¢ys°*° 77777 ARTHUR Oe ek tig . J% L/S & HALAL) JOHN LANGTON | From the ESTATE OF JOHN LANGTON to the UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO 1920 #* 7 -F Maret « ae ty (Res oo ™ _ ~ = ~ Ve a A? : f.. r A % . , a , :* > * i ~ . 7 - Pe 4 ’ . } “y" ° 7 - ) ‘ ‘ 7 ‘. . * ‘ a - o& - 4 a 4 ~ a : * dé 4) » ' ‘ a a ; 4 - ‘ . pis: " 7) 4 EEeCTRICHET : THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED, BY THE AID OF THERMO-ELECTRICITY. BY ARTHUR RUST. E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Srranp, Lonpon. New York: 12, CorTLANDT STREET. i‘; ey " ne i ae THERMO-ELECTRICITY: THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED. IN studying Electricity, one of the first thoughts to occur is concerning its nature—What is it? So simple, so easily excited, yet so subtle as to evade our keenest analysis, of what does it consist ? Few have attempted to answer the question. Few have ventured to formulate any theory—they merely point to its various laws. There is a wide divergence between the ideas which, at different periods, have obtained concerning this mighty force. The wondering, awe-struck ancients, spoke of “ Jove’s thunderbolts hurled from Olympus ;” then, genera- tions which followed, of “the attractive property amber acquires when rubbed ;” and now, the more scientific moderns, have had the later conception of “ the two electric fluids ;” but, by common consent, no satisfactory definition has yet been established. Turning various facts over in my mind during the years 1884 and 1885, at the end of 1885 I wrote this as a theory —* Electricity is a mode of motion produced by friction of molecules against each other, and conveyed away by the ‘best conductor.” 4 Further researches have enabled me to extend this formula ; and I now offer the following as more complete— Electricity is one of the effects of the interaction of atoms and molecules in virtue of their physical properties. Just as Heat is now known as a mode of motion, and is produced by the friction of matter, we might similarly say that— Electricity is a mode of motion, a flow of molecular vibrations produced by the friction of molecules against molecules (which by various methods have been brought into different con- ditions), and conveyed away by the best.conductor. Of all the various sources of electricity which one can take to prove this theory, and learn to its fullest, even if only to a small extent its nature, which will answer our purpose best? After carefully thinking over the various sources, whether Friction machines, Voltaic cells, Dynamos, Percussion, Vibration, Disruption, Cleavage, Crystallisation, Solidification, Combustion, Evaporation, Atmospheric in all of its varieties, Pyro, Animal, Vegetable, or Thermo- electricity—Thermo-electricity for many reasons appeared the best. To a considerable extent it was an untrodden field, and one in which there was more promise of fresh facts than in any of the others. This and other things decided its selection. Accordingly, during 1886 and part of 1887, having time at my disposal, I was able to test what I have now advanced. Most substances have a proportionate conductive energy for heat and electricity. For heat the conduction is slow, while for electricity it is all but instantaneous. The relation between the two appears to be that electricity in its trans- mission always generates heat, and that heat, whenever it crosses two molecules in dissimilar conditions, or of dissimilar specific properties, generates an electric current. Without passing in review the various metals which have been tabulated by different writers as to their Electromotive 5 force, and the various forms of Thermo-batteries and Thermo-couples that have been used, tried, or experimented with, and are a matter of history ; I may just say that the experiments that are here selected for description have all been made with soft Iron for the first couple, and Zinc- antimony for the second. Many other metals and different substances have been tried during a series of some few thousands of experiments ; but to simplify the argument and to clear the ground, I shall only mention a few experiments, and confine them to these two metals, which were chiefly used. In making any desired couple, it was clearly necessary to see that the Iron was clean ; that exactly the same quantity and proportion of Zinc and Antimony were used, and cast as nearly as possible under the same conditions ; that a perfect joint was made in casting, so that the Iron and Zinc- antimony were one body. Otherwise many false results would have been registered ; and I may mention that all the results described have been tested at least four, and the majority more than a dozen times. Before we can expect to test any conclusion in this matter, we must quote several experiments that have been made, and in about the same order in which they actually took place. Without this it will be impossible cither to explain or understand what actions really go on, though ultimately these will lead up to, and throw some light upon the point we are trying to prove. In testing the Thermo-couples, we used a Bunsen gas burner to produce the heat, and a piece of sheet iron of convenient shape, resting upon non-conducting supports, to supply the heat to the couples; the usual wires being connected by binding screws to the couples, or leads to the galvanometer, or to the tangent galvanometer ; and a thermometer to test the degrees of heat (Fig. 1). We may take the conductivity of Silver at too, that 6 of soft Iron at 20°18, and that of cast Zinc antimony at about 5°5. 7 We will mention three distinct forms of couples which will help us to understand the subject. 1, Cut out an angle piece from a sheet of 20 gauge sheet Iron (Fig. 2), say 244 inches high by 3% to 4 inches long, — Fig. 2 al and 3/16 to % inch wide. Take the bottom end and twist it into a coil (Fig. 3); pour the Zinc-antimony into it, and you have the two metals in combination. 8 If an iron strip, thin pointed, can be cast into the zinc- antimony SLIGHTLY, so that it balances itself, it makes the experiment easier. Connect the two ends up, raise the heating surface to about 375° F., and the galvanometer will give, say 50° galvr. (Fig. 4). Have a pot of melted wax at the same temperatures ready at hand, and plunge the Thermo-couple into it. No E.M.F. is indicated, and at once the galvanometer falls to zero. 9 Take three of these and join them together by a copper wire lead just touching the centre of the next couple (Fig. 5); the galvanometer registers 70° galvr. Now take three others, cast firmly, and connected together in casting, thus (Fig. 6), and at 375° F.—what is the result ? Is it 70 galvr.? No, galvr. zero! Take couple Fig. 4 again, with different temperatures, 300° F. shows 40” galvr.; 375° F. shows 50° galvr.; but strange to say, if carried up to 400° F., in spite of Sir W. Thomson, or the “ Thomson effect” of the iron being in its favour to indicate a higher E.M.F., the galvanometer falls back to 44° on the scale. Let us now try what result it will give if we firmly solder the iron lead a into the zinc-antimony iron couple. Strange to say the galvanometer falls again, and this time it is at zero instead of at 50° galvr. Why is this? What is the - meaning of it ? f FACULTY Of PLIED SCIZNCE We now construct another of these Zinc-atitimony Iron couples, but instead of pouring the ZA into the Iron coil level, we will more than fill it with ZA (Fig. 7), and raise the temperature to about 400° F. If we put the iron lead connection on to the top at a, galvanometer shows 46”, pom feg.8. but if we twist the copper lead firmly round the bottom of the alloy at 4, instead of 46° being indicated at the galvano- meter, we cannot get more than 41-42". How is this? Remembering that the conductivity of Iron is almost four . times that of ZA, and therefore the more we can bring the molecules of the two metals into friction the greater E.M.F. will be obtained, let us cast a couple in the following form. Take again a piece of 20 gauge sheet Iron, cut it to pattern (Fig 8.), instead of into the narrow strip; roll this into a coil as before, and we have, after casting the ZA upon it, a couple in this form (Fig. 9). Lay the copper lead ~~] =... (a) firmly on, and we have as a result about 40° galvr.—not equal to Fig. 4. Now to understand the reason of this, we must seek an explanation in some other direction. Before turning to some older forms of Thermo-couples, let us mention a few results from others, which we will call Class 2. Take some Iron rings 54 inch diameter and '*/;3 inch deep 12 (Fig. 10); cast two Copper leads into the Alloy when casting the Zinc-antimony into the rings. At 350° F. it shows 15° galvr., and at 400° F., 25° galvr. Again with similar rings cast two German silver leads into the alloy: at 350° F. it shows 1° galvr.; and at 410° F., 1° galvr.the same. But if one German silver lead and one Copper lead is used, at 410° F. it shows 42° galvr. Construct three of these rings, fasten their leads firmly together, German silver to Copper: at 330° F. we get 50° galvr., and at 410° F., 60° galvr. Again, let us take a piece of 20 gauge sheet Iron, like 13 Fig, 2, but cut the foot longer, and instead of turning it into a coil, turn it into a square (Fig. 11), lay a copper lead on at a, and you cannot get more than 40 to 45° indicated upon the galvanomcter. Lay a second lead in connection with the first one at 4, and you obtain 49° galvr. Lay a third one, also in connection, on at ¢, and 54° galvr. is the result. These experiments are interesting, but we do not under- stand the reasons of the results yet, and we must do so to guide us into further knowledge. It must be pointed out that unless the connections are in close contact, the resistance is so tremendously increased that for any commercial purpose the system is absolutely valucless. We will, therefore, turn and experiment upon some of the older form of Thermo- couples, and see what can be learnt from them. 14 These form Class 3. Remembering the old rule, that the thermo-electromotive force is proportional to the differ- ence of temperature of the junctions, let us construct some couples, 3% x % x % inches, by taking 18 gauge sheet iron, and cutting the ends into three slits, which, when twisted and having the ZA poured in, will form the junctions (see Fig. 12). Heat up to 375° F., and we have only 33° on the galvr. This is clearly going backwards. Now let us try ‘half the length of couple, say 134 x ¥% x % inches from 20 gauge sheet Iron (Fig. 13), connect up, and at the same temperature we have 42° galvr., or a little better than the result of the longer ones (Fig. 12), which is in direct contradiction to the recognized laws on the subject. Now let us take wire gauze double, instead of 20 gauge sheet iron, say about 16 mesh, and construct 2 couples, say 1% x 5% x % inches (Fig. 14). Try them at 410° F., and we get 49 to 50° galvr. This is better. But we will try ‘5 and get the molecules into a state of still greater friction one with the other. Remembering that the conductivity of Iron is 20°18 and ZA 5'5, and that the larger the Iron surface- Beg 74. friction against the ZA, the greater the E.M.F. we might expect to create, let us construct an element 134 x 54 x 7% as the last and with the same materials. Let us insert, upright, into the ZA a number of pieces of this Iron wire gauze, alternately 1 and 134 inches long, connected to the bottom Iron (Fig.15). Heat up as before. We look anxiously 16 at the galvanometer. It begins to rise slowly, slowly, slowly, and stops, instead of at 50, at 8°. Why is this? We cannot as yet the reason see! The Iron being the best conductor of heat, its molecules SHOULD (in Fig. 15), according to the theory advanced, strike the molecules of ZA, and generate a greater E. M. F. as the consequence. How can we get at the truth of this matter with Fig. 15 staring us in the face? With regard to the molecules of bodies, three different states of aggregation present themselves: First, the solid state; second, the liquid or fluid state; third, the gascous state. These experiments have only to do with the first or the solid state, although, of course, the two latter come into play in many of the other sources of electricity. From considerations based upon various physical phenomena, Sir W. Thomson has calculated, that, in ordinary solids and liquids, the average distance between contiguous mole- cules is less'than one hundred millionth, but greater than the one two thousand millionth, of a centimetre ; and to form an idea of the size of the molecules, Sir W. Thomson gives this illustration :—“Imagine a drop of rain, or a glass _ “sphere, the size of a pea, magnified to the size of the “earth, the molecules in it being increased in, the same “proportion. The structure of the mass would then be “coarser than that of a heap of fine shot, but probably not “so coarse as that of a heap of cricket balls.” Professor Tait, when making the same calculation, suggested marbles. The number of molecules in a cubic inch of gas at oC. tem- perature and 760 millimetres pressure, has been calculated to be about one hundred thousand million million million, or 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (1023). The molecules of a gas are always in a rapid motion. The mean velocity of hydrogen molecules at oC. and 760 millimetres is about 6,000 feet, or 11/7 miles per second (the length of its path being .0,001,855 millimetres, and nine thousand four hundred and cighty millions [9,480,000,000] for the number of its impacts). . 7 These molecules and atoms are what we are dealing with, and their extreme minuteness it is which makes it so difficult for the mind to conccive them, and to understand in any way the part they play. We construct four cubes, one cach of Iron, and ZA, in 34 inch, and one each in 1 inch cubes. After putting a little wax on the top of each, and placing all at the same time on the heated surface, we find that with the 34 inch cubes the wax on the top of the ZA melts first ; but with the 1 inch cubes the wax on the /ron melts before the wax on the ZA. Now we construct two bars 44 inch square, one of soft —-—- > Iron, and one of Zinc-antimony, and fix upon each bar peas, by tallow, sealing wax, or any suitable material, 4 inch apart, the bars being held by convenient stands. We light a Bunsen burner to produce the heat, and place it exactly in the centre of the space between the two bars. What are the results? Of course, if we had not tried the cubes experiment we should have said that the Iron, being the better conductor, would take the heat first ; but no, to our surprise, the peas on the bar of ZA fall first, about in this order : i212 ee, BRS > ti: ess aoe ae we. 19 ao oe 88.83 2 ss oe Sl ee io. fam -s. « + 5 ca. 2}... Sm 18 We try this several times, in several ways, with different degrees of heat, and different sized bars ; also with shot, set } inch apart, instead of peas at ¥ inch, but a/ways with a result closely similar. Singu- larly enough, we find the heat takes from twice to four times as long to travel to the last. pea that falls from the Iron bar, as to the last pea that falls from the ZA bar. Fig. 17 shows the Iron and ZA bars put side by side, and the proportionate rate the heat travels upon each, as it arrives at a, 4, ¢, d, etc., on each of the bars, at about the same time. es - = J 4 I aes, Fig. 18 gives a very rough idea of the proportionate 19 stress that the ZA molecules exercise upon the Iron mole- cules, showing that the first contact of heat is by far the greatest. Fig. 19 contains two curves representing the rate at which the heat travels along the bars of ZA and Iron. But, of course, the rate varies according to the temperature and according to the iron used, whether hard, soft, or annealed Fg. 79 IRON In these striking facts we think we have light cast upon this subject, and shall find that we have something to work upon. We learn that ZA, having fewer atoms than Iron, the nearest portion of the ZA bar is heated before a similar portion in the Iron bar, although the Iron is almost four times a better conductor of heat. So that it is not the _ molecules of the Iron swinging in friction or with vibra- tory stress against the ZA that causes the flow of electricity, but it is the molecules of the ZA swinging in friction or with vibratory stress against the mole- cules of the Iron. This can further be explained. In this 20 combination of ZA and Iron, ZA receives and loses heat first, and the molecules have taken up their full complement of heat before the Iron in the earliest portions of a short thermo-couple junction; Heat, the motive power, is then able to do work, and drives them in frictional stress against their slower but more enduring neighbours, which is the true explanation we have been looking for. Therefore, understanding now the action of this combi- nation, we simply have to continue more experiments, and to make more Thermo-couples to conclusively prove our point, for the greater the friction and flow of molecular vibrations we can really get into play, so long as there is a continuous flow, and no counter E. M. F. or drag, brought about, the greater will be the E. M. F. produced. We might almost compare the molecules of the ZA and Iron to two sets of cog wheels, with their cogs interlocking, but only vibrating, not revolving. The ZA cogs, moving the sooner, act upon the series of Iron cogs, and therefore the faster and stronger the ZA cogs run, the greater the friction upon the cogs of the Iron, and the greater the E. M. F. generated. Or we might compare them to two sets of springs interlocking—the ZA springs starting first, move in continuous vibration upon the Iron springs. Evidently, then, if any of these Iron cog wheels in any part of the machine (Thermo-couple) have a quicker and more powerful swing than the ZA cogs, a counter force is brought into play, and a smaller molecular stress, or E. M. F. is produced. So that, if we can by any process, or by any means, get the Iron cogs to vibrate more powerfully than the ZA cogs, we shall still have an electric current set up, because the molecule cog wheel, or the molecule spring, is doing work and setting up a flow of molecular vibrations, though in this latter case the Iron molecular cogs are the motive power in friction or with vibratory stress against the ZA cogs, and not the ZA in friction or with vibratory stress against the Iron. \ With these explanations, before making new couples, we will look into the reason of some of the results indicated in some of the old experiments that have been described. In Figs. 4 and 5 the ZA cogs move sooner, and have a more powerful swing than the Iron cogs; they take -up the heat and lose it more quickly than the Iron, and the potential stress, or E. M. F., having been gene- rated, it is taken away by a touching contact, and the E.M.F. created is recorded in the galvanometer. Now what takes place when Fig.,6 is brought into trial, or when the leads of Figs. 4 and § are soldered so as to make a continu- ous connexion? Simply this: the iron or copper lead be- comes an incorporated part of that couple,and although there are cog wheels always in action in the couple, the Iron cog wheels of the lead, being at the same temperature as the ZA, are not at work, and no E. M. F. is indicated. We will show this, but without using solder. Take Fig. 4, and instead of a thin copper or iron lead, let us use a fine strip or bar of copper, and let the end of this touch the couple (see Fig. 20) ; what does the galvanometer indicate? 40 galvr.! Now let us place this copper bar flat across the couple (Fig. 21); the galvanometer falls to 3°. If it had been soldered it would have indicated zero, but some small air spaces are between, and some few of the ZA cogs are yet moving, or in the ascendency. Of course the main cause of this alteration is the change of the position of the copper bar, which in the second case allows the Iron molecules to be almost the same temperature as the ZA molecules, and which, therefore, is acting as a drag, z¢., pre- venting the ZA molecular cogs from doing work upon the Iron molecular cogs. Fig. 7 shows the same cause at work in a modified form. The galvanometer shows (Fig. 4), at 375° F., that the ZA molecular cogs have the most power; but when the couple is plunged, at this temperature, into the pot of melted wax, all molecules, both ZA and Iron, are brought to the same degree of heat, therefore no molecular stress, ZA against Iron or Iron against ZA, is possible; the two sets of 33 molecules in this couple are now in a state of unison, and for that reason no electrical energy is generated. Now let us take Fig. 9, but transformed into a new couple, breaking off the outside ZA (Fig. 22). When we tried Fig. 9 couple in the original form it gave 40° galvr., but now, taking the spare lead and touching the alloy ZA at the top ¢, it gives about 41°, or similar results to the old Thermo- couple. Now at 4 it gives, after the galvr. has come to rest, 44°, and at a 48". The explanation of this is the same. At ¢, the Iron has brought up the heat and is causing a drag upon the ZA cogs when the galvr. gives 41°; at 4 this drag is smaller, and gives 44°; at a it is smaller still and gives 48" ; and no doubt, had we tried the ZA lower down, where there would be still less drag or back friction, this furnace of cog wheels would give 50° at least. Fig. 10, after allowing for the thermo properties of the metals, we think explains itself. Fig. 11 shows, in this particular form, that all the E. M. F. generated is not taken off by one lead. In Fig. 13, instead of connecting up both ends, let ur 24 fasten only one end to the Iron, and with the loose end touch the Alloy at a2. What do we now get ?— 48° on the galvr. instead of 42°! This shows that the top Iron has taken up a great deal of heat, and brings in a counter E. M. F. or drag, and thus prevents the full working of the ZA cogs, as indicated by the galvanometer. We have seen that these experiments do not bear out the old law viz.: “That the greater difference in temperature between the two ends of a couple, the greater E. M. F. will be produced.” For we have shown (Fig. 12) that couples 3% high, give 33-34° on the galr. ; (Fig. 13) 134 inches high, 42° galr.; and (Fig. :4) 1% inches high, 49-50°. But we find that if we make the wire gauze into Thermo-couples 1% inches high, we shall have a still /ess difference in tempera- ture between the two ends of the two couples, but we increase our E. M. F. considerably; the same _ heat easily showing 60° galr, Two couples with heat 450°F. can be made to indicate 80° galr. At this temperature the thermo properties of the Iron are of course much improved by the Thomson effect. Indeed, rightly applied, 100° difference in temperature gives better results than 200° applied wrongly. The true law of thermo-electricity is— THE ELECTRO-MOTIVE-FORCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE RATE OF SPEED AT WHICH HEAT PASSES THE TWO JUNCTIONS. Turning to Figs. 16 and 17 for a moment, let us notice that the peas a/ways fall off the ZA first. This shows, as we intimated before, that they receive the heat sooner, and are soon hotter than the Iron molecules, and that the ZA molecules (Fig. 19) strike in frictional stress against the Iron. But it shows more ; for if the Iron is allowed to penetrate into the body of the ZA, a counter E. M. F., or drag, is set up, and the greatest E. M. F. is produced by the first thrust of the heat of the ZA molecules against Iron. Everything 25 favourable to that naturally produces better results, by promoting greater continuous friction of the molecules. Let us now take 16-mesh Iron wire gauze as before, to form two sets of couples, and fold it in three. In one case, folded loosely and not pressed together, the Iron gauze will show as in Fig. 23; in the other, pressed or even hammered together, the Iron gauze will show as in Fig. 24; now let us cast six couples upon each of these, and. to bear out natural deductions from Figs. 16 to 19, the six couples cast to the pattern Fig. 24 should show the best results, or a greater E. M. F. Let us heat them both up to about 325° F.; these are the results :-— ¥,.Heat. Galvr. Tang. Gal. Gal. & 1000 ohms. Six couples Fig. 23... 325° F. 75° 6° and 35}° 30° Six couples Fig. 24... , 774° 74° and 44" 324° Very many other experimental couples were constructed, all the tested results of which indicated analogous con- clusions. We thus see, comparing these last facts with Figs. 1§ and 22, that the investigations are abundantly verified. 26 I made another experiment upon one of the same kind of couples, trying what effect could be obtained by putting it into a powerful vice. After carefully insulating the jaws, connecting the leads up from the couple to the galvanometer, and putting considerable pressure upon the handle of the vice, I found about 2° indicated. Left thus for about ten days the same current was shown ; left again, but this time for three months, all the current had gone. But on unscrewing the handle of the vice, the galvanometer indicated a small reverse current. I have thought it better, as mentioned at the outset, to confine our attention to these two metals in conjunction with each other. In dealing with other metals or alloys, their physical properties and characters have to be carefully examined and thoroughly enquired into, to understand, in a small measure, what work their atoms and molecules are doing. It is most interesting to turn up the experiments of Erman, who showed that a violent blow struck by one substance upon another, produces opposite electrical states on the two surfaces, and found that taking the thermo- electric series of metals, each substance will take a + charge on being struck with one lower on the list. Bismuth, German Silver, Lead, Platinum, Zinc, Copper, Iron, Antimony, etc., etc. This again goes to prove the theory with which we started, since the violent blow given, places the molecules of each of the two metals, each substance having physical properties of its own, in a state of stress, so that if these blows could be continuously delivered, cog wheel friction would be set up, and an E. M. F. produced. Since this stress—this state of molecular tension—this static electricity remaining—always runs to the weakest part of any particular body, it naturally remains upon any point of a large body where the molecules are most at liberty to come into play, rather than in the mass of the body itself ; and perhaps the 27 molecules of the larger part of the body are acting as a stress upon the molecules of the pointed or smaller parts of the body. We think we have now shown what we started to prove. The molecular movements that take place in a Thermo- couple are only a sample of what must take place in all of the various other sources of electricity mentioned at the outset. The same kind of actions of molecules and atoms are brought into play, in the chemical combinations of the Voltaic cell, in the revolving magnets of a Dynamo, in the heated junctions of the Thermo-couple, and in every other source of electricity. There are not two electricities but one. The solid earth, with its immense storehouse of quad- rillions of trillions of billions of molecules, may be taken, for sake of argument, as resting at zero, and when molecules, by what means soever, are placed in a state of potential stress, which we call +, or a lacking void, which we call —, mother earth when brought into connection with them, is ever ready, so far as it is able to give them what they require, and let them, in a measure, return into a state of rest. With the earth's great storehouse to help, we are thus able to bring “ the Thing called Electricity” into use for the various purposes for which it is now employed. We think these explanations point to the fact that the vibrations produced by heat upon molecules and atoms, similarly constituted, are of the same kind and act together; but when these atoms or molecules are differently con- stituted, so that they respond to the heat vibrations in different ways, the different set of molecules act upon one another, and bring into play a different set of physical clastic properties, which produce other molecular motions, —which new molecular motions or vibrations confinue in a flow, right along the conductor, to its destination, and which is the current electricity of our present telegraph 28 service. If a too strong potential is turned upon a thin wire, the impact on the molecules or cogs, is more than they can bear, so that the wire is unable to carry the potential ; the atoms and molecules being pushed out of the angle to which they are capable of swinging, the molecules come into counter friction with each other, pro- ducing heat, which, if allowed to go on, raises the wire to a state of incandescence, and eventually burns it up. Of course, current electricity or molecular vibrations take the easiest path, and naturally those on the outsideof the wire, in contact only with the atmosphere and the ether, vibrate the most easily. Thus it is made clear that when the electric wires are covered, as in cables or under-ground wires, the covering interferes with the free molecular stress or vibra- tion, and slows the telegraph speed, as is so well-known. An illustration has sometimes been given of current electricity as a series of billiard balls connected together ; hit one, and the last one replies. Such is not a true repre- sentation of the case. \t rather resembles a series of cog wheels ; vibrate one, and the last molecular cog at the other end of the metallic connexion turns, vibrating in reply. The billiard ball illustration would more aptly apply to the telephonic instruments, which occasionally have been arranged to work on the same wire and at the same time as the cog-wheeled vibratory current electricity. Professor Clausius has stated his belief that there are only two material forces at work—heat and electricity. I believe there is only one (save the physical material pro- perties of matter), viz.: heat ; and that electricity and light proceed from it. The relative positions of molecules and atoms in solids being fixed, and contiguous to each other, when the expen- diture of force comes, effects are communicated that are well-known. Molecules in the liquid state, more readily glide past one another, and they assume the form of any 29 vessel in which they are placed. Molecules in the gaseous state, are still more susceptible of motion, depending upon the pressure to which they are subject; but a molecular solid passes into a liquid before it can pass into the gascous state, so in the gascous state the gaseous molecule must still retain some connecting link with its liquid molecule, and this again witha solid molecule. Professor Tyndall has ably and conclusively proved this, and has shown that molecules, after they have been released from the bonds of cohesion and reduced to a state of vapour, still retain, in this gaseous form, many of the differences and peculiarities that they possess in the solid form. We have shown that with a small couple a moderate current can be produced. Imagine large numbers of these acting with each other, or huge quantities of matter in electrical s¢ress in the earth, and we will get some idea of one of the powerful factors which must have been at work in the formation of our world And this idea will be ‘strengthened by aid of the belief that when bodies fall into the sun, forming sun spots, with their gaseous flames of §0,000 to 350,000 miles in length, huge molecular electrical friction is set up, generating such vast electrical energy, that it is communicated through a distance of 93,000,000 miles, and when it reaches our earth the effects are felt by the increased daily variations of our magnetic needle. Regarding the beautiful electrical experiments in vacuum and partial vacuum that have been made by Prof. Crookes, are not the results, with these views, what might have been expected? and if an ABSOLUTE VACUUM can be formed, which would be analogous to taking all molecules and atoms out of existence in that space, the certain result would be, no electric current could pass—fhere are no molecules and atoms to convey the clectric current across such a vacuum to the second pole. Without enlarging more fully at present upon these 30 investigations, does not Electricity, with the conclusions derived from the new facts described, become a much simpler and a more understandable science than what we have hitherto been accustomed to think it is ? I may state that I have in the course of these experiments, among other things, used as one item 18 cwt. of antimony ; and to test conclusions, I constructed an Electrical Furnace which has 6,000 elements, and of which a copy from a photograph is annexed. The heater, which occupies the interior of the cylindrical arrangement of elements, is a slow combustion stove of particular construction. In the centre it is fed by a continuous tube charged with coke from the top; this opens at the end into a fire-box or basket closed at the bottom by bars, and on these bars are placed a cone which causes an outward distribution of the fuel as it descends from the supply-chamber. Around this supply- chamber there is a concentric casing filled with sand, which retains the heat for many hours after the fire has burnt out, and prevents the heating and cooling from taking place too rapidly. Outside this last casing, there is again another casing concentric with it, and between these are three spiral flues. The heat and products from the fire ascend by these flues, and at the top of the casing there are three apertures by which the products of combus- tion are delivered in a common up-take which leads to the chimney. In this way, and by the help of regulating flues, the exterior casing is very equally heated; a sufficient tem- perature is easily maintained, and this without any risk of overheating the elements. The inner faces of the thermo-elements are in close proximity to this heated casing, although not electrically connected with it. Thus the requisite heat is supplied to the couples, and each row being connected together by binding screws, for convenience, the total number of elements can be. arranged row by row, either in one circuit or multiple arc as desired. The 3! electrical current flows as described, and can be employed for any purpose for which it is required. -_>== =>, Ss > > 7 MN ‘Lh ro.) ye = So ied = = = - = - “as : res - wey | ees z » Gs . ‘ , ; 7 =: x res 3 = pum FO 8 FS ee a Ti ‘ nN i \ wal * 32 The stove simply as a stove, was found capable of producing a tremendous heat, and from an actual trial in testing, before the thermo-elements were added, allowing all the dampers, etc., to be out, and giving it full play, within twenty minutes of lighting the fire, such heat was generated that lower parts of the iron furnace melted like wax. This Electrical Furnace, this Magnopile, gave in actual work an E, M. F. of 96 volts, with a resistance of 11°5 ohms. This resistance need not have been more than 10 ohms, and better results can yet be obtained. The cost was at the rate of about 6a. per 10 hours. Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson who, on several occasions, has kindly given me suggestions in the construction of the Magnopile, advises me to make it known. Through other pressing engagements, I have been taken completely away from this work, and have not had opportunity to complete it commercially, but it is certainly only a matter of time and detail. A Magnopile will assuredly be completed, and will, in the future, be a commercial success. After attending the British Association this year at Bath, and hearing the address of the President of Section A, describing electricity as “The Thing called Electricity,” I am induced to offer, after a two-years’ silence, these facts and thoughts to the scientific world—the true explanation of the phenomena of Electricity. LEversleigh, Leicester, October, 1888. ee ee ROPERTY OF ELECTR FACULTY OF AF? LIED ¢$ 1888. BOOKS RELATING APPLIED SCIENCE, E. & F. N. SPON, LONDON: 125, STRAND, NEW YORK: 12, CORTLANDT STREET. A Pocket-Book for Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers, Students, de, te, is race saree, Assoc. Ke. Se. Ireland, Ana. lytical and ‘Consul Chemist and Assayer. Fourth edition, with additions, 437 pp., royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5+. Synopsis or CONTENTS: Atomle Weights end Pactors—Useful Date—Chemical Calculations Rates for tndivect Analysis — Weights and — Thermometers and Barometers — Chemical — awe © oe Sohublling of of Substances— Methods of say com of 5 in ly Spee and wa the C and Manufacture of Hand Tools, and the various M of U and Grinding them ; the Construction of Machine Tools, and how to them ; Fitting and Erection ; description of irae tee aenenene Syecenees 5, Turning ane Sana oe - of Depege gor eer a Erecting and the various of setting out etc, etc. By Cameron Katicut, 2 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS ust Published, in Demy 800, cloth, containing 975 pages and 250 ustrations, price 78. 6d. SPONS’ HOUSEHOLD MANUAL: A Treasury of Domestic Receipts and Guide for Home Management. ARAAARAA AMAR we PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. Hints for selecting a House pelating: ont ena essential requirements for a house as to the Site, Soil, Trees, A Aspect, Con _— snd General Arrangement instructions for Reducing Echoes, ps ante Damp alls, Curing Damp Sanitation.—What should cénstitute a good Sanitary Arrangement; ( illustrations) of Well- and Ill-drained Houses ; How to Test Drains; Ventilating etc. Water S apply —-Care of Cisterns ; Sources of Supply; Pipes; Pumps; Purification and Filtration of Ventilation and Warming.—Methods of aoteed bapa cro cold draughts, by various means ; Principles of Warming ; ; Health : Renee fo Grates ; Open Stoves ; Fuel Economisers ; Varieties of Gomes Clo Fire S Stoves; Hot-air Furnaces ; Gas Heating ; Oil Stoves ; Steam Heating; Chemical Heaters ; Management of Chimneys. : Flues ; and Cure of Smoky phting--. .—The best methods of Lighting; Candles, Oil Lamps, Gas, Incandescent ht; How to test Gas Pi Pipess Management of Gas. m etaastours and Decoration.—Hints on the Selection of Furniture; on the most approved methods of Modern Decoration; on the best methods of arranging Bells and Calls; ow to Construct an Electric Bell. Thieves and Fire.—Precautions against Thieves and Fire ; Methods of Detection ; 4 Domestic Fire Escapes; Fireproofing Clothes, etc. The Larder.—Keeping Food fresh for a limited time; Storing Food without change, such as Fruits, Vegetables, Eggs, Honey, etc. Curing Foods for lengthened Preservation, as Smoking, Salting, Canning, gor Pickiing, Bottling Fruits, etc.; Jams, Jellies, Marmalade, een e Dairy.—The Building and Fitting of Dairies in the most approved modern style ; Meh sage ; Cheesemaking and Curing. The Cellar.—Building and Fitting ; Frias Casks and Bottles ; of ae and Coking 4 Atrated Drinks; Syrups for Drinks; Beers; Bitters; Cordials and Liqueurs Miscellaneous Drinks. 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The Nursery. ta hen Room; Clothing; Washing ; Exercise; Sleep; Feeding; Teeth- ing; Illness; Home T: The Sick-Room.—The Room; the Nurse; the Bed; Sick Room Accessories; Feeding Patients; Invalid Dishes and Drinks; ; Administering Physic ; Domestic Remedies; : and Emergencies; Bandaging ; Burns; rewtae § Injured Persons; Wounds; Drowning 5 F Fits; Frost-bites; Poisons and Antidotes; S mmon Complaints; Disinfection, etc. Se. Handboo of Formula, Tables, and Memoranda, a Huast, C.E. ral Survoert and ether po cog hg ae aE gene tag end ae 3 eee: ba ose we refer to, to say that in our this little of Hurst's is the very best of them all, without any exorption. 2 Ta abulated Weights of Angle, Tee, Bulb, Round, = aie meas acy Main erkiax sotesiaihaax orale of ‘aval Architects and S hipbuilders By C, H. Jorvan, M.LN.A. Fourth . edition, 32mo, cloth, 2z. | e A Sees poted Set of Contract Documents for a Comnieg -.. Drawings, Specifications, Dimensions (for in paper case, 10s. A Practical Treatise on Heat, as applied to the Useful Arts; for the Use of Architects, By THomas Box. With 14 plates. Third crown Svo, cloth, 12s. ce A ouikny Treatise on Mathematical Drawing | me east ncoane Myers BE taragaes Drawing and Colour- ing. yW. F. Fe Sranuay, NLR Lar, MILL. Filth edition, ees mamerest ilastretions, 4 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS ee ae ee + ee ee Quantity Surveying. By J. Leantnc. With 42 illus- trations. Second edition, revised, crown 8vo, cloth, 9s. CONTENTS : A com Explanation of the London | Schedule of Prices. — Form of Schedule of Prices. General Instructions. Analysis of Schedule of Prices. Order of Taking Off. Adjustment of Accounts. Modes of Measurement of the various Trades. | Form of a Bill of Variations, Use and Waste. Remarks on ifications. Ventilation and ing. Prices and Valuation of Work, with Cred various Examples of Treatment Examples and Remarks upon The Law as it affects Quantity the Dimensions. with Law with Examples in illustration of pies OL Se Se eee each ern Billing. The General Statement of the Methods Exam of Preambles to each Trade. recommended by the Manchester Form for a Bill of tities. of Architects for taking Quantities. Do. Bill of its. Examples of Collections. Do. _ Bill for Alternative Estimate. Examples of ‘‘ Taking Off” in each Trade. Variations before Acceptance of Tender. Errors in a Builder’s Estimate. Spons Architects and Builders Price Book, with useful Memoranda, Edited by W. Youna, Architect. Crown 8vo, cloth, red edges, 3s. 6d. Published annually. Sixteenth edition, Now ready. and Repairs, and Form of Bill. Remarks on the Past and Present Methods of Estimating. <= Long-Span Railway Bridges, comprising Investiga- tions of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various adopted or proposed Type Systems of Construction, with numerous Formule and Tables giving the weight of Iron or Steel required in Bridges from 300 feet to the limiting Spans; to which are added similar Investigations and Tables relating to Short-span Railway Bridges. Second oe edition. By B. Baker, Assoc, Inst. C.E. lates, crown 8vo, cloth, §s. Elementary Theory and Calculation of Iron Bridges and Roofs. By AuGusT RITTER, Ph.D., Professor at the Pol ic School at Aix-la-Chapelle. Translated from the third German edition, by H. R. Sankey, Capt. R.E. With 500 i//ustrations, 8vo, cloth, 155. The Elementary Principles of Carpentry. B THOMAS TREDGOLD. Revised from the original edition, and y re-written, by JoHN THomas Hurst. Contained in 517 pages of letter- press, and #/ustrated with 48 plates and 150 wood engravings. Sixth edition, reprinted from the third, crown 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d, Section I. On the Equality and Distribution of Forces— i Section II. Resistance of Timber —Section III. Construction of Floors—Section IV. Construction = Roofs — Sec- tion V. Construction of Domes and Cupolas—Section VI. Construction Partitions— VIL. S &, Gantries—Section VIII. Construction of Centres for Brid, Section I Coffer-dams, Shoring, and Strutting—Section X. Wooden Bridges and Viaducts—Section XI. Joints, Straps, and other Fastenings—Section XII, Timber. — ve PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 5 ee -_—— The Builder's Clerk: a Guide to the M ent of a Builder's Business. By Thomas Bares. Feap. Svo, ts, Gd. Our Factories, $A any eM and Warchouses: their ag deg CE” ub ity ond corey — ay abet ‘ion aoe Assoc. Its O d Extracti ep nd erang tein Iron Roofs: Examples of Design, Description. Zi/us- ee 64 A teen tare ery Rei By 2 ten, T. half-moroceo, 3/. 3. A iii Electric Telegraphy, to the Y 8 istory of ric Telegraphy _ wert L ments, ori Sabres Engineer and ofthe Iter ns, Paris, Crown 94. eee Can Ssiears. Ne No, 1, Ceylon. By Apranam Deane, C.E. ay. 6¢. CONTENTS: Introductory Remarks— Natural Productions — Architecture and Engineering — Topo- Sap tnt ct ant Her y—fnct Sa vaio at Memes Se No. 2. Southern Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Dutch oe. By Henry crm F.R.GS., F.R.C.L With Map. 3. Formation in South Africa— obedees ol se in South Public W 2 as a ee ere wee Eaghetring, Public Micse—Table off Weods tn South Aiticen icons sent acy “ Draught Purposes—Statistical Notes—Table of Distancer—Rates of Carriage, etc. No. 3. India. By F.C. Danvers, Assoc. Inst.C.E. With Map, CONTENTS: - * — a i, ‘ ree 5 6 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS A Practical Treatise on Coal Mining. By Grorce G. Anpr¥, F.G.S., Assoc, Inst. C.E., Member of the Society of Engincers. With 82 lithographic plates, 2 vols., royal 4to, cloth, 34 12s. A Practical Treatise on Casting and chelegiots including descriptions of the modern machinery em mS in the art. N, E. Spretson, Engineer. Third edition, wi plates drawn to scale, 412 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, 18s. The Depreciation of Factories and their Valuation. By EwiInG MaAtueson, M, Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth, 6s. A Handbook of Electrical Testing. By H.R. Kemps, M.S.T.E. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged, crown 8vo, cloth, 16s. Gas Works : their Arrangement, Construction, Plant, and Machinery. By F. Cotyer, M. Inst. C.E. With 31 folding plates, Svo, cloth, 245. The Clerk of Works: a Vade-Mecum for all engaged OSK in the Superintendence of Building Operations. By G, G. INS, F.R.LB.A. Third edition, feap. 8vo, cloth, 15. 6d. American Foundry Practice: Treating of Loam, Dry Sand, and Green Sand Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise upon the Management of Cupolas, and the Melting of Iron. By T. D. 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H, Peacy Bovtnois, Mem. Inst. C.E., Engineer, Ports- oT at conrea Uikamathan doiny Over dake tae . CONTENTS: ‘The and Duties of the Town Su Trafho—Moacadamised Road way>— Road Metal and Breaking —Piched Pavements—Asphalte—W ood Pavements N. ame Ree eet e aang sad Naabering Sues Licking over: Wir Companies Hang sp Setrslmpeament of frvate Sete Barong Dwellings—Pu Conveniences Comengng, Reieting Watering and the Removing of Seow Street Trees— Deposit Street Lises—Cellar Metrical Tables. By G. L. Moreswortu, M.I.C.E. 32mo, cloth, 14. 6. . CONTENTS. w, General—Linear Measures—Square Measures—Cubic Measures—Mecasures of Capacity— Elements of Construction for Electro-Magnets. B Count Tu. Du Moncet, Mem. de l'Institut de France. Translated Pet the French by C. J. Witanton. Crown Svo, cloth, 4+. 67. Practical Electrical Units Popularly Explained, with Sareea erat a en J.S.A. 18mo, cloth, 1s. 6d. : A Treatise on the Use of Belting for the Transmis- ee By J. H. Coorer. Second edition, s/ustratad, Svo, ad Building, T: Projectiles, etc.—Weights, Measures, tnd, Money “Trignomeiry, Cone Section, and. Carver Mensura- Gabe Roses Po ne Bn eee, Be ae sod Iekeaeed Calon Powers—Reciprocals, ete.— lus—Algebraic Signs—Telegraphic Construction and Formule. 8 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Flints on Architectural Draughismanslep. By G. W. Tuxrorp HALuattT. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1s, 6d Spons Tables and Memoranda for Engineers; selected and arranged by J. T. Hurst, C.E., Author of Aechltoakaed be hed Handbook,’ 7 Hurst's Tredgol d’s Carpentry,’ etc, Ninth edition, Some, Fou, gilt edges, 1: Is.; orin cloth case, 1s. 6d. thi a fimay be ely caran the waste pkey only af in, by rf in. by “* It is certainly an extremel for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume mat ah aah vbdheas ensions faithfully t the size of the hand penar=evbeh compaln 539-20 pages, besides a few in fact, a true pocket- adapted for being carried in the waist- seaty and con a far greater amount variety of information than most people e could be compressed into so small a space. . . . . The little volume has been imagin compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend it to our readers as a useful little pocket companion.” —Z ngineering. A Practical Treatise on Natural and Arti Concrete, its Varieties and Constructive Adaptations, By HENRY REID, Author of the ‘ Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement,’ New Edition, with 59 woodcuts and 5 plates, 8vo, cloth, 15s. Notes on Concrete and Works in Concrete; especially written to assist those engaged upon Public Works. By Joun a ti: Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6d. 4 Electricity as a Motive Power. By Count Tu. Du MoNcEL, Membre de l'Institut de France, and FRANK GERALDY, Pe nieur des Ponts et Chaussées. Translated and Edited, with Additions, by C. J. WHARTON, Assoc. Soc. Tel. Eng. and Elec. With 113 engravings and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 62. Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special consideration of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. GusTAV set Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Confederated deg Wee ree Zurich. Translated from the Fourth German Edition, by Professor J. oF KLEIN, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa, J//ustrated, 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d. The French-Polisher's Manual. By a pt ie Polisher; containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving, Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Re- polishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, 6d. Flops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in various Countries. By P.L. Stimmonps. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d. The Principles of Graphic Statics. By GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, Capt. Royal Engineers. With 112 illustrations. 4to, cloth, 125. 6d. . : — é PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 9 Dynamo-Electric Machinery : A Manual for Students o Repeat Piss Ustenly Cage Secs eS Sita, Wteeirated, bro, eloth 360.” lege ise Colouring, Prin and treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter on dra Instruments. By Gronoe’S. Crarke, Capt. R.E. Second edition, with 21 plates, 2 vols., cloth, tos. 6, The Elements of Graphic Statics. By Professor Kart Von Orr, translated from the German by G, 8S, Ctanxz, Capt. R.E., Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Enginecring College. With 93 illustrations, crown Svo, cloth, 5+. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distri- ’ bution of Coal Gas. By Wittiam Ricuarns. Demy 4to, with aumerens weed engravings and 29 plates, cloth, 28s. Synopsis OF CONTENTS: latroduction — Hist of Ges Lighting — of Gas Manufacture, by Lewis ~» M. . Pa a : RCS. be pt nen J een, Eas Thompson, and ats cot Sen” Coreen Commun Corton Conaent heen = elders — Station = eters of Gay—Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature on : Products—Appeadix—Description of Retort Settings, Bulldings, etc., etc. The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge Rivers and Canals. By W.R. Kutter. Translated from articles in *Cultur-I »’ by Lowts D'A. Jackson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. Svo, cloth, 12s. The Practical Millwright and Engineer's seedy | as nal fe geo pe i a en Pore: Se -w am By Tuomas on Fourth edition, 12mo, cloth, 3s. Tin: Describing the Chief Methods of Mining, _ Dressing and Smelting it abroad ; with Notes upon Arsenic, Bismuth and Wolfram. By Axtuua G. Cuarteron, Mem. American Inst, of Mining Engineers, With plates, Svo, cloth, 12s, 6, B3 10 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS Perspective, Eaplatned and Illustrated, By G. S.. CLARKE, Capt. R. With illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 35. 6d. _ Practical Hydraulics ; a Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc., etc. By Tuomas Box. Fifth edition, numerous plates, post 8vo, cloth, 5s. The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics ; based on the Principle of Work, designed for Engineering Students. B Oxiver Byrne, formerly Professor of Mathematics, College for Civil eee Third edition, with 148 wood engravings, post 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. CONTENTS: Chap. 1. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without reference to a Unit of Time—Chap. 2. The Work of Living Agents, the Influence of Friction, and introduces one of the most beautiful Laws of Motion—Chap. 3. The ae expounded in the first and second chapters are applied to the Motion of Bodies—Chap. 4. The Transmission of Work by simple Machines—Chap. §. Useful Propositions and Rules. Breweries and Maltings: their Arrangement, Con- struction, Machinery, ‘and Plant. By G. ScaAMeE.t, F.R.LB.A. Second edition, revised, enlarged, and partly rewritten, By F. CoLyer, M.LC.E., M.IL.M.E. With 20 plates, 8vo, cloth, 18s. A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Flori- contal and Vertical Waterwheels, specially designed for the use of opera- tive mechanics. By WILLIAM CULLEN, Millwright and Engineer. With 11 plates. Second edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, 125. 6d. 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SPON. ie The Drau eemen s Handbook of Plan and Map 7 ter All pper instructions for the preparation of echanical Drawings. With numerous vations in “per text, a 33 (15 printed in colours), By G. G. Anpvas, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. 4to, cloth, 9s. CONTENTS: The Boiler-maker s and Iron Ship-builder's Companion, nn pl carting opm Aly maga eatin of the tort spay deere eae in the iron trades. By James Fopen, author of ‘ Mechanical Tables,’ etc. Second edition with iliustra- tions, crown $vo, cloth, $+. Rock Blastin 7a Practical Treatise on the means Fs) As ng Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By G, G. Anpré, Assoc. Inst CE. With 56 illustrations and 12 plates, $¥o, cloth, Painting and Painters’ Manual: a Book of Facts for Painters and those who Use or Deal in Paint Materials. By C. L. Connprr and J. Scuerrer. Ji/ustrated, 8vo, cloth, 108, 6¢. 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Second edition, with numerous plates and woodcuts, 8vo, cloth, 14, 10s, Screw Cutting Tables for Engineers and Machinists, giving the values of the different trains of Wheels required to are Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay, M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., etc. Cloth, oblong, 2s. ' Screw Cutting Tables, for the use of Mechanical Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer, Second edition, oblong, cloth, 1s., or sewed, 6d, A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Shde- Valve Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction, based upon the principles enunciated in Euclid’s Elements, and comprising the various forms of Plain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing ; together with Stephenson’s, Gooch’s, and Allan’s Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to variable expansion combinations. By Epwarp J. COWLING WELCH, Memb. Inst. Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 65, Cleaning and Scouring: a Manual for Dyers, Laun- dresses, and for Domestic Use. By S, CHRISTOPHER. 18mo, sewed, 6d. A Glossary of Terms used in Coal Mining. By WILLIAM STUKELEY GRESLEY, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Member of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers. J//ustrated with numerous woodcuts and diagrams, crown 8yo, cloth, 5s. A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users, comprising a variety of useful information for Employer and Workman, Government Inspectors, Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineers in charge of Works and Slips, Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam- using Public. By Maurice JoHN Sexton. Second edition, royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5s. Electrolysis: a Practical Treatise on Nickeling, Coppering, Gilding, Silvering, the Refining of Metals, and the treatment of Ores by means of Electricity. By HiprpoLyTe FONTAIN; ted from the French by J. A. Berty, C.E., Assoc. S.T.E, With engravings. Svo, cloth, 9s. . PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 13 Barlow's Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocal: of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000. Post 8vo, > 2 : a g i | J e- ’ Svo, cloth, 12:. . a PRINCIPAL CONTENTS : Part . Part 1. Introduction * Geometry ty the Surveying ; com- Hn "Gronat Te an Estate or Parish by the onl with the -_ © ‘own Surveying— and on Plane 3. Levelling— d Simple and Levelling—The Level Book— and Section— P ae Wooden Curver—To few oot a Railway Corve— = and eee i te tectee nad Tinker. Measuring Ti ‘s = Cone roprinal Compa — boy See Vor Improved The Seale— teen snk Soom, aut 6, “egnetiess i. “Tosridinke Sines and Setting out Curves, and for various Calculations, etc., ete., etc. Health and Comfort in House Building, or Ventila- tien with Warm Air by Self-Acting Suction Power, with Review of the mode of Calculating the Draught in Hot-Air Flues, and with some actual Experiments. . Dayspare, M.D., and J. W. Haywarp, M.D. Second edition, Supplement, with plates, demy Svo, cloth, 72. 6¢. 14 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. The Assayer’s Manual: an Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores and Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Keri. Translated by W. T. BRANNT. With 65 illustrations, ive: cloth, 12s. 6d, Electricity: its Theory, Sources, and Applications. By J. T. Spracue, M.S.T.E. Second edition, revised and enlarged, with numerous illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 155. The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc., with Instructions for Turning such Work in Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc. ; also an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. (A book for beginners.) By FRANcis CAMPIN, Third edition, with wood engravings, crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. CONTENTS : On Lathes—Turning Tools—Turning Wood—Drilling—Screw Cutting—Miscellaneous Apparatus Processes—Turning Particular Forms—Staining—Polishing—Spinning Metals —Materials—Ornamental Turning, etc. - Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present. By the Rev. H. L. Netturopp, M.A., F.S.A. With 32 illustrations, crown Svo, cloth, 6s. 6d. CONTENTS : Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork—Tools—Time—Historical Sum- mary—On Calculations of the Numbers for Wheels and Pinions; their P Sizes, ‘Trains, etc.—Of Dial Wheels, or Motion Work—Length of Time of Going without Winding up—The Verge—The Horizontal—The Duplex—The Lever—The Chronometer— ng Watches—Keyless Watches—The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring—Compensation—Jewelling Pivot Holes—Clerkenwell—Fallacies of the Trade—Incapacity of Workmen—How to Choose and Use a Watch, etc. Algebra Self-Taught. By W. P. Hices, M.A, D.Sc., LL.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of ‘A Handbook of the Differ- ential Calculus,’ etc. Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. CONTENTS : Symbols and the Signs of Operation—The Equation and the Unknown Quantity— Positive and Negative A ape pliers tc rl wpa ews Ee Expo- nents—Roots, and the Use of Exponents as Logarithms— rithms—Tables ——— and Proportionate Parts— Transformation of System of ithms—Common Uses of Common rithms—Compound Multiplication and the Binomial Theorem—Division, Fracti Ratio—Continued Proportion—The Series and the Summation of the Series— Limit of Series—Square and Cube Roots—Equati List of Formula, etc. Spons Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, Mechanical, aie tid oe Naval; pretncre tious in French, nernes De g Spanish, 3100 pp., and nearly engravings, in su vo, in 8 divisions, 5/. rh Complete in 3 vols., cloth, 5/. Boul in a superior manner, half-morocco, top edge gilt, 3 vols., 6/. 12s. PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 15 Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Com forthe ws ofthe Stadenis attending % Beer et ob the ——, By ieee Laas Mem. Inst. Mem. We Mem. Soc, of Engineers. Corn teen datnnain aa ane and Boat Building: a complete Manual for containing echo free ve directions for the con- stration of Canoes, and ing Boats, ppl prey Craft. oie pak cay Wa numerous illustrations and 24 plate: of Drawings. Crown Svo, cloth, 7s. 6d. Proceedings of the National C lectricians, Me Gonmnns weaken Dynamo - Electricity, its Generation, Application, Transmission, Storage, and Measurement. By G. B. Prescorr. With 545 illustrations. Svo, cloth, 1/. 14, : Domestic Electricity for Amateurs. Translated from ™ the French of E. ise gs: Editor of ‘* L’Electricien,” by C. J. - Warton, Assoc. Soc, Tel. Eng. Numerous illustrations, Demy 8vo, — sa Contents: ; ~. s. Production of the Electric Current—2. Electric Belle— 3. Automatic Domestic ‘ £ Deesnic Applicnicn Clocks—6. Electric Lighters—7. Domestic Electric . 8. Domestic of the ne Ree ht—g. 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Second edition, Feap. 8vo, cloth, 2. A Treatise on Modern Steam Engines and Boilers, : including Land Locomotive, and Marine and Boilers, for the - ' use of Students. By Frepexicx Co.ysr, M. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E. & With 36 plates. 40, cloth, 252. a Contents: .- ™ a. Introduction—2. Original Engines—3. Boilers— 4. High-Pressure Beam ; Gesuiehy Treas Engine Rlecioottal ighaae—r. Engines—8. Vertical Lig Ry aig Special Engines—10, Portable Engines—11. Locomotive Engines— Steam Engine Managenent ; a Treatise on the tact soon ome Land Surveying on the Meridian and Perpendi + as a, Seley ey orn tat occa The T: ographer, his Instruments and Methods, the of Students, Amateur Photographers, -—Engfery an ll perions intersted inthe loetion and cotsrscton of and engravings. By Lewis M. Haver, A.M. 8vo, cloth, 18¢. A Text-Book of Tanning, embracing th Freparatio . ernie. By Heiay R. Paocres FCS, of Lighis Tanneries. 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