ah tt i pateens He . tity Titisn aeaetye laste AEA Maes ef FASL ALU RENEE, nee daub ty 4 4 if eer > point ty Ec taaa abet tees para ee hie i eo etc Sree DA at Fh eae tert ace ae chit aa Seth Cone) Shaves Wis Wet i fisher i Oat en i ot EN ins fin Caras a i Li; i | ‘ . Eta LYS =n At ii a b, 7 ; f} ’ { , : sate ® 4 TA cee live eed a> THE Evinburgh JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GE@GRAPHY, NAVIGATION, STATISTICS, ANTIQUITIES, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS. CONDUCTED BY DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. F.R.S. LOND. SEC. R. S. EDIN. F.S.S.A. HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ; AND OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK, &c, &c. VOL. II. NOVEMBER—APRIL. ye WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH: AND T. CADELL, LONDON. M.DCCC.XXV. op cubes lta d J tse i aoe ‘ cs * - 4 4 a ‘ vatwooara 40 eggs 9 au #0 Waly. A i ‘s .. pPaATON [YEOUONO Xoorana ee eae 289 awiptouge re cfr nooxta QOLMABQAIE SADT TOART FMOTARA STITABATMOG eres 2 foawer GMA PuVE SAT AKA fa} sore a donee ate wou ork i : ; ‘ 5 Be it. ; ; ; salad rm ne aes oie ‘ ds sian Ya aarowanon, | ae ee . * eu ") . Ly , ’ ‘ “ . ; ae Gd. Aare nA ayaa an “al arr av ian ‘2 OMA avon KE high i} HaLGan® saWou ‘ate Xo: gute ; 5 videtava oust sao ie 40 4 Dies ah, parE A MN 10-08 KATIA 4O CRRIGL LALOR areryniren puto, CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. III. Arr. I. Observations on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina, in reference to certain supposed Discoveries respecting Vision announ- eed by Mr. Charles Bell. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. and Sec. R.S, Ed. &c. - - - . II- An Account ofa Plant allied to the éenttg Piper. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. F. A. S. Lond. and Ed. Communicated by the Author, ~ . - . . - - III. On the Theory of the Existence of a Sixth Sense in Fishes ; suppos- ed to réside in certain peculiar Tubular Organs, found immediately under the Integuments of the Head in Sharks and Rays. By Ro- BERT Knox, M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. Communicated ry the An- thor, yy IV. On the Natural Histol tha Physical Sedgiapiy of the Districts of ‘the Himalayah Mountains, between the River-Beds of the Jumna and Sutlnj. By GEorcEe Bele M.D, Communicated by the Author, - ~ = == - - a7 V. Description of the First Steam-Bogiie, Communicated by the Au- thor, : - > - 38 VI. On a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. By JoHNn Nasbbivecu, M.D. F.R.S. F. L. S. and M. G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ord. nance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe wt bee Com- municated by the Author, . - - 44 VII. An Account of the Frontier between Part of wea and the Kingdom of Ava. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. and F. A.S. Lond. and Ed. Communicated by the Author, - - 48 VIII. Remarks on the Culture of the Silk Worm in the North of Italy. : By Jonxw Murray, Esq. F. A.S. F, L. S. M.W.S. Lectureron Chemistry. Communicated by the Author. - - - 59 1X. Account of the Specific Gravity of several Minerals. By Wit- LIAM HaAIDINGER, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Au- thor. = - ° - . ° ° 67 i CONTENTS. Page X. On the Meteorological Tables kept in 1822 at Macquarie Har- bour and Hebart’s Town in Van Diemen’s Land, and transmit- ted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, by his Excellency Sir Tuomas Brispane, Kh. C. B. Fs R.S, - - - 79 XI. Notice of the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth, By Mr. Joun Foeso, Junior, Leith. Communicated by the Author. - 77 XII. Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, made dur- ing a Voyage from the Cape of Good Hope to St. Helena, in 1820. By Joun Davy, M.D. F. R.S. Communicated by the Author. 19 XIII. Account of an Insect of the Genus Urocerus, which came out of the Wood of a Table. By Mr. Jon Foceo, Leith. Communicated by the Author. - - - - 85 XIV. On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bodies. By Wi1t1- L1AM Haibincer, Esq. F.R.S. E. Communicated by the Au- thor.—(Continued from Vol. I. p. 333.) - - : 88 XV. On the Emigration of a Colony of Caterpillars, observed in Pro- vence. From the MS. Tour of James SKENE, Esq. of Rubieslaw. 93 XVI. Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black Lead Mine in Inver- ness-shire, on the property of Glengary, - 97 XVII. On the Formation of Single Microscopes from dis cre: of Fishes, &¢. By Davip Brewster; LL. D. F.R.S. and Sec. R.S, Edinburgh, - - - ~ - . 98 XVIIL. Deseription of a . New Self-acting Lever Sluice, and ofa Waster Sluice, invented by RoBERT THom, Esq. Rothesay. Communi- cated by the Author, - - . 100 XIX. Description of an. Extraordinary baihiticnr observed at Gotha on the 12th May, 1824, - . - - + 105 XX. On the Botany of America. By Wiurias Jackson Hooker, LL, D. F. R. S. E. Communicated by the Author, - 108 XXI. On the Production of Crystallized Minerals by heat. By Mr. E, MirtscuER.icn, Professor of Chemistry in the op, Ber- lin, - - - > - 129 XXII. Notice respecting Euchroite, a New Mineral Ageia: By Wi-. LIAM HaiD1nc_ER, Esq. F. R. S.E. Communicated by the Author, 133 XXIII. Contributions to Popular Science, - * Se ( Pom ‘ No. III. On the Structure of Rice Paper. - - ib. No. IV. On the Convergency of the Solar Beams. to a-point, opposite the Sun, - 136 XXIV. History of the Great Mass of. Native Malleable a, of iinaiene . now deposited in the Museum of the New York Historical Society, . 138 XXV. On the Existence of Siliceous Solutions in the Drusy Cayitiesof | Minerals. - . . - - - - 140 XXVI. DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCO- : VERIES, . - - 143 1. Professor Leslie’s Differential Thermometer invented by Profes- sor Sturmius, 2. Daniell’s Platina Pyrometer, partly anticipated ~by'M. Guyton. 3. Mr. Nicholas Mill’s Pyrometer, anticipated by Dr. Ure, - = lng “ - 144—146 CONTENTS. iil Page XXVII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, 148 1. Mr. Vallance’s Apparatus for Freezing Water, = ib. 2. Account of Mr. Dalton’s Process for Ceo SINS the Value of Indigo, « . = - 149 3. Mushet’s Process for Meee Copper for Ships, - ib. 4. Mr. Mackintosh’s Precess for rendering impervious to water __, and air all kinds of Cloths ; also Leather and Paper, &c. | 150 5. M. M. Farrimann and Thilly’s Process for rendering Leather, - Canvass, Linen, &c. Water Proof, - =. ib. 6. Siemen’s Improvement on the Process of making Brandy from Potatoes, - w- - - - 151 7. Account of Improvements on Thin Circular Saws, - ib. $. On the Invention of Floating Breakwaters, = ib. XXVIII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 152 I. Der Monte Rosa. Eine Topographische und Naturhistorische Skizze-nebst einem Anhange der von Herrn Zumstein gemach- ten Reisen zur Ersteigung seiner Gipfel.—Monte Rosa. A To- pographical and Historical Sketch, with an Appéndix. of the Journies of M. Zumstein to these Summits. By Louris BARow DE WELDEN. With a Topographical Chart and Lithegraphic _ Plates. Vienna, 1824, . . ib. il. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical sah of Oe Rees 7 ter. Second Series, vol. iv. 156 III. Account of the Bell Rock Light hate ried oe the Ficcsie of the Erection and peculiar Structure of that Edifice. 1 vol. 4to. pp. 534. By RopERT STEVENSON, Esq. F. R.S.E. Ciyil Engineer, . - =i GO, IV. Acta Academiz Nature Curiosorum. Tom. XI. Part I. 164 XXTX. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL. BOTANICAL WORKS, Gi poh ha 165 Great Britain. Botanical Magazine for September, No. 452: Botanical... Register, for September; No. 115.,..No. 116. .,October. |. Hooker's Exotic Flora for September, No. 14. No..15. October.: ) No. 16. No- vember. Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet, for September, 1 No. 89... .Gre- ville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, No, 27. September. No. 28. Oc- tober. No... 29, Nevember, > - ab - 165-168. XXX. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, : lee 1. Proceedings of the Reyal Seciety ef Edinburgh, - ib. 2. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society, 170 3. Proceedings of the Society for promoting the Useful Arts. in - Scotland, : ~ . - - - 171 iV CONTENTS. Art. XXXI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - - 171 I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Astronomy. 1. Elements of the New Comet of 1824 2, The Buenos Ayres Comet of 1821. 3. Spots on the Sun in 1824. 4. Lohr- mann’s Maps of the Moon. 5. Iua Place on the Masses of the Planets. 6. Parallax of the Sun. 17. Copley Medal adjudged to Dr. Brinkley. 8. Opposition of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, - 171-173 Orrics. 9. Singular Colour of the Sun. 10. Frauenhofer’s Large Achromatic Telescope, - - - - 173-174 Macnetism. 11. Oscillations of the Needle affected, by being enclosed in a copper case. 12. No diurnal variation of the Needle at the Equa- tor. 13. Variation of the Magnetic Needle, observed in Africa in 1823. 14. Variation of the Magnetic Needle on the Coast of Karama- nia. 15. Declination of the Magnetic Needle at Paramatta, New South Wales. 16. Magnetic Variation and Dip observed in the North Seas, by Captain Sabine. 17. Scoresby’s Observations on the Dip of the Needle, - - - = - - 174-175 MeteEorRotocy. 18. Increase in the quantity of Rain. 19. Saline Im- pregnation of Rain, - - - - 175-176 Il. CHEMISTRY. 20. Analysis of the Root of the Male Fern. 21. M. Berzelius’s Analysis of 1000th parts of Carlsbad Water 22. Analysis of Chrysobery]. 23. Oxides of Titanium and Iron. 24. Potassium and Sodium, 176-177 III. NATURAL HISTORY. MINERALOGY. 25. Rosélite, a New Mineral Species. 26. Columbite. 27. Brochantite, a New Mineral Substance. 28. Fluellite, a New Mi- neral Substance. 29. Analyses of several Native Carbonates of Lime, Magnesia, Iron, and Manganese, by M. P, Berthier. 30. Torrelite. 31. Metallic Titanium, - = - - . 177-181 CrysTaLLOGRAPHY. 32. The Edinburgh Review and Mr. Phillips, ib. Botany.—33. Bois de Colophane. 34. The late Baron de Schack. 35. C. S. Parker, Esq. _ 36. Red Snow. 37. Govan’s. Herbarium. 38. Algarum Systema Manuale. 39. Dr. Hooker’s System of Plants. 4.0. Hooker and Taylor’s Muscologia Britannica, - 181-185 Zootoey.—4l. Discovery of a Fossil Bat. 42. New Species of Mammi- ferous Animal. - 43. Fossil Elephant discovered between the Rhine and the Saone. 44. Lamantine. 45. Anas Rufitorques. 46. Loligo Brevipinna. 47. Lernea. 48. Batrachoides. 49. Sword-fish, ‘185-187 ' IV. GENERAL SCIENCE. ' 50. Natural Ice-houses near Salisbury, North America. 51. Dr. Mat- thew Baillie’s Works, - - - - 187 XXXII. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in england since June 15, 1824, - : -'+ . 188 XXKXIII. List of Patents granted in Séotlandss since August 13, 1824, 189 XXXIV. Celestial Phenomena from January 1, to April 1, 1825, caleu- lated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr. GEorGE Innes, Aberdeen, - = - - 189 XXXV. Register of the Seca peten! Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept at Canaan Cottage. By ALEX. ADIE, Esq. F. B.S. E. 192 CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. IV. Art. I. On the Mechanical Effects produced when a Conducting Liquid is electrified in contact with Mercury. In a Letter from J. F. W. HER- SCHEL, Esq. Sec. R. S. Lond. F. R.S. Edin. &c. &c. to Dr BREW- STER, = . . . Analysis of a Peach-Blossom Coloured Mica, from Chursdorf, near Penig, in Saxony. By C. G. GMELIN, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibing2n. Communicated by the Author, - = * III. Observations on the Optical Structure of Lithion-Mica, analysed by Pro- fessor GUELIN. By Davip air LL. D. F. R. S. Lond., and Sec. R. S. Edin. . a IV. Description of a Boat with a Riwuiivtig Paddle Scull, ane by An- DREW WADDELL, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Author, V. On the Dispersion of Stony Fragments remote from their Native Beds, as displayed in a Stratum of Loam near Manchester. By SamuEL Hin- BERT, M. D. F.R.S. E., and Secretary to the Society of Scottish Anti- quaries. Communicated by the Author, - - - VI. Table of Tides kept at the Mouth of Macquarrie Harbour, in Van Die- men's Land, between July 21st, and September 27th, 1822. Communi- cated by his Excellency Sir Thomas Brisbane, K. C. B. F. R.S. L. & E. &e. - Fe = : VII. Researches on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, in reference to their Coun- ter-Poisons.. By JouN Murray, F. L.S. M. W. S. &c. Communi- cated by the Author, = - = VIII. Description of Withamite, a New Mineral Species found in Glenco. By Davip BrewsTER, LL. D. F.R.S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Ed. IX. On the Gerus Hookeria of Smith, of the order Musci. By W. J. Hooker, LL. D. F.R. S. &e, &. Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow; and R. K. GREvVILLE, LL, D. F.R.S. E. &c. &c. Communicated by the Authors, = e X. On the Distribution of Granite and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. By Joun MacCuttocn, M.D. F. R.S. F. L. S. and M. G, S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe Collegee Communicated by the Author, - I — Page 195 199 218 il CONTENTS. Page ART. XI. Remarks on the Influence of the Winds on the Barometer. Com- muuicated by the Author, - - - - - 241 XI1. On a New Formation of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. Observed by C. G. GMELIN, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author, - - - - 244 XIII. Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, and on the Specific Gravity of Sea- Water, made during a Voyage from St Helena to England in 1620. By JoHn Davy, M.D. F. R.S. Communicated by the Anthor, - ~ - - - . 246 XIV. Description of mpgaite, a New Mineral Species) By Davin Brew- sTER, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. = 262 XV. Description of a New Quicksilver Pump. Invented by Mr THomas CxLaRk, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Inventor, - - 267 XVI. Analysis of Helvine. By C. G. GMELIN, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author, - 268 XVII. Additional Observations on the Natural History and Physical Geo- graphy of the Himalayah Mountains, between the River-Beds of the Jumnah and the Sutluj. By GEorGE Govan, M. D. Communicated by the Author, < = - = ° 277 XVIII. Analysis of Diploite, (Breithaupt.) By C. G. GmExry, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen. Communicated by the Author, 287 XIX. Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. Invented by RoBERT Tuom, Esq. Rothesay. Communicated by the Author, - 289 XX. On the Force exerted by Hydrostatic Pressure in Bramah’s Presses ; and , on the resisting Power of the Metal, with Rules for computing the thick~ ness of the same for different Pressures. By PETER BARLOW, Esq. F. R. S. of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Communicated by the Au- thor,” : - - - - - - 293 XXI. On the Acoustic Figures produced by the Vibrations communicated through the Air to Elastic Membranes. By M. FELIX SavarT, 296 XXXII. Analysis of Euchroite. By Epwarp TuRNER, M. D. F.R.S. E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians, Edinburgh, - - - - - . 301 XXIII. Description of Fraunhofer’s ss Achromatic Telescopes. With a Plate, = - = - = ~ 305 XXIV. On the Neptunian Formation of Siliceous Stalactites. By the Rev. JouNn FLEMING, D. D. F,R.S. E. Communicated by the Author, 307 XXV. Notice of the Rev. W. WHEWELL’s General Method of calculating the Angles made by any Planes of Crystals, and the Laws according to which they are formed, - - - - - 312 XXVI. On the Methods of Preventing the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms, Invented by the Rey. J. SOMERVILLE, Minister of Currie. Communi- cated by the Author, = - = : ™ eg 316 XXVII. On Leslie’s Photometer, and its application to determine the relative Intensity of the Sun’s Rays, and the Illuminating Powers of Coal and Oil Gas. By W1LtiaMm RitcuHie, A. M. Rector of the Academy at Tain. Communicated by the Author, - - - - - 321 XXVIII. Notice respecting Trona, the native Carbonate of Soda Fionn Fez- zan. By WriLi1AmM HarpincER, Esq. F. R.S. Edin, Communicated by the Author, - - : . 2 Sond og 328 CONTENTS. il Page Art. XXIX. Description of Levyne, a New Mineral Species. By Davip BrEwsTER, LL. D. F. R.S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. . 332 XXX. DECISIONS ON BISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCO- VERIES, - - - . 334 1. The Daily Variation of the Barometer not discovered by Colonel Wright. 2. Bryson’s Compensation Pendulum, invented by Mr Dayid Ritchie of London. 3. Sir William Congreve’s Moveable Ball Clock, invented by M. Serviere. 4. Heulandite first separated from Stilbite by Professor Mohs, and not by Mr Brooke. 5, Mr Nicholas Mill’s Platina Pyrometer, - . - . - 334—338 XXXI. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTs, : - 339 1. Mr Ritchie’s Photometer, and the Illuminating Powers of Oil and Coal Gas, - - - - - - = ib. 2. M. Ducom’s Cylindrical Artificial Horizon, - 341 3. Mr Jeffrey’s Method of condensing Smoke, Metallic vapid, &e, 342 4, Casting of Wooden Ornaments and Veneers, - . ib. 5. Account of the Lapidary’s Wheel of the Hindoos, : . ib. 6. Dr Church’s New Boring Auger, - . . 343 7. Evans’s New Method of Roasting Coffee, - ae - ib. 8. Braconnot’s Process for making Blacking for Leather, - ib. 9. Mr Jenning’s Improved Gas Burner, - - - 344 XXXII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, S44 J. Description of a Monochromatic Lamp, with Remarks on the Absorp- tion of the Prismatic Rays by Coloured Media. By Davip Brew- sTER, LL.D. &c.—On the Absorption of Light by Coloured Media, and on the Colours exhibited by certain Flames, &c. & By J. F. W. HerscHeEt, Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and F.R.S. Edin. - ib- II. Some Account of the late M. Guinand, and of the important Discovery made by him in the Manufacture of Flint Glass for Large Telescopes, 348 XXXIII. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL BOTANICAL WORKS, - - 354 Great Britain.—Monandrian Plants of the Order Scitaminee, by William Roscoe, Esq. No. 2. Drummond’s Musci Scotici. Botanical Magazine for December, No. 458. Hvoker’s Exotic Flora, for December, No. 17. Loddige’s Botanical Cabinet, Part 92, December. Part 93, January 1825; Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. BoTANIcAL INTELLIGENCE. Progress of Botany in Russia. Intelligence from Austria. Intelligence from North America. Denmark. Sweden. Mexico, = 354-359 XXXIV. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - . - 360 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, - - ib. 2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, - 361 3. Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotland, 362 iV CONTENTS. Page Art. XXXV. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - - 364 I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. AsTRoNoMY.—1. Remarkable Double Tail in the Comet of 1823. 2. Sup- posed influence of Comets on the Sun's Surface. 3%. Periodical Comet of 1819. 4. Depression of the Horizon at Sea, - - - 364, 365 Optics.—d. Refractive Power of Dry and Humid Air. 6. Polarisation of Light from Solid or Fluid incandescent Bodies. 7. Optical Phenomena ob- served by M. Ruppell. 8. Remarkable Dichroism of Axinite. 9. Optical Structure of Somervillite, - - - - 365, 366 MaGneETIsM.—10. Magnetic Variation at Lake Superior. 11. Magnetic De- clination at Paris in 1822 and 1823, - - - 366, 367 METEOROLOGY.—12. Great Inundation in Sweden and at St Petersburgh. 13. Great Rain at Manchester in 1824. 14. Diurnal Variation of the Ba- rometer at Marseilles, - - - - - 367 -369 Il. CHEMISTRY. 15. Deoxidating property of the Vapour of Water. 16. Quantity of Heat disengaged during Combustion. 17. On the Colouring Matter, called Chica, by the Indians. 18. Avogadro’s Table of the Affinities of Bodies for Ca- loric. 19. Avogadro's Table of the Neutralizing Powers of different Sub- stances. 20. Analysis of the Sulphuret of Manganese from Transylvania, by Arfvedson. 21. Analysis of Blende, Crystallized, Yellow, and Transparent, by Arfvedson. 22. Analysis of Capillary Pyrites, by. Arfvedson. 23. Ana- lysis of two varieties of Harmotome, by Dr Wernekingk of Giessen. 24. Analysis of Sideroschisolite, by Dr Wernekingk. 25. Analysis of Uranite by Berzelius, - = - - - 369-372 III. NATURAL HISTORY. MIneraLtocy.—26. Axotomous Arsenical-Pyrites, a New Mineral Species. 27. Prismatoidal Copper-Glance, a New Mineral Species. 28. Axotomous Antimony-Glance, a New Mineral Species. 29. Hemiprismatic Ruby- Blende, a New Mineral Species. 30. Fergusonite, a New Mineral Species. 31. Picrosmine, 2 New Mineral Species. 32. Brookite, a New Mineral Species, - - - > - - BiB ob Borany.—33. On the Nature of Galls, - - - 378 ZooLocy.—34. Physalia Arethusa, - - - - ib. Iv. GENERAL SCIENCE. 35. Hatching of Fish. 36. Mr Lizars’ Work on the Renioval of Ovaria. 37. Mr Bate’s Essay on Spectacles. 38. Mr Innes’s Tide Tables for 1825. 39. The Emperor of Russia’s Present to Professor Barlow, - 378, 379 XXXVI. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in England since July 27, 1824, - «| - 379 XXXVII. List of Patents granted in Scotland since November 30, 1824, 381 XXXVIII. Celestial Phenomena, from April 1, to July 1, 1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr GEorRGE INNES, Aber- deen, - - - - - - ib, XXXIX. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain.Gage, kept at Canaan Cottage. By Alex. ADIE, Esq. F. R.S,E. - 384 THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Arr. I.—Observations on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina, in reference to certain supposed Discoveries respect- ing Vision announced by Mr. Charles Bell.* By Davin Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. and Sec. R. 8. Ed. &c. Tuenrz is no branch of physical science which has made less progress than that which relates to the optical functions of the eye. Although the phenomena of vision are constantly presented to our consideration, and although experiments without number, and speculations without end, have been ac- cumulated, yet during the last century no prominent discove- ry has been made respecting the physiology of this most im- portant organ. It was, therefore, with no inconsiderable satisfaction, that I observed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, a paper by Mr. Charles Bell, containing an account of discoveries which promised to throw a new light not only upon the optical, but upon the metaphysical questions which have so long been agitated respecting vision. In studying that paper, however, these expectations have been disappointed. After a careful repetition of the experiments which it contains, and a minute investigation of the phenomena to which it relates, I have no hesitation in stating, that its facts and reasonings are to a great extent incorrect and inconclusive. In submitting the results of this inquiry to the Royal Socie- _* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, December 6, 1824. VOL. II. NO. ¥. JAN. 1825, B 2 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. ty, I trust it will not be supposed that I am engaging their at- tention to a subject of a controversial nature. I have no incli- nation to offer any criticisms, or make any comments upon those parts of Mr. Bell’s paper, which are open to controver- sy. My only object is to establish certain scientific facts and laws of vision which have been misunderstood or perverted ; and I shall but ill perform the task I have undertaken, if I leave the subject in any doubt, or fail to impress upon those who hear me, the same conviction of their certainty which I entertain myself. In order that the facts and doctrines maintained by Mr. Bell may not be misinterpreted, I shall state them in his own words. “«* When the eye is at rest, as in sleep, or even when the eyelids are shut, the sensation on the retina being then neglected, the voluntary muscles resign their office, and the involuntary muscles draw the pupil un- der the upper eyelid. This is the condition of the organ during perfect repose. On the other hand, there is an inseparable connexion between the ex~ ercise of the sense of vision, and the exercise of the voluntary muscles of the eye. When an object is seen we enjoy too senses; there is an impression upon the retina ; but we receive also the idea of position or relation, which it is not the office of the retina to give. -It is by the “consciousness of the degree of effort put upon the voluntary muscles that we know the relative position of an ohject to ourselves. 'The relation ex- isting between the office of the retina and of the voluntary muscles, may be illustrated in this manner. Let the eyes be fixed upon an illuminated object, until the retina be fatigued, and in some measure exhausted by the image, then closing the eyes the figure of the object will continue present to them: and it is quite clear that nothing can change the place of this impression on the retina. But notwithstanding that the impression on the retina cannot be changed, the idea thence arising may. For, by an exertion of the vo- luntary muscles of the eyeball the body seen will appear to change its place, and it will, to our feeling, assume different positions according to the muscle which is exercised. If we raise the pupil we shall see the body elevated, or if we depress the pupil, we shall see the body placed below us; and ail this takes place while the eyelids are shut, and when no new impression is conveyed to the retina. The state of the retina is here associated with a consciousness of muscular exertion ; and it shows that vision, in its extended sense, is a compound operation, the idea of posi- tion of an object having relation to the activity of the muscles. * * * If we move the eye Ly the voluntary muscles, while this impression con tinues upon the retina, we shall have' the notion of place and relation rais~ ed in the mind ; but if the motion of the eyeball he produced BY ANY OTHER Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 3 cAuSE, by the involuntary muscles or by pressure from without, we shall have no corresponding change of sensation. If we make the impression on the retina in the manner described, and shut theeyes, the image will not be elevated, although the pupils be actually raised, as it is their condition to be when the eyes are shut, be- cause there is here no sense of voluntary exertion. If we sit at some distance from a lamp, which has a cover of ground glass, and fix the eye on the centre of it, and then shut the eye and contemplate the phantom in the eye ; and if, while the image continues to be present of a fine blue colour, we press the eye aside with the finger, we shall not move that phantom or image, although the circle of light produced by the pres< sure of the finger against the eyeball moves with the motion of the fin« ger. May not this be accounted for in this manner: The motion produced in the eyeball not being performed by the appropriate organs, the volun- tary muscles, it conveys no sensation of change to the sensorium, and is not associated with the impression on the retina, so as to affect the idea excited in the mind? It is owing to the same cause, that, when look- ing on the lamp, by pressing one eye, we can make two images, and we can make the one move over the other. But if we have received the im pression on the retina so as to leave the phantom visible when the eye- lids are shut, we-cannot, by pressing one eye, produce any such effect. We cannot, by any degree of pressure, make that image appear to move ; but the instant that the eye moves by its voluntary muscles, the image changes its place ; that is, we produce the two sensations necessary to raise this idea in the mind; we have the sensation on the retina com- bined with the consciousness or sensation of muscular activity.”—Phil. Trans. 1823, p. 177—180. The passage now quoted contains three important results : 1. That when an impression is made upon the retina by strong light, this impression, in the form of a coloured spec- trum, remains absolutely fixed and immoveable, if the eye- ball is moved by the pressure of the finger, or by any other external cause than that of the voluntary muscles of the eye- ball. 2. That during sleep, or upon the closing of the eyelids, the voluntary muscles resign their office, and the involuntary muscles draw the pupil under the upper eyelid. 3. That during this involuntary motion or displacement of the globe of the eye, the spectral impression continues abso- lutely fixed and immoveable. From these three results, Mr. Bell draws the highly impor- tant conclusion, that ‘it is by the consciousness of the de- gree of effort put upon the voluntary muscles, that we know the relative position of an object to ourselves,” or that << the 4 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. notion of place or relation is raised in the mind ;” and hence he explains the old paradox of an inverted picture upon the retina producing the appearance of an erect object. In estimating the value of this singular conclusion, we shall first admit its truth, as well as the correctness of the facts from which it is deduced, in order to form some notion of the consequences in which it will involve us. Since the notion of place or relation depends solely on the consciousness of exerting the voluntary muscles of the eye- ball, let the observer, with a spectral impression on his retina, close his eye, and turn round his head either in a vertical or a horizontal plane, by the muscles of his neck alone. It wilh now be found, that the spectrum follows the motion of the head; and hence we must conclude, that the notion of place or relation depends on the exercise of the muscles of the neck, as those of the eyeball have been entirely at rest. But as there may exist some undiscovered sympathy be- tween the muscles of the neck and those of the eyeball, let the observer, with his eyes closed be now placed upon a stool, to which an assistant communicates a rotatory motion through the intermedium of a leathern belt. In this case also, it will be found that the spectrum revolves with the stool in the same manner as if the eyeball had performed the same angular motion by the action of its voluntary muscles. Hence we must conclude, that the notion of place or relation depends on the muscles of the assistant’s arm, conveyed by some sympathetic action to the observer’s eye along the lea- thern belt ; a result so inadmissible, that, to use the sentence which Mr. Bell directs against the illustrious Kepler, “* The mind might as well follow the ray out of the eye, and like the spider, feel along the line.” In order to view this subject under another aspect, let us suppose that, by cutting the voluntary muscles, the eyeball is left to float in its socket; or, what is the same thing, that these muscles have lost their power of giving motion to the eyeball. In such a case, will the eye retain its notions of place or relation? or will it lose them entirely? It is quite clear that the impression of external objects on the retina will not be affected by this condition of the voluntary mus- cles ; and therefore it follows, that if the notion of place is 2 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 5 ost, the eye must either see the object erect as usual, or in- verted, or in some intermediate position, or what is more pro- bable, in all these positions at once. For if it has a determi- nate position, the eye will only have exchanged its notion of true position for a notion of false position, a result too absurd to be for a moment entertained. Fortunately for this argu- ment, Mr. Bell has actually described a case under the care of Dr. Macmichael, which occurred after his paper was read. «‘ In this case,” says he, “* which shows the consequences of the eye and eyelids being rendered immoveable, the surface of the eye is totally insensible, and the eye remains fixed and directed straight forward, whilst the vision ts entire.” If there ever was an experimentum crucis, which could settle at once a controverted question, we have one in the case now -quoted. Dr. Macmichael’s patient preserved his vision en- tire, when ‘“* the outward apparatus was without sensibility and motion,” and when there was no cousciousness of effort in the voluntary muscles to convey the notions of place and relation. Although mathematicians have acknowledged the legitima- ey of the reductio ad absurdum, which constitutes the princi- pal feature of the preceding argument, yet we fear this will not be admitted in physical science, unless it is accompanied with an acknowledgment of our ignorance respecting the facts and principles which the paralogism involves. I shall there- fore proceed to an examination of the facts themselves. 1. The leading fact which has misled Mr. Bell in this in- quiry, is the alleged immobility of the spectral impression, when the eye is displaced by the pressure of the finger. This spectrum is by no means immoveable. It is quite true that it moves through a very small space; but this space, small as it is, is the precise quantity through which it ought to move according to the principles of optics; and the expla- nation of this fact leads us to investigate the difference be- tween the vision of external objects, and that of impressions upon the retina. In order to understand this difference, let A, Plate II. Fig. i, be the eye of the observer, and O an external object, whose image at P is seen along the axis of vision POM. Let the eye be pushed upwards, suppose #,th of an inch, 6 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. into the position B, the external object O remaining fixed. The image of O upon the retina will now be raised from P to Q in the clevated eye at B. Hence the object O will now be seen in the direction QON, having descended, by the ele- vation of the eye, from M to N. Let the eye be now brought back to its original position A, and let the object O be the lamp with ground glass used by Mr. Bell. The spectral impression will therefore be made upon the retina at P, and will remain on that spot till it is effaced. If the eye A is now raised to B, the impression will still be at P in the elevated eye, and it will be seen in the di- rection PR parallel to PM, having risen only {jth of an inch, or the height through which the eye has been raised by pressure. This small space is not very visible to an ordinary observer, when his head is at liberty to move; but if the head is carefully fixed, the motion of the spectrum becomes quite apparent. Hence it is obvious that Mr. Bell has been first misled by not observing the motion of the spectrum, and secondly, by supposing that the vision of an impression fol- lowed the same law as the vision of an external object. The difference between these two cases of vision which Mr. Bell has overlooked, consists in this, that in ordinary vision the object forms a new image upon a new part of the retina, after the eye is pushed up; whereas in spectral vision, the original object has nothing to do after the eye is displaced, the spectrum itself which retains its place on the retina be- ing now the only object of perception. 2. The second fact announced by Mr. Bell is, that during sleep, or upon the closing of the eyelids, the eyeball is in- voluntarily turned up beneath the upper eyelid, and so far even as to withdraw the pupil from the faint light which that eyelid transmits. This singular result stands in direct contradiction to the opinion of Soemmering and other anatomists, who consider the eyeball as perfectly stationary when the eyelids are shut; but as Mr. Bell has deduced his opinion from direct experi- ment, it requires to be strictly examined. I have frequently and carefully repeated the experiment which he describes, -and I find that no such motion of the eyeball takes place upon shutting the eyelids; but that, on the contrary, they remain perfectly stationary. I am informed also by Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 7 Dr. Knox, that he saw a case of a protrusion of the iris through the cornea, which could very readily be distinguished even when the eyelids were closed ; and that the protuberance occu- pied the same position whether the eyelids were open or shut. The impossibility of the existence of such a motion may be deduced also from other principles. When the observer, with a spectrum in his eye, closes his eyelids, Mr. Bell admits that the spectrum remains stationary, which is undoubtedly the case ; but as we have already demonstrated that the spec trum actually follows the movements of the eye as it ought to do, upon the ordinary principles of optics, the absolute immobility of the impression, upon shutting the eyelids, be- comes an incontrovertible proof, that when the eye is closed, the eyeball is not displaced by the action of any involuntary muscles, In order to strengthen his arguments for the existence of this involuntary revolution of the eyeball, Mr. Bell has stat- ed, in a very ingenious manner, the final cause of such an ar- rangement. « The purpose of this rapid insensible motion of the eyeball will be understood on observing the form of the eyelids, and the place of the lachrymal gland. The margins of the eyelids are flat, and when they meet, they touch only at their outer edges, so that when closed, there is a gutter left between them and the cornea. If the eyeball were to remain without motion, the margins of the eyelids would meet in such a man- ner on the surface of the cornea, that a certain portion would be left untouched, and the eye would have no power of clearing off what obscur- ed the vision, at that principal part of the lucid cornea, which is in the very axis of the eye ; and if the tears flowed, they would be left accumu- lated on the centre of the cornea ; and winking, instead of clearing the eye, would suffuse it. To avoid these effects, and to sweep and clear the surface of the cornea, at the same time that the eyelids are closed, the eyeball revolves, and the cornea is rapidly elevated under the eyelid.”— Phil. Trans. 1823, p. 169. Unfortunately for these views, the clearing away of the lubricating fluid which is left in the groove between the closed eyelids has not been accomplished by Almighty wisdom. Those who are familiar with this class of experiments, will have no difficulty in observing the ridge of accumulated fluid remaining after the eye is opened, and gradually falling to its level by the united forces of gravity and capillary attrac- tion. In order to perceive this effect, let the eye be direct- ed to a small point of light, such as the image of a candle 8 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. diminished by reflexion from a convex surface, and Jet this image be brought near the eye, so that the pencils of rays which diverge from it may have their foci a great way be- hind the retina. When the eye is open, the image of this luminous point will be a circular disc of light, or a section of the cone of rays formed by the refraction of the eye. If, when looking at this circular disc, shown at A in Fig 2, we shut the eyelids, and then open them gradually, examining at the same time the appearance of the disc, we shall at first observe it to have the compressed form shown at B, occasioned by the ridge of fluid, and then gradually extending itself into its regular circular form, an effect which may be produced at once by the operation of winking; the only one which nature has combined with the ordinary motion of the eyeball for the purpose of smoothing the outer surface of the cornea. In concluding these remarks, I cannot avoid expressing a wish that Mr. Bell will re-examine his own observations, and repeat with care those to which I have had occasion to re- fer, before he proceeds to his ulterior object of establishing upon such a basis an arrangement of the nerves of the eye, and a distinction of them according to their uses. Such an arrangement must be affected by the facts upon which it is founded ; and the present advanced state both of human and comparative anatomy, requires that all their classifications, and particularly their most difficult ones, should not rest on contested data, or be regulated by ambiguous principles. Before quitting this subject, I am desirous of stating to the society some views connected with the preceding obser- vations, and relating to a more recondite affection of the eye, which it seems to receive through the agency of the mind. When the eye is not exposed to the impressions of exter- nal objects, or when it is insensible to these impressions, in consequence of the mind being engrossed with its own ope- rations, any object of mental contemplation which has either been called up by the memory, or created by the imagina- tion, will be seen as distinctly as if it had been formed from the vision of a real object. In examining these mental im- pressions, I have found that they follow the motions of the eyeball exactly like the spectral impressions of lumimous ob- jects, and that they resemble them also in their apparent im- Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. | 9 mobility when the eyeball is displaced by an external force. If this result (which I state with much diffidence, from hav- ing only my own experience in its favour) shall be found ge- nerally true by others, it will follow that the objects of men- tal contemplation may be seen as distinctly as external ob- jects, and will occupy the same local position in the axis of vision, as if they had been formed by the agency of light.* Hence all the phenomena of apparitions may depend upon the relative intensities of these two classes of impressions, and upon their manner of accidental combination. In perfect health, when the mind possesses a control over its powers, the impressions of external objects alone occupy the attention, but in the unhealthy condition of the mind, the impressions of its own creation either overpower, or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects ;—the mental spectra in the one case appearing alone, while in the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the eye- ball is directed. Art. Il.—An Account of a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. By Francis Hamitron, M.D. F.R.S. F..A.S. Lond. and Ed. Communicated by the Author. Tue different species of the genus Pirer, as constituted by Linneus from the Piper of the ancients, and the Saururus of Plumier, offer a considerable number of differences in the parts of the fructification, and attempts have been therefore made to divide it into several genera. Swartz separated the Lacistema, called Nematospermum by Richard ; and this ar- rangement seems to have met with general approbation. Ruiz again restored the Sawrurus of Plumier under the new-fan- gled name Peperomia, which has been adopted by several excellent botanists, especially Kunth; while others of equal authority (Poiret and Vahl) object to this innovation (Ene. Meth. Sup. iv. 454.) In fact, the separation would at any rate appear to be premature; for in the greater number of species, the details of the fructification are still wanting, and * These results, and several others which I shall have occasion to explain in another paper, confirm, in a remarkable manner, the views of my friend Dr. Hibbert, in his able work on the Philosophy of Apparitions, 10 Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. of course we do not yet know what weight certain characters should have, when we attempt to separate the species into na- tural groups. The characters, therefore, by which different authors have endeavoured to distinguish Piper from Peperomia, have been not only different, but it remains still uncertain whether the species that should be respectively arranged under these ge- nera, according to such characters, would form two groups distinguished from each other by a remarkable difference in general appearance. It is also uncertain whether or not all the species of Piper can be reduced to the two genera, as dis- tinguished by any characters yet proposed. For instance, Hedwig, (Gen. Plant. 22.) endeavours to distinguish the P- per, by its having no calyx, from the Peperomia, which has a calyx, consisting of one peltate scale; but the P. nigrum or aromaticum, the P. beile, and the P. longum, the oldest and best established species of Piper, have exactly this cha- racter, by which Hedwig endeavours to distinguish Peperomia. The generic character given by Kunth to the Peperomia, (Spadix cylindricus floribus undique tectus. Flores herma- phroditi, singudus squama suffultus. Stamina duo. Antherze uniloculares. Stigma indivisum. Bacca monosperma,) is very applicable to many species, and may distinguish them from the old established kinds of Piper, which, with several others that I have found in India, have a habit as well as a character (Spadix cylindricus undique tectus squamis uniflo- ris. Flores dioeci. Masc. filamenta duo vel plura antheris bilocularibus. Foem. germen vnicum. Stigma sessile, pro- funde divisum,) very different from the Peperomia rubella, (Hooker Exotic. Flora, 58,) which nearly resembles a species from Nepal, which I gave to Sir E. J. Smith. But the Pe- peromia incana, (Hooker, 66,) and Peperomia maculosa, (Hooker, 92,) with the same character, have little or no re- semblance either to the two species first mentioned, to the old established species of Piper with dioecious flowers, or even to each other. Until, therefore, the species of Piper have been more fully described, the subdivisions that have been made can only be considered as provisional, and merely as such I propose what follows. On the hills near Goyalpara I found a shrub, which Lin- neus would probably have called a Piper, but which differs a Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. 11 good deal both in general appearance and in the characters of its fructification, from any of the species yet mentioned. In the catalogue of dried specimens which I have given to the India House, this plant has been called Crypu#a ERECTA, on account of the sexual organs being concealed in a singular manner by the filament, which resembles a berry. I shall here give a description. Frutices erecti. Rami oppositi, glabri, internodiis ad ba- sin incrassatis compressis. Folia opposita, oblonga, ultra me- dium latiora, acuminata, mucronata, serrata, venosa, undula- ta, glabra. Petiolus brevissimus, annulo denticulato ramu- lum cingente amplexicaulis. Stipule alioquin nulle. Pedunculus communis terminalis, folio multo brevior, spi- cas gerens quatuor brachiatim oppositas, ultra spicas mucro- natus. Bractee ad singulas spicas minute, ovate, persisten- tes, spice (vel si velis amenta vel spadices) erectz, floribus oppositis quadrifariam imbricatis quadrisulez, glabre, unciam longee, mucronate. ores albi, parvi, singuli denticulo spi- ce insidentes. Calyx squama minuta, acuta, denticulum spice bracteans. Corolla nulla. Filamentum unilaterale, ovatum, carnosum, extra convexum, intus sinu excavatum. Anthere duz unilo- culares, marginibus filamenti infra apicem inserte. Germen trigonum, filamentum inter et rachim intra filamenti sinum nidulans, denticulo spice insidens. Stylus brevis, crassus. Stigma acutum integrum. Bacca ovata, carnosa, albida magnitudine pisi minoris, api- ce gerens. Semen unicum, globosum, leve, stipiti s. funiculo umbilicali e basi fructus prodeunti lignoso recto insidens. Pe-. rispermum magnitudine seminis album, durum. Embryo ho- rizontalis, teres, rectus, indivisus, ab uno seminis latere ad centrum pertingens. Plate II. Fig. 8, represents a flower cut vertically through the middle, and the nearest side removed. 1. Part of the Rachis communis. 2. Denticulus, on which the flower is placed. 3. Calyx. 4. Filament. 5. Anthera. 6. Pistillum. Fig. 9. is a flower separated and viewed from the side next ‘the rachis. 1, 1,1, Filament. 2,2, Antherx. 3, Pistillum. Fig. 10. is a vertical section of aberry. 1, 1, 1, Pulp. 2. Seed with embryo. 3. Stipes supporting the seed. The figures are a little magnified. 12 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Sixth Sense in Fishes, Art. II].—On the Theory of the Existence of a Sixth Sense in Fishes ; supposed to reside in certain peculiar Tubular Organs, found immediately under the Integuments of the Head in Sharks and Rays. By Rozsert Knox, M. D. F.R.S.E. &c. Communicated by the Author. Ix dissecting the shark, tope fish or skate, none, I think, not even the most careless observer, could have missed noti- cing certain groups of very singular organs, which seem as it were peculiar to these families of animals. They were long confounded in anatomical descriptions with the lacunar or mucous system, which I believe to be common to all, or at least to most fishes, until clearly shown by Mr. Jacobson of Berlin, to be perfectly distinct from the latter, and differ- ing probably as much in function as in structure. Mr. Jacobson concluded from his dissections, that they were or- gans of touch; and however improbable this opinion may at first sight appear, it seems not unlikely that it will ultimately be very generally adopted. The organs I allude to have been long known to compa- rative anatomists, nor indeed is it possible to examine even with ordinary attention the head of the shark, without per- ceiving very readily their general structure:—A vast as- semblage of parallel transparent tubes, filled with a gelatinous fluid, and supplied with large branches of nerves, communi- cating with a flat surface, and as it were perforating the in- teguments. Such are the organs I now speak of, and which, in whatever way they are viewed, merit the highest attention on the part of the comparative physiologist. To form a sufficiently accurate idea of these organs, the reader has only to imagine a congeries of comparatively small tubes, springing from a common stalk like grapes from a vine branch ; of a cylindrical form, and greatly resembling in shape a champagne glass; each of these is supplied with a nerve, forming as it were the stalk of the glass or tube : this is filled with a gelatinous body, strongly resembling the vitreous hu- mour of the eye. It has been said by a distinguished anatomist, * “ that the * Treviranus. residing in the Tubular Organs of Sharks and Rays. 13 interior of these vesicles or tubes is divided into compart- ments by longitudinal septa or divisions ;” but this is an error which does ,not require any refutation. The contained gelatinous matter is perfectly cylindrical, and the tubes, though they appeared to me homogeneous in texture, were found to be composed of fibres perpendicular to the axis of the tube. I am indebted for this fact to Dr. Brewster, who at my request examined several of the tubes under a microscope of high powers. Dr. Brewster, at the same time, mentioned to me his suspicion that the fibres, of which the tubes were very evidently composed, were not circular, but spiral, and that the whole tube might thus be composed of a single fibre. The tubular organs undergo various modifications, accord: ing to the tissue in which they are placed, and according to the nature of the parts they have to pass through on their way to the surface ; on the snout, they do not appear to reach the skin entirely, at least every where, as there is interpos- ed a thick cartilaginous lamina into which they scarcely penetrate ; and accordingly, though most abundant on the upper and lower surfaces of the snout in the tope, by no arti- ficial pressure can the gelatinous or vitreous contained mat- ter be forced through the pores of the skin, which neverthe- less are here very abundant. On the other hand, around the mouth, and even the orbits, the gelatinous matter can be forced through the pores of the skin by very gentle pressure. In some parts of the snout, the tubular organs approach quite close to the integuments ; they become much firmer, and of a transparent horny texture; when cut through, a mass of them greatly resembles a honey comb. Over the or- bits they run in long tubes, having parietes of a dense white fibrous structure, but are still evidently the same organs, and perhaps having their roots in the one or other of the two great gelatinous masses placed on either side the snout, form- ing the great bases of the tubular organs. The latter are, however, rather imbedded in the large gelatinous mass, and do not absolutely seem to grow from it; that is, the large branches of the fifth pair of nerves penetrate into these masses, and dividing into extremely numerous and detached branches send one to each of the tubes. The tubes are entirely shut at the extremity next the nerve. I did not observe any thing peculiar in their peripheral extremities. When we remove one 14 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Sixth Sense in Fishes, of the tubes and place it under a microscope of small powers, we perceive that the nerve is distributed to the short extremity of the tube by fibrils. Leta, Plate II. Fig. 18, represent the tube filled with the gelatinous matter; 5 the nerve, di- viding into several small branches, which creep up to a short distance perpendicularly on the sides of the tube. But if the extremity of the tube be examined after cutting the nerve across, then the distribution of the nerve may be well enough umderstood by inspecting Fig. 19, in which the nerves seem to proceed from the centre to the circumference like the spokes of a wheel. When strong pressure is applied, the gelatinous fluid fill- ing the tubes passes by narrow apertures into the canals of the lacunar system; but I consider this as by no means proving a direct communication, for we never perceive any of the gelatinous fluid naturally in these canals, nor scarcely any thing else, as M. de Blainville very well remarks in his ac- count of these organs. In the thorn-back, the arrangement of the tubular organs in the snout is precisely as in the tope or shark ; but the tubes of the lacunar system are much more developed and distinct. In the specimen I last examined these tubes contained only a few globules of air, and a small quantity of a mucous fluid. What are the functions of the tubular organs? And for what purpose have nerves been distributed to them in such abundance? Mr. Jacobson (a distinguished German anato- mist) has replied to this question ; he considers them to be or- gans of touch, almost active. If I mistake not Mr. Jacobson’s opinions, (which have been given to the public only through the medium of Dr. De Blainville,) that gentleman views the tubular organs, though terminating on extended smooth and flat surfaces, as organs of touch ; against which opinion it might be argued, that the peripheral terminations of these organs are but ill adapted to exercise the sense of touch, which we find in almost all ani- mals to be more or Jess connected with a prehensile and mus- cular tissue, calculated to be extended and applied in seme way or other to the surfaces of bodies; 2d, That in many fishes there are organs of touch of an entirely different form, relative to whose functions no doubt can be entertained ; lastly, That these peculiar tubular organsexist in certain fishes, —-— residing in the Tubular Organs of Sharks and Rays. 15 inhabiting chiefly the great seas; and it is difficult to ima- gine on what occasions these organs could be so exercised so as to ascertain the presence of other bodies by touch. G. R. Treviranus, to whom the minute anatomy of insects owes so much, has advanced the opinion, that the tubular or- gans of sharks and rays exercise a sense perfectly peculiar and distinct from those which man and other animals possess ; that the number of the senses which may exist in animals ought not to be limited to five (the number usually assign- ed to man) ; but he at the same time admits, that the precise nature of the functions exercised by these organs remains still a profound mystery. We need not here stop to diseuss these hypotheses, which are really without any foundation ; they may be classed with the sixth sense invented by Buffon, with the theories of Spal- lanzani relative to the accurate flight of bats through darken- ed chambers, after he had destroyed the organs of sight and hearing, leaving to them that organ of sense, by which the fight was really directed; or with the sense of resistance, which a skilful metaphysical writer invented and defended so plausibly. We cannot, I imagine, greatly err in considering these or- gans as organs of touch, so modified, however, as to held an intermediate place between the sensations of touch and hear- ing. They may perceive the undulations of the waters, and seem admirably adapted for this purpose by the quantity of nerves distributed to them; by the interposition of a tremu- lous gelatinous body interposed between the sentient extremi- ties of these nerves and the impressing medium, and by the intimate connection of the sixth and auditory pairs of nerves of fishes. * The boldness and rapacity of the shark, and perhaps also of the ray, imply the presence of active organs of sense. The eye-ball is large, and the sight apparently tolerably good, but quite inadequate to explain the facility with which the shark discovers and follows a vessel through the trackless ocean ; it is not improbable, therefore, that he owes this fa- culty to the organs we have just endeavoured to describe. ‘The undulation of the water caused by a tolerably large ves- sel must be sufficiently strong to impress a sensation on or- * The similarity of the peripheral terminations of these nerves with the auditory in most animals is forcible and very striking. 16 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Siavth Sense in Fishes. gans so exceedingly delicate, and to advertise their possessor of the presence of a living or at least a moving body. There is still another reason for supposing these organs to exercise, though in a peculiar way, the sense of touch. It is this: Linné notices several sharks as possessing a sort of cirri around the mouth, and particularly under the throat and lower jaw ; and the same appearances have been remarked by a late observer as occurring in the enormous ray frequent- ing the seas of the West Indian Islands; now, these cirri may, perhaps, be mere prolongations of the tubular organs, or a substitute for them. Thus it would seem that the nerves of the fifth pair under- go considerable modifications in different animals, according to the nature of their peripheral terminations. When ex~ panded in the papillae of the tongue, certain branches of this nerve in most of the mammalia become gustatory; in the proboscis of the elephant, of the tapir, and in the prolonged snout of the pig, mole, ornithorynchus, and duck, they are true organs of touch, less perfect than the human hand only by reason of the form of the organ on which the nerves terminate. In certain fishes possessing labial cirri, they very evidently exercise the same sensation, viz. that of touch: dastly, in sharks and rays they are distributed toa new organ, holding as it were an intermediate place be- tween touch and hearing, but approaching nearest to the latter. If we view these nerves in fishes anatomically, and compare them with the true auditory, it is evident that a close analogy must subsist between their respec- tive functions; for in most fishes they are so intimately united at their point of communication with the brain, that most comparative anatomists have viewed the auditory as a branch of the fifth, (which, however, is not strictly true ;) whilst peripherally they each terminate in, or are expanded on a substance exceedingly well adapted to perceive the un- dulatory vibrations of the medium in which they hive. It is reasonable to think, that organs whose functions are such as we have supposed these to be, would necessarily be found chiefly in those animals whose habits of life most required their presence ; and it would seem that in the shark they are most extensively developed, and, at the same time, most ac- tively employed. Dr. Govan on the Himalayah Mountains. 17 Art. IV.—On the Natural History and Physical Geogra- - phy of the Districts of the Himalayah Mountains between the River-Beds of the Junina and Sutlwy. By Grorce Govan, M. D.* Communicated by the Author. Tue districts in the Himalayah to which the following ob- servations apply, are situated chiefly between the river-beds of the Jumna and Sutluj, which form their boundary; the former on the south-east, the latter on the north-west and partly on the north; the plains of Hindostan forming the south-west frontier. The whole tract is included nearly between the parallels of north latitude 30° 25’ and 31° 50’, which is probably about the farthest point to the northward which the bed of the river Sutluj reaches. Its greatest breadth is from longitude 76° 30’ to 78° 40%, from the junction of the river Lee, or Speetee, with the Sut- luj to the farthest point west which that river reaches before emerging from the lower hills near Roopoor. Viewed from the plains of the wpper provinces, this belt of mountain district presents the appearance of parallel ranges in different numbers at different places, gradually towering above one another from the low ranges in the immediate vi- cinity of the plains; some of which are really nearly parallel to each other, until the view is terminated by the summits of the snowy ridges, shooting up in the back ground, arranged in a direction nearly north-west and south-east; parallel to these, the whole of the ranges in front have the appearance of being disposed, but on examining the grand lines of high level, as indicated by the sources and course of the diverg- ing rivers, it will be seen that this appearance is a decep- tion, some of the principal mountain-ridges, as well as the largest rivers intersecting the country in lines, more nearly at right angles to the direction of the snowy ridge; these, how- ever, being viewed from the plains in the line of their direc- uion, the subordinate lateral ridges which they, in their turn, - * This interesting paper was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 6th of June, 1824. VOL. H. No. 1, JAN. 1825, c 18 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical send out at different angles, give an appearance of parallelism to the whole. The plains of Hindostan, at their northern extremity, where they adjoin this part of the hilly tract, have an eleva- tion, probably of from about 800 to 1000 feet above the level of the sea. Saharanpore is stated as 1013 feet, by Captain Herbert, from an observation of the mean elevation of the barometer during August, compared with the mean of the same month in Calcutta. The data upon which the elevations of different points in the Himalayah have been calculated, both barometrically and trigonometrically, are now before the public. From 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea have been assigned to the crests of the passes in the branch of the chain to the southward of the Sutluj bed, (that which I have chiefly visit- ed,) and which have been crossed by several different ob- servers. From 3000 to 4000 feet more to the inaccessible summits on either side. Upwards of 25,749 feet has been stated by two eminent mathematicians, Captains Hodgson and Herbert, as the elevation, trigonometrically ascertained, of one of the Jowahir peaks. Lastly, two observers (Messrs. Gerards) of unquestioned zeal, industry, and intelligence, in that part of the chain to the northward of the Sutluj, have actually reached, with ba- rometers in an efficient state, an elevation where the mercury sunk to 15° 180, 15° 220 at mid-day, and 14° 675. T. 21°. Thermometer standing at 23° and 24°. If the Sutluj bed, not far from its reputed source in the lake Rawun Rhudd, is nearly 15,000 feet, for which we have Captain Webbe’s calculation, the high level connecting this part of the Hima- layah with the plains of Tartary, and separating the waters of the Indus, the Ganges, the Sutluj, and the Burumpooter, situated on such a base, may yet lead to loftier summits in the interior. Perhaps it is yet necessary that some plan should be sug- gested by which all the accuracy of which they are suscepti- ble may be given to barometrical approximations under such circumstances. Calculations have usually been founded either upon com- parison with the medium height of the barometer in Calcut- ta, or at the level of the sea (perhaps 1200 miles off) Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 19 during the month in which the observation on the mountain was made. Even where cotemporaneous observations are obtained, have we ascertained that the alterations of atmospherical pressure in any accessible part of the Himalayah and Calcutta are cotemporaneous ? During the cold weather months in India, when the atmos- phere all over the country is in a state of comparative tran- quillity, and the barometer is said hardly to vary above =>th of an inch at Calcutta, and that only at the usual diurnal pe- riods of variation, perhaps a calculation respecting the eleva- tion of any point in the northern part of the plain, or any accessible point in the mountain belt, without any cotempo- raneous observation, would give a more correct approxima- tion than at another time of the year with one. Unfortunately, the greater elevations are inaccessible at this time of the year, which, otherwise, might perhaps be considered as the best for obtaining correct results. It were vain to attempt describing the enthusiasm and de- light experienced by the admirers of nature on first entering these districts with the invading army in the end of 1814. Inhabitants of the north, long exiled from the place of their birth, and contending with the fiery atmosphere of the tropical regions, can alone conceive the pleasure which many derived from the approach to a northern climate, and the gradual appearance of the features of a northern landscape, which the pines, more than any other vegetable, contributed to give to the wooded heights, while the streams were more animated and cheerful, from their clearness, rapidity, and pebbled beds, so different from the sluggish and muddy wa- ters of the plains, their unvaried surface and monotonous pro- ductions, To the more philosophical admirers of nature, the prospect of an ascent from the alluvial depositions going on under the eye in the river bed of the Ganges, through an unexplored country, to the primeval summits, forming the southern crest of the high table-land of 'Tartary, through all the gra- dations between a tropical and a polar flora, promised objects of still higher interest. 20 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical The snow-clad mountain barrier, long seen and admired from the plains of Hindostan, at distances even of 150 miles, skirting the whole of the north-east frontier for 500 or 600 miles, of which the sublime and imposing aspect had conse- crated it among the Hindoos as a favourite residence of their gods, is now accessible at many different points; and a long, laborious, and patient investigation, requiring time and the union of numbers, will be requisite, before the various objects interesting to scienee which it contains can be properly inves- tigated, or the amount which it is capable of furnishing, to increase our knowledge of geology, mineralogy, botany, and meteorology, completely ascertained. The assistance, also, and suggestions, of the learned in Europe, must be highly neces- sary to those who, in a climate unfavourable to the European constitution, and secluded both from the means of informa- tion furnished by society and books, are, with no trifling per- sonal exertion, directing their inquiries to these subjects. Those whose taste leads them more directly to the practi- cal application of all acquired knowledge, to improvement in the moral and physical condition of the human race, its no- blest purpose, will here find ample fields for their benevolent exertions and enlightened suggestions, in the low and debased condition of the human inhabitants, in many parts of this interesting region, over whose destinies the British govern- ment has been called to preside. Divided among themselves, and the rule over the numerous smaller states having long been a constant object of contention among the larger ; or, at a later period, over-run by the Ghoorkali power, and many of them treated with a barbarity proportioned to the gallant- ry with which they resisted its aggression, under the govern- ment of warlike chiefs, whose principal object, during their short rule, was the realizing to the utmost all the revenue which the severest measures could exact, little opportunity of improvement has been afforded them. In many parts of the country may be seen ruined villages, buildings, and temples, as well as numerous artificial flats for cultivation, now unoccupied, works both of much time, labour and expense, evidencing some former period of pros- perity, population, and Icisure, such as no longer exists. Geography of the Himalayak Mountains. Q1 Wars and misgovernment, attended by famine and pestilence, are the causes usually assigned for this by the people them- selves. During even the common occurrence of a scanty crop, the difficulty with which the petty states in the interior could supply themselves from more fertile countries was very great ; the bulky commodities which they had to give in exchange hav- ing to be transported by themselves, from the want of roads and beasts of burden, and across the territories of neighbour- ing chiefs, subjected to innumerable and arbitrary exactions in their transit. So that any temporary pressure of the po- pulaiion against the available supply of food, has here been invariably productive of crime and misery, unexampled in many other parts of the globe, equally or more sterile in re- spect of resources, but better regulated and more elevated in the scale of moral and intellectual existence. It may be suf- ficient only to mention the facts which have obtruded themselves upon the observations of all British officers em- ployed in these districts, without dwelling upon them, that bloodshed seems to have been a common occurrence in private quarrel between members of the different states; as also the sale of females among each other, and the exposure of child- ren, particularly the females, not as practised among Raj- poots in different parts of India from family pride, lest, not finding suitable matches, they might degrade themselves by intermarrying with inferiors, but chiefly from the mothers being unable to spare time from their other duties to rear in- fants, likely ultimately only to add to a population increased already beyond its steadily available means of subsistence. Hence also polyandry, common almost throughout the coun- try, particularly the interior and poorer parts of it, which must not only be considered as an evidence of some great de- rangement in the constitution of society, but can hardly be supposed to have any other than a most injurious effect upon the moral character of the people. It has been doubted what became of the superfluous fe- males in countries similar to these districts, and ‘Thibet, where polyandry prevails. The practice of exposing or destroying, particularly the female children, and the marts established in the vicinity, in former days, (when such traffic was permitted, ) 22. Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical for the sale of slaves, form probably sufficient answers to this question. From many of the causes to which these evils owed their origin the country is now happily freed. Conquered by the British from its Goorkali invaders, in a contest which could not with honour beavoided, it has been restored to its former chiefs. Property has been secured, nor will the former temporary expedients of a petty and short-sighted authority, in collect- ing the revenues, which are obviously injurious to the future prosperity of a state, be permitted under their presiding eye. That eye, however, cannot safely be withdrawn. It seems very doubtful whether, during the exile into which many of the restored feudal chiefs were driven by the Goorkali, and in the state of indigence and dependence to which they and their families were reduced, that liberality and those high qualities by which arbitrary power is rendered tolerable or even useful to a community in certain states of society, have been much cultivated in their characters. The very security, too, of the restored chiefs, under the British government, de- prives the subjects, in some degree, of one of the most power- ful means they formerly possessed of insuring a mild and paternal exercise of the feudal authority. An attempt on the part of any of the paramount authorities to levy a larger sum for the protection afforded to a smaller state, than the protected found it for their interest to pay, was resented by a defection, not easily prevented in a country possessed of such strong natural defences to the banner of a rival state. The subjects of a petty chief found shelter and protection, under similar circumstances, in the territory of a neighbour more able or more willing to be generous and con- ciliating in his dealings with those under his protection. The power of emigration still remains as a remedy, but in no part of the world is this willingly exercised. And here it is still less readily resorted to, from the bad effects of the cli- mate, either of the plains or of the lower hills, upon the con- stitutions of the inhabitants of the more elevated regions; the more durable and expensive structure of the houses, ren- ders them valuable property, and less willingly abandoned by their possessors, than the almost moveable huts of the plains of Hindostan, formed of mud, straw, and bamboos, Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 23 even if we allow nothing for that attachment which, even among the mountaineers of these degraded regions, subsists for the imposing scenes which have associated themselves with their earliest impressions. While the attention of a liberal and enlightened government is directed to the removal of the obstacles to prosperity and happiness, which in these states have hitherto existed, it will remain for those occupied in scientific pursuits, after acquir- ing accurate information respecting the natural productions and resources of the country—its varied climate, soil, agri- culture, and capacities, to suggest whatsoever may appear to them likely to promote internal improvement, among peo- ple so situated, as indicated by the practices of more enlight- ened states, inhabiting a country similar in physical circum- stances;—to make known to them many of their own vegetable productions, applicable to use in medicine, and in the arts with which they themselves may be yet unacquainted ;—and to effect an exchange of vegetable productions, mutually be- neficial to both, between them and this country, which I am persuaded will be ultimately done, as several successful experiments have already been made. The evidence given, by the presence of allied genera and species in our districts of the Himalayah, that we may ulti- mately be able also to raise those which, in other parts of the world, are usually found associated with them, and which may contribute in the most essential manner to the internal improvement of the country, is one of the most important subjects to which the attention of a naturalist in the Hima- layah can be directed. In this comparatively small section of a country possessing such extent of mountain surface, it is evident, that to acquire a correct notion of its geological structure, a long, patient, and laborious examination would be necessary, into the ex- tent, elevation, superposition, and internal characters, evi- dencing identity in the rocky masses, of which it is composed in approaching the snowy ranges, and the ridges proceeding from them at many places, and by different routes. In a country where the climate, the soil, and its produc- tions, as well as the aspect or physiognomy of its different belts of elevation, are constantly varying as we ascend; where 5 84 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical our progress is marked by the successive appearance of plants, often the inhabitants of latitudes widely distant from each other ; where we gradually get habituated to form a tolerable rude estimate of our elevation, by the associated genera we observe in their natural situations around us, it is obvious that the field for botanical research must be equally ex- tensive. In these districts are found many species belonging to those genera of plants, with which in Europe we are fami- liar, approaching in some cases so near to the European spe- cies, as only to be discriminated from them by the practised botanist. Many fine species of our most noble fruit and forest trees, flowering shrubs, plants used in medicine and in the arts, and many congeners at least; if not the individual spe- cies, which form the chief vegetable riches of other regions where they flourish, here likewise make their appearance. The laws observed in their geographical distribution, their natural associations, the peculiarities of soil; climate, and ele- vation; which seem best suited to give to each its highest de- velopment and most perfect form—the interesting analogies which press themselves upon our observation between the European, the American, and Asiatic alpine countries in their botanical geography, all form so many interesting objects of attention, that we turn with regret to the necessary labour of specific discrimination, here rendered particularly an ungrate- ful task, from the want of Herbaria, and works of reference. In the short aceount which I am at present able to give, of a few of the most striking facts pervading so interesting a field for observation, will only be traced the outline of a plan which I had laid down for myself, to which time, and more favourable circumstances unly could have enabled me to do any justice; as during the two or three journeys which the liberality of government enabled me to make through the Himalayah, I was labouring under irregular attacks of in- termittent, which, at last, necessitated my undertaking a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. 'This*place the vessel, from stress of weather, being unable to make, I returned to this country, leaving many of my materials in India. I am anxious, during my residence in Britain, to add as much as possible to the accuracy of my mineralogical knowledge, and to derive, from my intercourse with the members of a society, - — ee ee Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 25 to communicate with whom I consider so high a privilege, as many suggestions as possible, for the direction of my future inquiries, in case I may ever again return to the districts in question ; the period of my first acquaintance with which will ever form a marked era in my life, from the interest then ex- cited in scenes so imposing and remarkable. Before proceeding to detail a few of the phenomena which present themselves on entering the hilly tract at the foot of the Himalayah, it’ may be proper to premise a few topogra- phical remarks on the country forming the northern extremi- ty of the plains of Upper Hindostan, between the river beds of the Sutluj and Jumna. These leave the hills at a distance from each other of about eighty British miles, the latter a clear stream in a broad comparatively shallow bed, filled with rolled stones, rapid at its first exit, particularly during the rains, but soon showing, by its division into different channels and windings, the flatness of the level at which it has arrived. The extensive Sal forest and grass jungle, composed of gigantic species of saccharum, (among which elephants might remain concerled, during the rainy months) to be found at this place and its vicinity, made Padshahmuhul a favourite spot, to which the Delhi emperors were wont to resort, in order to en- joy the diversion of hunting. When the smaller streams are dried up by the heats of April and May, it abounds with wild elephants, tigers, leopards, and the hog and spotted deer. Its closeness from surrounding heights, however, and the un- healthy vapours and heavy night dews which fall during the rainy months, make it a most unhealthy residence at that time, when it is only visited by the woodcutters, preparers of + actechu, or by travellers, who pass through without remaining a night if possible. The remains of a royal palace are still to be seen here, up- on which the jungle has encroached on all sides, so that tigers have been roused within a few yards of its mouldering walls. There, in the days of Bernier’s visit to Delhi, whose descrip- tions it is so interesting to contrast with the present state of that capital, the splendid courts of the Mogul Emperors en- camped around their prince. In no situation do the reflections of the eastern poet upon the instability of human greatness impress themselves more strongly on the imagination. 26 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical Spiders have woven their webs In the halls of the Cesars. The owl stands sentinel Upon the watch-towers of Afrasiab. A tradition prevails among the people that many of the ladies of the court became affected with the goitre from re- siding here, a malady sufficiently common in different parts of the Himalayah, but which I have not often seen here, al- though sallow unhealthy complexions and enlarged spleen, the usual sequelze of intermittents, are common enough. A great contrast exists between the districts of the Dooab, of the Jumna, and Ganges, where they adjoin to the hilly belt, and those farther to the south-west, lying towards the river district of the Indus. The Saharunpoor district, in the upper part of the Dooab, (country between two rivers,) was reckoned one of the most fertile and productive belonging to the Mogulempire. The depth of rich soil,—the proximity of the water to the surface, —the numerous streams by which it is intersected from the hills, perhaps the effects resulting from the striking of the prevailing westerly or south-west winds upon the line of the hills, all conspire to give it its peculiar characters, as well as the extent of Kadir lands, or lands flooded during the rains, almost all the rivers having an extent proportioned to their size of this Kadir land in their vicinity, and a high bank, marking the extent of their annual inundations, often at a very great distance from the diminished stream of the cold and dry seasons. Vast extents of lofty grass jungle, abounding in wild ani- mals, often occupy these occasionally flooded tracts. The nights in the Kadir land are often excessively cold to the feelings, and a much heavier dew is deposited than in the higher lands. The endemic disease of the country is bilious remittent, terminating in obstinate ague, if not fatal at first. The countries on the right bank of the Jumna, on the con- trary, and proceeding towards the Indus, seem more favour- able to animal and less so to luxuriant vegetable life. Water is found at great depths; from 50 it is said to 250 feet, or even 300, I have heard, and is often brackish. Most of the streams only flow during the rains, and are frequently lost in the sands. Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 27 An inundation of drifted sand in some places is apt to cover any tract left for a time uncultivated, and the immense quan- tities of saline matter contained in most of the wells, appear like hoar frost upon the grounds where irrigation has been going on. Proceeding farther to the S. W. we have the Skekowat country, and the sandy desart of Bicanere, crossed by the Cabul embassy, generally almost a flat, with the exception of a few low rocky hills, the Indus being said to leave its last hilly boundaries of rock salt at Kalabaug. The salt lake of Samhur is also a feature in the topography of the country, which is twenty miles in length and one mile and a half in breadth ; the evaporation of this, by the heats of summer, leaves a solid mass of salt a tolerably pure muri- ate of soda; the immense quantities broken up and carried away being annually supplied by fresh depositions, after the rains of the following year. Farther to the south we have the maritime district of Cutch, in which is that tract of country called the Runn, a dead flat, hardly elevated above the level of the sea, said to have a square surface of nearly $000 miles, resembling an arm of the sea, from which the water had seceded, covered with saline incrustations and marine exuviz frequently, of which during earthquakes a great portion has been occa- sionally covered with water, as was said to have occurred in 1819. The low elevation of this whole tract of country above the level of the sea, (the few observations I have of the barome- ter, though I do not consider ther as perfectly satisfactory, at Bona giving its height at from 800 to 900 feet,) its deep alluvial soil, its generally sandy and saline character, would give considerable interest to any attempts that might be made to ascertain the strata of which it is composed, par- ticularly the nature of the organic remains contained in the strata of white friable limestone used for building, and said to be found in many parts of the sandy desart. That the sea here extended considerably farther to the northward may be considered perhaps as certain; but in the absence of precise and conclusive observations of the nature above alluded to, we can hardly be permitted to speculate re- specting the extent to which it may have reached. If the 28 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical elevations assigned to the northern parts of the plain of Hin- dostan be correct, a rise of 800 or 1000 feet in the ocean’s le- , vel would insulate nearly the Deccan and Peninsula, bring- ‘ ing the waves to the foot of the mountain barrier of the Him- alayah.* In cutting a new well 50 feet deep in the cantonment at Rewarrie, where hardly any water can be found, except in one or two places free from salt, the following appearances occurred : 8 Feet.—Of vegetable mould. | 7 Feet.—The alluvial deposit known by the name of Kun- kur all over India, consists of small oblong indurated pieces of limestone, of a dark colour, cemented by a calcareous clay nearly white, both almost entirely soluble in acids. By the ac- tion of air and of rain, some part of this clayey cement is washed away, leaving a hard honey-combed surface not easi- ly separated. 26 Feet.—A calcareous clayey mixture of light yellowish red, effervescing strongly with acids; the upper part of the bed contains numerous masses of compact limestone of a flat- tened cylindrical shape, growing larger and less numerous to- wards the lower part of the bed, where they are sometimes eight inches or a foot long, three or four inches in diameter. They seem in general to lie horizontally, the surface honey- combed and covered with the whitish clay, but the ends naked, presenting the internal surface of dark compact limestone as in a fresh fracture ; as these become larger, the quantity of cal- careous matter in the bed seems to diminish as if they were increasing by accretion of calcareous particles at the, ends. They are entirely soluble nearly in acids. 9 Feet.—Becoming more clayey and moist, only slight ef- * The analogy in physical characters between the plain of lower Egypt and the districts here described, in alluvial calcareous stratification, sandy plains, and salt lakes, (in the one case the salt is soda, and in the other the muriate,) seems very strong. If the natron of the lakes of Egypt was originally deposited in the state: of muriate, whence arises the decomposition in the one case and not. in the other ? The occurrence of the Asclepias gigantea and Rhamnus lotus with much fre- quency in the African plains is mentioned by Mr. Park. I know not if the Hindostanee Asclepias Syriaca and Zyziphus jujuba, every where almost meeting the eye in the Gangetic plain, have been compared with them. If specifically distinct, they are vegetable forms at least almost the same, and the berries of the Rhamaus seem to be formed into bread in Africa as well as in India, Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 29 fervescence in distant points, water collects at about 50 feet, in a mixture of clay and sand of a light yellowish grey. No perceptible effervescence. The slope of the Rewarrie plain is northward, towards which during the rains considerable streams flow, and are lost, it is said, in the sands. The ranges of low rocky hills running from N. E. to S. W. generally, which here make their appearance, are said to commence a little to the northward of Honsi, and may be considered as the first outskirts of the group of the hills of the Deccan and peninsula. They are here commonly composed of clay slate, of a bluish and greyish black, too decomposable, and of a struc- ture too little crystalline to admit of its being ranked proba- bly among the primary or primitive classes; it seems to rest upon a species of mica slate, however, and is pervaded in many places by veins, and contains very considerable beds of quartz rock, and pure white quartz. In the vicinity of many of the veins the same alteration in the structure of the slate, waving and contortion of the la- minz, which have been noticed in similar rocks elsewhere, is very frequent. The highest summit in this vicinity which I have estimated, having then no other means of judging of it, at from 900 to 1000 feet above the plain, is composed of a very hard compact rock of a bluish-black colour, which ap- peared to me to agree in its characters with that to which the name of Lydian stone is given. On its slope flesh-coloured quartz rock, sometimes slaty in its structure, and in ver- tical layers, occurs sometimes spotted with large whitish maculz, in it is contained a very rich ore of iron, and to- wards the lower parts of the bed where it reposes on the clay slate, are cavities containing sometimes pretty large and per- fect rock crystals incrusting them. These hills are gene- rally naked and barren of trees, except stunted mimose, Barleria prionitis and Justicia, the Caparis heteroclita may also be found among them, a scandent species: The Salvadora persica. Mimosz seerissa. —— ~~ Farnesiaca. —— Arabica. 30 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical The Mimose: Catechu. Jschynomene grandiflora. Nauclea. Clerodendron Phlomoides. Meliz. Mimusops. Butea frondosa. Cassia fistula. The district, however, possesses few natural trees of great Juxuriance, these being chiefly reared round the well-endow- ed residences of Hindoo mendicants, or the tombs of Maho- medan saints. The most common bushes are the Caparis aphylla and a Gardenia, I think, Dumetorum; several species of Zyzyphus, and an Indigofera. The only species of Spartium I ever found in India was here. The voluble and delightfully fragrant Asclepias, or Pergularia odoratissima, spreads its rich and heavy perfume all around in the rainy months. In no part of India are the hot winds more violent than here, they sometimes continue blowing during most part of the night—from the west, or a little to the north or south of that point, during April and May and part of June—every thing is in a state so parched and dry at this season, that conflagrations, where they occur among the thatched cot- tages of the natives, spread most extensively. The high state of positive electricity in which the bodies of all animals are at this season, cannot fail to produce, one would imagine, remarkable effects upon the state of their health. This place seems also subject, in a remarkable degree, to violent north- westers, darkening the air to a lurid red at noonday, and raising whirlwinds of sand from the deserts to the west- ward. The rapidity with which verdure spreads itself over this dry, parched, and sandy region, as soon as the rains begin to fall, is astonishing. The internal structure of the hills of the outward barrier of the Himalayah, is very distinctly seen, particularly in some of the passes into the Doon or valley of Deyrah. The Reet or Timley pass, (through which the heavy guns were taken dur- ing the campaign,) is one of the most remarkable in this re- spect. The pass, like most of the others, which however are generally on a smaller scale, is formed by the broad and winding bed of a water course, presenting, according to the eee ee eee ee Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 31 season of the year at which it is viewed, a disturhed torrent filling great part of the breadth of its bed, or a clear and small stream shrunk up to occupy only the central portion of the vast flat surface of larger and smaller, rolled and water- worn stones, which are strewed profusely around. The sum- mits, from 500 to 900 feet in elevation, are generally of the clayey, calcareous, alluvial deposition, well known all over India, which by the action of rain and air, and by the heat of the sun, hardens into cliffs, often presenting in miniature, the aspect and appearances assumed by more perfectly form- ed rock-formations. During the rainy months, when every tree in the surrounding forests is in a state of green luxu- riance, more lovely scenes cannot be conceived than those formed by the amphitheatres, of which new varieties open to us as we advance, and our view is closed in by those behind, in winding up these gravelly passes, with lofty wooded emin- ences, precipitous steeps, and shady ravines opening on either side. The gigantic scandent bauhinia, the stem of which resembles a snake of the largest size, twines round the trunks of the trees, often hanging its festoons over us from their loftiest branches, bearing its large woody siliquae or flowers which mingle their fragrance with that of the mimosae. Numerous species of Arwm Orchidaeae, Curcuma and Amom- um, the roots of which have remained inactive and unob- served during the cold and dry seasons, now show their flow- ers and foliage tempting the unwary admirer of nature, by the smiling aspect of all around, to linger in these unhealthy spots, where scarcely any native of the country can remain for a week or two, particulariy passing the night, without an attack of remittent fever. As the first tendency to these at- tacks displays itself in disorders of the digestive functions, it has produced a belief among the people, otherwise at a loss to account for the diseases to which they are here subject, that the water by its unwholesome qualities, acts a much more im- portant part in their production, than is probably the case. The stratification of the interior of these eminences, where it is often displayed in mural precipices, is almost always the same, consisting of layers of different thickness, dipping a lit- tle to the northward or southward of east, most commonly the former, and at angles of from thirty to forty degrees. These are generally of a gravelly deposit, studded with the same 32 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical water-worn rounded stones, which strew the river bed alter- nating with the strata of an imperfectly formed sandstone, so friable as to crumble under the pressure of the fingers. ‘The steep natural faces of the cliffs commonly point towards the plains; while towards the Doon, the ground slopes with a gentle declivity and deep soil, covered with Sal forest. From this quarter no cliffs almost can be seen ; the general level of the Doon too, is considerably elevated above that of the plains in front of the hilly barrier; and here we may observe is the first indication of a law which seems to prevail very generally over all the hilly country under consideration, without except- ing perhaps the snowy range itself, and the valley of the Sut- luj on its north-east face, viz. the dip of the stratification in a north-easterly direction, giving the best surface and moisture for the nourishment of trees, which, most frequently, gene- rally speaking, are numerous and Jarge on that face, or the north-west sometimes. Some other speculations can hardly fail to be suggested by the circumstances under which the rolled stones occur in the stratification of the pass, Ist, From the uniform thickness of the same strata, and the distribu- tion of its rolled masses, we can hardly fail to conclude that they were originally deposited in a horizontal position, and that they acquired their elevation towards the plains, or their dip towards the line of the hills, by some subsequent change.* 2dly, The rolled stones in the river’s bed are many of them the debris of those beds a second time disintegrated. $d, The rolled masses themselves are fragments of rocks only found in the mountains of the interior. In their original situation some of them appear to be the compact almost crys- talline limestone of an interior range, which is almost entirely soluble in acids, and is now collected from among the other debris, by those in the habit of distinguishing the stone, in order to furnish the purest lime for building. Among these summits the Pinus longifolia of Dr. Roxburgh, the sp. of lowest level, first makes its appearance, though the trees are greatly diminished in number since the first entrance of Eu- * Although styled alluvial, therefore, these hills may be considered as belong- ing to the oldest of the depositions into which the class has of late been divided by Mr. Buckland. Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 33 ropeans into the hills) The most common genera of trees are the Mimoser sirissa, Catechu, and several other species. Several species of Bignonia Indica Gardenia suaveolens Pterocarpus suberosa ? Eugenia Semicarpus anacardium Erythrina Echites antidysenterica Bombax Casearea tomentosa Cedrela Murraya exotica Bauhinia Prunus puddum Pyrus, 1 sp. BS Of shrubs the Grislea tomentosa. Different species of Zyzyphus and Carissa. The Combretum ovalifolium is to be found in the plains outside of the pass. Sal forest (Shorea robusta ) clothes both sides of the range, but in the pass there are few trees of that valuable species of timber tree to be seen. The valuable Sissoo ( Dalbergia sis- soo) affects moist situations in the Doon, where the lofty gtass jungle again covers great part of the face of the coun- try. The Siphonanthus, or Ovieda verticillata, is of frequent oceurrence about Senspoor, forming another vegetable fea- ture of the grass jungle in the Doon. From Senspoor we proceed to cross the river Jumna, into the smaller valley or Doon, called Kerda, from the name of a small village in it, forming a route very frequently adopted in entering the hills. Where the river cuts the range above Padshahmuhul, the jungle is too thick to admit of a passage along its banks, although difficult footpaths may be found, at the hazard of being devoured by wild animals. This valley has been almost entirely abandoned to jungle, being chiefly visited by woodcutters and preparers of the Cut or Catechu, from the Mimosa furnishing it. Tradition how- ever represents it as having been less thinly peopled in former days. Its superior unhealthiness to the valley of Deyrah probably arises from its narrowness, and being more com- pletely shut in by mountains and hills in the direction of the prevailing winds. Among the wooded heights in the ascent from this valley to the town of Nahn, besides most of the trees noticed before, VOL. II. NO. 1. JAN. 1825. D 34 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical we find the Neriwm odorum occupying most of the stony water courses, several species of Dyospyros, the formed wood of one of which is said to be ebony. The Rottlera tinctoria, and a tree seemingly a species of Conocarpus, known by the name of T'sal, seem to be peculiar to this belt of elevation. The Gmelina arborea Garuga pinnata Limonia crenulata Solanum pubescens are common trees and shrubs. The most common scandent plants are the Hastyngia coccinea Echites dichotoma Geertnera racemosa Menispermum verrucosum Smilax ovalifolia. Nahn is reckoned upwards of 3000 feet above the level of the sea; 3207 according to Captain Hodgson, commanding a fine view of the plains of Hindostan. A valuable belt of bamboos occupies a space extending to about 1000 feet below the level of the town, a plant of which we here take leave, un- til we again meet a species occupying a very high elevation indeed, on the slope of some of the mica slate mountains. The Pinus longifolia assumes its greatest perfection on the sum- mit of this range. The town is situated on the summit of a range of compact sandstone hills, of. which the rock, though differing in its hardness, and the aggregation of its particles, yet resembles in its dip and direction, that of the alluvial strata formerly mentioned. The face of the hill, and the space between it and the plains, is filled up by a forma- tion perfectly similar in many respects to that of 'Timley, a continuation indeed of the same. Where the sandstone in- vesting the sides of this is laid bare, in the beds of streams about 1000 or 800 feet below the town, considerable quanti- ties of carbonaceous matter are to be found in it, some of it perfect coal, but in small quantity, and much pervaded by silicious matter. Here I first noticed the custom which has been frequently observed to prevail in these districts, of laying the children to sleep, apparently much to their satisfaction, at the com- ) Geography of the H imalayah Mountains. 35 mencing heats, and until the rainy season begins, with their heads under little rills of the coldest water, directed upon them for some hours during the hottest part of the day. Here it was practised in the case of a life no less precious than that of the young Rajah of Sirmoor, a boy about 10 or 12 years of age,—a sufficient evidence of the estimation in which the practice is held. It is most commonly, how- ever, followed in the case of infants at the breast. The tem- perature of the water I have observed to be from 46° to 56° and 65°, and have only to add, that it seemed to me most common in those districts which, having a good deal of cold weather, are nevertheless subject to very considerable sum- mer heats. It was a great preservative, the people affirmed, against bilious fever, and affections of the spleen, during the subsequent rainy months. Does it act in this way—(for of the fact of its utility I have no doubt) from the sym- pathy subsisting between the brain and the hepatic system ? and if so, may we not expect to derive some advantage from its adoption in the medical practice of the plains, particular- ly among European-children who suffer so much from these diseases? The want of the facilities enjoyed in the hills for its application, seems to be the chief objection. Might it not even be sometimes practised as a preventive in the case of adults? The violent attacks of congestive fever with hepatic affection which result to newly arrived Europeans, from exposure of the head to the direct rays of the sun, seem to complete the evidence respecting the mode of its operation, by pointing out the consequences of a converse mode of treatment.* Hitherto the agriculture and native ve- getable productions have differed but little from those of the northern part of the plains of Hindostan—when we descend the north-east face cf the Nahn range, to ascend the Jeituk * Hence perhaps one of the advantages in resisting the daily influence of cli- mate tending to the production of chronic disease, enjoyed by the native over the European inhabitant of Hindostan. The turbaned and shaven head of the latter admitting of the ready and frequent access of cold water, forms a part of Eastern cos- tume too widely extended, and immemorially used, among the most civilized inha- | bitants of the tropics, (whose fashions are neither adopted, nor pass away arbitra- rily, as ours do,) to have been originally adopted without reason, or perhaps now | neglected with impunity by us, when residing permanently among them. 56 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical or Dhartce range, the scene begins to change more remark- ably. We take leave of the Croton, used for fences at Nahn, and of the Euphorbia, of arboreous girth, of which nume- rous plants, resembling Candelabra, occupy the interstices of the Nahn sandstone. The cultivation of ginger, turmeric, and arum, occupy richly manured artificial flats, where copious irrigation can be most easily applied at the feot of the Dhartee. This range contains elevations of from 4000 to 5600 feet above the level of the sea, and consists principally of a rock nearly allied in character to the Nahn sandstone, but consi- derably more compact and indurated ; it is of a light bluish grey, sometimes with macule of a dark purple,—the hills, however, have altogether a different outline, and _stratifica- tion is often hardly perceptible. Towards the foot of the range, and at some parts of the summit, cither the same mineral acquires a slaty structure, or rests upon a variety of clay slate—the strata of which are frequently nearly ver- tical, but generally with an inclination in the usual di- rection. The summits are occasionally capped with sandstone beds of small extent, and also, I believe, with limestone of an earthy fracture, though the latter I have not seen. Large accunuulations of a highly indurated reddish clay oceupy ma- ny places on the north-east face of the range. The mine- ral, I rather think, is grey wacke, and grey wacke slate, or perhaps resting upon clay slate. The prevailing vegetable productions are now almost en- tirely changed,—the range is generally little wooded,—the patches of Papas lon gifolia—(native name, Cheer)—and Ban, the Quercus of lowest elevation, occupy chiefly the north- east and north-west faces. The Andromeda ovalifolia—(Dr. Wallich.) Simplocos racemosa, oa Morus serrata, AXanthoxylon alatum, are common, as well as several arboreous Urtic@a, the Scha- roo, and Beeool, the latter Grewia, a trifoliated species of Rhus, the species of lowest level here first makes its appearance. Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 37 The Rhododendron puniceum, and Pinus deodara, or Indian larch occur but rarely as yet, except in the highest summits. Different species of Galium, the Rubia munjeet, Hypericum cernuum, Berberis angustifolia, Crategus integrifolia ; the Salvia lanata, Androsace cordifolia, and the first species of Delphinium. The mango ripens nowhere higher than Nahn, although trees of it may be seen a few hundred feet below the summit of the range, which have been reared with care. One species of Olea is also found here indigenous, a fine umbrageous tree, but the fruit is small and of no use. At this level, or perhaps a little higher, I hope the European, a much more valuable species, may ultimately be intro- duced. Descending the north-east face of the Jettuk or Darthce range into the bed of the river Julall, we pass over a series of undulating heights, which give to the range viewed from this face a much more rounded and less steep aspect than viewed from the plains it bears. These are often formed by the red indurated clay before mentioned, and in banks of this the bed of the Julall is often deeply cut. Crossing this river we ascend the Sein range, the massive contour and more equable elevation of which marks it as formed of a mineral we have not yet had occasion to notice; the whitish appear- ance of the cliffs, which occasionally display themselves only near the very summits, in the rains beautifully contrasted with the green of a fine pasturage, for which this range seems more favourable than the former, leads even a superficial ob- server to expect limestone ; and the similarity between the ex- “ternal aspect of the range and those I have seen depicted, _ formed of the same material, in many drawings of Grecian scenery, immediately occurred to me. The vegetable character of this range does not differ very remarkably from that of the last mentioned ; the loftiest sum- mit in it is perhaps A7vol, stated by Captain Hodgson at 7812 feet above the level of the sea. It has, however, certain plants peculiar to it, and many of those which are rare, or only beginning to appear on the former, are here in their highest luxuriance. The hot wind of the plains, greatly abated in violence from the shelter given by that in front, af- fects considerably the temperature of the range during April, May, and part of June, when they prevail. 38 Description of the first Steam-Engine. It appears at a distance to be almost destitute of trees, but in many of the dells and northerly faces it is well wooded with the Pinws deodara and longifolia, besides the species of Quercus, called Ban by the natives, formerly mentioned. A second evergreen species of oak, bearing the name of Mohroo, becomes common. Here, and more remarkably at similar ele- vations in the ranges interior to this, many of our fruits com- mon in Europe come to considerable perfection in their natural state, and by the introduction of European modes of culture and engrafting, I feel confident that ultimately great improve- ment may be effected in many of these, as the apple, pear, apricot, peach, plumb, walnut, raspberry, strawberry, &c. &c. Even the fruit of the Prunus puddum, which in warmer belts of elevation is useless, becomes here an eatable cherry. Be- gonie, poientille, and a great variety of orchideous plants here show themselves during the rains, particularly the orchis or Habenaria gigantea and pectinata, described by Dr. Buchanan in the Flora Exotica I believe. The Roscoea purpurea becomes here common; a species of daphne also ‘begins to appear, that from the roots of which paper is made ; a species of parnassia may also be found ; and confined to ra- ther a narrow belt at about this elevation, the small tree fur- nishing the fruit called Kaeyphul, mentioned by General Hardwicke in his Serinugur tour, but the genus of which, from never having seen it in flower, I anf’unable to fix. Art. V.— Description of the First Steam-Engine. Com- municated by the Author. Or all those whose names are associated with the history of the steam-engine in its first stages, the Marquis of Worces- ter, who lived in the reign of Charles II. is by far the most renowned. A book was published by the Marquis himself i in - 1663, under the title of «« 4 Century of the Names and Scant- lings of such Inventions as at present I can call to mind to have tried and perfected, (which my former notes being lost, ) I have, at the instance of a powerful friend, endeavoured now, wn the year 1655, to set these down in such a way as may suf- ficiently instruct me to put any of them in practice,” Description of the First Steam-Engine. 39 When considered as a description or index of the disco- veries and inventions of one individual, it is certainly one of the most extraordinary scientific productions which has yet ‘issued from the press in any age or nation. The 68th article in this book is that on which rests his claim to the honour of having invented the steam-engine. It is in these words’ «‘ An admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire; not by drawing or sucking it upwards, for that must be, as the philosopher calleth it, intra spheram activitatis, which is but at such a distance. But this way hath no bounder if the vessels be strong enough ; for I have taken a piece of a whole cannon, whereof the end was burst, and filling it three quarters full of water, stopping and screwing up the broken end, as also the touch-hole ; and making a constant fire under it, within twenty-four hours it burst, and made a great crack; so that having a way to make my vessels, so that they are strengthened by the force within them, and the one to fill after the other, I have seen the water run like a constant fountain:stream forty foot high. One vessel of wa- ter rarefied by fire, driveth up forty of cold water ; and a man that tends the work is but to turn two cocks, that one vessel of water being consumed, another begins to force and re-fill with cold water, and so successively, the fire being tended and kept constant, which the self same person may likewise abun- dantly perform in the interim, between the necessity of turn- ing the said cocks.” Not having met with any design or drawing of a steam-en- gine to which the above appears applicable, but in place of that, having seen it doubted by some, and denied by others, that any engine can be constructed exactly upon these prin- ciples, the following description and sketch are submitted to the consideration of the readers of the Edinburgh Journal of Science. In Plate II. Fig. 3. A represents a boiler placed in a com- mon air furnace; abcd, and efgh, two water vessels; ikl _the steam pipes, and & the steam cock ; a wa « the force pipe ; RS a cistern, which may be supposed to be placed at the height of forty feet above the engine, to receive the water from the force pipe; and vv valves placed within the force pipe to 40 Description of the First Stcam-Engine. prevent the return of the water; mo the cold water pipes, and n the cold water cock; the dotted lines b ze represent the cold water fountain, which is here supposed to be imme- diately behind the engine, and the water in it standing nearly upon a level with the top of the cold water vessels. Fig. A. is a ground-plan of the fountain, where mmo represent the cold water pipes, m the water cock, and F the reservoir. Fig. 3. represents a section of the two cocks, which are in every respect similar; the black circle abc represents the key of the cock, and the black shaded part the passage through the key ; the dotted circle 7 s¢ uw the shell or body of the cock, the two dotted lines ¢ z the pipe that leads from the boiler, the two dotted lines s z the pipe that leads to the right hand water vessel, the two dotted lines z wthe pipe that leads to the left hand water vessel, and tle curved dotted line w z y the top of the boiler. From an inspection of Fig. B. it will appear, that by a quar- ter turn of the key of the cock k, (Fig. 1.) the steam may either be directed into the right or left hand water vessel, and, in like manner, by a quarter turn of the key of the cock m, cold water may be permitted to pass into either of the vessels. Suppose the fire burning, and the boiler sending forth steam, and the key of the cock & turned so as to permit the steam to enter into the vessel a } ¢ d, then will the steam drive out all the air of that vessel up the force pipe axa a, and occupy its place, steam will then be seen to issue from the nosel w of the force pipe. When this is observed, the key of the steam cock & must be turned, to permit the steam to pass into the vessel efgh, and, at the same time, the key of the cold water cock n must be also turned, to permit the water from the fountain to be forced into the vessel a b cd, (by the pres- sure of the atmosphere,) as the steam therein condenses with the cold water ; and when the vessel abcd is filled with wa- ter, and the vessel efgh with steam, the key of the steam cock k is to be turned back into its first position, which will again permit the steam to pass into the vessel abcd, to act upon the surface of the water in that vessel, so as to drive it up the force pipe w a x, and, at the same time, the key of the cold water cock 2 must also be turned, to permit the cold wa- ee a, tee Description of the First Steam- Engine. 41 ter to condense the steam and fill the vessel efgh, and which will also be forced into this vessel, (by the pressure of the at- mosphere,) to occupy the vacuum effected by the condensed steam. ‘The cock 7 is next to be turned so as to ponies the vessel abcd “ to force and re-fill with cold water,” and, at the same time, the steam cock / is to be turned, so as to per- mit the steam to act upon the surface of the water in the ves- sel ef gh, and so on alternately, producing a constant stream frora the top of the force pipe. ‘The boiler may be supplied with water from the cistern RS, by means of a small pipe and stop cock. To produce “ a constant stream forty foot high, one vessel of water rarefied by fire, driveth up forty of cold water, (or in other words, forty times the quantity in the boiler.) A man that tends the work is but to turn two cocks, that one vessel of water being consumed, another begins to force and re-fill with cold water, (by the pressure of the atmosphere,) and so successively; the fire being tended and kept constant, which the self same person may likewise abundantly perform in the interim between the necessity of turning the said cocks.” Although the Marquis of Worcester has only proposed to force water by his engine to a great height, yet it appears that he knew that water could have been brought up from a limited depth by suction, (by the pressure of the atmosphere into a vacuum); for the 68th article commences with these words: * An admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire, not by drawing nor sucking it upwards, for that must be as the philosopher ealleth it, intra spheram activi- tatis, (within its sphere of activity,) which is but at such a dis- tance.” It is therefore very obvious that the Marquis had a know- ledge to what height water could have been raised from the effects of a vacuum, and which he had put a small value upon in comparison of what he had in view; for he adds, *« But this way hath no beunder if the vessels be strong enough,” The Marquis a little further on says, «« So that havi ing a way to make my vessels, so that they are strengthened by the force within them.” This can only apply to india tiie his boiler and vessels 42 Description of the First Steam-Engine. by riveting radiating arms inside of them, and making them in other respects strong. Mr. Thomas Savery’s engines were made, (to use the Mar- quis of Worcester’s words,) both to suck and force, as ap. pears from an engraving of Savery’s engine in Harris’s Lexi- con Technicum, which has what is there called a sucking pipe, as also a forcing pipe. It has two boilers, a larger and smaller one, and two water vessels, there called receivers. The small boiler is supplied with cold water by a branch pipe from the forcing pipe, and the large boiler is supplied with hot water from the small one. The steam, after enter- ing the receivers, is condensed by water falling from a cold water pipe on the outside of the receivers. By the Marquis of Worcester’s engine not having a suction pipe, the steam in his water vessels is condensed by permit- ting the cold water from the fountain to refill them alternate- ly. The great waste of steam in these engines, occasioned by its coming in contact with the surface of the cold water in the receivers, led to the following devices to prevent that waste. First, That of introducing a surface of oil upon the wa- ter. Secondly, That of introducing a column of air between the steam and the water. Third, That of introducing a floating piston between the steam and the water ; and, Lastly, The introduction of steam-tight pistons. From what has been stated, it must appear obvious, that the Marquis of Worcester had the honour of being the inven- tor of the steam-engine, and that Mr. Savery had the merit of being the first that brought it to be so far practicably use- ful. But it was toa Mr. Thomas Newcomen that the min- ing interest was first indebted for making it serviceable in the draining of mines. (See Switzer’s Hydrostatics.) With regard to the experiment of bursting the cannon mentioned in the same article, this will appear quite practica- ble, if we take into account the time that the cannon was kept in the fire, which was much longer than sufficient to have melted it down, had the fire been suitable for that purpose ; it Description of the First Steam-Engine. 43 must, however, have been a great fire, as it would have been attended with much danger to supply it with fresh fuel. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose, that from this great heat, there would arise a continual increase of the expansive force of the steam, and a continued decrease of the strength of the me- tal of the cannon, until the strength of the cannon became un- equal to the expansive strength of the steam, and, in conse- quence thereof the cannon would give way and make “a great crack.” - Prior to the date of the Marquis of Worcester’s book, one Branca, an Italian, applied the force of steam from a large Xolopyle upon the vanes of a wheel, somewhat like those of a horizontal wind-mill, so early as 1629. But in no way could this manner of applying steam be transferred, or lead to the construction of any one part of the Marquis of Wor- cester’s steam-engine, of Mr. Savery’s, or of any other that is entitled to the name of a steam-engine. The writer of this article, about thirty years ago, fitted up a boat, or rather a canoe, to be wrought by spiral oars made of sheet-copper ; but as the canoe was not of sufficient dimen- sions to carry a person to work the oars, they were wrought by means of a copper Molopyle, placed on a fire-grate within the canoe, that ejected steam against the vanes of a horizon- tal wheel made of tinplate, and which communicated motion to the spiral oars. At the time when the above experiments were made, the writer of this had no knowledge of a similar experiment hav- ing ever been made with the AZolopyle; he first met with an account of Branca’s application of steam in the first edition of Gregory’s Mechanics, published in 1807. The Molopyle experiment was an unprofitable waste of steam, and could show but little of the effects of it; whereas, that of the bursting the cannon was a great first experiment. A. §. O. September 30, 1824. 44 Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. Art. VI.—On a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. By Joun MacCuttocu, M.D. F.R.S. F. L. S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Che- mistry in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the Author. Maxy large tracts of the mountainous land of Scotland, which possess an excellent soil capable of cultivation, are m- cumbered by huge alluvial or detached blocks of stone; and the expense of removing these from the surface forms, in many cases, nearly the whole difficulty which stands in the way of their improvement. Where dikes, or stone-walls are required to enclose such land, the expense of thus clearing the soil is materially diminished by the countervailing value of the quarry which the field itself thus affords. But even in these cases, where the blocks are too large to be weighed and removed entire, a considerable expense is incurred by the necessity of blasting them by gunpowder until they are reduced to a portable dimension. This, however, is the practice almost universally resorted to in Scotland; and every where, I believe, throughout Britain, where this kind of improvement is carried on. In making the Highland roads also, where it is generally necessary to provide a quantity of stone for the masonry re- quired in supporting the lower side of the road, in fortifying the upper bank, and in the construction of drains and bridges, it is usual to have recourse to such blocks, wherever the road itself is not carried through rocks in such a manner as to produce the necessary quantity of materials. In this case also, the process of blasting is adopted, as it necessarily is, whenever solid rocks are to be cut down or levelled. This process is both tedious and expensive, but the price, of course, varies with the wages of labour in different places. Where I am writing it is now 2d. per inch, and, according to the dimensions or nature of the rock to be split, the mine varies from eighteen inches to two feet in depth, or, exclu- sive of the expense of gunpowder, the cost of this mine or blast hole will range from 3s. to 4s. . It will be a very mode- rate calculation to estimate twelve inches for one mine, or Qs. Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 45 for every large stone; and in most parts of the Highlands, or of Scotland in general, this is nearly a day’s labour fora man, on account of the time expended in coming to the ground and in returning. To this expense, however, must be added, not only the price of the gunpowder, but that of sharpening the gads, which is considerable, and the other wear and tear of tools. I cannot here procure an exact esti- mate of these expenses, nor is it material, as it will easily be calculated by all those who have an interest in doing so, or have such work in hand. I need only add, that as, in many cases, the quantity of such stones on ground otherwise fit for cultivation is enormous, it is material to find out the means of diminishing an expense which may exceed the fee-simple of the land when cleared. The same reasoning applies to the Highland roads, which, from their expensive construc- tion, trench so deeply on the funds provided for them, that nothing remains to replace the accidents arising from tor- rents or other causes, or for the purposes of ordinary repairs. The contractor for a road from Loch Ewe to Gerloch, who resides at this place, finding it difficult to carry on his work at the contract price, has abandoned the process of blasting, and has had recourse to fire alone; and in this way he has now conducted his road for some miles with a great saving both of time and labour. Whether he has had any precursor, except Hannibal, in this practice, I know not, as I have not found it in use elsewhere in any part of Scotland ; but he appears at any rate to have the merit of an original inventor, as he had heard neither of any predecessor nor rival in his art. In conducting the process, a fire of peat is made on the surface of the stone, and being then secured at the margin by stones and turf, it is kept in activity for five or six hours. At the beginning of his career, when the fire was extinguish- ed, Mr. Mackenzie was in the habit of throwing water on the rock, which was then found to open in different places, in such a manner as easily to admit a wedge or two, and thus to be split by a few blows of the sledge. But finding, in some situations, that it was difficult to procure water, and that the expense was thus materially increased, he abandoned 46 Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. this part of the process, and now finds that the stone, on cool- ing, is equally fissured, and equally admits the wedge. On examining the nature of the rocks submitted to this process, I doubted its efficacy, and was only convinced by witnessing the effects. They consisted of the roughest va- riety of gneiss; that kind which is composed, in a great de- gree, of compact felspar, and of varieties equally tough and refractory, of hornblende rock or hornblende schist. Nor could any fissures be discovered in the blocks before the ac- tion of the fire, by which, if not produced, they were at least enlarged from a state previously invisible. As these are the only rocks which this part of the country affords, I cannot say whether the same effects would be found to take place in all, more particularly in granite. It is probable, however, that every rock is equally susceptible of being split by the same cause; as there are none in nature more compact and more apparently free from flaws, than those in which the process succeeded at Loch Ewe. It is easy to understand how the effect is produced, as it is in glass, by the unequal expansion of the parts, even without the assistance of water; and it is equally easy to comprehend how a fire of only three or four feet in diameter is thus capa- ble of acting on a stone of many tons in weight. It is probable that the quantity of fire, as well as its dura- tion, must be made to vary with the dimensions of the block to be split; but, in all the instances which he had attempted, he had not at this time experienced a single failure, though a very considerable number of rocks had been removed in con- ducting the road for a space of about five miles. At the place in question, the peat was every where at hand, and required scarcely any expense of carriage; none other, in short, but that of being cut and cast in readiness for use whenever it was wanted. Wherever it may require a distant carriage in addition to that, it is evident that the charge will be augmented. In Highland road-making, peat is rarely far off ; and, indeed, when it is not at hand, the same purpose may be served by the heath and turf, which is every where present, and of which a great quantity is neces- sarily removed in lining out the road. In clearing land in 9 = Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 47 the Highlands, the same reasoning applies, as, either peat is seldom far distant, or the land itself furnishes brush-wood and weeds. These are often burnt for no other purpose than that of destroying them, and procuring the ashes and burnt earth attached, which are found to form an useful manure ; while by making this use of them the same produce would be obtained in addition to the other advantages. In clearing land by this process, it would be necessary to form previous deposits of fuel in convenient parts of the field, that no impediment might take place during the pro- cess of firing, but that all the labour required for the several parts of the work, may, at one time, be directed to one object only. Thus the labour which, during one period, has been expended in distributing the fuel, will, in the second, be en- gaged in firing the stones ; and, in the third, in splitting them by the wedge, when they will be ready for removal, either by the plug and gin, or by the more common proceedings. It will be seen that, in this case, the great saving of labour takes place in the firing, as one man can attend a considerable number of fires over a large space, and thus, in a single day, prepare an extensive tract for the hammer and wedge. Thus, it is calculated, that the firing and the previous labour of col- lecting fuel will not exceed the price of tools and gunpowder, and the comparison will then remain between the time or la- bour required to bore so many mines, or to split the blocks by the wedge. hese are data easily ascertained with very little attention ; and if, on more extended trials, the balance in favour of the method used at Loch Ewe shall be found to correspond elsewhere, as it has there done, it will be found a valuable acquisition both to road-makers and to improvers of rough land in the Highlands. It remains to be ascertained to what extent the same prac- tice is capable of being applied in splitting solid rocks, no ne- cessity for this having occurred at the place in question. It is evident that it will, in this case, be limited in many places, by the form of the rock, as the fire cannot often be effectually applied except to a horizontal surface. But, doubtless, many cases will occur where this practice can be brought into use with economy. 45 Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between Art. VII.—An Account of the Frontier between Part of Ben- - gal and the Kingdom of Ava. By Francis Haminton, M.D. F.R.S. and F.A.S. Lond. & Ed. Communicated by the Author. Berrween Bengal and the kingdom of Ava there are three principal routes by land: 1st, through Asam; 2d, through Kashar and Munipura; and 3d, by Arakan, passing the boundary at the river Naaf. In the second part of The An- nals of Oriental Literature, while treating of Asam, I have given some account of the first two routes, and of the coun- tries situated between the northern parts of Bengal and the dominions of the king of Ava. It is now my intention to mention some particulars concerning the countries which are situated between this kingdom and the southern parts of Bengal, including the districts of Tiperah (Tripura) and Chatigang. Both shes districts at one time seem to have biclgnleeth to the Rajas of Tripura, who are celebrated in the ancient Hindu traditions for their iuxury; and on the Minamati hills, called Lolmi by Rennel, the situation of their ancient abode may be traced for a great extent, about six miles west from Komila. I travelled there, through the remains of brick buildings, for about a mile and a half. At the northern end of this ruin are the remains of a fort about 200 yards square ; and a mile south from thence are four or five steep hills composed almost entirely of brick, and connected and sur- rounded by ditches, which seem to point out the royal resi- dence. These princes seem to have been early attacked by the kings of Bengal, whose Mohammedan subjects then seized a large part of the country, leaving, however, the Tripura princes in possession of large estates as tributaries, while the more inaccessible parts of the country continued independ- ent, and occupied by the aboriginal inhabitants, who use languages totally different from the Bengalese. The Mo- hammedans of Bengal were, in their turn, worsted by the kings of Arakan, (Rakhain,) who conquered the whole country near the sea, and were not driven out until after the 3 ‘eg ent: Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 49 accession of the house of Timour ; nor have the ‘Tripura Ra- jas recovered any part of this southern portion of their an- cient dominions; although, in several parts among the hills of Chatigung there are remnants of this tribe. I shall, for the present, content myself with an account of that part of the frontier where the Tripuras still retain some sort of oe pendence, or claim a supremacy. In 1798 Radun Manik, the Rajah of Tripura, resided at Agatola, near Komila, his whole estates on the plains having been long tributary and subject to the government of Bengal ; but the Tripura nation, or tribe, maintained, under his au- thority, a kind of independence among the hills for about thirty miles in width, along the banks of the Monu river, which falls into the Surma, and along both banks of the Go- muti and Phani (Fenny R.) rivers, a length of about 120 miles. The Tripuras seem to be divided into three tribes: 1st; The Tripuras, properly so called, who occupy the banks of the Gomuti; 2dly, the Alinagar, who occupy the banks of the Phani, and especially ofits principal branch the Muri, which passes Kundal; but a part of this tribe occupies the banks of the Alta, a branch of the Karnaphuli, which is included in the district of Chatigang ; and 3dly, the Reang, who occupy chiefly the banks of the Monu, which falls into the Surma. All the Tripuras are by the Bengalese commonly called Teura. It was with the southern tribe alone that I had any intercourse, and these did not call themselves Tripuras but Baruksa, the final sa being analogous to the English word men, when speaking of nations, as Frenchmen, Irishmen, Scotchmen; so that Baruk is the name of this tribe at least ; whether it is applicable to the whole Tripura nation I cannot say, but I was assured by the Raja’s principal officer, (Dewan) that all the three tribes of T'ripuras speak the same language, although this varies into several dialects, as usual among all people having no literary standard. These tribes indeed, the Dewan says, are mere local distinctions. - I took down some of the most common words from those who inhabit. the banks of the Karnaphuli, and on comparing them with those used near the Phani, I found some differences ; but this may have VOL. Il. No. 1. JAN. 1825. E 50 Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between arisen from misapprehension. The following are the words which I took down: 1. Sun, sal. 2. Moon, ¢al, or in the dialect of the Phani, hando kree. 9%. Star, hando goorua. 4, Earth, ha. 5. Wa- ter, tei. 6. Fire, hor. 7. Stone, holoong. 8. Wind, nobar. 9. Rain, yatei, or in the Phani dialect, watei, 10. Man, droo. 11. Woman, bree, or in the Phani dialect, bruz. 12. Head, bokroo. 13. Mouth, bokook, or in the Phani dialect, kowk ; from which we may perhaps infer that the Jo prefixed to this and the preceding word is the mark of some inflection. 14. Arm, yauk, or in the Phani dialect yauktauk. 15. Hand, yaukgora. 16, Leg, yatee, or in the Phani dialect yapa- toe. 17. Foot, yapalei, 18. Bird, tauksa. 19. Fish, aw. 20. Good, hamo. 21. Bad, hamya. 22. Great, godja. 23. Little, goorua. 24. Long, lawo, or in the Phani dialect kalow. 25. Short, bara. 26. One, kaisha. 27. Two, ko- not, 28. Three, kotam. 29. Four, boroi. 30. Five, ba. $1. Six, dowk. 32. Seven, cheenee. 33. Eight, seeko. 34. Nine, chee. $5. Ten, cheence. This being the same with the word given for seven, there is probably some mistake. When these people have occasion to mention higher numbers than ten, they have recourse to the Bengalese language. 36. Eat, cha- day. 37. Drink, loungday. 38. Sleep, hogulday, or in the Phani dialect fowanay. 39. Walk, baraweinay, or im the Phani dialect ookumfeelday. 40, Stand, basaday. 41. Kill, tanday. 42. Yes, oongilea. 48. No, korey. 44. Here, pai- dee. 45, There, oojan. 46. Above, tchowo. 47. Below, hasseeo, or in the Phani dialect kKamma. From this it will appear that the Tripura language has no affinity with that of Hindustan, and very little with thatof Ava. In one instance, indeed, the word kree (great) has evidently been introduced from the latter, the moon being called the great hando, anda star a little (goorua) hando. The word cha for eat is also the same with tsaw of the Ratahain dialect. Day or nay an- nexed to all the verbs is evidently the sign of the imperative, and is in use at Ava. The Tripuras have features entirely like the Chinese or people of Ava, and have their huts built on posts like the lat- ter, whose impure customs they follow, so that they must be Ee ee ee ee ) ) ln : Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 51 considered as of the same race, although their princes have adopted Hindu names and customs, aad may very likely be of Hindu origin ; but I did not learn their genealogy. It is probable, however, that both they, and a considerable portion of their subjects, who in former times cultivated the plains between the eastern hills and the Megna, came from Hindus- tan and settled among the Tripura nation, as from their build- ings they evidently appear to have been a race much farther advanced in society. ‘The mode of succession which prevails in the family may seem to militate against the Hindu origin of the Tripura Rajas. The Raja is not succeeded by his son, but by his nephew. In 1798 the Dhup Raja was con- sidered as the heir apparent, although his father was then alive, and an older man than Radun Manik, who then was prince. A similar practice, however, prevails in Malabar ; but then it is a sister’s son who succeeds. ‘The same indeed may be the case in Tripura; for at the time when I noted the na- ture of the succession, I was not aware of the nature of the succession through females used in Malabar, and. tiie father of the Dhup Raja may not have belonged to the family ; it may have been by his mother that he was nephew to Radun Manik. The Tripuras cultivate what are called jooms, of which the following is the nature:—During the dry season, the people cut down to the root all the bushes growing on a sufficient extent of hilly land, that has a good soil. After drying for some time, the brushwood is set on fire, and by. its means as much as possible of the large timber is destroy- ed; but if the trees are large, this part of the operation is seldom very successful. The whole surface of the ground is now covered with ashes, which soak into the soil with the first rain, and serve as a manure. No sooner has the ground been softened by the first showers of the season, than the cultivator begins to plant. To his girdle he fixes a small basket, containing a promiscuous mixture of the seeds of all the different plants raised in jooms. These plants are chiefly tice, cotton, capsicum, indigo, and different kinds of cucur- bitaceous fruits. In one hand the cultivator then takes a dibble, peinted with iron, if this can be procured, and with 52 Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between this he makes small holes, at irregular distances; but in ge- neral about a foot from each other. Into each of these holes he with his other hand drops a few seeds, taken from the basket as chance directs, and leaves the farther rearing of the crop to nature ; only he resides near, in a temporary hut, to drive away destructive animals, and to reap the crop as each kind ripens. Next year, in general, the cultivator se- lects another spot covered with wood ; for in such a rude cultivation, the ashes are a manure necessary to render the soil productive, except in a few places peculiarly rich that bear a second crop. When the wood on a former joom has grown to a proper size, the cultivator again returns to it; and then there being few large trees standing, the opera- tion of cutting is easier, and the ground is more perfectly cleared. In this state of society, no tribe, whatever extent it may occupy, can make any considerable progress in the arts either of peace or war; and accordingly the Tripuras, subject to Radun Manik, are useless but harmless neighbours, along a frontier of about a degree and a half of latitude, and in a political sense are altogether ‘insignificant. The distance in a direct line east from Komila-to the frontier of Ava Proper, near the river Khizenduzn, is rather more than 200 geographical miles. The Tripura tribe reach with- in a few miles of Komila, and extend about thirty miles to the eastward, while Taunduen, the capital of the Aengiin subject to Ava, (Phil. Journ. iv. 83, vii. 232.) the nearest part of this kingdom, is from twenty to thirty miles in a di- rect line west from tne Khiendueen. As the territory of the Aengiin may reach twenty or thirty miles farther west than its capital, there is great reason to think that the space in- tervening between the Aengiin and the Tripura nation, will be somewhat above 100 geographical miles in width. No inquiries that I made either in Ava or Bengal, enabled me to ascertain that there was any passage entirely through this space. There perhaps intervenes a mountainous barrier, that has not been overcome, owing probably more to its rugged- ness than to its great elevation; for mountains of an Alpine height are not visible from either side, which they could not Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 53 fail to be were there any in so narrow a space. (See Phil. Journ. vii. 233.) Towards the west, between the territory of the Tripura race and the central inaccessible mountains, there is a wide hilly region occupied by the people called Kungkis, mention- ed in my account of Asam, (Annals of Oriental Literature, part ii. p. 264, and in the Phil. Jour. iv. 264.) as being the Langeh of the people of Ava, and the Lingta of the Bengalese. I have had no intercourse, nor farther informa- tion concerning the tribe of this race, which occupies the frontier towards the Surma, by which there is the most di- rect and important route between Bengal and Ava. Farther south, ten kinds of the Kungkis, who dwell about the heads of the Gomuti, are claimed as dependents by Radun Manik, the Tripura Raja; but his authority over them is probably very small ; for his power is inconsiderable, and the Kungkis seem to be a warlike predatory people. They are, or at least in 1798 were, subject to a chief named Longshue, al- though I am not sure whether this name was that of the in- dividual chief, or his title as head of the tribe; but I think that the last is most probably the case, as the people on the banks of the Karnaphuli, who were chiefly subject to the depredations of these Kungkis, called the tribe Lusai or Lu- shee, the same name, I suspect with Longshue: yet it must be confessed that the Dewan of Radun Manik spoke of the Lushee as being only one of the ten kinds of Kungkis de- pendent on his master. The dependance of this tribe, or of Longshue on the Tripura Raja is rather problematical, and the Lusai, are rather supposed by the people on the Karna- phuli to be subject to the tribe of Kungkis, called Bonzhu, or Bonjugy. In war, probably the two kindred tribes unite; but in peace, the Tripura Raja having the command of the commercial routes, may exert a kind of authority, and re- ceive a toll or tribute. I have not heard of any tribe that inhabits between the Longshue Kungkis and the great central ridge, the eastern side of which is occupied by the tribe, which the people of Ava call Khizn, (Phil. Journ. 11. 263.); nor, as I have said, have I been able to trace any route across the ridge: yet I 5A Dr: Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between have some suspicion that a communication exists ; for Long- shue has a very great resemblance to Launsci, the name of a town on the east side of this ridge. (Phil. Journ. vii. 233.) This town, indeed, is inhabited by a tribe of the Mranma race called Jo, and between it and the ridge are interposed the Khizn, totally different from the Kungkis; but it is not improbable that the:town derives its name from being the mart for trade with the Longshue, of which origin of names I know several similar instances. It must also be observed, that another town of the Jo nation subject to Ava, is called Zho, (Phil. Journ. vii. 234.) which is the same name with what some tribes at least of the Kungkis give to themselves, from which circumstance a similar conclusion may be in- ferred ; but the language of the Jo, notwithstanding the re- semblance of the names Jo and Zho, (Phil. Journ. vii. 235.) or Zhu, has no affinity to that of the Kungkis, being a mere provincial dialect of that spoken at Ava. On a cluster of hills situated a little south from the tropic, and which, as I was informed, separates the waters falling into the Phani and Karnaphuli from those falling into the Gomuti, there is said to reside a tribe called Langmang, more rude than even the Kungkis, with whom they are at constant war. I have never seen any of them; but they are said by the Bengalese to sleep on trees like baboons. They do not cultivate rice, but live chiefly on the kind of grain called Kangun, (Panicum Italicum.) The latter cir- cumstance is probable; but it can only be when they are watching their fields that these poor people can be supposed to sleep on trees, a rude stage placed among the branches, with a few leaves by way of thatch, being a kind of resting place, which I have seen used by watchmen in several places of India, where elephants abound, as they do on the hills near Kundal. It is probable that the Langmang are merely one of the tribes of Kungkis, of which Radun Maniks Dewan spoke; and there are many Kungkis both on the north and south of these hills. These are the tribes interposed between Ava and Bengal, from about the latitude 24° 25’ to 22° 55’ N. I shall now give an account of the principal river by which this space is 6 Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 55 watered. Itis properly called the Gomuti, which Major Ren- nell writes Gomut (Bengal Atlas, map 1,) or Goomty (Ibid. map 9,) and which seems to be derived from its crooked na- ture. I am persuaded, that by some mistake the rivers, which, in the 9th map of the Bengal Atlas, appear as the heads of the Chingree river, in fact belong to the Gomutt, the Chingree, or Chimay, as the natives call it, terminating, according to all the information received by me, at the hills on the south side of the tropic. The Gomuti, therefore, either passes through, or springs from the hills laid down in the above-mentioned map as the boundary of Ava, although I have reason to think, that the great central ridge is pro- bably 20 or 30 miles farther to the east. Whether or not this space is altogether unoccupied, or whether it be inha- bited by tribes subject to Ava, or by people that are alto- gether independent, I have not learned ; but the last is pro- bably the case; as farther south, this farther ridge, at the sources of the Karnaphuli, is peopled by an enterprising tribe of the Kungki race, and the same is probably the case at the sources of the Gomuti. The hills lower down these rivers consist of clay and sand slightly indurated in thin plates, involving in some places small masses of a more solid nature, that admit of being cut with the chisel, and in a few places masses of petrified wood. In two places north from Islamabad there continually issues from chinks in these strata an inflammable gas, the burning, of which has been successfully employed by some priests as a means of extracting gain from the superstitious. These hills rise to a considerable elevation, seldom exceeding 150 feet perpendicular, while the streams that run through the intermediate valleys or ravines have a very gentle current, and a sandy bottom; so that canoes can be pushed along to a great extent, especially in the rainy season. Unfor- tunately the country becomes then so unhealthy, that even the Bengalese do not venture to remain, but quit the hills with the first showers of summer. ‘This prevented me from attempting to penetrate into the country of the Kungkis, as the rainy season had commenced when I was at Komila; and all the information that I can give concerning the route, 56 Dr. Hamilton's Account of the Frontier between is derived from the Bengalese wood-cutters, who are far from accurate. I shall here, however, mention what these people say, although it cannot be received as at all accurate in the details; but it will serve to show the nature of the country between Komila and what Rennell calls the Mugg mountains, a name totally unknown among such natives as I have consulted. The wood-cutters state that February is the month best suited for penetrating with canoes through the country, which is then healthy ; nor is there any want of water for bearing the canoes. , A canoe proceeding from Komila up the Gomuti takes two and a half pahars (seven and a half hours) to reach the mouth of the Kazi, a rivulet arising from a large marsh (jil) named Lodi, which, although nearly dry in the hot sea- son, produces, in the rainy monsoon, an immense quantity of fish. The Kazi enters the Gomuti on the left going up, and its banks are inhabited by Kungkis. These marshes, or jils as they are called, are common among the low hills along the eastern frontier of Bengal. They occupy gene- rally the greater part of the wider valleys winding among the low hills; and being perfectly level, are deeply covered with water during the rainy season, but have nothing like bog in their soil, which is in general excellent, and quite firm. The ground is so deeply inundated during the rainy season that it is unfit for the joom cultivation, and it is therefore neglected by the mountaineers. In some parts, in- deed, stagnant pools or small lakes remain throughout the year ; but ina large proportion the water dries up soon after the rains cease, and might be cultivated with the plough for winter crops. . Indeed the water is in most parts so shallow, as to be well fitted for the cultivation of rice, and, by deepen- ing the rivulets that pass through the extent of such land, might easily be increased, as has been done in many adjacent parts that are occupied by the Bengalese. This manner of cultivation, however, is not practised by the hill tribes who are most inured to the climate. Two pahars (six hours) journey farther up, brings the canoe to the mouth of the Kalipani (black water) entering from the left. Its banks are not inhabited. Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 57 One pahar and a half (four and a half hours) take the canoe to the mouth of the Sundal, entering from the right, and having no inhabitants on its banks. At the same dis- tance, and from the same side, enter two rivulets named Rani and Kani, the latter of which comes from the Hari jil or marsh. One day (twelve hours) farther brings the canoe to the Jamjuni rivulet on the right. It comes from the Suksagar jil or lake, on the banks of which there are many Bengalese peasants, and a house of Radun Maniks called Udypura, or as Rennell writes, Oudapour. If he is right in placing this nineteen miles distant in a direct line from Komila, this.may serve as a scale for the rate of the canoes going, as it takes thirty-four and a half hours to proceed this length; so that on a long route, a canoe does not advance more than six miles a day in adirect line. South from Udypura are Kungkis, who must be the same with the Langmang,—that I have be- fore mentioned. In two pahar, or six hours, farther on the left is the mouth of the Dhupa, whose banks are inhabited by Kung- kis. Two gurries (forty-two minutes) from its mouth, it passes through a ridge of hills called Debta Mura—(Deities Head.) The canoe in half a pahar (one and a half hour) more, eomes to the Gangacherra, where there are no inhabitants. In two pahars'more it reaches Keteycherra, also uninhabited. To the right is Kyddakacherra, where the Raja had a house named Amarapura (abode of Angels;) but in 1798 it had been deserted. - Two pahars (six hours) farther up, entering from the left, is the Moilak ; one and a half pahar (four and a half hours) farther is Peelak, entering from the right; two pahars (six hours) farther, entering from the eft, is Dalak; and six gurries (two hours and twenty-four minutes) farther, enter- ing from the right, is the Koorma. These four last mention- ed rivulets have no inhabitants. Above Koorma, in one and a half pahar, the canoe reaches Seela Gonga, on whose banks the Reang of Tripuras have acolony. This colony, there can be no doubt, is the Reang 1 58 Dr. Hamilton on the Frontier of Bengal and Ava. © of Rennell (Bengal Atlas, map 9.) which he places on the Chingree river 105 miles from its entrance into the Karna- phuli; but I have already said, that in all probability the Chingree rises from hills on the south side of the tropic ; and that what Rennell represents as its upper parts belongs to the Gomuti. Allowing that this proceeds nearly east above Ou- dapour, the fifty-five hours, proceeding at the same rate as between Oudapour and Romila, would bring the canoe near the Mugg mountains of Rennell, nearly at the tropic, and the Seela gonga will then be the stream represented by that eminent geographer as coming from Reang. In this case, however, the mouth of the Seela gonga would require to be placed much farther east than Rennell has done the course of his Chingree in its upper part. The woodcutters from Komila proceed no farther up the Gomuti than the mouth of the Seela gonga, as in many parts beyond that, the channel, in February, is nearly dry, although there are deep pools between, as usual in mountainous coun- tries; for here the river passes through what Rennel calls the Mugg mountains, beyond which nothing is known to the woodcutters, nor had they ever heard of a river called Chin- gree or Chimay. The Phani (serpent) river, at the ferry between Jurilgunge and Duckinseek, to use Rennel’s orthography, is of consider-_ able size; but ‘this is owing entirely to the tide. A little lower, indeed, at the ferry between Jurilgunge and Cossidea, it isa mile wide; but the tide flows only a little way above the ferry at Duckinseek, and the stream then is very insig~ nificant; nor could I find that the natives ascend it in canoes, so that by far the most considerable branch of the river, as represented by Rennel, is the Muri, which comes from Kun-~ dal. ‘This is one of many instances where a large river, on joining a much smaller one, loses its name. Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 59 Art. VIII.—Remarks on the Culture of the Silk Worm in the North of Italy. By Joun Murray, Esq. F. A. S. F.L.S. M.W.S. Lecturer on Chemistry. Communicated by the Author. Havene been highly interested in the improved culture of the silk worm on the principles of Count Dandolo, and which I witnessed in full operation in the north of Italy, during the year 1818—1819, I conceived that some succinct notice of a few of the more curious facts connected with the subject would not be unaceeptable to you. For the materials of this paper I am chiefly indebted to the very interesting work of Conte Dandolo “ Dell Arte di governare i Bachi da Seta.” Seconda edizione, Milano, 1818. The hygrometer of Bellani has its zero correspondent with that of De Saussure, and I have connected the thermometric expression of Reaumur, used by Count Dandolo, into the seale of Fahrenheit. - Professor Giobert of Turin informed me, that the process instituted by Count Dandolo was universally successful, though some of the lower class had arrayed themselves in op- position to it, as was done in this country against the intro- duction of machinery to supersede manual Jabour,—an hosti- lity which dicated its value. I was informed that the Marchese de la Rovere had no less than thirty-five ounces of ova cultivated, (on the princi- ples published by Count Dandolo,) in the year 1819. - The certainty to which the process is hereby reduced,—a cer- tainty equivalent to the culture of an exotic in the conservatory, is not the least in the train of its recommendations. A solitary blast of the Schirroco frequently destroyed the hope and pro- mise of the year ; but all this is now avoided. The average return is more than doubled, and even successional crops may be realized. It is clearly adapted to every climate, even to a higher latitude than ours, and I cannot doubt that it is worthy the attention of our enlightened legislature; and while it might add to our finances, it would form an important _ and interesting feature in our industry. According to Count Dandolo, the amount of raw silk and 60 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. silk articles exported from Italy, in the years 1807, 1808, 1809, and 1810, amounted in all to 334,580,628 lire Milan- ese, being an average of 83,720 lire Milanese annually, or L.2,790,671, 18s. sterling, calculating the lira Milanese at 8d. sterling, which is within a fraction, being = 762 cente- simi. I have often thought that the cultivation of the silk worm, on the principles adopted so successfully by Dandolo, would form a most valuable and profitable addendum to the poor houses in England. The aged and infirm even might find here an occupation of healthful interest to themselves, and re~ lief to the burdened benevolence which supports them. The preservative phial of Guyton de Morveau is found by Dandolo a valuable support to the health of the silk worm, and would be, in like manner, to those employed in the ma- nagement. ‘This interesting machine is much improved by Mons. Boulay. Count Dandolo gives a decided preference to a stove con- structed of tile over one of iron. The latter, he says, con- sumes the wood too rapidly ; the management becomes con- sequently difficult, and the silk-worms are injured. Iron stoves are injurious, and induce illness; but a plate or shal- low basin of water placed on the head of the stove, as I found practised among the Appenines, will prevent the bad effects. thence resulting. Shallow vessels containing water, and de- posited on the floor, will sustain the proper hygrometric state, if the atmosphere should at any time be #oo dry. There can be no question about the success of this method of culture in England. With all the disadvantages the indi- viduals had to combat with, I have seen several pounds weight (1 think siz,) raised in one season, some years ago, by a poor family in Whittlesea, near Peterborough. King James the First of England, in the sixth year of his reign, issued a royal edict recommending the cultivation of the silk-worm, and did all in his power to promote this branch of national industry, by the issue of packets of mul-. berry seeds, &c. and a patent was issued to John Appletree, Esq. under the great seal, dated 23d May, 1718, for the planting of mulberry trees and erection of buildings, and for the culture of the silk-worm. Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 61 The comparative trials of Count Dandolo clearly prove, that the wi/d mulberry is decidedly preferable to the engraft- ed mulberry, in the value of the leaves furnished to the silk- worm. The following is the Count’s conclusion : ‘* Questi fatti adunque dimostrano che nella foglia tratta dal gelso sclvatico comparata alla foglia innestata avvi sotto ad uno stesso peso copia maggiore di sostanza alimentaria, maggior copia di sostanza alimentaria, maggior copia di sos- tanza resinoza, e meno d’inutile sostanza parenchimosa.” Many different substances have been proposed as a substi- tute for the leaves of the mulberry, as those of the lettuce, oak, elm, beet, mallow, rose, spinage, nettle, &c. but the mul- berry stands prominent, though perhaps lettuce might be used in the first period of the evclution from the ova, and until the mulberry puts forth its leaves. Only sixty Ibs. weight of leaves were in 1813 consumed by the young silk- worms of five ounces of ova, during the two first periods. The experiments of Mr. Knight show that the mulberry can be easily forced, and perhaps the same room which contains the ova would serve this purpose. In the “ British Review” of July 1788, a writer recommends the powder of dried mul- berry leaves ; and Bertezen, (see “ Thoughts,” &c. London, 1789, p. 22,) tells us that “ one seed of black mulberry leaves is worth more than two of white.” Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces of Ova. 1815 L Int 1 External 3. eaves m. } xte’ | First Age. ae are supplied. sar eae Temperature. Days of Treatment. Fahrenheit. Fahrenheit. 1 May 18. TA°.75 F PY fe 2 19. 74.75 63 .50 3 20. 74.75 65.75 4 21. 74.75 65.75 5 22. 74.75) | 61.25 * The common pound of silk (libra grossa) contains eight light ounces. + Corresponding to 17° Réaumur. 62 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces of Ova—continued. Internal External Temperature. | Temperature. 1813. Leaves and uk Age.’ |7 Months. Stems. Days of Treatment, Fahrenheit. | Fahrenheit. 63 .58 73.75 63 .50 72 .50 64 .62+ 72 .50 65 .75 CARD 31 iy & 32 18. Fifth Age ('3660 Fourth Age | 600 Third Age | 200 Second Age 60 First Age 20 Unconsumed Listy"s) oth be e;ocs egosooy; cooooceosooo Obl nese Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Sill Worm. 63 Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces of Ova. External 1814. fonths. Leaves Internal _| Temperature, |tryorometer, E First Period. &c. |consumed. Temperature. ah ce) uu of Bellami. Weether. ern Exposure. Tbs. 0z.. | Fahrenheit. Days, 1. |May 23. LOST} F2°250 var. . 52°25 - « « |Rain. 2: 24. Paver 10 cee 47 .75 a he Rain occasionally. 3. 2s 3 01] 70.25 var.| 43.25 He oe Rain and fair. 4. 26 ©. 0 (k69) 22 45 .50 « - ++ {Cloudy & sunshine ae 27. 5 0} To .25. 50 + ++ + |Cloudy. 6. 28. 214) 71 .37+ 54 .50 Buraliee Rain. 20 O Second Period : %s 29. 5 14 | 70.25 47.75 68° |Rain. 8. 30.| 11 0 | 70.25 53 37+ 70 Mist and sunshine.! 9. 31. 15 14 | 68 56.75 64 Ditto. 10. |June 1. 15 0O| 68 56.75 66 Rain. i 2: 7 O| 68 63 .50 66 Rain and sunshine. 12. 34> 1 O | 69 .124+ 61.25 70 Cloudy. | 55 0 Third Period. 13. 4. 14 0} 69.12 54.50 68 Rain and sunshine. 14. 5 30 0! 68 54.50 69 Cloudy, &c. &e. 15. 6.| 40 0} 69 12+ 61.25 70 Rain and sunshine. 16. 7.|-60 0} 69.12+ °| 56.75 75 Rain. a A 8. 50 0O | 69.12+ 55 .62+ 74 Rain. 18. 9.| 20 Oj} 69.12+ 52.25 79 Kain and sunshine. 19. 10. 2 0} 69.12+ 56.75 78 Ditto. 216 0 Fourth Period. . i hi 50 0} 69.12+ 56.75 76 Rain and sunshine. 21 12. 85 0} 69.12+ 63 .50 75 Cloudy, &c. 22 13. | 120 0}! 68 64.62+ vel Fine. 23. 14. | 130 0 | 66.874 61.25 74 |Cleudy & sunshine. 24. 15.| 166 O | 66.87+ 63 .50 75 Sun and rain. 25 16. 70 0} 68 65.75 72 Ditto. 26. 1% & 0] 69.12 56.75 70 Fine. 620 0O Fifth Period, aie 18.; 120 0O| 68 60 .12+ 72 Fine. 28 19.| 180 0} 68 61 .25 73 Rain and sunshine. 29. 20.| 240 0 |} 68 56.75 73 Ditto. 30. 21.;| 310 O | 66.874 59 75 Rain. 31 22.| 360 0}; 68 56.75 73 |Cloudy and rain. 32 23.| 450 0O | 68 52 .25 72 Rain and sunshine. 3: 24.! 550 O | 68 54.50 74 Ditto. 84 25.| 650 O]| 68 53 .37+ 73 Ditto. 35. 26.| 500 O | 69.12-- 54.50 13 Ditto. 36. 27.| 280 O | 69.124 54.50 73 Cloudy and rain. 37. 28. | 180 69 .124 50 72 Rain and sunshine. = lg= 64 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. Tee of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces ; of Ova—continued. Fifth Period - : ° 3820 0 Fourth Period “ : ~ . 620 0O Third Period ; 6 5 . 216 O Second Period . : : 55 0 First Period - 4 ; 20 O Leaves devoured. ; ; - 4731 0 400 0 290 O Total . : 5421 0 For each ounce of ova, 1084 lbs. of leaves have been taken from the tree. The silk worms, from five ounces of ova, have consumed the above 5421 lbs. of leaves, and each produced 401 lbs. of coccoons, &c. For each pound of coccoons there have been consumed about 13} lbs, of mul- berry leaves. The Temperature required for the Production of the Silk Worms from the Ova, anterior to 23d May, 1814. | 1814. | Internal External 1814. Internal External | Month. , Temperature.| Temperature. || Month. | Temperature. ome Fa. 63.50 |Fa. 50.26 |May 18. |Fa. 70.25 |Fa. 50.00 63.50 45.50 192 72.50 50.00 63.50 45.50 20. 74.75 52.25 63.50 45.50 ai. 77. 52.25 65.75 47.75 22. 73.25 54.50 65.75 52.25 23. $1.50 52.25 68. 50.00 The external temperature was ascertained at 5 o’clock every morning, from a western exposure. During the thirteen days in which the silk-worms were developed from the ova, 134 lbs. of food were consumed. The lb. of 28 ounces is to be understood, or 2 lbs. Troy equi- valent to 0.7625 kilogrammes of France. i Mr. Murray on the Managemnt of the Silk Worm. — 65 The following is the Daily Decrease in Weight of 1000 ounces of Coccoons in a Room, the Temperature of which ~ is from 70° 25 F. to 72° 50 F. Day Ist, 1000 oz. Day 7th, 960 less 6. 2d, Sol less 9. é 8th, 952- less 8. 3d, 982 less 9. 9th, 943 less 9. Ath, 975 less 7. 10th, 934 less 9. 5th, 970 less 5. llth, 925 less 9. 6th, 966 less 4. | So that the 1005 ounces have lost in 10 days during the mutation 75 ounces. There is a gradual declension for the first five days inclusive, and a regular gradation for the five last days. 8 oz. of ova have lost in 5 daysin weight 100 gr. in 8 days 360, and in 10 days 440. 6 oz. do. do. do. 86gr. do. 178 do. 248. 5 02. do. do. do. 60 gr. do. 168 do. 216. 4 oz. do. do. do. S80gr. do. 181 do. 224. Each grain contains about 68 ova, and an ounce weight 39,168 ova. The oncia Milanese contains 575 grains. The above number is to be understood of fecundated ova. _'Those which are badly impregnated contain 43,080, and are of a reddish colour; and of those not at all impregnated, and of a yellowish tinge, there are in the ounce 44,100. The Expense of the Contingencies of the 5 ounces of Crop in 1814 are thus calculated by Count Dandolo. Cost of 5 ounces of ova, : : 15. Wood for fuel, : 2 i 5500 Ibs. of leaves of mulberry at 7 lire per 100 lbs. 385. Expense of gathering the leaves, : 96.5 1000 lbs. at 32 soldi, : : 16. Supplement, : : : E 4.10 Supplemental paper, : ; : 4, Oil for light, : f ; ‘ 9. Preservation phial, J 5 x . 1.10 Daily labour, . : 3 . 100. Lire Milanese 642. Interest, &c. on capital, : . 90. Total expense, 132. 401 Ibs. of coccoons obtained, which, being sold at 78 soldi per Ib. produced ; - 1,563.18 Nett profit Lire 831.18 VOL. II. No. I. JAN. 1825. E 66 Mr. Murray on the Management of the Silk Worm. Note.—A Lira Milanese is equal to about 8d. and there are 20 Soldi ina Lira M. The calculation, as above, includes not only interest on ca- pital, but a valuation on the mulberry leaves, which is about one-half of the total expence. The Augmentation and Diminution of the Silk Worms in Weight and Size. Increasing Progression. Weight. Increasing Progression. Size. 100 ova weigh about Grain 1 | The ova in the Ist instance say 1 Line- After the Ist change about 15 | After the Ist change, length say 4 2d change say 94 2d change, . - 6 3d change say 400 Sd.change, .”" "12 4th change say 1628 4th change, . - 20 oth change say 9500 5thchange, . + 40 Note.—In thirty days the silk-worm has increased in weight 9500 times; and, in 28 days, the animal has aug- mented in size about 40 times. The French Line is equal to 1.67 Lines English, calculat- ing 100 Lines English to the inch. Decreasing Progression. Grains. 100 Silk-Worms at their greatest size weigh above : 7760 100 chrysali weigh ~ : ; : . 3900 100 females weigh ° s ° : 2990 100 males weigh 2 : 3 . 1700 100 females, after the ova are deposited, weigh . 980 100 females, naturally dead, and the eggs or ova deposited, &c. 350 In the space of above 28 days more the silk-worm has di- minished in weight about 30 times. Thus the length of the silk-worm from the time of its greatest increase to the mo- ment it is converted into the chrysalis, has diminished about three-fifths. The chrysalis is the intermediate state between the worm and the winged insect. Mr. Haidinger on the Specific Gravity of Minerals. 67 Space occupied by each ounce of Ova cultivated. In the first age an area of square Braccia . : 4 In second an area of ditto : * 8 In third an area of ditto é 19 In fourth an area of ditto 3 : 45 In fifth an area of ditto A - 100 Note.—The Braccio di Milano is divided into 12 ounces or inches, and corresponds to 5,95 palms, which may be cal- culated at 22 English inches nearly. Amount in Weight of Mulberry Leaves consumed by the Silk Worms. For every ounce of Ova, there have been consumed 1078 lbs. of Leaves, divided as follows, viz. First age eaten Ibs. 4 | Leaves, &c. left destroyed unused. Second do. £ 12 In first age é Ib. 1 Third do. ‘ 40 In second do. Z 2 Fourth do. : 120 In third do. P 6 Fifth do. : 732 In fourth do. : 18 ; In fifth do. . 68 Ibs. 908 | Ibs. 95 In the course of the management of the silk-worms, the 1073 Ibs. of leaves from the tree (from evaporation, &c.) will have lost 70 lbs. Note.—There have been devoured by the silk-worm about 515 lbs. of pure mulberry leaves. The 1073 lbs. of leaves as taken from the tree will yield 80 lbs. of coccoons, calculating from one ounce of ova. Art. 1X.—Account of the Specific Gravity of several Mine- vals. By Witttam Harprncen, Esq. F.R.S.E. Com- municated by the Author. Tas specific gravity of minerals is one of those physical pro- perties which are most useful for the student who intends to become acquainted with the inorganic productions of nature, since it can be very easily ascertained to a considerable de- gree of accuracy, and is constant in minerals of the same spe- cies, or at least ranges within very narrow limits, if we have 68 Mr. Haidinger’s Account of the Specific Gravity taken care to employ specimens free from visible mechanical admixtures. Too little attention has been bestowed by most mineralogists on this important branch of the resources of their science, and at a period of so assiduous labour as the present is in mineralogy, we are often referred to the deter- minations of Brisson or of Muschenbroek, in regard to the specific gravities of bodies, of which either the species was not correctly determined, or the great bulk employed in the ex- periment rendered the purity of the mass very problematic. Indications of this kind were taken upon authority, and trans- ferred from one mineralogical work into another, but seldom verified by subsequent observations ; nay, it happened some- times, that even if there were correet statements existing, yet erroneous ones have been ignorantly selected, and the de- scription of the species deprived of one of its most essential characters. I have arranged in the following list a part of a series of observations which I lately had occasion to make, and which were thought by some distinguished mineralogists to contain some interesting information, as they are pure matters of fact, relating to one of the most important departments of mineralo- gy. The specific gravities were all taken by means of hy- drostatic balances; and, what is the most necessary precau- tion in operations of this kind, the specimens were sufficiently purified, and the air bubbles which adhere to them when immersed in water disengaged. The numbers obtained by experiments at different temperatures, I have reduced to thag of 15° centigr. or 59° Fahren. by means of tables of the spe- cific gravity of distilled water at different temperatures, pub- lished by Dr. Young and Prof. Tralles. Most of the experi- ments were made with distilled water, or water obtained from melting very pure snow, and a few of them with spring water, from which the air had been disengaged. The difference in the specific gravity of these fluids is so very slight, seldom exceeding 0.001, that it will be of no consequence to leave it out of sight, as in general the range of the specific gravi- ties within a species is much greater than could be account- ed for by the difference in the specific gravity of the water employed for ascertaining it. The substances themselves are disposed nearly in the order of the system of Professor of Several Minerals. 69 . Mohs; such species as. are not yet enumerated in that sys- tem I have mentioned in those orders where they are likely to be ineluded in future, and marked with an asterisk ; such as could not be included even in this manner, are reserved for an appendix. Orpver I. HALoipe. 1. Gypsum, a perfectly white transparent crystal, from Oxford, 2.310 2. Anhydrite, a rectangular four-sided prism, obtained by cleay- age, grey, semitransparent, from Hall, Tyrol, 2.899 3. Alumstone, the crystallised variety on the surface exposed in the drusy cavities, from Tolfa, 2.694 4. The compact part of the same specimens, 2.671 5. Kryolite, the white cleavable variety, 2.963 6. Apatite, massive, asparagus-green, transparent, from Salzburg, 3.180 7. Apatite, asparagus-green crystals, from Cabo de Gata, 3.225 8. Fluor, combinations of the hexahedron and octahedron, dark violet-blue, from St. Gallen, Stiria, 3.140 9. Fluor, an octahedron obtained by cleavage, of a greenish- blue colour, from the Hartz, 3.163 10. Fluor, twin-crystals, pale violet-blue by reflected light, yel- lowish white by transmitted light, Alston, 3.177 11. Fluor, an octahedron obtained by cleavage, pale violet- blue, Alston, 3.178 12. Arragonite, yellowish-white, perfectly transparent crystals, from Bohemia, 2.931 i3. Caleareous spar, a brown cleavable variety, 2.715 14. Calcareous spar, another brown cleavable variety, but pre- senting curved faces of cleavage, 2.721 5 15. Calecareous spar, crystallised in the form (P+1)5.R+a, white, semi-transparent, from Alston, Cumberland, 2.721 16. Calcareous spar, yellowish grey, small individuals, aggre- gated in a granular composition, 2,727 17. Calcarecus spur, individuals of a columnar composition, honey-yellow, semi-transparent, 2.731 18. Calcareous spar, in large cleavable individuals, of a reddish- brown colour, owing to the admixture of oxide of iron. This variety was sent from Paris to the collection at Gratz, as Chaur carbonatée ferrijére, 2.778 19. Calearzous spar, white translucent cleavable masses, en- gaged in the hydrate of magnesia from Unst, (see Onper V. 20.) 2.647 20. Caleareous spar, crystals of the form of the fundamental rhombohedron, associated with small crystals of adularia, epidote, and chlorite, from Dauphiné. 2.508 This is a remarkable variety. I could not find a difference im its angles or in its hardness from Iceland spar, and yet the substance seemed perfectly homogeneous. 70 Mr. Haidinger’s Accownt of the Specific Gravity 21. Macrotypous lime-haloide, Brown-spar, greyish-white crys- tals of the form R, perfectly cleavable in pretty even faces, lustre almost pearly. Is found in Gollinggraben in Salzburg, in fissures of a limestone rock, 2.842 22. Brown spar, greyish-white, easily cleavable, affording bril- liant planes, Freiberg, 2.861 23. Brown spar, reddish-white crystals of the form R. (P)°, from the Himmelfarth mine near Freiberg, 2.870 24. Rhomb spar, greyish-white, cleavable, from a bed of oc- tahedral iron ore, where it is associated with amphibole, &c. from Presnitz, Bohemia, 2.859 25. Dolomite, white granular composition, forming the mass in which tremolite is imbedded, from St. Gothard, 2.859 26. Rhomb spar, yellowish-white, perfectly cleavable, 2.878 27. Ankerite,§ yellowish-white cleavable masses from Eisenerz, Stiria, 3.000 28. Ankerite, in granular compositions consisting of small indi- viduals of a grey colour, from the Raiding mountain in Stiria, 3.049 29. Ankerite, a greyish-white granular variety, from the val- ley of R6tz, in Stiria, 3.084 30. Ankerite, large cleavable masses, of a cream-yellow colour, from Golrath, Stiria, 3.089 31. Breunneritet, a clove-brown, perfectly cleavable variety, forming imbedded crystals, from the Tyrol, 3.001 *32, Wavellite, globular shapes of a dirty asparagus-green co- lour, from Barnstaple, Devonshire, 2.337 Orver II. Baryre. 1. Red manganese, a massive variety, compound parallel to the planes of R— o, like slate spar, from Beschertgliick mine near Freiberg, 3.428 2. Sparry iron, crystals from the Pfaffenberg mine, near Harz- gerode, in the Hartz, 3.829 3. Prismatic Zinc-baryte, yellowish-white semi-transparent crystals, from Rossegg, Carinthia, 3.380 4. Rhombohedral Zinc-baryte, honey-yellow crystals, in the § I venture to propose this name for the paratomous Lime-haloide of Mohs, in honour of Professor Anker of Gratz, an individual who has done much in in. vestigating the mineralogy of his country, Stiria, where this substance oceurs in immense quantities, and has been first distinguished as a particular species by Pro- fessor Mohs. It is mentioned in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. I. p. 325. + This is the brachytypous Lime-haloide of Mohs, the carbonate of iron and manganese of Brooke. It was first discovered and distinguished from the other species of the genus Lime-haloide, by Mr. Mohs, while at Gratz, and described in his Characteristic of the Natural History System, published in 1820. It is named in honour of Count Breunner, an Austrian nobleman, well known in this country, who unites an extensive knowledge in several departments of natural history, with much zeal for the promotion of the sciences. a of Several Minerals. ors | shape of rough six-sided pyramids, from Altenberg, near Aix-la- Chapelle, 4.441 5. Tungsten, a fragment of a yellowish-white translucent crystal, from Schlaggenwald, Bohemia, 6.076 6. Strontianite, delicate white crystals, aggregated to globular groupes, from Braunsdorf, Saxony, _ 3.605 7. Celestine, fragment of a cleavable white translucent mass, engaged in trap, from the Tyrol, 3.858 8.Witherite, a cleavable variety; yellowish-white, and semitrans- 4.30 parent, from Anglesark, Lancashire, 9. Heavy spar, very thin tabular bluish-white semitransparent crystal, of the form primitive of Haiiy, from Kremnitz, Hungary, 4.412 10. Heavy spar, a number of small transparent columnar crys- tals, of a white colour, from the Hartz, 4 ALS 11. Heavy spar, cleavable, very pale yellowish-grey, and trans- lucent, from Marienberg, Saxony, 12. Heavy spar, the variety called prismatic heavy spar by Werner, pale yellow, transparent crystals, very perfectly formed, and imbedded in a large translucent crystal of straight lamellar heavy spar, 13. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage, white, and se- mitransparent, 4.436 14. Heavy spar, yellowish translucent crystals, from Kremnitz, 4.430 15. Heavy spar, similar crystals from Beschertgliick, Freiberg, 4.445 16. Heavy spar,white, semitransparent crystals, from Beschert- gliick, 17. Heavy spar, sinalt-blue transparent tabular crystals from Offenbanya, Transylvania, 4.473 18. Heavy spar, a white transparent crystal jfrom Dufton, Westmoreland, 19. Heavy spar, in white faintly translucent columnar compo- sitions, commonly called columnar heavy spar, from the aban- doned mine of Lorenz Gegentrum, Freiberg, 4.488 20. Heavy spar, a single columnar crystal, pale smcke-grey, translucent, from Hiskow near Nissburg, Bohemia, where it occurs with copper-pyrites, blende, and calcareous spar, in a kind of septaria, 21. Heavy spar, pale yellow transparent columnar crystals, from Przibram, Bohemia, 22. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage from wax-yellow, translucent, tabular crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 4.679 4.415 4.426 4.446 4.480 4.493 4.210 The two last varieties differ so much in their specific gra- vity from each other, and from the rest of the heavy spars, that I was led to suppose the angles of their forms would dif. fer from each other. Thad ere then measured the angles of several varieties, which did not agree with each other, and found that these differences in the angles were in close rela- 72 Mr. Haidinger’s Account of the Specific Gravity tion with the degrees of specific gravity. I have not, how- ever, so far succeeded as to establish clearly the specific differ- ence among these substances, which is indicated by several of their properties. Mr. Mitscherlich is at present occupied in ascertaining several of them; and also in examining the chemical composition of the substances themselves, in search of the isomorphous bodies of sulphate of strontia and sul- phate of lead. 23. Di-prismatic Lead-baryte, (carbonate of lead,) columnar - compositions, perfectly white, almost opaque, from the Hartz, 6.339 24. Di-prismatic Lead-haryte, similar composition, but of a yellowish colour, superficially almost brown, from the Hartz, 6.417 25. Di-prismatic Lead-haryte, greyish-white, easily cleavable crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 6.461 26. Di-prismatic Lead-baryte, fragment of a white strongly translucent crystal, from Leadhills, 6.465 27. Rhombohedral Lead-baryte, (phosphate of lead) a single green crystal, from Zschopau, Saxony, 7.098 _ 28. Arseniate of lead, bright yellow crystals, from Johanngeorg- enstadt, Saxony, 7.212 There is a considerable difference between this and the preceding variety in regard to specific gravity, but there is likewise a difference in the form. I found the inclination of the faces of the pyramid at the base = 80° 45’ in a green va- riety of phosphate from Freibirg, — 80°44’, in a green va- riety of the same from Cornwall, = 79° 40’, in the yellow ar- seniate from Johanngeorgenstadt ; the correspondent angle in phosphate of lime is = 80° 25’. 29. Hemi-prismatic Lead-baryte, (chromate of lead) several isolated crystals from Siberia, 6.004 30. Pyramidal Lead-haryte, (molybdate of lead) longish deep wax-yellow crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 6.698 31. Pyramidal Lead-baryte, fragments of an orange-yellow, perfect crystal, from Annaberg, Austria, 6.760 32. Prismatic Lead-baryte, (sulphate of lead) broad deeply striated crystals, of a white colour, and faint translucency, from Leadhills, 6.228 33. Prismatic Lead-haryte, crystals similar to the preceding, but of a brownish colour, from Leadhills, 6.255 34. Prismatic Lead-haryte, a white translucent tabular crystal, from Leadhills, 6.298 35. Prismatic Lead-baryte, fragments of a large semitranspa- rent crystal, from Leadhills, 6.309 2 of Several Minerals, 73 36. Axotomous Lead-baryte, (sulphato-tri-carbonate of lead, ) the acute crystals commonly called rhombohedrons, of a dark yellow- ish-grey colour, and translucent, from Leadhills, 6.266 37. Axotomous Lead-baryte, the six-sided laminae, of a pale yellowish white colour, semitransparent, from Leadhills, 6.364 During the late stay of Professors Mitscherlich and Rose in Edinburgh, I have had occasion to show them those spe- cimens from which I had derived the hemi-prismatic form of the species. They have been perfectly convinced of the ac- curacy of my observations, called in question by Mr. Brooke, (Edin. Phil. Journ, No. XXI. p.157.) They have also ob- served the double system of coloured rings exhibited by the mineral in polarised light, in a plane passing through the short diagonal of the oblique prism of 59° 40’, and the nume- rous regular compositions, not only deducible from experi- ments in polarised light, but also from the iines upon the face of P—«, and some that occur in other directions, of which I shall give a description, among the regular composi- tions of hemi-prismatic substances. 38. White antimony, transparent crystals, about 1” in diame- ter, yellowish-white, from Braunsdorf, Saxony, 5.566 Orver III. Kerare. 1. Horn-ore, a very pure, greyish-white, translucent variety, compounded of granular individuals, from Peru, 5,552 Orpver IV. Matacuire. 1. Copper-green, massive, fracture conchoidal ; colour, dark verdigris green, translucent, from Siberia, 2.031 2. Copper-green, thin botryoidal coats upon compact brown iron-ore, pale green, faintly translucent, Bannat, 2.206 3. Prismatic Lirocone-malachite, (lenticular copper, ) sky-blue erystals, from Cornwall, 2.926 4. Prismatic Azure-malachite, (blue carbonate of copper,) frag- ments of very pure crystals, from Chessy, 3.831 5. Malachite, a cleavable dark-green variety, from Chessy, 4.008 6. Malachite, a fibrous dark-green variety, from Siberia, 3.802 7. Malachite, perfectly compact, of a pale green colour, opaque, from Schwatz, Tyrol, 3.670 8. Prismatic Habroneme-malachite, (phosphate of copper,) dark-green crystalline coat, from Rheinbreitbach on the Rhine, 4.206 *9. The Radiated acicular olivenite of Jameson, oblique pris- matic arseniate of Phillips, globular shapes of a dark blue colour, a little greenish, translucent, 4.192 74 Mr. Haidinger on the Specific Gravity of Minerals. * 10. Scorodite, pale green, semi-transparent crystals, from Stamm Asser am Graul, Saxony, Orver V. Mica. 1. Vivianite, (phosphate of iron,) fragments of transparent crystals, from St. Agnes, Cornwall, 2. Cobalt-bloom, (arseniate of cobalt,) red acicular crystals, per- fectly cleavable, from Schneeberg, Saxony, 3. Cobalt-bloom, showing red and green colours in the same crystals, from Gotthold-stolln near Platten, Bohemia, 4. Tale, apple-green laminae, from the Greiner mountain in Salzburg, 5. Chlorite, loose scaly particles of a dark green colour, earthy chlorite of Werner, 6. Chlorite, massive, composed of large granular individuals, dark green, from the Rothen Kopf mountain in Salzburg, 7. Chlorite, of the same kind, only the individuals smaller, 8. Chlorite, a similar variety, consisting of still smaller indi- viduals, 9. Chlorite in large laminae, and most perfectly cleavable, more translucent, from the same locality, 10. Chlorite, liver-brown rhombic prisms, imbedded in compact green chlorite, from the same locality, 11. Chlorite, composition almost impalpable, and fracture slaty, of a dark mountain-green colour, This variety contains minute crystals of rutile. 12. Green-earth, a compact, celandine-green variety, from Monte Baldo, near Verona, On account of the difficulty of obtaining it free from mecha- nical admixtures, this specific gravity is perhaps not quite exact. 13. Mica, perfectly cleavable individuals, engaged in granite, showing iridescent fissures parallel to the laminae, colour oil-green perpendicular to the axis, more brown parallel to it, from the Schwamberg Alps in Stiria, It has two axes of double refraction, like the white mica from Siberia. : 14. Mica, perfectly black, in a granular composition, exhibiting a tendency to slaty structure, from the district of Pinzgau in Salz- burg, 15. Mica, silver- white crystals from Zinnwald, Saxony, 16. Mica, greenish-black, in large perfectly cleavable individu- als, Siberia, 17. Lepidolite, peachblossom-red, compound of granular indi- viduals, from Rosena, Moravia, 18. Another specimen of the same, 19. Pearl-mica, perfectly cleavable, reddish-white crystals, *20. Hydrate of magnesia, white laminae, perfectly cleavable and translucent, from Unst, (To be continued. ) 3.162 2.661 2.946 3.033 2.744 2.706 2.713 2.729 2.731 2.775 2.781 2.799 2.834 2.883 2-911 2.945 2.949 2.831 2.833 3.022 2.350 Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Meteorological Tables. 15 om. Ant. X.—On the Meteorological Tables kept in 1822 at Macquarie Harbour and Hobart’s Town in Van Diemen’s Land, and transmitted to the Royal Society of Edin- burgh. By his Excellency Sir THomas Briszane, K.C.B. F.R.S.* Tue Meteorological Registers now laid before the Society were kept in the year 1822, and contain regular observations on the barometer and thermometer, and on the general state of the weather. The state of the barometer and thermometer was marked Jive times a day, or every three hours, from 9 o’clock in the morning till 9 at might. Had the observations been con- tinued during the night at 12 o’clock, and at 3 and 6 in the - morning, the average of these would have given a very cor- rect measure of the mean temperature of the day; but as the thermometer was not marked at these hours, it becomes necessary to reject entirely the observations made at noon, and at $ and 6 o’clock in the evening, and to deduce the mean temperature from those made at 9 o’clock in the morn- ing, and 9 o’clock in the evening. By this process, the propriety of which cannot admit of the slightest doubt, we obtain the following mean monthly temperatures for Hobart Town and Macquarie Harbour : 1822. Hobart Town. Macquarie Harbour. January, 63°.06 Fah. 64°.23 February, 63.07 64.23 f evans March, 55.46 ‘ 56.00 April, 53.47 57.56 May, 45.72 48.88 June, 40.65 43.05 July, 40.18 45.46 August, 45.56 48.40 September, 47.13 48.79 October, 54.06 56.51 November, 57.60 57.90 December, 63.04, 64.23 Mean, 52°.42 55°44 * These valuable Tables have been deposited in the Library of the Royal So- ciety. As they are too bulky for publication, the following Report open them was drawn up by the Secretary, and read to the Society. 76 Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Meteorological Tables. Hence the mean annual temperature of Hobart Town at a point 283 feet above the level of the sea, and situated in 42° 53’ 22” of south latitude, and 147° $4’ 39” of east longi- tude, is 52°.42; and the mean annual temperature of Mac- quarie Harbour, at a point 26 feet above the level of the sea, and situated in 42° 11’ 38” of south latitude, and 145°. 27’ 30” of east longitude, is 55°.44. . As these observations, along with those made at Paramatta, are the only ones that have been made in the southern hemi- sphere, with the exception of those made at the Cape of Good Hope, they become of great importance, in so far as they enable us to compare the distribution of heat in the southern, with that which takes place in the northern haif of the globe. The latitude of Hobart Town does not differ greatly from that of Home, and yet the mean temperature of Rome is 60°.44, while that of Hobart Town is only 52°.42, making a difference in favour of the European climate of nearly 7°, when an allowance is made for the difference of latitude. On the other hand, the town of Salem in Massachusets, which has almost exactly the same latitude as Hobart Town, possesses a mean temperature of 48°.68, making a difference in favour of the Australasian climate of nearly 4°, The climate of Hobart Town, therefore, is intermediate between that of Europe and America, and affords us reason to believe that the isothermal lines in the southern hemi- sphere are related, as they are in the northern one, to two poles of maximum cold, which have nearly the same position as the magnetic poles of the earth. In order to determine this point, I have computed the mean temperature of Hobart Town, by supposing the poles of maximum cold to have the same position in the southern as they have in the northern hemisphere. If we suppose the pole nearest to Hobart Town to have the same degree of cold as the American pole, then the mean temperature of Hobart Town will be 53°11; differing little more than half a degree from the observed mean temperature ; and if we sup- pose it to be the same as the Asiatic Pole, the mean tempera- ture will be 54°.67, differmg 2° from observation. It de- serves to be remarked, however, that both these computed re- sults lie between the mean temperature actually observed at EE Mr. Foggo on the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. 77 Hobart Town and at Macquarie Harbour; so that either of the two formulae which represent the distribution of heat in the northern hemisphere gives for Van Diemen’s Land results so correct as to be comprehended within the range of those which have been deduced from observation. By comparing the mean temperature of Van Diemen’s ‘Land with that of the Cape of Good Hope, as ascertained by many accurate observations reduced by Mr. Colebrooke, we obtain a position for the eastern pole of maximum cold in the southern hemisphere corresponding with the position of the opposite Pole in the northern hemisphere. In the letter from Sir Thomas Brisbane which accompa- nies these registers, he promises to transmit to the Royal So- ciety of Edinburgh the registers kept in New Holland, at Para- matta, the seat of government, and also at Sydney; and he mentions the very remarkable fact, which we believe to be unexampled, that though these two places are distant only ten miles, yet their mean annual temperature differs near TEN degrees! Sir Thomas conceives, that the cause of this re- markable fact is local, and that he will be able to give a satis- factory physical explanation of it. s gd bf Art. XI.—WNotice of the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. By Mr. Joun Foceo, Junior, Leith. Communicated by the Author. Or the echinodermatous Radiaria which inhabit the Frith of Forth, the most frequent are the different species of Aste- rias and Ophiura. The Asteriae are the A. glacialis. ‘This species appears to be gregarious, and is very abundant on the sea-shore near the neighbourhood of Leith and Newhaven. I have found some specimens with three rays, and only the rudiments of the other two visible. A. rubens and A. papposa. ‘These two species inhabit the Black Rocks near the Martello Tower, where they may be found at all seasons of the year. They are very often thrown ashore by the tides. During the storm that occurred here in the second week of October 1524, a small species was picked up by Mr. R. Pol- 78 Mr. Foggo on the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. lock, which does not appear to have been observed before. Its characters are, ‘‘ above, muricated, disc well defined, ele- vated ; the rays convex, 9 in number, longer than the breadth of the disc.” It is about three inches in breadth, of a lively red colour, and the rays have the appearance of being slight- ly palmated. If it be a new species, it might be assigned a place in the British Fauna with the trivial name, Rotata. Of the Ophiurae, the most common on eur coast is the O. echinata. It may be often found at low water-mark between Leith and Portobello, and among the roots of the larger fuci left by the tide. When thrown ashore alive they often bury themselves in the sand. O. lacertosa occurs in great numbers at Portobello har- bour among the rejectamenta of the sea. I have never seen it alive. O. bodotriae. I have given this name to a species of which I found several specimens in August 1824, near Gosford House. In appearance it is exactly intermediate between the O. echinata and lacertosa. It is about the same size as the former, of a light brownish red, and may be easily distinguished by its spines, which are strong, patent, and very short, their length not exceeding one half the breadth of the ray ; while in O. echinata they are much longer, and in the dacertosa, very delicate, and closely adpressed so as to be scarcely visible. Good essential characters might perhaps be drawn from the form and arrangement of the scales. On the O. echinata there are two triangular scales, at the insertion of each of the rays, their smallest angles directed to the centre, the rest of the disc being covered with tubercles and spines in form of a stem ; and, in full grown specimens at least, a ridge of tu- bercles extends throughout the whole length of the ray. 0. bodotriae has the disc covered with orbicular scales arranged nearly in concentric circles, and separated from each other, as are the elliptical scales of the rays, by minute papillae and smaller scales. In the axils of the rays in the O. dacertosa, there is a small scale beautifully crested ; on the disc, at the insertion of the rays, there are two similar scales as in the O. echinata, differing in size and figure from the others, Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, &c. 79 which are mostly angular, and arranged in the form of a star with ten rays. Echinus esculentus. This animal is seldom or never thrown ashore ; but it is taken in great numbers by fishermen when dredging for oysters. When floating on the surface of the water, as I have seen them on the coast of Fife, they may be approached with ease, but they sink the moment they are touched, or disturbed by the slightest rippling of the water. Spatangus canaliferus. Among some hundreds which I have picked up, not more than two contained the living ani- mal. Great numbers are often thrown ashore in Aberlady Bay, about a furlong to the east of Gosford House, and more sparingly on Portobello sands. Art. XII.—Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, made during a Voyage from the Cape of Good Hope to St. Helena, in 1820. By Joun Davy, M.D. F.R.S. Communicated by the Author. Tr was our intention to have reimbarked early yesterday morn- ing, but we were prevented by a strong SE. wind. It mode- rated a little however in the afternoon, and we went on board. We sailed the same evening by moonlight, the wind blow- ing almost a gale. April 20. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 125 w. 64° 59° _ SE. moderate, clear. Out of sight of land, water greenish. At daylight this morning no land was to be seen; and at noon the Captain was of opinion that we were notin soundings. It is a curious circumstance, that the temperature of the sea near the Cape shore should be several degrees lower than the mean annual temperature of the coast. April 21. S. Lat. 31° 38’, E. Long. 14°. Air. Water. Hysgr. Wind and Weather. 125 x, 69° 67° 6° SE. gentle, clear, water blue. Gep.m. 66.5 65 5 Do. do. do. 8 66.5 —_ 3 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the breeze steady. 80 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, April 22. §. Lat. 30° 6’, E. Long. 11° 42’, Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha.m. 67° 67° 4° SSE. gentle, clear. 10 69 68 5 Do. do. do. 12 68.5 68.5 5 Do. moderate, do. 2pr.M. 68.5 67.5 3 Do. do. do, 6 68 68 2.5 SSW. do. do. The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. At noon the cur- rent was setting strong to the west, and a little to the south. April 23. S. Lat. 28° 45’, E. Long. 9° 58’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. gh a.m. 67° 68° i SSE. gentle, clear. 10 68 68 2 Do. do. do. 12 67 68 15 S. moderate, do. 2p.M. 67 68 2 Do. do. do. 6 67.5 68 2.5 Do. do. do. 8 67 — 1.5 Do. do. do. The night was fine. After sunset every thing on deck seemed to be covered with dew; but a glass wiped clean and dry, and exposed to the air for half an hour, remained perfect- Jy dry. The sails were quite wet in the morning. Does this effect arise from the deliquescence of salt, or is it owing part- ly to this, and partly to the formation of dew connected with the deliquescent salt, and not occurring when the latter does not take place? Perhaps the salt may have a disposing ef- fect in regard to dew, somewhat similar to that which lime has in respect to the formation of saltpetre. April 24. $. Lat. 26° 55’, East Long. 7° 34. Air. Water. Hyg. Wind and Weather. Sha. m. 68° 69° BP SE. moderate, rather cloudy. 10, 68.5 69 6 SSE. fresh, pretty clear. 12 68 68.5 6.5 Do. — do. rather cloudy. 2rp.mu. 67.5 68.5 5 Do. do. pretty clear. 6 67.5 68 5.5 Do. do. clear. The night was fine. The current during the last forty- eight hours has been setting pretty strongly to the west. This morning a flying-fish was seen. OO during a Voyage from the Cape to St. Helena. 8), April 25. S. Lat. 24° 56’, E. Long. 5° 26’, © Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. Sh a.m. 69° 69° 6° SE. moderate, clear. 10 70.5 69 7 Do. do. do. 12 71.5 69.5 8 Do. do. do. 3P.M. 69 69 6 Do. do. pretty clear. 6 68 67 6 SSE. do. cloudy. The night was cloudy, and the wind gentle. The current in the last twenty-four hours has been setting to the west. April 26. S. Lat. 23° 32’, E. Long. 4° 4’. Air, Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. Sh a.m. 69° 69° 4° East, gentle, overcast. 10 71.5 70 5 Do. do. cloudy. 12 72 70.5 6 Do. almost calm, do. 5 ae a | 70.5 6 Do. do. clear. 6 68.5 70 2.5 Do. do. do. 9 68.5 — 2.5 Do. do. do. There appears to have been no current during the last twenty-four hours. Dr. Halley observed, that an east wind at St. Helena commonly produced a cloudy sky. April 27. 5S. Lat. 23° 2’, E. Long. 3° 30’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. sham. 71° 70° 5° East, almost calm, clear. 10 72 70.5 7 Do. very gentle, do. 12 73 71 8 Do. do. light clouds. 3P.M. 73 72 7 Do. nearly calm, do. 6 70 ral 6 Do. calm, do. 8 69 _ 5 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and calm till midnight, when a gentle breeze sprung up from the NW. April 28. S$. Lat. 22° 43’, E, Long. 3° 26’. Air. Water. Hysr. Wind and Weather. Shia. M. 70° “a. ate NW. very gentle, light clouds. 10 72 71 6 NNW. do. clear. 12 72.5 72 6.5 Do. do. do. 3... 73 72 7 Do. do. do. 6 70 71 5 W. by N. gentle, cloudy. 9 70 os 4 S. by N. do. do. VOL. II. No. I. JAN. 1825. G 82 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, The night was moderate, and the wind gentle tll about midnight, when it freshened, and came round more to the south. April 29. §. Lat. 21° 23’, E. Long. 2° 3’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. gh a.m. 708% 70°.5 6° SSE. fresh, pretty clear. 10 70.5 7 6.5 SE. do. do. 12 70.5 71 6.5 De. do. do. 3 P.M... 70 71 6 Do. do. do. 6 70 ecg! 6 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the wind moderate. April 30. S. Lat. 20° 6’, E. Long. 0°13’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8 a.m. 70° (fi 3° SSE. moderate, overcast. 10 70.5 72 8 Do. do. do. 12 71.5 72 8.5 Do. do. pretty clear. 3Pr.M. 70.5 72.25 7.5 Do. co. do. 6 70 72 Uf Do. do. clear. §~ The night was fair. Towards morning the wind changed, became more easterly, and produced a cloudy sky. May 1. S. Lat. by Dr. R. 18° 44, W. Long. 1° 22. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 8h A.M. 70°.5 72° _10° ESE. moderate, cloudy. 10 71.5 72.5 10 Do. do. overcast. 42 72.5 72 il East, do. do. oP, m. 72 72.5 8 Do. do. clear overhead. 6 71 72 9 Do. do. clear. 10 71.5 _ 10 ESE. do. do. The night was fine. May 2. §. Lat. by Dr. R. 17° 31’, W. Long. 2° 44%. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. gh a.m. 73° 12°35 9° ESE. moderate, clear. 10 73.5 13. 8.5 E.byS. do. do. 12 73.5 73 8.5 E. by N. do. do. 3PM. 73 73.5 8.5 NE. do. cloudy. 6 72 73 9 E. do. clear. The night was fine. as during a Voyage from the Cape to St. Helena. 83 May 3. S. Lat. 16°19’, W. Long. 4° 27’. Air. Water. Hyg. Wind and Weather. Sha. M. 73° 739.5 8° East, moderate, cloudy 10 75 73.5 10 ENE. do. do. 12 76 74 10 Do. do. clear. 3p.mM, 73.5 74 8.5 Do. do. do. 6 72.5 74 8.5 E. by N. do. do. The night was fine. May 4. S. Lat. 15°55’, Long. and James’s Town 5° 36’ 30” West. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 6h A. M. 72° 73°.5 Le ESE. moderate, cloudy. a) 72.5 73.5 8 Do. do. do. 10 74 74 9 Do. do. do. 12 76 74 10 Do. do. do. 1 Pp. M. 7A — Do. do. do. 7 miles from shore. 2 74.5 _— Do. do. do. 4 miles from shore. 3 75 74.5 7 Do. do. do. 43 74.5 _ Do. do. do. 3 miles from shore. 6 1 (RR hei: Be 7 Do. do. do. § a mile off James’s town, at anchor in 21 fathoms. May 5. At anchor off James’s Town. Air, Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 7p A Me — 74° As we approached nearer St. Helena, the land appeared bolder, and when we were only two or three miles distant, the features of the island were wild and grand in the extreme, consisting of perpendicular and very lofty cliffs, craggy peaks and hills, and mountains parched, brown, and barren, as if just thrown up by a volcano. The only exception to this re- mark appeared in the high central neck of Jand, where there ‘was a stripe of verdure, and where we could distinguish the buildings of Longwood. - In consequence of the dark bottom of the road, the water, even in soundings, continues of a dark blue colour. It is re- markable that in approaching St. Helena, the temperature of the sea at its surface does not change. This is probably owing to the peculiarity of the island being situated in the 84 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, &¢. unfathomable ocean, and not surrounded by shoals, as islands generally are. Very little is known respecting the climate of St. Helena. More rain is said to fall at Plantation House, than in the wettest part of Devonshire. The mean annual temperature appears to be 64°, the thermometer rarely falling to 54°, and seldom rising to 74°. For weeks together in the house, it has been observed at 64°. The temperature of Longwood is con- sidered a little lower than that of Plantation House, and that of James’s Town about 10° higher. This island is generally considered as of volcanic origin, and all my observations confirm this opinion. The rock of which the island consists exhibits great variety. In some places it is very like basalt in texture, colour, and general character. In other places it is éxtremely porous, vesicular and cellular, indeed almost cavernous. Very often it has quite the appear- ance of a slag. In a part of a rock remarkably cellular, sta- lactites had formed exactly like some I had seen in the Mu- seum of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and which lad been brought by Sir George Mackenzie from Iceland, and were decidedly of igneous origin. The substance of those I saw at St. Helena was very like compact basalt. In some places the rock showed a slaty structure, the imperfect strata ap- pearing variously inclined. In point of disposition to decompose, the rock exhibits much variety. In the same mass some part is entirely de- composed and converted into clay, another part is undergoing the change, and in different states of its progress, while ano- ther part is not in the least altered. The decay of course is greatest at the surface, where the rock is exposed to the at- mosphere, but it is not confined to the exposed parts. The clays which are formed from the decayed rock are of several colours, of which brick red and pink red are the most com- mon. The latter I suspect is produced by manganese. I did not see or hear of any beds of ashes or of pumice in the island, Owing to the facility with which most of the rocks decom- pose, the soil is in general deep. Even in the most barren spots in the ieiphboathoad of James’s town, there did not appear to be any deficiency of soil, and I have no doubt that 5 Mr. Foggo on an Insect found in the wood ofa Table. 85 if the lower grounds were as well watered as the higher ones, they would be little inferior to them im fertility. At St. Helena the quantity of rain that falls seems to be proportioned to the height, but in what ratio I could not as- certain. At James’s town very much less falls than at Plan- tation house, and much seldomer at the former than at the latter. Lime occurs in two places in the island. It was de- seribed to be imbedded in the Lava Rock, and is an aggluti- nated mass. I could not see a specimen of it ; but from what I could learn, it is a saturated carbonate. Although it is said that no minerals occur in the island, yet I found several specimens of lamelliform stilbite, and two or three specimens of mesotype imbedded in lava, resembling basalt. Near the landing place, and in my ride to Longwood, I think I detected olivine and augite in a very compact lava. I am not quite certain of this, as the crystals were very small, and my examination of them hurried. We returned from our ride to James’s town about two o'clock ; and almost immediately after sunset weighed anchor, and continued our course. Diana’s Peak, the highest point of the island, is stated to be 2692 feet above the level of the sea. The following heights I determined hy the barometer ; Height above the Sea. Cuckold’s Point : : 2 : 2672 feet. Alalley’s Mount 3 E : ; 24.67 Flag Staff 4 - : ; ‘ 2272 Burn... 9 é ° 4 5 2015 Longwood ° : - - - 1762 Art. XIII.—Account of an Inseci of the Genus Urocerus, which came out of the Wood of a Table. By Mr. Joun Focco, Leith, Communicated by the Author. Tue insect I am about to describe is a species of Urocerus, and is quite distinct from the U. gigas, the only British spe- cies which has any resemblance to it. It protruded from a folding table of fir veneered with mahogany. When the in- sect was discovered, the table had been folded for some days ; and what first excited observation, was a large quantity ef 86 Mr. Foggo on an Insect found in the wood of a Table. very fine dust which covered the whole of the under leaf. On examination, it was found to have proceeded from a hole in the upper leaf, and to have been occasioned by the insect, inattempting to escape from its confinement. It had pene- trated the under leaf to the depth of } of an inch. Fortu- nately, the table was in the possession of Mr. Robert Strong, junior, a gentleman who could well appreciate the value of the incident. Mr. Strong carefully removed the insect from its cell, and found it dead, no doubt suffocated, the circula-, tion of air in the room recoiling upon it the dust which its own exertions had made. Having taken proper precautions, he has so far succeeded, as now tohave it in a tolerable state of preservation, with the exception of the antennae and palpi, which gave way in the process. See Plate II. Fig. 4.. Itis in length rather more than an inch, exclusive of the horn-hke process which gives the generic name, and is two lines long. When the animal.was discovered, the antennae were reflected, lying close to the back, and reached to the anterior of the last segment of the abdomen. One of the palpi is still attached to the head; it is of a yellow colour, increasing in thickness towards the tip. The head is rather compressed than globular, with a large yellow. protuberance behind each eye. The throat, trunk, and part of the head are covered with short stiff brown hairs. The scutellum is ovato-acuminated, of a dark brown colour; the thighs and anterior segments of the abdomen are also of a brown colour, the rest yellow. The vagina extends about three lines beyond the extremity of the horn. Within these few years, several instances exactly similar to. the above have been published, but as yet no satisfactory explanation has been given. By some naturalists, they have been considered quite analogous to the well-known facts of reptiles being found alive in solid rocks, and have been re- ferred to the same cause, a temporary suspension of the vital functions. The circumstances, however, are essentially dif ferent, We have reason to believe, that the reptiles were enclosed in the same state as when they were discovered. But with respect to the insects, in whatever state they enter- ed the tree, they must have undergone some of the different processes of transformation. It becomes, therefore, interest- ing to ascertain in what state the animal has existed during Mr. Foggo on an Insect found tn the wood of a Table. 87 its confinement, and what are the causes which have retard- ed its advancement to maturity. A late author has conjectur- ed, that the ovum from which the insect was produced, hav- ing been prevented from undergoing the necessary evolution, had retained its animating principles till summoned into ac- tion by some change in its relation to external objects; and further, that it might have lain dormant for an indefinite space of time. The same author has likewise endeavoured to explain in this manner the periodical visitation of the lo- cust, palmer worm, Hessian fly, &c. with the additional hy- pothesis that certain modifications of the atmosphere may be peculiarly favourable for their production. This explanation, however, is liable to several objections. It is diflicult to con- ceive any cause that could operate year after year in pre- venting the animal from arriving at maturity, and that too, apparently in the very situation pelected by the instinct of the mother. Moreover, on examining the cavity in which this animal was lodged, it is evident that, while within the tree, it must have passed its life in an inert state. This is a fact which is scarcely consistent with our knowledge of the economy of insects, for they are, I believe, always most vora- cious in the larva state. It is, therefore, most probable, that the larva penetrated the tree in order to prepare for becom- ing a chrysalis, and having at last assumed its perfect form, emerged into light in the usual time. That the insect made its appearance in the ordinary period peculiar to the species, is rendered probable from several collateral facts. It is well known that several species of insects remain in the chrysalis for many years; that the locust appears in numbers, once on- ly in 17 years, and the palmer worm in 30 years, yet these are cycles not recognised by meteorologists. The tribe Uro- cerata is also subject to periodical swarming, ‘ et paraissent certaines années en telle abondance quils ont été pour le peuple un sujet d’effroi.” Mr. Marsham mentions, that several in- dividuals of the Urocerus Gigas issued from the planks forming the floor of a bed-room. A solitary individual of the U. psyllius was taken in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, which very likely found its way into this country by a simi- lar means. 88 Mr. Haidinger on the Regular Composition Ant. XIV.—On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bo- dies. By Wit1i1am Harpincrer, Esq. F. R:S.E. Com- municated by the Author.—(Continued from Vol. I. p. 333.) Amonc those minerals of the rhombohedral system, which present regular composition in directions inclined to the axis, Calcareous spar is one, whose individuals assume a great num- ber of different positions, and produce a variety of curious and interesting phenomena; not only from the position of the individuals, but also from the mode in which their sub- stance is extended in regard to the faces of composition. One of the rarer occurrences is represented Plate III. Fig. 1. The form of the individuals is that of the rhombohedron, R —1, called équiave by Haiity. The axis of revolution is parallel, the plane of composition perpendicular to one of the edges of this rhombohedron. Its crystallographic sign will be R—1, pit. The rhombohedron in this variety is occasionally combined with the faces of R+ a; I found it in the Ludewig vein in the mine of Beschertgliick, near Freiberg. More frequently the regular composition is parallel to one of the faces of R, the rhombohedron of 105° 5’, which is the fundamental form of the species. One of the most simple va- rieties is that of Fig. 2, a group from the Hartz, in the col- lection of the Mining Academy at Freiberg. Its sign is R—oaw. R+oa, {>}. Thus, likewise, Fig. 3. is compo- sed; the form of the simple individuals, however, is R— 1. R-+o. This variety is from the Himmelsfiirst mine, near Freiberg. If the prism is long in comparison with the diame- ter of the crystals, the compound group takes a geniculated appearance, not uncommon among the claviform crystals from Briunsdorf near Freiberg, of which Fig. 4. is a representa- tion. I have seen a specimen from the same locality, in the possession of Mr. Breithaupt, in which the substance of the two individuals was continued beyond the face of composition, and produced the cruciform appearance of Fig. 5, designated of Crystallized Bodics, 89 by R—1. R+1.R +0, 2 fis The composition of some of those called heart-shaped twins, first described by Count Bournon, may be explained according to the same law. Mr. Allan possesses a beautiful crystal of this kind, which is re- presented in Fig. 6. Its crystallographic sign is R — 1. (P)°. R +o, {5}. Another equally interesting crystal is the one of Fig. 7, likewise in Mr. Allan’s collection, and denoted by (P)>. R + o, §}- In a regular composition of the simple pyramid according to this law, Fig. 8, the edges w and x will include an angle of 144° 32’. It is an acute terminal edge of each crystal, which terminates here in the re-entering angle. The crystals of this and the preceding variety are generally a little flattened, as represented in the figures. The angle included by the edges w and w is= 141° 44’. The most common, however, of all the regular composi- tions in Calcareous spar, is that parallel to one, or even pa- rallel to all the faces of R—1. Of the first of these cases, Figs. 9. 10. and 11. represent interesting varieties. Fig. 9. is expressed by the sign R—a@ R—1. R+1.R+a, {>}. It refers to a variety from the Hartz, in the posses- sion of Mr. Sack of Bonn. Fig. 10. is from the mine of Him- melsfiirst near Freiberg, I have been indebted for a speci- men of it to Mr. Euler of Deuxponts, Its crystallographic sign isR—1.R+~o, >}: The variety, Fig. 11, ex- pressed by (P)", {*="}, has been discovered by Mr. Allan in a vein eighteen inches wide, and consisting only of this species, near Westmanhaven in Stromoe, one of the Faroe islands, and first described by Count Bournon. The crystals are perfectly transparent, and generally lengthened in the di- rection of a b, as the figure indicates. The variety Fig. 12, from Chamouni, in the collection of Mr. Allan, is expressed by R— o. R, 2 {*="}. The two individuals do not terminate at the face of composition, but they reach beyond it, which produces the cruciform aspect of the whole, and the parallel- ism of the face P in one, with P’ in the other individual. The incidence of o on o’ is = 127° 29’. The face of composition in Fig. 13. is perpendicular to one of the terminal edges of R. This is the supplemental composition of that according to which Figs. 9. 10. and 11. are grouped. The variety Fig. 12. 90 Mr. Haidinger on the Regular Composition contains them both, and thus demonstrates that the two ap- parently different laws of composition enter in fact within a single one. The sign of Fig. 13. is R—1. R.R + 1. (P)°. R+ o{*—~"}. It has been found at Bleiberg, in Carinthia. The angle at which the acute terminal edges x and 2’ of the two individuals meet, is = 106° 16’... Fig. 14. represents the simple pyramid (P)°, composed according to this law, per- pendicular to an edge of R, and forms an interesting point of comparison with Fig. 15, which contains two individuals pos- sessing the same simple form, but joined according to the above-mentioned supplemental law, parallel to one of the faces of R— 1. The inclination of the two obtuse edges y and y is =171° 18’. Both these kinds of composition are united in Fig. 16, which will serve to illustrate the mode of their formation. and 8». An arc of a great circle ADFB, truncated on A and B, showed at D and F very lively colours of the rainbow. At its extremities, A and B, and at the other part DF, it was whitish ; but the whiteness could be easily distin- guished from the colour of the sky. In these two ares the red colour was always next the sun, and the green on the opposite side; the centres of the two circles were, the one on the side of the sun, and the other on the opposite side. Dr. Buch, who observed the parhelion a quarter or half an hour before M. de Hoff, saw a great portion of the circle DCF turned upwards. Professor Kreis, instead of one arc, saw two, which intersected in C, as shown in Fig. 15. The point C appeared to him extraordinarily brilliant, but without any image of the sun. There was also a great circle, AHGIB, concentric with the small one, S’C 8” S”, the upper part of which shone with the most brilliant colours of the rainbow, 'The red was still turned towards the sun. The rest of that circle appear- ed to M. de Hoff white, but M. Kreis remarked, near the horizon, the colours of the rainbow. A part of the circle dipped under the horizon, cutting the two circles ADFB and AS’SS’B at the same point A and B. Its radius appeared to be double that of the circle S’CS”S”. observed at Gotha on the 12th of May 1824. 107 Another circle KGL appeared with very brilliant colours, and, touching the circle AHGIB in the point G, the red of its outer border being turned towards the sun, and the green being in its inner circumference. This circle seemed to me to have a radius smaller than that which immediately sur- rounded the sun. It is possible, however, that, from an op- tical illusion, they might appear of different sizes, though their magnitude were the same. The upper circle KGL was not complete, from the want of white clouds to receive it; but at the part where it touched the other circle, and at some distance beyond its two sides, the colours had an extraordi- nary brilliancy. The Zenith was nearly at Z. A great shining circle ss” sv” 8" passed through the centre of the true sun and the two parhelia S’and S”. It was parallel to the horizon, and had its centre in a line which passed from the Zenith to the Nadir. The two parhelia S’ S” were confounded with the small tails opposite to the sun. The parhelia appeared at A and B. This great horizontal circle did not appear at the beginning ofthe phenomenon. Some parts of it appeared at the parhe- lia. It was quite entire at 7°. Three parhelia S’” 8S” S””” appeared upon this great cir- ele; the two first being 90° from the real sun, and the last 180°. They were white and their light feeble. Two luminous arches OP and QR, which seemed to be portions of two great circles cut the false image of the sun at right angles. M. Kreis saw them differently, as shown in Fig. 16. He says that they crossed the horizontal arch nearly in a vertical direction. Professor Kreis observed the portion of a circle MS’”N a little after seven o’clock, and Dr. Buch saw it re-appear near- ly at eight o'clock. This singular parhelion began to appear at 63", M. de Hoff saw it at three quarters of an hour after 6. At 7» in the morning the barometer stood at 27 inches 1 line 4,. At 5" in the morning the thermometer was +2° Reaumur, 363° of Fahrenheit, so that at no great height in the atmosphere the temperature must have been so low as freezing. 108 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. Art. XX.— On the Botany of America. By Witt1am Jackson Hooxer, LL.D. F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Author. Tx noticing, as we propose to do, the progress of botany, and the present state of that science in various parts of Europe, it is by no means our intention to pass by in silence what has been effected by our brethren in North America, a country which, for extent and interest, has scarcely any parallel in the world. If we were to estimate it from its southern extre- mity, we should commence our calculations at the tenth de- gree of north latitude ; but as we shall confine our observa- tions to those districts which have submitted to the sway of the United States, or to those which may, with more proprie- ty, be termed the British possessions in North America, we shall omit the Mexican dominions altogether ; and beginning with the thirtieth degree of latitude, we have a space extend- ing northward beyond the arctic circle ; and if we include the island of Newfoundland, through eighty degrees of longitude in its utmost breadth. The vegetation is as various as are the climate and the soil, throughout this vast extent of conti- nent. In the Floridas grows a majestic species of Palm, (Chamerops Palmetto, ) and the Orange, the Cotton, the Jn- digo, and even the Sugar cane may be cultivated there to great perfection and advantage. In the Carolinas and the Floridas the eye of the traveller is charmed with the beauty and grandeur of the forest trees, the various species of Ever- green oak, the numerous kinds of Pine, Walnut, and Plane ; the majestic Tulip tree (Liriodendrum tulipiferum ), reach- ing to the height of 140 feet, and loaded with large and bril- liant flowers, the curious deciduous Cypress, and the superb Magnolias. A different vegetation occurs in the more northerly of the United States; and what renders the botany of North Ame- rica peculiarly interesting to the British naturalist is, that a very large proportion of its vegetable productions may be as- similated to our own climate. This is especially the case with that extensive portion of it under our immediate considera- tion. The Oaks and Firs of this district of North America Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 109 now decorate many of our plantations and pleasure grounds, and as the quality of their timber comes to be better known and appreciated, they will doubtless occupy a conspicuous place in our woods and forests. Our shrubberies owe their greatest beauty to the various species of Kalmia, Azalea, Rhodo- dendron, Robinia, Cornus, Sambucus, Ceanothus, and Lonicera, to the Syringa, the flowering Raspberry, and a hundred others, which flourish as if they were the aboriginal natives of our soil; whilst the gardens of the curious are indebted for many of their choicest productions to the herbaceous plants of North America, the greater number being remarkable for the brilliancy of their blossoms, and not a few, such as the Dionea and Sarracenia, striking us as amongst the most sin- gular of all vegetable productions in their structure. Nay, such is the superiority of the climate, and the fertility of the soil, that our European fruits, which were taken over by the early settlers, have improved prodigiously in quality ; to that degree, even that we now procure grafts of them for our orch- ards and wall-trees; and the most highly flavoured apples that we (north of the Tweed at least,) can obtain for our des- serts, are actually imported themselves from America. In the arctic regions of the New World, there is a striking similitude in the botanical productions with those of the sum- mits of our highest Scotch mountains. The earliest accounts of the plants of North America con- sist of detached memoirs, principally published by foreigners, the Americans being themselves, for a long time, too much occupied in commerce and agriculture to devote their time and attention to science; nor is it till a country has ar- rived at that degree of political and mental improvement to which we find the United States now to have attained, that we can expect any branch of science to be estimated as it de- serves. A small history of the Plants of Canada by Cornuti ap- peared in Paris in 1635. About the year 1740 was published Catesby’s Natural History of Carolina, &c. in 2 vols. large folio, illustrated with a great number of highly coloured fi- gures of plants, &c. Gronovius edited the Flora Virginica of Clayton, at Leyden, in 1739. In the Memoirs of the American Academy, Dr, Cutler printed his Account of the 110 ; Dr. Hooker on American Botany. Vegetable Productions of the New England States; and, in 1788, Walter's Flora Caroliniana appeared in London. The elder Bartram, durmg his extensive and interesting travels, discovered many curious plants, and was the means of making them known to the botanists of Europe, especially of Britain. His friend and patron, Mr. Peter Collinson, who kept up a constant correspondence with him, Colden, and other naturalists of America, was one of the first to cultivate the plants of that country in England, which he did with much success, at his charming garden at Mill Hill, near Lon- don. Dr. Garden was another eminent promoter of Ameri- ean botany, and in his communications to Linnzus, he sent many new and interesting plants. His botanical enthusiasm. seems to have been very great; and we have some striking proofs of it lately published by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Lin- nzean correspondence. In one of those letters, addressed to the illustrious Swede from South Carolina, Dr. Garden thus expresses himself on the occasion of his being disappointed, of an intended journey to the Apalachee mountains, by an order for the expedition to return. ‘¢ In my letters,” he says, ** to you at that time, I gave you an account of my intended. journey, and in what manner the arrival of our new governor put a stop tous. Good God ! is it possible to imagine the shock I received when the unhappy express overtook us, just two days march on this side of the mountains. My prospect of glutting my very soul with the view of the southern parts of the Great Apalachees was instantaneously blasted.. How) often did I think of the many happy hours that I should have, enjoyed in giving you a detail of their productions. How, often did I think of the secret pleasure which I should have, in being instrumental, though in the least degree, to the ad-, vancement of our knowledge of the amazing works of the Supreme Architect. How happy should I have been to have thrown in my mite, by adding one new genus or species: to the vegetable or mineral kingdom. With what pleasure did, I bear the sun’s scorching beams, the fatigue of travelling, the cold ground for my pillow, and the uncomfortable dreariness of rain, when J had in view the wished-for examination of the productions of the mountains. We had advanced about 260 miles of our journey through the woods, when our hour. Dr. Hooker on American Botany. _ lll was come that all our promised Elysium vanished, and left nothing but a blank, a doleful blank to me, and I may say to every one of the company ; for we were happily collected, and unanimity reigned amongst us. What will you think when I tell you that one of our company was a very accurate drawer, and he had promised me to do every thing for me, and according to my direction, that I should desire; so that, in this one circumstance, my loss was irreparable. But why do I dwell on the most disagreeable of ail the incidents that ever Providence mingled in my lot ?” Kalm, the celebrated pupil of Linnzus, who was also Pro- fessor of Natural History at Abo, in Finland, visited Ameri- ca at the expense of the king of Sweden, in the years 1747— 51. His researches extended so far as Canada, and the plants: which he collected served materially to enrich the Species plantarum of his great master; while the Linnzan herba- rium, as Sir J. E. Smith assures us, abounds in specimens brought home by Kalm, and distinguished by the letter K. The ‘name of this botanist 1s commemorated in the beautiful genus Kalmia. | - Until the year 1803, however, nothing had been published containing a thoroughly scientific arrangement of any extensive portion of the northern part of the New World. The pro- viding of materials for such a work was reserved for André: Michaux, a Frenchman, every way qualified for the task, and who, after returning from a most successful botanizing expe-' dition to Persia, and bringing with him, amongst other trea- sures, the curious Rosa simplicifolia and Michauxia campanu-~° lata, was appointed to visit North America at the charges of the French government, with a view to enrich France with its’ various vegetable productions, particularly its forest trees ;’ for which, it must be confessed, that the climate of that coun- try 1s even better qualified than that of England. New York Michaux constituted the depot for the collec- tions which he made through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and ° Maryland ; and he there established a garden, from whence he ced numerous packages to France. Another depot ’ was formed at Charleston, for the reception of the productions of the Carolinas and the Alleghany mountains, which he ex- plored with great difficulty and danger, travelling no less than 112 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 900 miles across the wilds of Carolina and Georgia alone. Thence he visited Spanish Florida, making his way up the rivers for considerable distances, in a canoe hollowed out from a single trunk of the deciduous Cypress (Cupressus disticha. ) In May 1789, he investigated the mountains of Carolina, and, assisted by some Indian guides, without whom it would have been impossible to have made any progress, he penetrated the vast woods of the intervening plains, through thickets of Rho- dodendron, Kalmia, and wfisidnivt but was prevented from go- ing so far as he had intended, in consequence of a dispute be- tween the Indians and the white people, which rendered it unsafe for Europeans to venture among the former. He therefore returned to Charleston by New York and Phila- delphia. He now recommended and instructed the Ameri- cans to collect and prepare the root of the Ginseng ( Panax quinquefolia, ) in the same manner as the Chinese do for sale ; and, for a long time, a trade was actually carried on writs China in that article. Michaux had still another object in view, which was that of tracing the botanical topography of America; and, having effected so much in the southern States, he resolved to ex- tend his researches as far north as Hudson’s Bay. In short, he arrived at a country, where, as he says himself, ‘* nought but a dreary vegetation was found, consisting of black and stunted pines, which bore their cones at four feet only from the ground ; dwarf Birch and Service Trees, a creeping Ju- niper, the Black Currant, the Linnea borealis, Ledum, and some species of Vacciniwm.” Michaux did not return to Europe till 1796, when he was shipwrecked on the coast of Holland. The circumstance is thus related by his biographer in the third volume of the Annales du Museum d Histoire Naturelle. ‘The passage had not been unpropitious; but on the 18th of September, when in sight of the shores of Holland, a dreadful tempest arose; the sails were rent, the masts broken, and the vessel struck and split against the rocks. Such was the state of exhaustion and fatigue to which all the sailors and passengers were reduced, that the greater number would have been lost, but for the assistance that was rendered by the inhabitants of Egmond, a little neighbouring village. Michaux was Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 113 lashed to one of the yards, and he was senseless when carried on shore; he did not recover till some hours after, when he found himself extended before a fire, with more than fifty persons standing around him. His first idea, when his re- collection returned, was to inquire for his collections. He was informed that the packages which contained his own effects had been lying on deck, whence they were washed by the violence of the waves; but that those chests which had been lodged in the hold had been taken out safely, This in- telligence consoled him. Notwithstanding the wretched state of his health, Michaux was compelled to remain six weeks at Egmond, and to work day and night, His plants having got wetted by the salt water, he was obliged to immerse them all in fresh water, and one after another, to dry them between new papers.” On his return to his native country, Michaux employed himself in preparing his History of Oaks, a work which re- flects the highest credit upon its author ; not only because of the number of new species which are there made known to us, but also on account of the important uses to which the timber of the different kinds may be applied. An appoint- ment to explore other countries * prevented him from pub- lishing himself any of his various new and important dis- coveries. His History of the Oaks was indeed printed, but the plates were not all ready for the press before his depar- ture from Europe. It was edited in 1501. But that work which more immediately concerns our present subject, and which was compiled from the materials that he collected du- ring his travels in North America, is his Flora Borealis Ame- ricana, sistens Characteres Plantarum quas in America Sep- tentrionali collegit et detexit Andreas Michaux. 'This ap- peared in 1803, (the very year of Michaux’s death,) in two * He embarked in the ill-conducted expedition under Captain Baudin; but like many others of the officers, when the vessel arrived at the Isle of France, he refused to proceed farther, and thinking that Madagascar presented a glorious field to the naturalist, he quitted the expedition ; keeping his motives a secret till the moment of the ship’s departure. Landing on the east coast of that island, he resolved to prepare a garden for the reception of his plants in the vicinity of T’a- matada ; but here he was seized with a fever, the consequence of the climate, aid. ed by over- exertion, and of which he died in 1803, VOL. Ii. NO. 1. JAN. 1825, I {14 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. volumes octavo, with fifty-one neat plates in outlines, The anonymous editor, and indeed he may justly be considered the author, was the eminent Claude Louis Richard, late pro- fessor of botany at the School of Medicine in Paris, and un- questionably one of the most profound botanists that Europe has ever known. The whole is im Latin, and, as may be sup- posed, the proportional number of new species is extremely large, and certainly considered as the first Flora of so exten- sive a country as North America; it confers the highest cre- dit on the industry and acuteness of Michaux. Long before the publication of this work, another natu- ralist, Frederick Pursh, a Pole, we believe, by birth, but educated in Dresden, instigated by the richness of the vege- tation, and the hope of making numerous discoveries, re- solved to visit North America, and carried his plan into exe- cution in 1799, when he embarked for Baltimore, in Mary- land, with the resolution not to return to Europe till he had examined the country, and collected materials to the utmost extent of his means and abilities; and it is certain that he did this under many and great disadvantages. His travels were extensive ; for he remained nearly twelve years in Ame- rica, and in two summers only he went over an éxtent of country equal to 6000 miles, principally on foot, and with no companion save a dog and his gun, From the first four. or five years of his residence in America, Pursh seems to have been chiefly employed in collecting plants about Philadel- phia, and in receiving them from his correspondents for culti« vation in his gardens there. In 1805, he explored the west- erm territories of the southern states, including the high mountains of Virginia and Carolina; and in 1806, he went through many of the northern States, commencing with the mountains of Pennsylvania, and extending his investigations to those of New Hampshire, embracing the country of the lesser and great lakes. But the most important of the advantages to which I al- lude, were derived by Pursh’s personal acquaintance with, and communications from, various botanists, who about this time were to be found in different parts of the United States. Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 115 _ Among these, the first undoubtedly in point of rank and character, will stand the amiable Dr. Muhlenberg, minister of the German church at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. He was thoroughly conversant with the vegetable productions of his own district, and in a measure with those of America generally: for he published, in 1813, a Catalogue of the Plants of North America, which contains. a great number of new species; and what redounds still more to his credit, though it was a posthumous work, he was the author of an excellent treatise on the Grasses and Sedges of North Ame- rica, which was edited in 1817 by his son, assisted, as he tells us in the preface, by Mr. Elliott, Mr. Baldwin, and Mr. Collins. This work is entirely in Latin. Dr. Muhlenberg carried on a most extensive correspondence with the botanists of Europe, by whom he was greatly esteemed. He supplied the celebrated Hedwig with many of the rare American mosses, which were published either in the Stirpes Crypto- gamice@ of that author, or in the Species Muscorum. 'To Sir J. E. Smith, and Mr. Dawson Turner, he likewise sent many plants, and one of his new mosses was published by the latter gentleman in the Annals of Botany, under the name of Funaria Muhlenbergit. It is well known that Dr. Muh- lenberg possessed very extensive materials for a general de- scription of the plants of the New World; but what has be- come of these we have been unable to ascertain. His her- barium is in the possession of the American Philosophical Society. Another of the friends of Pursh was Dr. B. Smith Barton, a physician and a naturalist, and unquestionably a great pro- moter of Science, and especially of Botany in America. He was appointed Professor of Natural History in the university of Philadelphia in 1789. We recollect, in our early youth, reading with great delight some of his Fragments of Natural History, as they were appropriately termed, which first brought to our notice many highly curious objects of that country, and reminded us of the writings of our own Still- ingfleet and White. He has the credit of publishing an elementary work on Botany, which, though rather diffuse in style, is full of entertaining anecdotes; and the references and terms being all made applicable to American plants, it 116 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. must have done much towards recommending the study of botany in that country. Mr. Marshall, author of a work on the forest trees of America, was then living, and he imparted to Pursh some useful materials, principally afforded by his garden, rich in trees and shrubs. The sons of the celebrated John Bartram, before men- tioned, possessed an old established garden, founded indeed by the elder Bartram, at Philadelphia, on the banks of the Delaware. Mr. William Bartram, the well-known author of the travels through North and South Carolina, was then, and we believe is still living; a man who merits the gratitude of every naturalist, for the cordial reception which he gave to Wilson, the ornithologist, at the period when that highly-gifted individual had scarcely a friend in the world. Tt was the advice and encouragement that Mr. Bartram gave him that was mainly the cause of the appearance of one of the most valuable works on science that was ever published in any country, the American Ornithology.* Mr. Pursh appears to have received an equally kind reception and much valuable information from Bartram. In 1802, Mr. Pursh had the charge of the extensive gar- dens of W. Hamilton, Esq. called the Woodlands, which having, immediately previous, been under the charge of Mr, * We cannot help here, though but little connected with the subject of this paper, making an extract from the interesting life of Wilson, published by Mr. Ord, in the 9th volume of the American Ornithology. ‘* His residence being but at a short distance from the botanical garden of Messrs. Bartram, situated on the western bank of the Schuylkill, (a sequestered spot, possessing attractions of no ordinary kind,) an acquaintance was soon contracted with that venerable na- turalist, Mr. William Bartram, which ripened into an uncommon friendship, and continued without the least abatement until severed by the hand of death. Here it was that Wilson found himself translated, if we may so speak, into a new exist- ence. He had long been a lover of the Works of nature, and had derived more happiness from the contemplation of her simple beauties, than from any other source of gratification. But he had hitherto’ been a mere novice; he was now about to receive instructions from one whom the experience of a long life, spent in travel and rural retirement, had rendered qualified to teach. Mr. Bartram soon perceived the bent of his friend’s mind, and its congeniality to his own, and took every pains to encourage him in a study, which, while it expands the faculties and purifics the heart, insensibly leads to the contemplation of the glorious author of nature himself.” Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 117 Lyon, an Englishman, and an eminent collector, were found to be enriched with a number of new and valuable plants; and Mr. Pursh affirms, that through Mr. Lyon’s means, more rare and novel plants have been introduced from thence to Europe than through any other channel whatever. The her- barium, as well as the living collection of Lyon, was of great use to Mr. Pursh ; and the plants described by him, from spe- cimens seen only in that herbarium, are numerous. The interesting expedition of Messrs. Lewis and Clarke across the vast continent of America to the Pacific Ocean, by the way of the Missouri and Great Columbia rivers, was pro- ductive of a small collection, of about 150 species of plants, (but of which not a dozen were previously known to the na- tives of America.) which Mr. Pursh had the opportunity of describing. ‘These were gathered during the rapid return of the expedition from the Pacific Ocean towards the United States. A far more extensive herbarium had been formed by the same expedition on the ascent towards the Rocky Mountains, and among the chains of the Northern Andes ; but this was lost, in consequence of the inability to carry it beyond a certain point. Another set of specimens to which Mr. Pursh had free ac- cess, was that belonging to Mr. Ensley, a German naturalist, who had been sent out to America by Prince Lichtenstein. It was particularly rich m the vegetable productions of Lower Louisiana and Georgia. Thus, by Mr. Pursh’s personal exertions and industry, and by the aid of other botanists, he found himself about the year 1807, in possession of materials for a Flora of North America, amounting to nearly double the number of’ species enumerated by Michaux. He began seriously to think of publishing them, and applied to some bookseller in Philadel- phia for that purpose ; but his intention was deferred in con- sequence of his being called upon to take the management of the public Botanic Garden at New York, originally establish- ed by Dr. David Hosack, and his private property. Here, again, keeping his favourite object respecting the publication of a Flora in view, he had the opportunity of adding farther to his knowledge of the plants of the United States, and of obtaining still greater assistance, particularly from M. le a 118 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. Comte of Georgia, and from the estimable Professor Peck * of New Cambridge University. Fortunately for the cause of science, there existed at the time of which we are speaking, so many obstacles to the pub- lication of scientific works in America, that Mr. Pursh was led to visit England, where the reception he met with from Sir Joseph Banks, and A. B. Lambert, Esq. made him re- solve upon printing his book in this country. The access which was granted him to the Libraries and collections of these two eminent men, were alone a source of much advan- tage to him. He had also the opportunity of examining, amongst others, the select Herbaria of Clayton, in the Bank- sian collection, from which the Flora Virginica was formed ; of Walter, from which the Flora Caroliniana was compiled, in the possession of Messrs. Frazers of Sloan Square; of Catesby, part of which is in the British Museum, whilst another part, together with numerous additions from Walter, Michaux, J. Bartram, and a Mr. Filden, from Hudson’s Bay, is in the Sherardian Herbarium at Oxford; that of Plunket, in the British Museum ; of Pallas, (in the possession of Mr. Lambert,) rich in the vegetable productions of northern Asia, which, as is well known, bear a great affinity to those of the northern parts of America; of Mr. Bradbury, which was formed in Upper Louisiana, in the possession, we believe, of the Botanic Garden at Liverpool; and of A. Menzies, Esq. which was selected, during that gentleman’s voyage with Captain Vancouver, upon the N. W. coast of America. Nor should the various collections be omitted which are found in the gardens of England, especially in the vicinity of London. Thus prepared, the Flora Americe Septentrionalis, or a * Wee recollect when, many years ago, this gentleman did us the honour of a visit in England. He mentioned that his taste for natural history was induced by the perusal of an imperfect copy of Linnzus’s Systema Nature, a work then scarcely known in America, and which he obtained from the wreck of a ship which was lost near the spot where he resided. Professor ]’eck afterwards became emi- nent, particularly for his knowledge of insects; and his communications to our great entomologist, the Rev. Mr. Kirby, are highly vaulable. Many of these were published by Mr. Kirby, in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, and amongst them the curious Xenos Peckii, an insect which inhabits the joints in the abdomen of the Wasp. Another insect nearly allied .2o this is the Stylops Me- _ Gitia of Mr. Kirby’s Monographia Apum Anglia, and which inhabits the same si- tuation in the body of the Honey bee. Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 119 Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America, by Fk. Pursh, appeared in London in the year 1513, with 24 well-executed plates of new species, in 2 vols. Svo. The specific characters are in Latin, the obser- vations in English. The arrangement is that of the sexual system; but the au- thor has made considerable deviations from the generally re- ceived arrangement of the Linnzan school. The classes Do- decandria and Polyadelphia are omitted, as well as Monecia, Diecia and Polygamia and their genera are referred to other classes, some according to the number of stamens, others to his 19th class, which is called Declinia, and which contains Euphorbiacee, Amentacee, and Conifer ; thus bringing in- to his arrangement an union of a natural and artificial sys- tem, which has not been adopted by others. Michaux’s work included the whole of the class Cryptoga- mia; but this, though all perhaps that was then known, con- tained so scanty a list as scarcely to deserve notice. Mr. Pursh professes to go no farther than the order Filices of the class Cryptogamia. Sometime after the publication of his Flora, the author again visited America, but with a view of confining his re- searches to a part which had been very little explored, name- ly Canada. There he died in 1820. His herbarium of that country, which was considerable, has been purchased by Mr. Lambert, who, we believe, is also the possessor of that far more extensive and valuable one which Pursh had made in his former travels in the United States. In the year 1814, there appeared in America, printed at Boston, the Florula Bostoniensis, or a Collection of Plants of Boston and its environs, by Jacob Bigelow, M.D. in 1 vol. 8vo. It is in English, and strictly arranged according to the Linnzan system. It was destined principally for the use of the students in Botany; and the plants described therein were all collected during two seasons, in the immediate vici- nity of Boston, or within a circuit of from five to ten miles; and although very few new species are added, the number of individuals is very considerable for so limited a space.* Dur- ~ -* At the moment of our sending these notices to the press, we have receiy- ed from its esteemed author, who is a Professor in Harvard College, New 4 120 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. ing the year 1816, accompanied by our valued friend Dr. Francis Boott, Dr. Bigelow examined the botany of the White Mountains in New Hampshire, and published an ac- count of it in the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery for that year. This was one among many other journies made by these gentlemen in the New England States, with a view to the publication of a Flora of that district. The design, however, has been relinquished, and the princi- pal cause, since it has arisen from Dr. Boott’s naturalization among us, we ought not to regret. Science, however, has been a sufferer; for, from our personal knowledge of this gentleman, we are satisfied that he would have been a most able and zealous coadjutor in such an undertaking. A very extensive collection of the plants of that country has been li- berally presented to us by Dr. Boott, which has satisfied us, that in the art of preserving specimens, no one has ever ex- ceeded, or perhaps ever equalled him; and the names are very frequently accompanied by valuable notes. It is delightful to see a man, of the talents and rank in life of Mr. Elliott of Charleston, the excellent President of the Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina, deeply engaged in important public affairs; yet cheerfully devoting his leisure hours to the promotion of the arts and of science, and actually engaged in publishing a Flora, under the unas- suming title of a Sketch of the Flora of South Carolina and Georgia, which he commenced in 1816. This is arranged according to the Linnean system, having specific characters both in Latin and in English, and very copious notes and de- scriptions. A work thus conducted cannot fail to be of great importance to the student of American botany; the more so, since the author has written from his own personal observa- tion, depending little upon the assistance of others, and in a capital where science has not been so much cultivated as in the northern States. In a letter now before us, the author says, ‘“* No one in Europe can, probably, appreciate correct- Cambridge, a second edition of the Floruia Bosioniensis, containing about twice the number of plants enumerated in the first edition, and also many valuable remarks, particularly on the useful natures and qualities of the species. Dr. Bigelow is also the author of a valuable work, entitled, American Medical Bo- tany, begun in 1817, of which three parts have reached us. ~ Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 121 ly the difficulty of the task in which I have engaged. The want of books, the want of opportunities for examining living collections or good herbaria, the want of coadjutors, have all served to render my task arduous, and to multiply its imper- fections.” Nevertheless, there are many new species, de- scribed with great care and fidelity, and the grasses, which are accompanied with some neat plates, have particularly at- tracted the author’s attention. ‘There are several beautiful novel species, and some newly established genera. We have received of this work to the 6th No. of the 2d volume, which includes so far as the class Monecia; and we are informed by Mr. Elliott, that another number will complete the Sketch. This we regret, as the work cannot thus take in the Crypio- gamia; and we consider Mr. Elliott’s talent for minute description admirably calculated for such plants as that class embraces. No man seems to be more strongly impressed with the value of the study of natural history than Mr. Elliott. “* It has been, for many years,” says he, * the oc- cupation of my leisure moments; it is a merited tribute to say, that it has lightened for me many a heavy, and smooth- ed many a rugged hour; that beguiled by its charms, I have found no road rough or difficult, no journey tedious, no country desolate or barren. In solitude never solitary, in a desert never without employment. I have found it a relief from the languor of idleness, the pressure of business, and from the unavoidable calamities of life.”* We come now to the agreeable employment of mentioning a very important work, both on account of the extended na- ture of the publication, and of the manner in which it has been executed ; we allude to the ** Genera of North Ameri- can Plants, and a Catalogue of its Species to the year 1817, by Thomas Nuttall,” in 2 vols. 12mo. printed at Philadelphia. Mr. Nuttall is an Englishman by birth, and a native of York- shire; but he visited North America at an early age, and is now domiciliated in that country. His love of botany and mineralogy is exceedingly great, and a personal acquaintance, which his late visit to this country has enabled us to have the pleasure of forming, has only served to increase the es- * See Elliott's address to the Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina, delivered at Charleston, and published there in 1814. 122 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. teem and respect which his writings had already taught us to entertain towards him. For many years previous to the pub- heation of his Flora, the author was engaged in visiting very extensively the territories of the United States, particularly the southern and western ones. “ For nearly ten years,” he says in his preface to his Journal of Travels into the Ar- kansas territory, “1 have travelled throughout America, principally with a view to becoming acquainted with some favourite branches of natural history. I have had no other end in view but personal gratification ; and in this I have not been deceived; for innocent amusement can never leave room for regret. ‘To converse, as it were with nature, to admire the wisdom and beauty of creation, has ever been, and I hope ever will be, to me a favourite pursuit; and to communicate to others a portion of the same amusement and gratification has been the only object of my botanical publications.” The ‘ Genera of North American Plants” is entirely in English ; and it appears that it was the design of the writer to have arranged it according to the natural orders. But out of deference to public opinion, in a country where the ar- tificial system of Linnzus had almost exclusively been studi- ed, Mr. Nuttall adopted that method. He has, however, made a great many valuable remarks upon the natural orders, following several of the genera, and has recommended the adoption of some new ones. He has well defined the charac- ters of the order Monotropeew, to which he has properly referred the highly curious Pterospora. As, however, the well-known genus Pyrola belongs unquestionably to the same family, the term Pyrolee might perhaps have been considered as more appropriate. The characters of the genera (which he here extends to 807, exclusive of any cryptogamia,) have, as may be inferred from the title, occupied a greater share of attention from Mr. Nuttall. He has added to the essential characters, those taken from the habit of the plant, and he has noticed their geographical distribution, In the enume- ration of species, he has included all that have been described by other authors, sometimes made observations upon them, and added a very considerable number of new individuals, which have been discovered by himself or his friends. This book may therefore be welt said to form an era in the history Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 123 of American botany ; and we rejoice that the execution of it has fallen into such able hands. Mr. Nuttall has added still more to his credit as a natu- ralist and a man of most acute observation, by the publica- tion of his Travels in the Arkansa Territory. This was a journey accompanied with great difficulty, and not a little danger. The plants which he collected were numerous and interesting, very different from the vegetation of the rest of the United States, and many of them perfectly new. Some detached accounts of the botany of this singular district have already appeared, particularly in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, and not a few of the plants themselves are now cultivated in our botanic gardens, from seeds gathered by Mr. Nuttall. This gentleman now occupies the chair of Natural History in the University of New Cambridge. We regret not to be able to give any account of Eaton's Manual of Botany, nor yet of Bar ton’s more extended Flora of North America, (which is, we believe, in the course of publication,) never having had the opportunity of seeing these works. The various scientific journals which are published in America, contain many memoirs upon the indigenous plants. Among the first of these in point of value, and we think al- so the first with regard to time, we must name Silliman’s American Journal of Science, in which we find Botanical Tracts by Professor Ives of Yale College, and Mr. Rafines- que, by Dr. Torrey, a physician at New York, “« On the plants collected by D. B. Douglass of West-Point, in the expedition around the great lakes, and the upper waters of the Mississipi, under Governor Cass, during the summers of 1818—20 ;” and also “on a new species of Usnea* from * Dr. Torrey did not possess the fructification of this plant. We were so fortunate as to obtain a specimen of it through the kindness of Mr. Edwards, late surgeon of the Hecla, which came from the same country, and has fine shields. It is one of the handsomest species of Usnea that we are acquainted with ; but it certainly approaches very near the U. sphacelata of Brown, from the Arctic regions. Dr. Mitchell, who communicated the plant to Dr. Torrey, seems inclined to believe this lichen to be the only yegetable production of New South Shetland. We have received half a-dozen different ones, and will venture to predict that many more will yet-be discovered. 124 Dr: Hooker on American Botany. New South Shetland,” (U._fasciata of Torrey,) by Mr. Lew- is de Schweinitz, in a valuable ‘* Monograph of the genus viola,” by Mr. Nuttall, on a * collection of plants made in East Florida, by Mr. Ware,” by Mr. M. C. Leavemvorth, on ‘“ four new species of plants from Alabama,” by Professor C. Dewey of William’s College, upon “+ Carices.” In the Journal of the Academy of Sciences, the Botanical Memoirs are entirely from the pen of Mr. Nuttall. The Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York were only commenced last year ; but the numbers, (of which we have received five from that excellent institution,) contain several communications on the subject of botany. In No. I. isa ‘ Synopsis of the Lichens of the state of New York,” by Mr. A. Halsey, and a description by Dr. Torrey of ‘* some new and rare planis collected in the rocky moun- tains, during the expedition thither, commanded by Major Long, by Dr. Edwin James ;” in No. II. a ‘ Synopsis of the Carices,” by Dr. Schweinitz. No. III. contains an article ‘on the American Utricularia,” by M. le Comte, who enumerates 11 species. No. IV. «‘ on the genus Gratiolia,” by the same author. No. V. “on the genus Rwellia,” by M. le Comte, and on “ some new grasses found by Dr. James, on the rocky mountains,” by Dr. ‘Torrey. Mr. Schweinitz, whom we have already more than once alluded to, is a native of Germany, where, as well as through- out Europe, he is advantageously known, in conjunction with M. Albertini, as the author of a Latin work on the Fungi of Upper Lusatia. Since his residence in America, he has continued to dedicate most of his attention to the fungi; and his manuscript, containing an account of 1373 fungi fouud in Upper Carolina alone, was edited by Dr. Schwaegrichen in 1823, under the title of “ Synopsis Fun- gorum Caroline Superioris,” in a thin volume, 4to ; and it is not a little singular to observe how many of these are com- mon to Europe as well as America. We shall close our notice of American botanical publica- tions by the mention of that, which if we may judge from the first number (which is all that we have yet received from the author,) bids fair to rank among the most valuable that 0 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 125 has appeared in that country; the Flora of the Middle and Northern Sections of the United States, by Dr. Torrey. A frequent correspondence, and a mutual interchange of bo- tanical specimens, have made us acquainted with the zeal and acquirements of this gentleman ; both of which are now assiduously engaged in the preparation of his work, the con- tinuation of which we anxiously expect. No. I. extends as far as, but not to the conclusion of, the Class T’riandria, and Order Digynia ; for here likewise the arrangement is that of Linnzus. The whole is in English. The synonyms are sufficiently copious, and the descriptive part contains much useful criticism and observation, We know, too, that Dr. Torrey has made a most ample collection of the cryptogamic plants of the United States ; that he is well acquainted with the species and their characters ; and we may therefore con- fidently hope that this department of botany will now find a place in the Floras of North America. Our attention has hitherto been almost exclusively turned to the progress of botany in the United States. There is still a vast extent of highly interesting country to the north- ward, from the 45th parallel of lat. to 74, including 29 de- grees, and to the westward, which, as being for the most part either in the acknowledged possession of the British government, or of the Hudson’s Bay Company, or what has been explored by British enterprise, we shall denominate the British possessions in North America. Small, indeed, compared to the extent of the country, is the amount of what has been published exclusively on the plants of these regions. We may, we believe, sum up the whole in the mention of the Botanical Appendix to Captain Franklin’s Narrative, and those to the various recent Arctic Voyages of Discovery, among which the observations of our countryman, Brown, have given an additional interest to the subject, besides a small paper upon some new and rare Ca- nadian plants, gathered by Mr. Goldie during an excursion of some extent in that country, which was printed in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. Unless we indeed extend our remarks to Greenland, of which country a list of the plants has been printed by Sir Charles Giesecké, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, art. GREENLAND, and other 126 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. species are included in the Flora Danica of Professor Horne- mann. Brief and scanty as is this catalogue, we anticipate, from the mostly unpublished collections that have been formed, and from the various expeditions that are now sent out, or that are about to be so, that, in a very few years Great Britain will be in a condition to fill wp the void which exists in her Flora of her portion of North America. The herbaria at present existing, as connected with the plants of those countries, over and above those to which we have already alluded, are perhaps not very extensive. Sir Joseph Banks made collections on the Labrador coast, and we believe that the missionaries of that territory have sent home many plants to the Museum of their Society. Lady ‘Hamilton possesses numerous well-dried plants of Newfound- land, and we have ourselves opened a correspondence with some gentlemen of that island, from whom much may be ex- pected. In Canada, besides what has been effected by Mr. Pursh, we know of several individuals who are industriously engaged in furthering the Flora of that country, and of Hud- son’s Bay. In the first rank of these, we are proud to be able to mention the Right Honourable the Countess of Dal- housie, the lady of his Excellency the Governor, whose rank and influence, ‘no less than her superior acquirements and great love of science, entitle us to hope for much from her in the promotion of our wishes. On the sea coast of Hud- son’s Bay, collections made as far north as Chesterfield Inlet, during Duncan’s voyage of discovery, exist, we believe, in the Banksian Herbarium. Mr. Graham in Foster’s time, sent plants as well as animals home from Churchill, Til- den’s plants, in the Sherardian Herbarium, are from Moose- factory, near the bottom of Hudson’s Bay. In the interior, to the eastward of the rocky mountains, no one has botanized but Dr. Richardson, during Franklin’s journey. With the fate of a large portion of that collection, and with the affect- ing and afflicting cause of it, the public are well acquainted. On the north-west coast, Mr. Menzies* has been the princi- * Many of these plants have been ably described by our valued friend Sir J. E. Smith, President of the Linnzan Society, in the botanical part of Rees’s Cyclo- pedia. : | ' ) ) Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 127 pal investigator; but 2 Mr. Nelson, who perhaps accompa- med some of the voyagers, who succeeded Captain Cook in the survey of that coast, has communicated many specimens, which are in the Banksian or Lambertian Herbarium. Pallas’ Herbarium, in the hands of Mr. Lambert, contains plants gathered by the Russians in the Aleutian isles, and De Can- dolle has published, in bis Prodromus, some interesting indi- viduals, comraunicated by Dr. Fischer from the same neigh- beurhood. More ample materials may confidently be looked for from the following sources:—The great attention already be- stowed during former voyages by Captain Parry and his officers, to the vegetable productions of the Arctic regions, would alone warrant us in expecting that the same desire will be felt during the present expedition, to contribute all in their power to the natural history of the countries which they explore. But we have farther the assurance of the dis- tinguished commander of the expedition himself, in the last letter which we received from him, dated Whale Fish Islands, July 1, that no exertion should be wanting on his patt to se- cure every species of plant that may be met with in the course of the voyage. The Horticultural Society of London have despatched one of their most able collectors to the mouth of the Columbias David Douglas, who was formerly one of the head gardeners at the Glasgow botanical garden. He had, ninesliately pre- vious to his being sent on the present expedition, done him- self great credit, and given his employers the highest satisfac- tion, during his mission to the United States, for the purpose of procuring plants and fruits for the society. His under- taking is now a far more arduous one, and one in which we know that no exertions on his part will be wanted to bring it to a successful issue. After spending the ensuing season in collecting on the north-west coast, through nearly ten degrees of latitude, he will cross the Rocky Mountains in lat. 55°, and fall in with Captain Franklin’s line of route at Isle de la Crosse, and return overland with that enterprising officer to Hudson’s Bay. ' The Hudson’s Bay Company, with a liberality that reflects the highest credit upon them, made application and provision for a surgeon to one of their ships, who, to his medical know- 128 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. ledge should have added the acquirement of natural history, particularly of botany. It was our good fortune to have in view, at the period when the application was made to us, a young man every way qualified for such a situation, Mr. Scouler, unquestionably one of our ablest botanical students. He em- barked for the north-west coast of America in the month of July of this year (1824,) and will be absent altogether two years. The greater portion of the interior of this extended coun- try, and its northern coast, remains to be explored and inves- tigated by Captain Franklin and our inestimable friend Dr, Richardson, together with the officers and men who will be appointed to accompany them. Of the botanical acquire- ments of the last-named gentleman we have the highest opi- nion. For zeal in collecting he cannot be surpassed ; still, in order that his collections may be more complete, and that a greater extent of country may be embraced, he has, partly at his own expense, and partly by the aid of government, re- solved upon taking with him Mr. Drummond of Forfar, whom we have already mentioned in this Journal most fa- vourably, as the author of a valuable work on the mosses of Scotland, and whom we have no hesitation in pronouncing to be one of the most acute and ardent followers of botany that this country possesses. The expedition, as is well known, will embark early in February, and it will land at New York. Captain Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Mr. Drummond will proceed together as far as Red River on Lake Winipeg, or Carlton House on the Saskatchawan, which will be Drummond’s head quarters for two summers, from whence he will make excursions in company with the fur traders, at the head of that vast valley which forms the extensive plain across the Missouri, and opens towards Mexico. Here, therefore, he may be expected to meet with a highly curious vegetation and plants, similar to those which Nuttall, James, and Bradbury discovered on the banks of the Missouri itself. He will likewise have the opportunity of botanizing on the declivities of the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 52°. Captain Franklin and Dr. Richardson will proceed together as far as the mouth of the Mackenzie River, which will pro- bably be the extreme northern point attained by the latter ; Prof. Mitscherlich on Crystals formed by Heat. 199 for his great object is to examine, with the utmost care, the region which lies between Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers ; and here he will unquestionably more than supply the place of those collections which were lost during the former journey. Captain Franklin again, and the officer that accompanies him, will proceed from the mouth of the Mackenzie in boats, to Behring’s Straits ; they will doubtless devote as much time as their other important avocations will permit, in gathering plants and other objects of natural history ; and Dr. Richard- son will take care to instruct one or more of the party in the mode of preserving vegetable productions. The prayers and the wishes of their friends, and of every friend to science, will accompany these able and intrepid investigators. Some idea may now be formed of the extent and value of the collections which will be obtained, and we are confident that such arrangements will be made as will secure to every botanist the credit of his respective discoveries. We think then, that these should be destined for the foundation of a Flora of the British Possessions in North America ; which, if no individual more competent to the task presents himself, the writer of the present article will not shrink from under- taking; and this he offers to do the more readily, since some of the most effectual aid has already, and unsolicited, been offered to him, Ant. XXI.—On the Production of Crystallized Minerals by heat. By Mr. E. Mirscner.icn, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Ay Fahlun and Garpenberg in Sweden, and in several of the founderies of Germany, I had observed that the scoriae possessed the same form, and were composed of the same elements as certain minerals found in nature; and I possess at present upwards of forty different species. Among these are the subsilicate of the protoxide of iron, the silicate of the protoxide of iron, also that of the protoxide of iron and of lime, and that of magnesia and lime. These substances, when crystallized, present the form of peridot. Another class of them are the bisilicates of protoxide of iron, of pro- VOL. Il, NO, I, JAN. 1625. K 130 Prof. Mitscherlich on the Production of toxide of iron and lime, of lime and magnesia, which are formed among the slags of iron furnaces; these possess the same primitive and secondary forms as pyroxene. I possess also the trisilicate of lime, the protoxide of copper, the oxide of zinc, the deutoxide of copper, the magnetic iron-ore (ozi~ dum ferroso-ferricum,) the sulphurets of iron, zinc, and lead ; the arseniuret of nickel, &c. 1, Having the form of Peridot.—The silicate of iron is an important compound in the processes of melting copper and iron. I found two varieties, 1. from the melting of copper, and 2. from the refining process of cast-iron, com- posed of Silica, : : 30.93 31.06 Protoxide of iron, 69.07 67.34 Magnesia, ’ : 0.00 00.65 100.00 99.05 Another variety formed in a high furnace, yielded to me as much as 12 p. cent. carbonate of lime; the oxygen of the silica, however, was the same as that of lime and protoxide of iron taken together. All these crystals have exactly the same form as peridot, whose primitive form is a right rectangular. prism, and which, therefore, is the form of those silicates, whose bases have two atoms of oxygen. ‘The common varie- ties resemble Fig. 33. of Plate III; and Fig. 34. is the projec- tion upon the plane of P, of all those secondary faces which I have observed in any of those slags, in Peridot, and in Hya- losiderite together. ‘The latter has been described by M. Walchner ; it is a Peridot, which contains more iron i the common varieties. 2. Having the form of Pyroxene.—W hen I came to Paris, M. Berthier had the kindness to communicate to me the re- sults of a vast number of researches, which he had instituted on the fusibility of the silicates. Some of these silicates had crystallized and assumed the crystalline forms, the. same angles, and the same essential external characters as those minerals which pessess a similar mixture. Thus M. Ber- thier has fused silica, magnesia, and lime, in a carbon crucible in the necessary proportions to form a: bisilicate, in which the. Crystallized Minerals by Heat. 131 oxygen of the lime was equal to the oxygen of the magnesia ; and in another experiment, he melted the same elements in such a proportion, that the oxygen of the magnesia was double the oxygen of the lime. The results of both were pyroxenes, the counterparts of which we find in nature; the first is the ordinary pyroxene, the other is one of those from Finland, analysed by Mr. Nordenskidld. The crystals of silicate of manganese, which I had never seen before, obtain- ed by M. Berthier in fusing carbonate of manganese’ with silica, are particularly remarkable; they are very well pro- nounced, and possess exactly the form of the silicate of iron described above, and of peridot. 3. Having the appearance of Mica.—'There are some va- rieties among the old scoriae, found in the vicinity of Gar- penberg castle in Sweden, which present absolutely the same characters as mica. They produce an uniform mass, consisting of lamellze of two or three lines diameter, semitransparent and splendent. In the drusy cavities there are transparent six- sided tabular crystals. In regard to its composition, which * J ascertained by analysis, it resembles the black Siberian mica analysed by Klaproth. Blica from Garpenberg. Mica from Siberia. Silica, j F 5 47.31 42.00 Alumina, ; é 5.74 11.05 Peroxide of Iron, : 28.91 22.00 Peroxide of Mungaacse, 0.48 2.00 Lime, g , 0.23 0.00 Magnesia, ; ‘ 10.17 9.00 Potash, ’ : 1.05 10.00 Inferences from the preceding observations in regard to Geology.—The artificial production of minerals by fusion puts beyond the slightest doubt, the idea of our primitive mountains having been originally in a state of igneous fusion.. This state gives a satisfactory explanation of the form of the earth, of the increase of temperature at greater depths, of hot springs, and many other phenomena. At that time, during this high degree of temperature, the water of the sea must. have formed : an elastic fluid round the globe, according’ to the experiments of M. Cagnard de la Tour. 132 Prof. Mitscherlich on the Production of The primitive mountains are distinguished from the vol- canic productions, chiefly in their containing lime and mag- nesia in the state of carbonates, while they form silicates and bisilicates with the silica in volcanic rocks. It is conceivable, that the silica, which in a higher degree of temperature at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, drives away the carbo- nic ‘icid, is on the other hand expelled by the carbonic acid under the influence of a high pressure. It is not therefore surprising to find quartz crystals in Carrara marble. But, as at the period of the formation of volcanic rocks, this high pressure, produced by the evaporation of the water of the sea, did not take place any longer, we find in them the same combinations which we obtain in our laboratories, and in me- tallurgical processes, : It is proved by many observations, that the level of the sea must have been, at some ancient period, higher than it is at present. This can be easily accounted for, if we consider that water heated must be more expanded than the solid earth. If we suppose with M. de la Place, that the average depth of the sea is 96,000 feet, and assume the dilatation of the earth to be equal to that of glass, we find, that ata temperature of 100° centigr., the sea would be 4000 feet higher than it is at pre~ sent, and that it would cover most of the secondary moun- tains. The melted masses shrink during their cooling. If this happens in large masses, cavities, garnished with erystals, must result, geodes, &c. Inferences drawn in regard to metallurgical processes.—T he process of the melting of copper ore at Fahlun may be ex- plained as follows, viz. The ore consists of copper-pyrites, and iron-pyrites, of two varieties ; one of them is rich, and the other very much mixed with quartz. They are first roasted, and thereby converted into a mixture of sulphuret, oxide, and sulphate. The roasted mineral is now melted in the propor- tion of three parts of the rich ore to one part of the quartay variety. ~ But the melters must be always attentive to the fur- nice, and add now part of the one, now part of the other of’ the*two kinds of ore,-so as always to have the slags, consisting of a bisilicate-of protoxide of iron. This slag is lamellar, and crystallizes like pyroxene. At the same time metallic com- pounds are obtained, consisting of sulphuret of iron, and sul- Crystallized Minerals by Heat. 133 phuret of copper. If the ore has been too much roasted, there remains too little sulphuret of iron to collect all the cus preous particles throughout the whole mass of the slags ; and the smelters must add in this case some of the rich ore not roasted. . The metallic compounds are roasted six times; and, by this operation they are transformed into a mixture of magne- tic oxide of iron, and oxide of copper. This mass is now melted either with quartz, or with the quartzy ore, and their result is a silicate of the protoxide of iron and black copper. In the process followed in the Hartz for refining copper, much protoxide of that metal is formed, in the middle of which large crystals of arsenious acid are found, but never, as far as I know, any oxide of antimony. The purpose of refining iron is to separate along with the carbon, all those substances which might have a bad in- fluence on the quality of the wrought iron. In this view part of the pig-iron is first oxydised ; the oxide of iron combines with the silica, which either is introduced by the charcoal, or produced by the decomposition of the silica contained in the iron, and forms a silicate. If the quantity of oxide of iron is too great, this oxide again acts upon the melted iron, or it combines with the silicate, and forms a sub-silicate, which being very fusible, will mix entirely with the melted mass, and burn its carbon, because the affinity between the oxide and silica is greater for forming a silicate than an embrolicate, and to discharge the rest of the oxide, when in contact with the carbon at the temperature of the refining furnaces.— (Ann. de Chim. tom xxiv. p. 355; Ann. des Mines, tom ix. p. 176.) Art. XXII.—Notice respecting Euchroite, a New Mineral Species. By Witt1am Haipincer, Esq. F.R.S.E. Com- municated by the Author. A MINERAL has lately been brought to this country under the name of Euchroite, of which a short notice will find here ¢ 134 Mr. Haidinger on Euchroite, a New Mineral. its proper place, as it does not seem to have yet been describ- ed even in the foreign journals. _ Form, prismatic. P= 119° 7’, 81° 47’; 120° 54%. (a: b:e¢€=1:4/0.928: ./0.344). Approximation: Simple forms. P—a(P); P +a(M) = 117°20; (Pr + 0) °(s) = 95°12; (Pr +)9(i) = 78°47; Pr (n) = 87°52; Pr + a (&) Combinations, 1. P—x. Pr. Po. (Pr + o)*. Plate III. Fig. 29. 2.P—o.Pr.P +o. (r+). (Pr + ow). Pr +o. Fig. 30. Cleavage, indistinct, parallel to the lrorizontal prism 2, and to the vertical prism m, very much interrupted. Frac- ture, small conchoidal, uneven. Surface, the vertical prisms striated parallel to their common edges of intersection, the horizontal prism smooth, P — » often rounded, as if a drop of the solution had remained after the complete formation of the crystal. Lustre, vitreous: Colour, bright emerald-green. Streak, pale apple-green. Double refraction, considerable. Semi- transparent, translucent. Rather brittle. Hardness = 3.5...4.0 (very near the same as fluor). Sp. gr. = 3.389. As the specimen employ- ed was not entirely free from the oxide of iron, it is possible that the specific gravity is a little higher, though this can be but very inconsiderable. Observations. 1. The specimen of Euchroite to which the precedmg de- scription refers, was purchased last summer by Mr. Allan when in London, from Mr. Sowerby, who had received the mineral from Mr. Bartsch of Vienna. It has been found at Libethen in Hungary, and occurs in crystals of considerable size, in fissures in the common quartzoze mica slate of that locality. ‘Some of the crystals in Mr. Allan’s specimen are upwards of three lines in every dimension, though the most perfect erys- tals are much smaller. They are in no small degree like those of Dioptase, and will enter the genus Emerald-malachite of Mohs. On the Structure of Rice Paper. 185 ®. Euchroite contains a considerable proportion of water and copper. An exact indication of the rest of the ingre- dients in its rematkable chemical composition, will be given in the next number of this Journal, Dr. Turner having, at my request, kindly undertaken an examination of it. Art. XXIII.—CONTRIBUTIONS TO POPULAR SCIENCE. No. III. On the Structure of Rice Paper: * Tue substance commonly known by the name of Rice Pa- per is brought from China in small pieces, about two inches square, and tinged with various colours. It has been for some time used as an excellent substitute for drawing paper, in the representation of richly coloured insects, and other ob- jects of natural history, and has been employed in this city with still more success in the manufacture of artificial flowers. Although rice paper has a general resemblance to a sub- stance formed by art, yet a very slight examination of it with the miscroscope is sufficient to indicate a vegetable organiza- tion. In order to observe and trace the nature of its struc- ture, it was necessary to give it some degree of transparency ; and I expected to accomplish this by the usual process of im- mersing it in water or in oil of the same refractive power. This operation, however, instead of increasing the transpa- rency rendered the film more opaque, and suggested the pro- bability that, like Tabasheer, it was filled with air; and that the augmentation of its opacity arose, as in the case of that silicious concretion, from the partial absorption of the fluid. In order to expel the air from the cells in which it seemed to be lodged, I exposed a piece of the rice paper to the influ- ence of boiling olive oil. The heat immediately drove the air in small bubbles from the cells near the margin; but it was with some difficulty that it was forced to quit the interior * From an unpublished MS. by Dr. Brewster, read before the Royal Society f Edinburgh, on the 4th March, 1822. 136 On the Structure of Mice Paper: parts of the film. As the olive oil had now taken the place of the air, and filled all the cells, the film beame perfectly transparent, and displayed its vesicular structure when plae- ed under a powerful microscope. It will appear from the drawing executed by Mr. Greville, Plate II. Fig. 11, that the rice paper consists of long hex- agonal cells, whose length is parallel to the surface of the film; that these cells are filled with air, when the film is in its usual state; and that from this circumstance it derives that peculiar softness which renders it so well adapted for the purposes to which it is applied. When the film is exposed to polarised light, the longitudinal septa of the cells depolarise the light like other vegetable membranes. Among the three specimens of rice paper which I have produced, there is one from which all the air has been expell- ed by the boiling oil; another in which some of the air bub- bles still appear in the vesicles, the air having been only par- tially expelled by boiling water; and a third, which is in con- tact with water, without having been deprived of any of its air bubbles. Upon mentioning to Mr, Neill the preceding experiments, he informed me that the lady in Edinburgh, Miss Jack, who had employed rice paper with such success in the manufac- ture of artificial flowers, had learned from her brother, who was in China, that it was a membrane of the bread fruit tree, the artocarpus incisifolia of naturalists, No. IV. On the Convergency of the Solar Beams to a point opposite to the Sun: Tue divergency of the solar beams, when the sun is de- scending in the west, is a phenomenon which occurs so fre- quently, that the most careless observer must have had occa- sion tu notice it. This phenomenon, however, is sometimes accompanied with one of an opposite kind, viz. the conver- gency of the solar beams to a point opposite to the sun, and as Sar below the horizon as the sun ¢s above it. This phenome- non is extremely rare; and we are not aware that it has been described more than once, viz. by Dr. Robert Smith of Cam- On the Convergency of the Solur Beams. 137 bridge who observes, that he once saw it upon Lincolnheath.* He describes it as *¢ an apparent convergence, of long whitish beams, towards a point diametrically opposite to the sun. For as near as I could estimate, it was situated as much be- low the horizon as the sun was then elevated above the op- posite point of it.” «In the unusual phenomenon,” Dr. Smith afterwards adds, “I well remember, that the con- verging sun-beams towards the point below the horizon, were not quite so bright and shining as those usually are which diverge from him, and that the sky beyond them appeared very black, which certainly contributed to the evidence of this appearance.” Smith’s Optics, vol. ti. Remarks, p. 57, 58. On Saturday, the 9th October, 1824, Dr. Brewster had the pleasure to observe this curious phenomenon when tra- velling from Melrose to Edinburgh, and of pointing it out to two friends who accompanied him. It was first seen at that part of the road opposite to the avenue to Kirkhill, the seat of John Tod, Esq. at about a quarter past four o'clock. The sun was then considerably elevated above the Pentland range of hills, and was throwing out his diverging beams in great beauty through the interstices of the broken masses of clouds which floated in the west. The eastern part of the horizon, where the converging lines were seen, was occupied with a dark black cloud, as described by Dr. Smith, and which seems ne- cessary as a ground for rendering visible such faint radia- tions. The converging beams were very much fainter than the diverging ones, and the point to which they converged Was as near as could be estimated, as far below the horizon as the sun was above it. About ten minutes after the phe- nomenon was first seen, the convergent lines were black or very dark. This arose from the real beams having become broad, and of irregular intensity, so that the eye took up,.as it were, the spaces between the beams more readily than the beams themselves. In order to explain the cause of this phenomenon minutely, several diagrams would be necessary, for which we cannot at * A similar phenomenon has, we understand, been observed near Freiberg, by Professor Mohs and Mr. Haidinger. There were clouds in the west be- tween the observers and the sun, ‘ 135 On the Convergency of the Solar Beams. present find room; but we think it may be perhaps more ea sily understood from the following illustration. Let us suppose a line to join the eye of the observer and the sun; let rays issue from the sun in all possible directions, and let us suppose that planes pass through these radiations, and through the line joining the observer ‘anid the sun, which will be that common intersection, like the axis of an orange, or the axis of the earth, through which there passes all the septa of the former and afl the planes passing through the meridians of the latter. An eye, therefore, situated in that line or com- mon intersection of all the planes, will see them diverging from the sun on one side, and converging towards the opposite point; just as an eye in the axis of a globe would perceive all the planes passing through the meridians, diverging on one side and converging on another. Ant. XXIV.—AHistory of the Great Mass of Native Malle- able Iron of Louisiana, now deposited in the Museum of the New York Historical Socicty. Just as the last sheets of this Journal were about to be put to press, we have been favoured, through the kindness of Mr. Allan, with the last number of Professor Silliman’s Journal; which has arrived by a shorter channel than our own copy, and which contains two articles of such deep scientific interest, that we have been obliged to delay several other articles in order to find room for them. The first of these relates to the malleable iron of Louisiana, and has been drawn up from various original documents communicated to Professor Silli- man. * In 1808, while Captain Glass was trading among the Pawnee and Hictan nations, he heard of a curious mineral, and saw the Pawnee In- dian who discovered it on the territory of the Hietans. Captain Glass and several of his party accompanied some Indians, and saw the mass in situ. The Indians regarded it with much veneration, and ascribed to it singular power in the cure of diseases. They informed him that they knew of two other smaller pieces, the one about thirty, and the other about fifty miles distant. This intelligence having excited much curiosity, two rival parties were formed in 1810 for obtaining this metal, one at Natchitoches, consisting History of the Malleable Iron of Louisiana. 139 ‘of George Schamp, who had been with Captain Glass, and nine asso- ciates ; the other at Nacodoches, consisting of John Davis, who also had been with Captain Glass, and eight or ten associates. The Nacodoches party first arrived at the place of destination ; but having, in their hurry to anticipate the rival party, made no preparations for carrying away the metal, they laid it under a fiat stone, and went away for wheels and draft horses. The Natchitoches party arrived a few days afterwards; and after searching several days, succeeded in finding their object. Being pro vided with tools, they made a truck waggon, to which they harnessed six horses, and set off with their prize towards the Red River. They crossed the Brassos without much difficulty ; bet a straggling party of Indians having one night stolen all their horses, they were detained until two of their party could go to Natchitoches for more horses. On arriving at the Red River, some of their party went down in a boat with the iron, while others took the horses down by land. From Natchitoches the me- tal was taken down the Red River and Mississippi to New Orleans, from whence it was shipped to New York. In February 1812, John Maley, an erratic adventtirer, went with a few associates up the Red River, to explore the country, to trade with the Indians, and to bring away the two remaining masses of metal. He Saw one or both of the masses ; but being unable to make the remunera- tion for them demanded by the Indians, he continued his four farther west. Returning, he continued to barter for the pieces of metal, a cer- tain quantity of merchandise, to procure which, he returned to Natchi- toches, and proceeded to New Orleans. Qn his second expedition up the Red River in 1813, he and his asso- ciates being robbed by a party of the Osages of the merchandise and horses, were compelled fo return on foot, rclinquishing their object.”— Maley’s MS. Journal. As at least two masses, therefore, of this metal undoubt- edly exist in this quarter, it becomes very interesting to de- termine their probable locality, and any other circumstances connected with them. These masses are said to be fifty or sixty miles south-west of Pawnee village, on the banks of the: Red River, some hundred miles above Natchitoches. Cap- tain Glass makes the locality of the metal some days journey to the south of the Pawnee village, on the River Brassos. Dr. Sibley, who had conversed with Captain Glass, and others of the parties who went in quest of the metal, states the dis- tance from Natchitoches to the Pawnee village as nearly 400 miles by land, and the distance by water from the place of embarkment to Natchitoches as nearly 1000 miles. The account then proceeds :— 140 History of the Malleable Iron of Louisiana. ** John Maley travelled in these regions subsequently to the removal of the large mass, but visited one or more smaller masses. ‘* Crossing the river,” he says, * at the Pawnee village, we took a S.W. course over large ledges of limestone and extensive prairies. After a journey of three days, we were conducted by the Indians to this metal. It lay a few miles from the mountain, which appeared to be the same that I have before described as running parallel to the Red River.” He does not state whether he saw one piece or more; but he afterwards stipulated for the two pieces of metal. The Pawnee village, he says, is 1500 miles above the confluence of the Red River with the Mississippi. Judge Johnson being in company with’Mr. Maley some years since, entered into conversation on this subject. He was informed by Maley, that the pieces were found in the midst of an open sterile plain, lying over each other, and appearing as if broken and scattered in the fall of one entire mass. ‘ The place was described by Maley as about 200 (400 ?) miles in breadth, north and west from Natchitoches, in (near?) the ridge between the waters of the Red River and the Rio Bravo.” ~~ Mr. Bringier has mentioned, (Silliman’s Journal, vol. iii. p- 15.) apparently from personal observation, that the local- ity of the metal is in West Long. 95° 10’, and North Lat. 32° 7’. Mr. William Darby places it twenty degrees west of Washington city, or in long. 97°, and in lat. 32°20". As this mass of iron contains nickel, like the other masses found in the other parts of the globe, there can be no doubt that it is of meteoric origin, and, consequently, every particular con- nected with its history possesses the deepest interest. Art. XXV.—On the Existence of Silicious Solutions in the Drusy Cavities of Minerals. Tue same Number of Professor Silliman’s Journal from which we have abridged the preceding interesting article contains another of not less importance to science. It is en- titled, Facts tending to illustrate the Formation of Crystals in Geodes ; and we have no doubt that the two great and new facts which it contains will for ever put to rest this long- agitated question. In the few paragraphs and speculations which this paper contains, the author mentions more than once the new fluids discovered in minerals by Dr. Brewster; but from some On Solutions of Silex in the Cavities of Minerals. 141 strange mistake, he calls them microscopic fluids, and as dis- cernible only by the aid of powerful microscopes. If the author had read with care the account of these fluids, be would have found that some of the cavities (the one in Mr. Allan’s fine specimen, for example) are nearly the fifth of an inch dong, and that the fluids have been taken out of the cavities, looked at with the naked eye, and touched, tasted, and subjected to chemical experiments. Having corrected this misapprehen- sion, arising no doubt from the author’s quoting from me- mory, we proceed to the facts themselves. «© When Mr. B. F. Northrop, of Yale College, was breaking some ballast stones, from New Orleans, consisting of hornstone, flint, chalcedony, and quartz pebbles, he found many of them with cavities lined with crys- tals of hyaline quartz. Some of the cavities were lined with mammil- lary chalcedony, and others with a white spongy deposite resembling an earthy precipitate. Upon breaking an oval pebble of hornstone, whose diameter was three inches by two, Mr. Northrop found in its centre a cavity of three-fourths of an inch by half an inch, filled with a milky fluid, like water containing magnesia. He unfortunately spilled the greater part of the fluid, and before the remainder could be secured, it was exhaled (it being a very hot day) by a rapid evaporation, leaving a white spongy precipitate lining the ca- vity, and staining the surfaces of fracture. During this rapid evapora= tien minute prismatic crystals shot from the fluid, even under the eye of the observer, occupying not only parts of the cavity, but also of the sur- faces of the fracture. Both the crystals and the spongy mass were easily ascertained to be siler. ‘They neither effervesced nor dissolved in acids, and when rubbed between surfaces of glass, they took hold of it with great eagerness, instantly depriving it of its polish, and scratching it as distinctly as a file does iron. This was true, not only of the spongy matter, but of the separate crys- tals, which we are entitled to consider as crystals of quartz, almost in= stantaneously deposited, from a rich silicious solution. These crystals were of a rather dull white, without much lustre or transparency. Their diameter was that of fine sewing silk, and their length not excceding’ one-sixth of an inch. It is much to be regretted, that no opportunity was afforded of examining the fluid, so that it is impossible to say whe- ther it was some modification of water, or a distinct fluid. The earthy deposite, and the crystals were tasteless, and proved to be a very sharp. grit between the teeth. In the centre of another pebble, five inches by three, and consisting of a mixture of hornstone and chalcedony, Mr. Northrop found another: cavity of one and a half by one inch, nearly filled with the spongy sili-. cious deposite already described, but it was still moist, to such a degree, 4 142 On Solutions of Silex in the Cavities of Minerals. as to form a pulpy or gelatinous mass, very soft and impressible ; this mass was also soon dried by the intense heat of the weather. As there was less fluid to evaporate, so, as might have been expected, there were but few crystals formed ; still, they shot, here and there, as in the other cavity. The spongy mass in the cavity of the larger stone admits a knife to penetrate it more than an inch, and portions of its surface have a ma= millary and stalactitical appearance. It is silex, like the other. In many other pebbles cavities have been obseryed, some lined with the spongy silicious deposites, intermixed with minute prismatic crystals, which have, however, rather more lustre than those which were so rapidly formed ; and the stone forming most of the immediate walls of the interior of the cavities is of an opaque enamel, white as if it had been penetrated by a fluid, and in some measure softened by incipient solution. In a few cavities, the silicious matter had concreted into well-characterized mas millary chalcedony.” The next fact mentioned by Professor Silliman is not less interesting than the preceding, and was communicated to him by Mr. Eli Whitney of Newhaven, who saw the speci- mens alluded to in Georgia in 1806. “© In clearing a mill-dam, built on a solid mass of agate, (a silicious stone, consisting of a mixture of jasper, hornstone, quartz, and chalce- dony,) the workmen discovered a great number of hollow balls in their form resembling bomb-shells. Some of them were as large as a man’s head, and some even eight or nine inches in diameter. When broken they proved to be mere shells, the walls of which were from five-eights to-three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and the capacity of the cavity was from a pint to two quarts or more. This cavity was filled with a milky fluid, so nearly resembling white paint or white wash, that it was used to whiten the fire places and the walls of the rooms of the neigh= bouring houses. The next fact quoted by our author is from Bournon’s Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 33, and which relates to a cavity con- taining water, and which, after the evaporation of the water, contained a spongy, crystalline, amorphous mass of carbonate of lime. The learned editor has omitted to cite a still more remarkable case of a group of regular crystals of carbonate of lime, discovered by Dr. Brewster in a cavity of a quartz crystal from Quebec, in the cabinet of Mr. Allan, one of the most curious specimens of the kind that has perhaps ever been seen. This specimen is fully described in the Edin- burgh Trunsactions, vol. x. p. 29. Decisions on Disputed Inventions. 143 Axt. XXVI.—DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 7 ~ Tuere are few subjects which come under the notice of the historian of science, which excite so lively an interest as the discussion of conflict- ing claims to valuable inventions and discoveries. Although the rights which are thus brought under review are always those oF Tudividnals’ yet Nations have often descended into the arena, and, on some occasions, even the New World has arrayed itself against the Old, upon a question of scientific history. In the progress of human knowledge, the most valuableinventions and discoveries are often completed by different individuals, and at distant intervals. To one we may owe the germ of an original thought ; ano- ther may be employed in bringing it towards maturity, while the genius of a third may be requisite to carry it to the perfection of which it is susceptible. In such cases, which resemble that of the Steam En- gine, it is extremely difficult to apportion to each author his due share of merit ; and it is perhaps unnecessary, as long as history continues, to re~ cord the exertions and labours of each competitor. - In other cases, however, the difficulty of adjudication is not so great. An invention has often been excluded from the history. of science, when its importance has been derived from subsequent discoveries, or when it has been recorded in a work which is either too profound to be generally read, or too rare to be generally accessible. When such inventions have been brought forward as new, we must be careful of accusing of plagia- rism the philosopher who announces them. Men who are engaged in similar inquiries are often led to the same views, and even to the same inventions ; and no calumny can be more injurious than that of charging such a person with the most odious of literary crimes, when he is perhaps entitled to the full honour of a second inventor. There are circumstances, however, under which a charge of plagiar- ism may be preferred. When a second inventor embraces the earliest opportunity of stating that he has been anticipated, when he openly and fairly discusses the claim of his predecessor to the invention ;—then if he has been in the habit of doing justice to others, of acknowledging their merit, and of praising the inventions of his rivals when praise is due, posterity will have no difficulty in assigning to him all the merits of a se- cond inventor, and in adding to that the higher attribute of an honest and liberal mind. But if, on the contrary, he strives to conceal or put down the claim of the first inventor,—if he omits every opportunity of acknow- ledging the anticipation,—if, to this obstinacy, he adds the general character of grudging every man his share of fame,—if, as an au- thor, he declines to record the labours and discoveries ef those whom he places in the list of his enemies or his riva!s,—znd if, as a teacher, he re- fuses to explain to the youth under his charge the inventions and discove- i ‘ 4 Decisions on Disputed Inventions. ries of his contemporaries,—if, to these unequivocal symptoms, he adds another, viz. that of exaggerating and praising his own inventions, and of obtruding them in all his writings,—then, the character of such a man is drawn by his own hand; and if public decency pre- vents his contemporaries from adding the title of plagiarist to his Christian name, posterity will not fail to write upon his monument, “* Here lies a man whose love of reputation was so inordinate, and his love of justice so small, that he appropriated to himself the inventions: and discoveries both of the dead and the living; and when he had car-. ried off all that his shoulders could bear, returned to spike and to de-. stroy all that he had left behind.” * Such are the principles of scientific law, which we shall apply to the, illustration of those contested questions, that we shall from time to time submit to the decision of public opinion. Our design is to be just. and, merciful. Hf at any time we forget these attributes, that public opinion which we invoke on others will not fail to fall heayily on ourselves, The task of deciding such causes as these, though a difficult one, is. not of an ungenerous character. What we take from one we liberally eonfer upon another ; and when the contest is with a living candidate, we may perhaps lay claim to some share of right feeling, even if we are too generous to those who are long since gone, and whose rights and la-, bours are not under the protection of country, kindred, or friendship,— er any of those strong holds of local feeling, in which the claims of live. ing genius are so deeply intrenched. 1. Professor Leslie’s Differential Thermometer invented hy Professor Sturmius. More than twenty years ago, Professor Leslie announced to the world his invention of a differential thermometer, for measuring small differ-. * In these views we are supported by the high authority of Professor Playfair. ; Speaking of Descartes’ alleged Plagiarisin of the Law of Refraction, discovered by | Snellius, he says, ** There is no doubt, therefore, that the discovery was first made by Snellius; but whether Descartes derived it from him, or was himself the second discoverer, remains undecided. The question is one of those where a man’s , conduct in a particular situation can only be rightly interpreted from his generat character and behaviour. If Descartes had been uniformly fair and candid in his ~ intercourse with others, one would have rejected with disdain a suspicion of the . kind just mentioned. But the truth is, that he appears throughout a jealous and imperious man, always inclined ito depress and conceal the merit of others.. In speaking of the invention of the telescope, he has told minutely all that is due to accident, but has passed carefully over all that proceeded from design; and has incurred the reproach of relating the origin of the instrument without mentioning the name of Galileo. In the same manner he omits to speak of the discoveries of Kepler as nearly connected with his own; and in treating of the Rainbow, he has made no mention of Antonio de Dominis. It is impossible that this should not produce an unfavourable impression ; and hence it is that the warmest admirers ot Descartes do net pretend that his conduct towards Snellius can be completely jus- - tified. "—-Supp. Ency. Britt. Vol. IL. p. 101. ; History of the Differential Thermometer. 145 ences of temperature ; and he made it the basis of a series of instru- ments which bear his own name, and which have been manufactured and sold by himself. About the same time, or perhaps earlier,* Count Rumford announced the construction of an instrument, called a Thermoscope, which he used in the same manner, and for the same purposes, and which, he says, ‘‘ he contrived for measuring, or rather for discovering, very small changes of temperature.” Count Rumford was loudly charged, not only with hav- ing stolen Mr. Leslie’s invention, but even with having abstracted, or caused to be abstracted, certain sheets of Mr. Leslie’s work on Heat from Gillet’s printing office. It is needless to inform our readers that Count Rumford’s thermo- scope, and Mr. Leslie’s differential thermometer are identically the same, and that they both consist of a glass tube, bent in the shape of the letter U, and having at each end a glass ball filled with air, while the legs and horizontal branch contain a coloured fluid. We do not mean at present to decide the question between Count Rum- ford and Professor Leslie, though the details which it involves furnish much curious matter of scientific history. Sir Humphry Davy, in his Elements of Chemical Philosophy, publish- edin 1803, (pages 75, 76, and Plate I. Figs. 2, 3.) was the first to rectify the history of the differential thermometer. This distinguished chemist ascribes it to Van Helmont, who died in 1644, and he placed on the same plate engravings of the instrument of Van Helmont, and of that of Mr. Leslie. No sooner did this work of Sir Humphry’s appear, than it was attacked in a letter in the newspapers, bearing, we believe, Mr. Leslie’s name, which was ably answered by some friend of Sir Humphry Davy’s. Although no candid inquirer could doubt that Van Helmont anticipa- ted the invention of the differential thermometer, yet there was one little loop hole in his description of it through which a person of small di- mensions might creep ; and in this way, from a slight flaw in the indict- ment, the differential thermometer has been allowed to preserve a kind of separate existence. Abandoning therefore the cause of Van Helmont, though a good one, we are now prepared to prove, that the differential thermometer was invented by John Christopher Sturmius, Professor of Mathematics at Altdorff, who published an accurate account of its construction and theory, illustrated by drawings, in his Collegium Experimentale Curiosum, which was’published at Nuremberg in 1676. Professor Sturmius calls it a thermometer and also a thermoscupe, the very name used by Count Rumford ; and he de= scribes no fewer than five varieties of them, of which his own is the third. The first thermoscope consists of a thermometer tube, with a ball at the end of it containing air. This tube with the air ball uppermost, is placed with its open end in a vessel of coloured liquor. The degree of heat, by the - * Mr. Leslie’s book on heat appeared in 1804. Count Rumford’s paper was read before the Royal Society on the 2d February 1804. VOL, II. NO. I. JAN. 1825. L 146 Decisions on Disputed Inventions. expansion of the air in the ball which pushes down the fluid, is marked’ upon a scale attached to the tube. In the second thermoscope, the air- ball is at the lower end of a tube like the letter J, and there is a small hole in the ball at the upper end, to allow the coloured fluid to rise when the air in the lower ball is expanded by heat. The third thermoscope, which is the differential thermometer, is a combination of these two, and is represented in Plate II. Fig. 20. The following is Sturmius’s own description of it. ‘ Tertium e duobus prioribus ferme compositum sic habebat: Parato posteriori genere ABCD plane ut antea, super imposita est et firmiter agglutinata ejus ’ extremitati apertae D, sphaerula E in eum finem seorsim fabrefacta ; ‘ita ut jam aeri nec ingressus nec egressus pateret. Hic, dum calida manus applicabatur sphaerulae E, summa superficies spiritus inclusi C’ descendebat ; si frigidum quippiam, ascendebat : contrarium autem plane ‘fiebat admotis istis sive calidis sive frigidis ad inferiorem sphaerulam A. Solius viro aeris liberi calori exposito instrumento, sphaera A (quam notetur angustiorem fuisse notabiliter altera E) semper prevalebat et sola operabitur : ita scil. ut incalescente magis aere liquorem a C suble- varit, ac ad ascensum cogeret ; ad descensum contra, cum calor aeris- remitteret et plus frigoris succederet. Notandum tamen ascensus istos ac descensus liquoris, sive a liberi aeris, sive ab admotarum rerum ¢a- lore vel frigore causatos, ad minus notabile spatium se extendisse, seu vias breviores confecisse, quam in genere precedenti.” Page 49, 50. In explaining the theory of the instrument, he goes on, *‘In ¢ertio genere nihil equidem agit aer externus, utpote penitus exclusus ; eodem tamen res recidit, cum et superus aer EC et inferus AB ad equalitatem virium redacti, medium aquae cylindrum CB im- motum tamdiu sustineant, quamdiu alterutrius vires non augentur no- tabiliter. Utri ergo primum nova vis accesserit, is alterum vincens aquae eylindrum a se removebit ; et contra, utri accedens -frigus ali- quid virium detraxerit, is alteri cedens aquei cylindri pondere arctius argebitur et comprimetur. Quod si contingat utrumque equali caloris gradu in aere libero rarefieri, tune superum CE, quippe copiosiorem, vincere, et inferum BA cedere, necessum alicui videatur, quia tunc partibus aequalibus singulis utriusque aeris aequalis vis expansiva per rarefactionem accrescat, tales autem partes plures habeat aer superior quam inferior. Verum cum contrarium nunc accidat, ratio videtur e praecedanea majore aeris AB condensatione petenda.” Page 54. In an appendix to this work, Sturmius goes on to discuss the proper- ties of his thermometer, and he mentions that the Dutch artists, in place: of agglutinating the ball E to the stem at D, leave an opening at A, which is afterwards hermetically sealed. He then mentions an experi- ment, in which he muffles up the lower ball A, and exposes E to the action of the solar rays. The liquid then descended, as the air in the sphere DE became warmer. “ In quo meo ratiocinio penitus confirmor ipso momento, dum hoc ipsum thermometrum meum, de quo hic ago, in- voluta prius muccinio spherula inferiore A, ita fenestree admoveo ut sola superior a meridiani solis radiis feriatur, videoque nunc liquorem sensim* History of Platina Pyrometers. 147 descendere, prout aer sphere DE magis magisque incalescit.” Page, 89. App. This amiable author then proceeds to consider who first invented the thermometer. “ Ecquisnam primus fuerit thermoscopii inventor, vix constat. Aliqui, quos inter supra laudatus Lana, Roberto Fludd seu a Fluctibus id honoris tribuunt, Samueli Reyhero autem, Mathem. in alma Kilonensi Prof. P. videtur prima inventio deberi Drebbelio.” P. 89, 90. These passages, which we purposely leave untranslated, settle for ever the invention of the differential thermometer; and as we and many others know that Mr. Leslie has read and studied the Collegium Curto- sum of Sturmius, we trust that he will avail himself of the first oppor- tunity, both in his lectures and in his writings, of restoring voluntarily to that amiable and learned Professor the honour of an invention which so unquestionably belongs to him. In a future number, we shall proceed to rectify the history of the Hygrometer, the Photometer, the ASihrioscope, the Drying and the Freezing processes, &c. &c. &c. of Professor Leslie, which we trust we shall illustrate as successfully as we have done that of the differential thermometer. In the mean time, we proceed to other claims. 2. Daniell’s Platina Pyrometer, partly anticipated hy M. Guyton. Our scientific readers are no doubt well acquainted with the merits of Mr. Daniell, to whom we owe many excellent inventions and admira- ble memoirs on scientific subjects. In the year 1821, he published in- the Quarterly Journal of Science, (vol. xi. p. 309.) a description of a py- rometer for high degrees of heat, which consisted of a platina bar placed within a tube of black lead earthen ware. The expansion of the bar was indicated upon a circular scale, through the intermedium of a og tina wire acting upon the axis which carried the index. Mr. Daniell does not seem to have been aware that M. Guyton had exhibited to the National Institute in 1803 a similar instrument, con- sisting of a rod or plate of platina, placed in a groove formed in a cake of hardened white clay. One of the ends of the platinum bar presses against a bended lever of platina, whose longest arm forms an index to a graduated arc. The principle of these instruments is the same, both of them depend- ing on the difference of the expansions of pottery and platina; but they differ in this, that the whole of Guyton’s instrument is put into the fur- nace, whereas, in Mr. Daniell’s, the platinum bar is alone exposed to the heat, the index and scale being kept at a distance from it. See the Ann. de Chim. No. 138; vol. xlvi. p. 274, Nicholson’s Phil. Journ. vol. vi. p- 89, and the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Pyromerer, vol, xvii. p. 215, where both of them are described. 3. Mr. Nicholas Mill’s Pyrometer, anticipated by Dr. Ure. In the year 1824, Mr. Nicholas Mill published in the Monthly Medi- co-Chirurgical Review, &c. a drawing and description of a pyrometer, 148 History of Mechanical Inventions consisting of a hollow bulb and tube of platina containing air, the ex- pansions of which were indicated by its action upon a column of mer cury in a vertical glass tube, contained within the platinum tube. Dr. Ure, however, in his Dictionary of Chemistry, published in 1821, has proposed the very same instrument, with more minute details respecting the graduation of its scale. These two instruments are fully described in the article Pyrometer, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. XVII. Part I. just published. - Art. XXVII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 1. Mr. Vallance’s Apparatus for Freezing Water. Tue apparatus described by Mr. Vallance is represented in Plate If. Fig. 17. and is founded on the principles of freezing in the air-pump, discovered; as our author states, by Dr. Cullen and Mr. Nairne, and im- proved by Mr. Leslie. This method consists in passing a current of dry rarefied air over the extended surface of the water, which, by impinging on it, carries off the aqueous vapours. The water is placed in a flat bot- tomed vessel aa, so as to form a stratum about half an inch deep. The greater part of the air is to be removed from the vessel through the pipe b by two good air-pumps, till the pressure of the air within will support about an inch of mercury. A hollow tube ¢ passes through a stuffing- box in the lid of the vessel a, where it is enabled to slide up and down, and has at its bottom a circular plate or dise d, which is brought to within half an inch of the water, and rises a little conically in the mid- dle. Another similar tube e is attached by flanges to the upper end of c, and passes through a stuffing-box in the upper vessel f, from which a bent pipe g¢ passes into another vessel h, which is nearly filled with leaden bullets, and has a small air-hole below. A quantity of sulphuric acid is occasionally poured on these bullets to wet their surface. Several air- holes are made in the lid of the vessel a, and also in the plate d, and are closed air-tight with glass, to show the progress of the operation within. When the air-pump draws the air from the vessel a, the stop-cock g is to be partly opened, so as to admit air as fast as the pumps exhaust it. This air passes between the leaden balls in A, and has its aqueous particles absorbed by the acid. A current of dry air thus passes from 4 through the pipe g, the vessel f, the tubes e and c, and descends upon the surface of the water under the disc d in the vessel a. This current of air being drawn off by the air-pumps through 4, carries off the heat from the water and makes it freeze. After one stratum is frozen, more water is introduced into a, so as to be about half an inch deep on the ice, and this is frozen by a similar operation, till the vessel is filled up with ice. See Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol. viii. p. 251. 3 and Processes in the Useful Aris. 149 2. Account of Mr. Dalton’s Process for determining the Value of Indigo. In order to find the value of any sample of indigo, Mr. Dalton directs us to take one grain, carefully weighed from a mass finely pulverised. Put this into a wine glass, and drop two or three grains of concentrated sul- phuric acid upon it. Having triturated them well, pour in water, and transfer the eoloured liquid into a tall cylindrical jar, about one inch in- side diameter. When the mixture is diluted with water, so as to show the flame of a candle through it, mix the liquid solution of oxymuriate of lime with it, agitating it slowly, and never putting any more in till the smell of the preceding portion has vanished. The liquid soon be- comes transparent, and of a beautiful greenish-yellow appearance. Af- ter the dross has subsided, the clear liquid may be passed off, and a lit- tle more water put into the sediment, with a few drops of oxymuriate of lime, and a drop of dilute sulphuric acid ; if more yellow liquid is pro- duced, it arises from particles of indigo which have escaped the action of the oxymuriate before, and must be added to the rest. The value of the indigo Mr. Dalton considers to be in proportion to the quantity of real oxymuriate of lime necessary to destroy its colour. He is of opinion also, that the value may be well estimated by the quantity and intensity of the amber-coloured liquid which the indigo produces, which is found independently of any valuation of the oxymuriate of lime. The following results obtained with several samples, show the great value of this mes thod. Oxymuriate of lime used to destroy its colour, Precipitated and sublimed indigo é ° . 140 grains. Flora indigo. J . . : = : 70 Another sample ‘ ° : . . ° 70 Two other indigos_ . . . F . . GO Two other samples . z : : . . 50 Another sample : : : : ° : 40 Another sample . ° . . . : 30 or 35. Mr. Dalton is of opinion, that to destroy indigo by oxymuriatic acid, twice the quantity of oxygen is necessary that is required to revive it from the lime solution. See Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. iy. p- 437, 438, 439. 3. Mushet’s Process for alloying Copper for Ships. In order to inerease the tenacity of pure copper, to render it more fibrous, and to prevent the common effects of sea-water upon it, Mr. Mushet has taken out a patent for the following process :— He mixes with the copper, as an alloy, regulus of zinc, in the propor- tion of two ounces of zinc to 100lbs. weight of copper ; or two ounces of block or grain tin ; or four ounces of regulus of antimony ; or eight ounces of regulus of arsenic, in the same quantity of copper. Or, in- stead of employing these substances alone in the aboye-mentioned pro- portions, to 100lbs. of copper he proposes to add half an ounce of regue 150 History of Mechanical Inventions _ lus of zine, half an ounce of grain or block tin, one ounce of regulus of antimony, and two ounces of regulus of arsenic. 4. Mr. Mackintosh’s process for rendering impervious to water and air all kinds of Cloths ; also Leather and Paper, &c. This very valuable process, which we owe to the ingenuity of our countryman Mr. Charles Mackintosh, consists in joining the surfaces of two pieces of cloth by a flexible varnish, made of caoutchoue dis- solved in the naptha obtained from the distillation of coal. The caout- chouc, after being cut into thin shreds, is steeped in the varnish com- posed of twelve ounces of caoutchouc to one wine glass full of the oil. Heat may be applied, and the thick varnish must be strained through a sieve of wire or horse-hair. The cloth is stretched on a frame, and _then covered by means of a brush with a coat of the elastic varnish. When the varnish has become sticky, another piece of similar cloth, si- milarly varnished, is laid upon the first, the surfaces being placed face to face; and, to promote the adhesion, they are pressed between a pair of plain rollers, and then dried in a warm room. This cloth, of which we have now several very fine specimens before us, besides being used for outer garments to keep off rain, will be found highly useful for various purposes in the arts and sciences. 5. M. M. Farrimann and Thilly’s Process for rendering Leather, Canvass, Linen, &c. Water Proof: To 100 lbs. of the best linseed oil add 13 Ib. of sugar of lead, (acetate of lead,) 14 Ib. of coloured amber, 13 Ib. of white lead, and 13 lb. of pumice stone, very finely powdered. When the solid substances are well ground and mixed, they are to be boiled in the oil for ten hours over a moderate fire, to prevent the oil from burning. The varnish thus made ought to have such a consistence, that when mixed with a third part of its weight of pipe clay, it is as thick as treacle. After settling for eight days, it is then passed through a lawn sieve. In a solution of strong and clear glue, as much pipe clay is to be ground as amounts in weight to the tenth part of the oil employed, and mixed to the consistence of oint- ‘ment, adding the varnish by degrees, and stirring it with a wooden spa- tula. When this varnish has become perfectly fluid by repeated stirring, the requisite tint is given, by adding a fourth part of the colour ground in oil. The composition is applied to each side of the linen, when stretched on a wooden frame, with a spatula three inches broad and nine long. The same composition is used for leather and skins; but a smooth and bril- liant surface is given to them by the following varnish : Five pounds of the oil varnish, and an equal weight of well-clarified resin, are boiled, till the resin is absorbed. Two pounds of oil of turpentine, having the required colour ground with it, is then to be added, when passed through a lawn sieve. This varnish is then to be applied with a brush. When the varnish is perfectly dry, it is rubbed even with a pumice stone and wa- and Processes in the Useful Arts. 151 ter, and then washed clean. Two or three coats of varnish being ap- plied to the leather, &c. and each coat permitted to dry for two or three days, a brilliancy equal to that of Japan lacker will be produced Bul- letin de la Société d Encouragement, &c. or Gill’s Tech. Repos. May 1824, p- 320. 6. Siemen’s Improvement on the Process of making Brandy Srom Potatoes. . The introduction of this process, which has been adopted in many parts of Germany and in the north of Europe, has been recommended te the Swedish government by M. Berzelius, and to the Danish govern- ment by Professor Oersted. From the trials made at Copenhagen, it would appear that one-third more brandy is produced than by the usuai processes. In Professor Oersted’s report, we find the following account of the process. The potatoes are put into a close wooden vessel, and ex- posed to the action of steam, which heats them more than boiling water. The potatoes can thus be reduced to the state of the finest paste with the greatest facility, it being necessary only to stir them with an iron instru- ment furnished with cross pieces. Boiling water is then added to the paste, and afterwards a little potash, rendered caustic by quicklime. This dissolves the vegetable albumen which opposes the complete con- version of the potato starch into a fluid. Professor Oersted frees the potato brandy from its peculiar flavour by means of the chlorate of potash, which is said to make it equal to the best brandy made from wine.—Gill’s Tech. Repos. No. 29, p. 322. 7. Account of Improvements on Thir Circular Saws. - In order to prevent thin circular saws from bending, or buckling as it is termed, they are generally confined between two flat circular plates. The improved method, however, consists in confining the binding to a more narrow ring near the periphery or rim of the saw. By this simple contrivance, the saw revolves with such truth and accuracy that it is fit for the nicest operations, such as cutting the teeth of the finest comb. The gentleman who communicated to Mr. Gill this contrivance, always softens his circular saws when their teeth require sharpening, which great- ly facilitates the operation. He tempers them only to a yellow colour, by which they last much longer than when they are tempered to the spring temper. Mr. Gill likewise mentions, that the late Mr. S. Varley prevented the very common evil of the bending of the saw-arbor, which arises from the imperfection of the screw upon it, by forming the exter- nal face of one of the circular plates convex, and the face of the binding screwed nut concave ; both being portions of spheres of the same diame- ter. They were thus allowed to ply or yield to the irregularity of the screw, which could not take place when their surfaces were made flat as usual.—See Gill’s Tech. Repos. No. 31, p. 64. 8. On the Invention of Floating Breakwaters. ~ We have much pleasure in inserting the following article, which is the 152 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. substance of a letter addressed to us by David Gordon, Esq. already well known to the public as the ingenious inventor of the portable gas lamps : «« As Mr. White has lately taken out a patent for a floating break- water, and you have noticed it in your Edinburgh Journal of Science as a new invention, I beg leave to refer you to the Repertory of Arts, Vol. XLI. page 206, wherein you will find the specification of my patent, dated 14th January 1822, for improvements on floating breakwaters, a copy of which I sent to you, and of which you gave a short notice in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October 1822. Vol. VII. page 373. «« In fact I had, from observing the effects of a field of ice aground he twixt two islands, and at the mouth of a bay, and large American rafts anchored in similar situations, many years ago, contrived a floating breakwater, and for a long time thought myself the first inventor thereof, but upon returning to this country, I discovered that General Bentham had proposed to make floating breakwaters in separate parts or floats of wood, to make the floats of a triangular or rather a prismatic shape, and to hold them in their places by means of iron chains, &c. ; and that he had actually given in a plan and estimate for forming the break water at Plymouth of wooden floats, the cost of which he calculated at L.201,826. Under these circumstances, I saw that it was impossible to claim being the first inventor of floating breakwaters, and limited my claim to improvements thereon. «©T¥ humbly think that both General Bentham’s and Mr. White’s plans are defective in several particulars, even in others than I could in- clude in my specification, and which I propose to give an account of in some observations on sea walls, piers, and breakwaters.” Art. XXVIII—ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS. I. Der Monte Rosa. Eine Topographische und Naturhistorische Skizze nebst einem Anhange der von Herrn Zumstein gemachten Reisen zur Ersteigung seiner Gipfel. . Monte Rosa. A Topographical and Historical Sketch, with an Appendix of the Journies of M. Zumstein to these Summits. By Louis Baron DE WELDEN. With a Topographical Chart and Lithographic Plates. Vienna. 1824. Wane Monte Rosa was regarded as inferior in altitude to Mont Blanc, it enjoyed a sort of peaceful existence, which was neither disturb< ed by the approach of travellers nor by the hammer of the Geologist. No sooner, however, was it conjectured that it was the king of European mountains, than travellers flocked to it from different quarters. Its ridges were ascended, its ravines explored, its rocks broken up, and me- moirs written in commemoration of its newly acquired sovereignty. In our last Number we gave a translation and abstract of the-very in- teresting journey which M. M. Zumstein and Vincent performed to one Baron Weilden’s Account of Monte Rosa: 153 of its summits, and we stated the trigonometrical observations by which they obtained, from its most elevated peak, an altitude exceeding that of Mont Blane. It appears, however, that these observations were not correctly made, and that Mont Blane is still entitled to the high- est dignity among our European mountains. The following are the observations which have been made at different times upon the height of Monte Rosa. Rejected. Toises. In 1788, M. Oriani, from Milian - - 2389 from Mont Generoso - 2391 In 1803, from Milan . - 2385 In 1824, M. Carlini, from Milan - - 2374 from Turin - - 2343 from Superga . 2357 from Mondovi - - 2319 In 1822, Baron Welden, from Monte Carnero - 2370 Mean height of Monte Rosa - 2373 The folowing observations haye been made at various times on Mont Blanc. Toises. In 1796, M. Tralles = - - 2468 In 1821, M. Carlini, from Mont Colombier - 2460 The Austrian Engineers from Mont Trelod 2462 from Perron d’Encombres 2159.9 from the Glacier of Ambin 2463.9 from Roche Melon 2458.8 The French Engineers from Mont Granier 2460.1 Mean height of Mont Blanc - 2461.8 Do. of Monte Rosa - 2373.0 Hence, Mont Blanc is higher than Monte Rosaby = - 88.8 Toises, As some persons have claimed for Mont Oerteles, in the Tyrol, an elevation equa) to that of Mont Blanc, we shall give the following mea- sures of its height, as obtained in 1818 by the Austrian engineers, from the triangulation which they then conducted in the Tyrol. Toises. In 1818, from Painn Spitze ~ = 2012.5 from Monte Motto = = - 2010.1 from Corno di S. Colombano - 2009.5 from Pizzo del Ferro - = 2010.0 Mean height of Oerteles - 2010. Height of Mont Blanc - 2461.8 Hence Mont Blanc is higher than Oerteles by - 451.3 Toises. 154 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. Although Monte Rosa is thus deprived of the honour of being placed at the head of our mountains, yet it has acquired a new degree of inter- est during its temporary elevation. Baron Welden, the author of the present work, conceived the laudable design of exploring and describing the topography, the orometry, the geology, the natural history, and the botany of this mountainous region. ) Monte Rosa is finely seen from.the rich plains of Lombardy. It is seen distinctly from the Gulf of Genoa, while Mont Blanc is concealed behind the mountains of Cogne and Saone. Baron Welden has observed Monte Rosa from the whole chain of the Appenines, from Sasso di Cas- tro, above Loano, on the road from Florence to Bologna, from Monte Cimone, on the road from Modena to Pistoja, from Lacissa of Pontre- moli at Parma, and also from the Col de Tende. In general it is seen in all directions to the south and the east, as the view of it is not inter- rupted by any mountains of sufficient altitude. Towards the east it is seen from the whole chain of Mont Cenis; and Baron Welden has ob- served it from all the chain of the Oberland in Berne, which stretches from the Gemmi and the Diablerets to the lake of Geneva. Monte Rosa was called by the ancients Mons Sylvius, a name which was afterwards conferred on its neighbour, Mont Cervin. The name of Monte Rosa seems to have been first given to it by Scheuchzer, in his Itinera Alpina in 1702—1711 ; and Baron Welden thinks that it de- rives its name from the roseate tints which the first rays of the rising sun throw upon its whitened summits. The summit of Monte Rosa has not yet been reached by any traveller. One Maynard pretended that he had reached the summit on the 13th of August, 1813; but it is evident from his own account, that the point which he attained was very far from the summit. In 1817 Pro- fessor Parrot of Dorpat, along with M. Zumstein of Gressonay, made two attempts to ascend this mountain, but both of them failed. In 1819, M. Zumstein performed the interesting ascent of one of its southern summits, which we have published in our first number. He made a second aseent in August 1820; a third in August 1821 ; a fourth in July 1822; and a fifth in August of the same year ; an account of all of which is published at the end of Baron Welden’s work. After Baron Welden has given an account of the various triangula- tions connected with Monte Rosa and the Swiss Mountains, he gives a table of the height of the European mountains which have been accu- ratcly measured, and which is too valuable to be omitted. FIRST CLASS. Paris feet. Paris feet. Mont Blanc —_- E 14,764 Monte Rosa, 4th Peak - 12,984 Monte Rosa, Ist, or highest Peak 14,222 5th Peak - 13,650 2d, Peak 14,154 6th Peak - 12,984 3d, Peak 14,028 Baron Welden’s Account of Monte Rosa. 155 SECOND CLASS. ~ Paris feet. Paris feet. Mont Cervin, Saussure - 13,854 Le Geant - : 13,044 - Finster Aarhorn, Tralles - 13,234 ‘THIRD CLASS. Paris feet. Paris feet. Mountain between the valley of Eigner, Tralles - 12,368 Matter and Saas = 12,882 Mountain N.W. of Briangon 12,138 Jungfrau, T'ralles . 12,872 Point Oerteles, Tyrol - 12,059 Méneh < = - 12,666 Aiguille du Midi = - 12,054 - The Great Peloux, W. of Bri- Breithorn, Saussure 5 12,012 angon = Fs 12,612 Glockner in Salzburg, Schiegg 11,988 Shreckhorn, T'radles = 12,560 Monte Viso, M. Plana - 11,808 _Iseran in Savoy - - 12,456 FOURTH CLASS. Paris feet. Paris feet. Zebru Konigs-Spitze, near Oer- Sustenhorn = as 10,910 teles = = 11,516 Roche Melon, S. E. of Mont Wetterhorn, 7 alles ~ 11,453 Cenis - = 10,878 Altes a = = 11,432 Titlis, Saussure - 10,818 Aiguille D’Argentiere,Raymond11,412 Aiguille d’Arve, Savoy - 10,776 Frau, Tralles = 11,393 La Pelouse, Savoy = 10,775 Dent Parassée, Savoy - 11,388 Mont Perdu, Pyrenees 10,518 Gallenstock = - 11,330 Monte Confinale, near Oerteles 10,392 - Monte delle Disgrazie - 11,316 Glacier d’Ambin = 10,380 Weissbachhorn, Salzbourg 11,300 Vigne Male - - 10,374 Doldenhorn, Trailles - 11,287 Moschelhorn e _ 10,280 Monte Tresero 2 = 11,136 Mount Etna, Shuckburgh 10,254 Roche St. Michael, the highest Pizzo Scalino = 10,248 point of Mont Cenis - 11,058 Liconcio = - 10,221 Dedi - - - 11,839 Poz Valrhein - 10,220 La Rame in Savoy = 10,968 Glacier de Chardon - * 10,200 Monte Adamello, Tyrol - 10,950 After giving an account of the trigonometrical operations among the Alps, and the longitudes, latitudes, and heights of the principal mountains and peaks, Baron Welden treats, at great length, of their zool- ogy, botany, and topology, of the vegetation of the mountains, of the line of perpetual snow, and of their glaciers, torrents, and mines.. He gives also a very interesting account of the inhabitants of the valleys around Monte Rosa which is encircled by a German population, who have preserved their customs and language entire. This German population to the south and east of Monte Rosa amounts to 9000, of whom 4000 inhabit the valley of the Lys, where there are two parishes and several hamlets. The other 5000 are dispersed in the parishes of Allagna and Mucugnaga. The plates of this work are very interesting. Besides the map of the triangles, there are five small views of Monte Rosa executed by the Ca- . i 156 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. mera Lucida, viz. a view of Monte Rosa from the Lago D’Orte; a second from Turin ; a third from Vercelli; a fourth from Gemmi; and a fifth from Rothorn. The last of the plates is a fine topographical chart of Monte Rosa and its environs, on a scale of 3200 toises to a Paris inch. It is finely engraved by Bonati of Milan, and is considered by Baron Zach, a competent judge, as a perfect model for topographical charts. II. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. Second Series, vol. iv. Noruine has contributed more to the advancement of science, and to the diffusion of general knowledge in Great Britain, than the ‘establish- ment of Provincial Societies for literary and philosophical purposes. Among these institutions, which are every year increasing in number, the Society of Manchester has long held a distinguished place, and con- tinues to sustain its high character, under the auspices of Mr. Dalton and Dr. Henry ;—names which have long been associated with some of the finest discoveries in chemical science. ‘The present volume, which we propose only briefly to notice, contains sixteen papers, five of which are literary, and eleven scientific. The first scientific paper is by Mr. Dalton, and is entitled, On Oil, and the Gases obtained from it hy Heat. As this paper was read so long ago as 1820, the results which it contains have been in some measure su~- perseded by later observations. Mr. Dalton found that oil gas is not altered by being kept two or three years over water or mercury, either by itself, or in mixture with three or four times its bulk of oxygen gas. He found that oil gas was highly absorbable by water, about sixty. per cent being absorbed. The gas expelled from the water was richer than the original, or contained more superolefiant gas, both from the increase of carbonic acid, and of the requisite oxygen. Mr. Dalton considers it as nearly demonstrable, that oil gas is a mixture of carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and hydrogen, with a greater or less portion of a gas suz generis, consisting of the elements of olefiant gas, united in the same proportion, but differing in the number of atoms. In a note appended to the volume, and dated July 1824, Mr. Dalton adds the following important information on this subject: ‘‘ From a recent train of experiments, I found that the heat from the combustion of those gases is accurately, or very nearly, in proportion to the oxygen consumed, and that whether the gases are diluted or not ; but the light is nearly in the compound ratio of the oxygen consumed, and the density of the combustible gas, when the last is nearly pure ; but if it is diluted with any incombustible gas, or even with hydrogen, the diminution of light is vastly greater than in proportion to the dilution. I find one cubic foot of oil gas (spec. grav. 0.9) equivalent to 2 or 2! of coal gas (spec. grav. 0.6) for the purpose of illumination.” Page 527. The next scientific paper, also by Mr. Dalton, is entitled Observations in Meteorology, particularly with regard to the Dew Point, or Quantity of Vapour in the Atmosphere. ‘These observations were made from 1803 to 1820, on the mountains in the north of England, with the view of Memoirs of the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester. 157 ascertaining whether or not there existed a distinct vapour atmosphere, mevhanically blended with the common one, but acting by its own ten- sion or elasticity, and being subject to condensation by cold exactly in the same manner as an insulated atmosphere of steam would be. Mr. Dal- ton’s observations, however, though original in their nature and design, do not in his own opinion establish the existence of such an atmosphere. The following are the results which their author has deduced from them: 1. That the quantity and density of vapour is constantly (or with very rare exceptions) less the higher we ascend. 2. That wherever a dense cloud or fog exists, then the temperature of the air and the dew point are the same. 3. That when a mountain is wholly, or in great part, enveloped in fog, there is little variation in inet either in the temperature of the air, or in the dew-point. 4, That, upon an average, the temperature of the air sinks after the rate of 1° for every 80 yards of perpendicular ascent, about the middle, or warmest part of the day; and that of the dew-point 1° for every 130 yards perpendicular ascent. &. That the phenomena of aqueous meteors, such as rain, fog, dew, | &c. depend upon the known relations of heat and water, and are ex- hibited to us in miniature every day in our domestic economy. Elec- tricity appears to be a consequent, rather than an agent, in the forma- tion and decomposition of clouds ; or, if a necessary agent, it is equally so in the boiling of water, or in the drying of piece-goods in a stove. Mr. Dalton concludes his paper with the following useful Table, which exhibits in numbers the drying power of the air, according as its temperature is elevated above that of the dew-point. | | Dew Temperature of the air above the Dew Point. Point. 3 hu | dt ep wie ae Rin 18 20 30 §|16|24|32| 41| 51! 63] 74| 86] ‘98 35 9| 17} 26]37| 48] 61) i 85} 99] 114 40 |10] 22/33] 45| 57] 711 20 | | 117 | 135 45 | 12] 24) 37] 51] 66} 81 99! 117 | 135 | 154 AO | 14] 28/43] 60] 7&8| 96) 115] 135 155 | 178 55 | 16| 33/51] 69] 88 | 109 | 131 | 155 | 181 | 209 60 | 18 ar) 57 | 77 | 100 126 153 | 182 The next paper in this volume is a very elaborate and interesting one, entitled, Tables of the various Species of Periodical Birds observed in the neighbourhood of Manchester, with a few Remarks, tending to establish the opinion that the Periodical Birds Emigrate ; by Mr. ihe Black- wall. The following tables will exhibit Mr. Blackwall’s arrangement of periodical birds, and the principal facts which he has observed. eat I.—Periodical Summer Birds. Appear. Disappear. Sand Martin Hirundo riparia April 6 Sept. 16 Wryneck Yunx torquilla do. Water Wren ; Motacilla trochilus do. 12 do. 12 158 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. Appear. Disappear. Redstart _ Motacilla phoenicurus do. 13 do. 5 Wheatear Motacilla oenanthe do. 14 do. 13 Swallow Hirundo rustica do. 18 Oct. 11 Whinchat ' Motacilla rubetra do, 20 Sept. 17 Black-cap Motacilla atricapilla do. 22 do. Martin Hirundo urbica do. 23 Oct. 13 Cuckoo Cuculus canorus f do. 24 June 28 Yellow Willow Wren Motacilla sylyicola do. 28 Sept. 10 Stonechat Motacilla rubicola do. do. Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos do. 29 do. 19 Grasshopper Warbler = Motacilla locustella do. 30 Whitethroat Motacilla sylvia May 2 do. 17 Swift Hirundo apus do. § Aug. 18 Petty chaps Motacilla hortensis do. 12 Sept. 11 Land Rail Rallus crex do. 14 do. 30 Fly-catcher Muscicapa grisola do. 14 do. 13 Hedge Warbler Motacilla salicaria do. 19 Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio do. Goat-sucker Caprimulgus Europeus do. Taste I].—Periodical Winter Birds. Appear. Disappear. Snipe Scolopax gallinago Sept. 28 March 31 Redwing Turdus Lliacus Oct. 9 do. 26 Mountain Finch Fringilla montifringilla do. 18 April 14 W oodcock Scolopax rusticola do. 26 do. . 2 Jack Snipe Scolopax gallinula do. Fieldfare Turdas pilaris Nov. 1 March 18 Water Rail Rallus aquaticus Taste IIl.—Birds irregular in Appearing and Disappearing. Appear. Disappear. Crossbill Loxia curvirostra Aug. 5 Nov. 19 Siskin Fringilla spinus Dec. Chatterer Ampelis garrulus Hoopoe Upupa epops Great Shrike Lanius excubitor Tasre 1V.—Birds partially Periodical. Appear. Disappear. Throstle Turdus musicus Feb. 4 Noy. 2 Starling Sturnus vulgaris do. 9 Aug. Green Grosbeak Loxia chloris do, 25 Oct. 23 Common Bunting Emberiza miliaria March 3 Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba do. 11 do. 16 Red Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus do. 17 Sept. Lesser Redpole ~~ Fringilla linaria April 3 Nov. 5 Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava do, 17 Sept. 10 Lapwing Tringa vanellus do. ‘ Merlin _ Falco esalon Oct. Grey Wagtail Motacilla boarula April Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus »/.,. Dec. Memoirs of the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester. 159. Mr. Blackwall proceeds to inquire if there is any connexion between the mean temperature of the times of the appearance and disappearance of periodical birds; but it is quite obvious from his tables, and from similar tables in other latitudes, that the weather is, generally speaking, . much colder when they appear than when they disappear, from which we should be disposed to draw the conclusion, that they have a greater affection for our temperate one than for the warm climate to which sete emigrate in winter. : In order to show that the periodical birds migrate to warmer climates, in place of becoming torpid in winter, as has been supposed by some na- turalists, Mr. Blackwall derives his principal arguments from the ab- surdity of the latter opinion. He also argues from the important fact, that several species of periodical summer birds moult during the interval that elapses between their departure and re-appearance ; and he consid- ers it ridiculous to suppose that these birds could throw off their old fea- thers and put on new ones, if they were in a state of torpidity, or if their animal functions were entirely suspended. Mr. Blackwall has enriched this volume with other two papers, one On the Notes of Birds, including an Enquiry whether or not they are in= stinctive, and another On the Cuckoo. In the first of these papers, he clearly shows, in opposition to Daines Barrington, that the notes of birds.are instinctive, and do not * depend on the master under whom they are bred.” His principal observations are arranged in tables, which we cannot withhold from our readers, and which we have thrown into one. Taste V.—Catalogue of Singing Birds, with the time of their beginning and ceasing to sing, from a mean of five years’ observation, with the numerical value of their notes, twenty being that of absolute perfection. Begins. Ends. |Mellow- |Spright- |Plaintive-| Compass. Bae ness. liness. ness. tion. Redbreast Jan. 3/Dec. 14) 9 8 12 14 14 Wren do. 13) do. 3 1 16 0 4 5 Missel Thrush |Feb. 1|May 28 3 4, 1 5 3 Throstle do. SiAug. 12 3 10 2 10 4 Skylark do. 9July 8 4 19 4 18 18 Hedge Warbler | do. 9) do. 19] 3 4 3 4 4 Chaffinch do. 10) do. 7 2 14 1 4 5 Starling do. 15)May 30 4 2 2 4 2 Blackbird March 20\July 13| 8 1 4 5 3 Green Grosbeak | do. 24,Aug. 12 5 3 5 5 5 Titlark April 4July 9 3 2 2 2 2 Lesser Redpole | do. d5/Aug. 5] 1 4 0 3 3 W oodlark do. Oct.° 25), 18 2 17 8 6 Goldfinch do. 11)June 4 16 4, 10 12 Redstart do. 14) do. 29 1 4, 0 2 2 Willow Wren do. i4/Aug. 23] 6 4 5. 5 5 Linnet do. 15July 6) 10 15 6 12 13 Lesser Field-Lark| do. 17} do. 8 8 7 5 4 5 Swallow do. 19/Sept. 25} 4 6 2 3 3 Stonechat do. 24)June 1 3 0 3 Zt Whinchat do. 25\July 1 1 3 0 2 2 Blackcap do. 25) do. 22) 14 12 12 10 8 Whitethroat do. 29} do. 16 1 4 0 3 3 Pettychaps May 12/ do. 11} 14 6 14 10 9 Sedge Warbler | do. 17/ do. 16] 2 te |e 18 14 160 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. Mr. Blackwall’s Observations on the Cuckoo, will be read with much interest by naturalists. He confirms, in general, the interesting results ob tained by the late Dr. Jenner, and we regret much that we cannot find room for an abstract of his ingenious observations. The other scientific papers in this half volume, are On the Transverse Strain and Strength of Materials ; by Mr. Eaton Hopexinson. This is a paper of great interest and value, and we may probably return to it at some future opportunity. On the Saline Impregnations of the Rain which fell during the late Storm, December 5th, 1822; with an appendix toit; by John Dalton, F. R.S. An abstract of this paper is given in our Scientific Notices. On the Nature and Properties of Indigo ; by Joun Darron, F.R.S- The principal part of which we have already, given in our History of Mechanical Inventions and Processes in the Useful Arts, p. 149. . Experiments on the Analysis of some of the Aeriform Compounds of Ni- trogen; by Witt1am Henry, M.D. F.R.S. See our last Number, p- 377. for an extract from this ingenious paper. III. Account of the Bell Rock Light House ; including the Details of the Erection and peculiar Structure of that Edifice. 1 vol. 4to. pp. 534. By Rosert Stevenson, Esq. F. R.S. E. Civil Engineer. ‘* Far in the bosom of the deep, O’er these wild shelves my watch I keep, A ruddy gem of changeful light. Bound on the dusky brow of night, The seaman bids my lustre hail, And scorns to strike his timorous sail.” Srr Watter Scort. Ir England has justly boasted of the Eddystone Lighthouse as one of the greatest public works of the age in which it was erected, and if the skill and intrepidity with which it was planned and executed, have re- flected immortal honour on the name of Smeaton, Scotland may, with equal justice, be proud of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and may claim an equal share of reputation to Mr. Stevenson, for the skill, and intrepidity, and patience with which he has planted that magnificent beacon upon our stormy coast. The erection of a bridge, the formation of a canal, or, in- deed, any of the common works of the civil engineer, require only those ordinary resources both of mind and machinery which long experience has sanctioned ; but in the erection of a lighthouse, upon a submerged rock in the bosom of a stormy sea, the engineer is thrown upon new re- sources, of which ncither theory nor experience furnishes him with any knowledge. | His building is subjected to strains’ different from those of gravity ; his materials are exposed to disintegrations worse than the cor- rosions of time or weather ; and every part of his operations, however tri- vial they may be on dry land, requires precautions and combinations which nothing but patience, and temper, and sagacity can enable him to anti- Mr. Stevenson’s Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. \61 cipate. But even when he has provided for the usual contingencies of the elements, he has to encounter storms and surges, the effects of which. he could neither foresee nor calculate. ; In greater peril, perhaps, than the military engineer, who erects his works in the middle of cannonading redoubts, and who sees his men falling a- round him, his defences broken down, his implements and his materials crushed or dispersed, the engineer of a submarine-founded lighthouse is surrounded on all points by an enemy still nearer him ;—an enemy that sometimes undermines his foundations, unscrews his bolts,. breaks his iron beams, and whirls his granite blocks into the air, as if Neptune and all his court had stumbled over this pillar of the deep. - The work of which we propose to give here a brief notice, is a large quarto, illustrated with twenty-three engravings. Itisably drawn up by Mr. Stevenson, the engineer of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and is pub- lished under the direction of the Commissioners of the Northern Light- houses, a body organised in 1786, and to whose labours (which are purely ex officio, and without any remuneration whatever) the country is under the greatest obligations. The sunken reef on which this Pharos has been erected, is about 427 feet long, and 230 broad, and lies about 12 feet under water at the ordi= nary height of spring tides. The Board of Commissioners, about the year 1800, being desirous of erecting a light-house on this rock, directed Mr. Stevenson, their engineer, to survey it; he reported, that it was quite practicable to construct a stone building on the principles of the Eddystone Lighthouse. Various opinions in the first instance existed regarding the practicability of the undertaking, from the depth of the foundation so far surpassing that of the Eddystone. Captain Brodie of the Royal Navy proposed an erection on iron pillars, and other modes were likewise projected, when the Commissioners consulted the late Mr. Rennie. That eminent engineer coincided in opinion with Mr Ste- venson, in favour of a building upon the principles of the Eddy- stone. An act of Parliament was accordingly applied for, and pass- ed in 1806, which provided for a loan to the Board of L.25,000 ; and as there were surplus duties to the amount of L.20,000 in the hands of the Commissioners, the work commenced with funds to the amount of L.45,000. The operations began in 1807; a temporary floating light was provided ; a work yard for preparing the stones was established at Arbroath ; and a temporary beacon house erected on the rock for the ac~ commodation of about 30 workmen. At this period of the undertaking, the labours and dangers of those employed were very great: The lower floor of the beacon house, which was used as a smith’s forge and for preparing the mortar, though elevated 25 feet above the rock, was often set adrift by the violence of the sea, and the lime casks, and even the smiths’ an- vils, whirled among the waves. During the whole of the operations of the first season, Mr. Stevenson remained constantly with the artificers at the rock, and contributed by his example, as well as by his skilful ma- nagement of the tempers of the workmen, to surmount the difficulties which often threatened to overwhelm them. The dangers of delaying VOL, II. NO. I. JAN. 1825. M 162 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. the most difficult operations rendered it necessary that the work should be carried on upon Sunday ; and Mr. Stevenson and all the artificers, ex- cept a mason or two, who declined to labour more than six days in the week, continued their labours from day to day without. intermission. In boring the holes in the rock, the men often wrought knee deep in wa- ter. On many occasions the smith was obliged to labour at his forge with his feet in the sea, while his face was scorched with the fire, and buffet- ed with the smoke and the sparks which the wind scattered in volumes around him. These individual calamities, however, became more general in the month of September. The sloop Smeaton broke adrift from her moor- ings ; and from the current of the tides, it was impossible that she could return till after the rock was overwhelmed by the sea. Two boats only were now upon the rock, which could not hold more than one-half of the thirty-two workmen, especially in a heavy sea. The drifting of the Smeaton was known only to Mr. Stevenson and the landing-master. The artificers, while either sitting or kneeling at their work, in the founda~ tion pit, did not know their perilous situation, till the rise of the sea drove them from their work, and made them repair to their respective boats for their jackets and stockings. To their astonishment they saw only two boats in place of three. ‘ Not a word,” says Mr. Stevenson, ‘* was uttered by any one, but all appeared to be silently calculating the numbers, and looking to each other with evident marks of perplexity depicted in their countenances.” In this state of alarm a pilot boat fortunately came to their relief, and after a dreadful passage, in which Mr. Stevenson’s face and ears were encrusted with a film of salt, from the sea spray which broke over the bow of the boat, they got all safely on board of the floating light-ship. In the year 1808 the work proceeded with great activity. The stones were all prepared at Arbroath, and were fixed with trenails of oak wood and joggles of stone, as in the Eddystone Lighthouse. The cranes and implements were prepared; the site of the beacon was excavated, in some places to the depth of five feet, and the foundation stone was laid on the 10th July. In this season four courses were completed, which brought the masonry to the height of 53 feet above the lowest part of the foundation pit. In 1809 the building advanced with rapidity. When it had attained the height of eight feet, one of the cranes was erecied on the top of it, and in the course of the season it rose to the height of about thirty feet above low water mark. On the 19th of June, however, there was a remarkable ground swell, which made a tremendous breach upon the rock. The sea, at the meeting of the waves, was observed to rise in the most beautiful conical jets of about thirty or forty feet in diameter at the base, to the height of ten or fifteen feet above the crane, and some of the last laid stones were partially lifted, in consequence of their not having been fixed by trenails. On the 11th of August another swell of the sea broke one of the legs of the shear crane, an iron bar containing about sixteen square inches of section, which was snapped, on three different Mr. Stevenson's Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. 163 occasions, by the force of the waves. In the month of September the -building had risen to the height of thirty feet, which completed the solid -part of the structure, and concluded the operations of the season. During the year 1810 this great structure was completed. The ma- sonry had reached its full height of 100 feet in the month of October, and in December the light was advertised to the public for exhibition, on the Ist of February 1811. Long after the completion of the lighthouse, viz. on the 14th Novem- ber 1912, the building was struck with a tremendous sea, the effect of which was more alarming than any thing that had been experienced since its erection. The locks upon the doors were heard to rattle, and, what was very singular, the building was not struck by another sea dur- ing the whole tide. The alarm was so great that the artificers, and two of the lightkeepers, sprung from the kitchen up to the balcony, imagin- ing for the moment that some vessel must have got upon the rock, and that the report which they heard was the discharge of a gun; but they soon found that their alarm had been occasioned by the sea alone. The following short table will exhibit to our readers the relative di- mensions, &c. of the Eddystone and Bell Rock lighthouses. Eddystone. Bell Rock. Height of rock about Level with high water Level with low water i mark. mark. - cas eae — Ot Poe Saat AS OR es0ck Diameter of the first “4. , 26 eed a ipy tire course Cubic contents in a .. 13,147 es Tee ee about Expense understood to £23,000, ascertained £61,331 : 9: 2. have been about The brief notice which we have now given of the leading operations at the Bell Rock will, we hope, induce the reader to peruse the full and in- teresting details of them which Mr. Stevenson has given in the work before us. Independent of these details, the scientifie reader will find very interesting inquiries respecting natural history, hydrography, and general science, with which this work is enriched. In the introductien Mr. Stevenson has given an historical narrative of the institution of the Board ef Commissioners, and of the progress made in the erection of the northern lighthouses ; and he has inserted in an Appendix various important documents connected with the subject of his work. The plates and letterpress are highly creditable to the several artists. The frontispiece is engraved by Horsburgh, and the general view by Millar. The light-keepers of this establishment consist of a principal, a prin- cipal assistant, and two others, three of whom are always at the rock on duty, while one is absent on leave. Their pay is from fifty to sixty guimeas per annum, besides rations of provisions, uniform clothes, and houses provided for their respective families at Arbroath. Between that place and the light-house, it is not 2 little curious to chserve that a com- 164 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. munication is occasionally kept up by the flight of carrier pigeons, with billets tied round their legs. The commissioners, with proper feelings to~ ward the inmates of this dreary abode, have provided them witha se- lection of Voyages and Travels, &c.; a weekly newspaper, though, (on ac- count of the tides, it cannot reach them oftener than once a fortnight) and also one of the monthly journals. IV. Acta Academie Nature Curiosorum. Tom. XI. Purt 1. Ix may be interesting to our Zoological readers to be informed, that this volume, (which has but lately reached Britain, ) contains several zoo- logical papers, to which some very distinguished names are attached ; we have not, however, been able to observe any very striking or novel views in these memoirs. Dr. Lehman has described several new species of dipterous insects, which he discovered in the country around Ham- burgh ; and there is a paper calculated to render more precise our know- ledge of the larger cetacea by Dr. de Chamisso, being the drawings of several species of whales taken from wooden figures of these animals fa- bricated by the inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles. A memoir on the fossil remains of a gigantic ruminating animal, by Bojanus, is followed by another, the production of E. d’Alton, in which the teeth of the Giraffe are carefully examined and described with a direct reference to the es- say of Bojanus on the fossil animal which he has called Erycotherium Sibericum. Dr. Tilesius has attempted in a short memoir to prove that the Argalis of Pallas must be the primitive or wild stock whence the domestic sheep is derived. The opinion of this excellent naturalist is disputed by Bojanus, in an anatomical paper, entitled, ‘ Craniorum Argalidis, Ovis et Caprese Domesticee Comparatio ;” we shall here no- tice, though very briefly, the objections offered by Bojanus to the opi- nions of Tilesius. 1. In the sheep, the occiput is much longer and broader than in the argalis ; on the other hand, the forehead of this latter is much broader than in the sheep. The face is shortest in the argalis, and the horns do not diverge so rapidly. 2. The tail of the argalis is very short, its habits are wild and sa~ vage, and it is clothed with hair instead of wool. 3. It differs from the genus Capra, in not possessing the lachrymal lacune, but rather resembling the sheep in this part of the osteology of the head. Bojanus concludes from these data, that the argalis belongs to a species distinct from the sheep or goat. We shall not here stop to argue whether or not the argalis be really: the original stock of the domestic sheep; we shall merely remark, that the objections drawn from the slight dissimilarity in the crania of these animals are of little moment : 1. The size and length of the occiput in the domestic cecil when compared with the argalis, seem to depend on the elongation of the head and face ; now, this is owing chiefly, as may be observed in the Acta Academie Naturaw Curiosorum. 165 horse, to the rankness or strength of the pasture on which the animal feeds, and to the comparative humidity of the climate. The forehead is said to be broader in the argalis than in the sheep, but this may be a deception ; it is, however, evident that the orbits are more projecting, and, consequently, that there is a wider range of vision ; but this occurs in many varieties of dogs (as the fox terrier,) without our viewing them as distinct species. The extreme vigilance required on the part of the argalis to guard against its numerous enemies, may have necessitated this structure, which, in the domestic sheep has gradually become less distinct. Upon the whole, we are disposed to think Tilesius right in the views he has adopted relative to the argalis, though there is but lit- tle which may be called novel in his Memoir. We shall speak of but two memoirs more contained in this volume: the first of these is by Carus, and isentitled, “‘ Icones Sepiarum in Lit- tore Maris Mediterranei Collectarum ;” these engravings are very beau- tifully executed. He takes uotice of the remarkable coloured points vi- ’ sible on the integuments of the cuttle-fish, which contract and dilate al- ternately, as if possessing a certain degree of pulsation: these contrac- tions and dilatations cease shortly after life becomes extinct. Though these coloured points may possibly have been long ago noticed by many naturalists, it seems to us that they were first described by De Blain- ville ; some time afterwards Carus, and finally Sangiovanni, in the Gior- nale Encyclopedia di Napoli, an. xiii. No. 9. redescribed this system of coloration, and offered explanations of the phenomena any thing but satisfactory. The writer of this notice observed these pulsating points in the skin of the cuttle-fish in 1821, with the same want of success, as to a correct theory of their true nature ; the aid of the microscope was not neglected. The last memoir is one by Rosenthal on the branches which form the Vena magna galeni, and on the veins of the brain generally. (K-) Arr. XXIX.—NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL BOTANICAL WORKS. Botanical Magazine for September, No. 452. Tas. 2509. Azalea indica, var. £. plena, a state of the plant far inferior, in our opinion, to the common one. t. 2510, Ornithogalum Narbonense, a native of the South of Europe. t. 2511, Bellis sylvestris, an inhabit- ant of Portugal and Spain. We have received the same plant from our excellent correspondent, Mr. Bentham, from about Montpellier. t. 2512, Coreopsis tinctoria of Mr. Nuttall, who found this beautiful and most desirable species in the Arkansa territory. In the Glasgow Botanic Garden we have cultivated it in the open air, where it bears incompara- bly finer flowers than in the green-house. t. 2513, Monarda Russelli- ana, first mentioned by Mr. Nuttall, and named in honour of his friend, Dr. Russell, in his travels in the Arkansa territory. Raised by Mr. Barclay of Buryhill, as well as by ourselves in the Glasgow garden. 166 Notices of Botanical Works recently t. 2514, Huphorbia carinata of Donn’s Hort. Cant. (2. canaliculata of Lodd Cab. and Cy epidaria carinata of Haworth’s Succul. Plants, Suppl. p- 67.) This appears to us not to be different from the figure in Dil- lenius’ Hort. Elth. t. 288, the Pedilanthus tithymaloides, B. of Poitean in Ann. du Mus. v. 19. p. 390. t. 19. f. 1. and the P. tithymaloides of Kunth, in Humboldt’s Noy. Gen. y. 2. p. 63. This is surely a good genus ; Pedilanthus is the older name, though having the same meaning as Mr. Haworth’s Crepidaria. t. 2515, Malva prostata of Cavanilles, and De Candolle. Introduced by the late Mr. John Walker from Brazil. t. 2516, Ophrys arachnites of Linn. and Willd. Botanical Register for Sept. No. 115. Tas. 825. Isochilus prolifer, a rare and interesting plant, indigenous to the West Indies, the Epidendrum proliferum of Swartz. Under this article are some valuable observations on the Exotic Orchidea, by Mr. Lindley. t. 826, Leucadendron tortum, Br. t. 827, Ardisia punctata, n. sp. © foliis lanceolatis coriaceis sinuatis versus basin attenuatis, corolla subeampanulata punetata, lobis obtusis.” Sent from China to the Hor- ticultural Society of London, by the late Mr. T. Potts. t. 828, Canonia capensis. t. 829, Rosa moschata, var. nepalensis, the R. glandulifera of Roxb. Fl. ined. t. 830, Dolichos purpureus, Willd. t. 831, Arum cri- nitum, Hort. Kew, and Willd, a remarkable plant, with the spatha enormously large, not much unlike the extraordinary Aristolochia gran- diflora, of which the blossoms are used by the children of South America and the West Indies for bonnets. No. 116. October. Tas. 832. Brassia caudata of Lindley, (Epiderdrum of Linn, and Malaxis of Willd.) Imported by Lee of Hammersmith from the West Indies. Under the descriptive part of this plant we have an enu- meration of the genera of the first section of “* Epidendree, Ecalcarate, polliniis duobus.” t. 833, Nicotiana nana, n. sp. “ 2-3-uncialis, foliis lanceolatis-pilosis, radicalibus quam flores solitarii longioribus, corolla calyce longiore, laciniis obtusis.” A curious dwarf plant, “sent to the Horticultural Society of London, by W. Bird, Esq. from the rocky mountains of North America, and stated to be the kind from which the Indians make their best tobacco. t. 834, Melodium monogynum of Dr. Carey, “ foliis ovali-lanceolatis acuminatis, panicula glaberrima.” ‘In- troduced from the East Indies by Messrs. Whitley and Brames. t. 835, Scabiosa graminifolia, a pretty species, native of the south of Europe. We have gathered it in the north of Italy. t. 836, Guatteria rufa of Dunal and De Candolle. Sent by Mr. Potts from China to the Hor- ticultural Society’s Garden at Chiswick. +t. 837, Pedilanthus tithyma- loides of Poiteau. t. 838, Heliophila digitata, De Candolle. | The leaves are represented glabrous, and the flowers large, otherwise it very much resembles, the H. stricta of the Bot. Mag. t. 2526. t. 839, Acacia calumifolia of Sweet in Coly. Cat. “ petiolis filiformibus longissimis cernuis, pedunculis solitariis petiolo multoties brevioribus, leguminibus arcuatis articulatis corrugatis.” ; Published in Great Britain. 167 Hooker's Exotic Flora for September, No. 14. Tas. 119. Dendrobium Barringtonie, (Sw. and Br. Epidendrum Barringtonie, Smith Ic. Pict.) t. 220, a beautiful new species of Den-~ drobium, named Harrisunie, in honour of Mrs. Harrison of Argsburzh, near Liverpool, who introduced it from Rio de Janeiro: “ bulbo evato unifolio, folio ovato-lanceolato undulato basi attenuato, scapo uniflore, petalis duobus inferioribus dorso unitis apice bidentalis.” t. 121, Braya alpina of Sternberg, from the gardens both of Edinburgh and Glasgow. t. 122, Pothos acaulis. . t. 123, Pleuothallis racemiflora of Lindley, ** caule elongato unifolio, seapo folio oblongo emarginato longiore erecte, floribus racemosis secundis acuminatis tetrapetalis.” This is the Den- drobium racemiflorum of Swartz; and it was first imported from the West Indies by Messrs. Loddiges. No. 15. October. Tas. 124. Dendrobium pubescens, n. sp. “ bulbo oblongo-ovato, foliis distichis lanceolatis glabris, scapo elongato floribusque laxe spicatis pu- bescentibus, labello oblongo trilobo petalis tribus exterioribus inferne unitis basi saccatis.’” A very interesting species, communicated by Mr. Shepherd, who had received it from Dr. Wallich. A native of Calentta. t. 125, Convallaria oppositifolia of Lond. Bot. Cab. a native of Nepau!, whence it was sent to the Glasgow Garden by Dr. Wallich. t. 196, Trizeuris falcata, Lindl. Coll. Bot. from the Liverpool Botanic Garden, whither it had been transmitted from Trinidad by Baron de Schack, M.D. t. 127, Ornithocephalus gladiatus, constituting a highly curious and new genus, belonging to the 4th section of Mr. Brown’s Orchidex in Hort. Kew: “ Flores resupinati. Labellum subpedicellatum, longe attenuatum. Petala subequalia, duo superiora demum reflexa. Colum- na brevis, hine apice una cum anthera longissime rostrata. Masse pollinis 4, pedicello valde elongata, basi biglanduloso affixe.” This is _a small parasitic plant, with equitant leaves. The very singular elon- gated process of the upper part of the column, with the corresponding .anther case which lies upon it, have suggested the generic appellation. Communicated by the Baron de Schack, to the Glasgow Botanic Garden, where it blossomed in August 1824. Wo. 16.— November. Tab. 128. Trichilia odorata. t. 129. Pleurothallis? - coccinea, which the author has, since the engraving of the plate, ascertained to be the Rodriguesia lanceolata of Loddiges, and, the Rodr. secunda of -Humb. and Kunth. t. 130. Monarda Russelliana of Nuttall—No. 131. Baptisia? nepalensis ; a very handsome plant, raised from Nepaul seeds by Mr. Neill at Canonmills, near Edinburgh. “ Foliis’ternis breviter petiolatis, foliolis lanceolatis subsericeis, stipulis petiolam subequanti- bus ovatis acutis deciduis, germinibus pubescentibus; corolle alis invo- Jutis.” After this plate likewise had been engraved, and most of the impressions finished, a fully formed seed vessel was communicated to 168 Notices of Botanical Works, &c. the author by Mr. Neill; and this led him still more to consider the plant as not belonging to the genus Baptisia, but rather to Thermopsis of Mr. Brown. Mr. Lindley has been kind enough to inform us, that this is the Podalyria sericea of Dr. Wallich’s MSS. ; Anagyris indica of Roxb. MSS. ; and probably of the same genus with Podalyria lupinoides, from Dahuria ; and therefore belonging to the Thermopsis of Brown. Still, Mr. Lindley, who has seen ripe fruit of our plant, is inclined to consider it not generically distinct from Anagyris. t. 132. Chrysiphiala pauct- Jjlora.—< Floribus ante folia, perianthus laciniis erecto-patentibus, sta- minibus subequalibus, corona brevi tubulosa, dentibus bifidis.” Sent to the Horticultural Society from Peru, by James Cowan, Esq. Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet for September, (No. 89.) Tab. 881. Lychnis Suecica. 882. Erica flava. 883. Orobus coccineus. 884. Ribes lacustris. 885. Azalea sinensis. 886. Primula integrifolia- 887. Epidendrum anceps. 888. Aquilegia canadensis. 889. Asarum cana- dense. 890. Gnidia imbricata. No. 90. Tab. 891. Thalictrum petaloideum. 892. Cytisus purpureus 893. Erica stellata. 894. Nerium coccineum. 895. Cypripedium pubescens. 896. Dianthus punctatus. 897. Lupinus Nootkatensis. 898. Monsonia speciosa. 899. Erysimum lanceolatum. 900. Anemone pratensis. No. 91. Tab. 901. Arnica crenata. 902. Erica pendula. 903. Fusti- cia coccinea. 904. Conanthera bifolia. 905. Canna iridiflora. 906. Cero- pegia Africana. 907. Mahernia incisa. 908. Rhododendron myrtifolium. 909. Acacia calamifolia. 910. Pachysandra procumbens. Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. We have only been hitherto deterred by the narrow limits of our space from noticing periedically, the contents of Dr. Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, and not from any insensibility to the value of his work, or to the interest of the subjects which it contains. No branch of the botany of this country required to be more illustrated than the fun- gi, which occupy the greater portion of this publication ; and although they are not calculated at once to strike and arrest our attention like so many of the plants in the works mentioned immediately above; yet when these productions come to be attentively examined, and their strué- ture and mode of growth closely studied, we shall be led to conclude, that no tribe of plants is more calculated to display the wisdom and pow- er of the Almighty, than these little individuals. We know that by one naturalist the fungi have been called the Vermes of the Vegetable Crea- tion, by another the depurators and scavengers of Nature ; but he who bestowed upon them the latter apparently sordid and opprobrious epi- thet, has at the same time borne witness to their importance in the scale of creation. ‘ The wisdom of Providence,” says Mr: Kirby,* has not only been attentive to provide against the atmosphere being over * In his account of the genus Ammophila in the 4th vol. of the Linnwan Trans- actions, p. 196. Proceedings of Societies. 169 loaded with sweets, it has also used similar precautions to prevent its being corrupted with exhalations of a contrary nature ; and to effect this purpose, it employs an infinite number of insects, which class of animals in conjunction with the fungi, may be called the depurators and scaven- gers of nature.” No. 27. September. i Tab. 131. Nostoc ceruleum: t. 132. Leangium? Trevelyani, a new, very curious, and rare species, discovered by the gentleman whose name it bears. t. 133. Orthotrichum Ludwigii, a recent addition to the muscology of Britain. t. 134. Erysiphe Pisi, the cause of mildew on that valuable species of esculent vegetable, the common Garden Pea, infesting its leaves with a fine white film, t. 135. Cucurbitaria cinnaba- rind. No. 28. Octover. Tab. 136. Stromatospheria fragiformis var. levis. t. 137. Orthotrichum speciosum, another species new to Britain. t. 138. Spheria rosella. t. 139. Peziza Wauchii, nov. sp. t. 140. Myrothecium Carmichaelii, nov. sp. No. 29. November. Tab. 141. Erineum griseum et clandestinum. t.142. Thelephora quer- cina. t. 143. Helvella leucophea. t. 144. Sclerotium scutellatum et se- men. t. 145. Weissia splachnoides. Art. XXX.—PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. November 15th.—The Royal Society resumed its sittings for the winter. A paper was read by Mr. Hatpincer, on the Determination of the Idea of the Species in Mineralogy, according to the principles of Profes- ‘sor Mohs. The purpose of this paper is to show, that in the determination of the species, no attention should be given to the chemical properties of bo- dies, ‘that is, to those which are observable while a mineral ceases to exist ; but that every property should be taken into considération which minerals exhibit in their natural state. Bodies which agree in this re- spect either entirely, or in which the differences in their characters may be joined by continuous series, belong to one and the same ‘species. Chemical considerations on the composition of minerals are then only conclusive, if the species has been previously determined; and a com- prehensive knowledge of them can only be obtained, if we do not slight any of the properties of minerals, which has but too frequently occurred, by supposing that in mineralogy there is nothing so satisfactory as the chemical composition of a body. 170 Proceedings of Societies. November 22.—At a general Meeting of the Society, held this ede the following Office-bearers were elected :— Sir Walter Scott, Bart., President. Right Hon. Lord Chief Baron, re ce Vice- Presidents. Professor Russell, Dr. Brewster, Secretary. Thomas Allan, Esq. Treasurer. James Skene, Esq. Curator of the Museum. Physical Class. Alexander Irvine, Esq. President. John Robison, Esq. Secretary. Counsellors. Rey. Dr. Macknight, James Jardine, Esq. Robert Stevenson, Esq. ‘ Sir William Forbes, Bart. Sir William Arbuthnot, Bart. Dr. Home. Literary Class. Henry Mackenzie, Esq. President. Peter F. Tytler, Esq. Secretary. Lord Meadowbank. Rey. Dr. Lee. Professor Wilson. The Right Hon. the Lord Advocate. Sir William Hamilton, Bart. Henry Jardine, Esq. December 6th.—At this meeting, there was read by Joun Cay, Esq: a notice respecting two Ancient Graves, discovered at North Charlton, parish of Ellingham, Northumberland, in January 1823. At the same meeting, there was read Observations on theVision of Im- pressions on the Retina, in reference to certain supposed discoveries re- specting Vision, announced by Mr. Cuartres Berit. This paper forms the first article of the present number. 2. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society. November 13th.—There was read a notice by Major-General Hard- wick, of the Incarceration of a Live Toad in a well at Fort William barracks, Calcutta, for 54 years. The evidence relative to the actual in- carceration of the toad, and its total exclusion from the external world, seemed to be quite imperfect. The preface of a paper by Mr. George Don, was read on the mono- cotyledonous and acotyledonous plants, found between the 4th and 11th degrees of north latitude on the west coast of Africa. There was read, an account of a viviparous variety of Juncus Lampo~ carpus by Mr. Parry. It was doubted whether this was a new variety of the plant alluded to, and even whether this was the name of the speci-~ men submitted to the Society. The occurrence of viviparous’ varieties among similar plants was said to be by no means unusual. December 5.—There was read notices regarding the Blair Drummond fossil whale, by H. Home Drummonp, Esq. and Mr. Brackapper. 5 Scientific Intelligence-—Astronomy. 171 The President, R. K. Grevitier, Esq. requested Dr. Knox to ascer- tain, as far as the specimens admitted, to what species of the cetacea the bones now presented. to the Society belonged ; and to give in a no- tice on that subject at a future meeting. 3. Proceedings of the Society for promoting th: Useful Arts in Scotland . December 7th.—There was read, the Description of the first Steam- engine, invented by the Marquis of ‘Worcester. This paper forms Art. V. of the present number. The following papers were also laid before the Society, to be read in their order at the next meeting on the 21st of December. 1. Description of the original Machine for Drying Linen by Steam, invented by the late Mr. James Watt. The Drawing and Description by Mr. Wart. 2. Description of the new Fangate Sluice, invented and erected on the Steinenboch Canal by M. Bianxen of Amsterdam. 3. Description of several new Sluices, by Mr. Tuom of Rothsay. 4. Description of an Instrument called a Trigon, for solving Problems in Navigation, by Mr. Burnett, Dunse. The following Instruments were exhibited at the Meeting :— 1. Mr. Burnett’s Trigon. 2. Files manufactured by M. Raoul of Paris. 3. Specimens of Curves described by Mr. Jopling’s Machine. Ant. XXXI.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. ASTRONOMY. 1. Elements of the New Comet of 1824.—This comet was discovered on the 23d of July by M. Scheithauer of Chemnitz ; on the 24th July by M. Pons at Marlia ; on the 26th July by M. Gambard of Marseilles; and on the 2d August by M. Harding at Gottingen. The following are the elements of its orbit as calculated by M. Capocci, M. Carlini, and M. Encke: Capocct ~~ Carlini oi CRS at Naples. at Milan. at Seeberg. D. D. D. Passage of Perihelion, Sept. 1824 29.0465 28.800 23.847 Log. of Perihelion Dist. - 0.02175 0.02346 0.02392 Long of Node, - - 279219" 30" 219" al voor aioe ee: Long. of Perihelion - 4, 24 36 A 2029 ew ieee Inclination of Orbit - 54 41 20 55 1 10 551 24 Motion direct M. Encke seems to have obtained other elements, which establish that the comet has an hyperbolic orbit. The following are those which have appeared : 172 Scientific Intelligence. Passage of Perihelion, Sept. - - 29 02259 Long. of Perihelion - - - 4° 25' 51" 2 Long. of Asc. Node - “ - 279 15 31 6 Inclination of Orbit - - - 54 43 7 8 Eccentricity - - . - 1,006046 M. Carlini has remarked it as a curious circumstance, that though the distance of the comet from the sun was increasing, the light of the comet was increasing also. On the Ist of January, 1825, its right ascension will be 75° 8’ its de- clination 47° 5’ north, the log. of its distance from the sun 0.2618, and the log. of its distance from the earth 9.96207. Zach. Cor. Astron. vol. xi. p. 196.—Phil. Mag. vol. lxiv. p. 309. 2. The Buenos Ayres Comet of 1821.—The observations on the comet which we mentioned in our last number, vol. i. p. 37, as very suspicious, have turned out to be an imposition. M. Encke of Seeberg has been at the trouble to compare the Buenos Ayres observations with Dr. Brink- ley’s elements of the comet of 1821, observed by Captain Basil Hall, and the result is, that the observations are false. Baron Zach very ap- propriately remarks, that if the other transactions of that country re- semble this, the new republic of Buenos Ayres will soon take the road of the comet. 3. Spots on the Sun in 1824.—About the end of May, M. Flaugergues observed on the west limb of the sun a very large spot about to disap- pear. From that time till near the end of August he had not observed any spots whatever on the sun’s disc. M. Pons of Marlia observed a fine spot on the sun on the 26th of May, and surrounded with a penum- bra like Saturn’s ring. He saw numerous white spots on the sun’s disc. 4. Lohrmann’s Maps of the Moon.—M. Lohrmann, Professor in the Military Academy at Dresden is about to publish an Atlas of Lunar Maps, which will represent the whole surface of the lunar globe with an accuracy and precision beyond any thing that has yet been attempted. Baron Zach has seen the first section of these maps containing a part of the Mare Nubium, of the Mare Vaporum, and of the spots named Ptole- my, Hipparchus, Albategnius, &c. which he considers as executed with infinite care and accuracy. 5. La Place on the Masses of the Planets.—In a new edition of his celebrated work entitled Exposition du Systeme de Monde, which has just appeared, he has given the following new measures for the masses of the planets : New Masses. Old Masses. . . 1 ; Georgium Sidus = - i7918 19504 i Saturn - - : 3512 3559,4 . 1 : Jupiter - = 1070,5 vy fg 1 Venus - = e 354936 so i List The Earth - _ F’ 405871 356632 1 Of that of the 1 The Moon ; ‘ z 75 Earthinplaceof 68,5 Astronomy.— Optics. 173 6. Parallax of the Sun.—That able astronomer M. Encke of Gotha, is about to publish an elaborate work on the Parallax of the Sun, as de- duced from the Transit of 1769. The parallax obtained for the transit of 1761 was between 8”.429813 and 8.551237. The result of M. Encke’s computations is 8.5776. The semidiameter of the sun at his mean distance is 858°"424. From the transit of 1639 he deduces the motion of the node of Venus’ orbit, which he finds to be 20°.508. Ba- ron Lindenau’s Letter to Baron Zach, in the Corr. Astron. vol. x. p. 174. 7. Copley Medal adjudged to Dr. Brinkley.—The President and Coun- cil of the Royal Society of London have adjudged to that distinguished astronomer the Rey. Dr. Brinkley the Copleyan Medal, for his able ob- servations and papers on the parallax of certain fixed stars. 8. Opposition of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.—The following are the times of opposition of the four new planets: Anomaly. ‘Dist. from the Earth. Vesta, 1825, Feb. 28. 9h 91° 1” 1.357 Pallas, March 13. 7 a2) 2 2.80 Ceres, March 14. 9 207 16 1.603 Juno, June 23. 8 38 16 2.143 According to Mr. Groombridge, Pallas will probably appear like a star of the eighth magnitude. Juno will be too near its aphelion in the in- ferior part of its orbit to be visible with any illumination of the wires, but its transit may be compared with fixed stars. The following are some of the previous positions of these planets. : R. Ase. Decl. N. Vesta, Feb. 6, 1825, at 12h - 115 19 26” 14° 14 Feb. 15. - il ts 40 15 303 Dec. S. Pallas, Feb. 18, 1825, at 12h ~ 115 48’ 55” 5° 44/ March ]. = 11 42 59 135 Decl. N. Ceres, Feb. 18, 1825, at 12h - 12 2238 15 26 March 1. - = 12 16 12 16 42 Decl. S. Juno, May 3]. = = 18 25 44 4 58 June 10, - - 18 18 24 4 39 Phil. Mag. vol. lxiv. p. 359. OPTICS. 9. Singular Colour of the Sun.—On the 13th September, 1824, from 20 p.m. to 535 p.m. the sun exhibited a very extraordinary colour, which we never before observed, and have never seen mentioned by any author. It was of a fine salmon colour, which it preserved for many hours. The sky had a vapoury aspect ; but the sun was not surround- ed by any halo or penumbra of any kind. The barometer stood at 29.74 inches, and the thermometer at 58!°. The wind was in the west, and was 174 Scientifie Intelligence. considerable. The day threatened rain, but only a few drops fell, though showers were seen farther to the west. After 5) 30° when the sun dis- appeared, the whole horizon was covered with an uniform tint of a bluish French grey. In the evening the moon had the same appearance as the sun, and although there were faint clouds about her dise, yet these clouds seemed to be illuminated neither by transmitted nor reflect- ed light. The moon shone with a faint dead light, which made no im- pression upon any external objects. Late in the evening, when her al- titude had increased, a faint penumbral light surrounded her disc. At 11" p, m. A great storm of wind arose, and continued all night. These phenomena were observed near Melrose in Roxburghshire. 10. Frauenhofer’s Large Achromatic Telescope—This splendid instru- ment, which was ordered by the Russian government for the observatory of Dorpat, under the direction of that able astronomer M. Struve, is at last completed ; and Frauenhofer is said to have succeeded beyond his most sanguine expectations. Its focal length is 13 feet 4 inches, and the aperture of the object glass is 9 inches Paris measure or 9 inches and 6-10ths English measure. MAGNETISM. 11. Oscillations of the needle affected, by being enclosed in a copper case.— We understand that, at a recent meeting of the Academy of Sciences, M. Arago has shown that the magnetic needle, when disturbed, makes fewer oscillations in coming to rest, when enclosed in a copper case than in one of any other material, whether of metal or wood. J.ctler from Paris. 12. No diurnal variation of the needle at the Equator.—M. Arago has, we understand, deduced from M. Duperry’s observations on the diurnal variation of the needle, that there is'no diurnal variation at the earth’s equator. 13. Variation of the Magnetic Needle, observed in Africa in 1823. Cap- tain Smith observed the Declination of the Needle, in Africa, as follows: N. Lat. East Long. Variation. Mesurata, : 32° 21/ 26” 15° 16’ 45” 16° 50’ W. Melhufu, : 31-58 56 15. 2F 65 16 30 Isa, A : aly 32) 50 15 31 46 16 10 Zaphrun, : Shi Wap 10 16-41 29 16 40 Boosheida, . 30 59 30 a7. wo0" al 1G re Kadia, : 30 44 13 18 17 40 15° 26 Bushaifa, ; 30 17 40 19 1} 30 15 10 Braijea, ; 30. 23 29 19 39 30 14 25 Gharra, . 30 47. 20 19, 57,424 15.0 Corcora, . 31 28 20 20 oO 10 15 10 Bengazi, : 32 foiMyy OO 20 2 56 14 50 Tholomela, . 32 42 29 20 54 50 14 30 Cape Rasat, 32 55 356 21 38 54 14 12 Baron Zach’s Corresp. Astron, tom. Yili. p, 535. Magnetism—Meteorology. 175 14. Variation of the Magnetic Needle on the Coast of Karamania.—Cap< tain Beaufort has given the following measures of the Variation of the Needle, in his Hydrographical Atlas, on the Coast of Karamania. N. Lat. Fast. Long. Variation. Syra Isle, = Sh? 26% > SOM peeing OF 14°. 0 W. Koloyeri Rock, 38 9 33 aot UFO 26 13. 45 Sahib Isle, , 38. 39 43 26 28 15 13 O Sighajik, < 38 11 54 26 44 53 12 45 Kastelorizo, . 366 68) (33 29 37 28 1l 40 Kakava, . 36 10 47 29-53 55 11 30 Ptolemais, .- 36 35 50 31 49 O 10 50 Alaya, oe Sai il 32 2 24 10 40 Cape Anamour, $6 @es0 22H oh GC 10 35 15. Declination of the Magnetic Needle at Paramatta, New South Wales.—The following Observations on the Declination of the Magnetic Needle have been made at Paramatta, and communicated by Mr. Rum- ker to Dr. Olbers. Declination. Declination. 1822, Oct. 23, 8° 43/’50/ 1823, Mar. 14, 8° 37/12” 1823, Feb. 10, 8 46 47 19, 8 38 38 12, 843 0 20, 840 7 14, 8 34 0 21, 8 53 40 - 15, 7 37 50 22, 8 39 50 Pie ooo 26, 8 47 32 27, 8 49 10 27, -8 50 33 Mar.10, 8 51 30 31, 8 43 27 16. Magnetic Variation and Dip observed in the North Seas, hy Cap- tain Sahine.-—The following Measures of the Variations and Dip of the Needle were obtained by Captain Sabine. N. Lat. W. Long. Variation. Dip. Hammerfast .. 70° 40/ 23° 45’ E. 11° 26 W. 77° 15 N. Fairhaven .... 79 50 11 40 E. 25 12 W. 81 11 N. Drontheim .. . 63 26 10 22 E. 20 40 W. 74 42 N. 17. Scoreshy’s Observations on the Dip of the Needle. N. Lat. W. Long. Mean Dip. 1823, March 29, Liverpool. BIVSSi tie June 10, .. 71°31’ 14’ 12° 7’ 15" 18° 3.6 Duly, G50.) =. Ve 3840 0 Li St O to OL. F Quarterly Journal, No. 33. METEOROLOGY. 18. Increase in the quantity of Rain.—M. Flauguergues of Viviers, who has for 47 years carefully observed the quantity of rain that fell, has re~ marked, by taking periods of ten years, that the quantity of rain is con- tinually increasing, and also the annual number of rainy and cloudy days, not only at Viviers, but throughout the South of France. 176 Scientific Intelligence. 19. Saline Impregnation of Rain.—After a severe storm on the 5th De- cember 1822, Mr. Dalton examined the rain that fell at Manchester, and found that it contained 1 grain of salt, muriate of soda, in 10,000 grains of water ; and as sea water contains 1 grain of salt in 25 of water, there must have been 1 grain of sea water in every 400 grains of rain water. This storm was from the S.W. tothe W. The S.W. wind comes from the coast of Wales, distant 100 miles, and the W. wind from off Liverpool, distant from 30 to 40 miles. In subsequent storms, Mr. Dalton found that there was 1 grain of salt water in 200 grains of rain water, and that the salt water had been brought mechanically by the wind at least 30 miles—Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. iv. p. 330, 370. II. CHEMISTRY. 20. Analysis of the Root of the Male Fern.—As the root of the Poly- podium filex mas has been almost universally used asa worm medicine, M. Morin has submitted it to a careful analysis. It was found to con- sist of, 1. Volatile oil; 2. A fat matter, composed of elaine and stearine ; 3. The gallic and acetic acids; 4. Uncrystallizable sugar ; 5. Tannin ; 6. Soap; 7. A gelatinous matter, insoluble in water and in alcohol. It contains also the sub-carbonate, sulphate, and hydro-chlorate of potash, carbonate and phosphate of lime, alumine, silex, and oxide of iron. Journ. de Pharm. May 1824, p. 230. 21. M. Berzelius’ Analysis of 1000 parts of Carlsbad Water. Sulphate of soda, 2.58713 Carbonate of magnesia, 0.17834 Carbonate of soda, 1.26237 Subphosphate of alumina, 0.00032 Chloride of sodium, 1.03852 Carbonate of iron, 0.00362 Carbonate of lime, 0.30860 Carbonate of manganese, 0.00084. ° Fluate of lime, 0.00320 Silica, - ~ 0.07515 Phosphate of lime, 0.00022 Carbonate of strontian, 0.00096 5.45927 22. Analysis of Chrysoberyl.—Mr. H. Seybert,of Philadelphia has pub- lished the following analyses of the Chrysoberyl, 1, from Haddam in Connecticut, and 2, from Brazil, in which hitherto the presence of Glucina had escaped the notice of Klaproth, Thomson, and Arfvedson. The proportions in the third column are those which Mr. Seybert con- siders as the true mixture of the species, and the fourth contains the oxygen of each substance. Haddam. Brasil. Alumina, s 73.60 68.666 75.75 35.38 Glucina, ; 15.80 16.000 17.64 5.49 Silica, “ 4.00 5:999 6.61 3.2 Protoxide of iron, 3.38 4.733 0.00 Oxide of titanium, 1.00 2.666 0.09 Moisture, . 0.40 0.666 0.00 Total, : 98.18 98.730 100.00 2 La Mineralogy. itt 23. The oxides of titanium and iron Mr. Seybert regards as accidental. The chemical formula, according to the method of Berzelius, is given A1S+4+2G At. Among the physical properties of the chrysoberyl from Haddam are quoted a pale green colour, and a specific gravity found in one specimen = 3.508, in another = 3.597. It does not present the opalescence of the varieties from Brazil and Saratoga. It occurs in the well-known mixture of albite, quartz, manganesian garnet, and yellow granular beryl. (Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 105.) 24. Potassium and Sodium.—Mr. Frederick Butz of Nion (Canton de Vaud) in Switzerland, manufactures potassium and sodium for sale, the price of potassium is L.2 per ounce, that of sodium L.4 per ounce. (Schweigger’s Journal, x. p. 494.) = III. NATURAL HISTORY. MINERALOGY. 25. Rosélite,a New Mineral Species.—Form prismatic. Combination observed similar to Plate III. Fig. 35. inclination cf a on a? over 2 4 = ee P = 47° 12’, of e? on e? over P = 45° 0’, J’ on b’, over es =79° 15°; b’ on D’ over a = 114° 24; b on b adjacent = 140° 40’; edge z on edge z= 125° 7’; bon e3 — 199° 0 Cleavage distinct and brilliant parallel to P. Surface, a” rough, and as it were hollowed out in the middle, the rest smooth. _ Colour deep rose-red. Translucent. Hardness = 3.0, the same as calcareous spar. It was discovered by Mr. Levy in the col- lection of Mf. Turner, in smal! well-defined crystals on amorphous greyish quartz from Schneeberg in Saxony. Mr. Levy remarks that its great resemblance with the arseniate of cobalt from the same locality, had hitherto caused its being placed with it. It is named in honour of that distinguished mineralogist, Mr. Gustavus Rose of Berlin. According to Mr. Children, who examined its chemical properties, it gives off water before the blowpipe in the matrass, and becomes black ; with borax and salt of phosphorus in the oxidating fiame upon pla- tina wire, it yields an intensely deep blue glass. It gives soluble salts with muriatic acid, which produce a precipitate with oxalate of ammo- nia. Digested in caustic potash, evaporated, redissolved, and the alkali neutralized with nitric acid, it gave, with nitrate of silver and ammonia, a brown-red precipitate of arseniate of silver ; with bicarbo- nate of ammonia and phosphate of soda, it gave indications of mag- nesia. It therefore contains water, oxide of cobalt, lime, arsenic acid, and magnesia. Roselite is a very rare mineral, though from the preceding description it appears that the specimen in Mr. Turner’s collection is not the only one described in mineralogical works. There is a specimen of it in the Wernerian Collection at Freiberg, to which the ancient but not very accurate description by Werner of the crystals of cobalt bloom refers, ‘that they are compressed, acute, double, six-sided pyramids. (Jam. Syst. VOL. II. No. 1. JAN. 1825. N 178 Scientific Intelligence. 3d edit. Vol. If. p. 193.) They are in fact lenticular, compressed be- tween the faces marked a’ in the figure, which are somewhat rounded and rough, and contains besides e3 and g. Upon examining that spe- cimen in comparison with the crystals of arseniate of cobalt, it was clear that it belonged to a different species ; the establishment of which, however, is entirely due to Mr. Levy, as it was impossible to detach a crystal from that group for ascertaining its characters without too much injuring the specimen. 26. Columbite-—Dr. Torrey of New York has ascertained that Haddam, in Connecticut, is the most likely locality of that variety of Columbite which had been sent to Sir Hans Sloane by Governor Winthrop of Con- necticut, and in vain sought for in the vicinity of New London, the locality quoted. Count Trolle Wachtmeister first discovered that there was tantalite in one of the specimens of the Haddam rock, containing cymophane, beryl, &c. sent to him by Dr. Torrey. This was, however, only a very small quantity. Dr. Torrey found lately amorphous masses half an inch in diameter, and smaller crystals, which are very perfect, and engaged in the red garnet, which has been found by Mr. Seybert to contain 30 p. cent. of manganese. These crystals are frequently asso- ciated with cymophane, as is the case in a specimen of the latter in Mr. Allan’s cabinet. (Ann. of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist. New York.) 27. Brochantite, a New Mineral Substance ——Form, prismatic. Crystal- lization observed similar to Plate III. Fig. 31. Inclination of a’ on a’ = 150° 30’, of M on M114" 20, of e* on e* (adjacent) = 63° 0’. Faint indications of cleavage in the direction of M. Surface of M blackish and dull, the rest of the faces briliiant, and fit for measurement by reflexion. Colour, emerald green. T'ransparent. Hardness, about the same as that of green carbonate of copper. It has been described by Mr. Levy, who measured the angles of the crystals by means of the reflective goniome- ter, and named it in honour of Mr. Brochant at the suggestion of Mr. Heuland. It occurs in very minute crystals on mamillated green car- bonate of copper, lying upon massive red copper, from the bank mine, Ekatherinaburgh, Siberia. According to Mr. Children’s experiments, upon a very small quantity, before the blowpipe, it consists chiefly of sulphuric acid, and oxide of copper ; but on account of its perfect insolubility in water, he is of opi- nion that it must contain some other substance beside these, which from some appearances while trying it with salt of phosphorus, might be silica or alumina, or perhaps both. It gives no signs of arsenic, phos- phorus, lime, magnesia, manganese or iron, though likewise tried in the humid way. 28. Fluellite, a New Mineral Substance.~ Form, prismatic. Combina- tion observed an acute scalene four-sided pyramid, having its most acute solid angles taken off, Plate III. Fig. 32. Angles = 109°, 82°, 144, (nearly,) the transverse section, therefore, nearly 105°, according to Dr. 6 M ineralogy. 179 Wollaston. Colour white. Transparent. Index of refraction = 1.47. Mr. Levy had remarked this substance in minute crystals, accompanying the wavellite from Cornwall. Dr. Wollaston examined it at his request, and found it to be a compound of alumina and fluoric acid, in reference to which he suggested the name of Flueliite. His comparative exami- nation of the refractive power of wavellite, gave for the index of the latter 1.52. (Annals of Philosophy, Oct. 1824, p. 241.) 29. Analyses of several native Carbonates of Lime, Magnesia, Iron, and Manganese, by M. P. Berthier. 7 Mag- Protoxide | Protoxide of Carbonie Acid No.| Lime. nesi2. of [ron. Manganese. (Clay or Quartz. and Water, 1} 50.0 3.9 | wadaaate eit! «« dese 2) 46.8 CRAY ee aes ey mas 3} 34.8 | 17.2 O59} semecs 4] 30.0 | 21.0 Ra PSP 5} 218 | 16.0 1.4 auecen 6 | 53.8 es 2.0 0.7 7 8 9 ornare 1. Compact dark-gray secondary limestone, from Ardennes. 2. Freshwater limestone, from Quincy, near Mélun. Resembling chalk. 3. Compact yellowish-gray secondary limestone, from Epinac. 4. Dolomite, white, friable, and resembling sugar. — 5. Dolomite, from the Alps. 6. Rose-coloured calcareous spar, and with the brown variety analysed, No. 10, from Moutiers in Savoy, where it occurs along with the golden titanium. Cleavable in large rhombohedrons, with faces of composition parallel to R—1. Spec. gravy. = 2.71. 7. Compact gray secondary limestone, from the iron works of Ran« cié, Arriege. 8. Compact gray secondary limestone, forming the roof of the iron ore at la Voulte, Ardéche. Spec. grav. = 2.68, : 180 | Scientific Intelligence. 9. Compact gray, almost earthy limestone from Timor, from the expedition of Captain Baudin. Spec. grav. 2.60. This gray variety is mixed with another which is brown, and becomes brown itself on be- ing calcined. 10. Brown opaque caleareous spar, from Moutiers, cleavable in rhom- boidal laminae, occurs with No. 6. Spec. grav. = 2.64. Its colour is owing to an incipient decomposition. 11. Limestone from Devonshire. 12. Calcareous spar, from Notre-Dame-du-Pré, in Savoy. . Cleavable, of a violet-blue colour. Spec. gray. = 2.9. This variety seems to con- tain free oxide of iron, as its carbonic acid is not sufficient for saturat- ing all the bases. 13. Calcareous spar, from Pezey in Savoy. Crystallized in the primi- tive rhombohedron. White, semi-transparent, of a lustre approaching to pearly. Spec. grav. = 2.94. Its surface becomes brown on being exposed to the moist atmosphere. It would be interesting to know from the indication of the angles of the rhombohedron, of hardness, &c. joined to that of specific gravity, whether the two last varieties do not belong to some of those species which have lately been separated from the real calcareous spar. 14. Granular yellowish-white, or grayish-white caleareous spar, with _ a pearly lustre, from Framont, in the department of the Vosges, where it accompanies the hydrate of iron. Analysed by M. de Beaumont. 15. Sparry iron, from Allevard. — Cleavable in large laminae, of a pale colour, which are perfectly homogeneous. 16. Sparry iron, from Autun. Cleavable in large laminae, of a pale colour. ; 17. Small-grained sparry iron, from Allevard, mixed with quartz. 18. Sparry iron, from St. George de Huntiéres, in Savoy. Small- grained, of a very pale colour. 19. Kidney-shaped clay iron-stone, from la Voulte, Ardéche. Com- pact, gray in the interior, and red on the outside. Spec. grav. = 3.08, Analysed by M. Lamé. 20. Kidney-shaped clay-iron stone, from Martigues, Bouches-du- Rhone. Compact, earthy, consisting of alternating parallel layers of a yellowish and grayish colour. 21. Compact sparry iron, from Chaillaud, Dep. de la Mayenne. This variety occurs in a mine worked for brown iron-ore, in kidney- shaped masses, called coni/lards, and thrown away by the workmen, as containing no iron. It is red on the outside, but dark gray, nearly black within. The fracture is very fine grained, and conchoidal. Spec. gray. = 3.58. It acts very distinctly upon the magnetic needle. It seems to contain 2.5 per cent of the magnetic oxide of iron. The dark colour of the mineral is owing to bituminous matter. 22. Compact yellowish-gray magnesian limestone, from Elba, of an earthy fracture. 23. Rose-coloured carbonate of manganese, from Nagy-ag- Cleavable and translucent on the edges. Mineralogy—Crystallography. 181 24. A similar variety of the same from Freiberg. '. (See the Annales des Mines, t. xiii. p. 887.) 30. Torrelite——Under this name in honour of Dr. Torrey, the analysis of a mineral by Professor Renwick has been published, which is found in Sussex county, New Jersey, and supposed to be new. It yielded Silica, : A 32.60 Peroxide of cerium 3 12.32 Protoxide of iron, F 21.00 Alumina, : - ~ 3.68 Lime, : 24.08 Water, 3 : 3.50 Loss, . < 2.82 100.00 31. Metallic Titanium—Metallic titanium, first discovered by Dr. Wol- laston in the iron slags from Merthyr Tydvil, has lately been found by Dr. Walchner in similar slags from the high furnace of Kanderea in Baden, and appear from the description given to be exactly similar to those which have been found in this country. (Schweigger’s Journal, xi. p. 80.) CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 32. The Edinburgh Review and Mr. W. Phillips.—In an able article in the Edinburgh Review on Mineralogical Systems,* well worthy of being perused by those who are bigoted to their own views of that science, the acute author has stated it as a fact, which must “ affect the degree of confidence which we can place in crystallographic indications,” that, according to Mr. W. Phillips, the differences in the angles of cleavage planes, arnount even to fifty minutes of a degree. Ina sharp note in the Annals of Philosophy, No. xl. p. 285, Mr. Phillips has shown that the Reviewer had mistaken his meaning, in using the word cleavage, as he meant the natural planes of the crystals. This slight oversight being admitted, justice compels us to vindicate the Reviewer (of whom we have no knowledge) from the charge of ignorance too strongly brought against him ; and to state with confidence, that the Reviewer's argument is not in the slightest degree affected by this over- sight. Mr. Phillips distinctly states, that “ the measurements of the Crys- talline forms, and especially of the secondary planes (given in his own * We trust that the author of this article will reconsider the opinion which he has stated on the system of Professor Mohs. Had he studied Mr. Mohs’ own work, which has been published in German, and which will soon appear in Eng- lish, he never could have expressed such an opinion. It is hard, that the labours of such an eminent mineralogist should be judged of from the erroneous accounts of them that have been given by persons who have not even studied his writings. 182 Scientific Intelligence. work) are not precisely exact,” and that “ the limit of error is econside- rably within one degree,—that it rarely exceeds 40 minutes, and is fre- quently confined to a minute or two.” * Now, though it is quite certain that the cleavage planes of caieniahe spar, sulphate of barytes, &c. meet at angles differing very little in va- lue in different specimens ; yet, as there are hundreds of crystals in which the cleavage planes are either not found at all, or are very imperfect, it follows necessarily, that in general the forms of crystallized bodies must be deduced from the inclinations of their natural planes. Even if there are 50 crystals in which the cleavage planes meet at angles which do not vary one second, the conclusion drawn by the Reviewer from Mr. Phil- lips's own admission, remains substantially and undeniably true. The variation of more than eight minutes produced in the inclination of the faces of carbonate cf lime by an increase of temperature from 32° to 2129, must also be considered as affecting our confidence in crystallographic in- dications, until the law of the variation shall be discovered. BOTANY. 83. Bois de Colophane.—On reading the account given in the first number of our Journal of the laurel oil, Captain Carmichael observes, “ it brought to my recollection a tree I had often met with in the woods of Mauritius, and which is there called Bois de Colophane; a Bursera if I am not mistaken. From the slightest wound in the bark of this tree there issues a copious flow of limpid oil, of a pungent turpentine odour, which soon congeals to the consistence of butter, assuming the colour of camphor. Like camphor also, it burns with a vivid flame, and leaves no residuum.” This is probably the Bursera panniculata of Lamarck’s En-~ cyclepédie Botanique, which is a native of the Isle of France, and of which that author says, that an abundant whitish resin flows naturally from the clefts of its bark. 34. The late Baron de Schack.—We regret to learn that the Baron de Schack, so well known to botanists and cultivators of plants, died last September, at La Guayra in South America. He was a native of the Austrian dominions, but had long resided in the island of Trinidad, from whence he had, for many years, sent most valuable contributions of plants, both to the Botanical Gardens of Glasgow and of Liverpool, and likewise, we believe, to that of the Horticultural Society of London. He discovered many new plants, particularly among the parasitical Orchidee and the Tillanasiw, some of which are already eee and others will soon appear, that have recently flowered in our stoves. With great dif- ficulty, and after many failures, the Baron de Schack succeeded in trans- mitting to this country living roots of the drracacha, one plant of which has flowered at Liverpool, by an examination of which we are enabled confidently to state, that it is the Conium moschatum of Humboldt. * In another place, Mr. P. admits, that -‘* even the minute crystals, which are generally the most perfect of all, rarely agree in the angles they afford.” Botany. 183 35. C. S. Parker, Esqg.—This gentleman, the son of C. Parker, Esq. Blochairn, near Glasgow, a most zealous naturalist, who studied the principles of botany under the celebrated De Candolle at Geneva, in a late visit which he made to his concerns at Demerara, formed a very large and valuable collection of the plants of Dutch Guiana. Proceeding thence to the West Indian islands, during the last summer he chartered a ves- sel on his own account, with the view of rendering himself independent of the ordinary but uncertain mode of conveyance in those seas, and had already investigated many of the islands, when an accident occurred, than which none more disheartening can befal a naturalist,—the loss of his vessel, of the crew, and of the whole of his collections. Deeply as we sympathise with our young friend in this destruction of lives, and of a property (the amount of which none perhaps but a botanist, who has himself gathered such treasures, under such a sun, and with so much toil and fatigue, can duly appreciate,) we cordially rejoice with his fa- mily in Mr. Parker’s own safety. We have been permitted to make the following extract from his letter, dated on board the Mail Boat, Endea- vour, off Antigua, Sept. 23, 1824. «© When I had the pleasure of last addressing you from the roads of Basseterre, I little foresaw the circumstances of imminent danger in which I was placed, my merciful preservation from which 1 can only ascribe to the gracious protection of an overruling Providence. I disem- barked at Basseterre on the forenoon of the 7th instant, with the inten- tion of ascending the Souffriere, and starting next day for the islands to leeward. The exorbitant anchorage-dues imposed by Admiral Jacob, amounting to thirty-four dollars upon a small vessel in ballast for a sin- gle night, decided the captain in lying off and on during the night. The afternoon was rather squally, and we had several heavy showers while ascending the mountain to a cottage where we spent the night. I awoke suddenly ahout midnight, and found that a tremendous gale was raging, tearing up forest trees by their roots, devastating the plantations, and doing incalculable damage to buildings and crops, particularly among the coffee trees and plantain walks. At dawn of day, when the fury of the storm had in some degree subsided, the devastated landscape presented an aspect truly dismal, while not a sail was to be descried on the agitated ocean. The loss of lives has been very serious, several vessels having parted from their cables, and grounded on the roads of the Santas. Of the crew of one of them, a garda-costa, manned by thirty-two sailors and officers, not an individual survived to tell the tale. Fifteen days have now elapsed, without a syllable of intelligence having reached me respecting the fate of my unfortunate schooner, which I had chartered, and on board of which were many objects invaluable in my estimation. But on these losses, and others which a mere pecuniary investment-(heavy, indeed, in amount,) may replace, gratitude for my extraordinary preservation, and regret for the doom which I fear has befallen my companions, forbid me to permit my mind for a moment to dwell.” We have much gratification in being able to state, that of the collec- tions made by Mr. Parker, those forined at Barbadoes, Trinidad, end Sr. 181 Scientific Intelligence. Vincents, have safely reached this country. All procured after that pe- riod are lost. 36. Red Snow.—We have good reason to believe, that the famous red snow will prove to be a vegetable production of far more common occur- rence than has been supposed. It may excite some surprise if we state that it is a native of Britain. We mentioned in our last number that Agardh had informed us that it was found in Sweden, and we have lately received specimens of an Alga, from Captain Carmichael, gather- ed in Appin, Argyleshire, which we find to correspond exactly with the Arcticred snow. We are not even sure that it has not been included by some authors under the appellation of Lepraria jolithos, a plant which every one talks of, but which nobody knows ; some taking one thing, and some another for it. This is a subject well suited for one of Dr. Gre- ville’s illustrations. On mentioning our ideas to Dr. Richardson, he writes thus: “‘ With regard to red snow, I had some suspicion that it had been before known as a Lepraria, from having observed a red sub- stance upon the stones at Fort Enterprize, which tinged the snow in spring, and which Captain Franklin recognised as the red snow which he had seen at Spitzbergen, at the same period that Captain Ross observed it in Baffin’s Bay. I noticed it only on the immediate banks of rivers, and in the beds of mountain torrents, and suspected at the time that it was a deposit of some animal substance, matter, or ova, because it seem- ed to be always within flood mark, and to be carried off in the same man- ner. Having no microscope | with me of sufficient power, I did not at- tempt to ascertain its nature.’ 37. Govan’s Herbarium.—The herbarium of the late celebrated Govan, Professor of Botany at the University of Montpellier, has recently been purchased by Dr. Hooker, Professor of Botany at Glasgow, together with his correspondence, which, amongst those of many other eminent natur- alists of that period, contains forty original letters of Linneus. The collection, it is estimated, includes about 7000 species of plants, and, as may be supposed from the nature of the author’s publications, is particu- larly rich in the productions of the south of France and the Pyrenees. There are likewise many plants from Northern Africa, Egypt, Arabia, (derived from Forskal,) Spain, and Peru. Their arrival in Glasgow is almost daily expected. 38. Algarum Systema Manuale.—The celebrated Professor Agardh of Lund, who had begun a Species Algarum, has been under the necessity of discontinuing it; but he has actually published what will prove of great importance to the student of this beautiful order of plants, a synopsis of the species, under the title of Algarum Synopsis Manuale. It includes all the known Algex, European and Exotic, and is comprised in twenty-two sheets, printed in Latin in a 12mo. form. 39. Dr. Hooker's System of Plants.—The publication of Dr. Hooker's work, the Sys/em of Plants, which has been announced to appear dur- Botany— Zoology. 185 -ing the year 1825, is deferred till the early part of the spring of 1826. «This delay is rendered almost imperative by the great number of ma- terials which the author has received from various quarters of the globe, which could not possibly be arranged in time for description during the period originally named, and which are too valuable to be omitted. The work, therefore, will be considerably benefited by such a postpone- ment ; and, indeed, were it not to attain such a result, this deviation from the first plan could not be justified. Dr. Hooker is desirous of expressing his obligations to his publishers, Messrs. Harding and Mavor, for the readiness with which they, regard- less of every thing save the improvement of the book, have acceded to the present arrangement. 40. Hooker and Taylor's Muscologia Britannica.—For_a similar reason, the long-promised second edition of the Muscologia Britannica, by Hooker and Taylor, is yet delayed. There is a degree of botanical ardour now existing, in this as well as in other countries, which promises to extend very considerably the present boundary of our knowledge in this delightful branch of science. In Scotland alone, the number of discoveries recently made has been truly extraordinary ; and perhaps in the course of a few years time, no country will have been more successfully investigated in a botanical point of view. ZOOLOGY. 41. Discovery of a Fossil Bat— About the middle of last October. the workmen employed in the quarries of Montmartre discovered the fossil re- mains of a Bat. This most interesting specimen was almost immediate- ly presented to Baron Cuvier by the gentleman into whose possession it had come. Permission to examine this hitherto unique production was very readily granted to the author of this notice who was then in Paris. The portion of stone in which the fossil remains are imbedded, had been subdivided during the operation of quarrying, as to leave the exact impression of the animal equally well marked on each surface: the spe- cimen altogether seemed to be so exceedingly perfect, and to resemble in size, proportion of the pectoral members, head, &c. the ordinary species ‘of bats now existing. Nothing positive, however, can be said as to any exact resemblance between the antediluvian bat and those of the present day, until the anatomy of the head and teeth be made out, by removing from them the incrustation of solid stone at present entirely concealing the structure of these parts. : r The discovery of a fossil bat must be considered as a sort of era in the history of the organic retnains of a former world ; hitherto, so far as we know, no animal so highly organized has ever been unequivocally shown to exist in a fossil state. Between the Bat and Man, naturalists have interposed but a single species, the Quadrumana: may we not hope ‘that future research may at last add to the list of antediluvian remains, the so much sought for Anthropolite? (K.) - 1 186 Scientific Intelligence. 42. New Species of Mammiferous Animal.—A correspondent informs us, that M. Isidorus St. Hilaire, a young naturalist of great promise, has obtained the honourable notice of the Institute, by adding a new species to the list of mammalia already known. The animal was brought from the Cape by the late M. de la Lande, (a collector employed by the French government to add to the museum of natural history,) and is described as being analogous in some respects to the hyena, and in others to the civet. He has given it the name of Proteus. In the following number of this Journal, we shall offer some remarks on this new species, which probably has not hitherto been accurately described by any na- turalist, though it is extremely well known to the colonists, and even to occasional travellers in Southern Africa. The name by which the animal is known on the banks of the Great Fish River, has at present escaped our recollection. (K.) 43. Fossil. Elephant discovered between the Rhine and the Saone —The bones of this elephant were found on the east side of Lyons, in a garden situated on a hill, between the Rhine and the Saone. The bones were found in what the men supposed was virgin earth. M. Bredin found that they were those of the elephant. The humerus was twelve and a half feet long, and nine inches broad at its upper extremity. The tibia was two and a half feet, and two fragments of the scapula were to- gether two feet long. Some bones of an ox were found among the ele- phant’s ones.— Phil. Mag. vol. lxiv. p. 316. 44. Lamantine.—T wo species of this interesting genus have been deter- mined by Cuvier, chiefly from the characters of the bones of the head, viz. Manatus Americanus and M. Senegalensis, The former inhabits the shores of South America and the West Indies. Dr. Harlan has publish- ed some valuable observations on another American species, which ap- proaches so closely in character to the African one, as to give strong in- dieations of their identity. It is found in considerable numbers about the mouths of rivers, near the Capes of East Florida, Lat. 25°, is killed by the Indians with harpoons during the summer months, and measures from eight to ten feet in length. Dr. Harlan, considering that the snout of the Florida species is wider below the eyes than the African one, pro- poses to denominate it M. Latirostris, but as yet no better marked speci- fic difference has been ascertained. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, vol. iii. 390, (F.) 45. Anas Rufitorques.—This species of duck, belonging to the genus Ny- roca, has been lately established by Mr. Charles Bonaparte. Journ. Acad. Phil. iii. 381. It was figured by Wilson in his American Ornithology, vol. viii. p.60. Tab. 67. f. 5. as the Anas Fuligula of European authors. It differs, however, in the bill having two white bands, neck with a glossy chesnut band, flanks with dusky zig-zag lines, and the speculum ash-grey. Inhabits the North American rivers, as a winter visitant. It feeds on vegetables, and its flesh is tender. Its summer residence and breeding- place isunknown. (F.) ~ar Zoology—General Science. 187 - Loligo Brevipinna.—“ Sac short, thick, cylindric anteriorly ; sub- cent obtuse, and rounded posteriorly ; fins narrow, rounded, distant.” This species has been described and figured by M. C. A. Lesueur. Journ. Acad. Phil. iii. 282. Tab. 10. It was taken in Dela- ware Bay. It makes a nearer approach to the L. Sepiola, in the form of the body and the position of the fins, than to any of the other species. The acute author of this description states, in opposition to Blainville, that the’sepiola occurs in the British Channel, he having caught one in the Port of Havrein 1814. Pennant’s specimen was taken off Flintshire, and there is one, now before us, from the Frith of Forth. (F.) 47. Lernea.—M. Lesueur has published in Journ. Acad. Phil. iii. 286. descriptions and figures of three new species belonging to this Linnean genus. Two of these, cructata and radiata, may be included in the ge- nus Lerneocera of Blainville, provided this genus were moditied_to in- clude, in a section, species with simple arms. If those with simple arms be excluded, our author proposes a new genus for their reception, viz. Lerneenicus, “« body elongated, attenuated before, and dilated behind; head furnished with many simple subcorneous arms radiating around the mouth.” The third species belongs to the genus Sa of Blain- ville, and is termed L. Blainvillii. (F.) 48. Batrachoides.—This genus was instituted by Lacepede, and is repre- sented by the Gadus Tau of Bloch. Ich. Tab. 67. f. 2. M. Lesueur has recently added two species ; viz. B. Variegata from Egg harbour, New Jersey, and B. Diemensis, from the coastof Van Diemen’s Land. Journ. Acad. Phil, iii. 395. Both these species belonged to the section having cirri. This group of fishes seems nearly connected with the Lophius of Linneus, from which, however, it differs in the greater hardness of the skeleton, and in the pectorals being destitute of those footstalks, re- presenting the radius and ulna. (F.) 49. Sword-fish—A specimen of the Ziphias gladius was found on a sand-bank ‘in the Tay, inthe end of August, and sent to Dr. Fleming of Flisk. It was upwards of six feet in length, exclusive of the snout or sword, which was two feet anda half. It had been long dead, and was much mutilated, and putrid. On the bronchiz one specimen of the T’7is- tuma Coccineum of Cuvier occurred. The stomach contained numerous remains of the Loligo sagittata, which seems its ordinary food, along with the following intestinal inmates, Ascarus incurva, Tetrarhynchus at- tenuatus, and Bothriocephalus plicatus, of Rudolphi. (F-) IV. GENERAL SCIENCE. 50. Natural Ice-houses near Salisbury, North America.—Chasms of con- siderable extent are met with in the mica slate, (Lat. about 13° N.) form- ing natural icehouses, where the ice and snow remain most of the year. One of these, in the east part of the town, is perhaps worthy of a particular 188 Scientific Intelligence. notice. The chasm is several hundred feet long, sixty feet deep, and about forty in width. The slate is of a very compact kind, and must have re- quired a powerful convulsion to have separated it. The walls are perpendi- cular, and correspond with much exactness. At the bottom there isa spring of cold water, and a cave of some extent. As you enter the chasm, you are struck with the romantic beauty of the spot. Above, it is completely over-reached with lofty pines (Pinus strobus) and hemlock (P. canadesis), together with stately walnuts, (Juglans porcina) and butter-nuts, (Juglans cinerea) &c. &c. while below, the ground is adorned with a great variety of plants, and the rocks with numerous species of mosses, lichens, and ferns. These, together with its coolness and entire solitude, make it a very pleasant retreat in summer. It is called Wolf Hollow, from its formerly being a famous haunt for wolves. Professor Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 254. 51. Dr. Matthew Baillie’s Works.—We are glad to learn, that a com- plete edition of the works of the late Dr. Matthew Baillie, with an ac- count of his life, drawn up from the most authentic sources, will speed- ily be published by our eminent countryman Mr. Wardrop. Art. XXXII.—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS, SEALED IN ENGLAND SINCE JUNE 15, 1814. June 15. For an Improved Gas Smoke Consumer. To W. Battey, Staffordshire. June 22. For Improved Gas Apparatus. To Joun Hossins, Wal- sall. June 22. For Improved Curving Knife, and other Edged Tools. To J. B. Htecin, London. June 22. For Improved Shearing Machines. To H. Austin, Glou- cestershire. June 29. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To W. Busx, London. July 1. For Improvements in Adjusting the Pressure of Fluids in Pipes and Measuring the Fluids. To W. Pontirex, Jun. London. July 3. For a Method of Twisting, Spinning, or Throwing Silk, Cot- ton, &c. To J. L. Brapsunry, Manchester. July 3. For Improvements on Steam Engines. To Puitir Taytor, London. July 7. For Improvements on Masts, Yards, and Ships Tackle. To J. L. Hicerns, London. July 7. For Improved Machinery for Raising and Dressing Cloth. To W. Hart, and J. Woop, Leeds. July 7. For a New Method of Weaving Woollen Cloth. To J. C. DaniE 1, Stoke. ; July 13. For Improvements on Tillers and Steering Wheels of Vessels. To C. Puituirs, Kent. So SS /., List of Scottish Patents. 189 July 27. For Improvements on Fire Arms. To CHartes Ranpom, Baron ve Berencer, Middlesex. July 27. Fora process of Manufacturing certain materials into coarse Paper or Felt. To Anexanper Nessitr, London. Art. XXXIII.—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND SINCE AUGUST 13, 1824. ~ Al 15. For an Improved Umbrella. To Joszrn Foor, Middlesex. Sealed Ist September. ~ 16. For a Haton a new Construction. To Rozertr Lioyp, London. Sealed August 30. 17. For a new Apparatus for giving Tension to the Warp in Looms. To W. H. Horrocks, Stockport. Sealed 31st August. 18. For Improved Machinery for Cleaning and Spinning Cotton and Wool. To J. G. Bopmer, Manchester. Sealed 21st September. 19. For a new Mode of Twisting, Spinning, &c. Cotton, Wool, or other Threads, &c. ToJ. L. Brapsury, Manchester. Sealed 23d Septem- ber. 20. For a Method of Manufacturing Salt. To Josrru Parkes, Manchester. Sealed 25th September. 21. For Improved Methods of Preparing and Manufacturing Siik. ToJoun Hearucoat, Tiverton. Sealed 29th September. 22. For Improved Machinery for Dressing and Spinning Flax, Wool, Silk, &c. To Puitie Hitt, Kensington. Sealed 25th October. 23. For Improved Methods of Manufacturing and Purifying Gas by the Admixture of Atmospheric Air. To Simeon BroapMeapows, Abergavenny. Sealed 29th October. 24. For Improvements on Power Looms. To James TetTLow, Manchester. Sealed 29th October. 25. For Improved Machinery for Washing and Whitening Cotton, Tinen, &e. To Junius Smiru, London. Sealed November 6th. 26. For Improvements in Masting Vessels. To Ricuarp Gurpry, Bristol. Sealed 6th November. 27. For an Improved Steam Engine. ToSamurt Hatt, Basford. Sealed 6th November. 28. For a new Filter. To Herman Scuraper, Hackney. Sealed 30th November. 29. For Improved Machinery for Making Cord or Platt, &c. To Joun Heap, Banbury. Art. XXXIV.—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, From January 1, to April 1, 1824, calculated for the Meridian of Edin- burgh. By Mr. Georce Innes, Aberdeen. These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning 190 Celestial Phenomena, January—April 1825. at noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right Ascension. JANUARY. FEBRUARY. H. M. S- 7 56 46 Im. IV. Sat, 2¢ 8 4 16 Im. I. Sat. 2 9 2 — 6)h 12 26 39 Em. IV. Sat. 1 12 51 30 g yyll 16. 0 30 g)ywull. 8 15 15 4 )pp UL © Full Moon. 12 23 11 Im. III. Sat. 2 15 55 20 Em. III. Sat. 4 9 & Biever Bs 6 51 9 Em. I. Sat. 2¢ 7 49 14 Em. IID Sat 2¢ 12 45 25 ¢ 23. 16 32 © Full Moon. 16 41 Em. I. Sat. 2¢ 15 13 33 Em. IT. Sat. 214 8 15 91m. IIL. Sat. 2 8 45 12 Em. I. Sat. u Il 47 59 Em. IIL Sat. 2¢ 13.57 40 ( Last Quarter. ewmwvourn wn ww -_ Cs DAADRAS RRS WW ww me ee —" _ [die] — Gr So 0 5 9 6 Olt 10 3 Greatest Elong. 6 59 30 6) UL 16 43 15 g )2 Oph. 12 34 32 Im. IL Sat. 7 o 5 ~ A $e g 15 29 24 Im. I. Sat. 2 oe fs) 4 9 57 48 Im. I. Sat. 2 : — 6 dk 11 3 48 38 ( Last Quarter. II 16 21 48 Im. II. Sat. 2¢ 16 10 39 24 Em. I. Sat. 13 15 11 0 Im. II Sat. 2f mi, J. Sats. 2p 16 12 14 341m. III. Sat. 2 13 17 23 0 Im. I. Sat. 2 16 15 47 31 Em. IIT. Sat. 15 11 1s 46 & (3 Oph. |17 10 6 43 @ Full Moon. 15 11 51 27 Im. I. Sat. rf 18 3 2 20 9 neare Os yo) eng Og 18 7 8 50Em. II. Sat. 2 17 3 20 34 6 iy Z 18 9 8 24 © enters }¢ 17 6 19 51 Im. I. Sat. 2¢ 19 13 23 — yg 17 8 6 12 g)jozp 20 13 57 36 Im. IV. Sat. 24 1715 47 10 6)H 21 14 42 30 4)9 18 6 17 43 6)8 23 12 33 43 Em. I. Sat. 1¢ 18 6 28 57 Em. IV. Sat. 22 23 16 13 36 Im. III. Sat. 2 18 15 41 49 @ New Moon. 25 2 18 20 B)AB? 19 18 24 36 © enters ~ 25 2 42 40 (Ch 20 17° 47- 40 Em. IL. Sat. 24 2 7 2 20Em. I. Sat. 2¢ a1. 9 24. 8 6.) 4 25 9 46 8Em.II. Sat. 1 22 10 40 10 6) 25 13 42 31 ) First Quarter. 22 13 45 11 Im.I. Sat. 2¢ 27 9 17 35-¢ ya Il. 24 7 6 37 Im.II. Sat. 2 27.12 35.104 ye TT. 24 8 13 38Im.I. Sat. 1f 28 5 26 O 35) 4 Il. 26 20 24-40 ) Virst Quarter. 28 712 — 6 OY 29 17 54 10 tos I. Sat. 2¢ Bele 30 23 35 2 4)aIL 19 0 20 4(% 31. 2 46. 2 4 ju ll. 31 12 22 38 Em. I. Sat. 1 31 12 36 25 Em. II. Sat. 4 31.19 6 45 4 )ZII. 14 28 9 Em. I. Sat. 2f 47 Em. I. Sat. 2f 9 20 46 © Full Moon. 12 23 29 Em. II. Sat. 2¢ Sf & we lo.) or a Celestial Phenomena, January—April 1825. 191 vo a. Dest Hie tc ee = 9 8 Q Greatest Elong. |22 6 57 23 Em. II. Sat. YU 9 8 57 55 Im. IV. Sat. 2¢ 23 ih © ESO 9 12 38 26 Em. IV. Sat. 2 24 8 10 1 Im. IIT. Sat. 2 JL 2 23 22 ( Last Quarter. 24 8 24 24 4g yA YX 1f 10 51 21 Em. FE. Sat. 2¢ 24 11 43 17 Em. III. Sat.: 2¢ 11 15 0 52Em II. Sat. oa 2°51" 9 2 12 14 58 3 4)f¢ 25 14 40 46 Em. I. Sat. 2¢ 12 19 46 23 4 jo ¢ 26.16 48 12 & pall. 13 8 40 16 6 H 26 18 56 —Sup. gO8 7 7 44 GEm.III.Sa. ye |26 20 7 04) xeIL 138 10 41 40 4 )% 27 3 12 35 ) First Quarter. 18 12 46 LEm. I. Sat. 2¢ 27 9 9 27 Em. I. Sat. 19 4 17 20 @ New Moon. ot le se 4 ¢ IL. 20 7 14 41 Em. I. Sat. 2f 29 2 11 17 gyz 20 9 13 3t © enters mp 29 9 34 41 Em. II. Sat. 2 20 16 25 53 4) ¢s 3L 12 9 22Im. II. Sat. 24 Times of the Planets passing the Meridian. JANUARY. | Mercury. | Venus. Mars. | Jupiter. Saturn. 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P|) LF ; * | ‘POST UTHMATAON ‘POST Uaaro1L00 “POS, UAAWALAAS “Wid Q] PUR “IC'V QT Moge apvUl diam sUONVAIasqo SuruoAs puw SuroU oy,y, “vas ayd JO [PAI] 949 AAOGE 499; OZ INoqn st za,a"N “OULIY) BT JO SOY AUT, *YINOS Jo Jsam YI OF SapIUA P INoqe ST[TF{ PAMPUI OY) puL ‘Y INOS oY OF d[IU [ Inoge st SITET prergy Jo odpra oy.T, “(ET proyyetg, jo pua 3sam ay) JO "NY oftut v Jo } snogqu pur Syrary yw was ayy UtOIJ SoTIUL g NOGU ‘oPISNA YSanquIpsY Jo YINos oy) OF af F] IMoqe parennis si adey0g UEvULD “Fas uty Aq payonsjsuoo ‘syuounsjsur ao1u A194 jo suvaut fq ‘aipy “Ay, JO 29Uapisar ay ‘aBuj}09 uveurD ye ape atom JOysIZay Furmoyjoy ayy ur paureyuod SUONBAIISGG OY, ‘UPA SH “bsg “aray *xaty Ag *29n7709 unvuny yn doy AOV-NIVY INV WALIWOWUAH J, UILINOUVG THL IO UTLSIONY— A XXX “11y 1 ed a. \ THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Art. I.—On the Mechanical Effects produced when a Con- - ducting Liquid is electrified in contact with Mercury. In a Letter from J. F. W. Herscuet, Esq. Sec. R. §. Lond. F. R. S. Edin. &c. &c. to Dr Brewster. Dear Sir, As I think it the duty of every contributor to science to do all possible justice to his predecessors, as far as their labours become known to him, I beg leave to call the attention of your readers to an interesting paper by Professor Erman of Berlin, published by Gilbert in his Annalen der Physik, vol. xxxii. p. 261—292, 1809, entitled, Wahrnehmung uber das gleich- seitige entstehen von mechanischen Cohirenz und chemischen Verwandschaften, or “ Notice of the simultaneous Production of Mechanical Cohesion and Chemical Affinities ;” a title from which no one certainly could divine any analogy between the phenomena intended to be treated of by the learned professor and those.described in my Bakerian Lecture, On the Motions produced in Fluid Conductors when transmitting the Electric Current. This paper, however, I find has been referred to as anticipating my experiments in toto; and I therefore owe it to myself, as well as to its author, to enter into some little examination of its contents ;—premising, that, at the ume of publishing my experiments, I was totally ignorant that the subject had ever been investigated either by Professor Erman or by any other. VOL. II. NO. II. APRIL 1825. o 194 Mr Herschel on the Mechanical Effects of The paper in question purports to be an extract from a treatise read in 1808 to the Academy of Berlin, containing his principal results, which, digested by him into aphoristical propositions, (in aphoristischen Siitzen,) run as follows : 1. So soon as chemical affinities are excited in galvanic pro- cesses, there takes place at the same time an increased inten- sity of cohesive attraction, (Fldchen-anziehung,—literally, the attraction of surfaces.) 2. That the connexion which has been supposed to exist be- tween cohesion and chemical affinity receives from this a not- able confirmation. 8. That the increase of cohesive attraction arising from elec- tricity, between bodies which act chemically on each other, is altogether different from any electrical attraction of bodies hi- therto observed. 4. There is ground to suspect, that, in the galvanic process, attractions at a sensible distance operate in conjunction with that of cohesion (Flachen-anziehung.) 5. Increased attraction of cohesion, and exalted mutual at- traction of the ultimate molecules, which arise in quite deter- minate polarising points, (die in ganz bestimmten polarisiren- den punkten entstehen,) are the immediate physical product. The chemical product is dependent thereon by the universal bond which connects adhesion with chemical affinity. These results he considers as proved by the facts announ- ced in this paper, so far as cohesive attraction is concerned. As to the attraction at sensible distances, he regards it as still problematical. Professor Erman’s results, thus aphoristically stated, espe- cially the 5th, possess certainly in perfection one distinguish- ing quality of aphorisms—obscurity ; but, putting the best in- terpretation on them they will bear, it is still difficult to ima- gine what connexion they can possibly have with the pheno- mena described by me. But this difficulty is cleared up on reading farther, when it appears that these general deductions are totally unsupported by the facts described. The pheno- mena themselves, however, disencumbered of the aphorisms, are interesting and important, and are, indeed, as far as they go, the same with some of those detailed in my paper, or im- oa Ee a Conducting Liquid electrified in Mercury. 195 mediate and necessary consequences of the physical law there established. In the professor’s first experiment, a plate of iron, suspend- ed horizontally to one arm of a balance, was brought in con- tact with water, and its adhesion just balanced by weights in a scale attached to the other arm. The water being connect- ed with one pole of a galvanic pile, and the plate and balance with the other, the equilibrium remained undisturbed. But when the plate was placed in contact with a thin stratum of water covering mercury, on connecting one pole with the mer- cury, and the other as before with the balance, the equili- brium was immediately destroyed, and the plate descended with a jerk. This effect he attributed to increased cohesive attraction, but its true cause must be looked for in the sudden displacement of the water by the radiating currents produced. in the mercury—in the manner described in my paper, the rush downwards from the plate to supply the void, the set of the surrounding liquid inwards, and the pressure of the atmo- sphere, which forces down the plate into the vacuum left un- supplied from the sources just enumerated. Another experiment described by Professor Erman is as follows: A globule of water dropped on the surface of a flat dish of mercury is brought into connexion with the positive pole, while the mercury is connected with the negative. It instantly flattens, and spreads to twice its diameter, regaining its former sphericity when the circuit is broken. On this he remarks, that ‘* the same act which has imparted to the quick- silver a decomposing affinity for the water, has at the same time, or previously, effected an increased cohesive attraction between these two fluids.” In this view of the case, the ex- tension of the drop on the quicksilver is purely a statzcal re- sult, the molecules assuming their position of equilibrium un- der the new circumstances of capillary action in which they are placed. In my paper, the same phenomenon is described, and is attributed, if I mistake not, to its true zmmediate cause, viz. a radiation of the superficial molecules of the mercury in all directions from the pomts nearest the positive pole as a centre, dragging with them the fluid particles adjacent, and thus diffusing them over a larger surface. In this view, the 196 Mr Herschel on the Mechanical Effects of effect is one purely dynamical. It is wonderful that Professor Erman should not have apprehended this distinction, and the fallacy of his explanation, as he has noticed the very violent circulation which takes place in the drop—a circulation total- ly incompatible with the state of statical equilibrium his theory supposes. Yet, so satisfied does he rest of the truth of his explanation, that, having found the same extension of the drop not 'to take place on a solid metal, he observes, that, “ there- Sore, the curvature of the two surfaces, mutually altered by their increased attraction of cohesion, is the fundamental prin- ciple of the phenomenon, whence all the remaining detail flows.” Mr Erman then describes an experiment in which mer- cury and water being introduced into a capillary tube, and electrified, the column of mercury advanced by starts towards the negative pole. This motion he regards as, indeetl, capa- ble of rigorous explanation by the augmentation of the capil- lary action of the water on the mercury; but having also ob- served that a drop of mercury electrified under water exhibits motions precisely similar, though less marked, he hence con- cludes, that attraction at sensible distances has a share in these phenomena. Whoever repeats the experiment described in my paper, where a drop of mercury is placed under sulphuric acid be- tween the two poles, even many inches asunder, and has wit- nessed the extraordinary activity with which it darts to the negative pole, like a ball of iron to a powerful magnet, will undoubtedly believe, as I myself did when I first observed an effect so surprising, that a more evident case of attraction and repulsion at a distance was never exhibited, and that a new species of magnetism was here produced. Yet the analysis given of this phenomenon in my paper is sufficient, I presume, to convince any one of the absence of all traces of such attrac- tions and repulsions, and to demonstrate the justice of the ex- planation there given of it, viz. the reaction of the fluid and the bottom of the vessel on the mercurial currents, which ra- diate in all directions from the point in the globule opposite to the negative pole, along its surface, and return along its a Conducting Liquid electrified in Mercury. 197 *. axis, keeping up a constant circulation ; and that an increased capillary attraction has absolutely nothing to do with it. The most interesting part of Professor Erman’s paper is his account of the circulation which takes place in mercury when electrified in contact with conducting fluids. He has seen and described the circulation of mercury under sulphuric acid, and carbonate of potash; and has thus undoubtedly anticipated much that I believed new in my investigations. His account of these phenomena (which he calls galtanic figures) he concludes with this remark, that “* These pheno- mena incontestably originate in an increase of cohesive attrac- tion of the two fluids.” An increased cohesive attraction be- tween two fluids will make them adhere more firmly to each other ; it will alter, while it lasts, the figure of equilibrium of . their common surface ; but it is contrary to every principle of mechanics to attribute to it regular, continued, violent, and extensive internal motions, and a subversion of all equili- brium. ; So far Professor Erman. It will readily be seen by the foregoing sketch, how far his researches extend. Whatever we may think of his theory, two LEaprINe Facts, that regular and constant motions arise in fluids under the influence of the Voltaic current passing over mercury, and that these motions vary with the nature of the fluids, are certainly his discovery, and I most gladly yield him the priority. Every thing be- yond this in my Bakerian Lecture,—the minute analysis of the phenomenon, the influence of variations in the electro-che- mical nature of the fluid,—the intense effect of alloys of almost infinitesimal portions of the electro-positive metals present in the mercury, and the comparative inertness of the electro-ne- gative ones,—the explanation of the complicated anomalies presented in these delicate experiments,—and the reference to one general fact, of the innumerable minute and enigmatical phenomena observed both by myself, and by M. Serrulas in his very curious papers in the Journal de Physique, on the rotatory motions assumed by the alloys of potassium when floated on mercury under water,—I think I may fairly claim. The subject is certainly of the highest interest, and merits every attention from the electro-chemical philosopher; and 198 ~ Mr Herschel on the Mechanical Effects, &c. indeed, from the physiologist, when we consider the bearing which the discovery of mechanical powers, exerted by electri- city, may, one day, have on that most mysterious of physiolo- gical problems, the origin of muscular motion. Although no visible effect in producing, suspending, or al- tering the radiating currents appeared in my experiments to arise from the presence of powerful magnets, yet, as it seemed not impossible, that the mutual action of the elementary elec- tric currents traversing the mercury and the supernatant li- quid, (probably with very different velocities,) might deter- mine motions in the media transmitting them, and thus be at the bottom of the whole, I resolved to put this to the test of experiment, as follows: I divided a saucer into two equal ~ cells, by the thinnest film of mica I could detach, and secured the insulation of the cells from each other by sealing-wax. I then filled them to the same height with perfectly clean dry mercury, and having prepared two piles of 10 pairs each, in full action, I completed the circuit of the one in the one cell, and of the other in the other. _ But whether the currents pass- ed in the same or in opposite directions,—whether the con- ' tacts were made close to the mica or at a distance from it,— whether both piles were in action, or one only,—whether their actions were equal, or one was purposely rendered feebler than the other, or totally abstracted, or united to the other, not the slightest motion was produced in either cell. When the two currents were transmitted at once through sulphuric acid over mercury, their effects seemed to be merely superposed, no ap- pearance of interference arising; but each molecule of the mercury obeying their joint impulse, apparently according to - the usual mechanical laws of the composition and resolution of motions. It is not, therefore, in the magnetic vortices that we are to look for the cause of these motions, but in some new and singular action of electricity, to develope which more fully will require numerous and delicate experiments. I have the honour to remain, Dear Sir, very truly yours, J. F. W. HERscHEL. London, Jan. 21, 1825. d Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Mica. 199 — Art. Il.—Analysis of a Peach-Blossom Coloured Mica, from Chursdorf, near Penig, in Saxony. By C. G. Gmettin, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author. Tue researches of M. L. Cordier * had made it extremely pro- bable that Mica and Lepidolite are one and the same mi neralogical species. By the discovery of lthion in Lepi- dolite, there was established a difference between these two minerals, which, though it might not prove a specific diversis ty, according to the views of mineralogists, was still interesting to the chemist, and explained the great difference in the de- gree of fusibility of both minerals. But though Lepidolite and Mica very nearly agree with each other, as well in their physical relations as, on the whole, in their chemical composi- tion, yet the argument for such an identity is strengthened by the discovery of a real Mica with large laminz, fully agree- ing in chemical composition with Lepidolite. Considering that Amblygonite, a mineral which, among those hitherto known, contains. the largest quantity of lithion, occurs in a newer granite, together with a great many other minerals, as Tourmaline, Mica, Topaz, Albite, Apatite, &c. I supposed that this alkali might not be found exclusively in am- blygonite, but might also occur in other fossils accompanying it, as it forms an ingredient cf spodumene, lepidolite, tour- maline, minerals that occur in the Island of Uton. I requested, therefore, my friend, Mr Breithaupt, to provide me with spe- cimens of fossils found in the neighbourhood of amblygonite. Amongst these the peach-blossom coloured Mica first attracted my attention, and reminded me of Lepidolite by its exceedingly great fusibility. By the purple colour, which I afterwards per- ceived in the flame of the blow-pipe in which this Mica was melted, I became fully convinced of the presence of lithion in this Mica, and of its identity with Lepidolite. A. Specific Gravity of this Mica—Three very pure bits weighed in the air 5.08 grammes. Having been previously freed from adhering atmospheric air by means of a moistened spencil, they weighed in water of + 93° Reamur, 3.293 gr. * Gilbert’s Annalen, vol. xi. p. 250. 200 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis ofa The specific gravity of this Mica would accordingly be = 2.8427, at + 93° R. Eight hours after, during which time the bits were lying in water, the specific gravity was found = 2.8603, the temperature of the water being + 91° R. After three days, when they had always been lying in water, the specific gravity was — 2.8929, at + 103°R. Their weight in water no longer changed in a sensible manner. These variations in the speci- fic gravity evidently depend on air interposed between the la- min of this Mica, which is by degrees displaced by the wa- ter when it is lying in this fluid, whereby the specific gravity is increased. B. Relations before the Blow-Pipe—This Mica fuses so readily, that very thin laminz, when held in the flame, without blowing upon it, melt to a globule. In the flame which is as usual blown at, even thick lamine quickly melt (swelling up, and imparting to the flame a beautiful purple colour) to a white glass, full of blisters, which, at the moment when it is removed from the flame, is transparent, but soon becomes opal- escent. In the matrass, it gives off water which tinges Brazil wood paper yellow, and contains, of course, fluoric acid ; the glass is somewhat corroded. Borax dissolves it in large quan- tity to a clear glass, which has an amethyst colour in the oxy- dating flame, but is discoloured by the interior flame. Salt of phosphorus dissolves it, leaving a skeleton of silica; the glass opalesces a little after full cooling, and then also the manga- nese reaction is perceived, which becomes much more distinct by means of nitre. Soda dissolves it with effervescence to a clear glass, having an amethyst colour from manganese. Upon a platinum lamina, the green reaction of manganese is very marked. Moistened by nitrate of cobalt, it becomes blue, when melted. C. Awnatysis.—l. Determination of the Bases.—1.402 grammes were cleft thinly by a knife, then cut into small quadrangular pieces by scissars, mixed with six times their weight of carbonate of barytes, and ignited in a platinum cru- cible. During one hour, the crucible had been kept mode- rately red-hot, when, during half an hour, the fire was in- creased to whiteness. The ignited mass appeared half melted, and of a green colour ; the form of the micaceous laminz, which now showed a deep green colour, was still discernible in it. Peach-Blossom Coloured Mica. 201 a. The mass was soaked in the crucible with water as much as possible, and put into a glass; the rest, firmly adhering to the crucible, was dissolved by muriatic acid, which was quickly heated and poured off again, that it might not act too much upon platina by its evolving chlorine. The whole mass was now dissolved in muriatic sail The red solution formed was evaporated to full dryness in a porcelain dish. The dry mass being soaked in water, some muriate of platina and potash, together with silica, was left undissolved. ‘The silica was put upon a filter, and washed. It weighed, after ignition, 0.7526 gr. = 52.259 per cent. b. The liquid was then precipitated by sulphuric acid, the sulphate of barytes put upon a filter, and washed out. It was now again precipitated by caustic ammonia, the precipitate dis- soivede} in muriatic acid, and the muriatic solution boiled with an excess of pure potash. From the alkaline solution alumine was thrown down in the usual manner. It weighed, after ig- nition, 0.3974 gr. = 28.345 p. c. When dissolved in sul- phuric acid, and mixed with sulphate of potash, it crystallized entirely into alum. c. The residue left undissolved by potash was reckoned to be pure oxide of manganese, without sensible traces of iron ; it weighed, after ignition, 0.057 gr. = 4.065 p.c. of oxide of manganese = 3.663 p. c. of protoxide of manganese. d. ‘Vhe liquor (in 8) from which barytes by means of sul- phuric acid, and then alumine and oxide of manganese, by means of ammonia, had been thrown down, was evaporated, and the residue ignited. ‘The fused mass being dissolved in water by the assistance of a few drops of muriatic acid, was mixed with hydrosulphuret of ammonia. The sulphuret of manganese precipitated was decomposed by muriatic acid, the acid solution precipitated by carbonate of potash, and the oxide of manganese obtained, already accounted for in No. c. The liquor separated by the filter from the sulphuret of man- ganese was evaporated, and the residue melted ; there remain- ed 0.394 gr. of a salt, which was dissolved in a little water By adding muriate of platina to this solution, a considerable precipitate was formed, composed of muriatic acid, oxide of platina, and potash. The solution, freed from potash, was now evaporated, and strongly ignited. The fused salt was 202 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of a dissolved in water, in order to separate metallic platina, which had been formed, evaporated, and melted. There were obtains ed in this way, 0.215 gr. of sulphate of lithion = 0.067187 gr. of lithion = 4.792 p. c. These 0.215 gr. sulphate of lit thion being deducted from the whole quantity of the sul- phate, (— 0.394 gr.) there remain 0.179 gr. sulphate of potash = 0.096785 gr. of potash = 6.903 p. c. It need scarcely be observed, that it was proved, by the appropriate tests, that the salt considered as sulphate of lithion was really nothing else; and that it was converted into a carbonate, in which form lithion is characterized by its slight solubility, as well as by its action upon metallic platina, &c. This Mica is accordingly composed of— Silica, - - 52.259 (a) Alumine, - - 28.345 (b) Protoxide of manganese, - 3.663 (c) Potash, - - 6.903 (d) Lithion, - - 4.792 (d) 95.957 2. Determination of the Quantity of Fluoric Acid.—In or- der to determine the quantity of fluoric acid, the method used by Professor Berzelius in his analysis of topaz was followed. 2.627 gr. of mica, finely cut, were ignited with three times their weight of subcarbonate of soda. There were obtained 0.478 gr. of strongly dried fluate of lime = 5.069 p. c. of flu- oric acid. This fluate of lime was decomposed by sulphuric acid, the excess of acid, for the greatest part, driven off by heat ; and the mass then digested with alcohol, filtered, evaporated, and ignited. But there remained no trace of phosphoric acid. This peach-blossom coloured Mica is therefore composed of— Silica, - - - 52.254 Alumine, - - - 28.345 Protoxide of manganese, - 3.663 Potash, . = =p 66903 Lithion, - - 4.792 Fluoric acid, - - 5.069 Traces of water, “ - 101.026 8, Search after Oxide of Titaniwm.—Mr Peschier of Ge- neva thought that he had discovered oxide of titanium in se- Peach-Blossom Coloured Mica. 203 veral species of mica; but it appears clearly, from the experi- ments of MM. H. Rose and Vauquelin, that, in so far as respects the quantity of the oxide of titanium, this chemist is quite in the wrong. As Mr Vauquelin, however, has himself discovered in several specimens of mica, which he recently subjected to analysis, traces of titanium, I did not omit to examine whether or not this Mica also contains titanium. I followed exactly the method proposed by Mr Vauquelin, * which is certainly well fitted to discover the smallest traces of this metal in a mineral, but I was not able to detect unequivocal traces of it. Muri- atic acid, which was boiled with the silica, separated by evapora- tion in a water bath, had taken up nothing but a little chloride of silver, (derived from the crucible in which the mineral had been ignited with potash,) which was thrown down by water ; and by adding afterwards an infusion of galls, no fusible pre- cipitate fell down. The chloride of silver, somewhat colour- ed, was, however, collected and examined before the blow-pipe with salt of phosphorus. There was obtained metallic silver ; but the glass assumed, even after the addition of tin, such an undecided reddish hue, that the reaction could not be consi- dered as a decided one. The other ingredients of this Mica contained no trace of titanium. With respect to the lithion, which Mr Peschier conceives he has discovered in a species of mica, it appears not impro- bable that this chemist has likewise been deceived, and that he has considered to be lithion what is really magnesia. His ex- periments, at least, by no means prove the presence of lithion, but rather of magnesia. I tried several pieces of mica before the blow-pipe,-but could not discover this alkali, not even in a rose-red mica from North America, for which I am indebted to my friend, Mr Brooke. It is evident, that the Mica from Chursdorf is nothing else but a largely lamellated Lepidolite ; and it might, therefore, be more adequate to distinguish the micas that contain lithion to- gether with potash, from those which contain no lithion, by the name of lithion-mica. It appears, besides, that potash is as essential an ingredient of Lepidolite as lithion, and that Le- * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, par MM. Gay-Lussac et es: t. XXVil. p. 67. 204 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of a pidolite, therefore, cannot be considered as a mixture of com- mon (potash) mica with lithion-mica. Amongst the different species of mica which occur in the same tract, I have diseo- vered some which bear a great resemblance to Lepidolite com- monly so called, being composed of small lamella agg}utinat- ed to larger masses ; others, on the contrary, possessed of si- milar external characters, contained no lithion. 'The easily fusible micas in the Dolomites of St Gotthard, mentioned by M. Cordier in his T'reatise on Lepidolite, are most likely li- thion-micas, but I have had no opportunity of examining them. It may be observed, that the presence of lithion in a mine- ral seems to exclude a larger quantity of iron; I made this observation, when I examined several species of tourmaline, of which those that contained much iron never contained lithion ; and even the black tourmaline, which occurs along with li- thion-mica near Chursdorf, can at least contain no large quan- tity of lithion, as it does not tinge red the flame of an oil lamp. On the other hand, lithion seems to associate more readily with manganese, as may be seen in the tourmalines and micas that contain Jithion. The lithion-micas contain likewise a larger quantity of fluoric acid than common micas. In the formations of the neighbourhood of Penig, lithion seems to be considerably diffused. Near Hartmansdorf, be- tween Chemnitz and Penig, a peculiarly formed quartz is found in serpentine, composed of agglutinated round concre- tions, whose fracture exhibits fibres diverging from a common centre. Splinters of this quartz tinge the flame somewhat red, which does not happen with a splinter of rock-crystal when treated in the same manner. I could not, however, decided- ly prove by analysis the presence of lithion in this quartz. I obtained 99.57 p. c. of silica, with traces of iron and alumine, and equivocal traces of lithion. In a manner a little more de- cided, this alkali is manifested by the blow-pipe in the Anda- lusite, which formerly was found in a mass of granite imbed- ded in Weiss Stein, in a valley between Penig and Rochsburg. But in a most unquestionable manner lithion is discovered in this way in a substance which is found adhering to the quartz already mentioned in small particles. This substance has a wax-yel- low colour, is unctuous to the touch, very soft, a little trans- parent, and may be spread with a knife upon paper. It Peach-Blossom Ceoloured Mica. 205 seems to be the Kerolite of Mr Breithaupt, * and it occurs under the same geognostic relations. It does not melt be- fore the blow-pipe, becomes white, and imparts to the flame a beautiful purple colour. I shall communicate the analysis of these minerals in another paper. Arr. ITT.—Observations on the Optical Structure of Lithion- Mica, analysed by Professor Gmelin. By Davin BRrew- ster, LL. D. F.R.S. Lond., and Sec. R. S. Edin. As Professor Gmelin had the goodness to transmit to me, along with the MSS. of the preceding paper, some specimens of the Lithion-Mica, with a request that I would examine its opti- cal structure, I jost no time in complying with his wishes. In the year 1816, while examining the various Micas, I found that the inclination of the resultant axes of Mica and Le- pidolite was 45°; and that other Micas had their axes inclined only about 14°, while in tale they formed so small an angle as 7° 24’. I afterwards found two Micas from Greenland, in large masses, which had only one negative axis of double refraction. M. Biot, who also performed many accurate ex- periments on Mica, found specimens in which the inclination of the axes was 30°, 31°, 32°, 34°, and 37°, and some in which it was under 25°. He discovered also some Micas which had a single positive axis, and when these specimens were analysed by M. Vauquelin, the wniavai crystals were found to contain magnesia, while in the diaxal ones there was not even a trace of that earth; and the inclination of the axes seemed to diminish as the oxide of iron increased. Under these circumstances, the examination of the Lithion- Mica became more than usually interesting. Upon exposing the plates sent me by Professor Gmelin to polarised light, I was very much struck with their compound appearance. In place of being individual crystals, like almost all the specimens of Mica that I had examined, they were obviously composed of several individual crystals, having their axes lying in various directions, and producing most irregular polarised tints. A more particular examination, however, led me to observe the * Charakteristik des Mineral Systems, 2 te Aufl. p. 145. 206 Dr Brewster on the Optical Structure of Lithion-Mica. remarkable fact, that these plates of Lithton-Mica were com- posed of crystals with one axis, united to crystals with two axes, and without the appearance of any joint or face of- composi- tion. By insulating the uniaxal portions, which occupied much less space than the biaxal ones, I found that the charac- ter of their axis was negative; and by insulating the biaxal portions, I found that the inclination of the resultant axes, af- ter refraction, was almost exactly 45°, the principal axis being also negative. The inclination of the axes before refraction was 70°. In some other parts of the plate, which where irre- gularly crystallised, I found the angle so high as 74° and 75°. Now, as all the uniaxal crystals of Mica that have yet been analysed, differ from the biaxal ones in chemical composi- tion, we would recommend it to Professor Gmelin to detach, if possible, all the uniaxal parts from the biaxal parts, and to make a separate analysis of both. If he shall find, what ana- logy authorizes us to expect, that these two portions are che- mically different, the result will be a most important one, both for mineralogy and for analytical chemistry. It will set aside all analyses of minerals, where it is likely that the body ana- lysed has not been an individual crystal, and it may thus es- tablish, upon a firmer basis, the law of definite proportions. In examining the Lithion-Mica with a microscope, I no- ticed, in various places, considerable portions of a substance lying between the lamin, which was of a bright scarlet co- lour, whether seen by reflected or transmitted light. It is now indurated, but seems, from its outline, to have been once fluid. ‘lhe origin and nature of this substance deserve to be investigated. Art. IV.—Description of a Boat with a Revolving Paddle Scull, Invented by ANDREW WanvpELL, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Author. Tur following is a sketch of a Boat with a revolving Paddle Scull, of which an experiment was made in May 1824, on the Inner Basin of the Wet Docks of Leith, by Mr Waddell of Hermitage Hill. The boat was twenty-six feet long, and six feet broad, and _was propelled by means of the revolving scull projecting from Mr Waddell’s Description of a Revolving Paddle Scull. 207 the stern, and wrought by two men with a crank, or winch handle, attached to the ner end of its spindle or axis. The propelling part of the scull was formed of two thin iron plates, each eleven by ten inches in size, producing a surface of 220 inches m whole, which gave a velocity to the boat of four and three-fourth miles per hour. But as the after part of the boat was confined, and the labour in working the scull very great, the men were soon fatigued, and enabled to con- tinue their operations only for a short period. This invention of Mr Waddell’s promises to be of consider- able utility, and, when operated on by a constant power, to produce great velocity. But to attain the best effect, the scull must revolve from eighty to ninety times in one minute. It may be applied to any vessel, and so placed as to be raised » out of the water at a moment’s notice, without interfering with the movement of the vessel when under sail. In the various experiments Mr Waddell has made on small models of vessels, during the last five or six years, with pro- pelling machines of different descriptions, he has found the re- volving scull to produce the greatest velocity with the least power. In smooth water and light winds, it exceeds the pad- dle-wheels in general use by one-fifth or more ; but in strong head winds, with heavy sea, Mr Waddell is of opinion, that the paddle-wheels would have the advantage. This scull might be of great utility in ships of war, when in action, during calms and light winds, by presenting with fa- cility the broadside of the ship towards the enemy; and for that purpose, might be wrought from a bow or after port- hole on the lower gun-deck, with less than half the number of revolutions stated. The boat, with the propelling apparatus, &c., is represent- ed in Plate LV. Fig. 1. AA, the boat, which draws about eighteen inches of water, BB, the scull in its proper place when propelling the boat, the spindle or axis of which being an iron rod of about one inch diameter passing through an aperture in the stern-post, and having its inner end fixed to an universal joint connected with rack and pinion work, which operates within board. CC, the scull, when not in use, is drawn up through the above mentioned aperture, which is elongated for that purpose, 208 Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments, and fixed by a rope and small block attached to it at the up- per part of the stern of the boat at D. FE, the rack and pinion work, secured by strong iron plates to a thwart near the stern of the boat, consists of two pinion wheels, the. axes of which are horizontal, and in the line of the keel of the boat; and the lower pinion wheel is one- half the diameter of the upper one, and has the universal joint at F fixed to the after-end of its axis, which being united to the scull in its diagonal position, and wrought by means of the crank GG, fixed to the fore-end of the axis of the upper pinion wheel by the two men at H, produces an increased ve- locity, and accelerates the motion of the vessel. The paddle plates at the extremity of the axis of the scull are placed at right angles to each other; and at an angle of 45 degrees with the said axis or spindle, and are secured to each other in that position by a strong iron strap, in the centre of which there is a square aperture to receive the outer end of the axis of the scull, to which it is fixed by a screw nut. _ Hermitace Hitz, February 5, 1825. Art. V.—On the Dispersion of Stony Fragments remote Jrom their Native Beds, as Displayed in a Stratum of Loam near Manchester.* By Samurt Hiszerr, M. D. F.R.S.E. and Secretary to the Seciety of Scottish Anti- quaries. Communicated by the Author. Tue important researches of Professor Buckland, on the sup- posed evidence of diluvial action afforded by deposits of loam and gravel, are now beginning to excite the attention which they so well deserve. This geologist has proposed to separate two classes of phenomena, which were previously referred to one common cause. Of these, the jirst is the general disper- sion of gravel and loam over hills and elevated plains as well as vallies, which he conceives to be the effect of an universal and transient deluge. To the gravel and loam thus said to be dispersed, the name of Diluviwm, in reference to their al- leged cause, has been given. ‘The second class of phenomena * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 3, 1825. ‘ _ Remote from their Native Beds. 209 includes the partial collection of gravel at the foot of torrents, and of mud at the mouths, and along the course of rivers ; this partial collection of gravel, mud, or sand, being distinguished by Professor Buckland, from the first class, by the name of Alluvium. Thus, we are said to have deposits either of Délw- vium or of Allwviwm,—the first of these being referable to the action of an universal deluge, the latter (or the alluvium) to that of existing causes. Into the reasonableness of this view, it is not my proper business at present to inquire; nor is the individual who may be inclined to follow up the researches of Mr Buckland, obliged to admit that the evidence which has been adduced is perfectly conclusive. The validity of the theory must rest upon a much greater number of observations than we at present possess; and, in the meantime, it is less the duty of the geologist to contend for the speculative dis- tinctions, which a far too limited sphere of research has pre- maturely suggested, than simply to commit to record all ap- pearances of transported materials which occur either in the form of gravel; or which are imbedded in loam. Under this impression, therefore, the following notice on the subject is now submitted to the Society. Professor Buckland has prominently adverted to the very remarkable deposit, considered by him as diélwvial, which is to be found on the east coast of England; this consists, in general, of a tenacious blue clay. I have examined that of Yorkshire with some degree of attention. Innumer- able fragments of primitive rocks are imbedded in it, which, it 1s supposed, cannot be identified with any that exist in Great Britain, but are referable to those of Norway. This assertion, however, is unsatisfactory, unless it can be shown that the fragments thus dispersed have (like those of the vici- nity of Edinburgh, which were the subject of Sir James Hall's truly philosophical paper) been, bona fide, made the subject of comparison. Whether this has been actually done or not, we are by no means informed. In order, then, that a compa- rison of this kind may be carefully instituted, I shall now no- tice a deposit of loam, (to which Professor Buckland would not have the least hesitation in assigning the name of diluvial,) the imbedded stony fragments of which appear derivable, not VOL. If. No. 11. APRIL 1825. P 210 Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments, from the Continent, but from the rocks of our own island. This deposit, which consists of a thick continuous bed of clay, very tough, and of a reddish or yellowish brown colour, is to be seen on the north of the town of Manchester, near Strange- ways Hall, an ancient family seat of Lord Ducie. It stretches in a direction from north to south, being interrupted by the cliffs of the newer red sandstone formation which are exposed at the confluence of the rivers Irk and Irwell. How far from this point the bed extends, I am unable to state, but am im- clined to think it must be considerable, since I have observed the same kind of stony fragments, which are to be found in the loam of Strangeways, employed for several miles north in repairing the highways. I am equally unable to assign any limits to the breadth and thickness of this deposit, which are various. As the clay near Strangeways is now in the progress of being cut away for the purpose of brick-making, as well as of widening a road, sections are observable in it to the height perhaps of thirty feet, or more. But this is very far short of its real thickness. The principal circumstance relative to it deserving attention is, that innumerable fragments of rocks, some of which seem of several tons weight, are constantly de- tached from it by the labourers; and that, while the rocks of this part of Lancashire consist of the newer red sandstone, or of the red marl of geologists, many of the fragments included in the loam are of a much older date, since they belong to the primitive or transition class of formations, and have been evi- dently transported from a considerable distance. Granite, a stranger to the rocks of this district, is abundantly interspersed through the loam, most of the specimens of it containing horn- blende in greater or less quantity. Several varieties of trap- rock, particularly of greenstone, equally unknown in situ, are no less common. Other loosened relics of the hills, of far re- moier districts, possess a stratified structure, and consist chief- ly of the rock named by most geologists grauwacke-slate, but by Dr Macculloch, with far greater propriety, argillaceous schist. It hasa basis of clay-slate, with much quartz, dissemi- nated through it in the form of granular particles. Some fragments of this rock have a decidedly conglomerate struc- ture, containing numerous attrited nodules of granite. An- other variety of stony materials found in the loam may be Remote from their Native Beds. 211 described as a bluish quartz, which, when it existed in situ, was probably interstratified, or otherwise associated with the argillaceous schist already described. The quartz-rock is far more abundantly found than the grauwacke, owing, probably, to its having been better enabled, from its peculiar chemical nature, and from its superior hardness, to resist the processes of disintegration. Such, then, is the character of some of the imbedded mas- ses which occur in the loam of the south-east of Lancashire, and, from the recollection which I have of the rocks of West- moreland, little doubt remains in my mind, but that these dis- persed fragments will be found to correspond with them, and that the particular site of the grauwacke district, to which they are referable, may, with the greatest precision, be identi- fied. This has been, in fact, the impression of some other geologists, when they have adverted in a very general manner to the boulders strewed over the plains of Lancashire and Cheshire ; but a mistake has been assuredly made, in suppos- ing that they might be identified with the rocks in the vicinity of Shap Fells, in Westmoreland. Now, I have never found the very peculiar porphyritic granite, that characterises this district in the loam which I am now describing. I am inclined, therefore, to consider the fragments as transported from a dif- ferent place, perhaps from the vicinity of Dufton, near Ap- pleby. But the exact determination of this point will be my object on some future occasion. I shall merely remark for the present, that as no rocks in situ, similar in their nature to the fragments which are found imbedded in the loam of Manchester, can be anywhere found nearer than 80 miles from this town, no small degree ef support is given to the conclusion, that an overwhelming force, most probably from the North, far greater than any which can be attributed to existing causes, has transported these boulders to a situation so very remote from the place whence they were originally de- tached. But, besides the granite, greenstone, quartz, and argillaceous schist, which occur in the loamy deposit of Lancashire, I have also noticed fragments of newer rocks. These consist first of a very dark-coloured limestone, (the carboniferous or moun- tain limestone of English geologists,) which, from being un- 21% Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments. like any specimens of the kind that I have seen in the adjoin- ing south-easterly county of Derby, may have been detached from some limestone hills in a more northerly direction. Other numerous fragments which the loam contains are of sandstone, shale, and coal, these having been most probably removed from the extensive coal district of Lancashire, which is inter- mediate to the red marl formation of Manchester, and to the Westmoreland hills of grauwacke and granite. Thus, then, it appears, that a considerable bed of loam, to be found in the south-east of Lancashire, contains imbedded fragments of rocks, which have been dispersed from a far dis- tant northerly district of Westmoreland, where the rocks consist of granite, trap, grauwacke, and quartz; that the same clay contains specimens which have been removed from a remote district of mountain limestone, and that it likewise furnishes evidence of a similar transportation having been effected of the stony materials which compose an intervening district of the coal formation ; each of the districts, from whence the ma- terials have been removed, lying to the north of the loam in which they are found to be deposited. I shall, lastly, observe, that most of the transported frag- ments of rocks, which have come under my observations, ap- pear to be water-worn. I noticed, however, some fragments which showed few or no marks of attrition. ‘These are the few remarks which I shall at present offer on the transported materials of rocks that occur in the south of Lancashire. They have been suggested by a consideration of the interesting researches which Professor Buckland has of late been so actively pursuing. Whatever may be the true theory which the labours of this indefatigable geologist are calculated to support, our obligations to him must remain un- affected. Yet, it must be confessed, that we have at present too few observations from which the important question can be solved, whether the transportation of stony fragments, so far from their native beds, be referable to an event of such an uni- versal nature as the Mosaic deluge, or to far more partial causes. But granting even the latter supposition, namely, that a partial cause may have contributed to produce an effect of this kind, still we must admit, that it far exceeds any ordinary operation of nature with which we are conversant at the present day. Sir Thomas Brisbane's T'able of Tides, &c. 213 Art. VI.—Table of Tides kept at the Mouth of Macquar- rie Harbour, in Van Diemen’s Land, between July 21st, and September 27th, 1822. Communicated by his Excellen- cy Sir Tuomas Brisspane, K. C. B. F. R.S. L. & E. &e. Hieu Wa- Low Wa- TER. TER. TimE OF FLow-| TIME OF EBB- DATE. __————— |“ qq ING. ING. 1822. H. M. Past.| H. M. Past. —— —_—_—- —— eVect, star Ae Baie torn. aim. a ose 14 hours 50 min. July 22 5 10 23 4 30 8 30 84 hours. 16 hours. 24 | 4 0 9 0 7k do. 17 do. 25 | 5 30 8 30 81 do. 15 do. 26 6 0 10 0 93 do. 16 do. 27 28 . . sis 6 3 days. of haps ret Sas 29 31} -Sisbrotian | ena et she ath Wei jsp sales aide 2 days. Aug. 1 430P.M-| 6 OA.M.|-.-.... . | 133 hours. z 5 0 6 0 11 hours. 13 do. 3 5 10 pn 10 do. 40minj 13 do. 50 min. 4 5 30 7 10 103 do. 13 do. 40 min. 5 40 7 30 8 do. 50min.| 154 do. 6 4 30 8 0 9 do. 154 do, 7 5 0 8 30 9 do. 153 do. 8 8 30 6 0 12 do. 94 do. 9 9 0 10 0 15 do. 13. do. 10 9 30 10 30 11} do. 13 do, ll | 4 Pe ee - : 3 days : 2t5h 13 § VARA cyt ices shed les oie at eke egertn 24 hours 15 G0 POM. 0 OA Mi ae oo of or at 16 do. 16 3 0 6 30 5 hours 153 do 17 3 30 6 0 9 do. 143 do 18 4 0 5 0 10 do. 13 do. Sept. 8 5 30A.M.] 430P.M.J...., Angee eek 9 4 0 5 0 11} do. 13 do 10 4 OP.M.| 6 O0OA.M.] 11 do. 14 do 11 4 30 6 30 104 do. 14 do 12 5 0 Zz .0 103 do. 14 do 13 5 30 7 30 103 do. 14 do 14-| 6 0 8 0 103 do. 14 do. 15 6 30 8 30 103 do. 14 do 16 7 0 9 0 104 do. 14 do 17 7 30 9 30 104 do. 14 do 18 8 0 10 0 103 do. 14 do 19 8 30 10 0 104 do. 14 do 20 9 0 ll 0 104 do. 14 do 21 9 30 11 30 103 do. 14 do. 22 ;10.0 12.0 103 do. 14 do. 23 | 10 30 12 30 P. M.| 103 do. 14 do. 24 {11 0 0 103 do. 14 do 25 | 11 30 1 30 103 do. 14 do 26 |12 0 2 0 104 do, 14 do. 214 Mr Murray on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, Art. VII.—Researches on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, in reference to their Counter-Poisons. By Joun Murray, F.L.S. M. W.S., &c. Communicated by the Author. Tw June 1815, a paper of mine was read to the Linnzan So- ciety, developing a simple and apparently decisive method of ascertaining the sedative virtues of vegetable juices and their counter-agents. The sciatic nerves of the prepared frog were taken up by a silver probe, and moistened with the tincture, and the result indicated the sedative power or its obverse; the degree was determined by the specific gravity of the solution employed, and the power measured by the duration of the period requir- ed to produce its maximum effect. It would be superfluous now to describe what has already been amply detailed. It was clearly proved from the result, that a suspension of the voltaic excitement, more or less de- cided, was the consequence of certain vegetable juices, and that im such as were operative in this manner, acetic acid’ was found to be a counter-agent. It may be worthy of remark, in this place, that discoveries have since manifested new alkaline bases, characterized’ by specific characters, in such as having produced a sedative ef- fect, were neutralized by acetic acid, as morphia, atropia, Xe. The following paper is intended simply to detail the results of some experiments instituted with reference to the discovery of counter-poisons to their agency on the system. Facts are soon stated, and it is not necessary that they be amplified or extended by unnecessary details. The truths gleaned from actual experiment are immutable, while the consequences which may be deduced in support of a theory may soon be overlooked in the progress of intelligence. I had always found, that the violent headache which some- times occurred in preparing hydrocyanic or prussic acid, was relieved and removed by ammonia, which induced me to think, that the antidote to that acid and virulent and formidable poison might be found in ammonia. in reference to their Counter Poisons. 215 A small portion of hydrocyanic acid was given to a healthy young rabbit, which proved fatal in ten minutes. Soon after its administration, the head declined on one side. Violent spasms supervened, while the eye lost its lustre, and the ani- mal died in dreadful convulsions. On dissection after death, the lobes of the lungs appeared paler than usual. Coagulable lymph was found lining the trachea as in cynanche tr., and the stomach was found in- flamed near the pylorus. The bram was not examined. _ The muscular fibre was still excitable by voltaic agency, but the excitability soon declined. A drop or two of hydrocyanic acid on the head of a frog soon proved fatal. The colour promptly changed to an un- wonted paleness. The sciatic nerves of the prepared limbs were moistened with hydrocyanic acid, but no suspension of the voltaic excite- ment supervyened. It was accompanied by a tremulous move- ment of the muscular fibre connected with the lines of the nerves, and this spontaneous irritability seemed increased by the application of an alcoholic solution of iodine. It is a singular fact, that not unfrequently the alcoholic solu- tion of iodine dropped on the muscular fibre of a frog excited phenomena similar to the action of the voltaic apparatus. It seemed also to renew excitability when the susceptibility had declined, or was lost. When the symptoms were verging to a fatal issue, (in a frog,) a drop or two of ammonia on the head effectually restored the animal. e A greater quantity of hydrocyanic acid was given toa young rabbit than proved fatal in the case detailed) Ammonia was occasionally applied to the mouth on a sponge. ‘The animal exhibited no unhealthy symptoms whatever. A considerable quantity of hydrocyanate of ammonia, with excess of base, was administered to another rabbit, but with- out any deleterious effect. Half a drachm of bydrocyanic acid was given to a healthy young rabbit. The effects were prompt. Respiration became laborious and difficult, with a grating in the throat; the eye lost its brilliancy ; the head dropt. _ It raised a sharp cry, and 216 Mr Murray on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, was convulsed. Strong ammonia was dropt into the animal’s mouth, and it was repeatedly wetted with a sponge: dipt in ammonia. It almost instantly revived, and even licked re- peatedly the finger which sometimes applied the ammonia, ap- parently quite sensible of the instant and continued relief it af- forded. The animal effectually recovered. Its lips were ex- coriated by the ammonia. Conscious of the complete antidote to this formidable poi- son found in ammonia, I took a quantity of hydrocyanic acid, sufficient to produce violent head-stupefaction, &c. but diluted ammonia afforded me instant relief. I occasionally applied it to the olfactory organs, and bathed the forehead. Since hydrocyanie acid has been introduced into our Phar- macopeeia, and employed in phihisis pulmonalis, and acciden- tal poisoning may be anticipated, it is of much moment to know an effectual barrier to its virulence; and such is my complete conviction of the antidote, that I would feel no he- sitation whatever in taking a quantity sufficient to prove fatal, provided there stood by a skilful hand to administer the re- medy. It is admitted, that morphia is the active principle in opium. Morphia dissolved in alcohol, in which, however, it is sparmg- ly soluble, produced on the sciatic nerves of a prepared frog effects analogous to those of the tincture of opium. | Acetic acid restored the voltaic excitability. The sciatic nerves were moistened with superacetate of mor- phia, but the excitement was the same as if none had been ap- plied. A frog’s head and abdominal viscera were steeped in super- acetate of morphia, but the voltaie action remained unhinged. Half a drachm of superacetate of morphia was given to a young rabbit, but no apparent derangement of its healthy functions took place. It rather seemed to act as a stimulus to appetite. These experiments pointed out acetic acid as the counter- poison to opium ; and, from its volatile properties, and other characters in which it differs almost essentially from acetic acid, having no affinity with it, except in an acid character, and having much of the features of an ether, I am of opinion that - in reference to their Counter-Poisons. 217 acetic acid may prove serviceable, where acetous acid would not prove effectual. Two and a half drachms of tincture of opium were given to a rabbit. Ina short time the eye became more opake. The pupil dwindled to a mathematical point, and was insensible to the stimulus of light. The head fell to the floor—the breath- ing was laborious and difficult, and loud—and there super- vened a total prostration of strength. Acetic acid was then administered through a quill, and applied to the mouth on a sponge repeatedly. 'The head was also bathed with acetic acid ; and it was also applied to the extremities, and in the direction of the spine. The whole quantity of the acetic acid used was about a fluid ounce. The animal was also frequent- ly roused, and finally kept warm. The animal effectually re- covered. These experiments were repeated with uniform success on other rabbits. Several days have elapsed, and ig eas: continue in the most healthy condition. I much regret that these experiments have been so painful to me, as to cause for some time an interruption of my re- searches on Hyoscyamus niger, Atropa belladonna, Cicuta vi- rosa, and other vegetable poisons; and nothing but the high importance which might attach to the discovery of an antidote to their fatality could have induced me to commence these ex- periments. I have no hesitation to pronounce with most positive cer- tainty, that in ammonia will be found a complete antidote to hydrocyanic acid, and in acetic acid an effectual counter-poi- ‘son to opium. The agency of voltaic excitement holds out a method to discover the comparative sedative or narcotic properties of vegetable juices, as well as their counter-agents. It unfolds also those that are stimulant, and those that are not, with ‘their relative correctives. By this means, we are prepared, by well-grounded anticipation, for the successful application of an antidote. 218 Dr Brewster's Deseription of Withamite, Art. VIII.—Description of Withamite, a new mineral species Sound in Glenco. By Daviv Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond., and Sec. R.S. Ed. Tue mineral, of which I propose to give a short description, was found by Henry Witham, Esq. in Glenco, in Argyleshire, during a mineralogical excursion which he made to the High- lands of Scotland, in the month of August 1824. The mineral occurred in a trap-rock of a reddish brown co- lour, and was disseminated in grains, or in small masses, which shot out into regular crystals in the larger cavities. These crystals are very minute, seldom exceeding the 100dth part of an inch in diameter. They occur in radiated spherical groupes, the central parts of which are of a light red colour, while, to- wards their circumference, they terminate in separate crystals, which, by reflected light, have a dark red colour, like that of arterial blood. Very fine groupes of transparent crystals sometimes penetrate the quartz which occasionally accompa- nies the mineral; and when thin chips of this quartz are im- mersed in Canada balsam, which has nearly the same refrac- tive power as quartz, and submitted toa powerful microscope, the separate crystals of the mineral are displayed with peculiar advantage. Having succeeded in detaching some minute crystals from specimens submitted to me by Mr Somerville, who accompanied Mr Witham to thecdHighlands, I found that they had generally the form of an irregular six-sided prism with flat summits, and that in the broken crystals there was an imperfect, though to- lerably distinct, cleavage, perpendicular to the axis. Ina fine specimen belonging to Mr Witham, I have since observed various faces upon the summit of particular crystals, but they are too minute to admit of measurement. The following are the angles of the prism, which I obtained by the reflecting go- niometer. See Plate VIII. Fig. 1, 2. Aupon B_ 128° 20° DuponE 166° 30’ B——C_ 63 20 E-—F 76 0 Cm D 168 20 F ——A 118 30 % a New Mineral Species found in Glenco. 219 Between the faces F and A, I observed other two very imper- fect ones, which were inclined 156° and 147° respectively to A. From the irregularity of this prism, of which only two of the opposite sides are parallel, Mr Haidinger, who had like- ‘wise measured the angles, was led to believe that the crystals are compound, and by computing the angles of the com- pound prism, on the supposition that one of the individual crystals was turned round 180°, he obtained a very satisfac- tory confirmation of his opinion. The hardness of Withamite is about 6.5, scratching glass with facility. Its specific gravity, as determined by Dr Tur- ner, is about 3.137, and the specific gravity of the rock about 2.669. In examining the optical characters of this substance, I have experienced considerable difficulties from the minuteness of the crystals. By plunging them, however, in oil of cassia, the oil of the highest refractive power, I was enabled to ascer- tain that their ordinary refraction greatly exceeds that of oil of cassia,—that their double refraction, which is considerable, is negative in relation to the axis of the prism,—and that the two images may be easily separated by looking through any of the two acute angles of 63° or 76°. The most interesting optical property of Withamite is its dichroism, or double colour, which it exhibits both in common and polarised light. When common light is transmitted through the two parallel faces of the prism, the tint is of a crimson or amethyst colour, with a mixture of straw yellow. Upon turning the crystal round, the yellow tint disappears, and the colour becomes a deep crimson red. On continuing to turn the prism, the colour changes to a straw yellow, and at the end of half a revolution the crystal resumes its com- pound tint. In the groupes of crystals which have penetrated the quartz, some of them occupy, accidentally, the position which gives the yellow colour,—others that which gives the red colour, and some that which gives the compound tint; so that, without. a knowledge of their dichroitic property, the groupe might have been considered as composed of three dif- ferent sets of crystals. 220 Dr Brewster's Description of Withamite, This mineral is not acted upon by acids either cold or hot ; and it does not phosphoresce on a heated iron. The following experiments upon it with the blow-pipe were made by Mr Haidinger. When placed alone upon charcoal it intumesces, and as- sumes a shape like cauliflower, but it fuses with difficul- ty, and has the appearance of a dark greenish grey ena- mel. With borax it effervesces, and forms a transparent globule, of a deep yellow colour, when hot, but becoming pale on cooling. The tint in the oxidating flame is slight- ly yellowish, and in the reducing flame greenish. It is dis- solved with effervescence by salt of phosphorus, with the ex- ception of a skeleton of silica. The globule is yellow while hot, but becomes white and opaque, or, at least, opaline, on cooling. With a little soda it fuses with difficulty into a deep green glass, but a larger quantity renders it infusible. With soda upon platina foil it gives a green colour, which is purer than that from the epidote of Arendal, but less inclining to blue than that from the pure oxide of manganese, or from the manganesian epidote of St Marcel. Withamite exhibits the same phenomena before the blow-pipe, as the epidote from Arendal, only it is a little more difficult of fusion. Silica, iron, and manganese, are unequivocally indicated among its consti- tuents. Lime is probably one of its ingredients, on account of the intumescence, and the opacity of the globule when melted with salt of phosphorus. From these experiments, and from the similarity m the crystallographic form, and composition of the two sub- stances, Mr Haidinger, whose knowledge of minerals is un rivalled, was disposed to consider Withamite as a new and remarkable variety of epidote. I was therefore induced to re-examine a fine crystal of epidote from Chamouni, which Mr Haidinger gave me for this purpose, and to compare it, as far as I was able, with the Withamite. The result of this comparison, though favourable to the opinion, that these two minerals are closely allied in their natural history properties, was such as to convince me, that the Withamite exceeds epi- dote both in lustre and double refraction, and very greatly in its ordinary refractive power. This result I was enabled to confirm by another mode of observation.—Mr Somerville had a New Mineral Species found in Glenco. 29} put into my hands a specimen of the rock containing small masses of Withamite, which he had carefully polished.. The high lustre of the Withamite was thus rendered obvious to the dullest eye; but I was surprised to observe, that the pale red mineral which almost always separates the Withamite from the trap-rock, was quite inferior in lustre to it. I there- fore examined the action of these three surfaces upon light when reduced by the opposite action of oil of cassia. When the image of the sun was reflected from the surface of the rock, the light was faint, and of a pale blue colour ;—when it was reflected from the surface of the Withamite, it was bright and of an orange colour; but when it was reflected from the surface of the pale red substance round the Withamite, the image was scarcely visible. Hence we conclude, that this second substance, which seems to be a new mineral, has the same refractive power as oil of cassia, and that in its action upon light it comports itself like topaz from Brazil. Upon mentioning this experiment to Mr Haidinger, he ex- amined the pale red substance, and considers it as having some resemblance to Saussurite. Art. IX.—On the Genus Hookeria of Smith, of the or- der Musci. By W. J. Hooxer, LL.D. F.R.S. &c. &e. Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow ; and R. K. Grevitite, LL.D. F.R.S.E. &e. &e. Com- municated by the Authors. Hookeria. Gen. Cuar.—Seta lateralis. Peristomium duplex. ext. e den- tibus sedecim; inf. membrana 16-ijaciniata, nunc _ciliis alternantibus. Calyptra mitriformis. Tue genus Hookeria was established by Sir J. E. Smith, ina memoir published during the year 1808, in the T’ransactions of the Linnean Society, vol. ix. and was defined there by cha- racters, which, with very slight exceptions, we have here a- dopted. The well-known moss Hypnuzn tucens, is to be con- sidered as the type of the genus ; to this, Smith added H. qua- drifurium, the Leskea pennata of Labillardiere, L. Jiliculifor- mis, Hedwig, L. tamariscina, L. rotulata of the same author, Hookeria flabellata, H. Arbuscula, L. flexilis of Hedwig, and 222 Dr Hooker and Dr Greville on the Genus Hookeria H. uncinata. Of these species, the authors of the Muscologia Britannica, perhaps too hastily, considered that the seven last should be rejected, as not well according with it, either in their essential character or natural habit. We have here, however, been induced to receive into the genus, Hookeria jili- culiformis, tamariscina and rotulata,* which, however va- rying in habit, as they certainly do, from the type of the ge- nus, agree with it, nevertheless, in the structure of their peri- stomes, and we believe, (but we cannot speak with certainty,) also in the form of the calyptra. We have indeed seen some specimens of rotulata, where the calyptra appeared fully formed, and was quite entire; whilst in others, even while re- maining upon the capsule, we have observed it to be split on one side. Still, from the general form of this part, which may be considered as campanulate, we are inclined to think that its splitting is an accidental circumstance, similar to what we have seen, and what Schwaegrichen has figured, in Trichostomum funale, and which may perhaps be caused by the sudden curvature of the seta, where it is embraced by the base of the calyptra. Still we must allow that the union of these species with Hookeria lucens, acutifolia, cristata and quadrifaria, does in some measure destroy the natural habit of the genus. But this we can safely affirm, that the more we investigate the structure and character of the mosses, the more we are satistied that the nature of the peristome will not afford characters for their natural distribution. What plants, for example, can be more similar in habit than Cynontodium cernuum of Hedwig, Leptostomum inclinans of Brown, (Gym- nostomum of Hooker) Ptychostomum compactum of Hornchuch, and Bryum turbinatwm ? So much alike are they indeed, that with the eye, unassisted by the microscope, they are scarcely to be distinguished from one another ; yet in their peristomes, and in them only, they are so widely different, that according to the present ideas of the arrangement of mosses, ® The Smithian Hookeria, which we think should be removed from that genus, are the species last mentioned by that learned author; viz. Arbuscula, flevilis, and uncinata. 'The two former are figured in the Musci Ewotici as Hypna, and in the cylindrical stems and general habit they certainly depart from the genus Hookeria ; at the same time we must remark, that we have not, neither-has Smith, had the opportunity of seeing the calyptra. 7. uncinata has altogether so rouch the habit of Hypnum cupressiforme, that till the discovery of its calyptra shall ascertain its true genus, we should prefer placing it among the Wypna. ce of Smith, of the Order Musci. 293 they must constitute so many distinct genera ; and in the sys. tem these are placed very widely apart. The main characters, then, of the genus Hookeria, we con- sider to depend, first, on the lateral insertion of the fruitstalk ; secondly, on the peristome being double, and like that of Hyp- num and Leskea, having the inner one formed of a membrane cut into sixteen segments, with or without intermediate ciliary processes; and thirdly, upon its having a calyptra, which is mitriform. There exists, at the same time, certain characters which are common to a considerable portion of the species. The stems in the greater number are creeping, and not unfrequently clothed at the base with a reddish down; in the arbusculoid section they are erect. The leaves are sometimes exactly dis- tichous, in almost every instance more or less bifarious, and forming compressed or complanated branches ; their structure is generally highly vascular, or in other words, loosely cellu- lar and pellucid, on which account many are aptly compared to Jungermanni@. ‘The margin is occasionally thickened, with or without serratures, the base sometimes oblique ; the nerve rarely reaches to the point, is at times bipartite, but more frequently double, the two being distant from each other, sometimes wholly wanting, The fruitstalks are mostly elongated ; but in H. conctnna and pennata they are short; smooth, or scabrous, or even scaly, as in H. cristata. The capsule, which often occurs reticulated,* is rarely erect, sometimes inclined, but mostly drooping, and that in conse- quence of the curvature of the upper extremity of the-seta, the capsule itself not being oblique or arcuate in the slightest degree; this circumstance we esteem to be a remarkable fea- ture in the capsule of this genus. The beak of the opercu- lum, too, although often much elongated, is equally straight in its direction. The form of the calyptra is almost as vari- able as that of the genus Orthotrichwm, being sometimes quite entire at the margin, sometimes cleft into a few short and * We believe it will be found, that in those species of Hookeria which have the leaves most decidedly cellular, the capsule and calyptra are most strikingly reticu- lated ; the reticulation being only caused by the enlargement of the cellules, as in Hi. cristata and lucens. n other species, we do not find the calyptra and capsule to be reticulated ; hence we do not consider that mark as being of sufficient conse- quence to form a generic distinction. ; 224 Dr Hooker and Dr Greville on the Genus Hookeria broad laciniz, at other times into long. narrow filiform seg- ments, as in Hookeria cristata and scabriseta. The surface is never furrowed, but occasionally pitted and distinctly cel- lular, either glabrous, hairy, or hispid with short thick pro- cesses. With regard to station, the Hookeria grow on the ground and on the trunks and branches of trees. Some inhabit the tropics, others are peculiar to the southern hemisphere, two only are found in Europe, one of which reaches to very high northern latitudes. The excellent Schwaegrichen, treading in the steps of his illustrious predecessor Hedwig, discards the calyptra in the formation of his generic characters of mosses, and hence will not allow the Hookeria of Smith to be a valid genus; and in the 2d volume of his Supplement, he has given the name Hookeria to a genus of mosses, which Hooker himself had previously published in Brande’s Journal of Science, under the appellation of T'ayloria. One species of this genus, Hookeria pennata, was so long ago as the year 1805 published by P. de Beauvois in his Pro- drome del ZEthéogamie, under the name of Cyathophorum pte- ridioides, but with a character so loose and imperfect, and a name so inexpressive, that no author seems to have adopted it; and it was unquestionably intended solely for the plant in question. We might say the same of this author's genus, Racopilum, which he designed should embrace our Hf. depres- sa, and the Hypnum tomentosum of Hedwig. To it he as- signs the character of a calyptra cleft on one side; but with somewhat more propriety, Bridel only places the single spe- cies H. tomentosum, in this genus. In the Methodus Muscorum, published in 1819, Bridel has formed a genus Chetephora, from Smith’s H. cristata, the character resting mainly upon the filamentous calyptra. Lastly, we may observe, that in the work just quoted, its author has also invented the genus Pterygophyllum,which he expressly states to be the Hookeria of Smith, and the Cyatho- phorum of Beauvois, differing from Chatephora solely in its glabrous calyptra. He has made the number of its species fifteen, but of these he mentions two as but doubtfully be- longing to that genus, whilst three others, P. struthiopteris, of Smith, of the Order Musci. 225 aspleniotdes, and jungermannoides, are taken up from imper- fect specimens, of which no fructification has been seen. In essential characters, the genus which is most allied to Hookeria, is undoubtedly Daltonia of the Muscologia Bri- tannica. "This includes Cryphaa of Weber and Mohr, and some species of Pilotrichum of Beauvois, and has ciliary pro- cesses alternating with the teeth, not united at the base by a distinct portion of the membrane. According to our views of the genus Daltonia, it will contain, besides D. splachnoides and heteromalla, several beautiful individuals, which have been hitherto united with Neckera, and which we hope short- ly to be able to enumerate. A. Foliis uniformibus wndique insertis: sew ExsTIPULAT. * (Fere omnibus caulibus procumbentibus ramosis.) * Foliis enervibus, vel obsoletissime basi binervibus. 1. Hookeria Zucens, complanata, foliis bifariis, late ovatis obtusis integerrimis reticulatis enervibus, capsula ovata hori- zontali, calyptra integra impresso-punctata. H. lucens, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 276. Engl. Bot. t. 1902. Hooker and Tayl. Musc. Brit. p. 89. t. 27. Hobson’s Muse. Brit. v. I Hypnum lucens, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1589. Hedw. Sp. Musc. p. 243. Turner Muse. Hib. p. 155. Moug. et Nestl. St. Crypt. No. 40. Leskea lucens, Schwaegr. Suppl. v. 2. p. 164. t. 84 Funck. Deutsch. Moos. p. 54. t. 35. Pteryophylium lucens, Brid. Meth. Musc. p. 149. Has. Moist subalpine banks, Europe. West Coast. of N. America, A. Menzies, Esq. This beautiful and well-known moss has a near af- finity to the following species, with which it agrees in its very pale whitish-green colour, and exceedingly lax reticulation. 2. H. acutifolia, foliis bifariis ovatis acutis enervibus reti-- culatis, capsula ovata horizontali, calyptra impresso-punctata. Poe * For the sake of convenience, (the terms not being strictly correct,). we here employ the expressions stipulate and exstipulate. In the former of these divisions, the larger leaves are regularly distichous, and inserted on two opposite sides of the stems. ‘There exist likewise intermediate leaves, sometimes forming a single, som< times a double row, always different in figure, and considerably smaller than the lateral ones. These we have denominated stipules, although they are free from any attachment to the larger leaves, and ouly correspond to what are term- ed the stipules of Jungermanniw. In the latier division, no leaves of this kind exist. VOL. II, NO. 11. APRIL 1825, Q 226 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria Han. Nepaul, Dr. Wallich. Similar in size and habit to H. lucens, which it also resembles in the horizontal dark-coloured capsule and pale entire and reticulated calyptra. Its acute leaves, however, constitute a remarkable point of difference between the two species. 8. H. prelonga, “ caule pinnatim ramoso laxe folioso, foliis distichis subrotundis acuminatis integerrimis enervibus.” Arnott. Pr. V. H. prolonga. Arnott in Wern. Trans. v. 5. p. 203. Has. Near Rio Janeiro. Mr. Jameson. The stems of this species are two or three inches in length, pinnated with small ramuli three or four lines long ; the leaves of the ramuli are ovato-lanceolate. Its fructification is unknown. 4. H. flavescens, caule vage pinnatim ramoso, ramis bre- vibus simpliciusculis subcompressis, foliis undique laxe im- bricatis ovato-acuminatis integris enervibus perichetialibus lanceolato-acuminatis, capsula nutante, calyptra basi multifida. Has. Demerara. C. S. Parker, Esq. Stems creeping, irregularly pinnated with short branches. Leaves pale yellow green, the lower ones inclining to brown, shortly, but very sharply acuminated, entire, nerveless, somewhat reticulated, and of a thin and membranaceous texture.—Pt. V. fig. 1. Cauline leaf; 2- perichetial leaf. #* Foliis uninervibus. 5. H. microcarpa, caule simpliciusculo, foliis patentibus, Jate obovatis obtusissimis integerrimis immarginatis succulentis opacis medio diaphano laxe reticulato, nervo infra apicem evanescente ‘* capsula erecta urceolata exigua.” Hypnum microcarpon, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 244. t. 59. Schwaegr. Suppl. 2. p. 197. Pterygophyllum microcarpon, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. Has. South Sea islands. We only possess specimens of this moss without fructification from Mr. Dickson. The habit and structure of its leaves are quite peculiar, though at first sight it bears some resemblance in the former particular to H. cristata. 6. H. Dicksoni, subeompressa, foliis late ovatis acuminu- latis tenuissimis pellucidis marginatis subundulatis imtegerri- mis pulcherrimo-reticulatis, nervo ultra medium evanescente, capsula nutante, calyptra, basi (ut videtur) laciniata. Pr. V. Han. ......... Received from Mr. Dickson. 3 _ of Smith, of the Order Musci. 227 Of this plant we have only one small specimen, but it is sufficient to afford satisfactory characters for a very distinct species. In habit it comes near to H.depressa, but differs in the peculiar form and structure of its leaf, which, under the microscope, is extremely beautiful, with delicate roundish reticulations. 7. H. radieulosa, repens compressa subtus radicans supra foliosa, foliis ovatis subacuminatis integerrimis immarginatis, nervo ultra medium evanescente, capsula ovata nutante, oper- culo rostro eurvato, calyptra basi integra. H. radiculosa, Hooker, Muse. Exot. t. 51. Humb. et Kunth. Syn. Pl. vy. i. p. 59. Has. Moist shady banks, near Caripe, S. America, at an elevation of 2680 feet, Humboldt. Orinoco, Herb. Willd. Hornsch. in litt. *** Foliis binervibus. + Folits integerrimis. 8. H. pendula, ramis pinnatis curvatis eompressis, foliis undique imbricatis ovatis basi binervibus, capsula pendula, operculo conico-rostrato, calyptra carnosa pilosa basi fim- briata. H. pendula. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 53. Humb. et Kunth. Syn Pl. v. 1. p. 60. : Haz. In temperate regions upon the mountains of the Andes. Hum< boldt. A long straggling plant, with somewhat bipinnate compressed branches. Its capsule is oblong-ovate, and drooping ; the calyptra laciniated at the base, and hairy like that of many Orthotricha. The perichetial leaves have a remarkably long acumination, and are slightly serrated. 9. H. diaphana, ramis paucis laxissime foliosis, foliis pa~ tentibus oblique late obovatis attenuato-acuminatis immargi- natis integerrimis laxissime reticulatis pellucidis nervis duo~ bus obscuris versus medium evanescentibus. Hypaum diaphanum. Swartz, Prod. p. 140. FI. Ind. Oce. p. 1828- Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 243. t. 61. f. 1-6. (the magnified portions very in= correct.) Schwaegr. Suppl. 2. p. 193. Pterygophyllum diaphanum. Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. , Hap. Island of Jamaica. Swartz. This species is remarkable for having the leaves very thin and pellu~ cid. Their apex we find to be always twisted. The fruit of this plant being unknown, it is from its general habit and the structure of its foli~ age that we are induced to place it in this genus. 10. H. padlescens, ramis compressis, foliis undique imbrica~ 228 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria tis ovatis obtusis minute reticulatis basi binervibus, seta elon- gata, capsula subovata, calyptra multifida. H. pallescens, Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 28. Humb. et Kunth. Syn. Pl. v. 1. p. 60. Has. On the banks of the Orinoco, in shady places, near Esmerelda. Humboldt. 11. H. filiformis, ramis tenuibus, foliis undique imbricatis vel subsecundis ellipticis integerrimis arcte reticulatis, nervis duobus pellucidis fere ad apicem attingentibus apice longe attenuato filiformi flexuoso. Pt. V. Has. Island of Guadaloupe. Unfortunately our specimens of this plant are without fructification. They were communicated by Professor Sprengel, under the name of Hypnum Boscii. Its leaves are strikingly different from those of any other species which we are acquainted with. ++ Folits versus apicem serratis. + Capsula suberecta. 12. H. scabriseta, caule subpinnatim ramoso compresso, foliis undique imbricatis, late ovatis subacuminulatis, seta scabra, calyptra longe laciniata subhispida. H. scabriseta. Hooker, Muse. Exot. t. 52. Humb. et Kunth. Syn. Pl. v. 1. p. 59. Haz. Moist rocky places near Caripe. Humboldt. This species is remarkable for the roughness of its fruitstalk, and the great length of the segments of its calyptra. The perfect fruit we have not seen. 13. H. leptorhynca, caule repente czespitoso vage ramoso, ramis brevibus, foliis laxe imbricatis ovato-lanceolatis acu- minatis apice serrulatis nervis duobus infra apicem evanes- centibus, capsula cylindrica, operculo subulato, calyptra sex- fida glabra. PL. V. Has. Island of St. Vincent’s, Rev. L. Guilding. A small, but extremely beautiful species, with loosely reticulated leaves, their nerves long and very strong, the capsule nearly erect, and, what we consider a remarkable circumstance, having a calyptra, which, though decidedly campanulate, does not cover more than one half of the capsule. + + Capsula nutanie, vel pendula. j4. H, cristata, caule erecto ramoso, foliis obovatis margi- of Smith, of the Order Musci. 229 natis succulentis reticulatis basi nervo bipartito, seta arcuato- curvata apice cristata, capsula pyriformi cernua, calyptra mul- tifida. Pu. V. Leskea cristata, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 211. t. 49. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p- 159. Chetephora cristata, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. Has. South Sea islands, where we believe it was first found by Mr. Forster, during the celebrated voyage round the world with Captain Cook. Isle of France, Aubert du Petit Thouars. This species is very remarkable for the curvature of its fruitstalk, which is bent down at the top like the neck of a swan, and at that part is beautifully crested with membranaceous scales. These scales exist, though of a smaller size, and regularly imbricated, upon all the rest of the seta, which is of a succulent nature, much resembling that of a Sphagnum, and swelling out into a small bulbous base. The substance of the leaves is remarkably succulent, that of the perichetial ones mem- branaceous, nerveless, and ending in along acumen. The capsule is rich brown, and beautifully reticulated ; the lid we have not seen. The calyptra is large, companulate, whitish, rigidly membranaceous, multi- fid at the base in the same manner as that of Daltonia splachnoides ; its segments very narrow, pellucid and rigid, resembling, when highly magnified, the quill portion of a feather, its upper part is hispid. Some specimens which we have received from the Isle of France, of a Hookeria without frutification, seem exactly to coincide with the character of this species. The plant which Bridel has called Pterygophyllun asplenioi- des, and which was sent to him from the Isle of Bourbon, appears also to be H. cristata. 15. H. Parkeriana, caule elongato, ramis complanatis, fo- lus imbricatis subbifariis oblongis acutis undulatis apice serru- latis nervis duobus fere ad apicem attingentibus, capsula oblonga horizontali, calyptra laciniata. PL. V. Has. Upon trees in Demerara, C. §. Parker, Esq. This noble moss, which in its habit much resembles Neckera crispa, especially in the form, size, and disposition of its foliage, we have named after its discoverer, our excellent friend C. 8. Parker, Esq. of Blochairn, near Glasgow. The stems creep to a great length, and are bare of leaves; the branches are irregularly pinnated, two or three inches long, and, including the leaves, a quarter of an inch broad. The fruitstalks are numerous, about an inch and a half long ; the capsule oblongo-pyri- form, horizontal ; the calyptra quite glabrous. 16. H. undata, compressa, foliis imbricatis ovato-lanceola- tis longe acuminatis versus apicem undulato-crispatis serratis- que, nervis duobus ultra medium evanescentibus, ‘ capsula ovata, operculo longe conico.” Pt. V. 230 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria Leskea undata. Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 214. t. 52. Schwaegr. Suppl. IT. 165. Hypnum Guadalupense, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 189. Pterygophyllum undatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. Has. Jamaica, communicated to Hedwig by Swartz. As far as we can judge from the descriptions given by Bridel and Schwaegrichen of Hypnum Guadalupense, that plant does not differ from the present individual ; an opinion in which we are supported by Mr. Amott. 17. H. letevirens, complanata vage pinnatim ramosa, foliis bifariis ovatis acuminulatis marginatis apice subserrulatis usque ad apicem fere binervibus, capsula ovata horizontali, operculo conico-rostrato, calyptra integra. H. letevirens, Hooker and Tayl. Muse. Brit. p. 89. t. 27. Has. Ina bog near Cork, Ireland, Mr: Drummond. An exceedingly beautiful species, of a full bright shining green colour, two inches or more in length. The capsule and calyptra are very simi- lar to those of H. lucens and acutifolia. It has never been found in any station except the one above given. 18. H. Langsdorfii, elongata ramosa, foliis distichis com- pressis ovatis subacuminatis apice serratis, nervis duobus ante apicem evanescentibus, capsula ovata nutante, operculo he- misphzrico rostrato, calyptra basi sexfida. H. Langsdorfii. Hooker, Muse. Exot. t. 121. Has. Near Rio Janeiro, Langsdorff’; communicated by Mr. Swain- son. . A fine species, nearly five inches in length, and resembling in its ge- neral habit both H. albicans and H. letevirens. 19. H. albicans, ramis complanatis, foliis bifariis ovatis apiculatis summitate serratis pellucidis laxe reticulatis nervis duobus divergentibus infra apicem evanescentibus, capsula nutante ovata, operculo acuminato, calyptra basi laciniata. _ Leskea albicans, Hedwig, Sp. Muse. p. 218. t. 54. f. 13—16. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 162. Swartz. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 1811. Hypnum albicans, Swartz, Prod. p. 140. Racopilum Aubertii. Pal. de Beauv. Hthéog. Prodr. p. 37. Pterygophyllum albicans, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. Has. Jamaica, Swartz. St. Vincent's, Rev. L. Guilding. In general appearance this comes near to H. letevirens, but its leaves have a much more lax reticulation, and are very pellucid; the capsule, moreover, is not horizontal, nor its calyptra entire. _ Bridel, under P. albicans, quotes Neckera Aubertii of his Sp. Musco= of Smith, of the Order Musci. 231 runt, Y. 2. p. 28; and also his Hypnum vesiculosum, Sp. Muse. v. 2. p. 100. 20. H. incurva, foliis bifariis obovatis subacinaciformibus obtusis denticulatis ultra medium binervibus reticulatis, pe- richzetialibus cordato-acuminatis, capsula ovata nutante, calyp- tra basi jiaciniata. Chetephora incurva, Hornsch. in Hore Phys. Berol. p. 65. t. 13. Has. Chili, Chamisso. A very beautiful and distinct species, well figured by Hornschuch in the work above mentioned. We find the denticulations to be of a very peculiar structure, evidently formed of cellules similar to those of the rest of the leaf, sharpened, very acute, and placed with great regularity upon the otherwise even margin of the leaf. 21. H. depressa, ramis subcomplanatis, foliis laxe imbri- catis oblongis breviter acuminulatis apice serrulatis, nervis duobus infra apicem evanescentibus siccitati crispatis, capsula ovata nutante, operculo conico acuto, calyptra basi breviter laciniata. Hypnum depressum, Swartz, Prodr, p. 141. Leskea depressa, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 144. Swartz Fl. Ind. Oce. p- 1804. Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 215. t. 53. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 166. H. affinis, Arnott, in Wern. Trans. v. 5. p. 202. Has. Jamaica, Swartz. St. Vincent's, Rev. L. Guilding. St. Do- mingo, Thuill. Guadaloupe, Sprengel. Garrow Hills, E. Indies, Dr. Wallich. 22. H. falcata, foliis falcato-secundis lanceolatis longe acu- minatis serratis binervibus, capsula ovata horizontali, operculo subulato, calyptra basi sex- vel octo-fida. Hi. falcata Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 54. Has. In valleys of the Andes, between Almaguer and Pasto, Hume Boldt. Remarkable for its falcato-secund and much acuminated leaves. The calyptra is cleft into broad segments, and is scabrous at the apex. 23. H. repens, ramis compressis sericeis, foliis subfalcato- secundis imbricatis bifariis ovato-lanceolatis attenuatis reticu- latis versus apicem dentato-serratis obsoletissime binervibus, capsula exigua horizontali, calyptra integra. PL. V. Has. St. Vincents, Rev. L. Guilding. A small creeping species, with delicate foliage. The leaves are falca- to-secund, especially towards the extremities of the branches. The fruitstalk is extremely slender, with a narrow and oblong capsule, the calyptra glabrous and entire at the base. 232 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria B. Foliis tri-quadrifariam insertis (anterioribus minoribus ) ; Seu STIPULATE. * Caulibus vix ramosis. 24. H. pennata, caule erecto simplici, foliis bifariis verti- calibus ovato-lanceolatis serratis enervibus, stipulis orbiculatis mucronulatis serratis, seta brevi, capsula ovata erecta. H. pennata, Smith in Linn, Trans. y. 9. p. 277. Hooker, Muse. Exot. t. 163. Pterygophyllum pennatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. Cyathophorum pteridioides, Beauv. Eth. p. 52. Leskea pennata, Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. p. 206. t. 253. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 160. Anictangium bulbosum, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 44. t. 6. f. 1—5. Has. New Holland, Labillardiére. Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. Van Diemen’s Land, R. Brown, Esq. Of this noble moss we have received specimens from Mr. Brown, which measure 5 or 6 inches in height, and bear fructification in every pe- riod of growth. The calyptra is, as Mr. Brown first ascertained, entire, campanulate, and tipped at the extremity with the persistent style. 25. H. quadrifaria, caule erecto subramoso, foliis quadri- fariis reticulatis medio uninervibus, lateralibus distichis verti- calibus ovatis, intermediis (seu stipulis) subrotundis erectis appressis, capsula subcylindracea pendula. H. quadrifaria, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 277. t. 31. f. 1. Fiesker, Muse. Exot. p. 109. Pterygophyllum quadrifarium. Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. Has. In Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. 1791. One of the finest species in this genus, nearly 4 inches in length ; and from its extremely succulent nature bearing a strong resemblance to a Jungermannia. ** Caulibus apice valde ramosis arbusculoideis. 26. H. concinna, caule erecto bipinnato inferne“nudo, foliis bifariis verticalibus stipulisque oblongis brevi-acuminatis apice setratis, nervo attingente ; seta brevi, capsula erecta, operculo subulato. ; Leskea concinna. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 34. Has. In Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. Van Die- men’s Land, Dr. Spence. of Smith, of the Order Musci. 233 We are ignorant of the calyptra of this beautiful species, but have re- ferred it to this place, on account of the affinity of its habit, leaves, and stipules, with those of H. rotulata and its allies. 27. H. filiculiformis, * ramis tasciculatis tripinnatis, foltis ovatis trifariis complanatis integerrimis enervibus, intermediis (seu stipulis) parum minoribus.” Smith. H. filiculiformis, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 278. Leskea filiculiformis, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 212. t. 50. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 259. . Pterygophyllum filiculiformis, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. Has. South Sea Islands. With this species we are unacquainted. The stems, according to Hed- wig’s figure, are four or five inches high, and much branched at their up- per extremity, in a tripinnate manner ; the leaves and stipules are desti- tute of nerves. 28. H. rotulata, caule apice pinnatim ramoso, foliis bifa- ris oblique ovato-acutis marginatis grosse denticulato-serratis nervo supra medium evanescente, stipulis duplo minoribus ro- tundatis apiculatis marginatis serratis integerrimisve nervo excurrente, capsula nutante ovata, operculo longe rostrato. a. Ramis compactis subfaciculatis, foliis strictioribus perichetialibus ob- longo-lanceolatis acuminatis, stipulis minoribus. H. rotulata, Smith in Linn. Trans. y. 9. p. 279. Leskea rotulata, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 213. t. 51. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 159. Pterygophyllum rotulatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. B. ramis laxre pinnato-fasciculatis, foliis subundulatis stipulis majoribus perichetialibus late ovatis magis concavis, breviter attenuatis. H. tamariscina, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 279. ? Hypnum tamarisci, Swartz, Prodr. p. 141. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 1825. Has. « South Sea Islands, Hedwig. New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. —8. Jamaica, Swartz. Nepaul, Dr. Wallich. Rio Janeiro, Dr. Langsdorf Cape of Good Hope, A. Menzies, Esq. (Smith. ) In its general appearance this plant is liable to considerable variation ; our New Zealand specimens have the branches densely fasciculated, as Hedwig’s figure well represents ; those from Nepaul are more loosely branched, whilst in some from Jamaica the main ramifications are con- siderably elongated, and the pinne distantly placed. In our first variety, the perichetial leaves are more erect, narrower, almost plane, and of a somewhat compactly membranaceous texture ; whilst both in East and West Indian specimens of the variety §, the perichetial leaves are scarce- ly half so long, much more concave, and suddenly lengthened into a very narrow point. Their reticulation also is considerably looser. We find great confusion to exist in what regards the two species of this genus, which have been published by Swartz and*Hedwig, under 234 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria the names of Leskea tamariscina and L. rotulata. The appellation ta- mariscina, (or rather Tamarisci, as Swartz has it,) was first established by that author upon a Jamaica plant, which we have clearly ascertained from his own specimens, as well as description, to be synonymous with the L. rotulata of Hedwig. On the other hand, Hedwig, taking his re- presentation and account from an Australasian plant, which had been given him, we suspect, by Dickson, has a totally different species. By right of priority, therefore, the name of Tamarisci should be applied to L. rotulata. But we consider the Hedwigian tamariscina to be so well established, and so generally known by the excellent figure given in the Species Muscorum, that the general adoption of it will prevent confu- sion. Sir J. E. Smith, under his H. tamariscina, has included Swartz’s Jamaica plant, and another species allied to it from the Cape of Good Hope, which we shall presently have occasion to describe ; and he seems to us to have made his description from the West Indian individual, which is our H. rotulata ; but he has referred to the plate of the Hed- wigian ¢amariscina.- Our valued friend is, therefore, strictly correct in regard to the name ; and he has made the observation, that he was un- able to discover the bristles mentioned by Hedwig, which only belong to H. tamuriscina. 29. H. tamariscina, foliis bifariis oblique ovatis margini- bus denticulatis nervo infra apicem evanescente, stipulis ova- to-acuminatis marginatis laciniato-serratis, processibus seta- ceis in axillis foliorum, ‘ capsulis ovatis pendulis.” Hedw. Leskea tamariscina, Hedw. Sp: Muse. p. 212. t. 51. Hypnum Tamarisci, Schwaegr. Suppl. v. 2. p. 182. (but not H. Ta- marisci of Swartz, nor Hookeria tamariscina of Smith.) Pterygophyllum Tamarisci, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. Has. South Sea Islands, received from Mr. Dickson, This most remarkable species, as far as our observation extends, con- stantly possesses the axillary setaceous processes described and figured by Hedwig. These may probably be regarded in the light of abortive Ieayes, of which the nerve alone has been developed. We have endeavoured to clear up the obscurity in which the present and the last-mentioned species have been involved, in our description of H. rotulata, and we have there stated our reasons for retaining their pre- sent appellations. 30. H. daricina, caule erecto inferne denudato, apice pin- natim ramoso, foliis oblique ovatis submarginatis denticula- tis basi uninervibus, stipulis cordatis breviter acuminatis ser- ratis nervo perbrevi, capsula ovata nutante, operculo rostro curvato. H. laricina, Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 35. Hypnum laricinum, Humb. et Kunth. Syn. Pl. v. 1. p- 62, Has. Cape of Good Hope, A. Menzies, Esq. Mountains of the An« des, Humboldt. ma of Smith, of the Order Musci. 235 The nearest affinity of this species is with H. rotulata, but it differs in its leaves being softer, scarcely at all margined, and with a short nerve, whilst the stipules have hardly any nerve at all. There is also a decided, but very short nerve in the perichetial leaves. SPECIES DUBI®. 31. Hypnum rigidum, (Schwaegr. Suppl. Il. p. 189,) “‘ erectum, apice ramosum, foliis subdistichis remotis ovatis acutis binervibus serratis.” Schwaegr. Pterygophyllum rigidum, Brid. Meth. Musc. p. 150. Has. Supposed to be a native of South America. Mr. Arnott seems to be of opinion that this may prove the same with Hookeria scabriseta; but its fructification being unknown, we cannot speak with certainty. The author compares it with H. albicans. 32. Hypnum duplicatum, (Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 198.) ‘repens, ramis simplicissimis, foliis bifariam imbricatis ob- longis acutis basi semiduplicatis enervibus integerrimis.” Schwaegr. Has. In the Isle of Bourbon. The fruit of this species also has not been discovered. Schwaegrichen observes, that it strongly resembles H. diaphanum, (our Hookeria dia-= phana.) 33. Hypnum splachnifolium, (Aubert; Brid. Suppl. Muse. 2. p. 101.) ‘repens, subramosum, foliis bifariam imbricatis lanceolato-subulatis longissime reticulatis, operculo longiros- tri.” Schwaegr. Suppl. 2. p. 193. Pterygophyllum ? splachnifolium, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. 8 eee ae Serer The calyptra of this moss is unknown. 34. Pterygophyllum jungermannoides (Brid. Meth. Muse. p- 152.) “ caule repente basi erecto simpliciter pinnato, foliis_ remotis distichis oblique ovato-cuspidatis serrulatis nervo evanido siccitate undulato-rugosis, teguminibus unius seriei appressis cordato-acuminatis.” Brid. Has. New Holland, Desfontaines. This moss, of which no fructification has been discovered, seems near ly allied to Hookeria laricina and rotulata. 35. Hookeria flabellata, (Smith in Linn. Trans. v. ix. p. 280.) “ caule erecto, ramis sparsis pinnatis, foliis distichis complanatis, apice serratis.” Smith. 236 Dr MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite Has. West Indies, according to Mr. Dickson. This plant, although it has the same habit as the arbusculoid Hooke- rie, yet possesses no stipules, and has a seta scarcely longer than the perichetial leaves ; circumstances which, viewed conjunctly with its other characters, bring this moss so exceedingly near to Neckera den= droides of Musci Exotici, that we are much disposed to look upon them as the same. Ant. X.—On the Distribution of Granite and of Trap in: different Parts of Scotland. By Joun MacCurxocn, M.D. F.R.S.F.L.S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the Author. Tue circumstances in the distribution of granite and of trap, which form the object of this paper, are not only interesting in a geological view, but especially deserve the attention of such practical geologists as may be engaged in forming geolo- gical maps of those parts of the country where they occur. To treat of them as fully as they deserve, from their import- ance in both these respects, would require that which is here - inadmissible, namely, a geological map of the districts in question, as well as a length of discussion far too great for the present purposes, and which could not indeed well be made intelligible without a very extensive geographical description of the tracts where these appearances are found. Although granite exists in many parts of Scotland in con- tinuous tracts of very considerable extent, as in Galloway, in Lorn, in Sutherland, in Perthshire, and in Aberdeenshire ; it is often also found occupying very small spaces, and sometimes in very unexpected situations. In Aberdeenshire, this occur- rence is very common: but it is not there a matter of sur- prise, when the peculiar circumstances attending the stratified rocks of that district are considered. It is easy to perceive that the gneiss, which constitutes the chief of these, has been destroyed over a great extent of surface, and to a considerable depth; the earth, and fragments produced from its destruc- tion, sometimes remaining in the form of alluvial soil, forming and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland, 37. ‘deep beds; and being, in other places, carried away by the usual causes which transport loose materials along the surface. ; | Hence the granite appears at the surface in a very irregular manner, and often very unexpectedly. In these cases it has no relation to the form or altitude of the place where it oc- curs; since it is found in the lowest as well as the highest si- ‘tuations; in both of which also, the gneiss appears in the same uncertain manner. In many places it will thus happen “that a patch of granite may not occupy an extent of more than a few yards, or perhaps a few hundreds; and cases of this nature occur in every part of that granitic district. To the geologist who is anxious to lay down a district of this nature in a map, this circumstance is a source of great Jabour ; requiring all his care and industry, and demanding, indeed, a degree of toil which is almost incomprehensible. ‘Here, also, the difficulty is not limited to the granite only; affecting the stratified rocks nearly in an equal degree. Where strata present a considerable continuity over any tract of coun- try, it is almost always easy to infer the existence of large portions of them without actual examination; by the compa- rison of bearings and dips, and by general inferences respect- ing their necessary connection or prolongation. But where they are found forming masses so thin as barely to cover the subjacent granite, not only their dips and bearings are irregu- lar and uncertain, but the frequent interruption to which they are exposed by the intruding granite, renders it impossible to prolong them, or infer their existence in any particular spot without actual examination. Thus they become as difficult of investigation as the granite itself, in which the want of strati- fication precludes all species of investigation, but that which proceeds on the basis of actual and manual examination. In Aberdeenshire, other causes tend materially to increase the labour of the geological surveyor. The quantity of allu- vial matter arising from the decomposed gneiss is such, as of- ten to cover all the rocks to a great depth; so that it is only from the most casual appearances, in the bed of a rivulet, a quarry, or the side of a road, that we are enabled to discover whether gneiss or granite is present, or whether some other of 238 Dr. MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite the primary strata is not the one at the surface. Nor does the general outlme afford the least assistance, as the same con- tinuous and Jow undulating line often pervades both classes of rock alike. Thus, the geological surveyor must every where intersect, in the minutest manner, the ground which he is ex- amining; nor is it till after many successive trials, and much minute observation, that he is enabled to trace the boundaries of the several roeks as they appear at the surface. This, however, is a necessary part of his duty. It is to little pur- pose, whether for the objects of science or economy, to con- struct a map in which, instead of observations correctly lo- calized, general features are expressed. Nothing useful can ‘be drawn from a survey of this nature, while the practice is attended with the further evil of encouraging a hasty mode of concluding, instead of examining ; and thus of substituting prejudices for facts, and fiction for truth. The difficulties which attend the examination and discovery of small tracts of granite are, however, very much augment- ed, where it occurs in independent situations, and in a scat- tered manner, in districts of primary strata, where no exten- sive masses of it are present. Here it is impossible to con- jecture where it is to be found, or where, after being once found, it is again to be expected. In these tracts it occurs in- differently in the lowest and in the highest situations; nor is it in general marked by any peculiarity of outline, or by any one circumstance indicating its existence. The observer only finds it at his feet, and cannot even always recognise it as cer- tain, till he has detached a specimen. Thus, if he is desirous to gain a reputation for accuracy, or really to lay down the rocks that occur in any given district, he dares not omit even a square mile in his investigation, or even, in many cases, far less; but is obliged to traverse every spot where this rock, giving no data from which to infer its existence, may be found. It is, indeed, from the number of any such smaller masses of rock, whether of granite or others, found in any geological survey, that the accuracy of the observer may be conjectured. General details are in every one’s power, but of such it may truly be said, in the ancient maxim, that “ dolus est generali- and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 239 bus.” They are too often the result of conjecture, instead of actual examination. It will not be amiss to point out a very few of the places in Scotland* where these unexpected masses of granite are found. They occur both im districts of micaceous schist and of gneiss, and they are even found, in more than one place, in the middle of the old red sandstone. In the gneiss district, on the west coast, from Morven north- ward, they are very common, as they are in the central parts of Inverness and Ross-shire. About the sources of the Spey and the Findhorn, such small masses abound often not exceed- ing many square yards in dimensions. Even in Rannoch such masses are found in a district of micaceous schist, and remov- ed by many miles from any other similar rock. It is unne- eessary to multiply examples; and it would be equally unne- cessary to offer this caution to any geologist, who has accu- rately examined these tracts, as he cannot fail to have met with instances of this occurrence. The chief difficulty of investigating granite, arising from its want of stratification, is an equal source of toil in the examin- ation of the trap-rocks. These also abound in Scotland ; and, like granite, they are found, in some places, in large ex- tensive continuous tracts, in others, scattered in very minute patches, and separated by wide intervals. To connect these separated portions requires a different view from that by which we attempt to reunite the scattered masses of granite. These latter are judged, from all experience, to be actually, and at present, continuous beneath the superficial er incumbent strata. ‘Trap lies above the stratified rocks; and, when discontinuous, it is so, either because it has been originally deposited in that manner, or because the larger masses, once continuous, have been destroyed in particular spots so as to lose their continuity. Both of these are the con- sequences of interesting geological causes which are not the objects of consideration here. The fact alone is the subject of the present discussion. Although trap is unstratified, it often possesses a peculiar aspect, either in its outline, or in the nature of its vegetating 240 Dr MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite surface, when compared with the surrounding country, by which it may be known even at a distance ; and thus the geo- logist may escape a considerable degree of the labour of mi- nute investigation. But these features are by no means uni- versal ; nor is it often possible to form the slightest conjecture ‘respecting the presence of these rocks except by careful man- ual investigation. For example, it does not always occupy the hills, or even the insulated summits, when it occurs in sandstone countries. On the contrary, it is by no means un- usual for the trap to be found in the lowest parts of such a country, while the sandstone occupies the highest; and, of this, Fife presents abundant examples. Neither is it unusual for the stratified rocks to assume the external outline of trap, while this rock is totally void of characteristic features. It is also usual in Scotland for trap to occur in connection with the secondary strata, and the particular tracts where it is most abundant are well known. There the investigation, at least of larger masses, is comparatively easy ; because the sub- stance is expected, and because the contrast which it presents to the sandstones to which it approximates is commonly very strongly marked. But it is found also in many places, and often in an insulated manner, in the primary districts, where, from previous general experience, it would scarcely be ex- pected to exist. There also its general external characters are less strongly contrasted with those of the surrounding rocks, and thus it may escape the notice of a superficial or hasty ob- server. These are the causes which not only render the investiga- tion of a country of trap in itself difficult, but which produce equal difficulty in examining the stratified rocks of any district in which even one insulated mass of this rock has been found. The observer there loses all confidence in his power of infer- ring the existence of the stratified rocks in any place where he has not actually observed them, because he is never certain that some insulated mass of trap may not occur among them. Thus, as in the case of granite, every spot must be traversed and examined in a critical manner, if he would attain that ac- curacy without which a geological survey is scarcely of any value. o_o and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 241 In countries of this structure also, as in the granitic districts of Aberdeenshire, a depth of alluvia sufficient to conceal ef- fectually the subjacent rocks, is a perpetual source of obscu- rity and labour. Here, indeed, it commonly arises from a dif- ferent cause, the alluvial covering being the produce of the de- composed trap itself, and proceeding from that cause which has produced the discontinuity of the larger masses, and insu- lated the detached spots and summits which abound in dis- tricts of this nature. To quote examples of the fact now noticed, would be to enumerate nearly all those districts in Scotland where trap oc- eurs. I shall satisfy myself with stating, in the most. general manner, that they may be found in the whole central district of Scotland, which is included between the Highland moun- tain boundary and the schist of the south. Whoever may wish to make a map of this tract, as of many others in Scot- land, may be assured that he will only succeed by examining nearly every square yard ; and that, without this attention, he will only produce that which will be as useless for its in- tended purposes as discreditable to himself. I need not prolong this subject, and shall be satisfied. if these hints, the fruit of hard experience, shall be of use to those who may intend to labour in this department of geology, or to those who expect to profit by their labours. Art. XI.—Remarks on the Influence of the Winds on the Ba- rometer. Communicated by the Author. Axour the beginning of the last century, Mr Hawskbee pro-, posed the following experiment to explain the descent of the: barometer durig a storm. ‘‘ Having connected the cisterns of two Bakotacters by a horizontal pipe of three feet, he insert- ed in the side of one of them a pipe opening outwards, and connected the other side with a large receiver, into which three or four charges of atmosphere had been compressed ; on open- ing the cock the air rushed with vehemence over the mereury in the cistern and effected its escape, while both columns fell simultaneously about two inches, and rose again as the force VOL. II. NO. 11. APRIL 1 825, R i 242 Remarks on the Influence of the of the blast diminished;” from this experiment he derives four corollaries, the first two of which are, 1. ‘“*‘ That we have here a clear and natural account of the descent and vibrations of the mercury during a storm.” And, 2. “ That not only the different forces, but also the different directions of the wind, are capable of producing a difference of subsidence of the mercury.” Upon this Professor Leslie* remarks: ‘“‘ This ex- periment has a specious appearance, and might seem to war- rant the conclusions drawn from it, but a closer examination dispels the illusion; since the air had been condensed four times, it must issue from the vessel with the velocity of 2700 feet in a second; this is a rapidity, however, twenty times greater than the most tremendous hurricane; the very small change of the 400dth part of an atmosphere would hence have been sufficient to produce the strongest wind ever known, and, therefore, its influence in passing over the mercurial column must have been quite insignificant. But the experiment itself is absolutely fallacious; the peculiar result proceeded from a casual circumstance, the exit-pipe being Jarger than the pipe which introduced the air; for the air being previously con- densed, and still restrained in its passage through the induc- tion pipe, on entering the cavity of the box, immediately ex- pands beyond the limit of equilibrium, and finding an easy escape through the exit-pipe, allows that state of dilatation over the mercury during the time of the horizontal flow, but the air contained in the other cistern must, from its communica- tion by the pipe, suffer a like expansion, and wis columns will subside equally.” That this reasoning is also fallacious may, I think, be thus shown: That the air, even after its *¢ dilatation” in its pas- sage through the cistern, is still considerably denser than the surrounding air, (otherwise the blast would cease,) is beyond dispute; whence then the fall of the mercury ? it should ra- ther rise; this explanation is evidently inadequate. That the difference of size in the mduction and exit pipes will effect the result is admitted, indeed, it is evident; and I am inelin- ed to think, that, if mm the above case, the blast had been equally swift and less confined, the result would have been * Vide Suppl. Encycl. Brit. Art, Meteorology. Winds on the Barometer. 245 more striking, and, therefore, that ‘* the. influence of the strongest wind ever known would not be quite msignificant.” The Professor continues, “ Such is unquestionably the true explication of the fact,” and confirms it by this experiment : «“ Let A, Plate IV. Fig. 2. be any cylinder, suppose three inches long, and two in diameter, having an open pipe insert- ed at B, a quarter of an inch wide, ahd perhaps two inches long, and another at C about three-eighths or half an inch wide, and one inch long; at right angles to these a syphon GHF of one-tenth of an inch bore is cemented below contain- ing coloured water. If a blast be injected ito the cavity at B, the water will rise to G, showing the diminished pressure, and consequent rarefaction of the air above it; but if a cap D with a narrow pipe of perhaps one-eighth of an inch bore be adapted to C, on repeating the experiment, an opposite effect will take place, and the column of water will subside to H, It is evidently the difficulty of the escape through D whieh occasions the accumulation of air in the cylinder.” ‘Phe reason given in the latter case is undoubtedly just, but not so in the former; for to produce a rarefaction of the ait in the cylinder, it is necessary that more air should pass out through C than is injected at B, an meident which we cannot look for. I will now show that the wmd may partially remove or in- crease the vertical pressure according to its direction. Let AB, Fig. 3. be any tube of equal bore, into the side of which the syphon CE containing coloured water, opens at an angle of about 30° with the tube AB; now, if a blast be sent through the tube fron A to B, the column ia C will fall, if from B to A, the column will rise, and even flow out through the tube AB, the latter result will take place, whatever the situ- ation of the tube C, provided the blast does not take effect down the opening of C, for then the column will be depressed. These latter proofs of the action of the wind were suggest- ed by an article in a late number of the “‘ Mechanics’ Maga- zine,” in which the writer says he raised water to the height of eight inches in a funnel by the blast of a pair of bellows di- rected over the mouth of it. I have since found the princi- ple of much service in the use of a syphon, for by directing a blast from the mouth through a tube rather larger than the 24.4 Professor Gmelin on a New Formation syphon, in a direction nearly parallel with the leg, the liquid is raised over the bend, and thus begins to flow without the inconvenient process of filling it as is usual. That the wind does diminish or augment the vertical pressure of the atmo- sphere sufficiently to account for the variations of the barome- ter I will not venture to assert; but a friend once told me, that he had found his barometer so unsteady whilst in a pas- sage where there was a draught, that he was obliged to move it. ‘ The learned Professor proposes a new theory of the varia- tions of the barometer, the principle of which is, “ That as a horizontal current of air must, from the form of the earth, continually deflect from its rectilineal course, such a deflection being of the same nature as a centrifugal force, must diminish the weight or pressure of the fluid.” This may be sufficient to account for the fall of the barometer in high winds, but it necessarily ascribes the rise of it to a cause merely negative, viz., the absence of wind, yet the rise of the barometer in a north-east wind is often very considerable. On the other ‘hand, if we consider the north wind as blowing downwards, (which we may perhaps do-as coming from a colder region,) the fact accords with Mr Hawksbee’s theory. Ev A.* Lonpon, January 27th, 1825. Art. XII.—On a New Formation of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. Observed by C. G. Gmrtin, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author. Ir has been an opinion hitherto received, that anhydrous sulphuric acid can be obtained in no other way, than by de- composing in a distillatory apparatus such sulphates, as,’ when heated, give off their acid, such as calcined iron-vi- triol. It is generally known, that the fuming oil of vitriol from Nordhausen is procured in this way. 1 have found, * We shall be glad to have farther communication with E. A., and learn his address.—Ep. of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. 245 that the not fuming (so called in English) oil of vitriol yields at a certain period of the distillation fuming acid. I heated in aretort, connected with a receiver, 6 pounds 143 ounces Eng- lish oil of vitriol, of a specific gravity, = 1.8435 at + 103° R which was not the least fuming. ‘he acid never came to boiling ; the temperature of the air was 0° R. four ounces hav- ing distilled, having a strong smell of sulphurous acid, the re- ceiver was emptied, cleansed, and applied anew. When eight ounces of an acid, which was quite destitute of smell, had distilled over, the receiver, which had hitherto been perfectly transparent, was suddenly filled with vapours. It was -re- moved, and another dry receiver applied, which was now surrounded with powdered ice. There was condensed an acid. partly not transparent, partly transparent and crystalline; a good deal of the solid acid. was found in the neck of the re- tort. This solid acid was exceedingly fuming like that pro- duced from the fuming oil of vitriol; it remained solid at + 12° R., and had no smell of sulphurous acid. When brought in contact with a certain quantity of sulphur, in a close air-tight glass vessel, a green compound, having the colour of muriate of chrome, was formed, and a little sulphu- rous acid was disengaged. ‘This green mass being brought in contact with water, a very great heat was evolved, sulphu- rous acid formed, and sulphur dissolved. When the solid acid was brought in contact with water, diluted acid was form- ed, but no sulphurous acid. This diluted acid being saturat- ed by potash, and evaporated to crystallization, no nitre was formed, nor were nitrous vapours produced by heating the dry mass with concentrated sulphuric acid. The speEifc gravity of the acid left in the retort, which was now sensibly JSuming, was found = 1.8505 at + 13° R., the specific gravi- ty of the acid which distilled over, = 1.4309 at + lide R.* This experiment being repeated with the same acid, the same result was obtained. But it may happen, that the moment at which the fuming acid is formed is overlooked ; in the experi- ments just now mentioned, it was not formed, but in the first half of the third day, (during the two first days, from seven * The specific gravities were determined by means of a small bottle, provided with a plate ground upon its neck. 246 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, o'clock in the morning till nine o'clock in the evening, fire had been kept in the furnace,) and its formation could not longer be perceived than during about half an hour.* These ex- periments leave, I think, no doubt, that the solid acid real- ly was anhydrous sulphuric acid. Its formation may thus be explained, that, in a certain concentration of the aqueous sulphuric acid, part of the acid yields its water to another part of the acid, and is volatilized, whereby, on one side, by the great volatility of the anhydrous acid, on the other side by the great fixity of the acid containing water, this kind of decomposition seems to be induced. Art. XITI.— Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, and on the Specific Gravity of Sea.Water, made during a Voyage from St Helena to England in 1820. By Joun Davy, M. D. F. R.S. Communicated by the Author. Arren quitting St Helena on the 6th May, I again resumed my obseryations on the temperature of the sea and the air. May 6. S. Lat. 14° 59’, W. Long. 6° 22’.. Out of sight of Land. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sb a. M. 73° 74° a S. by E. gentle, overcast. 10 74 74 7 SE. do. do. 12 79 74 9 SE. do. do. 3 P.M. 74.5 74.5 8 SE. do. do. 6 79 7a 6 SE. do. do. The night was moderate, and rather cloudy. May 7. S. Lat. 13° 32’, W. Long. 8° @. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 3h a. M. 74° $e 6°.5 SSE. moderate, overcast. 10 76 75.5 8.5 SE. do. clear. 12 7 76 7 SE. do. overcast. 3 P.M. 73 73.5 2.5 NE. by E. moderate, overcast, slight rain. 6 72 76.5 2 SE. do. slightly overcast. The night was pretty fine, and the breeze moderate. * I quote these circumstances, that it may appear, how slowly the distillation proceeded. Probably no fuming acid will be formed, when the fluid in the retort is brought to boiling. during @ Voyage from St Helena to England. 247 May 8. S. Lat. 12° 9’, W. Long. 10° 8’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. mw. 74° i a 4° E. by N. moderate, slightly overcast. 10 ris 77.0 7 Do. do. pretty clear. 12 7i 77-5 6.5 SE. by E. do. overcast. Since yesterday, at twelve o’clock, the ship has been carried by a current twenty-nine miles to the south. The sudden ele- vation of the temperature of the sea agrees with this. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. sip Mw 4a 78° 7°.0 SE.byS. moderate, overcast. 6 76 77.5 6 SSE. gentle, do. The night was fine, and the breeze moderate. May 9. §. Lat. 10° 50°, W. Long. 11° 37. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. m. 77° 78° qe SSE. gentle, clear. 10 78 77 7.8 SE. moderate, cloudy. 12 79 79 8 Do. do. do. 2 Pow. 75 79 7 Do. do. clear. 6 78 79.5 8 East, do. do. 9 Ti — 5.5 Do. do. do. During the twenty-four hours preceding noon, we have been carried twenty-seven miles to the west. The night was fine, and the breeze moderate. May 10. S. Lat. 8° 57’, W. Long. 13° 2¥. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.m. 78? 78°.5 5° SE. moderate, cloudy. 10 78 79 i] Do. do. overcast. 12 79 79 6.5 Do. do. do. 3 P.M. 77.5 79.5 7.5 East, do. clear. 6 78 8&0 6 Do. do. do. ll 78.5 80 5 Do. do. do. In the twenty-four hours preceding noon, the ship has been carried to the west fourteen miles. At 5° 30’ P. M: Ascension Island was seen in the horizon, immediately a-head. At first, we had some difficulty in dis- tinguishing it, as it was about forty miles distant. The high- 248 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, est point of it is said to be 2400 feet above the level of the sea. At eleven o'clock at night, when I tried the tempera- ture of the sea, we were about six miles from the island. About midnight, we were abreast.of it, and we passed about three or four miles to the north-west of it. At day-light this morning, when the island was sixty miles behind us, it was distinctly visible. The island is rich only in turtle. May 11. 8S. Lat. 6° 43’, W. Long. 14° 55’. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 8ha.mM. 80°.5 80°.5 6°.5 East, moderate, clear. 10 82 80.5 8 Do. do. do. 12 82 80.5 8 Do. do. do. 3 Powe, FOR 80 ‘| Do. do. do. 6 79 80 5 E. byS. do. cloudy. The wind was variable during the night, and there were several heavy showers. May 12. S. Lat, 4° 54’, W. Long. 15° 53’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha.m. 77° 80° 2° East, gentle, overcast. 10 78 60.5 2 SW. do. do. 12 77.0 80.5 2 Do. do. do. slight rains. 3pm. 79 80.5 7 S. by W. do. do. pretty clear. 6 78 60 3 S.byE. do. do. At noon, we were in a very gentle current, setting to the north-west. The night was fine, and the sea luminous. May 13. S. Lat. 3° 5’, W. Long. 17° V’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.m. 79° 80° 4° S. by E. gentle, cloudy. 10 él 80.5 5 SSE. _ moderate, pretty clear. 12 82 80.5 6 Do. do. rather cloudy. 3 pM. Sl 80.5 5 ESE. do. do. 6 80 80 4 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the sea luminous. During the twenty-four hours before noon, we were carried about ten miles to the south-west. ——— during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 249 May 14. S. Lat. 1° 8’, W. Long. 18° 16. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha.m. 80° 79°.5 5° E. by S. moderate, rather cloudy. 10 81 499.5 5 Do. do. do. 12 8l 79.8 4 E. by N. do. do. 27r.M. 80 80 4 East, do. pretty clear. § 80 79.3 4 Do. do. do. 9 60 80 4 Do. do. clear. The night was fresh, and we crossed the Line about 10° 28/ Tr. M. We were carried, in twenty-four hours preceding noon, about sixteen miles to the west, and one or two to the south. According to the observations collected by M. D’Apres, there are shoals near the Line, to the southward, between the meridians 21° W. and 18° W. A ship, for example, received a shock, as if from touching a sand-bank, in 0° 20’ S. Lat. and 20° 50’ W. Long. ; another met with the same accident in 0° 20’ S. Lat. and 18° W. Long.; and a third in l° 35’, S. Lat. and 17° 50’ W. Long. A sand island also was seen in 0° 23’, and 19° 10’ W. Long. The comparative low tem- perature of the sea to-day is in favour of the opinion that the bottom we have been passing over is not very deep, particu- larly so as the current seems to set rather southward than northward. Very many flying fish have been seen to-day ; often more than 100 together. May 15. N. Lat. 1° 24, W. Long. 18° 40’. - Air. Water. Hvygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.m. 81° 81.5 4°.5 East, moderate, cloudy. 10 &2 81.75 6 Do. do. do. 12 82.5 82 5.5 ESE. do. do. 3 p.M. 82 62.25 5 Do. do. do. 6 80 82 4 SE. do. do. During the twenty-four hours preceding noon, we have been carried nine miles to the westward, and thirteen to the south. A little after six in the evening, the weather changed. The wind became variable and squally, and the sky obscured with dark clouds, threatening rain. We shortened sail as speedily as possible ; and whilst this was doing, the wind blowing hard 250 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, and on our beam, the ship went with great rapidity, at the rate of twelve knots an hour. ‘The effect of a vessel dashing through a sea of foam, brightly luminous, and emitting a sil- ver light, was extremely beautiful and striking. The squall was soon accompanied with heavy rain, which lasted till about 10" P. M. The rain then ceased, and the wind abated, and was moderate during the rest of the night. May 16. N. Lat. D. R. 4° 13’, W. Long. 19° 15’, Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Jha. mM. 62°.5 82° 6° ESE. fresh, cloudy. 10 82 82 5.5 East, do. overcast. 12 i7 81.5 2 Do. do. do. — slight rain. 2rp.m. 79 81.5 3 ENE. moderate, overcast. 6 79 81 3.5 E. by N. do. do. A squall, which threatened us at 10 A. M., commenced soon after, and lasted till noon. The wind was strong and va- ‘riable. Our main-top-sheet was torn to pieces. The accom- panying rain was heavy. Between sunset and midnight, the weather was pleasant, the breeze gentle, and the wake of the ship was remarkably lumi- nous. The luminous appearance was unusual, being confined to distinct oval luminous masses. Between midnight and sun- rise, it was almost calm, and it rained the greater part of the time very heavily. May 17. N. Lat. 6°, W. Long. 19° 11’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. qha.m. 79° 80° 2° NE. gentle, overcast. 10 81.5 81 4.5 NE. by E. gentle, pretty clear. 12 82 81.5 5.5 NE. do.~ ~— do. 2erMm. 81 &2 4 Do. very gentle, do. 6 80 61.5 4 Do. do. do. 9 81 — 6 Do. do. clear. During the last forty-eight hours before noon, we have been carried about twenty-two miles to the north, and about as much to.the north-east. The night was very fine, and the breeze very gentle. Both now and formerly, I have observed the air warmer and drier at nine or ten o’clock than just after sunset. 8 during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 251 ’ We had the great pleasure, this day, of seeing once more the north pole star, a little above the horizon. May 18. N. Lat. 6° 49’, E. Long. 20° 7’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. mM. 81°.5 &6°.5 4°.5 ‘NE. by N. gentle, clear. 10 82.5 80.5 6.3 Do. do. do. 12 &2 81 5 NNE. do. cloudy. 3P.M. 81 81.5 4.5 Do. moderate, pretty clear. 6 80 * 80.5 4 North gentle, do. 8 79 — 3 NNE. do. clear. The night was fine. During the twenty-four hours before noon, we do not appear to have been im any current, yet, from the rippling of the surface last night, just before sunset, we were supposed to be in one; but this test seems to me a falla- cious one. May 19. N. Lat. 7° 2’, W. Long. 21° 46’. Air. Water. Hygt. Wind and Weather. 8ha.M. 77° Tp 2°.5 NNE. moderate, overcast. 10 78 17 5 Do. do. slightly do. 12 73.5 17.0 5 Do. do. pretty clear. 3a.M. 78 78 5 NE. by N.do. slightly overc, 6 77 77 3 Do. do. do, 9 vii 77 3 Do. do. pretty clear. The night was fine. During the twenty-four hours pre- ceding noon, we have been carried sixteen miles south, and six west. The remarkable change in the temperature of the water indicated a southerly current. From the temperature of the water at six o'clock last night, I infer that we were not then in the current. Hence we may conclude, that its course is not rapid. May not this current be connected with the Gulf Stream reflected from the African coast ? May 20. N. Lat. 8° 10’, W. Long. 23° 17. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Goa. mM. 78° 7 oe NE. by N. moderate, pretty clear. 10 79 78 4 Do. do. do. 12 79 78.8 4 Do. do. do. 3PM. 78 78 3 Do. do. slightly overcast. 6 77 78 3 N. by E. do. pretty clear. The mght was fine. During the twenty-four hours pre- 252 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, ceding noon, we have been carried eight miles south, but no way to the west. May 21. _N. Lat. 9° 1’, W. Long. 25° 8. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. m. 76° 77°.5 4° N. by E. moderate, overcast. 10 77 77 5 Do. do. slightly do. 12 77 77 5 NNE. do. do. 3r.M. 76 76.5 4.5 Do. do. __ pretty clear. 6 75 76.5 3.5° NE, do. do. 9 75 —o 35 NE.by N. do. do. The night was fine. In the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried by the current eight miles to the south. May 22. N. Lat. 10° 25’, West Long. 26° 53’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8h a. M. 75°.5 75°.5 4°.5 NE. by N. moderate, slightly overc. 10 76 76 5 Do. do. do. 12 77 76.5 5.5 Do. do. do. 3r.M. 76 76.5 5 Do. fresh, do. 6 7a 75 4.5 Do. do. — rather cloudy. The night was tolerably fine. In the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried five miles to the northward, and in the forty-eight hours, fifteen miles to the westward. May 23. N. Lat. 12° 6’, W. Long. 25° 28’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Jha. mM. 75° 76° 6° NNE. moderate, pretty clear. 10 77 76.8 7 Do. do. do. 12 77 77 7 Do. fresh, cloudy. SEs Ms, Cgoen heh 5.5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 6 74.5 76 5.5 Do. do. do. The night was cloudy, and the wind fresh. In the twenty- four hours before noon, we have been carried fourteen miles to the WSW. May 24. N. Lat. 13° 52’, W. Long. 30° 33’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. mM. 73°.5 74°.5 4°.5 NNE. fresh, cloudy. 10 78 74 5 Do. do. do. 12 75 Teh 6.5 Do. do. pretty clear. SPM. 74 73.5 5 Do. do. overcast. 6 73 73.4 4 Do. do. do. during a Voyage from St Helena to England. — 253 The night was similar to the preceding. In the twenty- four hours before noon, we have been carried twenty miles to the west. May 25. N. Lat. 15° 50’, W. Long. 32° 38’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha. Mu. 73° 73° 4° NE. strong, overcast. 10 74.5 73 5 Do. do. do. 12 15 73 5.5.0 do. cloudy. 3PM. 74 73 5 Do. do. do. 6 73 73 4 NE. by E. do. do. The night was like the preceding. In the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried about eighteen miles to the west, and about four to the south. May 26. N. Lat. 18° 15/, W. Long. 34° @. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. m. 72°.5 7 BMG. 4° NE. by E. strong, overcast. 10 73.9 713.5 5 Do. do. do. 12 755 74 5 Do. do. do. Seo m. 997355 79 5 Do. fresh, clear. 6 73 73.9 5 Do. do. rather cloudy. The night was tolerably fine, and the wind fresh. The current still sets to the westward, but not to the southward. The weather is boisterous and squally, and the sea running high. During the two first nights, the highest clouds have been moving in a direction opposite to that of the lower, which have followed the course of the wind. The latter had travel- led rapidly, the former slowly. May 27. N. Lat. 20° 55’, W. Long. 35° 49. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha. Mm. 72°.5 73° 5°.5 NE. fresh, overcast. 10 73 73 5, Do. do. do. 12 73.5 73.5 4.5 NE. by E. do. do. 3PM. 73 73.5 6 Do. do. clear. 6 12.5 73.5 6 E. by N. do. cloudy, 9 2.5 —_ 5 Do. moderate, clear. During the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried about eighteen miles to the west, and about seven to the 4 254 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Séa and the Air, north. A good many pieces of sea-weed were seen floating this evening, resembling in colour and figure the common spray. They generally make their appearance, and in great quantities, a little farther to the north. They are supposed to be brought from the American coast by the current, which may be considered a branch of the Gulf Stream. Not only these weeds, but the state of the thermometer, seem to indi- cate that we have been in a current to-day. The night was very fine, and the breeze moderate. We saw the southern coast a little above the horizon. May 28. N. Lat: 23° 27, W. Long. 37° 8. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. Sha. mM. 74° 73° 7.5 E. by Ne moderate, clear. 10 73.5 74 5.5 NE. do. rather cloudy. 12 74.5 74 fea Do. do. clear. SP, ie. 43 74 aD E. by N. dé. do. 6 72 79 5 Do. do. rather cloudy. The night was fine, and the weather delightful. In the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried fourteen miles to the west, and twenty to the northward. May 29. N. Lat. 25° 50’, W. Long. 37° 50’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and. Weather. 8ha.M. 72°.5 72°. & E. by N; mederate, pretty clear. 10 74 73 vf Do. do, do. 32 73.5 73 7 Do. do. do. 3P.M. 72 73 5 Do, de. do. 6 71 72 7 Do. do. a squall approaching, During the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried thirty-two miles to the west, and ten to the northward, A little sea-weed was seen yesterday, and a good deal this morn- ing. It is a delicate species of fucus. The stem and branches were cylindrical, and the leaves long and laneeolated, and there were attached to the branches numerous hollow spheri- cal bodies. ‘The colour of the weed was between light apple- green and straw-yellow. Many of the spherical bodies were enveloped in a delicate crust, or a reticulated coralloid, quite ‘white. Several small eels, of the same species, were caught on the weed, and two or three gelatinous bodies, of regular ‘forms, and irritable. during a Voyage from St Helena to England. = 255 The squall, which eccurred at six Pp. M., was short, and at- tended by slight showers. May 30. N. Lat. 28° 1’, W. Long. 37° 57’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha. Mu. 72° 72 7 he East, moderate, pretty clear. 10 73 72 7 Do. do. light clouds. 12 72.5 72 6*5 Do. do. cloudy. 3PM. 72 72.5 6 Do. do. _ pretty clear. 6 71 71 5 E. by S. do. do. 9 70 ~< 4 Do. do. do. after a shower. The night was moderate. In the twenty-four hours, we have been carried by the current twenty-five miles to the west. Sea-weed, in great quantities, similar to that noticed before, has been seen to-day. May 31. N. Lat. 29° 48’, W. Long. 37° $1. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. am. J2° . 70°.5 5° E. by S. moderate, light clouds. 10 7 70.5 6 Do. very gentle, overcast, slight rain. 12 67 70 2.5 N. gentle, overcast. 3 P.M. 70 70.5 6 NE: very gentle, rather cloudy. 6 69 69.5 4.5 Do. do. light clouds. 8 68.5. — 3.5 Do. gentle, pretty clear. The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. The north-east trade-wind frequently ceases, and variable winds succeed it. Very little sea-weed has been seen to-day. June}. N. Lat. 31° 8, W. Long. 38° 27. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. mm. 69° 69° 4° E. by N. very gentle, light clouds. 10 70.5 70 5 East, gentle, do. i2 70 70 4 E. by N. do. clear. os Po. 40 70 5 ESE, do. do. 6 69 69.5 4.5 E. by N. do. do. 9 68.5 — 4.5 Do. do. do. The night was fine, the wind very gentle, and the sea un- usually smooth. é In the last twenty-four hours we appear to have been car- ried a little way by a current to the north-west. 256 Dr Davy on the Temperature of thé Sea and the Air, o ‘ June 2. 'N. Eat. $2°'25/, W. Long. 38° 35. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha. m., 71° 70° 6° .. NE. by.E. very gentle, clear. 10 Ti we 7 NE. do. * do. 12 iLO ye a Do. do, , do. Pe i: 2 itera ep MO gg calm. do. 6 70 72 7 Do. . do. do. 5.5 Do. ri an do. . 9 ~ — 68.5 nity {UE The night was fine and calm. The, current, _during the twenty-four hours, has carried us a Jiittle way, tot the south- ~westward. It was found by an experiment ofthe first mate, Mr Harrison, to a8 flowing north west about? half ta “mile an hour. - ’ June 8. N, Lat. 98° 12/,-W. Long. 38° 34. , Alte Water. Hygr. _. Wind and Weather. Jha. um. 71° 69° 6° NE. by E. very ‘gentle, clear. 10 7l 69.5 ay East, gentle, _ light clouds. 12 71 70.5 6 “Do. 7. aude. in) crear 3 Pp. mu. 70,5 71.5 5. ESE. very gentle, do. 6 70 71 5 Do. do. light clouds. 9 70 70.5 5 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the breeze very gentle. A great many species of aquatic animals were seen, the appearance of many of which was beautiful, resembling, in colour and form, flowers rather than animals. June 4. N. Lat. 34° 8’, W. Long. 37° 57’. Air. Water. Hygr Wind and Weather. Sha. mM. 70°.5 70°.5 che ESE. very gentle, clear. 10 72 71 6.5° Do. ~° do. eRe 12 73.5 72 OF. in Daueeeda, do, 3 P.M. 72 2° 6 ‘SE. by S. ‘gentle, do. 6: qi 71.5 5.5 S.by W. do. rather cloudy. 9 an 70 = 5 "Do. do. overcast. The night was moderate, and the breeze gentle. Some sea- weed, ace ek to the former, was seen to-day, as well as the day before. The current has set gently to the north-west- ward. In the last. twenty-four hours, we have been carried. by it five miles to the westward, and six to the northward. during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 257 June 5. N. Lat. 35° 3’, W. Long. 36° 25’. Air: Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.M. 70°.5 69°.5 3°.5 S. by W. gentle, slightly overcast. 10 71.5 68.5 5 SW. do. do. 12 71.5 68 5 WSsw. do. do. 3 pM. 70.5 69 3.5 Do. moderate, do. . 6 70 68.5 2.5 Do. do. do. 9 69.5 — 2 Do. do. do. The night was rather squally, and towards the morning there was heavy rain. June 6. N. Lat. 36° 53’, W. Long. 33° 53’. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 8 a.m. 68° 66°.5 2° S. strong, overcast. 2rp.m. 67 66.5 2 W. squally, do. 5 66 66 1 SW. do. do. slight rain. It was stormy the whole of the morning, and the rain was incessant, and very heavy. The night was also stormy, and the showers frequent and heavy. June. N. Lat. 89° 46/, W. Long. 33° 16’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 9ha.M. 65°,5 64°.5 2° S. squally, overcast. 12 65 64 2.56 S.byE.do. do. 3.°4.M. 65.5 64 2.5 Do. do. do. 7 66 65 3 SSE. strong, pretty clear. The night was pretty clear, and the gale abating. The sea ran high. We have seen none of the Azores, the most north- ern of which we have now nearly cleared. June 8. N. Lat. 42° 16’, W. Long. 30° 36’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. M. 65° 64° 5 SE. fresh, pretty clear. 12 65 64 5 Do. do. do. 3°P.M. 65 64.5 5 De. do. do. 6 64 64.5 4 Do. do. cloudy. 8 64 64.5 4 Do. do. do. , The night was fine, and the wind moderate. VOL. II. No. If. APRIL 1825. s 258 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, June 9. N. Lat. 43° 58/, W. Long. 28° 19’. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. Sha. M. 63° 62°.5 4°.5 SE. by S. moderate, cloudy. 10 64 63 5 Do. do. do. 12 64.5 63.5 5 SE. do. do. 3 p.M. 62.5 63.5 3.5 Do. gentle, rather cloudy. 6 63 63.5 3.5 SSE. do. pretty clear. 9 63.5; _ 4 S. by E. do. do. During the last three days, we have been in a current set- ting to the north-eastward. In the last twenty-four hours, we have been carried about twenty-eight miles to the northward, and as many to the eastward. June 10. N. Lat. 44° 51’, W. Long. 26° 37’. ; Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 7ha. M. 63° 62°.5 3 S. by E. gentle, pretty clear. 10 64 63 4 SSE. do. slightly overcast. 12 65 63.5 45 Do. do. pretty clear. 3 °P.M. 64.5 64 4 S. by E. do. _ slightly overcast. 6 G4 64 4 SW. do. _ pretty clear. 9 64 a 3.5 Do. “do. do. The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. In the last twenty-four hours the current has set strongly to the north- ward, and slightly to the eastward. The sea, during the last three days, has looked greenish. June 11. N. Lat. 45° 12’, W. Long. 24° 217’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha. mM. 63° 64°.5 4° &. by W. gentle, rather cloudy. 10 64 63.5 4 SW. by W. do. do. 12 66 63.5 6 Wsw. do. do. 3 P.M. 605 64.5 5 W. by N. do. do. 6 64.5 63.5 4 NW. do. do. 8 64 63.5 4 Do. do. do. The night was moderate, and cloudy. During the last twenty-four hours, the current has set strongly to the east- ward. : June 12. N. Lat. 46° 4’, W. Long. 21° 44. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.M. 63° 61°.5 2° NNE. moderate, cloudy. 10 62 61.5 1 N. very gentle, overcast, after slight rain. 12 63 62 2 Do do. do. 3PM. 62.5 61.5 2 NE. ~ do. do. 6 62 61.5 3. NE. byN. fresh, do. during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 259 There was very little wind during the night. The current appeared during the last twenty-four hours. June 13. N. Lat. 46° 8’, W. Long. 19° 51’. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. Sha. 61° 61° 5° = NNE. very gentle, overcast. 10 61.5 61.5 2 Do. do. do. slight rain. 12 62 62.5 3 NE. do. clear. ~ 3 PM. 61.5 63 4.5 Do. do. do. 6 61 61.5 4.5 Do. do. do. & 59.5 61.5 4.5 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and almost calm. During the last twenty-four hours, we have been in a current setting to the eastward. June 14. N. Lat. 46° 11’, W. Long. 18° Q1’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.M. 59° 60° 3° E. by N. very gentle, clear. 10 58.5 60 4 Do. gentle, do. 12 59 61 a Do. do. do. 3 PM. 59 61 4 Do. do. do. 6 56.5 . 61 4 Do. do. do. 8 57 60.5 + Do. do. do. The night was fine, and nearly calm. The current set to- day to the north-east, but not strongly. June 15. N. Lat. 45° 49’, W. Long. 17° 25’. Air. ‘Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. M. 57° 60° 4° E. by N. very gentle, clear. 10 57.5 60.5 4 Do. do do. 12 58 62 4 Calm, _ do. 3 pM. 60 63 6 Do. — do. 6 60 61.5 5 Do. _ do. 8 59 61 5 Do. — do. 10 53 69 4.5 Do. — do. The current, during the last twenty-four hours, has set gently to the south-eastward. Though the air is so cool, yet the sun is powerful. Not a single cloud, or any vapour, is to be seen in the sky; and the 8 260 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, calmness is such, that the sea is like a mill-pool, and reflects the images of the moon and of Venus. The calm continued through the night, till sunrise, when a gentle breeze sprung up from the north-west. June 16. N. Lat. 45° 57’, W. Long. 17°. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. M. §8°.5 59° 2° NW. very gentle, clear. 8 60 60 3 NW. by W. do. dao. 10 61.5 60.5 3.5 Do. do. do. 12 62 61.5 3.5 Do. do. do. 3 pM. 63 ~ 60.5 3.5 Do. gentle, do. 6 64 60.5 4.5 Do. do. do. 8 62 60.5 2 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the wind gentle. During the last twenty-four hours, there was no appearance of a current. Though it was completely calm during the night, and the air very clear, yet there were no indications of dew. The cir- cumstances ascertained by the thermometer and hygrometer were certainly sufficient to prevent it; and there is reason to believe that they afford a good general explanation of dew never making its appearance at sea at a great distance from land. The observations on the temperature of the sea, and on the temperature and dryness of the air, are interesting in other respects, especially as indicating the effects of the sun’s rays on the air and sea by day, and the effect of the radiation, and of heat, from the sea to the air, by mght. June 17%. N. Lat. 47° 5’, W. Long. 14° 12’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Sha. m. 60°.5 59° 1°.5 NNW. gentle, pretty clear. 10 61 59.5 1.5 Do. do. slightly overcast. 12 62 59.5 2 N. by W. do. do. 3PM. 62 59 2 Do. do. do. 6 61 59 2 Do. do. do. 8 60 58.5 1.5 W. by S. do. do. The night was moderate. During the twenty-four hours a current has set to the eastward. during & Voyage Srom St Helena to England. 261 June 18. N. Lat. 47° 59, W. Long. 12° 8.. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 8ha.m. 61° 58° 1°.5 W. moderate, hazy. 10 61.5 58.5 2 Do. do. _ slightly overcast. 12 62 58.5 3 Do. do. __ pretty clear. - Do. do. do. 2. 3 pM. 61.5 58.5 z Do. fresh, overcast. = Do. do. do. raining. The night was tolerably fine, and the wind fresh. June 19. N. Lat. W. Long. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 6bha.M. 56° 56° 3° N. fresh, clear. 8 56 55.5 4 N.byE. do. do. 10 55.5 55.5 4 N. by E. do. do. 12 56 55.5 5 N. by W. do. do. 3P.M. 56 55.5 4 Do. do. _ do. 7 55 54.5 4 N. by E. do. overcast. During the two last days the current has set very little to the eastward. Captain Stewart was of opinion that we were in soundings, arid that we entered them last night about the time when the temperature of the water suddenly fell about two degrees. About nine o'clock we saw the Lizard Light. June 20. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 3th a. M. 53° 53° 3° NW. by N. fresh, pretty clear, Off the Lizard. 7 54 54 3.5 Do. do. do. Off the*Eddystone. 10 54. 52.5 4 Do. do. cloudy, Off the Bolthead. 12 56 5.35 4 W. fresh, cloudy, Off Froward Point. 3 A. M. 56 53.5 4 Ww. moderate, do. 6 55 54 — W.byN, gentle, pretty clear, Off Portland. June 21 Air. Water. Wind and Weather. Sha. mM. 52° 58° N. by E. gentle,. clear, Off the Isle of Wight. 3 pM. 60 55 Ww. gentle, pretty clear, Off Arundel. 7 57 56 W. very gentle, clear, Off Beachyhead about 3 miles, Af une 92: Air. Water. Wind and Weather. 4b a. M. 55° 56° W.. very gentle, clear, Dungeness a-head, & in sight. 12 59 53.0 W. gentle, do. Off Dover about } mile. 6 p.m. 60 56-5 SW. gentle, cloudy, Passing through the Downs. 262 Dr Brewster's Description of Gmelinite, June 24. Since the 22d, we have been coming up the river with the tide, the wind being either very light or contrary. About noon to-day we reached Gravesend, and landed. London, July 16. I have just ascertained the specific gra- vities of the different specimens of sea-water which I took up between the Cape and England. There appeared to be no sensible loss by evaporation. Each bottle was quite sweet and unaltered. I used the delicate balance of the Royal Institu- tion, and a bottle with a long neck, weighing 778 grains, and of the temperature of 63°, holding 970.3 grains of distilled water. On the sides of the glass stople there was a fine groove. The temperature of the different specimens of sea-water was the same as that of distilled water, viz. 63°. Most of the ex- periments were twice repeated. No. Lat. Long. Specific Gravity. 30° 6S. ]I° 42’ E. 102667 26 55 7 34 102671 3 6 ON. 19 17 W. 102667 4 NS 25 8 102671 5 12 6 28 28 102671 6 15 56 32 38 102762 rE 18 15 34 & 102762 & 20 55 30 49 102762 9 23 27 37 8 102823 10 23° 1 37 57 102823 11 31 8 38 27 102762 12 34 8 37 57 102823 13 42 10 30 36 102742 14 44 51 26 37 102721 " 15, 47 5 14 12 102721 16 49 3 & J 102721 17 Of Dover 3 mile. — 102648 Arr. XIV.—Description of Gmelinite, a New Mineral Spe- cies. By Davip Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. Amonce the minerals of Monte Somma, the late Mr Thom- son of Cambridge discovered some crystals of a flesh-red col- our, to which he gave the name of Sarcolite. The Abbé Hauy, to whom he sent some fragments of these crystals, a New Mineral Species. 263 found them to be cubes, having their solid angles replaced by eight faces, each of which was inclined about 125° to the faces of the cube. As these crystals had a vitreous aspect, and scratched glass, Hauy did not scruple to consider them as a variety of Analcime.* In this opinion, he has been followed by all succeeding writers on mineralogy, and when cubical crystals of a flesh-red colour were discovered in Arthur Seat, the same trivial name of sarcolite was used to designate that acknowledged variety of Analcime. At Montecchio-Maggiore, and at Castel, in the Vicentine, there was afterwards discovered another substance which Hauy and other mineralogists have regarded as sarcolite. It was of a flesh-red colour, and occurred in small rounded mas- ses engaged in wacke. It accompanied white crystals of A- nalcime, and though it had a less vitreous fracture than the sarcolite of Thomson, yet, by Hauy’s observations, it was found to pass into the Analcime, assuming by degrees the vitreous tissue of the latter. According to the analysis of Vauquelin, however, the flesh- coloured crystals of the Vicentine contained less soda, and more water, than Analcime, and although M. Leman had dis- engaged from a mass of sarcolite from Castel some crystals of the form of hexaedral prisms, terminated by hexaedral pyramids, which Vauquelim considered to be the same as the amorphous variety, yet Hauy and all succeeding writers on mineralogy have still regarded these substances as Analcime.+ That the six-sided prisms of Leman could not possibly be united to Analcime ought to have been very obvious; but their similarity in form, composition, hardness, and specific gravity to Chabasie rendered it probable that they belonged to that species. Mr Allan, whose cabinet has enriched mineralogy with so many new species, had the good fortune to pick up in the Little Deer Park of Glenarm, in the county of Antrim, a spe- cimen, containing two or three fine crystals of a whitish as. pect, resembling the six-sided prisms of Leman, and which * Trailé, 2d Edit. Tom. II. p. 177, 179. + De Dree, in his Catalogue des Huit Collections, p. 18, designates the substance analysed by Vauquelin by the name of Hyilrolite, a name given by Sir George Mackenzie to the Stalactitical Opal produced by hot springs. 264 Dr Brewster’s Description of Gmelinite, he considered as the same substance.* As I had devoted much attention to the examination of the Analcime and the Chabasie, Mr Haidinger was so good as to put into my hands this interesting specimen, and also a specimen of the flesh-co- Joured masses from the Vicentine. The slightest comparison of these substances in their optical characters, put it beyond a doubt, that they had no relation to Analcime or Chabasie, and that the whitish crystals from Glenarm were similar to the flesh-coloured masses from the Vicentine, and formed a new and a very interesting mineral species. To this species I propose to give the name of Gmelinite, in compliment to G. C. Guertin, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen, whose analyses of minerals have ranked him among the first analytical chemists of the present day, and whose friendship I am happy to have the present opportunity of acknowledging. This new species comprehends the flat six-sided prisms from Glenarm, and the flesh-coloured masses which accom- pany them; the flesh-coloured mineral from the Vicentine, and probably the six-sided prisms observed by Leman. The Gmelinite from Glenarm crystallises in the form shown in Plate VIII. Fig. 2, which is a regular hexagonal prism, terminated at both ends by six-sided pyramids, with flat sum- mits. The following are the angles of the crystal, taken with the reflective goniometer. See Plate VIII. Fig. 2. wu upon ¥ 131° 48 o y 138 14 u — U 120° 0 y —y’ 96° 24 Rhombohedral. Combination P—o. P. P+oa. The angles of the isosceles pyramid = 145° 54, 71° 48’. Gee distinct, parallel to R. Fracture uneven. Sur- face streaked, the prism in a horizontal direction, the isosceles pyramid parallel to the edges of combination with R; R— rough, but even.+ The flesh-coloured Gmelinite, from the Vicentine, has more than one cleavage. It is. very imperfectly crystallized ; *™ Mineralogical Nomenclature, Edit. 1819, Voc. ANALCIME- + For this character of the combination and cleavage, as well as the fi« gitre, I have been indebted to Mr Haidinger. a New Mineral Species. 265 but transmits light when reduced to a considerable degree of thinness. It often contains small spherical groupes of fila- mentous crystals, intensely white, which, if they are Gmelin- ite, which is not probable, must have lost their water of crys- tallization. The specific gravity of the flesh-coloured Gmelinite, from the Vicentine, is 2.05, and its hardness about 4.5, scratching glass with some difficulty. The crystallized variety from Glenarm appears to have a less degree of hardness. The optical structure of the Gmelinite differs entirely from that of the Analcime, or the Chabasie, both of which are com- posite minerals, the individuals of which they are composed having never yet been found in nature. The double refraction of Gmelinite exceeds that of Analcime and Chabasie, and may be distinctly seen through the two opposite faces of the pyra- mid by immersing itn water, which gives a great degree of transparency to the Glenarm crystals. The double refrac- tion is Hegative in relation to the axis of prism, which is the axis of double refraction. The flesh-coloured masses from the Vicentine are also sim- ple substances, which, though rendered imperfectly transpar- ent by flaws and disseminated matter, give distinctly the colours of polarised light. Their index of ordinary refraction is about 1.474, less than that of almond oil. By immersing the sum- mit of one of the Glenarm crystals im a parallelopiped of almond oil, I was enabled, without detaching the crystal from its matrix, to ascertain that its refractive power was also inferior to that of almond oil, and in the same degree as the flesh-coloured masses. As the refractive power, both of Analcime and Chabasie exceed considerably that of almond oil, this simple experiment, which requires no other skill than that of looking through the crystal, establishes the identity of the minerals from Glenarm and the Vicentine, and fixes them as a new mineral species different from Analcime and Chabasie. The chemical characters of Gmelinite are not less distince- tive and interesting than its optical ones. When we hold a fragment of the Vicentine crystals near the flame of the candle, and supported in a loop of platinum wire, small portions gra- dually raise themselves, and after standing on their ends as if they were under the influence of electricity, they are propelled 266 Dr Brewster’s Description of Gmelinite. with violence from the fragment. The continued application of the heat drives off the water of crystallization, and reduces the fragment to a white fibrous-looking powder. In perform- ing this experiment, by exposing the fragment on a piece of glass to the fire, I was surprised to observe, upon looking at the powder with a microscope, that many of the particles were in a state of restlessness, some of them leaping from the glass, and others endeavouring to separate themselves from the larger particles to whieh they were attached. This effeet was no doubt owing to the heat of the glass, which continued to ex- pel the water of crystallization which still remained in some of the particles, for I could not discover in the powder any trace of pyro-electricity. The property which has now been described is possessed also by the Gmelinite from Glenarm, but it is not possessed by Analeime or Chabasie, or, so far as I know, by any other mineral, and may be regarded as an infal- lible chemical character of this species. The following is the composition of the Gmelinites from the Vieentine, according to Vauquelin. Gmelinite from Gmelinite from Montecchio Maggiore. Castel. Silex - 50 eres) wm 50 Alumine - 20 > - 20 fume Se 45+ - = 4.25 Soda - - 4.5 - = 4.25 Water - 21 = ~ 20 Loss . - 0 = - 15 100 > - 100 I cannot conclude this notice without directing the attention of the philosophical mineralogist to the peculiar value of opti- _eal characters. The analysis of the Vicentine minerals by Vauquelin gave results so hke those obtained from the Cha- basies, that the chemical mineralogists even never felt them- selves authorized to consider them as new. In hardness and specific gravity these minerals were almost exactly the same as Chabasie, and the obtuse rhomboid from which the six-sid- ed prisms from Castel are derivable, has almost the same angle as that of Chabasie. Hence, Mr Haidinger was led to consider them as Chabasies, and, indeed, in any system which does not take cognizance of chemical and optical characters, Mr Clark’s Description of a New Quicksilver Pump. 267 they must be ranked with that species. From this perplexity the optical method immediately relieves us, not merely by de- tecting unequivocal characters in the mineral under examina- tion, but by insulating, as it were, the kindred species of Anal- cime and Chabasie, which possess a composite structure of the most remarkable kind. Arr. XV.—Description of a New Quicksilver Pump.* Invent- ed by Mr Tuomas Crarx, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Inventor. Tue new machine invented by Mr ‘Thomas Clark, for raising water, 1s a quicksilyer pump, and works without friction. It has great power in drawing and forcing water to any height, and is extremely simple in its construction. It is made by twisting a piece of iron tube into the form of a ring, ABC, Plate IV. Fig. 4, having the ends of the tube bent into the centre D, and again bent outwards so as to form an axle to the wheel or ring thus formed. One of the ends of the axle is inserted, by means of a stuffing box at D, into-the side of the main pipe EF, which leads down to the well, which allows it to move easily, and at the same time keeps it air tight. In the main pipe EF, immediately below where the axle is inserted, or at any other convenient distance, is placed a valve ¢ lifting upwards, another valve h lifting upwards is also placed immediately above the axle, or at any other conve- nient distance. There is now put into the iron ring a quan- tity of quicksilver, fillmmg it from & to Z, which slides backwards and forwards as the ring is made to vibrate upon its axis in the stuffing box at D, forming a vacuum in the main pipe as the silver recedes in the tube from A to C; the water rushes up from F to fill the vacuum, and when the silver slides back again towards A, the water is expelled through the upper valve h, and escapes at the top of the main pipe at z A wheel of twelve or thirteen feet diameter will lift water the same height as a common lifting pump, and force it 150 feet higher, without any friction. * Our readers will observe, that this very ingenious quicksilver pump is essentially different from that of Mr Haskins, which is described in the Epinsurcu Encyciorxpia, Art. Pumr, Vol. XVII. p. 307. 268 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. . Arr. XVI.—Analysis of Helvine. By C. G. GuEtty, Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. Com- municated by the Author. Tunis very rare mineral occurred formerly in a peculiar bed- formation, (Lager-f.) on primitive mountains, accompanied by brown blende, fluor spar, quartz, schiefer spar, chlorite, &e. in the neighbourhood of Schwarzenberg, in the Saxon Erz- gebirge. The first notice and previous characteristic of it was communicated by Professor Mohs,* who placed it in an ap-. pendix close to common garnet, as a mineral not yet deter- mined. Werner made a peculiar species of it, which he placed in his system between colophonite and garnet, and named if, on account of its marked yellow colour, Helvin, after the Greek 7As:, the sun. Professor Mohs, in his Grundriss der Mineralogic, joined the Helvine to the genus garnet, by the name of tetrahedral Garnet. Mr Breithaupt placed it in his sphen-kiesel genus, and Mr Cordier thought that it might be united with Crichtonite, a sparry magnetic iron-ore, contain- ing oxide of titanium. We possess already a chemical analysis of Helvine by Dr Vogel of Munich,+ according to which it is composed of— Silica - - - 39.80 Alumine - - - 18.65 Lime - ~ - 0.50 Oxide of iron : - - 37.75 Oxide of manganese - 3.75 97.15 The action of the blow-pipe upon Helvine clearly shows, as has already been observed by Professor Berzelius, ¢ that manganese is a principal ingredient in this mineral, and that iron can only be contained in it in a small quantity. The method of separating iron from manganese, followed by Dr Vogel, * Beschreib. des von der Null schen Minerallien Kabinets, Abth. p. 92. + Schweigger’s Journal, Vol. XXIX. p. 319. = Use of the blow-pipe, &c. Professor Gmelin’s A nalysis of Helvine. 269 who was provided only with a small quantity of this mineral, does not seem to be sufficiently exact. I agreed, therefore, with pleasure to the wish of my friend Mr Breithaupt, who kindly provided me with a considerable quantity of this rare mineral, to subject it to a repeated analysis. Specific gravity of Helvine.—This was found by a very sen- sible balance to be 3.166, the temperature of the water bemg +6°R. According to Mr Breithaupt, it is between 3.1 and 3.3. Relations before the bluw-pipe.—As to these I refer to the inquiry of Professor Berzelius,* with whom I agreed in the results. The sparkling which ensues, according to Dr Vogel, when Helvine is held in the flame, I have likewise distinctly observed. But I endeavoured, in vain, to discover the sul- phur contained in it, by means of the blow-pipe. It appears that the large quantity of oxide of manganese, which, together with sulphate of manganese, forms an ingredient in Helvine, destroys the reactions for sulphur. The slowness, on the other hand, with which the manganese-reaction, by means of soda upon a platinum lamina ensues, might be derived from the sulphur contained in it. Analysis.—(1.) Relying upon the assertion,+ that acids do not act upon Helvine, and considering that, in the analysis of Dr Vogel, sulphur is not mentioned to be an ingredient, I resolved te decompose the mineral previously reduced to an impalpable powder by trituration with water, t by means of carbonate of barytes, in order to discover any alkaline sub- stance that might be contained in it. 3.712 grammes of the powder were mixed with six times their weight of carbonate of barytes, and ignited in a platinum crucible. There was obtained a blackish-blue mass hardly cohering, which, in some spots, appeared in a melted state, muriatic acid being poured upon this mass, previously soaked by water, such a quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen was disengaged, that the vessel, con- taining the solution, required to be removed out of the room ; * Use of the blow-pipe, &c. + Leonhard’s Handb. der Oryktognosicy p. 431. { It deserves to be noticed, that water, with which Heivine is tritu- rated, passes quite clear through the filtre, which, in general, never hap- pens with other minerals similarly treated. 270 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. at the same time, somie lac sulphuris was precipitated, and, as it seemed, sulphate of barytes, together with silica, not dissolved by the acid. The solution was now evaporated to perfect dryness in a water-bath, the residue treated with water and a little muriatic acid, the substance left undissolved washed up- on a filtre with boiling water and ignited, then boiled with a solution of carbonate of potash, obtained by ignition of the crystallized carbonate, and the solution filtered boiling. There remained upon the filtre a white loose powder; and in the liquid, which had passed quite clear through the filtre, a great quantity of a gelatinous semitransparent precipi- tate of silica was formed, which was entirely dissolved again by heating the liquor, and appeared anew by cooling.* The powder that remained upon the filtre was carbonate of ba- rytes, with traces of undecomposed sulphate of barytes. The liquor separated from sulphate of barytes and silica by the filtre was thrown down by carbonate of ammonia, filtered, evaporated, and ignited. There was left a substance not so- luble in water, which, because the absence of an alkaline sub- stance had been proved, was not particularly examined.+ (2.) The method of analysis followed in No. 1. not hay- ing led to a satisfactory result, I inquired particularly whether Helvine might not be decomposed by acids; and then found, that it is, in fact, decomposed by muriatic acid at a moderate digestion heat, with the disengagement of sulphuretted hydro- gen, and that it even forms a jelly with that acid. a. 1.927 grammes of the dried powder of Helvine were poured over in a porcelain dish with fuming nitric acid, free from sul- phuric acid, and then a certain quantity of fuming muriatic acid was added. By digestion a jelly was formed, the h- quor heated to boiling, and evaporated at last at a moderate heat to full dryness. Silica was separated perfectly white; it weighed after ignition 0.64088 gr. = 33.258 per cent. * Professor C. H. Pfaff was the first, so far as I know, who observed, that silica is perfectly and in abundance dissolved by the pure subcarbo- nates of potash and soda, when heated with the solutions of these salts. (Journ. of Schweigger, Vol. XXIX. p. 33-) t It appears from the following inquiry, that this substance was gly- cine, which had been dissolved by the excess of carbonate of ammonia. Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. Q71 6. The Silica being removed, the sulphuric acid, formed by the action of nitro-muriatic acid, was thrown down by nitrate of barytes. The sulphate of barytes weighed after ignition 0.7063 gr. = 0.097442 gr. of sulphur = 5.057 per cent. of sul- phur. ce. The barytes in excess being precipitated by sulphuric acid, and the sulphate of barytes removed by the filtre, the liquid was evaporated in a porcelain dish. It became first red, then green, whereby nitrous vapours were disengaged. Having been evaporated almost to dryness, a white powder separated by addition of water, which was entirely dissolved by an additional quantity of sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid solution was now decomposed by ammonia, and the pre- cipitate put upon a filtre. The liquor, which had passed quite clear, became troubled by degrees, and assumed a brown- ish hue; it was concentrated by evaporation, whereby the ex- cess of ammonia was expelled, and the oxide of manganese collected upon a filtre. It weighed after ignition 0.0604 or. = 2.824 p.c. Oxalate of ammonia afforded no precipitate in the filtered solution, a proof of the absence of lime; hydro- sulphuret of ammonia precipitated sulphuret of manganese, which was dissolved in muriatic acid, and joined to the solu- tion of manganese obtained below. The liquid was now evaporated and ignited; but there remained in the crucible nothing but a slight trace of manganese, which was dissolved by oil of vitriol with red colour; by muriatice acid with dis- engagement of chlorine, and whose solution likewise was join- ed to the solution of manganese obtained below. d. The precipitate is still to be examined, which was thrown down by caustic ammonia (inc). It was dissolved in muria- tic acid, the solution evaporated, in order to expel the acid m excess, then boiled with a solution of pure potash. The brown residue left was dissolved in muriatic acid with disengagement of much chlorine; from this solution the iron was thrown down by succinate of ammonia. 0.119 er. of oxide of iron were obtained = 8.564 p. c. of protoxide. e. The liquor from which the iron had been removed, joined with that (in c.) obtained by the decomposition of sulphuret of manganese, was thrown down by boiling with a solution of a 272 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. subcarbonate of potash. The oxide of manganese weighed after ignition was 0.865 er. =0.77945 er. of the protoxide =40.449 p-c- In case that the sulphur of Helvine is combined with man- ganese to a sulphuret (which is very probable, the iron being at any rate not sufficient to saturate the sulphur), from the 0.77945 gr. of protoxide of manganese, 0.22076 gr. (corre- sponding to 0.17233 gr. of metallic manganese, which satu- rate the 0.097442 of sulphur) must be deducted. There re- main, then, 0.55869 gr. protoxide of manganese = 28.993 p. c. and the whole quantity of protoxide of manganese amounts to 31.817 p. c. At the same time we obtain for the sulphuret of manganese 0.26977 gr. = 14.000 p. c. J. The alkaline lixivium, separated from the brown precipi- tate (in d), was supersaturated by muriatic acid, and the li- quid then thrown down by a small excess of carbonate of ammonia. A white earth fell down, which, after ignition, weighed 0.1988 gr. — 10.161 p. c. The liquor separated by the filtre from this precipitate deposited after some time a white precipitate ; it was, therefore, evaporated together with the wash-water, and the precipitate collected upon a filtre. It weighed after ignition 0.036 gr. = 1.868 p. c. As it was found afterwards, that this precipitate, and the earth already mentioned, were one and the same substance, the whole quan- tity of the earth obtained amounts to 12.029 p. c. g- 1.039 Grammes of. Helvine left after ignition 1.027 gr. ; 100 p. would therefore lose 1.155 p. ce. _ The nature of that earth is established by the following ex- periments : It is not changed before the blow-pipe, nor does it become yellow by heating. It is dissolved by borax and salt of phospho- rus in large quantity, and yields a clear glass, which becomes milky by flaming; by a large addition to these fluxes, the glass becomes milky by itself when cooling. It is not acted up- on by soda, nor is there formed a white ring surrounding the assay ; when heated with nitrate of cobalt, a blackish grey mass is obtained. The solution of this earth in acids is thrown down by carbonate of ammonia, the precipitate is almost entire- ly dissolved by an excess of it, leaving behind a little alumine not perfectly pure, forming alum with sulphuric acid and pot- 4 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. " 273 ash; from the ammoniacal liquid the earth separates by boiling asa light flocculent powder, which, when washed upon a filtre with boiling water, is dissolved by acids with efferves- cence, and forms no alum with sulphuric acid and potash. This earth is likewise dissolved by a solution of subcarbonate of potash, when it is precipitated from its solutions by an excess of this salt, and the liquor boiled. When this earth is precipi- tated from its solutions by caustic ammonia, and this alkali is added in a very great excess, almost no perceptible quantity of it is dissolved, which falls down again, when the excess of ammonia is expelled by heat. With an excess of muriatic acid a mass not distinctly crystallized is formed during evapora- tion, which deliquesces in the air, and is decomposed by heat in muriatic acid and earth that is left. This muriate has a very sweet, and at the same time an astringent, and not metallic taste. Combined with sulphuric acid it crystallizes by a slow evapor- ation, when the acid is only added in the quantity required for its solution. The sulphate has an acrid taste ; it is de- composed by .a moderate ignition ; only a small portion of the residue is dissolved in water; by far the greatest part is left undissolved, in the form of a mucilaginous substance. In acetic acid this earth is dissolved, the solution does not crystallize by evaporation; by a slow evaporation a gummy-like transparent mass is formed, which does not attract humidity of the air, becomes full of cracks, and dissolves anew in water ; by a quicker evaporation the residue becomes in part milky. Sulphuretted hydrogen forms no precipitate in the solutions of this earth. Caustic potash dissolves it, as it appears al- ready from the analysis. This earth is therefore gl ycine, mixed with a very small quantity of alumine, and helvine is composed of— Containing Oxygen. Silica, - - 83.258 (a) 16.73 Glycine, with a little alumine, 12.029 (b) 3.75 Oxide of manganese, - 31.817 (c) 6.98 Oxide of iron, - - 5.564 (d) 1,27 Sulphuret of manganese, = - 14.000 (e) Loss by ignition, ° - 1.155 (g) 97.823 “VOL. II. NO. II. APRIL 1825. T 274 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. Experiments for ascertaining the Existence of Fluoric Acid in Helvine.—a, 1.605 grains of powdered helvine were mixed with three times their weight of carbonate of soda and ignited. A black fused mass was obtained, showing on the. edges a reddish-yellow hue. Water, when digested with this mass, was not coloured, nor did it receive any smell; a quite colourless liquor was formed, and a black powder was left, which was lixiviated upon a filtre by boiling water. The liquid which had passed through the | filtre was rendered somewhat troubled by digestion with carbonate of ammonia, and the precipitate thrown upon the same filtre. The l- quor being now supersaturated by muriatic acid, and after ex- pulsion of carbonic acid in a moderate heat, mixed with caustic ammonia and muriate of lime in a well-closed bottle, no sensible precipitate was formed ; a proof of the presence of fluoric acid. 6, The black powder. was dissolved in muriatic acid: There was evolved at first a sensible smell of sulphuretted bydrogen, which was soon displaced bya strong smell of chlorine; a pel- licle of sulphur appeared at the same time upon the liquor. The muriatic solution was evaporated to dryness, and silica separated, which after ignition weighed 0.5661 gr.=35.27]1 p.c. c, The fluid was then boiled with an excess of a solution of pure potash ; the alkaline liquor separated by the filtre from the brown precipitate, supersaturated by muriatic acid, and precipitated by caustic ammonia. The glycine weighed after ignition 0.1482 gr. = 9.234 p.c. It was dissolved in muria- tic acid, and the solution put in digestion with an excess of carbonate of ammonia. A white earth was left undissolved, which, even bya much larger quantity of carbonate of ammonia, was not taken up, and which after ignition weighed 0.0232 gr. = 1.445 p. c.. When dissolved in sulphuric acid, and mixed with sulphate of potash, two small crystals of alum were formed. Nevertheless this earth was not pure alumine, for it produced, when treated with nitrate of cobalt before the blow-pipe, not that fine blue colour, which characterises pure alumine, but became, on the contrary, bluish-black, and this colour was scarcely to be distinguished from that afforded by pure glycine with this metallic salt. It seems, therefore, that a certain quantity of glycine in chemical combination with 8 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 275 alumine is retained by this latter, whereby the reaction with cobalt is almost entirely destroyed. The earth, which was dissolved by carbonate of ammonia, proved to be pure glycine. When dissolved in sulphuric acid, and mixed with sulphate of potash, there was formed no trace of alum. Alumine, on the other side, being a little soluble in a considerable excess of carbonate of ammonia, it seems, in the present case, to have likewise left its solubility in this menstruum, by its chemical combination with glycine, in the same manner as it, at least partly, loses its solubility in pure potash by its chemical combination with magnesia. d,’The brown precipitate (an c.) was dissolved in muriatic acid, whereby chlorine was evolved. From this solution the iron was precipitated by succinate of ammonia, and 0.1425 er. of oxide of iron obtained = 0.12825 gr. of protoxide = 7.990 p-¢. e, The liquor was then preci- pitated by an excess of subcarbonate of potash, 0.7267 gr. of oxide of manganese were obtained = 0.65484 gr. of protoxide = 40.800 p.c. This oxide was dissolved in muriatic acid, the solution rendered neutral by evaporation, precipitated by a hydrosulphuret of ammonia. The liquor separated by the filtre from the sulphuret of manganese, and evaporated in order to drsve off the excess of the hydrosulphuret, was boiled with a solution of subcarbonate of potash; but no precipitate fell down. f, The carbonate of potash (in e.) having been supersaturated by muriatic acid, and the car- bonic acid expelled by heat, there was formed a small preci- pitate by caustic ammonia, which, collected upon a filtre and ignited, weighed 0.0038 er. = 0.237 p. c., and examined by nitrate of cobalt, proved to be glycine. g, According to the first analysis, 100 p. of helvine contain 14 p. of sulphuret of manganese, which must therefore be deducted from the 40.8 p- c.; and helvine is according to the analysis composed of— Containing Oxygen. Silica, - - 35.271 (b) 17.75 Glycine, - - 8.026 (c and f) 2.50 Alumine, with some glycine, 1.445 (c) 0.67 Oxide of manganese, - 29.44 (e and g) 6.43 Oxide of iron, - - 7.990 (d) 1.82 Sulphuret of manganese, 14.000 Loss by ignition, - 1.55 97.231 276 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. The loss, somewhat considerable, which occurred in both analyses, may be justified partly by the small quantity of the substance subjected to analysis, partly by the difficulty which is met with in the exact determination of the protoxide of manganese. It is, indeed, very probable, that manganese is contained in this mineral in the form of protoxide, because otherwise no such considerable disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen should take place, when the mineral is treated with muriatic acid. But the oxide of manganese obtained by the ignition of the carbonate had been reckoned black oxide, though under these circumstances a certain quantity of the red oxide might have been formed, in which case, the quanti- ty of manganese would have been underrated. The great quantity of oxide of manganese contained in helvine satisfac- torily explains why the sulphur contained in this mineral had escaped Dr Vogel, because this oxide is superoxidat- ed when the fossil is ignited with potash, whereby the sul- phuretted hydrogen, disengaged by muriatic acid that is pour- ed upon the ignited mass, is immediately decomposed by chlo- rine, which is evolved at the same time. The results of these analyses of helvine are such, that this mineral will scarcely be placed hereafter close to garnet. It appears, besides, not to be possible to decide what the chemi- cal composition of helvine may be, when it is considered, that scarcely an analogous composition had been hitherto discover- ed amongst minerals. It might be, perhaps, regarded as a combination of double-silicates of oxide of manganese and glycine, with an oxysulphuret of manganese ; the results, par- ticularly those of the second analysis, are not unfavourable to this view. But I consider this as a mere conjecture, as the rarity of the mineral has hitherto not allowed me to examine it to such an extent as I could have wished. Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History, &c. 277 Art. XVII.—Additional Observations on the Natural His- tory and Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains, between the River-Beds of the Jumna and the Sutluj.* By GrorcE Govan, M. D. Communicated by the Au- thor. Iw the paper which I had the honour of laying before the Society a short time ago, my remarks upon the Physical Geo- graphy of certain districts in the Himalayah Mountains closed, at what may be considered by some as the most elevated points of the transition limestone of the Sein range. In order, however, to avoid as much as possible that hypothetical lan- guage to which the appearances presenting themselves can hardly fail strongly to incline an observer, we may merely mention, that these remarks applied to the first of the divi- sions, into which the districts under consideration (with re- ference to geological structure) seem naturally to arrange themselves, viz. the belt of somewhat parallel ranges abeut fifteen or twenty miles in breadth, next adjacent to the plain of Upper Hindostan, the rocky masses composing which are of a much less compact and more earthy structure than those of the succeeding divisions, upon which they may be observed to rest at different points, elevated from five to about seven ° thousand feet above the level of the sea. A subdivision of this may perhaps be made at Nahun, where the sandstone be- comes perfectly durable and hard, of a dark grey colour, with dark purple maculz, besides losing ail traces of carbona- ceous matter. The next divisions are, lst, The central moun- tain groupe of the Choor. 2d, The high snowy ridge, and the ranges proceeding from it. A marked difference subsists be- twixt the two last mentioned tracts, and that formerly treated of, in the luxuriance of their vegetation, being much better wooded, in many places, with noble trees of the largest di- mensions, particularly three new species of pine, the Kazl,+ ve- sembling the Weymouth,—the Khutrow, analogous to some of the varieties of the spruce,—the Pindrow to the Yew-leaved * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, December 20, 1824. + The seeds of the Kail are those which have succeeded most readily in the climate of Great Britain, and have now been raised in considerable number. 278 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and Pine, the latter always occupying the loftiest belt along with the Kurso, a species of Quercus, the Rheum, Juniperus, a se- cond species of Rhododendron, the Birch and Sorbus, which two last trees here, as in the high lands of other countries, are generally found the most elevated, and in a stunted shape, the last arboreous forms of which we take leave in ascending to the region of snow and desolation. “4 A. vast variety of northern genera here present themselves, * never. before known to exist in such close proximity to the arid plains of Hindostan; and the labours of Dr Wallich, it is to be hoped, may soon enable botanists to. compare. the Asiatic with the European and American species so. closely allied to them, if not in many cases varieties merely. To- wards the summits, and on the N. E., or Tartarian face of the snowy ridge, many genera and species closely allied to the Siberian begin to make their appearance. All the peculiarities of hill vegetation and agriculture are, in the lower part of this belt, fully developed. Three species of Polygonum, kuown by the native names of Paphra, Ogla, and Chabree, with the frumentaceous Ama- ranthus, furnish the most common grains, besides wheat, and the valuable six-sided naked barley, called Ooa.+ Opium, from the facility of its transportation, here, the most valuable of all properties, as well as its superior quality, at the elevation of 8000 feet, is often spoken of as the only production in some of the interior states, of which the expor- tation to the plams enables them to pay their government's * Among these may be enumerated many species of to) Morina, 1 Sp. Lilium. Spirea. Ulmus, Trillium. Hemerocallis. Rubus. Fraxinus. Frittillaria. Androsace. Ribes. Alnus. Fumaria. Valeriana. Rosa. Coriaria. Convallaria. Salvia. Tlex. Andromeda. Impatiens, (some Euonymus. Cornus. Acer. of them gigantic Viburnum. Olea. Astrantia. _ in size.) Lonicera. ZEsculus. Cnicus. Polemonium. Crateguse Clematis. Paris. Gentiana. Mespilus. Corylus. Hypericum. Galium. Laurus. Pinus. Pedicularis. Fragaria. Daphne. Aconitum. Quercus. Rubia. Cystus. Atragene. Delphinium. + Since introduced into Scotland. Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 279 assessment, the small bulk which it occupies setting at de- fiance all revenue regulations for its exclusion. Tobacco can no longer be cultivated with advantage here, as the plant, although it thrives luxuriantly, is quite super- seded by the superior quality of that imported from the plains. In anticipation of details, which, under favourable circumstances, I hope at some future period to be able to lay before the Society, I shall submit a few general observa- tions upon the geology of the districts, included under the two divisions above mentioned ; if mere notices respecting the surface rocks, occurring at different parts, with the elevation of their outgoings, are entitled to that appellation. Bundur Pooch and Sirga Rohini are the loftiest summits of the snowy ridge here which I have seen. From these the Ganges, the Jumna, the Tonse, originate to proceed southerly, and various feeders of the Sutluj in a northerly direction. The country between them, and towards the Sutluj, as viewed from the summit of the Manjhee ridge, between the sources of the Juwmna and T'onse, seems an extensive and inaccessible waste of thickly grouped snowy summits, where one would hardly imagine a living thing could exist.’ As the streams descend, however, and their beds become more warm and sheltered, a thinly scattered population occupies their sides, immersed in filth, ignorance, and superstition, earning a scanty and precarious subsistence by the cultivation of some of the crops previously noticed, in artificial flats about the village, by the transportation to the plains, or neighbouring states, without any convenience from roads, or beasts of bur- den, of some of their vegetable or mineral productions, but chiefly by the produce of numerous flocks of sheep and goats, which are driven to pasture higher and higher, as the melting of the snows in spring leaves behind it a green and tender herbage, and which again gradually descend lower as the southing of the sun embrowns the surface by admitting the gradual prevalence of nightly frosts. The same rapidity of vegetation which distinguishes the summer of the polar regions, soon covers these upland pas- tures with a thick and luxuriant drapery of beautifully flow- 280 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and ering plants, Anemones, Potentilla, Primula, Dryas, &c. &c., on the spots occupied by the snow-beds ;—the solvent proper- ties of the snow seeming to favour the formation of that rich black mould in which these plants chiefly flourish. * The wooden galleries surrounding the upper flats of the slate and shingle-roofed houses are, during the summer, stored with grass drying for the winter subsistence of the diminu- tive breed of cows, and of the flocks which occupy, during the cold season, the ground floor, as, in the vicinity of many of these villages, the snow lies from two to four months in the year, giving promise, by the quantity in which it falls, of a proportionably abundant wheat harvest. The returns of wheat,+ indeed, are said in many of these villages generally to equal, and often to exceed, those from many of the best wheat lands in the plains of the upper pro-_ vinces, under the influence of liberal manuring, with com- posts formed of oak leanes, snow, and the dung of the sheep and goats. The line of snowy summits, stretching in a north-westerly direction to Wangtoo, from 40 to 50 miles direct distance, with passes from the southerly to the northerly face, elevat- ed from 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, has its vertical summits eternally clothed with snow, where one would not imagine, from the erectness of the plain- ward faces, any moveable substance could rest, and is, of course, at most places altogether inaccessible. The Rol pass, which I crossed on the 25th September 1817, may per- haps be formed by the decomposition of a bed of White Feldspar, of which immense tabular masses hurled from above occupy the bed of its northern river, the Shatooltee, The summits on either side are not of Granite, but of a grey * A most remarkable natural provision for their defence against the. in- clemency of the weather to which they are exposed, is displayed by some of the plants inhabiting these elevated regions, an elongation of their low- er leaves, which become clothed with a dense Januginous or cottony inves- titure, and rise to form, by their junction, an arch over the tender fow- ers. The same plants, occurring in other situations, have none of this. + From 7 seer of seed, 160 seer of produce is frequently obtained ; it is asserted a seer is about 2 pounds. 4 Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 281 Gneiss, of which the foliated. structure is chiefly observable in the large or weathered masses, having black mica, and a porphyritic appearance from longitudinally imbedded masses of Feidspar of a dirty white. An alternate flux and reflux of the waste of milky vapour, constantly going on between the northerly and southerly face through the gorge of the pss, at certain seasons, evinces the striking effects which these elevated summits must necessarily produce on the me- teorology of the sultry and arid plains to which they adjoin. Where the Sutluj emerges from behind this range, and washes its base at Wangtoo, its bed is formed in a small grained, compact, grey granite, smoothed by the water's at- trition ; but from which, (owing to its durability,) no speci- men could be broken by any common means; in this are to be seen occasionally large veins indissolubly united with the rock itself, ia which all the granitic ingredients are separately erystallized,—the feldspar, the chief ingredient, of a snowy white,—the mica in large separate flakes, quartz, and ocva- sionally Schorl.in smaller quantity, these may be seen to pass through the superincumbent black micaceous schistus, without, however, seeming to produce either derangement of position, or altered structure. I have observed horizontal sandstone stratification upon the face of this range to an elevation of between 7500 and 8500 feet. The httle flat (small compared to the surrounding moun- tainous country) where the Jumna leaves the main range round about the village of Kursalee, from the depth of its al- luvial soul, and the narrow pass at the lower extremity, sur- rounded with horizontal strata, bears the appearance, often remarked, of having been a lake which had burst a boundary, within which, for a time, it had been contained. The chains proceeding in south-westerly directions from the main range, on the extremities of which the minerals of the parallel ranges are superincumbent, are chiefly composed of gneiss, mica, and clay-slate, often seemingly graduating into each other. The mountain groupe of the Choor, about 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, does not bear snow during. the whole year, although snow may almost always be found throughout the year in some of its sheltered chasms. The 282 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and summit is composed of vast tabular masses of » compact Granite, very susceptible in many places of decomposition 5 but not having the granitic materials at all in the same highly crystallized and durable union as the rock of the Sutluj bed. The vegetable inhabitants are here, in many respects, the same with those of the main range of snowy cliffs, to which it is united by a continuous ridge nearly 8000 feet in elevation at the source of the Girri. On the very summits of the Choor first appear the Juniper, Alpine Rhododendron, and the lofty Aconite, the well known poisonous effects of which, when taken internally, seem to have given rise to a belief among the natives, that it poisons the air in its vicinity ; an opinion for which I never could discover any foundation, unless it may be found in the lofty elevation of the belt, inhabited by this showy plant, where occasionally (certainly not always or uni- formly) the disagreeable effects usually ascribed to the rarity of the air are experienced by travellers. If the symptoms noticed by many eminent naturalists, as arising from the rarity of the air, really are to be imputed to that cause, whence comes it, that, like the descent of the mer- cury, they are not in some degree proportioned to the eleva-— tion and rarefaction, and invariably occurring where a cer- tain degree of the latter takes place ? In passing the night at elevations, on two occasions, up- wards of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, higher than the summer limit of perpetual snow, and im crossing the Himalayah by the Rol pass, (consiuerably above 15,000 feet,) they were neither experienced by myself, nor by any individual of a party of forty native soldiers, and attendants ac- companying me. Both in these same places, and at other in- ferior elevations, they have been experienced on other ocea- sions, and were anticipated as probable upon these by the natives. These facts would rather seem to indicate the phenomena in question being dependant upon some less uniform atmo-~ spherical condition, such as the electrical, which, about natural conductors so elevated, must be in a state of constant fluctua- tion. ib wom lg » Whether the -Choor is of contemporaneous or subsequent formation to the range of snowy cliffs, we have no informa~ Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 283 tion yet to enable us to guess. It has, radiating from it in/all directions, ridges, composed, Ist, of successive strata of mica-slate, some containing precious, some common garnet, im- bedded, the latter in imperfect dodecahedral crystals, which I have seen of considerable size. The mica-slate has also small beds of primitive limestone, some of which form a beautiful marble of large crystalline grain, and snowy whiteness. The succeeding clay-slate contains a rich iron ore, with Pyrites, by the oxygenation of which, probably, we have at. many. places’ inexhaustible stores of an impure sulphate of iron, which forms an article of trade with the plains. Respecting the metallic riches of these districts, I may re- mark, that Gold, although found lentifully ; in a state of very minute subdivision in the sand of the bed of the Sutluj, has, as yet, been nowhere discovered in its natural situation. Cop- per exists at various places in the clay-slate, and most of the mines have been abandoned. Galena, which (I think, gene- rally occurs near the junction of the clay and mica-slate, is worked to a considerable extent) is the chief substance, be- sides the iron, in which the metallic riches of the country con- sist. The miners are the least communicative race whom [ have encountered in these hills; but I never could learn from any certain authority, that Sz/ver was contained, or had been procured from any of the Galena on the plainward face of the Himalayah, although it is said to be brought from some of the Tartarian provinces beyond the Sutluj. The mines of Galena—partly, I believe, from a desire to keep their history and their value unknown to strangers— partly to enable the miners and the officers of the native go- vernment safely to league together, in order to defraud the Rajah of his prescribed share of the produce—partly, per- haps, from ignorance and indolence, are excavated in so slo- venly a manner as to be quite inaccessible to any one (at least at two different places where I visited them) exeept a practised miner among themselves, who, as we have some- times experienced in military operations, seem to have: ac- quired by habit a power of breathing where only moles or snakes could support existence. Such are the most common mineral substances of which the 284 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and country is formed, and which meet the eye on a cursory exa- mination ; but numerous subordinate mineral beds exist, hi- therto unexplored, and long likely to remain so, unless the energies of the people themselves shall receive a stimulus from their improved circumstances under our government. The personal exertions of the daily journey form a labour amply sufficient for any one merely passing through the coun- try, along foot-paths winding round the edges of precipices, descents into deep and sultry river courses, painful and fa- tiguing ascents to places which seem near, and yet requiring almost a day’s journey to reach ; and a minute and accurate knowledge of the structure of the country will never be ac- quired by any one who has not zeal sufficient to induce him to leave behind all heavy baggage, adapt himself as much as possible to the simple diet of the natives, and continue to pro- secute his researches from some fixed point, with as few fol- lowers as possible, the country being incapable, in many places, of furnishing supplies for the retinue with which European officers usually travel. In the plams of Hindostan, it has been often remarked, that it is almost impossible for the European officer to have much personal acquaintance either with the social character or domestic habits of the natives. Much mutual misapprehen- sion is apt to exist between those who meet only in public— who only feel mutual sympathy on some great occasions of common danger or display. Tbe customs of eastern countries admit only of the most public parts of the hospitable roof being accessible to any but the nearest of blood relations. The non- ebservance of the Mosaic ritual separates the European from the Mahomedan; the doctrine of Caste from the Hindoo; a certain degree of contempt, in which it is alleged the British, more than other European nations, hold the fashions of those whose customs differ from their own, equally alienate him from both, in such social intercourse as their different situa- tions might otherwise admit of their holding. Even the rude, though not indecorous, simplicity of the most respectful behaviour in the inferior towards his superior (recalling the memory of Scriptural and Homeric times) is not always understood as it is meant, by those lately trans- ported to eastern climes from these more highly favoured Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 285 northern regions. ‘The climate of the plains, too, so hostile to the constitution of the European, by confining him much to the house, renders it impossible he should see much of the native, except in the field, upon parade, as a domestic servant, or in some subordinate office of the law or revenue depart- ments, in all of which, except perhaps the first, he appears in an artificial and acquired character. In the hill districts, most of these obstacles, to a close ob- servation of the native character, have less influence. Those peculiarities of diet, purification, and discipline, by which the Hindoo is alienated from every other human being, are here adhered to with much less pertinacity than in the plains, where the fashions and superstitions of an aboriginal race, the occupants of the soil, previous to their acquaintance with their earliest conquerors or teachers of civilization, the Hindoos of the plains, seem still to be more or less prevalent. The climate, too, above 8000 feet of elevation above the level of the sea, is generally sufficiently cool to admit of a Euro- pean spending much of his time in the open air during the day ; and among the,hill Sepoys, formerly in the pay of the Gorkhali, one. can find zealous associates, in many of the sports of the field, possessing more of the activity and good humoured hardihood of the best style of European soldier than the dignified and phlegmatic, though respectful, disposi- tion of the rajpoot of the plains, who would seldom, proba- bly, from inclination, or for his own amusement, think of seek- ing with alacrity to join in pursuit of the pheasant, the hill partridge, the bear, or the hyena. The occasional inclemency of the weather, and the difficul- ty of conveying tents at all suited to resist its severity, often unites all ranks and classes under one roof in the village, in the portico of the Deota’s temple, or under thefriendly shelter of the cavern around the blazing pine-wood fire. Whenthe native taste is here allowed to display itself unrestrained in conversation among each other, features of character make their appear- ance, which years of a cantonment life in the plains never would have brought into notice. The Mahomedan fictitious narrative, abounding, after the manner of the Arabian Tales, with gorgeous and glittering palaces, princes, princesses, fairies, magicians, and Genii, de- 286 Dr Govan's Observations on the Himalaya Mountains. lights the listening audience ; the dark and gloomy legends of the Hindvo mythology succeed, related perhaps by the wan- dering religious mendicant, often seemingly in character a most unintelligible compound of knavery, enthusiasm, and imsani- ty, whom the most exalted in rank, the most elevated above popular prejudices among his countrymen hardly dares to of- fend, or even to exclude from notice and charity even in his most uncouth form. He finds his way, and seems to meet with a welcome everywhere, the carrier of intelligence between Juggurnauth and Cape Comorin, and Astrachan or Siberia; the established medium of communication between hostile ar- mies, spy to both parties, faithful to neither; equally ac- quainted often with what passes in the interior of private fa- milies, in defiance of all the obstacles which Eastern jealousy has devised to render such knowledge almost impossible; un- der these circumstances often the plausible pretender to super- natural powers, himself, perhaps, sometimes: believing in his possession of that to which he habitually lays claim. The itinerant minstrel sometimes furnishes more agreeable subjects of human interest, when he sings of the lofty and in- dependent spirit of the rajpoot chieftains of old, at the period of the early invasion of Hindostan by the Mahomedans, their> undaunted valour, their chivalrous readiness to abandon life and all it has to give, when any thing inconsistent with honour was required of them. . The observations called forth, and the discussions which ensue upon these occasions, often afford a rich field for specu- lation to any one delighting im the study of the human mind, and the observation of human character in its most varied forms and circumstances. In few places, however, is there any thing in the civil and’ moral history of the country to bear us out in the analogy which the mind would so much delight in establishing be- tween these states and the European Alpine districts, whose’ hardy natives probably are occupied in pursuits’ not dissimi-° lar, and inhabit a country equally abounding in sublime scene ry and the grandest of natural objects. | The absence of all the domestic charities under the system respecting females, formerly alluded to, the irregular calls for’ the exertion of industry, with intervals of listless indolence, ” Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Diploite. 287 necessarily resulting from the insecurity of its acquirements and obstruction in the channels of their exchange and distri- bution; lastly, the dominion of a dark, gloomy, and debasing superstition, scem to be the sources of most of the evils under which they labour. Under such circumstances, their wars among each other seem to have been merely bloody and fero- cious, displaying but rarely instances of that generous emu- lation in hardy enterprise, by which those of many nations but little ‘advanced in civilization have been occasionally dis- tinguished. The character which the British Government shall acquire and maintain by the policy pursued towards these hill states, (many of which hailed: its ascendancy as a deliverance,) will be spread far and wide among the extensive, though yet but little known population of Central Asia, and in no situation will the liberal principles of British administration, and that desire of bettering the condition, both civil and moral, of the body of the people, by which our policy is so honourably dis- tinguished, be more apt to be duly appreciated than where our protection has succeeded to the sway of a body of needy and rapacious adventurers. Art. XVIII.—Analysis of Diploite, * (Breithaupt.) By C. G. Gmetry, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen. Communicated by the Author. Tuts mineral was given to Mr Breithaupt by Dr Thalacker in Herrenhut. It occurs upon the island Amitok, near the coast of Labrador, and forms, with carbonate of lime, mica, and feldspar, a heterogeneous mixture, which probably belongs to the primitive rocks. * This mineral is undoubtedly the same to which Mr Brooke (Anzals of Philosophy, May 1823, p. 383) has given the name of Latrobite. As the latrobite, according to Mr Brooke, has cleavages in three directions, the name Diploite, which relates to its having two cleavages, is perhaps not quite suitable. This mineral has, according to Mr Brooke, three cleav- ages parallel to the lateral and laminal planes-of a doubly oblique prism. The cleavage parallel to the terminal plane is very dull, and the measure~ ment obtained from it not to be confidently relied on. It forms angles with the lateral cleavages of about 98° 30’ and 91°. The cleavages parallel to the lateral planes form an angle of 93° 30’. 288 Professor Gnielin’s Analysis of Diploité. ' Characteristic according to Mr BreitnHaurr.—Lustre vi+ treous, passing to pearly upon the most perfect cleavage. Co- lour rose and peach-blossom red. Rhombic. Massive, and coarsely disseminated. Has cleavages in two directions, the one distinct, the other less so, forming with the former an angle of about 95°. Hardness 6.5 to 7. Specific Gravity 2.72, (according to Mr Brooke about 2.8.)* Relations before the Blow-pipe-—Betore the blow-pipe it loses its colour, becomes snow-white, swells up, and melts on the edges to a little transparent mass, full of bubbles. With salt of phosphorus, it melts to a clear glass, containing a skele- ton of silica ; with borax, to a colourless glass. With soda, it melts to a white glass, a little transparent, which, by an addi- tional quantity of soda, becomes less fusible. Upon a plati- num lamina, the manganese reaction appears. I shall only give the results of two analyses to which di- ploite was subjected. , The Analysis with Carbonate of The Analysis with Carbonate Barytes afforded— of Potash— Silica, - 44,653 41.780 Alumine, - 36.814 32.897 Lime, < 8.291 9.787 Oxide of manganese, 3.160 5.767 (with a little magnesia.) Magnesia, with some manganese, - 0.628 Potash, - 6.575 6.575 Water, - 2.041 2.041 102.162 98.777 For the analysis with barytes 1.776 gr. and for that witl: potash 0.815 gr. were expended. A particular analysis was besides instituted to ascertain whether fluoric acid is an ingre- dient of diploite; but, as not more than 0.2 gr. could be ex- pended, the negative result, that has been obtained, cannot be considered as a decisive one. Perhaps the formula KIs +548, or KS + 2CS + 15AS might represent the composition of diploite. Hence the opinion of Mr Breithaupt, that diploite is neatly related to feldspar and scapolite, is confirmed also by chemical results. * This is equivalent to 5.25—5.5 in the scale of Mohs, between Apatite and Actynolite, but nearer the latter.—Ep. Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. 289 Art. XIX.—Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. In- vented by Rozert Tuom, Esq. Rothesay. Communicated by the Author. The Double Valve Sluice. Puatn IV. Figure 5. Tus apparatus seems to answer the same purpose as the lever sluice already described in this volume, p. 100; but is more applicable in cases where the reservoir is deep, and the em- bankment consequently large. It also acts as a waster-sluice, by opening and passing the extra water whenever it rises in the reservoir the least above the height assigned, and aes supersedes a bye-wash. In making hydraulic experiments it will also be found of considerable importance; as, by keeping the surface of the water in the cistern, from which we draw water for the expe- riments, always exactly at the same height, it not only saves intricate calculations, but renders the result, upon the whole, more correct. AB, a tunnel through which the water flows from the re- servoir to BC, the aqueduct that conveys it to the mills. AD, a sluice that turns upon pivots at the upper side D. I, a lever attached to that sluice, of the same length from I to D as from D to A. EF, a hollow cylinder. GH, another cylinder, (water proof, and of rather less spe- cific gravity than water,) which moves up and down freely within the cylinder EF. IBG, a chain, one end of which is fixed to the lever I, and thence passing over pulleys B and J, has its other end fixed to the cylinder GH at G. KL, a cistern always full of water, being supplied oy a spring. LMF, a pipe that communicates between the cistern KL and the cylinder EF. NO, a spindle with two valves, O and N, fixed upon it. P, a float that rises and falls with the water in the aque- duct BC. The water in the aqueduct is here represented at its great- VOL. II. NO. 11. APRIL 1825. U 290 Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. est height; the sluice AD and valve N being shut, and the valve O open. Suppose, now, that water is drawn from the aqueduct, the float P will fall with the water, and leave the spindle NO, which, then falling by its own weight, shuts the valve O, and opens the valve N. The water then passing from the cistern - KL, into the cylinder EF, raises the cylinder GH; and then the pressure of the water in front of the sluice AD, throws it open. Again, when the water issuing from the aqueduct is stopped, its surface rises, and with it the float P, which, pushing up the spindle ON, shuts the valve N, and opens the valve O, when the water in the cylinder EF escapes; and then the cylinder GH falling, shuts the sluice AD as before. In this way, the surface of “the water in the aqueduct is al- ways kept at the same level, whether the quantity drawn from it be great or small. In mele to make this sluice operate also as a waster, it 1s only necessary to have a tube communicating between the re- servoir and cylinder EF, the end of which that opens into the reservoir being placed at the greatest height to which the water therein 1s slicnied to rise. Whenever the water in the reservoir rises so as to flow into this tube, the cylinder EF will be filled with water, and the sluice AD will open; and whenever the water again falls, so as not to flow into this tube, the sluice AD will shut, and act again as before. This tube must, of course, be made to pass more water than the valve O can pass. An apparatus of this construction was erected at Rothesay in 1819, and has been in constant operation ever since. The cylinder EF is four feet one inch diameter, and five feet deep inside. The cylinder GH is four feet diameter, and four feet deep over all. Float P, about two feet square, and six inches deep. Valves O and N, two inches diameter. Pulleys B and J, twenty inches diameter. Sluice AD, four feet long, and six inches deep; but the cylinders, &c. are powerful enough to work one of nearly twice that area. : Thus, the area of the sluice is two feet; depth of water Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. 291 above the centre of the sluice, twenty feet ; of course, there are forty cubic feet of water pressing upon the sluice; but one- half of this is borne by the pivots, at its upperside. Were the specific gravity of the cylinder GH the same as that of water, this would leave only twenty feet for its contents; but, to make it float freely, it is one-twentieth less; therefore, allow- ing one foot more for this, and three feet for friction, twenty- four cubic feet would be the necessary contents of the cylinder GH ;—but its contents are fifty cubic feet: it was made. thus powerful, that it might work a larger sluice, if ever it should be found necessary. For an improved construction of this apparatus, see Fig. 5. Priate lV. Figure 6. This apparatus is applicable to the same purposes as that of Fig. 5; but the construction is much simplified. A, the sluice, which turns upon pivots at its centre of pres- sure. AB, a lever attached to that sluice, which, with the small weight B at its extremity, is heavy enough to overcome tie friction of the sluice, and keep it shut. AC, the aqueduct that conveys the water from the reser- voir to the works. D, a pulley which turns easily round its axis. E, alight hollow cylinder of copper, having a very small aperture in its bottom, and open at top. BDE, a chain, one end of which is fixed to the lever at B, then, passing over pulley D, has its other end fixed to eylin- der E. F, a cistern, always full of water, being supplied by a spring from the rising ground. FG, a pipe which communicates between that cistern and cylinder E. H, a valve that opens or shuts that communication. I, a float, that rises and falls with the water in the aqueduct. The sluice A is here represented shut, and the water in the aqueduct at rest. But suppose a part of the water to be drawn from the aqueduct, then, as its surface falls, so will float I, which then leaving the spindle of valve H, that valve opens, and the water flows from cistern F into cylinder FE, 292 Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. which, when full, descends, raises lever BA, and opens the. sluice. Again, suppose the water to rise in the aqueduct, the float I rising with it, shuts valve H, when cylinder FE. is emptied by the small aperture in its bottom, and the weight of lever AB again shuts the sluice. This sluice also acts as a waster, by having a pipe to communicate between the re- servoir and cylinder E, in the same manner as in Fig. 4. A sluice of this description was erected at Rothesay in 1821. Sluice A is three feet long, and eighteen inches deep ; lever AB, three feet long; cylinder E, two and a half feet diameter, and the same depth. The depth of water above the centre of the sluice, when the reservoir is full, is twenty feet. By this contrivance, ef makmmg the sluice turn on its centre of pressure, the weight of the column of water resting on it is neutralised ; it being at the same time equally exerted to open and shut the sluice. The acting power has, therefore, only to overcome the friction, to make it move in any direction ; whereas, in the apparatus Fig. 4, the power must not only overcome the friction, but must also be equal to half the weight of the whole column of water pressing upon the sluice. * Thus, in the present case, there is a column of ninety cubic feet of water pressing upon the sluice when the reservoir is full. Were the sluice hinged upon one side, as in Fig 4, it would require the cylinder E to contain forty-five cubic feet of water, besides about one-tenth more for friction; and the chain, lever, &c. would have to be made strong in proportion. But by this contrivatce, the power to act against this forty- five feet of water is wholly saved, and the cylinder requires only to contain water sufficient to overcome the friction. The apparatus is also simplified by having only one cylin- der and one valve, instead of two of each, as in Fig. 4. But this plan has also some small disadvantages :—the sluice, when it: turns upon pivots at its centre, is more difficult to * The other half is borne by the pivots on which the sluice turns. When the sluice is hinged at the upper side, the power has rather more than half the weight to sustain, and when hinged at the under side, it has rather less ; but where the depth of the sluice bears so small a proportion to the depth of water above it, the difference is not worth noticing in practice. Professor Barlow on the Hydrostatic Pressure, &c. 293 make water-tight than when it turns on pivots at one edge; nor does the same aperture pass an equal quantity of water ; for, besides the space occupied by the sluice in the centre, it also tends to disturb the regular flow or current of the water. In all cases, however, where the sluice is large, and the re- servoir deep, there will be a considerable saving in its con- struction. Arr. XX.—On the Force exerted by Hydrostatic Pressure in Bramah’s Presses ; and on the resisting Power of the Metal, with Rules for computing the thickness of the same for dif- Jerent Pressures.* By Prerer Bartow, Esq. F. R. S. of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Communicated by the Author. | Tuts paper commences by an examination of the amount of the strain exerted in the circumference of the cylinders in con- sequence of any given internal pressure, and the result, al- though somewhat differently obtained, is the same as was first determined by Mariotte, viz. “ The circumferential strain, on any given point of the interior of the cylinder, is equal to the pressure of a square inch multiplied by the number of inches in the radius.” That is, the force tending to rend the cylinder along any line parailel to its axis, is equal to the pres- sure on a section between the circumference and axis. This, as we have said, is the result which has always been deduced by writers on this subject ; but in estimating the thickness ne- cessary to resist this strain, it has universally been supposed that all the metal in the thickness opposed an equally resist- ing power; from which it resulted, that in presses of the same internal diameter, the thickness ought to be proportional to the pressure. This principle, however, is known to fail in practice, it having always been found requisite to increase the thickness in a higher ratio than the pressure, and it was prin- cipally with a view to correct this error, that the author un- dertook the investigation, at the earnest request of some of his practical friends, and having completed it, it has been * This Article is an abstract of a paper read before the Society of C1v1t ENGINEERS, Feb. 22, 1825. 294 Professor Barlow on. the Hydrostatic Pressure presented to the Society of Civil Engineers, who now rank amongst their numbers many of the most distinguished names of the United Kingdoms connected with scientific and practi- eal mechanics. The following is the particular part of the investigation to which we have alluded. To investigate the nature of the resistance opposed to any given thickness of metal in a cylinder or ring from internal pres- sure. «Tt would appear at first sight, that having found the strain on any points, D and C, it would only be necessary to ascertain the thickness of metal to resist this strain, when applied directly to its transverse area. This, however, is by no means the case; for if we imagine, as we must do, that the iron, in consequence of the internal pressure, suffers a certain degree of extension, it will be found that the external circumfe- rence participates less in this extension than the interior, and as the resistance is proportional to the extension divided by the length, it follows that the interior circumference, and every successive circular lamina from the interior to the exte- rior surface, offers a less and less resistance to the imterior strain. The laws of which decrease of resistance it 1s at pre- sent our object to investigate.” “In the first place, it is obvious that whatever extension the cylinder or ring may undergo, there will still be the same quantity of surface in the section of the ring, which area is al- ways proportional to the difference of the squares of the two diameters. Let D be the interior diameter before pressure, and D+d its diameter when extended by the pressure. Let also D’ be the exterior diameter before, and D’+d’ the same after the pressure. Then, from what is stated above, we shall have D°—D*=(D/+d)°—(D+d)? or, 2D/d'4+d?=2Dd-+a?. Whence (2D/+d’) : (2D+4d)::d:d, or, since d' and d are both very small, this becomes yey a Fe That is, the extension of the exterior surface is to that of the interior, as the interior diameter is to the exterior. in Bramal’s Presses, &c. 295 But the resistance is’'as the extension divided by the length ; therefore the resistance of the exterior surface is to that of the , interior, pt or D?: D”. That is, the resistance offered by each successive lamina is inversely as the square of its diameter, or inversely as the square of its distance from the centre ; by means of which law the actual resistance due to any thiekness is readily ascertained. Let 7 be the interior radius of any cylinder, p the pressure per square inch on the fluid, ¢ the whole thickness of the me- tal, and % any variable distance from the interior surface. Let also s represent the strain exerted, or the resistance sus- tained, by the interior lamina, then by the law last deduced, (rz) ireiis: at the strain at the distance ~ from the interior surface, consequently r°sdz 7—73-+cor= sum ll the strains. (r4ay’t sum of all t ains This, when x=¢ becomes al 1 srt R=r's(-——;)=—, r r+t r+t That is, the sum of all the variable strains or resistances on the whole thickness ¢, is equal to the resistance that would be : rt - : : : due to the thickness rat acting uniformly with a resistance s. Let us now suppose (the above law being established) the radius 7, and the pressure per square inch on the fluid p, to be given, to find the thickness necessary to resist it, or such thai the strain and resistance may be in equilibrio, the cohe- sive power of the metal being also given. Let x represent the thickness required, and c— the cohesive power of the metal i ; T% per square inch; then the greatest strain the area —— can rx )-ofgaec 65 pike sustain is pat and the strain it has to sustain is pr; whence, when these are equal, we shall have rH P= a gl pr+pr=xe, +% ; whence nmap 256 M. Savart on the Acoustic Figures Hence the following rule in words at length. To find the thickness of metal—Multiply the pressure per square inch by the radius of the cylinder, and divide the pro- duct by the difference between the cohesive power of the me- tal per square inch and the pressure per square inch, and the quotient will be the thickness sought. ‘As an example, let it be required to determine the thickness of metal in two presses, each 12 inches in diameter, in one of which the pressure is 1} ton, and in the other 3 tons, per cir- cular inch. The cohesive force of cast iron being 18,000 Ibs. per square inch. ’ Here 1! ton per circular inch —4,278 lbs. per square inch. 3 tons ditto —8,556 lbs. ditto. Whence by the rule 4,278 x6 re jm 18,000—4,2787 | 87 inches thickness, and 8,556' 6 — 5°43 inches thickness. 18,000—8,556 — Whereas on the usual principle of computation, the one of these thicknesses would be exactly double the other. Art. X XI.—On the Acoustic Figures produced by the Vibra- tions communicated throug the Air to Elastic Membranes. * c By M. Ferix Savart. Iw order to perform the experiments described by M. Savart, we must stretch a thin sheet of paper, about four or five inches in diameter, over the mouth of a vessel, such as a large glass with a foot-stalk, so that the paper has an uniform degree of tension, and a horizontal position. A thin layer of fine and dry sand being then scattered over the paper, a plate of glass, in a state of vibration, is brought within a few inches of the membrane. . The vibrations of the glass plate are conveyed * This article isa brief abstract of an elaborate paper by M. Savart, en- titled Recherches sur les Usages de la Membrane du Tympan, et, de Voreille externe, read to the Academy of Sciences on the 29th April 1822, and printed in the Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvi- p. 1. produced by the Vibration of Elastic Membranes. 297 through the air to the paper membrane, and the sand on its upper surface is thrown into figures which have sometimes the most perfect regularity, and are often formed with such cele- rity, that the. eye has scarcely time to perceive the circum- staaces which accompany the formation of the figures. This experiment succeeds in general, whatever be the vi- brating body which we employ, though thin plates of glass or metal are the best; and it is always preferable to make the circular plate of glass vibrate in the mode in which there are concentric lines of repose. It appears from the experiments of Chladni, that, in order to obtain this kind of vibration, we must render immoveable several points in the surface of the plate, or at least two points of the circumference and one point of the surface. It is in this way, therefore, that M. Savart makes the experiment. He at first renders immoveable two diametrically opposite points of the circum- ference of the plate by seizing it between the middle finger and the thumb. He then places lightly the tip of the index finger at a point whose distance from the centre of the plate is about the fifth part of its circumference. The plate, thus held, is made to vibrate by drawing the bow of a fiddle across its circumference. By employing successively circular plates of different dimensions, and which, consequently, give differ- ent sounds, it is easy to prove, that, for every number of vi- brations, the membrane affects a particular mode of division. When the vibrating plate is parallel to the membrane, the lat- ter performs normal vibrations, or in a line perpendicular to its surface. 'The sand sometimes springs to a great height ; and, by making use of an apparatus which allows us to ob- serve what passes at both surfaces of the membrane, it is easy to see that the distribution of the nodal lines isthe same. The general character of these lines is to be circular, and their number is sometimes very considerable. These circular lines are often cut by diametral lines, which form stars, whose number of points increases with the acuteness of the sound. Sometimes figures are obtained which are composed solely of these diametral lines. Perfect regularity and symmetry, how- ever, can only be obtained by taking the greatest care that 298 M. Sayart on the Acoustic Figures the membrane be equally thick and uniformly stretched. The first of these conditions may be easily fulfilled by using the finest paper, particularly what is called vegetable paper, which is the most homogeneous that can be employed. Some of the finest figures that are obtained by the effect of distant vibrations on the membrane are represented in Plate VI. Fig. 1—13. When the membrane is ill stretched, it of- ten happens that the lines traced by the sand are very nu- merous, and that they form kinds of chains, regularly ar- ranged, and apparently the result of concentric lines cut by a great number of diametral lines. See Fig. 14. From these experiments it follows, that, when the plate and the membrane are parallel, the motion is communicated by the air exactly as it would have been if the two bodies had been separated by a common rod perpendicular to their faces ; for the number of vibrations is the same in both cases; since, for. each sound produced, the membrane affects a particular mode of division, and the direction of its motion is also the same, since it is perpendicular in the plate and in the mem- brane. If the vibrating circular plate is held with one of its diameters in a vertical line, the grains of sand have then a tangential motion, and the system of lines in repose have in general the character of parallelism. By gradually inclining the plate, the figures on the membrane change. When figures composed of concentric circular lines are ob- tained, there is often formed between two of these a circular line, composed of the finer particles of the sand. M. Savart is of opinion that this line belongs to a kind of vibration high- er than that which is produced, but which co-exists along with the principal vibration. It sometimes happens, also, that the centre of the membrane presents an immoveable point, which probably belongs likewise to a higher mode of vibration, so that the membranes appear to produce with facility several kinds of motion at once. 3 The preceding experiments may be varied in a great num- ber of ways, by making use of membranes whose dimensions, nature, tension, and contour, are different ; but they all pre- sent analogous results. The figures produced by a rectangu- 5 produced by the Vibration of Elastic Membranes. 299 Jar * membrane are shewn in Plate VI. Fig. 15—21, and those produced by a triangular one in Fig. 22—28. When the dia- meter of the membranes is less than from half an inch to an inch, it is not easy to observe regular nodal lines, unless when the sound is extremely acute. The figures which have now been described vary with the tension of the membrane. In those made of paper, which changes its hygrometric state, and consequently its tension, continually, M. Savart observed that the figures changed at every instant. When the same figure is represented several times, it was necessary only to breathe upon the paper to create a new one, which in a short time disappeared, and re- turned to its former state through a great number of interme- diate figures. Hence M. Savart proposes this as a sure me- thed of detecting small hygrometrical variations in the air. In order to protect the paper membranes from the humidity of the air, they should be covered with a thin coat of varnish made of gum lac. The membranous vibrations and figures which have now been described may also be produced by the sound of the pipe of an organ, even at the distance of some feet. If we play with a slow motion an air on the flute, at about half a foot from the membrane, the sand will form lines, the figure of which varies unceasingly with the sound produced. But, what appears more astonishing, the voice produces an ana- logous effect, which is extremely well marked,-even under the influence of a sound which is neither strong nor sustained. ‘By whatever method, in short, the air is agitated, it is capa- -ble of communicating to thin membranes the motion which it has received, and that without any alteration. These experiments succeed also equally well when the mem- branes are wetted, or when they have imbibed an oily sub- stance. In this last case, im place of sand, we must cover the membrane with a thin stratum of oil, which is agitated in rip- ples, which increase in number with the acuteness of the sound. * Almost all the figures given by square membranes are analogous to the figure of a square plate, and are almost always of the kind which Mr “€hladni calls distortions. 300 M. Savart cn Acoustic Figures produced by Vibration. M. Savart next applies these principles to a method of ap- preciating very small quantities of sound. He stretches a piece of thin vegetable paper or goldbeater’s skin across the mouth of a glass about four inches in diameter. He then co- vers this with sand, and ascertains the intensity of different sounds by the distance at which they cease to agitate the membrane ; and he remarks that they will often be moved by an augmentation of sound which the ear itself is incapable of appreciating. He proposes also to use it for ascertaining the augmentations of sound which arise from the coincidence of vi- brations produced by numbers of vibrations not very distant from each other. Bodies which are neither rigid in themselves, and which are not rendered rigid by tension, such as the skin, a silken fabric, paper, &c. are, even when they are not stretched, susceptible of being thrown into vibrations by the influence of a body vibrating ata distance ; and it appears, that, under some circumstances, they are even more susceptible of this kind of action than most elastic membranes. ‘This may be proved by covering a horizontal portion of any of these substances with sand, and sounding the pipe of an organ at the distance of a foot or so. The sand will be violently agitated, and will form figures composed of numerous curved and bending lines interlaced with one another. In the second part of this able memoir, M. Savart applies these experiments to the illustration of the uses of the mem- brane of the tympanum, and of those of the external ear, both of which, as he shows by direct experiments on the ears of animals, are susceptible of being thrown into a state of vi- bration, by bodies vibrating at a distance. As our limits will not permit us to follow our author through his numerous and interesting details, we shall conclude this abstract with an enu- meration of the leading results which he has obtained. 1. That it is not necessary to suppose, as has hitherto been done, the existence of a particular mechanism, for continually — bringing the tympanum to vibrate in unison with the bodies which act upon it. It is evident, that the tympanum is always in a condition to be influenced by any number of vibrations. 2. That its tension does not probably vary, unless to aug- Dr Turner’s Analysis of Euchroite. 301 ment or diminish the amplitude of its excursions, as Bichat had supposed. He supposed, however contrary to the result of experiment, that the tympanum unstretched itself for strong impressions, and stretched itself to receive weak impressions. 3. That the vibrations of that membrane communicate them-. selves, without any alteration to the labyrinth, by means of the small bones, in the same manner as the vibrations of the up-, per table of an instrument are communicated to the lower table. 4. That the small bones modify also the excursions of the vibrating parts of the organs contained in the labyrinth. 5. That the cavity of the tympanum (Caisse du Tambour) serves probably to keep up near the apertures of the labyrinth, and the internal face of the membrane of the tympanum, an aérial medium, whose physical properties are constant. Art. XXII.—Analysis of Euchroite. By Epwarp Tur- ner, M.D..F.R.S.E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. A satu fragment of the new mineral species, Euchroite,* having been presented to me for analysis by Mr Haidinger, I proceeded to a chemical investigation of it in the following manner. When heated in a clean glass tube per se, its water of cry- stallization was disengaged, and this occurred at a tempera- ture far short of redness. If the heat is gradually applied, it suffers no decrepitation whatever, retaining iis form complete- ly ; its brilliant colour, however, is afterwards found to have changed to a dull green, and it crumbles into powder under the gentlest pressure. It undergoes no farther change on glass, its pot of perfect fusion being above that of diffi- . cultly fusible glass. Urged by the blow-pipe on a piece of clean platinum, without exposure to the reducing flame, *See Mr Haidinger’s Description of Euchroite, p. 133 of the pre- ceding Number. 302 Dr Turner’s Analysis of Ruchroite. it fuses completely, and crystallizes on coolmg into a greens ish brown mass. Heated before the blow-pipe on charcoal, it fuses readily, and at the same moment deflagrates ; «the odour of arsenic is then also perceptible, and white vapours: rise. On continuing the blast, a distinct copper corn is left. If the reduction is performed in a glass tube, both a metallie criist of arsenic and minute crystals of arsenious acid con- dense on the cold parts of the glass, which are easily and com- pletely driven off by heat. It dissolves readily m concentrated and diluted nitric shied without effervescence, or formation of nitrous acid fumes, ever on the application of heat. ‘The addition of water neither caused precipitation, nor disturbed the transparency of the so- lution. Ammonia occasioned a greenish blue precipitate, which was wholly redissolved by an excess of the alkali, form- ing the blue solution characteristic of the peroxide of copper. The nitrate of silver caused no precipitate, nor did the mu- riatic and sulphuric acids. ‘The absence of iron was proved by the tests of ammonia, ferrocyanate of potash, infusion of galls, and sulpho-cyanic acid. Acetate of lead caused a white precipitate, soluble in an excess of nitric acid. A stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, the sulphuret of copper which first fell being separated, gave rise to the formation of orpiment. It appears from these observations, that Kuchroite contains nothing but arseniate of copper, and water of crystallization. To determine the amount of the latter, 3.905 grains were heated at the flame of a spirit-lamp, m a clean glass tube, till all the water was expelled. The loss amounted to 0.73 grains, or 18.69 per cent. In another experiment, 2.565 grains lost 0.485 of a grain or 18.9 per cent. Taking the mean of these experiments, Euchroite contains 18.8 per cent. of water of crystallization. The water, as it condensed in the cold parts of the tube, was carefully tested by delicate litmus-paper, which was not reddened in the least; and I am satisfied, that all the water can be separated, by heating cautiously, without the loss of any acid. 8.35 grains of the anhydrous mineral were dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and then a concentrated solution of -pure Dr Turner’s Analysis of Euchroite. 303. potash, which had been prepared by means of alcohol, was added in such excess as to separate all the arsenic acid from the oxide of copper. After due ebullition and washing, the latter was collected on a filtre, ignited, and weighed. By this process, 4.925 grains of the peroxide of copper were ob- tained. The alkaline solution was rendered acidulous by nitric acid, and then evaporated to dryness to obtain a perfectly neutral solution, and to separate a minute quantity of silica which had been dissolved by the potash. The arsenic acid was then precipitated by a neutral solution of the nitrate of lead. This Operation was performed at a boiling temperature, and with as slight an excess of the precipitant as possible, to prevent the nitrate from combining with the insoluble arseniate of lead ;—an inconvenience complained of by Berzelius in the case of phosphoric acid, and which I have repeatedly felt my- self, when precipitating arsenic acid by the acetate of lead. A very pure arseniate of lead was thus procured ; but on eva~- porating the clear solution by a gentle heat to dryness, and re-dissolving the soluble parts, an additional portion of the arseniate was obtained,—showing that all the salt had not fallen in the first instance. The arseniate of lead, after being heated to redness, weighed 9.955 grains, equal to 3.399 grains of arsenic acid, on the assumption that arseniate of lead con- tains 34.14 per cent. of acid. The anhydrous Euchroite consists, therefore, of Peroxide of Copper, 4.925 58.97 Arsenic acid, 3.399 40.7 8.324 99.67 e The crystallised mineral is composed of Peroxide of Copper, 47.85 Arsenic acid, 33.02 Water, 18.8 99.67 Did phosphoric acid exist in Euchroite, it would of course be present in the arseniate of lead. On decomposing a por- 304 _ Dr Turner’s Analysis of Euchroite. tion of that salt by sulphuric acid, and neutralizing the clear solution with potash, nitrate of silver was added. The brick- red arseniate of silver subsided without any admixture of the yellow phosphate. Another portion of the arseniate of lead was heated before the blow-pipe, on charcoal. Decomposition ‘readily ensued, with evolution of copious arsenical vapours. Numerous globules of metallic lead were procured, but not the slightest trace of the characteristic phosphuret of lead could be detected. . Phosphoric acid cannot, therefore, enter into the composition of Euchroite. I shall only remark, with respect to the atomic constitution of Euchroite, that the proportion established by analysis is not satisfactory in theory. Supposing an atom of the per- oxide of copper to be eighty, and an atom of arsenic acid sixty-two, (the estimate of Dr Thomson,) we shall require almost four per cent. more acid than is given by analysis, to establish a due proportion ; and, even then, the water of ery- stallization would not agree. The proportions of Berzelius are still more discordant. But we are not warranted, I con- ceive, In assuming, on speculative grounds, so great an error in an analysis, unless it bear internal evidence of inaccuracy. The quantity operated on was, indeed, of necessity, small, and, therefore, the unavoidable errors of analysis would have con- siderable influence on the result; but as they were rendered trifling by careful manipulation, and the employment of an exceedingly delicate balance, the whole error could hardly amount to one per cent. It is pleasing to see an analytical result square neatly with the doctrine of proportions ; and when it does so happen, it is no small confirmation of the accuracy with which the analyst has operated. So general, indeed, are the laws of combina- tion, that an analysis may sometimes be regarded as incorrect which does not correspond with theoretical considerations. Such an inference, however, is by no means admissible wherever ar- senic acid is concerned ; for our knowledge of its atomic con- stitution is far less precise than that of most other substances. To justify this observation, I need only mention, that the two celebrated analysts, Professors Thomson and Berzelius, who are deservedly held as our first authorities on this as on many 10 Description of Fraunhofer's Telescopes. 305 subjects, have both abandoned the opinions they formerly maintained, and that the conclusions at which they have event- ually arrived are strikingly discrepant. The Euchroite not only differs in mineralogical characters from the other native arseniates, but is also distinct in chemi- cal composition. The proportion of oxide to acid is very si- milar to that of Count Bournon’s third species, as analysed by Mr Chenevix ; * only this mineral appears to contain no water of crystallization. A new analysis of the Cornwall arseni- ates is at present a desideratum ; for, notwithstanding the known accuracy of Mr Chenevix, that chemist seems to have disre- garded the probable existence of phosphoric acid in some of his arseniates. As I expect soon to possess, through the kind- ness of Mr Allan and Mr Haidinger, a whole series of the Cornwall arseniates, I hope in no long time to enter on the in- vestigation of them. . Art. XXIII.—Description of Fraunhofer's Large Achro- matic Telescopes. With a Plate. ‘Tue great discovery of a method of making flint glass in large pieces, and perfectly pure and free from striz, which was made by the late M. Guinand, and of which we have given a full account in this number, (see p. 348,) may be considered as forming an era in the history ef the achromatic telescope. By means of this glass, M. Fraunhofer, the director of the Optical Institute or Manufactory at Benedictbauern, near Munich, has constructed achromatic telescopes far superior to any that have hitherto been made; and we can assure our read- ers, of what many of them will deem increffible, that this emi- nent artist can now make achromatic object glasses with an aperture of eighteen inches. But it is not merely in the opti- cal “part of the instrument that M. Fraunhofer has been suc- cessful. His various improvements on the apparatus which accompanies the telescope, and his ingenious micrometers for measuring angles of all kinds in the heavens, have received the * Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 199. VOL. II. No. 11. APRIL 1825. x 306 Description of Fraunhofer's Telescopes. sanction of some of the most eminent practical astronomers in Europe, and are now considered as constituting an instrument of incalculable value for general astronomical observations. The splendid telescope, which we have already mentioned (see p. 174) as made for the observatory of Dorpat, is shown in Plate VII., where the instrument is represented as mount- ed parallactically upon a stand, the telescope being balanced in every position. The hour circle is divided by two verniers into four seconds of time, and the declination circle into ten seconds. The equatorial axis is put in motion by a clock having two sets of wheel-work, so that the telescope follows by itself the diurnal motion of the stars. But it may also be turned freely by the hand in every direction, or by means of an endless screw. he friction of the equatorial axis is diminished by friction rollers, so that the telescope, though its weight was about thirty-six quintals of Bavaria, could be moved by the pressure of a single finger. The figure in Plate VII. represents the telescope as seen from the side on which the clock is placed. The object-glass is thirteen and one third feet (Pied de Ro de Paris) in focal length, and its aperture is nine inches. It has eight astronomical eye-pieces, beside the following micrometers. 1. A repeating line micrometer, with a circle of position, whose two verniers give a single minute. This micrometer is furnished with a mechanism for illuminating the lines, the field Yemaining obscure, so that these lines appear to be luminous stripes on a dark ground. ‘hese lines are, as we are inform- ed, cut upon glass with a diamond point. As these lines ap- pear like so many silver threads suspended in the heavens, the transits of the snféllest stars across them may be observed. 2. Two micrometers, each of which consists of two free rings. 3. Two micrometers with one free ring. In all these mi- crometers, the rings, which are accurately turned out of brass, are fixed upon plates of glass, so that they seem to be suspend- ed in the field of the telescope. By observing the immersions and emersions of the stars at the inner and outer circumfer- ences of the rings, the differences of right ascension and de- clination of two stars are determined. Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation of Stalactites. 307 ‘4. A micrometer of several concentric rings, which may be illuminated in the dark field. This micrometer has four eye- glasses. ) 5. An achromatic finder, of thirty inches i in focal length, and twenty-nine of aperture. 6. An instrument for correcting the axis of the great objers- glass. ‘The price of the telescope now described is about 8000 Prussian dollars, or nearly L.1300 Sterling. The total weight of the whole package was thirty-eight quintals. An achromatic telescope, with an object-glass eighteen feet in focal length, and with an aperture of twelve inches, and fur- nished with eye-glasses, micrometers, aud parallactic stand, like the one now described, amounts to about L. 2720 Ster- ling. _ Mr Fraunhofer engages ificeeise to construct these instru- ments with object-glass eighteen inches in diameter ; and, as the price increases nearly as the cube of the diameter, an in- strument of this kind will cost about L. 9200 Sterling. Arr. XXIV.—On the Neptunian Formation of Siliccous Stalactites.* By the Rev. Joun Fieminc, D. D. F. B.S. E. Communicated by the Author. Tue formation of siliceous minerals has perplexed, in no or- dinary degree, the different sects of Geologists. The Vul- canists and Volcanists have, in vain, attempted to repel the objection brought against their views, founded on the refrac- tory nature of silica in the fire, amounting to infusibility. The Neptunians have been equally embarrgssed with its cha- racter of insolubility im aqueous menstrua, Fluxes have been resorted to by the former, and solvents by the latter, without any thing satisfactory to the unprejudiced having been announced. It is not to be concealed, however, that several facts in the natural history of siliceous minerals, which have been established, lead to the conclusion that solvents of silica do exist im nature, though these solvents be yet un- * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March 7, 1825, 308 Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation ‘known to the chemist, and only appear in the results whiclr have taken place. The occurrence of flint, in concretions arranged parallel to the seams of stratification in chalk, and the analogous position of menilite in adhesive slate in gypsum, intimate the existence of a condition in which siliceous and calcareous matters have been influenced by similar circumstances. In reference to the chalk-beds, it may be supposed that the substances were deposited in the state of mad, which has been since changed into flint and chalk. That such a process of lapidification has been going on in the bed, is demonstrated by the occur- rence of shells, originally of an imbricated structure and com- pact fracture, now exhibiting the granular structure, or foliat- ed fracture of marble or calcareous spar; yet retaining dis- tinct traces of the albuminous animal matter. The fusion of the siliceous mud by heat, and its consequent conversion into flint, as has been conjectured to have taken place, by Mr Allan in his valuable paper “‘ On the Formation of the Chalk Strata, and Structure of the Belemnite,” Edin. Phil. Trans. ix, 416, is a view of the matter, the incorrectness of which is demonstrated by the appearances exhibited. How is it possi- ble to conceive the application of any heat capable of fusing the flint distributed in layers throughout the bed, which would not fuse, at the same time, the far more fusible surrounding ehalk ? Yet the chalk in immediate contact with the flint is earthy, and does not exhibit any one of those appearances to be looked for in fused carbonate of lime. It is equally im- possible to conceive the cavity of an echinus filled with flint in fusion, while its thin calcareous, and consequently fusible crust, shall be capable of retaining all the delicate arrangement of its parts, preserving unobliterated, the sutures, the tubercles, and the minute bronchial pores. Mr Allan seems to have been aware of all these objections, but he has been unfortunate in his attempt to obviate them. ‘* But we have,” he remarks, “¢ many such anomalies in nature; the base of many of the trap rocks presents as little the appearance of crystallization as even the softest chalk, and yet. it is now admitted, even by the pupils of the Freyberg School, to be of igneous origin,” p: 417. I was not a little amused, by thus witnessmg Mr of Sihceous Statactites. j 309 Allan, in his distress, seeking shelter under the mantle of Werner! He will find it in this case, however, but a cob- web. Let us suppose, with Mr Allan, that the pupils of the Freyberg school can view these anomalies in trap rocks, and, in spite of such testimony to the contrary, continue to believe in their igneous origin, it remains to be asked, what explana- tion of these anomalies can be given to one, who is not a pupil of the Freyberg school, and who does not admit the igneous formation of trap rocks? Can it be any thing but a confes- sion, that the hypothesis is opposed by the phenomena ? Flinty matter sometimes occurs in older limestones than the chalk, in such situations as to offer equally formidable objec- tions to the igneous geologists. The specimens now exhibit- ed to the Society seem to be of this description. They were found, many years ago, in a quarry on the estate of Kirkton, near Bathgate, West Lothian. ‘This quarry was opened in a bed of limestone, which dips under the great bed of limestone belonging to the coal-field which extends north towards Lin- lithgow. ‘This great bed is regularly stratified, and dips to the west at an angle of about 20°. It encloses the remains of those marine animals which are common in the limestones of the coal formation, with the beds of which, on both sides, this mass is conformable. Flinty matter occurs in this bed, dis- seminated in irregular thin layers, or in shapeless masses, oc- casionally containing relics of marine animals. The bed of limestone to which we more particularly refer exhibited in some places the ordinary massive or compact structure, but in others it displayed that subconcentric la- mellar concretionary arrangement so characteristic of calcedony. The different layers of these undulatigg plates presented many varieties of the botryoidal and mammillary forms. But the layers did not consist exclusively of carbonate of lime. Plates of flint likewise occurred, alternating with the lime- stone in parallel layers. The siliceous matter likewise abounds in the layers of limestone. When a mass of this substance is exposed to the weather, the. calcareous matter wastes, and the flinty portion appears in high relief. Maceration-in acid, as has taken place in one specimen, likewise exhibits its true structure. In the cavities produced by the irregular con- 310 Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation tortion of these strata, crystals of quartz, calcareous. spar, and magnetic iron ore, occur. Vegetable remains occur in this bed. Several trunks of trees, with their branches, could be distinctly traced, enclosed by the flinty and calcareous matter, as in ‘the specimens ex- hibited. In some cases the woody matter was removed, and petrifaction had taken place so completely, as to leave only the traces of the original in the fibrous structure of the cast. In other cases the texture of the wood seemed to be but little altered, as the concentric zones were visible, the per- pendicular fibres separable, and even sectile. These re- mains were sometimes of a brown colour, crossed with veins of calcareous spar. In the petrified matter, both flint and limestone abounded. The casts, except in one instance, pre- sented no marks by which the species or genus could be de- termined. This example seems to be identical with the | Phytolithus Plantites verrucosus of Martin, ‘‘ Petrificata Der- biensia,” Tab. XI. fig. 1, and which I have found to be a common production of the sandstone, clay-ironstone, and ve- getable limestone of the Lothian coal-field. The same objections present themselves against the igneous origin of the flint in this case, as in the chalk-rocks. I may add, that I have observed calcedony in a similar position to the flint in the present specimens, in the compact limestone at Inverugie, near Duffus, Morayshire. Are we, therefore, to consider that this peculiar botryoidal structure in limestone is produced by the inflwence of siliceous matter with the ten- dencies of caleedony? We should feel inclined to adopt this opinion, were we not aware of a similar structure prevailing in limestone, destitute of any notable quantity of siliceous matter, as at Inchkeith. In the cavities of the chambered univalve shells, which oc- cur in a petrified state in our limestone rocks, no earthy sub- stances are observed, unless in the pipe which opens external- ly, or in those chambers which have broken walls. In those which are closed on all sides, crystalline minerals are observed to have exclusive possession, and these are usually calcareous spar and quartz, or rock crystal. That the former, in solu- tion, percolated the walls of the chamber, and crystallised in ‘ of Siliccous Stalactites. Sik the cavity, will readily be allowed, since the Neptunian cha- racter of calcareous spar cannot be disputed ; but what pre- vents us from drawing the inference that the rock-crystal reached its station under similar circumstances ? Silicified wood occurs in alluvial soil, in such circumstances as to warrant the conclusion, that the petrifying matter was brought into its present situation by the agency of water. But the proof that siliceous matter is soluble in aqueous menstrua is presented to us in the most unequivocal manner by gramineous vegetables. In the epidermis of these plants, the silica is arranged in a symmetrical manner. It seems ob- viously to be a natural secretion of the plant in the construc- tion of its ordinary integuments. Sometimes it occurs as a morbid secretion in the joints forming the well known taba- sheer. The preceding facts leave no room to doubt that silica is found in nature in the state in which it appears to have been deposited from a solution; and the following observations seem to countenance the conclusion. In this neighbourhood, the prevailing rocks belong to the trap family, and consist principally of amygdaloid, clinkstone, greenstone, and compact felspar, as subordinate to the old red sandstone. Where quarries are opened in these rocks, the rents near the surface are numerous, and form small cavities, the walls of which are occasionally covered with calcareous and siliceous stalactites, though always in thin crusts. In some cases, the liquor from which these have been produced seems to have been small -in quantity, to have been collected in one spot on the roof, and to have left a thin film of the earthy matter not larger than the nail of the finger. In other cases, the surface covered is of greater extent, but the thick- ness of the matter never reaches a quarter of aninch. The siliceous matter seems to have dropped from the roof of the cavity, in some instances, on the fragments of rock, on the floor, forming stalagmites. The surface of this stalactitie crust is rough, and, where thickest, it rises into numerous blunt mammillary processes. In the siliceous portions, these precesses acquire a degree of hardness, translucency, and smoothness of surface, approach- 312 Rev. Mr Whewell’s General Method of calculating ing to caleedony. When they are steeped in an acid, they part with the calcareous matter, and the macerated remnant intimates by its appearance that the two substances occurred in alternate layers; the calcedony, however, prevailing towards the surface. ? The specimens now exhibited will serve to give a correct idea of the nature of this incrustation, and furnish evidence of its recent origin, since it invests even the loose. fragments of the rock. We know the Neptunian origin of calcareous sta- lactites ; and here they occur alternating with those in which silica predominates. Need we hesitate, then, to conclude that the calcareous and siliceous ingredients were suspended in the same menstruum, and deposited under similar circumstances ? We may conjecture that the water was aided by heat, by al- kalies, or by carbonic acid or carburetted hydrogen, render- ed powerful by compression ; but these are mere mental ef- forts to avoid a conclusion which the circumstances of the case justify, but which militates against our theoretical preju- dices. Manse oF FL isx, 22d February 1825. Art. XXV.—WNotice of the Rev. W. WuetweEtt’s General Method of calculating the Angles made by any Planes of Crystals, and the Laws aecording to which they are formed.* Tue object of Mr Whewell’s inquiry was to obtain a new system of notation for expressing the planes of a crystal, and their laws of decrement, and to reduce the mathematical part of crystallography to a few simple formule of universal appli- cation. ‘The author proposes to represent each plane of a crystal by a symbol indicative of the laws from which it re- sults, which, by varying only its indices, may be made to re- * This Notice is composed of an abstract of Mr Whewell’s paper, as read before the Royal Society on the 25th November 1824, and published in the Journal of Science, No. XXXVI. and of a short notice of the For- mule themselves, which Mr Whewell was so good as to send us at our re- quest.— Ep. ie the Angles formed by any Planes of Crystals. 313 present any law, and by means of which, and of the primary angles of the substance, a general formula may be derived, expressing the dihedral angle between any one plane result- ing from crystalline laws, and any other. The angle contain- ed between any two edges of the derived crystals, may also be found inthe same manner; and conversely, having given the plane, or dihedral angles of any crystal, and its primary form, the laws of decrement according to which it is consti- tuted may be deduced by a direct and general process. The mathematical part of this paper depends on two for- mulze, by one of which the dihedral angle included between any two planes can be calculated, when the equations of both planes are given; and by the other, the plane angle included between any two given right lines can, in like manner, be ex- pressed by assigned functions of the co-efficient of the equa- tion supposed given. ‘These formule being taken for grant- ed, it remains to express, by algebraical equations, the planes which result from any assigned laws of decrement for the dif- ferent primitive forms. For this purpose, the author assumes one of the angles of the primitive form supposed in the first case a rhomboid, as the origin of three co-ordinates respective- ly, parallel to its edges, and supposes any secondary face to arise from a decrement on this angle, by the subtraction of any number of molecules on each of its three edges. It is demonstrated, first, that the equation of the plane arising from this decrement will be such, that the co-efficients of the three co-ordinates in it (when reduced to its simplest form) will be the reciprocals of the numbers of molecules subtracted on the edges to which they correspond. If the constant part of this equation be zero, the faces will pass through the origin of the co-ordinates; if not, a face paralle] to it may be conceived passing through such origin, and will have the same angles of incidence, &c. on all the other faces of the crystal,—so that all our reasonings may be confined to planes passing through the origin of the co-ordi- nates. In order to represent any face, Mr Whewell encloses be- tween parentheses the reciprocal co-efficients of the three co- ordinates of its equations, with semicolons between them. 314, Rev. Mr Whewell’s General Method of calculating He then shews how truncations on the edges and angles of the primitive form are represented in this notation, by one or more of the elements of which the symbol consists becoming zero, or negative, thus comprehending all cases which can oc- cur in one uniform analysis. The law of symmetry in crystallography, requires that si- milar angles and edges of the primitive form should be modi- fied similarly, to produce a perfect secondary crystal. This gives rise to co-existent planes. In the rhomboid, three co-existent planes are formed by simple permutation of the elements of the symbol, one among another. In the prism, such only must be permitted as re- late to similar edges. In other primitive forms, such as the tetraedron, Mr Whewell institutes a particular inquiry into the decrements of the co-existent planes which truncate the different angles of the primitive form, as referred to that particular angle which he assumes as the origin of the co-ordinates. In this latter case it follows, from the analysis, that each of the ele- ments of the symbol must be combined with its excess over each of the remaining two, to form a new symbol. This gives four symbols, each susceptible of six permutations, mak- ing in all twenty-four faces. Mr Whewell then considers a variety of other cases, and treats of the order in which the faces lie in a perfect crystal, and the determination of such faces as are adjacent, or other- wise. Lastly, he investigates the angles made by edges of the secondary form. The following formule may be used for calculating the angles made by any secondary faces of a crystal, when the law of its derivation from the primary is known; and con- versely, for determining the law of formation when the angles of the secondary form are given. Let any solid angle, contained by three plane angles of the primary form, be considered as the origin of our measure- ment ; let a, y, x be the three edges, formed by the meeting of the three planes. Let any secondary plane, cut off from ®, Y, 2, lines of which the reciprocals are p, q, 7, respectively. the Angles formed by any Planes of Crystals. 315 This plane may be represented by (p:q;7). And another plane for which the corresponding quantities are p', q’, 7’, will be represented by (p’ ; q'; 7’). Let the dihedral angles at the lines, x, y, 2, respectively, be ¢, 8, 7; and let ¢ be the angle contained by the planes (p ; g; 7) and (p"; q'; 7"), then we shall have, im all cases, aa pp'+9q'+rr'—(pq'+p'q) cos y— ( pri+p'r) cos 8—(gr!+q'r) cosa J {(p?+9?+7°?—2pq cos y—2pr cos 8—2gr vos «) ( p'? 4 &c.)} The second factor of the denominator differing from the first, in having p’, q’, 7’ instead of p, g, 7- Thus, if the primary form be a rhomb, we shall have y=8=z«: and if planes be derived from the same law operating upon different edges of the rhomb, the planes will be (p; g: 7), (p37; 9), (9; 7; p), &c. the result will be a bipyramidal do- decahedron, and the alternate dihedral angles ¢, é’, at the edges of the pyramids, will be given by the formule rane pet 2qr—(q?+r?+ 2pq+2pr) cos a | — p?+¢q?+r?—2( pg+pr + qr) cos « céare _ 2pq+r—( p?+94°+2pr-+2qr) cos a pe +g+r-—2(pq+pr+qr) cos « If the secondary plane, instead of being derived by trun- cating the angle which is the origin, be parallel to the trun- cation of some other solid primary form, some of the quantities p; 4 7 will be negative, and the formule will still be appli- cable. If the secondary plane be parallel to the truncation of an edge of the primary, as, for instance, the edge 2, the cor- responding index p will be 0. Thus, (0 ; g; 7) represents a plane replacing one of the superior edges of the rhomb; and (0 ;q;—r) represents a plane replacing one of the lateral edges. The same formula is equally applicable to the other pri- mary forms besides the rhomb; and the reference of the secondary planes of these forms to one of the angles as the origin, is capable of being rendered very simple. 316 Rev. Mr Somerville’s Methods of Preventing the Art. XXVI.—On the Methods of Preventing the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms, Invented by the Rev. J. SomEr- VILLE, Minister of Currie, Communicated by the Author. Tue principle of these methods of preventing accidental dis- charge consists in calling in the aid of the left hand ; so that, while the ordinary gun in common use can be fired off solely by the action of the right hand, Mr Somerville’s gun requires both ; the left hand to undo the stop, slide, or catch, by which the gun is locked, and the other to draw the trigger, the same as in an ordinary g gun; the left hand being Eeimily necessary to work the gun in the field as the right. ‘The principle now described may be varied to a great ex- tent; but the inventor confines himself at present to the de- scription of the two following methods. The first method, shown in Plate IV. Fig. 7, prevents ac- cidental discharge by means of a stop, slide, or catch, situate on the surface of the trigger plate, and either lying on or bedded into it, as the gunmaker or sportsman pleases. It is pressed for- ward into a nthe in the trigger by a spring situate behind them, under the strap of the Pl and thereby prevents the trigger from acting, or pressing by any accident on the seer of the lock, by which the gun would be discharged. On the fore part of the guard, where the left hand presses, is a moveable part, called a key, which may be removed at pleasure, and operates upon the stop in the act of discharging the gun. When this key is removed, the gun cannot be ised until it is replaced. If the sportsman fires with the left hand forward on the stock of the gun, instead of being on the guard, then the key can be placed forward to any part of the fore-stock ; and in that case, the end of the stop towards the left hand must run forward to that part of the stock, and there receive the key. This key, which may also be of any form or size, is also re- moveable at pleasure. The second method (see Plate IV. Fig. 8.) prevents acci- dental discharge by means of a peg Bh wel into the end of the main-spring, next the swivel, or into the swivel itself. ‘The Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. 317 peg may be also solid, that is, a part of the swivel itself, the end of the swivel being lengthened, and shaped into the form of a peg. This peg, when the gun is fired, passes down through a hole or opening towards the trigger-plate of the gun. The gun is prevented from being discharged by meats of a slide, opening and shutting the hole at pleasure, through which the peg descends when the gun is fired. This slide is pressed forward into the hole or opening through which the peg passes in a similar way to the one just now mentioned in ‘the foregoing method. When the gun is fired, the left hand, by a gentle pressure, throws back the slide, and thus lays open the hole in the stock and trigger-plate, and allows the peg to pass downward, and, of course, the main-spring to traverse its full distance. Keys are fixed upon, and removeable at plea- sure, from this gun, the same as in the former method just described. The first advantage which this gun possesses over the ordi- nary gun is the complete security which it affords against ac- cidental discharge, and the consequent preservation of human life. This is the grand object of the present contrivance. Its other advantages are all subordinate to this. It is not without reason that writers have cautioned sports- men about the danger of fire-arms, and that the anxiety of pa- rents has been awakened by the risk their sons run in the use of them. The waste of human life by the accidental discharge of fire-arms is truly deplorable. Not only every season, but almost every week of every season, brings us accounts of the most valuable lives being lost in this way. The inventor, within the space of little more than a year, the time when he first began to notice such accidents, has marked, within the narrow limits of his own observation, no less than sixteen or eighteen lives lost by the accidental discharge of fowling-pieces. The death of a fine youth of eighteen, the eldest son of his family, and belonging to his own parish, occasioned in this way, and accompanied with the most tragical circumstances, first led the inventor to think of this subject ; and since that time he has been in the habit of marking similar occurrences. He may state it as a fact, that, at an average, there is not less than from twenty to thirty lives, throughout Great Britain and 318 Rev. Mr Somerville’s Methods of Preventing the Ireland, lost every year in this way, besides far more than that number maimed and wounded. Against such fatalities the gun now described presents the most absolute security. Acciden- tal discharge with it is completely out of the question ; at least, the probability of it is so small, as to be beyond the reach of calculation. If accidental pressure shall touch the triggers, no evil happens, because they are locked ; if it touches the key, no evil happens, because the pressure, by that time, is sup- posed to be removed from the triggers. The pressure must be against the triggers and on the key at the same instant of time, otherwise the locks will not work. If the triggers are touched the twinkling of an eye before the key, or the key be- fore the triggers, then no evil can ensue; for, unless touched at the same instant of time, they mutually support. and coun- teract one another, and thus prevent the gun from going off. Accident may touch the key and the triggers of this gun, as well as any other; but then accident cannot touch both key and triggers at the same instant of time. Design only can touch ¢wo specific points at one specific time. If accident does touch the key and triggers of this gun, it must be in succes- sion ; but successive touching will not fire the gun. It must be simultaneous to do it; but this supposes thought, and thought supposes design. The inspection of the gun or the fi- gure will make this more palpable than any words can ; and to them we refer to confirm what has been said. The second advantage which this gun possesses over the or- dinary fowling-piece is superior dispatch, as it allows the sportsman always to go with the wtmost security, with his gun full cocked, and, of course, saves the time of cocking the gun when game rises unexpectedly. So sensible are sportsmen of the advantage of having their fowling-pieces always full cock- ed, that the writer knows some of them who always go with their guns so prepared, though at the risk both of their own and the lives of their friends. The present invention, how- -ever, renders this practice not only harmless, but adviseable and advantageous, as it thus unites the greatest dispatch with the most perfect security. The third advantage which this gun enjoys over others is the ease and tranquillity of mind, which it necessarily imparts, 4 Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. 319 not only to the sportsman himself, but to his friends, parents, relations, and guardians at home. No man of ordinary feel- ing can be perfectly at ease, surrounded by his friends, with a loaded gun in his hand, leaping walls, crossing ditches, brush- ing through thickets, underwood, and hedges, when, all the while, the life of his friends is within the reach of a mortal weapon, and the danger of that weapon guarded against only by the fallaciousness of memory; and the risk increased ten- fold by the eagerness of pursuit, and the suspension of thought necessarily occasioned by a species of amusement, which, more than any other, lays caution asleep, and occasions that flutter and hurry of spirits, from which such fatal accidents general- ly spring. Many a melancholy fact attests the truth of this remark. Even the most cautious man living, in the eagerness of pursuit, and the hurry of the moment, is sometimes off his guard; and, with the young and inexperienced sportsman, this is the case to an extent, which those accustomed to such pursuits only can know. Now, this gun will tend most effec- tually to allay all anxiety arising from such causes, and thus put the sportsman in the most favourable state, both for en- joying his amusement, and doing execution; as coolness and ease of mind are essentially necessary to do so with success. The fourth advantage which this gun possesses over the or- dinary gun is the safety which one of the modes of it gives to the left hand, in case the gun should burst. All good writers on the subject of shooting strongly recommend the sportsman to press the gun to his shoulder with the left hand close upon the forepart of the bow of the guard. Notwithstanding, this caution and advice are frequently neglected, and the iacera- tion or loss of many a left hand, by the bursting of the barrel, has taught the sportsman the folly of doing so. With the or- dinary guu, indeed, a man may fire with his Jeft hand close to the guard, and thus preserve it: with one of the modes, on which this is constructed, he must do so, for there the safety- spring is placed, and until it is touched, the locks are immove- able. Both on this point, and on the danger connected with the use of the ordinary gun, the writer begs leave to quote an an- thority, which will not be disputed. $20 Rev. Mr Someryille’s Methods of Preventing the Daniel, in his valuable work on Rural Sports, has the fol- _lowing observations on these subjects: ‘* In shooting with a stranger,” says he, ‘‘ who perhaps keeps his gun cocked, and _the muzzle usually pointed, to the left, plead for the right- hand station, and that you cannot hit a bird flying to the left ; with a game-keeper take the right hand without ceremony. In getting over a fence, constantly endeavour to go last, not- withstanding the usual assurance of, My dear Sir, I am al- ways remarkably careful: and if a person beats bushes with a cocked gun, get out of his company, as a shooter, with all possible expedition. «* Always,” continues he, “ hold the gun with the left hand close to the guard, (and not forward upon the barrel, to strong- ly grasp it near the entrance of the ramrod, notwithstanding it has been so strenuously recommended ;) all the requisite steadiness in taking aim, and even of motion, in traversing the flight of a bird, can be obtained by thus holding the heaviest pieces; and in case of a barrel’s bursting, the certainty of hay- ing a hand or arm shattered, by grasping the barrel, is redu- ced to a chance of escaping the effects of such an accident, by placing the hand close to the guard beneath it.” The fifth advantage aah etn the writer now states is, that 4 thinks a steadier aim can be taken. by his mode of holding the gun, than in the ordinary way. He is convinced that one great cause of bad shooting is occasioned by grasping the gun too firmly with the right hand, or giving the right hand too much to do in the act of firing. The more easy the right hand holds the gun, and the less it has to do, with the greater precision it will act upon the triggers at the proper time. The right hand, therefore, should hold the gun very loosely, and have only one thing to do, namely, to pull the trigger, when the gun comes into the proper position to be discharged. Now; the gun we are here considering admits of ‘this to the fullest extent. With it the left hand should do as it were the whole work, except, pulling the trigger. The safety-spring being worked solely by the left hand, it should press the gun firmly. to the shoulder, by which the safety-spring will be un- locked, and thus leave the right hand at perfect freedom, and with nothing to do, but merely to touch the trigger, when the ; Mr Ritchie on Leslie’s Photometer. 821 gun comes into the proper position to be fired. ‘Thus, by giving the left hand more to do, than in the ordinary gun, and therefore proportionally easing the nght hand, the writer thinks, the gun will be held more steadily to the shoulder, a surer aim be taken, and greater execution done, than with the gun in common use, and in the ordinary mode of firing. Lastly, a loaded gun may be rendered perfectly safe, when lying in a house, or entrusted to servants, or in the hands of ignorant persons, by merely taking off the key; for then the machinery that works the locks cannot be reached, and conse- quently the gun cannot be discharged.* Manse of Currie, 28th Feb. 1825. Arr. XXVII.—On Leshe’s Photometer, and its application to determine the relative Intensity of the Sun’s Rays, and the Illuminating Powers of Coal and Oil Gas. By Wit1am Rirecnte, A. M. Rector of the Academy at Tain. Com- municated by the Author. ‘Tue differential photometer of Professor Leslie has lately ex- cited so much discussion, and has been so much the subject of conversation, that a fair and impartial account of its merits and defects cannot fail to be acceptable to the generali- ty of readers. Those who defend the accuracy of the instru- ment are so lavish in its praise, that we may fairly conclude they have neither carefully examined the principles on which it is founded, nor the inaccuracies to which it is evidently lia- ble. Those, on the contrary, who espouse the opposite side of the question, are so liberal in their condemnation of it, that we are led to suspect they have exaggerated its defects. At * All guns, new and old, single and double, flint and percussion, are, at a small expence, susceptible of this improvement ; and various speci- mens of them, so fitted up, may be seen at Mr William Maclachlan’s, gun-maker, No. 39, Nicholson’s Street, and at Mr John Thomson’s, gun- maker, No. 3, South St Andrew’s Street, Edinburgh, agents for the in- ventor. For England any farther information will be given on this subject, by Mr Robert Wheeler, gun-manufacturer, Birmingham, who has made arrangements with the patentee, both for fitting up guns on this principle, as well as supplying the trade in England. VOL Il. No. Il. APRIL 1825. ¥ $22 Mr Ritchie on Leslic’s Photometer: such a distance from the scene of action, I cannot be suspect- ed of partiality to either party, and shall, therefore, calmly express my conviction of the truth, without the least appre- hension of giving offence to Mr Leslie, whose love of philo- sophic truth is so ardent, that I am convinced he will be the first to acknowledge the justice of the following observations, or to point out die errors into which I may have fallen. The photometer is merely a differential thermometer, hav- ing one of its balls blown of black enamel, while the other is blown as thin and transparent as possible. The whole is then inclosed in a transparent glass case. The black ball intercepts the greater portion of incident light, whilst the transparent one allows the greatest part to pass freely through. The light which is thus intercepted by the black ball, is gradually conducted to the interior, and thus expands the contained air. As the black ball is placed considerably above the transparent one, (in the portable photometer,) the ambient air will con- tinue to receive fresh accessions of heat, till the expendi- ture from the exterior surface of the glass is equal to the in- crement of light which the black ball intercepts. Now, as this quantity is partly carried off by radiation, and by the conducting and carrying powers of the air, it must vary with the surrounding sky, an with the density of the atmosphere, &c. A cold sweeping wind has also a powerful effect in car- rying off the accumulated store of heat. These causes are so variable, that though the sun were to shine constantly with the same splendour, and remain in the same situation, the in- dications of the photometer would be extremely various. To be convinced of this, place the photometer opposite the sun, in a calm sheltered situation, and then remove it quickly to an elevated place, where it is exposed to a chilly wind from the north, and the number of degrees will be found to be less than formerly, even though the sun continued to shine with un- clouded aspect. But, the instrument, when applied to measure the intensity of the sun’s rays, is subject to another inaccu- racy, which must have considerable influence in changing the result. The reflected light from the clouds and from the earth, mingles its effect with the direct radiation from the sun, so that we can deduce no conclusion whatever from the indi- Mr Ritchie on Lestie’s Photometer. $23 cations of the instrument under so many obstructing causes. Mr Leslie, with his usual ingenuity, has endeavoured to re- move some of these disturbing causes, particularly the reflec- tion of light from the surface of the earth; but, though this may be removed, the others remain in full force, and exert a powerful influence. Without making, therefore, a proper al- lowance for these obstructing causes, the indications of the photometer do not afford even an approximation to the rela- tive intensity of the solar rays at different periods and in dif- ferent situations. It has lately been made a question, whether the photometer is acted upon by mere heat, unaccompanied with light. Both experiment and reasoning concur to prove, that mere heat can have no influence whatever upon it, unless that heat move with a velocity sufficient to permeate the glass case by which it is surrounded.* If the instrument be placed opposite a ball of iron heated almost to redness, no effect whatever will be produced ;+ but, if the temperature of the ball be raised so as to shine in the dark with a dusky red colour, the fluid in the stem of the black ball will sink a considerable number of de- grees. If the temperature of the ball be raised still higher, it will produce a greater effect upon the instrument than the flame of the finest oil-gas, though the one possesses a much greater illuminating power than the other. * The opinion here expressed by Mr Ritchie, is in direct opposition to the experimental results of Delaroche and Berard, (recently confirmed by Dr Turner and Dr Christison,) which have been almost universally ad~ mitted by philosophers. ‘The Rev. Baden Powell, F. R.S. has still more recently found, that the heat of luminous bodies, when intercepted by a pane of glass, is separated into two portions, one of which is absorbed by the screen, and the other transmitted, and that these two portions differ in their properties, the heat absorbed being always equally absorbable by black and white surfaces, while the heat transmitted is more easily absorbed by black than white surfaces.—Ep. {+ Dr Turner and Dr Christison, have demonstrated by direct experi- ments, which we, and many others have seen, that Mr Leslie’s photome- ter “‘ is powerfully affected by heat,” when placed “ before a ball of iron heated, so as not to be luminous, or even before a vessel of boiling water.”’ As Mr Ritchie has found the very reverse of this to be the case, we “may conclude, that an instrument which, in such hands, gives such op- posite results, cannot deserve much confidence.—Ep. 324 Mr Ritchie on Leslie’s Photometer. In the late discussions with regard to the relative values of coal and oil-gas, those who Hike employed Mr Leslie’s pho- tometer, seem to have overlooked the distinction between the terms Quantity of Light and Illuminating’ Power. By the former term, I would be understood to mean the number of atoms of light shooting out simultaneously from two luminous sources ; ne the latter, the power which these atoms possess of rendering external objects visible. The ratio of the former may be determined by a photometer founded on the expan- sion of air by its combination with light. The ratio of the latter cannot be determined by any method which does not employ the indications of the extremely delicate photoscope, the eye, as one of the elements in the calculation. The method which Mr Leslie has proposed, evidently de- pends on the assumed principle, that the illuminating power is proportional to the quantity of light. This principle, from a very simple method, which I have lately employed for de- termining the illuminating powers of different flames, I find to be quite unfounded. When the colours of the flames are nearly the same, the illuminating powers will then be nearly proportional to the quantities of iat but when the colours are different, the illuminating power of the most brilliant light, imereases in a much higher ratio than the mere quantity of light. Mr Leslhie’s method must, therefore, give results very unfavourable to the illuminating power of oil-gas, when com- pared with that of ordinary dial eae But, as mere reasoning can never determine a question in physical science, unless that reasoning be founded on accurate experiment, I had recourse to the following experiment, which seems to put the matter beyond the possibility of doubt. I made a quantity of oil-gas of the very best quality, and an equal quantity of coal-gas, of an inferior quality, and not well purified. The one burned with a bluish flame, surrounded by ared fringe. The other threw out a torrent of white bril- liant light. By Mr Leslie’s method, the ratio turned out as one to five, though the one did not possess one-twentieth part of the illuminating power of the other. I have thus taken the qua- lities of the two gases very different, in order to shew more clearly the fallacy of the method in extreme cases, as it is more ) Mr Haidinger’s Notice respecting T'rona. 325 difficult to detect the error, which becomes small, when the coal-gas is of the best quality and highly purified. ‘The me- thod of Count Rumford, is equally false with that which I have now examined, particularly when the colours of the flames are different, as it will be found quite impossible to bring the shadows to the same density or even the same colour at any distance whatever. The celebrated question which has of late agitated not only the philosophical, but even the com- mercial world, has not yet received a solution sufficiently ac- curate to command the assent not only of the impartial ob- server, but even that of rival companies. XXVITI.— Notice respecting Trona, the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezzan. By Witiiam Harpincer, Esq. F. R.S. Edin. Communicated by the Author. Ix order to establish the grounds upon which I believe the present notice not to be without interest to mineralogists, I shall previously give the description of Trona itself, and of the two species of hemiprismatic and prismatic Natron-salt, the two latter as contained in Professor Moh’s Treatise on Mineralogy,* before entering upon those observations, which will naturally offer themselves in the course of comparing these species with each other. 1. T'rona. Hemiprismatic crystals observed similar to Plate VIII. Fig. 5, of which Fig. 6 is a projection upon a plane perpen- dicular to M and T. Inclination of » on » = 132° 30. of Mon T — 103° 15’. of non JT' = 103° 45’. These angles were taken with the reflective goniometer, but particularly the last of them will perhaps allow of some cor- rections, if in future better crystals should be obtained. The angle a, b, c, at which, in the projection, Fig. 6, the edge be- tween n and n is inclined towards the face 7', was valued at about 62° by the assistance of the common goniometer. There * Translation, vol. ii. p. 27 and 29. 326 Mr Haidinger’s- Notice respecting Trona, 1s also a rough face, replacing the obtuse edge between M and T, the inclination of which, however, I could not ascer- tain. Cleavage highly perfect, and easily obtained parallel to M; faint traces also parallel to m and J. Fracture uneven. Sur- face of n and M smooth, of 7' generally striated in a horizon- tal direction, or parallel to its edges of combination with 7’. Lustre vitreous. Colour white, occasionally inclining to yellowish grey, when impure. Streak white. Transparent, perfectly so in minute crystals; the larger masses translucent. The index of ordinary refraction, measured through the faces M and T, is about 1.43; that of the extraordinary one mea- sured in the same plane about 1.52; the two images are fine- ly separated. Rather brittle. Hardness = 2.5...2.75, very near that of alum, though.a little superior to it. Sp. gr. = 2.112. Taste pungent, alkaline. . Compound Varieties—Crystalline coats, consisting of nu- merous crystals fixed to the support in the place of the edges between m and n, and lengthened between M and T’, generally thin, and nearly parallel, so as to produce a very distinct ra- diated fracture. 2. Hemiprismatic Natron-salt. Hemiprismatic. P= { 70) 11, \, 154° 81’, 115° 2%. In- clination of the axis — 3° 0’, in the plane of the long diagonal. Fig. 7. Refl. Gon. aib:c:d—19.10 : $4.72 :-13.67:: 11. . 2 P Simple forms: 2 (P) = (9.4K; 4 (t)) = 58° sas (Pr + 0)? (M) = 76° 28); Pr+o (r); Pr+@ (J). Combinations. 1. = (Pr+o)?. Pr4o. Fig. 8. Pr P 2 = D) = ‘ oo. a. PERO) nFr ot @ . Pr +o. Fig. 9. _. Cleavage distinct, parallel to, imperfect parallel to/, traces of M. Fracture conchoidal. Surface smooth and even. 11 the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezzan. 327 » Lustre vitreous. Colovr white, when pure. Streak white. Semitransparent. (Even very small crystals possess lower de- grees of transparency than crystals of Glauber-salt of the same size.) ; , Sectile. Hardness= 1.0...1.5. Sp. gr. — 1.423. Taste pungent, alkaline. Compound Varieties.—Several imitative shapes: composi- tion columnar. Massive: composition granular. Individuals large, generally obtained by the assistance of art, as also the crystals themselves. It occurs in nature in a decomposed state, reduced to powder by the loss of its water. 3. Prismatic Natron-salt. Prismatic. P = 141° 48’, 52° 9, 145° 52 Fig. 10. Ap. a: bic=1: J 0.806: 4 0.107. Simple forms. P—w; P(P); (Pr + 0 )> (d)—107°50'; Pr—1=121° 46; Pr (0) = 83°50’; Pr+oa (p).- Combinations. 1. Pr. (Pr + 0)°.Pr4o. Fig. 11. 2. Pr.P.(Pr+o).Pr+o. Fig. 12. Cleavage very imperfect ; traces parallel to p; much inter- rupted by fracture, which is small conchoidal. Surface ge- nerally smooth. P— o streaked pallet to its edges of com- bination with Pr. Lustre vitreous, more bright upon p; the horizontal prisms being sometimes dull. Colour white; sometimes yellowish. Streak white. Transparent... semitransparent. Sectile. Hardness = 1.5, Sp. gr. = 1.562. Taste pun- gent, alkaline. Observations. As it has always been the custom in mineralogy to quote Pliny when treating of soda, it may be observed here, that the Nitrum of the ancients, generally allowed to be our soda, which was found in the vicinity of Naticratis and Memphis, in Egypt, may be Trona, because lapidescit ibi in acervis : multique sunt tumult ea de causa saxet ;* in the same way, as we find * Plin- Hist. Nat. lib. xxxi. cap. x. vol: iii. p. 985. Elzey- 1635- 325 Mr Haidinger’s Notice respecting T'rona, in the mineralogical works of the present day, that the natrum from the lakes in Egypt, is sufficiently hard and compact to allow walls to be constructed of it, as in a fort, near the Na- trum Lakes, called Qasrr or Cassr, which is now ahandoned.* But, as this is ascribed to an admixture of muriate of soda, and may be ascribed to a similar admixture in Pliny, it does not form an undoubted synonym of the species. Yet the co- incidence of the accounts of this author, of houses being built of salt by the Hammanientes,+ the Amantes of Solinus,} a nation carrying on trade with the Troglodytes, with the ex- istence of a fort built of soda, is remarkable enough. Be- sides, Pliny comprises many substances under the name of nitrum, which are essentially different ; Dr Kidd has already observed,§ that some of the Egyptian nitrum, which calce as- persum reddit odorem vehementem, must be sal ammoniac, and that often it means also our nitre. It appears that all the efflorescent salts were called nitrum, comprehending sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, and others; nay, the passage in Pliny, nam quercu cremaia nunquam mulium factitatum est, et jampridem in totum omisswm, seems also to include pot- ash, though this is likewise enumerated among the methods of obtaining salt, guercus optima, ut quae per se cinere syncero vim salis reddat. if Among the modern authors, the earliest, and at the same time one of the most detailed accounts was given by Dr Donald Monro, || the first who pointed out, that the pure native crystallised natron occurred in some of the inland parts of Tripoli in Barbary. The salt is there stated to « yun in thin veins, of about half an inch, or a little more, thick in a bed of sea-salt; for all of it that has hitherto been imported into this country, is covered with sea-salt on each side. ‘The one side is always smoother than the other, and appears as if it had been the basis on which it rested ; the other, which should seem to be the upper side, is rougher, by the shooting of the crystals. “The pieces of the thin veins ap- pear almost as if the salt had been dissolyed in water, and af- * Klaproth’s Essays, vol. ii. p. 62. + Cap. xxx. + Libr. v. cap. v. vol. i. p. 251. § Outlines of Mineralogy, yol. ii. p. 6. || PAzl. Trans. 1773, p- 567- the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezzan. 329 terwards boiled up into thin crystallized cakes, only that the crystals are much smaller, and in a manner that cannot be ea- sily imitated by art; for when this salt is dissolved and eva- porated to a pellicle, and left to erystallize, it always, shoots into crystals resembling those of glauber-salt.” Another account was published by Mr Bragge,* Swedish consul at Tripoli; it is from his notice that more generally the indications in the works on mineralogy are taken. According to Mr Bragge, the “ native country of this soda, there called Trona, is the province Sukena, two journeys distant from Fez- zan. It is found at the foot of a rock mountain, upon the surface of the earth, at no greater depth than that of an inch, and as to breadth mostly that of the back of a knife’s blade. It occurs always crystallized ; on the fracture it exhibits con- crete, oblong, parallel, and sometimes striated crystals; thus resembling crude or unburnt gypsum.”+ He states, more- over, that it is found twenty-eight days journey from the sea coast, where the salt mines are, and that it is not contaminated with common salt. Large quantities are exported to the coun- try of the Negroes and to Egypt, besides 50 tons annually which are brought to Tripoli. The description given by Klaproth himself is confined to the statement that he examined ‘crystalline incrustations, from one-third to half an inch thick, of accumulated parallel plates, standing on their smaller edges, and of a lamellar striated tex- ture.” The systematic works on Mineralogy contain little farther information on this subject. Some have distinguished Trona as a particular sub-species, but the greater part include it in one species with the hemi-prismatic natron-salt, according to the principle that they both essentially consist of carbonate of soda. From the treatises on geography we learn that there is a parti- cular district of Fezzan, called Mendrah, with a hard and barren soil, but which has a commercial importance for the quantity of trona, a species of fossil alkali, which floats on the surface, * Vetensk. Acad. Handlingar, 1773, p. 140. + Klaproth’s Essays, vol, ii. p. 63. 330 ‘Mr. Haidinger’s Notice respecting T'rona g if ’ and settles on the banks of numerous smoking lakes. Great quantities of it are brought by the merchants of Fezzan to be shipped at Tripoli. It is used in Morocco as an ingredient in the red dye of the leather, and in other manufactures. It forms part of the domains of the crown.* The difference between the chemical composition of the two substances, though evident in itself at the time when it was discovered, has only of late received a rule in the doc- trine of fixed proportions, and becomes doubly interesting when compared in this point of view. The analysis of hemi- prismatic natron-salt, by Klaproth, gives Soda, - : - 22.00 Carbonic acid, - 16.00 Water, - - 62.00 The formula by Berzelius, Na C2420 Aq., making use at the same time of his numbers, gives this proportion : Soda, - - 21.77 Carbonic acid, - 15-33 Water, ~ - 62.90 The results of the analysis of Trona, by Klaproth, and of an analysis by Mariano de Rivero,+ instituted with a native carbonate of soda, from the Lake of Merida, in Columbia, are the following : Fezzan. Columbia. Soda, ‘ f 37-00 41.22 Carbonic acid, - 38.00 39.00 Water, - - 22.50 18.80 The 2.5 per cent. of sulphate of soda, in the analysis by Klaproth, not being considered as essential, the first of these results agrees very nearly with the formula, Na C544 Aq: or, Soda, - = 37.99 Carbonic acid, - 40.15 Water, - . 21.86 particularly, if we suppose that a small portion of the water * Playfair’s Geography, vol. vi. p. 167. Horneman’s Travels in Africa t Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xi- p. 215. ocr the native Carbonate of Soda. from Fezzan 331 was united to the sulphate of soda; while in the analysis by Mr Rivero, the proportion of soda isa little larger than the for- mula would require. Klaproth observed, that it does not, like the common crys- tals, dissolve in its water, but that it retains its form, though it be exposed to a moderate red heat. It gives off the water with a crackling noise, if exposed in a glass tube to the spirit- lamp. It is much more difficultly soluble in water than the hemi-prismatic, or also the prismatic natron-salt ; also its taste , is less intensely alkaline. It does not like them give off its water of crystallization when exposed to the air; and it may be preserved for any length of time unchanged in an atmos- phere, rendered perfectly dry by the contact of lime. The chemical difference of the prismatic natron-salt and the hemi-prismatic species, if any, probably lies in the quantity of water which they contain, but it has not as yet been ascertain- ed. They were first distinguished from each other as parti- cular species in the first volume of the Grundriss der Minera- logie, by Professor Mohs, p. 526; the hemi-prismatic form of one of the species has also been recognised by Messrs Brooke and Levy. They may be both easily obtained from a solu- tion of carbonate of soda. If this solution be perfectly satu- rated, and exposed to a farther evaporation, at a temperature of about 80°—100° Fahr., beautiful crystals of the prismatic species will be formed, whilst a less saturated solution will pro- duce hemi-prismatic crystals at a lower temperature, or if cool- ed more rapidly. By recrystallizing under different cireum- stances, the crystals of the two species may be easily trans- formed into one another. A solution of the supercarbonate of soda of the Edinburgh Pharmacopeeia, exposed to a slow evaporation, yields small transparent crystals, possessing a hemiprismatic character. But they effloresce very readily, and though they seem to be different from those of any of the preceding species, I have not yet succeeded in obtaining them large enough for examina- tion. It is not a quite uncommon case, that mineral species which have once been described as such, or at least mentioned in works relating to the science, are subsequently neglected by 332 Dr Brewster’s Description of Levyne, those, whose care in constructing treatises on mineralogy should be to prevent information we are already in possession of, from perishing. Very frequently, indeed, they may be excused for having followed that course, when the description given was so indeterminate, that no remarkable points of difference from other species could be deduced from them, or when no de- scription at all was given. Trona has been very much in this situation. I have been indebted to Dr Hope for the specimens which have enabled me to ascertain some of its characters, and so far to supply the defects in the former descriptions, that it may in future be considered as a particular mineral species. The difference between the common carbonate of soda (the hemi-prismatic natron-salt of the method of Mohs) and the Trona of Fezzan, had already been pointed out by Klaproth ; but it seems that even the chemical mineralogists have not paid that degree of attention to his correct determination which it deserves, be- cause there was yet wanting the exact statement of those characters, which it possesses in its natural state, and upon which alone the determination of the species can be founded. Art. XXIX.—Description of Levyne, a New Mineral Spe- cies. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R.S. Edinburgh. Tue mineral of which I propose to give a brief description, was kindly transmitted to me for examination about a year ago, by Mr Heuland. In the memorandum which accom- panied it, Mr Heuland stated that he suspected it to be new, and upon examining its optical properties, and comparing it with those minerals with which it seemed to be most closely allied, I had no doubt that it constituted a new and interest- ing species. This mineral occurs in the cavities of an amygdaloidal rock, from Dalsnypen, in Faroe, and sometimes accompanies the Chabasie and Analcime, but particularly a new orga of the Heulandite. a New Mineral Species. 333 Although this mineral is evidently a compound one from the distinctness of the re-entering angles, yet this composition is not seen when examined by polarised light, through the faces perpendicular to the axis. This circumstance would of itself have been sufficient to show that it has only one axis of double refraction, but I determined this to be the case, by the direct examination of the polarised rings. Its double refraction is negative, like that of calcareous spar, and other obtuse rhomboids, and though not great, yet the images may be easi- ly separated. Its ordinary refraction is a little greater than that of almond oil, and very nearly the same as that of Pri- mitive Chabasie. I have sent a specimen, containing a few minute crystals of this substance, to M. Berzelius for analysis, but I have not yet received the results which he has obtained from them, It is not soluble in acids, nor does it gelatinise with them. It whitens and intumesces with heat like Chabasie and Meso- type, and, according to Mr Haidinger’s observations, it yields with salt of phosphorus a transparent globule, which contains a skeleton of silica, and becomes opaque on cooling. For the following crystallographic observations I have been indebted to Mr Haidinger. Rhombohedral. R=79° 29’. ; a= / 8.38. Simple forms. R— » (0); R—1(g)= 106° ¥; R oles bt 1.(n)— 70°71. Character of Combination. Rhombohedral. Combination. R— oo. R—I1. R. Fig. 4. of Plate VIII. represents two individuals composed parallelto R— ao, the individuals being continued beyond the face of composi- tion, as in Chabasie. Inclination of 0 on g@ = 186° 1’, of o on P = 117° 24, of o on n = 109° 13’. Cleavage, indistinct, parallel to R. Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Surface, R —1 and R streaked parallel to their common edges of intersection. R— o uneven, and often curved, so that the opposite faces are often inclined on each other at an angle of 2° — 3°. Lustre vitreous. Colour white. Streak white. Semi- transparent. Brittle. Hardness = 40. 334 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. I propose to distinguish this species by the name of Levyne, in compliment to Mr A. Levy, M. A. of the university of Paris, who is already well known to mineralogists, by his ery- stallographic acquirements, and by his determination of several new and interesting mineral species. Art. XXX.—DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. Ix discharging the duties which the present series of papers has imposed upon us, we are glad to find that the principles we have laid down, as well as our method of applying them, have already obtained the sanction of those whose approbation will always be our highest reward. As these pages can never be stained with personal allusions, nor the de- cisions which they bear influenced by any other feelings but those which truth inspires, we are not without the hopes, that the greater number of those whom we may place in the list of second inventors will acknowledge the justness of our sentence, while those who have a less veneration for the even-handedness of justice, will know in time to respect a tribunal to which they themselves may confidently appeal, and before which their own usurped rights may be vindicated. To persons of inferior candour, and particularly to selfish plagiarists, we would recommend the perusal of the first paper in this Number, in which one of our most eminent Philosophers freely renounces to a fo- reigner the merit of discoveries which he had published, and believed to be his own; and also the communication from Mr Nicholas Mill, in p. 338 of this Number, in which he fixes the precise share which he and other philosophers have had in the improvement of the Platina Air Pyrometer. 1. The Daily Variation of the Barumeter not discovered by Colonel Wright. It will doubtless seem strange to our scientific readers, that the disco- very of the daily variation of the barometer should be now, almost for the first time, made a question for discussion. ‘Their wonder, however, will not be diminished, when we inform them, that a grave charge has been brought against the Fditor of this work, against Mr Brande, and against Baron de Ferussac, for transferring the honour of this discovery from M. Godin to Colonel Wright of Ceylon; and when we give them the additional information, that this charge was made by M. Arago, one of the editors of the Annales de Chimie, at the time when he was occupying the President’s chair in the Royal Academy of Sciences, our readers will see the necessity of repelling a charge, which, had it come from any other quarter, would have received that silent treatment which it merits. As the notice which gave rise to this charge appeared originally in our Journal, and was merely copied from its pages into the Quarterly Journal, and into Baron Ferussac’s Bulletin, it is necessary that the defence should Daily Variation of the Barometer. 335 proceed from us. The original notice in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal stands thus :— *“ Colonel Wright, member of the Ceylon Literary and Agricultural So- ciety, zs said to have discovered, that within the tropics the mercury rises and falls twice within twenty-four hours, with such regularity, as to afford almost an opportunity of measuring the lapse of time by this instrument.” —Ceylon Government Gazette.” To those who understand English, it must be very obvious that the fact here announced is the extraordinary regularity of the rise and fall, which would render the barometer almost fit for measuring time. But M. Arago chooses to view it in quite a different light. “ L’ Edinburgh Philos. Journal,” says he, conducted by Dr Brewster, ** le Journal de l’ Institution Royale de la Grande Bretagne, dirigé par le Professeur Brande; le Bulletin Universel des Sciences et del Industrié, publié sous la direction de M. le Baron de Ferussac, ont annoncé que sui-+ vant une Decovuverte faite par le Colonel Wright, le mercure du baro- meétré, dans le voisinage de l’equateur, monte et baisse deux fois en vingt- quatre heures, avec une telle régularité, quon pourroit presque se servir de cet instrument pour mesurer le temps. ‘* Nous prierons ceux des lecteurs des Annales qui trouveraient que nous leur communiquons cette découverte un peu tard, de vouloir bien remarquer que Godin, Bouguer, et Lacondamine, l’avaient deja faite il y a prés de cent ans ; qu’aprés ces trois academiciens, presque tous les voyageurs aux regions equinoxiales s’en sont occupes; que M. de Humboldt a publié en 1807, un travail spécial et tres-precieux pour faire connaitre les veritables heures des maxima et des minima et l’étendue de oscillation (voyez Geo- graph. des Plantes.); que Lamanon, dans l’expedition de La Peyrouse, Hor- ner, dans celle de Krusenstern, &c., se sont livrés a des recherches analogues ; que par le secours des moyennes, Duc-Lachapelle, 4 Montauban, M. Ra- mond, a Clermont-Ferrand, les astronomes de ]’Observatoire, a Paris, M. Marqué-Victor, 4 Toulouse, &c. &c.; ont prouvé que cette oscillation di- urne existe aussi dans nos climats ; qu’enfin nous ne manquons jamais, dans nos resumés des observations meteorclogiques de l’année, de donner les valeurs de l’abaissement journalier qu’eprouve le barométre de neuf heures du matin a trois heures aprés midi, ct du mouvement ascendant qui se manifeste entre cette derniére époque et neuf heures de la nuit. “* Apres avoir montré pourquoi nous n’avons point parle de la pretendu découverte du Colonel Wright, nous desirerions bien expliquer quels motifs ont pu, au contraire, determiner les trois sa.ans que nous avons cités, a lais~ ser insérer dans leur journaux l’annonce de cet officier sans y joindre aucune remarque ; mais la tache nous parait difficile, et nous l’abandonnons a qui de droit.”* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Tom. XXV. p. 334. The tone in which the preceding extract is conceived, cannot escape the observation of an English reader, and it mortifies us to think that the Pre- sident of such a dignified body as the Academy of Sciences should permit himself to use the language of sneering, and contempt, in a question of pure scientific history. In calling the discoyery of a British officer a pretended * The greater part of this passage was translated in the Annals of Philosophy. 336 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. one, and in making reference to the motives of three gentlemen, whose only error could be the annunciation of what they believed to be a new fact in science, M. Arago has forgotten the courtesy which characterises Frenchmen, and has used language which, in our country at least, has been left to grace the oratory of the bar. If we suppose that M. Arago did really misunderstand the true ails ob- vious meaning of Colonel Wright’s notice, he surely could not for a mo- ment believe that the three editors whom he censures were ignorant of the daily variation of the barometer. With regard to the Editor of this Work, he had it in his power to correct his mistake, by looking into the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, (a work which he has quoted in some of his papers,) in which he would have found the daily variation of the bar- ometer treated of in more than one place. With regard to Mr Brande, he could not but know that a gentleman like him, who held the important office of Secretary to the Royal Society, and who even lectured on subjects connected with meteorology, could not possibly be ignorant of the daily va- riation of the barometer; and with regard to Baron Ferussac, we have every reason to believe that the subject is as well known to him as to M. Arago. Now, if any reader shall be so dull, as to imagine that we attributed the discovery of the diurnal veriation of the barometer to Colonel Wright, or so unjust as to suppose that Colonel Wright pretended to any such dis- eovery, we have only to assure them, that they have misinterpreted the plainest language. We believe that this curious fact was first distinctly * noticed by M. Godin, and that M. de la Condamine pursued the discovery. After having men- tioned Godin’s observations, Condamine remarks,—‘‘ Je trouvai que vers le neuf heurs du matin le barometre étoit asa plus grande hauteur, et vers trois heures aprés midi ale moindre: la difference moyenne etoit 1} ligne.” —dJournal du Voyage, &c. p. 109. See also p. 50. From Godin’s observations, the learned President passes immediately to the labours of Humboldt, and terminates with those of the astronomers of the Observatory, of which he himself is one; but in all this display of names, no English name appears; and the labours of Mr Henry Trail, Mr John Farquhar, (the celebrated proprietor of Fonthill, we believe, ) and Dr Balfour, so early as 1794, are left in utter silence. This blank, however, we shall supply. Mr Trail had observed the daily variation in India earlier than 1794. Mr Farquhar, in 1794, observes, «* That after numerous observations, at all hours during the day and night, I found that the mercury is subject to the following variations, with the utmost degree of regularity throughout the whole year. From 6" a. m. till about 7 and 8 a. M. itis stationary: It then rises till 9 a. ™. sometimes, though rarely, till 10 a. m. when it becomes stationary till noon: It then descends, and is lowest at 3 p. m. and continues stationary till 8 rp. m- when * So long ago as 1666, Dr Beale observed that « very often, both in winter and summer, the mercury stood higher in the cold mornings and evenings than in the warmer mid-day.” Phil. Trans. No. 9, p. 153, &c. Se a es Compensation Pendulums. SSi it begins to rise, and cozitinues till 11 Pp. m., and is then at the greatest height, as at 9 in the morning.”—Aszatic Researches, vol. x: p.196. — Beside the three periods mentioned in the above extract, Dr — ‘found a fourth, as described in the following Table:-— ’ Barometer falls between 10 p.m. and Ga. mM. rises 6 a.™M. 10S. ‘sr. ¥. falls 10 A. M. 6PM rises 6 Pp. M. 10 P.M. Both Mr Farquhar and Dr Balfour considered these variations as con- nected with the diurnal revolution of the earth. We may now add, that our countryman Colonel Wright seems to have discovered, that these changes are made with such extraordinary regularity, that the barometer may be almost used for measuring the lepse of time. In concluding these observations, we would recommend it to M. Arago ‘to desist from his repeated attacks upon English authors,* in which he seems to take a peculiar delight, and which can have no other tendency than to degrade science, and to exasperate national feeling, already too highly excited. If a love ef justice prompts him to this species of petty ~ warfare against England, how comes it that, in a paper on the Polarisa- tion of Light, which he has written for the Supplement ef the Encyclo- pedia Britannica, he has almost entirely forgotten to record the exertions of those who have laboured in that arduous field of inquiry. We can easily understand why he has done injustice to Dr Brewster. We can also understand why he has done injustice to Mr Herschel ;—it is suffi- cient that they are both Englishmen. We can even understand why he has suppressed the labours of Dr Seebeck, for he is a German; but we cannot understand why the important discoveries of M. Biot, his col- league in the Academy, should have been so trampled upon and overlooked. Those who have followed that distinguished philosopher in his wide range of discovery ; and who have witnessed the prodigious ardour and force of intellect which he has applied, to one of the most difficult branches of scientific inquiry, will never cease to wonder that a presi-< dent of the Academy of Sciences should have dared to depreciate and sup- press the labours of aman, who must ever be regarded by the philosophers of all nations, as one of the brightest ornaments of his country. 2. Bryson’s Compensation Pendulum, invented hy Mr David Ritchie of London. In the article Horotocy of the Encyclopedia Edinensis, a compen- sation pendulum is described as the invention of Mr Bryson, watch- maker in Edinburgh. This pendulum consists of two compound bars of steel and brass placed at right angles to a steel pendulum rod, a little above the ball. As the steel rod lengthens by heat, these compound bars become more convex, and lift up the ball as much as it was depressed by * His attack upon the Rey. Dr Pearson was repelled by that able astronomer with great spirit, and we hope that Mr Forster will be equally successful. VOL. II. No. 11. APRIL 1825... - Z 338 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. the elongation of the rod. One of these pendulums is in use at the Albyn Club ; but, though ingenious contrivances, we have not learned that they are superior to those invented by Elliott, Wood, Reid, and Troughton. The pendulum now under our consideration, is not the invention of Mr Bryson, but was invented by Mr David Ritchie of Clerkenwell, who re- ceived for it the medal of the Society of Arts, and who has published a full account of it, with drawings, in the T'ransactions of that body, vol. xxx. p. 176—182. 3. Sir William Congreve’s Moveable Ball Clock, invented hy M. Serviere. The Cognoscenti in elegant mechanism have long been in the habit of ad- miring a beautiful time-piece, which bears Sir W. Congreve’s name, (but whether with or without his sanction we know not), in which the minutes are indicated by the descent of a brass ball, along a number of inclined planes running alternately from right to left, and left to right, on the face of an inclined brass plate. When the ball reaches the bottom of the plate, after having described the last of the inclined planes, it releases a detent which tilts the brass plate, and inclines it in the opposite direction. The ball being now at the top of the system of inclined planes commences its retrograde motion, and when it again reaches the bottom, the plate is again tilted at the opposite position. This clock was invented by M. Serviere, and is minutely described in various forms in a French work, which we have now before us, entitled Recueil d’ Ouvrages Curieux, &c. Lyons, 1719. In all these clocks, however, the ball is carried up by machinery from the bottom to the top of the in- clined plane, whereas, in Sir W. Congreve’s, the plane is moveable, as above described, which is a very important improvement. 4, Heulandite first separated from Stilbite by Professor Mohs, and not by Mr Brooke. In the Ed. Phil. Journal, January 1822, Mr Brooke has given an ac- eount of his determination of the radiated and foliated zeolite of Werner to betwo distinct species, and he has given to the latter the name of Heulandite. The merit, however, of first separating these two species, belongs to Professor Mohs, who published the results under the titles of Prisma- toidal and Hemiprismatic Kouphone Spar, in his Characteristic, p. 59, which was translated and published in Edinburgh in the year 1820. In Mr Brooke’s Familiar Introduction to Crystallography, published in 1823, he has not taken the opportunity of mentioning the prior claims of Professor Mohs. Mr Phillips has also overlooked this, but we expect to see it in the next edition of his Mineralogy. 5. Mr Nicholas Mill s Platina Pyrometer. We have much pleasure in laying before our readers the following can- did and liberal explanation sent to us by Mr Mill, regarding the similarity which we pointed out in our last number between the Platina Hygrometer proposed by Dr Ure, and the Platina Hygrometer executed by himself. so History of Mechanical Inventions, &. 339 “In the third number of your Journal, in commenting on an in- strument which bears my name, you seem to intimate that I have laid claim to an invention which does not belong to me ; * it becomes my duty, therefore, to explain where I rest my pretensions. “The principle upon which I have perfected the Pyrometer, which is the subject of this letter, is the old-established principle of expansion of air by heat, and is analogous to the Differential Thermometer of Sturmius, claimed by Leslie, and also to the construction of the common steam guage, which acts by the pressure of steam against a column of mercury. “The principle of the instrument, therefore, delineated by Dr Ure, is not new, and consequently does not belong to him. Although the suggestion of applying it to a Pyrometer unquestionably is his, I have never pre- sumed to lay claim either to the one or the other. It is in the mechanical construction of this instrument that I claim any merit. Many difficulties presented themselves in its construction which could hardly have been an- ticipated by Dr Ure, and which required some little ingenuity to over- come. It was found that an air-tight screw in platinum could not be made to resist considerable pressure ; it was, therefore, necessary to have recourse to a stem without a joint, which, after a considerable period, I accomplished. The internal diameter of the platinum bulb measured one half inch, whilst the stem proceeding therefrom was not the twentieth part of an inch internal diameter ; and to construct this in a metal so dif- ficultly fusible as platinum was pronounced an impossibility by the first philosophical instrument maker of this metropolis. It was also found, that, by uniting the platinum stem to a glass tube, as recommended by Dr Ure, it was useless in its application, because its frangibility was such as to render it liable to be broken by every trifling motion, inde- pendently of which, its position could not be accommodated to a furnace. It therefore became necessary to have a moveable air-tight joint, in con- structing which no small difficulty arose, because the pressure of the con- fined air, when intensely heated, was so great as to foree itself through common joints; but that obstacle was also removed ; and the instrument, as it now appears, may be made to traverse in any position within the ra- dius of a circle ; and without it was so constructed, would, of course, be next to useless. “* IT submit, under the circumstances above stated, that the principle of this Pyrometer belongs to Sturmius, the delineation of it to Dr Ure, and the execution of it to myself.” Art. XXXI.—HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 1. Mr Ritchie’s Photometer, and the Illuminating Powers of Oil and Coal-Gas. Aw account of this ingenious instrument, invented by Mr William Ritchie, Rector of the Academy of Tain, has been read before the Royal * We have merely pointed out the similarity of the two instruments.-ED. 340 History of Mechanical Inventions and Societies both of London and Edinburgh, and a particular account of it may be expected in the Transactions of one or other or both of these learn- ed bodies. - Mr Ritchie’s photometer is (like that originally proposed by Lambert in his Photometria in 1760) a thermometer which measures the heat produced by absorbed light, and is, therefore, liable to all the objections which Lambert and others have urged against the instrument as a measurer of different kinds of light. Our readers are well aware that Mr Leslie brought forward Lambert’s photometer as an invention of his own, and proposed it as an instrument for measuring every kind of light, the light of the sun, (not the light of the moon,) the light of the sky, the light of snow, and the light of coal-gas, nay, even the light of the coloured spaces of the spectrum. Now, it is an admitted fact, that the red space in the spectrum (to say nothing of the rays beyond the red) shows greater heat by the thermometer than the yellow space, while the yellow space is far more luminous than the red. ‘The thermometrical photometer, therefore, is incapable of measuring different kinds of light. Myr Ritchie, with a de- gree of candour not inferior to his ingenuity, admits at once that his photometer, which is fifteen or twenty times more sensible than Mr Leslie's, ‘is positively incapable of measuring or comparing any other lights but those of the same kind ; and he is now convinced, that it will not measure, except by arude approximation, the relative illuminating powers of oil and coal-gas. The principles on which this photometer depends are, that radiant heat does not pass through thick plates of glass, but is conducted through them in the same manner as through opaque bodies ; that light expands in the same manner as heat the substances that absorb it ; and that the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the distance. The Photometer shown in Plate LV. Fig. 10, consists of two broad fiat ey- linders, A, B, placed parallel to one another. These cylinders are air tight, being closed at their outer sides by a thick disk of glass, while their inner sides and their circumference consist of copper or brass, or sheet iron. Parallel to the glass disk there is stretched across each cylinder a disk of black paper. The cylinders are connected interiorly by a bent tube, DK, containing a small quantity of coloured liquor ; and a scale is placed be- tween the two branches of the tube which are vertical. By exposing the glass faces of the cylinders to two lights, the light falling on the disks of paper is absorbed ; the air within the cylinders is heated proportionally, and the relative expansions indicated by the motion of the liquor towards the weaker light. ‘This instrument is said to be sensible to the light of a candle at the distance of twenty or thirty feet, whereas Mr Leslie’s shows total darkness at the distance of three inches. In reference to the application of this instrument, Mr Ritchie remarks, “¢ Tt would be a vain attempt,” says he, “ to endeavour, by the aid of this photometer, or that of Professor Leslie, to ascertain the value of the illu~ minating powers of oil and coal-gas, since the qualities of the gas are es- sentially different. ‘When the flames are nearly similar, as in the case of ——— Processes in the Useful Arts. 341 vil and coal-gas, this instrument will give a pretty good approximation to. their illuminating powers, but unless the colour of the flames be exactly the same, neither this method nor that of shadows can pretend to more than a mere approximation. I may here remark, that the results of my photo- meter, or of any other instrument founded on the expansion of air by its combination with light, will always be unfavourable to the illuminating powers of oil-gas compared with coal-gas, as it takes no cognizance of the fine white colour of the flame of the former compared with the more dusky colour of the latter. When the oil-gas is of a superior quality, and the coal-gas not well purified, the results of this photometer, or that of Pro- JSessor Leslie, will be ExrREMELY wiveE of the truth. The indications of this instrument may give the quantities of light as one to three, whilst the illuminating power of the oil-gas is at least five or séx times sremer than that of the ceal-gas.’—See p. 321 of this Number. 2. I. Ducom’s Cylindrical Artificial Horizon. This ingenious instrument, which has already been put to the test of experiment by two able astronomers, Professor Simonoff and Baron Zach, has not yet been described by the inventor, but the general principle of the instrument may be deduced from two long dissertations upen it by Baron Zach. The instrument consists of two parts, one of which is a copper disk of six inches in diameter, with three feet. ‘The second part is a cylindrical cover or drum, which performs the part of the glass roof in the common hori- zons for sheltering the fiuid from the action of the wind. From the middle of the first part, or copper disk, there rises a hollow cylinder of white iron 4} inches high, and 23 inches in diameter. Upon this cylin- der, which is open at top, there is placed a small round disk of white iron, (or of boxwood, when mercury is used, ;) which goes into the top of the cylinder, but is prevented from descending by a ledge on which it rests. This disk contains the mercury, wine, or prepared syrup which is employed. These cylinders are adjusted in such a manner that the sur- face of the fluid is exactly 23 inches above the first disk. On the copper disk are fixed two brackets, to which is fastened the cylindrical roof or drum. This drum, which is made of white iron, is six iaches in diameter and 24 wide, and is so placed that its centre is in tie surface of the fluid in the round disk. In the middle of the width of the drum, there are two bands of white iron, perforated by two circular openings diametrically opposite to one avother, and an inch in diameter, the one ior letting in the inci- dent rays, and the other for letting out the reflected ones. They have a circular motion by a rack and pinion on the surface of the-drum, for the purpose of being adjusted to the height of the sun or the star. When there is not much agitation in the air, two small funnels or truncated cones are placed in the small tubes in the circular apertures, and these have the effect of protecting the fluid surface from every agita- tion. When the wind is considerable, the funnels are kept on, and a small glass with parallel faces is placed at the end, by which means the incident rays are admitted ; but if the wind is very high, the funnels are taken off, 342 History of Mechanical Inventions and and a piece of wire gauze is placed in the tube. This permits the exter- nal air to be in regular communication with the internal air, which is fa- vourable to the accuracy of the observation. See Baron Zach’s Corr. Astron. vol. xi. p. 391 and 480. 3. Mr Jeffrey's Method of condensing Smoke, Metallic Vapours, &c. This ingenious method, the efficacy of which is said to have been proved, is represented in Plate IV. Fig. 11. The letters BB represent the flue of any ordinary furnace through which the smoke rises. It is shut up at A, and after turning horizontally at C, it has a descending branch D, which terminates below at the opening F. The branch DD communicates at its upper end with a cistern E, haying its bottom perforated with holes im- mediately above the flue. As the heated current of air, charged with smoke and vapours of differ= ent kinds, descends in the branch DF, the constant shower of water from the cistern F carries down with it the smoke and all the sublimed matter from the fire, and the whole runs out through the opening F, in the state of black water, without any smoke. A strong current of air is created in the descending pipe by the descent of the cold water. The flues B and D may be close to one another, or may stand at any distance, and in any relative direction. See Journal of Science, vol. xviii. p. 270. 4. Casting of Wooden Ornaments and Veneers A discovery is said to have been made in France of a method of convert- ing pulverised wood or sawdust into a solid substance, by which curious wooden articles may be formed in moulds, at a small expence, out of rare and valuable woods. See Newton’s-Journal of the Arts, vol. ix. p. 35. The only difficulty which is opposed to such a method consists in obtaining a cement sufficiently cheap for holding together the woody particles. It is evident that such a composition can never possess any of the beauty of structure which is generally the principal one in rare kinds of wood, al- though a coarse imitation of this may be effected by particular combina- tions of different mixtures varying in colour. 5. Account of the Lapidary’s Wheel of the Hindoos. This ‘wheel, used for cutting precious stones, is composed of one part gum-lac, and two parts of powdered corundum (or emery.) The corun- dum powder is first heated in an earthen vessel, and when the heat is such as to melt the gum, it is added in portions, the whole being stirred about to promote a perfect union. The paste thus made is beaten with a pestle on a smooth slab of stone ; it is then rolled on a stick, and reheated several times. When the mixture is uniform, it is then taken from the stick and laid on the stone-table, which must be previously covered with fine corundum powder, and then flattened into the shape of a wheel with an iron rolling-pin: The wheel is then polished by a plate of iron and cor- undum powder, and a hole is made through the middle of it by a heated metallic rod. Processes in the Useful. Arts. 343, - When the wheel is mounted on a horizontal axis, the workman gives it amotion of rotation with a spring-bow, and holds the stone which he cuts in his left hand, applying, occasionally, corundum powder and water. The polishing is effected by leaden wheels, and a finer powder. M. De La Tour, Mem. du Museum, tom. ii. p. 230. 6- Dr Church's New Boring Auger. This patent auger, of which the specification is not yet enrolled, is the invention of Dr Church of Birmingham. One of these instruments, which has been tried by Mr Newton, a competent judge of its merits, is one inch and one-eighth in diameter. When turned like a gimblet by the right hand, it passed through a four inch dry deal, four inches thick, in fifty seconds. With the assistance of a bow, it penetrated a post seven in- ches square, in twenty-one seconds. It cuts a perfectly smooth hole, and elears itself as it advances. It can be sharpened upon an ordinary grinds stone, and will retain the same form and properties though ground down within a short distance of the stem. Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol- ix. . p- 91. 7. Evans's New Method of Roasting Coffee. This process, for which a patent has been taken out by Mr R. Evans of London, consists in preventing any of the oily parts of the coffee which contain the aroma, from evaporating during the process of roasting it. The machine consists of a cylindrical vessel turned by a winch and two wheels. It has ledges within to throw the beans from the side to the middle of the ~ cylinder. At the middle of the cylinder, opposite to the handle, a tube passes from the open air to beyond its centre, having a great number of per= forations in it. During the first period of the roasting, the aqueous parts, which the heat drives off, pass through the holes of this tube ; but, when all the water is driven off, this tube is shut up, and, consequently, during the last period of the roasting, the aromatic oil does not escape from the beans. In order to ascertain the precise time when the aqueous vapours are dispelled, he holds a piece of slate against the outer end of the tube with perforations, and the deposition upon its surface, if watery or gummy, shows whether the water or the oil is escaping. Small quantities of the beans are occasionally taken out with a spoon through the axle, to ob= serve the progress of the operation. An abstract of the specification is pub- lished in Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol. ix. p. 72. 8. Braconnot’s Process for making Blacking for Leather. M. Braconnot has published, in the Annales de Chimie, &c., for Novem= ber 1824, p- 338, the following process for making a superior and cheap blacking for leather ofall kinds. Take Plaster of Paris passed through a fine sieve of silk, ~ 100 parts- Lamp black, - - * 2 Ss é 25 Malt used by brewers, . - “ = = 50 Olive oil, - - = = ss = 5 344 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. The malt must be first macerated in water nearly boiling, to obtain its soluble particles. The plaster and lamp black are then mixed in a basin with that liquid, and when it is evaporated to the consisténcy of paste, the olive oil is mixed with it, and a little oil of lemons or lavender is added to perfume it. In place of plaster, an equal quantity of common potter’s clay may be used. 9. Mr Jenning’s Improved Gus Burner. This ingenious contrivance, the object of which is to close the passage for the gas, even if the stop-cock has been heedlessly left open, and there- by prevent all smell, and all risk of forming ani explosive mixture, is shown in section in Fig. 12, Plate VIII. The gas rises up the passage a of the socket cc, and is prevented from passing into the burner by the-ball ), which shuts the passage. In order to allow the gas to pass, the burner is lifted up by the hand, which raises the ball } out of its place, and the gas passes from a into d, and up the tubes ee. When the gas has burned about a quarter of a minute, the pin ,f becomes hot, and the heat is conveyed to the bent arm g, which will curl up, as shewn by dotted lines, in conse- quence of the different expansions of the two dissimilar metals of brass and steel, of which it is made. The ball being thus drawn aside from its seat, the burner may be let down froin its raised position, and the gas will continue to flow. When the flame is extinguished, the pin f and the bent arm g become cold, and the uncurling of the latter brings the ball into its seat and closes the passage for the gas, even if the cock has been incompletely shut, or afterwards carelessly opened.—See Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol. ix. p. 179. Art. XXXII—ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS. I, Description of a Monochromatic Lamp, with Remarks on the Absorp- tion of the Prismutic Rays by Coloured Media. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F. R.S. Lond. and Sec. R.S. Ed. &c. On the Absorption of Light by Coloured Media, and on the Colours exhibited by certain Flames, &c. &c.* By J. F. W. Herscuet, Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and F.R.S. Edin. Tue composition of the solar rays has exercised the sagacity of philoso- phers since the discovery of the different refrangibility of the rays of light by Newton ; and though unquestionably it is to that great man that we owe the first and prominent fact of the nonhomogeneity of white light, yet much has been added. to his discoveries by later research, and proper- “ These two papers are printed in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. ix. p. 433 and 445. It will give us, as well as our readers, great satisfaction to hear frequent- ly from the able coyespondent to whom we arc indebted for this analysis.—ED. . é Memoirs on the Absorption of Light. 345 ties and peculiarities, of which he had not the least conception, have been found to belong to the several parts of which the spectrum consists, and the media capable ofitransmitting light. The first great discovery, in this line, since Newton’s time, was the dif- ference of the dispersive powers, by which different media, under equal angles of refraction, separate the extreme rays unequally. Hence the pos- sibility of that grand improvement in practical optics, the achromatic tele- scope. But this is far from a perfect instrument, and, if we carry the magnifying powers of our telescopes beyond a certain extent, we speedily become sensible of the limit which the nature of the media, of which its lenses consist, places to our further progress. In microscopes, however, achromatic lenses had rarely, if ever, been adopted, and in these, accord- ingly, the original imperfection of refracting telescopes existed in all its force. To obviate the inconvenience of chromatic aberration in these in- struments, two methods occurred to Dr Brewster, viz. Either to extinguish all the rays, but those of one colour, by the use of coloured glasses, and thus to destroy the erratic light before its entry into the eye; or, 2dly, To use homogeneous light ab initio for the illumination of the object viewed. The former of these methods, however, is either imperfect, or is attended with the loss of so much light, as to render vision obscure, and, though affording a certain degree of advantage, Dr Brewster was induced to aban- don this method for the above reasons. The discovery of a source of homogeneous light next occupied his atten- tion, and, after numerous trials, he ascertained the remarkable fact, that almost all bodies in which the combustion was imperfect, such as paper, linen, cotton, &c. gave a light in which the homogeneous yellow rays pre-= dominated—that the yellow light increased with the humidity ef these bodies—and that a great proportion of the same light was generated, when” various flames were urged mechanically with a blow-pipe or pair of bellows. He thence concludes, that the yellow rays appear to be the produce of an imperfect combustion. We may observe, however, that combustion is not necessarily imperfect in the flames above enumerated. Most inflammable bodies, moreover, in a state of incipient or weak combustion, discharge, not a yellow, but a blue flame. ‘he blue flame, at the bottom of a candle, is known to every one ; that of burning sulphur (in its usual weak state of combustion) is hardly less familiar ; and the deep blue flame of a piece of paper, scorched on the under side till the upper takes fire, is mat- ter of wonder and delight to every child who plays with fire. It is only when the combustion becomes full and violent that the yellow light be- gins to predominate in flames. Mr Herschel observes, that sulphur, urged to the utmost intensity of combustion, by projecting it into a white-hot crucible, discharges a homogeneous yellow light, but as the intensity of the heat diminishes, the blue and green spectra appear. The flame of oil urged by bellows, (in which state its combustion is undoubtedly most complete, ) has been observed by Mr Fraunhofer, (in a conversation with ourselves, ) as well as by Dr Brewster, to consist principally or wholly of yellow 346 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. light. Be this as it may, the remark that aqueous*vapour present in a flame increases the quantity of yellow light, which, we believe, no one before Dr B. had made, is curious and important, and furnished him with what he was in search of—a monochromatic flame. Dzluted alcohol is the pabulum he proposes to employ, and his paper contains a description and drawing of a convenient lamp, for maintaining and managing its combus- tion with perfect facility. Mr Herschel appears to have entered on a somewhat similar inquiry, having felt the want of some standard homogeneous light in the course of optical researches of another nature. He remarks, that the flame of an ors dinary spirit lamp consists of two portions, a yellow cone enclosed in a blue envelope, but projecting above it, so that the upper part is purely yellow, the lower a mixture of yellow and other faint rays. If, however, it be viewed through a combination of a pale green with a pale orange glass, it appears purely yellow, and if enclosed in a lanthorn of such glass, becomes a monochromatic lamp. In the course of their investigations, both authors were led to examine the action of differently coloured media.on the spectrum. The results at which they arrive agree in many points. We shall state the principal of them. 1. All coloured media absorb some rays of the spectrum in preference to others, and the quantity absorbed depends on the thickness of the medium. - 2, The quantity of any coloured ray, transmitted by a homogeneous medium, decreases in geometrical progression as the thickness increases in arithmetical progression. 3. Every medium has its own peculiar scale of action on the series of differently refrangible rays, or its own peculiar rutio of the geometrical pro- gression above mentioned for each degree of refrangibility. 4. In consequence, as the thickness of a medium varies, the tint changes, and this truth, which at first sight appears paradoxical, and never fails to surprise when experimentally shown, is general. That ray in the spec- trum which is least energetically absorbed will, of course, penetrate through the greatest thickness, and its ultimate tint will be a homogeneous one of this particular refrangibility. 5. The energy with which coloured media attack the different rays is not only not the same, in all parts of the spectrum, but, moreover, follows no regular law of progression in proceeding from one end of the spectrum to the other. Dr Brewster has.given coloured drawings (to which the engray- er or colourer cannot have done justice) of spectra, seen through various media. Mr Herschel represents the intensity of a ray transmitted through a medium of given thickness by the ordinate of a curve, taking that of the intromitted ray for one, and the length of the spectrum for the abscissa. This curve appears in numerous cases to have several maxima and minima, in consequence of which, the media it represents have really two or more distinct colours, and undergo not merely a change of shade by an increase 11 Memoirs on the Absorption of Light. 347 of thickness, but a positive transition from one hue to another. Thus, a solution of sap-green, viewed through small thicknesses, is green, but in great ones is dark red, and numerous other media present this singular transition. Mr Herschel proposes the extreme red as a standard ray for optical ex- periments, not that exhibited by common red glasses, which is always a mixed colour, but that transmitted with particular facility by ordinary deep blue glass coloured by cobalt. Its place is strictly at the utmost limit of the spectrum, and its refrangibility (when insulated by a combination of such a glass with a red one) definite, as much so as the yellow light above described. ~ Dr Brewster has investigated the effects of heat in changing the tints of media. He has observed different. glasses to be differently af- fected by heat, some having their absorbent powers increased, and others diminished—some transiently, and others permanently. Many minerals present similar phenomena. The experiments of Dr Brewster on topaz are well known. The change of colour in many opaque bodies by heat is doubtless referable to this. cause. We need only mention minium and the peroxide of mercury, which, at a heat just short of ignition, become al- most black, and recover their bright red hue when cold. In both the papers now before us, the insulation of the yellow rays in solar light by coloured glasses, in a state of perfect purity, is regarded as impracticable ; but both these authors have succeeded in so far separating it, as to place the existence of yellow light in the spectrum beyond all manner of doubt, and in showing that the space it occupies is really pretty considerable. Dr Brewster, indeed, regards it as encroaching both on the limits of the red and green, and Mr Herschel attributes to it a breadth not less than one-fourth, the interval between the red and blue. The for- mer draws the conclusion, that the orange and green are really composite colours, which, if verified, would be a fact of the highest importance, in as much as it would prove the prismatic analysis of white light to be imper- fect, and refer the impression of colour on the sensorium to some other cause than that which produces difference of refrangibility. We do not mean to deny this, for, in fact, we think there are other arguments addu- cible in its support. We submit, however, that the celebrated observa- tion of Dr Wollaston, on which the opinion advanced by Dr Brewster is grounded, must have contained some cause of fallacy. He received in his eye the spectrum of a narrow luminous line, and could discern in it no yellow, or so very little as to be attributed by him to a mixture of red and green from the opposite sides of the aperture. Nevertheless, if the red and green portions of a long prismatic spectrum be screened, the yellow is rendered very evident ; and in Fraunhofer’sad- mirable experiments, (which we had the pleasure of witnessing in perfec- tion at Munich through his kindness,) where, from the exquisite limpidi- ty of the prisms used, and the delicate adjustment of his whole apparatus, the absolute homogeneity of every part of the spectrum is fully assured, the orange, the yellow, and the green, are all seen shading into each other by insensible gradations ; the yellow being remarkably conspicuous, and of a 548 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. pale straw colour. In a beautifully coloured plate, or rather map, of the spectrum before us, in which every part is laid down by M. Fraun- hofer, from exact micrometrical measurements, the portion occupied by the yellow is 22, the length of the whole spectrum being 286, and the in- terval between the red and blue about 77.* Mr Heréchel’s estimate agrees well enough with these measures. We may here take occasion to remark, that although upwards of seventeen years have clapsed since the first discovery of black lines in the spectrum by Wollaston, none of the continental opticians, with whom we have had opportunities of conversing, seemed aware of their having been known previous to the elaborate researches of the eminent artist just mentioned. Annexed to Mr Herschel’s paper is a determination of the dispersions of a variety of specimens of flint and crown glass, (by a peculiar and simple method, founded on the same principle as the double image micrometer, ) which are considerably above the usual estimates. The dispersion assign- ed by Fraunhofer are still higher, as might be expected, from the supe- riority of his means of examining the spectrum at its limits. Indeed, it is to his “‘ Determination of the refractive and dispersive powers of differ- ent species of glass, &c., &c.,” that we must refer for all accurate know- ledge on this important subject. II. Some Account of the lute M. Guinand, and of the Important Discovery made by him in the Manufacture of Flint Glass for Large Telescopes.— London, 1825, 25 p.+ Tus little pamphlet, of which we propose at present to give an abstract, is filled with details of the most interesting kind, both to the philosopher and the general reader. The discovery of a method of making Flint Glass for achromatic tele- scopes has been, during the last seventy years, an object of almost nation- al ambition. In England, unfortunately, the strictness of our Excise laws prevented any attempt from being made on a proper scale to solve this great practical problem ; but in France, where no such restrictions ex- isted, numerous attempts have been made to perfect the manufacture of flint-glass for optical purposes. To what extent these experiments suc- ceeded, we have not sufficient information to enable us to ascertain; but we believe it is universally admitted, that the difficulty was neither sur- mounted, nor in the way of being surmounted, when M. Guinand, of the village of Brenets, in the canton of Neufchatel, began those laborious re-~ searches, which were finally crowned with the most complete success. We shall, therefore, proceed to give a brief history of the life and la- * An engraving of the spectrum, as laid down by Fraunhofer, with most of the lines which cross it, will be found in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. OPTICS, vol. xv. p. 548. Px. 433.—Ep. 7 This pamphlet is a translation from au article in the Bibliotheque Universelle for February and March 1824. Some Account of the late M. Guinand. 349 bours of this interesting person, abridged from the details in the pamphlet under our consideration. About 70 years have elapsed since M. Guinand was employed in assist- ing his father as a joiner. At the age of thirteen he became a cabinet- maker, and occupied himself chiefly in making clock-cases- At this period he had become acquainted with a buckle-maker in his neighbourhood, of whom he learned the art of working in various metals, which enabled him, about the age of twenty, to attempt the construction of a watch-case; and, having succeeded, he followed the occupation of a watch- case-maker. , Having constructed clock-cases for M. Jaquet Droz, he saw, at the house of that mechanist, a ine English reflecting telescope, an instrument then very rare in Switzerland. M. Guinand was then in his 20th or 23d year, and it cannot be doubted that this circumstance first turned his mind towards that subject to which he afterwards devoted his attention. Having expressed a wish to take this telescope to pieces, that he might examine it in detail, M. Jaquet Droz gave him permission, and undertook to put it together should that task prove too difficult for him. M. Guin- and took the instrument to pieces ; measured the curves of the mirrors and glasses, and afterwards readily put it together; then availing himself of his experience in casting ornaments for clock-cases, he attempted the construction of a similar telescope ; and his second experiment succeeded so well, that it was impossible to determine whether his telescope or its model was the best. M. Jaquet Droz, surprised at this success, asked our artist what treatise on optics he had followed as his guide; but he was still more surprised when the young man told him that he was not acquainted with any ; he placed one in his hands, and it was not until this peried that M. Guinand studied, or rather deciphered, (for he read with difficulty,) the principles of that science. Having been always weak-sighted, he found, when he began to make watch-cases, that his spectacles were no longer of service ; and, being di- rected to a person whose glasses were said to have given great satisfaction, he obtained a pair which really suited him no better than the others; but, by looking on while they were in progress, he learned the art of forming and polishing the lenses- He therefore undertook to make spectacles, not only for himself, but for various other persons. This new acquirement he . found very useful in his favourite pursuit ; and he amused himself in ma- nufacturing telescopes of an inferior quality, for which he made the tubes of pasteboard. The discovery of achromatic glasses having reached that country, it eould not fail to be interesting to M. Guinand. M. Jaquet Droz, haviag procured one of these new glasses, permitted M. Guinand to take it to pieces, and to separate the lenses. It will readily be conceived that the purpose of the latter was to construct a similar instrument, but in this he was disappointed, by the difficulty of procuring glasses of different refrac- - tive powers. _ It was not until some years afterwards, that an acquaintance 850 Analysis of Scientific Books and. Memoirs. of his, M. Recordon, having gone to England, where he took a patent for his invention of self-winding watches, which were then in great request, brought him, from that country, some flint-glass ; and though the speci- men was much striated, he manufactured from it some good achromatic glasses. Having obtained supplies of this material on various occasions, and having seen other glasses besides those of M. Jaquet Droz, he easily ascertained that flint-glass, which is not extremely defective, is rarely to be met with. Convinced of the impossibility of procuring it of that quali- ty which he wished, and having become skilled in the art of fusion, he melted in his blast-furnace the fragments of this flint-glass ; no satisfac- tory result was obtained, but he discovered, from some particles of lead, which re-appeared during the process, that this metal was a constituent in the composition of flint-glass. At the time of this first expériment, he had attained his 35th year. The ardent desire to obtain some of this glass then induced him to collect such notions of chemistry as might be useful to him ; and, from 1784 to 1790, he employed a part of his evenings in different experiments, melting, at each time, in his blast-furnace, three or four pounds of glass; in every experiment he took care to note down the substances and proportions of his combinations, the time of their fusion, and the degree of heat to which he had subjected them ; so that, by an examination of the results, he endeavoured to discover the causes which had rendered his products defective. While occupied in these re- searches, he derived a strong incentive to perseverance, from the prizes which he understood to have been offered for this desideratum by differ- ent academies. Ata later period he also learned the almost total impossibi- lity of procuring flint-glass exempt from strie, which impressed him with the importance of the discovery at which he was aiming. Having relinquished, at the age of forty, the trade of watch-case-maker for that of maker of bells for repeaters, at that time very lucrative, (since he could make as many as twenty-four in a day, for which he was paid five francs each ;) he resolved to prosecute his experiments on a more extend- ed scale. Having purchased a piece of ground on the banks of the river Doubs, near Brenets, where his establishment is at present situated, he constructed a furnace capable of melting two hundred weight of glass, and he settled there with his family, in order to dedicate his leisure to new ex~ periments. His perseverance, however, had to overcome many untoward accidents. At one time, his furnace threatened to burst while heating, and he was ob- liged to rebuild it with materials procured from abroad ; at another time, he noticed an essential defect in its construction, which obliged him to suspend the melting ; sometimes his crucibles, which he had procured at great expence, or manufactured himself, cracked without his being able to discover the cause, and the vitreous matter was lost. These fruitless at- tempts discouraged him on some occasions, but on others, excited him so” as to deprive him of rest, and he meditated day and night on the probable’ causes of the accidents, and on the means of obviating them. At length, however, he obtained a lump of glass, of about two hundred. weight ; hav- ing sawed this lump vertically, he polished one of the sections, in order to Some Account of the late M. Guinand. - B5L examine what had taken place during fusion. On the upper surface of the vitreous matter there were many little semi-globules, which had the appearance of drops of water, terminating by a thread or little tube of greater or less depth, at the extremity of which there was a small spheri- cal bulb- The cause of this appearance was, that these drops and tubes consisted of a denser kind of glass than the rest. In another part, there arose from the bottom of the crucible other cylinders or tubes, terminat- ing also in a kind of swelling or bulb; these had a hollow appearance, be- cause they were formed of a substance less dense than the rest of the glass ; and lastly, here and there were seen specks or grains ending with a tail, of a substance less dense than the rest of the mass; these, on ac- count of their appearance, he denominated comels. Having often seen on the surface of his glass small globules of lead, he supposed that certain particles of the lead which enters into the composition of his vitreous matter separate from it, and appear on its surface in their metal- lic state ; that becoming again oxydated by contact with the air, or re-calcined after being revived, they combine with the vitreous matter on which they rest, and thus form that glass of greater density which appears on the surface in the form of drops. The specific gravity of this substance causes it to sink to the bottom of the crucible ; but, in descending more or less slowly, according to the temperature of the furnace, it leaves in its passage a train which occasions those threads of glass that possess a stronger refraction. Having reached the bottom, this vitreous matter, in some degree saturated with minium, attacks the substance of the crucible, and forms with it a vitreous compound of an inferior density to the mass, and ascending, in consequence of its specific levity, produces those cylinders or tubes, form- ed of a less refractive glass. Lastly, when this solvent, by melting the substance of the crucible, especially that of the bottom, has detached from it a grain of sand or baked clay, this half molten grain rises and floats in the mass in an oblique direction, because, being still attached to a part of the vitreous matter which it has produced, it is not actuated on all its points to ascend with equal rapidity. Whatever may be thought of this explanation, the question was, how to remedy the non-homogeneity of strongly refractive glass ; and it was here, in particular, that M. Guinand had great obstacles to surmount. Having, af- ter many expensive trials, been so fortunate as to obtain glass of which some parts were perfectly homogeneous ; and, therefore, destitute of those strie of which flint-glass is so rarely free, he reflected on the different cir- cumstances which, in this experiment, might have contributed to the re- sult, so that, in subsequent attempts, he obtained blocks of glass possess- ing larger portions of homogeneous substance, and he has almost arrived at a certainty of obtaining in the fusion of from two to four hundred weight of glass, at least one-half of it perfectly homogeneous, and, consequently, fit for optical purposes. M. Guinand admitted that his processes had not yet attained all the per- fection which might perhaps be desired ; but as he has by these means succeeded in making disks, perfectly homogeneous, of twelve, and in one 552 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. instance even of eighteen inches in diameter, and having no doubt that, in operating on a greater scale, he might easily be able to obtain one of a diameter double or triple the extent of those last mentioned, he concludes that his process has at length removed the obstacle which the non-homo- geneity of flint-glass opposed to the construction of large achromatic ob- ject-glasses. When M. Guinand first obtained blocks including portions of good glass, his practice was to separate them, by sawing the blocks into sections that were horizontal, or perpendicular to their axis; then polishing the sections he selected the portions adapted to his purpose, and returned the others to the crucible ; but, independently of its tediousness, and the waste occasioned by sawing, this process was attended with the disadvantage of Not cutting the finest parts of his glass in the manner best calculated for large disks ; for frequently the most homogeneous parts were thus divided. A fortunate accident, however, of which he availed himself, conducted him to a better process. While his men were one day carrying a block of this glass on a hand- barrow to a saw-mill which he had established at the fall of the Doubs, at the distance of half'a league from his house, the mass slipped from its bear- ers, and, rolling to the bottom of a steep and rocky declivity, was, broken to pieces. M. Guinand was at first grieved at this misfortune, but having se- lected those fragments which appeared to be perfectly homogeneous, he softened them in circular moulds in such 4 manner, that on cooling he ob-= tained disks that were afterwards fit for working. To this method he ad- hered ; and he contrived a way of cleaving his glass while cooling, so that the fractures should follow the most faulty parts. When flaws occur in the large masses, he removes them by cleaving the pieces with wedges, he then melts them again in moulds, which give them the form of disks, taking care to allow a little of the glass to project beyond one of the points of the edge, so that the optician may be enabled to use that portion of glass in making a prism, which shall give him the measure of the index of refrac- tion, and thus obviate the necessity of cutting the lens. The refraction of M. Guinand’s glass varies almost at every casting, while, on the other hand, that of each casting is of such homogeneity, that the refractive force of two pieces taken indifferently, one from the top and the other from the bottom of the crucible, is absolutely the same. M. Guinand removes the defects by means of the wheel ; then by re- softening the disks, the vitreous matter expands and fills up the hollows that have been made ; if, after polishing, he finds them still defective, he re- peats the process until the disks are perfect. By these means he has often succeeded in soldering pieces of glass which have left no trace of their se- paration: at first these pieces were only cemented ; there was frequent- ly even air or sand between the united surfaces; in these cases, he cut along the line of junction a small semi-cylindrical groove, in order that the vitreous matter, while melting, might fill it, not by fowing from its edges to the bottom, but by raising the bottom itself, and by repeating this ope- ration he declares that he has succeeded in totally effacing all traces of junction. — Some Account of the late M. Guinand. 358 M. Guinand, having visited Paris in 1798 or 1799, presented to the Tate M. de Lalande several disks of from four to six inches of the glass which he obtained in sawing his blocks, (not having at this period thought of the expedient of remelting them ;) that celebrated astronomer advised him to work them up himself, so as to demonstrate the goodness of his glass. M. Guinand followed this advice, and while continuing his manu- facture of bells for repeaters, he pursued for several years the making of glass and the working of lenses ; he constructed achromatic telescopes, some of which had object-glasses of four or five inches, free from striz ; and having purchased a small water-mill at Brenets, he adapted it to the polishing of his glass. Though his success was not publicly known, yet he was visited by seve- ral men of science. Having in this way become acquainted with Captain Grouner, of Berne, the latter had occasion when in Bavaria to speak of the la- bours of M. Guinand, and, a short time afterwards, in 1804, he asked him, on the part of M. Fraunhofer, the director of the celebrated establish- ment of Benedictbauern, for some specimens of his glass. M. Fraunhofer, after examining them, and requesting several disks of the glass, was so well satisfied with them as to repair to Brenets, a distance of 260 miles, where he engaged M. Guinand to go into Bavaria. Having arrived in 1805, he determined to settle there ; and during a residence of nine years he was almost solely occupied in the manufacture of glass. After having discontinued for several years subsequent to his return all his optical labours, his taste for the pursuit revived, and from that time he was alternately occupied with the manufacture of glass and the construc- tion of telescopes. Among the opticians who have used this glass may be mentioned M. Lerebours, a French artist, who, during a visit to Brenets in 1820, obtain- ed all the glass which M. Guinand then had, and was so well satisfied with it that he requested a fresh supply, and made overtures for obtaining the process. We may also mention M. Cauchoix, who, in a notice rela- tive to the telescopes in the last exhibition at the Louvre, has spoken high- ly of the flint-glass of which they are constructed. When the Bibliothcque Universelle announced the formation of the Astronomical Society of Lon- don in 1821, M. Guinand was requested to present to them a sample of his glass, upon which they made a report as favourable as the small size of the specimen could warrant ; they also offered to make another, on disks of a larger dimension. M. Guinand accepted the offer, and they have now in progress a disk of seven jnches.* * Among the telescopes made by M. Guinand after his return to Switzerland, there are several of remarkable magnitude and effect ; in general the greater part ap- pear to advantage on a comparison with English telescopes; a merit which is owing in an especial manner to the quality of the glass. But the mosi singular circum- stance is, that they have been constructed by an old man of seventy-six years of age, who himself manufactured the flint and crown glass, after having made with his own hands his vitrifying furnace and his crucibles, who, without any mathematical VOL. Il. NO. IJ. APRIL 1825. Aa 354 Notices of Botanical Works recently This disk of seven inches was wrought, by that able artist Mr Tully, in- to an object-glass twelve feet in focal length ; and in his report to the Astronomical Society, on the 25th January 1825, he says, that he has not quite succeeded in working the glass to his mind, and adds, ‘‘ But I have no doubt I shall be able to make it into a very perfect instrument ; the glass seems entirely homogeneous and free from fault. The material of the glass,” he continues, ‘‘ appears to be different from our flint-glass, as it grinds and polishes much easier. I have another piece of flint-glass 34 inches, of the same manufacture, that seems likewise to be quite free from fault, and is as clear all over as any fluid.” To the preceding interesting particulars we regret to add, that M. Guinand died, after a short illness, about the end of 1823, and about the 76th year of his age, immediately after arrangements had been made with the French government for the purchase of his secret. His son fortunately possesses all the details of the process, and is ready to supply opticians with glass for object-glasses of large apertures. Art. XXXII_—NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL BOTANICAL WORKS. Monandrian Plants of the Order Scitaminee, by William Roscoe, Esq. No. 2. Tx second part of this valuable publication appeared during the year 1824, and it fully justifies the expectations which we had entertained from the well known talents of its author. The plates we consider to be executed in better style than those of the first number. It contains Canna compac- ta, n. sp.;—Canna pedunculata of Lodd. Bot. Cab.— Maranta gibba, Sm. in Rees’ Cycl. Hedychium acuminatum, n. sp. Hedychium Gardneria- num of Dr Wallich, (a most superb plant ;) Kampferia rotunda, Curt.— Curcuma Amada of Roxb. F]. Ind.:—and Globba saltatoria (Mantisia saltatoria of Curtis.) i Drummond's Musci Scotici. The second volume of this useful work, some of the contents of which were noticed, previous to its publication, in our second number, has now appeared. Botanical Magazine for December, No. 458. Tas. 2531. Crinum arenarium &. from Australia. t. 2532. Pergu- laria sanguinolenta, Lindley in Hort. Trans. t. 2533. Hamelia patens, knowledge, devised a graphic method of ascertaining the proportion of the curves that must be giver to the lenses, afterwards wrought and polished them by means pe- culiar to himself ; and, lastly, constructed all the parts of the different -mountings either with joints or on stands, melted and turned the plates, soldered the tnbet, prepared the wood, and compounded the yarnish. Published in Great Britain. 355 Linn. t. 2534. Cyrtanthus striatus, a new species, but with a specific cha- acter ten lines in length ; native of the Cape. t. 2535. Paliurus virga- tus of Don’s Fl. Nepal. t. 2536. Clerodendrum macrophyllum : introduc- ‘ed by Mr Barclay from the Mauritius. Hooker's Exotic Flora, for December, No. 17- Tas. 133. Callicarpa longifolia, Lam., but not, we think, of Roxb. Fl. Ind. ; from the Liverpool garden. t. 134. Murraya paniculata of Malag. “Misce., communicated from the Hort. Soc., who received it from Sumatra. t. 135. Habenaria gracilis, Colebrooke, mss.: native of Sylhet, E. Indies. t. 136. Habenarta marginata, Colebr. mss., found growing on the turf at the Bot. Garden, Calcutta. t.137- Balsamina setacea, Colebr. mss. na- tive of the mountains N. of Sylhet. The three last plants have not been introduced in our gardens. Loddige’s Botanical Cubinet, Part 92, December. No. 911- Veronica taurica. 912. Hemanthus multiflorus. 913. Arnica scorpioides. 914. Potentilla glabra. 915. Asphodelus creticus. 916. Pri- ‘mula sinensis. 917. Erica viridiflora. 918. Clematis angustifolia. 919. Mespilus acuminata. 920. Lachenalia bifolia- Part 93, January 1825. No- 921. Maranta bicolor. 922. Persoonia flexifolia. 923. Jasione perennis. 924. Cactus speciosissimus. 925. Habenaria blephariglottis- 926. Erica Carniola. 927- Cymbidium lancifolium. 928. Styrax officin- ale. 929. Orobus hirsutus- 930. Spigelia marilandica. Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. The notice respecting the Nos- of this work will be inserted in the next Numnber of our Journal. BoranicaL INTELLIGENCE. Progress of Botany in Russia. , WE learn from a little work that has lately been published at Mescow, by the celebrated Hoffman, entitled, ‘‘ De Fatis et Progressibus ret Her-= barie, imprimis in imperio Rutheno,” that the Sovereigns of Russia, since the time of the first Emperor Paul, have been great protectors of the sciences. They have engaged learned men upon expeditions which have included the whole empire. Under Peter I., Messerschmidt of Dantzic was the first who made a voyage to Siberia, for the advancement of know- ledge. The physician, G. Schobers, visited the banks of the Wolga, and ‘the coasts of the Caspian Sea. Christopher Buxbaum, (after whom Buz- taumia is named, ) member of the academy, extended his researches thence ‘to the Black Sea and Asia Minor. The Empress Anne, more anxious to cultivate the soil, and to become acquainted with the treasures of nature, than to extend the bounds of her domain, sent Trangott Gerber, director 356 Botanical Intelligence. of the Botanic Garden of Moscow, to the mountains of Orenbourg, and of Tartary: but, of still more consequence was the embassy which she dis- patched to Kamtschatka, and to the coasts of America, under the command of the famous navigator, Behring, a Dane, who was accompanied by the naturalists, J. G. Gmelin * and Stephen Kraschenninnikow. Five years after, Stephen and W. Steller of Weinhaim, in Franconia, visited the Bay of Awatcha, and the north-west coasts of America, whence they brought ‘very interesting collections of plants. Gmelin again, in company with G, F. Miller and Di I’'Isle de la Croyére, accomplished their travels into Si- beria, in the years 1734 and 1743. Under the reign of the Empress Catherine, new expeditions were under- taken into the north of Asia, and’ throughout all Russia, by Pallas, Falke, Grendelstedt, Georgi, Lepechin, and Hablizl. The Floras of Siberia, and of the Altaic mountains, were enriched by the researches of a Swede, Eric Laxmann ; that of Livonia, by Grindell, Germann, and Driimpelmann ; that of Petersburgh, by Sobolewsky, Leboschitz, and Trinius, (well known by his labours among the grasses,) that of Moscow, by Stephen, Martins, Adamis, Fischer, and Goldbach. The Caucasus was visited many times by Marshal Von Bieberstein, whence originated the Flora taurico-caucas- tca. Other learned botanists have published their discoveries in the Me- moirs of the Society of Natural History ; these are Londes, de Victingshoff, Haas, Wilhelms, Parrott, Engelhardt, &c. Botanic Gardens have been es- tablished, and kept up with greater or less care at Abo, in Finland, at Casan, Charkow, Cremenery in Volhynia, at Dorpat, Moscow, Wilna, Warsaw, St Petersburgh, &c. Among those of the last mentioned city, that of Paulowsky stands pre-eminent, as containing the rarest plants brought from very distant countries, by the recent Russian navigators, To these remarks, which were published in 1823, we are enabled, through the kindness of our excellent friend Dr Fischer, and of Mr Goldie, toadd some notices respecting the truly princely establishment of the new Im- perial Botanic Garden of St Petersburgh, founded in 1824. The celebrated Botanic Garden of Prince Razomoffsky, at Moscow, which was under the direction of Dr’Fischer, at the death of that nobleman ex- cited no interest in the mind of his son, and Dr Fischer then used his ut- most exertion to have a Botanic Garden worthy of the Russian empire, established at its capital, St Petersburgh. This, happily, throngh the in- tervention and influence of the Empress mother, a great lover of Botany, and who herself possesses a very fine collection of plants, was accomplish- ed. Upon one of the small islands formed by the branches of the Neva, to the north of the town, and named, from the circumstance that we are a~ bout to mention, Aptekerski stroff, (Apothecary’s Island,) was founded by Peter the Great, a small garden for the cultivation principally of such plants as were useful in medicine, and which was given to the Company of Apothecaries, Here Peter built, with his own royal hands, a hut which * Author of the excellent Flora Sibirica, and of Travels through Siberia, Progress of Botany in Russia. 357 still exists, and planted several trees, especially of Poplar and Lime, which have attained a considerable size, and are preserved with a sacred care. This spot, consisting of good soil, and watered upon one side by a branch of the Neva, was fixed upon as the scite of the present garden. Other ground, however, was added to it in 1823, so that it includes an area of sixty English acres, in part surrounded by a wooden fence, and partly by a hedge, which occupies an extent of about two hundred yards next the river. In 1824, a series of operations were commenced and carried into execu- tion, such as perhaps have scarcely any parallel in the annals of Botanical Institutions. Orders were given for ranges of Greenhouses, Conservatories and Stoves, the cost of which was estimated ata million of roubles, (about L.40,000 Sterling,) and the whole to be completed before the present win ter. The principal houses are three in number, facing the south, each 700 feet in length, and twenty to thirty feet from back to front, placed in par allel lines, but at such a distance from each other, that by two other houses of the same length, running from north to south, and placed at the ends of these, the whole forms a parallelogram, measuring 700 feet each way, intersected by a central line or house of the same length. The middle building is the most lofty, being forty feet high in the central part. The three that face the south have a sloping light in front, reaching from the top to the ground. Those which run north and south have a double roof, are comparative- ly low, and have the path in the centre. All are heated by means of com- mon flues, and with wood, principally birch. Water is raised by engines from the river, and cisterns filled in various parts of the houses, and in the most convenient situations. The large spaces of ground, or areas between the buildings, are filled with shrubs, and flower-beds ; only, behind the most southern one is a splendid suite of apartments for the Royal Family. These have windows, opening from above into the house below, so that the plants may be seen to great advantage. Dr Fischer, who has the charge of the establishment, occupies at pre- sent a small wooden dwelling within the garden. Handsome and com- modious habitations are to be built for him, and for the two chief gar- deners, one of whom is a Dane, and the other a Frenchman. ‘Two Se- cretaries are employed, one of them isa French gentleman, M. Fleury, who lately visited this country with Dr Fischer, the other a Russian ; and also an excellent botanic painter, a native of Germany, who has already executed some very beautiful drawings of new and rare plants. There is scarcely a garden in Europe, which will not, if it has not al- ready done so, contribute to stock this superb establishment. The col- lection is even now very great. One hundred thousand roubles were ap- propriated for the purchase of plants, at the commencement ; and 68,000 roubles annually, for the ordinary expences. During the last year, which, as we have scen, was the first of the commencement of the institution, no less than 14,000 packages of seeds were sown in 60,000 pots. Dr Fischer 358 Botanical Intelligence—A ustriua——North America— paid a hasty visit to England and Scotland in last autumn, and collected. so great a number of living plants, (above 4000,) that he engaged Mr Goldie of the Monkwood Nursery, near Ayr, to take charge of them dur- ing the voyage, and to assist in their transplantation. This was success- fully accomplished, and on Mr Goldie’s quitting St Petersburgh in Octo- ber, the whole collection was in a most thriving condition. We have inquired in yain for correct information respecting the state of this noble institution, since the late inundatious of the Neva, but we can hear nothing certain. We dare not flatter ourselves with the expec- tation that it can have escaped without severe, very severe injury ; but we do earnestly hope that the report which has been circulated, respecting its utter destruction, will prove to be as much exaggerated as those early ac- counts which we received of the loss of lives and of property by the same dreadful calamity. It is satisfactory to be able to announce, that Dr Fischer has provided very extensive materials for the publication of a Flora Rossica. His long residence in Moscow, and the great intercourse which subsists be- tween the Eastern and Southern parts of Russia and that city, gave him facilities in obtaining possession of plants which no other naturalist has had the means of acquiring. No stranger, it is well known, can explore any part of Russia, with a view to science, without express permission “from the Emperor, and this is not easily obtained. But strict orders have been given for the plants to be collected by those resident in the respec- tive districts, throughout every part of the Russian dominions, and to be transmitted to the new garden. Besides which, collectors are to be sent purposely into Siberia, and other remote parts of the empire, at the ex- pence of Government. Intelligence from Austria. By a letter which we have just received from Professor Jacquin of Vien- na, we learn that the Fasciculi 3d and 4th of his “ Hclogw” have been published ; and that some more Fasciculi yet will appear in the course of the present year. The Botanical Public have long been in expectation that Dr Host, au- thor of the superb work entitled Grumina Austriaca, would publish a Monograph, on a similar plan, of the Salices of Austria. We have the pleasure of being able to state, that the first volume of this publication, containing 100 coloured plates, will appear during the present year. Tt will be completed in two volumes, comprising 250 plates. The same author is engaged in preparing a new Fora Austriaca, to serve as a second edition of his Synopsis. M. Pohl has ready for publication, a numerous collection of drawings of Brazilian Plants, and M. Schott of Ferns, from the same country. Intelligence from North America. In addition to the information which we gave in our last Number relative to American Botany, we have the satisfaction of being able to state, that Denmark—Sweden—Mexico. 359 Dr Schweinitz and Mr Halsey are engaged in collecting materials for a Cryptogamic Flora of that country. Denmark. ~The valuable work which Professor Schow has written in the Danish language, upon the Geographical Distribution of Plants, with maps, has already been translated into German, and Professor De Candolle is about to publish a French translation. Dr Nolte, an excellent and zealous botanist of Lauenbourg, who, at the expence of the King, has botanized during many years in Holstein and Lauenbourg, is engaged upon a Prodromus Llore Holsatie-Lauenbour= gensis. The same author will soon publish a treatise upon the Hydroch- aridee and the Alismacee of the North of Europe, upon which he has made many interesting observations. Professor Hornemann is employed in preparing a new edition of his Hortus Hafniensis, and a 2d part of his @conomical Flora of Denmark. Professor Schumacher has written a treatise upon the Genus Cinchona, and has nearly finished his book in Danish upon Medicinal Plants. M. Schonsboe, Consul of Legation and Danish Consul-General at Tan- giers, already well known as an excellent Botanist, has for many years studied the Marine Alge of the coast of Barbary, and will now publish a particular work upon that subject, for which plates have been already engraved. Lieutenant Holbdlt of the Royal Danish Navy, and son of the head gardener at the Botanic Garden of Copenhagen, has lately made a large collection of plants on the coast of Greenland. During his passage to that region, he fell in with the British Discovery Ships, and was presented by Captain Parry with a copy of the supplement to his first voyage. This circumstance was the more gratifying to the young Botanist, as, upon his return to Copenhagen, and even so late as the month of December, no copy of that work had reached Denmark. Sweden. Wahlenberg has edited at Upsal a Flora Suecica. Mexico. The important political changes that have taken place in Spanish and Portuguese America seem already to have had an influence upon the li- terature of those countries. Our excellent friend, Mr Barclay of Bury Hill, Surry, has obligingly communicated to us the 1st No. of an import- ant botanical work, which is just printed at Mexico, entitled “‘ Novorum Vegetabilium Descriptiones, in lucem prodeunt opera Paulli de la Llava, et Joannis Lexarza, Reip. Mexic. CIV.” ‘This first part includes de- scriptions of 40 new species, of which 13 constitute as many undescribed genera. The greater number of the plants are among the Compostte. S60 Proceedings of Societies. Art. XX XIII.—PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. December 6.—The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members: Dr John Campbell, Physician in Edinburgh. George Anderson, Esq. Inverness. At this Meeting Mr HarpinceEr read a paper on the Determination of the Idea of the Species in Mineralogy, according to the principles of Pro- fessor Mohs, the particular object of which was mentioned in our last Number. December 20.— At this Meeting there was read Additional Observations on the Natural History and Physical Geography of the Himalayah Moun- tains. By Georce Govan, M. D. This paper is inserted in this Num- ber, p. 277. January 3.—At this Meeting Robert Brown, Esq- was elected an Ho- norary Member of the Society. There was also read by Dr Hrszerr, a paper on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments remote from their native beds, as displayed in a stratum of loam near Manchester. This paper is printed in this Number, p. 208. At the same Meeting Mr Harpincer reada Description of Fergusonite, a new-mineral species. For a notice of this mineral, named in compliment to Robert Ferguson, Esq- of Raith, see p. 375. January 17.—At this Meeting Mr P. F. Tyrier read extracts from a Journal of Travels through Persia, by Mr James Baitiie Fraser. February 7-—The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members: , Major Leith Hay of Rannes. Rey. John Williams, Rector of the Edinburgh Academy. John Hugh Maclean, Esq- Advocate. At this Meeting there was read a Description of Withamite, a new mi- neral species found in Glenco. By Dr Brewster. This paper is pub- lished in this Number, p. 262. February 21.—There was read an Account of a Sepulchral Urn, con- taining fragments of bones and a boar’s tusk, found near the village of Ra~ then in Aberdeenshire. By Joun Gorpon, Esq, of Cairnbulgh. The sepulchral urn described in this paper was circular, r resembling in - shape a ball of about thirteen inches in diameter, cut through about four inches from the top. It was nearly filled with the remains of human_ bones in small particles, together with a considerable quantity of dry earthy matter. The urn was surrounded by upright stones about a foot and a half in length, on the top of which was placed a flat one, resembling the one on which the urn stood. The boar’s tusk was perfectly sound and entire when found ; but in about a month it cracked, and broke in one or ’ two places. About fifteen or twenty years ago, several similar urns were dug up; but we have not learned that any boars’ tusks were found in them. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 361 ‘There was also read’a Description of a new Photometer, with its applica- tion. By Mr Wir11am Ritcnie, Rector of the Academy of Tain. See p. 339. At the same Meeting there was read a paper on the First Introduction of Greek Literature into England after the dark ages. By Patrick Fra- ser TyTLeR, Esq. March 7.—The following gentlemen were elected Members : Foreign Members. M. Mitscherlich, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Berlin. M. Gustavus Rose, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Berlin. Ordinary Members. Dr William Preston Lauder, Physician in Edinburgh. Right Honourable Lord Ruthven. Dr Edward Turner, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh. At this Meeting was read a paper on the Neptunian Formation of Sili- ceous Stalactites, by the Rey. Dr FLemine. This paper is printed in this Number, p. 307. 2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. May 3, 1824.—A communication was read from C. Bazpace, Esq. F.R. S. Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, on the Determi- nation of the General Terms of a new class of Infinite Series. ’ A paper was also read by G. B. Arry, Esq. Fellow of the Camb. Soc. on the Construction of a new Achromatic Telescope. May 17.—A communication was read from J. Hoce, Esq. Fellow of the Camb. Phil. Soc. on two Petrifying Springs in the neighbourhood of Norton, in the county of Durham. A paper Was read by G. B. Airy, Esq. Fellow of the Camb. Phil. Soc. on the Principle and Construction of the Achromatic Eye-Pieces of Tele- scopes, and on the Achromatism of Microscopes. May 24.—A paper was read by Dr Haviranp, President of the Cam. Phil. Soc. on the Cases of Secondary Small-Pox, and of Small-Pox after Vaccination, which have occurred in Cambridge during the last year. A paper was read by the Rev. Professor Farisu, Vice-President of the | Camb. Phil. Soc. on a Method of obviating the Inconveniencies arising from the Expansion and Contraction of the Iron in Iron Bridges. May 25.—Being the anniversary meeting of the Society, the following officers were appointed for the ensuing year: Dr Haviland, Regius Professor of Physic, President. Dr F. Thackeray, Rey. W. Farish, Jacksonian Professor, Vice=Presidents. Rev. J. Cumming, Professor of Chemistry, \ Rev. B. Bridge, T'reasurer. Rev. G. Peacock, Tutor of Trinity, Rev. J. S. Henslow, Professor of Mineralogy, } reer ey 362 Proceedings of Societies. Rey. W. Whewell, Tutor of Trinity, Steward of the Reading Room. Council. J. King, Esq. Tutor of Queen’s, Rey. A. Sedgwick, Professor of Geology, M. Ramsay, Esq. Rev. J. Studholme, Rey. R. Crawley, Tutor of Magdalene, Rev. R. Jeffreys, Rev. J. P. Higman, Tutor of Trinity. Nov. 15.—A communication was read by Rev. Professor CumMING, on the Use of Gold Leaf in the’ Detection of Magnetism. A paper was read by Rev. W. Wuewe tt, Fellow of the Camb. Phil. Soc. on the Principles of Dynamics. Nov. 29.—A communication was read by Rev. Proto CumMING, on the History of Electro-Magnetism. - Dec, 13.—A paper was read by Rev. Professor Fartsu, Vice-President, on the Construction of the Cogs of Wheels, and also on the Action of Wheels with Cogs in the Form of Involutes of Circles. 3. Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotiand. Dec. 21, 1824.—The Rev. Mr Somervitte of Currie gave an account of his contrivances for preventing the accidental discharge of fire-arms, and exhibited to the society various guns to which they were applied. There was read also a Description of the original Machine for Drying Linen, invented by the late Mr James Wart, and communicated by him to Dr Brewster. An Account of Mr Txom of Rothesay’s New Double Valve Sluice was read. See this Number, p. 288. Professor WaLLace read a Report on Mr Burnet’s Trigon for solving Problems in Navigation. Jan. 4, 1825.—There was read a Report by Professor Wattace, Mr Kinnear, and Dr Brewsrer, on Mr Sommerville’s Contrivances for Preventing the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. A Description of the Single Valve Sluice, invented by Mr Tuom of Rothesay, was read. Jan. 18.—Mr Tuomas Crarxk described to the Society his new Quick- silver Pump, without Friction, and exhibited the Pump in Operation. See this Number, p. 267. Mr James Jarptne gave his Report on the New Fangate Sluice, in- vented by M. Blanker, and described the principles of its construction. An account of it by Professor Mott will be given in our next Number. Feb. 8.—A Description of Dr Dyce’s Universal Balance was read, and the Balance itself exhibited. A notice of the late Mr Sropart’s Alloys of Steel with Gold, Silver, Platina, and Rhodium, was read, and specimens of them were exhibited LO Society of Arts for Scotland. 363 to the Society, with a view of exciting some of our artists to direct their attention to this important branch of the arts. Feb. 22.—There was laid before the Society a Drawing and Description of an Improved Mortice Lock, invented by Messrs Jonn and Tuomas Smiru of Darnick, near Melrose. This lock exhibited much ingenuity, and possesses many advantages over the common one. Mr Witr1am Gatsraitu, A. M. gave an account of a method where- by, with a small additional apparatus, Hadley’s sextant may be converted into a dipsector. This improved sextant was exhibited to the Society. Mr Joun Broster described to the Society his Apparatus for convers- ing with the Deaf and Dumb, and exhibited it to the Society. March 8.—A Description of a Boat with a Revolving Paddle Scull, in- vented by ANDrew Wappe tt, Esq. of Hermitage Hill, was read, and a model of the boat was exhibited to the meeting. The Move: which accompanied Mr Waddell’s paper, is from the Plan of a French corvette, or sloop of war, and is on a scale of one-fourth of an inch to a foot ; but although this vessel measures above 300 tons, her real burden is much less, being constructed with a very sharp bottom, for the purposes of fast sailing. With this model, many of Mr Waddell’s experi- ments were made, and by the revolving scull at present fixed to the stern, the greatest velocity has been produced. It is of the same construction as that used in the boat with which the experiments were made on the Wet Dock at Leith, as described in this Number, p. 206. Each of the paddle-plates of the scull, according to the scale of the model, have a surface of eighteeen feet, or thirty-six square feet in both. The accompanying common paddle-wheels, of fifteen feet diameter, when fixed on the end of the Azi/e, in the centre of the model, and set in motion, produce a propelling surface nearly double that of the scull, not- withstanding which, the scull propels the model with a velocity of ninety English feet in sixty-four seconds of time, while the common paddle- wheels above stated, take eighty seconds of time to perform the same; and the moving power applied to both, isa small clock-spring with a train of wheels. See p. 206. Mr Suretz gave a Description of his very ingenious Triangle used at the late Fire for elevating the Jet of the extinguishing Engine, and exhi- bited a Model of it to the Society. The following articles of foreign and domestic manufacture were exhi- bited to the Society : 1. Several specimens of Wood Screws, of French manufacture, with specimens of German ditto. 2. Specimens of French Glue. 3. Specimens of Painted Canvas from Antwerp. 4. Specimens of Gelatine from a manufactory near Paris. 5. Specimens of Woollen Cloths from MM. Terneaux of Paris. 6. Specimen of a stuff made from the produce of the Cashemire Goats introduced into France by Messrs Terneaux. _ 7. Specimens of a very cheap manufacture by the same. $. Specimens of cheap Sheffield Cutlery. 364 Scientific Intelligence. Art. XXXIV.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. ASTRONOMY. 1. Remarkable Double Tail in the Comet of 1823.—As this singular fact has been observed both in Europe and America, there can be no doubt of its truth, and therefore the particular details of it become very interesting to the Astronomer. This phenomenon was observed by several persons at Newhaven Connecticut, on the evening of January 23, and previous to this by President Day of Yale College. The faint stream of light which was seen to extend from the comet towards the sun, was not directly op- posite to its usual tail, but inclined at an angle of 1783° or 178° to it. In its brightness and length it was variable, being sometimes visible only near the nucleus of the comet, and at other times extending to as great a dis- tance as the usual tail. It was, however, narrower, and was supposed by some to converge to a point. It was observed again, through a very clear atmosphere, on the morning of the 27th, when both were fainter than before, but it retained the same relative position. It vanished a little be- fore the tail of the comet, after having been a few days visible. The very same phenomenon was observed by M. de Biela at Prague. He first saw it on the night of the 22d January, and also on the 25th and 27th, but neither before nor after. He describes the stream of light as a tail turned towards the sun, and he says that the two tails were not exactly opposite to each other, but forming a very obtuse angle. The new tail was neither so brilliant nor so long as the usual one. See Professor Silli- man’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 315- 2. Supposed Influence of Comets on the Sun’s Surface.—M. de Biela con- ceives that he has observed an effect produced on the luminous state of the sun by the proximity of comets, and he is said to have observed the in- crease of spots on its surface when comets have approached to their peri- helion. 8. Periodical Comet of 1819.—According to the calculations of M. Da- moiseau, the following are the elements of the comet at its return in 1825. Passage of Perihelion, September 17 084 Eccentricity - - 0.8449784 Long. of Perihelion - - 157° 14’ 30” Long. of Nede - - 334 22 8 Inclination of Orbit - - 13 23 29 Mean Daily Motion - - 1070”. 0866 Half of the Greater Axis - 2.223611 The following ephemerides of the comet will enable us to find it in 1825, though there is little reason to hope that it will be seen during that period, as its elongation from the sun varies from 49° to 33° in the interval em- braced by the following table. After it passes its perihelion it is still less likely to be seen. In the autumn of 1828, however, it will be visible over all Europe. Astronomy— Optics. 365 R. Asc. N. Decl. Dist. from Dist. from Comp. Earth. Sun. Light. 1825, July 14. 075 59° @ 28° 47” 1.775 1.345 0.175 24. 073 70 5 30 52 1597 1.198 0.273 Aug. 3. 086 64 15 23 56 1.439 1.041 0.445 13. 087 99 48 23 44 1.316 0.874 0.597 23. O61 4118 6 21 28 1.243 0.697 0.647 Connoiss. des Tems, 1827, p. 223, 224. 4. Depression of the Horizon at Sea.—In an interesting notice by M. Arago on this subject, he compares the differences between the calculated and observed depression with the differences between the temperature of the air and the sea as observed at the same time. When the calculated depression is greater, the errors are called positive, and when they are less, negative. M. Arago found that the error of the computed depression will be positive in a climate where the temperature of the air exceeds that of the sea, but that the negative errors are observed indiscriminately in all re- lative temperatures of the air and the sea- Connoiss. des Tems, 1827, p. 319. OPTICS. 5. Refractive Power of Dry and Humid Air.—M. Arago has found by a particular method, that the refractive power of humid air differs a very little from that of dry air, the elastic force of each being the same- Con- noiss. des Tems, 1827, p- 320- 6. Polarisation of Eight from Solid or Fluid incandescent Bodies —M. Arago has observed, that the rays which issue from solid or fluid incandes- cent bodies are partly polarised by refraction, when they form with the surface of emergence an angle of a small number of degrees. The light of combustible gases presented no traces of polarisation. Hence M. Arago concludes, that a considerable portion of the light of incandescent bodies is formed in their interior, and at depths which he has not yet completely determined. Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 89. 7. Optical Phenomena observed by M. Ruppell—In observing the eclipses of the stars by the moon, near the ruins of Solib in Upper Egypt, M. Ruppell had, on the 4th of June, directed his large telescope to the ob- scure limb of the moon. Close to it he observed a star of the 5th magni- tude, which was about to be eclipsed by the moon. When it was near the limb, and on the point of disappearing, he observed, to his great surprise, that the star of the 5th magnitude was divided into two smaller ones of the 8th magnitude, which he saw with extraordinary distinctness. A few se- conds afterwards they successively immerged behind the moon’s limb. M. Ruppell asks, was this distinctness of vision produced by the atmosphere of the moon? Baron Zach explains this effect by saying, that M. Ruppell saw the star better, and consequently double, (for we presume it was real- ly a double one,) in consequence of his looking longer at it; but this can never be considered as an explanation of the extraordinary distinctness of 366 | Scientific Intelligence. . which M. Ruppell speaks. If M. Ruppell first saw the star near the mar« gin of the field, and afterwards saw it near the middle of it, the explana- tion would be easy ; but it is necessary to suppose that the distinctness in question arose from the proximity of the star to the moon. It is by no means impossible that the dispersion produced by the lunar atmosphere might correct the uncorrected colour in the telescope, if such uncorrect- ed colour existed. 8. Remarkable Dichroism of Axinite-—The dichroism of this mineral has already been observed, and mentioned in the Philosophical Transac- tions for 1819, p. 20; but Mr Haidinger has observed in Mr Allan’s Col- lection a crystal from Cornwall, in which it is very remarkable, and he got it cut for the purpose of exhibiting it to advantage. By looking through the faces rv’ of the figures of Axinite in Hauy and Mohs, there isa line in- clined towards the face ¢, where common light transmitted through the plate is aminimum, and of a dark red colour, but not polarised, or rather consist- ing of two superimposed pencils polarised in opposite planes. By continuing the inclination towards ¢, the light becomes brighter and whiter, and all polarised in one plane, as if transmitted through a bundle of glass plates. By inclining the plate in the upposite direction towards z, the very same ef- fect is produced. These effects are obviously owing to the absorption of one of the pencils by the crystal, as described in the Article Oprics, of the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. XV. p. 601. 9. Optical Structure of Somervillite-—This interesting mineral species, which we have already described in this Journal, Vol. I. p. 187, has one axis of double refraction, as it ought to have by the optical law of primi- tive forms. The action of that axis upon light is negative, by the exa- _™ination of the rings, and the double images, as it ought to be by another optical law. The separation of the images is easily seen through the faces P and a, in our Figure, Vol. I. Plate VIII. Fig. 4. Somervillite contains several crystallised cavities, when examined by the microscope. For the specimen with which we made the preceding observations, we have been indebted to Dr Somerville, whose name it bears. MAGNETISM. 10. Magnetic Variation at Lake Superior.—The following observations have been made by Mr Thompson, astronomer to the Boundary Commis- sion : W. Long. N. Lat. Easterly Variation. Point Marmoaze, - 84° 34’ a1: a 6° 0 Thunber Point, - - 89 4 48 20 ey Fort William, - . 89 22 48 22 6 6s Grand Portage, . &9 42 47 58 31 Miles west of Grand Portage, . - 2 0 River St Louis, - 92 10 46 44 5.0 Ninigan Bay, - - 8b OO 48 56 Compass much disturbed. The preceding observations seem to haye been made in 1822. Magnetism.— Meteorology. 367 - 41. Magnetic Declination at Paris in 1822 and 1823.—The declination of the needle at Paris, in these years, was, 1822, Oct. 9th, 22° 11’ 1823, Nov. 20th, 22° 23 The last observed dip of the needle at Paris seems to have been in 1814, when it was 68° 36’. 7 METEOROLOGY. 12. Great Inundation in Sweden and at St Petershurg.—There are few events in the physical world that have excited so much attention, and done so much mischief, as the tempest of the 18th and 19th November 1824, and the extraordinary inundation which accompanied it- The storm began on the coasts of England and Holland, and, after hay- ing occasioned numerous shipwrecks on the north coast of Jutland, it ad- vanced to Gottenburg and Stockholm, keeping more and more to the di- rection of N. W- and S. E. On the 13th and 14th Nov. the barometer at Stockholm fell lower than it had ever been seen, below even that which took place at the great earth- quake of Messina in 1783. On the following days the sky was cloudy and the weather variable ; but on the night of the 18th, and morning of the 19th November, a storm arose, which, after wrenching the vessels from their moorings, dashed them against each other, unroofed houses, and co- vered the roads with uprooted trees. A sheet of the copper roof of the palace of the Princess Sophia, about sixteen yards long, was carried off to the square of Gustavus Adolphus. Twenty-five ships, which were lying near the bridge of Munlbron, on Lake Maelar, was carried away with the bridge, and submerged. Analogous effects were experienced at Gottenburg, Vibourg, and Ude- walla on the 18th. At Udewalla the sea rose eight feet above the great- est elevation, and its motion was so rapid, that many persons had not time to escape. In the higher parts of the town, whole houses were car- ried away, and some ships were transported into the fields, 4000 feet from their anchorage. One vessel of 150 tons was actually wrecked in the mid- dle of a street. At Christiania, on the 18th, at 7" p.m., the waters of the Firth rose suddenly more than three yards above their mean level. After producing terrible destruction, they sunk suddenly below their ordinary level ; but next day they rose again with such rapidity, that a new inundation was apprehended in the lower part of the town, as well as in the fauxbourgs of Waterland and Lierdingen. For several days before the tempest appeared at St Petersburg, gusts of wind from the S. W. carried off several roofs in Wassili-Ostrow. On the 18th the storm increased, and the waters of the Neva rose to the height of the parapets. At 9h a.m. of the 19th, they quitted their channel, and spread themselves over all the town to such a height, that, on the quay of the Neva, the lamp-posts were not visible. All the wooden-bridges, great and small, were carried away, and the houses inundated to the height of ten feet, and even to the height of five fect in the higher parts of the city. 368 Scientific Intelligence. Entire houses tumbled down, and four-wheeled carriages were hurried away by the waves. Barks of the largest size were carried over the quays, and shipwrecked in the middle of the city, where boats were ready to collect the unfortunate inhabitants of the lower stories. A brig remained overset in the middle of the street of the Grand Perspective. The parapets along the banks of the river, which were built of enormous blocks of granite, were opened in several places. The wind was so violent, that it rolled up like sheets of paper, and carried off the plates of white-iron, which covered the roofs of the houses. To the distance of five leagues from St Petersburgh, the rise, and the fury of the waters, were not less remarkable. Near Catherinoff, a whole village was carried away, and a number of country houses were destroyed. At Cronstadt the sea everywhere rose fourteen feet, and the imperial fleet of twelve ships and four frigates, which lay in the Roads, were torn from their cables, and dashed upon the coast. A ship of 100 guns disap- peared entirely. |The wooden batteries were wholly razed on the side op- posite to the sea, and those built with stone were greatly injured. The gun-carriages, separated from the cannon, floated on the waves. These facts will enable us to form some idea of the extraordinary rapi- dity of this torrent and its elevation. . The following particulars will show the extent of the devastation, and of the losses which accompanied them, and of the number of human victims which perished. A whole regiment of carabineers, men and horses, was drowned. The earabineers had ascended the roof of the barracks for safety, but they were all swept away. At the foundry of M. Clark, four versts from the city, on the road of Peterhoff, the workmen perceiving too late the progress of the waters, saw their own habitations, containing their wives and their children, swallowed up by the sea. More than fifty bodies were extricated at that place. The number of sufferers has been estimated at from 500 to 700,and the loss at 150 millions, (of roubles we presume). Among these losses are mentioned 15,000 tons of hemp, 500 oxen, 200,000 quintals of hemp, 2,460,000 lbs. of sugar. All these ravages, which have been compared to the destruction sustain- ed by Moscow in the late war, were produced between nine A. M. and three P. M. The rise of the waters was sixteen feef, whereas in 1777, when a similar disaster happened, the rise was only fourteen feet. This phenomenon has been ascribed to one of two causes; by some to the effect of the wind in accumulating and pushing up the waters of the river, and by others to some subterraneous convulsion. This last opinion is supposed to be countenanced by the sudden elevation and depression of the sea at Christiania, by the spontaneous breaking forth of new springs in the Upper and the Lower Rhine ;—by crevices which have been opened in the solid ground ;—by aslight earthquake which was experienced at Ports- mouth and in the Alps; and by the volcanic eruption of Donnersberg, which, for the first time, discharged flames and ashes. 4 Meteorology.—Chemistry. 369, 13. Great Rain at Manchester in 1824.—According to the accurate obser- vations of M. Dalton, the following extraordinary quantities of rain fell during the four last months of the year :— September, = = 5.440 inches. October, - - 6.896 November, - - 5.510 December, - - 7.835 Total, - 25.681 The mean annual quantity of rain at Manchester is only about 34 in- ches. 14. Diurnal Variation of the Barometer at Marseilles —M. Gambart, the astronomer at Marseilles, has announced, that, in the year 1823, the diurnal variations of the barometer have been the same as in the Torrid zone. CHEMISTRY: 15. Deoxidating property of the Vapour of Water.—Professor Pfaff, of Kiel, has observed that nitrate of silver assumes a yellow or even a deep brown colour, by exposure to the vapour of pure water; but the change of colour does not appear till the solution is raised by the vapour to the boiling point. M. Pfaff attributes these changes of colour to deoxidation, for the following reasons: 1. The similarity of the changes to those pro-= duced by light. 2. The disappearance of the colour by the addition of nitric acid. 3. The production of the same effect by the vapour of water upon other metallic solutions, which are easily deoxidated by light or by any chemical action. 4. The disengagement of oxygen gas during the process. The most convincing proof, however, according to M. Pfaff, is furnished by a solution of gold, so diluted as scarcely to retain a yellow tint. The vapour of water causes it to assume a fine blue colour, perfect- ly similar to that produced by a tincture of galls. The acetate of silver is much more feebly discoloured thon the nitrate. M. Gay-Lussac remarks upon these results, that they do not leave a complete degree of conviction. He says, that it is not necessary to make the vapour of water pass over the solutions, but that their ebullition is sufficient. Ann. de Chim. tom. xxviii. p: 215. 16. Quantity of Heat disengaged during Combustion—In his remarks on respiration, M. Despretz has found, that hydrogen gas in burning melts 315.2 times its weight of ice, and carbon 104.2. It is’ remarkable, as M. Welter observes, that the number 315.2, and 104.2, are almost rigorously proportional to the weight of oxygen absorbed by the hydrogen and the earbon. For, from the chemical proportions of Berzelius, supposing the first number 315.2, the second will be 104.066. This observation is favour= able to the conjecture-of M. Welter, that the quantities of heat disengaged in combustion, are in definite proportions—See the Ann. de Chim. toms VOL. II, NO. II, APRIL 1825. Bb 370 Scientific Intelligence. xix: p. 425. M. Welter observes, that in the combustions which he has mentioned, that of carbon deviates most from the law, whereas by Des- pretz’s experiments, it is the one which deviates the least—See Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 223. 17. On the Colouring Matter, called Chica, by the Indians.—The chica, with which the Indians of Rio Meta and the Orinoco paint their bodies red, is obtained by boiling the leaves of the Bignonia Chica for a long time in water. The red feculent matter is quickly precipitated by adding some pieces of the bark of a tree which is common in the savannahs of Meta, and is called arayana. The red matter is then carefully washed, and be- fore drying, it is put up in round cakes, from five to six inches in diame- ter, and from two to three high; in which form it is met with in com- mon. M. Boussingault remarks, that they have begun to employ chica in dyeing. When fixed in cotton, it gives it a yellow orange colour.—See Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 315. 18. Avogadro’s Table of the Affinities of Bodies for Caloric. Oxygen, - - 1.0000 Chlorocyanic acid, - 1.2901 Nitric acid, - - 1.0596 Oxide of carbon, - 1.4265 Oxygenated chloric acid, - 1.0693 Oxalic acid, - - 1.4296 Nitrous acid, - - 1.0700 Cyanogen, - - 1.4384 Chloric acid, - = 1.0840 Hydrochloric acid, - 1.4805 Hyponitrous acid, - 1.0847 Peroxide of hydrogen, - 1.6464 Deutoxide of chlorine or chlorous Carbon, - - 1.6819 acid, - - 1.1068 | Hydro-cyanic acid, - 1.8295 Nitrous gas, - z 1.1073 Acetic acid, - 1.9676 Protoxide of azote gas, - 1.1464 Point of true neutrality, - 2.0041 Protoxide of chlorine or euchlorine,1.3465 | Water, - - 2.2219 Chlorine, - - 1.1806 Ammonia, - - 3.1296 Carbonic acid, - 1.1860 Olefiant gas, - 3.1566 Phosgene gas, or chloroxi-car- Carburetted hydrogen, - 4.2648 bonic acid, - - 1.2120 Hydrogen, - . 12.0674 Azote, - - 1.2299 Memorie della Reale Academia de Torino, tom. xxviii. p. 68. 19. Avogadro’s Table of the Neutralizing Powers of different Substances. —lIn the following table, the acidifying or acid neutralizing powers, are marked with the sign —; and their alkalinity, or neutralizing alkaline power, by the sign +. Oxygen, - - — 1.0000 Azote, - — 0.7710 Nitric acid, - — 0.9406 Chlorocyanic acid, - — 0.7118 Oxygenated chloric acid, — 9.9310 Oxide of carbon, - - — 0.5752 Nitrous acid, = — 0.9303 Oxalic acid, - — 0.5741 Chloric acid, > — 0.9163 Cyanogen, -. - — 0.5634 Hyponitrous acid - — 0.9156 Hydrochloric acid, - — 0.5215 Deutoxide of chlorine or chlorous Peroxide of hydrogen, - — 0.3562 acid, - - — 0.8936 Carbon, ’ Sy TS Nitrous gas, = - — 0.8931 Hydro-cyanic acid, - —90.1739 Chemistry. oil Protoxide of azote gas, — 0.8542 Acetic acid, « — 0.0364 Protoxide of chlorine or euch- *- Point of true neutrality, - 0.0000 lorine, . - — 0.8541 Water, - - + 0.2169 Chlorine, < = — 0.8207 Ammonia, - + 1.1209 Carbonic acid, - — 0.8148 — Olefiant gas, - + 1.1478 Phosgene gas, or chloroxi- Carburetted Hydrogen, - + 2.2515 carbonic acid, = — 0.7889 Hydrogen, = - _+ 10.0222 Mem. dell. Reale Acad. Torino, tom. xxviii. p. 73- 20. Analysis of the Sulphuret of Manganese from Transylvania, by Arfvedson. Manganese, - - - 62.60 Sulphur, - - . 57.00 The formula Mn S?, giving one atom of manganese, and two of sulphur, makes this proportion = 63.88:36.12. (Poggendorff’s Ann. der Phys. 1824.5.) 21. Analysis of Blende, crystallized, yellow, and transparent, by Arfued- son. Zine, = - - - 66.54 Sulphur, - . - 33.66 It contained, besides, a trace of iron. The formula Zn S?, expressing one atom of zinc, and two of sulphur, agrees with the proportion 66.34 : 33-09. 22. Analysis of Capillary Pyrites, by Arfvedson. Nickel, : 3 : a es Sulphur, - - - 34.26 It appeared to contain traces of cobalt and arsenic. The proportion be- tween one atom of nickel and two atoms of sulphur is 64.35: 35.02. The sulphuret of nickel is not magnetic. 23. Analysis of two varieties of Harmotome, by Dr Wernekingk of Giessen. From Annerode. From Schiffenberg.- Silica, - - 53.07 44.79 Alumina, . . 21.51 19.28 Lime, - - 6.67 1.08 Baryta, - - 0.39 37 87.59 Oxide of iron and manganese, 0.56 0.85 Water, - - 17.09 15.32 Both kinds occur in the cavities of basaltic hills, near Giessen, in Hes- sia, at a distance of about three miles from each other. (Gilbert’s Ann. der Physik. 1824, 2. p. 171.) 21. Analysis of Sideroschisolite, by Dr Wernekingk. Silica, - - - 16.3 Black oxide of iron, - - 75.5 Alumina, - - - 4.1 Water, = - - i 372 Scientific Intelligence. Dr Wernekingk is of opinion, that this mineral is a variety of the Cron- stedtite of Steinmann, at least in so far as may be inferred from the descrip- tion given by Zippe of the latter mineral. He described Sideroschisolite as occurring in small simple three-sided and six-sided pyramids ; the former resembling tetrahedrons, fixed to the support with their most acute solid angle or apex, and showing a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the axis,- the face of crystallization parallel to it being smooth, the inclined faces of- ten convex. These forms would be analogous to the hemi-rhombobedral ones of tourmaline and red silver ore. They are sometimes grouped with divergent axes. The hardness is between 2.0 and 3.0, (gypsum and cal- careous spar) ; the specific gravity probably above 3.0. Before the blow- pipe, it melts easily into a black magnetic globule; thin lamine of the mineral, exposed to the flame of a candle, become iron-black and mag- netic. Exposed to nitric acid, they become white and keep their form, but show a gelatinous consistency when touched. The sideroschisolite occurs along with conchoidal magnetic pyrites and sparry iron at Conhonas do Campo, in Brazil. (Poggendorff’s Ann. der Phys. 1824. 8. p. 387.) 25. Analysis of Uranite hy Berzelius. From Autun. From Cornwall. Baryta - - 1.51 0.00. Lime - - - 5.66 0.00. Oxide of Copper . . 0.00 8.44. Magnesia and Manganese 0.19 0.00. Oxide of Urasium = 59.37 60.25. Phosphoric Acid - 14.63 15.57. Water - - 14.90 15.05. Foreign Admixtures - 2.85 0.70. The variety from Autun showed, besides, traces of fluoric acid and am- monia, that from Cornwall arsenic acid and fiuorie acid. The chemical formulae given by Berzelius are for the varieties From Autun - Cas Pe +4U P + 48 Aq. From Cornwall ~ Cus Pe +40 P + 48 Aq. They differ in their ingredients of lime and copper. Berzelius proposes to apply in future the name of Chalcolite to the variety from Cornwall, in order to distinguish it as a particular species from the French variety, for — which he retains the name of Uranite. He says, “ Since, according to Mitscherlich’s excellent discovery, lime and oxide of copper are isomor= phous bodies, they must assume the same form of crystallisation, if com- bined with the same number of atoms of oxide of uranium, phosphoric acid, and water, and therefore remain only one mineralogical species in the eyes of those who take no notice of any thing but the crystalline forms, which, however, cannot be allowed to be just, when viewed from the che- mical side of the question.” It may be added, that not only the forms, 4 Chemistry—M ineralog y. 373 but also the rest of the characters of the two kinds of Uranite have not hi- therto presented any decisive mark by which they might be distinguished swith perfect security ; but it must be allowed that the substances them- selves are very imperfectly known. When these, particularly the variety from Autun, shall have been more accurately examined, it will be possible to say whether or not they should form separate species, for nothing can follow from the isomorphism of two bodies upon the determination of the species ; since Berzelius himself, who derives the specific difference of Chalcolite and Uranite from the presence of two isomorphous bases, consi ders the presence of arsenic acid, in greater or smaller proportions in the Chaleolite, as unavailing, because this and the phosphoric acid are iso- morphous bodies. (Poggendorff’s Ann. der Phys. 1824. 8. p. 379.) III. NATURAL HISTORY. MINERALOGY. 26. Axotomous Arsenical-pyrites, a New Mineral Species. Prismatic. P == 117° 28’, 90° 51’, 121° 58’. Approx. (a:b: ¢ = 1: ,/0.8747 : ,/0.4806.) Simple forms. Pr (0) = 51° 20’; P + (d) = 122° 26’. Combination. Pr P+. Fig. 13. Cleavage, P—o, perfect; less distinct Pr = 86° 10’; traces of P + ». Fracture uneven. Surface faintly streaked parallel to the common edges of combination, frequently smooth. Lustre metallic. Colour between silver-white and steel-grey. Streak greyish-black. Brittle. Hardness = 5.0... 5.5. Sp. Gr. = 7.228, the massive va- riety from Reichenstein. Compound varieties. Massive: composition granular, individuals small, often nearly impalpable, and strongly connected, fracture uneven ; composi- tion columnar, rather thick and irregular, and divergent. Faces of composi- tion irregularly streaked. Observations —The axotomous arsenical-pyrites contains arsenic and iron, in proportions which have not yet been ascertained. It occurs in a bed of sparry iron, at Léling, near Htittenberg, in Carinthia, along with octahedral bismuth and skorodite, and was distinguished by Professor Mohs from the other more common species of arsenical-pyrites. The same species he found afterwards among the cobalt ores from Schlad- ming, in Stiria, and imbedded in the serpentine from Reichenstein, in Silesia. In the latter place it seems to occur in very considerable quantities. The crystals have been observed- among the varieties from Schladming. (Mohs, vol. iis p. 522. Z'ransi. vol. ii. p. 448.) . 27. Prismatoidal Copper-Glance, a New Mineral Species. Prismatic. Combination. 1. Pr (P) P +0. (4) Pr + a” (h)- Sim. Fig. 11. Cleavage, Pr + © rather perfect, though interrupted. Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Surface rough. Lustre metallic. Colour blackish lead-grey. Streak unchanged. Brittle. Hardness= 3.0. Sp. Gr. = 5.736. 374 Scientific Intelligence. Compound Varieties. Massive: composition granular, individuals strongly connected. Observations.—The prismatoidal Copper-glance has been hitherto found only in the beds of sparry-iron at St Gertraud, near Wolfsberg, in the valley of Lavant, in Carinthia. It is very nearly allied to the follow- ing species. It will depend upon future accurate examinations, parti- cularly of its regular forms, whether or not the varieties of the two species are identical. This species was determined by Professor Mohs, before he was acquainted with any of the varieties of the Bournonite. Though it is likely that they do not present any specific difference, it would be too precipitate to unite them, without being capable of affording a demonstration of their identity. Before the blow-pipe, the two species give very nearly the same results. They both contain sulphur, antimony, lead, and copper ; but the prisma- toidal copper-glance yields also a little silver, for the extraction of which it is collected by the miners, without, however, properly speaking, being an object of mining. (Mohs, vol. ii. p. 559; Transl. vol. iii. p. 4.) 28. Axrotomous Antimony-Glance, a New Mineral Species. Prismatic. Simple forms. P + » = 101° 20’ (nearly); Pr + ©. Combinations, of the preceding forms, their terminations not observed. Cleavage, P— « highly perfect; less distinct, though easily observed, when the crystals are not too small, the prism P + », and Pr + @ the plane parallel to the short diagonal. Fracture not observable. Surface - deeply streaked, parallel to the axis of the prisms. Lustre metallic. Colour steel-gray. Streak unchanged. Sectile. Hardness = 2.0 ... 2.5 Sp. Gr. = 5°564. Compound Varieties. Massive: composition columnar, individuals ge- _nerally very delicate ; straight and parallel, or divergent. Observations—Nothing as yet is known of the proportions among the ingredients of the present species. It contains sulphur, antimony, and lead. The axotomous Antimony-glance seems to be a rare mineral, or at least not sufficiently attended to by mineralogists. It occurs in masses of con- siderable dimensions in Cornwall, sometimes along with the diprismatie Copper-glance, as in Huelboys. In Hungary it is engaged in rhombohe- dral Limehaloide, but its locality is not exactly known.—(Mohs, vol. ii, p- 586. Transi. vol. iii. p. 6.) Mr Haidinger proposes for this species the name of Jamesonite, in honour of Professor Jameson, who has so much contributed to the present general diffusion of mineralogical knowledge. 29. Hemiprismatic Ruby-Blende, a new Mineral Species. Hemipfismatie. Fundamental form. Scalene four-sided pyramid. P= yee id a ni ret » 130° 7’, 77° 16’.. Inclination of the axis = 11° 6’, in the plane of the long diagonal. Approx. (a: b:c:d=5.1: 9.5: 98.7: 1.) Cambinations. 1. P=- « (3). EN (. Po wef) Pie a, Mineralogy. $15 Pr 42 P 1 : bl i pn .+—__ - (zg). -=S. P+. Fig. 15. Inclination of 2P—a fon f = 86° pe of b on edge x = 101° 6’; of g on the same = 151° 51’; of ¢ on the same 132° 34’. There occur many secondary faces ; the whole has much the appearance of crystals of hemiprismatic Vitriol-salt. Cleavage, parallel to g, and to a face replacing the edge x of the prism, imperfect. Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Surface, deeply streaked pa- rallel to the edges of combination with y, particularly 5 and f, as indi- cated in the figure ; the pyramids are smooth, ¢ rough, though even. Lustre intermediate between metallic and metallic adamantine. Colour iron-black. Streak dark cherry-red. Opake, except in thin splinters, where it transmits a deep blood-red colour. Very sectile. Hardness = 2.0...2.5. Sp. Gr. = 5.2... 5.4. Observations.—Vhe chemical composition of this species, one of those which were formerly comprised under the dark-red silver, has not been as yet exactly ascertained. Before the blow-pipe, it gives results nearly agreeing with those of rhombohedral Ruby-blende, but it contains only about 35.00 ... 40.00 per cent. of silver, besides sulphur and antimony, The only specimen of it, in the possession of Mr Von Weissenbach at Freiberg, is supposed to have been found in the mine called Neue Hoff= nung Gottes, at Braunsdorf, near Freiberg, in Saxony. It consists only of erystals, and is not accompanied by any other mineral. A finely crystallised specimen from Hungary is in the possession of Mr Brooke, which seems to have some properties analogous to the hemipris- matic Ruby-blende. Yet its combinations appear to be tetartoprismatic, and may therefore belong to another species. (Mohs, vol. ii. p. 606. Transl. vol. iii. p. 42.) Professor Mohs remarks, in regard to the light and dark-coloured varieties of Red Silver, that the difference between these varieties, though originally founded on the different tints of colour and streak of the two minerals, and on their Justre, which is dependent upon them, is deeper rected in the essence of these bodies than it would appear at first sight. Though the forms do not seem to be very different, and the peculiarities in the series of erystallizations be common to both, the spe- cific gravity of the tivo substances is considerably different, being circum- scribed, as far as our present information goes, within the limits of 5.8 ... 5.9 for the dark-red, and of 5.4... 5.6 for the light-red variety. A ane red cleavable variety from the Hare gave 5.831, a light-red one, also cleavable, from Annaberg, 5.524, and a crystallised one from the Churprinz mine, near Freiberg, having the colour of the dark-red variety, 5.422. This subject deserves the particular attention of mineralogists, theugh as yet it is impossible to settle any thing in regard to the determi- nation of the species. 30. Fergusonite, a New Mineral Species. ; Hemipyramidal, with parallel faces. P= 100° 28’, 128° 27’ Approx. (a= nf 4.5.) 376 Scientific I ntelligence. Combination. P— x (7). P (s). CHU"). LG to FT Fig. 17. Inclination of z on 2’ = 159° 2’. Cleavage, traces parallel to P. Fracture perfect conchoidal. Surface rather uneven. Lustre imperfect metallic, inclining to resinous. Colour dark brownish-black, in thin splinters pale. Streak very pale brown, like peritomous titanium-ore. Opake, in thin splinters translucent. Brittle. Hardness = 5.5... 6.0. Sp. Gr. = 5.838, Allan ; = 5.800, Turner. Not magnetic, _ Observations.—Before the blow-pipe, it loses its colour, and becomes pale greenish-yellow, but is alone infusible. It is entirely dissolved in salt of phosphorus, but some particles remain a long time unaltered. The pale greenish globule becomes opake by flaming, or on cooling, when very much saturated. Before the whole portion has been dissolved, it assumes a pale rose colour in the reducing flame. It has been considered as an Yttro-tantalite, which is not contradicted by the experiments before the blow-pipe. It is described under that denomination in the German Grund- riss of Mohs. Mr Haidinger has given it the name of Fergusonite, at the suggestion of Mr Allan, in compliment to Robert Ferguson, Esq. of Raith. It was discovered by Sir Charles Giesecke, imbedded in rhombohedral Quartz at Kikertaursak, near Cape Farewell, in Greenland. The speci- mens to which the preceding description refers are in the cabinet of Mr Allan. Crystals of it had been described by Mr Phillips, and examined before the blow-pipe by Mr Children, under the name of Allanite; from which, however, it is sufficiently distinguished by the tetartoprismatic form of the latter—(Mohs, vol. ii. p. 688. Transl. vol. iii. p- 98. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. x. part 2, p. 271.) 31. Picrosmine, a New Mineral Species. Prismatic. P = 151° 3’, 120° 0’, 67° 59’. Approx. (a: b:¢ — 1: ,/11.00: 2.75.) Simple forms and combinations not known ; the character of the latter prismatic, as it appears from cleavage. Cleavage, Pr 4-0 (M) perfect ; Pr + » (7) less, Pr (i)= 117° 49’ still less distinct. Least of all P + (s) = 126° 52’. The product of all the faces of cleavage is represented by Fig. 16. Fracture uneven, scarcely perceptible. Lustre pearly, dis- tinct upon Pr + ®, inclining to vitreous upon the other faces. Colour greenish-white, passing into greenish-grey and mountain-green, sometimes also oil-, leek-, and blackish-green. Streak white, dull. Translucent on the edges ... opaque. Very sectile. Hardness = 2°5 ... 3°0. Sp. Gr. = 2°660 of a cleavable compound variety, 2°596 of a columnar variety. Compound Varieties. Massive: composition granular, strongly coherent. If the composition becomes impalpable, the fracture is earthy. The par- ticles of columnar compositions are very thin ; fracture splintery. Observations. Its chemical composition is unknown. Before the blow- pipe it is infusible, but gives out water, becomes first black, then white and opaque, and acquires a degree of hardness nearly = 5°0. It is soluble \ Mineralogy. 377 in salt of phosphorus, with the exception of a silica skeleton. When heat- ed with solution ef cobalt, it assumes a pale red colour, even when fused, and appears therefore to contain water, silica, and magnesia. The cleavable varieties have been found, accompanied by octahedral Iron- ore and macrotypous Lime-haloide, in a bed in primitive rocks. The only locality hitherto known is the iron mine called Engelsburg near Presnitz in Bohemia. It is likely that many varieties of the common Asbestus of Werner, (Jam. Syst. vol. ii. p. 156,) particularly that from Zo6blitz in Saxony, should be referred to this species. According to Wiegleb, it consists of silica, 46.66 ; magnesia, 48.45; oxide of iron, 4.79. Various localities are quoted for the common _Asbestus ; but since Asbes- tus contains also varieties of pyroxene and amphibole, they cannot all be supposed exact, and it would, therefore, be very interesting to institute a closer natural-historical examination of all these minerals. Among the localities chiefly quoted are Zéblitz in Saxony, Silesia, the Tyrol, and many other countries along the line of the Alps, the Shetland isles, Portsoy, &c., where it occurs in veins traversing serpentine, in the Taberg and other places in Sweden, where it occurs in beds, along with octahedral Iron-cre, with several species of Pyrites, rhombohedral and ma- crotypous Lime-haloide, &c. Picrosmine was proposed as a species of its own by Mr Haidinger, who has been indebted for the specimens which he examined to Mr Lingke, mathematical and philosophical instrument maker at Freiberg. The tri- vial name is derived from s1xgo¢, bitter, and go, odour, from the bitter and argillaceous odour the mineral exhales when wetted—(Mohs, vol. ii. p. 672. Transi. p. 137.) 32. Brookite, a New Mineral Species. Prismatic. P= 135° 46’, 101° 37’, 94° 44 (a: b:c=1: /3.237: »/1.149.) : Combination. 1. Pr. — 1 (a). Pr (7). G Pp — 2) (i). (Pr— 1)? (b4). % Pr (ce). - P (ce). (Pr + © )> (m). Pr + o (i). Pr + @ {g’). From Snowdon. Fig. 18. Inclination of a? on a? = 148° 56’; of a’ on a’ = 124° 52’; of m on m = 100° 0’; of 7 on iz, over a’, = 149° 37’; of 63 on 63, over a, = 135° 41’. Lusire metallic adamantine. Colour hair-brown, passing into a deep orange-yellow, and some reddish tints. Streak yellowish-white. T'rans- lucent ... opake, the brighter colours are observed by transmitted light. Brittle. Hardness = 5.5 ... 6.0. It contains titanium, but has not yet been analysed. This beautiful substance has been described as a particular species by Mr Lévy, and named in honour of Mr Brooke. The first varieties had been noticed by Mr Soret among the minerals accompanying pyramidal Titanium-ore from Dauphiny ; but much finer crystals, some of them halfan inch in diameter, have lately been found at Snowdon in Wales. In both places they are accompanied by rhombohedral Quartz, in Dauphiny, besides pyramidal Titanium-ore, also by Crichtonite and Albite-—Ann. of Phil. Feb. 1825. 375 Scientific Intelligence. BOTANY. 33. On the Nature of Galls.—In a memoir that M. Virey has inserted in the Journal de Pharmacie, for July 1823, he states, that with a view to ascertain the internal structure of the vegetable excrescences commonly called Galls, he has subjetted to a microscopical investigation the spongy interior of the great galls of the Tozin oak, ( Quercus Toza, ) those of the corn Saw-wort, (Serratula arvensis, ) and the central portion of the galls upon the rose-bush, (vulgarly called in England Robin Redbreast’s pin- cushions.) The conclusion at which M. Virey has arrived is, that these substances do not consist of vegetable fibres, properly so called, but that the swelling of the cellular tissue of the plants is occasioned by the ir- ritation produced by the acrid venom of the Cynips which there deposits its eggs: that this irritation is analogous to that excited in the cellular tissue of animals by the prick of a thorn ; finally, that the gallic acid and the tannin of galls are contained in tubular vesicles. ‘These two prin- ciples, the abundance of which constitutes the excellence of the best gall- nuts, are evident under the form of an opaque, brown, and grumous matter. ZOOLOGY. 34. Physalia Arethusa-—Dr Eichwald has published some very inter- esting observations on this species. The body is an oblong bag, the upper part of which is attenuated, and contains an aperture. This bag is thicker, and less transparent than an inner one, with the walls of which it is in contact at the sides, but not at the extremities, unless at the aperture. The branchie constitute a crust on the right side, of complicated organiza- tion. The inner bag is supplied with secreted air, by which the body is enabled to rise to the surface of the water. The cavity in the interior of the outer bag, opposite the aperture, is plicated, and exhibits many open- ings, the termination of the canals of those organs with which the inferior dise of the body is covered. These our author divides into two kinds. The tubuli auctorii, terminate in an expanded disc or sucker, and are con- sidered as organs of nutrition. The funiculi proliferi, are longer, narrow- er, more complicated, and considered as subservient to the reproductive system, according to the gemmiparous mode. They probably likewise serve as prehensile organs.—See Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Scien. de St Petersbourg. t. ix. 453. Tab. xv. (F.) GENERAL SCIENCE. 35. Hatching of Fish—The Chinese have a method of hatching the spawn of fish, and thus protecting it from-those accidents which generally destroy a large portion of it. The fishermen collect with care, on the margin and surface of water, all those gelatinous masses which contain the spawn of fish ; and after they have found a sufficient quantity, they fill with it the shell of a fresh hen’s egg, which they have previously emptied. stop up the hole, and put it under a sitting fowl. At the expiration of 10 General Scrence. 379 a certain number of days, they break the shell in water warmed by the sun. The young fry are presently hatched, and are kept in pure fresh water till they are large enough to be thrown into the pond with the old fish. ‘The sale of spawn for this purpose, forms an important branch of trade in China.—Professor Silliman’s Journal of Science, Vol. VIII. p. 381. 36. Mr Lizars’ Work on the Removal of Ovaria.—We are glad to see that Mr Lizars, surgeon, author of the System of Anatomical Plates, has announced an account of his successful operations for the removal of en- larged Ovaria. In one of these cases, the abdominal cavity was laid open, and an ovarium extracted which measures eleven inches long, by seven and a half broad, and weighs upwards of five pounds. The work is to be accompanied with four Plates, demy folio size, coloured after nature; the lst showing the situation and appearance of the viscera, and enlarged ova- rium, during the operation. 2d, The extent and appearance of the wound when healed.. 3d, Front view of the ovarium, the natural size. 4th, La- teral view of the ovarium, the natural size. 37. Mr Bate’s Essay on Spectacles. —This little work, addressed “ To all who value their Sight,” and entitled “‘ A few Practical Suggestions and Illustrations, intended simply to awaken the attention of every individual to the condition of his eyes, and enable him to promote the improvement and preservation of that invaluable faculty,” has just been published by Mr R. B. Bate, optician, Poultry, London, whose professional eminence and acquirements are wellknown. The treatise is written with great per- spicuity and plainness, and is well worthy the perusal of all classes. 38. Mr Innes’s Tide Tables for 1825.—Mr Innes, whose talents as an astronomical] calculator are well known to the readers of this Journal, has published (in November 1824) his ‘* Aberdeen, Leith, and London Tide Tables for 1825, with various other useful tables, and a list of vessels re- gistered at the port of Aberdeen.” This little work has all the advantages of an almanack, and will be found of great use to commercial readers. 39. The Emperor of Russia's Present to Professor Barlow—His Ma- jesty the Emperor of Russia has presented Professor Barlow, of the Royal Military Academy, through his Excellency Count Lieven, with a gold watch and rich dress chain, as a mark of the value which his Majesty places on the magnetic discoveries of that gentleman, and their important application to the science of navigation. Ant. XXXVI.—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS, SEALED IN ENGLAND SINCE JULY @7, 1824. July 27. For Improvements in Power Looms, und Preparation of Warps. To T. W. Stansrexp, Leeds, 380 List of English Patents. July 27. For Improved Roller Printing-Presses. To E. CARTWRIGHT, London. - July 29. For a New Swift for Winding Silk, &c. To C. Jerreaizs and E. Drake, Congleton. July 29. For a Method of Improving the Tones of Piano Fortes, Organs, &c. To W. Wueatstone, London. Aug. 5. For Improvements on Spinning Machines. To Joun Price, Stroud. Aug. 5. For a New Mariner’s Compass. To Gzorcr Graypon, Bath. Aug. 5. For a Method of Evaporating Fluids, for conveying Heat, &c. To W. Jounson, Great Totham. Aug. 9. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To JacoB PERKINS, London. Aug. 11. For an Improved Method of Heating Woollen Cloths. To JouHN Fussett, Mells. Aug. 11. For a New Filter. To Herman Scuroper. Aug. 28- For a Method of Producing Intense Cold. To Joun Vat- LANCE, Brighton. See this vol. p. 148. Sept. 6. For Improved Methods of Propelling Ships. To James Ni- VELL and W. Busx, London. Oct. 1. For an Improved Method of Casting Steel. To He W. Nreep- nAmM, London. Oct. 1. For Improved Steam-Engines. To W. Foreman, Bath. Oct. 7. For Improved Methods of Preparing Spelter or Zinc. To F. Benecke, D. Towers Spears, and J. H. Spears, London. , Oct. 7. For an Improved Method of Generating Steam. To P. ALEGRE. Oct. 7. For an Improved Flue for Furnaces, &c. To H. Jerrerys, Bristol. See this vol. p. 342. Oct. 7. For Improved Metal Casks or Barrels. To R. Dickinson, Lon- don. Oct. 7. For Improved Fire Escapes. To Francis Ricuman, London. Oct. 7. For Machinery for Making Velvet, §c. To S. Witson, Strea- tham. Oct. 7. For an Improved Process for Making Vinegar. To Joun Ham, West Coke. Oct. 7. For Improved Machinery for Printing Calicoes, Se. To Marruew Busu, Westham. Oct. 7 For Transverse Spring Slides for Trumpets, &. To JoHn Suaw, Milltown. Oct. 7. For Improved Shoes for Horses, Sc. ToJ- T. Hopeson, Lam- beth. Oct. 14. For Improved Machinery for Spinning Flax, &c. To Putiiie CHELL, London. Oct. 14. For Improved Machinery for Spinning Cotton and Wool. To 3. G. Bopnier, Manchester. Oct. 14. For Improvements on Wheeled Carriages. Yo James Gun, ‘London. List of Scottish Patents. 381 Art. XX XVII.—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND SINCE NOVEMBER 30, 1824. 30. Dec. 16. For Elastic Stoppers, for Stopping, Releasing, and Regu- lating Chains and other Cables. To T. R. Bowman, Aberdeen. 31. Dec. 30. For Improved Looms, &c. To P. J. B. Vicror Gosset, London. 32. Dec. 30. For Improved Looms. To Joun Porter, Smidley. 1. Jan. 1, 1825. For Improved Portable Gas Lamps. To Davin Gor- pon, London. 2. Jan. 17. For Improvements in Steam-Engines. To W. Foreman, Bath. 3. Jan. 17. For Improved Looms, &c. To T. W. Sransre p, Leeds. 4. For Improved Ship’s Tackle. To W.S. Burnett, London. 5. Feb. 9. For Improved Carriages, §c. To Davip Gorpon, London. 6. Feb. 10. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To Lieut. W. H. Hit, Royal Artillery. 7. Feb. 14. For Improved Paper Machinery. To J. and C. Putres. 8. Feb. 21. For Diaphane Stuffs, communicated by a Foreigner. To S. Witson, Streatham. 9. Feb. 22. For a New Method of Applying Heat. To J. Surrey, Battersea. 10. March 5. For Improvements in the Manufacture of Silt, Se. To R- Bapnatt, Leek. 11. March 7. For an Apparatus for Bottling Liquids. To Tuomas MasterMan, London. 12. March 7. For an Improved Method of Corking Bottles. To Jouyx MastEeRMAN, London. Art. XX XVIII—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, From April 1, to July 1, 1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr Georce Innes, Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author. These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning at noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right Ascension. APRIL. mn Bt ees. H. M S- A ee? 23 5 248 7 2 —d3Cx 5 12 11 54 Em. II. Sat. 7 18 27 2046 ¢9X 39 O Full Moon. 9 18 49 gd pity 11 4 18 Em. I. Sat. 7/ 22 26 25 d)Oom 8 51 0 d) B Oph. =d59-S 2 51 31 d)jot wwnrmem ~ oO _ i) oO st st or _ S — S 382 Celestial Phenomena, Aprii—July 1825. D. H. M. S. D. : H M. S. 9 5 10 40 d)af 17 0 56 384) % 9 16 17 28¢)H 17 11 49 27 @ New Moon. 9 16 57 15 ¢ Last Quarter. 1? te CNS i 5) Q 10 i2 59 11 Em. 1. Sat. 27/ 17 16 55 20 3) a 12° 7 27 56 Em. I. Sat. Y 17.25: 0°.16 d yA ¥ OF (Noles alia i | e New Moon. fo) eo ae) a 5)248 Wenay” Sb ae eis Sto Sys 18 17 55 —d3dm 19 4 4 54 Inf d@ 9g 19 9 22 54 Em. I-Sat- 7 20° 4 ‘2 5546) y II. 19 13 47 37 d)dm 20 7 27 164), IL 19 15 37 32 d')s 20 21 56 30 © enters II 19 21 35 47 © enters ¥ 21 1 2 13d)2Z 11. 20 13 54 27 dyA y 2222 4 5 S)Y 20 15 36 28 dye yx 23 3 21 15 ¢) aaa 20 22 27 1246) 9 24 7 29 50 B)rQ 20 23 6 38 ¢d)2zy¥ 24) 48) 3bv 05 ) First Quarter. 20 23 26 34 ¢) 26 10 5 12 ¢ © ¢ 22 3 Greatest Elong. 98 4°295.15 Syn tty QP D221 7d ) 132-8 29 9 44 50 6 gay 22 22 23 30 4) aI. 30 18 39 53 gy 6m 23 1 50 50 - ) ib Ei: 4 les Mm fe | O Full Moon. 93 19 422 5 4) ZIL- 2 10 5 54) JUNE, 25 12 13 10 ) First Quarter. 1 4 28 O ¢ ) B Oph. 26 11 17 54 Em. I. Sat. 7/ 1 | Fe el | 6 @ fh 2% 12 45 WYxyEQ A pe et Toe 5 26 16 53 26 ¢)yoQ 225.16 DOT) or F > ial i > 59 d)y7TQ 3. 2 45 24 é6)dt 30. 9 20 34 Em. IL Sat. 7/ 3° 8 56 “ é )H 30 19 51 27 : a 7. 4. 18 Seas 4 9 50 33 ou ee MAY. ee ee ( Last Quarter. 113 19 4 d¢hay 10 % Greatest. Klong. 2 2 43 35 © Full Moon. ii ‘3 4° es Ss TES Bo ee 13) F021, 124.96.) 9 4 28, 35 0 ¢ ) B Oph. , 14 3 2 —! ou) 3 6 11 38 10 ¢)o f 14 3 58 43g )AB8 G6 Wl 40 28 Em. Hl. Sat. 7/ 14 12 58 23¢)22«% 6 13 49 464) f a Pe) ie ae a 6 17 21 11 ¢)d ft 15° 13° 37 944509..2 7 9 57 5 ¢4)H 16 0 9 58 @ New Moon. 9.°9 (42.07 ( Last Quarter. Lay. 2. ave pa > g jf a 13 44 — d 8 Gf nearcontact-/j}g 9g 35 40 J Sey 1226 4 —¢Ydg@ 19 1195346 8a 12 9 36 41 Em. I. Sat. Y 19 9 7 30 d ») 2a fers} 13 17 45 —Inf 6 © % » 19 11 30.536) Y 14 19 55 52 4) ¥ 2 4 15 3% YyoQ 16 20 24 40 5 )am 20 12 56 53 Sgr Celestial Phenomena, Aprii—July 1825. 383 D +H. M. 8S. D Tia te Bin, ~ Sy 21 6 36 58 © enters op 28 13 0 0 4) B Oph. 3D 994.19. 25 ) First Quarter. 29 21 55 9 Full Moon. 23 5 266 18 ¢ & h 30 5 57 IL d)jo ft 245 7 204 g 132 ¥ 30 8 11 2346)a ft 24 10 49 22 4 ys m 30 11 43 56 ¢6)dft 27 2 3 504 )yom 30 16 10 32 d)H On the 31st of May there will be a very small Eclipse of the Mcon, which will be visible. D HH. M.S The eclipse begins May, . - 31 1k 38. 22 Ecliptic opposition, - - - ll 42 36 Middle, Fey: ste Seas es ee: End of the eclipse, . - - - 12 ek Digits eclipsed, 0° 12’ 25”, by the south side of the earth’s hs Ry or on the north part of the moon’s disc. Times of the Planets passing the Meridian. PRIL. Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupiter. | Saturn. | Georgian. 2p He H. M. H. M. H. M H. M 1. 0 25 2 49 7 45 3 31 18 45 5. 0 39 2 44 7 30_ 3 17 18 39 10. 0 55 2 29 fest 2 359 18 10 1d. b+.-8 2 28 6 52 2 41 17 50 20. 1 14 2 16 6 34 2 24 17 3k 25.|- 1°13 QAR] srt. 2). Fa dyad Mercury. Venus. Jupiter. Saturn. Sees D Hs M H. M H. M. H. M H. hy. Sa 1. ia | iY 5 53 1 40 16 47 5. 0 45 as oly 5 40 1 33 16 3l 10. 0 19 0 350 5 21 1 15 16 11 15.| 23 45 0 18 5 64 0 59 15 51 20.) 23 16 23 42 4 48 0 42 15 31 20.1 ,22 53 23 13 4 31 0 25 15 12 JUNE Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. Georgian. D.| H. ©M. H.. M- H. M. H. M. BE. M. 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II. ABSORPTION of light, analysis of two memoirs on the, 544. Acoustic figures produced by elastic membranes, 296. Acta Academia nature curiosorum, Tom. XI. No. I. analysed, 164. Adie, Mr, his meteorological registers kept at Canaan Cottage, 191, 384. Africa, on the physical geography of the south of, 252. Air, dry and humid, refractive power of, 36. America, on the botany of, 108. Anas Rufitorques, 186. Antimony glance, axotomous, 374. Arsenical pyrites, axotomous, 373. Arts, Society of for Scotland, 171, 362. Auger, new boring one, by Dr Church, 343. Austria, botanical intelligence from, 358. Ava, account of its frontier towards Ben- gal, 48. Avogadro, M. on the affinity of bodies from caloric, 370—on their neutralis- ing powers, ib. Axinite, dichroism of, 366. Baillie, Dr M. his works announced, 188. Barlow, Professor, on the force exerted in Bramah’s presses, 293—receives a present from the Emperor of Russia, 379. Barometer, on the influence of winds on the, 241. Bat, discovery of a fossil one, 185. Bate, Mr, his treatise on spectacles re- commended, 379. Batrachoides, 187. Beams, on the convergency of the solar ones, 136. Berthier, M., his analysis of native car- bonates of lime, magnesia, iron, &c. 179. Bell, Mr Charles, his supposed discover- ies respecting vision exawined, I. Bell Rock Lighthouse, account of it by Mr Stevenson, 160. Berzelius, M., his analysis of the Carls- bad water, 176—of uranite, 372. Black-lead mine in Inverness-shire, 97. Blacking for leather, Braconnot’s process for making it, 343. Blende, analysis of, 371. Botanical works newly published, notices of, 165, 304. Botany of America, account of it, 108. Braconnot’s process for making blacking, 343. VOL. II. NO. If. -APEIL 1825. Bramah’s presses, on the force exerted in them, by Professor Barlow, 293. Brandy, process of making it from pota- toes, lol. Breakwaters, on the invention of floating ones, 151. Brewster, Dr, on the vision of impres- sions on the retina, 1—on single mi- croscopes from the lenses of fishes, 98— On rice paper, 135—on the convergen- cy of the solar beams, 136—on the op- tical structure of the lithion mica, 205 —on Withamite, a new mineral, 218 —on Gmelinite, a new mineral, 262— on Levyne, a new mineral, 332—on the absorption of light, 344—on the opti- cal structure of Somervillite, 366. __ Brinkley, Dr, receives the Copley me- dal, 173. Brisbane, Sir Thomas, on Meteorological tables kept in Van Diemen’s Land, 75 —on the tides at the mouth of Mac- guarrie Harbour, 213. Brochantite, « new mineral, 178. Brookite, a new mineral, 577. Burner, gas, Jenning’s improved one, 344. Carlsbad water, analysis of the, 176. Caterpillars, on the emigration of a co- lony of, observed in Provence, by Mr Skene, 93. Celestial phenomena, 189, 381. Chalcolite, a new mineral, 372. Chica, a colouring matter, 370. Chrysoberyl, Seybert’s analysis of, 176. Coffee, new apparatus for roasting it, 343. Clark, Mr Thomas, on a new quick- silver pump, 267. Colophane, Bois de, account of it, 182. Columbite, observations upon it, 178. Comet of 1824, 171—one of 1821, 172— of 1819, 364—double tail of, 365. Comets, their supposed influence on the sun, 367. Compensation pendulum ef Mr Ritchie, 337. Composition of crystallised bodies, 88. Contributions to popular science, No. III. 135—No. IV. 136. Copper, process for alloying it for ships, 149. Copper glance, prismatoidal, 373. Crystals, Rev. W. Whewell’s general method of calculating their angles, 312. Dalton, Mr, his process for valuing indi- go, 149—his experiments on oil, and the gases obtained from it by heat, 156 —on the dew point, or quantity of va- cc 386 pour in the atmosphere, 157—on the saline impregnations of rain, 160, } 76. Dandolo, Count, his method of cultivat- ing the silk worm, 59. Davy, Dr John, on the physical geogra- phy of thesouth of Africa, 252—on the temperatureof the sea and air, in a voy- age from St Helena to England, 246. Denmark, botanical intelligence from, 59. Deptencin of the horizon at sea, 365. Despretz, M., on the heat disengaged during combustion, 369 Dichroism of axinite,.366. Diploite, Professor Gmelin’s analysis of, 287. Ducom, M., his cylindrical artificial ho- rizon, 341. Echinodermata of the Firth of Forth, 77. Elephant, fossil, discovered in France, 186. Erman, Professor, on the motions of con- a g liquids electrified in h mercury, oe Euchroite, a new mineral species, de- scribed, 133—analysis of it by Dr E. Turner, 301. Evans’s method of roasting coffee, 343. Fergusonite, a new mineral, described, 3795. Fern, male, analysis of its root, 176. Fire-arms, method of preventing their accidental discharge, 316. Fleming, Dr, on the Neptunian forma- tion of siliceous stalactites, 307. -Fluellite, a new mineral, 178. Foggo, Mr John, jun. on the Echino- dermata of the Firth of Forth, 77—on an insect of the genus Urocerus, found in the wood of a table, 85. Freezing water, apparatus for, 148. Furnace for condensing smoke, &e. 342. Galls, on their nature, 376. Gas from oil, on its illuminating power compared with that from coal, 324,339: Gmelin, Professor C. G. on the analysis of a peach-blossom coloured mica, 199 —on a new formation of anhydrous sulphuric acid, 244—his analysis of helvine, 268—~his analysis of diploite, 287. Gmelinite, a new mineral species, describ- ed, 262. Godin observes the diurnal variation of the barometer, 336. Gordon, Mr, on a sepulchral urn, 360. Govan, Dr, on the natural history of the Himalayah Mountains, 17, 277. Gowan’s herbarium, 184. Granite, on its distribution in Scotland, 236. Greville; Dr, on the genus Hookeria, 221. INDEX. Guinand, M. account of his life, and of his process for making flint-glass for achromatic telescopes, 348. Haidinger, Mr, on the specific gravity of several minerals, 67—on the regular composition of crystallized bodies; 88: —0on euchroite, a new mineral species, 133—on trona, the native carbonate™ of soda, 325—on picrosmine, a new mineral species, 375. Hamilton, Dr Francis, on a plant allied to the genus piper, 9)—on the frontier between Bengal and Ava, 48. Harmotome, analysis of, 371. Hatching of fish in China, 376. Helvine, Professor Gmelin’s analysis of, 268. Herschel, Mr J. F. W. on the motiens of conducting liquids electrified in mer- cury, 193—on the absorption of light, o44. Hibbert, Dr, on the dispersion of stony fragments, 208. Himalayah Mountains, on the natural history and physical geography of, 17, 277. Hooker, Dr, on the botany of America, 108—on the genus Hookeria, 221— his Muscologia, 185. Hookeria, on the genus, 221. Horizon artificial, M. Ducom’s, 341. Hydrocyanic acid, on its counter-poisons, 214. Ice-houses, on natural ones in North America, 187. Incandescent bodies, on of the light of, 365. Indigo, how to determine its value, 149. Innes, Mr George, on the celestial phe- nomena, 189, 381—his tide tables re- commended. Inundation, remarkable one, in Sweden and at St Petersburgh, 367. Inventions, decisions on disputed ones, 143, 354—mechanical ones, history of, 143, 342. Iron, native, malleable, on the great mass of from Louisiana, 138. Jeffrey, Mr, his furnace for condensing smoke, 342. Jenning’s improved gas burner, 344. Knox, Dr, on the theory of the existence of a sixth sense in fishes, 17. Lamantine, 186. Lapidary’s wheel of the Hindoos, 344. Lernza, 187. Leslie’s photometer examined, 321. Levyne, a new mineral, described, 332. Lizars, Mr, his work on ovaria announ- ced, 379. Liquids, on their motions when electri- fied in mercury, 193. INDEX, Loligo brevipinna, 167. Macculloch, Dr, on the method of splitting rocks by fire, 44—on the distribution of granite and trap in different parts of Scotland, 236. Mackintosh, Mr’ Charles, on rendering cloth, &c. water-proof, 150. Magnetic needle affected by enclosure in a copper case, 174—variations of in different places, 174, 175. Mammiferous animal, a new species of, 186. Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv., second series, analysed, 156. Manganese, sulphuret of, analysed, 371. Membranes, elastic. on the acoustic fi- gures produced on them, 296. Meteorological tables kept at Macquarrie Harbour and Hobart’s Town, 79. Meteorological register kept at Canaan Cottage, 191, 384. Mexico, botanical intelligence from, 359. Mica, analysis of one containing lithion, 199—on the optical structure of it, 295. Microscopes, on single ones formed of the lenses of fishes, 98. Mill, Mr Nicholas, his platinaair pyro- meter, 147—his right to the execu- tion of it, 335. Minerals, on their specific gravity, 67. Mohs, Professor, first separates Heulan- dite from Stilbite, 338. Monte Rosa, account of it by Baron Welden, 152. Moon, Lohrmann’s maps of the, 172. Mountains, table of the heights of, 156. Murray, Mr, cn the culture of the silk worm inItaly, 59—on hydrocyanic acid and opium in reference to their counter- poisons, 214. Mushet, Mr, his process for alloying cop- per, 149. Muscologia Britannica, Hooker and Tay- lor’s, 188. Opium, observations on its counter-poi- son, 214. Optical phenomenon, 365. Paddle scull, account of Mr Waddell’s revolving one, 206, 363. Parker, C. 8S. Esq-, account of his scien- tific losses, 185. Parhelicn, on an extraordinary one ob- served at Gotha in 1824, 105. Patents, list of English ones since June 15th 1824, 188, 379—list of Scottish ones since August 13th 1824, 189, 381. Physalia Arethusa, 376. Picrosmine, a new mineral, 376. Piper, account of a plant allied to the genus, 9. : Plagiarism of inventions and discoveries, observations on the, 143. = 387 Planets, on the masses of the, 172—new ones, on the opposition of the, 173. Potassium, 177. Processes in the useful arts, 148, 339. Pump, a new quicksilver one, 267. Pyrites, capillary analysis of, 371. Pyrometer of platina first proposed by M. Guyton, 147—differential of Dr Ure and Mr Mill, 147, 338. Rain, increase in the quantity of, 175— quantity of fallen at Manchester, 369 —on the saline impregnation of, 176. Rice paper, on its structure, ]30. _ Ritchie, Mr William, on Leslie’s photo- meter, 321—339. Rocks, method of splitting them by fire, 44. Roselite, a new mineral, 177. Royal Society of Edinburgh, proceedings of, 169, 360. Ruby blende, hemiprismatic, 374. Russia, progress of botany in, 359. Savart on the vibrations of elastic mem- branes, 296. Saws, improvement on thin circular ones, 151. Schack, Baron de, account of the late, 182. Sense, on a sixth, in certain fishes, 12. Serviere’s clock, with a moveable ball, 338. Sideroschisolite, analysis of, 371. Siemen’s process for making brandy from potatoes, 15]. Siliceous solutions in crystals, 140— siliceous stalactites formed by water, 307. Silk-worm, account of its culture in the north of Italy, 59. Skene, Mr, on the emigration of a colony of caterpillars, 93. Sluice, on a new self-acting lever one, invented by Mr R. Thom, 100—on a waster sluice, 102—on a double valve one, 288. Snow, red, found to be an Alga, 184. Societies, philosophical, proceedings of, 169, 360. Sodium, 177. Somerville, Rev. Mr, his contrivances for preventing the accidental discharge of fire-arms, 316. Somervillite, optical structure of, 366. Specific gravity of several minerals, 67. Spectacles, Mr Bate’s essay on, 379. Stalactites, siliceous, on their aqueous formation, 307. Steam-engine, description of the first one, 38. Stevenson, Mr, his account of the Bell- rock Light-house analysed, 160. Stony fragments, on their dispersion to a distance, 208. 388 Storm, extraordinary one, at St Peters- burgh, described, 367. Sulphuric acid, anhydrous, on the forma- tion of, 244. Sun, spots on the, in 1624, 172—Paral- lax of the, 173—singular colour of the, 175. Sword Fish, 187. Temperature of the sea and the air, in a voyage from St Helena to England, 246. Thermometer, differential, of Leslie, in- vented by Professor Sturmius, 144, Thom, Mr Robert, on a new sclf-acting lever sluice, }00—on a waster sluice, 102—on a double valve sluice, 288. Tides, table of, in Van Diemen’s Land, 213. Titanium, metallic, 181. Torrelite, a new mineral, 18]. Trona, the native carbonate of soda, de- scribed, 325. Trap, on its distribution in Scotland, 236. INDEX- Turner, Dr E., his ana ys's of euchroite, 301. Tympanum of the ear, on its uses, 300. Uranite, Analysis of, 372. , Vallance, his apparatus for freezing we- ter described, }48. : Vapour of water onits deoxidating qua- lity, 369. Waddell, Mr A., his description of 2 boat with a revolving paddle scull, 206, 363. Water-proof processes, 150. Wernerian Society, proceedings of, 170. Whewell, Rev. W., his general method of calculating the angles of crystals, 312. Winds, on their influence upon the ba- rometer, 241. ; Withamite, a new mineral, 218 ~ Wooden ornaments, method of making them by casting, 342. Wright, Colonel, on the regular varia- tions of the barometer, 330.. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IN VOL. ITI. PLATE I. PLATE II. PLATE Ill. PLATE IV. PLATE V. PLATE VI. PLATE VIL. PLATE VIII. Map of the Countries North of the Sutluj. Figs. 1. and 2. Diagrams illustrative of the Vision of Impres- sions on the Retina. Fig. 3. The Marquis of Worcester’s Steam Fngine. Fig. 4. A Species of the genus Urocerus, found in Wood. Fig. 5. The Migration of Caterpillars. Figs. 6. and 7. Represent Sluices, invented by Mr R. Thom. Figs. 8, 9, 10. Structure of the Cryphza Erecta. Fig. 11. Structure of Rice Paper. Fig. 12. Black-lead Mine of Glengarry. Fig. 13. Microscopes made of the Lenses of Animals. Figs. 14, 15, 16. A remarkable Parhelion. Fig. 17. Vallance’s Ice Apparatus. Figs. 18, 19. Represent the Tubular Organs in the Heads of Sharks and Ruys. Fig. 20. Sturmius’s Differential Thermometer. Illustrates Mr Haidinger’s Paper on the Regular Composition of Crystals. f Fig. 1. Mr Waddell’s Revolving Paddle Scuil. Figs. 2, 3. Effect of Wind on the Barometer. Fig. 4. Mr Thomas Clark’s Quicksilver Pump. Figs. 4, 5. Represent the New Double Valve Sluices, invented -. by Mr Robert Thom, Rothesay. Figs. 6, 7, 8. Rey. Mr Somervi'le’s Contrivances for preventing the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. Fig. 10. Mr Ritchie’s Photometer. Fig. 11. Mr Jeffery’s Patent Flue for Furnaces. Fig. 12. Jenning’s New Self-closing Gas Burner. Illustrative of the Genus HOOKERrIA. Shows the Figures produced by the Vibration of Elastic Mem- branes, according to Savart. Represents Fraunhofer’s Great Achromatic Telescope. Represents the various New Minerals described in this Number. se AMUN AOUT. 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Some of Sevomoe VATE. ~~ Tlorizon Kiln Lublished by WBlavkowed A PLAT 1 Edin’ Journal ot Science Vol. Fig 4. Bei EB WU Liars se | | a SU? ct Poth Lk Soneanm ou ie DAOC seeaats . oats A ye x sf + e * + an ‘ f : . pe F a? ; a -- nd < ~~ a Pe - ? . ~~. ’ ¥ < = . pt Sim . », - ‘ - . = *. _ . ‘3 * - ’ 5 a - : q T a r s ‘ H ) ‘ ps é } i | a a - > >. F _ 7 = 2° Fe - f - , < y 5 i P =) ‘ " rer e. aldose Bee ' JU _.. (ns ‘ : La) < ~ i an 7 eee PLATE Vi. Fig 1. Fig: 2. ) tgs d= Fig 5. Fig 6. Figt0 : Fo 15. Fig .13. Fig/4. Published by W. Blackwood ehh HOA 7 (ET a) iY Rete sina ical i bia fn iz oh i oh Gr fi Ai peg ©. — rl ; “hy 4 ? ‘ 1 p 4 '- * Ay ‘ < . +3 ; 7 . F) * > ' ‘ . _ ; r Z ; 7 ae . ted 4 Ne < d + U “* J i ‘ F . . + ym t ie™ a < : secs oo Re Gan pa ~*~ Bt Phe er” PEATE Val, Published by Whlackwood WHRLaxars se ye . Bi 7" ,'> a, aoe me nor ge a ae , J = ia tae : LS age lee 7 : gt Ry . ese | PLATE Vil. PRGax 2 ; ae UTA OF ae CY va Senay |) Waa i Pi a) i se 4 aly ; i’ ‘ J a a x sehen a ! 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