
3. Polarizing Diaphragm for the Microscope.
This instrument is attached to the microscope in the same
manner as Messrs Smith and Beck, of London, adapt their
polarizer to the stage. It consists of two Nicol’s prisms, one
of which is fixed, the other being allowed rotation through
an angle of 90°, on the same axis as the fixed prism. By
this arrangement, the light can be modified from its greatest
brillianey to total darkness.
4, Surgical Polariscope.
This instrument is intended to aid the oculist when ex-
amining the cornea of the eye ; it is a Nicol’s prism placed in
a tube behind a lens of long focus, which rotates freely on
its own axis, to suit the varying plane of the polarized ray
from the cornea. It thus enables an oculist to observe any
minute foreign body on the cornea with ease, as the glare
from the surface is entirely removed.
Notice of a Shooting-Star ; and on a Method of Cooling the
Atmosphere of Roomsin a Tropical Climate. By Professor
C. P1azzi SMytH, F.R.S.E., &e.
1. Notice of a Shooting-Star.
The object of this notice was merely to call attention to
the importance of observing the phenomena of shooting-stars
more carefully and rigidly, and of applying to them, more
correctly than has generally been the case hitherto, the
measurement of time and of space, and to exemplify what
may be done in this way by the calculation of a recent in-
Notice of a Shooting- Star. 21
stance. This instance, the rare one of an ascending shoot-
ing-star, was furnished by Captain W. S. Jacob, Bombay
Engineers ; and he having given the place where the body
first appeared, that where it disappeared, and the time, the
author of the paper, who had great faith in his friend’s ex-
actitude, considered the opportunity favourable for trying
what results would be given by the application of Sir J.
Lubbock’s theory.
Some dissatisfaction has been felt about theories of shoot-
ing-stars, inasmuch as no one of them will explain a// the
observed phenomena. But though this is undoubtedly a ne-
cessary characteristic of a true theory, still great allowances
are necessary here, where so many different classes of cos-
mical and atmospherical objects may be confounded even by
practised observers; and where the greater number of ob-
servers are utterly unpractised, and their senses wholly un-
educated for scientific observation. Allowing that some
electrical and magnetical effects have been mistaken for
shooting-stars, but excluding the baseless electrical, chemical,
and lunar hypotheses, a great proportion are undoubtedly of
a cosmical nature. and belong properly to astronomy ; and
these may be divided into two classes of small bodies. 1s¢,
Those which are circulating round the sun as a primary;
and, 2dly, Those which are revolving round the earth as such.
The first we may occasionally see when passing near them
in their orbits, but are not likely to come within sight of the
same again, unless, indeed, they approach so near the earth
as to gravitate towards it instead of the sun, and so become
satellites or shooting-stars of the second class.
Sir J. Lubbock’s theory is, that the shooting-stars shine
by reflected light, and are extinguished by entering the
earth’s shadow ; and he has given formule on this supposi-
tion for computing the distance of the body from the spec-
tator, by noting the place in the sky where, and the time
when, the extinction occurs.
These formule have been rendered more convenient for
computation by Mr Archibald Smith, Phil. Mag. March
1849, and, computed according to them, Captain Jacob’s ob-
servation gives, for the distance of the body from the ob-
22 On a Method of Cooling the
server, 1721 miles; and that entry into the earth’s shadow
was the true cause of the disappearance, is borne out by the
fact that the direction of motion was fowards the axis of the
earth’s shadow. And, on account of the extremely small dis-
tance of the body, its change of place during flight would sufh-
ciently account for its gradually appearing in the lower part of
the sky when coming out of conjunction, increasing in bril-
liancy during its flight (reaching, at its maximum, the bright-
ness of Venus), and then slowly vanishing as it entered first
the penumbra and then the umbra of the earth’s shadow in a
slanting direction ; and lastly, the body can hardly fail of
being a satellite, as its distance is so much less than that of
a shooting-star, which M. Petit of Toulouse has pretty well
identified as revolving about the earth in 3" 20", or at about
3000 miles from the surface.—(Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, 1849.)
2. Method of Cooling the Atmosphere of Rooms in a Tropical
Climate.
After stating the case distinctly, and dwelling emphatically
on its importance, as shewn by individual instances in pri-
vate life, and by the statistics of the world at large, the
author proceeded to describe the various methods adopted
at present in India, and shewed their incapacity to meet the
end proposed, as they merely agitated the air already in a
room, or perniciously overloaded it with moisture.
To take the most difficult case that could occur, he chose
that of a country where the mean temperature of day and
night, and summer and winter, is never below 80°, and where
there could, consequently, be no coolness in springs or rivers,
or in the night air; where also the atmosphere being satu-
rated with moisture, no cold could be produced by evapora-
tion ; and under such circumstances proposed that a method
should be found of lowering the temperature of the air in a
room ; doing, in fact, there, the reverse of what is effected in
a cold room by lighting a fire.
The principle of the plan which he brought forward was
dependent on the property of air to increase in temperature
on compression, and to diminish on expansion ; the air was
Atmosphere of Rooms in a Tropical Climate. 23
to be compressed by a forcing-pump into a close vessel, then
cooled or rather deprived merely of its acquired heat of
compression, and then being allowed to escape into the room
desired to be cooled, would issue at a temperature as much
below that of the atmosphere as it had risen above on com-
pression.
That this was a vera causa there was no doubt; the swufi-
ciency and the practicability were the only matters of doubt.
These the author attempted to solve, by shewing the quan-
tity of increase of heat due to a certain amount of compres-
sion; and by devising the most convenient form of the ne-
cessary apparatus, and concluded that a one-horse power
should supply a room with 30 cubic feet of air per minute,
cooled 20° below the surrounding atmosphere. The various
sources of mechanical power likely to be met with in warm
countries, were then described ; and particularly a new and
simple, and at the same time, a remarkably compact and
effective form of windmill; as the wind is everywhere so
cheap and abundant, and in the tropics so certain a species
of moving power. Methods also of ventilating the cooled
room, ?@. é., of keeping it constantly supplied with cooled fresh
air, and removing the vitiated, were explained, as well as a
natural principle for meeting the residual difficulty that might
be expected to arise in some cases, viz., the too great mois-
ture of the cooled air.—(Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 1849.)
Examination of Professor E. Forbes’ s Views on the Geographical
Distribution of British Plants. By A. D’ArcurAc.*
Mr Edward Forbes, whose important researches on the
distribution of animals in the depth of the sea we have al-
ready referred to,t has considered the English flora in a point
of view which connects it with geology, and more particularly
* Histoire des progrés de la Géologie de 1834 421845. Paris, 1848. T. 2, p, 128.
t Vol. i., p. 397.
24 Examination of Prof. E. Forbes’s Views on the
with the quaternary epoch. This important work*, which has
greatly interested botanists by the originality of its views,
likewise deserves our attention for a short time. In ana-
lysing it, we shall follow the order of the author, carefully
distinguishing between the results of direct observation, which
we are quite disposed to admit, and certain explanations
which appear to us to give rise to serious objections.
Supposing that beings have been distributed from certain
primitive centres, Mr Forbes is of opinion that the ordinary
agents of transportation, such as land and marine currents,
winds, animals, and, lastly, the influence of man, are not suf-
ficient, in the majority of cases, to account for the resem-
blance of certain local floras at present very remote from each
other; he therefore endeavours to shew that there were for-
merly communications between these different regions, occa-
sioned by oscillations of the surface of the earth, which sub-
sequently ceased. This notion, it may be remarked, is only
the development of an idea advaneed by Mr Hewat Watson.
The vegetables of the British Islands admit of being grouped
into five distinct floras, four of which are concentrated in
well-defined provinces, and the fifth, which alone occupies a
large surface, is likewise further extended by mingling with
the four others.
The first of these floras is the most restricted, and is con-
fined to the mountainous districts of the west and south-west
of Ireland. It is characterized by species not very prolific,
and the nearest point of Europe, from which it seems to be
derived, is the north of Spain. There appears to be no fauna
or assemblage of animals corresponding to this flora.
The second flora, that of the south-east of Ireland and
south-west of England, comprehends a certain number of
species not found elsewhere in the British Islands; but it has
a close connection with the Channel Islands and the neigh-
bouring parts of France. Some land-shells appear to be dis-
tributed in a similar way.
In the south-east of England, where the chalk is particu-
larly developed, the vegetables of the third flora exhibit a
* Vide Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, vol. i., pp. 336 to
432.
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. 25
great number of species common to this district and the op-
posite coasts of France. The characters of the entomological
fauna bear a relation to this flora; and such is likewise the
case with the land-shells either confined to this district, or
very rarely extending beyond it.
The plants of the Scottish mountains, which compose the
fourth flora, are few in number to the south, in Northumber-
land and Wales, but they are all identical with those of the
northern chains, such as the Scandinavian Alps, where we like-
wise find associated with them certain species not occurring
in the British Islands. The Alpine forms diminish progres-
sively from the north to the south, and the same distribution
seems to exist in regard to the fauna of the mountainous re-
gion.
Lastly, the fifth flora, whether viewed alone, or associated
with the rest, is identical with that of Central and Western
Europe, or the German flora, and the accompanying fauna
diminishes as we advance northwards and westwards.
It was not till after the deposition of the London clay, or
lower tertiary formation, that the migrations of the plants and
animals in question could have commenced, the temperature
before that period having favoured the development of organ-
ized beings of a very different kind. These migrations must
likewise have taken place before the appearance of man, for the
peat deposits, composed of the remains of vast forests, which
occupied a great part of the existing surface of the British
Islands during the most remote historical times, contain fresh
water marls with Cervus megaceros, Sc., which, in their
turn, lie above the tertiary pleistocene deposits, forming the
elevated bed of the sea at the time of the glacial period.*
During the quaternary (post-pliocene) period, the greater
part of the flora and fauna of the British Islands migrated
from the Continent on this elevated bed of the glacial sea.
The animals, as well as vegetables of Germanic type, shew,
by their distribution in the east of England, not less than
by their rarity in proportion as we advance westward, and
* Throughout his whole work, Mr KH. Forbes regards the existence of the
glacial period as a fact that has been demonstrated,
26 Examination of Prof. E. Forbes’s Views on the
their absence from Ireland and Scotland, the reality of the
point of departure assigned to them.
The fourth fauna migrated from the north during the
glacial era, when Scotland, Wales, part of Ireland, and cer-
tain groups of islands, were surrounded with ice. The sea
was then much more extended, and the present mountains
were only islets, on whose sides plants of a subarctic charac-
ter flourished. When the bottom of the sea was raised up-
wards, these islets became mountains, a new population of
vegetables and animals occupied this newly-emerged surface,
and the plants of the glacial period maintained themselves
on the upper parts of the mountains.
In this statement, the skilful English zoologist has not
taken into account one of the most certain facts relating to
the quarternary period, or rather he seems to have taken the
period of ice for that of the arctic fauna; but the phenomenon of
striz must have been produced at the time of the extensive sup-
posititious ice, and it is anterior to the arctic flora and fauna.
The lands were then more elevated than during the existence
of arctic shells, or a subsidence brought beneath the water
the strizc and polished surface which had been produced
above. It is not easy to conceive how vegetables could pro-
pagate themselves to a distance, either when the whole
country was under ice or snow, or when a great part of it was
covered with water. In either case the circumstances must
have been little favourable to such migrations. Mr Forbes’s
hypothesis is therefore in contradiction of the most probable
deductions, namely, that the lands were more elevated dur-
ing the formation of striz than during the deposition of arctic
shells, whose elevation results from a third phenomenon, pos-
terior to the two others ; and there is nothing to prove that,
since then, the bottom of the sea has been more exposed than
it is now.
As the south of Ireland and England, continues the author,
were not submerged during the glacial period, the three
other floras might come to these places before, during, or after
this epoch. The third, which is the most extensive, occupies
the chalky surface of Kent, a circumstance in other respects
fortuitous, with regard to the nature of the ground, for it is
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. 27
not essential to the existence of the species. These vegeta-
bles came from the north-west of France, and the formation
of the strait will indicate the period of their isolation. If,
as is probable, the rupture of the strata took place before the
destruction of the great Germanic plain which favoured the
migration of the fifth flora, we may, says Mr Forbes (page
346) regard the flora of Kent as very ancient, perhaps even
anterior to the second, that of Cornwall, Devonshire, the
south-east of Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the west
of France, which has a more southern character than the
third.
We have already seen that geological and zoological data
unite in placing the separation of England from the Conti-
nent at the epoch of the destruction of the fauna of the large
mammifera, that is to say, at the end of the phenomenon
which accumulated the drift ; which ill agrees with the anti-
quity which Mr Forbes ascribes to this rupture, relatively to
an emerged plain, whose existence nothing geological, hydro-
graphical, or orographical tends, in any way, to confirm.
The geological characters of the districts occupied by the
second flora are connected with the remains of a great de-
stroyed barrier, which likewise marked the southern limit of
the Iey Sea. But what is this great barrier evoked by the
author? Is it the North-Down chain of hills of which we have
alreadyspoken? Besides, the northern limit of the second flora,
represented by a rose-coloured tint on the chart (Plate VI. of
Professor Forbes’s Memoir), certainly does not coincide with
any character, either physical or geological, in the soil of
France and England. The shore of the Jey Sea is not in uni-
son with this supposed limit; for, with the exception we have
pointed out, the erratic phenomenon of the north is not seen to
the south of a line drawn from the mouth of the Thames to
Dusseldorf.* The comparative examination of the relief, of
the disposition and relative thickness of the tertiary and
* The limit is, in fact, likewise indicated in Plate VII. of the Memoir, Not-
withstanding this assertion, true in general, we have seen that M. Mantell men-
tions fragments of primary rocks in the second diluvial bed of the steep shores
at Brighton,
238 Examination of Prof. E. Forbes’s Views on the
more recent deposits, such as we have already referred to,
and which we shall afterwards explain more fully, does not
therefore appear to us to warrant Mr Forbes’ suppositions.
The first flora, that of the west of Ireland, comprehends
plants peculiar to the great peninsula of Spain and Portugal,
and principally to the Asturias, or which are very widely dis-
tributed there; and, as its presence cannot be explained either
by marine or aérial currents,—the first on account of their di-
rection, the second on account of the kinds of seeds trans-
ported,—the ingenious naturalist contends, that, at a period
more ancient than that of the preceding floras, there was a
geological union, or a very close neighbourhood, between
the west of Ireland and the north of Spain, and that the flora
of the intermediate lands was an extension of that of the
peninsula. Finally, the destruction of these lands was an-
terior to the glacial period.
After enumerating the characters of the miocene fauna
(p. 348), by supposing the communication of the Mediter-
ranean with the ocean between Montpellier and Bordeaux—
of which we have not yet any proof, while there exist nega-
tive reasons in disproof,—Mr Forbes says, that it is not at
this period that he places the junction of the Asturias and
Ireland ; but that having observed in Lycia medium tertiary
deposits at an altitude of 1800 metres, he thinks that this
great miocene sea may have been uniformly elevated in the
centre of the Mediterranean and west of Europe; and this,
according to all probability, must have been the period
of the approximation of the Asturias and Ireland. Here,
again, we regret that we can find nothing, either in the pre-
sent orography of this part of Europe, nor in the strati-
graphical characters of the deposits, nor yet in the forms
which may be ascribed to the ancient tertiary basins, from
the directions of tae beds, which confirms the existence of
this emerged surface. The possible prolongation of certain
portions of land to the west, such as the points of Cornwall
and Bretagne, gives no probability to so general an emersion
as that supposed. The instance mentioned on the declivities
of Taurus is purely local, and not applicable to the west of
Europe, where the medium marine tertiary beds do not ex-
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. 29
ceed 150 metres in height, and that from Norfolk, as far as
the foot of the Pyrenees, as in Spain, Portugal, and the
Azores. It would be necessary, besides, to admit of a sub-
sequent sinking or depression, of which Mr Forbes makes no
mention, nor of the period when it took place. With regard
to the very ingenious argument drawn from the great bank
of seaweed in the Atlantic, it rests on a knowledge of the
fact itself far too incomplete to be of much value.
In a botanical point of view, it would, perhaps, be desi-
rable to determine whether the external circumstances under
which the five floras of Great Britain now live, such as la-
titude, altitude, temperature, winds, humidity, or dryness,
exposure, nature of the soil, greater or less distance from the
coast, &ec., are altogether insufficient to explain their different
characters. Now this important part of the question ap-
pears not to have been entered upon by the author. The
geography of plants, as it has been founded by its illustrious
author, and as it is studied by his followers, among others,
M. Ch. Martins and M. Alph. De Candolle, is not an abstract
speculation ; it is the consequence of a multitude of physical
circumstances, the relative importance of which must be duly
appreciated. We know, moreover, that plants have very
different geographical limits: thus, there are some which
we meet with over an extent of 25° in latitude, and much
more in longitude, while others occupy only zones extremely
restricted in both senses; it would, therefore, be useful to
study the five English floras in this point of view. The ra-
diation of plants from a centre, is by no means satisfactorily
proved, and it may be asked, for example, What is the ori-
ginal centre from which the species common to North Ame-
rica and Southern Europe could have radiated? This idea
appears to us to have been presented in a more philoso-
phical manner by M. A. Richard, when he says, “ Perhaps a
more attentive examination may prove that these points of
departure, the number of which, though considerable, is still
limited, correspond to the different epochs of the elevation of
different points of the surface of the ground.”’*
* Nouveaux Eléments de Botanique, p. 523, 8vo, Paris, 1846.
30 Examination of Prof. E. Forles’s Views on the
Mr Forbes shews farther on (p. 350), that the specific
identity, over a certain extent, of the flora and fauna of one
country with those of another, depends on this, that the
countries form, or have formed, a part of the same specific
centre ; or else on this, that they have derived their animals
and vegetables by transmission, by means of migration over
a continuous or very nearly approaching country—a migra-
tion favoured, in the case of Alpine floras, by transportation
on floating ice. The identity of the Alpine flora of the centre
.of Europe with that of Central Asia is likewise attributed
to the glacial epoch, and the phenomena which it occasioned ;
but for this we have no geological proofs more positive than
for many of the preceding assertions ; and there is nothing to
shew that the sea of the glacial epoch extended to Central
Asia. We know that erratic blocks and striz have not
yet been found, either in the Ural or Altai mountains, and
still less are they to be expected to the south of these chains,
and in the vast plains which separate them.
The argillaceous deposits, with blocks and beds of arctic
shells, should be, according to the author (p. 352), contem-
porary with a flora which came from the north, a cireum-
stance which justifies our former observation, for these de-
posits were formed after the extensive ice, when less land
had emerged than now. He then inquires into the distribu-
tion of the molluscs now living on the coasts of the British
Islands, and follows them into remote seas, where they have
representatives. He shews that the radiated animals have
a distribution analogous to that of the molluscs; and, with
regard to this fauna, considered as a whole, he is induced to
think, that it may have had some representatives from the
cretaceous period, and in the inferior tertiary period ; but it
is not till the medium tertiary period, that the analogies be-
come really remarkable.
In speaking of the tertiary formation, we mentioned Mr
Forbes’s memoir referring to it; and we shall here continue to
speak only of what relates to the quaternary formation. The
author has collected in it, in England, Scotland, and Ireland,
124 species of shells, which, with few exception, live in the
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. 3l
neighbouring seas.* But this fauna is by no means rich in
species and individuals when compared with that of the Crag
which preceded it, or that of the present coasts which fol-
lowed it. This difference must arise from the climatological
conditions in which it lived, conditions not favourable in con-
sequence of a lower temperature. The fauna of the quater-
nary molluses of the British Islands has been placed nume-
rically between the present fauna of Greenland and that of
the coasts of Massachusetts, although nearer the former, and
probably very nearly allied to that of the coast of Labrador.
It is composed of species living in the seas of Great Britain,
and original natives of the north; of others now confined to
the more northern latitudes: some appear to be extinct, and
one or two may have had a southern origin, or rather are
known only in the Crag of the south of Ireland. The species
most abundant, and most widely distributed throughout the
drift, are essentially northern.
Reverting to the distribution of the molluses on the coasts
of England (p. 371), a subject which he had discussed in a
previous memoir,t Mr Forbes distinguishes four zones or re-
gions: the littoral zone ; that of the laminariz ; that of the
corallines ; and that of the polypi of the deep seas. Among
a multitude of interesting details, he shews that the first
zone is comprised between the sea when at the highest and
when at the lowest; the second between the low water and a
depth of 27 metres ; the third extends from 27 to 90 metres ;
and the fourth from 90 to 180 metres, and beyond it. With
these data, he first determines the existence of the first zone
in the quaternary deposits, and then proves that the latter
are in no respect deposited under a depth of water which
could reach the fourth. The greater number of the fossils
must have lived in cold waters, not of great depth, and be-
longing to the three first zones. The arctic characters of
this fauna are not, therefore, the result of it having lived at
* See likewise Agassiz, Coquilles fossiles d’Angleterre identiques avec des
especes vivantes, Verh. d. Schweitz naturf Ges in Zwich. 1841, p. 63.
t+ Edinburgh Academic Annual for 1840.
32 Examination of Prof. E. Forbes’s Views on the
a great depth, but under a colder climate than that now pre-
vailing in the same latitude.
(P. 379.) One-third of the quaternary species still live
both on the coasts of America and those of Europe. In the
present day, sixty-six species of testaceous molluscs are com-
mon to the coasts of the United States, situate to the north
of Cape Cod, and to those of Europe. None of these species
has its northern European limit to the south of England, and
ten only extend to the seas of the south of Europe. On
the other hand, not less than forty-five of them inhabit the
arctic seas. Of the sixty-six preceding species, fifty-one are
again found in the quaternary deposits, and it follows from
the table drawn up by the author, that the identity between
the northern American fauna and that of Europe has been
established, at least, during the quaternary period, not by
pelagic species, but rather by littoral shells.
The elevation of the bottom of the sea (p. 385) would be
gradual ; and what M. Forchhammer has said of the quater-
nary formation of Denmark will be applicable to the British
Islands. In the Isle of Man, the marls contain bivalve shells
of the second and third region, and they are covered to a
great thickness with sand and gravel, sometimes with rolled
littoral shells. The largest blocks rest upon these sands.
The elevation of the land, which appears to coincide with the
end of the period of cold, has determined the contours of the
present coasts, and the organization we now behold was
then developed. Part of the ancient species has become ex-
tinct, another has retired to the arctic seas, and a small num-
ber have disappeared from the coasts of Europe, and con-
tinue to live on those of America. Many species remain in
these new waters along with those which have come thither
in great numbers. whether appearing for the first time in
creation, or brought from warmer seas by the intervention
of currents. Among the latter, we must include such as al-
ready existed on the spot at the period of the crag, of which
upwards of fifty are enumerated, which the low temperature
speedily expelled. Besides, cavities of greater depth allow
certain species to continue to live at the same points, where
Geographical Distribution of British Plants. 33
they now form, in certain parts of the British seas, true oases
of the arctic fauna, at from 150 to 180 metres in depth.
Again, considering (p. 386) the quaternary formation of
the north (the newer pliocene), Mr Forbes, with reason,
compares it with certain strata in Sicily; but he still in-
sists upon a communication of the Icy Sea with the Mediter-
ranean, and that to explain the presence of five or six species
of shells in the Mediterranean deposits, a fact previously
made known by M. J. Smith. No geological data, however,
confirm this hypothesis, in which, moreover, we perceive, as
in the foregoing, an enormous disproportion between the
grandeur of the means invoked, and the smallness of the
effect produced. Neither can we agree with the author, that
the Norwich Crag, or that containing mammifera (p. 391), and
the beds of Bridlington in Yorkshire (p. 393), are of the
same age as the quaternary deposits, and still less that the
fresh water deposits of Grays are in part contemporary with
the red crag; for these are assertions completely opposed to
all that has been written by geologists best acquainted with
the east of England.
In the latter part of this Memoir there are many sub-
jects of which we shall have occasion to speak, in treat-
ing of the tertiary series; and we shall only say here, with-
out entering upon the discussion of the opinions of the
geologists who have preceded him, and whom he does not
mention, that Mr Forbes seems to confound the fauna of the
crag (miocene) with the quaternary fauna (newer pliocene),
thus completely cutting off the superior tertiary fauna (p/io-
cene), which is represented in England by the Norwich Crag,
as has been shewn by Mr Lyell. The fauna of the quater-
nary mammifera in England, as on the Continent, is per-
fectly distinct from that of the superior tertiary formation, and
from that of the moyen tertiary formation. The beautiful
works of Professor Owen, as well as those of the zoologists
of France, Germany, and Italy, in this respect perfectly agree
with the result of researches exclusively geological. The
succession of phenomena, such as it appears to us to result
from the numerous investigations made in all parts of the
British Islands, does not warrant us to admit, with Mr
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. C
34 Dr Davy on the Action of Lime
Forbes (p. 403), that the white crag represents of itself the
moyen tertiary formation,—the red crag, the superior ter-
tiary formation,—the deposits of the glacial period, the qua-
ternary formation (newer pliocene), while the fresh water
marls, and elevated regions would constitute two post-tertiary
epochs.
We have thought it right to discuss some of the hypotheses
advanced by this skilful English naturalist, because it ap-
pears to us necessary to shew the inconveniences arising
from an attempt to give an account of facts hitherto inexpli-
cable in one science (botanical geography), by drawing from
another science (geology) suppositions, made, as it appears,
with the sole view to these explanations, and for which there
is no sufficient authority. We are far from thinking that
these ingenious conjectures may not pave the way to some
interesting discoveries, and that even many of them may be
well-founded; but it is necessary to repeat, that proofs drawn
from geology must rest on more certain data than those which,
in this instance, have been adduced.
On the Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable Substances.
By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. & Edin., Inspector-
General of Army Hospitals.
LesketH How, AMBLESIDE, Nov, 14, 1849.
My DEAR Sir,—If you think the following observations on
the action of lime on animal and vegetable substances likely
to be useful at the present time, you will oblige me by in-
serting them in the Philosophical Journal. They were first
published in a collection of essays* ten years ago. Notwith-
standing, judging from instructions recently given on the
subject of interments, and from the remarks of more than
one writer on agriculture, the results of them, with the prac-
tical conclusions to which they lead, seem to be little known,
if at all,—I am, dear Sir, yours very truly,
J. DAVY.
To Professor JAMESON,
s * Researches Physiological and Anatomical, 2 vols. 8yo. London, 1839,
on Animal and Vegetable Substances. 35
On the Action of Lime on the Textures of the Human Body.
It is commonly asserted and believed, that lime exercises a cor-
roding, destructive influence on animal matter in general, and that
animal bodies, exposed to its action, rapidly decompose and disap-
pear. Accordingly, it has been almost invariably recommended to
add this earth to graves, in instances in which a rapid decay is con-
sidered desirable, as on the occasion of the crowding of grave-pits
with dead bodies, during the prevalency of pestilential diseases.*
From the results of many experiments which I have made with
lime on animal substances, I have been compelled to come to the
conclusion that this opinion is not well founded in fact,—indeed,
that it is altogether erroneous.
The experiments were commenced in Malta, in the summer of
1829, and they were carried on during the following year. The
method observed was, to immerse the animal matter for trial in
cream of lime, or rather a paste of lime contained in a wide-mouthed
bottle, well corked and covered with cerate cloth, to exclude the in-
gress of atmospheric air, and to preserve the lime in its caustic state.
One of the first experiments tried was commenced on the 27th
%* The following instance, extracted from the ninth volume of the Philoso-
phical Transactions, abridged, may be given as an example of the vague, and,
as I believe, erroneous manner of considering the operation of lime. In 1746,
when means for preventing the infection of an epidemic disease, which then
prevailed among the cattle, were under consideration, burying them was thought
the most effectual method, and the introduction of lime was recommended “ for
the more speedy destruction of the distempered carcasses.” But doubts arising
whether the lime might not exalt the putrid particles, and help to spread the
infection, it was the opinion of several of the learned, that it was most safe on
that account to bury them without it. ;
Dr Parsons, the author of the paper, adds, “that the question will probably
be decided by a fact that had come to the knowledge of one of the Justices,
John Milner, Esq., appointed to inspect into the affair, and will serve to pre-
vent the practice of burying them with lime for the future, as it makes it more
than probable that malignant particles by the operation of the lime may be
sent up, and spread through the air.” The fact referred to was the following :
— Mr Stallwood, a farmer at Hackney, informs the Justices to whom the case
of the distempered cattle was committed, that he had buried thirteen cows
very deep, with the quantity of lime appointed by the Justices ; and observing
his dogs to scratch and tear up the ground with their feet to get at the cow’s
flesh (the lime fermenting, and causing a foam, as he called it, or strong scent
of meat to arise, which made the dogs so eager to come at it), he beat them off
several times, but the dogs always returning as soon as he was gone, for some
time he hired a boy to keep them off; but that he had buried several other
cows in another place, with their hides cut and slashed, without any lime, and
the dogs never attempted to scratch or tear up the ground there.” 'I'wo bushels
of lime were allowed to each cow. With lime the bodies were buried ten feet
deep, without lime eight feet deep,
Relative to the explanation of the fact,—was not the difference observed in
the two instances owing to this—that, in the one the dogs were attracted by
the smell of the meat preserved by the lime, and not in the other, where it was
not so preserved, and where it was undergoing putrefaction ?
36 Dr Davy on the Action of Lime
August. Portions of various textures were immersed, as mentioned
above. They were taken from a subject in a state of incipient pu-
trefaction, and they inhaled a fetid smell. On immersion in the
lime and water, as might be expected, they gave off a strong am-
moniacal odour. They were first examined on the 24th of Sep-
tember. ‘They were then all in excellent preservation, swollen but
not corroded, nor their delicate tissue injured. They were next
examined seven months after, viz. on the 5th of May of the year
following. The report was equally favourable : it is stated that they
were much in the same state as before, the texture of each part dis-
tinct, and the part, as a whole, easily distinguishable. They were
left undisturbed nearly two years, until the 6th April 1832, when, on
examination, they were found to have undergone material change.
The cuticle had become soft and transparent, ashad also the dura
mater, admitting of being torn with the greatest ease. The muscle
appeared to be converted into adipocire, which was quite white,—
had no unpleasant smell,—was friable when dried, and burned with
a bright flame, without any unpleasant smell. The other parts were
not distinguishable. Most of the lime was converted into carbonate
of lime,—atmospheric air not having been entirely excluded.
The second experiment recorded was commenced in the beginning
of October. Portions of aorta, dura mater, intestine, skin, cellular
tissue, muscle and tendon, were similarly treated. The results were
examined on the 5th May following. Then, on opening the bottle,
an ammoniacal, but no putrid smell was perceptible. The parts
were found well preserved, excepting the fatty matter contained in
the cellular tissue, which had become of an opaque white, and friable,
from combination with the alkaline earth, and conversion into soap.
The tendon, it is mentioned, was somewhat distended, and rendered
more transparent, but not gelatinized; and so, also, in a less degree,
were the dura mater and cutis; and the last was deprived of its
cuticle and hair.
Some other experiments were made, but, as the results were very
similar, it would be tedious to describe them. I may state, gene-
rally, that with the exception of cuticle, nail, and perhaps hair, lime
exerted, on the different textures on which it was tried, no destruc-
tive power, but a contrary influence,—and more particularly a well-
marked antiseptic one. It has been stated how certain parts, in the
first experiment, lost the putrid odour which they had acquired when
immersed in lime and water. Moreover, it appears from notes of
experiments, that after animal substances have been fully subjected
to the action of lime, they ceased to be putrescent ; they resisted pu-
trefaction, whether placed in air or plunged and kept in common
water. I shall mention one instance. On the 13th of May 1830,
a portion of ileum, with mesentery attached, and a portion of mus-
cular part of heart, with chorde tending, were placed in a large jar
of transparent lime-water, and covered with cerate cloth. Examined
on Animal and Vegetable Substances. 37
nine months after, on the 16th Fehruary, they were found in good
preservation, and without any putrid or unpleasant odour. The only
change perceptible, was, that the portion of heart and intestine had
acquired a light greenish hue, and the tendon an opalescent hue ;
and all were a little softened. A crust of carbonate of lime had
formed on the water, which still retained some caustic lime. They
were then transferred to a jar of common water, where, after four
days, they continued unaltered. I may add, that a portion of cutis,
similarly treated, placed in confined air in a bottle, after a whole
month, emitted no unpleasant odour, and appeared to be unchanged.
I have observed that cuticle, nail, and perhaps hair, are to be ex-
cluded from the list of animal substances, not materially altered by
the action of lime. On the cuticle its action is powerful, and, I ap-
prehend, in consequence of a chemical combination between them
being formed. It is well known how lime has the property of ren-
dering the cuticle easily separable from the cutis vera, and how, in
the art of tanning, it is applied to this purpose. The human cuticle,
that, for instance, of the sole of the foot, I find becomes soft and ge-
latinous from immersion in lime and water. After drying, a portion
thus tried (well washed previous to drying), was white, semitrans-
parent and brittle; incinerated, it yielded 17 per cent. of ash, which
consisted principally of lime and carbonate of lime.
The effect of lime on nail is similar to that which it exercises on
cuticle, but not so strongly marked. A portion of nail of great toe,
macerated in lime and water, from the 7th of June to the 18th
August, was rendered soft and friable,—a little swollen, and disposed
to separate or break up in layers. Dried, it exhibited the same cha-
racter as cuticle, and when incinerated, burned in a similar manner,
and left a considerable ash, consisting of a small proportion of phos-
phate of lime, which pre-existed in the nail, and a large proportion
of lime, with which, during the change from maceration, it may be
inferred it combined.
On hair, the effect of lime appears to be more destructive, but, in
what manner it acts, I have not attempted to ascertain, A portion
of human hair of the head, which had been kept in lime and water
about three months, was partially decomposed. At the bottom of
the vessel, there was a little black sediment. The hair, which was
black, had acquired a just perceptible reddish shade, and had be-
come much finer as if wasted, and more friable, so as to be easily
broken.
Relative to the results of the experiments generally, they appear
to me to bear me out in the remark with which I prefaced them,
viz., that lime does not exercise a destructive corroding power on ani-
mal substances generally, nor one promoting their decomposition; but,
on the contrary, a preservative, and decidedly antiseptic power, ar-
resting putrefaction, even when commenced, and retarding decompo-
sition. What new arrangements of the elements of animal matter
38 Dr Davy on the Action of Lime
may take place under the influence of lime is a subject for further
inquiry. Probably the effects of lime on cuticle, nail, and hair, on
which, in the arts, its operation has been best known, led to the
ideas of its agency on animal substances generally, which I have been
under the necessity of combating.
On the action of Lime on Vegetable Substances.
Reasoning from analogy, from what I had witnessed of the effects
of lime on animal substances, I was induced to question the views
which are commonly entertained of the operations of this earth on
vegetable matters, as its supposed power of facilitating their decom-
position, and promoting their fermentation and solution. And the
few experiments which I have made, have more than confirmed me
in my doubts.
As the subject is of very great importance in relation to agricul-
ture, I shall describe the results which were obtained, using small
quantities as most manageable, and best accordant with my limited
means, hoping that my statements may induce others to repeat the
experiments on a large scale, and extend them in a manner befitting
the consequences involved.
The experiments were commenced in June 1836, and they were
concluded in November 1838. I shall describe them individually.
On the 27th of June 1836, one portion of sawdust, I believe of
Norwegian fir, was put into a bottle, with distilled water and quick
lime (the bottle was about half filled with the mixture) and corked.
Another portion of sawdust was put into a bottle with water and
corked, but without the addition of lime.
Examined on the 1st November 1838, the sawdust, with the lime,
had no appearance of any material change ; its colour, perhaps, was
a little heightened ; the water only just perceptibly coloured ; it had
a strong taste of lime; evaporated to dryness, it afforded a light
yellow residue, consisting chiefly of lime; the proportion of vegetable
matter was hardly appreciable.
The other portion examined after the same interval, also exhibited
very little change; a mucilaginous film had formed over the sub-
merged stratum of sawdust, too delicate and small in quantity to be
collected and examined in a satisfactory manner ; the sawdust re-
tained its colour, and the water was colourless, The water, evapo-
rated to dryness, yielded a very minute brownish residue, slightly
bitter, which had no effect either on litmus or turmeric paper. No
smell was perceived on opening the cork of either bottle.
On the 17th June 1836, some clover leaf and flower, and some
leaf of the common mallow, were put into a bottle with quicklime
and water; the bottle was corked, and the cork was covered with
sealing-wax. The quicklime used was tested for carbonic acid, and
found to be perfectly free from it,—not effervescing in the slightest
on Animal and Vegetable Substances. 39
degree in dissolving in an acid. For comparison, two other mixtures
were at the same time made of the same vegetables and water and
bottled, one of which was corked, being about half full of air, the other
was not corked ; a little cotton wool merely was put into the mouth
of the bottle to exclude dust and prevent evaporation.
Examined on the 1st November 1838 the mixture with the lime
appeared to be but little altered; the leaves and the flower retained
their form ; the former were of a bright fresh green ; the latter had
become brown; the water was colourless; the lime had acquired a
light greenish hue; it dissolved in dilute muriatic acid without giving
off a particle of carbonic acid gas. The water evaporated yielded but
a small residue, consisting chiefly of lime. The leaves and flower,
though they retained their form, yet when shaken in the bottle, were
broken into small pieces, and the leaflets detached. Farther, it may
be remarked, that the smell perceived on drawing the cork was simi-
lar to that of bruised clover.
The other mixtures, to which lime had not been added, exhibit
different results. That which was corked, a portion of air included,
examined on the 4th November 1838, appeared much altered; there
was at bottom a light greenish sediment; at top an almost black
mass, and suspended in the water intermediately were the small flower-
leaves, almost colourless ; the water was greenish, and when evapo-
rated to dryness yielded a small brownish extract ; the leaves were
in a pulpy state, and disorganized ; the smell from the mixture was
offensive, not unlike that of clover fermenting.
The mixture from which air was not excluded, fermented soon
after it was put by ; ten days after, namely, on the 27th June, it
was noted that the vegetable matter was rapidly decomposing with a
very offensive odour, approaching to that of the putrid; that much
gas had been disengaged, and a good deal of sediment had collected.
Examined on the 2d November 1838, it was found in a state very
similar to that last described, bearing marks of advanced decomposi-
tion.
An experiment similar to that on the mallow leaf and clover was
made with lime and water, on moss and lichen, and with a very simi-
lar result. It was commenced on the 23d June 1836, and termi-
nated on the 1st November 1838. The moss and lichen retained their
form, and bore being shaken in the bottle without falling to pieces.
The water had acquired a light greenish hue; the lime a brownish
hue ; the water evaporated afforded a small brownish residue con-
sisting chiefly of lime.
I shall mention one experiment more of the same duration, in
which clover leaf and flower and mallow-leaf were put into a bottle
covered with hydrate of lime, and the access of air excluded by a cork
and sealing-wax. Examined on the 2d November 18388, the flower
was found brown ; the clover-leaves of a very light green ; the mal-
ow of a dark green, and all very friable, falling to pieces when
40 Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable Substances.
touched. The lime was examined both before and after for carbonic
acid, and it was quite free from it at the commencement of the ex-
periment, as it was also at the conclusion; it dissolved in an acid with-
out the slightest effervescence, and appeared to be quite unaltered.
These results appear to me conclusive that lime does not promote
the decomposition of vegetable matter ; and, as I have before men-
tioned, that, instead of promoting, it arrests its fermentation. The
circumstance that no carbonic acid could be detected in the lime after
having been in contact with vegetable matter—both with and without
water—lI apprehend may be considered as demonstrative on this point.
Whether lime has any solvent power on vegetable matter, apart
from the supposed one of exciting fermentation, is a distinct question,
From what I have witnessed in carrying on these experiments, I
infer that it has, in a slight degree at least, in combination with
water. The extract obtained by evaporating the lime-water which
was in contact with the vegetable matter, was perhaps indicative of
this, especially in the instance of the sawdust, as was also the softened
state of the leaves and flowers, falling to pieces on being shaken; and
confirmation, perhaps, is afforded in the results of two comparative
experiments made on the same leaves and flower, with magnesia and
water and a solution of carbonate of potash (the old subcarbonate).
Both mixtures were made on the 23d June 1886, and they were
both examined on the 4th November 1838. There was a marked
contrast between them. The leaves and flower, with the magnesia
water, retained their form unaltered, and their texture did not ap-
pear to be materially weakened ; they bore being shaken in the bottle
without falling to pieces, and the water was only just perceptibly
coloured greenish, and the magnesia brownish, the leaves retaining
their colour unimpaired. The leaves and flowers, on the contrary, in
the alkaline solution, were reduced to small pieces, and seemed to be
wasted and deprived very much of their colouring matter, and in a
pultaceous state ; the solution was of a dark olive green ; evaporated,
it yielded a residue abounding in colouring matter. Lime in its sol-
vent power, is probably intermediate in degree between magnesia and
the more active alkali, more active even in combination, with one
proportion of carbonic acid, than the magnesia, or even lime in a
caustic state.
The application of the preceding results to agriculture, in relation
to manures, I must decline discussing ; the subject is one of too much
importance and magnitude and difficulty to be lightly entered on.
Edin. New Phil. Journ PRAT. I: .Vol. XLVI. p.41.
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Meteorology of Whitehaven. 57
Hygrometers.
1 Ny 7 my |
r | Mean Dew- | Mean Dew- | Mean Com-
| Mean Dry Mean Wet | Point, Point, jess! tof |
prey | «7, Bubba: lira sia, yfpmanunedl higgemeay oll Beeman
January, 36°04 34°31 31°62 31°73 4°30 |
February, 43°61 42°29 40°47 40°38 3°22 !
March, . 44°64 42-18 39°35 39°32 5°32
cay yg Pe 49°96 45°96 41°72 41°66 8°40
May, : 58°67 53°54 49°87 | 49-84 8:82
June, . 60°73 55°44 51:74 | 51°73 8:99
July, . 63:00 58°05 54°63 | 54°81 8:19
August, 60°36 55:00 51:25 51:06 9°30
September, 59°14 54°89 51°91 01°54 7°59
October, 51°49 48°57 45°65 | 45°60 5:89
November, 44°37 42-37) | 40°05 | 40°04 4°3%
December, 42°90 41:17 39:03 | 38°71 4:19
Means, . 51°24 47°81 44-77 44-70 6°54
1847, . 51:20 j 44:03 | els
* Jn determining the deduced point, Mr Glaisher’s valuable Hygrome-
trical Tables have been used, and the above results, as also those for the |
year 1847, shew, in astriking manner, the extreme accuracy of those tables, |
as well as the correctness of the factors deduced from the six hourly |
hygrometrical observations made at the Greenwich Observatory, on which
Mr Glaisher’s tables are founded. The above observations were taken |
twice daily, viz., at 11» a.m. and at 35 p.m.
Remarks on the Climate of 1848.
On reviewing the various elements of the weather in the past year, I
find that the fall of rain is half-an-inch above, and the mean tempera-
ture a quarter of a degree wider, the average of eleven years.
The dew-point is 0°87 above, and its complement is nearly identical
with the average.
The evaporation is 2°17 inches under the usual quantity, and 19°13
inches under the deposit of rain; it exceeds the rain in the months of
April, May, and September, and in June and July the two processes very
nearly balance each other.*
The greatest depth evaporated in 24 hours, is 0°243 inch, on the 17th
of July, temperature 70°, dew-point 62°°5, with a serene and cloudless sky ;
the least is 0°002 on the 5th of February, with an exceedingly thick at-
mosphere within 1° of saturation, and rain.
The winds in 1848 have been distributed as under :—
N. 30; NE. 40; E. 32}; SE. 403; S. 653; SW. 502; W. 592;
* The gauge receives a fair proportion of wind and sunshine, and it is always
exposed in the open air during the day, except when rain is falling ; at night,
it is placed under a capacious shed supported by iron pillars.
58 J. F. Miller, Esq., on the
NW. 383, and dead calms, 9; the westerly exceeding the easterly
winds on 71 days, or by one-half nearly.
The Forces are divided into the following classes: calm, 39; light,
63; moderate, 107; fresh, 69; strong, 59; and gales, 29 days; the
calms being 11, and the stormy days 7, under the average number in the
6 previous years.
The Weather.—In 1848, we have had 18 perfectly clear days ; 137
more or less cloudy, but without rain; 211 rainy ; 289 on which the sun
shone out; 45 days of frost (the thermometer below 32°, at 4 feet from
the ground); 4 of snow; 18 of hail (of which one occurred in July, and
one in August); 14 of thunder and lightning ; and 3 days of lightning
without thunder. There have also been 1 solar and 7 lunar halos, and
18 appearances of the aurora borealis, of which 15 were registered in
the last 4 months of the year. The cloudless days are 10 less, and those of
thunder and lightning are 6 less, whilst the days of sunshine are 18
more, than the usual number.
The exhibitions of the aurora borealis during the winter of 1848-9
were so numerous, and such was the diversity of form, the richness and
variety of the tints, and the extraordinary beauty and brilliancy of the
meteor on many occasions, that its more prominent features must have
arrested the attention even of those who do not ordinarily notice either
atmospheric or celestial phenomena.
The most notable of these appearances occurred on the nights of the
18th of October and the 17th of November ; but as the writer published
a minute description of the phenomena at the time, it will be unneces-
sary to do more than briefly notice them in this place. Between the
18th of October and the end of the month, the sky was lit up by aurore
almost every clear night. During this period there were frequent sud-
den torrents of rain, attended with thunder, lightning, and large quanti-
ties of hail and snow in many places; likewise brilliant meteors, and
other indications of violent electrical disturbances in the air. During a
thunder-storm on the morning of the 23d, the electric telegraph on the
Whitehaven Junction Railway was so affected by the atmospheric elec-
tricity, that the signal bell several times rung spontaneously, during the
continuance of the storm.
The magnets at the Greenwich Observatory underwent unusual oscil-
lations, (as also on the 16th, 17th, and 18th, of November), and at Liver-
pool, the electric telegraph was, for a time, rendered useless.
Suspended in the library of the Greenwich Observatory is a photo-
graphic tracing, exhibiting the strangely abnormal curves formed by the
magnets during the aurora of the 17th of November. The aurora of
18th October, was seen all over Great Britain, except in the South of
England, where heavy rain was falling at the time. That of 17th Novem-
ber extended to Naples, Madrid, Oporto, Montreal in North America,
and to the Azores, where the phenomenon had never before been wit-
nessed. The portion of the sky reflecting the red light was greater than
in any aurora I haye seen, not excepting the gorgeous displays which oc-
curred on the nights of the 25th and 26th of January, 1837.
Radiation.—The surface of the earth and all bodies upon it, have a con-
stant tendency to throw off at night, the thermal rays which they receive
from the sun and other sources during the day. Indeed, it is certain that
Meteorology of Whitehaven. 59
this process takes place to a certain extent by day as well as by night,
in situations shaded from the direct rays of the sun, as] have frequently
found by direct experiment. And, with a clear sky, dew may often be
observed on vegetation in the shade, when the sun is a considerable
height above the horizon ; in such cases, the temperature of the surface
must not only be considerably under the temperature of the air, but also
below that of the dew-point, as from several experiments which I made
during the past winter, it appears that dew is rarely deposited on grass,
until its temperature has fallen several degrees below the point of satura-
tion, at the ordinary height of a thermometer in the air.
The radiating powers of the various substances in nature are probably
as various as the bodies themselves, in all their numerous combinations
and modifications of condition ; and this property appears to obtain in the
direct ratio of their absorbing, and in the inverse ratio of their conduct-
ing and reflecting powers. The leaves of plants are excellent radiators,
and from their sharp angular form, are well calculated to throw off su-
perabundant heat. Hence, the natural grassy surface of the globe plays
an important part in modifying the temperature of the air, and in etfect-
ing the formation of dew,—a material highly conducive to the healthy
growth and sustentation of the vegetable kingdom. As there is a con-
stant tendency towards an equilibrium of temperature in all bodies, re-
latively warm substances will radiate latterly a portion of their heat,
which will be absorbed by neighbouring bodies at a lower temperature.
Moreover, the freely radiating surface of grass will receive by conduc-
tion, an accession of heat from the subjacent soil; and the quantity of
caloric which it would naturally part with under any given circumstances,
will be apparently diminished by that amount. As it is necessary to keep
the radiation thermometers level with the points of the grass, for several
years I made use of a flat piece of cork (about 1} inch in thickness),
which is a very slow conductor, for this purpose; but latterly I have
employed raw white wool, which is perhaps the most perfect non-con-
ducting material hitherto discovered; and it is my intention to reduce
all past and future results to this standard. The mean monthly differ-
ence in the results between the temperature on cork and on wool, varies
from 0°-95 to 2°-46, the average difference being about 14°.
I am now (1849) making daily observations of the temperature on the
surface of grass, with a naked thermometer suspended on Ys, and so far
as the experiments have proceeded, the mean difference of the readings
from those on wool is about 3°.* When this series is complete, the ob-
servations taken on cork and on wool, can at any time be reduced to the
standard of short grass.
From the above table, it will be seen that the temperature has been
below 32° in every month of 1848, except in July and August, when the
minima were 35° and 34°°5 respectively ; but vegetation is liable to be
* Vor the results of experiments (made at Whitehaven) on the radiating
powers of various substances, also on the amount of radiation as indicated by a
thermometer placed in the focus of the parabolic mirror, vide Mr Lowe’s Treatise
on Atmospheric Phenomena,
60 J. F. Miller, Esq., on the
subjected to a temperature at or below the freezing point of water at any
period of the year; and on the open heaths and meadow lands of Eng-
land, where the radiation is not diminished by fortuitous accessions of
heat from surrounding objects, the surface must often fall far below the
point of congelation, even in the hottest months.
In January 1848, a naked thermometer on the grass, placed on wool,
was at or below 32° on 29 nights; in February on 12 nights ; in March
on 23 nights; in April on 20; in May on 6; in June on 2; in July,
none ; in August, none ; in September on 3; in October on 7 ; in Novem-
ber on 13; and in December on 19 nights.
The greatest difference I have ever found between the minimum of a
thermometer placed on raw wool and fully exposed to the sky, and that of
a six’s thermometer at 4 feet above the ground, and protected from ra-
diation, was 21°; and this great disparity has occurred on two occasions,
viz., on the night between the 4th and 5th February 1847, and during
the night between the 3d and 4th May 1848 ; and on one or two other oc-
casions it has amounted to 20°. Mr Glaisher, F.R.S., of the Royal Ob-
servatory, who has thrown more light on this interesting and important
subject than any other person, in the remarks accompanying his exten-
sive and elaborate tables printed in the Philosophical Transactions, states
that the greatest difference he ever observed between the simultaneous
readings of two thermometers so circumstanced, was 25°, and this extra-
ordinary difference occurred once only in a period of several years.
But the differences which obtain between the minimum readings of
self-registering thermometers placed on substances exposed on the sur-
face, and in air, are not the maximum differences, unless the two minima
occur at the same time, which is seldom the case.
I have generally found the lowest temperature on the ground to occur
some hours before midnight, and rarely after it ; whereas the greatest de-
gree of atmospheric cold takes place about the time of sunrise, as is well
known to those whose occupations cause them to pass the greater part of
the night in the open air.
The difference between the two minima should be increased by the
difference between the readings of the air-thermometer at those times,
which, according to Mr Glaisher, may amount to 10°. Hence, it is pro-
bable, that when a difference of 20° or 21° obtained between the minima
at Whitehaven, an absolute difference of 30° may have occurred during
some part of the preceding evening or night. The greatest differences
recorded by Mr Glaisher (with S.R. thermometers) were, on raw wool
20°-4, and with flax 21°-8, which are nearly identical with the extreme
differences found at Whitehaven.
From the large amount of heat absorbed by the earth during the sum-
mer, it might be supposed that the effect of terrestrial radiation would be
greatest in the autumn and early part of winter, and least in the spring
months. But a careful examination of my observations does not counte-
nance this opinion; on the contrary, the radiation is occasionally small
in the winter, and large in the summer months; but such excess or de-
ficiency is caused wholly by accidental atmospheric conditions, which
favour or retard the process. On the whole, it appears that under equal
and similar circumstances, the amount of radiant heat thrown off by the
Meteorology of Whitehaven. 61
earth’s crust at night, is pretty equal at all seasons, and at all tempera-
tures of the air.
The following brief notes will convey a general idea of the character
of each month in the bygone year.
January.—A seasonable frosty month. The temperature, rain, and
evaporation, are all below an average ; the first by 4°°70, the second by
0°338 inch, and the evaporation by 0°164 inch. The thermometer in
air has been below 32° on 23 nights, and on the night between the 28th
and 29th, it fell to 15°, a point which it rarely reaches at this place.
February.—An excessively wet month, with an unusually high tem-
perature, and an extremely Jow atmospheric pressure. The average
fall of rain for the second month is 3°611 inches; but this year we have
had 7°815, or 4:204 above the average quantity. This is the wettest
February on record at this place. The barometer was below 28 inches
from the morning of the 22d February to the night of the Ist of March,
a period of nine days. The mean temperature is 2°'95 above the average
of 10 years, and the evaporation is 0°298 inch below the mean amount
for the month.
Bees began to bear burdens on the 20th.
March.—Similar to February ; a wet month, with high temperature
and low atmospheric pressure. The temperature and depth of rain are
both above the average, the former by 0°75, the latter by 0-90 inch.
The evaporation is nearly half an inch below the usual quantity. ‘The tor-
toiseshell butterfly (Vanessa Urtica) was seen on the 23d. The zodiacal
light was visible on several evenings during the month.
The temperature of the quarter ending 31st March, is 0°33 below the
average. The average fall of rain in the first quarter of the year is
11'179 inches ; in 1848, we have had 16°148 inches, or 4°967 inches
above an average quantity. The evaporation is 0:909, or nearly an inch
below the usual amount.
The deaths throughout the Union during the quarter, are 276, being
43°9, or 19 per cent. above the corrected quarterly average (232:1) ; for
the town only, they are 151, being 45°3, or 43 per cent. above the
average number, which is 105°7. The numbers, both for the town and
Union, are greater than in any corresponding quarter (except in 1847)
since the register was begun in 1839. The deaths exceed the births, in
the town by 56, and in the whole Union by 52. It appears by the Re-
gistrar-General’s report, that the same remark applies to the mortality all
over the kingdom. The deaths are 6,755 above the calculated average
for the quarter.
April.—A fine dry month, with frequent very slight showers. Less
than half-an-inch fell in 17 days, and there was only one day on which
the sun did not shine out more or less. The temperature is ;%ths of a
degree under the average. The depth of rain is 1968 inch below, and
the evaporation is 0°232 inch above, the mean quantity. The lo butter-
fly appeared on the Ist. Swallows made their appearance on the 21st;
and the euckoo was heard towards the end of the month. The cuckoo was
heard, and three swallows were seen at Wastdale Head on the evening
of the 19th.
Between the 2d and the 9th, the maximum temperature had fallen
21°, and the minimum 15 degrees.
May.—A month of most delightful summer weather, with an unusual
proportion of clear sky. ‘The sun shone out every day in the month, and
62 J. F. Miller, Esq., on the
during a considerable part of it, the sky was almost free from clouds.
The atmospheric pressure is unusually high ; and, except from the 15th to
the 20th, it has been very steady and equable. ‘The temperature is
2°-62, and the evaporation is 0°521 in. above the average for the month.
The rain, although only 0-17 in. below a mean quantity, all fell in
six days; and more than ?ths of an inch of the whole depth (1°798
inch) was measured on the morning of the 31st day. Corncrake heard
on the 21st.
/une.—A rather cold month. The temperature is 1°00 below the
average. The rain is a mean quantity, and nearly the whole of it has
been thrown off by evaporation. The evaporation is nearly an inch less
than usual.
The mean temperature of the quarter ending June 30th is 0°43
above the average. The average depth of rain in this quarter is 8-333
inches; in 1848 there has fallen 6°16 inches, or 2°17 inches less than
usual. The evaporation, which is nearly an average quantity, exceeds
the fall of rain in the summer quarter of 1848, by 4°897 inches. The
deaths in the town of Whitehaven, during the past quarter, are 117, be-
ing 33°3, or 40 per cent. nearly; and, for the entire Union they are
225, being 26:4, or 134 per cent. above the caleulated average numbers
in the corresponding quarters of the nine previous years (from 1839 to
1847, inclusive), which are 83°7 and 198°6 respectively. The mortality
is greater than in any previous summer quarter since the ‘register was
commenced. Yet, notwithstanding this great excess, the births in the
town exceed the deaths by 32; and in the entire Union the births ex-
ceed the deaths by 105. The deaths throughout England are only 927
above the average. The Registrar-General, in his report for June, re-
marks: “It is gratifying to observe a very remarkable improvement in
the state of the public health. The mortality of the country, after be-
ing excessively high during the latter half of the year 1846, the whole
of 1847, and the first quarter of 1848, is now little above the average of
the nine years ending with 1847.”
July.—A rather cold but fine month, and on the whole favourable
for the hay harvest. Strong winds and heavy showers prevailed from
the 20th to the 27th. The temperature is 0°°63 under the average, and
3°13 under that of July 1847, which was a remarkably hot and dry
month.
The rain and evaporation are both under a mean quantity,—the former
by 1°46 inch, and the latter by 0°315 inch.
Hay was mostly under cover in this neighbourhood by the 19th; the
crop was good, and it was secured in excellent condition.
August.—A cold, wet month. ‘lemperature 2°14 under the mean.
The rain and evaporation are above the average respectively, by 1°33
inch and 0°34 inch. ‘The grain harvest in this neighbourhood com-
menced on the 11th instant.
September.—A fine, mild, and rather dry month. ‘The mean tempera-
ture is 0°:38 above the average. ‘The evaporation and rain are both un-
der a mean quantity ; the former by 0°38, and the latter by 1:10 inch.
The high maximum temperature of the 5th (71°°5) and 23d (70°35),
is worthy of notice.
Early in the morning of the 15th there was a total eclipse of the
moon; but it was not seen here, the sky being overcast throughout the
night.
Meteorology of Whitehaven. 63
About the time of the eclipse, the temperature at Greenwich fell to
32°, being 15° lower than the minimum at Whitehaven. Between the
8th and 13th, the mean temperature at Greenwich had declined 16°;
at Whitehaven it only fell 8° in the same period. The grain harvest
was completed in this neighbourhood by the 19th.
The temperature of the quarter ending 30th September, is 0°°79 un-
der the average of the season, and the evaporation is ;4,th of an inch un-
der the mean amount. Theaverage depth of rain in the autumn quarter
is 12:652 inches; this year we have had 10°95 inches, or 1°70 inch be-
low the ordinary quantity.
The deaths throughout the Union during the quarter, are 199, being
13°3, or 7°5 per cent above the corrected average (185°7) of the previous
nine years.
In the town, the deaths are 113, being 223, or 25 per cent. above the
caleulated average number for the quarter, which is 90}.
The births exceed the deaths in the town by 15, and in the entire
Union by 107. The deaths throughout England are 809 under the
corrected quarterly average, and less by 6034 than were registered in
the corresponding quarter of 1847.
October.—The temperature is 0°49 under, the fall of rain 0°51 inch
above, and the evaporation 0°45 in. under the respective averages for the
month. Between the 4th and the 6th the extremes of temperature
only varied 3°, and on the 6th the fluctuation was bat 1°8. First
appearance of ice on the morning of the 18th. The cabbage-butterfly
was seen on the 6th, and the tortoiseshell variety on the 10th and 12th.
The swallow was not seen in this neighbourhood after the 15th September.
November.—The mean temperature, rain, and evaporation, are 1°53,
1:35 inch, and 0°23 inch respectively, under the monthly averages.
Snow fell on the evening and night of the 8th, and the ground was
thinly covered with it throughout the following day. On the 5th, be-
tween 2 a.m. and 11 a.m., the temperature rose 19°, and the dew-point
23°: the dew-point had fluctuated no less than 44° in the 48 hours pre-
ceeding 11 a.m.; having fallen 19° on the 4th, and risen 25° on the
5th. The temperature had fluctuated 31°°5 in the same period.
December.—The mean temperature is 1°04, and the rain 0°23 inch
above, whilst the evaporation is coincident with the monthly average.
The mean temperature, fall of rain, and amount of evaporation, for the
last quarter of the year 1848, are all below the averages for the period,—
the first by 0°.32, the second by 0°60 inch, and the evaporation by
0°77 inch.
The deaths throughout the union during this quarter, are 283, being
84°4, or 43 per cent. nearly; and for the borough they are 124, being
22-6 in number, or 223 per cent. above the respective calculated averages,
which are 198-6, and 101°4.
The births exceed the deaths, in the town by 41, and in the whole
Union by 33. Whilst the mortality in this neighbourhood was con-
siderably above, the deaths throughout England during this quarter were
2571 under the average number in the nine previous years, making an
allowance of 1°75 per cent. annually for increase of population.
The total number of deaths in the year 1848, in the borough of
Whitehaven, is 505; and for the whole Union, comprising 23 districts,
they are 981, the caleulated average numbers, from 1839-47 inclusive,
being 381°1, and 823°7, respectively. Consequently, the deaths in the
64 J. ¥. Miller, Eisq., on the
town are 123°9, or 323 per cent., and for the entire Union they are
157:3, or 19 per cent. nearly above the average number. The absolute
number of deaths in this borough, during the last 10 years, are as under :
1839, 313; 1840, 260; 1841, 316; 1842, 303; 1843, 337; 1844,
309; 1845, 287; 1846, 522; 1847, 534; and 1848, 505: In the
whole Union, they are as follow: 1839, 753; 1840, 607; 1841, 646;
1842, 630; 1843, 695; 1844, 657 ; 1845, 664; 1846, 1038: 1847,
1175; and in 1848, 1174.
In 1848, the deaths exceed the births, in the town by 30, and in the
whole Union by 193. The births in 1848 exceed the average number,
in the town by 100, and in the Union by 270. The average annual
number of births in the borough and Union are 435 and 904; and the
numbers in 1848 are 535 and 1174 respectively. By the census of
1831, the population of this borough was 13,193, and of the suburb of
Preston quarter, 4,323. By the census of 1841, the population of the
town was 12,107, and of Preston quarter, 4,525. In consequence of an
application from the Local Sanitary Board and other parties in 1848,
to have this town placed under the “ Health of Towns Bill,” and it be-
ing the general opinion that the population had greatly increased since
the census of 1841, and, consequently, that the per-centage of deaths
was considerably augmented by such increase, a staff of upwards of 40
gentlemen, residents in the town, undertook to take the census anew,
and, on the 18th December 1848, it was taken accordingly ; the results
for the town being 14,070, and for the suburb, 4721,—total, 18,791.
Hence, it appears that the population of this borough has increased by
1963 persons in the last 7 years, being at the rate of 2°3 per cent. an-
nually. In the above calculations on the mortality, I have assumed the
mean population in the 9 years from 1839 to 1847, to be the mean be-
tween the census of i841 and the census of 1848, say 13,088 persons,
which is an increase of very nearly ;4th on the population in 1841.
Hence, to the absolute number of deaths in any quarter, I have added
8:1 per cent. (which is equivalent to an increase of 2°31 per cent. an-
nually) to obtain the mean quarterly average, corrected for inerease of
population. It is presumed that, on these data, the excess or diminution
of the mortality, over or under the mean quarterly averages, as given
above, must be very near the truth indeed. ‘The Registrar-General of
births, deaths, &c., allows 1°75 per cent. annually, for increase in the
number of deaths consequent on increase of population. Assuming the
mean population of the borough in the 10 years between 1839 and 1848
inclusive, to be a mean between the census of 1841 and that of 1848,
viz., 13,088, the mean annual number of deaths in that period is 368°6,
being one in every 35:5 persons, or 281 deaths in every thousand persons,
By adding 4ths of the increase of population, between the years 1841
and 1848, to the population in the former year, we have a mean of
13,228 inhabitants for the 7 years from 1839 to 1845, and the mean
annual number of deaths in that period is 303°5, which gives 1 death
annually in every 43°5 persons, or 22'S deaths per 1000. Assuming
the mean population in the 3 years between 1846-48, to be 13,649,
(the mean of 13,228, and 14,070), the mean annual number of deaths is
520 8, being 1 in every 26:2 persons, or 38°] deaths per 1000 in-
habitants in those three unhealthy years.
Meteorology of Whitehaven. 65
In the past year 1848, with a population of 14,070, the deaths are
505, being 1 in every 27:8 persons, or 35:8 deaths in every 1000 in-
habitants. The average annual rate of mortality throughout England,
in towns, is 26, and in the country districts 18 in 1000; hence the
deaths at Whitehaven, in the years 1846, 1847, and 1848, have been in
excess to an extent unprecedented in former years.
THE OBSERVATORY, WHITEHAVEN,
13th November 1849.
Account of a Halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia, August
23, 1849. By J. W. Dawson, Esq. Communicated by
the Author.
Complex halos, consisting of several circles and arcs, have
not recently been so rare as formerly in this province. With-
in the last six years we have witnessed three of these appear-
ances. Of the two first, I believe no very accurate notes or
figures have been preserved, at least in this part of the pro-
vinee. Of the last and most beautiful, I now send you figures
and descriptions.
In the town of Pictou, the halo was attentively observed
by a number of persons. Several sketches of it were taken,
and the diameter of the principal circle was measured. At
the Albion Mines, nine miles southward of Pictou, and at an
elevation of 120 feet above Pictou harbour, the different
parts of the halo were measured, and its whole progress
watched by Henry Poole, Esq., an experienced meteorologi-
cal observer.
Fig. 1 represents the halo, as seen by Mr Poole at the
Albion Mines. The following are his notes of its appear-
ance, with a copy of which he has kindly furnished me for in-
sertion in this communication.
* Albion Mines, Pictou, Nova Scotia, lat. 45° 34’ 30’ north ;
lon. 62° 42’ west ; Thursday, Aug. 23, 1849.—The ring A
was visible at noon; rings B and C were visible at 33 P.M. ;
the ares D and E directly afterward, and F shewed as
far as the points y and s. The sun’s position was 633°
west of true south, at an altitude of 293°, and the junc-
* Measured with a theodolite.
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. 1D}
66 Account of a Halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia.
ring B appeared to be in proportion to A as 3 to 2; ring C
had the same diameter with A; rings D and E the same
diameter with B, and the ring F double the diameter of B.
The rings A and C, and the rings A and B, at the points
where they intersected, and the arcs D and E, were prisma-
tically coloured ; the other parts, and the ring F, were white.
No mock suns were visible at the points of junction of the
rings ; but the rings were at these points somewhat flattened.
« At 32 P.M., the rings B, C, D, and H, had nearly disap-
peared, and the ring F became perfect ; and, at 4 P.M., all the
rings had gone off, except A, which continued until near sunset.
‘« Barometer 29°84 in. ; thermometer 75° in the shade. Wind
gentle, from north-east; cirro-stratous clouds from north-
east, and cumuli rising from south-west near the horizon.”
Fig 1. Fig. 2.
fe
Horizon Brera
Lorizonies
Halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia, August 23, 1849.
Fig. 2 represents the halo, as drawn by the writer at Pic-
tou, with the aid of sextant measurements, made by Mr
James Yorston of this place, and the following are the notes
taken at the time :—
“ The altitude of the sun, at 33 minutes past 3, was
33° 40’ 30”. The wind was light, and from the north-west ;
and the sky was covered by a thin cirro-stratus, curdled into
small patches, and distinctly, though irregularly, fibrous.
This cloud appeared to be the seat of the luminous rings.
“The circle A had a diameter of 45°. Its upper part was
bright, and shewed the prismatic colours, and it became gra-
dually fainter towards its lower or western side. This I
have endeavoured to represent in the figure by the shading,
Account of a Halo observed at Pictou, Nova Scotia. 67
the brightest parts being most deeply shaded. It was crowned
by the two ares BD, which cut the circle A, and each other
in the point (a), producing an appearance of flattening or
depression at that point. These arcs were prismatically
coloured, and faded toward their extremities.
“The are C wasshort and broad, well defined at its convex
margin, but fading towards its concave margin and extre-
mities. It was coloured, the yellow ray predominating.
“The ares D E were brightly coloured, and appeared to
have their convex sides towards the sun. They had much
the aspect of fragments of rainbows.
“The large horizontal circle F, passing through the sun’s
centre, was of a milky whiteness. This circle retained its
perfect form for a very short time, and the portion nearest the
sun was always the most clearly defined. The smaller hori-
zontal circle g was the last part of the halo in order of de-
velopment, and was very transient. It was white, and ex-
tremely faint.”
It will be observed, on comparing these descriptions, that
the arcs B B were seen at the Albion Mines as parts of one
circle, somewhat flattened at the point where it touched the
halo A. At Pictou, they seemed to be arcs of two circles,
each of about the same diameter with A. At Pictou, how-
ever, their apparent length was much less than at the Mines.
The circle g was not seen at the Albion Mines. These dis-
erepancies may possibly have been due to the small differ-
ence of elevation and latitude between the stations.
After the disappearance of the other circles and ares, the
circle A, crowned with portions of the ares BB, still re-
mained, though it gradually became less distinct. After the
disappearance of the horizontal circles, the stratum of cirrus
lost its curdled appearance, and was replaced by a more
dense and uniform veil, with straight fibres, the wind at the
same time changing to north-east. Towards evening a few
ragged cumuli formed beneath the cirrous veil. On the fol-
lowing day the wind was still north-east, and the sky overcast,
threatening rain; but only a very few ‘drops fell. For some
time before the 23d, the weather had been dry and warm.
The northerly wind, which accompanied and followed the halo,
caused a slight fall of temperature.
( 68 )
Personal Observations on Terraces, and other Proofs of Changes
in the Relative Level of Sea and Land, in Scandinavia.*
By Ropert CHAMBERS, Hsq., F.R.S.E. and V. P.S. A. Se.
(With a Plate and Map.) Communicated by the Author.
The remarkable proofs which Scandinavia affords, of changes
in the relative level of sea and land, have for many years at-
tracted the attention, not only of the native, but of several
eminent foreign geologists. The observations made by these
inquirers are more or less generally known. They refer to
beds of shells, identical in species with those of the present
coasts, in parts of the country far inland, and elevated con-
siderably above the present sea level; remains of serpule,
balani, and other marine animals, adhering to the rocks in cer-
tain inland situations; terraces at different heights above
the sea, which have evidently been formed by that element,
whether appearing as detrital deposits, charged with shells or
otherwise, or as indentations in rocky coasts, a result of the
wearing agency of the waves. Attention has also been drawn,
as is well known, to an apparent rise of parts of the Scandi-
navian Peninsula towards the south, at a slow but steady
rate ; a phenomenon in which we seem to have presented to
our living eyes some remains of that force, whatever it is, by
which the greater changes of ancient times were effected.
In a tour of Norway and Sweden, during the summer of
the present year, I had an opportunity of making some per-
sonal observations on the phenomena connected with the
changes of the relative level of sea and land ; and of these
I shall lay an account before the Society, along with a few
illustrations which may be of service in helping out descrip-
tion.
I shall first allude briefly to a few elevated alluvial forma-
tions in the southern part of Norway.
At the head of one of the branches of the Christiania fiord,
where the busy mercantile town of Drammen is situated, a
river, named, from its clayey banks, Lir, enters the sea.
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 3, 1849.
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Vol XLVI p 49
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Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 69
These banks, for several miles from the embrochure of the
stream, are composed of terraces of clayey alluvium, rising
above each other to the height of several hundred feet. In some
instances, I succeeded in ascertaining that these were of cor-
responding heights on the different sides of the river. Some
of them persevere for several miles along the valley at one
uniform height. I therefore considered them as roughly in-
dicative of stages or pauses in the change of the relative level
of sea and land. Taking as a basis the surface of the sea,
which is here at its mean level, I found, by careful measure-
ment with the level and the staff, that two of the most dis-
tinct and persistent of these terraces were respectively of
these heights, namely, 77 and 98 feet; taking in both in-
stances that point in the sectional outline of the terrace, where
the moderate inclination of its surface gives place to a new
rise. A very distinct portion of this latter terrace runs along
under a country-house called Nystad, and towards one called
Rudd House.
The valleys of those affluents of the Glommen River, which
are crossed on the road from Christiania to Trondheim, are
full of alluvial terraces of various materials. That of the
Nytte River presents terraces of sand; that of the Leer
River (a different river from the Lir above mentioned) affords
terraces of clay ; and hence, no doubt, the name given to the
stream. The appearance of these terraces, broken into short
spaces by side streams, and often having farmsteads perched
on the detached pieces, while the banks in front descend
at a deep inclination to the bottom of the valley, produces
scenery of a peculiar and striking kind. The pass from this
valley to the next, in which runs the river issuing from the
Midsen Lake, is a broad flat space composed of a bed of water-
worn gravel, with pieces as large as a man’s head ; and this
flat is several hundred feet above the level of the sea.
The valley, containing the river issuing from the Midsen
Lake, is several miles broad, between hills of no great ele-
vation ; yet it is filled from side to side with a formation, at
least topped with pure sand, generally flat, and extending
with a slight rise up to the lower extremity of the lake, which
70 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
it embraces in a beautiful curve, rising in a steep bank about
240 feet above its waters. The outlet of the lake is through
a deep trench in this formation. In the neighbourhood of
the lake, the sandy plain rises towards the hills on each side,
at a gentle inclination, and with a remarkably equable sur-
face, like a sea-beach. What adds not a little to this resem-
blance is a fringe of gravel at a greater inclination, abutting
against the hill-side. Taking the height of the Midsen Lake
on the day of observation at 420 feet above the sea, the ut-
most elevation of this ancient sea-margin above the present
sea-level appears to be about 656 feet. In the inner valley
or trench, cut by the river, there are minor terraces, at re-
spectively 522, 533, and 598 feet above the sea. A few miles
down the valley, at the Trygstad post-station, a great ter-
race is seen passing for several miles at one level along the
hill-side, rendered the more conspicuous by the bright line of
green formed by its grassy turf, in contrast with the dark
hue of the woods which rise immediately from it to the
very summits of the hills. With the spirit-level, I found
the line of this terrace to be about the same height with
Trygstad station, which is given as 590 Rhenish feet above
the sea, in Professor Keilhau’s Goea Norvegica. As this is
an unusually distinct example of the ancient beach, it is very
desirable that its elevation were more exactly ascertained.
Meanwhile, we may be tolerably satisfied, when we allow
for the difference between Rhenish and English measure, that
it is nearly, if not quite, identical in height with the terrace
just spoken of as 598 feet. It may also be remarked, that
the Scandinavian geologists report upon an ancient beach of
597 feet at Lake Oyeren, a lower portion of this group of
waters, distant only a few miles from Trygstad. It might
be worth while to inquire if any connection can be established
between these terraces.
These ancient sea-markings will be the less liable to chal-
lenge on the part of my present audience, when I remind
them of the conclusion arrived at several years ago by the
geologists of Scandinavia, that there are proofs, in terraces
and shell-deposits, of that peninsula having been upraised
from 600 to 700 feet, at a period immediately preceding the
a
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. (i
historical era. There are not wanting, however, evidences
of a similar nature, that the relative level of sea and land
has, in Scandinavia, undergone a much greater change.
The valley of the Rauma, which opens upon the west coast,
and that of the Logan, an affluent of the Glommen, which
pours itself into the Baltic, meet in a trough of country in
the Dovre field, the summit of which is occupied by the Ldsso-
verks vand, 2045 feet above the sea. By an extraordinary
natural arrangement, the lake emits the Rauma at one end
and the Logan at the other; so that a portion of Norway is
completely enclosed by natural water. The valley of the
Logan, for several miles down, contains great masses of pure
sand, in the form of terraces and isolated mounts. On one
of the latter, Dovre Church is situated, at an elevation of 1543
feet. In this portion of the valley, there is a terrace unlike
the rest, in as far as it is a narrow ledge of detrital matter,
running continuously along the hill-side for fully 14 miles,
however much more, while the terraces resting on the skirts
of the hills lower down are great projecting masses, seldom
extending far on one level. This remarkable terrace is most
conspicuous on the right or south-west side of the valley.
It begins on that side at Oue, between the Hougen and Tofte
post-stations. It is there seen truncating the prominent an-
cient delta of a side stream, called, in Professor Munch’s
map, the Jondal’s Elv, several hundred feet above the bottom
of the valley. As we ascend the valley, it becomes nearer to
our eye; but this is only because we rise to it, for, when ex-
amined with a correct instrument from its own elevation on
the opposite side, it is proved to be for a great way truly
horizontal. On the left or north-east side of the valley, the
corresponding mark is a line composed of slight projecting
banks of water-laid sand. Though not continuous, this line
is sufficient to have determined that of a long mountain-path
connecting a series of farms. Beyond Lie post-station, the
road to Molde passes along it, and it here affords positions
for a close series of hamlets, which make a conspicuous ap-
pearance in the map above cited. I believe it is nearly, if
not exactly, of the same elevation with the little hof, called
72 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
Dombaas, of which the height is given by Prof. Naumann
as 2162 (English) feet. In its relation to the lakes in
the summit between the two valleys, it precisely resembles
the lowest of the Inverness-shire parallel roads, as exem-
plified in Glen Spean, where advancing to the basin of
Loch Laggan, between the Spean and Spey valleys. The
terrace in every other respect bears a strong resemblance
to the Inverness-shire roads; while in some important re-
spects, as already noted, it differs from other terraces. I
should much desire to see it obtain the attention of local
observers, by whom its internal constitution and other fea-
tures could be more particularly ascertained. Meanwhile,
it is not unworthy of remark, that on a neighbouring portion
of the plateau of the Dovre field, between two and three
thousand feet above the sea, there are peat mosses contain-
ing remains of much larger trees than now grow in the dis-
trict, the vegetation of which does not ascend above a dwarf
birch. If the terrace were at one time upon the level of the
sea, this plateau would of course enjoy a climate equal to
that of districts of a few hundred feet of elevation, and it
might then be well able to raise such pieces of timber as
now lie ruined in the mosses.
The city of Trondhiem lies at the opening of the valley of
the Nid, with high grounds on the east side, and a bold
cliffy hill overlooking the sea on the west. Close to the
town, and along the valley for several miles, there are ter-
races of clayey material, none of which persevere for a great
way. From indeterminateness of form, and partly of level
also, it is impossible to state their elevations with great dis-
tinctness ; but I may mention, for the sake of general de-
scription, that, on sighting them with the telescope-level
across the country, they exhibited lines, more or less definite,
at about 60, 111, 145, 253, and 435 feet. The most interest-
ing object of the kind is a terrace of erosion, on the face of
the cliffy hill to the west of the city. This is an extraordi-
nary and most impressive example. It extends for miles
along the face of the hill, at one uniform elevation, which I
ascertained with the level and staff to be 522 feet above the
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 73
sea. Seen from the opposite side of the valley, or from the
streets of Trondheim, it appears as a dark band across the
hill-face. On near inspection, we find a deep cut into the
almost horizontally disposed slate-rocks, with a ledge, flat
though rough, at some places as much as twenty paces
broad, while overhead rises a cliff more or less bold, formed
of the angular edges of the broken strata, with here and
there a modern talus descending upon the terrace. Not the
least doubt can exist, that it is the effect of the working of
the sea, when this part of the hill was on a level with the
waves. On the opposite coasts of the Trondheim fiord there
are marks of a similar terrace at apparently about the same
elevation. The drawing here exhibited presents the appear-
ance of the terrace above the city of Trondheim, at a place
where its floor is well defined and flat, and the cliff nearly
yertical, and certainly not less than forty feet high. Direct-
ing our eyes to the southward, we here see a hill about a
mile off, called Sverrosborg, because King Sverro, a dis-
tinguished Norwegian monarch of the twelfth century, had
a fort upon the top of it. This top is composed of a mass of
bare rock about thirty feet high, starting up out of the green-
sided hill. The terrace of erosion is marked all round under
the mass of bare rock, producing a curious and quaint ap-
pearance. The sea has manifestly worn out this terrace at
the time when it produced the line of erosion on the neigh-
bouring hill-face, for it is precisely of the same height.
Some of the neighbouring grounds come to about the same
level, as if produced by a contemporaneous silting-up of these
spaces to the surface of the sea.
Connected with this terrace of erosion there are some re-
markable alluvial terraces in the interior of the country. A
few miles to the south-east of Trondheim, the road leaves the
Nid valley, and passes into that of the Gula, a powerful river
which discharges itself into a neighbouring branch of the
fiord. The country over which the road passes between the
two valleys, is a spacious moor, composed of detrital matter,
and very flat. Its general elevation is about the same
height with the great terrace of erosion. When we ad-
vance into the Gula valley near the post-station of Oust,
74 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
we see a terrace commencing along the east side of the
valley, and persevering at one height for a considerable
way, being just about the same elevation with the afore-
said moor. This terrace is clearly of the same kind with
that in the Logan valley, not a product of fluviatile de-
posits, as so many terraces are, but of the long-continued
washing of the sea against a mountain-side. Descending
into the Gula valley, we find vast alluvial deposits, generally
of a muddy character, and sometimes terrassiform. Their
composition changes as we advance to a fine sand; and this
again begins to shew a gravelly admixture, the light mate-
rials having, as usual, been carried farther than those of a
heavier nature. Near the Meelhuus post-station, which is
123 feet above the sea, there is a sand terrace fully 200 feet
high, and from the face of which the material rises in a cloud
with every gust of wind. The comparatively low terraces,
resting in huge masses on the skirts of the hills, continue for
several miles to be very conspicuous, while the higher line on
the hill-faces is no longer traceable. At length, between
the Leer and Vollan post-stations, and about 25 miles from
Trondheim, a highly-remarkable alluvial formation is ob-
served upon the left or west side of the valley. It has a
surface perfectly flat, and perhaps an English mile broad,
abutting against the hills behind, and in front descending in
a steep grassy bank to the river’s brink. It extends for miles
along the valley, always preserving one elevation, while a
terrace of the same height, but less persevering, is seen on
the opposite side. The termination in the downward direc-
tion of the valley is abrupt, as if the terrace had been
broken down at a certain point by the retiring sea ; and here
there are seen, on the face of the bank below, five several
minor terraces, extending only a short way. The accom-
panying sketch will convey a more lively, though still imper-
fect, idea of these objects. Iam unable to speak with pre-
cision of the height of this grand alluvial terrace ; but, from
my observation of its elevation above the Vollan station,
which is set down as 310 feet by Mr Keilhau, I deem it not
unlikely that it will prove, on examination, to be coincident
with the aforesaid line at Oust, and the terrace of erosion at
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 75
Trondhiem. This is the more likely, from what may be ob-
served at Soknaes, the next post-station in the valley.
There is here a wide space formed by the junction of a
branch valley. The whole space within sight might be de-
scribed as a nest of alluvial terraces, reaching to a consider-
able height above the two rivers. At one spot, near Sok-
naes, aS Many as six are seen rising above each other, the
inn being placed on a promontory formed by the fourth of
the series. A connection between this group of terraces and
that at Vollan is obscurely traceable along the valley. By
M. Von Buch, the elevation of the Soknaes station is set
down at 487 feet ; and hence, I presume, that the sixth or
highest terrace at that place may be about the same eleva-
tion with the Trondheim line of erosion, or 522 feet. It is de-
sirable that a careful examination of the whole of the Gula
markings should be made, and their levels ascertained, in
order to ascertain how far they observe uniformity, and if any
of them be truly identical in elevation with the Trondheim
terrace of erosion, as here surmised from observations which
I am sorry to find so much more vague than was to be desired.
On the Sokna, the branch of the Gula here spoken of, there
is a similar system of alluvial terraces, on one of which the
church of Soknadalen and post-station of Hof are situated.
It may be remarked, however, that such terraces, though
evidencing a shift of the relative level of sea and land, are
not always exact marks of the point at which the sea and land
formerly met. Where found sloping in the line of the val-
ley, as is the case with several at Hof, they may be regarded
as only the ancient haughs of the river before the with-
drawal of the sea (so to speak) allowed it to cut down its
alluvial deposit, and seek a lower channel. Where, on the
other hand, an alluvial terrace is of the character of that at
Vollan, not only broad and flat, but extending a long way
upon one level, experience teaches me to expect such relations
of measurement as indicate its being the true mark of an
ancient line of coast. Among the Soknadalen terraces, I
find that I have noted that on which the post-station and
church are situated as alone answering the requirements of
an ancient sea-level, making the additional remark, that the
76 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
exact site of Hof is probably a few feet lower, as not being
at the highest point of the terrace. By M. Von Buch the
elevation of Hof is given as 945 Paris feet above the sea; by
another observer it is placed somewhat lower. The mean,
given by Professor Keilhau, is 960 Rhenish feet. It appears
probable, that the former relative position of the sea is, in
this instance, elevated between 990 and 1000 English feet.
I have now to lead attention to the shores of the provinces
of Nordlands and Finmark, only previously remarking, that
in the intermediate coast there are no terraces of any kind
visible from the open sea, there being, in reality, scarcely
any detrital formations there, while the rocks are so smooth-
ed by glacial action, as to have afforded little inlet to the
erosive power of the waves. It is not till we reach the Island
of Hindée, one of the Lofoden group, that any such markings
are presented. In Raft Sund, on the south-west side of that
island, about latitude 68° 20’, two faint terraces of erosion are
traceable. They are also seen on both sides of the strait
between the island and the mainland. At Trondinaes, the
northern point of the island, where there is a recess of com-
paratively soft ground in the iron-bound coast, these two
lines are more conspicuous, forming indentations in the
grassy slopes; while, in the rocky cliffs, they appear as
strongly-marked terraces of erosion. A rough little island,
called Magie, at this place, is cinctured with these terraces of
erosion, exactly like the hill of Sverrosborg, but in a more
marked manner, for here the waves of the ancient sea have
had to deal with strata of unequal hardness ; therefore, some
masses are left starting up in sharp ridges and rude columns
above the general floor of the terrace, which is nevertheless
sufficiently well-defined. In all circumstances, the two lines
seem to preserve their respective heights undeviatingly, the
one being apparently about 50 feet high, and the second 100
feet higher.
In an inlet of the Island of Anderide, a few miles from
Hindée, I observed three terraces at a place called Ibbestad,
all apparently under 100 feet, and therefore, presumably, a
different system from those hitherto noticed.
Farther north, after passing the great inlet of Balsfiord, we
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 77
find in Trom Sund, the two former terraces resumed. I have
been informed, however, by a gentleman of Tromsje, who has
given some attention to the terraces of the district, that there
are several distinctly traceable in Balsfiord, one of them at
the height of perhaps 400 feet above the sea.
In Trom Sund, the faces of the hills are soft and green,
and the two terraces appear as slight, but distinct indenta-
tions in the grassy slope, never failing to preserve to all ap-
pearance, one relation of levels. Itis remarkable, that, while
clear and conspicuous on both sides of this narrow sound,
they are scarcely to be traced on either side of the interjected
island of Tromsée. On the north-west side of the sound, be-
hind the island, there is a faint appearance of a third terrace
upwards of 100 feet above the second. Of the two distinct
terraces I took a measurement with the level and staff, and
found them to be respectively 57 and 143 feet above the
highest tide-mark. Another observer, M. Siljestrom, has
given measurements of them slightly different, namely, 56
and 149 feet, and has added the elevation of a third, which I
did not succeed in seeing, at 220 feet.
In the range of sounds through which the post-steamer
passes, in the sixty-ninth degree of latitude, I observed the
two lines well marked on the green skirts of the hills, with
scarcely any interruption. The continuity from island to
island is very remarkable. Sometimes there is an escarp-
ment or a line of exposed rock, to render the ancient
sea-mark the more distinguishable. All along there seems
to be not the slightest departure from one set of levels.
In recesses, where perhaps little rills have brought down
some detritus, not only these two terraces are marked, but
several intermediate ones besides. Ata promontory of soft
matter, called Skatoren, forming the eastern extremity of
the island of Ringvatsée, there are at least four terraces be-
low the higher of the two already so often alluded to, besides
some minute and less distinct markings. On the island of
Vorterée, at the south point, which consists of a narrow
lofty rock, there is an object of an instructive character,
namely, a series of terraces on one side, with a series of
greater elevation on the other, shewing how it may depend
78 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
on local circumstances, as currents and perhaps prevailing
winds, that any such impressions are to be made upon a
coast, while the relative level is in the course of being
changed.
The farthest north point to which I traced the remarkable
couple of terraces is Mour Sund, fully ten hours’ sail north
of Tromsée. The mountains then begin to be rough with
debris, so as perhaps to have presented an unsuitable sur-
face for such markings. M. Keilhau appears to have found
the lower of the two still farther along to the north-east,
namely, in Langfiord, one of the branches of the Altenfiord.
The terrace which he observed in that place is set down by
him at 523 feet above the sea. The gentleman who told
me of the terraces in Balsfiord, assured me of there being
similar objects in Lyngenfiord, a great inlet which receives
several considerable streams. A careful examination of these
recesses would probably afford a rich harvest of results, and
help materially to solve the problems connected with this
subject.
We now approach a portion of the coast, presenting a
group of terraces which has already attained some celebrity.
The district in question may be said to extend from the Al-
tenfiord, with its branch Kaafiord, into the strait called Varg
Sund, which is formed by the mainland on the one side, and
the Island of Seiland on the other; being afterwards pro-
longed into the two sounds surrounding the Island of Qualée.
Altogether it is a range of estuaries and straits extending
about fifty miles in a direction generally north and south, and
mostly comprised in the 70th degree of latitude. This
portion of the Norwegian coast was examined in 1839, by M.
Bravais of the French Scientific Expedition of the North ;
and the facts pointed out by him were briefly these :—
At the mouth of the river Alten, there is a terrace of sand,
223 feet above the sea, and this extends up the river, always
on the same level, till, at a village five or six Jeagues in the
interior, it is only about 91 feet above the general level of
the district. At the mouth of the smaller stream, commonly
called the Kaafiord Elv, a few miles from the mouth of the
Alten, there is a similar sandy terrace at the same elevation
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 79
above the sea, besides a narrow shelf, “ like the towing-path
of a canal,’ about 90 feet above the sea.
Proceeding in a northerly direction, M. Bravais found at
Krognaes and Talvig an alluvial terrace at 185:5, and an-
other whose mean height was 80°5 ; and these he considered
as representing the two others, though at lower levels.
Advancing in the same direction, he found at Komagfiord
two lines of erosion on the faces of the mountains, respec-
tively 169°6 and 67:3 feet above the sea.
Still further advancing, he found the same two lines on
the precipices of Quaenklubb, at 162°3 and 60 feet ; at a place
on the islands of Seiland and Qualée at 139-3 and 54 feet.
Finally, at Hammerfest, the two lines appeared at respec-
tively 92°3 and 46 feet. Thus it appeared that there was a
constant decline in the elevation of these markings from south
to north. M. Bravais likewise observed some less distinct
tracings of the same kind,—a dark-coloured band on Kong-
shavensfield, near Bossikop, at 128 feet ; and one further on,
upon the same side of the fiord, at Sortbierg, at 81 feet; a
line of erosion between Storvignaes and Krognaes, at 126
feet, and one at Talvig of 141 feet. He regarded these as
indications of an intermediate line which had failed to be ex-
pressed throughout the intermediate space, but which re-
appeared at Hammerfest in a terrace of about 69 feet.
It may be remarked that M. Bravais used a barometer for
his measurements, adopting usually the mean of several ob-
servations, and that he took as his basis a point 0™:6 above
the line formed by the sea-weed on the rocks, having found
that line 64 centimetres above mean height of the sea.
M. Bravais inferred that there had been at least two dis-
tinct angular movements of elevation in the region compre-
hended by the terraces, the first being measurable by the
difference of heights between the upper and lower terrace,
and the second by the height of the lower terrace at various
points above the sea. The following table indicates the
amount of the first elevation :—-
80 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
Points of Observation, 1. 2. oe 4, a 6.
Upper Line, ° 223 185°5 169°6 162°3 139°3 92:3
Lower Line, F OP ASU bea Ore = 100: 54° 46°
Amount of Ist Elevation, 132 105°0 102°3 102°3 85'3 46:3
He remarked, however, that the intermediate terrace con-
siderably alters the relative amount of the earlier and later
elevations along the coast, reducing the first or most ancient
to about 24 feet, making the second or intermediate move-
ment of 22 feet, and leaving the third or most recent of 46
feet, and therefore considerably greater than the other two.
In a work published by me on Ancient Sea-Margins, 1 ex-
pressed some doubts as to the alleged inclination of the Fin-
mark terraces, being partly led thereto by the discovery, in
other parts of the earth, of uniform levels for such markings ;
while it likewise appeared to me that, for perfect proof of
M. Bravais’s positions, we should have required either evi-
dence of greater continuity in the appearances, or measure-
ments taken at a greater number of points. I deemed it
not unlikely that the fragments of terrace which he saw at
different places might be, not representative of two great
lines, as he supposed, but representative of a number of lines
nearly if not quite equal to the number of the points of ob-
servation. I was therefore glad when I was able to pay a
visit to Finmark, with a view to making a rigid personal ex-
amination of the terraces, and with the means of measuring
their elevations more accurately than had yet been done.
The result I am now to bring before this Society.
The general fact of the existence of two continuous lines
of erosion on the rocky coast between Kortsfiord and Ham-
merfest I found to be true. They appear as part of the same
system of terraces with those seen farther south, or as a
prolongation of them; but, unlike those terraces, they do
not observe a level, for the upper line is at one end not much
less than a hundred feet higher than it is at the other. It
is about the middle that they bear the best resemblance to
the couple of terraces in Trom Sund and elsewhere. The
resemblance is chiefly in likeness of elevation. As to the
material, there is a difference throughout a great part of the
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 81
space ; for while the terraces towards the south are chiefly
indentations in soft matter, those of Varg Sund are chiefly
sections made in the rocky cliffs,—true terraces of erosion.
In these northern terraces, however, the lines are in some
places continued from a rocky hill-face to a soft grassy slope,
changing from a cut in the rocks to a mere impression on
the detrital surface, without any change in their direction or
inclination. The appearance of two such markings along
about twenty-five miles of coast is calculated to arrest the
attention of every intelligent stranger ; and even the natives,
who are chiefly Laplanders, have not failed to remark them,
and to attribute them to the agency of the sea, though not
doubting that the sea has simply retired from two several
heights at which it had formerly stood. No one on the spot
seems to have ever thought it worth while to inquire whether
they observe one level, or at what height they stand in any
place above the sea.
When I speak of the two lines as distinct, 1 mean that
they are so strongly marked as to be visible from a con-
siderable distance. For example, a person Standing on one
side of Varg Sund, though it is fully three miles broad,
can, in tolerably clear weather, easily see the lines passing
along the opposite coast. (See Plate III., Upper View.) When
narrowly inspected, those designated as terraces of erosion
are found to be produced by a true mechanical incision of
the rock, sometimes leaving a ledge with a precipitous cliff
overhanging it, sometimes consisting only of a rough groove
across the mountain-side, without any distinct ledge being
left,—sometimes, again, under a form intermediate to these
two in all imaginable degrees. Very frequently, when wish-
ing to examine a portion of the line, though it may at a little
distance have appeared sufficiently palpable, it is found on
near inspection to be obscure and indeterminate, the eye in
that case not taking in at once a sufficient amount of the
line to produce a distinct impression, and the immediate
objects appearing rough and confused. In other places a
well-defined section is offered for inspection. For example,
at one part of the prominent rock called Quaenklubb (see
above view), the upper line is a terrace thirty paces broad,
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. F
32 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
a flooring flat and smooth, produced by a power which has
been sufficiently strong to cut sharply through the hard
slaty strata, and leave scarcely any inequalities. At the
same place, in strong contrast with this marking, the lower
line shews, on near inspection, only a shattering of the cliff,
and a wearing of it out in vertical hollows; so that it
would be impossible to say, within eight or ten feet, what is
the height of that line. At a place on the south side of
Qualée island, I found appearances respecting which the fol-
lowing entry was made in my note-book :—** Nothing could
well be more perfect than the /edge formed by this terrace,
there being only such irregularities as were unavoidable from
the various hardness of the strata; some having been so
very hard as to leave a slight ridge above the line, while, in
other instances, a mass was left like a gross short column
standing up as a monument of what it had been originally
connected with. One of these surviving masses looked
much like the ruins of some old castle.” Ata place on the
mainland, opposite to the above, I found a similar ledge, but
with an irregular row of short columnar masses in front,
somewhat like the obelisks designed to support a chain along
the skirts of an artificial terrace, while in a vacant space
arose a rough rock, round the top of which the sea had cut a
circular flat, causing the upper prominence to appear like a
human head rising above a broad pair of shoulders. (The
picture here exhibited of the line of erosion at Trondheim
gives a good idea of the section of a terrace which has a flat,
well-defined floor and cliff rising above, as well as of an iso-
lated mass cinctured by a terrace, like the object last spoken
of.)
It may be remarked that, according to M. Bravais, pro-
bably reporting the observations of Professor Keilhau, “the
mountains of Altenfiord and of all this part of the coast be-
long to the group of metamorphic rocks; but the nature of
the rock differs widely, since calcareous beds are found at
Storvignaes, and at Talvig, between Kortsnaes and Skilli-
fiord, amphibolic rocks on the island of Seiland and near
Hammerfest ; while diallage, quartzose sandstones, and ar-
gillaceous schists, are not rare.’ M. Bravais adds, that he
was not able to judge of the influence of these rocks on the
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 83
different phenomena of the neighbourhood. I may further
remark that the only general feature that seems likely to
have told in making the mountains along the sea susceptible
of such impressions is the fact of its being an inland sea.
The direction of the various sounds and estuaries can
scarcely be supposed influential, as, in fact, the markings are
made upon coasts in a great variety of directions.
With the assistance of Mr Paddison, civil engineer, who
was so kind as to associate himself with me in my examina-
tion of these terraces, I executed a series of accurate level-
lings at about eighteen points along the space between Ham-
merfest and Kortsfiord, and completely convinced myself of
the reality of the inclination, which I conceived M. Bravais
to have left in some doubt.
At Hammerfest, M. Bravais adopted as his point of obser-
tion an almost horizontal bank surrounding the small lake
behind the town, together with a terrace, probably of trans-
ported matter, near by. On examining these objects I was at
first of opinion that they represented the upper line, which
was farther continued as a true line of erosion along the
cliffs. I afterwards became convinced that they belong to a
different system of markings, inconsistent in level with the
true line of erosion as it exists at this place. That line is
84°73 feet above the highest tide-mark of the neighbouring
shore, a point probably about six feet above the mean level
of the sea.
(In what follows, Iam to be understood as using, as a
base in levelling operations, the same mark, as far as it could
be ascertained, and as indicating distances in geographical
miles.)
On Hoiée or Hoy, an island much resembling the Bass in
shape, four-and-a-half miles, a little to the south of west from
Hammerfest, the same upper line is strongly marked at
85-29 feet, being nearly the same as the last-mentioned
elevation.
About a mile to the west of Hammerfest, the upper line is
strongly but roughly marked on the cliffy coast ; and here I
found the elevation to be 87:84. A little farther along the
same line of coast, and a mile and a half from Hammerfest,
84 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
the elevation, at a very distinctly-marked place, was 89°49
feet, indicating a decided rise in this direction. Within
Rypfiord, a bay a very little way onward, at a place one mile
and a half of direct distance from Hammerfest, the elevation
is 91-58, being nearly a rise of seven feet from the first point
of observation.
At Saragamma, another place in Rypfiord, 23 miles from
Hammerfest, the elevation is 96°69 feet, thus evidently ob-
serving a certain proportion of rise in this direction.
Passing round a promontory, along which, on both sides,
the line is well marked, we found in Akkerfiord a broad allu-
vial marking in a green recess beside the discharge of a
small river. This spot is 33 miles of direct distance from
Hammerfest. The elevation of the terrace is 104-69 feet.
Hitherto no tolerably distinct trace of the lower line has
appeared ; but at length at Molstrand, about a mile onward
from the last place, it becomes visible, as a rough impression
on the precipitous coast, while a distinct terrace of blocks
runs along for a short way ata still lower level. The ele-
vation of the upper or grand line, as it may be called, here
appeared at 106:11. The point which I assumed as that of
the lower line is 43°75 feet, and the terrace of blocks 23°65.
From this point the upper line continues to be well
marked, along the whole of the west coast of Qualoé, though
for several miles mostly as an indentation in the soft face of
the hill, there being only a few rough places where it ap-
pears as a terrace of erosion.
At Indre Sioholmen there is a green recess watered by a
rill; and here, as might be expected, are some alluvial de-
posits. The lower line here appears as a green terrace at
44:97 feet; and the upper one in the same character at
114-32. There are two terraces in the alluvial formation at
intermediate heights, namely about 97 and 106 feet.
The upper grand line is clearly traceable along the coast
of Seiland, from a point opposite to Hoide; but I made no
measurements there till we reached a place called Quisnaes,
nearly opposite to Indre Sioholmen. Here the line is deeply
impressed in the cliffs, at 106°87, being very nearly the same
as at Molstrand, but decidedly below the terrace at the more
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 85
directly opposite place of Indre Sioholmen. I made two rough
measurements with the mirror level, at parts of the coast of
Qualée further to the south, and found unquestionable proof
of a continuous rise for the upper line, which is there very
clearly marked, especially on the south coast.
Directly opposite to the southern angle of Qualse, divided
from it only by a narrow strait, is a promontory of the main-
land called Beritsmol. The upper line is here presented as
a broad flat terrace of rock, encumbered with blocks, but not
so much as to prevent its being selected as a road by the
reindeer, in their passage from one pasture to another. I
took two measurements here, within half a mile of each
other, and found a slight difference, the one being 129-22,
and the other 130-66. These two points are not in the same
line as the points of observation along Qualoe island ; they
cross that line of rise at a considerable angle. Turning a
promontory to the eastward, we enter a small branch of the
sea terminating in a valley, in which are situated the Kiop-
man’s house of Qualsund, a chapel, and some lonely farms.
The two lines here become broad green terraces, the upper
of which is seen on both sides running for miles along, till it
terminates in a morass near the head of the valley. This
grand terrace, measured a mile along the valley, is 137 feet,
shewing still a rise in the southerly direction. There is,
however, something anomalous in the measurement of the
lower line, for, while it appears at 53 feet as a line of erosion
in the sound, it becomes a detrital terrace of only 44 feet on
turning into the valley. Such at least is its elevation at the
Kiopman’s house, which is situated upon it.
The two terraces are well marked along the sounds skirt-
ing the east side of Qualée, as far as the eye can see from
Qualsund. At a place close to the entrance of Reppefiord,
there is a recess or sinus inthe line of the mountainous
coast, where a little rill enters. The neighbouring hill-faces
are covered with long irregular ridges of detrital matter,
probably the relics of ancient moraines. In consequence,
apparently, of this abundance of transported matter, the
rivulet has formed a large delta, which projects like an im-
mense spoil-bank from the hill-face into the sea. The upper
86 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
terrace is continued across this formation, as a broad fat
plain of several acres in extent, and slightly ridged in front ;
shewing that the formation of the line has been an event
subsequent to the subaqueous discharge and formation of the
delta. It may be remarked that, 25 feet above this plain, is
another of smaller extent, bearing curious curvilinear ridges
in a direction from front to rear.
I continued my measurements along Varg Sund on both
sides, and found a constant rise, though manifestly in a less
rapid ratio. Ata placea little east of Neeverfiord, the upper
line passes distinctly across the almost perpendicular cliffs
at 143 feet. At Rabastynaes, nearly opposite, I found, with
the mirror level, the same line broadly marked at 144 feet,
with a block of a different rock as large as a good-sized house
reposing upon it. The great bold promontory called Quaen-
klubb (Plate III., Upper View) exhibits the lower line as a
rough horizontal breach of the cliff, but the upper as a flat
rocky floor of fifty paces broad, formed by a section of the
almost vertical slaty strata, and 154 feet above the sea. In
the adjacent green recess, the two lines form distinct indenta-
tions across the soft ground, the lower being here 57 feet. The
face of Quaenklubb exhibits platforms at greater heights,
namely, 176, 216, 302, and 318 feet, none of them of any great
extent, and therefore dubious as indications of an ancient
working of the sea, but remarkable for the burden which they
bear of gneiss blocks and gravel, and other transported ma-
terials. On the platform at 302 feet, there is a block of gneiss,
perfectly unworn, and measuring fully ten feet each way.
At Olderfiord in Seiland, a little farther along the sound,
the upper line appears at 154 feet, besides two terraces in a
green recess at 56 and 64 feet. Ata point in the mainland
opposite Storbeckarfiord, the lower line of erosion appeared
at 64 feet, and the upper at 161. The latter is here a very
rude flat, where not three yards are free of irregularities,
produced by ridges of the strata, or loose blocks,—the cliff
rising above it not less irregular,—the whole rendered still
more rough by masses of moss, stumps of trees, and the
living vegetation, from the wild flower to the birch; yet is
the terrace nevertheless so far definite, that it has been
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia, 37
adopted at the line of a path marked by the feet of men and
wild animals. The range of vertical space involved by the
terrace floor and the cliff is from 20 to 25 feet.
The next station of observation was on the south side of
the entrance to Leeristiord on the mainland. The upper ter-
race is there about 170 feet. It now becomes comparatively
obscure, while the lower entirely escapes observation. In
the next recess, called Komagfiord, the latter forms a green
mound or terrace of fertile meadow-ground all the way
round at from 57 to 64 feet. The upper line is very faint,
and it is difficult to say in what manner it is produced. It
was not till after many examinations and sightings of the
one side of the valley from the other, that I determined its
elevation at 179 feet. M. Bravais, who seems to have been
under the same difficulty with it, states its elevation at a few
feet less. :
It will have been observed, that the rise of at least the
upper terrace continues without any interruption throughout
the whole of the twenty-five miles within which it is so dis-
tinct. From 85 feet at Hammerfest and Hoiée, it has be-
come 179, or 94 feet higher, at Komagfiord. The lower line,
though more obscure, and less liable to exact measurement,
also manifestly rises within a more limited space, namely,
from about 44 at Molstrand to 64 at Komagfiord.
That the markings were made by the sea is, I presume,
admitted on all hands. That the land involved in the case
has made two angular movements, first, one subsequent to
the time when the higher shelf was formed, and then another
subsequent to the time when the lower line was impressed,
seems also beyond question. These two positions are laid
down by M. Bravais, and I believe they are not to be shaken.
There remain, however, some interesting points of inquiry,
as whether the movement has been regular, in what direc-
tion it has been made, and where was the axis of rest ?
That the movement has been regular does, I think, appear
from the measurements now presented ; but this point can
only be fully settled in connection with the next question,
which regards the direction in which the movement has taken
place. It will be observed, that the series of elevations from
88 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
Hammerfest to Beritsmol—that is, in a line south-south-east
—is tolerably equable in proportion to the space passed over ;
but when we turn off into Varg Sund, in a line south-south-
west, the rise is much slower. To give particulars: Between
Hammerfest and Beritsmol, a space of 114 geographical
miles, the rise is 46 feet; but from Beritsmol to Saraby, 9}
miles, it is only 24 feet; while from this to Komagfiord, 9
miles more, it is 25 feet. If, however, we form a line nearly
coincident with that of the first line of observation, as in the
accompanying map, and, prolonging this into the mainland,
raise upon it vertical lines touching the various positions in
Varg Sund, we shall find that egual spaces are passed through
in this portion of the affected district within equal spaces of the
rise. It therefore appears that the rise is not slower in Varg
Sund than in the sound between Qualée and Seiland, but only
the terrace is there not so coincident with the line of rise. The
rise observably becomes accelerated as we pass on to Komag-
fiord, because the trend of the coast in that quarter gets
more into a conformity with the line of rise. The heights
taken on opposite coasts, moreover, as at Molstrand and
Quisnaes, near Neeverfiord and at Rabastynaes, at Saraby
and Olderfiord, correspond pretty well with this theory of the
direction of the movement. In short, if a fair allowance be
made for inaccuracy of maps, and the indeterminateness of
the base line of the measurement (for a high water mark is
in some places difficult to hit), it will appear that there is a
remarkable approach to equability of rise throughout the
whole of the space between Hammerfest and Komagfiord,
the rate being pretty uniformly about 4 feet in a geographi-
cal mile.
M. Bravais regarded the possibility of the terraces having
either risen at the one end or fallen at the other, so as to
produce the slope; but he had not probably observed the two
terraces which run along the coast to the southward, with
little interruptions, for a space of about 180 miles, observing
to all appearance, one uniform relation of heights, at 55 and
143 feet. I consider the two sloping terraces of the northern
sounds, as a disturbed portion of the system represented by
the two southern terraces. If this be a just view, the dis-
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 89
turbed land has moved on an axis of rest, rising at the one
end and falling at the other. It has been a see-saw move-
ment, the centre or point of which must be looked for at the
place where the two inclined terraces are at the normal
height of the system of which they presumably form a part.
Keeping in view the upper one only, this place is in the line
“near the point of observation at Neeverfiord (see Map, Plate
IV.), for the upper terrace is there 143 feet high, being the
elevation of the upper line as measured at Tromsde. From
that place, the terrace falls 58 feet to the transverse line at
Hoide and Hammerfest. How much farther it may have
fallen in that direction, has not been ascertained. From the
same central point it rises proportionately in the opposite
direction.
Does the rise continue farther to the southward than the
line of Komagfiord? I was at first of opinion, that it stopped
here, instead of going on, as supposed by M. Bravais, to the
embouchures of the Alten and Kaafiord rivers, because I
found in Kortsfiord, the next opening to the southward of
Komagfiord, what I believed to be the upper line, at nine or
ten feet below its Komagfiord level. Hence it appeared to me
as if that line had here attained a culmination point, and was
beginning to descend towards the south. I have since, how-
ever, discovered the remarkable fact, that if the line of move-
ment be prolonged till it comes abreast of the mouth of the
Alten, the perpendicular line then raised upon it will pass
through the whole range of terraces between that point and
the mouth of the Kaafiord river, which are all of them about
220 feet high in front, but rise inland to an entire height of
239 feet ; and this elevation will be just about what might be
expected of the upper line prolonged to that point. (See
Plate III., Lower View, representing the alluvial terrace of
Quaenvig, a good example of its kind.) The uniformity of the
elevation of these terraces over a range of 10 miles is in it-
self remarkable ; their being traversed by the perpendicular
line from the line of movement at the point where we might
expect the elevation of the terraces to be attained (see Map,
Plate IV.), is very striking. Finally, on considering the some-
what extraordinary character of these alluvial formations, I
90 Robert Chambers, Esq., on Changes of the
became inclined rather to regard them as belonging to a dis-
turbed than to a steady district. The objection from the
terrace at a lower level in Kortsfiord may be allowed to give
way, for there are so many anomalous markings in that val-
ley, and in Komagfiord (to be presently adverted to), that a
mistake may probably have happened. What adds in some
degree to the probability of the Alten terraces being part of
the district of disturbance, there are similar sandy forma-
tions connected with other rivers at Melsvig and Talvig ; and
these, being five or six miles less advanced upon the presumed
line of movement, are proportionately lower. If we assume
that the district of disturbance extends thus far, the vertical
movement connected with that disturbance at Alten must be
regarded as equal to the difference between 143 and 239, or
96 feet. Does the movement extend farther southward ?
We should have to answer in the negative if M. Bravais is
right in saying that the great Alten terrace goes for four or
five leagues along the valley without change of height ; but
this point may be worthy of future inquiry.
M. Bravais indicated the existence of a faint intermediate
line, which he observed both at Hammerfest and Alten, and
which he conceived to imply an intermediate movement.
But the fact is, there are, at many stations throughout the
disturbed district, terraces over and above, though mixed
up with, the noted two which are here discussed. At Ham-
merfest, besides the intermediate line alluded to by M.
Bravais, which is formed by a grand terrace of blocks fallen
from the schistous mountain behind the town, there is, on a
hill-face near by, a series of shingle terraces, scantily covered
with vegetation, and precisely resembling shingle beaches of
the present day, at 87, 123, and 144 feet. There is also a
ring terrace of transported matter, topped with water-laid
sand, round the Lake of Hammerfest, at 97 feet above the
sea. Here, it will be observed, are traces of the sea at not
less than three elevations superior to the higher of the two
lines. In Rypfiord and at Indre Sioholmen there are also
terraces above the higher line. Such is likewise the case at
Qualsund. In Komagfiord, at the entrance of its little river,
there is a series of terraces both below and above the lower
Relative Level of Sea and Land in Scandinavia. 91
line, besides a broad flat terrace of soft materials on the hill-
face at 161 feet, being 18 below the upper line. In Kortsfiord
there are similar objects, particularly the terrace already
alluded to at 169 feet, and one connected with a mountain
streamlet at 241. The distinctest markings of this kind,
however, are seen on the faces of the Alten and Kaafiord for-
mations. At Bossikop, Quaenvig (see Plate III., Lower View),
and Kaafiord, there is one of marked importance at between
80 and 90 feet, being probably that which M. Bravais set
down as the lower line in that district. It appears as a cinc-
ture round the singular sandy promontory of Oskarnaes, at
a few feet lower; which is what might be expected, as that
is a point some way advanced on the assumed line of dip.
There are, besides, however, at Quaenvig and Kaafiord, mark-
ings equally or even more decided, at 52, 123, 144, and 167
feet, indicating no fewer than three movements between the
dates of the upper and lower lines, and at least one subse-
quent to that of the lower. To establish connections among
these markings, would obviously require no small amount of
additional observation.
The general fact may now be considered as tolerably cer-
tain, that there is a district in Finmark, of 40 geographical
miles in extent, which has sunk 58 feet at one extremity, and
risen 96 at the other. Its line of dip and of rise is pretty well
ascertained. It is not greatly different from that of the mag-
netic meridian for the district, which is about 11° west of
north. The movement has been surprisingly equable over
relative proportions of the space. A shift of the relative
level, after the manner of the Alten and Hammerfest terraces,
is, however, exceptional, for there is a much larger district to
the south, which has evidently been involved in this process
of shift at the same time, but where that shift has taken
place without being attended with a change of the plane ori-
ginally observed by the land. In the central and southern
districts of Norway, there are other ancient sea-markings,
which appear to preserve horizontality, and even awaken
the surmise, that they coincide with similar levels in other
countries.
There is, however, a large tract in the south and east of
92 W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., on the
Scandinavia which is ascertained to be undergoing an eleva-
tory movement, even at the present day. I was able to visit
the celebrated stone at Lofsgrund, near Gefle, on the Gulf
of Bothnia, which has been marked with the height of the
water at various periods; lastly, by Sir Charles Lyell in
1834. I found his mark 2 feet 7 inches below that of 1731;
and the sea, on the day of my visit (2d September), was about
6 inches below Sir Charles’s mark, or rather more than 3 feet
below that made 118 years before. It occurred to me as un-
fortunate to have selected for this kind of test a loose block
lying near the shore; for we cannot exclude the suspicion, that
the ice may carry it a little way up the beach every winter.
Nevertheless, as there are other marks presenting similar
results, where no such liability to fallacy exists, the proba-
bility is, that no movement has actually taken place. Two
days afterwards, I visited the mark made by Flumen upon
the cliff of Grasée, near Oregrund, in 1820. The sea was
so calm as not to wet more than an inch of the cliff above its
ordinary level of the day; and the seamen informed me, that
the water was ata very fair average forthe season. I found
the surface of the water 11 inches below Flumen’s mark,
which had been made only nine days later in the year. Thus,
if the sea at the two periods was in similar circumstances,
or at its mean level for the season, there appeared to have
been arise of the land in this district to the extent of 11
inches in twenty-eight years.
A Conjecture as to the Forces which produce the Tails of
Comets. By WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE, Esq.,
C.E. Communicated by the Author.
The immense velocity with which the tails of comets, on
the approach of those bodies to their perihelia, are projected
in a direction opposite to that of the sun, has always been
held to indicate that the particles of those nebulous enve-
lopes are acted upon by some powerful force directed from
the sun. Various hypotheses have been proposed as to the na-
Forces which Produce the Tails of Comets. 93
ture and origin of this force ; but they are all more or less
inconsistent with known facts.
One mode of accounting for the existence of such a force
has, so far as I am aware, been hitherto overlooked.
The nebulous substance of a comet appears to consist of
matter in the state of smoke or mist: that is to say, of mi-
nute solid or liquid visible particles, suspended in invisible
vapour. If we suppose that, on the approach of the comet
to its perihelion, each of these visible particles is partially
volatilized by the sun’s heat, it follows that it will emit in-
visible vapour, chiefly on the side nest the sun, and that, by
the reaction of the vapour so emitted, the portion of the par-
ticle which remains in the visible state will be propelled
away from the sun, with a force depending on the rapidity of
the evaporation. This force will be greatest in the super-
ficial portion of the nebulous envelope, the internal parts
being more or less protected from ‘the sun’s rays. The par-
ticles thus propelled, after describing an orbit more or less
elongated, will return towards the nucleus under the action
of gravity.
Such will be the ordinary action of the solar heat, accord-
ing to the supposition now proposed, as displayed in the
usual form and position of the tails of comets; but it may
be modified by other forces, such as the action of jets of va-
pour issuing from the nucleus, so as to give rise to those
forked and oblique tails which have occasionally been ob-
served.
I do not propose this conjecture as a theory sufficient to
account for all the phenomena of the tails of comets, but
merely as a speculation, somewhat less visionary, and more
in accordance with the known properties of matter, than
those which have hitherto appeared on the same subject.
EDINBURGH, September 1849.
94 M. Elie de Beaumont on
On Volcanic and Metalliferous Eruptions. By M. ELIE DE
BEAUMONT. (With a Table.)
Voleanic eruptions bring to the surface of the globe, on
the one hand, rocks in a state of fusion, lavas, and all their
accompaniments ; these are volcanic products after the man-
ner of lavas ; and on the other, substances volatilized or car-
ried along in their molecular state, such as steam, gas, salts,
&c.; these are volcanic products after the manner of sulphur.
On going backwards in the course of geological periods, we
observe that volcanic substances after the manner of lavas
become more and more rich in silica ; and that voleanic sub-
stances after the manner of sulphur become more and more
varied. The latter are the produce of the humid way, in the
same manner as the products of thermal springs are those
of heat. The greater part of metallic veins appear referable
to this.
The following is a brief summary which M. E. de Beau-
mont gives of his memoir. The numbers refer to those in
the Table at the end of the article.
1. Bodies most generally spread over the surface of the
globe. These are sixteen in number.* We may add tita-
nium, bromium, iodium, selenium, which are generally dif-
fused in small quantities, which would raise the number of
these bodies to twenty; but of these not above twelve are
found frequently and in abundance.
2. Fourteen simple bodies, which enter into the composi-
tion of various species of Javas produced by existing volcanoes.
Although sulphur is found in sulphuric acid, hydrogen in the
water of haiiyne, chlore in sodalite, fluor in mica, yet these
four bodies occur in lavas only in an exceptional way, and
the number ought, therefore, to be reduced to ten.
3. Fifteen simple bodies, which compose the ancient vol-
canic rocks.
* See Researches on the Theoretic Portion of Geology. By Sir Henry de
la Beche.
a
2
|
ch
enck, Lith Lam
Volcanic and Metalliferous Eruptions. 95
4. Simple bodies which enter into the composition of the
basic rocks, or those whose mode of eruption has differed from
that of volcanic rocks, especially in the rarity of scoriz ; such
are the serpentines, traps, &c.
5. Simple bodies, composing granitic or acidiferous rocks ;
that is to say, rocks in which the bases are saturated with
silica, and in which the silica is in excess; such are quartz-
iferous porphyry, diorite, syenite, protogine, granite, pegma-
tite.
6. Simple bodies, which enter into the composition of stan-
niferous veins, or veins of substances which accompany tin.
7. Simple bodies of ordinary or plumbiferous veins and
others, to which have been added the bodies which enter into
the composition of the crystallised masses contained in the
geodes of amygdaloids, in the fissures of septaria, &c.
8. The elements met with in mineral waters. Itis to be re-
marked that this list is, so to speak, only an extract of the
list of bodies which are found in ordinary veins.
9. Simple bodies found in the emanations of existing vol-
canoes. This is a synopsis of such as are found in mineral
springs ; yet cobalt, lead, and selenium, which are found here
in very inconsiderable quantities, are wanting in the list of
simple bodies occurring in mineral waters. By comparing
columns 2 and 9, with columns 5 and 6, we infer that the
foci of active volcanoes are the poorest in simple bodies of
those which have acted at the earth’s surface. A great part
of the simple bodies have been set apart in the first geological
phenomena, so that they do not reappear elsewhere; there
was among simple bodies a gradual selection, constituting a
great phenomenon, which was going on during the whole time
the earth’s crust was forming, but the effects of it have varied
in proportion as the earth’s crust became thicker.
10. Simple bodies found in a native state on the surface of
the globe. Some of them (palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, platina),do not form lasting combinations but among
themselves ; they appear to constitute a department by them-
selves in the midst of the mineralogical world.
11. Bodies found in erolites, to the number of twenty-one.
96 M. Elie de Beaumont on
All of them are bodies already known at the surface of the
globe, and fifteen of them are included in the list of the six-
teen simple bodies which are most widely diffused.
12. Bodies which enter most generally into the composi-
tion of organised bodies ; they are the same as those occu-
pying the first column in the table. “ This identity shews,”’
says the author, ‘“‘ that the surface of the globe contains in
almost all its parts everything essential to the existence of
organised beings; it furnishes a new and striking example
of the harmony which exists in all the departments of nature.
The sixteen simple bodies in question being all found either
in voleanic productions or in mineral waters, we perceive
that Nature has provided not only for the establishment but
the maintenance of this indispensable harmony. The globe,
as it becomes older, will never fail to furnish organised
beings with all the elements necessary for their existence.”
In the remaining portion of his memoir, the author pre-
sents a series of interesting and ingenious reflexions, derived
from examining the distribution of simple bodies in the dif-
ferent columns of his table. The following struck us most.
The position of a great number of veins which is the same
as that of the mineral waters, ought to convince us that these
veins are nothing else than deposits produced by mineral
waters in the fissures which they traverse. This theory dif-
fers from that of Werner, only in so far that the latter sup-
posed the waters to come from the exterior or surface of the
globe. The principal difference between the position of
mineral waters and that of veins, consists in this, that the
former are co-ordinate with modern eruptive rocks, while the
second are co-ordinate with the most ancient eruptive rocks.
Veins are rents afterwards filled; but we ought to distin-
guish two classes of them, concretionary veins, composed of
terrigenous substances (quartz, sulphate of barytes, carbonate
of lime), and meéalliferous substances (galena, pyrites, &c.),
arranged in symmetrical bands; and injected veins, in which
we do not find this latter arrangement (basalt, melaphyre,
porphyry).
The author then considers the connection between the
emanations of existing volcanoes, mineral waters, and veins,
—__———_—————_—————
Volcanic and Metalliferous Eruptions. 97
with the object of explaining the mode in which the latter are
formed, and of shewing that the substances which compose
them are volcanic, in the manner of sulphur. Then, passing
to the consideration of granite, M. E. de Beaumont proves
that the metallic accompaniments of granitic rocks become
poorer in proportion as their eruptions are more modern ; and
thus their modes of eruption and crystallisation become modi-
fied, till they are reduced to the existing state. He endea-
vours to explain the crystallisation of granite, and is of opinion,
that a suffusion of quartz, a small quantity of water, certain
volatile salts (chlorure of sodium, chlorure of iron, hydro-
chlorate of ammonia), as well as other substances equally
volatile, sulphur, fluor, phosphorus, borium, and electricity, all
take a partin this phenomenon. These agents have been pro-
duced by phenomena which may be compared to the rochage
of silver, and the spheroidal state of bodies. But we give
here only a very general notion of the author’s disserta-
tion ; it must be read entire, in order to understand the skil-
ful manner in which the facts are discussed, with the view of
throwing some light on this singular phenomenon, which has
so long engaged the attention of those who study the origin
of rocks. ‘“ Although the action of heat has predominated,”’
says the author, “‘ water would appear to have acted a con-
siderable part, so that the formation of granites very pro-
bably is connected on the one hand, by the silicates which
enter into their composition with that of the lavas ; and on the
other, by the free silica which abounds in it, with the forma-
tion of deposits of silica, which constitute quartzose veins.”
Yet the conclusion of this learned dissertation is not a very
clear explanation of the crystallisation of granite.
“« However unsatisfactory this explanation may be,” says
the author, “‘ we may assert that it is, to a certain point, on
a level with the present state of science ; for we are prevented
from developing it further, only by the imperfection of our
present knowledge on the intimate nature of the physical
phenomena to which we are led to appeal.”’*
* rom Bibloth. Universelle de Genéve, Aug. 1849, p. 319.
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. G
98.
1. Potassium .....
2, Sodium .......
8. Lithium ......
4. Barium .......
5. Strontium ....
6. Calcium.......
7. Magnesium...
8. Yttrium,......
9. Glucinium ....
10. Aluminium...
1l. Zirconium ....
12. Thorium.......
13. Cerium.........
14. Lanthanum...
15. Didymium....
16. Uranium......
17. Manganese ...
78: Tron. ccte.s Sass
19. Nickel
20. Cobalt...
91, Zinc...... a
22. Cadmium......
USE brn Psat
24, Lead ....
25. Bismuth as
26. Copper.........
27. Mercury ......
28. Silver.......:-..
29. Palladium ....
50. Rhodium......
32. Iridium........
33. Platinum
34. Osmium...
35. Gold .....
41. Tantalum......
42. Niobium ......
43, Pelopium......
44. Tungsten......
45, Molybdanium
46, Vanadium.....
47. Chrome .......
48. Tellurium ....
49. Antimony.....
50. Arsenic.........
51. Phosphorus...
52. Azote..........
53. Selenium......
54. Sulphur
55. Oxygen..
56, Iodine.........
57. Bromine.......
58. Chlorine.....
59. Fluorine.......
Table of the Distribution of Simple Bodies in Nature.
most generally over
surface of the Globe.
*
Modern Volcanic
Rocks.
Ancient Volcanic
Rocks,
ea:
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ee ee A HH H HE
wee eH ER ee we
eek ee HS
* &
**_* & %
ee HEHEHE HHH
* *:
ee HEHE RR HH HE
a
ed
Ordinary Veins
ee eK HEHE HN OHH HH SF
**# e % HS
*nx eh # u %
ee ee He HS
and Geodes.
** ee HE %
x *
eH
ee
Volcanic and Metalliferous Eruptions.
Volcanic Emana-
tions.
*
ee me me
eee Ke HK HH KH HH HE
#:
ee ees
3
3
a)
2
q
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°
* em H
* ee He &
( 99 )
On the Different States in which Fossil Vegetables are found.
The vegetables which we find in a fossil state are scarcely
ever (I believe it may be said that they are never) complete ;
they are only portions or fragments of vegetables, stalks,
branches, leaves, fruits, or rarely flowers, separated from the
other organs of the plant. In this respect, we are in the
same condition as in regard to actually existing vegetables,
when we receive insulated and incomplete portions of an exotic
plant, which we often find great difficulty in determining.
But besides this, fossil vegetables, thus reduced to some of
their insulated organs, scarcely ever present them in such a
state of preservation, as enables us to study them in all their
constituent parts. Thus the stalks often retain nothing more
than their external form, or, in other cases, nothing more
than their internal structure, frequently altered in many re-
spects. The leaves, in many instances, retain nothing but
the imperfect net-work of their nervures, and rarely can the
epidermis and its details of structure be conveniently studied.
As to the fruits, most frequently the external form alone is left
to enable us to judge of their affinities, their internal structure
being destroyed or greatly altered by compression or by
petrifaction.
The different modes in which vegetables are preserved in a
fossil state, may, however, be referred to two principal classes.
The impression or cast of the plant, accompanied with the
complete destruction of the vegetable tissue, or the preserva-
tion of few of its constituent parts; petrifaction or carbon-
isation, which preserves, more or less completely, the struc-
ture of the tissues of the vegetable organs, by changing com-
pletely, or only modifying, their nature.
The impression or cast, in a strict sense, that is, without
the preservation of any portion of the organs of the vegetable
more or less altered, is rather rare; yet it is the habitual
_ State of fossil vegetables in the variegated sandstone (the
Gris-ligarré) and tertiary limestones.
The place once occupied by the vegetable is empty, or the
vegetable is replaced only by a substance usually ferruginous,
sometimes calcareous or earthy, which presents no organisa-
tion, and which, consequently, is not the vegetable petrified.
100 On Different States of Fossil Vegetables.
In this case, we can judge only of the exterior forms of the
vegetable, and often the best means of doing it with accu-
racy is, after carefully removing the amorphous matter which
fills the hollow left by the vegetable, to pour into the cavity
either wax, sulphur, or any other matter, which will represent
exactly the forms of the destroyed vegetable.
The impression with some preserved portions of the vege-
table tissue is very frequent with the stems found in the’
coal-formation. This is their ordinary mode of preservation ;
and here the exact determination of the different forms of
the vegetable requires much attention.
In the greater part of these stalks or stems, the super-
ficial portion, a kind of thick and woody epidermis, has passed
into the state of compact and anthraciteous coal; all the
rest of the plant has been destroyed and replaced by clay,
micaceous sandstone, often even by a coarse sandstone, with-
out any appearance of organisation. Sometimes, however,
this destruction of the internal tissues is less complete ; the
most resistant are preserved and turned into coal ; these are
the ligneous or vascular parts, the place of which and even
the structure is indicated by coal lineaments. This has been
long observed in Stigmaria ficoides, and M. Corda has often
seen the same thing in many stems found in the coal-pits of
Bohemia. Sometimes, besides the axis and woody cylinder
properly so called, there is an internal cortical zone, then an
external bark, which are likewise preserved, while the inter-
mediate cellular tissue is destroyed. These different zones
of denser tissue which, separated by large beds of destroyed
cellular tissue, envelope one another like so many cylinders
inclosed one within another, and are often preserved insulated,
have each their special form, and often a different one on
their external and internal surface. The same stem may
thus produce very different forms, each cylindrical, and re-
sembling so many different stems.
I have long since pointed out this fact in regard to the
stems of a Sigillaria, whose stem, deprived of its coal bark, .
had constituted the genus Syringodendron.
In the Lomatophloios crassicaule of M. Corda, the vascular
axis forms a cylinder finely striated, which may be taken for
On Different States of Fossil Vegetables. 101
the stem of a peculiar genus, and the medullary cylinder
which this vascular cylinder surrounds, presents peculiar
transverse furrows, which, according to this author, have been
made to characterise the genus Artisia. I may add that, in
specimens of this stem, or of a closely analogous species from
the mines of Saarbruck, I found an intermediate zone between
the external surface and vascular axis, which appeared to
‘ correspond to the origin of the bases of the leaves, and which
affords all the characters of the stem figured by M. de Stern-
berg, under the name of Knorria Sellowit.
In stems with tissues imperfectly preserved, we must
therefore carefully distinguish the different zones of tissue
in the same stem, and their external and internal surfaces
which produce so many different appearances.
What I have said of stems applies equally to fruits, in
which the thickness of the pericarp often gives rise to two
very different forms, and in which the cavities, in other in-
stances, are not real cavities, but, on the contrary, spaces
occupied by a different destroyed tissue, and even sometimes
by all the solid parts.
Carbonised vegetables, or such as have passed into the
state of lignites, give rise to fewer observations ; yet it must
be remarked that, in this alteration, their tissues have often
undergone modifications which render it difficult to under-
stand them rightly. Lastly, it not unfrequently happens,
that a portion of the organs of vegetables passed into the
state of lignites, is transformed into pyrites, or else pyrites
of a globular shape are formed in the middle of this tissue,
and may, at first sight, be taken for a character of organisa-
tion. The section of certain dicotyledonous fossil woods
often in that case resembles a monocotyledonous stem.
Petrifaction often gives rise to apparent changes in the
tissues, the origin of which must be carefully attended to.
1. Incertain cases all the tissues are not equally preserved
during petrifaction ; and it is particularly in silicified woods
that we see frequent examples of this. Most frequently the
soft tissues, more easily altered, are destroyed, as in macera-
tion, while the stem being placed in circumstances suited to
silicification, and the more resisting tissues, have preserved
their character while becoming silicified. Often in such a
102 On Different States of Fossil Vegetables.
case, the cellular tissue is replaced by amorphous chalcedony
and the ligneous and vascular tissues are alone petrified, so
as to preserve the forms which characterise them. Some-
times, though more rarely, the reverse of this takes place ;
the cellular tissue is silicified and preserves its organisation,
and the denser tissues have disappeared during petrifaction,
leaving cavities in their place ; whether it be that these tis-
sues had never been silicified, or that, transformed into a
more alterable substance, they were destroyed at a later
period. Thus, [ have seen many examples of the wood of
silicified palms, in which the place of the fibrous bundles
was, at leastin great part, represented by empty cavities, the
remains of the tissue being silicified.
2. Sometimes tissues of the same nature are differently
preserved in different parts of the same specimen. In some
cases, a kind of partial maceration has destroyed the struc-
ture in certain places, while it is well preserved in the neigh-
bouring parts ; but there are other instances where the tissue
is petrified in a distinct and regular manner at one point, and
destroyed at the side. This is particularly obvious in a re-
markable fossil wood, described by Mr Witham under the
name of Anabathra pulcherrima ; and I have likewise seen it
in some other specimens. The siliceous petrifaction appears
to have taken place at first in certain zones very distinctly
defined, and most frequently in the form of insulated spheres.
In all these parts the tissue is perfectly preserved ; but
around it, in the intermediate spaces, this tissue is entirely
destroyed, and has been replaced by amorphous silica. At
first sight, and in a transverse section, the silicified parts
would seem so many distinct ligneous fascicles, and give to
these stems a very anomalous structure ; but an attentive
examination shews that the medullary rays and ligneous zones
are continued from one part to another, and we may re-
establish, so to speak, the tissue throughout. Besides, we per-
ceive that these fascicles are not continued in length; they
are insulated spheres, results of a partial petrifaction, en-
veloped in an amorphous siliceous mass.
3. It very often happens that, during silicification, the
vegetable has been compressed, broken, and deformed, fis-
sures filled with crystallised or amorphous silica run across
Se EE ~
A. ees
fe Pe a ee ne eS ee
TP ae ee a
On Different States of Fossil Vegetables. 103
it, and the tissues no longer continue to be regular; but itis
almost always easy to make allowance for these alterations,
and do away with their effect.
We perceive that, before endeavouring to compare a fossil
vegetable with living vegetables, it is necessary,—
1st, To reconstruct, as completely as possible, according
to the parts preserved, and the general data of vegetable
anatomy and organography, the portions of the plant under
examination.
2dly, To endeavour to determine what may have been the
relations of these portions of the plant with the other organs
of the same plant, searching more especially for their points
of attachment, their forms and vascular connections ; trying,
in general, to be guided by the traces of structure rather
than by the exterior forms.
3dly, To use every exertion to recomplete a vegetable, by
seeing whether—among the fossils of the same formation,
and particularly of the same beds and the same locality—
there may not be some which belong to the same plant. As
long as we have not positively ascertained the connection of
these different organs, we ought not to consider their reunion
to form the same plant as anything more than a simple pro-
bability, which positive facts may either overthrow or confirm
This connection of the different parts of the same plant is
one of the most important problems to be solved in vege-
table paleontology, and which must be recommended to the
special attention of those observers who can engage in the
inquiry on the spots where these fossils are found.
M. Brongniart’s Tableaux des Vegetaux Fossiles, from which
the preceding observations are taken, is divided into two
principal parts. In the first he explains systematically the
division of fossils into families and genera. He divides
them into many branches, comprehending,—
1st, Amphigenous cryptogamous vegetables, or cellular
Cryptogams, which he subdivides into two classes,—the
Fungi and Alge.
2d, Acrogenous cryptogamous vegetables, comprehending
two classes, the Musci a numerous class of Filices, itself
subdivided into five families,—the Ferns, Marsileacee, Cha-
racer, Lycopodiacee, and Equisetacez.
104 Some Particulars respecting the
3d, Dicotyledonous phanerogamous vegetables, of which he
enumerates the numerous families, indicating the characters
more or less certain, more or less doubtful, which enable us
to apapproximate them to the same families of vegetables
now living.
4th, Lastly, Monocotyledonous vegetables.
The second part is devoted to a chronological examination
of the periods of vegetation, and of the different floras which
have succeeded each other on the surface of the earth.
Some Particulars respecting the Spheroidal State of Bodies ;
Proof by Fire; Man incombustible, Yc. By M. BouTIGNY
(D’EVREUX.) Read before the French Academy of Sciences,
24th May 1849.
Towards the close of the third century of our era, the re-
ligion of Zoroaster having suffered many desertions, a council
of wise men was convoked to revive the declining faith of his
followers. What was said with this view would now be of
little interest to us. We may only state that eighty thousand
dissentients continued to persist in their incredulity.
In the year 241, Sapor or Chapour ordered the magi to
do everything in their power to persuade them to return to
the faith of their ancestors. It was on this occasion that
one of the pontiffs of the prevailing religion, named Adura-
bad Mabrasphand, offered to undergo the proof of fire. ‘“ He
proposed that they should pour on his naked body eighteen
pounds weight of melted copper, issuing from a furnace, and
at a red heat, on condition, that if he was uninjured, the in-
fidels should give way at so great a prodigy. It is said that
the proof by fire was undergone so successfully, that they
were all converted.” The historian adds, with an air of
doubt, which may assuredly be readily permitted in such a
ease ; “ We see that the religion of Zoroaster likewise has
its miracles and its legends.”*
Now, this proof by fire, so successfully submitted to by
* Dictionnaire Historique, Critique et Bibliographique, t. xxvii., p. 417.
Spheroidal State of Bodies—Proof of Fire. 105
Adurabad Mabrasphand, is plainly an experiment of primi-
tive facility and simplicity, and which is nothing less than
miraculous.
But here I pause a little; for I think I observe a smile of
incredulity on the lips of those who now do me the honour
to listen to me,—a smile so discouraging to one destitute of
sincerity, but which only kindles the ardour of one who
wishes to deceive nobody, and who uses all his efforts that
he may not be deceived himself. Let such persons then al-
low me to reassure them; the little I have to relate is not
like the truth, but it is true, and that is enough. With these
remarks I continue.
We know that the followers of Zoroaster were worship-
pers of fire, which they regarded as the principle of all things.
It is to this celebrated philosopher that this salutary pre-
cept is ascribed: When in doubt, refrain.
Zoroaster, according to many thinkers, is one of the greatest
moralists of antiquity. According to Voltaire, he was only
a quack who would make a poor figure among the least skil-
ful philosophers of our day.
But the French philosopher mentions a fact in relation to
Zoroaster, too intimately connected with my subject not to
be related here. ‘The chief of the magicians caused the
infant (Zoroaster) to be brought, and wished to cut him in
two; but his hand instantly withered. He was thrown into
the fire, which became to him a bath of rose-water.’*
It is unnecessary to say that the illustrious sceptic con-
sidered this statement as eminently fabulous. With regard
to myself, | humbly ask pardon of his memory ; for I con-
sider it, if not true, at least possible and probable. I speak
here only of fire which does not burn.
Whether in France, Italy, or England, wherever I have
had occasion to speak of bodies in a spheroidal state, I met
with persons who asked me this question: Is there not some
connection between these phenomena and that of men running
with naked feet over red-hot melted metal, or plunging the
* Victionnaire Philosophique, t. xiv., p. 179.
106 Some Particulars respecting the
hand into melted lead, &c.?* To such I have always re-
plied, Yes; I believe that an intimate relation subsists be-
tween all these facts and the spheroidal state. And then, in
my turn, I put this question, Have you witnessed the fact
you refer to? The reply was invariably in the negative.
I confess that all these reports and the wonderful legends
which I had read in different workst respecting proofs by
fire and incombustible men, admitted without reserve by
some, and as stoutly denied by others, had greatly excited
my curiosity, and made me eagerly desire to verify all those
phenomena, and to recall them to the recollection of my con-
temporaries ; for all this, alas! is as old as the world. él
sub sole novum.
I first wrote to my friend Dr Roche, who spends his life
among the furnaces of Eure, and is physician to a part of the
Cyclopean population who work there. I asked him to give
me precise information.
All that he could learn was, ‘‘ that one named Laforge,
a man between thirty-five and thirty-six years of age, and very
corpulent, walked barefooted over the hot iron from the fur-
nace,’ but he had not seen him. This was not enough to
dispel my doubts.
I then applied to the foundry at Paris, when they laughed
at me, and shewed me to the door. I did not insist, and re-
tired somewhat discouraged, reflecting on the difficulties of
verifying a single fact, even of the simplest kind.
I was afterwards fortunate enough to meet with M. Alph.
Michel, who resides among the forges of Franche-Comte.
M. Michel obligingly promised to make inquiry into these
facts, and solve my doubts.
* I have said something respecting these facts, in a work entitled MNowvelle
Branche de Physique, ou Etudes sur les corps a Vetat spheroidal, p. 36.
+ Des erreurs et des préjugés repandus dans les diverses classes de la So-
ciété, t. xi., p. 183.
Dr Montagne, so well known in the learned world by his numerous works on
botany and micography, has translated, upwards of forty years ago, a memoir
of Professor Sementini of Naples, on the alleged phenomenon of incombusti-
bility. In this memoir a description will be found of a great number of ex-
periments on fire, and which Dr Montagne had often witnessed (Bulletin des
Sciences Medicales, Juillet, 1809, p. 5.
Spheroidal State of Bodies—Proof by Fire. 107
The following is an extract from a letter which he wrote
to me on the 26th of March last: “ On my return I did not
fail to inquire among the workmen what truth there was in
the statement (as to the immersion of the finger in red-hot
melted iron), and generally I was laughed at, but that did
not deter me. At last, when at the foundry of Magny, near
Lure, I again put the question to a workman, who replied
that nothing was more simple ; and, in order to prove it, at
the moment when a mass of melted metal was pouring out
from a Wilkinson, he thrust his finger into the burning jet;
another individual in the same employment repeated the
experiment with impunity ; and I myself, emboldened by
what I had seen, did the same thing. I must observe that,
in making this trial, none of us moistened the finger.”
“T hasten, Sir, to make you acquainted with this fact,
which seems to support your ideas on the globular state of
liquids ; for, the fingers being naturally more or less humid,
it is, I conceive, owing to this humidity passing into a
spheroidal state, that we must ascribe the momentary incom-
bustibility.”
I entirely adopt M. Michel’s opinion, and shall afterwards
give the theory of it. To my own mind the fact was no
longer doubtful ; but still I could not allow myself to com-
municate it to the Academy, making it an invariable rule to
submit nothing to its judgment but facts which I have often
witnessed de visu.
I again made application to different foundries; but they,
unfortunately, had not been working for a long time.
I despaired of finding an opportunity of verifying this fact,
so curious in appearance, yet so simple in reality, when a
particular circumstance brought me into daily connection with
forges and foundries, which enabled me to experiment as I
pleased on the red-hot burning metal.
The following are the experiments I made :—
I divided or cut asunder with my hand a jet of melted
metal of five or six centimetres in diameter, which was es-
caping from the outlet; then, at the same moment, plunged
the other hand into a reservoir full of the incandescent
metal, which was truly fearful to look at. I trembled in-
108 Some Particulars respecting the
voluntarily ; both hands came out victoriously from the proof.
And now, if anything surprise me, it is that such experiments
are not quite common.
I will surely be asked what precautions must be taken to
preserve one’s self from the disorganising action of the in-
candescent matter. I answer, None. Have no fear; make
the experiment with confidence, pass the hand rapidly, but
not too rapidly, through the stream of fully melted matter.
Otherwise, if the trial be made timidly, or with too great
haste, we may overcome the repulsive force which exists in
the incandescent bodies, and thus bring them in contact with
the skin, which will then unquestionably be reduced to a
state that may be easily imagined.
To perceive the danger that must arise from passing the
hand too rapidly through the melted metal, we have only to
recollect, that the resistance is in proportion to the square of
the quickness, and in a compact fluid, such as melted iron,
this resistance certainly increases in a greater ratio.
The experiment succeeds more especially when the skin
is moist ; and the involuntary alarm we feel beside these
masses of fire almost always brings the body into that state
of moisture so necessary to success. But by taking a few
precautions, we truly become invulnerable.
The following method succeeded best with me: I rubbed
my hands with soap, so as to give them a polished surface,
then at the moment of making the experiment, I plunged the
hand into a cold solution of sal ammoniac, saturated with
sulphuric acid, or simply into water containing sal ammoniac,
and when that was not at hand into cold water.
Regnault, who has investigated this subject says: “Those
who make a trade of handling fire, and holding it in their
mouth, sometimes use an equal mixture of spirit of sulphur,
sal ammoniac, essence of rosemary, and onion juice,” all
volatile substances, it will be observed, which, while evapo-
rating, render a certain portion of heat latent.*
A common experiment in glass-houses, with which I was
made acquainted by M. Dumas, may be mentioned here. It
* Le P. Regnault, Entretiens sur la Physique, t. xi., p. 101, edit. of 1737.
Spheroidal State of Bodies—Proof by Fire. 109
consists of pouring a mass of melted glass into a pail of
water, and kneading it, though red-hot, with the hands.
In this experiment there are two periods well marked,—
in the first, the mass of glass is insulated in the midst of the
water ; in the second, it is covered with a solid and trans-
parent layer, which allows us to see the incandescent mass.
The duration of the first period is very short, and it is only
during the second that the melted glass can be kneaded with
impunity. This experiment, M. Dumas added, has been
known from time immemorial ; it has been noticed by Bel-
lani, who remarks, that the mass of glass produces no biss-
ing or sign of ebullition in the water, /a guale acqua rimane
tranquilla come ponendovi un pezzo di ghiaccio.*
Let us now try to find the rationale of these facts.
We have the formula m c ¢, which gives the quantity of
heat contained in any body.
Let m be the mass, expressed in kilogrammes ;
e the specific heat of the body ;
t its temperature.
But here we must abstract the facteur m, because there
was no contact between the hand and the melted metal, and
because the experiment presents no difference whether made
with 10 kilogrammes or 1000. The sensation experienced is
the same in either case, and it may be easily understood, know-
ing the repulsive force of the red-hot surfaces which are opposed
to the contact of any body.
The finger or hand is, therefore, insulated in the middle of
the melted mass, and thus preserved from the disorganising
action of the burning matter. I repeat, that we must ab-
stract the mass.
Let the two facteurs ctremain. I shall suppose, and
it is a sufficient approximation, that the value of c=0°15,
and that of <=1500°, the temperature of the melted matter ;
now the product of 1500° x 0:15= 225.
It thus appears that the skin of the experimenter will be
exposed only to 225 calorics. This certainly is a consider-
* Giornale di fisica di Pavia, anno 1816, P. 225,
110 Some Particulars respecting the
able degree of heat for the skin of the experimenter ; but it
is too high, as we shall see.
There is no contact between the hand and the metal ; this
is a fact which appears to me positively established. If there
be no contact, heating can take place only by radiation ; and
that is enormous, it must be admitted. But if the radiation
be neutralised by reflection, and such is the case, it is the
same as if it did not exist; and, in short, it is in these nor-
mal conditions, so to speak, that the operator is placed.
I think that I have long since proved that water, in a
spheroidal state, has the singular property of reflecting ra-
diated caloric,* and that its temperature never reaches that
of ebullition ; heitce it follows that the finger, when moist,
cannot be raised to the temperature of + 100° C., the experi-
ments not being continued sufficiently long to allow the hu-
midity entirely to evaporate.
To state the case briefly: On passing the hand through
melted metal, it is insulated, the moisture which covers it
passes into the spheroidal state, reflects the radiated caloric,
and does not become heated to the boiling point ; that is the
whole.
I was, therefore, justified in saying, at the outset, that this
experiment, dangerous in appearance, is almost insignificant
in reality.
I have repeated it often with lead, bronze, &c., and always
with the same success. +
Such individuals as remember the experiment which con-
sists of plunging a mass of silver or incandescent platina in
water, will easily conceive the mechanism of the latter. In
the first, the water recedes from the metal, which then seems
* A new Branch of Physics, or Studies on Bodies in a Spheroidal State, p. 24,
&e., 132, &e. See also my two Letters to the Academy of Sciences, dated the
14th and 21stof July 1845. An explanation of this phenomenon will be found
in the places referred to.
+ The experiments on melted metal were made in M. Davidson’s foundry,
at Villette, and on bronze in that of M. Nerat, Pierre-Levée Street. I am
happy to have the opportunity of publicly thanking these gentlemen for their
kind assistance.
Spheroidal State of Bodies—Proof by Fire. 111
to be inclosed in a crystal envelope ; in the second, it is the
liquid metal which retires from the moist hand. Again, in
the first, the metal is active, the water passive ; in the se-
cond, on the contrary, the moist hand is active, and the
melted metal passive. It is the same experiment reversed,
and the two form only one; it is the reaction equal to the
action ; it is, in short, one of the simplest of equations, namely,
ab=ba.
I do not speak here of putting a lighted candle into the
mouth, and many other experiments of the same kind, which
are childish feats, unworthy of the attention of the Academy.
Thus, at an interval of ten years, it has been in my power
to form ice in a furnace at a white heat, and to bathe my-
self, with impunity, in red-hot melted metal, and that in
virtue of the laws which regulate matter in the spheroidal
state.
Let individuals deny, if they please, the great importance
that attaches to the thorough study of matter in the sphe-
roidal state ; let them deny, if they choose, the part which
this molecular state must necessary fulfil, sooner or later, in
science ; of this I do not complain, it is only a question of
time, and of the future; but this future, which belongs not
to us, will perhaps judge with severity those of my country-
men who suppress in the Memoirs des Savants étrangers, be-
fore printing them in France, passages which are friendly
to my favourite pursuits.* This is one of those actions which
are sufficient to tarnish the lustre of the most brilliant scien-
tific reputations.
* See the Memoir which I had the honour to address to the Academy on the
2d of last October (1848).
It is M. Grove’s Memoir that is here treated of, entitled, “‘ On certain pheno-
mena of Voltaic Ignition, and the Decomposition of Water into its Constituent
Gases by Heat.” This memoir has been translated by M. Louyet, and the fol-
lowing is the passage which has been struck out in France :—“ However, to re-
turn to more important considerations, the spheroidal state, which has, of late,
attracted the attention of philosophers, would appear to have thé most intimate
connection with these phenomena, and, in consequence, the interest which at-
taches to it is much increased.” (Bulletin du Musée de l’ Industrie Belge, 4th liv.
1847.)
112 Some Particulars respecting the
I have stated elsewhere* that we find traces of the sphe-
roidal state in the Bible. Does not the fact I have related
respecting Adurabad Mabrasphand (and I could have added
many others) seem to prove that the knowledge of the an-
cients with regard to heat, was much greater than we sup-
pose? They were unacquainted, perhaps, with minute mat-
ters respecting heat, as, for example, the thousands of cen-
tigrade degrees, but they certainly knew its grand effects.
It may be gathered from this note that a certain number
of historical facts considered fabulous may be true, and that
the ancient philosophers probably knew many things of
which we are ignorant. A little more respect for them,
a little less admiration of ourselves, would not be misplaced.
I shall conclude this note by reminding the Academy,
whose kind indulgence I again solicit, of this remarkable
and unexpected analogy existing between the living mole-
cule, and the molecule in the spheroidal state ; it is the fixity
of the temperature, whatever, in other respects, may be the
variation of that of the surrounding medium.
Thus man may live in media which vary from — 30° C. to
+ 40° C., without his own temperature being affected. We
know that man may even endure for some time the extreme
temperatures of —60° C. and + 150° C., his own remaining
uniform. We know that the inhabitants near the poles, those
of the fortunate climates of the tropics, and the burning re-
gions of the line, are of the same temperature, or that, if it
vary, it is only within very narrow limits.t
This being admitted, let us take a drop of water and throw
it into a vessel heated to 142° C.; this water will immediately
assume the temperature of + 98° C., and will continue there,
the vessel being changed to all imaginable temperatures from
the above minimum I have mentioned (+ 142°).
This, the stable equilibrium of bodies in the spheroidal
state, with regard to heat, will one day enter, at least
* Nouvelle Branche de Physique, on Etudes sur les corps a l’etat spheroidal,
pal
t Ibid., p. 94 and 192.
Spheroidal State of Bodies—Proof by Fire. 113
I hope so, into the explanation of one of the greatest mys-
teries of creation—the creation itself.*
It will at once be understood that a fluid whose tempera-
ture is invariable, whatever may be the variations of the
temperature in the bodies which surround it, is a fluid emi-
nently adapted for incubation. This latter word expresses
the whole of my idea without developing it.
On the Geology of the Valley of Reposoir in Savoy, and on the
Rocks containing Ammonites and Belemnites l lying above the
Nummulitic Formation. By M. A. Favre, Professor in
the Academy of Geneva.t
This paper is not intended to bring forward a theory ; it is
simply to describe a fact which has appeared to me important
and difficult to explain, although it presents itself in a mam-
ner apparently simple. It is the superposition of great cal-
careous masses containing belemnites and ammonites on
rocks filled with nummulites. This order of superposition
is contrary to what paleontology and geognosy have hither-
to made known to us; ; consequently we have reason to doubt
whether the position of the rocks in question be normal. On
the other hand, this singular fact presents itself in a man-
ner so simple; the structure of the mountains where it oc-
curs is so regular, that it is deserving of the attention of ob-
Servers ; this is the object of the present notice. But I re-
commend them, before judging, to take the trouble to tra-
verse these high mountains in different directions. Al-
though I have done so many times, it is not without extreme
diffidence that I bring forward my observations.
Can the valley of Reposoir be one of those localities where
examination reveals to us exceptions to the general rules
which science has established for the Alps? Must the posi-
* If the Deity has permitted the human mind to penetrate into this hitherto
inexplicable mystery.
t From a ex opy sent by the Author. Vide Bibliothéque Universelle de Gendve.
June 1849.
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.—JAN. 1850. H
114 M. A. Favre on the
tion of the rocks of this valley be added to the exceptions
already known, presented by the geology of the Alps, when
compared with that of other countries? This is what I do
not undertake to decide ; for it is necessary that exceptions of
this kind should be established by more than one observer.
But I may refer, as an example of these anomalies, to the
localities of St Cassian and Hallstadt in Austria, where we
find a mixture of orthocera and ammonites ; Petit-Cceur, in the
Tarentaise, where we see belemnites associated with plants
of the coal-formation ; the apparent superposition of jurassic
limestone over the tertiary molasse, which is observed
throughout a great part of the northern acclivity of the
Alps, from Savoy nearly to Vienna in Austria; and, finally,
the fan-shaped structure which, in a great number of locali-
ties, places the crystalline slates above limestones contain-
ing belemnites.
‘ The valley of Reposoir is situate in Savoy, on the left bank
of the Arve, between the towns of Cluses and Thones; it is
inclosed between two chains of elevated mountains. That,
on the north is the chain of the Vergys mountains ; that on
the south is the chain of Meiry, or La Pointe-Percée, which
separates the valley of Reposoir from that of Mégéve, the
prolongation of which occupies the right bank of the Isére be-
tween Albertville and Montmelian.
The beds which constitute the chain of Vergys dip very
nearly to the south-east, while those of the chain La Pointe-
Percée dip to the north-west. It is the same beds which
form these two chains, so that the valley of Reposoir, which
is situate between these two, presents the geological struc-
ture named structure en fond de bateau.
The highest peaks of the chain of Vergys reach 2388
metres above the level of the sea, according to M. Chaix.
Pointe-Percée, which is the most elevated part of the chain
to which it gives the name, has never been measured ; but
I calculate that it rises to 2500 or 2600 metres above the
sea. Between these two chains of mountains, and conse-
quently in the centre of the valley of Reposoir, rises a large
mountain, known under the name of Montagne des Anes. Its
base at Reposoir is 981 metres (barometric observations made
Geology of the Valley of Reposoir in Savoy. 115
at the inn); I estimate its peak at about 2300 metres. It
divides the valley of Reposoir into two parts, which unite at
the north-east and south-west extremities of the valley. The
Montagne des Anes is connected with the chain of the Vergys
to the north by the Col de la Touviére or des Ferrands, and
on the south to the chain of Pointe-Percée by the Col des
Anes. These two cols are very interesting in respect to
their geology.
It is therefore evident, that the Montagne des Anes rests
wholly on the beds which form the chain of the Vergys and
Pointe-Percée, or, what is the same thing, these beds run be-
neath this mountain. Such is the position and structure of
this valley. I now proceed to the geological part of this
notice.
The two chains of mountains just spoken of are composed of
neocomian beds ; the greatest mass belongs to the limestone
of the first zone of rudistes or limestone with Chama Ammonia.
In some of its most elevated parts we perceive the inferior
neocomian, which has pierced through the upper stage of the
neocomian. It is characterised by the Toxaséer complana-
tus, Ag., which is found in great abundance in the Col du
Balafras (2303 metres, barometric observations, chain of the
Vergys), and at the Cheminée du Meiry (chain of Pointe-
Percée.) The jurassic formation is seen below the neocomian
formation on the southern reverse of this latter chain; while
it cannot be seen in the chain of the Vergys.
The neocomian formation of which we have spoken is
covered to a great thickness with white limestone, with
Chama Ammonia, on which lies green sandstone, or the
albian formation in beds, or in portions of beds, lying here and
there on thesurface. This formation is rich in fossils on the
southern reverse of the chain of the Vergys, on the stairs of
Sommiers, and at Roselletaz, in the chain of Pointe-Percée.
According to the observations which Murchison commu-
nicated to the meeting of the Helvetie Society of Natural
Sciences, met last year at Soleure, this formation ought to
he covered in some localities by a limestone which appears
to be equivalent to the limestones of Seewen and the white
chalk. This rock is covered by a blackish calcareous sand-
116 M. A. Favre on the
stone, filled with small nummulites. This nummulitic lime-
stone is surmounted by the Alpine macigno formed by lime-
stone rocks, more or less marly, associated with some sand-
stones. This is a formation identical with that which the
Geological Society of France studied some years ago in the
Deserts near Chambery. The beds of this macigno, which
form the bottom of the valley of Reposoir and the base of
the Montagne des Anes, alternate in very great numbers at
a time with beds, more or less thick, of Taviglianaz sand-
stone, which, as I have said elsewhere,* appears to be a kind
of old voleanic tufa. This rock is associated with cargneules,
with red limestones, and near the Col de la Tuuviére, we
find a quartz rock in a mass, which is subordinate to it.
It is below all these rocks that the great limestone mass
which forms the Montagne des Anes is situated. It is com-
posed of a greyish or yellowish limestone, which encloses
pantacrines, pectens, terebratule, fragments of ammonites
and belemnites, very easily recognised as to the genus, but
not to be determined as to the species.
I do not in general believe in anomalies and exceptions in
geology; because the phenomena have been too general to
produce what may be called geological monstrosities. Yet,
although I have often visited this singular locality, I have al-
ways come to the same result, and I have always seen the
superposition of the ammonitic and belemnitic limestones on
the nummulitic limestones. The observations are very easily
made, for the Montagne des Anes, as I have said, is insulated
in the middle of the valley, and we see, on the north as well
as on the south side, the beds of the Vergys and Pointe-
Percée dip below it.
I do not know to what age the formation of this mountain
should be referred; but I may say, that, in its aspect, it pre-
sents more relation to the jurassic formation than to any of
the stages of the cretaceous formation of our country.
I may state, in conclusion, that it is not the first time that
more ancient formations, resting on nummulitie formations,
* Notice of the Geology of the German Tyrol, and on the Origin of Dolo-
mite.— Bib Univ. (Archives), tom. x., p. 205.
Geology of the Valley of Reposoir, in Savoy. 117
have been mentioned. M. Prof. Studer* found gneiss, in
the Bernese Oberland, lying over the nummulitic formation.
Perhaps the most extraordinary fact is that stated by M.
Escher, in his Geological Account of the Canton of Glaris. At
Ortstock, we find the following section proceeding from above
downwards: 1. Superior and middle jurassic limestone ; 2.
Inferior jurassic limestone; 3. Sernfconglomerat, which is a
puddingstone analogous to that of V alorsine, whose normal
position is between the crystalline rocks and the jurassic for-
mation ; 4. The middle jurassic limestone again occurs; 5.
The nummulitic limestone below all these beds.
The mountain of Glarnish presents the same section, only
we find the neocomian limestone and nummulitic limestone
below the preceding beds. In this mountain, the latter is
found, therefore, at the summit and the base. These exam-
ples might be easily multiplied, but I think that we cannot
find any others more extraordinary.t
* Bulletin de la Sociéte Geologique de France, 2d Series, t. iv., p. 213.
+ The following are a few facts analogous to those mentioned in this note,
and may serve as a point of comparison.
M. Studer says, that, in some localities in Switzerland, the nummulitic rocks
are covered by a formation, a fucoides, which incloses belemnites. (Actes de la
Sociéte Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles, p. 104. Basil, 1838.)
M. Coquand assures us that M. Savi found a hamites (perhaps Ancyloceras),
in the macigno in the neighbourhood of Florence; M. Pentland discovered an
ammonite there, and M. Pareto likewise obtained an ammonite in the macigno
of the mountains of Génoa. According to M. Coquand, this macigno likewise
contains nummulites, and ought to be ranked in the cretaceous formatien. (Bul-
letin de la Sociéte Geologique de France. 2d Series, t. ii., p. 194.) According to
M. Murchison, these fossils should have been found in the rocks inferior to the
nummulitic formation. (On the Geological Structure of the Alps, Carpathians, and
Apennines, from the London, Edinr., and Dublin Phil. Mag., March 1849.)
M. Gaillardot points out, in the environs of Cairo, beds with ammonites
covering nummulitic beds at the foot of Mokatam. (Ann. de la Sociéte d’ Emula-
tion des Vosges, 1845, t. v. 3d Part.)
According to the account given in Ferussac’s Bulletin Geologie, 1829, t. xvii,
p. 322, it would appear that M. Partsch has found an ammonite in the fucoidal
sandstone rocks of Kahlenberg near Vienna.
Curis
Notice of an Intestinal Concretion from a Snake. By JOUN
Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Ed., &e. Communicated
by the Author.
Whilst in Barbadoes, I received from assistant staff-sur-
geon Dr Webb, one of several concretions, which had been
voided by a Boa constrictor, that he kept in confinement,
and which from their character it may be inferred were in-
testinal, for they had none of the properties of urinary con-
cretions ; they contained no lithic acid.
The several masses voided were all very similar, m form
approaching the oval, of the colour nearly of unbleached wax ;
of a greasy feel, of about the hardness of wax, but more
brittle and easily reducible to powder. In size, they were
nearly equal to a pullet’s egg. That which I have examined,
when broken, exhibited in the fracture a feeble resinous
lustre, and a structure somewhat concentrically lamellar.
Exposed to the action of heat, it burnt with a bright flame,
first with a smell of animal matter, such as horn gives when
burning, afterwards with a strong ammoniacal odour. The
coal it left was bulky, and easily incinerated. It yielded
(three different portions of it), from 6:6 to 8-4 and 9°8 per
cent. of white ash; which was found to consist of phosphate
of lime, with a minute proportion [little more than a trace]
of lime, magnesia, and potash.
Digested in boiling alcohol, and that repeatedly, it lost
32-4 per cent. The alcoholic solution on cooling, became
turbid from the separation of oil particles, and when evapo-
rated, yielded more of the same oil, which had the properties
of oleine. It was colourless and liquid at ordinary tempera-
tures. No cholesterine could be detected mixed with it.
What remained after the separation of the oil, nearly re-
sembled in its qualities the matter of epithelium or cuticle.
At first inspection of the concretion, from its resemblance
to the indurated yolk of egg, I thought it probable that it
might be this substance somewhat altered, but the facility
with which its ash is obtained, and the composition of its
Notice of an Intestinal Concretion from a Snake. 119
ash, so different from that of the yolk (containing so much
phosphate of lime which is absent from the yolk, and no pure
phosphoric acid which abounds in the yolk), is opposed to this
conjecture. Considering what is the ordinary food of snakes,
a more probable conjecture is, that it is formed of the undi-
digested portions of the animals on which the snake that
voided it fed, such as cuticle, and the horny or scaly parts
with fatty matter, mixed with epithelial scales, derived from
its own alimentary canal.
A concretion of this kind, is well adapted by its composi-
tion to resist decay, and to become consequently a coprolite.
And it is in relation to such an occurrence, I apprehend that
the one I have described is chiefly interesting.
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento.
By M. F. De CASTELNAU.
It was remarked in this country, some years ago, that the
French had almost ceased to add to the general stock of geo-
graphical knowledge,—a fact which it is not easy to explain
in a people, so very large a proportion of whom receive the
elements of a scientific education, and who might, therefore,
be expected to furnish a larger proportional number of scien-
tific explorers than the plainly-educated manufacturers, shop-
keepers, and farmers of Great Britain. Certain it is, too,
that little has been wanting on our side to excite a spirit of
rivalry in this most legitimate field of national emulation.
Caillé’s three volumes of Travels in Central Africa is a very
poor affair,—the work rather of an editor than of the travel-
ler himself, who was miserably wanting in the accomplish-
ments necessary for such an expedition.
The South American enterprise, of which a short narrative
follows, was planned and conducted very differently The re-
gion visited is abundantly interesting. Let the reader turn toa
map of South America ; he will perceive that the great chain
of the Andes, for many degrees to the north and south of the
equator, runs close to the Pacific, leaving a vast interval be-
twixt its ridges and the Atlantic. This interval is extremely
120 French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento.
fertile, abounding in those three grand elements of fertility,
heat, moisture, and a deep alluvial soil. The vast volumes
of water drawn up by the tropical heats from both oceans,
and the rarefaction of the atmosphere over the heated plains,
landward, produce rainy seasons of extraordinary intensity,
and to this must be added the floods caused by the melting
of the snows. Of the vast basins formed by the streams that
flow into the Atlantic, those to the north and south of that of
the Amazon and its tributaries, receive a less amount of
rain, and consist of the richest prairies as well as of wood ;
but that of the Amazon, being the most extensive of all, is
so charged with moisture and heat, as to be covered through-
out its whole extent with stupendous trees, and a thick un-
dergrowth of shrubs and parasitic plants, so as to be in many
places almost impenetrable, and extremely unhealthy. No
wonder that the upper parts of this, the largest forest in the
world, separated from the Spanish colonies on the Pacifie by
the tremendous barrier of the Andes, and remote from the
chain of European settlements on the Atlantic sea-board,
should be still very imperfectly known. This is the region
which M. Castelnau and his companions were commissioned
to explore.
Thinly scattered as is the present Indian population of this
extensive basin, it may be expected one day to be as prolific
in human beings as it is now in the noblest productions of
vegetable life, and in wild beasts, birds, and fishes. Indeed,
on comparing the descriptions given us by Humboldt of the
three great basins drained by the Oroonoko, the Amazon,
and the Rio Plata, it would seem as if the first and the last
were best suited to herbivorous animals, the horse, the ox,
and the sheep; while the central one may ultimately prove
the most abundant in providing for the sustenance and con-
venience of man. Humboldt’s description forms an interest-
ing preparative for the story of this French expedition, and
we therefore give it entire.
“ These three transverse chains, or rather the three groups
of mountains, stretching from west to east,—that is, from
the great chain of the Andes to the Atlantic, within the limits
of the torrid zone, are separated by tracts entirely level, the
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa dei Sacramento. 121
plains of the Caraccas, or the Lower Oroonoko; the plains
of the Amazon and the Rio Negro; and the plains of Buenos
Ayres or the La Plata. Ido not use the word valley, be-
cause the Lower Oroonoko and the Amazon, far from flow-
ing in a valley, form but.a slight furrow in a vast plain. The
two basins placed at the extremities of South America are
savannahs or steppes, pasturage without trees; the inter-
mediate basin which receives the equatorial rains during the
whole year, is almost throughout one vast forest, in which
the rivers form the only roads. The same vigorous vegeta-
tion that conceals the soil, renders the uniformity of its level
less perceptible; and the plains of Caraccas and La Plata
alone bear this name. The three basins just described are
called by the colonists the Lianos of Varinas and Caraccas,
the bosques or selvas (forests) of the Amazon, and the Pam-
pas of Buenos Ayres. As the region of forests comprises at
once the plains and the mountains, it extends from 18° south
to 7° and 8° north, and stretches over nearly 120,000 square
leagues. This forest of South America,—for in fact it is only
one,—is six times larger than France.”
Let it not be supposed, however, that this vast forest, in
comparison with which those of Europe sink into perfect insig-
nificance, even in its wild state, produces no better food for
man than the acorns and chestnuts of our climate. Be it re-
membered, that so large a part of the human family live on
the produce of different sorts of the palm-tree ; that man has
been not inappropriately called a palmivorous animal. Now,
the great traveller we have quoted speaks of ninety different
species of the palm, all adapted for human support, and all
to be found in this region! Nor are they the only trees in
that huge territory that provide abundant and nutritious food
for our race, and to such trees must be added the various
edible roots, and the fish that teem in the rivers, all contri-
buting to the supply of a population which might be im-
mensely multiplied without having to dread starvation, unless
from the improvidence and idleness of savage life.
It is true that the Selva, though so abounding in food for
man, is at present so unhealthy, that even the Indians scat-
tered over it are said seldom to live beyond fifty: but they
122 French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento.
are in a wretchedly-low state of civilization, and their habits
are probably as unfavourable to longevity as any other cause.
Science and industry, too, may do much to counteract the
morbific effects of a hot and humid atmosphere. The re-
mains of pottery found in the woods, inscriptions left on the
face of the hardest rocks, traces of causeways Jaid across
swampy plains, attest the former existence in those regions
of a more numerous, civilized, and energetic race than is now
to be found there. May not another such race yet inhabit
this vast region and make it another China, teeming with in-
habitants, uniting the enterprise and inventive powers of the
European with the plodding and methodical industry of some
of the Asiatic races, Should those low ledges of granite,
which Humboldt found traversing the Llanos of the Oroo-
noko, extend through the wooded and, as yet, little known
basin of the Amazon, abundant materials may be found for
facilitating communications by means of causeways and
bridges, and for aiding the natural drainage of the country
with canals.
Our interest in such a territory, and our hopes of its be-
coming an extensive seat of civilization and useful industry,
are modified of course by the accounts we receive of the In-
dians who now inhabit it, and who are known chiefly through
the Roman Catholic missions that have been established
amongst them; but we must not judge of the capacity of a
savage people for receiving Christianity and civilization by
the experience of such missions. According to what Hum-
boldt was told and believed, some of the Selva tribes are can-
nibals,—no unlikely thing, since the New Zealanders, who
seem to have come originally from South America, were
notoriously such down to our own days. But are we to
despair of the cannibals of South America, after the com-
plete success of our Protestant missions in New Zealand,
because the Roman Catholic missions have failed to Chris-
tianize them? This would be preposterous, considering how
totally different the whole policy of these respective mis-
sions has been. Previous, indeed, to Humboldt’s disclo-
sures, the most extravagant ideas were propagated even
in Britain as to the enlightened efforts of the Spanish Ro-
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 123
manist missionaries among the Indians; and when these
Indians have turned on their alleged benefactors and killed
them, it has been regarded as the most conclusive evidence
of a nature so incurably savage as to be almost past hope of
improvement. It appears from M. de Castelnau’s report,
that in the Pampa del Sacramento alone, comprising but a
small portion of the Selva, no fewer than sixty-seven mission-
aries had been murdered ; but we apprehend that the zeal of
which they were the victims was evangelical only in name.
“ The conquest of souls,” as understood by the missionary
fathers, was very far indeed from being that of the Gospel.
To prevent their missions from dwindling away, they made
hostile incursions, called itrcedos, into the villages of the in-
dependent Indians; the natives were usually attacked in the
night, and their children seized and carried off, to be distri-
buted among the Indians of the missions as serfs. Hum-
boldt relates a heart-rending story of the sufferings under-
gone by a poor heathen Indian mother, in her almost super-
human efforts to recover a child thus mercilessly kidnapped
from her. In these circumstances, it can be no matter of
surprise that the Indians have been slow to adopt the Chris-
tianity of the religious orders that have been labouring so
long, and with so little success among them ; or, that they
look upon the missionaries with abhorrence, and are looked
upon by the latter in return as ferocious savages ; in short,
that while the Protestant missions at Otaheite, the Sand-
wich Islands, and New Zealand, have, within the last twenty
or thirty years, produced the happiest results, far otherwise
have been the state of things resulting from the labours of
three centuries spent by Roman Catholics in South Ame-
rica.
M. Castelnaw’s Report.
You are aware that we went to Cuzco, with the view of penetrat-
ing into the Pampa del Sacramento, and surveying the river Ucayali
(one of the higher branches of the Amazon.) That whole region is
now regarded by the Peruvians, as it formerly was by the Spaniards,
as one of wonder and terror. Sixty-seven missionaries had succes-
sively found a martyrdom in it; and but a few years ago, some de-
124 M. F. Castelnau’s Report of the
serters who had fled thither, all fell in one night under the clubs of
its savage inhabitants. Only one man had ever been known to enter
those wild solitudes with impunity, M. Palacios, a citizen of Cuzco,
who, after being sentenced to death,—in the course of one of those
political revolutions which are so common in that quarter,—effected
his escape, and, having nothing to lose, surrendered himself to the
wild Indians. After many adventures among them he reached the
river Amazon, and thus regained his liberty. .
From the prefect of Cuzco I had a most cordial reception, his
Excellency the President of the Republic having recommended the
expedition to his attention in the most formal manner. ‘That func-
tionary, himself a most intelligent person, was fully aware of what
importance to his own country a knowledge of the tract lying to the
east of the Cordilleras might prove; he knew that the deep valleys
that traverse it are almost the only fertile parts of Peru, and that
their rich produce is at present of no use from want of the means of
transport. Accordingly, he organized the expedition in the most
ample manner, Sixty mules laden with provisions, cordage, and
other articles required for passing torrents and precipices, soon,
thanks to his care, were on the road to the valley of Santa Anna.
Our party consisted of Messrs D’Osery, Deville, and myself. To
these the Peruvian government had added the frigate-captain Ca-
rasco, and three other officers. Sixteen soldiers were to escort the
expedition as far as the point of embarkation. As these soldiers
were known to hold the very idea of entering the Pampa in the
greatest horror, some officers were sent along with them to keep up
their spirits, as well as command them. Finally, I must not forget
my faithful Malay servant, Florentino, who has rendered me such
valuable services during this severe campaign.
The prefect of Cuzco, accompanied by a numerous staff, and many
of the city’s inhabitants, among whom there was a fellow-countryman
of my own, convoyed us so far on the 21st of July 1846. They
parted from us with unaffected grief, thinking our doom was sealed.
We slept that night at Urumbamba, and arrived next day at
Olianty-Tambo, the ancient seat of a warrior famous in that district
for having raised the standard of revolt against the powerful Inca of
Cuzco. Ruins that called forth our wonder were seen stretching
afar into the valley. The fortress, which is constructed of stones of
prodigious size, crowns a hill-top overlooking the town, right in
front of which there rises a very steep hill; and, on its side, an
ancient building is seen overhanging a tremendous precipice, over
which, as chronicles relate, the tyrant used to toss his enemies,—a
tale rendered probable by the numerous skeletons that lie scattered
at the foot.
The route we now followed was singularly picturesque, lying among
the spurs of the great chain of the Andes. Here we traversed pri-
meeval forests, and found the soil everywhere rent by water-courses,
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 125
along which the mountain torrents swept the snows they had received
from the neighbouring peaks. These valleys are peopled with colobri
or humming-birds of the most brilliant hues, and remains of the
ancient Indian civilization could often be recognized among the noble
trees of the forests. Ere long, we had to ascend a chain of moun-
tains, whose summits seemed lost in the clouds. ‘The path wound
along the mountain-side until it reached the limit of perpetual snow ;
here we were enveloped in thick mist, and our limbs felt benumbed
with cold. The sole inhabitant of those lofty regions is the condor,
which keeps constantly swooping above the head of the traveller.
We descended the eastern side of the Andes, by paths extremely
narrow, and running along the edge of tremendous precipices, and
reached at last the lovely valley of Santa Anna, abounding in
sugar-canes, coffee, cocoa, and coca, Here, this last production is
the most valuable of all; for whereas all the rest perish under foot,
owing to the impossibility of transporting them to the coast, the
coca, on the contrary, being an indispensable article of food to the
Indians, always commands a ready sale. With no farther provision
than a few handfuls of the leaves of this shrub, these will undertake
an eight days’ journey, and even more. I doubt not, that ere long,
this production of the soil will be in request in Europe; it strikes
me, it might be serviceable above all to sailors, whom it might secure
against the horrors of famine, so common in very long voyages. We
were hospitably received at the fine farms that cover the valley,
which are cultivated by Indians, paid at the rate of from a shilling to
fifteen pence. But it is often difficult to procure labourers, and the
proprietors complain much of their capricious tempers.
We reached the small village of Echarate on the 29th of July,
and remained there for some time, for the purpose of organizing the
expedition, this being the last Peruvian settlement in that direction.
Notwithstanding the minutest precautions, several of the soldiers
had already deserted, and among these was the sergeant, who went
off while relieving guard. This escort proved a most ridiculous
affair. While on the march, there was always one officer at the
head of the column and another brought up the rear; on arriving at
a village or hacienda, the soldiers were locked up and guarded, by
men belonging to the place, during the night, in spite of all which
precautions, there was not one left on our arrival at Echarate. One
of the officers even had left us on the road.
Here, with much ado, we succeeded in engaging the services of eight
men belonging to the district, and Fray Raymond Bousquet, an old
French Franciscan missionary, who had penetrated into the Pampa
del Sacramento forty years before, expressed a desire to accompany
the expedition. bis monk, who had been born in Spain, although
now verging on eighty, had resolved to give us the benefit of his ex-
perience among the tribes of the wilderness, having been requested
to do so by the Bishop of Cuzco. Ever in high spirits himself and
126 M. F. Castelnau’s Report of the
full of kindness, he kept up our spirits by his example and his dis-
courses, until the day on which he fell a victim to his evangelical
zeal, as we shall see by-and-bye. A French artist whom we found
at Echarate, likewise joined our party.
We had now to embark on the river Urubamba, which takes the
name of Ucayali, after its junction with the river Jambo or Apuri-
mac, the point of embarkation being six leagues from Echarate.
Thither we accordingly repaired, passing on our way the mission of
Cocabambilla, which had been founded by Father Bousquet. At the
quay we found six canoes and two rafts, that had been prepared for
us by an officer sent forward for that purpose by the prefect. Twelve
Antés Indians also had been engaged as guides. These Antés form
a numerous nation, occupying the whole tract of country between
the rivers Urubamba and Apurimac. They still wear the ancient
costume of the Incas, consisting of a long robe, and an opening on
each side for the arms. The Indians paint themselves of a red
colour, with the pigment called rocou. They never congregate in
villages, but live in detached families along the banks of the rivers.
The expedition embarked at last, on the afternoon of the 14th of
August, starting from the small port of Chouaris, where there is but
one solitary uninhabited hut, being that set apart for storing quin-
quina, abundance of which is collected in that quarter.
Here, M. Minister, Iam compelled to say that there was but little
harmony between M. Carrasco (the Peruvian naval officer), and the
French part of the expedition. I abstain from entering into the
painful details, which I communicated to the Chargé d’affairs at Lima.
All I shall here say is, that that officer ill answered to the kind and
generous intentions of the government of the republic.
Not many minutes after our setting off, we passed the first rapid.
The very small size of our canoes, rendered these rapids highly dan-
gerous to us, and one of them narrowly escaped being swamped. We
found it necessary to remove the slight coverings of palm leaves
which we had put up to protect us from the broiling rays of the sun.
On the 15th we passed several rapids, and the Falls of Lliampani.
Next day, one of the boats made a narrow escape; and a box, con-
taining our astronomical instruments, was carried down the stream.
I offered a high reward to whoever should recover this precious part
of our baggage, and we were fortunate enough to do so. We were
about six leagues only distant from the port of our embarkation, and
already, owing to circumstances to me unaccountable, our provisions
began to fall short.
During the night of the 17th, four men deserted, and on the day
following, looking at the difficulties now before us, the question of
the possibility of our continuing the expedition was discussed. I then
considered it as my duty to shew that the French never abandon an
enterprise, however hazardous, as long as there remains the slightest
chance of success. I called my fellow-travellers together, accord-
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 127
ingly, and placing myself at their head, asked each to state his
opinion, in the order of their ages, beginning with the youngest. All
were agreed as to the gravity of our circumstances. I then proposed
the following questions: 1st, Is there any possibility of continuing
the expedition, without sacrificing the baggage ? 2d, Can it be pro-
secuted at the expense of separation from the baggage ?
The answer to the former of these questions was given with one
voice in the negative, and as for the latter, two voices only declared
the impossibility of prosecuting the expedition under any circum-
stances ; one being that of M. D’Osery, who, aware that I had fully
resolved to send back the baggage to Lima under his safeguard, could
not think of encouraging his companions to subject themselves to risks
which he knew he would not have to share with them. I refrain
from saying who the other was, and who exclaimed that it would be
running into certain death, and would fain have had us recall the
resolution we had taken, alleging that the junior officers had misap-
prehended the question ; and, finally, declaring that it meant that a
part of the expedition might continue, but that nothing bore that it
ought to be continued.
I immediately broke up the council, and it was resolved, that leav-
ing all our instruments, and almost all our baggage under charge of
M. D’Osery and a Peruvian officer, we should forthwith proceed with
our voyage in the canoes. It was agreed that our comrade should
rejoin us by the land route, on the Amazon. Our separation in such
circumstances caused one of the saddest moments of my life, and I
stept into the canoe, hardly able to suppress my tears.
No sooner had we set off than we enterd a succession of danger-
ous rapids in which three of our canoes were upset; the men con-
trived to escape with their lives, but a bag of rice,—our main supply
of food,—was lost, and we found ourselves reduced to forty pounds
of chocolate for the support of so many people in unknown wilds.
Almost all our powder, too, had been swept away by the water. In
the evening we arrived at the mouth of the river Sirialo; here we
had for supper only some green bananas and a little wet and mouldy
biscuit. An extraordinary rise of the river took place that night.
The water rushed upon us instantaneously, and a furious storm fol-
lowing next morning, drenched us thoroughly. This storm lasted
till noon of the 19th, and the rest of the day was spent in drying our
clothes and other articles. The bank of the river presented a very
odd sight for the time. Here were spread out coats and uniforms ;
there lay priest’s ornaments and sacramental cups. We did our ut-
most to dry the chocolate, hut already it had become sour. But this
day I met with a much worse loss,—that, namely, of my chrono-
meter, into which the water had found its way and stopped its move-
ments.
Among our Indians there was one that had particularly distin-
guished himself by his activity and willingness to be of use. This
128 M. F. Castelnau’s Report of the
evening he told us that he was a runaway, in consequence of his
having murdered a family of ten persons in order to get possession
of an axe. Such were the men at whose mercy we were about to
find ourselves placed.
We had eaten nothing during the day, and hunger, which had al-
ready extremely weakened us, now affected us with a constant giddi-
ness. We still had a mouldy ham, filled with maggots, and a coun-
cil being held in order to decide whether it should be sacrificed, al-
though prudence urged our preserving it for some worse extremity,
gluttony prevailed, and we thought it delicious.
Two men deserted on the night of the 20th. So reduced were
we in strength that it required all our efforts to float the canoes that
had been left high and dry by the subsiding flood. We this day
passed the falls of Sirialo, forming four successive descents of the
water from a great height. We proceeded along the banks, assist-
ing the old priest with much difficulty over the rocks, which were
often perpendicular, while the men passed the canoes over the falls.
This was an infinitely laborious operation; for the crews were now
reduced for the whole tour, to two of the men who had been hired,
and four Indians, together with my faithful servant Florentino.
Having passed the falls, we re-entered the canoes, two of which
were almost immediately swamped in a rapid, by which we lost
nearly all that remained of our chocolate, our last resource against
the horrors of hunger.
We slept at the mouth of the little river Sangobatea, whence two
of our men went to an Indian hut, situate about a league off in the
interior, and returned with some roots of manioo. One may readily
imagine our delight at getting these. Next day I lost one of my
canoes in a rapid, and was happy in being able to purchase from the
Indians, for an axe, a small raft in which to stow what articles we
had contrived to save. We then passed many rapids, and put up
for the night at an Indian hut, the owner of which possessed a beauti-
ful canoe. This I vainly tried to purchase. ‘I am happy,’ said
he, “and there is nothing on earth I need wish for: I have a hut,
a canoe, bow and arrows, three wives, and two dogs, and what more
would you have me have ?”
Vegetation now became more and more beautiful ; ferns as tall
as trees, together with thousands of palm trees, imparted to the
scene a decidedly tropical character, and this was not belied by the
presence of numerous Indians. Here Father Bousquet baptized an
infant, whose father insisted on having an axe given to him. It is
not likely that Maria Francisca, such was the child's baptismal name,
will ever know in this world that the waters of baptism have re-
generated her forehead.
In the course of the night I had a sharp attack of fever, which I
attributed not only to our horribly bad food, but, alas, to the water
finding its way into our canoe, and the wetness of my clothes. The
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 129
rapids followed each other in such close succession as to admit of no
intervals long enough for the drying of our clothes in the sun.
Another boat was swamped on the 22d. Some time after, a large
Howling monkey was killed; but, hungry as I was, I could not prevail
on myself to eat of an animal so much resembling a child. Already
we were without shoes, and when proceeding by land, the pebbles
and rocks, heated intensely by the sun, scorched our feet, and caused
acute suffering ; in addition to which, we were frightfully cut by the
sharp stones over which we had to walk. In the evening we halted
at an Indian hut: there was nobody in it, but we found a few green
bananas. I had suspended my hammock from the posts which sup-
ported the frail edifice; in the course of the night down came the
whole with a crash, and I barely escaped being crushed by the roof,
from which I found it no easy matter to disengage myself. Here
we remained all next day for the purpose of drying our powder and
other articles that had escaped our successive disasters. Having
killed a hocco and some red aras, this secured us a dinner. ‘The
latter we found very common here, and the bright plumage of these
magnificent birds forms a charming contrast with the deep green of
the palm trees on which they perch in large flocks.
On the 24th my canoe was swamped in a rapid, and with it
perished a large part of my effects. Such accidents were now mat-
ters of daily occurrence, and are mentioned merely to give an idea of
the miseries we had to encounter.
Next day, having nothing left but chocolate, we tried to swallow
a little, but found it as sour as vinegar. We then, with great diffi-
culty, passed the Fall of Montalo. Here the whole formation is
schistous, but among the boulders on the banks of the river we found
much of the debris of granite and red sandstone. We were com-
pelled to go more than half a league by land, over rocks shelving so
rapidly that we had often to support ourselves by holding by the
branches. During the whole afternoon we were exposed to a violent
storm.
Our supper consisted of a coati, an animal that lives in the woods,
and much resembles in appearance a large rat, and of roots gathered
from among the rocks. At nightfall some Indian women brought
us bananas.
The 26th was a sad day to our party. The canoe that conveyed
Father Bousquet was carried over a fall, and the poor missionary was
drowned; a prayer to God being the last words he was heard to
utter. The old man had adopted a child, who accompanied him ;
and it is impossible to describe the despair of poor Franchito on see-
ing his benefactor perish. He implored us to allow him to search
for his dead body, a favour which the pressure of hunger compelled
us, alas! to refuse. Such was the death of a man who had spent
fifty years in the wilds of America, On the same occasion we sus
VOL. XLVIII. NO. xCV.— JAN. 1850. I
130 M. F. Castelnau on the
tained a loss, little thought of at the time, but keenly felt afterwards,
that of our supply of salt.
We now followed the right bank of the stream, proceeding by land,
and clinging with infinite difficulty to the rocks, The canoes made
vain efforts to rejoin us; they were prevented by the force of the
current. Ere long they were struggling with the Maperontani Fall,
where the river, hemmed in betwixt perpendicular cliffs rushes
furiously against the enormous rocks that obstruct its course. The
fall presents three successive steps, and is about three metres and
a half in total height. We held the right bank, whereas the canoes
ran along the left. We could see everything, but the noise effec-
tually prevented our making ourselves heard. Such of the canoes as
contained a few articles succeeded in passing, but it was soon found
impossible to get the others over with their cargoes. The Indians
and the men who had been hired, quite spent with fatigue, refused
to take the baggage in their arms ; and then it was that the faithful
Florentino threw it over his shoulder, and, quite unassisted, carried
the entire lading of the two canoes, in successive trips, over fright-
ful rocks. I anxiously followed him with my eye, fearing lest, sink-
ing with fatigue, he might leave behind what was the most precious
article for me, yet whose value he could not appreciate, my only
barometer, brought with so much difficulty from Lima. Great was
my delight at seeing him take up the instrument and carry it with
a sort of respect to the point where it could be re-embarked. The
Indians then attached stout ropes of bindweed to the canoes, and
thus succeeded in passing them over the cataract. It was not until
nightfall, and about half a league farther on, that we could rejoin our
fellow-travellers on board the canoes. Several of them had lost
their clothes that day ; and it gave M. Deville and myself great plea-
sure to share with them the few articles that remained.
Weak as we were from the effects of bad food, and harassed with
fatigue, our courage was sustained by the certainty of our having
nearly reached the termination of the falls. Of this we were made
aware, both by the thermometer and by the notably diminished ele-
vation of the spurs of the Cordillera. In fact, on the 27th, we passed
the two last falls, but these are the most terrible of all. The for-
mer of these is called Chalioncani; the latter, Chilbucani ; the latter
is an object of dread even to the Antés Indians, habituated though
they be to that kind of danger.
At this point the river enters a narrow channel, and on each side
perpendicular rocks tower as high as the eye can reach. The waters
rush furiously down this pass, which, towards its lower extremity,
becomes a gorge only from six to eight metres wide. While the
savages passed the canoes along by means of cordage attached to both
ends, we followed a narrow ledge running along the left bank.
This we found exceedingly difficult to pass, helping each other the.
best way we could. At last we suddenly came to the end of this para-
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 131
pet, and were horrified to find we should have to embark from the top
of a very high rock, worn perpendicular by the action of the water,
which was boiling with incredible fury at its base. The Indians
passed the canoes along with great skill; but the cordage that at-
tached one of these to the rest, having snapt, it shot down a great
way with the speed of an arrow. The whole being brought at last
to one place, the embarkation proceeded.
By this time I was so reduced in strength, that I was obliged to
have myself bound to a rope before I durst venture to slide down
from the top of the rock. An Indian tribe, very little known as
yet, the Pauca Pacouris, often lie in ambush among these rocks, with
the view of attacking the Antés when engaged in surmounting the
natural difficulties of this passage.
Hardly had we emerged from this dangerous pass, when we en-
tered a narrow channel, differing much, however, from the last.
Here the water lay perfectly still and dead, as if the river had been
exhausted with its long struggle, and felt the need of repose. This
formed one of the most picturesque points I ever saw; on each side
immense perpendicular schistous rocks, taking the forms of vast
towers and ramparts. They impend high over the river, and from
their summits descend innumerable cascades, which, ere they reach
the surface of the stream below, are dissipated into mere mist and
rain, which the rays of the sun tinge with all the hues of the rain-
bow. In the interstices of the rocks, there is a vigorous growth of
tropical vegetation, in which elegant palms form the finest object.
No words can give an adequate idea of the beauty of this magnificent
landscape.
Here the falls of the Urubamba terminate, and we had hence-
forth nothing worse to encounter than rapids attended with little
danger; and now there lay stretched out before us, the vast wooded
plains known as the Pampa del Sacramento. This point is about
sixty leagues from Echarate ; and should trade ever take possession
of the course of the Ucayali, here there should be a post, and a land
route should be opened as far as the settlements in the valley of Santa
Anna.
The Indians left us on the following night, and we found the
utmost difficulty in pursuing our voyage without them. The whole
morning was spent without food, when, at last, pressed by hunger, we
entered a small stream, the Rio Sabeti, into which we threw a
poisonous root used by the Indians for the fish, and shortly a num-
ber of small ones, about the size of gudgeons, rose to the surface
in a torpid state. Among these there was one of a new kind which
I wanted to add to our collections, but its owner refused to part with
it until I had relinquished to him all my own share of the capture.
This I mention only to shew how far hunger had led us. Not
long afterwards some Indians sold us some green bananas which
we devoured when hardly cooked in the ashes. One more of the
132 M. F. Castelnau on the
canoes was this day swamped and lost, and with it our last remain-
ing musket.
In the course of the afternoon, we came to a cabin belonging to
the Antés Indians, who gave us some lamentin (sea-cow) beef. It
was served in a calabash, and all of us, black and white alike,
eagerly thrust in our hands for a share. Two of these Indians en-
gaged for axes, sabres, &c., to conduct us as far as the country of
the Chataquiros or Piros, called by the Antés Simirinchis.
On the 20th we passed the mouth of a large river flowing from
the east ; the Antés call it Camisca.
Although we started before day, we made but slow progress, for
the Indians stopped at every step to fish, or to hunt the hoccos or
pecaris, a sort of wild boar ; but as they generally consented to sell
us part of the proceeds of their chase, we had thenceforward far less
to suffer from hunger. Still the preparation of our food without
salt gave us great disrelish for it. The Indians wanted to leave us
in the evening, although paid for a ten days’ journey ; and told us
with incredible coolness that they could not go as far as the Chou-
taquiros, because they had kidnapped several of them, and were they
to fall in with them, would most certainly be killed.
We were in this singular perplexity when we saw two canoes com-
ing towards us, which were recognized as belonging to that nation.
They contained two families, every individual among whom was
painted black all over, so that they looked like negroes. They are
thought to be the most thieving tribe of all that inhabit those re-
gions, and it is they that have committed most of the murders that
have made the Pampa del Sacramento an object of terror; but, on
the other hand, they are the most fearless of all that navigate the
Ucayali, and their expeditions extend from the Urubamba to the
Amazon. They accosted us with shouts of satisfaction, and were
delighted at receiving knives, mirrors, small bells, and necklaces of
glass beads. They undertook to conduct us as far as one of their
villages, which they called Santa Rosa, and which they told us lay
at the distance of a ten days’ journey. I omit the details of our
voyage beyond saying that we suffered cruelly one day in consequence
of having eaten some poisonous kidney beans which we had found in
a forsaken hut.
We were always careful at night to encamp on the left bank of
the stream, the right being exposed to the attacks of the Impeteneres
or Amahuacas, a barbarous nation at war with the Choutaquiros,
and several individuals belonging to which we saw reduced toa state
of slavery in the cabins of the latter. Our preparations for the night
were of the simplest kind; the sand sometimes broiling hot, some-
times soaked with rain, formed our only bed, and there we lay till
morning exposed to the tortures inflicted on us by the musquitoes.
As soon as the canoes were brought to the bank, aware that we had
no service to look for from any one, M. Deville and I set off to col-
French Scientific Mission to the Pampa del Sacramento. 133
lect wood for a fire; and severe work it was, in the weak state we
were in, to drag to our encampment heavy branches or entire trunks
of trees. While we were thus occupied, Florentino drew the canoes
ashore, baled out the water, lifted out the stowage, and then cooked
our food. During these proceedings, we often met with crocodiles,
and were constantly awakened at night by the howlings of the
jaguars.
At last, on the 6th September, after having passed the mouth of
the Rio Tambo or Apurimac, we reached the small Choutaquiro village
of Santa Rosa, which has nothing Christian about it but its name.
There we were received with sufficient hospitality, and the Indians
agreed to conduct us as far as the Tachytea. On the 8th we came
to the large village of Consaya, inhabited also by that tribe, and
where we had to submit to numerous thefts without a thought of com-
plaining, to avoid being massacred.
On the 11th of September we reached the Connibos nation, with
whom it is the practice to compress the heads of their infant children
between two wooden boards, so as to deform them, in order, they say,
to give them the shape of the moon, while that of the whites is like
the head of a monkey. One of these Indians gave me a small bit of
salt.
On the 16th we reached the small village of Connibos of the Pachy-
tea, which stands opposite the mouth of the river of the same name,
and is inhabited by the cannibal tribe of the Cashibos. The houses
of the Cashibos are remarkable for their immense size; they can
generally afford shelter to above two hundred men.
On the 1st of October we left this village, and the same evening
the Indians, who had been engaged and paid to go as far as Saray-
acu, would proceed no farther. After this, we began daily to expe-
rience such embarrassments ; sometimes on making fresh payments
of articles from our store, or on distributing pieces of money among
them, they would agree to accompany us a day or two longer; at
other times, they would leave us in the wilderness. It is impossible
to put any confidence in what they say : their bad faith exceeds belief.
On the 21st we reached the first huts of the tribe of the Sapibos,
whom we fouud more civilized than the preceding tribes, and who
conducted us on the 27th to the mission of Sarayacu, situate at some
distance in the interior. Such was the state of weakness to which I
was reduced, that I could not proceed thither by land, whereupon the
Padre Plaza, prefect of the mission of Ucayali, was kind enough to
send me a canoe, which was dragged along a brook that led as far as
the village. We were received with the utmost hospitality by the
worthy old man, who threw himself on my neck, and told me, that
on receiving a notice of my journey from the government, he had im-
mediately written in reply, dissuading from the attempt, under the
idea of its impossibility. He lost no time in celebrating a thanks-
giving mass, and all the Indians of the mission, about a thousand in
134 Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps.
number, betook themselves to their national dances, which they ac-
companied with discharges of musketry, in testimony of their joy at
our safe arrival. These Indians belong to the Pani tribe.
After recruiting our strength, we set off with M. de Ville for the
Amazon, where I shall wait for M. D’Osery till the 1st of January.
The loss of our scientific instruments has deprived us of those
highly interesting observations which we might have made upon the
river ; yet we shall give a report on a series of barometrical obserya-
tions, pursued even during our most disastrous days, and which will
present curious enough results, demonstrating the extraordinary ra-
pidity of the fall of the rivers that descend from the Cordillera, an
itinerary of the river, much geographical information and beautiful
collections for the museum of natural history,
Be pleased, Mr Minister, to accept the assurance of profound re-
spect with which I am, Xe. F. Dz CastELNAUv.
MISSION OF SARAYACU, 1Oth October 1846.
Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps, and
other Geological Topics. Communicated in a Letter to
ROBERT CHAMBERS, Esq. F.R.S.E., &e. &e.
VIENNA, 25th November 1849.
K. K. Neues Munzgebaude.
D5AR Sir,—lI take the liberty of answering your interest-
ing letter of the Sth of June, having, in the mean time, con-
ceived a theory, which, if correct, may become of some im-
portance in your researches. I have here translated a first
short notice, published in the Journal of the Friends of Science
at Vienna (vol. vi., August 1849.) Perhaps you may think
it proper to appear in one of your Journals.
Tam glad to hear an Englishman complaining of the ex-
clusiveness with which paleontology is cultivated, to the de-
detriment of real geology, for I myself am devoting my par-
ticular attention to the latter, leaving shells to others; and
this summer, in particular, I flatter myself to have made a
great step in metamorphism, and to have found the general
key to it. I have now read your paper on the Rhone Valley,
and was sorry to see the question stated in that light, after
having been elucidated in its chief points by Necker, De
Saussure, and Alphonse Favre, who have shewn that the
Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps. 135
diluvial terraces of Geneva are genuine river formations,
without the shadow of anything like traces of the sea.”
The tertiary sea had entirely disappeared when the diluvial
period began. The heights I give you are taken from
Dufour’s splendid military map; being trigonometrically
measured, they deserve full confidence as to their correct-
ness. I am much obliged for the notice on your till and
drift ; but 1 feel that I must see it with my own eyes to geta
clear notion of it. I hope, in course of time, to make an ap-
plication of your theory on the changes of the relative level
of seaand land. The theory of soudévemens of Elie de Beau-
mont, although true in many cases, will have to be modified.
You will easily perceive that my researches on the molasse
are not at all unfavourable to you; when combined with what
we know of the molasse in the rest of the world, it even
leads us to suspect an immense change of 3000 feet over the
whole globe, and of which your diluvial changes of a few
hundred feet would be the last tip end of the tail. An im-
mense and powerful continent must have been submerged
somewhere, even before the subsidence of the Pacifie conti-
nent. I am glad to be able to furnish you with some data on
the west coast of North America, from a letter of my friend,
William Fraser Tolmie of Glasgow, surgeon to the Hudson’s
Bay Company in Oregon. In laying it before the Friends of
Science at Vienna, I again recalled to mind your theory,
which is strongly supported by the fact of these terraces be-
ing now known all round North and South America. My
friend writes from Nisqually on Puget’s Sound. As he is in
hopes of coming over in 1850, you may perhaps see him. I
answered his letter, and mentioned your views.
Scotland being such a beautiful fiord region might, perhaps,
furnish good data to complete the proposed theory. I take
* Allusion is here made to a paper by Mr Chambers, which appeared in this
Journal (January 1849), and in which it was maintained, that a recipient body
of water, such as the sea, is required, besides a river, to account for the forma-
tion of valley terraces, placed high above the present beds of the river. The
author thinks that M. Morlot, from prepossession of mind, may have given too
hasty a glance at this paper, and failed to observe the force of its arguments.
136 Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps.
the liberty of calling your attention to the subject. You
must surely possess most extensive soundings for the purpose
of navigation. Believe me to be, dear Sir, your faithful and
obedient servant. A. MORLOT.
On the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps.
The younger tertiary formation (miocene), or molasse, forms
the low hilly country surrounding the Alps; it shews very
distinctly in Lower Styria, a system of equally elevated ridges,
which, looked at from a distance, constitute a horizontal level,
distinctly cut off by the transition rocks, which arise abruptly
out of it to a much greater height. It is thus clear, that the
molasse once formed a continuous plain, the subsequent fur-
rowing of which produced the undulated country described.
At first sight, one is tempted to consider this clearly-de-
fined level as that of the ¢ertiary sea itself, in which it was
formed, and which would then, in the neighbourhood of Graz,
for example, have stood at about 500 feet above the Mur, or
1500 feet above the present level of the sea.
The interior of the Eastern Alps presents the same pheno-
mena. We see there as well as in such wider depressions as
Lower Carinthia, as also in the larger valleys, like that of
the Mur and Miirz, of the Drava and Sava, more or less
horizontal and continuous deposits of the miocene formation,
but which reach here much higher than round the outskirts of
the Alps, for they attain in Lower Carinthia, and in the wider
parts of the chief valleys, as for example, at Tudenburg
in Upper Styria, a level of 2500 feet above the sea, whilst
they even rise in some more remote and gently ascending
side-valleys to an extreme height of 3000 feet ; for example,
at the Pass of Obdach, between Tudenburg and Wolfsberg, in
Carinthia, the very top of which is miocene, and contains the
brown coal and impressions of leaves characterizing the oldest
strata of the system in the country. Another, and even more
singular instance of the same kind is to be seen at Tarvis,
when, after following the miocene deposits from Lower |
Carniola all along up the valley of Sava, you arrive at the
WTS Dem Te
Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps. 137
highest point of the pass, between Carinthia and Italy, and
find here the same formation again, nearly 3000 feet above the
level of the sea, and shewing that the miocene Jtalian sea
stood in uninterrupted communication with the gulfs or
mediterranean districts of Carinthia and Carniola, by a long
and narrow arm, crossing the precipitous chain of the Southern
Alps, which rise in the Terglou,* to a height of 9000 feet.
A narrow side arm of this long channel must have branched
off from the valley of the Sava into the Wochein, a most
picturesque site, representing a deep chasm in the stupen-
dous limestone masses of the Terglou. For here, again, the
same deposits are found at about 2500 feet above the sea,
and what is of particular import, they contain here not
only the usual impressions of land plants but also sea
shells (Cerithium and Natica) ; so that it is quite certain
that even here, in this most retired corner, the water was
salt and in communication with the open sea.
Everywhere, in all the known localities, one finds the same
subdivisions of the formation. At the bottom, brown coal
and marly schists, with fossil plants, mostly dicotyledonous ;
as for example, at the celebrated locality of Parschlug in
Upper Styria (Miirz Valley), where Professor Unger has
found 142 different species, all extinct, but very similar to
such as grow now in the southern parts of North America.
Next follow grey micaceous sandstones, true molasse, gene-
rally passing into and covered by more or less coarse con-
glomerates. It is thus clear, that we have everywhere the
same parallel strata deposited contemporaneously in one and
the same sea, not only skirting the outer flanks of the Alps,
but reaching far inland into all their depressions and even
crossing the chain by those passes, which at present are not
higher than 3000 feet, thus forming a most complete ford
region (or frith region), as is more clearly illustrated by a
map coloured to the purpose.
Now comes the question. Whence does the considerable
difference in the known levels of the formation arise, a dif-
ference attaining not only as before seen 1500 feet, but which
* Terglou or Triglou, Slavonian tri-glava, three heads.
138 Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps.
reaches even near 3000 feet, if we compare the brown coal
bed on the Pass of Obdach and the deepest Artesian borings
at Vienna, where they have not yet sunk through the miocene
formation, although they reach the present level of the sea ?*
If the level of the formation indicates, as at first supposed,
the level of the ¢ertiary sea itself, it follows that, at the close
of the tertiary period, the different tracts of the country
must have been upheaved in a very different measure. But
whilst there is nowhere in the whole country a single ap-
pearance of such unequal local upheavings, the intimate and
regular connexion between the height of the level and its
situation, more or less inland and remote from the open sea,
points to a totally different cause, upon the nature of which
Mr Simony’s very accurate and complete soundings of the
Lake of Hallstadt, near Salzburg, appear to have thrown some
light. This irregularly-shaped lake, surrounded by precipi-
tous cliffs, naturally also shews beneath water-mark (water-
level) steep, rocky banks, which, however, are suddenly cut
off at a certain depth by a tolerably even surface, evidently
the plane of deposition of the nearly horizontal recent strata.
Where the lake is narrowed this plane rises nearer and
nearer to the surface of the water, so as almost to reach it,
and yet without standing in any relation to deltas, which of
course are here set aside, and are not considered as being
foreign to the subject.
Now, considering the known tertiary deposits, it appears
highly probable that their level does not indicate the former
level of the sea, but only marks the plane of deposition, which
being more or less deep, owing to the sea being more or less
open, so that the more you advance along the fiords into the
interior of the eastern Alps, and the more of course, the bottom
of the ancient sea was shallowing, the more you see the level
of the tertiary deposits arising, until they attain an extreme
height of 3000 feet, which will have been but little below the
water-mark.
To avoid all misunderstanding, let it be remarked, that
there has been no question here of diluvial terraces, which
* Vienna lies 545 English feet above the sea,
Remarks on the Level of the Molasse in the Eastern Alps. 139
regularly following the present water-courses, and being
formed by them after the tertiary sea had disappeared from
the country, really mark the former higher river-/evel itself.
We are thus led to distinguish two sorts of levels of depo-
sition: First, In standing water, in seas or lakes, at a cer-
tain depth below the surface, dependent on the configura-
tion of the water reservoir; secondly, as produced by run-
ning water, rivers, or torrents, and, in this case, marking the
highest level attained by the water. Sea-beaches, not form-
ing strata of much importance, and only tracing a line along
the shore when this is not steep, have not been considered
here. If they existed in the tertiary seas of the eastern
Alps, they must have been easily obliterated during the dilu-
vial period.
Lake of Hallstadt.
AM
/
pe ee = Watermark
ST ee Pe Plane of deposition
Letter from William Fraser Tolmie, Esq., Surgeon in the Service
of the Hudson Bay Company.
The superficial formations along the shores of Puget’s
Sound, Admiralty Inlet, and by the southern side of the Straits
of Juan de Fuca, to within a few miles of Cape Flattery, is
in some places, as here, a gravel bed of from 200 to 400 feet in
thickness above the level of the sea; in more numerous locali-
ties itis a whitish-yellow, loamy earth, this being the character
of the cliffs and promontories of the western coast of Whid-
bey’s Island, and, as Captain Wood, of H. B. M’s. surveying
vessel, informed me, from Port Discovery to the neighbour-
hood of Cape Flattery, which portion of the coast he surveyed
in 1846. The prairie in general, from Nisqually to Puyallip,
is elevated from 200 to 350 feet above the sea-level, and its
ascent is sudden and steep. All the clumps or belts of pines
not bordering the river-banks, the sea, or lakes, grow on ele-
vated knolls or table-lands, many of which have only a cover-
ing of grass and scattered oaks; some are raised 50 or 60
feet above the level of the prairie, and it is remarkable that
140 M. de Buch on the
the soil of all is more free of gravel and of better quality
than that of the plains. Springs burst from the sides of
some of them, and small lakes are found on the summits of
some of the principal. In proceeding from Nisqually to Puy-
allip, five terraces, running across the prairie in an easterly
and westerly direction, are descended, and only one inclining
in a contrary direction is to be met with.* The occurrence of
terraces is observable in the prairies south of Nisqually, but
isolated mounds are less frequent than hereabouts.
NisQuaLuy, 2d December 1848.
On the Limits of the Chalk-Formation. By M. DE BUCH.
The low latitude to which the chalk strata have attained,
when compared with the jurassic formations, and_ still
more with the paleozoic rocks, has been considered by M.
Boue, with much appearance of truth, as the most ancient
action of climateric influence on the fauna of the ancient
world. The most northern point of the world at which
chalk has hitherto been found, is, according to M. Forch-
hammer’s observations, the neighbourhood of Thistedt, in
Jutland, that is to say, near the 57° north latitude, nearly on
a line with Aberdeen, in Scotland, Calmar Mittan, Twer, and
Casan. Chalk does not reach so high a latitude in England ;f
the last point where it is observed is the southern side of Rath-
lin Island, at the Giant’s Causeway, in the latitude of Ape-
wiade, Bornholm, and Tilsit. Flamborough Head, at 54° north
latitude, is its extreme limit in England. In Russia, its limits
become lower towards the south. From Grondo, where the
* Judging from a rough topographical sketch, M. Tolmie means one of the
five terraces, not a sixth; but I am not sure.
+ The occurrence in Buchan, in Aberdeenshire, of tracts of country with
chalk flints containing the usual animal remains, may be held as an intimation
of the probable existence there of portions of the chalk-formation in some of
the hollows at present covered up by diluvium. Many years ago we examined
Buchan. We trust that ere long the existence or non-existence of deposits of
chalk will be determined. Mr William Ferguson, in his amusing published
Notices on Buchan, says he had not met with chalk.
Limits of the Chalk- Formation. 141
chalk still appears at 54° north latitude, it descends, as may
be seen by M. Murchison’s beautiful geographical map, by
Mohilew and Orel, half a degree to the south of Moscow, then
to Simbirsk and the Volga, as far as the Caucasus. It was al-
together an unexpected event that Messrs Murchison, Ver-
neuil, and Keyserling again discovered this chalk on the
banks of the River Ural, 20 German miles below Oren-
bourg, at 513° north latitude. The Muchodjar mountain ap-
pears to be the limit of these formations towards theeast. The
prodigious extent of Siberia, from the Ural as far as Ochotzk,
and from the Altai to the Icy Sea, has been so well and
carefully examined by mining engineers, naturalists, and
searchers for gold, that we have reason to doubt the exist-
ence of chalk strata over this vast extent of country.
Everywhere within these limits, the upper chalk appears
to be the bed distinguished principally by Gryphwa vesicu-
laris, Belemnites mucronatus and mamillaris, Inoceramus Cu-
viert and Cripsii, Ostrea diluvii, Terebratula carnea and
semiglobosa, Ananchytes ovata, Galerites vulgaris and albo-
galera, and their analogues. The old chalk strata appear as
we descend to the south ; and in the Caucasus and Daghes-
tan, these ancient (neocomian) beds seem to reach, according
to the excellent researches of M. Abich, a thickness of nearly
5000 feet. It is as if avast wave had descended from the
summit of the Caucasus, extended itself forwards, and ex-
pired by degrees on the plain, at the limits of the ancient
rock formations.
On the other side of the ocean, the chalk-formations ter-
minate in the Atlantic portion of the United States, before
reaching the city of New York, so that their limit scarcely
rises to 40° of north latitude, 16° less than in Europe. In
Kentucky and Tenessee, this limit is below 37° north latitude.
But it is otherwise in the Missouri, where the great river of
that name flows without interruption from the foot of the
Rocky Mountains, over an extent of 1400 miles, through for-
mations of chalk, at least as far as the mouth of the River
Sioux. This, at all events, is what we learn from the
Memoirs and Collections of Prince Neuwied, and the Report
of Nicollet, the astronomer. It appears, then, that, in the
142 M. de Buch on the
western part of America, the chalk strata reach to 50° of
north latitude, that is to say, 10° higher than the east coast.
Their development, also, in this place, is greater than that
of any other formation known on the surface of the globe.
Captain Fremont has seen, in the neighbourhood of the River
Plate, chalk strata with scattered specimens of Inoceramus
Gripsii. They have likewise been found in the Arkansas,
and as far as Santa Fe, in New Mexico, near Monterey and
Laredo, by Dr Vislicenus, as appears from reports made to
the Congress of Washington in 1848. In the Rocky Moun-
tains and their prolongations to the east of Santa Fe, in New
Mexico, this chalk-sea appears completely interrupted.
Captain Fremont could discover no traces of it towards the
River Columbia, nor towards the River Humboldt, in the
singular great basin which extends as far as the Western
Ocean.
It is further observable, that here this vast formation of
chalk consists only of the superior beds. According to very
extensive and correct researches, Sir Charles Lyell is of
opinion, that throughout the whole of North America, only
strata of chalk are met with, which extend from the chalk of
Maestrich to the gault; and M. Ferdinand Romer, in conse-
quence of his accurate researches in the Texas, goes so far
as to affirm that all the formations of that country, which is
already sufficiently remote from the Atlantic coast, ought to
be considered only as superior beds, which do not even belong
to the gault.
These surprising phenomena are, however, limited to
North America. Even in Mexico we see deeper beds make
their appearance.
M. Galeotti has brought back from Tehuacan, towards the
limits of the province of Oaxaca, trigonize, which he has de-
scribed as the Trigonia plicatocostata (Bulletin de Bruxelles,
iii, No. 10). This trigonia belongs to the subdivision of
the Trigonie scabrw of Agassiz, and differs little from the
Trigonia aliformis, Sow. It is characteristic for the middle
chalk, chloriteous chalk, and even the gault. According to
M. Galeotti, it is found in the middle of the great cordillera of
Anahuac, 12 leagues to the north-west of Tehuacan, in such
Limits of the Chalk- Formation. 143
great abundance that it may be considered as characteristic
in regard to the whole of this formation. One is surprised, he
says, to meet with such great masses of fossil shells, so many
fragments of ammonites of many feet in diameter, or stalks of
gigantic corals in these localities to such a degree, that there
is not perhaps, in the whole surface of the earth, a point
where, over so many leagues, we find such a mass of organic
remains. This trigonia reappears in South America, in the
mountains of Santa Fe de Bogota, whence M. de Humboldt
brought it to Europe for the first time. These mountains of
Santa Fe present, in the most evident manner, judging from
the products found in the formations, the middle stage of the
chalk. This I have endeavoured to shew in the description
of M. de Humboldt’s Collection of American Fossils (Berlin,
1849) ; and the proof has been given at still greater length by
M. Alcide d’Orbigny, in his learned and well-considered
work on M. Boussingault’s collections. As all the forma-
tions of chalk in New Granada reach a thickness of 5000
feet, it ought not to appear surprising that we there meet
with organic remains of the inferior stage of the chalk,
the neocomian formation. M. d’Orbigny has described an
Exogyra from Socorra, which differs in nothing from the
Exogyra Couloni of the neocomian formation. The same
exogyra has been collected in abundance by the late Meyen,
on the declivity of the voleanoes of Maypo, in Chili, at a
height of 13,000 feet, but it has been only imperfectly figured
(Acta der Leopold Acad. xvii., p. ii., 649, t. 27. f. 5). Dar-
win (Geolog. Observ. on South America, 1846) has likewise
found it not only at a little distance from Maypo, in the pass
leading to Portillo, in the Penquene chain, but also 60 English
miles beyond, towards the north, in the pass of Uspaletta.
The Exogyra Couloni or aquila is nevertheless a shell, truly
characteristic of the neocomian formation.
All that Darwin has collected among the mountains above
Copiapo and Coquimbo, in the north of Chili,—all that
M. Domeyko, professor of mineralogy at Coquimbo, has sent
to Paris, belong to the recent chalk-formations, and are met
with even at a great distance from these localities, beyond
144 M. de Buch on the
the great transition nucleus of Titicaca, which penetrates
with the ancient rocks into the chain of the Andes. Among
these forms, the most remarkable is the beautiful univalve
which M. de Humboldt first brought from San Felipe, to the
south of Quito, near the Amazon river, and to which I have
given the name of Pleurotomaria Humboldtii ; M. d’Orbigny,
and Darwin after him, calls it Turritella Andii, although it
is still doubtful whether this is done with propriety. It seems
to be quite peculiar to South America. Darwin likewise met
with it in abundance in the formations which extend from
Coquimbo to Rio Claro and Arqueros, and even beyond Guasco
and the Amolanas, the principal valley of Copiapo. This
Pleurotomaria is always associated with the pectens, which
are likewise found in the northern portion, between the Mon-
tar and Guancavelica, in such great abundance as to form
fields of fossils and entire mountains, which have been long
and generally known under the name of Choropampas (Pecten
alatus Dufresnoyi, d’Orb.). It is the same which Ulloa in
1761, places, to his great astonishment, at so great a height
above the level of the sea, where it seems to compose moun-
tains of shells. This astonishment was expressed in all
books till it was perceived that it was not absolutely neces-
sary that the shells should have lived at these heights, but
that they may have been raised upwards from the bottom of
the sea. As the Hyppurites organisans (d’Orbig., p. 107,
t. 22) is met with in the middle of the beds of Pectens, it
follows that all these beds in Perou as well as at Coquimbo
and Copiapo, belong at least to the gault, an opinion which
appears clearly justified by an Exogyra which M. Domeyko has
sent to Paris. It is, in fact, in every respect like that which
has been described and figured by Morton, Gryphea (£xo-
gyra) Pitscheri of the Texas, the position of which M. Ferdi-
nand Romer has placed above the gault, at Friedrichsberg.
The deeper chalk strata, analogous to those of Aconcagua,
are not, however, unknown in the Andes of Lima. The cele-
brated zoologist, M. de Tschudi, has found on the eastern ac-
clivity of the mountains, between Oroja and Yaui, near
Tarma, and after him many other travellers have likewise
found neocomian shells well characterised. Pterocera Eme-
Limits of the Chalk-Formation. 145
rict (d’Orb., Pl. 216), Conoidea Glifs, Holaster dilatatus and
H. complanatus or Spatangus retusus, both recognised by M.
Agassiz, Diadema Bourgeti, likewise met with at Neufchatel,
Pecten cretosus, Brong., and Pecten quinquecostatus.
It would appear, therefore, that the chalk-formation in
South America is developed in a different manner ; that it is
thicker and more varied than to the north of the Gulf of Mexico,
and that its resemblance to the chalk-formations of Europe
is much more complete among the Andes. But it is a very
remarkable circumstance that, in North America, the chalk
strata, altogether horizontal, occupy a considerable surface,
and consist in a great measure of clay and sand, and other
masses by no means compact. In South America, on the con-
trary, we only meet with black limestones or compact sand-
stones, the cohesion of which is such that this may be often
taken for true quartz, such as those found between the
Maranon and Lima, where these beds, far from affecting a
horizontal position, are all, more or less, inclined ; a violent
situation which can only be the result of the action of power-
ful forces. Throughout the whole of Brazil, in the vast ex-
tent of La Plata, Paraguay, and Bolivia, we no longer find
the chalk, and none exists.
Darwin has followed the chalk-formations to the extreme
point of the continent. He has seen chalk-shells in quantity
at the summit of Mount Tarn, 2000 feet in height; at Port
Famine, in the Straits of Magellan, and at 53° of south lati-
tude, consequently three degrees of latitude higher than at
Missouri. The Ancyloceras simplex, d’Orb., and the Hamites
elatior, Low, leave no doubt as to the nature of this chalk.
The Hamites is even, says M. E. Forbes, one of the largest
shells I have ever seen; it is 2} inches at its greatest dia-
meter. Darwin’s discovery probably indicates the southern
limits of the chalk-formation ; and the polar influences, con-
sequently, seem thus to be opposed, at this point, to a great
development towards the pole.*
* Monatsbericht der Konig]. Preuss. Academie der Wissenschaften zu
terlin, March 1849; also L’ Institute, No. 821, p. 306.
VOL. XLVI. NO. xcvy.—vJANn. 1850. K
( 146 )
On the Geological Signification of the word “ Flysch.”
By M. StTupmrR.
The name flysch, proposed for the first time in 1827 by M.
Studer, has since given rise to much confusion. M. Studer, going
back to its origin, thus gives the history and explanation of it.
The unfortunate name flysch appeared for the first time in 1827,
in two Memoirs on the valley of Simme, inserted in Leonhard’s
Journal, and in the Annalles des Sciences Nat. It was a local
denomination which I proposed to designate,—a somewhat complex
ealcareo-slaty formation in the Simmenthal, covered with Portland
limestone. After this, M. Alexander Brongniart, to whom I had
sent the Portland fossils of Simmenthal, made the mistake of re-
ferring these fossils to the flysch formation, which was thus arranged
among the highest of the jurassic formations. The following year,
M. Keferstein (Teutschland, v. 559) availed himself of this name to
designate, by a single expression, almost the whole limestones of
the Alps, arenaceous and slaty, which he thought proper to con-
sider as constituting a single formation, corresponding in the geolo-
gical scale to the inferior cretaceous formation of the north of
Europe, but including all the series of fossils from the carboniferous
limestone to the tertiary formations (Naturgeschichte des Erdkér-
pers, i. 276.) In my work on the Western Alps of Switzerland,
which appeared in 1834, I described, as lying between the lakes of
Thun and Geneva, three zones of marly-schistose formations, com-
posed of rocks almost identical, and containing the same Fucoides,
but whose parallelism did not appear to me evident. That I might
prejudge nothing, I indicated these three zones by different names ;
calling the formation which composes this chain, and which appears
to dip under the Portland chain of Spielgarten, Niesen slates and
sandstones. I reserved the name flysch for the formation of Sim-
menthal superior to this chain; and, in applying the name of
Gurnigel sandstone to the formation superior to the Chatel or Ox-
ford limestone, which forms the exterior limit of the Alpine country,
-—observing, at the same time, that nothing prevents us regarding
these two latter formations as identical. About this same time, in
the Autumn of 1833, I made my first excursion with M. Escher
among the mountains of Entlibuch, on which I made a report, in-
serted in Leonhard’s Journal for 1834. We ascertained that a
thick formation of marly slates and fucoidal sandstones, differing in
nothing, as regarded the rocks, from the flysch of Simmenthal,
covered the nummulitic formation of the cretaceous chain of the
Neiderhorn, Schratten, and Mont-Pilate; and, dating from this
period, confusion, hitherto unknown in Swiss Alpine geology, began
to be introduced into our own publications.
M. Escher gave a precise geological meaning to the name flysch,
SS ont)
eee eee
ee ee ee
L. Ghémar, comp. & dell
Specimen of Lithogravhy newly discovered by M!
On the Geological Signification of the word “ Flysch.” 147
by restricting it to the slaty arenaceous fucoidal formation, which
covers the nummulitic formation among the Alps and Apennines.
For my own part, I felt the need of a petrographic name to desig-
nate the whole of the slaty and arenaceous rocks which, among the
Alps, entered between the different limestone chains and the masses
of gneiss and protogine, and whose geological position remains un-
certain ; because the fossils found there are insufficient to determine
their age,—as in Maurienne, Tarentasia, in the Valais, in the Gri-
sons, and other parts of the Alps. Finding the formation superior
to the nummulites described under the name of Macigno and Albé-
rése, by M. Pareto and other Italian geologists, I proposed to adopt
this name with the epithet ‘“ Alpine;” and I named “ Alpine
Macigno” what M. Escher called Flysch, while I thought we should
reserve the latter name to designate systems of rocks very similar to
the true macigno, but whose age and geological position remain un-
determined.
I adopted this latter nomenclature in all that I have written since
1840, while, in the Memoir on the Alps of Lucerne, inserted in the
Memoirs of the Geological Society of 1838, I conformed to the no-
menclature adopted by M. Escher. According to my manner of
speaking, there may be flysches of all ages; the name will be al-
lowed to drop, in relation to each group whose geological position is
definitively fixed by agreement of fossils and position ; and, if it be
possible for us to attain this object, in regard to all the Alpine
groups, the name Fysch will be at last discarded from our geological
terminology.
Explanation of the Treatment of an Invention in Lithography
made by Mr Schenck and Mr Ghemar of Edinburgh, in August
1849. (With a Lithographic Plate.) Communicated by
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*
A grained lithographic stone is a little warmed, then the
composition used tor rubbing in tint-stones, known to the
generality of lithographers, mixed with an addition of white
wax and a little copal varnish, is rubbed down with a piece
of coarse short-haired flannel, or coarse cloth, until the colour
becomes an equal brown grey. After this the drawing is
either sketched upon the stone with soft lithographic chalk,
or traced in the ordinary way with red paper. The lighter
* Read before the Society, 10th December 1849.
148 Explanation of the Treatment of an
parts may be rubbed lighter in colour ; the highest lights are
taken out with a scraper, which is also used to blend the finer
tints carefully together ; darker parts can be rubbed in darker,
and finished with softer or harder lithographic chalks. The
darkest parts are laid in with liquid ink with the brush or
pen, after which the stone is strongly prepared with acid, and
thus in a short time a very powerful design can be produced,
as exemplified in the heads of Cranmer, Buchanan, &c.
(Vide the volume of Leading Reformers, published by Oliver
and Boyd, Edinburgh; and Ackermann and Co., London.)
Drawings executed in this manner are easily printed, and
stand large numbers of impressions.
The important merit which this invention possesses, con-
sists in its taking advantage of the chemical composition of
the lithographic stone, and the chemical nature of its print-
ing. Upon this basis we have made trials, and have suc-
ceeded beyond our most sanguine expectations, that is, to pro-
duce almost instantly the middle tints of any surface. and
which do print-—a result which is precisely that which,
in every other mode of printing, requires a considerable time,
and to finish with ease a drawing in a spirited and artistic
manner in a brief space of time, and with comparatively little
previous practice.
The reproach which has often been justly made against
lithography, relative to its gray tone and want of colour, need
no longer be advanced, as those defects are from henceforth
happily overcome ; and it may now be safely averred, that
the chief feature in that beautiful art will, in future, be the
remarkable ease with which great power, depth, and brilliancy
of tone, together with a variety of texture, can be attained ;
features so important in drawings, and which can now be
produced in an incredibly short time (about one-tenth, often
one-twentieth part of the time required to do finished litho-
graphs in the ordinary chalk method.)
Painters will, in future, have it in their power, with com-
paratively little practice, to immortalize their names in their
works, even as Rembrandt, not with the etching needle, but
by the simple process of rubbing, the use of the scraper,
stump, chalk, the pen and brush; nay, even by rubbing with
:
:
:
3
;
ites
ox
Invention in Lithography. 149
their fingers on the stone, and will produce lithographs com-
bining a richness of colour, with variety of tint, of which no
Rembrandt can boast, and an artistical merit of touch the
etching needle could in vain attempt.
A Michael Angelo or a David Wilkie could exercise their
talents in producing original drawings of large size on
stone within a day or two, possessing a strength of which no
mode of printing has hitherto shewn proof, and producing an
effect equal to a painting.
Publications on an extensive and frequent scale will now
become possible things. The rapidity of execution and conse-
quent cheapness, together with the pleasing and novel effect,
must give an impulse to the diffusion of works of art and
genius, which a mere question of time and expense has hither-
to rendered almost impossible.
I do not desire that lithography should be either imitative
of, or pretend it will ever supersede, copper, steel, or wood
engraving. I claim for it an entirely independent position
among the Fine Arts, which it will now easily obtain from
the assistance of great painters, sculptors, and architects.
From the simplicity of its treatment, the beautiful results
obtained, the immense improvements it will effect on litho-
graphy, and its useful influence on art in general, I trust I
have in some measure been able to convince the public of the
value of the invention I have been endeavouring to explain.
Fr. SCHENCK, F.R.S.S.A.
[The Messrs Schenck and Ghemar’s valuable discovery,
explained in the above communication, promises to do more
for the general spread of lithographs in this country, than
any improvement hitherto known to us; indeed, from what
we have heard, it appears to be one of the most striking
improvements in lithography since the first discovery of
the art inGermany. The wonderfully short time occupied
in producing lithographs of a high standard, by Messrs
Schenck and Ghemar, has astonished every one. The small
lithograph, Plate V. of the present number of the Journal,
150 Notice of a Chromatic Stereoscope.
was drawn, lithographed, and cast off in three hours. The
elegant work in 4to, entitled “ Portraits of the Leading Re-
formers,” now in the course of publication by the inventors
of the new process, shews the powerful effect produced by
characteristic lithographs.— Edi¢.]
Notice of a Chromatic Stereoscope. By Sir DAVID BREWSTER,
K.H., F.R.S., V.P., R.S. Edin. Communicated by the
Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*
In the year 1848, I communicated to the British Associa-
tion, at Swansea, a brief notice of the principle of this instru-
ment.
If we look with both eyes through a lens, about 23 inches
in diameter or upwards, at an object having colours of dif-
ferent refrangibilities, such as the coloured lines on a map,
a red rose among green leaves, or any scarlet object upon a
blue ground, or, in general, any two simple colours not of the
same degree of refrangibility, the ¢wo colours will appear at
different distances from the eye of the observer.
In this experiment, we are looking through the margin of
two semilenses or virtual prisms, by which the more refran-
gible rays are more refracted than the less refrangible rays.
The doubly-coloured object is thus divided into two as it were,
and the distance between the two blue portions is as much
greater than the distance between the two red portions (red
and blue being supposed to be the colours), as twice the de-
viation produced by the virtual prism, if we use a large lens
or two semilenses, or by the real prisms, if we use prisms.
The images of different colours being thus separated, the
eyes unite them as in the stereoscope, and the red image
takes its place nearer the observer than the b/we one, in the
very Same manner as the two nearest portions of the dissimi-
lar stereoscopic figures stand up in relief at a distance from
their more remote portions. The reverse of this will take
* Read before the Society, Oth December 1849.
a en ee ee
—
ion, «
TON GP EB he Oi ge ih
ait
On the California Gold Region. 151
place if we use a concave lens, or if we turn the refracting
angles of the two prisms inwards.
Hence, it follows, and experiment confirms the inference,
that we give solidity and relief to plane figures by a suitable
application of colour to parts that are placed at different dis-
tances from the eye.
These effects are greatly increased by using lenses of
highly-dispersing flint glass, oil of cassia, and other fluids,
and avoiding the use of compound colours in the objects
placed in the stereoscope.
On the California Gold Region. By Rev. G. S. LyMAN.*
From the western base to the summit of the range of the
Sierra Nevada, is a distance generally of a hundred miles, or
more. ‘The western slope is broken and precipitous, and
through the deep ravines that abound, flow the numerous
mountain-streams that form the tributaries of the Sacramento
and San Joaquin rivers. The gold region is a longitudinal
strip or tract, from ten to forty miles in width, lying about
midway, or a little lower, between the base and summit of
the range, and extending in length a distance of many hun-
dred miles; active operations being already carried on through
an extent of four or five hundred miles at least. The gold
mines near San Fernando in a spur of the same range, and
which have been known and worked to some extent for many
years, are doubtless a part of the same great deposit.
On approaching the gold region from the valley of the
Sacramento or San Joaquin, soon after leaving the plain, the
attention is arrested by immense quantities of quartz peb-
bles, slightly rounded, and of the size of walnuts, scattered
over the gentle elevations which form the western base of
the Snowy Mountains.+ There is here but little soil; the
earth is of a yellowish-red colour, and nearly destitute of
vegetation. Nearer to the gold deposits the quartz pebbles
* In a letter to one of the Editors of the American Journal of Sciences and
Arts, vol. viii., No. 24, Second Series, p. 415.
+ See Observations by J. Dana (2), vii., 257, 261.
152 Rev. G. 8. Lyman ox the
become larger, and not unfrequently boulders are noticed of
considerable size. The quartz is so uniformly associated with
the gold, that even the most unscientific explorer would not
think of looking for the metal where quartz did not abound.
Passing up the mountains, it is easy to tell when you leave the
region of gold from the sudden disappearance of the quartz.
In August of last year, in company with Mr Douglas and
others, I ascended from the “ dry diggings” near the Rio de
los Americanos, to within a few miles of the snow, enjoying
in the highest degree the sublime scenery presented by lofty
and precipitous mountains, separated from each other by
dark, deep ravines, and wooded with primeval forests of
towering firs and pines. The back bone of this mountain range
is granite, the several varieties of which constituted almost
the only rock visible in the last few miles of our journey. In
descending, we passed successively several forms of gneiss
and other primitive and transition rocks, till we reached the
slate-formation which prevails in this part of the gold dis-
trict. We penetrated on this occasion some forty or forty-
five miles beyond the “ dry diggings ;” and after leaving the
quartz twelve or fifteen miles up, scarcely a particle of gold
was discovered.
As I have mentioned, the prevailing rock of the gold re-
gion, near the Rio de los Americanos, is slate. There are
many varieties of it ; some shaly and friable, others hard and
massive, somewhat resembling greenstone. The laminz of
the slate-beds are nearly perpendicular, and their direction
about NNW. and SSE, or nearly the same as the direction
of the range. These slate-beds often include dykes and beds
of quartz rock several feet in thickness. At the dry diggings
above named, I passed at right angles over the upturned
edge of continuous strata of slate, a distance of four or five
miles; and in the same direction, slate-beds occur several
miles farther on, but I had not the means of knowing that
they were part of the same great deposit.
In some of the richest explorations yet made, this slate-
formation immediately underlies the stratum of drift or dilu-
vium which contains the gold, and much of the gold is found
in the crevices of the slate, the rough edges of the upturned
California Gold Region. 153
strata forming innumerable receptacles or “ pockets,” as they
are called, into which the metal has originally found its way
from its own gravity assisted by aqueous agency. It is this
accidental association of the gold with the slate-rocks which
has caused the statement to be frequently made, even by per-
sons of much general intelligence, that the gold exists in the
body of the rock itself, and forms a component part of it, in
the same sense that iron pyrites forms a part of the rocks in
which it occurs. But I have no where seen gold ameng the
slate, except in circumstances where its presence could be
accounted for by its introduction from without, a close scrutiny
readily discovering some cleft or opening through which it
might have entered. The richest of these “ pockets” are in the
bottoms of sharp ravines, which seem to have been notched into
the body of the slate, and generally in situations where the bot-
tom of the ravine, after descending at a considerable inclina-
tion for some distance, becomes more nearly horizontal. Just
below a sudden descent or precipice, in the bottom of a dry
ravine, gold is often found in the cavities in great abundance.
From such a spot Mr Douglas extracted a pound of gold in
a few hours, even after the place had been previously “ dug
out,”’ as was supposed, and abandoned.
I have noticed, in published accounts, many erroneous state-
ments respecting the geological position of the gold. Some
have said there is no porticular formation in which the gold
occurs, but that, in different places, it is found in different
kinds of earth or rock. You will not need to be informed
that this is without foundation. So far as I have been able
to examine, or can learn from competent witnesses, there is
but one geological formation with which the gold of the
Sierra Novada is associated, and in which it uniformly oc-
curs. This is the stratum of drift or diluvium, composed of
a heterogeneous mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and pebbles,
and varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet.
Here, as elsewhere, this stratum is neither horizontal nor of
uniform slope, but conformed to the varying inclination of
the earth’s surface, covering the declivities, and even the
summits of the hills, as well as the bottoms of the ravines
and valleys. Out of this stratum I have nowhere found
154 Rev. G. S. Lyman on the
gold, except where a stream has cut its way and made its
contents a part of some alluvial formation of comparatively
modern date. The sand-bars of some of the mountain tor-
rents, and the gravelly prujections formed at the bendings of
the streams, are often extremely rich in metal. A bar in
the Rio de los Americanos (at high water an is/and), about
23 miles above New Helvetia (now called Sacramento), and
on which some of the earliest explorations were made, is
of this character. But where the diluvium has remained
undisturbed since the period of its deposition, I am confident
no “alluvial” or “stream” gold has been, or will be disco-
vered, except in connection with it. It is evidently as much
a part of this formation, as associated quartz, greenstone,
hornblende, and other pebbles; and whoever will explain
the origin of the one, will at the same time elucidate the
origin of the other,—for one and the same agency unques-
tionably spread both of them over the surface of the dis-
trict. How the latest theory of geologists is to account for
the dispersion of drift, I am too isolated from the scientific
world to know. Quartz is the only substance with which I
have seen the gold intimately united, and these compound
lumps seem to shew clearly that the original matrix or vein-
stone of the metal was a dyke or bed of quartz rock. And
we have only to suppose, that when the quartz, with its ac-
companying rocky strata, was broken up by natural agen-
cies at some former geological epoch, the interspersed or in-
cluded veins of gold were at the same time reduced to frag-
ments, and these rough and angular fragments subsequently
broken, and further comminuted and rounded by mutual at-
trition, to account for the present form and appearance of
the gold, and for its constituting a portion of the materials
of the drift. But whether these materials, with their golden
treasure, now occupy the precise geographical position of their
parent rocks, or whether they have been transported by
aqueous or glacial agencies, or both, from some neighbour-
ing or perhaps far distant locality, is a question which fu-
ture investigations into the geology and physical geography
of the region will better elucidate than the imperfect data
at present in my possession. I cannot avoid the fancy, how-
ES
California Gold Region. 155
ever, in connection with the glacio-aqueous theory, that
when the continent was wholly or partially submerged, the
materials of the diluvium, including the gold, were trans-
ported by icebergs from their present locality, and when at
length set free, left to assume their present position on what
was then the rocky and uneven bottom of the superincum-
bent ocean. And we have only to imagine these freighted
icebergs stranded by oceanic currents against the partially-
emerged range of the Sierra Nevada, to account for the
great longitudinal extension of the gold region along the
western slope of the mountains, while laterally it appears to
extend neither above nor below certain definite limits.
The gold of different localities varies very much in size. That
from the banks and sand-bars of the rivers is generally in the
form of small flattened scales, and commonly it is found to
be finer the lower down you descend the stream. That taken
from the bottoms of the dry ravines, which everywhere
abound in these mountains, and furnish outlets for the tor-
rents of the rainy season into the principal streams, is mostly
of larger size, and occurs both in small particles and also in
small lumps and irregular water-worn masses, from the size
of wheat-kernels to pieces of several ounces or even pounds
in weight. The fine gold of these ravines is commonly less
worn and flattened than that in the alluvion of the rivers;
and the flattened scale-like form of the gold in these latter
deposits, would seem to be owing to the great malleability
of the metal,—the stones and pebbles, among which the mi-
nuter particles and fragments of the original vein of native
metal chanced to lie, and by which they were rudely ham-
mered, having performed very effectually the goldbeater’s
office, and gradually reduced the rough angular particles on
their granite anvils, to the flattened spangles which we now
observe. Some of these flakes are often an inch or more in
diameter, and scarcely thicker than paper. Many specimens
bear the distinct impression of the crystalline structure of
granite and other rocks; and I have seen several pieces
deeply stamped, as with a die, by crystals of quartz, the form
of the crystal being as distinctly apparent as the device on a
gold eagle fresh from the United States’ mint.
156 Rev. G. S. Lyman on the
The black, ferruginous sand, which everywhere accom-
panies the gold, and which, from its great specific gravity,
remains with it in the bowl or machine after the other earthy
materials have been removed, varies in fineness with the size
of the accompanying gold, —that obtained in connection with
the fine river gold being of the fineness of writing sand ; while
that associated with the coarse gold of the ravines is often as
large as wheat-kernels, or peas, and sometimes of the size
of hazelnuts or walnuts. These coarser pieces are fragments
of crystals very hard and heavy. I found no specimens with
the faces complete, and have not the means of knowing to
what species they belong, but suppose them to be magnetic
iron. That the fine sand is composed of fragments of the
same crystals greatly comminuted, I infer from the regular
gradation of the one into the other.
I am not aware that gold has vet been discovered in place,
or imbedded in its native matrix. The slates, however, of the
gold region, as I have before observed, are often traversed
by dykes or beds of quartz rock ; and I have examined these
in many places for indications of the presence of the metal,
but could detect no traces of it. Individuals have asserted
that they have found veins of it in the rocks, but they have
refused to divulge the place where, inasmuch as they intended
to work the veins themselves as soon as the season would
permit. Though these statements are, of course, not impos-
sible, nor indeed improbable, I do not consider the fact as
established by testimony, since the witnesses are men in
whom I place but little confidence.
The amount of gold taken from these mines it is impos-
sible to estimate; but it has been immense, and the coming
season it will doubtless be greater. New and rich deposits
are developing every day. Accounts from various points in
the mining district, represent the gold as very abundant,
more so, if possible, than last year,—individuals, even that
early in the season, obtaining often from three to ten or even
twenty ounces a-day. The diggings on the several forks of the
Rio de los Americanos, the Stanislaus, the Tuwalumnes, the
Merced, the Mariposa, King’s River (Lake Fork, on Fre-
California Gold Region. 157
mont’s new map), and in many other places, are represented
as peculiarly rich.
There was one specimen of gold, mingled with quartz,
found near Stanislaus last autumn, which I had resolved to
procure, if possible, for the cabinet of Yale. It was irregu-
lar in form, about 4 inches in diameter, and weighed 53
pounds avoirdupois. The metal was interspersed in irregular
masses through the stone, and, as near as I could judge with-
out special investigation, was equivalent to about 2 pounds
troy, perhaps a little more. Other specimens, much larger,
are said to have been found, and one of 20 pounds weight
pure, near the Stanislaus ; but these I have not seen.—( Ame-
rican Journal of Science and Arts, vol. vili., No. 24, 2d Series,
p. 415.)
On the Identity of Sillimanite, Fibrolite, and Bucholzite, with
Kyanite.
Sillimanite was originally described by Bowen,* from an analysis
made in Yale College Laboratory, in 1825, which, shewed it to be a
silicate of alumina with a proportion of silica too high to allow it to
come within the formula of Kyanite. It was subsequently analysed
by Dr Thomas Muir, in the laboratory of Dr Thomson, who found
in it a large quantity of zirconia, an observation which all subsequent
researches have failed to confirm. Since that time, it has been ana-
lysed by various chemists, viz., by Connel, Norton, Staff, Hayes,
and Thomson. The most recent of these analyses which has been
published, is that by Thomson, who reports it to contain 45-65 per
cent. of silica. We have, then, the following discordant results in
the amount of silica found in Sillimanite by different chemists, in
the order of their publication :—
Bowen. Muir. Connel. Norton. Staff. Hayes. Thomson.
Per cent. 42°67 38:67 36°75 - 37:40 37:36 42°60 46°65
The cause of this disagreement will undoubtedly be found in the
difficulty of effecting a complete decomposition of anhydrous silicates
of almunia, which contain a high per-centage of alumina. This de-
composition can be completely effected only by the aid of caustic
potash, applied to the mixture of carbonates and the mineral during
the fusion, as first recommended by Berzelius, or by fluo-hydrie acid.
* Journal Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., iii. p. 375.
158 On the Identity of Sillimanite, Fibrolite,
Select crystals of this mineral were taken from the original loca-
lity at Chester, Conn, and their analyses afforded the following results.
Quantity taken, 775°5 grammes. Found—
Silica, é : , 0:292 = 37°653 per cent.
Alumina, . - 4 0°484 = 62°411
0-776 100:064
Required.
' 2 Atoms Silica, . . 115462 = Si O3 37°47
3 Atoms Alumina, . 1927-00 = AP Os 62°53
3081°62 100-00
These results give, then, exactly the formula of Kyanite, viz.,
2 Al Os, 3 Si O*. The analyses of Staff and Norton give also the
same results.*
We can, therefore, have no longer any hesitation in referring Sil-
limanite to Kyanite, as originally suggested by Haidinger. +
Bucholzte, is a name given by Brandes to a silicate of alumina
from Tyrol, which occurs in compact masses, of a finely fibrous struc-
ture and hardness, equal to Kyanite. Thomson has also analysed
a mineral from Chester County, Pennsylvania, well known to col-
lectors, and has referred it to Bucholzite.t Being in possession of
authentic specimens of the Chester mineral, I have analysed it with
the following result. Quantity taken, 0°561 gr. Found—
Another Sample.
Silica, : : 01925 = 34:31 per cent. 35°96
Alumina, - 0°3615 = 64°43. ...
Magnesia, . 070028 = 0:52
Manganese, : trace trace
05568 99°26
This, also, will give us the same formula as Kyanite. The mineral
being less pure than Sillimanite, cannot be expected to furnish re-
sults as accurate as the former analysis. Professor Shepard in his
System, expresses the opinion, that Bucholzite and Sillimanite were
the same species.
* In Professor Norton's analysis, which was made in Yale College Labora-
tory, the excess of 2°73 was owing, undoubtedly, to aluminate of potash, which
remained with the alumina, after separating the peroxide of iron by caustic
potash. Subtracting this sum from the sum of alumina and peroxide of iron,
which is almost exactly the quantity required by theory, and I have corrected
the analysis accordingly, with the consent of Professor Norton, That analysis
was made on the Sillimanite from Fairfield, New York.
t In his Translation of Mohs, vol. iii. 154.
+ Erdmann appears also to have made his analysis on the mineral from
the same locality.
and Bucholzite, with Kyanite. 159
There is also found at Brandywine Spring, Delaware, a mineral
which has been extensively circulated under the name both of Bu-
cholzite and Fibrolite. A specimen from this locality furnished me
the following results, viz., quantity taken, 1:0675 gr. Found—
Silica, : ‘ 0°386 = 36:159 per cent.
Alumina, . ‘ 0°679 = 63°525
1:065 99°684
This is evidently identical with Kyanite. Minute traces of iron
and manganese, which are found in both the above, are regarded as
of no importance in the result, being mere impurities. *
Fibrolite of Bournon.—This mineral was first distinguished by
Count Bournon, who detected it among the associated minerals of
corundum from India and from China. The name has reference to
its fibrous character. It was analysed by Chevenex, who found—
Silica, : : ; 38:00
Alumina, 3 z : 58°25
96°25
Even upon so imperfect an analysis, there has been no hesitation
with most writers in referring it to Kyanite. Having a specimen of
this mineral from Count Bournon at my disposal, 1 have analysed
it.t It yielded, on 0°427 gr. taken,—
Silica, . ; 0:1551 = 36°309 per cent.
Alumina, . 5 0°2665 = 62415 ...
Magnesia, . 4 0°0030 = 0-702
0°4246 99°426
The results just given leave it no longer possible for us to separate
Sillimanite, Bucholzite, and Fibrolite, from Kyanite. The hardness
of Sillimanite proves also to possess the same inequality, on different
faces, which is found on Kyanite. The cleavage face is much softer
than the angle or side of the prism, so as to be easily scratched with
a sharp point of hard steel. The crystalline forms of Sillimanite
* It may be objected to the conclusion, that Bucholzite is identical with
Kyanite that I have not analysed a specimen of the original mineral. This I
should have done could I have procured one in time for my present purpose.
The Chester mineral here analysed was received by Baron Lederer from Dr
Nuttall ; and, so far as I can learn, no one questions that the mineral from that
locality corresponds entirely with the Bucholzite of Brandes. I am convinced
that those chemists who have obtained so high a per-centage of silica in their
analyses of disthene minerals, had not taken the precaution to employ the aid of
caustic potash, added to the assay during fusion, as recommended by Berzelius ;
and that if they had re-analyzed their silica, they would invariably, in cases
where the amount exceeded 38 per cent., baye found in it a portion of alumina.
+ The specimen referred to was taken from the collection of Col. Gibbs (now
in Yale College), and was received by him from Count Bournon in a large col-
lection of gems which this gentleman furnished to Col. Gibbs.
160 On the Theory of Marine Currents.
and Kyanite are also identical ; the one being derived by the simplest
modification from the other. The cleavage in both is in the ortho-
diagonal.
It may be worthy of remark, that ‘‘ Andalusite’’ has the same che-
mical constitution as Kyanite, but belongs to the right rhombic form,
while Kyanite is oblique, doubtless a case of dimorphism, and, per-
haps, the same may be said with truth of stanrotide. My pupil, Mr
George J. Brush, afforded me essential aid in the foregoing investi-
gation.—(Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii., No. 24. 2d series, p.
386.)
Theory of Marine Currents. By M. BABINET.
The theory of the movement of the waters in the different
oceans which cover the greater part of our globe, does not
hitherto appear to have been placed, like that of the trade-
winds and their counter-currents, on the rigorous principles
of mechanics and physics. In order to compare theory with
facts, 1 shall confine myself exclusively to M. Duperrey’s
Map of the general and permanent currents of seas, inde-
pendently of the superficial and temporary currents produced
every season by the prevailing winds in a great number of
maritime localities. This map has been constructed from
facts observed by the author himself, and by other navigators
engaged in scientific investigations, without regard to any
theory. It presents us, therefore, with the laws to which
every theory ought to conform ; and, on the other hand, every
theory which shall reproduce these facts in all their details,
will, to a certain extent, derive support from it.
It is a notion of the French school of Laplace, already in
possession of the public, that the semidiurnal swellings of
the sea, called tides, which are produced successively from
east to west (affording us the measure of the mean depth of
the different oceanic basins), cannot give rise to any current
in the fluid masses of the earth’s surface.*
The current of the Gulf Stream, or, to speak more accu-
rately, the circulation of the waters of which the Gulf Stream
forms a part, has been recently ascribed by M. Maury to a
* Not a circulating current. John Herschel, 1833 and 1849.
Theory of Marine Currents. 161
cause analogous to that of the trade-winds and their counter-
currents, while he, at the same time, has pointed out the in-
fluence of these winds on the current of the northern basin
of the Atlantic. It will afterwards be soon enough to trace
the history of it, when the theory of marine currents shall be.
generally known and adopted.
Let us consider an oceanic basin, such as the northern
part of the Atlantic, comprised between the equator on the
south, the polar circle on the north, the Old and New World
on the east and west; it is evident that, in this vast liquid
plain, the tropical part, dilated by the heat, would be thereby
elevated, and form a layer whose upper portion would exceed
the level of more northern seas, and would tend to direct it-
self towards the waters of the north; while, at the same
time, the latter, in consequence of the excess of pressure re-
sulting from the new superincumbent mass, and from the
deficiency produced by this same transportation in the pres-
sure of the tropical columns, would tend to flow southwards
in an under current, so that if the earth had no rotatory mo-
tion, we would observe, on the one hand, a kind of current
or cascade from south to north throughout the whole breadth
of the Atlantic, which south-north and superior flow of waters
would be compensated by a similar one below, but running
from north to south. An analogous effect would be produced
in the four other similar basins which physical geography
presents us with, namely. the southern part of the Atlantic,
the northern part of the Pacific, the southern part of the
same ocean, and, lastly, the Indian Sea, bounded on the
north by Asia, on the west by Africa, on the east by the
Islands of Sunda and New Holland, and on the south by the
Antarctic Ocean. To complete the division of the terrestrial
waters, we may add to these five great basins two circular
basins, the one between the icy regions of the South Pole and
the southern limits of the current of the Indian Sea, the cur-
rent of the Pacific, and that of the Atlantic ; the other, be-
tween the arctic ice and the northern limits of the Old and
New Continent.
Let us return to our five great basins, of which the two
northern ones carry their warm superficial waters to the
VOL. XLVI. NO. xCV.—JAN. 1850. L
162 Theory of Marine Currents.
north, while the three others convey the tropical waters to
the south.
It is a common notion, that the quickness of rotation to-
wards the east of a mass situate at the surface of the earth,
is so much greater in proportion as this mass is situate nearer
the equator; so that a mass of whatsoever kind transported
towards the poles, maintains in its passage an excess of
quickness towards the east, while a mass conveyed towards
the equator, on leaving the medium latitudes, and having
only a smaller rapidity towards the east, is precisely in the
same condition as if it had a movement towards the west, in
virtue of the quantity with which it has been advanced to-
wards the east by the more southern masses in the midst of
which it is transported.
According to this view, if we consider what happens with
the warm superficial waters diffused over those of mean
latitudes, in the northern basin of the Atlantic, for example,
it is evident that these tropical waters, preserving a greater
quickness towards the east than the quickness towards the
east of the waters which occupy mean latitudes, must not
only advance towards the north, but also towards the east.
Of this nature is the phenomenon presented by the upper
part of the great circuit of which the Gulf Stream forms
apart. A contrary movement, that is to say, towards the
south and west, would be taken by the waters which flow to-
wards the equator on leaving the mean Jatitudes to replace
the preceding ; for their movement, being less considerable
towards the east, will produce a real transport towards the
west. Such, indeed, isthe direction of the ocean’s movement
in the equatorial part of the great circuit, which, after its
waters have travelled from the west to the east by the mean
latitudes, turns towards the south in the latitudes of Europe
and Africa, again to repair to the coast of tropical America,
by crossing the Atlantic at its greatest breadth. If we keep
in mind that a very small difference in latitude produces very
ereat differences of quickness towards the east or west, we
will perceive that it is more especially towards the limits of
the circuit that the movements must be most perceptible.
If we observe the motion of water in a vessel heated on the
Theory of Marine Currents. 163
one side, we will notice, in like manner, that the current
which ascends along the heated side, and descends along the
opposite side, forms a circuit, the interior part of which
scarcely partakes in the agitation of the current which sur-
rounds it. Casting our eyes on M. Duperrey’s chart, we im-
mediately perceive, in the five circuitory oceanic basins, that
the greatest intensity of the currents is principally towards
their limits, and that the five intermediate spaces are left
undisturbed, as they would have led us to suppose a priori.
The following, then, are the five great circuits ; the first,
in the Northern Atlantic, runs from Africa to the Gulf of
Mexico by the equator, and returns by the Gulf Stream, and
its derivatives to Europe and Africa, completing its return
to the point of departure in about three years. The second,
in the Southern Atlantic, is bounded by the west coast of
Southern Africa by the equator, by the eastern side of South
America, and, lastly, by a line running from the southern
point of America to the southern point of Africa. The third
circuit occupies the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, and
even involves a considerable part of the waters lying be-
tween the equator and the southern tropic. The fourth cir-
cuit, situate in the southern part of the same ocean, takes its
departure from the west coast of South America, and is
bounded by the southern tropic, New Holland, below which
it descends to the south in such a manner as to turn round
New Zealand, and then reverts towards America. The fifth
and last circuit occupies almost the whole of the Indian Sea,
with the exception of the part nearest to Asia, which, from
this want of circulation, is found to have the highest tempera-
ture of all the intertropical seas. This circuit, bounded on
the south by the parallel of the Cape of Good Hope, appears
to be restricted from north to south within narrow limits,
and the continual predominance of the current produced by
the blowing of the monsoons on the permanent currents, ad-
mitted by M. Duperrey, indicates a small degree of activity in
the circulation of the waters of the fifth circuit.
We do not speak of the currents which must necessarily
establish themselves between these different basins, inde-
pendently of the cireuitory movement which constitutes the
164 Theory of Marine Currents.
principal and permanent flow of waters. It appears that a
small secondary circuit exists in the North Sea, around Ice-
land. But we may mention more particularly the current
derived from the Gulf Stream, which M. Duperrey directs to-
wards the Icy Sea, along the coasts of Northern Europe.
This current, flowing rapidly towards the north, must enter
the sea bordering the north of Sibera with considerable ra-
pidity towards the east, that is to say, towards Behring
Straits. If the currents which descend from the west of the
North Sea, indicate a similar movement in the waters on
the north of America, we may consider the whole of the Icy
Sea, comprised within the polar ice and the northern limits
of the Old and New Continent, as having a circulatory mo-
tion from west to east, and supported by the impulsion of
masses of water reaching this sea by means of currents ori-
ginating in lower latitudes.
It only remains for us to examine the seventh division of
the terrestrial waters, namely, the circular portion of the
antarctic seas comprised between the icy regions of the
south pole, and the southern limits of the three southern
circuits of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. It is to
be supposed that the influence of the movements of these
three circuits, which all convey their waters from the west
to the east in the neighbourhood of the antarctic seas, pro-
duces, by communicating movement to the mass of waters
composing this sea, a movement likewise directed to the east ;
this communication of rotatory motion being moreover sub-
jected to all the circumstances of depth, breadth, friction, and
obstruction, which in general leave nothing more, in all regu-
lar and permanent movements, whether primitive or com-
municated, than one sole law, the law of equal depense, which
determines and regulates alike the local speed of all perma-
nent fluviatile currents.
M. Duperrey’s chart does not appear to us to present any
thing opposed to this mode of considering the subject.
By joining, therefore, this current or southern circumpolar
circuit to the northern circumpolar circuit, and both of them
to the five great circuits which extend to the equator in one
of their directions, we shall have descriptively and theoreti-
Theory of Marine Currents. 165
eally a view of all the movements of the different seas. The
influence of the trade-winds, which, between the tropics, have
the tendency to carry the sea towards the west, and that of
the north and south counter currents of the trade-winds,
which tend, on the contrary, to convey the extratropical seas
towards the east, must be added to the predominating influ-
ences of the forces which arise from the displacement of the
liquid masses of the equator towards the poles, and recipro-
cally. This direction of these regular winds must likewise
cool the eastern sides of continents in the mean latitudes,
and, on the contrary, warm the western sides; for the west
winds, which prevail in these regions, carry far from land the
heated air of the warm seas which lie along the eastern coasts ;
while in the same latitudes, they convey this warm air along
the western coasts.
Without attempting here to follow all the consequences of
these movements in the seas, we cannot avoid noticing the
important result that may be deduced relatively to the excess
of temperature prevailing in the northern compared with the
southern hemisphere. We have only to cast our eyes on M.
Duperrey’s chart to perceive that the mass of tropical waters
conveyed towards the north by the two northern circuits of
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, is much more considerable
than that which the three other circuits convey towards the
south, and that the advance in latitude of these three last
circuits is at the same time much less. The eastern point
of South America, and the eastern point of New Holland,
which partake of the tropical waters of the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, are situated geographically in such a manner
as to determine the caloriferous circuits altogether in favour
of the northern hemisphere.
The following is a synoptical view of what has been
stated :—
1st, The waters of intertropical regions, dilated by the
heat, rise above the level of the extratropical waters, and
_ pour themselves on the top of the latter, conveying to them
an excess of quickness towards the east, which produces, in
these extratropical regions, a current from the west to the
east; while, by a contrary effect, the waters which are con-
166 On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, &c.
veyed between the tropics to replace those that have been re-
moved, assume a movement towards the west. From this
arises a circular progress towards the west, in the portion
of it next the equator, and towards the east in its extra-
tropical portion.
Theory and observation point out to us five great circum-
scribed currents or circuits, in the five great oceanic basins
which reach the equator by one of their limits.
2d, We may admit two other cireumpolar circuits, which
surround, the one the north pole, the other the south pole, in
their progress from the west to the east.
3d, Independently of numerous consequences in relation to
climates, the watering of the globe, the distribution of ther-
mal lines on the earth, on the sea, &c., the excess of tem-
perature in the northern hemisphere over the southern hemi-
sphere results from the preponderance of the two northern
circuits over the three southern circuits, a preponderance
resulting from their more extensive surface, and the greater
heat of their tropical waters, and lastly, from their greater
extension in latitude.
4th, Finally, it is evident, that on turning with a uniform
movement a metallic vase warmed on one of its vertical
faces, we may produce exactly the case of the masses of
liquids in the sea, transported to different latitudes where
the rotatory movement is different. We shall afterwards
revert to the various consequences of this theory of the cur-
rents of the sea, as well as to the experiment which ought to
produce the principal results of it. These results, moreover,
appear to us fully realised in nature, according to the laws
followed by the currents marked out by M. Duperrey.*
On the Porosity and Colouring of Agates, Calcedonies, §c.
By M. NoGGnRATH.
In the last century many experiments were made to colour
agate, calcedony, carnelian, &c., by solutions of metals, &c.,
* From Comptes Rendus, t. xxviii., p. 749.
On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, Sc. 167
applied to the surface, and sometimes made to penetrate
slightly into them. The processes have been frequently de-
scribed, but it remained unknown how to render the various
quartzes included among the gems of the ancients penetrable
to colouring fluids.
Within the last twenty or twenty-five years the processes
of the agate-cutters of Oberstein and Idar have reached such
perfection that they are able not only to bring out and
heighten the natural colours of caleedony, onyx, carnelian, &e.,
which are sometimes faint, but also to render them entirely
penetrable to colouring fluids by which the beauty and variety
of the stones is much increased.
This colouring process was at first a secret, known only to
a few agate-dealers in Idar. It was eagerly sought after by
Roman stone-cutters (as the lapidaries of Oberstein Say),
‘who bought up all the onyxes. The secret seems at length
to have been discovered by some of the foreigners, or been
bought up.
This art arises out of the property which the fine layers ~
of calcedony, although exhibiting only faint differences of
colour, possess of becoming variously coloured by the appli-
eation of colouring fluids. By this process very mean-looking
slightly-coloured stones can be turned into very fine onyxes,
&e., which by their various bands of colour afford materials
for cameos ; and at least the beauty and designs of the agates
intended for other purposes are much increased.
There is a method by which the agate-dealers of Ober-
stein and Idar determine the fitness of the crude minerals
for the colouring process; at least to value them before pur-
chasing them from the diggers. They break off a thin por-
tion of a seemingly useful mass, and after moistening it with
the tongue, observe whether the absorption of the moisture
by the alternate bands takes place at regular intervals ; if so,
it is then deemed fit to be coloured as an onyx. This proof
is not always decisive of the value of the minerals, yet it af-
fords a fair criterion to the dealers to go by before they buy
valuable pieces from the diggers.
Large balls of calcedony, in which many fine bands oceur,
especially if the rest be of a red colour, are much prized.
168 On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, Sc.
Weisselberg, near Oberkirchen, in the district of Wendel,
produces fine specimens, but in small quantity. Bamstedt
relates that one was found in the year 1844, and weighed
100 1b. It was sold in its crude state for 700 Rh. guilders.
The purchases between the diggers and dealers are made
by mutual understanding, and generally without any pre-
vious trials being made or desired, the price being agreed on
by the weight.
That the different varieties of quartz which form agate
balls and amygdaloidal-shaped pieces, vary in their porosity
has been proved by an interesting experiment of Von Kobell,
who applied fluoric acid to polished agate where the different
streaks were not regularly developed and only slightly
visible.
Still more direct proof of the porosity of calcedony has
been brought forward by Gautieri.* Near Vincenza there
occur balls of caleedony, which contain, in their interior, wa-
ter or air, and sometimes both, so that, through the trans-
lucent balls, we can always observe the upper part of the
contained bubble by giving them a slight motion. These
stones are called Enhydri. Gautieri placed one of these cal-
cedonies, which contained no water, but only air, for some
weeks in water, and observed the result. Some had, and
some had not, absorbed or taken in the water into their hol-
low cavities ; those which had not had turned clearer and
harder. Such masses, when kept in a dry place, lose their con-
tained water, and yet no opening or fissure can be observed.
This proof of their porosity was thus shewn by Gautieri.
Fuchs lately repeated these experiments with similar masses
of calcedony from Schio, obtained from the Zuggiano and
Lago Mountains ; he did not succeed so well as Gautieri, but
yet his experiments are convincing of the fact in question.
A longer immersion in water, accompanied by strong pres-
sure, is not sufficient to bring the water back into the empty
cavities. It may, however, be done by gradually heating the
* Untersuchung iiber die Entstehung, Bildung und den Ban des Chalcedons.
Jena, 1800, 8S. 157.
t Beitrag zur lehre von den Erzlagerstatten. Wien, 1846, 8. 41.
On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, §c. 169
stones in water till it boils, and then rapidly cooling them
(the stones must not be taken out of the water during the
process). The heating expels a part of the expanded air
from the cavities, through the pores, through which again
the water is pressed on cooling, while the size of the air-
bubble is dependent on the difference of temperature.
In many transparent calcedonies, the little cavities which
the stone contains may be recognised by the naked eye.
They are seen to be small bubbles often round, often long,
frequently running into each other, and forming tuberculous
cavities. In others, however, they cannot be observed by
the naked eye, but are easily seen by the aid of a micro-
scope, under which they appear to be filled with small cavi-
ties, especially the Brazilian Carnelian, which is particularly
well suited for colouring. In a species of agate, which is
called Rainbow Agate, when exposed to the sun, many well-
known beautiful iris colours are produced. This optical phe-
nomenon is explained by an examination of the mineral, when
a great many small bubbles are discovered lying over one
another longitudinally.
The colouring of onyx and calcedonyx (if we are to under-
stand that the white and black, or dark-brown, stones are to
be called onyx, and the white-and-grey streaked varieties are
to be called caleedonyx) is performed at Oberstein and Idar
in the following way. The best stones are first well washed
and dried without any raising of the temperature ; after this
they are placed in honey diluted with water (one half pound
of honey to a chopin of water). The pot in which they are
then to be placed must be clean and free from grease. It
must then be put into hot ashes, or into a hot oven, and the
stones covered with the fluid, which must not be allowed to
boil. The minerals must, indeed, always be covered with the
fluid, which must be added from time to time. The minerals
are to be treated in this way for a fortnight or three weeks.
They are then taken out of the honey, washed, and placed
in another vessel along with as much oil of vitriol as will
cover them. The vessel is then to be covered with a lid,
and placed in ashes in which hot coals are placed. The
porous or soft stones are coloured in an hour, others in a day,
170 On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, Sc.
and some take on no colour at all. The stones are taken out,
washed, and placed in an oven. After which they are ground,
and kept a day in oil, by which some fine cracks are made to
disappear, and a better polish obtained ; the oil is then rubbed
off with bran. By this process light grey streaks are
brought out on some ; and others, according as their porosity
was greater or less, indicate grey, brown, or black streaks.
The white impenetrable masses become whiter through the
loss of their transparency, and many red streaks become
heightened.
The so-called Carneole from Brazil, which is wrought in
Oberstein and Idar in great quantity, costs, on an average,
about 50 guilders the 100 lb. Those selected with straight
streaks, as being suitable for cameos, often cost as high
as 2500 guilders per ewt., receive sometimes the same treat-
ment as the native stones, and sometimes the process em-
ployed in colouring carnelian and sardonyx, as I will shortly
relate.
They are originally either one-coloured, muddy yellow,
grey, or contain a variety of shades of such colours, and can
searcely be called carnelian in their natural state, which
name is only given to such as are of a red colour. These
carnelians, when found with streaks, after they have received
the above-mentioned treatment, form the finest onyx.
The chemical changes induced by the above-related pro-
cesses require no detailed explanation. By the placing of the
stones in hot honey, the latter penetrates into the fine pores of
the stone ; the vitriolic acid then causes carbonization of the
animal substance,—and the more the honey in the stone is
carbonized the darker its colour becomes; and while the
slightly porous portions become only grey or brown, the more
porous ones become black. The white and red bands appear
not to be penetrable to the honey, and it is to the treatment
alone that we can attribute the increased intensity of their
colours. Brazilian carnelian contains the oxyhydrate of iron,
and is generally penetrable in its bands; the red tints are
destroyed by the carbon, and appear of the colour of a mix-
ture of grey and black, or most commonly of a dark brown.
These Brazilian carnelians afford the finest onyxes.
On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, &c. 7h
Calcedony can be coloured a very fine citron-yellow, either
generally diffused or streaked (if this condition is already in-
dicated in the stone). The process is as follows: they are
first dried two days in an oven, care being taken not to let
the oven become too warm; the stones are then to be placed
in a clean vessel, and covered with spirit of salt. A cover
must be firmly cemented on the vessel with clay ; they must
then remain from fourteen days to three weeks in the oven,
and then the yellow colouring process is complete.
It deserves further inquiry, whether this yellow colour is
occasioned by the formation of a salt,--by the mixture of the
hydrochloric acid with some previously existing matter in the
stone itself, or whether the colouring principle is entirely
contained in the acid. I know no natural calcedony having
a colour similar to that produced in this way. There occurs,
however, in opals such a citron-yellow colour, but it is rather
more of the appearance of wax.
In the coloured stones, however, this shade shews itself
here and there, and seems to be inherent in them, as the
colouring matter always remains the same.
Of late years a very fine blue colour has been produced in
calcedony, shewing all the different shades of the torquoise.
The process for this is yet a secret, known only to a few of
the cutters.
Many minerals are also burned,—such as agate, calcedony,
and Brazilian carnelian. This is done partly to increase the
beauty of their natural colours, and partly, as it is said, to
give the natural colours more durability. Many calcedonies
become, through this process, almost white, the red colours
more intense, and the pale yellow a very fine red. This is
also the case with the Brazilian carnelian. By which pro-
cess the streaked stones of this kind become transformed
into fine sardonyxes, and those with one colour take on the
true colour of the carnelian. The process is as follows:
the stones are rendered perfectly dry, by being placed for a
fortnight or three weeks in a hot oven; they are then placed
in a shallow dish and moistened with vitriolic acid, but not
covered. The polishers usually dip the stones in the acid,
172 On the Porosity of Agates, Calcedonies, Sc.
and then place them beside each other in a vessel, which is
then covered and placed in a hot fire until they are red hot.
The fire is slowly extinguished, and they are taken out when
cool; by this roasting the oxyhydrate of iron* which the
stones contained is freed from its moisture, and the colour of
the oxide assumes a more lively hue, and is seen in the
translucent mass in the proper colour of the carnelian. The
smaller stones are burned before being polished; the larger
ones are first cut into various shapes, e.g., dessert plates,
bowls, vases, &c. Small pieces do not easily fly to pieces
in the roasting, but large ones very easily ; so it is necessary
to make them as thin as possible by grinding.
There are many other dexterous manipulations necessary,
which are known only to the polishers themselves, but I have
collected the above processes from many sources; and my
esteemed friend, Herr Tischbein of Herstein, in the Pala-
tinate of Birkenfeld, has given me many particulars which
assisted my studies on the agate very much. (I acknowledge
them here with much thankfulness.)
When once, however, the properties which these minerals
(to which I have given the collective name of agate) possess
of being quite penetrable to colouring fluids, in consequence
of their porosity, are better known, it is probable that other
colours may be given them; and, also, that many antique
stones, presenting unusual colours, may have been coloured
so artificially. This seems to me very likely, as many of the
antique cameos and intaglios which I have seen in collec-
tions seem to be so.
Why should we not find the ancient coloured stones so
good as we know the ancient pastes were ?
* That iron is the colouring principle of carnelian cannot be doubted after
the experiments of M. Heintz (Poggendorff’s Annalen. Band 60, s. 579).
Gaultier de Claubry (in Poggendorff’s Annalen, Band 26,s. 562) has attempted
to shew that the colouring principle is in the nature of the carnelian itself;
but the critique of his experiments, and Heintz’ opposite conclusions, have
shown the untenableness of his views.
(273)
An Account of the Mineral-Field between Airdrie and Bath-
gate, and from Bathgate to Edinburgh and Leith. By ROBERT
BALD, Esq., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., Mining-Engineer. (Com-
municated by the Author.)*
The mineral-fields of which I am now to give an account,
extend from the town of Airdrie, situate about eleven
miles east from Glasgow, to the town of Bathgate, in the
county of Linlithgow, and from Bathgate to Edinburgh and
Leith.
Until a late investigation was made by Mr William
M‘Creath and myself, the minerals of Bathgate were re-
garded as of little value, as the collieries west from the town
of Bathgate were upon a very small scale, and the whole
output of coals very limited.
The ironstone and other useful minerals were reckoned
of no value, and were thrown aside as rubbish ; but since the
investigation made last year (1846), the Bathgate mineral-
field has risen in value to a very great degree, and the sys-
tematic view of the minerals obtained, which had not been the
case formerly, has effected this change.
The collieries upon this mineral-field were isolated as to
sales ; but now thata railway isin course of being completed,
with its branches, the value of this mineral-field will be re-
alised, and the minerals brought abundantly to market by
their transit, both to the west and east, to Edinburgh and
Leith.
In describing this extensive mineral-field, it may properly
be divided into five distinct sections, viz. :
1s/, From Airdrie to West Craigs Inn.
2d, From West Craigs Inn to the outcrop or commence-
ment of a lower bed of ocak of the Bathgate coal-field.
3d, The Bathgate coal-field.
4th, The hill ground immediately east of Bathgate.
* Read before the Wernerian Natural Ilistory Society, 13th March 1847.
174 Account of the Mineral-Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate.
5th, The mineral-field from the Bathgate Hills to Edin-
burgh and Leith.
At Airdrie, and all around, there are very many extensive
collieries established, not only for the general sale of coals,
but for supplying the blast-furnaces, for the production of
cast-iron in the vicinity, which are no less than sixty in
number.
The coals of the Airdrie district are the same as in what is
termed the “ Glasgow coal-field,” with certain changes in the
arrangement; in particular, where the intermediate strata
betwixt two coals in the Glasgow district have disappeared,
and the two coals being brought into juxtaposition, form one
very thick bed of coal.
The common clay or argillaceous ironstone abounds here,
and the Mushet ironstone band, discovered by Mr David
Mushet, who established the Calder Iron-Works, is very
abundant, and is of more than double the value of the com-
mon argillaceous ironstone. It has a portion of carbonace-
ous matter combined with it, which greatly aids its calcina-
tion, as very few coals are required for that purpose.
East from the town of Airdrie, the Glasgow coal-field
continues, until it reaches the estate of Auchingrey, which
once belonged to the late Rev. Mr Haldane, where, imme-
diately by the south side of the turnpike road leading from
Glasgow to Edinburgh, appears a very great extent of
“trap rocks,’ commonly named Greenstone, or the “ Blue
Whinstone”’ of Scotland. These rocks are not much elevated,
and no doubt they pass under the Auchingrey estate, and
produce those changes which are commonly connected with
such rocks.
These trap rocks are nearly a mile in breadth, and ex-
tend eastward to the West Craigs Inn. They have evidently
been forced up through the regular coal-field, and have made
great derangements ; for the open burning coals of the Airdrie
district are no longer to be found here, but the anthracite
(the Blind coal of Scotland), and the caking or smithy coal
abound ; and there is no doubt that much of the coal in con-
tact with these rocks is so much changed, that it will not
ignite, as is always the case in such districts.
Account of the Mineral-Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate. 175
These great changes, produced by the trap rocks, in the
condition of the coals, are universal through the coal-fields
of Scotland, and not only so, but the ironstones are affected ;
for they are, by natural calcination, brought to yield a higher
per-centage than in their ordinary state. From this we con-
clude, there can be no doubt that these rocks are igneous in
their origin.
From West Craigs Inn, and farther east, the effects of
the trap rocks are less observable, but they produce changes
in the minerals; and on leaving this district, we come to
the outcrop of the lowest ascertained coal in the western part
of the Bathgate coal-field.
The first series of coals consists of four beds of coal, of from
two to four feet in thickness, inclining to the quality of caking
or smithy coals, and as such are used. These coals dip to the
eastward at a moderate rate, until interrupted by a slip or
dislocation of the strata, which could not be seen. It is
said to throw down the coals to the east; but of this I have
great doubts, for we can trace no analogy whatever betwixt
those coals on the west side of the dislocation, and those on
the east side of it ; but the conclusions drawn regarding this
dislocation will be particularly noticed, after describing the
coals from it to Bathgate.
The coals, from the east side of the dislocation dip east-
ward to the town of Bathgate, at a moderate rate. These
consist of seven beds of coal, of from one foot four inches
to four feet thick, but the third and fourth coals from the
surface can only be wrought as one coal, along with the
intervening stratum. Besides these coals there are several
very thin coals, termed “ unworkable.”
This term “ unworkable,” requires to be clearly explained,
as it is much used in describing coal-fields. No coal, how-
ever thin, is, physically, unworkable; for by cutting away
either the roof or the pavement upon which the coal rests,
room can be made for the miner to work the coal; but thin
coals, and even coals of one foot three inches thick, may be
workable in a district where coals are scarce, and sell ata
high price ; when in another district, where there is abundance
176 Account of the Mineral-Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate.
of coal, and thick beds of it, those of from two to three feet
are reckoned unworkable ; that is, they cannot be sold with
profit in that district.
The coals dip regularly until near the town of Bathgate,
when they flatten and are formed into what is called the
“trough” of the coal, and then deflecting from the regular
line of dip, rise to the east upon the western face of the
Bathgate Hills, at a great angle of elevation with the horizon,
and are termed Edge coals. The common coal strata, and the
accompanying mountain-limestone, below the thick coals,
partake of the counter-rise.
In general, thin coals are found in the coal strata below
the mountain-limestone ; but they are very seldom workable
to profit.
The coals amount, in their aggregate thickness, to twenty
feet four inches; but we have reason to infer that there are
thick coals in the “trough,” or lower part of the coal-field,
both above the upper coal, and below the lowest coal.
All these coals are of good quality, generally cubical, and
a portion of them splint, suitable for all furnace purposes ;
and at the town of Bathgate there is a thick coal, with
« Parrot,” or gas-coal about one foot thick, connected with
the ironstone band.
Benhar Coal-Field.
This coal-field falls now to be described. It is situate to
the south of the trap rocks before mentioned, and contains
several beds of coal; but is chiefly valued, in having one
bed of coal, of about four feet thick, of very superior quality
to any in all the surrounding district. It is easily wrought,
as the natural backs, cutters, and horizontal fissures, are
numerous ; hence the coal, when wrought, is in pieces of re-
gular rhomboidal figure, and in the olden days was termed
“ Bible coal,” being similar to a large folio Bible.
We therefore infer, from the geology of the district around,
that this main coal of Benhar, is nearer to the trap rocks
below than any of the coals of the Bathgate coal-field ; and
this propinquity may have improved its quality, as is the
Account of the Mineral-Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate. 177
cease in Stirlingshire, where the Bannockburn coal, which is un-
doubtedly an open burning coal, towards the Carron Works,
is there converted into one of the most valuable caking coals
in Scotland ; and this change to all appearance is caused by
the immense bed of trap rock which passes under this coal-
field. Thin beds of coal which lie nearer this trap rock are
converted into anthracite, or glance coal. The same change,
apparently from the same cause, is to be seen in the Dollar
coal-field in Clackmannanshire.
These instances, and many others in Scotland, leave no
doubt of the effects produced in coals by this class of rocks,
and hence I am led to infer, that the slip does throw up the
coals and their accompanying strata, to the west; but this
view is only hypothetical.
Mountain- Limestone.
This mass of limestone passes under all the workable
beds of coal which have been ascertained in the Bathgate
coal-field. It is no less than forty feet thick, and of very
superior quality, suitable for all the purposes to which lime is
applied, more particularly when used as a flux in the blast-
furnaces, where four tons of this limestone produces the same
effect as six tons of the limestone at present generally used
in the Airdrie blast-furnaces. The expense of carriage of
this limestone to the furnaces prevents it being used ; but
the railway now making will open upa very great sale for it,
and be very advantageous to the agricultural interests of
_ the country, as well as for the iron-works and buildings.
Tronstones.
lronstones abound in this mineral-field, but the distance
from blast-furnaces renders them of no value ; and no account
was taken of them when sinking the pits.
The ironstones which have been found are of three kinds,
Viz :-—
1s/, The Mushet ironstone band, found in the roof of a
coal at the town of Bathgate. It is from six to eight inches
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCV.— JAN. 1850. M
178 Account of the Mineral- Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate.
thick, is accompanied with a parrot or gas coal, about a
foot thick, and also with bands and balls of clay ironstone.
2d, The common argillaceous or clay ironstone, yielding
from thirty to thirty-three per cent. of iron.
3d, The curly band ironstone, which is very irregular in
its form, is of the best quality for producing grey cast-iron,
strong in its texture, and suitable for artillery. It was
lately analysed by Dr Thomson junior, of Glasgow University,
and found to contain no less than forty per cent. of iron,—a
produce equal, if not superior, to any ironstone in Scotland.
In future the ironstones found in sinking will be carefully
registered, as well as those found in broken ground, by the
side of brooks and in ditches.
Light-coloured Argillaceous Rock, termed Fire-Clay.
This mineral is found in great abundance in the Bathgate
coal-field, from a few inches to several feet in thickness. It
is of good quality, fit for all furnace purposes, and for some
kinds of pottery; it is, however, of no value at present, nor
can be so until the railway now forming is in operation.
It is a remarkable fact in natural history that, in general
the beds of coal rest upon this kind of rock, although at
times but very thin.
Sandstone.
There are several quarries of sandstone in this mineral-
field, suitable for general purposes, but none for elegant
architectural buildings, Binney quarry excepted, which is of a
very superior kind, and presently used in the chief buildings
of Edinburgh.
Sandstones have been searched for by boring ; and one bed,
of a white colour, thirty feet thick, was found; but no quar-
ries have as yet been opened up in consequence.
Millstone and Flagstone.
These varieties of sandstone have been opened up at a
place named Bogend ; the millstones are of a very dark and
Account of the Mineral-Iields of Airdrie and Bathgate. 179
singular appearance, differing from any that we have seen,
-and are used for grinding all kinds of grain, wheat excepted.
Connected with the millstone bed there are good flag-
stones, some of which are of excellent quality for grind-
stones.
Mineral-Field from Bathgate Hills to Edinburgh and Leith.
There is a sudden rise of the strata to the east; and this
elevated range, with the mountain-limestone, extends north-
ward toa considerable distance, where many limestone quar-
ries have been opened; but it is remarkable that this range
is suddenly cut off upon the south, near Bathgate, and here
the mountain-limestone disappears ; but limestones are found
from this district, extending to the Blackburn and Whitburn
districts, and contain coals, and their accompanying strata,
such as sandstone, fire-clay, and ironstone. The coals hither-
to found are few in number, being, in general, from three to
four feet thick, and the beds of limestone from six to eight
feet thick.
It is worthy of remark, that at Blackburn there is a coal
of four feet thick, found a few feet below the limestone, from
which we infer that this coal- field to the south is a formation
altogether different from that of Bathgate coal-field.
Upon the east of the Bathgate Hills, a trap range of rocks
commences, and we infer that they are the cause of having
elevated the strata at the town of Bathgate ; as is precisely
the case upon the south side of the Ochil Mountains in Clack-
mannanshire, and upon the south side of the Pentland Hills,
near Edinburgh.
From some distance east from Bathgate, and towards
Broxburn, the coals which had been wrought are all of the
smithy or caking kind, and so disturbed by the trap rocks,
that no coal-field of any extent has hitherto been discovered ;
and the coals which have been wrought are in patches, and
much disjoined.
After passing Broxburn, no coals have been found ; but
there are valuable beds of sandstone, which evidently belong
to the series under the coal-formation : in this range, also,
limestones are wrought of very good quality.
180 Account of the Minerai-Fields of Airdrie and Bathgate.
Connected with these limestones there are many beds of
bituminous shale, which in burning gives out much flame,
but leaves a residuum nearly as large as when in its
raw state. In Scotland this kind of slate has been turned
to no use ; whereas in Sweden limestones are calcined with
this kind of schistus, and it is the only fuel used in the fur-
naces of the alum-works there, where this mineral abounds.
_ From this limestone district to the city of Edinburgh and
to Leith, the lower series of the coal-formation abounds,
with very few traces of coal. Under and immediately
around the city of Edinburgh, the strata are upheaved and
disordered, in an uncommon degree, by trap rocks, which
are found both in beds and dykes; whereas, on the other
hand, towards Leith, where bores have been put down, the
series of strata under the coal-formation, consisting chiefly
of sandstones and slate-clay and bituminous slate, are
found lying very regular and undisturbed, and extend to the
limestone at Duddingstone, Viz., the mountain-limestone
which lies under the great coal-field of the Lothians.
The same series, under the coal-formation, extends to
Wardie, where thin and sulphurous coals are found, and many
bands and balls of argillaceous ironstone.
As a railroad is now constructing from Airdrie to Leith,
the chief consumption of the very valuable minerals of these
districts will be in Edinburgh and at the town and port of
Leith ; and there is no doubt that coal, ironstone, and lime-
stone, will be in great request for the iron-works at and
around the town of Airdrie, where there are sixty blast-fur-
naces, and the annual consumption of these is as follows,
Vig
Coals, . ; 3 § ! 837,070 tons.
Ironstone, . : 4 ; 1,157,650 ...
Limestone, . . J 4 UL Ga. kee
2,110,485 tons.
The production of cast-iron from these furnaces amounts
to 356,200 tons.
The above statement shews in a very strong light what
Scientific Intelligence— Meteorology. 181
immense excavations are made in the mineral-fields around
Airdrie ; and that, ere long, minerals for these furnaces must
be brought from a distance. There is, therefore, a necessity
of husbanding with the greatest economy our mineral-fields,
and to leave no pillars below ground, so far as this system can
be pursued with safety, as regards the workmen and mineral-
fields; for in working with pillars, from a fourth to a third
of the whole area of coal is left behind and lost, and if theres
is ironstone in the roof of the coal, what is immediately
above the pillars is lost also.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
METEOROLOGY.
1. Destructive Effects of a Water-Spout on the Bredon Hill,
North Gloucestershire, on Thursday, 8d May 1849.—About half-
past five in the afternoon of Thursday, the 3d of May 1849, during
a storm of thunder, lightning, and hail, an enormous body of water
was seen to rush down a gully in the Bredon Hill, and direct. its
course to the village of Kemerton. The stream was broad and im-
petuous, carrying everything before it. Its extraordinary force and
body of water may be judged of from the fact, that, on reaching the
residence of the Rev. W. H. Bellairs, of Kemerton, it broke down a
stone wall which surrounded the garden, burst through the founda-
tion of another, made a way for itself through the dwelling-house, and
then carried off a third wall of brick, six feet high. The garden
soil was washed away, and ‘enormous blocks of stone,”’ and debris
from the hill left in its place. By this time the current was con-
siderably broken ; nevertheless, it flowed through the house, to the
depth of nearly three feet, for the space of an hour and forty minutes.
The neighbouring railway was so deeply flooded as to delay the ex-
press train, by extinguishing the fire of the engine.
Upon the Saturday morning, as soon as possible after the occur-
rence of this remarkable phenomenon, Mr Bellairs rode up the Bredon
Hill to ascertain its cause. For more than a mile the course of the
torrent could be easily traced, from twenty to thirty feet in breadth,
every wall being broken down, and the whole, or greater part, of the
soil removed. On arriving at the north-west shoulder of the hill, the
182 Scientific Intelligence— Meteorology.
place where the mass of water had fallen was discovered. It was a
barley-field of about five acres in extent, the greater part of which was
beaten down flat and hard, as if an enormous body of water had been
suddenly poured out upon it. Beyond this field and on higher
ground, there were no signs of the fall of water to any great amount.
‘he part of the hill where this waterspout had emptied itself was
thus fully ascertained, In the vicinity heavy rain had descended,
for minor tributaries had left marks of union with the main current ;
but in these there was nothing remarkable.
* As the water rushed down the hill towards Kemerton, it did not
spread itself out as under ordinary circumstances it would have done,
but flowed in a body, as if kept together by the velocity of the cur-
rent, the physical features of the place aiding it in this respect ; for
there the hill is steep, and the course of the water was in a gully.
The general depth of the torrent was from six to seven feet, though
in one instance marks upon a tree were met with siateen feet above
the ground. We must not overlook, however, the bending of the
tree under the power of the stream ; consequently, though the mark
would lead to the belief that the water had risen sixteen feet, it does
not follow that it actually did so.
The rain ceased immediately after the fall of water; and it is
said that a strong sulphurous odour was perceived.—(Communicated
by David P. Thomson, M.D., Liverpool.)
2. Fall of Rain in the Lake and Mountain Districts of Cum-
berland and Westmoreland, in the year 1848. By J. F. Miller,
Esq.
N
O- Rain, in Inches, Wet Days.
1. High Street, 7°34
2. Round Close, Whitehaven, é 1670 | 210
3. St James’s Church Steaple, 36°34
4, The Flosh, 5 ; ; ‘ 60°82 207
5. Cockermouth, . ‘ : 3 4 52°37 228
6. Bassenthwaite Halls, 7 - A 47:06 196
7. Keswick, é ‘ : : 66°40 229
8. Gillerthwaite, nner elite : ‘ 5 97-73 “we
9. Loweswater Lake, : ; ; : 76°66 217
10. Foot of Crummock Lake, : . : 98:07 207
1l. Gatesgarth, Buttermere, : ‘ ; 133°55
12. Eskdale Head, : ; ; , 70°38 eh
13. Do., centre of Vale, - z : ‘ 86-78 205
14. Wastdale Head, j : : : 115°32 243
15. The How, Troutbeck, 91°34 201
16. Ambleside, | westmoretana . 76°82 he
17. Langdale Head, 130:38 212
18. Seathwaite, 6 inches above surface, 160-89 } 232
19. Do., 18 inches above do., Borrowdale, 157:22
20, Stonethwaite, ‘ 150-24 242
Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. 183
The Mountain Gauges.
In 13 Months, Summer Winter Months.
Fort at sGeren aad iat May to sist Ape tess, Ba
No, Trees Si Seas Octaier "Nov. & Dec. 1848.
Inches. Inches. Inches.
21. Seca Fell Pike, é ; 3166 *64:73 49°46 ie
From Ist May.
22, Great Gable, . 5 5 2928. 91°32 46°81 44°51
23. Sprinkling Tarn, . ‘ 1900 148:59 70:95 77°64.
24. Stye Head, . : 5 1290 138-72 60°35 78:37
25. Brunt Rigg, : 4 ~ 500 109719 43°18 66°01
14. Valley to the west, Wastdale, 127:47 50°16 77°81
18. Do. to the S.E., Eskdale, 95°71 37°69 58°02
26. Seatollar Common, } esi ta 1334 139-48 57:97 81:51
19. Valley, Seathwaite, dale, 17°55 68:96 108°59
From the table for the summer months, it appears that between the
Ist of May and the 31st of October, the gauge at 1290 feet has received
2021 per cent. more rain than the valley; at 1334 feet, 15} per cent.
more; at 1900 feet, 414 per cent. more; at 2928 feet, 6 per cent. less ;
and at 3166 feet, 1 per cent. less than the valley.
In the winter months, the gauge at 1290 feet has collected 0:5 per
cent. more ; at 1344 feet, 53 per cent. more; at 1900 feet, 1 per cent.
more ; and at 2928 feet, 42} per cent. less than the adjacent valley.{—
Observatory, Whitehaven, June 7, 1849.
MINERALOGY.
3. Black Oxide of Copper of Lake Superior.—Mr Whitney made
some remarks on the remarkable vein of black oxide of copper
which was formerly worked at Copper Harbour, Lake Superior, but
which was abandoned after some forty or fifty thousand pounds of
this very valuable ore had been raised. It was the only vein of this
substance, and perhaps the only locality known in the world, and
specimens will be highly prized by the mineralogist hereafter.
The substance called copper black, and sometimes black oxide of
copper, which occurs in an earthy, pulverulent form, is not to be
confounded with the pure oxide of copper found at Copper Harbour.
Copper black is a mixture of various hydrated oxides, especially of
iron, manganese, and copper, of which the latter forms but a small
portion ; it occurs in an incrustation on other ores of copper, and is
* The fall of rain on Sea Fell during the winter of 1847-8 was lost, in con-
sequence of injury sustained by the receiver from the frost. The receivers at
the mountain stations have since been renewed. They are made of extra-heavy
sheet copper, double lapped at the seams, and with the bottoms convex inwards,
the better to enable them to resist the expansive force of the water during its
conversion into ice. Such an accident is therefore not likely to occur soon
in.
+ The above details were given in an interesting memoir read before the
Royal Society, which will soon appear.—EZadit.
164 Scientific Intelligence— Mincralogy.
evidently the result of their decomposition. Semmola, however, has
described a substance occurring in small tubular erystals belonging
to the hexagonal system, which, according to him, are pure oxide of
copper, Cu. To this substance he has given the name of Tenorite.
The oxide of copper found at Copper Harbour is generally compact,
though the purer specimens have a crystalline structure. Mr Tesche-
macher has, however, two specimens, which he has kindly allowed
me to examine, in which this substance is distinctly erystallised in
cubes, with their solid angles truncated. ‘The question arises, was
the substance described by Semmola as crystallised in the hexagonal
system, really Cu, or is this substance dimorphous ¢
Some portions of the oxide of copper from Copper Harbour are
almost chemically pure, though it is generally mixed with a little
silicate of copper. One of the purest specimens contained only 1:2
per cent. of impurities, mostly silica, with traces of lime and iron.
As the oxide of copper of this remarkable vein has not been
mineralogically described, the following description is added ;
Crystallised in cubes, with their solid angles occasionally trun-
eated ; generally, however, massive, with crystalline structure, some-
times earthy ; no traces of cleavage. H. = 3; G.=6-25, colour,
steel grey to black; lustre metallic, the earthy varieties acquire a
metallic lustre on being scratched or cut with a knife ; opaque.
Chemical composition Cu, almost pure; containing copper 79°86,
oxygen, 20°13.—(Silliman’s American Journal of Science and
Arts, vol. viii., No. 23, p. 273.) ,
4. On Arkansite—This mineral, which Mr J. D. Whitney makes
out to be Brookite, has been examined by M. 'Teschemacher (Proc.
Bost. Soc. N. H., April 1849, p. 132), and he gives the following for
its angles—(See figure in Silliman’s Journal, vol. iv. p. 279)—M : M
=100° and 80°. M:c=138° 35, c:c = 185° 45’, a:a = 125%
Shepard made M:M 101° to 101° 15’, and a:a 128°. Accord-
ing to the measurements of M. Teschemacher, the angles are those
of Brookite.
5. Baierine—(L’ Institut. No. '793).—The metal pelopium, has
been found in the Columbite of Bavaria, by G. Rose, and in that of Li-
moges by Damour. It is proposed to distinguish the variety of Co-
lumbite by the name Baierine, given it by Bendant. The specimens
from these two localities agree well in external characters, and in
analyses.
6. Notices of American Minerals. By Professor C. N. Shepard.
—(1.) Pyrophyllite, in beautiful white stelle, occurs, along with very
brilliant and perfect crystals of rutile, on a soft, semi-steatitic kyanite,
at Crowder’s Mountain, in North Carolina ; from which region I
also possess large masses of deep blue Lazulite, associated in some
instances with topaz, the latter in distinct crystals.
Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy. 185
(2.) Wavellite—This mineral has been sent to me by Dr Pendle-
ton of Athens, Ga. It occurs on a jaspery opal in Washington
County, near Saundersville, Georgia.
(3.) Babingtonite at Athol, Mass. This mineral has been brought
to light in the railroad excavations in this town, during the past
year, in very splendid crystals, associated with epidote, apophyllite,
&ce. New Haven, 20th June 1849.
7. Platinum and Diamonds in California.—The existence of pla-
tinum in the gold sands of California has of late been often announced.
Specimens from the region have recently been seen by the editors of
this Journal. We also learn from a reliable source, that the diamond
occurs at the placers. The writer (Rev. Mr Lyman) describes a
crystal seen by him, of a straw-yellow colour, having the usual con-
vex faces, and about the size of a small pea. He saw the crystal
but for a few moments, and had no opportunity for close examina-
tion; but the appearances and form left little doubt that it was a
true diamond.—( American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d Series,
vol. viii., p. 294.)
8. California Gold.—The gold of California has been analysed
by Dr Hofman, and found to consist of gold 89-61, silver 10-05=
99-66, the loss being some copper and iron, which was not determined.
9. Arkose (Bib. Univ. March 1848).—The arkose of the Vosges,
according to Delesse, is a metamorphic quartzite, consisting essen-
tially of hyaline quartz, and crystals of orthose.
10. Total Quantity of Lead Ore raised, and Lead Smelted, in
the United Kingdom, in 1848 (Official Report, by R. Hunt, keeper
of Mining Records), Mining Journal, August 25, 1849.
ENGLAND. Lead Ore. Lead. | WALES. Lead Ore. Lead’
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons.
Cornwall, ; - 10,494 6,614 | Cardiganshire, . 4,902 3,180
Devonshire, . : 1,334 844 | Carnarvonshire, . 21 14
Cumberland, . . 8,272 5,684 | Carmarthenshire, *. 307 204
Durham and ; Denbighshire, by oc
Northumberland, { 18815 14,658 | Fuintshire, . . 10,056 7,089
Westmoreland, 3 519 388 | Montgomeryshire, . 927 601
Derbyshire, . . 5,185 3,370 | Merionethshire, . 92 54
Shropshire, . oy AslS0) 5 02,762)
Somersetshire, : 41 29 Dotaloy es - 16,305 11,122
Yorkshire, . . 6,848 4,793
- Ireland, 5 « * T912 1,188
Total, . - 55,638 39,142 | Scotland, ‘ . 2,588 1,736
Isle of Man, . 22 621 1,665
Making a total of 78,964 tons of lead ore, and 54,853 tons of lead.
Imported, 1298 tons lead ore; pig and sheet lead 3788 tons ;
retained for home consumption, 2157 tons.
Exported, 135 tons lead ore; pig and rolled lead, 4977 tons ;
shot, 1151 tons; litharge, red and white lead, 2292 tons; foreign
_ lead in sheet and pig, 3747 tons.
186 Scientific Intelligence—Mineralogy.
11. On the Decomposition of Trap-Rocks. By M. Ebelmen.
—(1.) A trap from near St Austle (Cornwall). This trap consists
essentially of Labradorite and Pyroxene.
Trap fresh or Altered Trap more
unchanged. trap. altered.
Alumin, . . 100 100 100
Silica, - ; : 325 212 201
Lime, : ; : 36 5 6
Magnesia, : , 17 14 12
Oxide of iron, . , 106 107 79
Oxide of manganese, 3 2
Potassa, . b aby): Ws
Beit walked simdos btiek, me ty
Water, . : : ial 43 38
631 497 449
Hence the trap, by decomposition, has lost more than a third of its
silica, & of the lime, and half of the alkalies; this last shews that
the feldspar was the last to change, and had not been wholly decom-
osed.
(2.) A Basalt from the Rhine, consisting of Labradorite, about 54
per cent., Pyroxene 24, Chrysolite 10, with titanic iron 10, and
water 2 per cent., afforded him—
Unchanged Basalt
Basalt. altered.
A. B.
Alumina, ; 5 P F 100 100
Silica, Fs s ‘ : : 285 228
Lime, F 5 : é . 63 43
Magnesia, ‘ ; : . 39 29
Oxide of iron and manganese, . 80 78
Titanic acid, . ‘ - : 6 6
Potassa, . : : ; : 7-4 2°6
Soda, : 5 ; é é 22:2 74
Water, . ; ‘ : * 15:0 35°0
615°6 529°0
Here two-thirds of the alkalies have disappeared, shewing that the
decomposition of the feldspar was far advanced, The result of the
changes, in both cases, is to produce, as the residue, an hydrated sili-
cate of alumina, or a clay. The removal of the silica is shewn by
M. Ebelmen to be independent of the alkalies present. The decom-
position is attributed by him to carbonic acid and oxygen present in
waters, to organic matters living, or in course of decomposition, and
the phenomena of nitrification —(Annales des Mines, 12, 627.—
Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii., No. 24, p. 421.)
re ne nad
|
|
:
ce eee
Scientific Inteliigence— Botany. 187
BOTANY.
12. Flora of the Date Country and Sahara,—M. d’Escayrac de
Lauture has announced to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, his re-
turn from a journey to the date country and Sahara. He brings with
him about 200 species of plants, forming the peculiar flora of the
Great Desert, and of the region of the oases. Some of these plants,
although already known, are interesting in respect to geographical
botany ; and, in this point of view, the traveller mentions a fact
worthy of observation, namely, the retardation of vegetation in the
oasis, which is occasioned by the shade of the date trees, whose dense
rampart affords future security to the botanical species, by arresting
the hurricanes of sand which, in the Sahara, sometimes efface all
marks of vegetation over a space of many days’ journey, and for a
period of many ages.
M. d’Eseayrac’s collection contains a pretty large number of
species usually met with on the shores of the sea, and which find
their way into the desert, either around the vast plains of moist salt,
such as the Lake of Tazer (erroneously named by geographers the
Lake El Oudeleh), or around the brackish springs containing sea salt,
salts of lime, and magnesia.
The oasis, according to the remark of M. d'Escayrac, following in
general the course of a river without outlet, or of some ravine which
the sand is not long in filling up, present, like the richest plains of
Lombardy, the spectacle of many different cultures one above
another.
Below the palm Degle, planted in quincunx form, and surrounded
at its base with a pedestal of earth into which its roots penetrate,
are found orange trees covered with fruit almost the whole year,
olives, figs, apricots, peaches ; the vine twines from one date tree to
another ; and lower down we perceive pepper, beans, dourrak, barley,
henné, and tobacco kept in constant humidity by the most. skilful
irrigation.
Besides the male date, Dokkar, M. d’Escayrac says, that he de-
termined about thirty principal varieties of date trees ; among which,
he particularly mentions the Menakher, which yields fruit the length
of the finger, and whose rarity and price are such, that the Bey of
Tunis is almost the only individual who can afford to eat it; the
Degle, the tallest and most majestic, whose fruit is commonly brought
to Europe, and eaten in the country by the wealthier classes ; the
Halig which yields food to the poor and to slaves ; lastly, the Am-
meri and Saroti, whose flowers rarely fruitful, often yield dates
curved upon themselves owing to a decay of the kernel, and to which
the Arabs give the name of Sich; it is from this that the fable has
arisen of dates without kernels. ‘The dates of these two varieties
which are fertile, are given to horses and beasts of burden in absence
of B05 which they always prefer.—(From L’ Institute, No, 821,
p. 305.
188 Scientific Intelligence— Zoology— Miscellaneous.
ZOOLOGY.
13. The Infusoria of the Dead Sea and the River Jordan.—
The celebrated Ehrenberg has lately examined the water of the Dead
Sea and of the river Jordan, in a zoological point of view. He
finds the water of the Dead Sea to abound in infusoria, but nearly
all of them of fresh or brackish water species,—a fact illustrative of
the opinion which maintains that this lake never formed any part of
the general ocean. The waters of the Jordan abound in infusoria,
all of the fresh-water kinds, and the greater number peculiar to that
river,—a fact rendering it probable that great rivers, like basins of
the ocean, have their peculiar and characteristic species. These
very interesting facts shew how the researches of Ehrenberg are
opening up a novel field to the hydrologist : the microscope, indeed,
in the hands of this illustrious naturalist, has already unfolded
the marvels of a new world. We trust our naturalists are fully
aware of the importance of accurate microscopical examinations of
the sea around Britain, also of our springs, lakes, and rivers, and
are convinced they will find in such delightful researches a rich har-
vest of most interesting and far-leading discoveries.*
MISCELLANEOUS.
14, Alleged Burying Alive.—In the midst of exaggeration and
invention, there was one undoubted circumstance which formerly ex-
cited the worst apprehensions,—the fact that bodies were often found
turned in their coffins, and the grave-clothes disarranged. But what
was ascribed, with seeming reason, to the throes of vitality, is now
known to be due to the agency of corruption. A gas is developed in
the decayed body, which mimics, by its mechanical force, many of
the movements of life. So powerful is this gas in corpses that
have lain long in the water, that M. Devergie, the physician to the
Morgue at Paris, and the author of a text-book on legal medicine,
says, that unless secured to the table, they are often heaved up, and
thrown to the ground. Frequently, strangers seeing the motion of
the limbs, run to the keeper of the Morgue, and announce, with
horror, that a person is alive. All bodies, sooner or later, generate
gas in the grave, and it constantly twists about the corpse, blows out
the skin till it rends with the distension, and sometimes bursts the
coffin itself. When the gas explodes with a noise, imagination has
converted it into an outcry or groan; the grave has been reopened,
the position of the body has confirmed the suspicion, and the lacera-
tion been taken for evidence that the wretch had gnawed his flesh
in the frenzy of despair. So many are the circumstances which will
occasionally concur to support a conclusion that is more unsubstantial
than the fabric of a dream.—(Atheneum, No. 1140, p. 1115.)
* Under Infusoria we here include Poligastria, &c.
(oy 985) 43
List of Patents granted jor Scotland from 22d September to
22d December 1849.
1. To Jonn Mason, of Rochdale, in the county of Lancaster, machinist,
and Grorce Coxurer, of Barnsley, in the county of York, manager,
“certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing and
spinning cotton and other fibrous materials, and also improvements in
the preparation of yarns or threads, and in the machinery or apparatus
for weaving the same.”—24th September 1849.
2. To Wirtr1am Parkinson, of Cottage Lane, City Road, in the county
of Middlesex, gas-meter manufacturer, successor to the late Samuel
Crossley, “ improvements in gas and water meters, and in instruments for
regulating the flow of fluids.” —24th September 1849.
83. To James Artxen, of Cook Street, in the city of Glasgow, North
Britain, manufacturer, “ certain improvements in the preparation of
cotton and other yarns for weaving, and in the machinery employed
therein.” —27th September 1849.
4. To Joun Rostnson, of Patterson Street, Stepney, in the county of
Middlesex, engineer, “‘ improvements in machinery for moving and rais-
ing weights.”—3d October 1849.
5. To Ernest Graret, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
Esquire, “ improvements in marine vessels, in apparatus for the preserva-
tion of human life, and in moulding, forming, and finishing hollow and
solid figures, composed wholly or in part of certain gum, or combination
of certain gums, also improvements in dissolving the aforesaid gums, and
in apparatus or machinery to be used for the purposes above mentioned.”
_ —8th October 1849.
6. To Rosert Creee, JoserpH Henperson, and James Catvert, of
Blackburn, in the county of Lancaster, manufacturers, “‘ certain improve-
ments in looms for weaving.”—8th October 1849.
7. To Tuomas Licurroor, of Broad Oak within Accrington, in the
county of Lancaster, chemist, “ an improvement in printing cotton
fabrics.”—11th October 1849.
8. To Witt1am Gaspard Branvr, of No, 16 Compton Street, Bruns-
wick Square, in the county of Middlesex, machinist, ‘improvements in
the construction of the bearings.of railway-engines and railway and other
carriages now in use.”’—11th October 1849.
9. To Tuomas Beatz Browne, of Hampen, in the county of Glou-
cester, gentleman, “‘ certain improvements in looms, and in the manufac-
ture of woven and twisted fabrics,” being a communication from a foreigner
residing abroad.—15th October 1849.
10. To Grorar Henry Doner, citizen of the United States of America,
‘but now residing at Manchester, in the county of Laneaster, “ certain
improvements in machinery for spinning and doubling cotton yarns and
other fibrous materials, and in machinery or apparatus for winding reel-
ing, balling, and spooling, such substances when spun.”—15th October
1849.
190 List of Patents.
11. To Cuartes SHerHerd and Cuartes SHEPHERD, junior, of Leaden-
hall Street, in the city of London, chronometer makers, “ certain improve-
ments in working clocks and other time-keepers, telegraphs,and machinery,
by electricity.”—15th October 1849.
12. To Josrrn Stoven, of Suffolk Place, Pall-Mall East, in the county
of Middlesex, tailor, “improvements in coats, part of which improvements
are applicable to sleeves of other garments.” —19th October 1849.
13. To Davin Curistie, of Saint John’s Place, Broughton Lane, in
the borough of Salford, in the county of Lancaster, merchant, “a process
for welding and uniting cast-iron with steel and malleable iron,” being a
communication from abroad.—19th October 1849.
14. To Grorer Park Macrnpog, residing at Mountblow, in the parish
of Kilpatrick, and county of Dumbarton, in that part of the United
Kingdom called Scotland, ‘‘ certain improvements in machinery or ap-
paratus applicable to the preparation, spinning and doubling or twist-
ing of cotton, wool, silk, flax, and other fibrous substances.”—19th Oc-
tober 1849.
15. To Wiittam Freperick Norton, of Lascell’s Hall, Lepton, in the
parish of Kirbeaton, in the county of York, fancy cloth manufacturer,
‘* improvements in manufacturing plain and figured fabries.”—19th Octo-
ber 1849. .
16. To Joun Compe, of Leeds, in the county of York, civil engineer,
“* improvements in machinery for heckling, carding, winding, dressing,
and weaving flax, cotton, silk, or other fibrous substances.”—22d Octo-
ber 1549.
17. To Atexanper Parkes, of Harborne, in the county of Stafford,
chemist, “ improvements in the deposition and manufacture of certain
metals, and alloys of metals, and improved modes of treating and work-
ing certain metals, and alloys of metals, and in the application of the
same to various useful purposes.” —24th October 1849.
18. To Witttam Conran Fivnzet, of the city and county of Bristol,
suyar refiner, “ improvements in the processes and machinery employed
in and applicable to the manufacture of sugar.” —24th October 1849.
19. To Witt1am Epwarp Newron, of the Office for Patents, 66
Chancery Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil engineer, “ improve-
ments in machinery for planing, tongueing, and grooving boards or
planks, being a communication from abroad.”-— 24th October 1849.
20. To Davip Owen Epwarps, of Sydney Place, Brompton, in the
county of Middlesex, surgeon, “‘ improvements in the application of gas
for producing and radiating heat.”—26th October 1849.
21. To Witi1am Henry Rircuie, of Brixton, in the county of Surrey,
gentleman, “‘ improvements in fire-arms,”’ being a communication from
abroad.—31st October 1849.
22. To Jonn Mercer, of Oakenshaw, in the county of Lancaster,
and Wittram Brytue, of Holland Bank, Oswaldtwistle, in the same’
county, manufacturing chemists, “ improvements in certain materials to
be used in the processes of dyeing and printing.” —3lst October 1849.
23. To Caartrs Cowprr, of Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane,
in the county of Middlesex, patent agent, ‘‘ certain improvements in the
List of Patents. 191
manufacture of sugar,” being a communication from abroad.—2d No-
vember 1849.
24. To Josrrn Lown, of Salford, in the county of Lancaster, sur-
yeyor, ‘‘ certain improvements in grates or grids, applicable to sewers,
drains, and other similar purposes.”—2d November 1849.
25. To Joun Hott, of Todmorton, in the county of Lancaster, mana-
ger of the Waterside Works, “ improvements in machinery or apparatus
for preparing cotton and other fibrous substances, parts of which im-
provements are applicable to machinery used in weighing.” —5th No-
vember 1849.
26. To Wix11am Buckwe t, of the Artificial Granite Works, Batter-
sea, in the county of Surrey, civil engineer, “‘ improvements in com-~-
pressing or solidifying fuel.” —5th November 1849.
27. To Tuomas Jonn Know eys, of Heysham Tower, in the county of
Lancaster, Esq., “ improvements in the application and combination of
mineral and vegetable products; also in obtaining products from mineral
and vegetable substances, and in the generation and application of heat.”’
—5th Nevember 1849.
28. To Henry Crostey, of the firm of Henry Crosley, Sons, and
Galsworthy, of Emerson Street, in the county of Surrey, engineers and
coppersmiths, ‘‘ certain improved modes or methods of, and apparatus
for, heating and lighting, for drying substances, and for employing air
in a warm and cold state, for manufacturing purposes.’—7th November
1849.
29. To Henry Knieut, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
“certain improvements in apparatus for printing, embossing, pressing,
and perforating.’—12th November 1849.
30. To Apam Yutt, of Dundee, master mariner, and Jonn CuanTer,
of Lloyds, London, and Arnotp Terrace, Bromley, in the county of Mid-
dlesex, gentlemen, “ improvements in the preparation of materials for
coating ships and other vessels.”—-14th November 1849.
31. To Arexanper M‘Dovaat, of Longsight, in the county of Lan-
caster, chemist, “ improvements in recovering useful products from the
water used for washing, and in treating wool, woollen, and cotton fabrics,
and other substances.”—14th November 1849.
32, To Joun Parxrnson, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, brass-
founder, “ improvements in machinery or apparatus for measuring and
registering the flow of liquids.’—14th November 1849.
33. To Pererk Wriix1am Bartow, of Black Heath, in the county of
Kent, civil engineer, ‘‘ improvements in parts of the permanent ways of
railways.”’—14th November 1849.
34. To Grorce Epmonn Donisrnorre and Joun Warrenean, of
Leeds, manufacturers, ‘‘ improvements in preparing, combing, and heck-
ling fibrous matters.” —16th November 1849.
35. To Watrer Crum, of Thornliebank, in the county of Renfrew, in
Scotland, calico-printer, “certain improvements in the finishing of
woven fabrics ’’—16th November 1849.
192 List of Patents.
36. To Atrrep Bartow, of Friday Street, in the city of London,
warehouseman, ‘‘ certain improvements in weaving "—19th November
1849.
37. To Cuartes Epwarps Amos, of the Grove, Southwark, in the
county of Surrey, engineer, and Moses Crarx, of St Mary’s Crag, in
the county of Kent, engineer, “improvements in the manufacture of
paper, and in the apparatus and machinery used therein, part of which
apparatus or machinery is applicable for regulating the pressure of fluids
for various purposes.”’—21st November 1849.
38. To Josuua Procror WestuHeap, of Manchester, manufacturer,
“improvements in the manufacture of fur into fabrics,” being a commu-
nication from abroad.—21st November 1849.
39. To Joun Jorvan, of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, en-
gineer, “ certain improvements in the construction of ships and other ves-
sels navigating on water.”— 26th November 1849.
40. Wiriiam Garnett Taytor, of Burton Hall, in the county of
Westmoreland, gentlemai,-‘“ improvements in lint and linting machines,
which improvements in linting machines are in whole or in part applica-
ble to other purposes:’’—29th-November 1849.
41. To Wittram Epwarp Newron, of the Office for Patents, 66
Chancery Lane, in the county of “Middlesex, civil engineer, ‘‘ improve-
ments in stoves, grates, or fire-places, and in warming or heating build-
ings,” a communication.-—_30th November 1849.
42. To Jonn Bucuanan, of the city of Edinburgh, civil engineer,
‘‘ improvements in corks, valves, or stoppers, and in the use of flexible
substances for regulating or stopping the passage of fluids, and also in
making joints of tubes and pipes, or other vessels.”—30th November
1849.
43. To Cuartes Morey, citzen of the United States of America, and
now residing at Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, gentleman, ‘‘ cer-
tain improvements in machinery or apparatus for sewing, embroidering,
and uniting or ornamenting by stitches, various descriptions of textile
fabries.”—3d December 1849.
44. To James Worspet, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick,
manufacturer, “certain improvements in the manufacture of envelopes
and cases, and in the tools and machinery used therein, parts of which
may be applied to other purposes.”—7th December 1849.
45. To Joun Macintosu, of Berners Street, in the county of Middle-
sex, “ improvements in furnaces and machinery for obtaining power, and
in regulating, measuring, and registering the flow of fluids and liquids.”
—10th December 1849.
46. To Perer Farrearrn, of Leeds, in the county of York, machinist,
and Joun Hetuerineron, of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
machinist, “ certain improyements in machinery for preparing and spin-
ning cotton, flax, and other fibrous substances.”—11th December 1849.
ee
Edin® New Phil. Journ.
| a
Pet
er er Shad >
ie | Dilivium Alheiumn, Sand, Marine tormation, Coral rocks , &e.
& Marl, ae Limestone of the Cretaceous Serves.
-stone & ts Marl ( Lower Cretaceous Serves.) fae) Dnstratitiel or Cryst
Hornblende , Mica & Clay -slates, ke. 8 Veins of dir
Vol, XIVIL p.193.
+ Upper Nubian Sandstone, & Oldest Diluviurm . Ca Tertiary Limestone,
is» Masalt , & Basaltio hava. Ce Older Sandstone, Nubian Sand-
iw, Granite, Syenite, Porphyry, Diorite, Greenstone, Felspar, Oneiss, Chlorite,
ancient Copper & Tron Mines. x Mineral springs.
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
On the Geography and Geology of the Peninsula of Mount
Sinai, and the adjacent Countries. By JoHN Hoae, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.; Honorary Secretary of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, &.. (With a coloured Geological Map.)
Communicated by the Author.*
In giving a short account of the geography and geology of
the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, and of the countries imme-
diately adjoining to it, I propose, in the
First place, to take a brief survey of the principal features
of the Peninsula, beginning at Suez, and following the Sinaic
coast of the Gulf of Suez, as far as its southern point at Ras
Mohammed, and thence up the Sinaic coast of the Gulf of
_ Akaba to its northern extremity.
Secondly, From the Kalah-el-Akaba down the Arabian
shores of that gulf, I will describe that region, the small
islands of Tiran, Senafer, and others, which lie to the south
of Ras Furtak, and then the districts near Ain Uneh, and
Moweilih, on that Arabian coast.
Thirdly, Passing from Moweilih up the Gulf of Akaba, I
will give some views of it, of the Wadi-el-Araba, and of the
neighbouring mountains as far north as the ruins of Petra.
Fourthly, On the rocks of Petra I will offer a few re-
* This memoir was read at Birmingham, on 17th September last, before the
~ Section of Geology and Physical Geography of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.
VOL, XLVIIL. NO, XCV1.—APRIL 1850. N
194 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
remarks; also on Gebel-el-Harun and the mountains of the
Nabathean chain, those to the north-west of Wadi-el-Je-
rafah, the great desert of EK] Tyh,* and the range of El] Eg-
meh, the Sinaic Mounts, Gebel-el-Tyh, and Gebel Thughar.
Fifthly, Starting again from Suez, I will shortly notice
that eastern portion of Egypt which adjoins upon the Gulf of
Suez, nearly as far south as the supposed site of Myos
Hormus.
And Sixthly, I will conclude with some observations on the
general features, the geological formations, the minerals, and
ores of the Peninsula of Mount Sinai.
The map which accompanies this memoir was carefully
reduced by Mr William Hughes, from one on a much larger
scale, that was drawn and compiled by myself, from the maps
of Professor Lepsius, Herr Russegger, Dr Robinson (executed
by Kieppert at Berlin), and from the charts of the late sur-
vey of the Red Sea by Messrs Moresby and Wellsted of the
Indian Navy ; the cartoons or small plans of the “ District
near Pharan,” and of the “‘ Present Sinaic District,” were re-
duced by the same able artist from the larger ground-plans
comprised in the works of Professor Lepsius and Dr Robinson
respectively.
In order that it should be as distinct as possible, and not
rendered obscure and confused by a great crowd of names,
I have only inserted those of the principal places: the Arabic,
the ancient classical and scriptural appellations, I have
given with as much accuracy asI could. It has been recently
engraved by Mr W. Hughes, for the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Literature, in purpose to illustrate my paper
on the true Mount Sinai, which is published in Vol. IIL,
* The article al or el, when preceding any word beginning with a t, r, sh,
z,u, th, &c. (solar letter) ought strictly to be written Et Tyh, Er Rahah, Esh
Sheikh, Ez Zeit, En Nakb, Eth Themed, &c.; or, as it may be abbreviated,
thus—E’Tyh, E’Rahah, E’Sheikh, E’Zeit, E’Nakb, E’Themed, &c. In the pro-
nunciation of the latter, care must be taken to give a double force to the solar
letter. But with the vulgar people, this more correct mode of writing or pro-
nouncing is seldom practised, and in the following pages I have accordingly
retained the commoner form, solely because it is better understood.
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 195
Second Series, Part 2, of those Transactions; and I have
coloured it geologically, chiefly after Russegger’s beautiful
maps of Egypt and the Sinaic Peninsula, lately published at
Vienna; but the latter I have corrected in some places, so
as to agree with the descriptions of Burckhardt or other
travellers who have personally visited them.
First, The small and poor town of Suez, called Seis by
the Arabs,—meaning a “ little mouth,”—now a place of such
constant communication by the English, since the late esta-
blishment of steam navigation to and from India, is situated
on a low neck of land, but little raised above the level of the
high water of the gulf. The land there consists of gravel
and sand placed upon rocks of a very recent marine forma-
tion ; it is quite barren, having neither vegetation nor good
water. The view of the opposite coast-line of the Peninsula,
extending far southwards, with the more lofty mountain-
summits rising behind it, is extremely fine. Near the town
there is a ford upon a long narrow sandbank, which stretches
across tothe eastern shore, the water at low tide not exceed-
ing five English feet in depth. Whilst the tide at Suez, and
on the shoals to the north, is said to rise about seven feet.
The plain behind the town is a hard diluvial gravel ; proceed-
ing northwards, a little short of the line of 30° north lati-
tude, some heaps of rubbish or mounds point out the sup-
posed site of the ancient town of Clysma, derived, I suppose,
from KAvoua, which means “ anestuary.” Colsum or Kolzum,
corrupted from that word, is still in use with the Arabs, who
now call the Gulf of Suez Bahr-el-Kolzum, that is, “ the Sea
of Kolzum.”’
Around the head of the gulf are extensive shoals, ap-
parently of sand, mingled, according to some, with coral ;
these are left bare at low tide. There exists evidence of a
gradual filling up of the north part of the gulf, probably by
the drifting in of sand from the north of the desert. This
sand, brought by the north-east winds which often blow, is
carried into the sea, and the process of filling up is still
going on. The sea once extended much further north, and
perhaps to the north-east. The ground at the north end is
often covered by the sea in winter when south winds prevail,
196 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
and pools of sea-water are left stagnant. The soil there is
a fine sand rendered solid by the action of the waves. In
some parts it is covered with a saline crust, exhibiting strips
here and there quite white with shells. The marshy land on
the north and north-west is soft, wherein the camels sink :
this is called, as Burckhardt says, like all salt-marshes,
“ Szabegha,” and it is below the level of the sea. The broad
tract of sand dividing these marshes from the gulf is about a
yard higher than that level. The banks of the great canal
of Ptolemy are visible, and may be traced for some distance
northwards, and the bed of it resembles “a low and narrow
Wadi,” that is to say, a valley or bed of a river.
According to M. de Laborde, the levels taken through the
country, between Suez and Tineh, near Pelusium, gave a
depth of 24 feet below the levels of the Mediterranean and the
Red Seas.
On rising ground, a little beyond the head of the Gulf,
Arsinoe or Cleopatris* is, I believe, correctly placed. At this
day several mounds would seem to fix the former position ;
but I am not aware that any travellers have yet made any
excavations there, or in the conjectured site of Clysma. The
gulf to the north of Suez, Dr Robinson says, ‘‘ was anciently
not much wider at its entrance than at present, while further
north it spread itself out into a broader and deeper bay.” t
From the extremity of the gulf, in a north-eastern direc-
tion, the ideal boundary line of Africa and Asia is laid down.
Passing to the south, along the west coast of the Peninsula,
opposite to Suez, beds of marine deposits, with low hills of
sand and gravel, prevail; the latter, indeed, continue to the
north-east and east for a great distance, thence southwards
a gravelly desert plain succeeds.
Gebel-el-Rahah on the east extends parallel to the sea;
this is a long range of mountains, forming “‘ an ascent to the
high plateau of the vast interior desert.” About two-thirds _
of this range and of the wilderness of Etham, consist of a
* See as to the canal and this town, Strabo, Geograph. lib. 17, 20, p. 1140,
Bdit. Falconer, tom, ii, Oxon, 1807; also Pliny, Nat. Hist., lib. vi., cap. 29.
+ Biblical Researches, vol. i., p- 88.
“@
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 197
tertiary formation of limestone and marl, called salk and
mergelrethe by Russegger ; the range itself reaches to about
300 English feet in altitude. According to the best autho-
rities, the Israelites probably came out from Egypt a little
south of the opposite shore to Suez. The distance being
from three to four miles.
Ain Mousa, or the Springs of Moses, number seven foun-
tains; but the water is dark-coloured and brackish, being
partly impregnated with lime and salt, and it deposits a hard
substance, most likely a calcareous tufa.
Directly south the road goes over sandhills, appropriately
named by the Arabs El Kubeibat,—the little domes,—on ac-
count of their form; then follows a gravelly level tract for
several miles. The small valleys, called Wadi-el-Ahtha,
Wadi Soddur, é&c., are mere depressions in the ground, whose
level is only a few feet lower than the adjacent desert. Soon
after passing near Ras (Cape) Soddur, rocks of the cretaceous
series of the secondary formation are found, as also in the
adjoining hills. Near the sea-shore, in some places are deep
sands, which, with the wind, create small mounds, whereon ta-
marisk trees grow. With the more violent winds these sands
are blown over and driven about. After Wadi Wardan,
there occurs a ridge of chalky limestone, exhibiting in many
spots plenty of crystallized sulphate of lime (selenite.) At
the head of this valley, the highest mountain of the range is
named Gebel Wardan; it rises to 400 feet above the sea, and
is of the same secondary formation. Before reaching Wadi-
_el-Amarah, a hilly country is entered, which consists of chalk
and flint disposed in very irregular strata.
The fountain of Howara (Ain Howarah, i. e., Spring of
Corruption), is bitter and saltish; it is placed on a large
mound composed of calcareous tufa, or a whitish rocky sub-
stance, formed by deposit from the water. This district is,
according to Russegger, and also for some miles around, ex-
cept on the east, which is secondary, of the same ‘ertiary beds
of lime and marl as the north-western portion of Gebel-el-
Rahah. The mountain at the eastern extreme of Wadi
Gharandel is called Ras (Cape or Headland) Wadi Gharan-
del. The Arabs told Burckhardt that the bed of a valley, or
198 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
Wadi, could be traced from thence across the desert El Tyh
all the way to the sea. This, I conclude, can only be one of
the branches of Wadi Nesil, which crosses that desert on the
pilgrim route, between Gebel Thughar and Nakhl; and
thence it probably joins the Wadi-el-Arish,—if Russegger be
correct in laying down the course of that Wadi to the west of
Gebel Yelak and Gebel Mishea. At that Ras, the range of
Rahah terminates ; and another chain, bending south-east
and east, receives the name of Gebel-el-Tyh, and stretches out
into two branches as far as the borders of the Gulf of Akaba.
Many trees of the tamarisk, acacia, and date-palm, are seen
in Wadi Gharandel, where rock-salt occurs ; the last likewise
is detected in Wadi Useit, the Oszatta of Burckhardt,—a
ravine between high chalky crags; consequently, the springs
are all brackish and Jdztter, designated by the Arabs by the
words Morr or Morra. After the small stony plain at the
south-west extremity of Wadi Gharandel is passed, a more
mountainous country begins, and is a continuation, for some
distance southwards, of the cretaceous series, or Kreiderethe
of Russegger.
The high limestone mount, through which the line of 33°
east longitude passes, and which forms a conspicuous pro-
montory in the gulf, is known to the Arabs under the appel-
lation of Gebel Hamam, or the ‘“‘ Mount of the Baths,’’ be-
cause at its northern end are situate the hot sulphur springs,
called El Hamam Faroun, “ Pharaoh’s Baths,” and after-
wards more fully noticed.
Gebel Hamam itself is of the secondary formation, or cre-
taceous series, chalk mostly covered with jlints, which give
the entire mountain a dark appearance, except where the
chalk is most visible. It is said to be about 1500 feet in
height above the sea.
Wadi Schebekeh, Burckhardt’s Shebeyke (a net) is a broad
valley, having steep cliffs on both sides; there the strata are
calcareous, and run in even horizontal beds. Much rock-
salt occurs in Wadi Taibeh (“good”) in pieces beautifully
white ; for this reason the water in both Wadis Schebekeh
and Taibeh is very brackish.
Thence into Wadi Hommr, or Humr of Robinson, where
——
-_
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 199
are precipitous sides of chalky limestone, from 200 to 250
feet in height, with fimts in-some parts. On the north, the
high pyramidal peak, termed Sarbut-el-Gemel, the “ hump of
a camel,’ is of the same limestone, and is connected with
Gebel Watah by low ridges. At Gebel Zuweibin, on the
south, the sandstone region is entered upon the right, whilst
on the left, or east, the /imestone is chiefly continued. Here
all this lofty portion of Gebel-el-Tyh, possessing a long, re-
gular, and level ridge, appeared to be calcareous. The
plain named Debbet-el-Ramleh, or “ plain of sand,” is broad,
sandy, uneven, with broken ridges and water courses ; it com-
mences to the south-east at an elevation of about 1600 feet,
and extends to within afew miles of the Gulf of Akaba,
varying in altitude during this distance; for at Alahadar,
near the line of 34° east longitude, it is found to rise to
above 4000 feet above the sea. The south-eastern portion,
or branch, of the Tyh mountains is also sandstone.
This Sinai sandstone, with its marls, belongs to the lower
secondary formation, which Russegger names “‘ untere Kreide-
reihe,” the lower cretaceous series.
The mountain on which remain those remarkable, and for
long esteemed ‘“‘ mysterious monuments,” called Sarbut-el-
Chadem, “knob of the ring,” is of this sandstone, reddish-
brown, or mostly red, with strata of different shades here
and there ; it is 600 or 700 feet in height, the ascent to which
is difficult, and even dangerous, for most sides of it are
broken into deep precipices. The numerous stehe, still exist-
ing on the west side of the small elevated plain, or rather
ledge, are covered, according to Professor Lepsius, with hiero-
glyphics, which record the working of the neighbouring cop-
per-mines. He says, the whole country was named in hiero-
glyphics, Mafkat, «the copper land.”* Had any geologist
visited these singular ruins, he must have discovered the
heaps of scoriv, and, consequently, the ¢rue origin of the dis-
trict, and so would no¢ have considered it as a place of Egyp-
tian pilgrimage, as some travellers have incorrectly done.
* “Your from Thebes to the Peninsula of Sinai,” by Professor Lepsius, trans-
lated by C. Hl, Cottrell, p. 14.
200. John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
In fact, both here and in the adjoining Wadi Maghara, there
existed colonies of Egyptian miners from the earliest period.
South of this most interesting spot,and especially on the south-
east, in Wadi-el-Seih, the sandstone ceases, and porphyry with
greenstone (griinsfein) prevails. The mountains become more
lofty and grand ; and in Wadi Barak, at about 3000 feet in ele-
vation from the sea, the formation is granitic, principally, in-
deed, porphyry with a belt of greenstone. Farther to the south-
east, in Wadi Berah of Robinson, the rocks are porphyry and
red granite, occasionally veined with grey granite. But in
the adjoining east Wadi-el-Ush (4/ush), gneiss, mixed with
granite, is seen; then the central region of the remaining
southern division of the country, being nearly one-third of
the entire peninsula, strictly so considered, presents a mag-
nificent rugged and alpine mass of hypogene schists, granite,
and porphyry.
Returning again to the coast at the bottom of Wadi Sche-
bekeh, and passing round the low sandy projecting point at
Ras Zelime (Zlim), where there is a harbour for small ships,
a large dreary plain of marine formation, sand, and stones,
is entered upon, which somewhat ascends to the bitter spring
El-Morkha, the Marcha of Dr Lepsius, and Murkhah of
others. This Bir, or “ well,” Burckhardt describes as being
in the sandstone rock, near the foot of the mountains on the
east ; but since its water is very bad, it most probably issues
either from the chalk, wherein sw/phur may be present, as at
Gebel Hamam, or through the plain itself, which is of marine
formation, and very likely impregnated with sa/¢, Moreover,
the Wadi-el-Dhafary, or Dhaph’ri (Daphka), which is from
Burckhardt’s description distant about one and a quarter mile
to the south-east by south from Morkha, near Wadi Naszb,
which is clearly in the sandstone formation, “ furnishes the
only sweet water between Tor and Suez ;’’* and this fact, I
think, would prove that the latter spring rises in the sand-
stone strata, unmixed with sulphur or salt, and not in those
chalky or marine beds of the plain of Morkha.
* Travels in Syria, p. 623.
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 201
In Wadi-el-Naszb the remains of old copper mines have
been noticed, as also in Wadi Maghara; and near these oc-
curs the mineral named in Arabic, E/-Kohal, Kohol, or Kohl,
which is antimony. At the head of Wadi Sawuk are beds
or veins of greenstone. Wadi Kamileh consists of sandstone,
though, at its junction with Vadi-el-Seth, it is succeeded by
greenstone, porphyry, and disintegrated granite.
Again, upon the arid and sandy plain before described, near
the Birket Faroun or ‘‘ Pharaoh’s Pool,” Wadi Shellal or
the “ Valley of Cataracts” opens ; thence, the difficult pass,
Nakb-el- Butera of Lepsius, the Badera of Burckhardt, and
Buderah of others, which is of sandstone, leads to Wadi-el-
Sittere, the latter traveller’s “‘ Seyh Szeder,”’ where the sand
rocks present abrupt cliffs, 20 or 30 feet high ; large masses
having separated themselves from the sides, lie at their base
in the valley. These are thickly covered with inscriptions in
the strange Shemitic characters.
From hence, the well-known and remarkable Wadi Mukat-
_teb, meaning, in Arabic, the “ Written Valley,” is entered ;
the rocks there are also of a red sandstone, consisting of
quartz grains mixed with mica; they, as in Wadi-el-Sittere,
are everywhere inscribed in the same unknown letters. Pro-
ceeding along Wadi Firan, Burckhardt* says he “ met with a
kind of basaltic tufa, forming low hills covered with sand ;”
then he observed the road to be “overspread with silex’’
(flints), and the chain of granite mountains, commencing on
the north-east, continued parallel with the road. On the
south-west side, before coming to Wadi Romman, the sand-
stone ends, and granite begins ; but between that valley and
El Hessue, the formation is principally gneiss. From the
last place, Wadi Firan assumes a more cheerful aspect, and
a stream of pure water, flowing through a great part of the
year, loses itself there in a cleft in the rocky ground, after
having irrigated the valley above for several miles. This
Wadi tends in a south-east direction, and after passing the
isolated mountain named El] Bueb, it joins Wadi-el-Sheikh,
which then proceeds more eastwards, and leads to the pre-
* Syria, p. 620.
202 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
sent Sinaic district. Atthat craggy mount, Dr Lepsius was
surprised in beholding many mounds of earth ; the presence
of which he could only account for, by conceiving that this
portion of the valley had, at an early period, formed a Jake,
and which the general appearance of the locality seemed to
confirm. As far as that spot, or nearly to El Bueb, Wadi
Firan is considered the most fertile valley in the whole Pen-
insula; for, from that upper extremity, an uninterrupted
row of gardens and date plantations, called by the Arabs,
“ El Gennain fel Wadi Firan;” “the gardens in Wadi Firan”
extend downwards for three or four miles. The clear rivu-
let before mentioned, springing out of the ground in a re-
markable manner about a mile below El Bueb, affords plenty
of water to that richly-cultivated tract.
Gebel Serbal rises on the sowth* side of this beautiful val-
ley, and directly opposite to the ruins of the very ancient
Amalekitish city of Pharan. This magnificent mountain,
sometimes called also Faran or Paran, is of granite, having
five principal peaks, which rise like cones, and are distin-
guishable from a great distance. The height of the second
peak from the west is, according to Riippell (and which he
considered the loftiest), 6342 Paris feet, or 6759 English feet,
above the sea. Mr Bartlett having ascended one of these
peaks, probably that which Burckhardt, in 1816, was the first
to climb, gives the following graphic description of the moun-
tain, and of the panorama from it:—* We stood on the top
of a rounded edge of polished granite, dangerously shelving
down, from which the precipice, on either hand of us, sunk
sheer 2000 feet below. We could not see the chasm by
which we ascended ; but Jooked across it to the other peaks,
* Itis, I believe, to Burckhardt that we first owe the correct position of Mount
Serbal, as laid down in the map published in 1822, which accompanies his post-
humous work on “ Syria,” edited by Col. Leake. In the edition, Paris 1818, of
the splendid map of Hgypt and the Peninsula of Sinai, made from the surveys
of Col. Jacotin of the French army under Napoleon (‘Description del’Egypt”’).
Mount Serbal is placed, in File. II., on the north of Wadi Firan, and the town and
convent of Faran are on the south of it. Such are also the errors in Niebuhr’s
“Mabula Itineraria” (Tab. XXIII.), engraved in his “ Descrip. de l’Arabie,”
Copenhag. 1773, and in the ancient “ Peutingerian Table,” fol., Lips. 1824.
Geology of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries. 203
all consisting of similar terrific masses of granite, wildly up-
thrown from beneath by some awful convulsion, each capped
with a similarly rounded weather-beaten summit, and each
with the same precipitous sides. The appearance of the
mountain itself was fearfully sublime, and the view from it,
except where its intervening crags formed an impediment,
all but boundless—the whole Peninsula lay at our feet.
Though hazy, we could see very far up the Red Sea, towards
Suez, making out different points of our route, and we looked
across it far into the Egyptian Desert. Tur, and the coast
downwards. also appeared through a cleft. The stern and
steril mountains of the Peninsula lay below us, an intricate
labyrinth, a confused sea of many coloured peaks, black,
brown, red, and grey, with here and there a narrow valley of
bright yellow sand, peeping through, Wadi-el-Sheikh being
the most conspicuous opening; beyond these arose, irregu-
- larly, the plateaux of the Great Desert and the ranges of El
Tyh, which support it, all fading away into a misty heat, but
for which the hills of Palestine might perhaps have been seen
in the remotest distance. The solitudes of (the present) Sinai,
a darker, bolder congregation of wild peaks lay to the right,
stern and black, and awful in colouring, and cut off all view
of the Gulf of Akaba in this direction. Nothing could be
more desolate than the vast region, over which floated the
scorching haze beneath us, from east to west, from north to
south ; mountains, plains, valleys, and sea, formed by the
slow abrasions and depositions of ages, and then fractured
and up-heaved by the agency of fire, or protruded in molten
masses through fissures thus created, seemed stamped by na-
ture with eternal barrenness, and unfit for human habitation.’’*
Having come back to the coast, a little north of Burdes,
where red and yellow sandstone rocks are seen, then marine
sand, grayel, and stones, extend from the low point Ras
Burdes round the headland Ras Gihan close along the shore ;
from the former point, the chain of the Araba mountains
runs to the south, a little beyond the latter Ras. This pro-
minent chain is of the same secondary or cretaceous lime-
* Horty days in the Desert, p. 64.
204 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
stone as that which prevails over the Desert El Tyh, by Ge-
bel Watah, and breaks off by the plain near the well of
Morkha. Crossing the more southern part of the Araba
range, the head of the vast plain El Kaa is entered upon ;
this, commencing at the western foot of Gebel Serbal, con-
tinues with a gentle slope, without interruption, to the south
extreme of the Peninsula. It is some miles in width, varying
a good deal in places, and is perfectly bare and arid. Its
geological formation I will afterwards more particularly de-
scribe, and will here only observe, that it consists of beds of
diluvial gravel, or of stones and rocks brought down by the
winter torrents from the many Wadis, which open into it,
and of sand, in part carried by the winds from those valleys,
and in part drifted from the shores of the Gulf of Suez.
Travelling along this plain from the southern end of Gebel
Araba on the west, and Wadi Dachade, under the Serbal, on
the east, a strip of the same Sinai sandstone is found, ac-
cording to Russegger, on both sides, on that which adjoins
the granitic formation on the east, as well as on that next
the coast, which I have called, following Dr Lepsius’s map,
Abu Suera.
Here, near its south termination, Gebel Narkus, or the
“ Bell Mountain,” is situate not far from the sea, from which
a sandy plain slightly ascends to its base. Lieutenant Well-
sted has given a neat lithographed view of it, and he describes
its height as about 400 feet, and the material of which it is
composed, a light-coloured friable sandstone. A mass, or
rather an inclined plane, of very fine sand, rising at an angle
of 40° with the horizon, rushes down in portions at times, and
causes hollow sounds that the Arabs compare to the ringing of
bells. That author has given an account of the sounds he
heard on the spot, and also some remarks in furtherance of
the explanation of them.*
The adjoining range, or Gebel Hemam (“ death”), a lime-
stone chain from 200 to 300 feet high, extends for about ten
miles up to the north extreme of the Bay of Tur. Here, about
* Wellsted’s Travels in Arabia, vol. ii, p. 26.
Geology of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries. 205
a mile from that town, at the termination of some marshy
land, is El-Wadi, where many date trees grow luxuriantly.
On the east of this place is situate a thermal spring, which
Wellsted names Hamam Mousa, the “ Bath of Moses.” The
water has a temperature of 86° Fahr., is bitter and salt in
taste, and of a sulphureous smell. At Tur, in the bay, are
many coral banks, but its harbour is very safe; and on each
side to the north-east and south, a patch of the tertiary lime-
stone and marl occurs ; also a larger district of the same for-
mation is observable a little south of Ras Sebil. Tur was
formerly named Puitot, Raithu or Raithe: it is now the sole
remaining town in the whole Peninsula.
Ras Mohammed, or more fully Ras 46u Mohammed—‘ Cape
Father Mahomet”’—or the ‘ promontory below Pharan,’’ is
only a low point “ formed of limestone mixed with fossils,” as
M. de Laborde describes it ; or, according to Captain New-
bold, of a “ tertiary fossiliferous limestone.”
The coast is rugged, and cannot be seen at sea further than
three leagues and a half; and the land composing the Ras is a
long narrow ridge, nearly divided, about six miles from the
extremity, by a deep bay.
On the north, about five miles distant inland, the chain of
granite mountains called Gebel-el-Turfa, the ‘“ Tamarisk
Mountains,” commences, and proceeds in a direction a little
west of north to join the more lofty central mountains near
Gebel-Um-Schomar.
Gebel-Um-Khesin, written Om-Kheysyn by Burckhardt, is
considered one of,the highest peaks of this chain, and is about
5000 feet above the sea-level; a patch of sandstone existing
around Sherm (a creek) was first noticed hy Ehrenberg, and
so coloured in his map of that region. Wellsted relates that
red and yellow earths (marls) abound in the hills near the
harbour, and are used by the Arab sailors for painting their
boats. A few miles north-east of Sherm, Burckhardt writes :*
* Syria, p. 529. Burckhardt must here be understood to mean, that these
were the only volcanic crater-like rocks, which he had seen in the Peninsula, be-
cause he observed volcanic remains in two other places, viz., basaltic tufa hills a
little south-east of Wadi Mukatteb, and basaltic cliffs on the sea-shore west of
the Isle of Kureiyeh, See pp. 620, 507.
206 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
he “‘ saw for the first and only ¢ime in this Peninsula volcanic
rocks.” For a distance of about two miles, the hills pre-
sented perpendicular cliffs, formed in semicircles, and some
of them nearly in circles, none exceeding 60 or 80 feet in
height ; in other places, there was an appearance of volcanic
craters. The rock is black, with sometimes a slight red aspect,
full of cavities, and of a rough surface.
But near Wadi Nukb, where are some plantations of date
trees, according to the same traveller, the land is chalky, or
calcareous, with fossil shells imbedded, and which, doubtless,
formerly constituted a portion of that nearly opposite in the
north of the Isle of Tiran, and in the north-east of the Ailani-
tic Gulf, near Ras Furtak. The separations, now occupied by
the sea, in the Strait of Tiran, as well as in the straits be-
tween that isle, the point near Furtak, and the smaller isle
of Senafer, have very possibly been caused by the same (or a
like) voleanic action, which appears to have taken place in
raising up the basaltic rocks between Sherm and a little below
the line of 28° north latitude. This strip of chalky limestone
seems to lie between sandstone strata north and south, and the
alluvial, or marine deposit, along the sea-shore on the east of it.
After Wadi Nukb, a large sloping sandstone plain, called
Mofassel-el-Korfa, stretches out towards Wadi Orta; over it,
many beds of torrents, descending from the high chain of El
Turfa, cross in their course to the Gulf of Akaba. Orta it-
self consists of greenstone, red porphyry, and granite, the
last species of rock succeeding in Wadi’s Chosib and Kyd.
So also, in Wadi Melhageh (Burekhardt’s Molahdje), a narrow
and rocky passage enclosed by high cliffs, granite alone pre-
_vails. To the range intervening between the gulf and the
last-named valley, as it is of a dark coloured granite, I have as-
signed the name of the “‘ Melana (dlack) Mountains,” Mérae
“Ogeaz of Ptolemy, rather than to those volcanic hills nearer
Sherm, as Burckhardt has done.
A little south of 28° 30’ north latitude is Dahab, or as Well-
sted gives it, Mersa Dahab, signifying the “ Port of Gold,”
which he adds, “is the only well-sheltered harbour in the
sea.” Itis remarkable in shape, being a semicircle of marine
formation, 7. e., of coral, on which is a layer of sand, slightly
—
Geology of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries. 207
raised above high water level. Also the same author says
“the epithet Golden” appears to have originated from “ the
sand in its vicinity resembling” gold. ‘‘ The teeth of two
ibices we received on board were covered with a substance
resembling gold.”* This sand may possibly be derived from
pyrites, washed down by the winter rains from Wadi-el-Sal ;
the rocky sides of the lower part of which valley are sand-
stone,
Dahab extends into the gulf, about 2 miles beyond the
line of the coast, and must have been in former ages, in ac-
cordance with every probability, an important sea-port.
Wellsted observed, to the west of a long projecting point,
some mounds like those covering ruins. Certain geographers
have thought it likely that this was the site of Eziongaber.
Bochart (Canaan, p. 764) having interpreted that word as
meaning a “ backbone” or “spine.” Wellsted writes that the
peculiar formation of the harbour at Dahab adds strength to
the supposition, for within its spine-like ridge of rocks there is
a Spacious anchorage. Since that ancient port, however, was
“ beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of
Edom” (1 Kings ix., 26), Dahab, which was not in that
territory, but in the /and of Midian, being distant full 75 miles
from Ailah, could no¢ possibly be said to be “ beside Eloth’’
or Ailah, the ancient position of which is well determined.
Busching} indeed, with less reason, places Eziongaber, at
Sherm, Jeyond the Strait of Tiran. But Burckhardt (p. 523)
suggested that “ Dahab is probably the Dizahab mentioned
in Deut.i. 1.” This has been correctly acquiesced in by se-
veral authors.
Journeying northwards, the cliffs close to the sea at Ras
Methna are of granite and red porphyry, crossing each other
in irregular layers, On the shore near there, the granite
sand carried down from the upper mountains, mixed with
fragments of different rocks, has been cemented by the action
of the waters into a beautiful dreccia, Gebel Abu Ma consists
of granite ; but some miles further north, the promontory Ras
* Arabia, vol. ii., p. 154.
+ Geogr. of Asia, p. 620, Third Edition.
208 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
Bourka, or “ Cape Veil,”’ is so termed by the Arabs from
being conspicuously white with a chalky limestone. The
same sort of cha/k appears before, just above the ground,
near Noweibia, at the base of the moderately-high mountains,
themselves composed of greenstone and granite rocks.
Noweibia (a diminutive Arabie word) signifies “ springing
up” like a fountain ; here also is water, but brackish, as it is
in the same cretaceous formation as along the coast of the Gulf
of Suez. Some date plantations are met with, and much
charcoal made from the acacia trees, is exported to Cairo.
Wadi Boszeyra of Burckhardt, the El Sadeh of Robinson,
is of excellent grey granite, which the Arabs cut into stones
for their handmills. This eastern granitic range presents
very precipitous cliffs, about 800 feet high, from which a bank
of gravel slopes down to the sea-shore ; Dr Robinson more mi-
nutely particularises the cliffs in Wadi-el-Sadeh as affording
alternations of granite and greenstone, occasionally capped
with sandstone. According to thattraveller, themountainsnear
the upper or western part of Wadi-el-Sal are chiefly green-
stone, with some slate and veins of porphyry. Crossing the
sandy plain, part of El] Ramleh, which reaches to the foot of
Gebel-el-Tyh, in the approach to Hadhera, that portion of
those mountains is composed of sandstone strata, with layers
of limestone towards its top. But the eastern ramifications
of the south branch of Gebel-el-Tyh, beyond Hadhera, sink
down into precipitous isolated hills and masses of sandstone
rocks which have been rent to the bottom by narrow sandy
valleys, or rather clefts. Then succeeds a plain of sand; and
in Wadi Ghazaleh, leading eastwards into Wadi Wetir, the
sides are perpendicular walls of sandstone, and very narrow.
Next follow sandy plains, and rugged sandstone hills; and,
indeed, at the north-west base of Gebel Samghy, the rocks
exhibit sandstone, greenstone, and granite alternately.
I will here add from Burckhardt a sketch of the same dis-
trict. The west portion of Wadi-el-Sal consists of the lower
ridges of the primitive mountains; on the top is granite,
lower down greenstone (griins¢ein) and porphyry ; further on
granite and porphyry cease, and the rock is solely green-
stone, partaking of a slaty nature in many spots. Proceed-
i
oe oe
ee eT
, 3
Geology of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries. 209
ig to the north-east, there is another valley beyond El Sal,
where ealeareous and sandstone rocks begin. Thence over
the sandy plain of Ramleh, and then, descending towards
Hadhera, a deep sandy valley covered with blocks of chalk
rock is entered ; and about a mile further is a pass between
low hills of sandstone. In Wadi Rahab, the Wadi-el- Ruwei-
hibiyeh of Robinson, flowing into Wadi Ghazaleh (‘ Gazelle’),
the sands terminate; then, in another Wadi to the east, an
alternation of sandstone and granite exists.
To the west is Wadi-el-Ain, par excellence, “ the spring”
or “ fount,” which lies on one of the chief roads, or rather
camel paths, either to the convent by Wadi Zalaka and Ala-
hadar, or from thence northwards, by the Mareikhi Pass over
the central Tyh Mountains, west of Gebel-el-Egmeh, on to
the table lands of the Great, Desert. At El Ain, in a small
plain, a fountain, and rivulet, and palm trees, delight the
traveller ; and they are placed nearly in the centre of the
sandstone region between the northern and southern branches
of Gebel-el-Tyh. Mr Bartlett relates, that beyond the
fountain, “a singular sandstone mountain, in shape a trun-
cated cone, rises, broken into strata of the most fantastic
colouring—red, white, yellow, and purple,—glaring and flam-
ing under a cloudless sky.” The figure of the mount, as re-
presented by him at p. 97, “ Forty Days in the Desert,” re-
sembles on a smaller scale, the highest peak of Mount Hor ;
and its remarkable colouring too, ¢fin fact it be all sandstone,
is similar to that of the highly-tinted sandstone rocks at Petra.
But I think the differently coloured strata of that mount will
prove to be, on an examination of them, layers of granite,
chalky limestone, sandstone, and porphyry, like the alter-
nately-placed beds of these formations, which have been al-
ready detailed as seen in several Wadis contiguous to Wadi
Wetir. Indeed, this seems probable, because Mr Bartlett
adds, that after E] Ain, and when he had approached “ the
jaws of a gloomy defile (Wadi Wetir), the sandstone gave place
to the dark purple hue of the porphyry, precipices of which
rose higher and higher.”
The two great valleys of this portion of the Peninsula, E/
Saland Ietir, are alike in their general form, though the
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCVI,—APRIL 1850. ty)
210 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
latter is more curved northwards ; they are in some degree
parallel to each other, and each constitutes the principal
channel for the waters that descend to it from the central
mountains on the east side, and the many lateral Wadis,
during the rainy season; and each conducts them into the
Sea of Akaba. Again on the coast, and haying passed round
the chalk cliff Ras Bourka, which is washed by the waves,
the traveller arrives at another spring of saltish water,
named Soweira, (Suweirah, by Robinson,and Zoara, by Burck-
hardt,) most likely rising through the chalk or cretaceous
beds, as at Noweibia: then the Cape or Ras Um Haye,
“mother serpent,” (the Um-Haizeh of the former author),
makes the east termination of the northern branch of Gebel-
el-Tyh. Before, however, reaching that point, immense
masses, apparently of yellow sandstone, present themselves ;
these are intercepted by a row of granite cliffs between them
and the beach, which are then crested with red sandstone ;
and an inclined bank of gravel and debris slopes from them
to the sea.
The phenomena presented by the frequent alternations of
the sandstone and cretaceous limestone, with the igneous and
voleanic rocks, granite, porphyry, greenstone, &c., as well
those which exhibit upheavings, displacements, or interrup-
tions of the strata, as those which shew more simple dis-
turbances, particularly in Wadi Wetir, and its neighbouring
valleys along the coast of this gulf, near the east extremity
of the Tyh range, and opposite to the Island of Kureiyeh,
are highly interesting to the geologist ; and they require his
more minute exploration of the whole district.
From the last-named Cape (Um-Haye), the mountains be-
come much lower in height towards the north, whilst the
most lofty summit of the range on this east coast is that be-
hind Noweibia. Beyond, to the north-east of Wadi-el-Hu-
weimirat, the formation continues to be sandstone. And
further on, near the spot called Wadi Mezeiryk, by Burck-
hardt, which Robinson’s Arabs knew only by the former — |
name, there appears what Burckhardt describes (p. 507), as
“a range of black basaltic cliffs, into which the sea has
worked several creeks,” like small lakes, with narrow inlets —
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Geology of Mount Sinai and the adjacent Countries. 211
to the gulf. Thence into Wadi Merakh, mistaken (accord-
ing to Robinson), by Burckhardt for Wadi Taba, which opens
upon a broad plain of gravel, sloping down to the sea. Next
appears to follow the promontory, called by the latter, Ras
Koreye,* (Kureiyeh), from the isle of that name; and then a
small bay opens to the sea over sands, opposite to which, at
a short distance, stands Jezirat Kureiyeh, the “ Island of
Kureiyeh.” Wellsted calls it “ Pharaoh's Isle,” Jezirat Pha-
roun, or more correctly Faroun. The Arabic word, Kureiyeh
means a “ town” or “ village,” or the “ruins” of either, and
has been corrupted from the sound by De Laborde into Grae
or Graia. It isa narrow granite rock, placed from north-
west to south-east, and rising to 150 feet in height; it com-
prises two hills covered with ruins, and united by a low neck
of land; among these, “ fragments of marble entablatures
and pillars,’ were found by Wellsted ; and they are perhaps
the remains of a temple or mosque.
I am inclined to agree with Herr Schubert} in considering
this isle to have been the position of Eziongaber, or at least
of a part of that very ancient port if an isthmus of rock,
possibly of coral, ever united it to the peninsula, then the
form of the harbour would have corresponded with the sup-
posed origin of the word, viz., “ a ridge of rocks like a back-
bone.” This in time may have been destroyed by some ig-
neous or volcanic power, of which remains are visible on the
west, not far from the island, in the basaltic cliffs and creeks
previously described. The island may originally have been
used as the fortress, or rock of defence, of Hziongaber, and
the rest of the town may have been erected on the Sinaic
shore. This site fully answers the scriptural account of it,
as being “ beside Eloth on the shore of the Red Sea,} in the
* Named in the map published in Burckhardt’s “ Syria,” C. Koreyk (k being
anerror for h or e.) But the isle is placed on the Arabian instead of the
Sinaic coast.
Tt Reise, vol. ii., p. 379.
_ f 1 Kings ix. 26. The Septuagint translation is, AAO éxi rob yeiAoug THs
toydrng duracons év yn Ede; and in 2 Chron, viii, 17, it is, "AsA&d ray
| magusanacciay ev yi *ldounaig.
212 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
land of Edom ;” and that of the Jewish Historian, in the be-
ginning of the Christian era, as lying not far from A®lana.*
So, Makrizi, in the fourteenth century of our era, writes, .
“near Aila was formerly situated a large and handsome
town, called Aszyoun,”}——that is to say, El-Zyon or Ez-Zyon
(gaber.)
But Dr Robinson states (i., p. 237), that this island was
“ the former citadel of Az/ah, mentioned by Abulfedat (about
A.D. 1300), as lying in the sea;” and very likely it might
have been so occupied after the decay of Eziongaber ; yet, as
it was eight miles or more distant from Adlah, it could not
have afforded any protection to that town, but only to its
passing ships.
Opposite to the isle, on the west, low hills of chalk and
sandstone interrupt the granite, then the broad gravelly plain
of Taba; and afterwards the granite rocks again coming
down to the beach, constitute the headland, H/ Musry, “ the
Egyptian,” which projects into the sea southwards. Then
the mountains on the north-west retire from the coast more
inland; but near the shore, small hills of conglomerated
gravel and sand, nearly as solid as rock, continue beyond ‘the
extremity of the gulf.
Secondly, Around the head of the Alanitic Gulf, nearly as
far as Kalah-el-Akaba, the “ Castle of the Descent,” the
sea has cast up a bank of sand and gravel, which is higher
than the level of the Great Northern Wadi-el-Araba, and
prevents the passage of any stream from it. On the shore
near the Castle and the Grove of Date Trees (Phenix dacty-
* Josephus, Antiq. Jud. lib. viii., c. 6,8. 4, who calls it "AcinyyaPagos; ‘and
adds, it was then named Berenice. Now, the Arabic name of “ Pharaoh’s-Isle,”
and those of the neighbouring valley and Cape of the ‘‘ Egyptian,’ seem to:me
to give some confirmation, by tradition, that this place, or one near it, formerly ’
bore the common Egyptian name of “ Berenice,” for which the present ones have
been substituted by the ignorant Arabs.
+ Burckhardt’s Syria, p. 511.
t In the passage afterwards cited by Robinson (p, 252), from Abuijeda, it
appears that he only says, Ailah “ hada small castle in the sea ;” but he does
not state its position, or its distance from Ailah. So it is doubtful whether
this island formed the site of that small castle, or not.
«) oedsyee
' .
, ¢q
Geology.of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 218
lifera), the presence of which plant always indicates a neigh-
bouring spring,* about two miles and a-half from the top of
the Bahr, “ sea,” upon digging sweet water is soon obtained:
Even on making a hole with the hands, the water slowly
rises. This is at first salt, but when it is thrown out, the
hole gradually refills with fresh water. This probably comes
from springs from the East Mountains, which percolate
through the gravel, here forming a slope to the sea.
Vegetables and several sorts of fruit are here plentiful ;
-proving that the district is much more capable of cultivation,
‘and naturally more fertile than that of the opposite coast.
-Fishes also abound in the gulf, which, after a shallow rocky
platform of some yards in width, here becomes excessively
‘deep. Behind the Castle of Akaba, to the south-east rises
the lofty Gebel Ashab, “ grey mount ;” then, on the north-
east, in a lower part, opens Wadi-el-Ithm, the ‘“‘ Valley of the
- Crime,” which leads up to the sandy tract, E] Hismeh, sur-
rounded by mountains. Further to the north-east, appears
the Gebel-el-Shafeh, or ‘‘ Mountain of the Summit.”
... Traversing the beach southwards over gravel and sand, and
haying passed the ruins of Kasr-el-Badawy, or ‘‘ Bedouin
Fort,” the rows of hills that then succeed on the left are
granite. At Hakl, meaning a “ field,” which Wellsted
_ writes, Hagool, as broadly pronounced, there is a little har-
_bour; next a considerable plantation of date trees, to which
| the sandy valley, Wadi Mebruk, so called by the common
_. Bedouins, and signifying a “kneeling place’ for camels,
adjoins. The small Isle Omaider, not far from the beach,
presents nothing worthy of remark. A singular phenomenon
is afforded, along this west Arabian coast, by the Wadis, be-
_ tween the mountains, rising to 2009 feet in solid inclined
planes of sand. The chain of mountains at some distance
~ from the sea, exhibits steep walls and cliffs of granite, which,
* The following remarkable instance of this is mentioned by Dr Robinson
i. p. 238), which he witnessed on the opposite coast in Wadi Taba. There was
ao, ° large square hole dug in the ground, walled up with rough stones, like a
cellar, in it had once been a well, but the bottom was now covered with young
pala trees.”
ai
214 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
6000 feet. He describes the surface of them “as dark, veined
with numerous traces of torrents of a lighter colour, every-
where intersecting it.”
Makna or Magnah is placed a little off the sea-shore, and
has about 200 huts, wherein the cultivators of the numerous
date trees, that are grown in the valley, running east and
west, reside. A large stream—a very rare thing in this
region—flows down the Wadi, and waters the trees. The
groves are fenced round, and within the enclosures, corn,
figs, grapes, limes, and other fruits, and some vegetables,
are cultivated. Some ruins are visible on a mound near the
end of the date plantation, indicating, perhaps, the site of
Madian of the Arabian writers, or Modiana of Ptolemy;
and other remains are said to exist about ten miles distant,
at a place known to the Arabs by the name of Magharat
Shoaib, meaning, the “ Cave of Shoaib,” or Jethro (Moses’
father-in-law), where are reported to be some inscriptions
containing the names of kings.
Gebel Makna, a mountain of granite, elevates itself from
the other side of the fertile valley to the south.
Thence extends the low steril beach of marine formation,
shells and gravel, the latter being often blown by the winds
into ridges, like waves; afterwards, as far as the south-west
point at Ras Furtak, a portion of the secondary limestone
again succeeds. This formation also is found in the northern
part of the opposite Isle of Tiran,* whilst in its southern part,
which ascends to a high peak, sandstone prevails; but,in places
along its shores, coraland other marine substances occur. Much
naphtha is procured from the island. An admirable harbour,
though somewhat difficult to enter, lies on the north-east side.
The extreme low and bare tongues of land, south and east of
* As Procopius (De Bell. Pers., lib. i., cap. 19) tells us, that land was visible
on all sides of the sea, in proceeding from Aila, until one came to the Isle of
Jotabe (‘Iwré8n) which was distant, not less than 1000 (itinerary) stadia from
that town; and from thence, the sea became very extended. This description
perfectly agrees with the present Isle of Ziran. But it seems not unlikely that
one of the neighbouring isles, called Jubah, or Jubeh, has retained the name of
Jotabe, or Jutabeh, now abbreviated into Jubeh.
ang
Geologu of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 215
Ras Furtak, together with the numerous isles, consist prin-
cipally of gravel, sand, and coral.
The neighbouring, but smaller Island of Senafer, circular in
its shape, rises from the sea to about 150 feet. Many Arab
vessels resort to its commodious and safe harbour, on the
west side. The lower portion of the isle is coral and sand,
but the hills are composed of sandstone, like that of Tiran.
Shushuah is formed of yellow and red sandstone, with coral
beds in certain places. These islands are barren, and with-
out trees.
Barakan, Jubeh, and the many other isles opposite and near
to this coast of Arabia, are all principally of coral and marine
debris.
Following the shore, which is sandy in some spots, but
marshy in others, and partly clothed with brushwood, the
sheltered sea-port Ain Uneh or Ainunah, is approached.
The lofty granite mountain, Gebel Ain Uneh, stands back to
the north about 12 miles from the sea.
The town of Ain Uneh, built of coral rock, is conspicuous
for its whiteness from afar; Wellsted has therefore, for this
and other causes identified it with the ancient Leuce Come
Acuxy Kan, t.e., ‘ White Town,’ with great probability.
About one mile and a half inland, to the north-east, lies
Wadi-Ain-Uneh between two bare cliffs, which greatly re-
sembles Wadi Makna, and, like it, is famous for its excellent
water: although luxuriant by nature, it is uncultivated,
Some ruins, as well as those of an aqueduct are to be seen.
Here are a few Doom Palms called “Dom” in Arabic
(Hyphene Thebaica), and date trees. The caravan of pil-
grims going from Egypt to the Hedjaz passes along this dis-
trict to Mecca. As the nature of the country here, and
southwards, is more verdant and fertile than any before de-
seribed, I will add the late Lieutenant Wellsted’s account of it
(ii., p. 166): “ The country bordering on the sea-coast in the
vicinity of Ainunah, and extending thence to Mowilah, affords
better pasturage than any part of the coast which I have seen.
In this tract the Bedouin huts are numerous, as well as large
flocks of sheep and goats. Their residence here is, however,
merely temporary ; for, should the rains fail them,—an event
occurring about once in four years,—they retreat from the
216 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
low country to their mountains. In this elevated range,—
and many of the hills are 6000 feet in height,—they possess
abundance of water, and a never-failing supply of herbage.
Several of the valleys also have extensive date groves and
fields of dhurrah (Sorghum vulgare) cultivated by slaves.”
This mountain range, more in the interior, is of granite,
and beyond that again, according to Russegger, the secondary
or older sandstone returns. The same traveller likewise
considers the district along the coast, from near Ain Uneh,
many miles to the south, and below the granite chain, as being
of the same /ertiary formation of sandstone and oldest di/u-
vium, as that in the north-west, a part of the Isthmus of
Suez, which borders on the great desert El Tyh. Portions,
nevertheless, close to the sea-shore are of a more recent
nature, such as gravel, sand, coral, broken shells, and other
marine substances. Several Wadis open out upon this lower
land, and lead to the interior.
The last station of any note on the coast here, is Moweilih, or
Mowilah, or Moileh, very probably the “Phcenicum’’ of antiquity;
but it has no harbour protected against the north winds. The
castle, built with coral rocks and cemented with mortar, is
chiefly used for the deposit of corn. Many huts and some
rude houses are situate amongst the date plantation surround-
ing the castle. Grapes, melons, and other fruits, as well as
plenty of vegetables, are grown in some adjacent gardens.
Moweilih, signifying in Arabic “ salt places,” was most likely
so named from its position on the sea-beach: yet the water
is good, and is contained in wells lined with stone. The
ground rises gradually for about seven miles, afterwards
steep hills of considerable height succeed ; some of these ex-
hibit peaks of remarkable forms. The highest behind, or to
the east of the town (Moweilih High Peak) rises to an alti-
tude of 6500 feet above the sea-level. and
Thirdly, Crossing the Red Sea in a north-west direction,
and entering the Gulf or Sea of d4kaba,—called by the Arabs
* Bahr-el-Akaba,’’ and by the ancient geographers Kéasos
*EAavirns, Sinus Allanites or Ailaniticus, from ’AcAd, or Aila,
fila, or Alana, a town formerly situated at. its upper or
north-east extremity, and by the Septuagint translators
‘Eoxarn bédacow,—through the Strait of Tiran the gulf has the _
‘a
;
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 217
appearance not of an open sea, but more of a long narrow
lake, or rather, as Wellsted has described it, “of a narrow
deep ravine” stretching above one hundred miles in a straight
north-easterly line ; and the scenery of the dark blue waters,
nearly surrounded by the mountains, which in places jut
into, and in others impend over them, and extend their sum-
mits to a considerable elevation, in some spots to 2000 feet
perpendicularly from their shores, is represented to be ex-
tremely bold and splendid. This, too, is highly increased by
the exquisite colours produced by a burning eastern sun.
Some views in the gulf are stated by the same author to sur-
pass “‘in magnificence and extent any he had previously wit-
nessed ;” and he adds, that their “ wild and romantic aspects
more than compensated for the monotony so characteristic of
desert mountain scenery.”
Until a recent period this sea, and indeed the whole country,
from the Strait of Tiran to the walls of Jerusalem, or at least
to the southern borders of the Dead Sea. constituted to
Europeans a “mare ignotum,” and a “terra incognita,”
which became first known through the indefatigable labours
and enterprise of MM. Burckhardt and Riippell, the latter
having given to geographers the most accurate map of the
Gulf of Akaba until that lately published from the surveys
made under the authority of the East Indian Government.
It does not appear that any great tide sets in and out of, or
that any very rapid currents take place at the Strait of Tiran,
or between that island and the contiguous shore of Arabia ;
probably the depth of the sea causes a gentle and compara-
tively equal flow of water.
_ Wellsted mentions, that in one spot in that gulf, no bottom
was found at 200 fathoms, so close to the beach as jifty yards ;
and in another, several yards only from the shore near Akaba,
the water was of “ an almost unfathomable depth.” In sailing
up the gulf, the mountains on the right hand are much higher
than those on the left, but they become lower towards the
north in the approach to Hakl, before which place the more
lofty chain turns inland. One, however, is struck by the
absence of boats upon its surface ; this is caused by the vio-
lence of the winds suddenly raising up huge waves, which are
the dread of the Arab sailors in their rude vessels.
218 John Hogg, Esq., on the Geography and
The view near the head of the gulf is more pleasing and
less gloomy than at the southern part of it. Wellsted de-
scribes (ii., p. 145), the prospect as seen from the Isle of
Kureiyeh, thus :— Instead of bold naked precipices rising
abruptly from the sea, we have here a succession of sandy
capes, Sweeping into the waves at nearly the same angle ;
their inclination being the same as the valleys of which they
are but a continuation.” . . . . “Neither boats nor
vessels animate the picture, and it has the appearance of a
vast and solitary lake. On the other hand, beyond the ex-
tremity of the gulf, we obtain an extensive view of the valley
of E] Araba. For some distance it resembles a broad plain
dotted with trees: but the mountains which bound it con-
tinue, as in the Sea of Akaba, in a straight direction, and the
gulf is therefore merely a prolongation of the valley, and they
form, thus united, a bolder, more extensive, and more regular
feature than can probably be paralleled in any other portion
of the globe.”
At the head of the gulf, on reaching the foot of the west
ascent, E/ Nakb, the hills of conglomerate already mentioned
(p. 212), sink down into a steeply-inclined plain of gravel, ex-
tending far to the north. Next come low hills of crumbled
granite, and then succeed the more lofty granitic cliffs. For
the purpose of shewing how the sandstone, chalky limestone,
and the crystalline or igneous rocks meet, or are displaced
near the north-west corner of the gulf, I will here quote Dr
Robinson (i., p. 257 :)—‘“ Our route now lay up along the large
Wadi-el-Musry, just north of the Ras of that name,” wind-
ing considerably, but on a general course about north-west.
“The ridge upon the left was of yellow sandstone resting
on granite, while on the right was granite and porphyry. The
scenery around was wild, desolate, and gloomy.” In a little
distance “limestone appeared on the left: and we turned
short from the Musry towards the left, into a narrow chasm
between walls of chalk with layers of flint.” In ascending
to the north, El Nakb, which means a “ steep pass or de-
clivity,” the road is cut in the thin bed of sandstone down to
the limestone rock. At the top of the ascent is Ras-el-Nakb,
and soon after follows the large plain called Kaa-el-Nakb ;
ee
eo
Geology of Mount Sinai and adjacent Countries. 219
here it was covered with black flint stones. This Kaa, or
plain, extends to the west, and its height above the Wadi-el-
Araba is considered about 1500 feet. A ridge of dark-coloured
granite hills is seen running off south-west. ‘On emer-
ging from this long and tedious ascent,” Mr Bartlett says,—
“the high western Desert expands in endless prospect—a
vast plain of fine gravel covered with small pebbles, and varied
by a long perspective of camel’s bones, bleached perfectly
white, pointing out the track of the pilgrims across its
boundless level, and the mirage spreads out a shifting suc-
cession of blue lakes, with the tops of distant hills appearing
like islands among its phantom waters.”
Having descended this pass, and returned into the Wadi
at the head of the gulf, some mounds are discoverable near
the north-east angle, which are supposed to cover the ruins
of the ancient Ad/a: these however ought to be excavated.
eee
(To be continued in our next Number.)
On the Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian, and
Matlayu-Polynesian Nations. By G. WINDSOR EARL, Esq.,
M.R.A.S.
The existence of a Negro race in the Indian Archipelago, so re-
mote from the continent which is considered as the original seat of the
race, has given rise to endless speculations as to how they got there,
and probably will continue so to do until the end of time; for, be-
ing a nation without a written language, and surrounded by others
whose records are carried back to no very distant date, and whose
_ traditions have become, from lapse of time, mere fables, this point
can only rest upon circumstantial evidence, and therefore will ever
prove liable to dispute. Their position, in many of the Jarger islands,
as occupants solely of the mountain fastnesses, surrounded by people
who evidently belong to a distinct race, has certainly put an end to
those theories of the last century which attributed their origin to the
shipwrecked crews of Arabian slave-vessels, and has led to a very
general opinion that they were, in fact, the aboriginal inhabitants of
_ the countries in which they are found. That their existence was
not altogether unknown to the ancients, is proved by the maps and
writings of Ptolemy the Alexandrian, who flourished soon after the
_ commencement of the Christian era, and was the first to reduce geo-
_ graphy to a system. In the last map of his volume, that which con-
220 Leading Characteristics of the Papuan.
tains the “ Aurea Chersonesus,” and the “ Jabados Insulew,” (sup-
posed to have meant respectively the Malayu Peninsula, or Sumatra
and the Java Islands), he places a country far to the eastward of the
Aurea Chersonesus, under the equinoctial line, which he states to be
occupied by ‘* Athiopes Ichthyophagi,” or ‘“ Negro fish-eaters ;”’
the first term being that employed by the Romans to distinguish the
black and woolly-haired Africans from the Mauritani and other
brown races of the coast; and the second, that usually applied to all
nations who derived a portion of their subsistence from the sea.*
The position of this country, with regard to the Aurea Chersonesus,
agrees well with that of New Guinea, the great seat of the Papuan
race. The existence of a Negro people, at so remote a spot, which
he must have learned from the information of Indian navigators,
seems, indeed, to have led Ptolemy into the great error of his sys-
tem ; for, believing that the country of the “ AXthiopes Ichthyophagi’”’
formed part of the Continent of Asia, he has made that continent, in
his general map of the world, come round by the south and join the
African Continent about Point Prassum, in lat. 15° south (the then
southern known limit of the east coast of Africa), thus making the In-
dian Ocean, and the seas of the Eastern Archipelago, form one vast
Inland Sea.
The most striking peculiarity of the Oriental Negroes consists in
their frizzled or woolly hair. This, however, does not spread over
the surface of the head, as is usual with the Negroes of Western
Africa, but grows in small tufts, the hairs which form each tuft
keeping separate from the rest, and twisting round each other, until,
if allowed to grow, they form a spiral ringlet. Many of the tribes,
especially those who occupy the interior parts of islands whose coasts
are occupied by more civilized races, from whom cutting instruments
can be obtained, keep the hair closely cropped. The tufts then
assume the form of little knobs, about the size of a large pea, giving
the head a very singular appearance, which has, not inaptly, been
compared with that of an old worn-out shoe-brush. Others again,
more especially the natives of the south coast of New Guinea,
and the Islands of Torres Strait, troubled with such an obstinate
description of hair, yet admiring the ringlets as a head-dress, cut
them off and twist them into skull-caps made of matting, thus form-
ing very compact wigs. But it is among the natives of the north
coast of New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands of the Pacific,
Mt lg Pay
ages dnd &
~“
OSES so Vila Rae yw
* Soa
ee
* The system of naming nations from the food which formed their chief
means of support, seems to have been very prevalent among the ancients; wit-
ness “ Hippophagi,” the horse-eating (Tartars), “ Lotophagi,” lotus-eaters, &c.
This system, although not to be recommended at the present) day; has proved
highly useful, for these names are sometimes found to contain the only existing
description of the habits of the people on whom they were conferred, as in the
present instance. Dr Leichardt, in his late overland journey from “Sydney
to Port-Hssington, found some tribes of genuine Liotophagi on the lagoons and
table-land, as will come to be noticed below. roiiet
Australian, and Malayu- Polynesian Nations. 221
that the hair receives the greatest attention. These open out the
ringlets by means of a bamboo comb, shaped like an eel spear, with
numerous prongs spreading out laterally, which operation produces
an enormous bushy head of hair, which has procured them the name
of ‘‘Mop-headed Papuans.’? Among the natives of the Feejee
Aslands (the eastermost limit of the Oriental Negro race), the opera-
tion of dressing the hair occupies the greater part of a day.
The hair of the beard and whiskers, which generally grows very
thick and bushy, is arranged in little tufts similar to those of the
head; and the same peculiarity is found to exist in the hair with
which the breasts and shoulders of the men are often covered; but
the tufts are here farther apart than on the head and chin,
__ This woolly or twisted hair is peculiar to the full-blooded Papuans.
A comparatively slight mixture with the brown-complexioned or
Malayu-Polynesian race appears to destroy the peculiarity. The
hair of people of the mixed race covers the surface of the head, or,
at least, has done so in all cases that have come under my observa-
tion, and is sometimes only slightly curled. It is, therefore, very
easy to distinguish the pure Papuans; and throughout this essay,
those only will be called by that name who possess this their lead-
ing characteristic.
The term Papuan is derived from a Malayan word, ‘* Papua, or
Pua-Pua,” crisp-haired. The term ‘‘ Tanna Papua,” or “ Land
of the Crisp-haired,” is applied by them not only to New Guinea,
but to all the adjacent islands, which are occupied exclusively by this
race. It is so peculiarly applicable and comprehensive, and so en-
titled to respect, as having been conferred by a people who must
haye known them for ages before we ever heard of their existence,
that, I trust, the ethnologists of Europe will excuse me for retain-
ing it in preference to the newly-invented term ‘“ Melanesian,” or
_ “inhabitants of the black islands,” which, although applicable enough
to the Papuans, is equally applicable to the greater portion of the
Australian tribes.
The features of the Papuans have a decidedly Negro character ;
_ broad, flat noses, thick lips, receding foreheads and chins, and that
_ turbid colour of what should be the white of the eye which gives to
the countenance a peculiar sinister expression. Their complexion is
vuniyersally a deep chocolate colour, sometimes closely approaching
to black, but certainly a few shades lighter than the deep black that
_ is often met with among the Negro tribes of Africa.
* With regard to stature, a great difference is found to exist between
; “various tribes, even in New Guinea, and which has led to much con-
»tusion..in the description given by travellers, who have, perhaps,
‘each only seen a single tribe. On the south-west coast of New
~ Guinea, within the space of one hundred miles, are to be found
_ tribes whose stature is almost gigantic, and others whose propor-
»tionsare soo diminutive as almost. to, entitle them to the appel-
lation of pigmies; while the manners and customs. of each ‘so
222 Leading Characteristics of the Papuan,
exactly correspond as to preclude the supposition that these peculiari-
ties can be other than accidental.* It is difficult to account for these
peculiarities ; but as the stout and stalwart Papuans are met with
only among those coast tribes who have maintained their indepen-
dence, and at the same time have acquired many of the agricultural
and mechanical arts from their neighbours, the Malayu-Polynesians,
while the pigmies are found only in spots where they have been
driven to the mountain fastnesses, or have fallen under the influence
of other races, we may conclude that their mode of life has much to
do with this difference in point of stature and proportions.
With regard to form, the various tribes of Papuans differ as much
as in stature. The more diminutive tribes, whose members chiefly
come under the notice of Europeans, from their existing in great
numbers as slaves throughout the Moluccas, are unprepossessing
enough in appearance, when in their natural state, but when under
good masters, the regularity and wholesome nature of their diet,
coupled with their apparent utter forgetfulness of their native land,
produce a roundness in their neat clean limbs, and a sprightliness of
action, which is rarely met with among their more civilized neigh-
bours, the Malayu-Polynesians, On the other hand, the larger Pa-
puans are more remarkable for their strength than their symmetry.
They have broad shoulders and deep chests, but a deficiency is ge-
nerally found about the lower extremities, the splay feet and curved
shins of the Western Africans being equally or even more common
among whom I may be allowed to term the gigantic Papuans.
With regard to the general disposition of the Papuans, a great
difference is found between those living in a state of independence,
and those who exist in bondage among the neighbouring nations.
The former are invariably found to be treacherous and revengeful ;
and even those who have long been accustomed to intercourse with
strangers, the tribes of the north-west coast of New Guinea, for
example, are never to be depended upon, and the greatest precau-
tions are always taken by those who visit them for purposes of trade.
The wilder tribes generally avoid intercourse with strangers, if the
force which lands is sufficiently great to cause alarm ; but if other-
wise, they pretend friendship until an opportunity occurs, when they
make a sudden and ferocious attack, But what distinguishes them
most from their neighbours, the Malayu-Polynesians, and even from
the Australians, is, the unextinguishable hatred they bear towards
those who attempt to settle in their territory, and which is continued
as long as a man of the tribe exists. It is, probably, this perfectly
untameable nature that has led to their utter extermination in all
those islands of the Indian Archipelago that did not possess moun-
tain fastnesses to which they could retire, to lead a life similar to
>
* The celebrated philologist, Marsden, has adopted the term “ Negrito,” or
“Tittle Negro,” from the Spaniards of the Philippines, and has applied it to
the entire race.
Australian, and Malayu-Polynesian Nations. 223
that of the Boschmen of South Africa. We have had recent in-
stances of this in Van Diemen’s Land, Melville Island (north-west
coast of Australia), and at Port Du Bus, on the west coast of New
Guinea, in all which settlements the country was occupied by a pure,
or nearly pure, Papuan race. In the former, hostility was continued
as long as a native remained on the island, and in the last two, until
the settlements were abandoned in despair. On the other hand,
their neighbours, the Australians, have invariably submitted after a
_ single trial of strength; while the Malayu-Polynesians, when not
__under the influence of other foreigners, have always evinced a desire
to have strangers, especially Europeans, settled among them, as
___ shewn by the people of the Moluccas when first visited by the Por-
___ tuguese, and as displayed at the present time in those remote parts
of the Indian Archipelago where the race maintains its ancient
purity.
The untameable ferocity of the Papuans only exists as long as
they remain in their native country. On leaving it, their charac-
ter seems totally changed, as far as regards this particular. The
Papuan slaves, who exist in great numbers in the eastern parts of
the archipelago, are remarkable for their cheerful disposition and in-
dustrious habits, and nothing could exceed the orderly conduct of the
remnant of the Van Diemen’s Land natives, after they had been
hunted down and removed to an island in Bass’ Strait.
Before proceeding to describe the localities in which the Papuan
race is now found, I think it proper to allude to certain of their cus-
toms, which distinguish them from the Malayu-Polynesians, and
which certainly are of Papuan, or, at least, of Negro origin. One of
these is the custom of raising the skin in cicatrices over various
parts of the body, especially on the shoulders, breast, buttocks, and
thighs. This must not be confounded with the tatooing or punc-
turing the skin, which is practised by many of the Malayu-Polyne-
sian tribes, and which is never met with among the Papuans, as the
_ searifications which I am about to describe are unknown to the others.
The skin is cut through with some sharp instrument, in longitudinal
stripes, and, if on the shoulder or breast, white clay, or some other
substance, is rubbed into the wound, which causes the flesh below to
rise, and these scarifications, when allowed to heal, assume the form
_ of raised cicatrices, often as large as the finger. The process by
which these cicatrices are produced, and which I have had opportu-
_hities of watching in their progress from day to day until duly
_ formed, is perfectly inexplicable to a European, who would be thrown
__ into a fever by any one of the wounds which these strange people
bear, two or three at a time, without complaining, but certainly not
without suffering. It is, however, quite evident that the Papuans,
_ and also the Australians, as will be mentioned below, possess a cal-
lousness of skin, or insensibility of pain, which is quite unknown
among more civilized races.
Boring the septum of the nose is universally practised among the
2
4. Oo
224 Leading Characteristics of the Papuan,
Papuans. In the first instance, they wear a roll of plantain leaf in
the orifice, which, by its elasticity, enlarges it to a sufficient size te
admit the thigh bone of a large bird, or some other ornament, which
is then worn extending across the face on all great occasions. Our
sailors have a very quaint name for this practice, which often comes
under their observation among the Papuan islands of the Pacific;
they call it ‘‘sprit-sail yarding,” after a cruel method they have of
treating sharks and dog-fish, which are frequently let go after hay-
ing been hooked, a piece of wood being previously thrust through
their nostrils, which, projecting on either side, prevents them from
getting their heads under water, and they die a lingeri ing and pain-
ful death. I have never met vvithe or heard of this practice of boring
the nose among people of the Malayu-Polynesian race; and I may
say the same with regard to the scarifications mentioned above.
The latter, or rather those among them who are sufficiently barbarous
to resort to personal disfigurement, seem to have adopted tatooing and
boring the ears in lieu of the more coarse and painful a
work “of the Papuans,
Filing or grinding down the front teeth, until they become pointed,
is practised by some of the tribes of New Guinea and of the adja-
cent islands of the Pacific. This custom, however, is not confined
exclusively to the Papuans, as it is practised also at the Pagi Islands,
on the west coast of Summatra, the natives of which appear to be
Malayu-Polynesians. This custom must not be confounded with
one which is common among many of the Malayan and Bugis tribes,
that of grinding down the front teeth, until they become almost
level with the gum.
Another singular custom, which is only met with among the
Papuans, or the tribes closely bordering on them, is that of dyeing
the hair (which is naturally black) a reddish or flaxen colour, by
using applications of burnt coral and sea-water, in some instances,
and preparations of wood-ashes, in others. This process seems to
expel all the dark colour from the hair, leaving it a flaxen tinge,
which appears to bear a close resemblance to the celebrated ‘‘ capil-
lus flavus,’ so much admired among the Roman ladies, and which
seems to have been produced by a similar process. The only Ma-
layu-Polynesians that I have known to practise this custom are some
of the natives of Timor, Laut, Sermattan, and Baba (islands lying
to the westward of New Guinea, and not very remote). I am, there-
fore, induced to consider it as a Papuan, or rather, perhaps, as a
“ Negro” custom, for it is equally prevalent in many parts of Africa, —
especially among the Soumaulis and other tribes in their neighbour-
hood. Travellers who have had opportunities of visiting our port at
Aden, in the course of their voyages between Europe and India by —
the overland route, may have observed this custom among the Afri-
can coolies employed in coaling the steamer, who sometimes oyieet
with the plaster of coral still attached to their heads.
-
Australian, and Malayu- Polynesian Nations. 225
riving a scanty subsistence from the productions of nature, living in
conical-shaped huts ; or, where they appear as occupants of the sea-
coasts, roaming about in small canoes in search of food. Some of
the more independent tribes, by which I mean those who have ex-
clusive possession of the country they inhabit, have, however, adopted
many improvements. In several parts of the north and of the south
coasts of New Guinea, the villages consist of one large house,
erected on piles, and occupied by all the married people, with a
smaller one adjacent for the bachelors. These houses bear a very close
resemblance to those of the Dyaks of Borneo, but are smaller, and
of more rough construction. Here the Papuans also cultivate fruits,
yams, and sweet potatoes, and keep hogs and poultry to kill for food ;
in fact, are almost on a level, as far as regards agriculture, with the
more uncivilised tribes of the Malayu-Polynesians, from whom, in-
deed, if we may judge from the names employed to designate their
agricultural productions, they have derived this slight but important
advance they have made in civilization.
The weapons of the Papuans are heavy wooden clubs, spears, or
lances of nibong or other hard wood, and darts formed of a small
kind of bamboo, provided with points of hard wood, or of sharpened
‘bone. The lances are projected generally by means of a becket of
sennit, about a foot and a half long, one end of which is provided
with a toggle. This is held between the fingers, while the other
end is fastened to the lance with what sailors call a “ half-hitch”
knot, which flies off when the lance is projected, thus allowing it to
go free. The becket gives a greatly increased purchase to the
thrower, but is much inferior, in this respect, to the womera, or
“throwing-stick” of the Australians, which will be described when
we come to speak of that people. The darts are projected by means
of a powerful bow, often six feet in length, with a bowstring of rat-
tan. I suspect that this instrument was not originally Papuan, but
has been adopted from the Polynesians. Stone axes, and knives of
_ quartz are now superseded among all those tribes, who have either
direct or indirect communication with the traders of the Archipelago,
__ by Parang, or chopping-knives of iron. Their agricultural instru-
‘ments are mere stakes of wood, sharpened at one end, which prove
sufficient to effect the rude interference with nature required by their
_ mode of cultivation.
_ The art of navigation appears never to have been in a very ad-
_ vanced state among the Papuans, since their navigation has only ex-
tended to those countries which could be reached from the continent
of Asia, without entailing the necessity of going out of sight of land;
nor are they yet sufficiently advanced in the science of navigation to
_ Wenture on any other than coasting voyages. Towards the eastern
limits of the Papuan race, where they come in close contact, and are
_ often mixed with the Polynesians, navigation is in a more advanced
VOL. XLVI. NO, XCVI.—APRIL 1850. P
2 The Papuans, for the most part, exist only in a savage state, de-
226 On the Australian and Malayu-Polynesian Nations.
state than elsewhere; but this is, evidently, the result of contact
with strangers, by whom, indeed, the navigation is personally con-
ducted.
The highest state of the art among the Papuans, without foreign
assistance, is met with in Torres Strait, and upon the south coast of
New Guinea. Here they possess large canoes of such construction,
and propelled in so peculiar a manner, that we must consider them
purely Papuan. Some very excellent sketches of these canoes are
given in Flinders’ Voyage, with so full a description, that. it will be
unnecessary for me to enter into minute particulars, These canoes
or boats are from thirty to forty feet long, and the planks with which
they are constructed are sewed. together with the fibres of the cocoa-
nut. ach is provided with an outrigger, and a platform of bamboo
occupies the centre of the boat on a level with the gunwale. They
are propelled in calm weather by paddles with long handles, the
rowers all standing, as is generally the case among the Papuans.
But the most striking peculiarity of their vessels consists in the sail,
which is an oblong piece of matting, set up in the fore part of the
vessel, by means of two poles or masts, to which the upper corners
of the sail are fastened. These masts are moveable, and the sail is
trimmed by shifting the head of one of the masts aft, According to
my experience, these boats sail very indifferently, except before the
wind; but Captain Flinders, who had good opportunities of judging,
maintains a more fayourable opinion. They are often to be met
with about the month of March, three or four hundred miles down
the north-east coast of Australia, the islanders being in the habit of
making an annual voyage in this direction. The stopping places
are usually the islands lying off the coasts, where they obtain tor-
toise-shell and trepang, the chief objects of their voyages.
The natives of the south coast of New Guinea have very large
canoes of a similar, but more unwieldy construction, and propelled
by a.similar description of sail. These have never been seen far
from the coast, and, in fact, are almost unmanageable, from the dif-
ficulty experienced in steering such unwieldy masses with paddles
alone. It is, therefore, difficult to conceive for what purpose they
have been constructed, unless. it should be for war, in which case
their large size would give them an imposing appearance.
The New Guinea canoes generally are of light construction, and
are provided with an outrigger. The larger ones have an attap
roof, and are capable. of containing an entire family, with household
furniture and: domestic animals.—(Vide The Journal of the Indian
Archipelago and Eastern Asia, Vol. III., No. xi., p. 1, for this ex-
cellent Ethnological memoir.)
-
On the Works undertaken by the Governments of different
States, for the Geological Examination of the Country: A
Report on the Journey undertaken by Himself and Dr Hornes,
at the instance of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, to Ger-
many, England, France, and Switzerland. By FRANZ VON
Haver. Communicated by WARRINGTON SmyTH, Esq.,
F.G.S., &e.
In pursuance of the instructions received from the Acade-
micians, W. Haidinger and P. Partsch, our principal endeavour
was to become acquainted with such operations as are now
in progress, at the expense of Government, in the various
States through which we travelled, for the investigation of
the geological structure of the country.
To the following description I have added, by desire of the
Bergrath Haidinger, from various writings, a general view
of similar works in countries to which our journey was not
extended, as Russia, Saxony, and North America; and, at
the end, have brought forward, as a conclusion of the whole,
those points which, in similar undertakings, have hitherto
been chiefly kept in view.
( 227.)
The Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland.*
1, History—tIn none of the European States has the geo-
logical examination of the country been undertaken by the
Government at such an outlay of money and force as in Great
Britain. Starting from a small beginning, when Sir Henry
De la Béche was employed in the Survey entirely alone, the
Institution here to be described extended itself farther from
year to year, till it attained its present flourishing condition,
in which, under the careful direction of the same person, a
numerous body is employed on the field-work, on the exami-
nation of the materials obtained, and the graphic representa-
tion of the observations made,—a condition in which a hand-
* Professor Jameson, at the beginning of the present century, formally pro-
posed and developed to the Highland Society of Scotland, a plan for Scotland,
identical with that afterwards so efficiently and brilliantly carried into effect for
Great Britain by the talent and energy of Sir H. De la Béche, powerfully sup-
ported by the Government of the country. When Professor Jameson’s proposals
_ were laid before the Society, the geological spirit was not fully abroad, and
pecuniary means were wanting.—Prof, Jameson, Edit. Hd. Phil. Journal.
228 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
some edifice has been built, in the best part of London, for
the reception of the various collections, and in which, lastly,
after the successful solution of numerous questions of in-
dustrial importance, practice is already beginning to reap
the harvest which was sown by the application of science.
About the year 1833, Sir H. De la Béche made a pro-
posal to the Government to add the geological colouring to
the Ordnance Map, which was then in progress, and which,
from its beauty of execution, appeared remarkably well
adapted for this purpose ; the expenses incurred by him only
were to be repaid. Already there had been published in
England, by various savans, nuinerous detailed maps of par-
ticular districts, and even some general geological maps of
the whole country, among the latter of which I may mention
the map published by Smith in 1815, including, in fifteen
sheets, all England and a part of Scotland, and the beautiful
map by Greenough, of which the first edition appeared in
1819, the second, much improved, in 1839 ; yet the very great
importance of specially executed detailed maps of the whole
country, worked out on a uniform plan, was at once recog-
nised, and the proposition of the celebrated geologist, whose
scientific position guaranteed the corresponding execution of
the work, was accepted.
Sir H. De la Béche at once commenced operations: two
assistants of the Trigonometrical Survey were supplied him
at the expense of that department. He himself had only his
travelling expenses paid, and was placed under the head of
the Ordnance Survey, at that time Colonel Colby. Under
these circumstances he completed alone the maps of Corn-
wall and Devonshire, and on so well-matured a plan, that the
same is retained in all its important points even now, for the
much enlarged working force of the Geological Survey. The
“Report on the Geology of Devon, Cornwall, and West
Somerset,’’ which appeared in 1839, contains the geological
descriptiou of the country investigated, with a geological map,
numerous mine plans, geological sections, &e.
After the completion of this first part of the work, the
geological examination of Glamorganshire was to commence ;
Sir H. De la Béche felt how much aid might be afforded, in
surveying, this district, by a person acquainted with the loca-_
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 229
lities, and provided with ample mining information ; and as
the Government, by degrees, better appreciated the import-
ance of the whole undertaking, not only was Mr Williams,
who possessed the above requisites in a high degree, ap-
pointed as assistant geologist to Sir H. Dela Béche, but the
latter was definitively appointed director of the Geological
Survey, and received a salary. At short intervals there fol-
lowed the nomination of three more assistants, Messrs Rees,
Aveline, and Logan. Mr Logan, at present director of the
geological survey in Canada, had lived at Swansea, and of
his own accord surveyed a great part of Glamorganshire,
with such accuracy, that after an examination of his work, it
was accepted unaltered by the Geological Survey. In this
manner the map of Glamorganshire also was soon completed.
In 1841 Mr Ramsay was appointed assistant on the Geo-
logical Survey, and with his aid Pembrokeshire and a part
of Carmarthenshire were finished between that time and
1845.
Independently of the investigations in England, a Geologi-
eal Survey had, in the meanwhile, sprung up in Ireland. In
consequence of a proposition of Colonel Colby, who had de-
clared his opinion that the trigonometrical survey of the
country should give the basis for extended statistical, anti-
‘quarian, and geological investigations, Captain Pringle was
instructed to take the direction of the latter. The opera-
tions were commenced with great zeal simultaneously with
the trigonometrical survey, but since the desired accelera-
tion of the geographical maps required the whole force, the
geological part was placed more in the background and ne-
glected.
In 1832 Colonel Colby’s original plan was again taken up
by Captain Larcom. Particular and ably-written instructions
were given to all the officers employed on the Trigonometri-
cal Survey, to direct their attention specially to antiquarian
and statistical inquiries, whilst Captain Portlock formed a
separate geological department. Moreover, numerous in-
vestigations of the fauna and flora of the country were be-
gun, and in 1835 some of the results were published in the
Memoir of Londonderry.
But it was not till 1837 that the geological division re-
230 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
ceived a complete organisation. At Colonel Colby’s desire
Captain Portlock then erected a geological and statistical
office, a national museum for geological and zoological objects,
and a laboratory for the analysis of minerals.
In 1840, the plan of continuing the Londonderry Memoir
was again abandoned, the museum and laboratory transferred
from Belfast to Dublin, and Captain Portlock instructed to
collect, ina special work, all the geological data which he
had collected in the county Derry and the barony of Dun-
gannon. For this purpose various new investigations were
set on foot in the neighbouring districts, and in 1843 the
work was published under the title of Report on the Geology
of the County of Londonderry, and of parts of l'yrone and Fer-
managh. This work, in the completion of which Mr Oldham
materially assisted, contained a general map on the scale of
half-an-inch to the English mile, whilst the original surveys
(which, however, were not published) were entered on the
maps of the Trigonometrical Survey on the scale of six inches
to the mile. Many geological sections, as well as engravings
and descriptions of the fossils, accompany the work.
In the meanwhile, another undertaking had occasioned the
foundation of the Museum of Economic, or, as it is now called,
of Practical Geology, in London.* When the erection of the
new houses of Parliament was determined, it became, in the
first place, necessary to make a careful selection of the
most suitable building-stone, in order to give a correspond-
ing durability to an edifice which was to be carried out with
a magnificence worthy of the greatness of the English na-
tion. A special commission was placed under the direction
of Sir H. De la Béche, which, by the most careful examina-
tion, supplied the data needed for such a choice. On the one
hand, they considered the quality of the stone as deducible
from direct experiments,—such as the chemical composition,
* The Museum of Practical Geology orginated in Mr Henry De la Béche
having, during the progress of the Geological Survey, then in Cornwall, in
1835, represented to the Government the advantages that would arise if that
survey were made available for collecting objects illustrative of the application
of geology to the useful purposes of life, so that the requisite information might
be obtained by those who might be required to direct, or might be anxious to
promote works, either for the ornament or good of the country.
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 231
their relative strength, the expenses of their quarrying and
facility of transport ; on the other hand, they also directed
great attention to their properties of withstanding decom-
position, as evinced by the different kinds of stone in existing
edifices, which date from the earliest periods ; and thus, after
long-continued exertions, they established a comparative col-
lection, which, from having been published, not only solved
the question for the special case, but gives every architect
the means of choosing, with the greatest security, the most
suitable material for every edifice to be erected in any part of
Great Britain.
As at every opportunity Sir H. De la Béche laboured to
bring into general practical application the results furnished
by science, so out of a work simply intended for the advan-
tage of industry, he now saw how to derive a corresponding
boon for science. According to his proposal, it was deter-
mined to preserve all the specimens of rock collected during
this inquiry, and to arrange them in a special museum, the
collections of which at once increased from year to year.
Soon afterwards it was destined to receive specimens of all
the minerals, rocks, and petrifactions found in England, to
add by the side of the raw materials of the mineral kingdom
examples of the industrial products obtained from the same
by manufacture, and to exhibit, by complete series, the gra-
dual changes which the original material undergoes, till it is
metamorphosed into something of utility in ordinary life.
Moreover, a bureau was attached to the museum, under the
name of the Mining Record Office, and under the direction of
Mr Robert Hunt, which collects historical and statistical in-
formation of importance to mining, maps of mines, plans,
&e., publishing the most important, and keeping the rest
prepared for the inspection of individuals.
But the most important epochs in the history of the under-
takings here described, is the reorganisation which was
effected in 1845. Sir H. De la Béche had been till then
always under the Ordnance Survey; but, in the above-
mentioned year, he was placed under the department of
Woods and Forests, and, at the same time, a new and com-
prehensive extension of his charge was granted.
232 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
Sir H. De la Beche received the title of Director-General
of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and the
operations in England and Ireland were together placed un-
der his direction.
Mr Ramsay was made Director of the Survey in England,
and Captain James, now succeeded by Mr Oldham, of that
of Ireland. An Act of Parliament was passed, the 31st
July 1845, to facilitate the investigations in the field; and,
in order to conduct the operations on a more extended scale,
the staff of the institution was considerably increased. Dr
Playfair was appointed as a chemist, Mr Forbes as palzon-
tologist, and Mr Warington Smyth for the surveying and
examination of the mining districts.
In the same manner the Museum received a great exten-
sion. It was resolved to erect a new building, which is
already completed in Piccadilly, London; a library, and a
collection of models of mining, machinery, and implements,
as well as plastic representations of the most important
mining districts were brought together. From this time
the operations proceeded with a rapidity corresponding with
the increased numerical force, without the intervening
changes of ministry having caused material delay.
Besides the geological maps, which were always published
as soon as a tolerably large portion of country was com-
pleted, in 1846 the publication of the Memoirs of the Geo-
logical Survey was commenced,—a work intended to make
known the scientific labours of all persons employed in the
institution. Up to the present moment three parts have ap-
peared, to the contents of which I shall afterwards have
occasion to refer. The Geological Survey was enabled to un-
dertake the solution of numerous questions of immediate
bearing on practical life, which were often connected with
laborious investigations. As one of the most complete
special investigations, I may instance the inquiry into the
various qualities of coal, with respect to their fitness for
steam navigation, instituted at the desire of the Lords of the
Admiralty. In this inquiry, besides the heating power, the
per-centage of ash, and other properties important in every
application of this fuel, other points of particular importance
|
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 233
had to be considered, viz., the degree of porosity, as influencing
the weight of coal which can be stowed in a small compass,
and the strength of the fragments, which ought to be great
enough to prevent their crumbling under the influence of the
shocks produced by the motion of the vessels, &.
It was resolved, with a view to satisfy all conditions, to
undertake not only chemical experiments, but really practical
trials. The Lords of the Admiralty made over an annual
sum of £600 to cover the expenses; and, under the direction
of Playfair and Phillips, a boiler was erected for the purpose
at the Polytechnic College, founded about three years ago at
Putney, and the investigations were commenced, the results
of which have been published in a First Report in the summer
of 1848.
Execution of the Operations—Maps and Sections.
The persons entrusted with the Geological Surveys, the as-
sistants, geologists, and directors, work separately, although,
in general, at no great distance from each other. Each re-
ceives two copies of the map of the district he is to examine,
one for entering his observations in the field, the other
for copying down the results obtained. The survey is ef-
fected, as far as possible, by directly following the boundary
lines in nature ; but where this is impossible from the inter-
vention of cultivated ground, it is considered allowable to
draw the most probable line by connecting the two nearest
points of observation. We had an opportunity of seeing the
exactness with which they go to work on these observations,
when accompanying Mr Ramsay, who, in this autumn, under-
took the survey of the valley of Llanberris in North Wales.
The flanks of Snowdon, facing this valley, consist partly of ig-
neous rocks, partly of altered sandstone and slates, which being
mingled with the products of submarine eruptions, lava, ashes,
&c., and altered by subsequent metamorphoses, have often lost
nearly every trace of stratification, and every sign of a neptu-
nian origin. Itis a labour not less difficult than (if considered
by itself) thankless, to follow up the complicated lines of
boundary between the two kinds of rock, over the bare and
steep crags, which are frequently not to be attained without
234 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
considerable danger. Yet Mr Ramsay submitted to it with
untiring zeal, and left no spot till he had safely established
the boundary line by frequent comparison and repeated ob-
servation.
The districts surveyed by the assistants and geologists,
are, finally, revised every spring by the director, when faults
on the part of beginners are corrected, and, if necessary, re-
surveyed ; moreover, Sir H. De la Béche himself from time
to time crosses the country, in arbitrarily-chosen directions,
to satisfy himself personally of the correctness of the work.
In this manner, a degree of exactness is introduced into the
geological maps, which appears to be the utmost that can be
attained on the scale selected for the purpose.
Simultaneously with the determination of the boundary-
lines of the rocks, observations on the strike and dip of the
beds, and other remarkable phenomena, are made and entered
in note-books. The fossil collectors are despatched to the
localities where fossils are found to be most numerous, and
the organic remains, one may say of each individual bed, are
specially collected and sent to London. |
After the completion of the geological map of a district,
they proceed to the construction of sections, in all these di-
rections which give promise of interesting results, and the
work is conducted throughout with geometrical accuracy.
The sea-level serves as the datum line in all; the form of
the surface is measured with the theodolite and chain, the
dip of the beds is taken with the clinometer, and in this man-
ner they obtain a perfectly natural representation.
Besides the geological sections, whenever it appears
feasible and interesting, drawings are taken of the succession
of beds in shafts, although, in most cases, these have not been
measured by the members of the Survey, but were commu-
nicated by the owners of mines. All these measurements,
which, of course, are often taken in a line inclined to the
plane of stratification, are reduced to a line at right angles
to it, in order to represent at once the true thickness of the
several rock-strata.
e
Z.
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 235
Publication of the Maps and Sections.
The maps of the Ordnance Survey, which are employed
for the field-work, serve also as the foundation for the publi-
cation of the geological maps. They are prepared on the
scale of one inch to the English mile of 800 Vienna fathoms,
or 23 times larger than our maps of the Staff of the Quarter-
master General. The originals are engraved on copper,
whilst, for the geological maps, an electrotype copy is taken,
and upon those reproduced plates the boundary-lines are
afterwards engraved. The colouring is done by hand.
The sections also are engraved on copper from the draw-
ings prepared by the Survey. In all of them the same scale
is employed both for heights and distances, so that the pic-
ture, instead of appearing distorted, is true to nature. The
sections also are coloured by hand.
Works at the Museum in London.
With the labours for the preparation and publication of
the maps and sections are connected those which are carried
on at the Museum in London. Their full development, how-
ever, will not come into play before the completion of the
aboye-mentioned new building in Piccadilly. Through a
handsome portico one enters the principal apartment, occu-
pying by far the greater part of the whole edifice, which is
170 feet long, 80 feet wide, and 80 feet high. It receives its
light through a glass roof from above; two galleries, one
above the other, are attached to the wall, in order to increase
the space disposable for the exhibitions of the collections.
Beneath the great room, and lighted up by the upper light
which passes through a large circular opening in the middle
of the room, is a lecture theatre, in which it is proposed to
give, during the winter, lectures on geology, paleontology,
and chemistry, and, it is hoped, afterwards on mining and
metallurgy. In the same manner as in France, where the
Ecole des Mines is situated in Paris, they will here proceed
on the persuasion, that the theoretical part of education
which the miners should have, can best be obtained in the
236 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
capital, where the greatest amount of scientific force for lec-
tures is formed, where the professors and students are aided
in their studies by good libraries, collections, and various other
institutions, and where also the more active vitality of science
exercises a powerful influence on every individual, and spurs
him on to the most energetic exertion ; whilst, on the other
hand, the practical part of the necessary knowledge cannot
be imparted in general lectures, but must be acquired by re-
sidence and travelling in various mining and metallurgic dis-
tricts of acknowledged high reputation.
Moreover, there are arranged in the edifice, a chemical
laboratory of four chambers, from which, as it is placed at
the top of the house, a lifting apparatus connects it with the
lower story ; also working-rooms for palontology, for the
Mining Record Office, &c. The communication between the
various parts of the building may be effected by an electric
telegraph.
In the principal room, in the middle of the edifice, the great
collection of English minerals, rocks, petrifactions, and in-
dustrial products derived from them will be laid out. It is
at present placed ina building at Craig’s Court, Charing
Cross, and a considerable part as yet unarranged. This col-
lection, as far as regards the original natural products, is
chiefly augmented by the diligence of the persons employed
on the Survey, and of the collectors appointed for this pur-
pose. It is only rarely that a few objects of particular in-
terest are bought. By collecting the fossils for themselves,
the Survey enjoy the particular advantage of obtaining a per-
fectly accurate and satisfactory statement, not only of the
locality but of the very stratum to which the specimens be-
long.
As regards the products of industry, and the suites by
which the transition from the raw material to the former is
represented, this Institution will be very favourably received
by the patriotism of the English, who most liberally support
every work commenced for the advantage of their fatherland.
Valuable minerals, manufactured articles, and the above men-
tioned suites, have been in great numbers presented by in-
dividual owners of mines and manufactories. Yet, on the
nin Be
an
oe
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 237
other hand, it sometimes becomes necessary to enrich the
collection by direct purchase.
By exhibiting specimens of the industrial products of an-
cient times, it is sought to illustrate the improvements and
the progressive development which have taken place since
the earlier periods of art.
Without entering farther into particulars, I will only add,
that the collection of building-stones which gave rise to the
establishment of the whole Museum, acquires on that account
a special interest. The specimens are chiselled cubes of six
inches in the side, some of which are polished for the better
exhibition of the character of the stone. On the label is
noted, not only the quarry from which they are taken, but
there is also mention of the most important erections in which
they have been employed. In the paleontological depart-
ment, which is also at present in another /oca/e, the examina-
tion and determination of the fossils is effected by the pale-
ontologists ; and, whatever they discover to be new, is drawn
and engraved, and published in the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey.
The laboratory serves not only to carry out investigations
and analyses which are necessary for the Survey, but, for cer-
tain fees, objects brought by private persons with this view
are examined.
The collections of mining plans and statistical documents
in the Mining Record Office, are principally dependent on the
liberality of private individuals, since there is no obligation
on the owners of mines to communicate them ; and, in fact,
it does not appear that in either of the districts examined
any difficulty has been experienced in obtaining the needful
data ; the alterations produced by the progress of the opera-
tions will be entered from time to time. Particular attention
is directed to the acquisition of the maps and plans of mines
which have been abandoned, in order to supply the desired
data at some later period, when, as so frequently occurs, an
old work of this kind is to be opened afresh.
Results obtained.
As the most important of the results obtained, we may un-
doubtedly regard the geological maps and sections, published
238 Geological Survey of Great Britain.
by the Geological Survey. A glance at the maps suffices
to establish their excellence. Accuracy of mapping and
beauty of execution combine to raise them to a grade of per-
fection which has not been attained in an equal degree by
any work of a similar character.
Up to this time, 26 of the larger sheets, of 222 inches in
height, and some 28, some 33} inches width, have been com-
pleted, as well as eight quarter sheets. At first the larger
size was selected for publication, but afterwards the con-
venience of the smaller form was recognised. They include
all the south-west of England, with Cornwall, Devonshire,
Somersetshire, a part of Gloucester and Wiltshire, also the
counties of Monmouth, Glamorgan, Brecknock, Carmarthen,
Pembroke, and Radnor, with parts of Montgomery, Shrop-
shire, and Hereford. They are all engraved on the scale
of one inch to the English mile, or 1 to 64,000. All the
sheets can be joined together, a great convenience in use,
which unfortunately has of late been overlooked in the publi-
cation of the Maps of our Quarter-Master-General’s Staff,
which have been divided accorded to the separate provinces.
* * * *
Of the geological sections, 17 sheets have hitherto appeared.
Their scale is 6 inches to a mile, or 1 to 10,666; the colours
are the same as in the maps. The sea-level is taken as the
base, and if the observations go below it, they are shewn by
engraved lines, but not coloured. Numerous notes appended
to the individual beds give information upon their petrographic
properties, organic remains, &c. At the same time, the pro-
bable ancient configuration of the surface, as it would result
from the direction of the beds, is given in outline; and
special lines represent the dip of the cleavage which so often
cuts across the variously-contorted beds in perfectly-parallel
succession.
Fifteen sheets of the vertical sections of the strata have
appeared. They are drawn on a scale of 1 inch to 40 feet,
or 1 to 480, and are not coloured; the notes appended to
them contain such an amount of detail as has scarcely been
yet obtained in any other geological work.
All the data and results of experience which offered during
the geological examination of the country, as well as the spe-
Geological Survey of Great Britain. 239
cial labours of the members of the Survey, are contained in
the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and of
the Museum of Practical Geology in London. Two volumes of
this collection, the second in two parts, have been published
in large octavo. The numerous woodcuts interspersed in the
text, the splendid engravings of fossils, and the many illus-
trations of every kind, increase not a little the utility of these
excellent works.
* * * *
We must add among the results, the extensive collections
in the Museum, which, in connection with the lectures it is
proposed to give during the winter, will greatly contribute to
the spread of useful knowledge through the country. The
investigation of English building-stones, and the results thus
obtained were above alluded to. Lastly, it must not be over-
looked, that one of the greatest advantages of the Institution
consists in the explanations which every person interested in
mines or manufactures most readily receives there, upon all
scientific questions having any bearing on his branch of busi-
ness.
I cannot close this division of my report without thankfully
acknowledging the liberality with which Sir Henry De la
Béche, as well as all the eminent savans employed in the work
under his direction, allowed us to enter upon all the details
of the same. We have to thank their friendly instruction for
the more accurate acquaintance with an Institution, which,
i= in magnificence of arrangement, in talented execution of the
proposed plan, and in abundance of results, which are as im-
portant for science as for practical life, far surpasses all simi-
lar undertakings that have hitherto been carried out, and
will long serve as a model for geological investigations in
other portions of the globe.
On the Tides, By Wiuu1AM GALBRAITH, M.A., F.R.A.S.,
Teacher of Mathematics. Communicated by the Author.
In my article in the last Number of this Journal, I endeavoured
to point out the proper method of analysing a register of the tides,
and deducing the necessary results when the sun and moon were at
their mean distances from the earth, and in the plane of the equator.
240 Mr William Galbraith on the Tides.
These conditions cannot always be obtained, and=then it becomes
necessary to effect that by computation which cannot be had directly
from observation.
To compute the actual rise of the spring-tide above the mean level
of the sea—
Let f be the effect of the sun, and /’ that of the moon, on the
waters of the ocean, then will the whole effect be
WP eGe Wel EGLO tae aes
Now, if 7 be the semidiameter of the sun, and d the declination ;
ge the semidiameter of the moon, and 6 the declination, at the time of
syzygy, then f=a cos? d, and f’ = b cos? 4, and, thersfote,
Bg con? a bse0s7 00.10! .. Oyu ST a
in which a is the aggregate effect of the action of the sun’s mass,
combined with his real distance, indicated by his semidiameter, and
b that of the moon in similar circumstances, while cos? d and cos? 6
give the effects of the distance from the plane of the equator mea-
sured by their declinations.
To facilitate this operation, I have computed the logarithmic values
of a and b, contained in the following table.
Example 1. On the 3d of August 1849, I found the unit of
height wu (see page 16) of the tide at Broddick, in Arran, to be 4°34
feet, when the moon was full, at 15" 52™ p.m., Greenwich mean time,
what would be its value if the sun and moon were at their mean dis-
tances and on the equator ?
By the Nautical Almanac begs i. ?
To this time the sun’s semidiameter,r= 0 15 47°5
declination, d=17 19 S8S6N.
the moon’s semidiameter, p= 0 15 1°4
declination, 6=15 28 20°7S.
Hence, from the table for 7 and g, we have,
Moga testa cbs ee Oro LZ Mno a oe eee
d =17 19 86 cos? =9:95971 S=15 28 20°7 cosy = 9-96794
f = 02143 log 9°33100,f’= 0°6157 log 9°78934
f= 06157
F= 08300
1:0000 = mean height of spring-tides.
1—F= 0°1700 = defect.
Hence, the preceding value of u is too small by 0-17 x4:34=
0°7378 foot; therefore, the true value of wis 4°34+40-74=5-08°
feet, when the sun and moon are on the equator, and at their mean —
distances from the earth.
Example 2. On the 29th of December 1849, the moon was full at_
2h p.m., required the unit of height on that day, and the excess of tig
rise above 5:08 feet in the Frith of Clyde ?
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides. 241
_ By the Nautical Almanac, to this time we shall have,—
The sun’s semidiameter, r= oe 17°3
declination, G—2a So 7300S:
The moon’s semidiameter,o= 0 16 44°6
declination, O6=19 28 53:0S.
To these values of r and p, we have froin the table,—
Dena +... 941164 ‘Log 644 1 Wlp.ggaes
d =23 13 30 cos? = 992660 8 =19 28 53 cos? = 994880
f =02179 log 9:33824 f'=0'8155 log 9-91143
f = 08155
F = 1-0334
1:0000
F-1= 00334, the excess of this tide above unity.
Hence, 0:0334 x 5°08 = 0-169672 foot. Wherefore, 5:08 + 0:17
= 5:25, consequently this tide would rise to 5:25 feet only above
the mean level of the sea, or 0°17 foot (about 2 inches) more than
the usual spring-tide, when the sun and moon are on the equator,
_ and at their mean distance from the earth. Whence the whole rise
___ from low water to high water would be 5-25 x 2=10-5 feet on that day,
independent of the state of the barometer and force of the wind. In
similar circumstances, the greatest effect would be (Ainslie’s Survey-
ing, 398), 5°08 + 5:08 x 0:178= 5:08 + 0:90 =5-98 feet, and twice
this, that is, 5-98 x 2=11-96 feet, or nearly 12 feet, the total rise
from low to high water, when the sun and moon exerted the greatest
possible influence (a very rare occurrence), independent of the effects
of the wind and state of the barometer—phenomena that cannot be
_ predicted. The foolish exhibition made at many of our sea-ports on
that day, will be long remembered.*
Indeed, in tropical climates, the effects of hurricanes and tornadoes
_ are so great, that they occasionally raise the sea to such a height as
to carry large ships over sand-banks, and up a low flat country, as was
_ the case a few years ago with regard to the York Indiaman, of about
1200 tons burden, which, I was informed by one of her officers,
_ was carried over the Sauger Sands and driven over land, so far as
to be left high and dry at some distance from the usual sea-shore,
; * If great precision be required, especially when the wnit of height is con-
_ siderable, the correction must either be repeated or the true quantity found by
i: proportion, thus :—
1, As 083: 1 :: 4:34: 5°23 feet—u.
2. As 1 10334 :: 5:23 : 5:40 feet = rise.
_ which are the true quantities, whereas the preceding are only near approxima-
_ tions if not repeated.
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850. Q
242
Mr William Galbraith on the Tides.
near the mouth of the Ganges, after the hurricane had ceased to blow
from the southward into the Bay of Bengal.
It also caused, on the
low grounds in the vicinity, the destruction of much life and property.
These catastrophes are greatly to be dreaded in tropical climates, be-
cause they cannot be foreseen, so as to be avoided.
It is fortunate
for us, however, that they can scarcely ever occur in our temperate
climates, though it would be well to be apprized of the utmost limits
to which they can attain.
Logarithms to compute the height of Spring Tides, the mean being
represented by unity.
Semidiame-
ter.
Log. for Sun,
or Log. a.
9°36785
9°37473
9°38157
9°38837
9°39514
9°40187
9°40857
Difference
——— — | — | ———_—_
|
_ oo EEE
Log. for Moon,
or Log. b.
9-78267
9°79010
9°79748
9°80482
9°81212
9°81938
9-82660
9°83377
9°84091
9°84801
9-85507
986210
986908
9-87603
9:88294
9 88982
9°89666
9°90346
9°91023
9-91696
9°93033
9'93696
9°94356
9°95012
9:95665
9:96315
Difference
9°92366
to 1”
148°6
147°6
146°8
146-0
145:2
144-4
143°4
142°8
142°0
141°2
140°6
139°6
139°0
138°2
1376
136°8
136:0
135°4
134°6
134°0
( 243.)
On the Limits of Perpetual Snow in the Himalayas.
By Captain J. D. CunnineuaM, Engineers.
I have just read Lieutenant R. Strachey’s interesting paper
On the Limits of Perpetual Snow in the Himalayas, in which
he satisfactorily establishes that the elevations hitherto as-
signed to the phenomenon have been under-estimated, and
that, in truth, snow is only to be permanently found at about
15,000 feet on the southern, and at about 18,000 feet on the
northern boundaries respectively, instead of at about 13,000
and 16,500 feet, as hitherto supposed. Lieutenant Strachey
very well shews that Humboldt has attached undue weight
to the casual or partial observations of travellers and others
in fixing upon the smaller numbers ; but he appears to me
to be himself in error when he assigns the greater elevation
on the northern side, almost solely to the smaller quantity
of snow which there falls, although he is pleased to attach
value to my testimony that such quantity is indeed relatively
small, and thus to make me in a way a supporter of his
theory. .
Humboldt’s view of causes correct—Humboldt, in his
“Cosmos” (Sabine’s Trans. i., 328), enumerates the contin-
gencies on which the limits of the snow-line are depen-
dent ; and to me he seems truly to refer the superior height on
_ the northern side of the Himalayan chain to the general ele-
vation of Tibet, 7. e., to the heat due to radiation and rever-
beration even at that great height above the sea. This view
is strikingly borne out by what that able officer, the late
_ Dr Lord, observed with reference to the Hindu Koosh.t He
found the snow lying very much lower on the northern than
_ on the southern face, and he gives, as a reason for the large
difference, the existence of the high lands of Cabul on the
South side, or the fact that these high lands contain latent
t
_ * Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal, No, 102, April 1849, and Edinburgh New Phil.
Journal, vol. xlvii., p- 324.
+ Reports on Sindh, Afghanistan, &., by Sir A. Burnes, Lieutenant Leech,
Dr Lord, and Lieutenant Wood (Geographical Memoirs, p. 48, &c.)
244 Captain J. D. Cunningham on the Limits of
heat, which melts the snow ; while, on the northern face, the
slopes merge into the swampy flats of Toorkistan, scarce
500 feet above the sea, and are thus met bya cold atmo-
sphere, down to a low level, in the aid of the coldness due to a
northern aspect. _
Relative heights on extreme edges of mountain-belts—It will
indeed be found, that in any broad mountain-chain resting on
a plane inclined to the sea-level, and running nearly east and
west, the effect of latitude on temperature may be discarded,
and that elevation above the particular country, and not above
the general ocean, is mainly, although not solely, to be con-
sidered in determining the limits of perpetual snow on the
two edges of the belt. The line of snow will rise as the plane
of the country rises, and keep above it at a continually de-
creasing distance, until the diminishing temperature due to
increasing height, causes the two to coincide, a phenomenon
which of course cannot occur in the temperate zones, as we
know of no table-land so high as to be always frozen on the
surface.
Relative heights on opposite sides of the same single hill of
a chain.—This reasoning does not, however, apply to the
limits of snow on the northern and southern slopes of any
one hill or mountain of a broad and complex chain ; and as a
rule, the snow will be found to lie lower on the northern than
on the southern face of a single peak. In such an instance,
neither difference of latitude nor inclination of plane can or-
dinarily have any effect, and the only element to be taken
into consideration is the direct play of the sun’s rays, which,
in the northern hemisphere have most power on a hill-side
looking to the south. Captain Hutton, in his papers in Dr
M‘Lelland’s Journal of Natural History, had such isolated
hills in view when he asserted that the southern limit of snow
was higher than the northern one, and when he sought the
support of my experience on the subject, as I was then, te
moving about in Ludakh and Kunawur.
Dibiange iis of illustrative sketch.— The accompanying sketch
represents what | believe to be the true state of the case
with regard to the Himalayas, whether a line be drawn north
and south across them, between the Gogra and Ganges, or
Perpetual Snow in the Himalayas. 245
east and west in the neighbourhood of Cashmir.. Towards
the plains of India, the limit of snow on the southern sides
of the extreme hills will be found at about 15,000 feet above
the sea, as Lieutenant Strachey shews, and on the northern
face of the same hill, at about 12,000 feet, a figure, however,
which I have assumed for the sake of illustration, as I know
of no observations directly bearing on the subject. On the
Tibetan side of the chain, the heights will be found to be
about 20,000 feet on the south, and 18,000 or 18,500 on the
north face of the same hill. These latter estimates are Lieu-
tenant Strachey’s, and they are, I think, correct, while the
southern height of 20,000 feet is an approximation only.
I have taken the height of the Manasarawar Lake, viz.,
15,000 feet, in making this sketch, but even Humboldt’s mean
elevation of Tibet, viz., 11,500 feet (Cosmos, i., 330), will
not affect the argument, that the distance between the planes
of the mountain bases and of the snow-limits goes on de-
creasing as the former ascend.
Quantity of snow falling in Tibet, and the permanency or re-
newal of snow generally. W ith regard to the quantity of snow
which falls to the northward of the main peaks of the Hima-
layas, I may refer to my statement at p. 238 of the 148th No.
of the Journal, where I say that it did not appear to exceed
two feet and a half in depth, where not drifted. This refers
to the tract around the junction of the Sutlej and Spiti rivers.
In addition to the details there given, I may also mention,
that the larger streams began (in 1842) to swell after the
middle of February. This was due, I would say, to the radia-
tion from the mountain masses causing the lower surface of
the snow to melt, the recently accumulated snow itself form-
ing a protection against the chilling winds, and so allowing
the earth to part with its heat. At this period, the tempera-
ture of ordinary springs was about 42°, while the air at sun-
rise was sometimes below zero, and the mercury would not
rise above 60°, when exposed to the sun’s rays in the early
part of the afternoon. I state these particulars partly in
Support of what I consider to be Captain Hutton’s meaning
with regard to snow not being perpetual; an opinion to
246 On the Limits of Perpetual Snow in the Himalayas.
which Lieutenant Strachey somewhat slightingly alludes.*
Both observers are right, because the one simply means that
snow is even being simultaneously destroyed and renewed,
and the other, that hills of a certain elevation always exhi-
bit a covering of snow.
The Tibet of the Himalayas not a plain or table-land—Lieu-
tenant Strachey, and indeed most people, talk of the “ plains”
or “ table-land,” of Tibet; but I doubt whether, between
Imaus and Emodus, or anywhere in the valleys or basins of
the Indus, and Brahmaputra to the north of the Himalayas,
there are any plains. The range separating the upper courses
of the Indus and Sutlej is indeed inferior in height to that
which gives rise to the Ganges and Jumna, but it is still a
lofty range. To the northward of the Indus, or on a line run-
ning from Garo towards Yarkund, I dare say that undulating
ground or moderate slopes, rather than deep ravines with
steep sides, may perhaps be found.
These downs or steppes, or at least tracts, afford pasturage
to the best description of shawl-wool goats ; and Lieutenant
Strachey is right in his opinion that, elevated although they
be, they are as free from snow during summer as the plains
of India. What he supposes of the Kailas or Gagri of the
Manasarawar Lake, viz., that the height of its (northern)
snow-line may be 19,500 feet, would also be fully verified on
any mountains which may break the sameness of these
steppes, and not be so far to the north as to be much affected
by the latitude——(Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
New Series, No. xxxi., July 1849, p. 694.)
Observations upon M. Boutigny’s recent Experiment. By
Professor PLUCKER of Bonn. t
It may perhaps be a matter of interest to you to obtain a
confirmation of Boutigny’s recent experiment. With his
usual kindness, he exhibited to me, last Easter, his former ex-
periments ; and, whilst admiring his rare perseverance in
* Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal, April 1849, p. 302, note.
t From Poggendorff’s Annalen, December 7, 1849,
Observations upon M. Boutigny’s recent Experiment. 247
following up a fertile idea, I then acquired an impression
that it referred to a law of nature which was by no means
completely revealed, and in which opinion I was further
strengthened by the report of his last experiment. In con-
Sequence of an oral communication of this experiment, M.
Fessel wrote to me from Cologne, stating that, on the follow-
ing day, he had dipped his finger into lead heated to its
highest point, by which means the projecting portion of the
nail of the finger had been burnt, but, in other respects, the
finger remained perfectly uninjured ; he also stated further,
that a workman in the employ of Messrs Behren and Co.
manufacturing-engineers at Cologne, had made the experi-
ment with melted iron, and would repeat it before me. I
therefore accepted the offer, and, accompanied by several
persons interested in the matter, proceeded to Cologne. The
workman, in my presence, struck the unmoistened extremi-
ties of his fingers rapidly, and not without fear, against the
surface of the iron which had just flowed from the melting
furnace into a trough, and which was afterwards used in
casting a large plate for a furnace. I was thus convinced of
the perfect truth of Boutigny’s experiment: and whilst care-
fully examining the extremities of the workman’s fingers, one
of the two assistants of the Physical Cabinet accompanying
me, struck the entire surface of the open hand, which he had
previously dipped in water, so strongly against the bright red
surface of the iron that some of the fused metal was ejected ;
the other assistant, immediately afterwards also, struck it
with his moistened hand. After these experiments, which
were made in opposition to Boutigny’s precautions not to
strike the mass, experiments which, for the sake of precau-
tion, I wished to make before the immersion became unne-
cessary; I moistened my right hand, inserted the index-
finger almost completely into the melted mass, and moving
it very slowly through it, withdrew it in two seconds ; at the
same time I felt how the iron moved before my finger, but
did not experience the slightest sensation of heat.*
* More than twenty years ago Professor H. Rose, in visiting the foundries at
Avestad, in Sweden, saw a workman, for a small reward, take melted copper
248 Observations upon M. Boutigny’s recent Experiment.
I should have considered the temperature of the iron, which
was about 2732° Fahr., as below 96° Fahr.; for, on with-
drawing the finger, it was not so warm as the other hand.
M. Fessel also, and the other three persons who accompanied
me, repeated this experiment, with certain modifications ;
one of them with his hand dry; another remarked that the
hand, after having been previously dipped in water, when
withdrawn, was only dry in that part which had not been
immersed ; a third took up the iron with the hand made
hollow. The minute hairs upon the inserted fingers had en- ;
tirely disappeared ; but the nails were not injured, nor was
any penetration of heat through the nails remarked. The ;
hand, when withdrawn, had a slight empyreumatic odour,
which was stronger when there were warts upon it; but in
no case was there the slightest burning sensation, or evena =
disagreeable sensation of heat. Hence, certain minor opera-
——
¢
tions in surgery might be performed with least pain by P
placing the foot in a bath of red-hot iron. Lastly, 1 made one ;
other experiment, the result of which might have been anti-
cipated.
I held the finger of a leathern glove, which I had weil
wetted inside, and had placed on a wooden rod for nearly a
a minute in the melted iron; on withdrawing it the glove
was not only unburnt, but had only a temperature of about
132° Fahr. (I had not a thermometer with me). Conjectures
and theoretical views upon these remarkable phenomena,
would be premature without further experiments. I hope, ¢
}
no pe
= fOr
<
however, soon to be able to communicate some remarks upon
them.—( Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxxvi., No. 241, p. 137.)
ia
Se See. ‘.
with the bare hand from a crucible, and throw it against the wall. This con-
firms his statement, as also some other facts which Boutigny himself mentions
in his memoir, that the phenomenon mentioned has long been known, Snr
among the people engaged in the arts.—(Poggendory.)
—
(249 )
A Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott.
Our afternoon edition of Wednesday contained an intima-
tion of the demise of Mr John Caldecott, astronomer to H. H.
the Rajah of Travancore,—the melancholy event having oc-
eurred at Trevandrum on the night of the 16th instant. He
had had an attack of illness, something like a tendency to
apoplexy or paralysis, about two months ago, but after going
through a course of medicine he seemed to have recovered
his health and spirits. About the 8th ultimo a general de-
rangement of the system made its appearance, under which
he continued to labour till death released him from his suf-
ferings. The name of Mr Caldecott has been too often and
too long before the world to suffer the removal from amongst
us of him who bore it to be passed over with a mere obituary
notice. With the earlier portion of the career of Mr Calde-
cott we are not acquainted: our impression is that he was
bred an architect, and that as an astronomer and meteorolo-
gist, he was entirely self-taught. About the year 1832 he ap-
pears to have become known to the Rajah of Travancore,—
‘one of the most accomplished, enlightened, and liberal-minded
princes in India,—and to have acquired the confidence and
friendship of the Resident, Colonel Fraser, an envoy altoge-
ther worthy of the most intellectual native court in the East.
The mind of the Rajah, eminently endowed by nature, had
received all the cultivation the highest English education
could bestow : he was well read alike in the theology, the lite-
‘rature, and the sciences, of Europe, and resolved to indulge
his tastes in a way worthy of one who was not alone a phi-
losopher amongst princes, but a prince amongst philosophers.
To Mr Caldecott, by this time well known as a mechanician
‘and astronomer, was entrusted the planning, erection, fur-
nishing, and charge, of an astronomical and meteorological
observatory. Though entrusted with unlimited powers on
the occasion, he wisely determined that no outlay beyond what
was absolutely essential to effectiveness should be incurred
on the building; but that no expense should be spared in
providing instruments of such size and quality as would se-
250 Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott.
cure to the observatory where they were employed with zeal
and judgment, a rank second to none in the world.*
The Observatory was erected on a hill of laterite abound-
ing in granite, 2 miles from the sea, and 130 feet above high-
water mark: it was 70 feet in length, and 30 in breadth,
with three revolving domes. The instruments with which
it was at first, provided consisted of an 18-inch altitude and
azimuth, a 30-inch transit, a fine equatorial, a reflecting
circle, a 46-inch telescope, and three chronometers, all first-
rate of their kind, and all the private property of Mr Calde-
cott. The instruments ultimately provided by His Highness
consisted of a 5-feet transit, a transit clock, two 5-feet mural
circles, an astronomical clock, an altitude and azimuth, two
powerful telescopes, one of them a reflector, with microme-
ters, with a complete set of magnetic and meteorological in-
struments. These were all of the first-rate description which
skill or money could secure: they were received in safety,
and put in their places without delay. In 1840, the Obser-
vatory received an additional supply of magnetic and meteo-
rological instruments, similar to those prescribed by the
Royal Society and British Association for the sixty different
observatories up and down the world. The task of arran-
ging and setting to work single-handed so large an esta-
blishment, was no easy one; and the admirable manner
in which Mr Caldecott accomplished it in incredibly short
space of time gave sufficient proof of his enthusiasm as
well as his ability. The tasks accomplished which pos-
sessed paramount claims on his attention, we find Mr Calde-
cott in 1837 engaged with the late distinguished Madras
astronomer, Mr Taylor, ina magnetic survey of Southern
India. Mr Taylor had, as far back as 1831, projected, at
the suggestion of Professor Kupffer, a series of observations
* Madras Literary Transactions, vol. vi., page 56. Description of the Tre-
vandrum Observatory, by John Caldecott, Esq. The reader must remember
that though instruments of the largest size may be essential for making great
discoveries in astronomy, it is excellence of workmanship more than magnitude,
and zeal in the astronomer more than any quality in his instruments, that en-
sures value to the work.
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Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott. 251
on the magnetic dip, when inability to procure the proper
instruments, either at Madras or from England, postponed the
execution of the scheme. At length, a dipping-circle, and
fine set of dipping-needles, the property of the Bombay Geo-
graphical Society,* and which had been placed at the disposal
of Captain Moresby, were lent by that officer to Mr Taylor.
While the Madras astronomer took the eastern portion of
the Peninsula to himself, the examination of the western di-
vision was assigned to Mr Caldecott. The philosophers met
in July at Tranquebar, and for a time laboured together.
Subsequently, each pursued the enquiries allotted him, with
that unbounded zeal and consummate ability for which both
were so conspicuously distinguished. The Madras service
at this time was replete to overflowing with the spirit of re-
search, and abounded beyond example with men of activity,
talent, and accomplishments. The Literary Transactions of
the day wellnigh eclipse the Bengal Journal itself, then under
charge of the illustrious James Prinsep, one of the very fore-
most amongst the intellects of India. Meteorological re-
search had, in 1837, just begun to be pursued with that me-
thod and system, and in the spirit of co-operation and concert,
from the want of which it had hitherto so sadly suffered. Dr
Turnbull Christie had some years before drawn up an excel-
lent scheme of research, which was published after his death
in the Journal for 1835. The following year the admirable
system of Sir John Herschel was promulgated, under the
name of a report of the South African Association ; and the
astronomers at Madras and Trevandrum resolved to carry
out the scheme of connected enquiry by means of hourly ob-
servations at least one day every month to its fullest extent.
Mr Caldecott had now taken a conspicuous place amongst the
scientific men of India, and his name speedily became as well
* The Geographical Society had at this time provided itself with a large
supply of instruments for the purpose of promoting physical research. When
their turn came to ask from a large establishment the loan of magnetic instru-
ments known to be employed, and to have been got on purpose for general ser-
vice, they were told none such existed—at the very time that an account of their
use in itinerant investigations was published in their reports! A sad contrast
certainly,
252 Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott.
known in Europe as it had for some time been in the Hast.
He contributed several papers on meteorology generally,
and on temperatures underground in particular, to the British
Association, and was specially referred to in the address of
the President as their “ distinguished associate Mr Calde-
cott.”’ He had from 1841, when the general scheme of mag-
netic and meteorological research was commenced all over
the world, set himself with his usual zeal to the working out
of the plan. It was not until 1845 that the Royal Society
determined on the best mode of publishing the vast mass of
matter that had up to this time been collected,—and the
Rajah of Travancore, scarcely appreciating the importance of
economy of time, and little apprehending the calamity that
was at hand, was naturally anxious that a mass of facts that
had been gathered together at his own expense, and under
his own directions, should reach the world through bis own
press. Mr Caldecott had now become deeply engaged im
preparations for publication, when his health began to fail
him, and in January 1849 came to Bombay, and for some
time travelled about in the Concan, Deccan, and Ghauts, for
change of air. He returned to Trevandrum and resumed his
labours in March, and was, up to the time of his demise,
deeply occupied in passing through the press the results of
the researches of the preceding ten years. He had for some
time been complaining, when on the 16th he was cut off,
deeply lamented by all who knew him—by none more deeply
than by the illustrious Prince whom he served, and the dis-
tinguished resident, General Cullen, who so cordially aided
and sympathised in his exertions. Though only a few frag-
ments of the results of his labours have hitherto been laid
before the world, no man was less given to mystery-making
or concealment than Mr Caldecott, as to the progress of his
pursuits, or more anxious to place all his MSS., finished or
unfinished, at the disposal of any one desiring to use them.
When applied to contribute to the collection of observations’
now being made by the Geographical Society, he at once
offered copies of the unpublished reports for. the past) tem
years ; and this being more than enough, he supplied.a,fulk
series of observations from January 1848—the last fasciculus,
despatched just before his demise,—coming down to the. pre-
Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott, 253
sent time. In the true spirit of philosophy, Mr Caldecott
considered it a very small matter by whom truth was extend-
ed and promoted, in comparison to the fact of its extension
and promotion. No man has deserved better of science than
the Rajah of Travancore, and but few have been more fortu-
nate in the selection of agencies through the means of which
science has been aided. No man could have more ably or
effectually assisted him in the noble plans he had conceived
than Colonel Fraser; nor could India have supplied a more
talented, upright, and accomplished, successor to the officer
just named than was found in General Cullen. It will bea
long time indeed before a fitting successor can be looked for
to Mr Caldecott. The removal of the astronomer of Trevan-
drum completes the desolation accomplished in little more
than a single year in all our observatories. Mr Taylor, of
Madras, died in March 1848; Mr Curnin, formerly of the
Bombay Observatory, in July ; Colonel Wilcox, astronomer
to the King of Oudh, in November; and, within twenty
months of the removal of the first of the four, the last follows
his illustrious brethren to the grave.—Ldit., Bombay Times.
‘Thus well have Mr Caldecott’s physical observations been
described; of his astronomical labours there is not much
known, and it is believed that they were rather devoted to
the educational advancement of those he was amongst, than
to the promotion and extension of the science. He had sup-
plied the Observatory with sufficient instruments for the
highest purposes; indeed it was better furnished than most
European observatories, and than all the extra-European
ones; and being blessed with a clearer sky than any other in
the world, and a large staff of assistants being attached,—
important results were confidently expected. Yet, perhaps
from the natural bent of his mind being in another direction,
he allowed himself to be carried away by the more showy
but ephemeral matters of magnetical and meteorological ob-
servations, and by the extraordinary opinions propagated by
_ the British Association at the time, in their Report on Me-
teorology: wherein it was inferred that there was nothing
movre’to be discovered in astronomy ; that Astronomical Ob-
_ seivatories were now only occupied in doing over again what
254 Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott.
had been better done elsewhere ; and that the astronomers
would be better and more honestly employed in making mag-
netical and meteorological observations with their astrono-
mical funds ; a small portion of which, if spent in the above
manner, would be sufficient, it was contended, to create new
sciences of observation. Nervously anxious that the means
so singularly at his disposal for the advancement of science,
should be applied in the most unexceptionable manner, Mr
Caldecott unfortunately was carried away by the above-men-
tioned peculiar views ; and abandoning astronomy, applied
himself to what was pointed out by so influential a body at
home as a more proper subject of investigation. But though
such vast sums have since been spent on magnetism and me-
teorology ; though so many public and private observatories
have been established by various nations; and exploring ex-
peditions sent by sea to the Antarctic as well as to the Are-
tic regions ; still those sciences are far from being on a sure
scientific basis ; and even the instruments and methods of em-
ploying them are so uncertain and insecure, that the value of
the numerous observations accumulated not only by Mr Cal- ~
decott, but by the other magneticians and meteorologists of
the day, is doubtful in the extreme, even in the interest which
they may excite after the present hour. Meanwhile the tide
of astronomical discovery passed him by ; the honour of add-
ing to that accumulating number of exact determinations of
standard quantities, which serve to establish old discoveries
in the realms of space, and lead to new ones,—was lost ; and
the certainty of procuring for his enlightened patron, the Rajah
of Travancore, and for the country of his adoption, an estate
in the zodiac, more enduring than all the empires of the
Kast, was removed from him for ever.
In addition to all this, Mr Caldecott, though a good ob-
server, is said by an intimate friend to have been deficient in
mechanical skill ; a serious failing in an astronomical obser-
vatory so far removed as Trevandrum. Hence, he never felt
that perfect confidence in the instruments, and the results
procured by them, which is only the case, and can only be,
when the observer is both theoretically and practically an
optician and a mechanician; when he has examined every _
possible source of error in the instruments; when he has i
Biographical Sketch of the late Astronomer Caldecott. 255
detected the exact amount of failing in each particular direc-
tion ; when he has found the reason of it, and has ascertained
the laws both periodical and secular; and when he has con-
trived mechanical means to correct those errors which are
excessive in size and constant in amount ; and invented theo-
retical methods of correcting the effects of all the others.
Doubtless, with a new instrument in this country, and em-
ployed but a few miles from the workshop of its maker, good
observations and reputable may have been produced, without
any such searching and probing examinations ; but, never-
theless, the power to make them is an absolutely necessary
requisite with a practical astronomer in charge of a foreign
observatory ; and unless he does make them, and act upon
them, he may be perfectly sure that however good he may
fancy his observations to be, or they may actually and abso-
lutely be, still they will never inspire confidence in the minds
of others, nor his calculated results any conviction.
Mr Caldecott did, however, send three communications to
the Royal Astronomical Society of London, and, from the
talent he displayed in them, it is so much the more to be re-
gretted that he did not devote a greater portion of his time
to such subjects.
The first was a series of observations made with the fine
equatorial of the Trevandrum Observatory, on the Great
Comet of 1843, in right ascension and declination ; to which
descriptions of the physical appearance night after night, and
computed elements of the orbit, were appended.
The second was an account of the total eclipse of 1843, to
see which, in its totality, he had journeyed to a distant part
of the country, where he had computed that the total obscu-
ration, if any (for the case was very doubtful owing to the
almost exactly equal apparent diameters of the sun and moon),
would occur. And he made very excellent series of observa-
tions on the interesting physical circumstances attending the
astronomical phenomena.
The third paper was a communication similar in nature to
the first, but relative to the comet of 1844-5; also a very
fine one, an unusually fine one in this so-called degenerate age
of comets, but, like that, invisible to Europe during all the
brightest part of its apparition. P. 8.
256 Sir R. I. Murchison on the Distribution of the
On the Distribution of the Superficial Detritus of the Alps, as
compared with that of Northern Europe. By Sir RoDERICK
IMPEY Murcuison, F.R.S., &e. &e.
Referring to his previous memoir upon the structure of
the Alps, and the changes which those mountains underwent,
the author calls attention to the fact, that as during the for-
mation of the molasse and nagelflue a warmer climate pre-
vailed, so after the upheaval of those rocks, an entire change
took place, as proved by the uplifted edges of such tertiary
accumulations being surmounted by vast masses of horizon-
tally-stratified alluvia, the forms of whose materials testify
that they were deposited under water. The warm period,
in short, had passed away, and the pine had replaced the
palm upon the adjacent lands, before a glacier was formed in
the Alps, or a single erratic block was translated.
Though awarding great praise to the labours of Venetz,
Charpentier, and Agassiz, which have shed much light on
glaciers, and particularly to the work of Professor J. D.
Forbes, in clearly expounding the laws which regulate their
movement, Sir Roderick conceives, that the physical pheno-
mena of the Alps and Jura compel the geologist to restrict
the former extension of the Alpine glaciers within infinitely
less bounds than have been assigned to them by those authors.
True old glacier moraines may, he thinks, be always dis-
tinguished, on the one hand, from the ancient alluvia, and,
on the other, from tumultuous accumulations of gravel, boul-
ders, and far-transported erratic blocks, as well as from all
other subsequent detritus resulting from various causes
which have affected the surface. He first shews, from the
remnants of the old water-worn alluvia which rise to con-
siderable heights on the sides of the valley, that in the
earliest period of the formation of the Alpine glaciers, wa-
ter, whether salt, brackish, or fresh, entered far into the re-
cesses of these mountains, which were then at a considerably
lower level, z.e., not less, perhaps, than 2500 or 3000 font
below their present altitude.
He next appeals to the existing evidences in the range of
Superficial Detritus of the Alps. 257
Mont Blanc, to shew that, as each glacier is formed in a
‘transverse upper depression, and is separated from its icy
neighbour by an intervening ridge, so by their movement *
such separate glaciers have always protruded their moraines
across the adjacent longitudinal valleys into which they de-
scended, and never united to form one grand stream of ice
in the valley below. To prove this, it is affirmed that
there are no traces of lateral moraines on the sides of the
adjacent main valleys, whether on the side of the great ridge
from whence the separate glaciers issued, or on the opposite
side of such main valley, which must have been the case, if
a large mass of glacier ice had ever descended it. On the
contrary, examples of the transport of moraines and blocks
across such main or longitudinal depressions are cited from
the valley of Chamonix on the one flank, and from the
Allée Blanche and Val Ferret on the other or south side of
the chain of Mont Blanc. Another proof is seen in the an-
cient moraine of the Glacier Neuva, the uppermost of the
valley of the Drance; and a still stronger case is the great
chaotic pile of protogine blocks accumulated on the Plan y
Beuf, 5800 French feet above the sea, which have evidently
been translated right across the present deep valley of the
Drance from the opposite lofty glacier of Salenon.
Having thus shewn that not even the upper longitudinal
and flanking valleys around Mont Blanc were ever filled with
general ice streams, the author has no difficulty in demon-
strating that all the great trunk or lower valleys of the
Arve, the Doire, and the Rhone, offer no vestiges of what he
calls a true moraine ; since, although they contain occasional
large erratic blocks, for the most partirregularly dispersed,
all the other detritus is more or less water-worn, to great
heights above their present bottoms. As Venetz and Char-
pentier have attached great importance to the original sug-
gestion of an old peasant of the Upper Vallais, that a great
former glacier alone could have carried the erratic blocks to
the sides of the lower valley of the Rhone; so, on the other
hand, the author, if he had had any doubt himself, would have
relied on the practised eye of his intelligent Chamonix guide,
‘Auguste Balmat, who never recognised the remains of “ mo-
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850. R
258 Sir R. I. Murchison on the Distribution of the
raines” in that detritus of the larger valleys which has been
theoretically referred to old glacier action.
In descending from the higher Alps into the main or trunk
valleys, Sir Roderick found many examples of rocks rounded
on that side, which had been exposed to the passage of
boulders and pebbles, with abrupt faces on the side removed
from the agent of denudation, all of them reminding him
forcibly of the storm and /ee sides of the Swedish rocks over
which similar water-worn materials have passed.
Seeing, then, that this coarse drift or water-worn detritus
is distributed sometimes on the hard rocks, and often on the
remnants of the old valley alluvia, he believes that the whole
of the phenomena can be explained by supposing that the
Alps, Jura, and all the surrounding tracts have undergone
great and unequal elevations since the period of the forma-
tion of the earliest glaciers—elevations which, dislodging
vast portions of those bodies, floated away many huge blocks
in ice-rafts, down straits then occupied by water, and also
hurled on vast turbid accumulations of boulders, sand, and
gravel. To these operations he attributes the purging of
the Alpine vallevs of the great mass of their ancient alluvia,
and also the conversion of glacier moraines into shingle and
boulders. He denies that the famous blocks of Monthey,
opposite Bex, can ever have been a portion of the left lateral
moraine of a glacier which occupied the whole of the deep
valley of the Rhine, as Charpentier has endeavoured to
shew ; and he contends that, if such had been the case, they
would have been associated with numberless smaller and
larger fragments of all the rocks which form the sides of
the valley through which such glaciers must have passed.
They are, however, exclusively composed of the granite of
Mont Blanc ; and must therefore, he thinks, have been trans-
ported by ice-rafts, which, having been forced with great
violence through the gorge of St Maurice, served to produce
many of the strie which are there so visible on the surface
of the limestone.*
* Mr Charles Darwin, in a recent letter to the author, adheres to his old
opinions on this point, derived frsm observations in America, and says: “I _
Superficial Detritus of the Alps. 259
Fully admitting that the stones and sand of the moraines
of modern glaciers scratch, groove, and polish rocks, Sir
Roderick Murchison still adheres to the idea he has long en-
tertained from surveys in Northern Europe,* that other
agents more or less subaqueous, including icebergs and heavy
masses of drift, have produced precisely similar results.
He cites examples in the Alps, where, perfectly water-worn
or rounded gravel being removed, the subjacent rocks are
found to be striated in the directions in which such gravel
has been moved; and he quotes a case in the gorge of the
Tamina, above the Baths of Pfeffers, where this ancient stri-
ation, undistinguishable from that caused by existing glaciers,
has, by a very recent slide of a heavy mass of gravel from
the upper slope of the same rock, been crossed by fresh sco-
rings and striz, transverse to those of former date, from which
the markings made in the preceding year only differ in being
less deeply engraved. He also adverts to the choking up of
some valleys, particularly of the Vorder or Upper Rhine, be-
low Dissentis, by fracture, in si/w, of mountains of limestone,
which constitute masses of enormous thickness, made up of
innumerable small fragments, all of which have been heaped
together since the dispersion of the erractic blocks ; and he
further indicates the effects of certain great slides or sub-
sidences within the historic era.
In considering the distribution of the erratic detritus of
the Rhone, the author having denied that it can ever have
been carried down the chief valley to the Lake of Geneva in
_asolid glacier, he still more insists on the incredibility of
such a vast body of ice having issued from that one narrow
valley, as to have spread out over all the low country of the
feel most entirely convinced that floating ice and glaciers produce effects so
; similar, that at present there is, in many cases, no means of distinguishing
_ which formerly was the agent in scoring and polishing rocks. This difficulty
__ of distinguishing the two actions struck me much in the lower parts of the Welsh
valleys.”
* See Silurian System, pp. 509 to 547 ; Russia in Burope and the Ural Moun-
tains, vol. i., pp. 507 to 559; Presidential Discourses, Proc. Geol. Soc., Lond.,
ol, iii., p. 671, and vol. iy., p. 93 ; Journ. of Geol. Soc., Lond., vol. ii., p. 349;
_ and Trans. R. Geol. Soc., Cornwall, vol. vi.
260 Sir R. I. Murchison on the Distribution of the
Cantons Vaud, Friburg, Berne, and Soleure, and to have pro-
truded its erratics to the slopes of the Jura, over a region of
about 100 miles in breadth from north-east to south-west, as
laid down in the map of Charpentier. He maintains, that in
the low and undulating region between the Alps and the
Jura, the small debris derived from the former has every-
where been water-worn, and that there is in no place which
he saw anything resembling a true moraine ; and he, therefore,
believes, that the great granitic blocks of Mont Blane were
translated to the Jura by ice-floats, when the intermediate
country was under water. He further appeals to the water-
worn condition of all the detritus of the high plateaux around
Munich, 1600 feet and 1700 feet above the sea, to shew that a
subaqueous condition of things must be assumed, for the
whole of the northern flanks of the Alps, when the great er-
ratic blocks were carried to their present positions.
Professor Guyot of Neufchatel has endeavoured to shew,
that the detritus of the rocks of the right and left sides of
the upper valley of the Rhone have also maintained their ori-
ginal relative positions in the great extra-alpine depression
(Lake of Geneva), and that these relations are proofs that
nothing but a solid glacier could have arranged the blocks in
such linear directions. But the author meets this objection by
suggesting, that there are notable examples to the contrary.
He also refers to the great ¢rainées of similar blocks, which
preserve linear directions in Sweden and the low countries
south of the Baltic, to shew, that, as this phenomenon was
certainly there produced by powerful streams of water, so
may the alpine detritus have been arranged by similar agency.
In alluding to the drainage of the Isére, he further points to
the admission of Professor Guyot, that nearly all its erratic
detritus, both large and small, is rounded, and has undergone
great attrition ; and he quotes a number of cases in which
such boulders and gravel, derived from the central ridges of
Mont Blanc, have been transported across tracts now con-
sisting of lofty ridges of limestone with very deep interven-
ing valleys ; and, therefore, he infers that the whole configu-
ration of these lands has been since much changed, including
the final excavations of the valleys and the translation of
Superficial Detritus of the Alps. 261
enormous masses of broken materials into the adjacent low
countries of France.
In conclusion, it is suggested, that the dispersion of the
far-travelled alpine blocks is a very ancient phenomenon, in
reference to the historic era, and must have been coeval with
the spread of the northern or Scandinavian erratics, which
it has been demonstrated was accompanied chiefly by floating
ice, at a time when large portions of the Continent and of
the British Isles were under the sea. Viewing it, therefore,
as a subaqueous phenomenon, Sir Roderick is of opinion that
the transport of the alpine blocks to the Jura falls strictly
within the dominion of the geologist who treats of far bygone
events, and cannot be exclusively reasoned upon by the me-
teorologist, who invokes a long series of years of sunless and
moist summers, to account for the production of gigantic gla-
ciers upon land under present terrestrial conditions. This last
hypothesis is, it is shewn, at variance even with the physical
phenomena in and around the Alps, while it is in entire anta-
gonism to the much grander and clearly-established distribu-
tion of the erraties of thenorth during the glacial period. The
effect in each case is commensurate with the cause. The Scan-
dinavian chain, from whence the blocks of northern Europe
radiated, is of many times larger area than the Alps; and
hence its blocks have spread over a much greater space.
All the chief difficulties of the problem vanish, when it is ad-
mitted that enormous changes of the level of the land, in re-
lation to the waters, have taken place since the distribution
of large erratics—the great northern glacial continent havin g
subsided, and the bottom of the sea further south having
been elevated into dry land, whilst the Alps and Jura, for-
merly at lower levels, have been considerably and irregu-
larly raised.—(Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,
No. xxi., p. 65.)
262 Dr Samuel George Morton on the
Observations on the Size of the Brain in various Races and
Families of Man. By SAMUEL GEORGE Morton, M.D.,
Author of Crania Americana, &c., &c.
[have great pleasure in submitting to the Academy* the re-
sults of the internal measurements of 623 human crania,
made with a view to ascertain the relative size of the brain
in various races and families of Man.
These measurements have been made by the process in-
vented by my friend, Mr J. 8. Phillips, and described in my
Crania Americana, p. 253, merely substituting leaden shot,
one-eighth of an inch in diameter, in place of the white mus-
tard-seed originally used. I thus obtain the absolute capacity
of the cranium, or bulk of the brain, in cubic inches; and the
results are annexed in all those instances in which I have
had leisure to put this revised mode of measurement in prac-
tice. I have restricted it, at least for the purpose of my in-
ferential conclusions, to the crania of persons of sixteen years
of age and upwards, at which period the brain is believed to
possess the adult size. Under this age, the capacity mea-
surement has only been resorted to for the purpose of colla-
teral comparison ; nor can I avoid expressing my satisfaction
at the singular accuracy of this method, since a skull of an
hundred cubic inches, if measured any number of times with
reasonable care, will not vary a single cubic inch.
All these measurements have been made with my own
hands. I at one time employed a person to assist me; but,
having detected some errors in his measurements, I have
been at the pains to revise all that part of the series that
had not been previously measured by myself. I can now,
therefore, vouch for the accuracy of these multitudinous
data, which I cannot but regard as a novel and important
contribution to Ethnological science.
I am now engaged in a memoir which will embrace in de-
tail the conclusions that result from these data; and, mean-
while, I submit the following tabular view of the prominent
facts.
* Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Size of the Brain in various Races of Man. 263
Table, shewing the Size of the Brain in Cubic Inches, as obtained from
the Internal Measurement of 623 Crania of various Races and
Families of Man.
RAcEs AND FAMILIES. No. of Rargeat Smallest Mean.
Skulls. Mean.
MODERN CAUCASIAN GROUP.
Teutonic Family :
Germans 18 114 70 90
English 5 105 91 96 92
Anglo-Americans 7 97 82 90
Pelasgic Family :
Persians
Armenians
Circassians
Celtic Family :
Native Irish
Indostanic Family :
Bengalees, &c.
Semitic Family :
10 94 75 84
78 87
32 91 67 80
or)
ive)
1
‘Arabs 3 98 84 89
Nilotic Family :
Fellahs 17 96 66 80
ANCIENT CAUCASIAN GROUP.
2 ia Pelasgic Family : |
E E Greco-Egyptians | i me te ee
Nilotic Family :
z 3 Pngypinns 55 | 96 | 68 | 80
MONGOLIAN GROUP.
Chinese Family 6 91 70 82
MaLay Group.
Malayan Family 20 97 68 86 85
Polynesian Family 3 84 82 83
he AMERICAN GROUP.
Toltecan Family :
Peruvians - : 155 101 58 75
Mexicans . : 22 92 67 79
Barbarous Tribes : 79
Iroquois. : e
Lenapé . ; 2 161 104 70 84
Cherokee . ‘ F
Shoshoné, &c. . a
o |
¥ NeGro Group.
Native African Family . 62 99 65 83 83
American-born Negroes : 12 89 73 82
Hottentot Family : ; 3 83 68 75
Alforian Family :
Australians : i ie iis
264 Dr Samuel George Morton. on the
The measurements of children, idiots, and mixed races,-are
omitted from this table, excepting only in the instance of the
Fellahs of Egypt, who, however, are a blended stock of two
Caucasian nations,—the true Egyptian and the intrusive
Arab, in which the characteristics of the former greatly pre-
dominate.
No mean has been taken of the Caucasian race* col-
lectively, because of the very great preponderance of Hindu,
Egyptian, and Fellah skulls over those of the Germanic, Pe-
lasgic, and Celtic families. Nor could any just collective com-
parison be instituted between the Caucasian and Negro group
in such a table, unless the small-brained people of the latter
‘division (Hottentots, Bushmen, and Australians) were pro-
portionate in number to the Hindoos, Egyptians, and Fellahs
of the other group. Such a computation, were it practicable,
would probably reduce the Caucasian average to about 87
cubic inches, and the Negro to 78 at most, perhaps even to
75, and thus confirmatively establish the difference of at least
nine cubic inches between the mean of the two races.
* It is necessary to explain what is here meant by the word race. Further
researches into Ethnographic affinities will probably demonstrate that what
are now termed the jive races of men, would be more appropriately called groups ;
that each of these groups is again divisible into a greater or smaller number of
primary races, each of which has expanded from an aboriginal nucleus or centre,
Thus I conceive that there were several centres for the American group of
races, of which the highest in the scale are the Toltecan nations, the lowest the
Fuegians. Nor does this view conflict with the general principle, that all these
nations and tribes have had, as I have elsewhere expressed it, a common origin;
inasmuch as by this term is only meant an indigenous relation to the country
they inhabit, and that collective identity of physical traits, mental and moral
endowments, language, &c., which characterize all the American races, The
same remarks are applicable to all the other human races; but in the present
infant state of Ethnographic science, the designation of these primitive centres
is a task of equal delicacy and difficulty. I may here observe, that whenever
I have ventured an opinion on this question, it has been in favour of the doc-
trine of primeval diversities among men,—an original adaptation of the several
races to those varied circumstances of climate and locality, which, while con-
genial to the one are destructive to the other; and subsequent investigations
have confirmed me in these views. See Crania Americana, p. 3; Cranita
Dgyptiaca, p. 37 ; Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America,
p. 86; Silliman’s American Journal of Sciences and the Arts, 1847 ; and my Let-
ter to J. L. Bartlett, Esq., in vol. ii. of the Transactions of the Ethnological So-
ciety of New York.
Size of the Brain in various Races of Man. 265
Large as this collection already is, a glance at the table
will shew that it is very deficient in some divisions of the
human family. For example, it contains no crania of the Es-
quimaux, Fuegians, Californians, or Brazilians. The skulls
of the great divisions of the Caucasian and Mongolian races
are also too few for satisfactory comparison, and the Sclavo-
nic and Tchudic (Finnish) nations, together with the Mongol
tribes of Northern Asia and China, are among the especial
desiderata of this collection.
Among the facts elicited by this investigation are the fol-
lowing :—
1. The Teutonic or German race, embracing, as it does,
the Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Americans, Anglo-Irish, &e., pos-
sess the largest brain of any other people.
2. The nations having the smallest heads, are the ancient
Peruvians and Australians.
3. The barbarous tribes of America possess a much larger
brain than the demi-civilized Peruvians or Mexicans.
4. The ancient Egyptians, whose civilization antedates
that of all other people, and whose country has been justly
called “ the cradle of the arts and sciences,’ have the least-
sized brain of any Caucasian nation, excepting the Hindoos ;
for the small number of Semitic heads will hardly permit
them to be admitted into the comparison.
5. The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teu-
tonic, and three cubic inches larger than the ancient Egyp-
tian.
6. The largest brain in the series is that of a Dutch gentle-
man, and gives 114 cubic inches; the smallest head is an old
Peruvian, of 58 cubic inches; and the difference between
these two extremes is no less than 56 cubic inches.
7. The brain of the Australian and Hottentot fall far be-
low the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the an-
cient Peruvian.
_ 8. This extended series of measurements fully confirms
the fact stated by me in the Crania Americana, that the vari-
ous artificial modes of distorting the cranium, occasion no
diminution of its internal capacity, and consequently do not
affect the size of the brain.
( 266 -)
Enumeration of the Races of Man. By CHARLES PICKER-
ING, M.D., Member of the Scientific Corps attached to
the United States Exploring Expedition.
Three races of men are familiarly known in the United
States, and are admitted by general consent. The same
three physical races have been considered by eminent
naturalists (who, however, have not travelled), to comprise
all the varieties of the human family. Blumenbach has in-
dicated a fourth race, the Malay; and even a fifth has been
shadowed forth in the accounts of the Australian Seas. It
was impossible, however, from the materials furnished by
books, to define the geographical boundaries of these races ;
a point which seemed of importance, as forming in a good
degree the basis of our reasoning on the whole subject.
This, then, was one of the objects of investigation I pro-
posed to myself, on joining the Exploring Expedition ; and my
previous experience as a naturalist, a pursuit calling for the
constant exercise of the powers of discrimination, gave me
some advantage in conducting the inquiry.
At one time during the voyage I thought my task nearly
accomplished ; and after visiting Australia and New Zealand,
I actually penned an opinion, that the races of men were five
in number. Soon, however, I was compelled to admit three
more ; neither was this the limit of the productiveness of
nature, in new and undreamt-of combinations of features.
More careful observation than at the outset had seemed
necessary, was now called into requisition ; and often, for a
time, I experienced perplexity. One difficulty arose in fixing
in the mind, while passing from place to place, the relative
shades of complexion. Fortunately for my purpose, tattoo-
ing was practised in many of the countries visited, and these ~
markings afforded a convenient test of the depth of hue. In-
dividuals also, of three or more races, being present among
the crews of our vessels, afforded the means of mak-
ing some direct comparisons. In the end all difficulties
vanished, and I was enabled to arrive at satisfactory con-— :
clusions.
.On the Enumeration of the Races of Man. 267
It should be observed, that in the countries visited by the
Expedition, the inhabitants present among themselves great
uniformity of feature and complexion; while in the Arab
countries, and in Western Hindostan, there is an astonish-
ing diversity of aspect in the population ; independently, to
all appearance, of the great mixture of races. The moun-
tain region of Abyssinia is said likewise to present a seem-
ingly heterogeneous population ; but in all the countries
which I have myself visited, the varieties of feature have ap-
peared susceptible of reduction to the arrangement adopted
in the present work.
I haye seen in all eleven races of men; and though I am
hardly prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, I con-
fess, after having visited so many different parts of the globe,
that I am at a loss where to look for others. They may be
enumerated conveniently enough in the order of complexion ;
and, beginning with the lightest, I will add some of the more
obvious distinctive characters.
a. White.
1. Arabian.—The nose prominent, the lips thin, the beard
abundant, and the hair straight or flowing.
2. Abyssinian.—The complexion hardly becoming florid, the
nose prominent, and the hair crisped.
6. Brown.
3. Mongolian—Beardless, with the hair perfectly straight,
and very long.
4. Hottentot—Negro features, and close, woolly hair, and
the stature diminutive.
5. Malay.—F eatures not prominent in the profile, the com-
plexion darker than in the preceding races, and the hair
straight or flowing.
c. Blackish- Brown.
6. Papuan.—Features not prominent in the profile, the
beard abundant, the skin harsh to the touch, and the hair
crisped or frizzled.
_ 7. Negrillo—Apparently beardless, the stature diminutive,
268 On the Enumeration of the Races of Man.
the features approaching those of the Negro, and the hair
woolly.
8. Indian or Telingan.—The features approaching those
of the Arabian, and the hair, in like manner, straight or
flowing.
9. Ethiopian.—The complexion and features intermediate
between those of the Telingan and Negro, and the hair
crisped.
d. Black.
10. Australian. — Negro features, but combined with
straight or flowing hair.
11. Negro.—Close, woolly hair, the nose much flattened,
and the lips very thick.
In an absolute sense, the terms “ white” and “ black,’’ are
both inapplicable to any shade of the human complexion ;
but they are sanctioned by general usage, and there may be
some convenience in retaining the above four general divi-
sions. Two of the races may therefore be designated as
white, three as brown, four as blackish-brown, and two as
black.
Five of the races have the hair straight or flowing ; while
in the others it is more or less crisped, and in two of them it
may with propriety be termed woolly.
Other modes of associating the races may also be men-
tioned. Maritime habits, and the part they appear to have
taken in colonizing the globe, would lead us to separate the
Malay, Negrillo, and Papuan ; or the three islands from the
eight continental races.
Again, looking to their distribution over the surface of the
globe, six of the races may be regarded as Asiatic or East
Indian, and four as African ; the eleventh (the White race)
being in common, or holding geographically an intermediate
position.
The existence of races, it should be observed, is a pheno-
mena independent of climate. All the physical races that
occur in cold regions can be traced by continuity to the
tropics, where, moreover, we find other races in addition.
By the same evidence of geographical continuity, the popu-
lation of one hemisphere can be satisfactorily derived from
Rev. W. Hodgson’s Description of the Chronoscope. 269
the other; but a difficulty arises in narrowing the circle.
On the one hand, it seems quite impossible to trace the
four African races to any part of Asia; and, on the other,
it will be equally difficult to connect the Mongolian race
with the African continent.
Description of the Chronoscope, an instrument proposed for
jinding the Time by Observation, and thence deducing the
Latitude and Longitude of the place of the Observer. By
the Rev. W. Hopeson, Old Brathay, Ambleside. Com-
municated by the Author.
Srr,—As the importance of ascertaining correct time is
generally acknowledged by both scientific and practical men,
probably little apology is necessary for introducing to your
readers some particulars relative to a simple double-altitude
and meridian-instrument, which will accomplish that object
without requiring either the latitude or longitude of the place
of observation, or any graduated circle, or any assistance
from any observatory, or anything beyond a plumb-line and
a watch of uniform rate.
The instrument is susceptible of several different forms.
Of these, perhaps, the most commodious may be described as
a right rhombic parallelopiped of glass, formed by a pair of
equilateral triangular prisms, with two of their faces in con-
tact, and with their axes parallel to each other. The brass
frame, on which the prisms are mounted, covers about one-
third of each of their faces at the parts where they are in
contact, 7. e., at the greater angles of the rhomb, and is
fitted (either in the same way as the reflector of an ordinary
microscope, or by some other similar plan) so as to allow the
instrument to be moved at pleasure on either of two planes,
which are perpendicular to each other. These planes being
respectively parallel and perpendicular to those faces of the
prisms which are in contact.
If the instrument thus described be clamped to a post-foot or
270 Rev. W. Hodgson’s Description of the Chronoscope.
support (by means of a screw bearing upon one of its axes,)
in such a position that all the edges of the prisms are parallel
to the horizon (an adjustment which is readily made by ob-
servations on a plumb-line) and so that the plane, passing
through the faces of the prisms which are in contact, is in-
clined to the horizon at any angle which is a few degrees
less than the sun’s meridian altitude, then, by moving the
instrument upon that axis which is not clamped, two images
of the sun may be seen, by looking towards that body through
either of the prisms, to approach, coincide, and separate, at
certain instants before noon ; and again, at corresponding in-
stants after noon, to approach, coincide, and separate, as be-
fore. By observing the times at which these phenomena
occur, and taking the semi-sum of the intervals between the
corresponding pairs of observations, or a mean deduced from
the whole six observations (correcting, if necessary, for the
change of declination) the ¢rwe apparent noon is at once de-
termined. By repeating this process on successive days, the
rate of the watch may be ascertained and corrected.
When the time is thus found, the instrument, at any suc-
ceeding noon, may be permanently fixed with the plane pass-
ing through those faces of the prisms which are in contact,
perpendicular to the horizon, and with the two solar images
in accurate coincidence. In this position, the instrument
affords the means of observing with accuracy the passage of
the sun across the plane of the meridian on any future occa-
sion when that luminary is visible at the time. The passage
of the moon also across the meridian may be similarly ob-
served, and from thence the longitude of the place, if un-
known, may be computed.
If the time of the true apparent noon is supposed to be
known, and the instrument is required only to keep the true
time deduced from some other source, the two axes above
mentioned may both be dispensed with, and it will be suffi-
cient to place the edges of the prisms so as to be perpendi-
cular to the horizon, and to have the two solar images seen —
in exact coincidence at the instant of true apparent noon.
If the prisms, instead of being placed in close contact, are’
separated by a narrow strip of thin sheet-metal placed be-
Rev. W. Hodgson’s Description of the Chronoscope. 27)
tween their edges at one angle of the rhomb, the number of
transits is increased from one to four or even five; thus af-
fording five pairs of observations for altitudes, or, counting
first and last contacts, as many as twenty observations in
all.
If the axes, about which the instrument is moveable, are
fitted with graduated circles and verniers, it becomes capable
of measuring angles in a vertical, horizontal, or any other
plane, between any objects which are sufficiently bright to be
seen after three reflections: or if the rhomb is fitted perpen-
dicularly upon the circumference of a graduated circle, which
is moveable in a plane parallel to the equator, it becomes an
accurate solar clock, which will give the true apparent time at
any hour when the sun is visible.
The principles employed are similar to, but not identical
with, those of several well-known instruments. In the ordi-
nary way of using the sextant or reflecting circle, the incli-
nation of the planes passing through two objects is found by
bringing one of the objects, seen without any reflection, to
coincide with an image of the other produced by two reflec-
tions. When these instruments are used with the artificial
horizon for measuring altitudes, in the one case, the unre-
flected object is brought to coincide with an image of the
other produced by ¢hree reflections; and in the other case,
_ “the plane in which the body is, is determined by three re-
flecting planes combined” in a manner “ whereby they are
used as one single and double reflector.’ The principle thus
last stated, has been very ingeniously employed by the inven-
_ tor of the dipleidescope, but it is obvious that, before the pro-
_ duction of that instrument, the principle itself had been in al-
- most constant use. In order, however, to effect the end aimed
at by the dipleidescope or by the sextant and artificial horizon,
it is not necessary to restrict the comparison to the two cases
of (1.) the object and the trebly-reflected image ; and (2.), the
singly and doubly reflected images: for the same purpose is an-
swered by bringing into coincidence with the object, or with
its image produced by 2, 4, 6, &c., 2 », reflections, any of its
images produced by 1, 3, 5, 7, &e., 2 + 1 reflections. In
7
272 Rev. W. Hodgson’s Description of the Chronoscope.
the instrument described in this paper, the planes are so ar-
ranged that an image produced by ¢hree internal reflections,
is brought to coincide with an image arising from éwo such
reflections ; and when good flint-glass prisms are used, the
loss of light is much less than would be imagined by those
who are not practically familiar with the phenomena of inter-
nal reflection. The image of three reflections may also, in
this instrument, be compared with the unreflected object, but
then, in order to secure exact coincidence of the image and
object, the instrument requires to be placed (as is necessary
for the sextant, reflecting circle, and dipleidescope) in such a
manner, that the rays of light are incident upon the reflectors
in a plane perpendicular to their intersection. With the
images arising from two and three reflections this is not es-
sential; for as parallel rays, incident upon the prisms, are
symmetrically reflected and refracted, they emerge parallel
to each other even at great obliquities, and are free from
chromatic confusion.
In the case above referred to, in which the faces of the
prisms, instead of being placed in contact, are inclined to
each other at a small angle, if the instrument is fixed so that
any coincidence of the solar images occurs when the sun’s
centre is on the meridian, the azimuths of the other planes in
which this phenomenon takes place may be easily found ; and
from these, the sun’s declination and the observed time of his
passing any one or more of these planes, the /atitude of the
place may be readily computed.
In default of a more appropriate name for this simple in-
strument for finding the time of observation, and thence de-
ducing the latitude and longitude of the place of the observer,
the term CHRONOSCOPE is suggested by the inventor, who has
the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM Hopeson.
~~ a
(come)
A Description of two additional Crania of the Engé-ena (T'ro-
_glodytes gorilla, Savage), a second and gigantic African
species of a Man-like Ape, from Gaboon, Africa. By Jur-
FRIES WYMAN, M.D.*
The evidence now existing of a second and gigantic African
species of man-like ape, as appears from published reports,
consists of the following remains :—1. Four crania in the
United States, two males and two females ; of a large portion
of a male skeleton; and of the pelvis, and of some of the
-bones, of afemale. These were the first remains of this ani-
mal which had been brought to the notice of naturalists, and
were described in the Boston Journal of Natural History.t
2. Three other crania subsequently discovered, exist in Eng-
land, and have been made the subject of an elaborate memoir
by Professor Owen, in the Transactions of the Zoological So-
ciety of London.t 3. Quite recently, Dr George A. Perkins,
for many years an able and devoted labourer in the mission-
ary enterprise at Cape Palmas, West Africa, has brought to
the United States, two additional crania, one of which is de-
posited in the Museum of this Society, and the other in that
of the Essex Institute in Salem. Both of these have been
referred to me for the purpose of description, and it is the
object of this communication, to notice the more important
anatomical features of this, the largest of African Quadru-
mana, with regard to which additional information is desired.
Cranium 1.—Male.—This belonged to an adult Enge-ena,§
as is evident from the fact, that the teeth are all perfectly
* Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 30, 1849.
t See Proceedings of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., August 18, 1847; also a
Description of Characters and Habits of Troglodytes gorilla, by Thomas 8.
"Savage, M.A., Corresp, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. ; and of the Osteology of the
same, by Jeffries Wyman, M.D., Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., vol. v., p. 417, 1847.
t Osteological contributions to the Natural History of the Chimpanzees (7'ro-
glodytes, Geoff.), including the description of the skull of a large species (7.
gorilla, Savage), discovered by Thomas §. Savage, M.D., in the Gaboon country,
West Africa; by Professor Owen, F.R.S., F.Z.5., &e. Read, Feb. 22, 1848.
Trans. Zoolog. Society of London, vol. iti. p. 381, 1849,
§ Professor Owen designates 7, gorilla as the “ Great Chimpanzée.” The
Mponges (natives inhabiting the banks of the Gaboon), call this species the
Engé-ena, a more desirable name, as the term Chimpanzée has been always as-
sociated with the black or smaller species.
VOL, XLVI. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850. s
274 Description of two additional Crania of the
developed ; yet not to an old one, as appears from the cir-
cumstances, that the points of the molars are but very slightly
worn, and the crests on the top of the head and occiput, are
but imperfectly formed. Its size, as well as that of all the
other crania of this species which have been measured, when ;
compared with that of T. niger (Chimpanzée), and a well-
marked Negro head, may be learned from an inspection of R
the following table.
Tasre I.—Measwrements of the Orania of T. gorilla, of T. Niger, and i
of the Cranium of a native African, in inches and tenths. Nos.
2, 6, 7, and 8, are in inches and lines. ;
* Troglodytes gorilla. T. niger.
Males. Females. |Male./Female.
:
Man, :
f
id
Lee) Ou 00 fev. | ¥.- | V1) Mae Pee
Length of head from oc-
ciput to edge of incisive
alveolus
11:2} 11°4 |11:0 |10°2| 9°10) 9-0} 8-0} 7:9 | 9-6
Greatest breadth across
post-auditory ridges
Smallest diameter behind
orbits .
Diameter of Pree: across
zygomatic arches
Diameter of face oo
6:1) 6:10) 64] 5:9) 5:2 | 56] 5:0) 4:6 | 5-4
2:5) 3:3 | 2:9) 2°7/ 2:5 | 2-4] 26] 2:8 | 3-4
6°5| 66 | 7:0] 6-4/5°5 | 5°3| 50) 4:8 |.5-7
of the middle of the or- 49| 60 | 5:8] 57/43 | 48) 43] 4:0 | 4:9
bits
From occiput to most pro-
minent part of supra-}| 7°3| ... | 7°6| 65/65 | 61| 5:4} 5:3 | 7-2
orbitar ridge
From supra-orbitar ridge
to edge of incisive al- }| 4:8 D7) GO) ope) os. 4:0 |= aed SS
veolus
Breadth of zygomatic fossa M7} eB Oy ES Tea a5 eS ae een
Inter-orbitar space SY Es OWS [0:24 Del L-Oh Usd) 0:8) enOie de?
Transverse diameter mt 9/18! 1-6/141]216!/ 2:5] 16 | 16
orbits . “ 5
Vertical ‘ 1:6) 1:7 | 1-6} 2:6) 1:4 197 11-3) Paes aes
Length of bony palate
from outer edge of in| ST | PASE Ne, MASS 4 BSN cae Sa 17
| cisive alveolus. 2
From anterior edge of fo-
ramen gun oe 7:2 7-4| 3-5
edge of incisive alveolus
Crania I. and V. were the ones brought by Dr Savage to this country ;
IL, VI., Vil. and VIIL., are the crania described by Professor Owen ; III. and
IV. are the crania which were obtained by Dr Perkins ; IX. the cranium of a
Negro born in Africa, in whom the characteristics of the race were well
marked, and which belongs to the Cabinet of the Boston Society for Medical
Improvement. (See Catalogue of Society’s Cabinet, Specimen No. 61.)
Engé-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 275
This cranium does not agree with that figured by Professor
Owen in his Memoir (Plate LXI.), in the exclusion of the orbits
from view, by the prominent malar bones, when the skull is
seen in profile, but as was the case in those discovered by
Dr Savage, the nasal bones are wholly, and the orbit in part
brought into view. In none of them is it more excluded
than in the first figures of our Memoir. The great ridges
above the orbits, which are so widely developed in 7. niger,
are still more so in the present species, and in the specimen
now under consideration, sustain the former statements, with
regard to them. Professor Owen remarks, in connection
with them—*“ The prominence of the whole supra-orbitar
ridge, reaches its maximum in the present species, and forms
the most marked distinction in the comparison of its skull
with that of Man.’””—(Memoir, p. 405.)
Sutures.—I have shewn in a former communication, from
an examination of several crania of the Chimpanzée, that
nearly all the sutures are completely obliterated early, dur-
ing the adult period.* From a careful examination of the
six crania of the Engé-ena to which I have had access, there
is every reason to believe that an early coossification takes
place in them also. In the skull now under consideration,
which, it is to be remembered, has not long passed the adult
period, the frontal, the sagittal, the coronal, the squamous
portion of the temporal sutures, all those in the temporal
fossa, as well as the transverse portion of the lambdoidal, are
no longer persistent. The crania which have been examined
_ by Professor Owen, or some of them at least, indicate an op-
posite state of things. To ascertain, therefore, the value of
cranial sutures as specific signs, it is quite obvious, that a
large number crania of different ages must be critically ex-
amined.
Intermaxillaries.—These bones, so important as zoological
indications, are completely coossified with the maxillaries,
and with each other. No indication of a suture exists between
and the last-mentioned bones, either on the external surface
below the nasal openings, or in the roof of the mouth. I was
* Boston Journal of Natural History, April 1843.
276 Description of two additional Crania of the
not able to find any indications of the ascending portion of
the intermaxillary bone, which articulates with the nasals,
until led by Professor Owen’s description to make a more
careful search. Although, externally, there was no mark
which would lead an anatomist to infer its existence, yet
within the nasal cavity, at a short distance from its margin,
the edge of the process was easily detected, it not having be-
come coossified in that region with the adjoining bone.
The extension of the intermaxillary upwards, as far as the
ossa nasi, so as to form the lateral walls of the external nasal
orifice, aS was indicated in a specimen of Chimpanzée, exa-
mined by Professor Owen, is still obvious in a young skull of
the same species in my possession, where it reaches the
nasals by a slender and pointed process. The enlargement
of this process in the Engé-ena,* so as to form an extensive
articulation with the nasal bones, inasmuch as it is a repeti-
tion of what exists in the lower quadrumana, and nearly all
the mammalia, must be regarded as an index of degradation.
Ossa Nasi.—Professor Owen, in his Memoirt on the Enge-
ena, in speaking of the sutures between the nasal maxillary
and intermaxillary bones, says, ‘‘ It is remarkable, indeed,
since these sutures remain so distinct in the adult female
skull, and the two adult male skulls, in the Bristol Museum,
that no trace of them should have been detected in either of
the four skulls taken to America by Dr Savage, in which the
ossa nasi are described as being firmly coossified with each
other, and the surrounding bones” (the concluding words of
the above sentence he does not quote, viz., ‘‘ but their out-
line is sufficiently distinct’’). In the cranium brought by Dr
Perkins, the consolidation of these bones is equally complete,
and their‘outline is but indistinctly traceable.
In the crania formerly described, the ossa nasi form, on
the median line, a sharp elevation or crest ; in the specimen
figured by Professor Owen, (Plate LXII.), this is represented
by a more rounded and convex ridge, and, thus offering a
feature of approximation to the human structure, which is
* This is very distinctly shewn in Pl, UXII. of Professor Owen’s Memoir,
t Op.-Cit.,_..420.
Enge-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 277
very faintly indicated, if at all, in the skull of the 7. niger.*
In the cranium now under consideration, when compared with
the Plate above referred to, the convexity is still more re-
markable, and will bear a more favourable comparison, with
the “ bridge” of the nose in some of the human races.
The expansion of the nasals above, where they are inter-
posed between the frontals, as described by Professor Owen,
was overlooked in my former description, only very faint in-
dications of sutures remaining. On a more careful examina-
tion, the outline of the portion of bone interposed between
the orbitar process of the frontals is indistinctly traceable in
the male skull discovered by Dr Savage, and in both of the
crania brought to this country by Dr Perkins ; and in all of
them, on a line with the upper extremity of the ascending
process of the superior maxillary bone, at the point where the
nasal bones become the most contracted, there exists an
equally strong indication of a transverse suture, which sepa-
rates the portion marked 15 in Professor Owen’s figure from
the true nasals ; and equally distinct indications of this suture
exist in his figure just referred to. Thus we have strong
ground for the supposition that the part marked 15 by Pro-
fessor Owen may not be the expanded portion of the nasals
but an additional osseous element intercalated between the
frontals. In this event, my original description of the ossa
nasi, “ as having a more triangular form than in the Chim-
-panzée, the apex being more acute,” still holds good. If,
however, the bone referred to prove to be a portion of the
_nasals, we shall have in this another index of the inferiority
to the Chimpanzée, as it is a repetition of what is met with
in the lower quadrumana.
__ Teeth—The molars alone remain, the incisors and canines
having been lost. The length of the grinding surface of the
molar teeth is 2-9 inches, the two rows being nearly parallel
to each other. This is true of the alveoli, though the crowns
slightly diverge from each other posteriorly, in consequence
“of an inclination outwards. Nearly all of the cusps of the
teeth are perfect, those of the first molar being the most
worn, as would naturally be appeeten it win the first which
Op. Cit., p. 393.
278 Description of two additional Crania of the
is protruded. The inner cusps of this tooth are worn nearly
to the base ; the outer are but slightly abraded, and the same
is the case with the inner cusps of the second molar; with
these exceptions, the points of the different crowns of the
molars and premolars are entire.
In comparing their grinding surface with that of the human
jaw, one cannot but be struck with its greater extent, with
the much greater development of the outer row of cusps, and
the high ridge which, on all three of the molars, connects the
outer row of cusps with the anterior inner cusp. In these
respects, as well as in having the third molar, or the ‘“* dentes
Sapientiz’’ of equal size with the others, the Engé-ena re-
cedes from the Chimpanzée, and still farther from Man.
In the left upper jaw, and on the level with the lower ex-
tremity, or the pterygoid process, a supernumerary molar ex-
isted, still buried in its bony cavity, the roots not having as
yet been developed. In the configuration of its grinding sur-
face it did not conform with either of the other teeth.
Bony Palate.—By reference to the table of measurements,
it will be seen that the space between the incisive alveoli,
and the edge of the hard palate is much greater proportionally
than in the Chimpanzée. The median suture has disappeared,
and only slight indications remain of a former suture between
the maxillaries and the ossa palati. The emargination on
the middle of the edge of the palate is much less distinct than
in either of the other specimens which I have examined, or
than in that figured by Professor Owen.
The Vomer has the same thin and delicate structure as in
the other crania, and does not meet the ossa palati at the pos-
terior edge.
Cranial capacity.—In studying the anatomical characters
of this and the allied quadrumana, with reference to their
zoological position, nothing can be more desirable than to
have accurate knowledge with regard to the structure and
dimensions of the brain, for this may be regarded as one of
the most important of all the tests of elevation or degrada-
tion. The bodies of the adult anthropoid animals so seldom
fall into the hands of the anatomist, that it becomes ex-
tremely difficult to accumulate observations on the actual
Engé-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 279
condition of this organ. In the comparative study of human
crania, with reference to national peculiarities, much light
has been derived from accurate measurements of their internal
capacity. These may be readily obtained, and form a very
important substitute for the actual dimensions of the brain
itself. In the subjoined tables, I have given the results of
the measurements of all the crania, both of the Enge-enas
and Chimpanzees, to which I have had access while writing
these remarks ; and as they have been repeated in each case
several times over, they may be regarded as nearly accurate.
The capacity of the third cranium is alone doubtful ; a por-
tion of the occiput having been destroyed, rendered exact
measurement impracticable, though it is believed that the re-
sult can differ but little from the truth.
~laBLe I1.—Cranial capacity of Adult Engé-enas.
Cubie Inches.
1. Male, from Dr Perkins . F ; : 34:5
2. Male, from Dr Savage. : : : 28°3
8. Male, from Dr Perkins . 3 ‘ : 28°02
4, Female, from Dr Savage . c : : 25-0
Mean of the four crania . ¢ : x 28°92
Taste IIl.—Cranial capacity of Adult Chimpanzees.
Cubic Inches.
1. Female . : u F : s 4 26:0
2. Female . t 4 ; ‘ : ; 24:0
3. Female . : 5 : : : F 22°0
Mean capacity of three skulls. ; : 24:0
Cranial capacity of Young Chimpanzees.
4. First dentition complete . “ 20'0
5. First dentition complete, but the wei obli-
terated to a less extent than in the preceding 18:0
The above results clearly indicate that there exists a wide
range in the cranial capacity of the Engé-enas, amounting to
nine cubic inches, when both sexes are included in the obser-
-yation. While it would be desirable to have the measure-
‘ments of a much larger number, we still have evidence for
280 Description of two additional Crania of the
concluding, that in the Engé-ena, as in Man,* the capacity of
the cranium of the male is larger than that of the female ;
the smallest male skull of the Engé-ena measuring twenty-
eight cubic inches, and the female only twenty-five cubic
inches.
In Table IIL., the three adults are females, and it is quite
worthy of notice, that the internal capacity of these differs so
little from that of the female Engé-ena, while at the same
time, the body of the Chimpanzée is so much smaller than
that of the other species. By comparing the measurements
given of the corresponding portions of the skeleton of the
Engé-ena and Chimpanzée, it will be seen that a much wider
difference exists between them, than exists between the dimen-
sions of their respective brains.
It is interesting to contrast the measurement of the cra-
nial capacity of these members of the Quadrumanous group
with that of some of the human races. It results from Dr
Morton’s table, at page 263 of this volume, that the smallest
mean capacity in Man is that derived from Hottentots and
Australians, which equals only 75 cubic inches, while that of
the Teutonic nations amounts to 90 cubic inches. The maxi-
mum capacity of the Engé-ena, is therefore considerably less
than one-half of the mean of the Hottentots and Australians,
who give us the minimum average of the human races.
Cranium 2, Male.—This cranium belonged to an indivi-
dual much older than the one described inthe preceding pages,
the inner row of cusps of all the molars having been worn to
their bases. The same obliteration of the sutures had taken
place, the malar bones are more tumid, rendering the edge of
the lower and outer part of the orbit more rounded. The
floor of the nasal orifice slopes gradually from the anterior
extremity of the vomer to the edge of the incisive alveoli, and
presenting a groove on the median line. In man, the inter-
* « Although many female brains exceed in weight particular male brains, the
general fact is sufficiently shewn, that the adult male encephalon is heavier than
that of the female, the average difference being from 5 to 6 oz,” From the
examination of 278 male brains, and 191 females, “an average weight is de-’
duced of 494 oz. for the male, and 44 oz. for the female.”” Quain and Sharpey’s
Anatomy, edited by Joseph Leidy, M.D., vol. ii., p. 185, Philadelphia, 1849) 60
4
Enge-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 281
maxillary bones form a projecting ridge on the median line,
both in and below the nasal orifice, and at the middle of the
border of this opening form the projecting “ nasal spine,”
which is not met with in any of the lower animals, and is,
therefore, an anatomical character peculiar to man. With re-
gard to this conformation of the intermaxillary bones, the
Engé-ena recedes farther from man than the Chimpanzee.
Two infra-orbitar foramina exist on each side. The crests
are not so well developed as in the cranium just described.
The occiput having been in part destroyed, the cavity of the
cranium is completely exposed. A groove for the lodgement
of the longitudinal sinus is well defined; “ digital impres-
sions,’ formed by the cerebral convolutions, exist, but not
well marked, the crista-galli is merely rudimentary, and is
represented by a very slight median ridge, the olfactory fossa
is quite deep, the cribriform plate being on a level with the
middle of the orbit; about five parallel grooves for the
lodgement of the branches of the dura matral artery exist on
each side.
Zoological position of the Engé-ena.
With the knowledge of the anthropoid animals of Asia and
Africa which now exist, derived from the critical examina-
tions of their osteology, their dentition, and the comparative
size of their brains, by various observers, especially Geoffroy,
Tiedemann, Vrolik, Cuvier, and Owen, it becomes quite easy
to measure, with an approximation to accuracy, the hiatus
which separates them from the lowest of the human race.
The existence of four hands instead of two, the inability to
stand erect, consequent on the structure of askeleton adapted
almost exclusively to an arboreal life, the excessive length of
the arms, the comparatively short and permanently flexed
legs, the protruding face, the position of the occipital con-
dyles in the posterior third of the base of the skull, and the
consequent preponderance of the head forwards, the small
comparative size of the brain, the largely-developed canines,
the interval between these last and the incisors, the three
_ roots to the bicusped teeth, the laryngeal pouches, the elon-
gated pelvis, and its larger antero-posterior diameter, the
282 Description of two additional Crania of the
flattened and pointed coccyx, the small glutzi, the smaller
size of the lower compared with the upper portion of the ver-
tebral column, the long and straight spinous processes of the
neck,—these, and many other subordinate characters, are pe-
culiarities of the anthropoid animals, and constitute a wide
gap between these and the most degraded of the human races,
so wide that the greatest difference between these last and
the noblest specimen of a Caucasian, is inconsiderable in com-
parison.
Whilst it is thus easy to demonstrate the wide separation
between the anthropoid and the human races, to assign a
true position to the former among themselves is a more difh-
cult task. Mr Owen, in his earlier Memoir, regarded the
T. niger as making the nearest approach to Man, but the
more recently discovered 7. gorilla, he is now induced to be-
lieve approaches still nearer, and regards it as “ the most
anthropoid of the known brutes.”’* This inference is derived
from the study of crania alone, without any reference to the
rest of the skeleton.
After a careful examination of the Memoir just referred to,
I am forced to the conclusion, that the preponderance of evi-
dence is unequivocally opposed to the opinion there recorded ;
and, after placing side by side the different anatomical pecu-
liarities of the two species, there seems to be no alternative
but to regard the Chimpanzée as holding the highest place
in the brute creation. The more anthropoid characters of
the JT. gorilla which are referred to by Professor Owen, are
the following—
1. ‘* The coalesced central margins of the nasals are pro-
jected forwards, thus offering a feature of approximation to
the human structure, which is very faintly indicated, if at all,
in 7. néger.’+ This statement is applicable to all the crania
which I have seen, and especially to the two crania described
in this paper. Nevertheless, the extension of the nasals
between the frontals, or the existence of an additional osse-
ous element, is a mark of greater deviation from Man.
2. “* The inferior or alveolar part of the premaxillaries, on
* Op. Cit., Vol. iii., p. 414. f P: S983
Enge-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 283
the other hand, is shorter and less prominent in 7. gorilla
than in 7. niger, and, in that respect, the larger species de-
viates less from Man.’’** The statement in the first portion
of this sentence is certainly correct, but a question maybe
fairly raised on that in the second. The lower portion of the
nasal opening in the Engé-ena is so much depressed, espe-
cially in the median line, that the intermaxillary bone be-
comes almost horizontal, and the sloping of the alveolar por-
tion takes place so gradually, that it is difficult to determine
where the latter commences, and‘ the nasal opening termi-
nates, and in this respect, it deviates much farther from man
than T. niger.
3. “ The next character, which is also a more anthropoid
one, though explicable in relation to the greater weight of the
skull to be poised on the atlas, is the greater prominence of
the mastoid processes in the T. gorilla, which are represented
only by a rough ridge in the 7. niger.”’+
4. The ridge which extends from the ecto-pterygoid along
the inner border of the foramen ovale, terminatesin 7. gorilla
by an angle or process answering to that called “‘ styliform” or
‘“‘ spinous” in Man, but of which there is no trace in 7’. niger.t
5. * The palate is narrower in proportion to the length in
the T. gorilla, but the premaxillary portion is relatively longer
in T. niger.’ § j
These constitute the most important, if not the only, cha-
racters given in Professor Owen’s Memoir, which would seem
to indicate that the Engé-ena is more anthropoid than the
Chimpanzée, and some of these, it is seen, must be received
with some qualification.
Tf, on the other hand, we enumerate those conditions in
which the Engé-ena recedes farther from the human type
than the Chimpanzée, they will be found far more numerous,
and by no means less important. The larger ridge over the
eyes, and the crest on the top of the head and occiput, with
the corresponding development of the temporal muscles, form
the most striking features. The intermaxillary bones articu-
lating with the nasals, as in the other Quadrumana and most
* P. 39. t Op. Cit., p. 394. t P. 395. § Lbid.
284 Description of two additional Crania of the
brutes, the expanded portion of the nasals between the
frontal,—or an additional osseous element, if this prove an
independent bone,—the vertically broader and more arched
zygomata, contrasting with the more slender and horizontal
ones of the Chimpanzée, the more quadrate foramen lacerum
of the orbit, the less perfect infra-orbitar canal, the orbits less
distinctly defined, the larger and more tumid cheek-bones,
the more quadrangular orifice with its depressed floor, the
greater length of the ossa palati, the more widely-expanded
tympanic cells, extending not only to the mastoid process,
but to the squamous portion of the temporal bones,—these
would of themselves be sufficient to counterbalance all the
anatomical characters stated by Professor Owen, in support
of the more anthropoid character of the Engé-ena.
When, however, we add to them the more quadrate outline
of the upper jaws, the existence of much larger and more
deeply-grooved canines, molars with cusps on the outer side,
longer and more sharply pointed, the dentes sapientiz of
equal size with the other molars, the prominent ridge be-
tween the outer posterior and the anterior inner cusps, the
absence of a crista-galli, a cranial cavity almost wholly be-
hind the orbits of the eyes, the less perfectly marked depres-
sions for the cerebral convolutions, and above all, the small
cranial capacity in proportion to the size of the body, no
reasonable ground for doubt remains, that the Engé-ena oe-
cupies a lower position, and consequently recedes farther
from Man than the Chimpanzée.
It does not appear that any other bones of the skeleton
have as yet fallen into the hands of any European naturalist.
A description of some of the more important of them will be
found in the Memoir above referred to,* in which it will be
seen that there are two anthropoid features of some import-
ance, which go to support the view advanced by Professor
Owen, and these are the comparative length of the humerus
and ulna, the former being seventeen, and the latter only
fourteen inches, and in the proportions of the pelvis. This last
is of gigantic size, and is a little shorter in proportion to its
breadth than in 7. niger. prime.
* Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. v., p. 417.
Rn a
Engé-ena, from Gaboon, Africa. 285
While the proportions of the humerus and the ulna are
more nearly human than in the Chimpanzée, those of the hu-
merus and femur recede much farther from the human pro-
portions than they do in the Chimpanzée, as will be seen by
the following measurements—
Humerus. Femur.
Man, . . : ; 15:0 18°5
Chimpanzée,_ . : 4 10°9 11°0
Engé-ena, . : : 17:0 14:0
Thus, in Man the femur is three inches longer than the
humerus ; in the Chimpanzée, these bones are nearly of the
same length ; and in the Enge-ena, the humerus is three inches
longer than the femur, indicating on the part of the Engé-ena
a less perfect adaptation to locomotion in the erect position,
than in the Chimpanzée.
Description of a Canine Tooth of a Male Engé-ena.—In only
one of the crania of the male Engé-ena which I have seen
were the canines remaining ; and these were so much abraded
that they had lost, to a great extent, their natural outline,
and, consequently, their most striking and distinctive marks.
In the females, as in the Chimpanzee and the Quadrumana,
generally, the canines are much less elongated than in the
males. Among the bones first sent to this country by Dr
Savage, was a canine tooth, which I was not able to identify,
until an opportunity occurred of comparing it with Professor
Owen’s descriptions of more perfect teeth. The crown is
laterally compressed, the posterior edge being trenchant, and
its base provided with a prominent tubercle, which is doubt-
less rendered more conspicuous by the wearing of the edge
‘beneath it. On its inner surface the crown is impressed with
two strongly marked grooves, which extend from the base
nearly to its apex; and include between them a prominent
rounded ridge. The following table gives the comparative
measurements of two canines from the upper jaw of the Engé-
‘ena, and one from that of the Chimpanzée. The figures
in the first column relate to the tooth described above ; those
in the second and third to the measurements given by Pro-
fessor Owen,* the measurements being in inches and lines.
* Trans. Zoolog. Soc. London, vol. iii., p, 395.
286 Agriculture and Chemistry.
T. gorilla. T. niger.
3 —_—__—_——__
Length, : : 2°38 2°8 2:0
Length of Crown, 5 1:33 «1-3 0°10}
Breadth of Base, ; 1:0 0-10 0-7
Thickness of do., ; 0-72. 0°73 0°53
The following note from Dr G. A. Perkins to the author,
dated Salem, October 15, 1849, confirms the statements made
by Dr Savage, in his description of the habits of the Engé-
ena, as to its ferocity, and the fact of its attacking human
beings.
« The two crania were received from a person on board a
vessel trading in the Gaboon and Danger Rivers, W. Africa.
They were obtained from the natives on the banks of the lat-
ter, by whom they had been preserved as trophies. From
the gentleman who gave them to me, I learned that the kill-
ing of one of these animals was by no means a common
occurrence. He describes the animal as being remarkably
ferocious, even attacking the natives when found alone in the
forests, and in one instance which fell under his observation,
horribly mutilating a man who was out in the woods felling
trees to burn. His shouts brought to his aid several other
natives, who, after a severe contest, succeeded in killing the
Engé-ena. The man was afterwards in the habit of exhibit-
ing himself to foreigners who visited the river, and of receiv-
ing charity from them.”—(American Journal of Science and
Arts, Vol. ix., No. 25, p. 34, Jan. 1850.)
Agriculture and Chemistry.
[The following observations on the bearing of Chemistry
on Agriculture, although in opposition to prevalent opinions
on the subject, yet, being from the highest British authority.
cannot fail to interest agriculturists and chemists. } ;
No one should be taught to undervalue the services which
the sciences may render to agriculture and all the arts. In
the history of the arts there are two periods, in one of which
results only are regarded, and common experience depended
Agriculture and Chemistry. 287
upon ; another, in which principles are investigated and re-
sults explained, and the resources of one branch of know-
ledge made to contribute to the advancement of another.
This is the period in which science, properly so called, is
brought to improve the arts; and this is the period in which
the arts are enabled to achieve their most memorable
triumphs. Past generations, as well as we, could strip. the
flax of its fibres, and the cotton seeds of their covering, and
weave them into raiment; but it was reserved for mechani-
cal science to construct for these ends machines, so beautiful
and wonderful, that they seem instinct with life. And have
we not ourselves lived to witness inventions that may be
termed the triumph of knowledge; and these continually
multiplying, each discovery giving rise to a train of others ?
This is the result of science applied to the arts; and can we
suppose that agriculture can be exempt from the like ana-
logy, and fail to profit by the means by which so many other
arts have been perfected? We should distrust the whole
history of inventions, if we should come to such a conclusion.
Agriculture has, indeed, peculiarities which modify, in man-
ner and degree, the means by which the sciences can be made
to react upon it. Being the first and most necessary of the
arts, it was, we may suppose, the earliest cultivated, and has
been the longest pursued, and so perhaps sooner brought to
a certain degree of perfection than many others. From this
cause, it seems to have been brought very early to a condi-
tion which even now we may wonder at. The Roman agri-
culture, as we know from authorities that have come down
to us,—the Catos, the Virgils, the Columellas, the Plinys,—
of former ages, was not inferior to that of the finest parts of
_ modern Italy, and superior, certainly, to that of many parts of
the British islands at the present day. The state of the same
art in the countries of the East, where the habits of men do
not change from age to age, as in the great empire of China,
where scarcely anything that can bear the name of science
is cultivated, evinces to us that agriculture had, like the
_ sister art of gardening, been brought to a degree of excel-
_ lence before the sciences, properly so called, had been applied
to the investigation of principles. The use of the plough,
288 Agriculture and Chemistry.
the harrow, the spade, and the hoe, were known from the
earliest times, and to every people emerged from barbarism.
Our Roman instructors had really left us less to learn than
many persons are aware of. They were familiar with the
use and preparation of the most useful manures, whether mi-
neral or derived from plants and animals; with the practice
of sowing the cultivated crops in rows, and hoeing them
during their growth, which many suppose to be a modern
discovery ; with the suitable modes of cultivating the plants
yet most generally grown, with the exception of rice, which
was derived from the countries of the East, and of maize,
which has been derived from the New World. They were ac-
quainted with the order in which the cultivated plants should
follow one another on the same ground, which we call the ro-
tation of crops; with the modes of preparing the summer fal-
low, and the green or fallow crops ; with draining, irrigating,
and other branches of rural labour. Or if we shall go farther
back still, long ere the City of the Seven Hills had even a
name, we shall find that the most necessary labours of the
field were known and practised. In the ruined monuments
of Egypt, we see, as fresh as if they were sculptured yester-
day, the labours of rural life depicted to us. Agriculture
being thus early pursued, it has probably left less for science
to add to truths before known than almost any of the other
useful arts. But let us not draw, from this fact, conclusions
which the history of the arts themselves does not warrant.
If the origin of agriculture was in the rudest school of prac-
tice, and if its subsequent advances have been made by mere
additions to experience acquired, it may not the less be that
its ultimate triumph shall be due to science.
Of the sciences, Chemistry seems to be that which has the —
most immediate relation to Agriculture. The nature of the
soil, its composition and properties, and the relations be-
tween it and the plants which it produces ; and the composi-
tion of manures, and their modes of action, and the best
means of using them; seem to bring agriculture in an espe-
cial manner within the domain of chemical research. Fur-
ther, chemistry has been applied with the happiest results to
numerous arts, as to that of the metallurgist, the dyer, the
Agriculture and Chemistry. 289
bleacher, and others ; and it were hard to be believed that
chemistry, which has improved so many arts, can not be
without benefit to that which is employed in cultivating the
earth for food.
Chemists, however, it is to be regretted, set forth with
more pretensions than their own knowledge of agriculture it-
self justified ; and did not seem to be sufficiently aware of the
difference between the processes of the laboratory and those
of the field, and of the conditions and limitations under which
conclusions from the results of the one must be applied to
the practice of the other. They made an ample number of
mistakes, and held out to the farmer an ample number of
expectations, which could not be realised. The first book on
the subject which attracted much attention in our country
was the excellent one of Sir Humphrey Davy, which was re-
ceived with the favour due to its illustrious author, the no-
velty of the researches, and the importance of the subject to
which they related. Agricultural chemistry, however, as
it has been since called—and which means simply the
application of chemistry to agriculture, and not a peculiar
kind of chemistry, as if we should speak of cast-iron chemis-
try, or calico-printing chemistry—was chiefly derived from
Germany, where it had been received with extraordinary
favour, and prosecuted. with great zeal, so that now there is
_ scarcely a German university in which there is not a profes-
sor for the purpose of teaching the application of chemistry
to agriculture. Books and innumerable memoirs on the sub-
_ ject have issued: from the ever-teeming press of that country ;
and if we are compelled to say that much has not yet been
done to make the agriculturists of Germany better farmers,
we must admit that this has not arisen from the want of
zeal and learning on the part of their instructors. A good
_ many years ago, a distinguished chemist of that country, one
* of the most distinguished indeed of his age—Dr, now, justly
and to the honour of his sovereign, Baron Liebig—published
eh work, which was immediately received with singular fa-
your in this country, where most people were as ignorant of
what had been passing on the subject elsewhere, as if it had
been taking place in the moon. The book was read every-
VOL. XLVII. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850. T
290 Agriculture and Chemistry.
where, and everywhere extolled. The learned German, in-
deed, had a little overrated the state of chemical knowledge
in England; and his work, though perfectly intelligible to
any student of chemistry, was certainly not understood by
nine out of ten of those who read and admired it amongst
ourselves. But it was something new, and from a great
authority ; and the doctrines and discoveries which it pro-
fessed to make known were announced in a tone so bold and
confident, even beyond the ordinary precedents, that it is
not to be wondered at if the country gentlemen and farmers ~
of England believed that a new and golden era was about to
dawn upon them. The learned chemist not only shewed,
that neither the chemists of his own country, nor of any _
other, had understood anything about the matter before, but
rated, in good set terms, the dunderheaded farmers them-
selves for their past ignorance, and gave them to understand
that they had been all along groping like moles in the mud
which they thought they had been cultivating, and had known
nothing at all of what they had been thinking about all their
lives, until chemistry had come to their.assistance. He de-
nounced farmyard muck as being quite unscientific ; eulogised
ammonia to the skies, as the only source of fertility, and
dismissed some other sources of fertility, as existing, not
in the soil, but in the imagination of chemists; and pre-
dicted that the time would come when farmers would get
rid of their cumbrous apparatus of muck-wains, and, in place
of the dirty material itself, would get silicates and phosphates,
which they could manufacture for themselves. The thing
took amazingly, and our honest countrymen were all eager
to become “ scientific farmers.”” Many, we may suppose, ad-
vanced so far as to get hold of some of the words of the lan-
guage, before so strange to them. They could now call the
glauber salts, which their doctors had so often made them
swallow, sulphate of soda; the saltpetre, with which their
cooks had so often powdered their beef, nitrate of potash;
and the salt which entered into all their messes, chloride of
sodium. The learned chemist followed up his victory with
vigour. He announced a grand manure of his own com-
pounding, which, of course, was to supply to the ground the
precise quantity of silicates, phosphates, &c., which the grow-
Agriculture and Chemistry. 291
ing crops took away from it, and so to supersede the lime,
the marl, the bones, the guano, the rape-dust, which farmers
had thought to be pretty good kinds of things, not to speak
of the ill-used muck of former times. The patent was ob-
tained; but, alas for the vanity of human hopes! the patent
manure was laughed at in its own country, and found to be
of little more use in this than the same quantity of sawdust.
It was the fruitful mother, however, of an infinite number of
infallible manures, each to have its day of infallibility, and
then to be forgotten. The trade prospered, and has conti-
nued, though now somewhat on the wane, to the present
time. The farmers had, fortunately for themselves, got
guano in abundance, and which, though no more a chemical
discovery than the muck of their forefathers, was found to
be tolerably efficient for their purpose; and the farmers really
prospered, notwithstanding the frequent failures of the infal-
lible fertilisers presented to them on every hand.
But this was not all: the soil was to be analysed, and no
farmer was to presume to fancy that he could cultivate it
until an agricultural chemist told him what it consisted of.
Analyses of soils accordingly prospered, the farmers received
and paid for the documents, with wonderfully little profit, it
may be believed, to the soils themselves. The Government
of the time was solicited by two great agricultural societies
—one in England and one in Scotland—to make a grant of
money from the then not very thriving Exchequer, for getting
all the soils of the kingdom at once analysed. Government,
it is believed, was rather anxious to oblige so many influen-
tial applicants, and commence the great work of analysing
all the soils of Great Britain. Lord Althorpe, however, then
Chancellor of the Exchequer, resolved, contrary to the usual
precedent, to consult first some persons who might chance to
know something about the matter. He learned that to ana-
lyse a// the soils of the country was a hopeless affair, even
with the help of an army of chemists; that to analyse any
great number of them would probably require a century or
so; that the work would need to be begun again and again,
whenever a soil was changed by improvements made upon
it; that the analysis of a soil was not quite such a simple
292 Agriculture and Chemistry.
matter as a country gentleman supposed it to be; that about
a dozen only which deserved the name of chemical analyses
had as yet been made in all the laboratories of Europe ; that
the great mass of those which had been given to farmers, as
something essential to their practice, were nearly as useless
to them as the same quantity of blotting paper; and, finally,
that Government might safely leave this affair to indivi-
duals, and find fifty better ways of laying out money for the
improvement of agriculture, than analysing all the soils of
the country. Nothing daunted, however, the scientific agri-
culturists of the day resolved that farmers should be taught
to analyse soils for themselves: in England, schools were
established for the purpose; and in Scotland the plan was
so far matured, that it was resolved, that the teachers
of parish schools, in addition to their multitudinous duties,
be made to teach agricultural chemistry to the country boys.
It seems to have been overlooked, that the persons least fitted
to teach agricultural chemistry in the capacious laboratory
of a village schoolroom, would probably be found to be the
schoolmasters, and that there were some ‘such things to be
taught in parish schools, as reading a little, writing a little,
and casting accounts ; not to speak of a little geometry, if time
could be found for it, &c ; that, to acquire any tolerable know-
ledge of such a subject as chemistry, requires a pretty toler-
able proportion of a youth’s time ; and that twenty times the
knowledge of chemical analysis that a country youth could
acquire, at a village school, would not enable him to analyse
a single soil ; and, that, after all this miserable scum of
knowledge has been thrust upon the poor boy, he should be
no better fitted for being a farmer than before. The notion,
in short, that agricultural chemistry was to enable us to reap
golden crops was spread everywhere, nay, to our distressed
colonies. The planters of one of these did me the honour
to consult me about sending out an agricultural chemist, to
help them to cultivate their plantations, and retrieve their —
affairs. It would have been uncourteous to reply, by recom-
mending them to take out an agricultural fiddler, who would
be equally useful and more amusing. To farm scientifically,
ftokd
ig9v &
Agriculture and Chemistry. 293
and by the rules of chemistry, became, in short, a fancy every-
where cherished, and not yet altogether sobered down by ex-
perience. There is something taking, indeed, in the idea of
being a man of science; but when some of us have heard
honest country friends of our own talking of their science,
and of the great benefits it was to confer on their home-farms
and tenants, we may have been charitable enough to wish
that their occupations would allow them to go back to school,
and learn a little of science itself. I have rarely been able
to get from our scientific country gentlemen any very satisfac-
tory definition of this somewhat comprehensive term, science ;
much less to get a sight of that uncomfortable sort of moni-
tor, called the balance-sheet, to learn how their science had
worked with them in the humble matter of pounds, shil-
lings, and pence. They seem to have had a sort of notion that
all science was agricultural chemistry, and that itwas a mighty
good thing for raising rents and great crops of potatoes ;
and that, if they could but get their tenants to analyse their
soils, these tenants would be able to cultivate them a great,
deal better. The farmers, too, were generally little behind
their Jandlords in the matter of science, however little relish-
ing the practical application of it to the tender matter of
rents. Some of them seemed to think that guano was science;
and a very good science I can tell them it is; and better by
far than one half of what they heard on the subject. Why,
we are all men of science in a certain way. Our dairymaids
are persons eminent in science. They can make cheese ; and
the making of cheese is a tolerably complicated chemical
process. It has puzzled all the chemists till our own day
to explain it. They think they have nearly settled the ques-
tion now ; but we may back the dairymaids still against them
all, in the really useful part of the matter,—the making of the
cheese itself. Our cooks are eminent chemists ; and there is
not a sirloin, cooked, or a pudding manufactured, that does
not involve a vast variety of chemical changes. One of the
most learned chemists of the day, before mentioned, Baron
Liebig, has written profoundly on this savoury subject. He
has found out that if we boil the beef, and throw away the
broth, there will be a waste of nutritive matter ; and that it is
avery good thing in roasting to preserve as much of the
294 Agriculture and Chemistry.
gravy as possible. It had been discovered that the fat is in
the grass before it is in the goose that eats it, and straightway
the Baron discovered what precise part of our turnips and
potatoes goes to form the fat, what the flesh, and what the
other multifarious products of the stomach. But let not our
cooks lose heart ; they will beat Baron Liebig to nothing in
preparing a comfortable dinner for us, which, after all, is
rather an important part of the affair. And let our farmers
in like manner be comforted. They are very good chemists,
if they would but think so, and perform every day, in their
fields, better chemical operations by far than all the agricul-
tural chemists can perform for them.
This somewhat excessive zeal, however, has really had use-
ful results. It has directed the attention of many country
gentlemen to agriculture, as a liberal as well as a useful pur-
suit, and induced them to pay increased attention to the im-
provement of their estates. It is the chemists only who are
to blame, for having addressed themselves to farmers in a
more authoritative manner than their own knowledge of the
subject warranted; and for having held forth expectations
which could not be realised in the manner which their boast-
ing had led the people to expect ; the effect of which has been
to give practical farmers a distaste for what is called agri-
cultural chemistry, and to retard, rather than promote the
beneficial application of the discoveries of science to the prac-
tice of the farm. But amore serious offence of theirs re-
mains to be noticed, which is, the holding out to the farmers
of the country this agricultural chemistry as a means of sup-
porting them in their present adversity, and enabling them
to surmount the difficulties in which they are involved. We
have seen how ready politicians, struggling against their own
growing convictions, and anxious to justify their past pro-
ceedings, are to catch up this cry of agricultural chemistry,
and to tell the farmers of the country what science has done
for them and what it is likely todo. What true science is
likely to do, we do not know; but what agricultural chemis-
try has yet done we do know, and thus can appreciate it, as
a means of enabling the farmers of this country to bear up
under the evils under which they suffer, and the dangers which
menace them.
:
.
—
Agriculture and Chemistry. 295
Agricultural chemistry, so called, has explained, or at-
tempted to explain, effects long before observed, and familiar
in the practice of good farmers; but it has not taught the
farmer to till his land better and more cheaply, to drain it
better, or to clean it better: it has not added one plant to
those before cultivated, nor taught the farmer to cultivate
one crop better than he could do before. It has not taught
him to employ one mechanical machine more usefully ; nor
taught the mechanics who construct these machines to
adapt them better to the uses of the farmer. It has not
added one manure to the list half so important as those before
known, such as lime, marl, gypsum, bones, rape-dust, soot,
ashes, the refuse of towns and manufactories, guano, and it may
be said, any one of the animal and vegetable substances which
had been before familiar. These were all in use, and the times
and modes of applying them had been determined by farmers
themselves, before agricultural chemistry was heard of. Or
if we allow that some additional compounds have been added
to the former ample list of such substances, no one surely
will say that this has affected in a sensible degree the condi-
tion and prospects of the farmers of this country. Even the
use of the alkaline salts, of which so much has been said, was
known to the degree in which it was thought beneficial to em-
ploy them. Saltpetre, which may be regarded as the type of
the class—the type, I mean, as regards its effects upon the soil
—has been used by the farmers of England for more than a
hundred years, either by itself, or in the refuse matter of
gunpowder works. They had learned that, though a power-
ful stimulant, it did not add that permanent fertility to the
soil which it is the great end of good farming to communicate.
A similar substance, nitrate of soda, which can be obtained
in unlimited quantity from a vast deposit of it in South Ame-
rica, and which can be imported at a cheap rate, was em-
ployed by farmers several years ago, in large quantities ; but
‘the use of it has now almost ceased, which could not have
happened had the employment of it been found very advan-
tageous. But if, in the matter of manures, which, of all others
useful to the farmer, is the subject which chemistry is best
fitted to investigate, more has not been done than we know
296 Agriculture and Chemistry.
to have been done, how can we be so thoughtless as to hold
out agricultural chemistry to farmers, as the means of aiding
them in times like these, or affording them any hope on which
they ought to be called upon to rely in the times that are to
follow? Yet we shall doubtless again hear statesmen, who
ought to be careful how they hold out delusive expectations
to the farmers in such times as the present, speaking of the
benefits which agricultural chemistry has conferred upon
agriculture, although they themselves know nothing more of
the matter than what they hear others, not very competent
to give them information, state. Besides, even if agricultural
chemistry had done what they suppose it to have done, but
which any practical farmer knows it has not done, cannot
other countries practice agricultural chemistry as well as we
can do? It appears that there are amateur farmers, or sci-
entific farmers as they call themselves, reverend doctors, and
others, who are now hastening forward to announce to Govern-
ment the great things now done by means of agricultural
chemistry. They have doubled the number of their stacks,
they tell us. Why, they might have done that without the
help of chemistry at all. Every farmer knows that, by a
large expenditure, he can increase the produce of his farm.
But the farmer is compelled to compare the gain with the ex-
penditure, and to limit the expenditure to what will afford him
a return. No tenant-farmer can farm, as these reverend
gentlemen propose, on a system of experiments. He must farm
according to experience already acquired ; and experiments
must be the exception, and not the rule, of any well-ordered
farm. A tenant-farmer could not afford to farm for a single
season on a system of experiments ; and, were he to farm as
some of these reverend gentlemen are doing, he would pro-
bably soon cease to be able to farm atall. These reverend
gentlemen, to make their example worth quoting, should fur-
nish us with the only document which can tell whether they
have farmed well or ill,—namely, their account of profit and
loss. But we may return to say, without even having seen
these instructive documents, that not one in ten of these
gentlemen has been paying half the expenses of his farm, not
to speak of rent and profits of his capital in trade. (Professor
Lon’s Appeal to the Common Sense of the Country.) )
%
;
;
f
;
(8297)
a Centauri, and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. By
PrAzz1 SMy tu, Professor of Astronomy in the University
of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., &e. Communicated by the Author.
The absolute size of the fixed stars, and the place of our
sun amongst them, has been, from the first ages of astronomy,
a question which has excited the keenest inquiry and the
most extended speculation, but has always baffled the search.
Many, however, even at an early period of the science, flat-
tered themselves that they had determined both the distance
and the size of those bodies ; but they were invariably found
to be wrong by the succeeding age, which again, in its turn,
flattered itself with having arrived at the great desideratum,
and was in its turn disappointed. Absurdly close and miser-
ably small were the stars made at first, before the develop-
ment of science enlarged men’s minds and their powers of
contemplation and perception; but every successive deter-
mination gradually expanded the bounds, until at last, when
true methods of philosophy were adopted, it was confessed
that the distance of the stars was so great as to be utterly
immeasurable by our best instruments ; while of their ab-
solute size, from that reason, in addition to their not present-
ing any visible disc, no guess even could be made.
In this unsatisfactory state the question long remained, the
solution being constantly attempted the while, but never with
success, until at length, a few years since, Professor Hender-
son, from his observations at the Cape of Good Hope, deter-
mined the distance of @ Centauri, and Bessel that of 61 Cygni.
The results they arrived at, are now conclusively received by
all astronomers ; and those two stars are still the only two of
which the distance from our system is certainly known.
The fact of the great barrier, which had obstructed our
excursions into the realms of space, having actually been
overleapt in two points, was rapturously received as an ear-
nest and a prelude of its being soon passed at many more,
and before lung being broken down altogether: and such a
spirit there was amongst astronomers; but it has not yet
been productive of the expected consequences. M. Peters,
certainly, of the Pulkowa Observatory, fancies that he has
298 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
determined the parallax of a number of stars, and can
state the average parallax of stars of the first, second,
and other magnitudes ; while M. Faye, of the Paris Obser-
vatory, supposed that he had found the star, No. 1830 Groom-
bridge, to have a larger parallax (7. e., a closer distance)
than a Centauri. But this result has been completely over-
thrown by subsequent, more extended, and accurate observa-
tions by M. O. Struve at Pulkowa Observatory, and Mr
Main at the Greenwich Observatory; the former making it
only 0”-03 at most, and the latter finding it something less
than nothing, according to the rigid interpretation of his ob-
servations, while M. Faye’s quantity was 1”08. Then M.
Peter’s parallaxes having been arrived at by means of a
meridian instrument, and being also very small, so as to be
barely within the power of such means, never commanded
much confidence; and more, they have had a further doubt
thrown on them by Mr O. Struve’s admirable observations
with the great equatorial of the same Observatory, and by
the Greenwich Observatory; for the star which they have
very satisfactorily determined to have an insensible parallax,
or certainly not more than “03, M. Peters had attributed so
large a quantity as’"25. a Centauri and 61 Cygni thus re-
main the only hold that we have on the whole of the sidereal
system; and, as they are both double stars, they will give
the means of estimating the mass or weight of the com-
ponents of the system as compared with our sun, when the
orbits of the stars round their mutual centre of gravity shall
have been well determined.
To this end, the former object presents by far the more
favourable opportunity ; first, from its very much closer dis-
tance to us, and the consequent greater angle that the orbit
is seen under; second, from the period of the orbit being
very much shorter, so that a determination may be obtained
much sooner; and, third, from the stars being not only
really larger, thence exhibiting a greater amount of measu-
rable attraction; but apparently longer also, and therefore
visible and observable in the day as well as by night, and
so continuedly throughout the year; as wellas to our haying
much earlier micrometrical observations of it than of the other.
And further, it claims the more pressing attention just
SEDI. erie S cnet RS
lie Meiedicait bes en Fie
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 299
now, as the perihelion passage of the small star is close at
hand ; and, on the correct observation of the phenomenon at
that particular epoch, all exact determination of the great de-
siderata previously mentioned, will depend.
As, however, another opinion has been published, with re-
gard to the nature of the orbit of a! and a? Centauri; and, if
observers are guided by that, and it should not prove to be
correct, all this important part of the orbit which seems to
be impending, may be lost to us ; and near a hundred years
must elapse before another equally favourable opportunity
occurs, it becomes of importance to examine into the exact
particulars, and see what degree of probability is to be at-
tached to either hypothesis.
For the first part of the question, I may refer to a notice
which I had the honour of reading before the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, on April 5, 1848.
The star @ Centauri, situated in 14" 29m A.R., and 150° 12’
N.P.D., is in many respects a notable object, and though its great-
est claims to attention have all arisen within the last few years,
under the applications of the advanced astronomy of the present
day, yet even to the naked eye it has much to raise it above the
general crowd. It is a star of the first magnitude, and one of the
brightest indeed of that class, and is situated in a peculiarly splen-
did region of the sky, the same as that occupied by the Southern
Cross; a constellation, by the way, which, on account of its small
dimensions, and the few stars it contains visible to the naked eye,
is by no means entitled to the too warm encomiums so lavishly be-
stowed upon it by the early Southern navigators and travellers. The
region of the Cross, however, abundantly compensates for the poverty
of the constellation itself; for such is the general blaze of star-light
from that part of the sky, that a person is immediately made aware
of its having risen above the horizon, though he should not be at the
time looking at the heavens, by the increase of general illumination
of the atmosphere, resembling the effect of the young moon.
This excessive splendour is caused not only by the profusion of
first, second, and third magnitude stars in the neighbourhood, but
by the extraordinary general breadth and brightness of the Milky
Way thereabouts; for, separating into so many distinct luminous
clouds, as it were, and exhibiting between them void black spaces
unchequered by a single luminous object of any kind whatever, it
forcibly impresses the idea of our being situated there near the confines
of the sidereal system, or in the southern side of the vast ring in
which the generality of the stars are arranged. The superior bright-
300 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
ness of so large a proportion of the stars is then naturally accounted
for by their greater proximity to us; and this fact was actually
proved by my predecessor, who found from his own observations of
a Centauri, an annual parallax of the large amount of 1”, i. e., that
at the distance of this star, the radius of the earth’s orbit, or 95
million of miles, subtended an angle of 1”; the greatest quantity
previously found for any star in the Northern hemisphere being only
0-23”.
Professor Henderson’s results were fully confirmed by a very
much longer series of observations subsequently made at the Cape
Observatory by different observers, and with different instruments,
and he then computed his old observations of the other principal
stars in that region, and finding a considerable number* which
shewed also indications of a sensible parallax, he immediately sent
out a notice of the results to the present energetic Director of the
Cape Observatory, for the purpose of procuring from him a greater
number of observations of those suspicious stars. Such a series was
accordingly commenced, and is still going on, and we may expect be-
fore long to hear of trustworthy results having been obtained, and
there is little doubt that these labours will still more strongly tend to
establish the proximity of that part of the sky.
On the application of the telescope to @ Centauri, it proves to be
composed of two stars, one very much brighter than the other, but
still both may be placed in the list of first magnitude, the smaller
occupying the lowest possible step in that grade. Early observers
have indeed assigned it a much smaller rank, and in the British
Association Catalogue published only two years ago, and intending
to apply to the year 1850, it is actually made as low as the fourth
magnitude ; this, however, is manifestly an error, for the present
epoch, as I can state from the experience derived from making the
observations which served to confirm Professor Henderson's parallax ;
for, during the whole year, there was not a single day when, if the
larger star was seen at all, the smaller one was not abundantly visi-
ble also; and during that part of the year when they transited the
meridian by daylight, they were even then invariably seen with the
mural circle telescope, whatever the state of the atmosphere, unless
actual clouds intervened. But that the smaller star was never in
ages past as low as the fourth magnitude, the marvellous change which
has occurred in the case of » Argus in our own times, would render
a most hazardous assertion.
nS
r -
XRT
* p Hydri. » Argus. + Centauri. me
« Phenicis. « Crucis. « Trianguli Austr, =
a Bridani. y Crucis. 8 Trianguli Austr, 1)
a Columbe. 6 Crucis. « Payonis. oe
s Argus. 6 Centauri. « Gruis. . Sita
VitSIo
if
s a
a
z
4
\,
,
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 301
A proper motion of the large amount of 3-58” is participated in
by both the stars, a fact which pretty clearly proves a physical con-
nection between them; for while they are now very nearly in the
position they were in 100 years ago, when observed by the Abbé
Lacaille, they would have separated by this time upwards of five mi-
nutes, if one only was pursuing this anomalous path amongst the
rest of the stars.
The first person to remark on this physical connection was Pro-
fessor Henderson, who, in the concluding paragraph of his memoir
on the parallax, says,
“The two stars appear to be approaching each other. The
earliest observations of @ Centauri made with a telescope which I
have found, are those of Richer at Cayenne in 1673, but neither he
nor Halley, who observed it at St Helena in 1677, mentions it as
being double. Their telescopes were of course anachromatic, and
probably not of much power. Feullée appears to have been the first
person who observed the star to be double, as he mentions in the
Journal of his Voyage in South America in July 1709. La Conda-
mine next observed the star during the scientific expedition to Peru
for measuring an are of the meridian.” But neither of them made
any observations of real service in determining the nature of the
physical connection of the two stars. ‘* From Lacaille’s observations
in 1751-2, the distance of the two stars appears to have been then
22°5”. Maskelyne, who observed them at St Helena in 1761, says
(Philosophical Transactions, 1764, p. 383): The bright star in the
foot of the Centaur, marked a in the catalogues, when viewed through
a telescope, becomes divided into two stars, one of which is about the
second and the other the fourth magnitude. They were both ob-
served by the Abbé De Lacaille. I found their distance by the
divided object-glass micrometer, fitted to the reflecting telescope, to
be 15” or 16”. I have not found any observations,’’ continues Pro-
fessor Henderson, “ of the distance of the two stars made between
1761, and the institution of the Paramatta Observatory : there, in
the end of 1825 or the beginning of 1826, the distance was observed
to be 23” (Memoirs of Astronomical Society, Vol. iii., p. 265),
since which time it has been decreasing at the rate of . more than
half a second per annum. The angle of position scarcely appears
to have changed since Lacaille’s ee, whence it may be interred,
that the relative orbit is seen projected into a straight line or very
excentric ellipse ; that an apparent maximum of distance was attained
in the end of the last or the beginning of the present century ; and
that about twenty years hence the stars will probably be seen very
near each other, or in apparent contact, but the data are at present
insufficient to give even an approximation to the major axis of the
orbit and time of revolution.”
The next authority on the subject is Sir John Herschel, who spe-
cially applied himself to the subject of the Southern double stars
302 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
when at the Cape, and had far superior instruments for such a pur-
pose to any of his predecessors; he thus describes and sums up all
that was known to him of this star, in his recently-published work.
** This superb double star, beyond all comparison the most. strik-
ing object of the kind in the heavens, and to which the discovery of
its parallax by the Jate Professor Henderson has given a degree of
astronomical importance no less conspicuous,—consists of two indi-
viduals, both of a high ruddy or orange colour, though that of the
smaller is of a somewhat more sombre and brownish cast. They
constitute together a star which to the naked eye is equal or some-
what superior to Arcturus in lustre.’ After describing the mag-
nitude which he considered should be assigned to each, and which
agrees more nearly with what I have already stated as being my own
opinion, and after giving some optical and physiological reasons which
may tend to explain the under-estimation of former observers,—Sir
John then cites the fact of the remarkable amount of proper motion
of the stars, and says, ‘‘ This consideration alone suffices to decide
us in admitting a binary connection between them, and it will there-
fore be interesting to see what evidence observation furnishes of or-
bitual motion round their centre of gravity. For this, however, the
data are somewhat precarious, as we have, until recently, only cata-
logued differences of A.R. and Polar distances, from which to caleu-
late the angle of position and distance at the epochs of observation.
This done, and the results tabulated, together with my own positions
and distances, obtained by direct measurement with the equatorial,
we have as follows :’’—
Authority. Oe eas Position. Distance.
° /
Lacaille, 1750 218 44 20°51
(Maskelyne, 1761 15°5)
Fallowes, 1822 209 36 28°75
Brisbane, 1824 215 25 22°45
Dunlop, 1825 213 11 22°45
Johnson, 1830 215 2 19°95
Taylor, 1831 215 58 22°56
Herschel, 1834-68 17°43
1834-79 218 30
1835-86 219 30
1837-34 220 42
1837-44 16:12
I have inserted here the observation of Maskelyne in 1761, with
which, probably, Sir J. Herschel was unacquainted ; it makes an ap-
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 303
parently bad figure among the rest, but is by no means to be left
out on that account merely, seeing the care and the superior means
for that day with which the measures were made.
‘¢ Mr Fallowes’ determinations,’ continues Sir John, “ in this
series, are open to objection, from the decidedly inadequate instru-
mental means by which they were furnished (a small altitude and
azimuth circle). Mr Taylor’s results also rest on so few observa-
tions, as to entitle them to little weight.
** Though it is obviously impracticable to deduce any elliptic ele-
ments from such a series, there are some features which it is impos-
sible not to recognise. There can be no doubt that the distance has
gone on decreasing since 1822 at least ; and the comparison of the
measures least open to objection, leads us to conclude, that, for the ten
years previous to 1838, the rate of decrease was 7%, or a little more
than half a second per annum, which, if continued, will bring on an
occultation, or exceedingly close appulse, about the year 1867. The
small amount of variation in the angle of position shews that the
plane of orbitual motion passes nearly, but not quite through our
system, while its actual tendency to increase exemplifies the general
law of increase of angular velocity, with diminution of distance.
Mr Fallowes’ distance is probably too great by 3” or 4”; but in the
long interval between 1750 and 1822 (at the former of which epochs
the distance must have been on the increase), there is room for a
very much greater excursion of the small star towards its apparent
aphelion, so that, although we are sure that the major axis of the
real orbit must materially exceed 24”, it is impossible to say how
much it may exceed that limit. Taking, therefore, the co-efficient
of parallax for a@ Centauri, as determined by Professor Henderson,
at 1”, it will follow from what has been said, that the real orbit of
one star about the other cannot be so small as that of the orbit of
Saturn about the sun, and exceeds, in all probability, that of the
orbit of Uranus.
‘The plane of the orbit in the case of @ Centauri, passing
nearly through our system, my method of approximating to the
elliptic elements becomes inapplicable, and for their determination,
measures of the distance of the stars from each other can alone be
relied on. No subject more worthy of continued and diligent in-
quiry can possibly be urged on the attention of southern astrono-
mers.”’
Thus the result arrived at, both by Professor Henderson and by
Sir J. Herschel, and which, though proved since to be erroneous,
would have been probably concluded by any one else from the same
data, seems to be, that the smaller star had been employed during
the last century in gaining its aphelion, without any sensible change
of angle of position. What the aphelion distance, the diameter of the
orbit, and the period of revolution, might be, no guess could be at-
tempted: but in his address, on the occasion of giving the gold
304 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
medal to Bessel for his discovery of the parallax of 6’ Cygni, Sir
John Herschel stated that the orbit of the smaller star of @ Cen-
tauri might subtend the large angle of about 1 minute, As it had
been actually observed at an elongation of 28” on one side of the
large star, the very reasonable supposition of a nearly circular orbit,
seen in profile, would, in course of time, give the same distance on
the opposite side. Both authorities also predicted the probability of
an appulse of the same stars somewhere about the year 1867.
At the time of Sir John Herschel going to press, he knew of no
micrometrical measures subsequent to 1838, but soon after that pe-
riod, most fortunately for the interests of sidereal astronomy, Cap-
tain Jacob came into the field. On visiting the Cape from India,
where he had been engaged in the great Trigonometrical Survey, he
spent most of his time at the Observatory, and not only witnessed,
but took part in the parallax observations of a@ Centauri. He then
ordered a good achromatic telescope from Dollond, and on its arrival
in India, after his return there, erected a small observatory, and de-
voted all his spare time with great perseverance and eminent success
to that most difficult species of observation, —viz. the double stars,
About a year ago, he wrote to me to send him out all the old ob-
servations known of @ Centauri, for the two stars were approaching
more and more rapidly, and his own observations seemed to give a
most unexpected orbit. The first document which reached him was
Professor Henderson’s memoir on the parallax, and then Captain
Jacob found that he had been forestalled as to the actual facts of an
appulse being shortly to be expected, though he indeed fixed the
time as being very much closer at hand, bringing it from 1867 to
1851; but as to the idea that the small star had only been gaining
its aphelion, without sensible alteration of angle of position since
1751,—he found, on computing the orbit, that within that interval
it had made a whole revolution, or had altered its angle of position
by 360°. The subsequent arrival of Sir J. Herschel's observations
fully confirmed Captain Jacob’s views, who has now recomputed the
orbit, including’ all the known observations up to the present time ;
and though this performance is to be considered but a first approxi-
mation, still it will probably not be very much altered by future ob-
servations in any of the important elements.
The difficulty that might be started at the first mention of this
new opinion, would be, that supposing the small star, instead of hay~
ing remained almost stationary in its orbit for the last 100 years, to
have really made a whole revolution,how came it to pass that
every observer in the interval saw it always in about the same posi-
tion on the west, and never on the east of the large star? This ob-
jection is fully met by the extraordinary nature of the orbit, which
turns out much more nearly like that of a comet than of a planet,
the greatest distance being 21°85’, and the least 0-5”, in consequence
of which, the small star moves with such surpassing rapidity at its
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars.
230°1) 8
232-7/15] 6
233-313
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232:2/12
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Magnifying Power.
152
162
152
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10:12| 8|4| 87)1—3 |
9°47 |19|6| 87 1—3 |
9:40 11) 4| 871-3 |
9:27 |, 8] 4} 87} 1-3 |
9°67 |14| 4| 87)1—3 |
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9°64 |11) 4 |152)1-3 |
981/13) 4 1521-3 |
3:25 |14/4| 871-3
8:25| 8|4| 87)1-3 |
7:96 |13| 4 |152,1—3
8:31 |10 4 152;1—3
8'12|11)4/152)1—3 |
8:03 /14|4 152)1—3 |
7°95 |16| 4/152 1—3 |
8-03 |14) 4152 1-25
8-07 |14) 4|152 1-25
7:78 \14) 4/152 125
7-89 |16 4 {162 1—2°5,
Date.
1846, “17
1848, -00
05
“05
VOL. XLVI. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850.
305
periaster, actually 2° 40’ per day ; that it is but a very short space
of time on the eastern side of its primary, and when at its aphaster
on the west, moves again with proportionate slowness, and so is seen
there for a long period with hardly any sensible alteration of place.
The time of revolution seems to be as short as 77 years; and La-
caille and Maskelyne’s observations, which had before appeared
somewhat anomalous, are fully reconciled, as belonging to a former
revolution ; indeed the small star seems to have been almost in
precisely the same situation with respect to the large one when ob-
served by Maskelyne in 1761, as it appeared to Sir J. Herschel in
1838 ; and had observations been continued for twelve years after
Maskelyne’s time, our knowledge of sidereal astronomy might have
been almost a century in advance of its present position.
Captain W. S. Jacob’s Observations of «a! and a? Centauri (A.R. 14
29-5™, N.P.D. 150° 12’), made at Poonah, Lat. 18° 31’ N., Long.
4> 55m 42s E., with a Five-Feet Achromatic Telescope.
Remarks.
do.
definition tolerable.
daylight; dancing.
daylight ; definition tolerable.
do,
do.
do. good.
do tolerable,
do. do.
do.
flaring
do
definition tolerable.
daylight ; definition tolerable.
do. do.
do. very good.
do. do.
do. fair.
do. excellent.
do. do.
do, do,
do. good.
do. do.
do. do.
do. slightly tremulous.
U
306 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
Orbit of a! and a? Centauri.
Position of perihelion, ; : es = 26° 24
Inclination to the plane of projection, y = 47 56
Position of ascending node, : Q =) 36, 07
Angular distance of perihelion from node on
the plane of the orbit, ‘ ave 29, 222
Excentricity, : : £ 0:950
Epoch of perihelion passage, + =1851'50 year
Periodic time, . . Z P = 77-0 years
Mean motion, f 5; . v = 4°675
Semiaxis major, - ¢ : @ = 15-50"
Mass= 2 of the Solar
Apparent Orbit.
Maximum distance, 3 : = 21°85” at 207°5°
Minimum, ; . = 10°50) enone
Greatest daily motion, : : = 749,
We have thus here altogether one of the most, if not the most,
interesting and important sidereal system in the heavens; the only
one which can compare with it is y Virginis, and that has been
looked upon as being amongst the double stars what Halley’s comet
is amongst comets; but though so well and frequently observed of
late years, it was not instrumentally measured so early as a Cen-
tauri, and it is a much smaller star, with an orbit of only one-fourth
the apparent dimensions, and a period of time double the length of
its southern rival ; so that, while the actual observation for the pur-
pose of comparing theory with fact would be eight times more difficult
in the case of y Virginis, and loaded with eight times the probable
error of observation, there is the further objection, that on account
of the greater length of the period, but a small portion of the orbit
could be determined by one observer, or even by one instrument.
But the crowning importance of the binary system of a Centuari,
is the accurate determination of the parallax or distance from us, by
the late Professor Henderson, as we are thereby enabled to speak,
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 307
not only of the proportions of the different parts of the orbit, but of
their actual size, and the weight of the two bodies. Thus the least
distance of these two suns is only half that of the earth from the
sun, or a little less than that of Venus, while the greatest distance
is a little more than that of Uranus ; and the mass of the two stars
comes out three-quarters of that of our sun, their distance from us
being 226,100 times our distance from the sun.
Well, therefore, may Sir J. Herschel have said, “ that no subject
more worthy of diligent and continued inquiry can possibly be urged
on the attention of southern astronomers.”
But the most interesting part of the orbit is still to come, viz., the
periaster in 1851, and that this be well observed is indeed to be
earnestly hoped, for the period will be an eminently crucial one; it
proved so in the case of yy Virginis, imperatively requiring an ex-
cessive alteration in all the elements except one, as previously cal-
culated ; and in the case of @ Centauri, the characteristic features
of the orbit are of a much more violently marked nature, besides be-
ing represented altogether on a larger scale.
The extreme importance of obtaining an abundance of observations
at that epoch may be further indicated by the mere statement, that
it cannot yet be considered as fully proven, that the law of gravity
extends absolutely unaltered to the most distant parts of the sky, and
the only mode of proof open to us, is by observing the double stars.
It is true that most of the orbits yet computed on the theory of
gravity have turned out very near the truth, but still not quite so
near, it must also be confessed, as could have been desired; and in
the luciferous case of y Virginis, every orbit that has been computed
for it yet, has persisted in giving a minimum distance of not less than
0:5”, while observation at the time of the periastral passage made it
certainly much smaller.
I do not, of course, by any manner of means, wish to express any
doubt on these grounds as to the sufficiency of gravity to explain all
the observed phenomena; a great part of the onus, or the whole of
it, may rest on the excessive difficulty of the species of observation,
and their inappropriateness for calculation in all ordinary manners,
caused by the extreme roughness of even the very best procurable
data; resembling, indeed, those of the comet of 1556, whose return,
calculated on such wretched notices of its former perihelion passage,
we have been looking out for in vain so long. ,
But whatever weight we may attach to the insufficiency of our ob-
servations and methods of calculation, it is always proper to draw a
distinct line of demarcation between those things which are proved
and those which are merely inferred, and not seek to enjoy a triumph
before the victory has been decidedly achieved.
The above observations and calculations seemed to many
abundantly convincing, but the illustrious author of the
“ Outlines of Astronomy,’ published last year, says, after
308 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
speaking of 61 Cygni (849): “ The data in the case of a Cen-
tauri are more uncertain. Since the year 1822, the distance
has been steadily and pretty rapidly decreasing, at the rate
of about half a second per annum, and that with very little
changes in the angle of position. Hence it follows evidently,
that the plane of its orbit passes nearly through the earth,
and (the distance about the middle of 1834, having been 173”)
it is very probable that either an occultation, like that ob-
served in € Herculis, or a close approximation of the two
stars, will take place about the year 1867.”
This result being so very different from his, Captain Jacob
has re-examined his observations and calculations, and has
endeavoured to deduce limits within which the elements of
the orbit must lie; his results, contained in several letters,
are nearly as follows, and are given pretty fully, as so much
importance is to be attached, in astronomical inquiry, to the
fixation of distinct limits, within which it may be predicted
that an unknown quantity will certainly be found: this it was
which formed so great a difference between the researches of
Le Verrier and those of Adams, with regard to the new planet
Neptune, and made the former carry so much more conviction
to the minds of those to whom they were communicated :—
Since coming here (Madras)—writes Captain Jacob—I
have got some rough measures of a Centauri (there not being
proper instruments for the purpose), which give 244°:5 for
the angle of position, and 6’-23 for the distance, at the epoch
1849-63 ; these render probable a later perihelion passage,
with less excentricity and inclination than what I assigned,
but the difference cannot be very great.
On looking at the whole observations to see what is really
known on the subject ; it seems this much. The enclosed slip
represents the area described between 1825 and 1848 (scale
4” to an inch), as actually observed ; though allowing reason-
Dunlop IS25
able error of observation, say 1° in position and 05 in. dis-
tanee, yet this will not produce much variation. | This,then
Ce iy Bent, a 0
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 309
gives about 2 square seconds for the amount described annu-
ally. This quantity being carried back to 1750, it cannot be
fitted even approximately into any ellipse whatever, 80 as to
give a distance not exceeding 25’, and a position in the S.P.
quadrant ; it will be impossible, unless a revolution be allowed
to intervene. The period is therefore limited at the widest
to between 75 and 80 years (two revolutions cannot be ad-
mitted) ; and this again limits the area of the apparent el-
lipse to 150” or 160’. The section being fitted into an ellipse
of that area, the greatest possible value of minimum distance
is found to be about 2”5 ; and the latest possible time of near-
est approach about 1854. If I could have got a decent mea-
sure within the last six months, I might have got closer limits.
With regard to the mass, the least possible value of the
major-semi axis (true) is about 115, which corresponds to
a mass of 0-325; the upper limit is not so easy to fix, be-
cause the excentricity may be almost anything above 0-9, and
consequently, the inclination and major axis may be very
great ; but it appears highly improbable that ¢ is above ‘975,
in which case a might be about 1:98 and m = 1:73; so that
the mass cannot differ very widely from the solar.
I have also been able to arrive at same result with regard
to the quantity of light emitted by a Centauri, as compared
with our Sun, through means of some results arrived at on
the intensity of solar light and the absorption of the atmo-
sphere, during my employment on the Trigonometrical Survey
of India.
On commencing work with heliotropes in 1837, I soon
found that for long distances it was necessary to enlarge the
aperture more than in the simple ratio of the distance, though
such was Colonel Everest’s practice ; and before the end of
the first season, I had found a scale of apertures for corre-
sponding distances which afterwards needed very little alter-
ations ; but when finally corrected by subsequent years’ ob-
servation stood as follows :—
Aperture. Inches. 0:5. 1:0 2:0 4:0 8:0
Max. distance. Miles). 15 23 33 45 60
Our heliotropes were circular glass mirrors, 8 inches dia-
meter, and for the smaller apertures, diaphragms were used
310 Professor Piazzi Smyth on a Centauri,
between the heliotrope and observer. At the distances stated,
the light was just visible to the naked eye in clear weather,
and when seen over a valley ; if the ray grazed near the sur-
face, its light was much reduced. On one occasion, I em-
ployed a heliotrope at 6} miles, and used an aperture of
2 inch, and found it rather brighter than my usual allowance,
so that probably 6} or 7 miles would be the nominal dis-
tance for that size. This agrees well enough with the rest
of the scale, but there is no need to employ a conjectural
quantity ; and if the rate of absorption be computed corre-
sponding to the above, a very close agreement will be found ;
and the mean of the whole shews a loss of ‘0610 in passing
through one mile of atmosphere, with the barometer at 27:0
inches, that being about the average height at my stations.
With barometer = 30°0 inches, the value will be (0672, and
the loss in passing from the zenith through a homogeneous
atmosphere of 5:2 miles will be *303, or only about one per
cent. less than Professor J. D. Forbes’ result (Phil. Trans.,
1842, Part 2) ; and as my air was considerably drier than his
(mean humidity probably not much above ‘30 instead of -56),
this will probably account for the difference.
Applying this, then, to the intensity of solar light, and eli-
minating the atmospheric absorption, the diameter of the ob-
ject that shall be about as bright as Venus, comes out 0-0205
inches per mile, or in are 00668. Now, the object viewed
being the reflection of the Sun from a metallic surface after
passing twice through glass, by which at least § would be lost;
the diameter of the portion of the Sun which would be equally
bright, is therefore 0:045”. Also, we never observed between
21" and 3", consequently the Sun’s altitude was always below
45°, at a mean it might be taken about 23°, where the loss of
light is ‘41 per cent. more than in the zenith ; consequently
there remains ‘59, /59 = -77 and77 x -45 = -35; therefore
the portion of the zenith Sun equal to Venus is 0-035’. Now,
I do not know the ratio of Venus’ light to Sirius, but shall not
be far wrong in estimating it at 4-0 ; then the portion of Sun
equal to Sirius will be 0-017’, and as Sirius is 4 x a Centauri,
this last will be = 0-009” of the Sun, or the Sun must be re-
moved to 213,333 times its present distance to = a Centauri,
or must have a parallax = 0-97”.. This makes a Centauri, in
and the Absolute Size of the Fixed Stars. 3ll
fact, about } brighter than the Sun. Sir J. Herschel makes
the disproportion greater, but that is on the estimate that
the Moon is only s5¢g50 of the Sun, which I cannot but
think too low, also. If I had the correct comparison of Venus
with Sirius, our results might agree better ; but, considering
the rudeness of the method, it is a satisfaction to have come
sonear. Probably the zenith correction ought not to have
been applied, as-we seldom see Venus in the zenith ; in which
case the light of a Centauri would come out= 1-67 of the Sun.
Thus much, therefore, we may assume as already known
regarding this interesting star, and, on full consideration of
_ the whole of the facts, it certainly seems that all observers
who have @ Centauri above their horizon should lose no time
in beginning their observations to determine the nature of the
perihelion passage of the star; and we may then hope in a
very short space of time to have much more exact results
than any we at present possess on the various results which
may be deduced from the observations; the importance of
which will be still further increased by micrometrical mea-
surements with extra meridian telescopes being carried on at
the same time, to perfect the determination of the parallax.
Notice respecting a Deposit of Shells near Borrowstounness.
By CHARLES MACLAREN, Esq., F.R.S.E., &e.*
This deposit of shells is situated about a mile and a half
west from Borrowstounness, where the Carse of Falkirk ter-
minates in a strip of flat land a furlong in breadth. The
shells are exposed in two openings, made in the soil to pro-
cure limestone for Mr Wilson’s iron-works, and which have
been subsequently converted into pools by unfiltered water.
They are each about 300 feet in length, and from 20 to 30 in
breadth. The bed can be traced in these openings along
lines having an aggregate length of 1000 feet. Over all that
space the shells form an unbroken stratum of very uniform
depth (nearly three inches), and almost perfectly horizontal,
as shewn by their parallelism with the surface of the water
* Read befure the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on 7th January 1850.
312 Deposit of Shells near Borromwstounness.
in the pools. he upper and under surface of the stratum
(seen everywhere in section) form lines as straight as if ad-
justed by levelling, and their position in this respect corre-
sponds perfectly with that of the adjoining beach, which is
remarkably smooth and uniform, and declines only at the
rate of 1 foot in 400. The shells are covered by a bed of
dark-brown sandy clay, from two to three feet thick, and rest
on a deposit of the same substance, which closely resembles
the mud spread over the present beach. They are all of one
species, the cockle, or Cardium edule, and of various sizes
down to the most minute. Though mixed with a small por-
tion of the clay which covers them, they lie so compactly,
that they present to the eye the appearance of a layer of chalk
nodules ; and they are seen in myriads on the surface of the
clay dug out of the pools, and piled up on the space between
them. Very few of them are fractured, and the two valves
are generally united. The pools reach within a few yards of
the high-water line; but the number of broken shells seen
on the beach shews that the bed had once extended farther
northward, and that part of it has been cut away by the
sea. We have here apparently a picture of what passes at
the bottom of the sea in depths beyond our reach; a colony
or settlement of the Cardium edule in its native seat, covering
at least one, but probably several, acres. The bed is at pre-
sent about the level of high water, or a little above it, while
the natural abode of the cockle, according to Mr Broderip, is
from the low-water line to a depth of 13 fathoms. . The con-
tinuity of the bed, its regular level, its remarkable unifor-
mity, its composition confined to a single species, and the state
of the shells, which are generally entire, and have the two
valves united, shew that they are in their native locality, and
prove that they could only have been raised to their present
elevation by an upheaval of the land. This upheaval must
have been to the extent at least of 18 feet, which is the differ-
ence betwixt high and low water, but very probably it was
twice as much ; for evidence of a change of level to the ex-
tent of 30 or 40 feet is found along both shores of the
Forth. Inundations of the sea, caused by storms, have been
called in to account for such deposits, but in my opinion
very inconsiderately. That a sudden and violent movement
On the Waters of the Dead Sea. 313
of the sea should sweep a bed of shells from its original lo-
eality, is intelligible enough; but that, while transporting
them over some hundred feet or yards, it should preserve
them unbroken, with the valves still united,—that the rush-
ing water, instead of ploughing up the dry land it invaded,
should smooth and level an area of more than an acre, then
spread out the shells upon it with mathematical regularity,
in an uninterrupted stratum of nearly uniform depth,—that,
finally, it should cover them with a bed of clay two or three
feet thick, and then withdraw ;—these seem to me to be effects
utterly irreconcilable with the known agency of floods. I
would as soon believe that the West India hurricane, instead
of levelling the planter’s house, transports it en masse, with
its walls, roof, and furniture all entire, from one end of a
field to the other.
On the Waters of the Dead Sea. By Mr Tuornton J.
HERAPATH, and WILLIAM HERAPATH, Esq., F'.G.S., Presi-
dent of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Society, and
Lecturer on Chemistry and Toxicology at the Bristol School
of Medicine, &§c., §e.*
The Dead Sea, or as it is called by the Arabs, Bahr Lout
(Lot’s Sea), though somewhat insignificant in size, has, never-
theless, in consequence of the extraordinary physical charac-
ter of its waters, and the awe and mystery which ancient
tradition has thrown around its history, attracted the atten-
tion of mankind from time immemorial. Under the several
appellations of the “ Salt Sea,” (Num. xxxiv. 3; Deut. iii. 17;
Josh. xv. 5); the “Sea of the Plains,” (Deut. iv. 49); and
the “ East Sea,” (Ezek. xlvii. 18 ; Joel ii. 20), frequent men-
tion of it is to be met with in the Holy Scriptures ; and, in
fact, it is now supposed to occupy the site of the cities of
Sodom and Gomorrah, the destruction of which, by the wrath
of the Almighty, is so graphically described in the eighteenth
chapter of Genesis. In the works of the Greek and Roman
* Extracted from the Memoir on the Waters of the Dead Sea, in No. VIII.
of the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society of London.
314 On the Waters of the Dead Sea.
authors, again, it is often referred to by the name of “ Lacus
Asphaltites,” or the “ Bituminous Lake,” and many remarks
upon the exceeding saltness of its waters, and the sterility
and desolate aspect of its shores, are to be found in the pages
of Tacitus and Pliny.* ,
The lake itself, as is well known to every person acquainted
with geography, is situated in the south of Palestine, at no
great distance from Jerusalem, and is principally supplied by
that venerated stream, the Jordan. Its breadth, it would
appear from a recent survey, undertaken by Messrs Moore
and Beke, in 1887, is about nine miles, and its length, accord-
ing to the same authorities, is thirty-nine or forty miles. The
latter, however, is found to vary considerably at different times
of the year, according to the extent of the influx derived from
the Jordan and other tributary rivers.t| The bottom these
gentlemen found to be rocky and of very unequal depth,
ranging 120, 180, 240, and even 480 feet, all within the dis-
tance of afew yards. With regard to its geological situation,
the lake lies in a deep basin, of an irregular oblong figure,
and is surrounded by steep cliffs of naked limestone, which,
on the western side, run up to the height of 1500, and on the
eastern to 2500 feet above the level of the water.
On the surface of the sea, there is often found floating an
immense quantity of asphaltum, which is generally carried
by the influence of the wind to the western and southern
shores, where it is carefully collected by the Arabs, who use
it as pitch and sell it for medicinal purposes. It was this
substance which seems to have been employed in ancient
times, by the Egyptians, to a very great extent, for embalm-
ing bodies. There are also several mines of sulphur and
rock-salt in the sides of the mountains on the western coast,
which not only afford supplies of those useful articles to the
Arabs, but even to the inhabitants of the Holy City. Indeed,
many travellers have stated that the remarkable saltness of
* Tacit. lib. v. Hist. cap. vi.; Strabonis Geogr. Plinii, lib. v. cap. xv, and
xvi.; see also vol. ii., p. 1107.
+ It is more than probable that its dimensions have become contracted in
modern times, as, if we may believe Josephus, at the period when he wrote, it
was 72 miles long, by 18 broad.
On the Waters of the Dead Sea. 315
the waters is principally occasioned by the existence of simi-
lar saline formations at the bottom of the sea. So deeply, in
fact, is the surrounding soil impregnated with this ingredient,
that few or no vegetables will grow there, and it is from this
circumstance, combined with the absence of all animal life,*
either in the waters or on the shore, that recent travellers
have conferred upon the lake the name “‘ Mare Mortuum,” or
the Dead Sea.
The water, like that of the sea, is stated to be of a deep
blue colour, shaded with green; but it is considerably more
salt, and intolerably nauseous and bitter to the taste. Rae
Wilson, who wrote some years ago, describes it to be not un-
like the Harrowgate waters in taste and smell, but more dis-
agreeable; although it approached more closely in character to
bilge-water. Its specific gravity is so great, that it is almost
impossible for a man to sink in it ; persons who are entirely
unacquainted with swimming, can lie or swim in it with the
greatest ease. Josephus relates that the Emperor Vespasian,
for the sake of an experiment, caused certain men to be
thrown into this sea, with their hands and feet bound with
cords, and they floated on the surface.
Bathers in this lake, however, experience a curious sensa-
tion of the eyes, which has been described by Mr Legh as
temporary blindness; and upon getting out of the water,
evaporation proceeds only very slowly, leaving a thick, oily
incrustation of salt adherent to the skin, which remains for
many days, as it is impossible to remove it completely, even
by repeated ablution.
Notwithstanding, however, that the most obvious pecu-
liarities of the waters of the Dead Sea have been known and
recognised for many ages, it has only been in comparatively
modern times that scientific men have attempted its chemical
examination. Within the present century, Lavoisier, Marcet,
Klaproth, Gay-Lussac, Gmelin, and Apjohn have each ana-
lysed it.
The celebrated Lavoisier experimented upon it in conjunc-
* Ehrenberg, as stated at page 188 of this volume of the Philosophical Jour-
nal, proves that living infusorial animals occur in the Dead Sea.—(Ldit. Ldin.
Phil. Jowrnal.)
316 On the Waters of the Dead Sea.
tion with his no less renowned countrymen MM. Maequier
and Sage,* in the year 1778 (vide Table). At that early
period, however, analytical chemistry had not attained to
such a degree of accuracy as that of which it is now suscep-
tible, and consequently there is little or no doubt but that
they must have overlooked many of the most important con-
stituents. The same remarks apply to all of the three ana-
lyses which follow next in the series ; namely, that of Dr
Marcet in 1807, of Professor Klaproth, and of M. Gay-Lussac
in 1818. The former of these analysts was, moreover, in-
convenienced by the smallness of the quantity which he ope-
rated upon, which did not amount to more than an ounce and
a half.
The great differences which are to be observed in Pro-
fessor Klaproth’s numbers (vide Table) as compared with
those obtained by the other two experimenters, according tu
Dr Marcet, are occasioned by that chemist having employed
too low a temperature for the purpose of desiccation.
The last two analyses of these waters that have been
published, are those by Professor Gmelin of Tiibingen, and
by Dr Apjohn of Dublin. The former appeared in the year
1826, and the latter in 1837 ; they are given in the synoptical
table at the end.+
On comparing the results of these six analyses, it will be
seen, that in no two instances do they agree either in the
proportion or composition of the contained salts. The two
latter, by Gmelin and Apjohn, are evidently the ones most
to be depended upon, for the reasons already stated; but
even between these, many very great differences occur. The
lower specific gravity of Apjohn’s specimen, which was occa-
sioned by its having been collected at the close of the rainy
season, and at about half a mile’s distance from the mouth of
the Jordan, may, it is true, partly account for these; but it
certainly will not explain the absence of the chlorides of
aluminum and ammonium, both of which were found by
* Mémoires de l’Academie des Sciences, p. 69.
+ An analysis by Dr R. Marchand appeared this year in the Journ. fiir Prakt.
Chem. B. xlvii. 353.—Ip,
On the Waters of the Dead Sea. 317
Gmelin, the former, particularly, in rather considerable
quantity. For these reasons, it was therefore obvious that
another analysis of the waters, performed with all the care
and precautions that are now usually employed in this species
of investigation, was absolutely necessary, in order that we
might be enabled to determine which of the above analyses
was the most trustworthy, or to point out the cause or causes
which led to the discrepancies observed. Consequently, when
Mr C. J. Monk, (son of the venerable Bishop of Gloucester
and Bristol), who has recently returned from a long journey
in Syria and the Holy Land, kindly offered to place at our
disposal for this purpose a bottle of the water, we most will-
ingly acceded to his proposal, with what result the following
pages must testify.
The specimen so presented to us was collected by Mr
Monk himself, on the 10th of March last, near the north-
western extremity of the lake, about half-a-mile from the
spot where the Jordan enters, but quite apart from all direct
influence arising from the stream of fresh water which flows
into it.
The water was perfectly clear and colourless, and did not
deposit any crystals on standing in closed vessels, even when
cooled considerably below its ordinary temperature. Its
taste, as we have before observed, was intensely bitter and
nauseous, and when swallowed, even in small quantity, it
produced a sensation bordering upon sickness. It possessed
no unpleasant odour. Its specific gravity, at 66° F., was
1:17205. The boiling-point, as determined in a glass vessel,
with the barometer at 29°74 inches, and the thermometer at
47°75°, was 221-75° F.* It did not exert any definite re-
action upon either blue or reddened litmus paper, proving
the absence of all uncombined acid and carbonated alkali ;
neither did it in the slightest degree affect acetate-of-lead
paper, as from Rae Wilson’s statement we should have ex-
pected it. Only the slightest perceptible opalescence was
produced in it upon boiling, or on the addition of an ammo-
* Ty Apjohn found that of his specimen to be 2217;
318 On the Waters of the Dead Sea.
niacal solution of chloride of calcium, when, in the latter case,
care was taken to add previously a sufficient quantity of
muriate of ammonia, to prevent the precipitation of the mag-
nesia. Consequently, only the faintest traces of carbonic
acid or carbonate of lime were present.
The chloride of gold test of Dupasquier gave unmistakeable
proofs of the existence of an abnormal proportion of organic
matter. Other reagents shewed that it likewise contained
magnesia or magnesium, lime, alumina, the oxides of iron,
and manganese, soda, potash and ammonia; also chlorine,
bromine, and sulphuric acid, with traces of silica, bitumen,
and iodine. The latter occurred only in exceedingly minute
proportion.
From the careful analyses of Messrs Thornton and Hera-
path, the specimen of the water of the Dead Sea, collected by
Mr Monk, gave the following result :—
Chloride of calcium . : : . 2°455055 per cent.
Chloride of magnesium . : ; 7°822007
Bromide of magnesium . : : 0°251173
Iodide of magnesium : 3 : doubtful traces
Chloride of sodium . : : - 12°109724 per cent.
Chloride of potassium : : : 1:217350—--
Chloride of ammonium. ; 5 0-005999
Chloride of aluminum. = ; 0°055944
Chloride of manganese. : : 0:005998
Chloride of iron . : : 0:002718
Organic matter parame 5 ? : 0:061730---
Nitric acid. : : : R very doubtful traces
Carbonate of lime . : : ; faint trace
Sulphate of lime. : : : 0067866 per cent.
Silica. : : : : traces
Bituminous matter . : : : ditto
24°055564
Total amount of salt. as determined by
actual experiment . : - 24048330
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( 320.)
On the Chronological Exposition of the Periods of Vegetation,
and the different Floras which have succeeded each other on
the Earth’s surface. According to the views of M. BRone-
NIART.
If, after having studied fossil vegetables, with respect to
their organization, and the manner of determining their rela-
tions, with vegetables actually existing, without attending to
the geological position which they occupy, we compare the
different forms which have inhabited the surface of the earth
at the different epochs of its formation, we shall find that
great differences are observable in the nature of the vege-
tables which have been successively developed, and which
replaced those which had been destroyed by the revolutions
of the globe, and changes in the physical state of its surface.
These are not merely specific differences, or slight modi-
fications of the same types, but often of a much more im-
portant character,—such as new genera or families replacing
genera and families destroyed and completely distinct ; or
rather, a numerous and varied family is reduced to a few
species, while another, which was faintly marked by a few
rare individuals, becomes all of a sudden numerous and pre-
dominating.
This is what is most commonly remarked in passing from
one geological formation to another ; but, when considering
these transformations as a whole, a more general and im-
portant result presents itself in an unquestionable manner,
namely, the predominance, in the most ancient periods, of
acrogenous-cryptogamous vegetables (Ferns and Lycopodia-
cee); later, the predominance of gymnospermous dicotyle-
dons (Cycadee and Coniferce), without any mixture hitherto
of angiospermous dicotyledons ; and, in the last place, during
the chalk formation, the appearance and speedy predomi-
nance of angiospermous vegetables, both dicotyledons and
monocotyledons. ‘These differences, so remarkable in the
composition of the vegetation of the earth, which I have long
since pointed out, and which all sound observations, of recent
date, appear to me to confirm, shew that we may divide the
a
¢
my
On the Different Floras of the liock-Formations. 321
long series of ages, during which this successive production
of the different forms of the vegetable kingdom has taken
place, into three long periods, which I shall call the reign of
the Acrogens, the reign of the Gymnosperms, and the reign of
the Angiosperms.
These expressions indicate nothing more than the succes-
sive predominance of each of these three great divisions of
the vegetable kingdom, and not the complete exclusion of the
others. Accordingly, in the two former, tlie Acrogens and
Gymnosperms exist simultaneously, only the former ‘at first
predominate over the second in number and size, while the
reverse takes place at a later period.
But, during these two reigns, the angiospermous vegetables
appear to me, on’ the contrary, either to be completely want-
ing, or announced only by a few rare indications of doubtful
character, and very different from their actual forms, mark-
ing rather the presence of certain monocotyledons, than that
of the angiospermous dicotyledons.
Each of these three kingdoms, thus characterised by the
predominance of one of the great divisions of the vegetable
kingdom, is most commonly subdivided into many periods,
during which very analogous forms, belonging to the same
families, and often to the same genera, are perpetuated.
Then these periods themselves comprehend many epochs,
during which vegetation does not appear to have undergone
any notable changes; but often materials are still wanting
to establish these latter subdivisions with precision, either
because the exact geological position of the beds enclosing
vegetable impressions is not well determined, or because the
division of the vegetable species in the different beds of the
same formation has not been carefully established. Accord-
ingly, I have no doubt that these different epochs, during
which vegetation has preserved its characters in an invariable
manner, will be much more multiplied than in the present
state of our knowledge, and when materials carefully col-
lected have accumulated on our hands.
At present, the following is the general division which I
think the case admits of—
VOL. XLVIII. NO. XOVI.—APRIL 1850. x
322 Reign of the Acrogens.
I. Reren oF THE AcrocEens.—lI. Carboniferous Period.
(Not susceptible of subdivision into distinct epochs in the present
state of our knowledge.)
Il. Permian Period.
(Forming only one epoch ?)
II. Reien or tHe Gymnosperms.—III. Vosgian Period.
(Constituting a single epoch.)
IV. Jurassic Period.
Keupric epoch—Lias epoch—Oolithic epoch— W ealdian epoch.
III. Reien or tHe AnciosperMs,—V. Cretaceous Period.
Sub-cretaceous epoch—Cretaceous epoch—F ucoidian epoch.
VI. Tertiary Period.
Eocene epoch—Miocene epoch—Pliocene epoch.
Passing these various epochs in review, I shall enumerate
the different species of fossil plants which have been observed
in the formations which correspond tothem. In the carboni-
ferous period, I shall merely indicate the genera and the ap-
proximate number of the species contained in each of these
genera, the characters of the vegetation of this period being
very strongly marked, and depending essentially on the na-
ture of the genera. The number of species, particularly in
the genera numerous in species, cannot be very strictly de-
termined, because many of those described by authors would
require further examination, and many of them are designated
only nominally, not having been either described or figured.
In the other periods, I shall give, as far as possible, a com-
plete list of the species described as belonging to each par-
ticular epoch, because the same genera being pretty fre-
quently continued during many successive epochs, the differ-
ences depend in a great measure on specific distinctions.
1. REIGN OF THE ACROGENS.—The great predominance of
the section of Acrogens, and particularly the families of Ferns
and Lycopodiacez, the considerable number of the species of
the former of these families, the great development of the
vegetables of the second, and the arborescent form of the
Lepidodendrons, are the most prominent characters of this
epoch ; but to these must be added the presence of families
Carboniferous Period. 323
altogether anomalous, which we rank in the department of
the Gymnosperms, but which evidently differ from the actually
existing families of that department. These families have
ceased to exist at the end of this reign of the Acrogens, which
is, at the same time, that of the anomalous Gymnosperms,
Sigillarie, Neeggerathie, and Asterophyllitee.
1. Carboniferous Period.—This long period commences with
the appearance of the first terrestrial vegetables deposited in
certain beds of the Transition-class, and extends to the new
red sandstone which covers the coal-formation. In fact,
throughout the whole of this period, there is no important
difference among the vegetable forms; they consist of the
same families, the same genera, and often the same species ;
and, in the present state of our knowledge on this subject, a
flora of the vegetables of the Transition-class does not differ
more from that of a true coal-formation, than the floras of
different beds of the same coal-basin, or those of different
coal-basins in near neighbourhood, differ from one another.
I may observe, besides, that the real epoch of many of the
formations considered as Transition, which include coal-beds,
with impressions of vegetables, is often imperfectly deter-
mined, and is either doubted, or still under discussion, by
geologists; that many of these are perhaps nothing more
than true coal-formations, accompanied by rocks modified by
metamorphic phenomena, and that, as long as we cannot
with certainty refer these formations to such as are well de-
fined, under the names of Devonian, Silurian, or Cambrian
formations, the specific comparison of their fossil vegetables
with those of the coal-formations cannot be attended with any
useful result.
The only coal-formations, considered by many distinguished
geologists as more ancient than the ordinary coal-formation,
which are very rich in fossil vegetables, are those on the
banks of the Lower Loire, between Angers and Nantes. But
the impressions they contain are all referable, without ex-
ception, to the ordinary coal-formations, and, taken as a
whole, they furnish no character capable of distinguishing
them from the latter.
I may add, that, very recently, some observations made on
324 Different Floras of the Rock-Formations.
a carboniferous formation of very ancient date, since it is
covered by beds containing fossil animals characteristic of the
silurian formation, confirm this opinion as to the extension
of the coal-vegetation to the commencement of the Transi-
tion-class. In fact, I find, in a memoir by M. Sharpe, on the
Geology of the Neighbourhood of Oporto, that pretty thick
and numerous beds of coal, which cover slates with trilobites,
orthites, orthocerates, graptolites, &c., contain some impres-
sion of plants, and these impressions all of ferns, although
somewhat imperfect, appear, according to M. Bunbury, iden-
tical with, or very closely allied to, well-known species of
the ordinary coal-formation. These are, Pecopteris cyathea
and muricata, and Neuropteris tenutfolia.
What I have said as to formations which appear more an-
cient than the coal-formation applies equally to the red
sandstone which covers it; the fossils, which I have seen
from thence, differ in no respect from those of the upper
beds of the coal-formation, properly so called.
But if the vegetation of our globe has maintained itself
without undergoing great changes during the whole of this
period. it is not less certain that there have often been very
decided changes in the species during the deposition of these
different beds. Thus, in the same coal-basin, each bed often
incloses some characteristic species, which are not found
either in the more ancient or more recent beds, and which
the miners have learned to regard as a distinctive mark of
these beds.
M. Graeser, at Eschweiler, has carefully observed’ this
fact, and pointed it out tome. At St Etienne, in like man-
ner, I have determined it in many of the beds mined in that
basin. To give an example, I may state that the beds in
this basin which appear to be the lowest, contain abundance
of Odontopteris Brardii, with very large pinnules, ‘without
a trace of any other Odontopteris; while the upper beds of
the excavations of Treuil very frequently present’ us’ with
Odontopteris minor, without intermixture of any other ‘spe-
cies. In general, each bed of coal is accompanied only by
the remains of a somewhat limited number ‘of ‘vegetables.
Sometimes this number, particularly in the ‘most ancient
Carboniferous Period. 325
beds, is extremely limited, and appears scarcely to reach eight
or ten. In other cases, and more generally in the middle and
Superior beds, this number becomes more considerable, but I
believe that it very rarely surpasses from thirty to forty spe-
cies. We perceive that each of these small local and tempo-
rary floras, which here give rise to a bed of coal, is extremely
limited. We observe something of the same kind in our
own day in the case of extensive forests, particularly such as
are composed of Conifer, where one or two species of trees
cover with their shade only four or five different phenoga-
mous plants and a few mosses.
But, in order to know whether these small floras, thus
limited with regard to time and space, characterise so many
special epochs in the vegetation of the globe, it is necessary
to determine their succession in many of the principal coal-
basins of Europe, and to notice if the nature of the vegetation
is modified in the same manner in these different basins ; if, in
a word, vegetation in different countries was everywhere the
same at the same epoch, or if it was subjected to local varia-
tions, analogous to those which now distinguish the vegeta-
tion of a forest of Pinus sylvestris of Germany, of a forest of
Abies taxifolia of the Vosges, Picea excelsa of the Jura, or
Pinus pinaster of the Landes.
Iam persuaded that this examination, if performed in a
somewhat perfect manner, would shew that there are some
general changes owing to the succession of the seasons, such
as the predominance of certain genera, or of certain specific
forms, combined with other differences altogether local, or to
be ascribed to the influence of geographical position.
It accordingly appears to me to be the result of many local
observations, that the Lepidodendrons are more abundant in
the ancient beds than in the superior beds of the greater part
of the'coal-formations ; that the true Calamites are often in
the same, condition ; that the Sigillarice would appear to pre-
dominate in the middle and superior beds ; that the Astero-
phyllites, and particularly the Annuaria, are found much
more abundantly in the superior beds; that, it is the same
with the Conifere ; and it is only in the superior beds of St
326 Different Iloras of the Rock-Formations.
Etienne, Autun, &c., that branches have been found, at least
in France.
But these facts, which I state with much diffidence, as the
result of observations made by me in the different coal-basins
of France, have so much the more need of being generalised
by observations made in other localities where the position
of the beds is frequently surrounded with much obscurity, and
differently designated by the most distinguished geologists.
After enumerating the genera of fossils belonging to the
carboniferous period, and indicating the number of species
supposed to be determined, amounting to 500, M. Brongniart
continues :—
‘What strikes us most forcibly, is the small number of
vegetables which constituted this flora of the ancient world.
It is true that this enumeration of the fossil vegetables of the
carboniferous period contains scarcely any others than those
of the coal-formation of Europe. A considerable number,
however, have been brought from North America, and the
observations hitherto made upon them shew that the greater
part of the species are identical with those of Europe.
Thus, while this enumeration does not exceed 500 species,
the existing flora of Europe comprehends upwards of 6000
Phenerogams ; that of Germany, or rather Central Europe
alone, more than 5000; and, if we include the Cryptogams,
these numbers will rise to at least 11,000, and 9000 for Cen-
tral Europe alone.
The flora of the carboniferous period comprehended, there-
fore, at most, a twentieth part of the number of vegetables
now growing on the surface of Europe ; and this number of
species, moreover, corresponds to a long period during which
diverse species succeeded each other, so that we may admit,
with much probability, that never more than 100 species ex-
isted simultaneously. We thus perceive what was the poverty,
and especially the uniformity of this vegetation, with regard
more particularly to the number of species, compared with
the abundance and variety of the forms of the present period.
The complete absence of the ordinary Dicotyledons or An-
giosperms, and the almost equally complete absence of the
Monocotyledons, sufficiently explain this low state of the
Carboniferous Period. 327
ancient flora; for at the present time these two departments
of the vegetable kingdom form at least four-fifths of the
whole living species known. But the families, so few in num-
ber, existing at this period, absolutely contain many more
species than they now do, as existing on the surface of Europe.
Thus the Ferns of the coal-formation in Europe comprehend
about 250 different species, and all Europe now produces
only 50 species.
In like manner, the Gymnosperms, which at the present
time in Europe comprehend only about 25 species of Coni-
feree and Ephedree, then contained upwards of 120 species
of very dissimilar forms.
These families, existing alone, and much more numerous
than they now are in the same climates, if we embrace
the whole carboniferous period, were still more remarkable
on account of the different forms under which they presented
themselves. Thus, among the Cryptogams, we remark genera
of Ferns now completely destroyed, and numerous arborescent
species: Préles (reeds?) or allied vegetables almost arbor-
escent; Lycopodiacez, forming gigantic trees, all forms at
present unknown, either throughout the whole world, or at
least in the temperate zones.
Among the vegetables which we classify along with the
Gymnospermous Dicotyledons the differences are still more
decided ; for they constitute families completely extinct since
that period ; such are the Sigillariz, Nceggerathie, and the
Asterophyllitez.
The characters of the vegetation during the carboniferous
period may be thus briefly stated :—
The complete absence of Angiospermous Dicotyledons:
The complete, or almost complete, absence of Monocoty-
ledons :
The predominance of Acrogenous Cryptogams, unusual
forms, and such as are now destroyed, in the families of Ferns,
Lycopodiacex, and Equisetacez :
The great development of Gymnospermous Dicotyledons,
but resulting from the existence of families completely de-
stroyed, not only in the present day, but from the end of this
period.
328 Different Floras of the Rock- Formations.
Does this vegetation, thus reduced to the forms which we
are led to consider as the most simple and least perfect,
owe this special nature to a first phase of development in the
organization of the vegetable kingdom, which had. not, yet
attained the perfection which it afterwards reached ; or. is
it owing to the influence of the physical conditions under
which the surface of the earth was then placed? These are
questions we cannot answer.
I shall merely remind the reader that I have already
pointed out the analogy which this predominance of Acro-
genous Cryptogams establishes between the vegetation of
this first period, and that of the small islands of the equato-
rial and southern temperate zone, in which the maritime cli-
mate reaches its highest degree.
However, this predominance is not such as to entail, as
during the carboniferous period, the exclusion of phanero-
gamous vegetables, and this complete exclusion would seem
more favourable to the idea of a gradual development. of the
vegetable kingdom.
Lastly, we are not sufficiently acquainted stith the influence
of the nature of the atmosphere on the life of vegetables,
when it is prolonged during their whole existence, to know
whether considerable differences. in the composition of this
atmosphere, and in particular the very probable presence of
a much greater proportion of carbonic acid, might not favour
the existence of certain classes of the vegetable kingdom,
and be opposed to that of other groups.
I shall terminate this glance at the vegetation of the car-
boniferous period, by remarking, that the coal-formation,
which is almost the only one containing these remains, is --
evidently a terrestrial formation and from fresh water ; that >
the beds of coal which it contains are the result of the accu- a
mulation on the place of the remains of vegetables which .
covered the surface after the manner of layers of turf onthe» j
soil of great forests; that it is only in exceptional circum=: a
stances that these beds alternate with beds containing the» 4
remains of marine animals, and may be considered as-result=" .
ing from the transportation into the sea of the terrestrial,
vegetables which are found there. )
Carboniferous Period. 329
This vegetation of the great carboniferous period disap-
peared almost completely along with it; the Permian period
which succeeded it, presents only a kind of residuum of it, al-
ready deprived of the greater part of its most characteristic
genera, and during the vosgian, or variegated sandstone
period, we no longer find any trace of it.
T cannot terminate this account of the vegetation of the
carboniferous period, without saying a few words respecting
the incomprehensible exception to this regular and uniform
distribution of the fossil vegetables, presented by the anthrax-
iferous formations of the Alps, if they really belong to the
epoch of the lias, as is admitted by M. Elie de Beaumont, as
well as by many other distinguished geologists, who concur in
his opinion. I cannot here discuss the reasons derived from
geological observations properly so called, which have led M.
de Beaumont to this conclusion. Iam well aware of the weight
which the precise and well-directed observations of my learned
friend have in the science. But when we consider that the
researches undertaken by so many men of science and col-
lectors have shewn that the vegetables contained in these
beds are, without exception, those of the coal epoch, without
the mixture of a single fragment of the fossil vegetables of
the lias, of the jurassic period, of the keuper or variegated
anomalous sandstone, we ask in vain what explanation can be
given of this singular fact, and whether the shells. so few in
number, which have particularly contributed to cause these
formations to be referred to the jurassic period, are a very
positive proof of this geological position. Their small num-
ber, their state of preservation so imperfect that their specific
determination is either impossible or doubtful,—do these cir-
cumstances admit of more value being assigned to them than
to this assemblage of numerous vegetables, the greater part
easily determined as to species, which are found in the an-
thracitic beds? In 18281 gave a list of these fossils, contain-
ing 25 species, 20 of which were specifically determined, and
all identical with the species of the coal-formation. M. Bun-
bury has undertaken a similar task with regard to the col-
lections deposited'in the museum of Turin; he has come to
the same result. I may add that, many years ago, l received
330 Sir William Hamilton’s Remarks on
from M. Scipion Gras, Chief Engineer of the Mines of Gre-
noble, collections of fossils from the mines of Lamure and
Tarentaise, which comprehend upwards of 40 species, among
which a great number belong to the most characteristic ge-
nera of the coal-formation. Such are the Sigillariz, eight
or nine in number, five of which are well determined, the
Stigmaria ficoides, three Lepidodendron, a Lepidophiloios, the
Annularia longifolia and brevifolia ; in a word, the entire coal
vegetation, such as it presents itself at St Etienne or Alais.
With regard to the explanation derived from transporta-
tion from remote regions, where this vegetation is maintained,
it becomes less admissible every day in proportion as the
number of specimens increases, and we perceive that there
does not occur a single example of vegetables peculiar to the
lias period mingled with them.
(To be concluded in our neat Number.)
Remarks on Dr Morton’s Tables on the Size of the Brain. By
Sir WILLIAM HamMILToN, Bart., Professor of Logic and
Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Communi-
cated by the Author.
{Having laid a copy of Dr Morton’s Tables, at page 262 of
the present Number of this Journal, before my friend and col-
league, Sir W. Hamilton, who has been long engaged in re-
searches into the natural history of the brain of man, he
kindly sent me the following important remarks, which I
have great pleasure in communicating to the readers of the
Philosophical Journal. They are, I hope, percursors of more
extended observations from the same distinguished philo-
sopher] :—dit. Ed. N. P. Journas.
* What first strikes me in Dr Morton’s tables completely
invalidates his conclusions,—he has not distinguished male
from female crania. Now,as the female encephalos is, on an
average, some four ounces troy less than the male, it is im-
possible to compare national skulls with national skulls, in
Dr Morton on the Size of the Brain. 331
respect of their capacity, unless we compare male with male,
female with female heads, or, at least, know how many of
either sex go to make up the national complement.
*« A ridiculous blunder of this kind is made by Mr Sims, in
his paper and valuable correlative table of the weight of 253
brains (Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. xix.). He there
attacks the result of my observation (published by Dr Monro,
Anatomy of the Brain, &c., 1831)—that the human encephalos
(brain proper and after-brain) reaches its full size by seven
years of age, perhaps somewhat earlier. In refutation of this
paradox, he slumps the male and female brains together ;
and because he finds, that the average weight of his adults,
among whom the males are greatly the more numerous, is
larger than the average weight of his impuberals, among
whom the females preponderate, he jumps at once to the
conclusion, that I am wrong, and that the encephalos con-
tinues to grow, to diminish, and to grow again (!), for—t for-
get how long after the period of maturity. Fortunately,
along with his crotchets, he has given the detail of his weigh-
ings ; and his table, when properly arranged, confutes him-
self, and superfluously confirms me. That is, comparing the
girls with the women, and the boys with the men, it appears,
from his own induction, that the cranial contents do reach
the average amount even before the age of seven.
“ Tiedemann (Das Hirn des Negers, &c., 1837, p. 4) notes
the contradiction of Sims’s result and mine ; but he does not
solve it. The same is done, and not done, by Dr Bostock, in
his Physiology. Tiedemann, however, remarks, that his own
observations coincide with mine (p. 10) ; as is, indeed, evident
from his table (p. 11) “of the cranial capacity from birth
to adolescence,” though, unfortunately, in that table, but in
that alone, he has not discriminated the sex.
«Dr Morton’s conclusion, as to the comparative size of the
Negro brain, is contrary to Tiedemann’s larger, and to my
smaller, induction ; which concur in proving, that the Negro
encephalos is not less than the European, and greatly larger
than the Hindoo, the Ceylonese, and sundry other Asiatic
brains. But the vice, already noticed, of Dr Morton’s induc-
332 Sir William Hamilton’s Remarks on
tion, renders it, however extensive, of no cogency in the
question.
“ Dr Morton’s method of measuring the capacity of the era-
nium, is, certainly, no ‘ invention’ of his friend Mr Philips,
being, in either form, only a clumsy and unsatisfactory modi-
fication of mine. Tiedemann’s millet-seed affords, likewise,
only an inaccurate approximation to the truth; for seeds, as
found by me, vary in weight according to the drought and
moisture of the atmosphere, and are otherwise ill adapted to
recover the size of the brain in the smaller animals. The
physiologists who have latterly followed the method of fill-
ing the cranium, to ascertain the amount of the cranial con-
tents, have adopted, not without perversion, one-half of my
process, and altogether omitted the other. After rejecting
mustard-seed, which I first thought of employing, and for the
reasons specified, I found that pure siliceous sand was the
best mean of accomplishing the purpose, from its suitable
ponderosity, incompressibility, and equality of weight in all
weathers. Tiedemann (p. 21) says, that he did not employ
sand, ‘ because, by its greater specific gravity, it might
easily burst the cranial bones at the sutures.’ He would,
by trial, have found that this objection is futile. The thin-
nest skull of the youngest infant can resist the pressure of
sand, were it many times greater than it is ; even Morton’s
lead shot proved harmless in this respect. But, while
nothing could answer the purpose better than sand, still this
afforded only one, and that an inadequate, mean towards
an end. Another was requisite. By weighing the brain of
a young and healthy convict, who was hanged, and afterwards
weighing the sand which his prepared cranium contained, I
determined the proportion of the specific gravity of cerebral
substance (which in all ages and animals is nearly equal), to
the specifie gravity of the sand which was employed. I thus
obtained a formula by which to recover the original weight
of the encephalos in all the crania which were filled; and
hereby brought brains weighed and skulls gauged into a uni-
versal relation. On the contrary, the comparisons of Tiede-
mann and Morton, as they stand, are limited to their own
Dr Morton on the Size of the Brain. 333
tables. 1 have once and again tested the accuracy of this
process, by experiment, in the lower animals, and have thus
perfect confidence in the accuracy of its result, be the pro-
blem to recover the weight of the encephalos, from the
cranium of a sparrow or from the cranium of an elephant.
“IT may conclude by saying, that I have now established,
apart from the proof by averages, that the human encephalos
does not increase after the age of seven, at highest. This has
been done, by measuring the heads of the same young per-
sons, from infancy to adolescence and maturity ; for the slight
inerease in the size of the head, after seven (or Six), 1S ex-~
hausted by the development to be allowed in the bones,
muscles, integuments, and hair.”
Analysis of the Anthracite of the Calton Hill, Edinburgh.
By Dr A. VoELCKHR, Professor of Chemistry in the
Agricultural College, Cirencester. Communicated by
the Author.*
We are in possession of analyses of anthracite from seve-
ral localities, and we have learned by them, that the composi-
tion of this mineral, like that of coal, varies very much ac-
cording to the locality where it is found; so that there are
scarcely two localities which furnish anthracite of exactly
the same composition.
All samples of anthracite which have been analysed, have
been found to contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and more or less inorganic matter, as well as sulphur (at
least where it has been looked for), in a proportion which dif-
fers but slightly from that in which it occurs in common coal.
Generally speaking, the per-centage of carbon is larger in
anthracite than in common coal, whilst hydrogen predo-
minates in the latter; and we find, likewise, that the more
the anthracitic character of a sample is pronounced, the
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 4th Mareh 1850,
334 Dr A. Voelcker on the
greater is the deviation from the composition of common
coal. On the other hand, the more an anthracite resembles
common coal in its physical character, the closer is the ap-
proximation to the latter in chemical composition. The sul-
phur which has been found in every specimen of anthracite
in which it has been sought for, is generally considered as ex-
isting in it as well as in coal, in combination with iron, as
iron pyrites, but the subjoined results shew that the sulphur
found in anthracite does not always occur in the form of
iron pyrites, but is, in part at least, in combination with
the organic elements of the mineral. In the following ana-
lyses the greatest care was taken to deprive the anthracite
of any hygroscopic water, by keeping it finely powdered in a
glass tube, at a temperature of about 230° F., and passing
over it a current of dry air for several hours.
The per-centage of carbon was ascertained by burning from
three to four grains with a mixture of oxide of copper and
oxide of lead, and the simultaneous application of oxygen gas,
in order to secure complete combustion of the carbon. The
oxygen, for that purpose, was disengaged from chlorate of
potash, mixed with pure oxide of copper, and placed at the
closed end of the combustion-tube. A mixture of the oxides of
copper and lead possesses the advantage over pure oxide of
copper, of being much less hygroscopic ; for that reason it is
peculiarly adapted for combustions in which the exact amount
of hydrogen is to be ascertained. The nitrogen was deter-
mined according to Will and Varrentrapp’s method, by heat-
ing the finely-powdered anthracite with soda-lime in the
usual way.
For the determination of ash about 10 grains were burned
in a platina capsule. The ash was coloured red by oxide of
iron.
The proportion of sulphur was ascertained by introducing,
into a red-hot crucible, a mixture of anthracite with carbonate
of soda and nitre, in small quantities at a time, and heating
the whole afterwards a little more strongly. The resulting
fused and perfectly white mass was dissolved in water, super-
saturated with hydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid then
precipitated with chloride of barium.
So ee ny olin ee ee ee ee ee
Anthracite of the Calton Hill. 335
According to the different results obtained, the composition
of the anthracite of the Calton Hill is :—
Carbon =ONezc
Hydrogen = 2:91
Nitrogen = 0°59
Oxygen = 1:26
Sulphur = 2°96
Ash = 1:05
100-00
For comparison with this analysis, I subjoin a few analyses
of anthracite from different localities.
= ®
actaliiatisisd tien ftoud adished
3 es 5 z <
From Lamure, Isére Depart-
ment, according to Jacque- , : ; , i
lin (Annal. de Chimie et ( {5977 | 1°67 | 363 | 036 | 457
de Phys. lxxiy., 200),
From Sablé, Sarthe Depart- 87-22 | 2-49 | 1-08 | 231 | 6-90
ment,
From Vizille, eons, Depart- 94-09 | 1-85 Py 2:85 | 1-90
ment,
ah, another locality i in Tees 94:00 | 1-49 hes 0-58 | 4-00
epartment,
Anthracite from Pembroke-
shire, according to Schaf-
hautl, Lond. & Edin. Phil.
Mag. xvii., 215,
From Coalbrook in Carmar- 90°58 | 3-60 | 3:81 | 0-29 | 1-72
thenshire,
Anthracite from Wales, . 91°44 | 3°46 | 2°58 | 0-21 | 1°52
94°100, 2:390 | 1°336| 0°874/) 1°300
eee es FFs —
Sulphur,
0-79
The last analysis is taken from Sir Henry de la Beche and
Dr L. Playfair’s Coal Report, the others from Hausmann’s
Mineralogy.
The most remarkable peculiarity of the anthracite of the
Oalton Hill is the comparatively large quantity of sulphur
which it contains. By far the greater portion of this sul-
336 Dr A. Voeleker on the..
phur must have been-in combination with the organic. ele-
ments of anthracite; for, even supposing the whole of the
ash to consist of oxide of iron, the quantity of iron would
still be too small to combine with all the sulphur. I am not
aware that attention has been drawn to the fact of sulphur
occurring in anthracite in organic combination ; but a little
consideration, I think, will shew that such a compound may
exist in nature, as we can prepare artificially, similar com-
binations. It is well known that, in preparing sulphide of
carbon, by passing sulphur in vapour over red-hot charcoal,
the charcoal which remains in the vessel in which the experi-
ment has been made, contains sulphur in such a state of com-
bination that it cannot be expelled by heat, provided the air
be excluded. According to Prout, a similar combination, of
sulphur with carbon is easily obtained by washing on a filter
common gunpowder with water till all the nitre is removed,
and heating the insoluble part of the gunpowder in a retort ;
some of the sulphur will distil off, and part of it remain in
combination with the charcoal in the retort. This sulphur,
and the nitrogen, which is always found in anthracite, tes-
tify in favour of the vegetable origin of this mineral, and
appear to support the opinion of those who regard it as the
carbon-remains of organized bodies of the oldest formation,
in which the process of carbonification has proceeded still
farther than in coals.
At all events, the above analysis furnishes an additional
proof of the erroneous notion of former naturalists, who re-
garded anthracite as primitive carbon. This notion, pro-
bably, has arisen from the fact, that anthracite, exposed toa
ved heat, produces no hydrocarbons like coals, and that it re-
sembles carbon likewise, inasmuch as it is consumed by fire
almost entirely, leaving but a small proportion of mineral
matter.in the form of ash behind. The loss incurred’ by
incineration of anthracite was generally calculated as carbon
by, chemists, before the present. methods of analysing organic |
substances were.known. Some observers, however, inferred)
that water existed in a state of chemical combination in an-
thracite, as appears from a statement of Lampadius, in an
able paper on. the Anthracite of Schénfeld in Saxony, which
sub Jot
a
i
Anthracite of the Calton Hill. 337
appeared in Erdmann’s Journal der Chemie, 1835, 4th Bd.,
p. 393. By a careful observer like Lampadius, the presence
of sulphur and nitrogen in anthracite was not overlooked.
He likewise examined all the products of its dry distillation,
and obtained, besides water, a mixture of gases, which con-
sisted of carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide,
and nitrogen.
Similar results were obtained on analysis of two varieties
of anthracite from North America, which Professor Brei-
thaupt of Freiberg procured for him. These samples, from
Manchchunk in North America, and from Rhode Island, are
described by Professor Breithaupt as remarkably fine an-
thracite. The imperfections of the analytical methods at
that time, however, led Lampadius to draw false conclusions
from his analytical results, and induced him to consider all
anthracites as hydrates; but we know at present that the
hydrogen and oxygen in anthracite are not united as water.
Though mistaken in his quantitative analyses, Lampadius,
nevertheless, has the credit of having pointed out the quali-
tative composition of several varieties of anthracite more ac-
eurately than any chemist who examined this mineral before
him. In all samples he detected carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and sulphur, besides the ash, or the same substances
which were found to enter into the composition of the anthra-
cite of the Calton Hill.
On the Possible Derivation of the Diamond from Anthracite and
Graphite. By Dr GzorGE WILson, F.R.S.E.* Commu-
nicated by the Author.
The recent analysis by Dr Voelcker of the anthracite of
the Calton Hill, which some mineralogists had thought en-
titled to the name of carbon, as not sensibly differing from
graphite, led me, though dissenting from that view, to spe-
* Rend before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 4th March 1850.
VOL, XLVILI. NO. XCVI.—APRIL 1850. ¥
338 Dr George Wilson on the Possible Derivation of
culate on the possibility of anthracite being converted into
transparent crystalline carbon. Anthracite itself seems al-
ways to contain hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, as well as
sulphur and fixed inorganic matter. Some specimens of the
mineral, indeed, do not contain more than 70 per cent. of car-
bon, although the majority contain about 90, and some nearly
95 per cent. of that substance. It cannot, therefore, be ranked
along with graphite and the diamond, as a variety of pure
carbon ; but there seem some very significant reasons for
thinking that it may be a substance from which the diamond
is developed. I speak on this point as a chemist, assuming
that there are no such difficulties of a geological or minera-
logical kind, opposed to the supposition that anthracite may
erystallise into the diamond, as forbid the entertainment of
such a view. So little, indeed, is known concerning the ori-
ginal matrix, or earliest geological or mineralogical situs of
the diamond, that we are free, within very wide limits, to
speculate on the origin of this gem. Little, however, has
been recently contributed to our hypotheses concerning the
production of the diamond. Chemists have pretty generally
abandoned the subject, for a time at least, and have been
content to draw attention to the supposed fact, that carbon is
neither fusible nor vaporizable,* and that it crystallises from
* The late Mr Kenneth Kemp, whose ingenuity was inexhaustible, endea-
voured to crystallise carbon from its vapour, by producing the voltaic are (or
so-called electric light) between charcoal-points, within the Torricellian va-
cuum. It may, perhaps, be questioned whether carbon was truly vaporised in
this experiment, or only detached in the state of minute particles from the in-
tensely heated charcoal ; at all events, it did not crystallise, but deposited itself
as impalpable soot on the sides of the barometer tube. Professor Silliman
senior, made similar but independent experiments many years ago, and wit-
nessed, as he believed, the true fusion and volatilisation of carbon, but did not
obtain it in distinct or transparent crystals. He has lately redirected atten-
tion to these observations. (American Journal of Science and Arts, November
1849, p. 413.)
M. Despretz has recently exposed charcoal to the combined influence of a
powerful voltaic current, the concentrated rays of the sun and the blow-pipe.
Small needles of anthracite, exposed to this triple source of intense heat, seemed
to fuse, and permitted drops to fall from them, which, when received on a pla-
tina capsule, appeared as minute black globules. (Comptes Rendus, 18th Juin
oe ee ee
» LE egnpo4
Ws, eee
the Diamond from Anthracite and Graphite. 339
melted cast-iron (the solitary liquid which dissolves it in any
quantity) as graphite, not as diamond ; so that we are appa-
rently precluded from supposing that it can have been ob-
tained, by any of the three processes by which we ordinarily
erystallise bodies artificially, and have reason to believe they
are crystallised in nature.
To Liebig alone, so far as I know, among recent chemists,
we are indebted for the publication of a new theory of the
origin of diamonds. After explaining the slow oxidation, or
eremacausis, as he names it, of woody fibre, when it is un-
dergoing decay, he points out that the other elements of the
wood are removed in much greater proportion than the car-
bon, which comes to preponderate more and more the fur-
ther decay has proceeded. He then adds: “ If we suppose
decay to proceed in a /iguid containing carbon and hydrogen,
then a compound with still more carbon must be formed, in
a manner similar to the production of the crystalline colour-
less napthalin from a gaseous compound of carbon and hy-
drogen. And if the compound thus formed were itself to
undergo farther decay, the final result must be the separa-
tion of carbon in a crystalline form.
* Science can point to no process capable of accounting
for the origin and formation of diamonds, except the process
of decay. Diamonds cannot be produced by the action of
fire ; for a high temperature, and the presence of oxygen gas,
would call into play their combustibility. But there is the
greatest reason to believe that they are formed in the humid
way, that is, in a liquid; and the process of decay is the only
cause to which their formation can with probability be
ascribed.’’*
Liebig’s theory thus implies that the diamond is formed
————$ $$
1849, p. 755.) These globules may only have been the ash of the anthracite,
coloured by contained charcoal ; if they were pure carbon, they probably con-
sisted of graphite, for their colour forbids the conclusion that they were minute
diamonds. M. Jacqueline has shewn that the diamond, when suddenly exposed
to the intense heating power of voltaic electricity, changes into coke or gra-
phite. Other chemists have sought for special solvents of carbon, and may yet
be successful in their search.
* Agric, Chem.,, p. 341,
340° Dr George Wilson on the Possible Derivation of
by the slow spontaneous decomposition of a liguid compound
of carbon. isd
My present object is to urge, that, in addition to this and:
similar views, we are free to inquire whether carbon may:
not be crystallised from graphite and amorphous carbon, or
from one of its solid compounds, without passing through an
intermediate condition of fluidity.
Professor Jameson long ago suggested that the diamond
was of vegetable origin ; but I have not been able to procure’
his original paper. Sir David Brewster also read a commu-
nication to this Society in 1820, on the occurrence, in some
diamonds, of a polarising structure, occasioned by the ex-
istence within them of small portions of air, “the expansive
force of which has communicated a polarising structure to
the parts in immediate contact with the air.’ This struc-
ture, Sir David thinks, “can arise only from the expansive
force exerted by the included air on the diamond, when it
was in such a soft state as to be susceptible of compression
from so small a force. That this compressible state of the
diamond could not arise from the action of heat, is mani-
fest from the nature and recent formation of the soil in
which it is found: that it could not exist in a mass formed
by aqueous deposition, is still more obvious; and hence we
are led to the conclusion, rendered probable by other analo-
gies, that the diamond originates, like amber, from the con-
solidation of perhaps vegetable matter, which gradually ac-
quires a crystalline form by the influence of time and the
slow action of corpuscular forces.”*
Sir David Brewster and Liebig are thus, to some extent, at
issue. The latter thinking “that there is the greatest rea-
son to believe that diamonds are formed in the humid way ;”
the former contending that “ they cannot have been formed
by aqueous deposition.”
“In extension of these speculations, I would suggest the’
probability of anthracite being one of the substances most!
likély 'to erystallise into the diamond. It does not'seem‘ne-
cessary, however, to adopt Sir Dayid’s view, that the diamond
* Edin, Phil. Jour., 1820, pp. 99-1005 415 54
halt FELLER AE A AB ok
‘the Diamond from Anthracite and Graphite. 341
must. once have been soft, because specimens containing air-
bells exhibit a polarising structure around those bubbles ; for,
as the author himself points out, a similar structure may be
developed in glass, “ by a compressing force propagated cir-
cularly from a point ;” and a solid mass of carbon contracting
in dimensions whilst it became transparent, would, if I mis:
take not, have a similar structure developed in it, around any
bubbles of gas which it might inclose. Taking for granted,
then, that it is not necessary, in a theory of the origin of the
diamond, to provide for its once having been soft,* the fol-
lowing reasons may be assigned for supposing that anthra-
cite is more likely than other compounds of carbon to yield
the diamond.
1st, Anthracite, as it occurs in nature, is described by the
mineralogist, as passing, by insensible gradations, into com-
mon coal on the one hand, and into graphite or pure carbon
on the other; so that it may be regarded as marking the
transition from fossilized vegetable matter to uncombined
earbon. In speaking thus, I do not seek to affirm that, in
every locality, anthracite can be shewn to have been derived
from coal and to be passing into graphite; but this can be
demonstrated for many anthracites, and may be extended to.
all, if it be conceded that, from the less bituminous coals on-
wards to graphite, we have a series of chemical compounds
in which the proportion of carbon constantly increases till
it excludes every other organic constituent, whilst the ma-
jority are ranked by the mineralogist under the common title
of anthracite.
2d, Anthracite consists in greater part of carbon, some-
times containing nearly 95 per cent. of it.
3d, The other constituents of anthracite, with the excep=
tion of the ash, which is often under 1 per cent., form vola-
tile compounds with each other and with the oxygen of the
air, There is thus a provision, in the spontaneous slow oxi-
dation of anthracite by air, for depriving it of all its consti-
tuents (the ash excepted) but carbon. I do not attach impor-
* I do not wish, however, to be understood as affirming that no diamond
was ever soft, but simply that itis not necessary to assume that all were,
342 Dr George Wilson on the Possible Derivation of
tance to the mere preponderance of the latter in the mineral,
for if abundance of carbon were the criterion of the con-
vertibility of a chemical compound into diamond, then gra-
phite should have a decided preference to anthracite. as the
source of the gem; and there are many reasons for thinking
that graphite may change its crystalline form, and become
the transparent octahedral diamond. But anthracite has
the great advantage over graphite, that, whilst it consists
in greatest part of carbon, it contains other ingredients
which can be volatilised out of it by the action of the air on
it, and the escape of those bodies (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and sulphur) must disturb the molecular equili-
brium of the anthracite, and leave gaps between its particles
of carbon. We may suppose these, accordingly, to fall in,
or move towards each other, and that in the act of so mov-
ing, they arrange themselves in the crystalline form of the
diamond.
We have evidence so ample at the present day, that the
most solid bodies can crystallise, though persistent during
their crystallisation as solids, that it certainly is not neces-
sary to assume any such interstitial motion in the anthracite
as has been referred to. But it is not less certain, on the
other hand, that crystallisation is much more easily induced
among moving particles returning to rest, than among mole-
cules locked together so as to have little freedom of mo-
tion among themselves. The elimination of the hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, along with a certain amount
of carbon, would give the opportunity for this molecular mo-
tion which is so desirable, and yet give it to but a small ex-
tent at any one time, so that the particles of carbon would
approximate with great slowness, and assume a position of
very stable equilibrium. All, I think, will acknowledge that
the diamond must have been formed by a very slow process.
Its physical characters, but especially its general chemical
purity, its solidity, and its regular symmetrical form, forbid
the notion that it can have been the product of a hasty crys-
tallisation.
Sir David Brewster has suggested that a body like amber
may have been the origin of the diamond, as Sir Isaac New-
ae ee et ds ee
onl ad celia a
the Diamond from Anthracite and Graphite. 343
ton had previously supposed that it was “probably an unc-
tuous substance coagulated.’ Such bodies, however, as am-
ber, the resins, bitumen, wax, fat, &c., &c., contain so large a
proportion of other ingredients than carbon, particularly of
hydrogen, the number of equivalents of which frequently ex-
ceeds that of the equivalents of carbon, that it is difficult to
suppose any process by which the hydrogen could be extracted
so as to leave the carbon. In anthracite, on the other hand,
we have little foreign matter to extract, and yet sufficient to
disturb the previous molecular arrangement, of the mineral.
I do not attempt to indicate at what temperature (except
that it must be comparatively low), and under what exact
circumstances, anthracite may change into diamond. One
point, however, seems to deserve notice. It may seem diffi-
cult to concede that the action of oxygen on the surface
of a mass of anthracite can determine the evolution of bodies
from a depth within its substance. Whatever difficulties,
however, may attend the conception of the process, it is
quite certain that masses of anthracite may be changed by
heat into coke or carbon, throughout their entire substance,
whilst they increase in solidity and density. We may either
suppose, accordingly, that anthracite is so porous that the
oxygen of the air can penetrate to the centre, or that the
superficial oxidation of the mineral determines a trans-
ference of the particles more deeply seated to the surface,
where they are oxidised. The last reference will be bet-
ter understood if I adduce a case in point. A bar of steel,
é.e., @ compound of iron and carbon, if raised to a red heat,
and exposed to a current of air or oxygen, may be changed
into a bar of iron ; yet during the process carbon must have
travelled from the centre of the bar to the surface, or oxygen
must have travelled from the surface to the centre and back
again, before the carbon could have been volatilised as car-
bonie oxide. By a similar process, hydrogen and the like
might be extracted from a mass of anthracite. As for the
non-volatile ingredient or ash, I may, on the one hand, notice
that crystallising substances are notoriously possessed of the
power of extruding heterogeneous or foreign matter ; and, on
344 Derivation of the Diamond from Anthracite.
the other, that the majority of diamonds, when burned, leave
a slight ash.
I have no wish, however, to affirm that anthracite is the
only body which can crystallise into the diamond. On the
other hand, I think we have been too ready to assert that
all diamonds must have been produced in the same way.
This does not seem probable. Many substances can be erys-
tallised in six different ways, viz., by melting, by dissolving,
or vaporising them, by decomposing their gaseous or liquid
compounds, and by inducing crystallisation in them whilst
they are solid. Carbon may crystallise in most, perhaps in
all of those ways, and the genesis of one diamond be quite
different from that of another.
I would only further remark, that the question, whether
earbon will crystallise as graphite, or as diamond, will mainly
be determined by the rapidity with which crystallisation is
effected, and the temperature at which it occurs.
Graphite certainly represents the most stable equilibrium
of the crystalline molecules of carbon at a high temperature ;
for melted cast-iron, containing excess of carbon, separates
the latter as graphite when it solidifies; and the diamond, if
suddenly raised to a white heat, changes into the same sub-
stance ; but at lower temperatures the diamond must be re-
garded as exhibiting the more stable molecular equilibrium.
In truth, a crystal like the diamond, belonging to the tes-
sular system, with its three equal crystallographic axes, and
its inability to refract doubly or polarise light, appears the
most complete expression of crystalline molecular equili-
brium. Whenever, therefore, carbon crystallises very slowly,
and at moderate temperatures, it may be expected to become
the diamond ; and graphite, when not maintained at a high
temperature, must be looked upon as a substance whose par-
ticles are ‘in a state of unstable equilibrium, and as con stantly
tending, therefore, to have this equilibrium overturned so as
to attain that which characterises the diamond. ;
50
Lili
T R 0
( 345°)
On the proportion of Fluoride of Calcium present in the Baltic.
By Professor FORCHAMMER of Copenhagen. With some
Preliminary Remarks on the presence of Fluorine in differ-
ent Ocean Waters. By Dr GEORGE WILSON, F.R.S.E.*
Communicated by the Author.
In 1846, I announced the discovery to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh of fluorine as a new element of sea-water. I
was led to search for it, after observing that fluoride of cal-
cium possesses a certain small but marked solubility in water,
which explains its occurrence in springs and rivers, and ne-
cessitates its occasional, if not constant presence in the sea.
The only specimens of sea-water I had examined before
last summer, were taken from the Frith of Forth, about three
miles from Edinburgh. I obtained the mother-liquor or
bittern, from the pans of a salt-work there, and precipitated
it by nitrate of baryta. The precipitate, after being washed
and dried, was warmed with oil of vitriol, in a lead basin,
covered with waxed glass with designs on it. The latter were
etched in two hours, as deeply as they could have been by
fluor-spar, treated in the same way, the lines being filled with
the white silica, separated from the glass.
Last summer | examined in the same way bittern from the
salt-works at Saltcoats, in the Frith of Clyde, but the indi-
cations of fluorine were much less distinct than in the waters
on the east coast. On procuring, however, from the same
place, the hard crust which collects at the bottom and sides
of the boilers used in the evaporation of sea-water at the salt-
works, I found no difficulty in detecting fluorine in the de-
posit. The crust, or deposit in question, consists in greater
part of sulphate of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and mag-
nesia, but it contains also much chloride of sodium, and the
other soluble salts of sea-water,.entangled in, its substance.
When sulphuric acid, accordingly, is poured upon it, it gives
off much hydrochloric and carbonic, as well as some hydro-
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 4th March 1850,
346 On the Proportion of Fluoride of Calcium
fluoric acid ; and the latter is thus swept away, before it has
time to corrode the glass deeply. I preferred, nevertheless,
to use the crust exactly as I got it, that the proof of the pre-
sence of fluorine might not be impaired in validity, by the pos-
sibility of that substance being introduced in the water and
re-agents, which must have been employed had the chlorides
and carbonates been separated from the crust by a preliminary
process. The crust, accordingly, after having been dried and
powdered, was placed, along with oil of vitriol, in a lead basin
covered by a waxed square of plate-glass, with letters traced
through the wax. A single charge of the crust corroded the
glass only slightly, but by replenishing the basin with suc-
cessive quantities of the powdered crust and acid, whilst the
same plate of engraved glass was used as the cover, I found
no difficulty in etching the glass deeply. Iam indebted to
my friend Mr Stevenson Macadam, for this simple but effec-
tive way of increasing the corrosion of the glass, which seems
worth the adoption of chemists in all cases where fluorine is
sought for. Four charges of material have been sufficient,
in all the specimens of sea-water deposit I have examined,
to mark the glass strongly. It was kept wet on the upper
side, and exposed undisturbed to the action of each charge
during twelve hours.
Operating in this way, I have found fluorine readily in the
boiler-deposit from the waters of the Friths of Forth and
Clyde. It is a less easy matter to subject the waters of the
open sea to the requisite concentration before examination.
It occurred to me, however, that the incrustations which are
periodically removed from the boilers of the ocean steamers
would serve to determine the question, whether fluorine is a
general constituent of the sea.
I have obtained accordingly at Leith, the crust from the
boiler of the S¢ Kiaran, which traded between that port and
Wick, so that the greater part of the water consumed as
steam by its engines is derived from the German Ocean, al-
though a portion is necessarily obtained from the Frith of
Forth. The crust from the boilers of this vessel, was treat-
ed in the way described, and at once yielded hydrofluoric
(and probably also hydrofluosilicic) acid. A single charge,
present in the Waters of the Baltic. 347
indeed, of the materials marked the glass distinctly, and four
charges deeply. We may therefore infer that fluorine is
present in the waters of the German Ocean, for different por-
tions of the deposit yielded it readily, and marked glass as
deeply as the deposit from the water of the Frith of Forth
did, which could not have been the case if the whole crust
had not contained fluorine pretty equally diffused through it.
The results I have detailed, were communicated to the
British Association at its meeting in 1849, and were con-
firmed by Professor Forchammer, so far asthe Baltic is con-
cerned.* At my request, he kindly furnished me with the
letter which follows this communication, in which he an-
nounces his discovery of the proportion of fluoride of calcium
present in sea-water, as determined by analysis of that ob-
tained from the Sound, near Copenhagen. The letter is other-
wise interesting, and is printed in full.
Since the results given above were communicated to the
British Association, I have procured from Liverpool, a boiler-
incrustation, from one of the Dublin and Liverpool Steam-
Packet Company’s vessels, which, when treated with sulphuric
acid, yields an acid vapour, readily corroding glass. From
the same port, I have obtained a crust from the boiler
of the “ Canada,” transatlantic steamer; and from Ports-
mouth, a deposit from Her Majesty’s war-steamer, Sidon,
which was three years on the Mediterranean station. Both
of these crusts, after reduction to powder, yielded hydro-
fluoric acid (or rather hydrofluosilicic acid) so abundant-
ly, when treated with oil of vitriol, that a single charge
of each, etched glass distinctly in two hours.t I can now,
* Report of the Proceedings of Brit. Assoc., Atheneum for September 1849.
t The crusts which give the best results, are those consisting of the most in-
soluble salts of sea-water, which are found adhering to the walls of the boiler
on which they have evidently deposited very slowly. They frequently contain
a mere trace of chlorides, and but a small quantity of carbonates; their chief
constituents being sulphates and fluorides of the alkaline earths, along with
silica. Such crusts not only contain more fluorine than the looser deposits, but
do not effervesce when heated with sulphuric acid, so that the hydrofluoric or
hydrofluosilicic acid they evolve, is not swept away by carbonic or hydrochloric
348 On the Proportion of Fluoride of Calcium
therefore, state as the result of direct examination of de-
posits which may be fairly taken to represent the following
waters, that fluorine is present in the Friths of Forth and
Clyde, the German Ocean, the Trish Sea, the Atlantic, and the”
Mediterranean ; and Professor Forchammer bears testimony *
to its presence in the Baltic. We may, therefore, infer, that
as the sea within narrow limits is very uniform in chemical
composition, fluorine will be found universally present in the
ocean. Indirect proof of this has already been derived from
the presence of fluorine in corals and-shells, as well as in
marine fishes and mammalia.* My present object, however,
is to refer solely to the results obtained by a direct analysis
of sea-water.
Professor Forchammer’s letter is as follows—
COPENHAGEN, 20th December 1849.
Dr GEORGE WILSON,
My DEAR Si1r,—Enclosed in this letter you will find
an abstract of a paper which I have been preparing for the
Royal Society at Copenhagen, and which I hope soon to be
able to have published. It contains experiments on many
other substances contained, in minute quantities, in sea-water,
for instance, manganese, ammonia, baryta, or strontia, be-
sides iron and silica, which occur in proportionally large quan-
tities.—Believe me, my dear Sir, yours,
G. FORCHAMMER.
Abstract of a Paper by Professor Forchammer, on the Rarer
Substances which occur in Sea-Water. (To be read at the.
Royal Society at Copenhagen.)
Fluorine and Phosphoric Acid.
100 Ib. of sea-water as it occurs in the Sound, near Copen-.
hagen, of which the average quantity of salts is between 2 per.
cent. and 23 per cent., was evaporated. _When the solution:
was so concentrated that it began to deposit salt, it was, withs»
out filtering it, mixed with an excess of ammonia, and the pre- |
HT
acid before it can act on the glass. The Atlantic and Mediterranean crusts,
were of this description, and etched more readily than the Irish crusts, which
abounded in chlorides.
%* Edin. Royal Soc. Trans., Vol. xvi., Part il., p. 155. N38y4
itis Sats ae ee rahe desi
i
¥ ea
>
present in the Waters of the. Baltic. 349
cipitate collected and washed. The whole precipitate, which
contains carbonate, sulphate and phosphate of lime, fluoride
of calcium, silica, and magnesia, was redissolved in muriatic
acid, which left the greater part of silica undissolved. The
solution was mixed with muriate of ammonia, and a second
time precipitated by an excess of ammonia. This precipitate
from 100 lb. of sea-water weighed 3°104 grains, and con-
sisted of phosphate of lime and fluoride of calcium. It was
divided into two equal parts, of which the one was in a platina
crucible mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid, and allowed
to act on a slip of glass, covered with wax, in which some
words were scratched with a copper needle. The glass was
most decidedly etched, but the words appeared more clear
and legible if breathed upon. The second half part was
likewise mixed with sulphuric acid, but in a bent tube, and
distilled into a smal] vessel which contained a weak solution
of ammonia. The tube was etched, and the vessel contained
precipitated silica. It was thus completely proved that sea-
water contains fluoride of calcium, but the quantity in 100
lb. sea-water from the Sound, at Copenhagen, can hardly ex-
ceed half of a grain, or since the proportion of the different
salts varies very little in sea-water, it will be about 1 grain
in 100 lb. of water of the ocean, which contains between 3-5
and 4 per cent. of salts.
All the residuums from the trials to find fluorine were
dissolved in muriatic acid, and thrown down by an excess of
ammonia. The precipitate, washed, dried, and heated, was
mixed with potassium in a glass tube [and heated] until the
excess of potassium was driven off. The lower part of the
tube was cut off and thrown into water, where it, for hours,
continued to give out small bubbles, distinguished by the pe-
culiar smell of phosphuretted hydrogen, although they did
not inflame by themselves. Thus, the existence of phosphoric
acid was likewise proved, although I could not try the de-
lieate test for phosphoric acid which we owe to Mr Svanberg,
it not being known at the time when I made my experi-
ments.
‘Th all the different species of corals which IT have ana-
lysed, I likewise found fluorine.
(350 +)
On the Geology of the Baltic.
The following observations in Mr R. Chambers’s graphic
account of his journey through Scandinavia, now in course
of publication, being on generally interesting geological to-
pics, will, we doubt not, be prized by our readers.
1. Sir Charles Lyell’s imaginary depression and elevation of the
Land near Stockholn,—and Professor Playfair’s hypothesis of
the rising of the Land in Scandinavia.
I found rather a small vessel; no saloon besides the spiese-kammer
(eating-room), and only a double series of small cabins, each with
two beds, running transversely to the length of the vessel, with a
narrow space between. Starting at an early hour on Sunday morn-
ing, we in a few hours passed through the Sodertelje Canal into the
open sea, The passage was the scene of a very remarkable antiqua-
rian discovery, to which Sir Charles Lyell alludes in his paper in
the ‘ Philosophical Transactions” on the movements of the Baltic
shores. Jt seems that this canal required a cutting of more than
sixty feet through soft matter between two lines of rocky ground.
In the course of that cutting the workmen found, at the depth of
sixty feet, and at the level of the sea, the remains of an ancient hut,
There were a floor and a hearth—distinct traces of its having been
a human habitation. Sir Charles tells us, that the superincumbent
matter was composed of a marine formation. He says, “ the stra-
tification of the mass over the house was very decided, but for the
most part of that wavy and irregular kind which would result from
a meeting of currents.’ His theory is thus expressed :—“ It ap-
pears that this building must have been submerged beneath the waters
of the Baltic to the depth of sixty-four feet ; and before it was raised
again to its present position, it had become covered with strata more
than sixty feet thick.’’
To imagine that the land at this place can have been sunk sixty-
four feet since it was first inhabited by man, is a supposition so vio-
lent, that only the most incontestable evidence could justify its being
advanced. There could not only be strong positive evidence for the
assumed fact, but there should be no other way of accounting for it.
Now, are we quite sure that there is no other way of accounting for
the existence of a human habitation below sixty feet of soft matter
in that situation? I find in Mr Laing’s work on Sweden a remark-
able passage. Speaking of the branch of the Maeler Lake, out of
which this short canal proceeds, he says: ‘ It was in this branch
of the Maeler, if I am not mistaken, that St Olaf, when a viking,
was penned up on one of his piratical expeditions, in the eleventh
On the Geology of the Baltic. 351
century, by the united fleets of the Swedish and Danish monarchs ;
they expected to starve him out, or force him to engage with his few
ships to a disadvantage. He made a ditch or canal from the lake
to the Baltic, through which he carried his vessels to sea, leaving his
enemies blockading the entrance of the branch of the lake.’ The
line of this ditch would necessarily be the same as that of the
modern canal. In such a trench a house may have been built. The
trench may have been subsequently filled up with wind-driven ma-
terials ; against which supposition there is nothing positive on record
in the case; for though Sir Charles states that the superincumbent
matter was stratified, and of marine origin, he only alludes to the
banks of the sides of present canal at the spot, and not to the mat-
ter actually above the house, which indeed he never saw. On the
contrary, there is something in the record positively in favour of our
surmise, for Sir Charles ascertained that the sand immediately in con-
tact with the remains of the house was of the fine kind which is ac-
cumulated by the wind. Behold, then, a possible modern origin for
this hut, without any necessity of supposing a comparatively modern
submersion of the land sixty-four feet under the sea!
It is of course to be feared that there has been some rashness in
assuming the dip and subsequent re-emergence of the land since the
hut was formed and inhabited. Such rashness is not to be wondered
at, for a geologist in the condition of a determined partiality for a
particular theory, is much as Mrs Slipslop, in her conversation with
Joseph Andrews, described her sex to be in analogous circumstances :
‘If we like a man, the lightest hint sophisticates.. When a man of
science likes a theory, the lightest hint (accordant with it) sophis-
ticates. The modern geologist is so determined that the land shall
move up and down, to account for every trace of marine formations
above the present level of the sea, that whatever falls in with that
view is accepted without challenge or investigation, while the most
elaborate display of facts that even seems or tends to hint at a different
way of explaining such phenomena is made but light of. The error
is part of a larger one, resting on an oracular dictum of modern times,
that we can only explain ancient phenomena by causes which we see
in operation at the present time ; whereas the causes which actually
operated may not be now under observation, and, if we confine our-
selyes solely to those now visibly working, we may pitch upon wrong
ones. The paucity of theoretical wisdom in modern science is illus-
trated by such things. With regard to the change in the relative
level of seas and lands, as it appears to be a universal phenomenon
(for from every continent it is now reported), why may not the idea
of a fall of the sea apply to it as well as the local one of a rise of
the land, which Playfair only preferred because he thought the phe-
nomenon local?* ‘These gentlemen do not see that their own asser- -
* Professor Playfair’s remarks were as follows :—‘ The imagination natu-
rally feels less difficulty in conceiving that an unstable fluid like the sea, which
352 On the Geology of the Baltic.
tion of a so-great mobility in the crust of the earth actually involves
a possible fall of the sea also, since a sinking of some great ocean-
bed would undoubtedly produce a decadence of the surface of the
ocean, and leave every shore on earth to some extent exposed. For
my own part, trusting to reason and observation, I shall continue to.
disclaim an exclusive hypothesis ; prepared to find it ultimately
ruled that both the sea falls and the land rises, and that a fall of the
sea to the extent of some thousands of feet, by whatever means brought
about, was actually one of the last of the great geological events.
2. A Source of Possible Fallacy regarding the Level of the
Baltic.
I had some conversation with Professor Lovén regarding the proofs
which exist of recent and continued change in the relative level of
sea and land in Scandinavia. Like all northern men of science, he
was well aware of the facts bearing upon this subject, and had given
his accession to the conclusion now generally arrived at, that the
phenomena depend upon a rise of the land, not a depression of the
sea. Since Professor Playfair made his famous remark, that a de-
pression of the sea cannot be of a local nature, while an uprise of
the land may be so, the superior probability of the latter phenome-
non has been generally seen and admitted. The conclusion was
changes its level twice every day, has undergone a permanent depression in
its surface, than that the land, the terra firma itself, has admitted of an equal
elevation. In all this, however, we are guided much more by fancy than by
reason ; for, in order to depress or elevate the absolute level of the sea, by a
given quantity in any one place, we must depress or elevate it by the same
quantity over the whole surface of the earth ; whereas no such necessity exists
with respect to the elevation or depression of the land. To make the sea sub-
side thirty feet all round the coast of Great Britain, it is necessary to displace
a body of water thirty feet deep over the whole surface of the ocean. It is evi-
dent that the simplest hypothesis for explaining those changes of level is, that
they proceed from the motion, upwards or downwards, of the land itself, and
not from that of the sea. As no elevation or depression of the sea can take
place but over the whole, its level cannot be affected by local causes, and is
probably as little subject to variation as any thing to be met with on the surface
of the globe.”
It is evident here thet the learned professor only makes a choice between
hypotheses with a regard to their comparative simplicity, as accounting for
phenomena assumedly local. He shews no reason why the sea may not fall and
rise, though he thinks it less probable than local rises and depressions of the
earth’s crust. It is on sucha basis that the Hnglish geologists have established
their conclusion, on which they can endure no breath of scepticism, that there
can be no change in the level of the sea. A late president of the Society thus
spoke, in hisannual address in 1847 : ‘ Notwithstanding that this unanswerable
doctrine was thus clearly laid down so far back as 1802, we still find geologists
of authority speaking of the sea having risen or fallen, in their endeavours to
-explain certain phenomena,” &. A very grave delinquency indeed! I must,
nevertheless, profess my total inability to trace the logic which makes Mr Play-
fair’s remarks an “ unanswerable doctrine.”
On the Geology of the Baltic. 353
clenched by the actually observed uprise of a large tract in Chili in
1820, and by the ascertained rising and falling in recent times of a
part of the coast of Naples. I readily admitted to Professor Lovén
the value of the facts observed with respect to the level of the Bal-
tic, the force of Playfair’s remark, and the importance of the obser-
‘vations in South America and Italy. Still, I said, there was a
source of possible fallacy open regarding the level of the Baltic, which
I was surprised had not as yet been thought of. The Baltic was an
inland sea, and it was ascertained that inland seas do not always
maintain the same mean level as the outer ocean. It was remark-
able that not one of the observations of the Scandinavian investiga-
tors, nor of those instituted by Prefessor Johnston and Sir Charles
Lyell, was made beyond the space within which the inland and tideless
character of this sea prevails. As cases shewing the inequality in
question, reference may be made to the Red Sea, found by M. Lepere
to be 263 feet above the level of the Mediterranean. The Mediter-
ranean itself has been set down by a French surveying party as
within 2 feet of the level of the ocean at Amsterdam—a difference
too small to have any stress laid upon it; but it is a startling fact
that three different surveys of the most rigid character assigned dif-
ferences between the levels of the Adriatic and Mediterranean, re-
volving a very little way from a mean of 83 metres, or about 26
feet, the Adriatic, being, like the Red Sea, at the superior height.*
Considering, indeed, ae nature of this evidence, we cannot be rigidly
certain that these differences are as they appear. They are, how-
ever, sufficient to give us reason for supposing that the Baltic—the
throat of a vast number of rivers (the fifth part of Europe is drained
into it), and furnished with but narrow communications towards the
‘outer ocean—may heretofore have been kept up at a somewhat higher
level than the ocean; a condition to which its temperate clime is of
course favourable. From changes in the natural drainage of the
basin, whether from variations of climate or otherwise, trum a clear-
ing of the channels of communication, or some other local causes, the
abnormal level may be diminishing, and hence it may be that so
many parts are shallowing, and so many rocks formerly submerged
are coming above the surface. All this is purely hypothetical ; Tt Dut
I submitted to Mr Lovén that it makes out a case for inquiry, be-
cause it is not comfortable to sit down with a conclusion on a scien-
tifie subject while any source of fallacy stands yawning behind us.
.. ® Humboldt’s Asie Centrale, ii. 301.
. t It must also be admitted that the shallowing of the Bultic is only an-
nounced in some parts of the coast, not in all. The whole of the German shore,
for. instance, is said to betray no mark of change. I do not, however, feel
assured that this partial exhibition of the phenomena as respects locality a well
established,
VOL. XLVIII.— NO. XCVI. APRIL: b850. “
354 On the Geology of the Baltic.
I proposed, with all deference, that the Academy of Sciences should
endeavour to induce the Government to execute a levelling survey
from the medium level of the sea at Trondhiem to the ordinary or
medium level of the Gulf of Bothnia, with a view to ascertaining
if these were identical; in which event, of course, the conclusion would
stand good as at present ; whereas a contrary result, if at all consi-
derable in degree, would shew that the observed facts were liable to
be accounted for without necessarily presuming a movement of the
land. The learned Professor was at first exceedingly unwilling to
entertain my doubts; but he at length admitted their weight, and
undertook to make a report on the subject to the Academy, and for
this I supplied him with the materials. Of the result 1 have as yet
heard nothing ; but at least, I trust, I may take this means of warn-
ing all who feel an interest in the subject against a too implicit trust
in the theories which have been somewhat over-confidently, if I may
not say somewhat arrogantly, maintained with regard to the changes
of the apparent level of the Baltic —(Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal
for March 1850.)
Chemical Notices. By ALEXANDER Kemp, Esq., Teacher of
Practical Chemistry, and Assistant to Dr Gregory, in the
University of Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author.
1. On the Purification of Oil of Vitriol from Nitric Acid.
In consequence of the oil of vitriol of commerce containing a con-
siderable amount of nitric acid, which renders it unfit for many of
its applications, I have been induced to make a few experiments on
the different methods commonly recommended for its removal.
In the last edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia, we are directed
to boil the acid along with a small quantity of sugar, until the colour
first produced disappears. This method was tried by Dr Schlossberger
and myself, in Professor Gregory’s laboratory in 1845, but without
success, as we found that we could not remove the whole of the nitric
acid, even by continuing the process for several days, unless so much
sugar was added as permanently blackened the liquid. I again tried
this method a short time ago, and increased the proportion of sugar
until the acid became quite black, and gave off a large quantity of
sulphurous acid; after removing this, by long-continued boiling,
the liquid was diluted with distilled water, but from its dark colour, I
found it to be impossible to test for nitric acid by the solution of
proto-sulphate of iron, or by narcotine. It then occurred to me, that
as chlorine is always produced when nitric or nitrous acids act on
——- =
On the Purification of Oil of Vitriol from Nitric Acid. 355
common salt, that this might afford me an indirect mode of ascer-
taining whether the whole of the nitric acid had been removed.
A quantity of oil of vitriol, previously boiled with sugar as de-
scribed, was diluted with water, and caused to act on purified com-
mon salt, as directed by Professor Gregory in his process for pre-
paring pure hydrochloric acid, but it was found that the acid ob-
tained had a yellow colour, and when mixed with protosulphate of
iron, it became nearly black, which does not occur when hydrochloric
acid free from nitric is used. I explain the fact that nitric acid re-
mained in a liquid containing much sulphurous acid, in the following
way: Sulphurous acid, when boiled with oil of vitriol, does not de-
stroy the nitric acid entirely, or nearly so ; but if the oil of vitriol be
diluted with water, the sulphurous acid then decomposes the nitric
acid.
The second method is one recommended a few years ago by
M. Pelouze, and consists in boiling the impure oil of vitriol with the
addition of sulphate of ammonia, which it appears first changes into
nitrate of ammonia, and subsequently is decomposed into nitrous
oxide and water. I have tried this method, and find that when
a considerable quantity of the sulphate is added, the whole of the
nitrous compounds are removed ; but it is exceedingly difficult, if
not impossible, to add the exact quantity requisite to decompose the
whole of the nitric acid, without the risk of leaving some ammonia
in the liquid.
The first experiment I made, was with the view of learning
whether carbonic oxide in the nascent state, might not decompose
the nitric acid contained in strong oil of vitriol. About four fluid
ounces of the acid were heated in a flask, and successive quantities of
oxalic acid added, but on testing, it was found the nitric acid had
“not been removed.
Having frequently observed, on diluting large quantities of oil of
vitriol with water, that red vapours were disengaged, I made seve-
val experiments, by mixing various proportions of these two liquids,
and afterwards boiling them so as to favour the expulsion of the va-
pours, but although a part of the nitrous compound was removed,
enough remained to render the liquid dark-coloured on adding sul-
phate of iron.
After the trial of a great many other bodies, including sulphuretted
hydrogen, in various ways, I found that the only substance likely to
answer the purpose, was sulphurous acid. The experiments made
with this substance led to the result that, if the oil of vitriol be di-
luted to the specific gravity of 1°715, or thereabouts, and a stream
of sulphurous acid passed through it, the whole of the nitric, nitrous,
or hyponitrous acid will be reduced to binoxide of nitrogen, which,
along with the excess of sulphurous acid, may be totally removed by
boiling.
356 On the Absence of Iron in Hydrochloric Acid.
For the removal of the nitric acid from oil of vitriol, either of the
two following methods may be adopted :—
1: Three volames of the acid are to be mixed with one of water and
sulphurous acid transmitted through the liquid until it smells strongly,
it is then to be boiled till all odour of sulphurous acid has disap-
peared.
2. Instead of diluting the acid with water, the same bulk of a
saturated solution of sulphurous acid may be used, which has the
advantage that a supply of the solution may be kept for use when
required,
In preparing an acid free from lead, as well as nitric acid, it will
be found necessary to dilute the oil of vitriol, with half its bulk of
water. As sulphate of lead is slightly soluble in oil of vitriol of spe-
cific gravity 1-715 ; mixed with half its bulk of water, its density is
about 1-650. The oil of vitriol used in these experiments was from
one of the first manufactories.in the country, and had a_ specific
gravity of 1°838.
2. On the Absence of Iron in Hydrochloric Acid, prepared by
Professor Gregory’s process.
Professor Gregory recommended the use of patent salt, as free
from iron, to yield a pure acid. But, although an acid free from iron
may thus be obtained, I was struck with the fact that the sulphate
of soda remaining in the flask had always a yellowish colour, On
testing it, I found iron present in the residue in every case. It
was therefore plain that even the patent. salt was not free from iron,
and that the absence of iron in the hydrochloric acid, made from
such materials, depended on some cause which prevented the per-
chloride of iron from passing over. This cause, Professor Gregory
suggests, may be the low temperature at which the operation is
carried on, or the probable effect of an excess of sulphuric acid in
preventing the formation of the perchloride of iron. At all events,
I found that, even when iron filings, or peroxide of iron were added
to the materials in considerable quantity, no iron could be detected
in the hydrochloric acid, This was the case, even when the oil of
vitriol contained so much nitric acid as to yield a very dark-coloured
product, coloured by free chlorine and nitrous acid.
This observation is practically valuable, since it enables us to ob-
tain, by Professor Gregory’s process, perfectly pure and colourless
hydrochloric acid from the commonest sea-salt, although it contains
a good deal of iron, and thus still further to reduce the cost of a re-
agent so indispensable as pure hydrochloric acid.
Professor Gregory formerly detected traces of iron in the hydro-
chloric acid made with the common kitchen salt, which induced him
to use patent salt. This iron may have heen carried over as perchlo-
ride, in consequence of the distillation having been pushed too far,
Ce eee |
Scientific Intelligence— Astronomy. 357
that is, till the temperature rose sufficiently. Or, as sulphocyanide
of potassium was the test employed, the test may have contained a
trace of iron. I have tested with galls after neutralising with am-
monia, and the other tests usually employed, and could not detect
any compound of iron in the acid.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
ASTRONOMY.
1. On the Extinction of Light in the Atmosphere. By W.S.
Jacob, Esq., H.E.I.C. Astronomer, Madras. Communicated by
Professor Piazzi Smyth.—In a letter dated Madras, November
1849, Captain Jacob says, “ I have been much interested in read-
ing, lately, Professor Forbes’s paper in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, 1842, Part 2, on the Extinction of Light and Heat in
the Atmosphere.” As his results agree very closely with those
of my experience on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, and -
which, though not founded on any precise measures, being still
the conclusions of some years’ experience, are perhaps worth noticing,
particularly when they agree with the results of more exact measures,
On commencing work with heliotropes in 1837, I soon found that
for long distances it was necessary to enlarge the apertures more
than in the simple ratio of the distance (though such was Colonel
Everest’s practice) ; and before the end of the first season, I had
formed a scale of apertures for corresponding distances, which after-
wards needed very little alteration, but when finally corrected by
subsequent years’ observation, stood as follows :—
Aperture. Maximum Distance. Maximum Distance
inches. Miles. without Absorption,
0°5 15 15
1:0 23 30
2:0 33 60
4:0 45 120
8:0 60 240
Our heliotropes were circular glass mirrors, 8 inches in diameter;
and for the smaller apertures, diaphragms were used between the
heliotropes and the observer. At the distances stated the light was
just visible to the naked eye in clear weather, and when seen over a
valley: if the ray grazed near the surface, the light was much re-
duced. On one occasion I employed a heliotrope at 6} miles, and
used an aperture of } of an inch, and found it rather brighter than
usual, so that probably 6} or 7 miles would be the normal distance
for that size,
-
358 Scientific Intelligence—Meteorology.
This agrees well enough with the rest of the scale, but there is no
need to employ a conjectural quantity ; and if the rate of absorption
corresponding to the above be computed, so close an agreement will
be found, as may entitle the numbers to be looked on as something
better than mere estimates,—as the results, indeed, of a species of
observation,
The mean of the whole shews a loss of ‘0610 in passing through
one mile of atmosphere; with the barometer at 27-0 inches (that
being about the average height of my stations), but reduced to 30-0
inches, the quantity will be 0671.
Hence the loss of light in passing from the zenith through a homo-
geneous atmosphere of 5:2 miles will be -303, or only about one per
cent. less than Professor Forbes’s result. And as my air was con-
siderably drier than his (the mean humidity being not much above
‘30 instead of ‘56), this will probably account for the difference ;
and, at any rate, the agreement is much closer than could have been
expected.
I once mentioned this matter to Captain Waugh, the present
Surveyor-General of India, then my fellow-assistant ; but he not
only had not noticed the thing, but did not even apprehend my mean-
ing. He assented to my remark on the loss of light in passing
through the atmosphere, but asserted that the aperture should vary
as the distance, thus allowing for no loss! 0:1 inch per mile answered,
he said, for all distances that he had tried! So it might answer for
the distances most usually occurring on the Survey; for 4 inches
would be proper for 40 miles, and-2 inches not much too bright
at 20, and it is not often that these limits would be passed. Yet it
is hardly possible to conceive that he should not have noticed the
different intensity of the lights; had not his opportunities been per-
haps rather unfavourable, as his work lay chiefly in plains, where,
as mentioned above, the light of a grazing ray is very much re-
duced, and the atmospheric effect would therefore be mixed up with
disturbing local causes.
I myself was much astonished at first discovering that the air had
so great absorbent powers, and many ideas are suggested by the
fact. We see at once how easily many of the planets may be ren-
dered habitable to beings like ourselves. Mars, e. g., may enjoy a
temperature little inferior to our own, by having a less absorbent
envelope; and Venus may be kept as cool as we are, by having
one more so.—(Proceedings of Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ii., No. 36.)
METEOROLOGY.
2. Climate of Australia. By John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
&c.—In a country of such vast extent as Australia, spreading over
so many degrees of latitude, we might naturally expect to find much
Seienitic Intelligence—Meleorology. 359
diversity in the climate, and such is really the case. Van Diemen’s
Land, from its isolated and more southern position, is cooler, and
characterized by greater humidity than Australia; its vegetation is
therefore abundant, and its forests dense and difficult of access. The
climate of the Continent, on the other hand, between the 25th and
35th degrees of latitude, is much drier, and hasa temperature which
is probably higher than that of any other part of the world, the
thermometer frequently rising to 110°, 120°, and even 130° in the
shade, and this high temperature is not unfrequently increased by
the hot winds which sweep over the country from the northward, and
which indicate most strongly the parched and steril nature of the in-
terior. Unlike other hot countries, this great heat and dryness is
unaccompanied by night-dews, and the falls of rain being uncertain
and irregular, droughts of many months’ duration sometimes occur,
during which the rivers and lagoons are dried up, the land becomes
a parched waste, vegetation is burnt up, and famine spreads destruc-
tion on every side. It is easier for the imagination to conceive than
the pen to depict, the horrors of so dreadful a visitation. The indi-
genous animals and birds retire to the mountains, or to more distant
regions exempt from its influence. Thousands of sheep and oxen
perish, bullocks are seen dead by the roadside, or in the dried-up
water holes, to which, in the hope of relief, they had dragged them-
selves, ab to fall and die; trees are cut down for the sake of the
twigs as fodder ; the flocks are driven to the mountains, in the hope
that water may there be found, and every effort is made to avert the
impending ruin; but, in spite of all that can be done, the loss is ex-
treme. At length a change takes place, rain falls abundantly, and
the plains, on which, but lately, not a blade of herbage was to be
seen, and over which the stillness of desolation reigned, become free
with luxuriant vegetation. Orchidee@, and thousands of flowers of
the loveliest hues are profusely spread around, as if nature rejoiced 1 in
her renovation, and the grain springing up rigorously, g gives promise
of an Bbandant harvest. This change from sterility to abundance,
in the vegetable world, is accompanied by a correspondent increase
of animal life; the waters become stocked with fish, the marshy dis-
tricts with frogs and other reptiles, hosts of caterpillars and other
insects make their appearance, and, spreading over the surface of
the country, commence the work of devastation, which, however, is
speedily checked by the birds of various kinds that follow in their train,
Attracted by the abundance of food, hawks, of three or four species, in
flocks of hundreds, depart from their usual solitary habits, become gre-
garious and busy at the feast, and thousands of Straw-necked Ibises
(Ibis spinicollis) and other species of the feathered race, revel in the
profusion of a welcome banquet. It must not, however, be imagined
that this change is effected without its attendant horrors ; the heavy
rains often filling the river beds so suddenly that the onward-pour-
360 Scientific Intelligence—Geology.
ing flood carries with it everything that may impede its course, and
woe to the unhappy settler whose house or grounds may lie within
the influence of the overwhelming floods !
So little has as yet been ascertained respecting the climatology of -
Western, North-Western, and Northern Australia, that it is not
known whether they also are subject to these tremendous visitations ;
but as we have reason to believe that the intertropical parts of the
country are favoured with a more constant supply of rain, as well as
a lower degree of temperature, it is probable that they do not there
occur —(Vide Gould’s Birds of Australia,—a magnificent and
important work, Price £100 sterling.)
GHOLOGY.
3. On the Volcanic Formations of the Alban Hills, near Rome.
—Professor J. D. Forbes, ina memoir on the Alban Hills, thus sums
up the general results of his observations :—
“In the first place, it appears that the Alban volcano (for it is
essentially one) has acted throughout a great period of time; for
not only has it evidently repeatedly changed its form and materials of
eruption, but it is surrounded by knolls of basaltic formations which
seem to indicate very ancient and very repeated ejections, without
taking the regular form of craters. Such are probably Monte
Algido, Civita Lavinia, Monte Giove (Corioli), the Capuccini of
Albano, Rocca Priore, Colonna, and perhaps even Capo di Bove, and
several open craters, such as one a little below Albano, the Lago
Cornufelle near Frascati, the Lake of Gabii, and one near Colonna,
which, on the authority of Ponzi, appear to have ejected peperino.
The horse-shoe form of the old crater of the Alban Mount, which,
whether formed by the elevation process or not, appears to be com-
posed of beds of basalt, lapilli, tuff, or peperino, and here and there
of the lava called Sperone, gave way, like that of Somma, on the
western or seaward side, and I cannot but think it in no small de-
gree probable, that the vast lava beds which lie under Nemi and
Genzano, and which dip at a small angle under Monte Cavo, are
part of the dislocated walls of the ancient crater displaced by the
convulsion which rent it on the western side, and which was accom-
panied by a prodigious fluid discharge of peperino, which then
formed the strata of La Riccia and Albano, and which, overwhelm-
ing the broken-down wall of the ancient crater, formed at the same
time the Monte Gentile, and the peperino beds above Nemi. © This
is confirmed by the prodigious lava blocks imbedded in these rocks,
which bespeak the violence of the convulsion during which they were
formed, Ages later, the present summit of Monte Cavo and the crater
of the Campo d’Annibale were formed, and the latter gave out its cur-
Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 361
rents of tefrine or grey basalt, and raised the crater of La Tartaruga
and others in the valley of La Molara, and in the central crater ; at the
same time ejecting great volumes of purverulent lapilli. It may have
been coeval with these perfectly regular and comparatively modern
eruptions, or it may have preceded them, that, after a period so long
that the surface of the ancient eruptions of peperino were covered
with vegetation and timber, the tremendous outbursts which forced
open the craters of Albano and Nemi took place, the former pro-
ducing some slight ejections of peperino or boiling mud, near Castel
Gaudolfo ; and at the same time a separate orifice, opening at the foot
of Monte Cavo, may have discharged into the valley of Marino the
remarkable variety of peperino described in this paper, and containing
vegetable stems. A long, perhaps even a final, repose succeeded this
paroxysm, Even from the very dawn of Italian history these scenes
of previous turmoil and desolation appear to have enjoyed profound
tranquillity, and to have been immemorially covered with impenetra-
ble groves sacred to the sports of Diana.
“ Tt will be seen, then, that we admit tufas or peperinos of three
very different periods, one of which is coeval with, or even anterior to,
the formation of the exterior cone ; another largely developed, which
accompanied the great breach in it towards the sea; and a third,
which probably produced some local streams, such as that of Marino,
which has evidently flowed since the ground took its present con-
figuration, and was covered with plants. Of lavas, likewise, we must
admit at least three periods ; 1st, the compact basalts of the outer
circuit, which, if Von Buch’s theory be correct, have flowed under a
less inclination than they at present have; 2dly, The well-marked
lencitic, or partridge-eyed lavas, which form the interior circuit ;
and, 3dly, the compact basaltic lava which flows past Rocca di Papa
towards Grotta Ferrata, which is possibly coeval with the dikes oc-
curring at Capo di Bove and elsewhere. This leaves the origin of
the lava sperone still uncertain. It is undoubtedly one of the more
recent products, for it not only overlies the whole of the old basaltic
series at Tusculum and Nemi, but the leucitic lavas of the newer cone
at Rocca di Papa. The easiest solution would be to consider it as a
scoriform basalt ; but even to this there are difficulties, not only mine-
ralogical, but from position. For how can we connect the mantle-
shaped covering of Monte Cavo up to its highest point, with the basalt,
which nowhere attains a height (so far as I know) within several
hundred feet of it? It is still more difficult to conceive any contin-
uity between the sperone of the central cone and that of Tusculum,
which is separated from it by the great valley of La Molara.”—(Pro-
ceedings of Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ii., No. 35.)
4. On Infusorial Deposits on the River Chutes in Oregon. By
M. Ehrenberg (Monatsb. Acad., Berlin, Feb. 1849, p. 76).—
362 i Scientific Intelligence— Zoology.
Ehrenberg first draws attention to the results of his former researches,
that the Rocky Mountains are a more powerful barrier between the
two sides of America, than the Pacific Ocean between America and
China; the infusorial forms of Oregon and California being wholly
different from those on the east side of the mountains, while they
are partly identical with Siberian species. This fact is evnfirmed by
his examinations of the earth from the gold region of California, and
from the Chutes river of Oregon, obtained by Fremont. The latter
deposit is situated at an elevation of 700 to 800 feet, and constitutes
a bed 500 feet thick of porcelain clay. It is overlaid by a layer of
basalt 100 feet thick.
Prof. Bailey, who examined this material for Fremont, reported
that it consisted of fresh-water infusoria, and many species were dis-
tinguished.* Ehrenberg, on farther investigation, has made out
seventy-two species of Polygastrica with siliceous shells, sixteen spe-
cies of Phytolithuriens, and three of crystalline forms. ‘lhe more pre-
valent species are Discoplea oregonica, Gallionella granulata, G.
erenata, Eunotia Westermanni, Cocconema asperum, &c. ‘The
Discoplea and Raphoneis oregonica are the only two species charac-
teristic of the locality. The beds are more recent than those of the
Klakamus river, a few miles from the Falls of the Willammet.—
(American Journal of Science and Arts, vol ix., No, 25, Second
Series, p. 140.)
ZOOLOGY
5. Low State of Development of Mammals and Birds in Aus-
tralia and New Zealand,—Geological researches into the structure
of the globe, shew that a succession of physical changes have modi-
fied its surface from the earliest period up to the present time, and
that these changes have been accompanied with variations not only
in the phases of animal and vegetable life, but often in the develop-
ment also of organization ; and as these changes cannot be supposed
to have been operating uniformly over the entire surface of the globe
in the same periods of time, we should naturally be prepared for
finding the now existing fauna of some regions exhibiting a higher
state of development than that of others; accordingly, if we con-
trast the fauna of the old continents of geographers with the zoology
of Australia and New Zealand, we find a wide difference in the de-
gree of organization which creation has reached in these respec-
tive regions. In New Zealand, with the exception of a Vespertilio
and a Mus which latter is said to exist there, but which has not
yet been sent to this country, the most highly organized animal
* Fremont’s Second Expedition, p. 302,
Scientific Tutelligence— Zoology. 363
hitherto discovered, either fossil or recent, is a bird ; in Australia, if
compared with New Zealand, creation appears to have considerably
. advanced, but even here the order Rodentia is the highest in the
scale of its indigenous animal productions; the great majority of its
quadrupeds being the Marsupiata (kangaroos, &c.) and the Monotre-
mata, (Echidna,-and Ornithorynchus), which are the very lowest of
the Mammalia ; and its ornithology being characterized by the pre-
sence of certain peculiar genera, Talegalla, Leipoa,and Megapodius ;
birds which do not incubate their own eggs, and which are perhaps
the lowest representations of their class,* while the low organiza-
tion of its botany is indicated by the remarkable absence of fruit-
bearing trees, the Cerealia, &c¢.—(Gould’s Birds of Australia.)
6. Migratory Birds of Australia, &e.—Mr Gould gives the fol-
lowing summary of the distribution of the birds of Australia. 386
species inhabit New South Wales, 289 South Australia, 243 West-
ern Australia, 230 Northern Australia, and 181 Van Diemen’s
‘ Land; and that of these, 88 are peculiar to New South Wales ;
16 to South Australia; 36 to Western Australia; 105 to Northern
Australia; and 82 to Van Diemen’s Land.
The great excess in the number of species inhabiting New South
Wales is doubtless attributable to the singular belt of luxuriant vege-
tation, termed brushes, which stretches along the southern and south-
eastern coasts, between the ranges and the sea, and which is tenanted
by a fauna peculiarly its own.
Although this part of the Continent is inhabited by a larger num-
ber of species than any other, it is a remarkable fact that the species
peculiar to Northern Australia are much more numerous than
those peculiar to New South Wales.
It is curious to observe also, that, while Southern Australia is in-
habited by a much larger number of species than Western Austra-
lia, those peculiar to the former are not half so numerous as those
peculiar to the latter.
The more southern position, and, consequently, colder climate of
* The genera, Talegalla, Leipoa, and Megapodius, form part of a great family
of birds inhabiting Australia, New Guinea, Celebes, and the Philippine Islands,
whose habits and economy are most singular, and differ from those of every
other group of birds which now exist upon the surface of the earth. In their
structure they are most nearly allied to the Gallinacew, while in some of their
actions, and in their mode of flight, they much resemble the Rallide ; the small
size of their brain, coupled with the extraordinary means employed for the in-
cubation of their eyys, indicates an extremely low degree of organization.
The three species of the family inhabiting Australia, although referable to
three distinct genera, have many habits in common, particularly in their mode
of nidification, each and all depositing their eggs in mounds of earth and
leaves, which, becoming heated either by the fermentation of the vegetable mat-
ter or of the sun’s rays, form a kind of natural hatching apparatus, from which
the young at length emerge fully feathered, and capable of sustaining life by
their own unaided efforts.
364 Scientific Intelligence— Botany.
Van Diemen’s Land, will readily account for the paucity of species
found in that island.
By the term peculiar, I do not mean to convey the idea that the -
birds are strictly confined to the respective countries, but that as
yet they have not been found elsewhere.
Independently of the vast accession of birds attracted by the great
supply of food, as mentioned above, there are many species which make
regular migrations, visiting the southern parts of the Continent and
Van Diemen’s Land during the months of summer, for the purpose
of breeding and rearing their progeny, and which retire again north-
wards on the approach of winter, following, in fact, the same law
which governs the migrations of the species inhabiting similar latitudes
of the Old World. There are also periods when some species of birds
appear to entirely forsake the part of the country in which they have
been accustomed to dwell, and to betake themselves to some distant
locality, where they remain for five or ten years, or even for a longer
period, and whence they as suddenly disappear as they had arrived.
Some remarkable instances of this kind came under my own obser-
vation. The beautiful little warbling Grass Parrakeet (Melopsitta-
cus undulatus), which, prior to 1838, was so rare in the southern
parts of Australia, that only a single example had been sent to
Europe, arrived in that year in such countless multitudes on the Liver-
pool plains, that I could have procured any number of specimens,
and more than once their delicate bodies formed an excellent article
of food for myself and party. The Nymphicus Nove Hollandie
forms another case in point, and the Harlequin bronze-winged pigeon
(Peristera histrionica) a third ; this latter bird occurred in such num-
bers on the plains near the Namoi in 1839, that eight fell to a
single discharge of my gun; both the settlers and natives assured me
that they had suddenly arrived, and that they had never before been
seen in that part of the country. The Aborigines who were with me,
and of whom I must speak in the highest praise, for the readiness
with which they rendered me their assistance, affirmed, upon learn-
ing the nature of my pursuits, that they had come to meet me, The
Tribonyx ventralis may be cited as another species whose movements
are influenced by the same law. ‘This bird visited the colony of
Swan River in 18338, and that of South Australia in 1840, in such
countless myriads, tlat whole fields of corn were trodden down, and
destroyed in a single night; and even the streets and gardens of
Adelaide were, according to Captain Sturt, alive with them.
BOTANY.
7. On the Gamboge Tree of Siam. By Dr Christison.—Although
Gamboge has been known in European commerce for nearly two
centuries and a half, and its applications in the arts have been ex-
Ne nara Raat ee
~~ ———
Scientific Intelligence— Botany. 365
tended in recent times, the tree which produces it is still unknown
to botanists.
The late Dr Graham, in 1836, was the first to describe accurately
a species of Garcinia, which inhabits Ceylon, and which is well
known there to produce a sort of Gamboge, not, however, known in
the commerce of Europe. Resting on a peculiarity in the structure
of the anthers, which are circumscissile, or open transversely by the
separation of a lid on the summit, he constituted a new genus for
this plant, and called it Hebradendron cambogioides. At the same
period the author examined the properties of this Gamboge, and
found that it possesses the purgative action of the commercial drug
in full intensity, and that the two kinds agree closely also, though
not absolutely, in chemical constitution.
At an earlier period Dr Roxburgh described, in his “ Flora In-
dica,”’ another species of Garcinia, under the name of Garcinia pic-
toria, which inhabits the hills of Western Mysore, and which also
was thought to produce a sort of Gamboge of inferior quality. In
1847 specimens of the tree and its exudation were obtained near
Nuggur on the ghauts of Mysore by Dr Hugh Cleghorn of the East
India Company’s service ; and the author, on examining the Gam-
boge, found it all but identical with that of Ceylon in physio-
logical action, in properties as a pigment, and in chemical con-
stitution. ‘The same plant, with its Gamboge, was about the same
time observed by the Rev. F. Mason, near Mergui in Tavvy, one of
the ceded Burmese provinces.
A third species, inhabiting the province of Tavoy, and also pro-
ducing a kind of Gamboge, was identified by Dr Wight in 1840
with Dr Wallich’s Garcinia elliptica, from Sylhet, on the north-east
frontier of Bengal. Its exudation was long thought to be of low
quality. But, although this substance has not ‘yet been examined
chemically, it has been stated by Mr Mason to be, in his opinion,
quite undistinguishable as a pigment from Siam Gamboge.
It is a matter of doubt whether Graham’s character is sufficiently
diagnostic to be a good generic distinction. But it was shewn by
Dr Wight in 1840, that a well characterised section at least of the
genus Garcinia consists of species which have ‘‘ sessile anthers, flat-
tened above, circumscissile, and one-celled ;”” and that all these spe-
cies, and no others, appear to exude a gum-resin differing probably
very little from commercial Gamboge.
Still the tree which produces Siam Gamboge, the finest and only
commercial kind, continues unknown.