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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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ELEMENTARY

AGRICULTURE

BY
WILLIAM LEWIS NIDA, Ph. B.

Superintendent of Schools,
River Forest, Ill.

Teachers’ Edition

A. FLANAGAN COMPANY
CHICAGO

-~

CoPYRIGHT, 1913
BY
A. FLANAGAN COMPANY

A

©cla3s5s7991

, vv

PREFACE

N taking up any new science it is well for teachers to
| secure the simplest text to be had in order that they
may obtain a clear and well-grounded understanding of
the subject before they attempt to interest pupils in it.
This text is believed to be one of the clearest and simplest
that has yet appeared in this field, and the publishers have
therefore decided to issue an edition especially for teachers.
Since a much wider field of useful information about
farming could be brought within this teacher’s edition by
using the question and answer plan, the latter part of this
volume is composed of ‘‘One Thousand Questions An-
swered.’’ They contain the most helpful points gathered
from a wide reading in an agricultural library. It is hoped
that by thus combining Elementary Agriculture with the
Thousand Questions Answered we are able to offer to the
teachers what might be called many books in one.

The book is so arranged and so carefully indexed that
the teacher or farmer may easily find the information he is
seeking. Morever there is nowadays such general interest
in all questions pertaining to rural life and such wide-
spread desire to follow the rally ery ‘‘Back to the Farm,”’
that librarians are everywhere called upon to answer many
questions and direct many readers on the subject. The
very full index to this book, for which credit is due Miss
Mary E. Collins, will be found helpful to the librarian as

well as to the teacher.
WiuuiaAmM L. Nipa.

ili

CONTENTS

Part I. Farm ANIMALS

CHAR TE ais PIE ORS Eee. a. ote bine cian ek ee eee ee 1-15
Taming the Wild Horse—Horses Introduced in America—
Draft Horses—Coach Horses—Roadsters—Use and Care of
Horses—Breaking the Colt

CETOASP STENT: adel RO ATT UG Eh econ cts) rece Jone) ee oh eco! 5, Fiske che Se 16-28
Taming of Cattle—The Ox at Work—Beef Cattle—Dairy
Cows—Building Up a Fine Herd |

(CHELAN IT § OO WA USE VUNG DY TELOIMI Heo aon oon ae oa Oe - 29-33
Milk as Food—Care of Milk—Butter-fat—Churning—
Cheese-making—By-products

CHA RTE Rig LV. iS ETE: 8 soya iste oi a's 6.1051 2 oie oy5 sf) 0 etext salons ei trene eee 34-43
Origin of Sheep—Their Care—Merinos—Mutton Types—
Sheep-shearing

(CETCAT TAN Vise SVVAION IED ak, chattey have la/eheveasieh orelro le eae oleheg olen seeks oh 400 44-48
The Wild Boar—Development of Good Types-——Their Care
and Feed—Lard and Bacon Types—Hog Cholera

(OM EEA RT ENE LEI hee nT EXON OI Cf BY Kh A ee aye RO ee HET Oo PORTA EROCRO ay orc bee 49-57

Origin of Chickens—Value to the Farmer—Kinds and Uses
of Fow!s—Their Care and Feeding—The Young Brood—
Poultry Pests

CHAPTER Vil. TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE........58-60
Raising Turkeys—Ducks on the Farm—Geese
OY Sa Ted at IT EONS (10 ROME Bs AUD BW tS Fanpop) Stee Sea ase ea ARR RCR aE Neo 61-67

Insect Enemies—Insect Friends—Parts of an Insect—
Biting Insects—Sucking Insects—Inseet Growth—Larva
Stage—Pupa Stage—Life of Insects.

CTRARTERMEAS SPDR eB a c0ttcch .% o70jsrwales tania eh erates ae lee 68-76
The First Sugar Makers—Taming the Bee—Making Honey
—The Bee Family—Care of Bees for Profit—Other Services
of Bees

CHAR TERE XG. ABIURD Soros aesciots/oigs > cacti ee eee 77-838
Birds of Killingworth—Service to Farmers—Grosbeaks—
Protecting Crops—Paying Their Way

1V

CONTENTS Vv

Part II. Soms anp Farm Crops

CHIAUPIUBIR, AG (NOMS. a5 cockGa5000 sgn canobbGeDoOOUGOOOOd 84-95
What Soil Is—Kinds of Soil—Humus—Plant-foods—Liquid
Food for Plants—Importance of Water in Soil—Drainage
—Tiling—Bacteria in Soil—Rotation of Crops—Different
Systems of Rotation

CHAPTER XII. PLANTS AND HOW THEY GROW...... 96-102
Parts of the Plant—The Work of Roots—The Stem—
Leaves—Flowers—Pollination—Variety in Plant Life—
Dissemination of Seeds

CHAPTER XIII. TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY. .103-112

Tilling in Ancient Times—Teachings of Jethro Tull—What
Tillage Does—The Dust Muleh—Dry Farming—Irrigation
—Better Machinery—Iron Tools

ROEICAIE eT sly AX Vic, AC OIIN sia chavo) o 0 sar ise Bacaiareiie Suet elnyensiaxelsue) 9/4) 5.8 113-125
Origin of Corn—Importance to the Pioneer—Indian Farm-
ing—The Corn Belt—Choosing Seed Corn—What Consti-
tutes a Prize Ear—Curing the Seed—Testing Seed Corn—
Preparation for the Crop—Getting a Good Stand—Cultiva-
tion—Harvesting—The Silo—Other Uses of Corn

RACE sD ENE, XV. CIV ELE Als ie anuatt siayare 2 aa ele a! 950) 8000s e 5%: 25.000" 126-137
Origin of Wheat—Introduction of Wheat Into America—
Kinds of Wheat—The Crop—Wheat in Rotation—Enemies
of Wheat—Harvesting Tools—Animal Power—The Reaper
—Self Binder—Combined Harvesters—Uses of Wheat

CHAPTER XVi.. LAE FIELD OG TRISH POTATO™=.....- 138-144

Origin of the Potato—A Tuber—Kinds of Seeds—How to
Choose Seed—Soil and Cultivation—Diseases and Enemies

—Machinery

CHAVET BIS, XIU, IMEUR SUIOIY IROIWAINOS oo pacaK0 BD On 145-146
A True Root—Origin—Climate and Soil—The Crop

(CHUAUPINBIN SYAUUE, (COHTTOM, oo aacenadoonnnoedodopocudor 147-155
Climate — Soil— Rotation— Cultivation— Harvesting— Boll
Weevil

CHORE PH XIX TB ALAN £GRO P x0; 20 sieistersls sla <2 sue 05100, 156-163

Timothy—Clovers—Harvesting Red Clover—Alsike Clover
—Alfalfa—Cowpeas.

“8 CONTENTS

PAGES
CHAPTER AX) (ORCA E DIS. «205% ain tarkeisaleiatelstcis eles =) tessa 164-173

Convenience to Market—Hill Country for Orchards—Best
Slopes—Influence of Water—Soil—Preparation for Plow-
ing—Setting Trees—Tilling—Pruning—Spraying—Harvesting

CHAPTER XXI. SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS......... 174-181
Cuttings of Sugar Cane for Seed—Planting Sugar Cane—
Haryvesting—Sugar Beet—Cultivation and Harvesting—
Rice—Tobacco—Oats, Barley, Rye, and Buckwheat

CHAPTER AXTT. THE FARM GARDEN oo sises0 hs ix =aeter 182-200
The Boy’s Experiment Farm—Preparation for Garden Soil
—Garden Tocls—Muleching—Window Boxes—Hot Beds—
Cold Frames—Transplanting—Vegetables—Fruit

CHAPTHE AXEMT, COUNTEY BOADB v5: seice ad asian0 ee tae Oleome
Rearing Upon Farmers’ Profits—Bearing Upon Sociability
—Good Roads and Schools—Interest of City People—
Roman Roads—Working Out the Road Tax—Paying Road
Taxes in Cash—The Macadam Road—Effect of Surface on
Loads—Effect of Grade on Loads—Surfacing Clay and
Sandy Roa<ls—Loam Roads—Brick Roads

CHAPTER XXIV. PEESERVING FOODS... s0025050+-0- 213-215
Germs Which Help and Hinder—The Yeast Plant—Making
Bread—Mold—Canning Fruit—Smoking Meats—Cold Stor-
age—Preserving Fruits—Bacteria in Butter and Cider

(OHELIMETIO ER. SORES JIA ANT SAUNT EAT Gat canon ebootcGO6 216-224

Location and Surroundings of the Farm House—Water
Supply—Sewage and Disease—Mosquitoes and Malaria—
The House Fly and Typheid—Fighting Flies—Milk a Germ
Carrier—Ventilating the Barn—Principles of Ventilation—
Heating and Ventilating the Home—The School Room

CHAPTER XXXVI. THE FARMER’S COLLEGE.......... 225-228
The Department of Agriculture—Helps from Pamphlets—
State Experiment Stations—Colleges of Agriculture

CHAPTER XXVIII. BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS........229208

Club Movement—Boys’ Corn Clubs—Father and Son Cluks-—
Potato Clubs—Tomato Canning Clubs—The Club and School

Part III. Apprenpix

ONE THOUSAND QUESTIONS ANSWERED—INDEX.. .vii-clxix

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

PART I. FARM ANIMALS

CHAPTER I
THE HORSE

Taming the Wild Horse. Who tamed and rode
the first wild horse and how he did it, we shall never
know; but it was an important event for mankind.
It happened long ages ago, before men began to write
their doings in books. We know that horses lived
in the time of the cave men, for we find remains of
horses and rude pictures of them scratched on stone
in caves and sand drifts. The cave men hunted these
wild horses for meat and for their skins.

Variety in Size. The horse was then much smaller
than he is now. He was about the size of a wild pony.
The wild horses that came to live in mild climates
where food was plentiful began to grow larger, with
heavier limbs and stronger muscles; but those that
passed into cold, bleak lands where food was searee,
grew small like the ponies of the Shetland Islands.

The Horse’s Foot. The bones and fossils of the
ancient horse show that he was once less than
twenty-four inches in height. He had a spreading

1

9, ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

foot with five toes. At that time he lived in low,
marshy lands, and toes were needed to help him get
about. As the earth became harder he lost one toe
after another and so was able to travel faster to
escape from his enemies. The horse’s hoof is the
nail of the one remaining toe.

Riding Horseback. ‘The Greeks first drove the
horse hitched to rude chariots, but later, it is said,
they learned to ride him without saddle or bridle.
They invented the first bridle bit, which is called
the snaffle. Neither Greeks nor Romans shod their
horses. At first only kings, nobles, and warriors
could afford horses. They were used chiefly in war
and for riding and driving in war chariots. But
everybody who was able rode horseback; even kings
looked upon this as the most dignified way to travel.

The First Work Animal. All this time the farmer
had only the plow ox or the stubborn ass to help him
raise his crops. When at last the farmer began to
use the horse, he did his work much faster, for the
horse has not only better speed and greater strength
than the ox, but he can hold out longer.

The Horse and the Indian. Horses were not found
in America when the white men first came. The
Indians were greatly frightened when they saw the
horses which the Spaniards brought over. They
thought these animals were terrible monsters. But
the Indians soon learned to use the horse, and, after
a time, great herds of horses appeared wild on the
western plains.

THE HORSE 3

The Big Draft Horse. The time came when men
began to breed horses for different uses. When they
wished work horses that could draw very heavy
loads at a slow pace, they selected the heavy, stout-
limbed animals that had strong muscles; and by
using these as parents they reared more like them.
Gradually the colts of these horses grew stronger
and larger, and so the draft horse was developed.

Fic. 2. A coach horse.

Coach and Roadsters. Other men wanted horses
that could pull heavy coaches with good speed.

4 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Fig. 3. Percheron stallion.

They wanted high knee action and fine style. So
they kept this kind to breed from and developed the
coach horse (Fig. 2). Still other men wanted speedy
horses for light loads, and they reared saddle and
race horses.

Kinds of Draft Horses. The draft horse is blocky,
heavy, and powerful. He may weigh from fifteen
hundred to two thousand pounds and is in much

THi: HORSE 5

demand for pulling great loads on city streets. He
has a round body and rather short legs. His hind
legs are the stronger, yet he uses his front legs so
much in pulling that the front quarters are heavy
and powerful. His breast is broad and his front
legs far apart. From France we get the Percheron
(Figs. 3 and 4) draft horse, with a gray, chestnut,
or black color; from Belgium comes the bay Bel-
gian; the Shire of bay brown or chestnut color
comes from England and the smaller but more
active Clydesdale (Fig. 5) from Scotland.

How to Hitch a Horse. When a team cannot pull
a heavy load, it is often because the feet sip. The
heavier the horse is, the better he can hold with his
toes. A horse can really pull more on hard or slip-
pery roads if he has a man on his back. This gives
him more weight and a better foothold. One way to

Fic. 4. Prize six-horse Percheron team.

6 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Fie. 5. A Clydesdale.

help a horse pull heavy loads is to put the whiffle-
tree low down. It is better to have the doubletree
under the tongue for heavy pulling. <A farmer
once tested this by hitching a horse to a post with a
spring balance which would show how many pounds
he pulled. When the whiffletree was tied six inches
from the ground he pulled six hundred pounds more
than when it was three feet from the ground.

Driving Fast. When a horse has a light load and
is driven for speed, the whiffletree should be high.
This makes the weight on the horse lighter so there
is less strain on his legs and feet. Sometimes you

THE HORSE q

see in the city a two-wheeled carriage with the
driver sitting high behind. This is called a hansom
eab. The driver’s weight makes the thills pull up
on the horse and so carries part of the horse’s
weight. This saves his feet greatly in driving upon
hard pavements.

Race Horses. The American trotter (Fig. 6) and
the American saddle horse are the best of their kind
in the world. Trotters have powerful hind legs and
good lungs. They have small heads and large nos-
trils so they can breathe abundance of air (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6. American trotting horse (Morgan type).

8 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Other Uses of the Horse. Among the Tartar tribes
of northern and central Asia, mare’s milk and horse.
flesh are still used for the food of man. Old horses
are always fattened for the meat markets of France
and other countries of Kurope.

Most Horses in America. ‘l'o-day in Great Britain
there is one horse to every twenty people; in France,
one to every ten people; and in the United States,
one to every five people. So we have more horses
in America than there are in any other country, and
we make them do more of our work.

Horse Power Cheap. Human labor costs more
than any other kind of labor, so the farmer has
learned to use his horses for many purposes. Years
ago, when harnesses were poor and tools crude,
many things were done by human hands that are
now done by horse power. To-day one good horse
can do as much work as ten men, while his board
and keep costs about half as much as that of one
man.

Doing Forty Men’s Work. A farmer boy who
drives a four-horse team hitched to a gang-plow is
doing as much work as forty men working with
hand tools. Four-horse plows and four-horse har-
rows are very common on the large farms in the
West. Some of the great harvesting machines em-
ploy as many as twenty or thirty horses and mules
on a single machine.

Feeding the Horse. A horse’s stomach is small,
so he cannot use as much bulky food asa cow. He

THE HORSE 0)

ought to have at least three good meals every day.
When a horse is making long trips on the road he
should not have too much hay, but a richer food,
like corn or oats. The work horse should have his
largest meal at night, when he has plenty of time
to eat and digest it. If a horse is not warm, it is
better to water before feeding him. The water
passes on through the stomach and leaves room
for the food. If an animal is very warm, it should

Fig. 7. Thoroughbred trotting mares and colts.

not be given either food or water until it has cooled
off. Clover hay is not so good for a horse as tim-
othy, because it is more dusty; and dusty hay is
liable to give horses the heaves. If dusty hay must
be used, it should be sprinkled before feeding.

A Good Variety. It is cruel to feed the horse on
nothing but oats and hay all the year round, when

10 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

he would so much like some barley, beans, peas,
corn, or turnips for a change. In the United States
Army a horse is allowed ten quarts of oats a day.
It is better to feed corn on the cob, as this makes the
animal eat more slowly and it also improves his
teeth. When carrots are given, they should be
sliced to prevent the horse from choking. It is
important to keep a little salt in his trough.

Cleaning the Horse. When a horse comes to the
barn with muddy legs, they should be rubbed down
or washed, especially in cold weather, to prevent
rheumatism. Time spent in cleaning and rubbing
the horse in the evening after the day’s work is
done, is much better for the animal than the same
time spent in the morning, because the horse will
rest so much better.

His Care. When a horse is warm upon stopping
work in cold weather, he should be blanketed to
keep him from eatching cold. On very cold morn-
ings the bits should be warmed by dipping them in
water before bridling the horse. Even cold water
will keep a frosty bit from freezing to the tongue
and tearing the skin. Have you ever tried touching
your tongue to frosty iron?

Healthy Shoulders. Many farm horses suffer
from sore shoulders. This need not be so. The
collar should fit and be kept clean. If there is
danger of sore shoulders, they should be washed in
salt water at noon a-d in the evening. Salt water
is healing, and it makes the shoulders tough. When

THE HORSE 11

the team is working hard, the harness ought to be
removed at the noon hour. The horse should be well
cleaned every day with a good brush. The curry-
comb is harsh and painful, especially when used by
rough hands.

A Pleasant Home. The horse’s home or stable
should be kept clean. It needs to be light, but the
windows must not be where the horse will look into
them, for this will injure his eyes, as it does yours
when you sit facing a window. The horse barn
should also have good air. If the barn is made very
warm, a window should always be open where the
draft will not strike the animals.

Shoeing the Horse. Many horseshoers do not un-
derstand their trade, and so they injure the feet of
the horse. Sometimes they put on shoes that are too
big, and this stretches the hoof too much. <A very,
small shoe pinches and makes corns. Some pare
the sole too much, and others even use the knife on
the frog, which is a great injury to the foot. As the
hoof is growing all the time, just as a man’s finger-
nails grow, the shoes need to be changed often, so
they will not pinch the foot.

One Lesson at a Time. In breaking colts it is
better not to try to teach them too much at one time.
One of the first lessons is to ‘‘halter-break’’ the
young colt. This should be done while he is still
a suckling. A strong, well-fitting halter is placed
on him, and he is tied short to a post near to his
mother. A colt should always be tied firmly, for if

il ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

1. Clove hitch.
2. Picket rope with a half-granny and a half-hitch.
3. Bowline: a noose that never slips; is easily untied.
ar Te
4 6
4. <A slip knot, running noose, or halter knot.
5. Becket hitch for joining a cord and a rope.
6. Reef knot or square knot; never slips; easily untied.
7. False reef or granny; difficult to untie; a bad knot.

Fic. 8. Knots that every

THE HORSE

8
8. Anchor bend. ’
9. Fixed loop in middle of a cord.
Weavers’ knot or sheet bend, for joining small cords.

11. ‘Two half-hitches.

12 13
12. Blackwall k mae
13. Carrick bend for joining large ropes.
14. Timber hitch: cannot slip or jamb; easily untied.
farmer showd know.

hiteh.

14 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

he once breaks loose he has learned a very bad trick
(Hie 8).

His First Bridle. After the colt is halter-broken
so he can be tied or led, it is a good plan to tie his
halter to his mother’s hame or collar. In this way
he gets used to trotting beside another horse. The
next lesson is to put on a bridle with a smooth bit.
An open bridle is better than a ‘‘blind”’ one, for the
horse ought to see everything about him so he will
the more quickly get used to the new experience.

Driving the Colt. A saddle may now be put on,
or a single harness with crupper and back strap.
It is a good plan to drive the horse at first without
a cart. The driver passes the lines through the tug
or the loop made for the shafts, and in this way
keeps the animal from whirling suddenly and get-
ting tangled up in the lines. It is well to have a
helper lead the colt at first, until he understands
what is expected of him.

Driving Double. The colt may now be hitched to
a cart with long shafts and a kick strap, or he may
be hitched up with another horse. When this is
done it is a good plan to keep a pair of single lines
on the colt’s bridle and have these in the hands of a
helper. In hitching up double, it is well to use a
heavy wagon with a brake and to put the colt on the
‘‘off’? side. He can now be taught to stop, to back,
and to start at the proper signal.

Not Too Many Signals. A horse should be trained
early to stand still while he is being harnessed and

THE HORSE 15

hitched up. Very few words or signals should be
used, for a horse has far less brains than a dog.
‘‘Whoa’’ should always mean to stop. ‘‘Steady’’
is the word when we wish the team to go more
slowly. ‘‘Back’’ should be used only when we wish
the team to move backwards.

Kindness Pays. ‘‘The merciful man is merciful to
his beast,’’ and the well-treated horse repays his
master’s patience and good care. Horses, like all
farm animals, should be kindly and gently handled.
Jerking and whipping do harm to the horse, and
this means a money loss to the farmer.

CHAPTER II
CATTLE

More Useful Than Horses. Horses are a great
help to man, but we could get along without them
better than without cattle. Cattle supply us with
meat, leather, and milk; and they may also be yoked
up for work.

Where Cattle Came From. Cattle have come
down to us from a queer animal of the cave man’s
time, called the urus. In those far-off days there
was also a kind of wild cattle. Some say the herds
of wild cattle mixed with herds of the urus, and
this mixture formed the cattle that we have. But
nobody is very sure about this. We know that the
cave man hunted and killed wild cattle for meat.

Taming the Wild Cattle. A long time after the
cave man a higher race of men lived in villages built
out over the edge of lakes in Switzerland. These
people, called the Swiss lake-dwellers, seem to have
tamed the cow. How do you think they did it?
They probably kept cows at first for milk only.
Instead of hunting all the time for food, the people
began to give some time to their cattle and so
became herders.

Churning the First Butter. Then a wonderful dis-
covery was made by some one, and that was how to
make butter from milk. Probably some lake-dweller

16

CATTLE 17

was carrying upon a journey a skin or leather bag
of milk, and the motion churned the butter. Milk
will not keep long without souring, but butter keeps
much longer. The cow, with her milk, butter, hide,

; fe ee ees ec
Fig. 9. A beef breed (Shorthorns).

and meat, must have done a great deal to help these
ancient people to better ways of living.

Hitching Cattle to Loads. We do not know when
eattle were first yoked up and hitched to loads.
Perhaps a cow was tied by a leather thong, when
suddenly she made off through the woods, dragging
a man or the log to which she was tied. Then some

18 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

one hit upon the idea of tying a cow to anything he
wished to have moved.

The First Plow. After the yoke was invented,
some clever person made a rude plow of sharp sticks
tied with thongs, and agriculture took a long step
forward, because this enabled the farmer to use
animal power to till the soil, instead of doing it all
by hand.

Two Kinds of Cattle. Cattle were early brought
to America from Europe. Men began to want two
kinds of cattle, one for milk and butter and the
other for beef. They found that a good milch cow
is not very good for beef, for her food all goes to
milk; while a fat cow will not give much milk, as
her food makes flesh or muscle. By carefully select-
ing the good milkers for mothers, farmers have
developed a fine dairy animal, such as the Jersey,
the Guernsey, or the Holstein.

Beef Cattle. Other cattle raisers have bred from
the large, heavy animals and have herds of fine beef
cattle, such as the Shorthorns (Figs. 9 and 17), Here-
fords, or Galloways (Fig. 10). The beef cow is
square, with all bones well covered with flesh. Her
back is straight and her legs full and thick. The
neck is full and stocky, the legs short and set far
apart to support the large, heavy body. The more
meat these animals can make from a given amount
of food, the more profitable they are.

Their Care and Feed. Beef cattle need different
food and care from the dairy animals. The beef

CATTLE 19

type do not require such warm barns as the milkers
do, because fat animals never need such warm hous-
ing as do lean ones. They seem to do better in dry,
open sheds that are well bedded. They need such
foods as will make them fat most quickly and at the
least expense, and eattle feeders know this well.

Fic. 10. A Galloway cow.

Getting Ready for Market. Sometimes calves are
fed fattening foods as soon as they can digest them.
They are kept on such food until they are ready for
the market at from ten to sixteen months of age.
Other cattlemen give their young herd the freedom
of the range or pasture for a few months, or, per-
haps, for a year or two, and then put them on rich,

20 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

lig. 11. An empty dinner pail.

fattening foods for a few months before a are
sold to the butcher or the packer.

Feeding Meal. When teaching a young calf to
eat meal, the farmer puts him in a box stall with
another, older calf, and the young one will learn
from his companion. Another way is to take a little
meal in the hand and put the hand in the mouth of
the young calf. (Fig. 11.)

A Mixed Food. A good meal ration for calves is
a bushel of ground corn, a bushel of ground oats, a
peck and a half of wheat bran, and the same of oil
meal, all well mixed. As soon as calves will take
hay or fodder, it should be given to them. They
will begin to nibble and taste it when two or three
weeks old. The best hay is clover, alfalfa, or cow
peas. As soon as they begin to chew the cud, finely
cut hay is mixed with the meal. In this way one can
prepare the calf for weaning. (Fig. 12.)

CATTLE 21

Saving Cream. When calves are fed on skimmed
milk they miss the butter-fat that has been taken
away as cream. In its place the farmer feeds the
calf some corn meal or linseed meal. One or two
cents’ worth of meal will serve the calf as well as
twenty-five cents’ worth of cream.

Choosing a Good Dairy Cow. The dairy cow is
shaped like a wedge. The neck, thighs, and shoul-
ders are thin and lean. She should be thin, not
because she is poorly fed, but because she is turning
a large part of the feed she eats into milk. She
should be quiet and gentle. She should be strong
and have room for a large quantity of food. Her
hips are prominent and wide apart, and the rump
is high. The hind legs are trim and set well apart.

Fig. 12. Where are our mothers?

99 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Most important of all, she has a large, well-shaped
udder. The floor of the udder is straight and
extends well forward and well backward, too. The

7%, me |
i . a
. ft

5 Wir.
‘ sy

Fie: 13. The dairy type (Jerseys).

udder is soft and fine. The teats are evenly placed
and of medium size. The buyer should milk out a
few streams to see that the openings are not so
small as to make her a hard milker. The milk veins
which extend forward from the udder should be
large, with many branches, because they supply the
blood from which the udder secretes the milk.

The Jersey Type. The Jersey cow (Fig. 13) is
famous the world over for her rich milk. These
cows were the first dairy animals to become popular
in our country. They change a large part of their
food into milk instead of into flesh or fat. Jersey
milk is the richest of all. The Jersey heifer matures

CATTLE 93

early and may become a mother at between two and
three years. So the dairyman does not have to
feed her long until she more than pays her way.
This breed came, in the first place, from Jersey
Island, in the English Channel. The island is only
eleven miles long by five and a half wide, but it is
very rich and productive; and the farms there are
very small, sometimes not more than two or three
acres. The principal industry is dairying, and the
stock has been kept pure by forbidding foreign
animals to be brought in. The milk is nearly all
made into butter.

The Guernseys. The Guernsey cows, like the Jer-
seys, come from one of the islands by that name in
the English Channel. They are somewhat larger

Fig. 14. A record cow (Holstein).

24 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

than the Jerseys. They have coarser bones and
carry more flesh. Guernseys are noted for their
yellow milk, which is only second to that of the
Jersey in richness. But they often give a greater
amount than the Jersey.

The Holstein. This dairy animal was bred 2,000
years ago along the Rhine, in Europe. The Dutch
first brought these cows to America, shortly after
the settlement of New Amsterdam. The Holstein
(Figs. 14 and 107) is noted for the great amount of
milk given. The milk is not so rich in butter-fat
as that of the Jersey or Guernsey, but the large
amount makes her a most desirable cow to keep
near large cities like New York, where the milk is
sold by measure. Other noted dairy types are the
Ayrshire, the Brown Swiss (Fig. 15), and the Dutch
Belted.

The Babcock Milk Test. For a long time dairy-
men did not know how to choose the cows which
gave the richest milk. Not many years ago Dr.
S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin, invented a machine
to test milk for the amount of butter-fat. Now
every farmer may know which cows are valuable for
their rich milk and which ones are not worth their
keep.

What a Good Cow Produces. A good cow should
produce from twelve to fifteen pounds of butter a
week. One of the highest records ever made was
by a Holstein cow that made thirty-three pounds
of butter in one week (Fig. 14).

CATTLE 95

Caring for the Dairy Cow. ‘Twice each day the
dairy cow is driven to the barn to be milked, and
the more milk she gives to each pound of food, the
more valuable she is (Fig. 16). In order to give
an abundance of milk, she must have the best of
eare and food, and kind treatment; and she must be
milked at regular hours. She should have water
and plenty of good food at every meal time.

Their Food. In summer, when the cows are in

Fig. 15. Brown Swiss twin calves, bull and heifer.

26 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

pasture, they need very httle other food unless the
pasture becomes short and dry. Then corn, alfalfa,
peas, oats, rye, or some other crops may be cut green
and fed to them. Water and shade should be within
reach of cows at all times in hot weather (Fig. 1).
In winter they like hay, root crops, and silage.

A Balanced Feed. It is best to feed some dry hay
or fodder, some silage or green food, and some
grain. The careful dairyman always feeds just the
right amount of each to supply what the cows need
without any waste. He ealls this a ‘‘balanced
ration.”’

Testing Cows. Some pure-bred cows are poor
milkers. The only way to make sure that a cow is
worth her board is to test her milk for butter-fat
and weigh the milk. Every dairyman should keep
a record of each cow for one year. A spring balance
with a paper beside it will enable the farmer to
weigh the milk and put down the amount quickly.

An Easier Way. Or, instead of weighing the milk
every day, the farmer may weigh the milk of each

Fic. 16. A row of money makers.

CATTLE 27

cow for three days each month. The sum of these
weights multiplied by ten will give the year’s pro-
duction. Take samples for the Babcock test in the
second, fourth, and seventh months after the cow
freshens. If you add these and divide by three you
get the average daily production of butter-fat.
Cow-testing Associations. Dairymen who find it

Iie. 17. A Shorthorn bull.

difficult to test theiz own cows are in some instances
banding together in cow-testing associations. To
this association each farmer contributes a small fee
and with this money an expert is employed who
spends his time going about among the dairies and
testing the cows of each herd. This plan has been
used in Holland for many years, and is the reason
for the great advance in the dairy business in that

28 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

country. Farmers who desire to form such an asso-
ciation should write to the Department of Agricul-
ture, who will send a man to assist in forming the
organization.

Uses Made of Beef Cattle. It is said that every
grown person in the United States eats, on an aver-
age, one hundred and fifty pounds of meat in a year.
The greater part of this is furnished by the great
herds pastured on the Western plains. Leather for
many purposes is made from the hides, and butter-
ine is a product of the fat or tallow of beef. Buttons
are made from the bones; combs, from the bones and
hoofs; and glue, from the sinews, bones, and hide
trimmings.

How to Get Good Stock. The cheapest way for a
farmer to build up a fine herd of either dairy or
beef cattle is to save only the calves whose father
or sire is a pure-bred animal. (Fig. 17.) There is
a true saying among stock farmers that ‘‘The sire
is half the herd.’’ The way to improve a scrub
herd is to obtain a pure-bred sire. The first calves
are half pure. When these calves become cows and
mothers, their calves are three-fourths pure stock,
and so on. Scrub cattle have no place in the fields
of a good farmer.

CHAPTER III
MILK AND BUTTER

Milk as Food. Milk is a good food for every one.
The Laplander milks his reindeer, and the Arab his
camel. The people of India milk their buffaloes, and
the mountain people their sheep. <A quart of cow’s
milk contains about the same amount of food as
three-quarters of a pound of beef. Thus we see
that milk is cheaper than meat or eggs. As the
cities grow there is a greater demand for milk, but
the buyers insist that it be clean.

Keeping Milk Pure and Clean. Milk absorbs or
takes up odors. If a cow is fed cabbage, onions, or
turnips a few hours before she is milked, you will
notice the flavor of those vegetables in the milk.
Milk that stands uncovered in dirty barns has the
odor of the stables. Therefore, the barn must be
clean and light, with plenty of windows to admit
the air, and the cows should be fed proper food.
They should always have pure water, because milk
carries many germs, especially those of typhoid
fever. Feeding should be done after milking, so
the air will not be full of dust to settle in the milk.

Milking the Cows. The udders of the cows must
be washed, and the milker’s clothing and hands
should be clean before a drop is drawn. All pails
and vats for holding milk should be thoroughly

29

30 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

washed with warm suds and then rinsed with seald-
ing water. As soon as milk is drawn, it is well to
cool it to stop the growth of the germs that cause
it to sour.

Butter-fat. If we look at a drop of milk through
a microscope we shall see many tiny, roundish bod-
les with a pearly look floating in the fluid. Fifteen
thousand to twenty-five thousand of these little bod-
ies placed side by side will measure an inch, and
there are millions of them in a drop of milk. These
particles are the fat of the milk, from which butter
is made. They are lighter than milk, and when
milk stands for a time they float upward. With
some of the milk on top of the pan they form the
cream.

Ready to Churn. After the cream is removed by a
skimmer or the new hand-separator, it should stand
until it ripens, or sours. It is most easily churned
at a temperature of from fifty-six to sixty degrees
Fahrenheit. The room should be, as nearly as pos-
sible, the same temperature as the cream.

Churning. When this cream is put into a churn
and dashed about, the little particles of fat hit to-
gether and stick to one another until they unite to
form small pieces of butter about the size of a grain
of wheat. Then we can see the butter-fat in the
buttermilk.

Preparing Butter for Market. When the butter is
gathered from the churn, it may be washed to remove
part of the buttermilk. Then the whole butter mass

MILK AND BUTTER 31

is pressed together and rolled with a wooden paddle
to remove the rest. Three-fourths of an ounce
of fine
table salt
should
be added
to each
pound of
butter
and even-
ly worked

intothe
butter Fic. 18. The old way of separating cream.

mass with the paddle. The worker firmly rolls and
presses the butter, but does not rub it, because that
mmma| destroys the grain. When
the butter is free from but-
termilk, it can be made into
a tempting lump and stamp-
ed and rolled in oiled paper.
Butter is judged for its
flavor, color, grain, and the
amount of salt; but in a
oreat measure it is judged by
its general appearance.
The Churn. Farmers, to-
day, prefer the barrel churn,
without a dasher. In opera-

Fie. 19. The new way— i a
cream separator. tion this churn throws the

eream back and forth against its sides. Churns

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE
32

should never be filled more than half full. Butter-
making is greatly aided in late years by the use of
the separator and butterworker (Figs. 18 and 19).

Cheese-making. Cheese may be made from cream,
skimmed milk, or the whole milk. Most of the
cheese we buy at the store is made from the whole
milk. Years ago our grandmothers made cheese as
commonly as they did butter, but cheese-making is
such a long process that to-day it is done in cream-
eries or factories. Cheese is the solid part of the
milk in such form as will keep for long periods. A
little difference in the process of the making, pro-
duces a different sort of cheese. One book tells us of
one hundred and fifty-six different kinds. They are
usually found in three classes—hard or soft cheese,
cream cheese, and sage cheese.

Cottage Cheese. Cottage cheese is a home prod-
uct made by heating sour milk, which has thickened,
to the point where the curd separates from the whey.
The whey is drained off through a cheesecloth, and
the dry curds are seasoned with cream and salt.
A great deal of this is sold on the market for table
use.
By-products. The by-products of the dairy are
skimmed milk, buttermilk, and whey. These are
chiefly used in feeding young animals on the farm,
because it costs less to ship fat stock than it does
feed or milk. The curd of the milk is dried in large
factories and ground fine and used in the sizing of
paper. Milk sugar is made largely from whey. This

MILK AND BUTTER 33

is much used for babies and invalids. Other foods
and drink which are becoming popular are made
from the dairy. Up to 1850 the dairy work was all
done and marketed from the farm. Now the milk is
largely taken to creameries and factories, and butter,
cheese, and condensed milk are manufactured there.

CHAPTER IV
SHEEP

Wild Sheep of Asia. On the plains of Asia there
may be seen to-day small flocks of wild sheep. They
are larger than our common sheep, with such im-
mense horns that it would require a foot line to reach
around one at its root and a four-foot line to measure
their length. The wool of the wild sheep is brown,
with a buff-colored streak along the back. These
wild sheep are strong, quick, and suspicious, so they
are very hard to catch. They are hunted for their
flesh and their skins, which are made into clothing.
They have a coat of fine soft wool to keep them
warm, and over this is a long coarse hair, which
serves as a raincoat.

Another Kind of Wild Sheep. In the mountains
of Greece is another type of wild sheep, smaller and
less active than those of Asia. It is believed that
our domestic sheep have come from one or the other,
or perhaps both, of these wild types.

Taming the Sheep. Some writers think the sheep
was tamed before the horse or cow, because they
were small and could not defend themselves so well.
Sheepskins made fine clothing for the cave man.
The first animal we find mentioned in the Bible is
the sheep, but the Bible mentions other domestic
animals.

34

SHEEP 35

Where Sheep Live. The sheep can live on rough
hillsides and mountain cliffs where other domestic
animals would starve. They thrive best in cool eli-
mates, because of their heavy coats of wool. They
require less grain and will eat more kinds of food
than the horse or cow. So they are more easily
eared for (Fig. 20).

The Use of Sheep. A flock of sheep increases very

rapidly, for ewes, or mother sheep, often bear twin

Fic. 20. A good animal eats no more but pays better.

lambs every year. The lambs become full-grown in
a few months, and their flesh makes excellent food,
while the fleeces make woolen clothes for the people
of many lands. When prices of wool are fair, a
good ewe will pay her board and keep through the
year with her fleece. The flesh of the sheep is worth
about half as much as the wool. If she raises two
lambs they are clear gain to the farmer. Sheep
have no equal as weed-destroyers, for they eat
nearly every weed that grows on the farm. In small
numbers they build up and enrich the land, for
sheep manure is worth more as a fertilizer than

36 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

that of any other farm animal except poultry. A
few sheep will pay their way and make money for
their owner on any
farm that is not wet
and marshy. They
will not thrive on
low, moist land.
Aside from their
fleece and mutton, the
bones are used for
fertilizer. The skins
make leather for
Fic. 21. A Merino ram. boots and shoes. The
tallow is made into
candles, and the skins of the intestines are made into
strings for musical instruments.

Two Kinds of Sheep. We raise two types of
sheep, because those that produce the best wool do
not make the best mutton. If a farmer is raising
sheep for mutton mainly, he keeps a herd of Shrop-
shires or Southdowns or some other mutton type.
If he is chiefly interested in growing fine wool, he
keeps American Merinos or some breed like them.

Merinos for Wool. The oldest races of the domes-
ticated sheep are probably the Merinos (Fig. 21).
They were very likely kept in Palestine in Bible
times, and it may be that King David when a lad
kept watch over a flock of Merinos. They came to
America from Spain and have been greatly im-
proved by American farmers. They are the best

SHEEP 37

wool-producers, yielding heavy fleeces of very fine
wool that is used to make the finest and most
expensive woolen goods.

Thrive in Large Flocks. Though the Merinos are
not so hardy as the wild sheep, they are hardier
than any other of the domestic breeds. They will
thrive in larger flocks than any other kinds, so they
are used in the range country of the West. They
have a long life and grow good fleeces to a ripe old
age, while the fleece of the mutton type begins to
lose in weight at an early age. Sheep on ranches
of our Western states are kept a thousand or two
thousand in a flock and sent off in the summer with
a herder and a shepherd dog. If the herder has a
horse, he sometimes cares for five thousand in a
flock. One rancher often owns from twenty-five
thousand to fifty thousand sheep. The cattle men
object to large flocks of sheep, for they eat the grass
so close that other ani-
mals cannot be grazed
there. Cattle also dis-
like the odor left by
sheep.

The Shepherd Dog.
The shepherd dog, or
collie, tends the flock
and rounds them up
when they stray. He
watches them at night and keeps off the mountain
lions. These dogs are very intelligent. They obey

Fig. 22. A Shropshire ram.

388 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

the voices and spoken commands of their masters,
and even understand signals of the arms.

Care and Fleeces of Sheep. The Merinos stand
more neglect than other sheep. They can get
through the winter on good straw, a little grain,
and some hill pasture. However, their mutton is
only fair, and they do not raise as many lambs as
other breeds. Their bodies are covered with large
folds or wrinkles of skin that make shearing diffi-
cult, but these very wrinkles only make so much
more surface for good wool to grow on.

Sheep for Mutton. Shropshires and Southdowns
are the best hked of the mutton types in America.
The Shropshires (Fig. 22) have nearly black faces
and legs, and no horns. They rear more lambs than
other kinds, but their wool is not so fine as that of
the Merinos. Mutton sheep are profitable even on
high-priced land, if it is near a good market. Fancy
lamb mutton is a delicacy that people like and are
willing to pay for. Southdown ewes (Fig. 23) usu-
ally rear two lambs each year, and they are good
mothers.

Some Dogs Kill Sheep. Two difficulties have
stood in the way of sheep-raising on a small scale.
These are expensive fencing and dogs. Sheep must
have better fences than cattle. Wire fences keep
stray dogs from chasing the flock at night and kill-
ing many sheep, but until lately wire fences have
cost so much that very few farmers could afford to
use them.

SHEEP 39

Food for Sheep. Sheep are naturally grass-eat-
ing animals, for nature seldom fed them any grain.
So they are prepared for bulky food. In England
they seldom taste grain. They are fed on pastures,
hay, and roots—mainly turnips. In changing the

——

Fic. 23. A prize Southdown ewe.

food of sheep, we should do so very gradually. Usu-
ally lambs are simply put on pasture during the
summer months and sold before it 1s necessary to
house them for the winter. Some Western sheep
growers put their lambs on the range to run free
from eight to twenty months. Then they are shipped
to Eastern farms to be fattened for market. Here
they are fed corn, clover, or mixed hay and, per-
haps, oats, peas, or barley. The best pastures for

40 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

sheep in the corn belt are clover and alfalfa. They
need shade in their fields to protect them from the
hot sun until shearing time. (Fig. 24.)

Fattening Lambs. Sometimes when lambs are
fattened for the market, they are ‘‘foreed.’’ This
means that they are fed rich food from their birth
until they are ready for market at from six to ten
weeks. These are called ‘‘hothouse’’? lambs, and
they furnish the finest quality of mutton to be had.
They need good housing and extra care.

Weaning Lambs. <A pound of flesh can be put on
a baby lamb at much less cost than when he is older.
Nothing is better for them than mother’s milk.
Some are allowed to run with their mothers until
they weigh seventy or eighty pounds, when they are
to be sold as mutton. Lambs that are to be kept on
the farm should be weaned when ten or twelve weeks
olds *(H1g, 25;)

Shepherds. No lad who is rough or brutal with
animals should be put over a flock of fine sheep. If
he loses his temper and abuses his flock, they will
not do well, for they are peace-loving animals. The
good shepherd is always kind and gentle. He keeps
his feed troughs clean, he feeds by the clock, and
he feeds plenty of a good, balanced ration. He keeps
salt and pure water where the sheep can get them,
for it is a mistaken idea that sheep do not need
water. The shepherd that allows maggots or ticks
or lice to trouble his flock in hot weather is not
worthy of the name.

SHEEP Al

Fig. 24. All farm stock need shade.

Shearing Sheep. It takes several seasons for a
man to become a good sheepshearer. A good shearer
will take the wool from sixty to eighty sheep a
day with common hand sheepshears. Shearing ma-
chines, which are sheepshears attached to a long
rod and managed by power, are now very common.
The sheep is turned into a narrow alley and in a
few minutes he comes out without his coat. It is
far easier to shear with the machine than by hand.

42 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

=

Fie. 25. Dorset ewe and lamb.
Though a practiced hand can shear almost as fast
as a machine, beginners can shear twice as fast with
the machine. The machine takes off the fleece

SHEEP 43

smoothly and evenly without any ugly cuts. It
saves from two to eight ounces of wool. The sheep
should not be sheared too closely with the machine;
enough wool should be left to protect the animal
from flies and sunburn. Most shearing is done in
June, but some sheep-raisers advise shearing twice
a year—in April and in August. It is better for
the sheep to be relieved of the burden of the wool
in August, though the fleece is shorter and not so
valuable. After shearing, the sheep are sometimes
made to swim through a cleansing bath, which
keeps their skins in good order.

Land Suitable for Sheep Farms. ‘There are many
farms in the Eastern states of our country that are
well suited to sheep-raising. Some of these farms
are too poor for crops, but they would make good
sheep farms if several of them were put together,
for sheep need a large range of pasture. In New
Mneland high and rocky land suitable for sheep-
raising can be bought for a very low price.

CHAPTER V
SWINE

The Wild Boar. Long ages ago there roamed
through the forests of Europe herds of fierce, wild
boar. They usually ate fruit, roots, and grass; but
when they were hungry they ate snakes or fowls
or fish. Perhaps they sometimes devoured men
whom they found weak or disabled. They were
dangerous beasts. To hunt them with nothing but
clubs and bows and arrows required great courage.

Taming the Wild Beast. But somehow the brave
men who then dwelt in the forests, after killing wild
boars for meat for many years, set out to tame this
ugly beast. And they did it, too, but they never
left us a word to tell us how it was done.

Improving the Hog. By carefully choosing and
keeping the best hogs, the farmers have made the
fine breeds of to-day quite different from the fierce
wild boar. The wild hog did not take on fat, but
our domestic breeds will fatten in a remarkably
short time. They sometimes become too heavy for
their legs to support them. The legs have become
shorter than those of the wild boar, the snout and
neck are also shorter, while the shoulders and hams
have come to take on flesh marvelously.

Protecting Hogs. The hog has very little cover-
ing for his body, for the few bristles and hairs do

44

SWINE 45

not protect him from the swarms of flies. The hog
never perspires, so in order to keep cool, this animal
should be kept in shaded pens or where there is
water in which to wallow. Those that are kept in
woods or groves do not need the wallow so badly
save to protect them from flies.

Giving Hogs a Square Deal. Swine have always
been looked upon as filthy animals. In ancient
times Moses was taught to have his people abstain
from eating pork, because it was said to be unclean.
This is rather unfair to the hog, for when he is
provided with large yards, he keeps his bedroom
clean. ‘‘It is only when the small pen is made to
serve as dining room, bedroom, and wallow, all in
one, that the hog is filthy. That is not his fault.’’
It is the way in which the farmer forces him to live.

Their Useful Snouts. Hogs have to dig for some
of their food, and so they have tough noses with a
sort of disk or shovel on the snout for that pur-
pose. Since they use their noses to dig for roots
that they like, we use the name ‘‘rooting.’’ It is
said they have a keen sense of smell and can be led
by it straight to their food. The pig can follow a
trail almost as well as a dog.

Best Breeds Developed Here. Hogs, like most
other domestic animals, were brought to America
from Europe. Most of the best breeds of hogs have
been developed here. The Poland-China (Fig. 26)
was developed in Ohio; the Chester-White, in Penn-
sylvania; the Duroc-Jersey, in New York and New

46 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Jersey; and the Cheshire (Fig. 27), in New York.

Two Kinds of Hogs. Some hog’s are raised for
lard and others for bacon. Corn is good food for
hogs that are grown for lard, and so the lard type
is the most common and the most profitable in our

-

Fic. 26. A prize Poland China.
country. In England, the bacon type is raised.
Some hogs are useful for both purposes.

The Kind to Raise. The hog yields meat at a
lower cost than any other animal when he is well
cared for and properly fed. One should not raise
scrub hogs, which are sometimes called ‘‘razor
backs.’’ It takes two years to get a scrub to weigh
as much as a well-bred pig will weigh when nine
months old. If a farmer has only serub stock, he
can improve his herd in a very few years by the
use of a pure-bred sire.

What They Eat. When hogs are free to roam the
woods they eat roots and such nuts as acorns and

SWINE AT

beechnuts. They will eat almost anything, whether
it is meat or plant (Fig. 28). It is said they once did
great service by de-
vouring rattlesnakes
on the frontier.

Hogs in the East.
There are two ways
of raising swine com-
monein our country.
In the Kast each
farmer keeps a few hogs in small pens or yards and
feeds them the waste from the kitchen and farm.
Such hogs are usually kept for home use.

The Western Hog Farm. In the Corn Belt of the
Central West there are great hog farms. Hogs are
often raised on farms where cattle are fattened for
the market. Here both hogs and cattle are fed on
corn. The hogs run with the cattle and grow fat on
the corn which the cattle waste. Where hogs are
put on pasture they grow rapidly on clover, alfalfa,
or rape pasture. (Fig. 29.)

Fig. 27. A Cheshire pig.

Fic. 28. Good feeders.

48 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

A Dreaded Disease. There is one disease which
the hog raiser dreads, because it often destroys an
entire herd in a few weeks. ‘This disease is the
hog-cholera. When the animals live all together,
the disease spreads very rapidly. In some places
farmers are putting their swine in small pens, or
houses called ‘‘colony houses,’’ scattered about the
fields. In each colony there are from six to eight
hogs. If cholera appears in one of these separate
houses, it can be burned so as to prevent the disease
from spreading.

A Pig Sends a Boy to College. ‘‘A boy, whose
parents were too poor to send him to college, once
decided to make his own money and get an educa-
tion. He bought a fine sow and began to raise
pigs. His hogs increased so rapidly that he had
to work hard to keep them in food. By saving
the money he received from the sale of his hogs,
he had enough to keep him two years in college.’’

Fic. 29. Berkshires on clover.

CHAP TEE Vil

POULTRY

The Original Home of Poultry. Our chickens
have probably come from the wild jungle fowl of
India. Early man used to snare and kill these large
wild birds for food and rob their nests, because he
liked the eggs to eat. When men settled down and
gave up their wandering life, they tamed and fed
the jungle fowl. In time their wings grew smaller,
because they used them so much less, and their
bodies grew heavier. So to-day we have the con-
tented hens that stay quietly in their pens and
cackle to let us know when they have an egg ready.

Value of Fowls to the Farmer. Since the farmer
has learned in the last few years to take better care
of his poultry, it is now thought that they pay better
for what they eat than any other stock on the farm.
There is a great demand for ‘‘broilers’’ from ten to
twelve weeks old, and they bring fancy prices. The
number of eggs used in the United States daily is
beyond our imagination. It is estimated at about
forty-four millions. Besides supplying eggs and
meat for the farmer’s use, the chickens, if they are
allowed to roam, catch many grasshoppers and in-
sects. During the summer months they get most
of their food on the range. They like grass, seeds,
bugs, lime, and grit.

49

50 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Four Classes. Chickens have been divided into
four classes. The large, fat, meat-producing kind
does not lay well. They are the Cochins and
Brahmas (Fig. 30). The Leghorns and Minorcas
are especially valuable for producing eggs. ‘They
are a small, wiry sort with large combs. They lay
large, white eggs and seldom want to hatch them,
so they ean be kept laying for long periods. Their
flesh is not so excellent for the table as other breeds,
but they are very popular among poultry keepers
near large cities where fancy prices are paid for
egos. The faney or game chickens are beautifully
feathered birds and are kept for show. To this class
belongs the bantam that is too small for real use.

The General-purpose Fowls. But the best chick-
ens for farmers to keep are the general-purpose

Fic. 30. Light Brahmas.

POULTRY 51

fowls that have nice, tender meat. They both lay
well and make good mothers. To.this class belong
the different kinds of
Plymouth Rocks (Fig.
31), Wvandottes (Fig.
32), and Rhode Islai.d
Reds. These breeds
were all developed in
America.

Habits. Chickers
swallow their food
whole. It is softened
in the crop and ground
into particles in the
stomach, or gizzard,
which contains gravel
GFoserit:. Howls tip
their heads back to swallow when they take a beak
full of water, because they have no muscle in their
throats. Chickens wallow or take a dust bath to
drive away insects or clean their skins; and in wet
weather they oil their feathers so they will shed
water well and so keep their skin dry.

The Nests. A hen will hide her eggs, if possible,
so a cozy place should be arranged in a quiet, dark
place for her nest. She begins to lay in the spring,
one egg each day. If left to herself, she would
commence to sit as soon as she had twelve or fif-
teen eggs. By removing the eggs she is kept laying
a much longer time. The breeds that do not sit

Vic. 31. Barred Rock.

‘sazjopubnli yy ayy fo wad Pp “GE “DIA

POULTRY 53

have been known to lay as many as two hundred
thirty eggs in a year.

Poultry in Pens. Chickens that have free range
are more profitable and do better than those kept in
pens. But fowls can be kept under many conditions.
To do well they must have reasonably warm, dry
quarters with plenty of light and fresh air. In parts
of the West, where it is dry, a frame of poles is set
up in November and covered with straw. The
chickens run inside this warm shelter and do well.
If a hen is protected from draughts, frost, lice, and
bad air she is likely to think spring has come in
February and will begin early laying, or perhaps
she will lay all winter. Some breeds lay well in the
winter time when they have good eare.

Care of Henhouse. Farmers should clean up their
old henhouses with a shovel, broom, and boiling
water. They should paint the roosts with kerosene
to kill lice, and whitewash the walls. The cracks
ean be stuffed with straw and covered with tarred
paper. Very soon the farmer will see his hens doing
better. Leaves or straw make a fine floor covering,
and they force the fowls to scratch for the grain.
The house should be kept clean and fresh leaves or
straw put in each week. (Fig. 33.)

Laying Hens. Laying hens require different food
from those intended for table use. Variety of food
is important. One reason the hen lays in summer
is because she chooses her own food and has a bal-
anced ration. She eats all day long, a little at a

54 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

time, and does not mope. A moping hen does not
lay well, as exercise is necessary. Chickens in a
pen need animal food, such as meat scraps and
skimmed milk, to take the place of the insects that
they get when they are allowed to roam. Cracked
oyster shell furnishes lime for making the eggshell,
and grit must be provided for grinding their food.
I'resh water in clean dishes should always be within
reach. During the winter season, corn may be given
once a day because it is a warming food. Ground
bone, table scraps, cooked potatoes, turnips, and
vegetable tops are given instead of green food.
Kges, like milk, often show by their color, flavor,
and odor what food the hens eat.

Hatching Little Chicks. Hen’s eggs are hatched
by keeping them at the same warm temperature for
twenty-one days. Many farmers prefer the hen to
incubators for hatching. Perfect-shaped eggs with
good firm shells should be selected for hatching.
The fresher they are the better. When two broods
of chicks are hatched at the same time, one hen
may be able to mother both.

How to Care for the Brood. Little chickens must
be kept dry and must be carefully fed three times
a day. Corn meal and bread crumbs and the yolk
of hard-boiled eggs are a good beginning. If chicks
are in a pen, cut grass from the lawn makes good
green food. Soon a little chicken will eat wheat
and cracked corn. Chicken lice are a great trouble
to the tiny chicks and the mother hen, and the nest

POULTRY Re

Tig. 38. A sanitary poultry house.

should be dusted with powder a week before the
chickens are hatched. Some of the powder may be
mixed with lard and rubbed well on each chicken’s
head.

Brooder Chicks. Incubator chickens have no
mother to teach them to eat grit and green stuff.

56 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

When chicks are first brought to the brooder, bread
crumbs are sprinkled upon the floor among the grit,
and in this way they learn to take food and grit at
the same time. To make them eat promptly, the

Fig. 34. Incubator babies.

food may be taken away after five minutes. (Fig.
34.)

Fattening Broilers. When the chickens are
weaned from the hen, the cockerels are put in a
yard by themselves and fed on porridge made of
four parts of corn meal, two parts of middlings, and
one part beef scrap. The mixture is wet with
skimmed milk until it will run from a wooden spoon.
They are fed this at morning and at evening. They
are allowed plenty of shade and kept as quiet as

POULTRY 57

possible. This makes them more meaty and soft
than those that exercise. Chickens about a hundred
days old gain the most rapidly. They often gain
from one and three-fourths to two and one-fourth
pounds in a month. When cockerels weigh two
pounds or over they should be sold for broilers.

Poultry Pests. Hawks capture many chicks. A
good marksman ean kill a few and hang them on
poles around the yard as an object lesson. The
best remedy is to keep the chicks in yards covered
with wire until they are large enough to run for
shelter. It is well to have low-growing shrubs
where chickens can hide. If pigs run in the same
field with chickens they must be watched, for if a
pig once gets a taste of chicken, he will chase them
continually. Rats trouble chicks at night. Cement
floors and stone foundations in chicken houses will
keep out rats. Poison may be used if it can be kept
away from the chickens.

CHAPTER VII

TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

Turkeys. A flock of turkeys has helped many a
farmer’s daughter to a new winter outfit or bought
her things to go away to school. Besides being a
profitable bird at Thanksgiving time, they destroy
millions of bugs which would injure the crops. The
bronze turkey (Fig. 35) is the most common in the
United States. Some turkeys are hatched by hens
and some by incubators. The first food should be
the curd of milk made like cottage cheese. To the
cheese should be added chopped boiled eggs anda
bread made of corn meal, skimmed milk, and salt.
After turkeys are six weeks old, they get their own
living catching grasshoppers and bugs. They need
07 ae clean pens and clean
sa food. Dampness is
sure to kill young tur-
. keys, so they should
= be kept in their pens
in the morning until
the dew is off the
grass.

Fattening Turkeys.
The turkey is usually
allowed to roam until
he is ready for market,
58

\ tA

= 7 we

Fic. 35. Bronze turkey.

TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE o9

but about the first of October he should have an eve-
ning meal of good yellow corn. It is well to begin
with a little at a time, but by the first of November
he must go to bed with a full crop every night.
This makes the flesh yellow, juicy, and tender.

Ducks. Pekins are the most popular ducks (Fig.
36). Duck’s eggs can
be hatched under hens
or in incubators. The
first food of the duck-
lings should be a moist
mash instead of dry
feed. Ducksneed plenty |
of water to drink, for |@
they take a mouthful of
food and wash it down
with water. They must
have drinking pans Fie. 36. Pekin ducks.
deep enough so they ean
stick their heads in over their eyes, because that is
their way of keeping their nostrils and eyes clean.
The birds are dry-picked to save the feathers for
pulows. Duck’s eggs are popular, especially at
aster.

Geese. The goose is the Christmas bird (Fig. 37).
When geese are allowed to roam they gather most
of their food, which is usually grasses and insects.
In the winter months they must be fed one meal a
day. Geese graze as freely as cattle and have been
accused of destroying the roots of grass. They must

60 BLEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

have plenty of water for the same reason that ducks
need it. The eggs are best hatched under a hen.
A sitting goose is very cross and has been known
to break a man’s arm with a blow of her wings.
Young goslings are easily chilled and must be
looked after during cold rains. To make a rapid

Fig. 37. The Christmas bird.

growth, geese must be fed wheat bran, corn meal,
and seraps. They should have plenty of shade,
water, and grass. They may be made ready for
‘market in three months. Their feathers are valu-
able for pillows and many other things.

CHAPTER VIII
INSECTS

Insect Enemies. Almost every plant has an in-
sect enemy that feeds upon it; and the farmer who
wishes to protect his crops, orchards, and gardens
must know how to fight these plant enemies. In-
sects form about nine-tenths of all the animal life
upon the earth. Hundreds of millions of dollars’
worth of farmers’ produce is lost each year because
of insects. (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41, and 77.)

Insect Friends. Certain insects, however, are use-
ful to mankind. Some gather honey and carry
pollen from flower to flower, while others spin silk,
and still others clean away dead animals. These
friends of man are: bees (Fig. 45), wasps, dragon
flies, tiger beetles, silkworms, and many others.

Parts cf Insects. Insects when full-grown have
the body divided into three parts: the head, the
middle part, or thorax, and the abdomen or back
part. On the head are the eyes, the feelers, called
antenne, and the mouth. The chest or thorax bears
the wings, of which there are usually two pairs, and
six legs.

Biting Insects. There are among insects two
kinds of mouths. Such insects as grasshoppers and
beetles bite the food. Others, such as mosquitoes,
bedbugs, bees, and butterflies, suck their food.

61

62 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Insects with biting mouths have two pairs of jaws
with which they chew their food; and they often eat
bark, leaves, fruit, and flowers. All these biting
insects may be killed by spraying poison on the
plants on which they feed.

Sucking Insects. Insects with sucking mouths
usually live upon the sap of plants or the blood of

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Tic. 38. Knotty apples from trees that were not sprayed.

animals. Some few of them, such as bees and but-
terflies, feed largely upon the nectar or sweets of
flowers. Since they get their food from the inside
of the objects on which they feed, we can not poison
them, but must find some other method of fighting
them.

Contact Insecticides. Substances have been dis-
covered which will kill insects when covering or
touching their bodies. These are called contact

INSECTS 63

insecticides. Insects do not breathe through their
noses or mouths, but they have little holes, or pores
placed along both sides of their bodies, and through
these the air passes in and out. When anything
clogs these breathing pores, they die. It has been
found that certain oils and powders will destroy in-
sects by smothering them. Oils may be mixed with

——t

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 39. Apples from trees that were sprayed. No farmer can afford
to neglect his fruit crop.

other materials so as to prevent damage to the plants
on which the insects live. Kerosene emulsion is
such an insect destroyer. Poisons may be put on
the plants before insects appear as a protection, but
contact insecticides must be applied to the insects
themselves.

Moulting of Insects. Insects have no bones or
inside skeleton, but the skin becomes very hard and

64 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

horn-like and is usually considered the skeleton of
the insect. As it becomes hard it will not stretch;
ci —— | and when the insect has
erown so large as to en-
tirely fill this hard coat,
anew or soft coat forms
underneath; andthe old
one is shed or east off.
The casting off of anold
coat, or shell, is called
moulting. The skin is
moulted several times
during the life of the
insect, and each time it
becomes larger. The
chief changes in the in-

Fic. 40. Curculio depositing its “
egg upon a young peach. sect’s life usually come
in the last two moults.

==

Courtesy U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture

Stages of Development.
Wasps, bees, butterflies,
moths, beetles, flies, and
mosquitoes have very re-
markable changes in the
last moults. Such insects
are said to have four
stages of life: (1) the ege
stage, (2) the larva or
grub stage, (3) the pupa 4
stage, (4) the adult stage. Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
(Figs. 42 and 43.) Tee iho a fet

INSECTS 65

Larva Stage. Eggs hatch into the larva stage,
which is the time of growth and when most of the
eating is done. The larva of a butterfly is a cater-
pillar, that of a fly is a maggot, and the larva of a
mosquito is a wiggler. Some insects eat all the
time during this growing stage, never going to sleep.

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 42. May beetle, called also June beetle cr June bug; a, beetle;
b, pupa; c, egg; d, newly-hatched larva; e, mature larva;
f, anal segment of same from below.

They stop only long enough to cast their coats. The
kinds that live on flesh have, in some instances,
been known to eat two hundred times their own
weight in a single day.

Pupa Stage. The larva then goes into a resting
or sleeping state, enclosing itself in a case of some
kind. This is called the pupa stage. Silkworms
spin for their pupa stage a silken covering called a
cocoon. While in this state the insects go through
many wonderful changes. Wings and legs are
grown and after a short time the full grown or adult

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 438. Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. 1, Weevil, back view; 2,
weevil, side view; 3, fully-grown larva; 4, egg; 5, pupa
ready to transform; 6, adult weevil with wing covers
raised and wings extended, ready to take flight.

INSECTS 67

insect comes forth a fly, a mosquito, or a beetle.

Freezing the Insect. The blood of insects is trans-
parent like water and is pushed along through the
body by the beating of a large vein or artery which
hes along the back, instead of by the beating of a
heart. Insects are cold-blooded and can freeze with-
out being killed. During the winter insects hiber-
nate; that is, a great many varieties live through
the’ winter hidden away among old grass or under
stones, logs, bark, and in the ground. Even the
egos of insects may be frozen solid and remain
uninjured.

Insect Life Short. Insects generally die soon
after laying their eggs, though some kinds live
longer, raising several broods. A great many die
before their eggs hatch. Insects are found in all
countries at all times of the year. They are found
in our homes, gardens, and fields; in the air, water,
and the earth: both within and upon the bodies of
animals. We shall learn more of the different kinds
of insects as we study the chapters on crops.

CHAPTER [xX
THE BEE

The First Sugar Makers. A1l the old Bible coun-
tries had their beekeepers. Before the growing of
sugar cane and the making of sugar was begun,
bees furnished the only means of sweetening food.
Our savage forefathers probably robbed the hollow
trees where bees stored their honey and in time
learned how to capture swarms. In England, not
many hundred years ago, swarms of bees were so
prized that they were willed from one family to
another.

Finding the Bee-Tree. ‘I'o find a ‘‘bee-tree,’’ the
hunters took to the edge of the woods boxes of
diluted honey; then they followed in the direction
the bees took as they flew home. It was believed
when the bee had his honey basket filled, he took
the straightest way possible to the bee tree. That
is how we came to have the expression, ‘‘Take a
bee line.”’

The Honey Train. An American invented the
hive which makes it possible for one man to take
charge of many bees. There are many men who
make beekeeping their business (Fig. 44). It has
been estimated that if all the honey manufactured
in the United States in one year were put in cars,
it would make a train thirty-five miles long.

68

THE BEE 69

Where the Honey Comes From. Bees, with their
long tongues, take the sweet juice, or nectar, from

Courtesy of ‘‘Bee Culture,’’? Medina, Ohio

Fic. 44. A profitable apiary.

flowers, clover, buckwheat, alfalfa, black gum, chest-
nut, and catnip. This nectar we may taste by pull-
ing a clover blossom to pieces, but only the bee
knows how to make it into honey.

Pollen and Wax. It was once thought that the
bees used the little yellow balls, which we some-
times see clinging to their hind legs, for making
wax; but now we know the little yellow balls are
made of pollen which the bee gathers from flowers
for the purpose of feeding its young, and that the
wax is secreted from their own bodies in much the

70 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

same way as a cow secretes milk. The wax forms
in little scales on the under side of their bodies, and
when they want to use it they pick it off with their
feet. After mixing it in their mouths, they use it
in building the beautiful combs with the six-sided
pockets in which they store honey.

Members of the Bee Family. We do not care to

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 45. The honey bee; a, worker; b, queen; c, drone.

[Twice the natural size. |
go very near bees when they are at work, so not
many of us know the difference between the queen,
the workers, and the drones (Fig. 45). The queen
is the largest and the most important bee in the
hive. If we examine the cell, or living room of the
queen bee, we shall find it nearly four times as large
as those of the other bees. It is about the size and
shape of a peanut and is usually placed on the edge
of the comb.

THE BEE 71

The Work of the Queen. ‘The queen is the mother
bee, and she lays all the eggs. It is said that a queen
bee has laid more than three thousand eggs in a
single day. There are some seasons when she does
not lay so many, and there are other seasons when
she does not lay at all; but it does not take long for
her family to become too large for the hive.

Why Bees Swarm. When the family becomes too
big, they form a new family, or, in other words, they
‘‘swarm.’’ (Fig. 46.) A cloud of bees comes out
of the hive and lghts on a near-by bush. From

Courtesy of ‘‘Bee Culture,’”’ Medina, Ohio

Fig. 46. A stand of bees near the swarming time.

ie ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

here they send out scouts to find new housekeeping
quarters; they also wish to make sure their queen
is with them. If they find she is not with them,
they return to the old hive and wait for her before
they start again. If the beekeeper is watching, he
makes ready a clean, fresh hive and either shakes
them in or places it where they will go in.

The New Queen. The queen which takes her place
in the old hive comes from an egg laid in the queen’s
cell. She has been fed with ‘‘royal jelly.’’ This is
much richer food than that which is fed to the baby
bees which grow into the workers or drones, and it
makes a much larger bee. (Fig. 45-b.)

Getting a New Queen. In case an accident hap-
pens to their old queen, the bees have a curious way
of getting a new one very soon. The drones choose
three cells which contain newly-hatched bees, they
knock out the partition cells, kill two of the bee-
babes, and feed the third on ‘‘royal jelly.”’

Dividing the Work. There are from thirty thou-
sand :to forty thousand workers in a good strong
colony, and each bee has its own work to do. The
young bees build the comb, feed the newly-hatched
bees, and do general housework; those a little older
secrete wax and help their elder brothers to shape
pockets for storing the honey which these older bees
bring in. A queen may live four or five years, but
the workers that are hatched in the spring, work so
hard that they often wear themselves out in forty
or fifty days.

THE BEE 73

The Drones. The drones are the male bees. They
are larger than the workers and have no sting.
Somebody has called them the ‘‘tramps’’ of the bee
family, because they do no work. When the workers
tire of feeding the drones, they kill them and throw
them out of the hive. (Fig. 45-c.)

The Kind to Keep. Bees have been known to
make from twenty-five to thirty pounds of honey in
a year in one hive. The Italian bees are considered
the finest, because their longer tongues can reach
nectar in the flowers that the black bee can not
reach. They are also more gentle and easy to handle.

Helping the Bee. To secure honey in the best
shape for the market, the beekeeper places in the
top of the hives frames which hold just one pound
of honey. (Fig. 47.) These have a sheet of wax
on which is impressed a network of six-sided cells.
From this foundation, new cells are built by the
bees. A machine has been invented that saves the
time and energy of the bee in wax making.

The Honey Extractor. Once a beekeeper’s little
son was playing with a piece of unsealed honey-
comb ina basket. The lad had tied a piece of string
to the handle. As he whirled the basket around
and around in the air, his father noticed the honey
dripping from the basket. When he found the cells
of the honeycomb were nearly emptied without in-
juring the comb he thought, ‘‘How much labor it
would save the bees if they could fill their combs
again instead of having to make new ones!’’ So

Courtesy of ‘‘Bee Culture,’’ Medina, Ohio

Fig. 47. It’s all in knowing how.

THE BEE 15

he invented the honey extractor which empties many
combs at once and gives us the clear strained honey.
It removes the honey from the comb without injury
to the comb and without destroying its place in the
frame; and these old combs are put back in the hive
to be filled again. In this way bees are kept busy
gathering honey instead of building comb.

Keeping Them Warm in Winter. Bees must be
protected from the cold in winter, or they may die.
The ‘‘box hive’’ incloses the real hive, leaving a
space to be filled with chaff and other packing ma-
terial. A small opening is left so the bees can get
out in cold weather. They must have exercise in
the open air to keep well.

Do Not Starve Bees. In removing honey from
the hive, care should be taken that there is enough
left to feed the bees through the winter season.
Sometimes a keeper prefers to feed the bees on a
sirup made of sugar, so he ean sell all the honey.

Another Service. Besides the income the bees
bring the farmer in honey and wax, they do him
another great service. They seatter pollen from one
plant to another. Many plants cannot bear fruit
or seed unless their pollen is mixed. The wind does
some of this, but the bee is the best mixer. He
dives into the heart of a flower for nectar and gets
his body covered with pollen and takes it with him
to the next plant. It is said clover would not grow
on the island of New Zealand till bumblebees were
taken there to scatter the pollen.

76 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Busy asa Bee. Now we know what busy, strange,
helpful little creatures the bees are, and we do not
wonder at the old saying, ‘‘As busy as a bee.”’
Every farm has enough plants to provide several
swarms with pollen and nectar, so that each one
may have its own honey. What one needs to know
about beekeeping he may learn largely from books,
because it is said that more books have been written
about the bee than about any other domestic animal.

CHAPTER X
BIRDS

A Story. A certain beautiful poem tells this
story. Once upon a time the farmers of Killing-
worth were troubled and angry, because the birds
ate so much of their fruit and grain. So they held
a town meeting and ordered every bird killed. Only
one man, the village teacher, pleaded for the birds.
He said it would be lone-
ly without their cheerful
songs. He reminded the
farmers of the many in-
sects which the birds de-
voured. He told them that
the few cherries and the
small measure of grain
the birds ate were only
just wages for the hard
work they did in protect-
ing the farmers’ crops
from worms and bug's.
But the farmers did not
heed his warning. The
parent birds were shot ) es
and the little ones a, as the Rea-neaded Wood.
starved in their nests. pecker, an enemy of tree

’ Rae insects and a friend of
For one long summer ance
77

78 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

there were no birds in Killingworth. Hundreds
of caterpillars and cankerworms and small insects
destroyed the crops and
the leaves on the trees.
The land looked like a
desert. At last the fool-
ish farmers saw their
mistake. They hastened
to send away for many
cages of singing birds
which were again al-
lowed to fly about at
will. The story ends
here, but we are glad
to know that the birds
we all love so much are
of great use to us.
Service to the Farm-
ers. It will be impossi-
Fic. 49. The Bobolink, an enemy ble to mention here all
of grasshoppers, caterpillars, the helpful birds. Rob-
army worms and the like. ‘
ins hop about the fields
and lawns and gardens, destroying grasshoppers
and earthworms. The bluebirds, warblers, and
chickadees work among the tree-tops, catching the
insects which eat the tender leaves. The nuthatches,
creepers, and woodpeckers (Fig. 48) patrol the bark
of the trees, finding plant lice and borers.
Other Friends of the Farmer. ‘The swallows, fly-
catchers, and kingbirds sail about the air, snapping

BIRDS 79

up flies and mosquitoes. When darkness comes, the
owls and nighthawks go on duty and capture in-
sects of many kinds. They swoop down and catch
moles, meadow mice, and rats, that do harm to
farmers’ crops.

Grosbeaks Are Friends. Grosbeaks are of such
particular service to the farmer that in many states
they are protected by law. The rose-breasted gros-
beak, or ‘‘potato-bug’’ bird makes a tenth of his
diet of potato beetles (Fig. 77). He also eats the
cucumber beetle. He is accused of eating peas, but
he is so useful in the garden that it is worth one’s
trouble to put
netting over the
peas. He may also
be kept away by
a scarecrow. He
is very fond of
orchards, for can-
kerworms, caterpil-
lars, and the moths
and scale insects
that attack trees are
his special delight
at meal time. The
cardinal, or red-bird,
belongs to the gros-
beak family. They
have been accused
of pulling sprouting Fic. 50. The Meadow Lark.

80 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

grain, though the examination of the stomachs of
five hundred cardinals did not prove this to be true.

Tarring the Seed. ‘To prevent the western gros-
beaks from pulling the seed grain, the farmers soak
the seed corn or other grain in a barrel of water and
stir it thoroughly with a stick dipped in gas-tar.
When the grain be-
comes black, it is
spread on sacks and
dried inthe sun. With
this coating of tar, it
issafe from the birds.
Seed planted with a
checkrow planter is
not disturbed be-
cause the earth is
packed.

Protecting Grain
Fields. Some farmers
protect their fields of
ripe grain by plant-

ONES ~~ ing afew rows of mil-

Fic. 51. Se meg Quail or let on the edge of the

field. Birds prefer

millet to other grain, but it should be sowed so as to
ripen at the same time as other grain.

The Grosbeak and the Orchard. Mulberry and
june-berry trees will protect an orchard in the same
way. The black-headed grosbeak, if not prevented,
eats a good deal of fruit; but it has been estimated

BIRDS 81

that for every quart of fruit he eats, he consumes,
by measure, a quart and a half of black olive scales,
a quart of flower beetles, and a large quantity of
codling moth babies and cankerworms. If this is
true, he certainly saves much more fruit than he
destroys.

Policemen of the Air. Some one has called the
birds the little policemen of the air, because they
protect us from the robber bugs and caterpillars.
Insects make up nine-tenths of the animal life of the
world, and it has been estimated that a bird will
destroy thirty insects daily, so
he is a very valuable little
policeman.

Eating Weed Seeds. Another
ereat foe of the farmer is weeds.
In one state alone the tree spar-
rows are reported to have eaten
eight hundred seventy-five tons
of weed seed in one season.
This included smartweed, rag-
weed, bindweed, crabgrass, and
many others. The bobolink and
meadow lark destroy many in-
sect enemies of the crops and
untold quantities of weed seed.
(Figs. 49 and 50.)

Big Appetites. Birds need a
great deal of food, because they —

e : Fic. 52. Making friends
are so active. They eat all the of the birds.

82 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

time they are not sleeping or caring for their young.
One flicker was found who had in his stomach five
thousand ants; a nighthawk ate at one time sixty
grasshoppers, and a bobwhite (Fig. 51) ate seven-
teen hundred seeds of weeds for one meal.

Making Friends of Birds. Birds may be coaxed
to stay near the house and garden by protecting
them from eats and bird-dogs and by making nest-
ing easy for them. One kind-hearted farmer built
a home for a wren. It was a box six inches square
and about eight inches high. He put a little perch
on the front and an entrance hole only one inch
across, so the sparrows could not get in. He did
not paint it, but left it wood color, for birds do not
like bright-colored dwellings. The same little wren
came on the fifth day of May every year for seven
years and kept house in it. Martins and bluebirds
also settled down in his bird houses. (Fig. 52.) The
farmer’s wife coaxed the orioles to build their
strange little pouch nests on the limbs of their elm
trees, by putting out yarn and cotton twine on the
bushes in the nesting season. Covered arbors were
made and vines allowed to grow to make sheltered
places for rearing their young.

Sharing with the Birds. A big mulberry tree in
the garden furnished food for many songsters as
well as plenty of pies for the farmer’s family. On
top of posts in the yard, out of the reach of cats, were
shallow dishes which provided water for the birds;
and the farmer left an opening under the eaves of

BIRDS 83

his barn so the swallows could get in and keep house
among the rafters, because they keep the barn free
from gnats and flies. This bird-lover was not so
cordial to crows, blue jays, sparrows, and chicken
hawks, for they destroy the eggs and the young of
the song birds.

PART II. SOILS AND FARM CROPS

CHAPTER XI
SOILS

What the Soils Do. The layer of dirt or crust
that covers the earth is called the soil. It is so thin
in places that the rocks appear through it. In other
places it is deep. Plants and insects, birds, beasts,
and men, are all fed on what grows in this layer of
soil. It is marvelous that soil will produce so many
different kinds of plants.

A Light Soil. As we go about we notice that the
soil of some fields looks quite different from that
of others. Here we find a loose soil in which we
can easily see a large amount of common sand.
There we find soil that contains so much clay that
bricks can be made of it. The more sand a soil
contains the easier it is to cultivate it. It works
better under the plow and harrow. For this reason
a sandy soil is said to be a light soil.

Heavy Soil. Clay soils stick together and are
hard to work, both when they are very wet and very
dry. If we make clay into mud pies, they will crack
when they are dry. Clay soils behave this way in
the fields. We have all seen the big cracks in clay
soil in the dry midsummer. This kind of soil is said

84

SOILS 85

to be cold, because it holds so much water instead
of allowing it to pass through easily. Because clay
soils are sticky and hard to work, we call them
heavy.

Crops for Clay Soils. Clay soils are excellent for
pastures, and they wear well. Apples, pears, and
grapes do well on them. They also produce good
crops of hay, wheat, oats, beets, cabbages, and tur-
nips. But clay soils are too cold and wet for corn
and too hard to allow potatoes to grow freely.

Loam. A soil that is composed partly of clay
and partly of sand is called loam. If there is more
clay than sand, it is called a clay loam; if there is
more sand, it isa sandy loam. A true loam is made
up of about equal parts of clay and sand. This is
the best farm soil, for loam makes a good home for
plant roots. It is easy to cultivate, and because it
allows moisture to pass through it readily, no time
is lost after rains in waiting for it to dry out.

What the Soil Contains. We know that all soil
is made up of fine particles of rock or sand, of de-
eayed plants, of water, and of insect life. It also
contains air and another plant life which, perhaps,
we do not know about, because we cannot see it.
They are so small it would take many thousands of
them to measure an inch. This low, tiny plant life
we call bacteria. They are very useful in changing
the soil so as to make it ready for plant food. Bac-
teria must have air to live, and that is one reason
we must have air in the soil.

86 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Plant Food. In order that plants may grow, they
need certain foods that we call plant foods. Plants
get this food from the soil and the air. In order
not to rob the soil, we must know what our crops
are taking out of it and how to put these plant
foods back.

Plants Need Many Foods. The plant needs a
variety of foods, just as a hungry boy does. Ordi-
nary plants need about thirteen different kinds.
Some of these elements, or different kinds of foods,
are obtained from the air, and others from the soil.
To grow good crops, the soil must not only have
enough of all the foods that the plants need, but
they must be in such form that the roots can take
them up and use them to build up the stalk, leaves,
and fruit.

Only Liquid Food. The foods taken from the soil
are called mineral foods, because they are actually
bits of minerals dissolved in water just as you dis-
solve sugar or salt. Plants drink their food through
tiny, hollow root hairs that take up this water solu-
tion. They cannot take up solid particles of soil.
So all this mineral plant food must be dissolved in
water before it can pass into the plant and become a
part of it.

Water the Chief Plant Food. When soil is
perfectly dry, plants cannot grow in it, for water
generally forms about three-fourths of a plant’s
weight. Since the plant can take plant food from
the soil only in liquid form, we see that water itself

SOILS 87

is not only an important plant food, but it carries to
the stalk and leaves nearly all the other foods they
need. After traveling through the rootlets up the
stem to the leaves, the water that is not needed
passes off from the leaves into the air. Therefore
we see that plants take in much more water than
they can use, for the sake of the food that the water
brings with it. We are told that timothy hay needs
three hundred tons of water to obtain the other
foods necessary to make one ton of hay; oats require
five hundred tons of water for a ton of plant.

Other Food. A bundle of wheat as it comes from
the self-binder weighs about ten pounds, and nearly
nine and one-half pounds of this 1s composed of
water and the carbonic acid of the air. <A large
part of the farmer’s labor is done to supply the
elements that make up the other half pound of this
bundle of wheat. It contains ten simple foods and
no two in equal amounts. The wheat cannot spare
any one of these ten plant foods. So when the soil
loses one element of wheat food, it is no longer good
wheat land.

Humus. Different parts of the same fields may
have different colors. The red color of some clays is
due to the iron in them, but the brown or black color
of soils is usually due to the humus that they con-
tain. Humus is the decay of plants. The leaf mould
which we find under the dead leaves in the woods
is a good sample of humus. This is a very impor-
tant element in soil. Humus not only makes the

88 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

soul dark and rich, but it makes the ground loose
and mellow so air can get in. It also enables the
soil to hold far more moisture than would be pos-
sible without it. Plants, we know, need both air
and moisture about their roots, so humus is a valu-
able aid to the farmer.

Soil and Surface Water. How does the soil
obtain and keep moisture and give it over to the
plants? If we go into the fields after a heavy rain,
we notice muddy streams running from the plowed
land, carrying off good, fine soil. Part of the water
that falls as rain and snow, runs off instead of
sinking into the earth. This we call surface water,
and it often does much damage to our fields; but
much of the water that falls upon the ground sinks
into the soil through cracks and holes and between
the tiny grains of soil. When the land is dry the
farmer likes a slow, steady rain, because it all soaks
into the ground to feed plants, instead of running
off as surface water and carrying good soil with it.

Why Clay Soils Are Wet. As the water passes
through the soil, each tiny grain of sand and each
little particle of earth is covered with a coat of
moisture. <All through the soil are small holes or
open spaces between the grains, and into these the
water goes. In such fine soil as clay, which packs
closely, the spaces are small, and the water cannot
pass through rapidly; so it is kept back in holes,
open spaces, or puddles. In loose, coarse-grained
earth, such as sand, the spaces are large; and the

SOILS 89

water passes through rapidly. This explains why
clay soil is sticky and wet while sand is a dry soil
and almost never forms puddles.

Holding Water for Plants. It is easy to under-
stand how water will move downward through the
soil wherever there are openings or pores. We also
know that water-coated particles will pass on some
of their moisture to dry ones that touch them, just
as lamp oil passes up the wick. Thus, you see, mois-
ture is always moving toward dry areas. This
means a great deal to plants, for when their rootlets
drink up the water that is around them and the soil
about them is becoming dry, more moisture moves
toward the dry place and supplies the thirsty plants.
In this way plants may obtain nearly all the water
in a good soil.

Importance of Drainage. Some regions have con-
siderable rainfall. Water soon forms a coat about
each tiny grain of soil and fills the pore spaces. If
more rain keeps falling, and the water cannot pass
down easily through the soil, we have swampy land.
This happens especially where the under drainage,
as we say, is not good. In such swampy lands, the
open spaces, or pores of the soil, are always full of
water, and no air can penetrate the soil.

Good Soil Contains Air. A1] plants need air about
their roots as well as about their stems and leaves.
The roots ean not do their work without air, and
they will not go deeper than the air can follow.
Without air, seeds will not sprout, but will rot.

90 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Then, as we have said, there are the hosts of soil
bacteria whose work it is to change certain plant
foods for the plant’s use; and these bacteria can not
live without air.

How to Drain Swampy Land. Level fields of clay
soil are often unfit for crops, because they do not
drain well. They are always water-soaked and
swampy. Thus the farmer must drain such fields
or allow them to lie idle. The best method is to
tile-drain them. This is done by digging trenches
from thirty to one hundred feet apart, according to
the soil. In the bottom of these trenches tiles are
laid. These tiles are merely hollow tubes about a
foot long, made of clay and burnt hard like brick.
They are laid end to end about four feet below the
surface of the ground. Care must be taken to see
that the tile line slopes gradually to some lower level
at the creek or river.

How Draining Helps. The tile drains carry away
the excess of water. This allows air to enter the
soil, and plant roots will follow as deep as the air
and so get more plant food. Bacteria can also find
better homes because of the air in the soil.

A Map of the Tile Lines. The tile should not be
too small, as small ones get filled up easily. Noth-
ing smaller than three inches in diameter should be
used, and in many places only four-inch tile are laid.
Tiling a field costs a great deal of money and it
should be done right. A map of the field may be
kept showing just where every tile line is, so that

SOILS 91

if a section again becomes swampy, it will be easier
to find any tile that has filled up and failed to do
its work.

The Farmer’s Bacteria Friends. We have learned
of the tiny bacteria plants that live in the soil and
help to prepare food for the plants we cultivate.
Some kinds of bacteria live in other places, and
others are harmful; but these soil bacteria are very
necessary and helpful, and the farmer works hard
to make the soil right for them to grow. There are
millions of bacteria in a cubic inch of fertile soil.
They do not need sunlight as do most plants, but
they do require air, moisture, warmth, and food.

How They Help. Bacteria pounce upon all vege-
table matter, such as leaves, wood, grass, and dead
animal matter, that falls upon the ground and
begins to decay, or rot. The bacteria break up all
these substances into simple foods that are ready for
the plant to drink. It would be of no use to manure
soil if it were not for bacteria.

Bacteria and Clover. Some kinds of bacteria set
up housekeeping upon the tiny rootlets of certain
plants such as clover, alfalfa, soy beans, and cow-
peas. They take a certain element, that we call
nitrogen, from the air and store it up in little
bunches or swellings on the roots of these plants,
ready for them to feed upon. Plants must have
this nitrogen as food, and soil that contains abun-
dance of it is rich soil. Every farmer boy knows
that the fields are richest where clover, alfalfa, or

92 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

cowpeas have been growing. (Fig. 53.) The reason
is that the millions of bacteria have been at work
upon their roots, storing up nitrogen for them and
for other plants to feed upon. This explains why
farmers use these crops to build up worn-out soils.

Growing Several Crops. The farmer always raises
some crops that pay better than others. Corn may
pay better than oats, and yet it is wise to grow some
oats, because the two crops can be worked at differ-
ent times. A farmer may raise all the corn he has
time to take care of and still raise a field of oats
besides. Barley, oats, and spring wheat require
attention at the same time. So the farmer usually
chooses only one of these crops. Rye and winter
wheat must be worked at the same time, and so the
farmer grows but one of these in a season.

Not Too Many Crops. It is better to raise a num-
ber of crops than to put the whole farm into one,
because the farmer wishes to provide work for him-
self and his laborers all the time. It is not well,
however, to have too many crops, because they may
call for too much machinery. A farmer can not
afford to buy the necessary tools for potatoes or
wheat or orchards unless he has a fair-sized field
in such crops. But small vegetables and fruit for
home use should all be raised on every farm in
gardens and small orchards.

Rotation of Crops. Rotation means that the crops
grown on each field are changed every year or two.
Nearly every successful farmer does this. Still

SOILS 93

there are fields that have never grown any crop but
cotton; others, nothing but wheat. This is bad for
the land, and the thoughtful farmer does not prac-
tice it.

Good Reasons for Rotation. By rotating and
having several different crops, the laborers and
teams are kept busy. The farmer has some crops

Courtesy of

Fic. 53. Clover sod with potash and phosphorus fertilizer yielded 26
bushels of corn per acre, shown at the left, as compared with 13.4
bushels where potash and phosphorus were used without clover,
shown in the center, and 28.5 bushels where peat, potash, and phos-
phorus were used, shown on the right. This shows the importance
of adding nitrogen and orgamec matter to sandy soils.

to sell and some to feed. He also escapes a total
crop failure, and he keeps his soil in better condi-
tion. By growing the same crops on the same fields
year after year, certain weeds get the upper hand.
By changing crops, these weeds are checked, be-
cause the crops are worked at different times and
in different ways. Then, too, there are some plant

ral Experiment Station, Wisconsin

94 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

diseases and insects that will get a big start unless
other crops are introduced on the field. When in-
sects find their favorite crop gone and one growing
that they do not like, they are without food and
starve to death. But perhaps the most important
reason for rotation is to keep up the supply of
humus in the soil by growing clover, alfalfa, or cow-
peas and plowing them under to restore the vege-
table mould or humus.

Rotating in the North. There are different sys-
tems or methods of rotating crops. Many good
farmers in the Northern states divide their farms
into five fields, and on each field they raise corn,
followed by oats, then by wheat, then clover, and
lastly by timothy. Then they plow the timothy
stubble and again start with corn. Try to make
five diagrams or maps to show what each field con-
tains each of the five years.

In Potato States. In some potato-raising sections,
they have a three-year rotation: a crop of potatoes
is followed by one of wheat or oats, and that by a
clover crop. Such a farm is divided into three fields.
In the Corn Belt a good rotation is corn for two
years, next oats, and then clover and timothy.

Rotation for Cotton. For cotton plantations a
good system is: Cotton the first year, followed the
second year by corn with cowpeas planted between
the rows or sown broadcast just before the last cul-
tivation of the corn; the third year oats are grown,
and they are followed by cowpeas the same season.

SOILS 95

Phosphorus a Plant Food. We have learned that
a plant needs many plant foods, but the most of
them are usually found in the soil and in the air
and water in great plenty. If the farmer needs to
put nitrogen in his soil, he may do it best by sowing
a crop of red clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas. But all
plant foods can not be put back into the soil by a
crop. If a farmer raises and sells corn or wheat,
he is taking out of his soil and shipping away one
important plant food called phosphorus. Most of
the phosphorus that corn and other grains require
before they can grow well, they store up in their
seed or grain. And when this grain is sent away
to market, it takes with it three-fourths of the phos-
phorus used by the crop.

Putting Phosphorus Back. This must be put back
into the soil somehow; and it may be done by pur-
chasing bone meal from stockyards companies who
buy and slaughter our stock, or by purchasing
manure for our fields or by buying rock phosphate
from the places in Tennessee or Florida where this
mineral is mined and ground for fertilizer.

Keeping Up the Land. Phosphorus is the plant
food most likely to be wanting in our rolling
prairies, in the hilly timber lands, and in soils worn
out by long cultivation. If clover will not grow
well, one may feel pretty sure his fields need phos-
phorus, and, perhaps, lime. For most farms, all that
is needed to keep them up is plenty of rock phos-
phate, with a crop of clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas, in
rotation and all the manure made on the farm.

CHAPTER, XIT
PLANTS AND HOW THEY GROW

Learning about Plants. Since men and animals
live largely on plants, and farmers are kept busy
growing crops to feed the world, we want to know
more about how plants grow and produce seed. We
may easily see what the animals about us eat and
drink, but it is not so easy to learn just how plants
eat and grow and bear fruit.

Dividing Their Work. Plants need food, water,
and air, just as animals do. They also need warmth
and lght. The plant has different parts—a stem,
roots, leaves, and flowers. It divides its work up
among these parts. The roots of the plants have
their work, and it is different from that of the stem
and leaves.

Roots and Their Work. Let us first look at the
roots. Pull up a radish from the garden, and you
notice that the upper part of the root is large and
round and is stored full of food. Below is a tap
root which grows smaller and smaller to the end
several inches down. All along this tap root are
tiny rootlets with root hairs branching off from
them. These root hairs cover only the tips of the
smallest rootlets, but they extend out in all direc-
tions. They are very close together, for often there
are as many as thirty thousand on one square inch.

96

PLANTS AND HOW THEY GROW 97

They are not young roots, because they never grow
larger. They are only tiny little hollow tubes which
contain sap. They have no pores, or holes for water
to enter, but it easily soaks through their thin walls.
Thus these root hairs drink in the soil water which
contains many of the plant foods; and the sap ear-
ries this watery food up along the larger roots and
stem to the leaves. Here the sunshine helps to make
the plant food ready to build up the stem, leaves,
and the fruit of the plant. The larger roots do not
take plant food from the soil. Their work is to hold
the plant firmly in its place in spite of storms and
heavy rains. When a plant is taken up to be trans-
planted, most of the small rootlets with their many
long hairs are broken off. Perhaps you can now
understand why a plant is so likely to wilt when it
is transplanted.

The Stem. The stem, or trunk, bears the leaves
and holds them up in the air and sunshine. It ecar-
ries the watery plant foods from the roots up
through the outer wood layer to the leaves. The
materials, or starch and sugar from the leaves, pass
down through the bark to the part where they are
needed to enlarge the plant.

The Leaves. But more interesting than roots or
stem are the leaves. They serve as so many stom-
achs where the plant food is digested and made
ready for use. The chief work of the leaves is to
make the plant foods over into starch and sugar.
They take a large part of this starch and sugar,

98 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

called carbon, from the air, but the other parts come
to the leaves through the root hairs. The leaves
also give off to the air all the water that is not
needed by the plants. If the leaves give off more
moisture than the roots supply, as they often do on
very hot days, the plant wilts in order to prevent
further evaporation.

The Flower. The starch and sugar made by the
leaves is either stored up for food or used at once
to build plant tissue. When enough has been stored,
the plant begins to flower. The flower is sometimes
beautiful like the apple blossom, but often, as in
the wheat or oats, it is not showy.

The Seed. The flower of plants has a very im-
portant work to do, because it contains the parts
which create the fruit. The fruit contains the seeds
from which new plants may be grown. If the flower
fails to do its work, there will be no fruit, no seeds,
and no new plant, unless a new plant can be started
from a slip or cutting of the old plant.

The Father and Mother. The flowers of different
plants differ very much, but they usually have two
parts. One is the ‘‘pistil’’? or mother part, which
contains the ovary or seed food. This seed food
will not grow into seed unless it receives some pollen
or yellow dust that grows on another part called
the ‘‘stamen.’’ The seed itself is a tiny baby plant
all tucked under a good cover with food enough for
it to live on until it can send out rootlets into the
ground.

PLANTS AND HOW THEY GROW 99

The Corn Flowers. Every plant must have its
flowers with their stamens and pistil, but the sta-
mens and pistil are not always together in the same
flower. Examine a cornstalk as it grows. The
tassel is the stamen, or father flower, with its yellow
dust, or pollen; and the ear is the pistil, or mother
flower. If the pollen does not fall from the tassel
on the silks of the ear to fertilize the ear, there will
not be a grain of corn on the cob.

Carrying the Pollen. The corn is only one of
many plants that have their male and female flowers
separate. Such plants depend partly upon the wind
to carry the pollen from the father flower to the
pistil where the new seed is to grow. Some plants
depend upon insects to carry the pollen for them.
So these plants have developed bright colored
flowers that the insects can easily see. They also
secrete a sweet food, or nectar, to reward the in-
sects for their trouble. They hold out bright red
and yellow and blue petals and say to the insects,
‘“‘Here you can get good honey.”’

Night Workers. Some plants depend upon in-
sects that fly only at night to carry their pollen.
These plants do not have bright flowers, because
colors cannot be seen well in the darkness. They
have white flowers; and to aid the insects in finding
them they have a strong, sweet odor or fragrance
that guides their friends. The insects come from
far and near for the sweets. They brush against
the stamens and get covered with yellow pollen dust.

100 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Away they go to other flowers, leaving some of this
pollen on every plant they touch. When they go
in deep for the honey, they leave pollen on the pistil
just where it is needed.

Pollen from Other Plants. Plants bear the strong-
est and best fruit and seeds when the pollen has
been brought to them from another plant. In a
cornfield the ears on one stalk may receive pollen
from its own tassel and from a dozen others stand-
ing near. Sometimes when a farmer wants corn for
seed, he goes about a certain part of his corn lot
before the silks come out and cuts off the tassels
of all the poor stalks. In this way he allows the
ears to receive pollen from only the strongest plants.

Kinds of Plants. There are thousands of differ-
ent kinds of plants in the world. Perhaps there
was a time when the world was young when there
were very few plants. But as they spread over the
earth they found different kinds of homes. Some
seeds were gradually carried into cold regions, and
others into hot places; some found wet spots, and
others came into deserts. Some found homes on
high, rough mountain tops where the storms raged
about them, while others fell into low, shady nooks
where they were protected.

How They Came to be Different. As the plants
were slowly carried into such different kinds of
homes, they kept fighting for life and food. Often
many plants were struggling for air and sunshine
on the same little spot; and only those that proved

PLANTS AND HOW THEY GROW 101

good fighters lived. Slowly but surely many of
these plants changed to meet their new surround-
ings and became unlike their early parents and even
unlike their close kin. Each one set to work to pro-
tect itself and get its own food, and thus it slowly
developed new parts, new ways of growing, and
new ways of fighting for food. Only the best and
strongest plants lived to spread their seed. In this
way the world came to be covered with untold
multitudes of different kinds of plants.

One Interesting Habit. It is interesting to study
about the habits of different plants and how they
grow and spread their kind. One of the important
things about them that the farmer needs to know is
how they scatter their seed, because many weeds
grow and fight for life where the farmer does not
want them.

Scattering Their Seed. Some plants, like the
cocoanut, grow their seed in a hard shell which is
waterproof, and in this they float on streams and
rivers to new homes. The seeds of the maple and
ash trees have wings, and on these they sail away
across the fields wherever the wind will carry them.
The dandelion seed has a queer little balloon on
which the wind earries it to some far-away home.
Then we know the burdocks and stick tights that
catch in our clothes or fasten themselves on passing
animals and hold tight for a long ride, to fall at
last and set up housekeeping in a new region. Any
boy or girl who will examine the seeds of plants

102 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

and do a little thinking will discover many inter-
esting and wonderful secrets about their different
habits.

How Man Helps. Man has chosen certain plants
that furnish food for him and his flocks, and these
he tries to help to good homes where they will grow
and bring forth their harvest of grain or fruit. He
spreads and sows these plants in several different
ways. He sows the seed of the common grains or
cereals, and covers them with earth. Sweet potatoes
are grown from slips or plants; Irish potatoes, from
the ‘‘eyes’’ of the potato; grapevines from cuttings
or twigs clipped from the vine. Sugar cane is grown
by planting a short piece of the stalk. Many plants
do not come true from seed, and man has learned
to grow them by grafting or budding. A bud or
graft twig is taken from one plant and so carefully
put upon another that it will grow as part of the
plant. And the strange thing about it is that it will
produce its own kind of fruit and not the kind of
the plant on which it is grafted. There is no end to
the wonderful things man is learning to do with
plants.

CHAP TT Ex Eh
TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY

Sowing and Reaping in Olden Times. For thou-
sands of years after men learned to plant seed they
tilled the soil with a forked stick. Their only object
seemed to be to get the seed covered in the ground.
In Egypt for long ages seed was scattered broad-
east by hand and herds of cattle were driven over
the ground to tramp it in. These ancient people
reaped their grain with a crooked knife and beat
the kernels from the husks and chaff with a stick, or

Fic. 54. The best and cheapest fertilizer.

flail. Sometimes they drove their cattle over it on
the barn floor to thresh it. Then it was ground into
103

104 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

meal in stone basins with stone pestles. The crooked
stick also served to dig the root crops.

Wearing Out the Soil. Men of those times did not
know how to cultivate crops. They knew that weeds
injured the crops, but they did not know that it was
because the weeds took the plant food, water, and
air that their grain needed. When the land failed
to bring a good harvest, the farmer concluded that
the field needed a rest; so he rested it, or, as We say,
let it le fallow for one year. He did not know
what we do to-day—that his land only needed a
rotation of crops, that is, a different crop planted
each year, or that barnyard manure would make it
fertile again (Fig. 54).

Jethro Tull. About two hundred years ago there
lived in England a landlord named Jethro Tull. He
watched his crops closely and soon saw that the
fields he worked or tilled the most brought the
largest crops. He taught other farmers that tillage
was the most important part of farming. He be-
lieved that fields would never wear out if they
were always cultivated thoroughly. He thought that
plants took their food in solid little grains or parti-
cles, and the only thing needed was to break up the
soil very fine and the plants would eat it as a calf
eats bran. We know that Tull was mistaken in
thinking that plants take their food in solid form,
but he did a great service to his farmer friends and
to all the farmers since that time by showing them
how important tillage is (Figs. 55a and 55b).

TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY 105

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Fig. 55a. A field in poor tilth. Crops in such cloddy soil have a
slim chance.

Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Fic. 55b. A field in good tilth. The best time to cultivate a crop is

before planting it.
Feeding Plants. We know that plants can use
only the plant food that is prepared for them. If
it is not in the right form, it makes no difference

106 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

how much food is in the soil, the plants will die
in the midst of plenty. It is the farmer’s task to
see that the plant food in his soil is ready for his
crops to use, and he tills the soil so that moisture
can enter and be kept near the roots. Tillage
loosens the soil so air can enter. Tillage also keeps
down the weeds that steal the plant food and keep
out the sunlight and warmth that the crops need.
We can see that a great deal depends upon the
farmer’s stirring his soil at the right time.

Keeping Moisture in the Soil. The well-tilled soil
is broken into very fine grains or particles (Fig. 55).
These fine particles will hold much more water than
coarse ones, because each tiny grain has its own
coat of moisture. This, you remember, is the reason
clay soil will hold more moisture than sandy soil.
Clay does not drink it in so rapidly, but it holds on
to'it better.

Moisture passes easily from wet grains of earth
to dry ones that touch them, so we see that the
looser the soil is the fewer are the particles which
touch one another. If they do not touch one another,
water cannot pass so easily from wet particles to
dry ones and in this way climb to the surface and
pass off into the air. The surface soil especially
must be loose to keep the moisture from evaporat-
ing, or getting back into the air.

The Dust Mulch. The loose layer of surface,
which we call dust mulch, acts just like a blanket.
Turn over a log or a board in the barn lot in the

TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY 107

spring and you will find the soil under it more damp
than the ground not covered. The board has kept
the moisture from passing off into the air. When
we remember how much moisture crops need, we
will see how important the dust mulch is. Every
time it rains hard it packs this mulch down, and the
farmer should cultivate his crop again, to loosen the
top soil.

Dry Farming. Perhaps you have read or heard of
dry farming. In many places in our great West
there is not enough rainfall in a year to raise a crop.
But if all that falls in two years could be kept, it
would raise one crop. The farmers have learned
that if they keep a dry mulch on the ground and
save all the rainfall of one year, they have a pretty
good chance to raise a crop the second year. It
means that they must cultivate or till the ground
for two seasons to get one crop, but that is better
than raising nothing at all on these wide, dry areas.
Where rainfall is less than twenty inches per year,
dry farming or irrigation must be practiced.

Irrigation. ''wo-fifths of the land of the United
States is too dry to produce regular crops without
irrigation. By irrigation is meant the storing of
water in lakes and reservoirs by means of huge
dams. This is done in the rainy season, when there
is plenty to be had. This water is then turned on
the fields by means of ditches when crops are grow-
ing, where it takes the place of rainfall (Fig. 56).
Some reservoirs are supplied from rivers that flow

108 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

the year round, while others must be filled in the
rainy season. The United States Government is

Fig. 56. A private irrigation plant.

spending millions of dollars in the dry sections to
save for crops some of the water that is going to
waste.

Making Machinery Better. A slight improvement
on the crooked stick was a rude plow made from
several sticks bound with thongs of skin. This was
used after the ox had been taught to bear the yoke.
Farming with such tools was hard and toilsome
labor with little reward. A brush dragged over the
plowed ground was probably the first harrow.

Copper Tools. It was a great step forward when
some one learned to smelt copper. Though copper

TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY 109

is soft and will not take on a sharp edge, yet it made
far better tools than did sticks. The next step was
made when it was found that by mixing tin ore with
copper a much harder tool could be made, with a
better edge. This mixture is called bronze. Bronze
tools were used for untold ages until some clever
man found out how to make a fire hot enough to
smelt iron ore. When iron tools and weapons were
madé, we have the beginning of all the wonderful
machinery in use to-day.

The First Iron Tools. Iron tools were few and
costly at first, because the warriors needed all the
iron they could get for their weapons. But. men
learned at last to make hillside furnaces for smelt-
ing iron ore, and then the farmer got a few iron

Fic. 57. Put the soil in good tilth with a disk harrow before sowing.

110 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

tools. The day came when some clever farmer put
an iron share on his plow to cut the soil. From that
day to this men have gradually improved iron farm
tools, and the splendid horse-power machines of all

Fig. 58. A tractor engine drawing four plows.

descriptions which do farm work to-day are the
result of the wonderful inventions of many bright
minds.

Farm Machinery of To-Day. The poorest farmer
of to-day has a plow to turn the sod and stir the
soil deeply; he has a cultivator to tear and break
the soil, and a harrow to make it fine like ashes
for the dust muleh (Fig. 57). Certain soils that

TILLAGE AND FARM MACHINERY inal

are sandy and too loose need rollers to pack them
slightly. Every sort of harvester has been devised
for gathering the crop. But farmers have not been
content with horse power alone. They have har-
nessed the wind to their windmills, they have
hitched their plows and harvesters to great steam
engines (Fig. 58), and they are using the power
of gasoline engines to do many kinds of work about
the farm (Fig. 59). Even electricity may be had
where there is a waterfall to make it cheaply.

Care of Machinery. It is important that the
farmer take good care of his machinery and tools.
More plows have been rusted out by the weather
than have been worn out by use. There are three
good rules for every farm. Keep all tools under a
good roof when they are not in use. See that all
machinery, wagons, and the like are kept well

Fic. 59. A gas engine is a great labor saver on the farm.

112 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

painted, so they will last longer and save the farmer
from buying new ones early. Use plenty of oil to
save wear on all machinery. Oil and paint cost
money; but if thirty-five cents’ worth of paint will
make a thirty-five-dollar machine last several years
longer, it pays to use the paint.

CHAPTER XIV
CORN

America and Corn Discovered. When Columbus
sailed toward the west over the unknown ocean, he
hoped to reach the rich cities of Asia and the Spice
Islands. Here he expected to obtain a rich cargo
of spices, some of which were worth their weight
in gold. But, instead of reaching China, Columbus
landed upon a new world where white men had
never been before. Instead of rich cities, he found
only a vast wilderness inhabited by savages whom
he named Indians. The Indians lived by hunting
and fishing and by raising a few plants which were
new and strange to Columbus and his sailors. These
were squashes, tobacco, and maize, or corn. Colum-
bus never knew what a wonderful golden treasure
he had found in this Indian corn. It has come to
be one of the most valuable crops in the world.
When the corn crops fail there is a scarcity of food
for rich and poor and hard times for everybody for
many months.

Corn Saves the Pioneers. This Indian corn was a
great blessing to the early immigrants from Europe,
for the wheat and rye which they had brought with
them would grow only in well-tilled fields and these
ploneers were poor farmers with poor tools. There
were no well-tilled fields, and men would not work.

113

114 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

They would have starved if the Indians had not fur-
nished them with corn. The Indians taught the
white men from Europe how to raise corn and how
to make from it dishes fit for a king to eat.

Indian Farming. The Indian methods of farming
were very crude and simple, for they knew very little
about tilling the soil. The Indian squaws killed a
patch of forest trees by cutting a girdle around each
one when the sap was running in the spring. After
the trees died and the sunlight shone in, the squaws
scratched the grains of seed corn into the ground,
with a crooked, sharp stick for a hoe. Here, without
the use of plow or harrow, the corn sprang up in the
rich earth, and a harvest of yellow ears provided
food for winter.

Where Corn Grows. Since that time corn has
been one of the chief crops of the American farmer
in most sections, and to-day it is the most important
of all. Corn can be raised in nearly every part of
North America. In the North, where the summers
are short, the farmers have developed a kind that
grows only three or four feet high and that will
ripen in seventy days. In the Southern countries
of Mexico and South America there are kinds of
corn that grow more than twenty feet high and
require six months in which to ripen.

The Corn Belt. Corn is now raised in many coun-
tries, but about three-fourths of the world’s supply
is grown in the United States, and nearly one-half
of the world’s supply in the seven states known as

CORN 115

the Corn Belt. They are Illinois, lowa, Nebraska,
Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio. The Corn
Belt supplies many other states and countries with
its surplus of corn. Besides a good soil in which
to grow, corn needs hot weather with long days of
bright sunshine and a great amount of rain.

A Corn Train. If the corn crop of the United
States in 1912 had been placed in wagons, with fifty
bushels in each load, and each wagon and team had
been allowed twenty feet of space, the train of corn
would have reached more than nine times around
the earth at the equator.

Corn Land Valuable. Where corn thrives, it
yields about twice as much food for each acre as is
produced by any of the other grains. That is the
reason why land in the Corn Belt is very high in
price. Corn is grown in many places where only
a half-crop is obtained, for a half-crop of corn yields
as much food as a full crop of wheat or rye.

Choosing Good Seed. It is believed that the farm-
ers in any state in the Union could increase the yield
of corn from five to twenty bushels an acre if they
were trained in choosing their seed corn. In order
to choose well the farmer must be a good judge of
an ear of corn. To know a prize ear is not such a
difficult lesson to learn.

The Prize Ear. A perfect ear should be round,
tapering, and full and strong in the middle. It
must be firm to the touch, and the kernels should
not be loose on the cob, as this shows that the ear

116 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

is not thoroughly ripened. The distance around the
ear one-third of the distance from the butt should
be about three-fourths of the entire length. The

rows of kernels must
re be straight, and there
ERISA should not be fewer
than sixteen nor more
than twenty-eight
rows on the cob. In most sections the ear is from
eight and one-half to ten inches long, and it should
be filled out to the tip (Fig. 60).

Good Kernels. The kernels to be planted should
be wedge-shaped, with the edges touching those next
to them their entire length from crown to cob. They
should have deeply indented crowns without pointed
or sharp corners. The color needs to be true to
variety and free from mixture.

Cobs. Ordinary types of white corn should have

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Nic. 60. A prize ear.

Fig. 61. A cob may be too large or too small.

white cobs, and yellow corn should have red cobs.
However, certain varieties of types vary from this

CORN 117

rule. The deeper or longer the kernel, the greater
the proportion of corn to cob. An extremely large

cob means late ma-
turity and less corn
in proportion to cob
(Fig. 61). The ears
should carry their
size well out to the
tips The wider
the furrows between
the rows of grain on
the cob, the lower the
proportion of corn
to cob (Fig. 62).
When to Select
Seed. Some farmers
are satisfied to
choose the finest
ears from the erib,
but a better way is
to select from the
fields at husking
time. By taking
seed from stalks
bearing two well-
formed ears, the
next crop will have
more two-eared
plants, and thus the
crop will be larger.

Fig. 62. Space between kernels next to
cob, objectionable. Ears Nos. 1 and 2
are same length and circumference.
Ear No. 2 shelled out 33 per cent more
corn by weight than No. 1.

In order to choose seed for any

erop, it is safer to see the plant on which it grew,

118 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

because like produces like. Careful selection of seed
is the most profitable farm work.

Curing the Seed. Every ear intended for planting
must be gathered before the autumn freezes, since
freezing corn that is not well dried injures the seed
germ. Seed corn should be hung up where the air
can circulate about it freely. A good place to hang
seed corn is in the attic over the kitchen, with the
windows open.

The Corn Tree. The ‘‘corn tree’’ is a device for
drying corn. It consists of an upright post driven
full of small-headed nails. An ear of corn is easily
stuck on each nail by jamming it into the pith at
the butt end. A wall driven full of nails will serve
the same purpose of holding the ears apart so they
will dry quickly.

Testing Seeds. Every ear intended for seed
should be tested to see if the corn will sprout or
germinate. Take six seeds from each ear and plant
them for a test, keeping the ear marked by number.
This will insure a good stand and prevent replant-
ing, which causes a spotted field and a poor and
uneven crop (Fig. 63).

Improving Corn. A good way to improve the
variety is to plant the seed from the hundred best
ears on one side of the field and to choose the seed
for the next year from this planting. In this way a
farmer will improve his crop every year.

Planting Evenly. To-day most farmers plant with
machines, and the planter will not drop the corn

CORN 119

evenly unless the kernels are of the same size. It is,
therefore, wise to shell off and discard the kernels

Fic. 63. Testing twelve ears of seed corn.

on both the tip and butt of the ear which are of
irregular size and shape. The corn grader is a
machine which will do this work of sifting out the
poorly-shaped kernels, or it may be done by hand
if the crop is small. It is a good plan to test the
corn planter to be sure it will drop three kernels in a
Jovi

120 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Fig. 64. The old way of spreading manure leaves the field unevenly
fertilized and the crop grows and ripens unevenly.

Making the Soil Rich. The farmer prepares his
fields well before sowing. He adds to the soil by
spreading over it barn-yard manure, for manure
contains the most plant food of anything he can
put on his fields (Figs. 64 and 65). Instead of
spreading manure on the corn lot, the farmer may
choose fields to plant where he has the year before
raised a crop of clover or cowpeas, because he
knows that these two crops enrich the soil for corn
(Fig. 53). Sometimes he buys a fertilizer made of
certain foods which the plant needs, but this costs
a great deal of money.

How to Plow. To prepare the ground the good
farmer plows rather deep to bring fresh soil up to
the air and sunshine. The air and sunshine help to
make the plant food ready for the little corn rootlets

CORN 121

to take up. The ground should not be plowed when
the soil is very wet, for it stays in hard lumps and is
not easily broken up so the roots can reach into the
earth.

How to Keep the Ground Moist. The plow is fol-
lowed by a disk or spring-tooth harrow (Fig. 66)
until all clods are broken and the surface is mellow
and fine like ashes. This ashy top soil acts like a
blanket to keep the moisture in the ground from
escaping.

Planting the Crop. Field corn should be planted
in rows about three and one-half feet apart. Years
ago a few grains of seed were dropped into each
hill by hand and covered with a hoe, but to-day the
farmer uses a checkrow planter drawn by a team.

Fic. 65. Manure should be spread evenly.

This machine plants the corn so it can be cultivated
both ways and be kept clean more easily.

1929 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Keeping the Weeds Down. A few days after
planting, the field should be harrowed to kill the
grass and weeds that are ready to sprout, because
they grow faster than the corn. When the corn is
a few inches high the harrow must be used again to
break the crust and to supply air to the soil as well
as to keep the weeds and grass down.

Plowing the Corn. The field should be cultivated
two or three times more, but after the corn roots
have spread out between the rows, it is not safe to
plow too close to the row or too deep, for fear of
breaking off millions of little rootlets that are feed-
ing the plant. Thisapplies also to the raising of sweet
corn or pop corn and other crops needing tillage.

Fig. 66. Spring-tooth harrow.

CORN 123

Gathering the Crop. When the lower leaves on
the stalks begin to die, the corn is ready to cut.

set

Fig. 67. The corn cutter.

This may be done with a hand cutter or with a corn
harvester (Fig. 67). About sixty hills are eut and
gathered into one shock. The tops are bound to-
gether so the shock will stand while the corn cures,
which requires about six weeks. When the leaves
are dry the husking takes place, and the ears are
stored in well-ventilated cribs built high from the
ground and protected from the rats and mice. Send to
the Department of Agriculture for plans for the erib.

124 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Saving It All. In some places the corn is husked,
or picked, standing in the field and the cornstalks
are burned. This is a great waste, for cornstalks
make good food for horses, cattle, and sheep, and
they like it very much. A machine which husks
the corn and shreds the tops and leaves makes a
feed called corn stover that is as good for live stock
as timothy hay. Making fodder into stover savesit all.

Fig. 68. Filling the silo.

A Great Discovery. Every farmer knows that
cattle like green feed much better than dry. But for
a long time nobody knew how to keep feed green
through the winter. Many years ago, in Europe,
a stack of wet, green grass was covered with earth
by accident. When winter came this stack was
uncovered and the grass was still green and juicy.
It was greatly relished by the cattle.

CORN 125

Building Silos. After that, farmers began to dig
pits in the ground to keep feed green. Such pits
were called silos, and to-day they are made above
ground of cement or wood and placed near the cattle
barns (Fig. 68). Cattle will eat more silage than
fodder, and cows fed on it give more milk. When
corn is grown for the silo it is planted about one
stalk every seven inches. in rows three and one-half
feet “apart.

Corn a Treasure. Corn is the backbone of farm-
ing in our country. Not only is it good for live
stock of all kinds, but it feeds more people than
any other grain except rice. Many useful things
are made from corn besides the fodder, grain, and
meal for feeding. The silks are used in the making
of filters, and corn husks are made into mattresses.
Pith is used for the packing of cofferdams of battle-
ships. Oil, varnish, starch, alcohol, and many other
articles are made from corn. There is one factory
in the United States that makes forty-two different
corn products.

CHAPTER XV
WHEAT

White Bread. Nearly the entire wheat crop of
the world is used for human food. Wheat bread is
such a common food in our country now that we do
not realize that it is still considered a great treat
by some classes of people in other parts of the
world. The poor peasants in many lands eat bread
made of rye, barley, or millet, because it is cheaper
than ‘‘white bread.’’ Millions of people in Asia
eat rice, but wheat flour makes a light bread that
is more healthful and tempting than that made by
any other grain; and as fast as the poor classes of
people can afford it, they demand wheat bread.

The First Wheat Farmers. Who the first people
were to raise wheat we do not know, because it hap-
pened, like so many other interesting things, before
men learned to write. Neither do we know where
it first grew. The ancient lake-dwellers of Switzer-
land raised a kind of grain very much like our
wheat. Some scholars believe that the early home
of wheat was in the Euphrates Valley, in western
Asia. Others think it first grew in Palestine. A
kind of wheat has lately been found growing wild
on the mountains of Palestine, and some people are
sure that our wheat has come from this wild kind.
Wheat was grown in China many hundred years

126

WHEAT 127

before Christ lived, and the Chinese said that it was
given to them direct from heaven.

Wheat in America. Wheat was the first grain
brought to our country by the Jamestown colony
in 1607. These pioneers cut down forest trees to
build a fort, and in the cleared places they sowed

Fig. 69. The reap hook, an ancient tool for reaping gratin.

wheat. The first crops were very poor, but they
wanted white bread, so they kept planting a little
more each year. The crops were cut with the reap
hook, or sickle, which is merely a knife with a
eurved blade (Fig. 69). It was threshed by being
trod upon by horses and oxen.

The World’s Crop. Our country does not produce
so large a part of the world’s wheat crop as it does
of the corn. Europe raises twice as much wheat as
does North America. European countries get twice

128 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

as much from an acre as we do, so they ean raise it
as cheaply as we do on our large farms in the West.

Kinds of Wheat. There are several kinds of
wheat. Some kinds are sown in the fall and remain
on the field through the winter. Such kinds are
called winter wheat. Others are sown in the spring
and are called spring wheat.

Climate. Wheat is better suited to short summers
than is corn, so it can be grown much farther north.
For several years farmers have been moving by
hundreds to the wide prairies of western Canada
for this purpose, and they are making it a great
wheat country.

Preparing the Soil. This crop will grow on a
ereat variety of soils, but it seems to thrive best on a
light clay. The land that is to be used for winter
wheat needs to be plowed as early in the summer
as possible. Such early plowing loosens the ground
so it will hold more moisture. The soil should be
made fine and loose. For spring wheat one may
plow the fall before, or early in the spring.

Sowing the Seed. Winter wheat is sown early in
the fall, so that it may grow strong before the cold
weather comes. Spring wheat should also be sown
early, because wheat will sprout and begin its
erowth while the weather is still cool. Six to eight
pecks of wheat are sown to the acre, and the seed
is planted about two inches deep. The lighter and
looser the soil, the deeper should be the planting.
In olden times wheat was scattered by hand and

WHEAT 129

harrowed in, but now it is nearly all sown by the
dal (Rig. 70).

Cultivation. In most countries wheat receives no
cultivation between the sowing and the harvesting.
In some places it is harrowed or rolled after the
seed has begun to sprout or after it has taken firm

Fig. 70. A wheat drill.

root. This is done to kill weeds and to keep moisture
in the ground, as we do for corn. But most wheat
farmers think this does more harm than good. Jn
Japan wheat is planted in wide rows and _ hoed.
Vegetables are raised between the rows. A hundred
years ago wheat was hoed with a mattock. Wheat
may be pastured in the winter when the ground is
frozen, but not late in the spring.

130 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Fic. 71. The cradle was a great improvement over the reap hook.

Wheat in Rotation. Wheat should never be grown
on the same fields year after year with no change
of crop. It was grown in England for many years
to test this. When it was grown on the same field
every year for twelve years the average crop was a
little more than twelve bushels to the acre. When
it was grown every fourth year, with three other
crops between, the yield for each acre was twenty-
eight bushels, or more than twice as much.

Enemies of Wheat. Wheat seems to have more
enemies than any other crop that the farmer raises.
He never knows when he sows his fields what he
shall reap or whether he shall reap at all. Very hot
or cold weather may ruin the crop. Drouths may
come and the plants die of thirst; or it may rain too
much and drown the wheat. Storms of hail or wind

WHEAT 131

or floods may ruin it. Smut, or rust, or insects may
devour it. The farmer has more risks to run in
growing wheat than in almost any other farm crop,
yet mankind is willing to pay extra for wheat bread.

Harvest Home. In most regions wheat must be
harvested very promptly, or much of the crop may
be damaged or lost. Before good machinery was
invented it was a very toilsome task to gather the
wheat crop. So much hard work had been put into
it and such a long time had gone by since the grain
was sowed that the farmer was always anxious at
harvest time to reap his crop and pay his expenses.
At the close of the season the people held great
rejoicings, called in England ‘‘harvest home.’’
They formed a procession, with music, to bring
home the last sheaves of grain. The workers and

ig. 72. Cutting wheat with a cradle.

132 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE
pretty maidens danced along, merrily singing:

‘“Harvest home, harvest home,
We have plowed, we have sowed,
We have reaped, we have mowed,
We have brought home every load,
Hip, hip, hip, harvest home.’’

The Sickle. We have said that many years ago
wheat was cut with a reap hook, or sickle, held in
one hand (Fig. 69). <A large part of the world’s
crop is still cut in that way among the peasants of
Russia, China, and Japan. With a sickle a good
worker can cut about an acre a day.

The Scythe or Cradle. The Romans thought they
could cut more if they had a longer blade and used
both hands, so they invented the scythe. This
allowed the grain to fall over when it was cut and
some clever man placed wooden fingers above the
scythe to catch the grain and help to lay it straight
for binding. This was ealled the cradle. It is still
in use in many places in our country for cutting
small patches of oats and wheat (Figs. 71 and 72).

Animal Power. But the cradle used only hand
power, and men needed horse power to save both
time and money. The first machine to use animal
power was a wheat-header used in France about the
time of Christ. It was a two-wheeled cart, pushed
by an ox yoked behind. On the front edge of the
cart were sharp fingers, or teeth, like a big comb, to
eatch the heads of wheat and pull them off and rake
them into the cart. This machine later disappeared.

WHEAT 133

The Header. Hundreds of years later men began
to make machines with the power in front. This
method with horse power meant a side-cut. The
wheat-header is a machine that cuts off the heads
and throws them into a wagon that is driven along-
side. It saves binding and shocking. Wheat must
be dry before it is cut in this way, for the grain is
either stacked or threshed at once without time for
euring. If it be damp, green, or weedy, it will not
thresh well and is liable to spoil in the stack. The
header is chiefly used in dry countries. The header
of to-day cuts a strip twelve to twenty feet wide.
In the state of Washington three headers and one
threshing machine usually work together on the
mammoth farms. In this way from fifty to seventy-
five acres of wheat are harvested in one day.

The Reaper. Another machine has been worked
out to harvest the wheat where the header is not
successful. A machine was developed that would
eut and bunch the grain. This was called the reaper
(Fig. 73). MeCormick’s machine was first used in
the harvest of 1831. It was a rather erude affair,
drawn by one horse, but it was a good beginning.
It meant cheap bread for mankind, but the farmers
at first refused to use the reaper. They laughed at
it; they said it would not work on hillsides. But
they sat on the fence and watched it. Then they
shook their heads and went back to their old cradles.
McCormick talked and urged the people to try it,
but it was ten years after the machine proved itself

134 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

before a farmer was found who would buy one. The
next year two reapers were sold, then fifty, then a
thousand. The grain was raked from the platform
of the machine by a man walking behind. It had to
be bound and shocked by hand. Not long afterwards
larger and better machines were made. It took

Fic. 73. The first reaper.

much hard work to change the reaper into the
modern binder (Fig. 74).

The Self-binder. The machine in general use in
our country to-day is the self-binder, which cuts,
binds, and dumps the bundles in piles to be shocked
by hand (Fig. 75). On some of the large grain
farms there are as many as fifty self-binders, and
these often cut six hundred acres of wheat in one
day. To make a device that would bind the wheat
was a hard task. Finally one was made that would

WHEAT 135

do the work, but it bound the bundles with wire.
Pieces of wire found their way into the throats of
cattle, and farmers would not buy the binder. Some
cheap binder twine must be found. Mr. William
Deering spent much time and a great deal of money
to get a twine that would knot easily and firmly.

Fig. 74. The modern binder drawn by a traction engine.

He finally found that Manila hemp would act just
right, and this made the binder complete. Our
binder twine is usually made of a mixture of Manila
and sisal fiber. Millions and millions of pounds of
binder twine are used every harvest.

Combined Harvesters. The most complete ma-
chine of all is the combined harvester, which is used
chiefly on the bonanza farms on our Pacific coast,
where there is nothing to fear from rainy weather.
This machine cuts, binds, gathers, cleans, and bags

136 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

the grain without a single touch from human hands.
On one side the wheat is cut, and on the other sacks
of wheat are dropped in piles ready for the market.
This machine is drawn by great teams of from
twenty-four to forty horses and mules, and it har-

Fig. 75. Shocks of golden grain.

vests from thirty to forty acres of grain a day. It
requires only four men to operate it.

Steam Harvesters. There are large combined har-
vesters run by steam. They harvest from seventy-
five to one hundred twenty-five acres a day. They
are used only on very large farms, from three thou-
sand to twenty thousand acres each. In the days
of the old Romans it took four days and a half of

WHEAT 137

work to raise and harvest each bushel of wheat.
When the reaper was invented it took three hours
of labor for each bushel, and to-day it takes only
ten minutes. This is what machinery has done for
the farmers.

How Much We Eat. It is said that, on the aver-
age, every person in the United States eats about
five bushels of wheat in a year. Five bushels of
wheat make a barrel of flour, and a barrel of flour
turned over to the baker makes about two hundred
fifty loaves of bread.

Other Uses of Wheat. Most of the American
wheat is made into bread, but there is also a great
amount used for breakfast foods. Some wheat is
fed to stock, especially to poultry. Wheat, bran,
and middlings in great quantities are bought at the
mills and fed to cattle. Macaroni is made from
wheat, and so is starch, which is used for paste or
sizing. The straw is used for feeding and bedding
eattle and for making straw hats and bonnets.

A New Kind. Some man of knowledge has now
developed from the wild wheat of Palestine a type
of wheat that will grow in dry climates. If this
new type is truly successful it will be a great bless-
ing to mankind, for the people who want ‘‘white
bread’”’ are increasing much faster than the world’s
crop.

CHAPTER XVI
THE FIELD OR IRISH POTATO

The Potato’s Early Home. The early home of the
potato was in America. White men had never seen
it until after the discovery of the continent by
Columbus. The Indians of South America, from
Chili to Colombia, were raising potatoes for food.
How long they had been doing this we do not know.
The Spanish explorers carried the potato to Europe,
where it was first grown in Spain and Italy.

The Potato in Ireland. Some years later, we are
told, Sir Walter Raleigh was cultivating it on his
farm in Ireland. He ealled it ‘‘Battata.’’ The
potato came to be raised as the principal article of
food in Ireland; and when, in 1846, there came a
total failure of the potato crop, caused by the blight,
a terrible famine and great suffering followed. It
drove thousands of Ireland’s best thinkers and
workers to America.

A Widely-grown Crop. Potatoes are a more im-
portant crop in Europe than in America, and it is a
staple product in many lands besides our own. Next
to rice, it is probably the most widely-grown crop
in the world.

Not a Root, But a Tuber. The part of the potato
that we eat is an underground stem which is called
a tuber. It is not a root, like the sweet potato or

138

THE FIELD OR IRISH POTATO 139

radish, for there are no rootlets growing upon the
white potato. All the roots are found extending
out from the stems.

4. Burbank.

1. Early Ohio.

5. Rural New Yorker.

2. Early Rose.

3. Triumph. 6. Peerless.
Courtesy of Agricultural Experiment Station, Wisconsin

Fie. 76. Standard varieties of potatoes. Early varieties, 1, 2, and 3.
Late varieties, 4, 5, and 6.

The Kinds of Seed. The potato can be raised both
from the seeds which grow in the seed ball at the

140 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

end of the stalk and from the tubers. The farmer
always plants tubers, because they produce other
tubers just like themselves. The potatoes grown
from the seed do not always come true to the
variety.

The Potato Eye. Each eye of the potato will grow
a new plant if a piece of potato is left on it large
enough to feed the young plant until it can put out
strong roots. When potatoes are allowed to sprout
in the cellar they use up some of their plant food so
they shrivel. These potatoes should not be used
for planting.

Cutting the Seed. Irish potatoes are usually cut
into two or more pieces for planting. Some careful
farmers cut two eyes to each piece; others claim it
pays to use more seed and take a half potato for
each hill. The seed is best cut a short time before
it is put into the ground. One experiment station
found an increase of fifty-four,bushels per acre by
placing the potatoes in a well-lighted room with a
comfortable temperature for several weeks before
planting.

How to Choose Seed Potatoes. Our plants grow
from the bud in the eye of the potato, and so we
should know just what kind of a plant the seed
potato grew on. We must see to it that we choose
seed taken from vines that are good producers.
Some vines have twice as many potatoes as others.
Therefore, we select our seed potatoes, as we do
corn, not from the bin, but from the potato field, as

THE FIELD OR IRISH POTATO 141

they are dug. It matters not if the seed potato be
large or small if it came from a hill bearing a large

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 77. Colorado potato beetle at work on the plant: a, beetle; b,
egg masses; c, half-grown larvae; d, mature larvae.

yield of fine potatoes. By careful selection, year
after year, a farmer can greatly improve his variety

142 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

and produce larger crops on the same space of
ground (Fig. 76).

Climate and Soil. For the best crop one needs a
deep, fertile soil with plenty of moisture, but not too
wet. <A cool climate is most suitable. The seed-eyes
are planted from two to five inches deep, and the
most successful growers do not hill up the plants
until late in the season. Moisture is held better if
the ground is kept level.

Cultivating the Crop. A few days after planting
a harrow or weeder is run over the field to destroy
all weeds as soon as they are started. This weeder
is used once a week until the plants are six or eight
inches high. Then the fields are cultivated between
the rows about every ten days.

Insect Enemies. One of the first enemies the plant
meets after it appears through the surface is the
flea beetle that gnaws small holes in the leaves.
They may be checked by spraying with the Bor-
deaux mixture or with Paris green. This remedy
will also stop the ravages of the potato beetle, or
Colorado bug (Fig. 77). Potatoes are commonly
sprayed about five times, beginning when the plants
are about six inches high and repeating the opera-
tion every ten days.

The Potato Scab. Another enemy of the potato
is the scab, which is a very tiny plant growing on
the surface of the tuber. Secabby potatoes do not
bring good prices. If seed potatoes are given a
bath in a solution of formalin for about two hours

THE FIELD OR IRISH POTATO 143

before they are planted, the formalin will kill the
scab growth without injuring the potatoes. One-
half pint of formalin to fifteen gallons of water
makes a proper solution, which will do for several
bushels of potatoes, as it can be used over and over
again.

The Blight. Another disease for the potato farmer
to guard against is the blight. This is a tiny plant

Fic. 78. A field of potatoes yielding 350 bushels per acre.

or fungus growth which attacks the plant above
eround. The blight sometimes destroys a crop com-
pletely. Spraying is the remedy for this enemy,
also.

Harvesting. Early varieties of the potato are dug
as soon as they are big enough for market. Late
potatoes are left in the ground until the vines are

144 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

dead. They should be gathered when the ground
is dry and placed in a dark, cool place. Potatoes
stored in the cellar should always be covered to
keep the ight from burning them. In some regions
farmers raise from three hundred to five hundred
bushels per acre (Fig. 78).
““-Potato Machinery. In order to grow potatoes
profitably, one must plant a good many acres to
afford the machines needed. <A potato planter, a
sprayer, and a digger are needed, and the wear on
these tools amounts to thirty or forty dollars a year.
Uses of Potatoes. Potatoes are used mostly for
human food, but they make good rations for stock,
either raw or cooked. Alcohol and starch are made
from potatoes.

CHAPTER XVII
THE SWEET POTATO

The Sweet Potato a Root. The sweet potato is not
related to the Irish potato. It is not a tuber, but a
true root grown large. Instead of eyes it has small
rootlets running out from it. The sweet potato has
blossoms very like the flowers of the morning glory,
and it belongs to the same family of plants.

Its Home. The sweet potato seems to have first
come from the warm regions of America. It is now
raised principally in the Southern states and upon
islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Climate and Soil. Four months of mild weather
without cold winds or frost are needed to grow
sweet potatoes. They will thrive in almost any
loose, well-drained soil, if the climate is warm. <A
light sandy loam gives a cleaner potato, and these
are the best sellers.

Planting. For a new crop, all of the sweet potato
may be planted. They are usually started in a hot-
bed, and sprouts or young plants are transplanted,
or taken up and set out again, in the field in rows
about three feet apart.

Cultivation. It makes very little difference what
crop has just been taken off the field that is to be
put to sweet potatoes, but it is unwise to have them
follow sod, because sod ground contains many cut

145

146 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

worms that harm this plant. It is not necessary to
plow deeply, but all weeds must be kept down by
good cultivation until the potato vines cover the
ground.

Harvesting. The sweet potato, like the apple, is
easily damaged by bruising. Extreme care must
be used in handling them. All bruised potatoes
should be laid aside for immediate use. Those
intended for the market may be graded—that is,
the large ones should be separated from the small
ones. Time spent in grading and packing is worth
while, for this care brings better prices.

Storing the Crop. Sweet potatoes are hard to
store, because they rot so easily. They should be
partly dried and cleaned and then placed in a dry,
warm bin. If all bruised ones and those that are
beginning to rot are removed from the bin, they will
keep for some time.

Uses of the Plant. Sweet potato vines make a
very good hay that is sometimes used as ensilage for
filling silos. Potatoes too small to sell may be fed
to stock, for they are rich in sugar and starch.
Sweet potatoes are largely used on the table, but
some are dried and ground into flour and some made
into starch, glucose, and alcohol.

There are eighty different varieties of sweet pota-
toes. The kinds that are dry and mealy are pre-
ferred in the North, while the juicy, sugary varieties
are most popular in the South.

CHAPTER XV lit
COTTON

The Home of Cotton. Our great-grandmothers
grew cotton in their front dooryards as a flowering
plant. It is supposed to be a native of India. But
Columbus found some kinds growing here when he
came to America. Now it is one of the important
crops of the Southern farmer.

Climate. Cotton is a warm-weather plant and
needs a rather long growing season. Warm, moist
nights with the weather becoming warmer is best
for the growing plant; while later, when the fruit
is setting and ripening, dry weather with occasional
showers is better. Too much rain when the fruit
is ripening causes the stalk to grow too large, and
the bolls are then late in ripening.

The Best Soil. Cotton grows best on a clay loam
or sandy loam soil that is well drained. On bottom
land which overflows stalks sometimes grow so large
and become so tough that they have to be eut down
with axes before the land can be cleared and plowed
for another crop. Good cotton land must hold
moisture well. There should be much humus in it
and a good dust mulch on top. It is well to plant
peanuts or some bush variety of cowpeas between
the cotton rows and plow them under with the cotton
stalks after the cotton has been picked. This will

147

148 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

help to maintain the humus. But clover grows well
in winter in the Southern states, and it can be used
to follow the cotton. It is plowed under the follow-
ing spring.

Preparing the Soil. Early fall plowing is best
where one cotton crop is to follow another. In this
way the cotton stalks and the weeds are plowed
under. This enriches the soil and kills the boll
weevil and other insects. Where the stalks grow
large, it may be best to clear the stalks from the
land and burn them. But usually they should be cut
and turned under with the plow. On many planta-
tions cotton is grown on the same land year after
year. In such eases it is usually necessary to fer-
tilize the soil. When the seed of the cotton plant
is used on the same farm for feed and only the lint
is sold, the stock that is fed on cotton seed helps
to furnish fertilizer in the form of manure. This
should be saved and put back on the land. But in
the far South cattle are not kept in stables, but in
the open pastures, and it is, therefore, difficult to
save the manure for the cotton fields.

Keeping the Soil Rich. Experiment stations have
tested and decided that cowpeas, peanuts, and clover
and alfalfa may be grown in a three-year rotation
with corn and cotton. This will keep up the nitro-
gen in the soil. Some have found that potash and
acid potash make good fertilizer for many fields.

Deep Plowing. Planting begins in the early
spring, as soon as the frost is over. In Texas this

COTTON 149

is in March, in North Carolina not till May. The
cotton plant has a tap-root that reaches as deeply
into the ground as the loose soil will permit. So if
the ground is not loose, deep plowing is worth while
to give the roots moisture and air. Harrowing till
the ground is fine destroys many weeds and makes
a dust mulch that saves moisture for the growing
plants.

Putting in the Seed. On many fields it is best to
plant the seed on beds or ridges thrown up about
four feet apart. On dry soils the ground should be
kept level. It has been found that four feet is the
correct distance between rows, and the plants grow
best from twelve to eighteen inches apart. This will
leave room for the bushy top that comes later. Early
planting is very necessary wherever cotton is raised
and plenty of seed to make sure of a good stand.
Not less than thirty pounds per acre should be
planted. As soon as the plants are well started and
all danger from frosts is past, the plants are thinned
with the hoe till they are the correct distance apart.
In the olden days a negro plowed the ground with
a plow and mule, dropped in the seed, and covered
it by hand. Good farm machinery now makes plant-
ing easier. On some of the plantations to-day all
the work is done by one machine which opens the
furrow, drops in the seed and fertilizer, and covers
it all in one trip. Most of the work is done by the
hands of colored laborers.

Cultivation. The cotton field should be cultivated

150 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

frequently, but not too deep, until the plants begin
to mature bolls (Fig. 79). Even after the bolls
appear it is
well to keep
a crust from
forming on
the ground.
Bart: Tisae
land was well
prepared be-
fore the crop
was planted,
it can be laid
by, because
the early till-
ing served to
lay up suffi-
cient mois
ture and to
prepare plen-
ty of plant

Fig. 79. A cotton boll and leaf. food to ma-
ture the boll.

Ready to Pick. Hight or ten weeks after plant-
ing the cotton is in flower (Fig. 80). The cream-
white blossoms soon turn to a pinkish or reddish
color and drop off. The seed pods which form are
the size of an English walnut. When these are ripe
they burst open like milkweed pods, and the cotton
is ready for picking (Fig. 81).

COTTON 151

Harvesting. Texas planters begin to pick cotton
about the middle of July. More northern states har-
vest from four to six weeks later. No machine has
been invented that can do this work well, so the
picking is done by hand. The work is hard and tire-
some. Many negroes are used, because they stand the
heat better. They are paid from thirty to fifty cents
a hundred pounds. Since cotton does not ripen all
at once, a field has to be picked many times before
the frost destroys what is left. If all is left standing
to be picked at the same time, it is apt to be injured
by dust and rains. Cotton may be picked as late as
December in the warmer region about the gulf.
Eli Whitney.
The white
thread of the
cotton boll is
filled with
small dark
seeds nearly
twice the size
of an apple
seed. When
these were
picked out
by mamdra
workman
cleaned
ap 0. Ot) a

pound a day. Fig. 80. A blossom of the cotton plant.

152 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Eh Whitney was a graduate of Yale College who
went South to spend the winter. One dark night at
a social gathering he heard the Southern planters
talking about what a drawback the taking out of
the seeds was to cotton raising. This was the first
time Whitney had ever seen cotton or cottonseed,
but he began to work on a machine for the purpose
of separating them.

The Cotton Gin. Whitney’s new machine was a
wooden cylinder on which were fastened hooks ar-
ranged like the teeth of a saw. When the cylinder
was turned these hooks passed between the wires of
an upright frame and pulled the fiber of the cotton
through, while the seeds fell to the ground on the
other side. Improvements were soon made on this
machine. Now the cotton fiber is pulled from the
teeth and blown into the press room free from dust
and seed.

Baling Cotton for Market. Here in the press room
it is baled in hard, round bales of about five hundred
pounds for market. The cotton is pressed very
close to save shipping and to prevent it from easily
eatching fire. One-half of our raw cotton is shipped
to European countries where they make muslins and
finer materials than are made in the United States.

Use of Seeds. From every pound of lint about two
pounds of seeds are removed. In the cottonseed mill
the seeds are crushed, and the oil which is pressed
out is sold in large quantities for various purposes.
It is often used instead of lard or mixed with it.

COTTON 153

One-third of the oil is bought by packing houses and
used in this way to make lard. It is also used in
the manufacture of butterine and in place of olive
oil. Fish are packed init. The poor product, that
eannot be put to better use, is made into soap.

Oil Meal. After the oil is crushed out, the rest

an ee ee ul

ap FEN 4 by i eae .

we ,

Courtesy of Hilliard Land Company, Florida

Fig. 81. A cotton field ready for pickers.

of the seed is ground into meal which is used instead
of corn to feed to cattle. In this way the Southern
farmer feeds his cattle from his own produce, in-
stead of buying grain. It is said that the meal from
a bushel of cottonseed has as much food value as a
bushel ef corn. When the corn crop fails in the
West, farmers import cottonseed. It is also valuable

154 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

for fertilizer. Two tons and a half of cottonseed
hulls equal a cord of wood for fuel. Such fuel is
used in Southern factories. The ashes are then
used for fertilizer in raising tobacco.

Two Kinds Most Raised. Sea-island cotton is so
called because it requires the salt sea air to thrive.
It is the best cotton in the world, because its fiber is
longer, stronger, and finer than the upland variety.
It has black seeds, while the upland cotton has green
ones. The upland cotton is raised in the states away
from the gulf and is largely manufactured in our
cotton mills.

Cotton-boll Weevil. The cotton-boll weevil at-
tacks the buds and the seed pods of the cotton plant.
It is a small gray beetle about a quarter of an inch
long (Fig. 48). It spreads very rapidly and often
destroys entire crops. The loss in Texas alone has
been millions of dollars. The United States Govern-
ment has spent a great deal of money fighting the
boll weevil, besides what has been spent by the cot-
ton states. It will feed and breed only in the cotton
plant, but it lives through the cold season under the
moss of trees and under rubbish.

Fighting the Weevil. Clean farming methods and
early harvesting have been the ways recommended
to fight the weevil. If the cotton is all harvested
and the plants are destroyed by the middle of Octo-
ber, the weevil will die of starvation. Where this
has been done, it was found that only three weevils
out of a hundred lived through the winter. Cotton

COTTON 155

stalks may be removed most effectively by uproot-
ing, piling, and burning. Some cut them down with
a stalk chopper, then plow deeply and harrow the
field. Others turn in enough cattle to eat the green
cotton in a few days. In addition to destroying
cotton plants, all kinds of rubbish along ditches,
fences, and field borders should be cleaned up so
the weevil may have no winter shelter.

To Hasten the Crop. The use of fertilizer hastens
the ripening of the cotton and makes it possible to
harvest it in time to starve out the weevil. A failure
of the cotton crop is a serious thing, because there is
nothing to take its place. The Cotton Belt of the
United States extends from the Carolinas to Texas
and Oklahoma. Three-fourths of the cotton of the
world is raised in this belt, and about ten million
bales are yearly sent to Europe and the manufactur-
ing parts of the United States.

CHAPTER XIX
THE HAY CROP

Timothy. One of the chief hay crops of America
is timothy. It is grown chiefly in the northern part
of our country east of the Rockies. Timothy is pop-
ular with farmers, because the seed is cheap and
because it will produce a good hay crop the first
year after it is planted (Fig. 82). It is easy to kill
it by plowing. Timothy fits well into a system of
rotation with other crops. It needs a good soil and
plenty of rainfall. It is not only an excellent hay
crop, but it is used in nearly all lands intended for
pastures. After a few years other pasture grasses
take its place. ‘

The Clovers. Another hay crop is red clover.
This plant, like so many others, came to us from
Europe. It has been grown for many hundred
years. Farmers have known for a long time that
clover seemed to make the land richer, but they did
not understand why this was so. We now know
that clovers and their kin, such as alfalfa, cowpeas,
and soy beans, enrich the soil through the work of
the bacteria on their roots. We have learned that
the bacteria take nitrogen from the air and store it
in little swellings on the roots of these plants. When
the sod is plowed for other crops, the nitrogen helps
to produce much better yields (Fig. 53). These

156

THE HAY CROP 157

clover-like plants are called legumes. They are valu-
able because of the hay and pasture they yield and
because they help us to build up the land on which
they grow, with plant food. Most crops leave the
land poorer, but legumes leave it richer, at least in
nitrogen.

Kind of Soil for Clover. Red clover requires a
good soil. Many farms are too poor to grow it. The

Fic. 82. Timothy hay.

land should be well drained, because the roots will
reach down five or six feet if the land is not swampy.
Sometimes a sprinkling of lime to sweeten the soil
will help a clover crop to thrive. This is true of
some sections of eastern Ohio, southern Indiana, and
Illinois.

Ready to Cut. Clover is usually sown in the
spring on the winter wheat crop. It lives about two
years. Clover grows two crops a year. The second

158 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

crop is often cut for seed. In order to obtain the
best hay, clover should be harvested just after it has

Fic. 83. A hand dump rake.

come to full bloom. Hay cut later is not so good.

Careful Handling. In harvesting the clover crop,
it should reach the barn or stack with the least
handling and exposure. If it is allowed to become
too dry in handling, the leaves will crumble and
fall off, and they are the best part of the hay.

Curing Clover Hay. Clover hay should be well
eured in the sun, or it will heat and spoil in the
stack or mow. Some farmers cut it in the afternoon,
and after the dew is off the next morning it is
tedded, raked, and put in the cock before night
(Figs. 83, 84, 85, and 86).

Uses of Clover. Red clover is used for hay and
for pasture. It is often used as a green-manure crop
to be plowed under if the ground is poor in humus.
Even where it is cut for hay, the stubble and roots

THE HAY CROP 159

turned with the plow show gains in the crops that
follow, because of the extra amount of nitrogen left
behind. Clover makes an ideal hay for cattle, and
where it is raised, it should make up a half or more
of the roughage of milech cows. Sheep and young
stock make excellent growth on clover hay or the
clover pasture.

Getting a Stand. Where the soil has been worn
out by many crops being taken off and no plant food
or humus put back, red clover will not often grow.
In order to bring such land up, a heavy coat of barn-
yard manure will help to give clover a start. Another
way to get a set of red clover on poor land is to

Fic. 84. A self-dwmp hay rake.
spread straw over the wheat or rye ground that
has been seeded to clover. This is done in early
spring, before the clover seed has begun to sprout.

160 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Alsike Clover. Still another way to get one’s
poor fields seeded to red clover is to first sow Alsike
clover. This will grow on soils that are too wet or
too dry or too poor for red clover. Alsike is hardier
and less likely to be attacked by disease.

Alfalfa. Another clover-like plant that is coming
to be even more important than clover is alfalfa

Fic. 85. Hay loader.

(Fig.87). It was brought to America’in the early
days by the Spaniards, but only in recent years has
it become a widely grown crop in the United States.
Like clover, it is a legume whose roots are homes
for bacteria. Thus it both brings the farmer fine
hay and pasture, and it enriches his fields at the
same time. Alfalfa has for years been a leading
crop in the West. It is now being introduced widely
in the great Corn Belt. It is a fine feed for milch

THE HAY CROP 161

cows and for fattening hogs, lambs, and cattle.

The Soil and Crops. Alfalfa has a long tap-root
which reaches down deeper than any other farm
crop, often being twelve feet long (Fig. 88). Thus,
you see, alfalfa needs a well-drained soil. It thrives
wonderfully in dry regions. It continues to grow
throughout the warm season. In Canada they cut

ie. 86. Horse power is cheaper than human labor.

three crops of it in one season, while in Arizona
eight cuttings are often harvested.

How to Start Alfalfa. Alfalfa is not a successful
crop on poor land. If the land is not rich enough, a
heavy coat of manure may be necessary. In many
places east of the Mississippi River lime is needed to
give alfalfa a start. About twenty-five pounds of
seed are sown to the acre in the East, but much less
is used in the West. It is best to sow alfalfa in the
late summer or early fall. It is sometimes seeded

162 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

with grain in the spring. The field should be mellow
and fine as a seed bed, for alfalfa is not a strong
plant until it gets a good start. Weeds will injure
it, so it is well to sow seed that is free from weed
seeds. Alfalfa may be grown on the same field for
a longer time without change than most crops, but
it should be plowed in at intervals of from five to
seven years and some other crop sown.

Good for Horses. There is no one thing so good
as alfalfa for the working horse. It builds up his
worn-out muscles and keeps him strong and healthy.
He needs much less grain when he ean have alfalfa
hay. It ought to be free from dust, but it does not

Courtesy of Santa Fe R. R.
Fic. 87. A field of alfalfa—six crops to the season.

gather dust so easily as clover. It is not safe to
feed too much to horses.

Alfalfa for Other Stock. Milch cows thrive on
alfalfa, and nothing better is grown for calves,

THE HAY CROP 163

sheep, and hogs. Alfalfa and corn fed together
make a finely balanced food for stock, because the
food element that is lacking in
corn is found in alfalfa; and
what alfalfa lacks, corn will
supply. Not only is alfalfa the
best forage food for stock, but it
will do more even than clover to
build up the soil. Its roots go
down very deep, and thus it
gets food where no other farm
crop can.

The Cowpea. The cowpea is
another legume and is a cousin
to the clover and alfalfa. It has
come to be an important hay
erop in our Southern states, for
it likes warm climates. It will
grow on almost any kind of soil
that is not too wet. Like clover,
the cowpea will make good hay
or green feed, and it enriches
the soil.

The cowpea is an annual plant
and resembles the bean. Some * eae ne dae
varieties are bush-like while root.
others are trailing. As it is difficult to cure without
losing the leaves, it is sometimes grown with German
millet to help save the leaves and to assist in speedy
curing.

Courtesy Santa Fe R. R.

CHAPTER XX
ORCHARDS

Helping One Another. ['ruit trees of some kind
will thrive in any section of our country, so every
farm should have its own fruit. Some farmers
make fruit-raising their chief business, while others
have only a small orchard for family use. If the
raising of fruit is the principal object of the farmer,
he should locate where many other farmers are do-
ing the same thing, so that they may form companies
to help one another in many ways, especially in
obtaining good prices for their crops.

Keep Near Market or Railroad. It is well not to
go too far from the railroad to raise fruit. When
peaches are to be handled, they should not be hauled
more than three miles. Strawberries must also be
marketed soon after they are picked and with as
little cartage as possible. Apples are more firm and
will endure more handling, but the expense of a long
haul reduces the profits.

Hill Lands for Orchards. It is usually better for
orchards to be upon land higher than the rest of the
farm. The cold air is heavier and settles into the
valleys and lowlands, so the hill orchards are not
so likely to be caught by late spring frosts.

The Best Slope. The north and east slopes of
hills are preferred for apple orchards, because they

164

ORCHARDS 165

are slower in warming up in the spring. This keeps
the blossoms from coming out too soon and being
injured by late frosts. Trees set on southern slopes
receive more sunshine, and their fruit is more highly
colored. But southern slopes are usually drier than
northern slopes, and thus the fruit does not grow so
large.

The Influence of Water. Land sloping toward a
river or a large body of water is good fruit land,
because the water keeps the air from too sudden
changes. The fruit should be on the slope that re-
ceives the wind after it has crossed the water. Air
near water is kept from getting suddenly colder
and there is less likelihood of frosts. (Fig. 89.)

Kinds of Soil for Fruits. For apple, pear, and
plum trees a farmer should choose a deep, moist,
clay loam. A sandy loam is better for peaches and
cherries.

Preparation of Fruit Land. The soil should be
prepared as carefully for a fruit orchard as for corn.
It is plowed deep for planting the trees, so the roots
may reach out far and wide for food. The surface
should be harrowed to a dust mulch. If the field
is wet and swampy, it must be drained.

Planting Trees. The trees may be planted either
in the spring or fall. If the soil is in good shape,
fall planting is better, because the trees get a start
before winter. ‘T’o make tillage easy the rows should
be straight. Apple trees are commonly planted forty
feet apart each way, but sometimes they are planted

166 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

closer. Pears are set about twenty-five feet apart
and peaches and plums each twenty feet. There
should always be room enough between the trees so
spraying may
be easily done
and the crop
harvested con-
veniently.
Setting Trees.
When a tree
is taken from
the ground
the more roots
that are saved
the better. But
with the best
of care many
of them are broken or bruised, and others must be
eut. <All the broken roots should be cut back from
the injured end with a sharp knife, so the smooth
wound will heal quickly. Since the tree has lost
many of the rootlets that supply it with food, the
branches must be cut back, too, else they will need
more food and moisture than the roots can supply.
People usually leave too much of the top on a tree
that is transplanted. The trees should not be ex-
posed to the sun and wind before planting, and the
planter should not allow the roots to dry out. If the
roots are covered with a coat of clay, it is well to dip
them in water before setting them.

Fic. 89. Irrigating an orchard.

ORCHARDS 167

Packing About the Roots. The holes dug for the
trees should be a little larger than the roots seem
to need, so that they can be placed straight. Since
the roots feed the tree, it is very important to pack
the soil well about them, so they can get plenty of
liquid food from it. The upper roots should be
raised until the soil is packed firmly under them.
Roots should never be crowded together, but spread
out naturally to grow
as they will. In the
bottom of the hole
the soil must be
packed very tight,
bur the “top four
inches should be loose
for a dust mulch. A
common mistake is to
pack the soil tightly
on top and leave it
loose underneath.
This brings the mois-
ture to the surface
and causes the young
trees to die of thirst.

Tilling the Orchard.
The old idea that or-
chards would take care of themselves after planting
is a thing of the past. Now the successful fruit grow-
ers till their orchards as regularly as they do their
crops. Trees make nearly all their growth early in

Fig. 90. A crop between rows.

168 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

the year, before the hot months of midsummer, so
it is during the spring months that they need plenty
of food and moisture. Then is the time to cultivate
the orchards. More than nine-tenths of the fruit is
water, and we know that tillage is very helpful in
saving moisture. The drier the season, the more
the harrow and cultivator are needed. After July,
when the growing period is over, a crop may be
sown on the orchard to be plowed under later as
green manure (Fig. 90).

Injury to Trees. In tilling orchards, care must be
taken not to injure the trees. The grass and weeds
that grow close to the trunk of the tree do very
little harm, and they had better be let alone, rather
than run the risk of injuring the tender bark of the
young tree.

Pruning. If young trees are well pruned when
they are set out, they will need very little more
trimming until they begin to bear. Shoots that
cross each other and interfere with other branches
should be removed. When branches are likely to
become too crowded, the knife should be used. Many
fruit growers change the shape of their trees to
their faney by pruning. They cut the tops back so
the trees will spread out instead of growing tall, for
it is difficult to spray a tall tree, and the fruit is
harder to gather.

Spraying Fruit Trees. All fruit trees have ene-
mies which the farmer must fight. More than
twenty-five years ago a man who was employed by

ORCHARDS 169

the state of Illinois to study plants, discovered that
Paris green would kill the potato beetle. He said
that he believed the same poison would stop the
eankerworm from injuring the apple crops. For a
good many years farmers doubted and shook their
heads; but here and there a man began to spray
with Paris Green to protect the crops, and they
found it worked well. Fewer apples were found
wormy in orchards that had been sprayed. (Figs.
38 and 39.) This was only the beginning of an in-
telligent fight to protect crops and trees from in-
sects. Many discoveries have been made since, and
now the best farmers everywhere are spraying with
different mixtures to save their trees and fruits,
their gardens and other crops. In the West, where
the finest of fruit is raised, state laws have been
passed, commanding every orchardist to spray his
trees whether he finds them troubled with insects
or not. This is to make sure he will not grow mil-
lions of insects to attack the orchards and crop of
some neighboring fruit grower who is careful in
spraying.

Bordeaux Mixture. Besides the insects which in-
jure our trees, there are tiny robber plants, or fungi,
like mildew and the brownrot, that attack peaches
and other stone fruits, sometimes even apples and
pears. In France, where many grapes are raised to
make wine, the grape farmers near Bordeaux found
that their vines were being injured by mildew. So
they set very earnestly to work to find a check for

170 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

this enemy. After much experimenting, they dis-
covered a poison spray now called the Bordeaux
mixture. It is used all over the world to-day to
kill the fungi that are injuring gardens and orchards.

Spraying Machines. <A farmer who has not more
than five acres in his orchard can use a spraying
machine worked by hand. There are many kinds of
good spraying outfits. (Fig. 91.) It is chiefly im-
portant to be sure that the liquid is well stirred by
some means, so that the poisons will not settle to
the bottom of the barrel instead of reaching the
tree. The best fruit growers spray their trees regu-
larly. (Fig. 92.) Peaches and prunes are usually
not sprayed unless they are attacked by the scale.
In many places apples are sprayed three times—
once just before the blossoms open, again just before
the blossoms fall, and a third time about ten or
twelve days later. The mixture used is three or
four pounds of copper sulphate, five pounds of lime,
and a half pound of Paris green in fifty gallons of
water.

Thinning Fruit. Some fruit growers are now
urging the thinning of the fruit crop. A part of
the fruit on heavily-loaded trees is taken off before
it is half grown, so that which is left may grow to
a larger size. Though it costs a good deal to thin,
the growers argue that it costs no more to pick the
fruit when small than when it is full grown; and
the fruit that is left to ripen is so much larger and
brings so much better prices that it is well worth

ORCHARDS 171

while. In Western regions the trees bear such heavy
loads that the branches break unless some of the
fruit is removed. When the crop is light there is
no need of thinning. Apples usually grow in clus-
ters from three to a half dozen in a bunch. If one

Fie. 91. A good spraying outfit for the orchard.

is growing faney fruit he should remove all but
the best apple of each cluster. Pears grow like
apples and may be thinned in the same way. In
thinning stone fruits, the work may be done by
pulling the fruit off; but with apples and pears it

172 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURS

is safest to clip them with sharp-pointed shears, be-
cause pulling is apt to break the branch. A fruit
tree that has been properly pruned and the crop
thinned, will not need props to keep it from break-
ing down; and it is more hkely to bear a good erop
every year.

Harvesting Fruit. A farmer who grows fruit for
market must pick it carefully to prevent bruising.
In order to make the fruit attractive to the buyer,
the grower grades his apples, that is, he sorts out
those of the same size and packs them together.
Boxes are being used for packing, though many
still prefer barrels for apples. Neat and careful
packing helps to secure good prices for the fruit
crop.

Peaches. Though many peaches are raised in
California, the greater part of them come from the
Eastern states. A mildly temperate climate favors
this fruit. They must be packed quickly and closely
and sent by fast freight when shipped. Packers get
two cents a basket, and an expert packer can fill a
hundred baskets in a day.

Apples. Of all the many fruits grown in our
country, the apple is the most important. More
than forty million barrels are used every year, or
about a half barrel for every man, woman, and child
in the United States. There are fewer difficulties
to meet in raising apples than any other fruit. The
tree is hardy and is not easily injured. There are
many varieties of apples that keep well through

ORCHARDS 173

the winter. All kinds are firm and can be handled
and marketed with less care and trouble than other
fruits. Apples may be put to many uses. They are
eaten raw or they may be cooked in a variety of
ways. Some are dried or made into jelly, and in
this form they may be kept for a long time.
Seedless Apples. Since we have varieties of seed-
less oranges, men have been trying to develop an

Fig. 92. The successful orchardist always sprays.

apple without a core. When this kind takes the
place of those we now use it will be a splendid thing
for us all, because there are certain insects that
live in the core of the apple and there is so much
waste in removing it. Some day seedless apples will
be a very common thing.

CHAPTER XXI
SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS

Where We Get Our Sweets. Hach person in the
United States eats, on an average, more than sev-
enty pounds of sugar ina year. Sugar is made from
the sugar cane, the sugar beet, and the sap of maple
trees.

Sugar Cane. Sugar cane may be grown in the
Southern states wherever cotton is found. It very
much resembles corn in appearance. Cultivated
cane never produces seed, so the new crop must be
grown from cuttings of the stalk. It takes a ninth
part of the old crop to plant the field for a new one.
The seed cane is usually stored on the land in the
fall and covered with a layer of leaves and a thin
layer of earth to protect it from the frost. In the
spring it is uncovered or ‘‘hooked up’’ with long
hoes and cut into pieces two feet long.

Planting. The land is plowed and thrown into
ridges eight feet apart, and the seed stalks are laid
end to end in double rows in a trench on top of
the ridges. An extra piece of cane is put near each
joint so the sprouts will be regular. Cane should
send up a sprout at every joint. Covering is done
with a hoe or a machine. A machine covers ten
acres in a day. The first crop is known as plant
cane. The next year it will spring up from the same

174

SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS Wis)

roots, or it may be planted again. A good crop
will come from the stubble even the third year. The
land is then plowed and sowed to cowpeas. The
fourth year a new crop of cane may be raised on
the land where the cowpeas have been plowed under.
Cane sometimes grows fifteen feet high.

Harvesting. Harvesting begins in October. The
sugar forms most rapidly then, but the crop must
be @ut before the frosts injure it. Colored workmen
using a long knife go through the fields cutting the
stalks very close to the ground, for the lower ends
yield the most sugar. ‘The leaves and tops are
trimmed off, and the stalks are laid in piles. At
the factory the stalks are eut and shredded into
small pieces, and the juice is crushed out between
heavy rollers. This juice is put into large tanks
with milk of lime to be made clear. Then it is made
into syrup, and the molasses is separated from the
sugar, which is then dried into large crystals and
refined into our white sugar.

Sugar Beet. It is impossible to tell by taste
whether the refined sugar is made from cane or
from sugar beets, but the raw beet sugar has a dis-
agreeable odor and taste. Beet sugar was not dis-
covered by accident. It was made after years of
experimenting. More than two hundred years ago
a German druggist first found sugar in beets, and
sugar being at that time a dollar a pound, Napoleon
offered a prize to any one who could make sugar
from beets. The art was soon discovered, but it is

176 SLEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

only within a short time that beet sugar has been
made in the United States. The soil and climate of
the greater part of our country will raise the sugar
beet. The labor required to produce beets is much

Courtesy of Santa Fe R. R.
Fig. 98. A field of sugar beets.

more than that required for an equal crop of corn,
wheat, or potatoes; but the income is much greater.

Preparation and Soil. The land for sugar beets
must be a rich, deep soil. Plenty of moisture is
needed while the plants are growing, and dry, warm
weather when ripening. If sugar beets are to follow
a grain crop, the land should be plowed lightly as
soon as the grain is harvested. The ground is then
dressed with a coat of manure, and later in the
season it is plowed deep. The subsoiling plow that
loosens the earth to a depth from fourteen to
eighteen inches, enables beets to reach down into the

SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS W974

soil where they will receive plenty of moisture at all
seasons. Before planting, the ground is dragged
or harrowed and rolled to pack it firmly. The beets
are planted with machines. Horse-power machines
plant four rows at a time. Since the sugar beet
needs about four or five months’ time to grow to
the full size, it should be planted two or three weeks
before corn. (Fig. 93.)

Harvesting. In October the farmer takes a few
beets to the factory to be tested for the amount and
quality of juice. As beets increase in weight rap-
idly the last six weeks, it is well to delay harvesting
as long as is safe to avoid danger from frost. The
beets may be plowed loose eight or ten days before
removing from the ground. They are then pulled
by hand and the top cut off close to the root to
remove the matter that prevents the separating of
the sugar from the juice. The beets are then sent
to the factory. Europe produces larger crops of
sugar beets than any other part of the world.

Rice. Rice furnishes the principal food of half
the human race. It first came from the Kast Indies,
but is now raised in many parts of the earth. It
was probably brought to America when the Caro-
linas were settled, and it is now the staple product
of South Carolina. There are two kinds of rice, the
upland rice and the lowland rice. Lowland rice was
first grown in places that were overflowed by the
tides, but irrigation is now used to raise this variety
in most of the Southern states. Upland rice does

178 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

not need to be flooded, but is cultivated much as
oats or wheat.

Growing Rice. The ground is prepared for rice
and the seed is planted, harvested, and threshed
very much the same as wheat. Where the rice crop

ac

een ee <: est
ama Tobacco Company

7 Courtesy oft

Fig. 94. A heavy crop of tobacco and drying barn.

is flooded with water, the ground is allowed to dry
out at harvest time. The upland rice is thought by
some planters to be better than the lowland variety,
but the yield is not so great.

Rice Products and Enemies. From the thresher,
the rice is sent to the mill in barrels. <A little more
than half of it comes out clean rice, a small part is
polish, and about a third is bran and waste. The

SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS 179

rice polish and bran are mixed and sold to feed pigs.
The rice-stalk borer, the chinch bug, and the ‘‘ black
weevil’’ are all enemies of the rice crop.

Tobacco. The United States produces more to-
bacco than any other country in the world and sends

Fie. 95. Drying and curing tobacco in a well-ventilated barn.

more than one-third of it to other lands. The vari-
ety of tobacco raised depends upon the soil, climate,
and the use it is to be put to. (Fig. 94.)

Wet soils of clay produce large, heavy plants that
cure to a dark brown or red. Light, sandy soils
raise a thin leaf curing to a bright red, mahogany,
or yellow color. The quality of tobacco is affected
by the soil, kind of manure used, and the climate,

180 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

more than almost any other plant. In the northern
regions the seed is sown in a hotbed protected by
cheesecloth. The young plants are tender and need
watering with a weak manure water. They should
be transplanted when five or six weeks old. They
may be well cultivated until the plant begins to
bud; then, if no seed is desired, the plants are topped
so the strength may all go to the leaves.

Fertilizer. Barnyard manure produces a rank
growth of tobacco, but it is poor in quality. Potash
is the most important plant food for tobacco. Nitro-
gen is supplied in cotton-seed meal.

Curing. When the leaves begin to turn yellow,
the stalks are cut close to the ground. They should

Fic. 96. A heavy crop of oats.

be wilted by cutting them when the sun shines the
hottest. The plants are then hung up in the drying

SUGARS AND OTHER CROPS 181

house without being crowded together. (Fig. 95.)
After drying, the leaves are removed and tied up
in bundles called hands. The tobacco leaf loses more
than three-fourths of its weight in curing. Tobacco
is made into cigars, cigarettes, cheroots, and snuff.
Oats, Barley, Rye, and Buckwheat. Other grains
fit for temperate climates are oats, barley, rye, and
buckwheat. All are sown much like wheat. Oats
erow on light or heavy soils, but do not like too
much water. (Hig. 96.) In the Western states oats
are frequently sown on corn lands without plowing
and are covered with a disk harrow. The varieties
that mature early escape the rust. These plants
furnish green forage, hay, and straw, while the grain
products are food for both man and beast.

CHAPTER XXII
THE FARM GARDEN

The Boy’s Garden. The garden is a chance for
the farmer boys and girls to have a little farm of
their own. It is impossible for every child to have
much space in the school garden (Fig. 97), but at
home he should have a little plot of ground to raise
his crops. Here he can plant what he likes and
learn many important lessons about how to till the
soil and to care for plants. Any boy likes to try
experiments for himself and to feel that there is one
spot where he is the ‘‘boss.’?’ Whatever is raised
in the child’s garden should be his produce to sell
or give away as he pleases.

A Good Story. The story is told of a certain
farmer’s boy who was anxious to leave the farm.
He was tired of the salt meat and potatoes that
were served at his father’s table three times a day.
One summer he went to work for a neighbor. Here
they had plenty of delicious sweet corn, tender
young beets, sliced, ripe tomatoes, and meaty Lima
beans, with a juicy melon from the spring house for
dessert. The boy went home, started a garden, and
decided to stay on the farm. (Fig. 98.)

Gardens Everywhere. It is surprising how many
garden crops can be grown in every part of the
United States. In the cooler climates, garden truck

182

THE FARM GARDEN 183

erows rapidly because of plenty of moisture. In
Dakota the best place for a garden is where some
large snowdrift has melted late in the spring. In
Texas vegetables grow the year around. Different

Fig. 97. A school garden.

varieties belong to different sections of the country,
so seeds should be selected that have been tested
and do well in the region where they are to be
planted.

Location and Soil. Since the garden belongs to
the kitchen, it should be as near it as possible.
Almost any soil can be graded, manured, and
drained into a good garden, unless it is a very stiff
elay that will not admit draining. The best garden

184 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

soil is a sandy loam that will dry out quickly after
rains, so that it may be cultivated often.

Fertilizing. Plowing in the spring must be done
as soon as the ground will permit, but it is better
to plow the garden in the fall so that freezing will
crumble the ground into fine particles. Garden
plants are grown close together in a small space,
and we want them to grow quickly, so they need a
great deal of plant food. A thick dressing of stable
manure, from five to ten loads to an acre, should be
put on before the second plowing. If this garden
manure is hauled in the fall and made into a long,
narrow heap mixed with sods and forest leaves, it
will be well rotted and fine by spring; and it will
easily mix through the soil, giving every inch of
ground its portion. Leaves from the lawn should
always be piled on the garden to decay.

Well-rotted manure supplies all the nitrogen a
garden requires, but to give vegetables a good flavor,
potash is needed. Wood ashes will furnish this.
After the manure is plowed under, the ashes are
sifted on top, and then the surface is harrowed until
all is fine as an ash heap. Dried hen manure,
pounded fine and sifted, is often harrowed in with
the ashes and is especially good for some garden
crops.

Preparation. The garden should be plowed from
six to eight inches deep and harrowed four or five
times. All stones must be removed. If these can
be buried so as to be beneath the reach of the plow,

THE FARM GARDEN 185

they will help to drain certain wet spots in the gar-
den. A hand roller and hand rake are used for pul-
verizing and crushing lumps of earth left by the
harrow. For root crops in clay, a subsoil plow that
drags a second share after the first and breaks and
loosens the bottom of the furrow to a great depth is
often used.

Garden Tools. Small hand tools, such as trowels,
spuds, and dibbles, are used in transplanting. The
hoe and steel garden rake are useful in finishing
the top of the ground. The common hoe is too wide
for narrow rows and delicate plants, so there are

186 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

many different sorts of blades made. Markers for
keeping rows straight and a small hand roller, are
great helps. The wheel hoe is the best cultivator.
Every farmer should have blades of different sizes
and a set of disks which can be used on the eulti-
vator.

Mulch. We know that a covering of fine, dry
earth, or a dust mulch, prevents moisture from es-
caping from the ground. ‘‘A finely raked garden
bed is dry on top, but the footprints of the cat re-
main moist for days, because the animal packed the
soil wherever it stepped, and the water climbed up
from one grain of earth to another until it reached
the surface.’’ Besides convenience in cultivating,
it is wise to plant seeds in rows, instead of in beds
which have been raised or hilled up, with high beds
and low places between. When we leave the ground
rough, or make large holes around our garden
plants, we leave more soil exposed to the air, and
this helps moisture to escape from the ground. In
a very wet season, it is well to hill up crops like
potatoes or corn, because we then wish to get rid
of part of the moisture.

Planting. We are usually told to make the earth
firm and well packed over newly-planted seeds, be-
cause this brings moisture to the seeds lying near
the surface and so hastens the sprouting. As soon
as the seeds have sprouted, the ground should be
loosened to stop evaporation. Large seeds can be
planted deep and the earth well packed over them,

THE FARM GARDEN 187

then the top is raked. To water a bed, wet it thor-
oughly in the evening. When the morning sun
begins to dry it out, loosen the top earth to stop
the rise of moisture. Sprinkling the plants every
few days is very harmful. Do not sow small, slow-
sprouting seeds like celery and onions in land that
bakes. <A layer of chaff or a board may be laid on
the row to hold moisture, but it must be gradually
lifted as soon as the seeds get a start.

Transplanting. In thickly-sown seed beds one
must thin or move the plants to the garden as soon
as they have their first true leaves. While seeds of
lettuce, onions, radishes, peas, and many other
things, can be sown in the ground in the early
spring, we can gain from four to six weeks by sow-
ing the seeds of others indoors and transplanting
them. Many farmers buy their egg plants, tomatoes,
cauliflower, and peppers from hothouse gardens;
while others grow their own in window boxes, hot-
beds, and cold frames.

The Window Box. A window box fifteen inches
square and six inches deep, or old tin pans nearly
filled with soil, are put in a south or east window.
Suitable soil or dirt has been obtained in the fall
and stored in the cellar or some convenient place.
This is mixed with a little coal ashes or fine sand
to make it light and loamy. The seed is scattered
and covered lightly. The soil is then watered with
a fine sprinkler. Squashes and cucumbers may be
planted on pieces of sod turned upside down. These

188 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

sods can be set into the ground as soon as the soil
can be worked.

Hotbeds. Hotbeds are box-like frames sunk in
the ground and covered with a sash filled in with
glass or cloth. Some of the soil in the frame is
taken out, and horse manure is put in its place.
When packed solidly in the pit, the manure rots and
produces heat. Over the manure is three or four
inches of fine garden soil in which the seeds are
planted. The manure keeps the soil above it warm.
Hot air or hot water pipes are sometimes used under
the hotbeds instead of manure. A well-drained spot,
sheltered from the cold winds and sloping to the
south, is best, because the sunshine is very helpful.
It takes care and judgment to handle a hotbed prop-
erly, because plants must be aired and watered at
proper times.

Cold Frames. The cold frame is like the hotbed,
but has no manure in it and therefore no bottom
heat. A combination hotbed and cold frame may
be made of a large drygoods box partly filled with
horse manure well trampled down and covered with
clean straw. Small, shallow boxes are nearly filled
with soil. After the seed has been planted in them,
they are placed on the top of the manure and cov-
ered with a pane of glass. Thus each box becomes
a little hotbed. The glass is removed now and then
for air. If the manure becomes too warm, the small
boxes are raised on bricks. When the heat of the
manure is gone, the hotbed becomes a cold frame.

THE FARM GARDEN 189

Preparing for Transplanting. When the ground
out of doors gets ready for transplanting, the plants
in the window boxes may gradually become used to
the colder air by having the window raised a little
at a time. The hotbed sash is left open on bright,
sunny days until the plants are ready for living in
the open air.

Transplanting. In transplanting, one must handle
plants gently and plant them in freshly-turned soil
which is very fine. A hole is made with a dibble or
trowel. Put a cupful of water in each hole, and
press the earth firmly about the roots. Roots of
plants are often broken off in transplanting. Ex-
cept with tomatoes and eggplants, part of the leaves
may be cut off so the roots will not have too much
top to feed until they get a firm hold. If the soil
is freshly turned and the transplanting is well done,
it is not necessary to water plants. If late in the
season the gardener may transplant on a rainy or
cloudy day. <A handful of grass or hay packed
around plants that have just been set out is better
than covering with tin cans or flower pots, for they
need light and air to breathe.

Rotating or Changing Crops. Every vegetable
has its own insect enemies and diseases. If the
same vegetables are raised year after year on the
same soil, these insects and diseases will grow worse.
The vegetable also uses up some of the particular
plant foods that it needs. Some plants are surface
feeders, the roots not growing deep. Beets, carrots,

190 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

and potatoes grow deeper and are able to feed where
the others could not. If vine crops are followed
with root crops, the latter will do well by feeding
below where the others did. Radishes, early lettuce,
spinach, or peas may be harvested early, and cab-
bage, beets, or late sweet corn planted in their
places.

Planting Between Rows. Planting between rows
sometimes works well. In late June, when potato
vines are well started, and the rows are well cleaned,
late sweet corn is often planted between. However,
if the season is too dry, this may injure both crops.
Sowing turnips broadcast in late sweet corn or
among tomatoes and squash, is worth trying.

Weeds. Weeds take moisture and plant food out
of the soil, and they spoil the shape of many vege-
tables by crowding in upon them as they grow.
They should not be allowed to reach the second leaf.
In hand weeding it is well to collect the weeds in
a basket. They sometimes take root again when
left on the mellow garden soils. When weeds get
a start, it is a good plan to cut off the tops with a
sickle before seed forms on them. Mulching be-
tween the rows with a layer of straw prevents weeds
from growing.

Mulching. In a dry season, after plants have
been cultivated a few times and are well above
ground, hay or straw about four inches deep may
be put between the rows. This saves the labor of
weeding and keeps the soil moist and cool. It is

THE FARM GARDEN 191

especially good for potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage,
beans, or vine plants, though in a wet season straw
holds too much moisture.

Peas. Peas are the first product of real food
value of the early garden. They are both delicious
in flavor and very nourishing. By sowing the seed
about a week apart, and using different varieties,
one may harvest peas all summer. But the late
varieties are in danger of mildew. Peas grow best
in a cool climate, in a light, moderately rich soil.
The first plantings should be in as soon as the
ground can be worked. The soil must be kept mel-
low and free from weeds to raise good peas. They
need not be staked with brush when the garden is
worked with a horse cultivator. Where the brush
is used they may be sowed in double rows. There
are a great variety of peas, and those that have
been tested in your region should be planted. Peas
are injured by mildew and the pea weevil. The
weevil may be killed in the seed by placing them,
before planting, in a closed vessel containing carbon-
bisulphide.

Beans. String beans should be sown as soon as
the ground is free from frost, and every two weeks
afterward to keep a supply for the summer. <A
sandy soil and a southern slope are best for beans,
because they are tender and easily frosted. They
should be planted less than two inches deep, for
the growing top of the little plant is Hable to be
torn off as it comes through the ground. When

192 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

beans are to be used green, they must be picked
frequently, for if the pods are allowed to ripen, the
plants will stop producing. The bean weevil is a
serious enemy and should be treated lke the pea
weevil. Lima and butter beans are best grown in
Southern climates. Poles or stakes for these should
be set at least four feet apart each way for their
vines to climb on. The worst disease of string beans
is the brownish or reddish pitted spots upon the
pods; they spoil the appearance of the crop and cut
down the yield.

Beets. The root crops all need a loose, deep soil.
Subsoiling or double plowing is useful in hard earth.
Beets are grown in rows three and a half feet apart.
They may be sown very early, for the young plants
will endure a light frost. They should be thinned
when the plants are just big enough for greens. For
winter beets, seed may be sown in July or August
in the central states. After the first heavy frost,
the gardener should take up the roots, cut off the
tops, and store the beets in a root cellar or pit.
Leaf-blight is common with the beet in some places.
This is prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux
mixture.

Turnips. Turnips should be planted on a rainy
day and the seed covered lightly. About three-
quarters of an ounce of seed to a row one hundred
feet long. Young plants are thinned from five to
seven inches in the row. If the plant grows too
slowly, it is stringy and bitter. The fall and winter

THE FARM GARDEN 193

crops of turnips are sown in July, after the early
garden crops are harvested. The white and yellow
varieties are equally good, except that the white
turnip keeps best through the winter. Except the
maggot, the turnip has no insect enemies.

Carrots. Carrots are good for soups, salads,
stews, and other savory dishes. Carrot seed sprouts
slowly, so it should not be sown deep. The earth
must be kept loose. Radish seed sown in the same
row will break the earth crust, and show where to
expect the row of the carrots to appear. If seed
is sown several times, a week or two apart, there
will always be some carrots on hand. The plant has
no serious insect enemies.

Parsnips and Salsify. Parsnips may be treated
exactly like the carrot. Parsnips and salsify may
be left in the ground all winter without protection,
and they make delicious fresh vegetables as soon
as the ground thaws. Salsify, or vegetable oyster,
should be sown very early in the spring and the
plants should not be crowded.

Radishes. Radishes need a mellow, quick soil.
They do not thrive in clay. To be tender they must
grow rapidly and should be eaten while small.
Grubs burrow into the roots and make them wormy,
if the same piece of ground is used every year.

Horse-radish. Horse-radish is grown from small
roots that are trimmed from large ones when the
crop is stored in the fall. These sets are planted
two or three inches deep, top side up, and from

194 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

fifteen to eighteen inches apart in fairly wide rows.

Swiss Chard. Swiss chard provides ‘‘greens’’ all
through the season. Only one sowing need be made.
The chard is cultivated the same as the beet and
thinned to twelve inches. If, when the outer leaves
are as large as your hand, they are stripped off, a
new supply of tender ones will keep coming.

Asparagus. <Asparagusisa hardy plant. Its seed
may be sown either early in the spring or late in
the fall. When the roots are a year old, they should
be transplanted in rows five feet apart, away from
roots of trees or other plants. As much stable
manure as can be plowed under, plowing ten to
twelve inches deep, should be put on. Dig a trench
nine or ten inches deep, and lay the roots about
two feet apart in the bottom, covering them two
inches deep with loose soil. The young roots that
come up from the seed every summer should be
weeded out. If the seed balls are cut off before they
turn red, the plants can be kept from self-sowing.
When the stalks begin coming up in the spring, the
ground may be mulehed with manure. This will
save hoeing and also feed the roots.

Sweet Corn. If good seed is planted, it will pro-
duce a tender, sugary ear of sweet corn. Corn varie-
ties mix so easily that only the most careful selection
of kernels can improve a strain of corn. If the first
lot is planted early in April, it will ripen the latter
part of June in the latitude of New York. The corn
should be planted thickly in drills with six or seven

THE FARM GARDEN 195

kernels in a hill. If some should fail to sprout,
there will be plenty left. If all seeds grow, it is easy
to thin them. Be sure that there are not lumps or
stones over the corn. The plant cannot fight its
way out like beans and pumpkins. After the corn

Fie. 99. A well-cultivated cabbage lot.

is up, a handful of wood ashes on each hill will
‘‘make it jump.’’ Break the crust after rains, keep
the weeds and suckers down, and cultivate between
the rows. For a continuous crop, plant every ten
or twelve days until the latter part of July.
Cabbage. Cabbages need a moist, deep, well-
drained soil. They thrive better in a spot where

196 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

cabbage, turnips, or mustard have not been grown
for three years. Select good seed, and sow in a hot-
bed or window box. When the plants are in the
fourth leaf, thin them to secure stocky plants, and
transplant only the best roots. When transplanting,
remove the upper part of the leaves, set the plants
firmly, and stir the surface soil. To stop the heads
from bursting as they form, one may loosen the
roots by slightly lifting and twisting the plant.
Whitish butterflies lay their eggs on cabbages.
These hatch green worms that eat the leaves. Kall
the worms and spray with Paris green and water,
or sprinkle with salt, ime, wood ashes, or pepper.
The cabbage maggot works at the stem or root and
causes decay. <A piece of tarred paper put around
the stem on the ground drives away the moth that
lays the eggs. (Fig. 99.)

Lettuce. Lettuce is the most widely-grown salad
vegetable. It is now ready for the table every month
in the year. Winter and early spring crops are
grown in cold frames. Seed for an early spring crop
may be sowed in a cold frame in March. Sowings
in the garden can be made from April to October.
The cabbage varieties, or head lettuce, are blanched
by tying the tops together.

Cucumbers, Melons, and Squashes. The seeds of
cucumbers, melons, and squashes should be planted
in shallow hills, three or four in a hill. They are all
tender to frost. If each hill is covered with a box
frame, it can be raised on warm days and taken

THE FARM GARDEN 197

away when frost is past. The cucumber beetle and
the ‘‘stink bug’’ are the chief enemies of these
plants. Ashes, lime, and tobacco dust are used to
drive them away. Muskmelons grow in warm,
sandy land. Soil and location affect them greatly.

Onions. Onions are grown from seed or sets in
the open ground or in hotbeds. If sown outside, the
seed should be put in as early as possible in shallow
rows three feet apart and covered with a half-inch
of fine, moist earth. They must be carefully weeded.

Tomatoes. ‘Tomatoes grew first in the South, so
they need long seasons to ripen. Now, by selecting
the right variety, the tomato can be grown in nearly
every section of the United States. The plant may
be started under glass or in window boxes about
March first. They should be put in a cold frame
where light and air are admitted on sunny days,
until the ground in the garden is warm. Toma-
to plants are set from two to four feet apart.
They need moderate pruning and some simple means
of holding the plant off the ground when the fruit
is ripe. The varieties differ in color from pink and
ereamy and bright yellows to bright red.

Grapes. In order that grapes may ripen, they
need a warm soil and a sunny exposure. A trellis
is used for support. Ten feet between the vines is
best for most kinds. The Concord grape is raised
in New York and Ohio; the small Delaware, in Dela-
ware, Maryland, and New Jersey; but if we wish to
see great clusters of white grapes, we must go to

198 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

California. The largest grapevine of the world may
there be seen. It covers half an acre.

Raisins are dried grapes. There is a raisin vine-
yard in southern California which covers five thou-
sand acres. Vines are pruned every year and the
grapes gathered from the new shoots. Five-sixths
of the grapes in California are made into wine or
grape juice, or they are pressed as raisins. The
dried currants that we use are really dried grapes.
Grapevines are the prey of downy mildew, when it
is hot and dry—also of black rot. Vines that have
been weakened by bearing too heavy crops are often
attacked. Prunings and fallen leaves and fruit
should be destroyed, and the vines sprayed with the
Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying should be
done in the spring before the growth starts, and
this should be followed every three weeks through
the summer. To protect grapes for home use from
black rot, frost, and birds, the clusters may be coy-
ered with paper bags which are allowed to stay on
until the fruit is ripe. The warmth induced by the
bags makes the fruit ripen earlier and it is larger.

Raspberries and Blackberries. The raspberries
and blackberries do well in cool soil kept moist by
mulching, after the ground has been thoroughly pre-
pared. The shoots of both raspberries and black-
berries that are sent up one season, bear fruit and
die the next season. Pinch back the new shoots
when they are two or three feet tall. This hastens
the throwing out of side shoots upon which fruit

THE FARM GARDEN 199

will be borne the following year. As soon as freez-
ing weather is over in the spring, these side shoots
should be eut back from nine to twelve inches. When
the crop is gathered the old canes or shoots should
be removed, and new ones cut away, leaving four

Jig. 100. Nothing so fine as home-grown strawberries.

to five good canes to each Jill. For red rust, one
must pull the plant out of the ground and burn it.
Spraying has a good effect in fighting off the dis-
eases of the plants.

Strawberries. The strawberry thrives best on a
strong sandy loam or a light clay loam. For most
purposes the plants do well to grow in narrow,

200 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

matted rows. They should be set out in the spring
as early as the ground can be worked, in rows three
and one-half feet apart, with the plants from one
to two feet apart in the row. Planting may be done
with a trowel or dibble. One must take care to
spread the roots as much as possible and to press
the soil firmly about them, holding the plant so the
bud will be just above the surface. As fast as run-
ners form, they should be removed, so that the
strength of the plant may be used in producing
fruit. (Fig. 100.) During the first season, straw-
berries are worked often. Weeds must be kept
down, and the surface soil should be loose and open.
Just before the ground freezes, a thorough cultiva-
tion should be given. After the ground is frozen,
the plants may be mulched to the depth of two inches
with straw.

The second season should bring a good crop. The
June bug is the most common enemy of the straw-
berry. (Fig. 42.) When sod land is used for the
crop, cutworms are very troublesome.

Currants and Gooseberries. The currant and
gooseberry bushes like a cool, moist soil, so they
cannot be grown in the Southern states. For the
first two years after planting, they need but little
care in pruning, except to cut back the new shoots
about one-half. If they are very thick it is well to
remove the weaker ones. Mulching will help to keep
the soil moist. To do away with the worm and
mildew, spraying is necessary.

CHAPTER XXIII
COUNTRY ROADS

The Importance of Good Roads. Few boys and
girls realize how important good roads are to the
farmer. Well-made highways enable farmers to
save much time in marketing produce, and time is
money. Easy travel also saves the energy of the
horses, which means economy of feed. When the
roads are in order the farmer can use his team when
the field work can not be done, and this reduces the
idle time of the horses. If travel is easy, the farmer
will go to market oftener, selling many odds and
ends of farm produce that otherwise might be left
to go to waste because of the time it would take to
dispose of it to advantage. For these and other
reasons a fine public road makes the farms along
the way more valuable. (Fig. 101.)

Sociability Encouraged. Aside from the money
gain to the farmer, good roads encourage his family
to move about more and to enjoy themselves socially.
They gain a great deal in this contact with their
neighbors. They go oftener to church, to other
social events, to lectures, and to the city.

Good Roads and Schools. The older children may
oo farther to school if the roads permit. Consoli-
dated schools are thus made possible, and pupils
may be transported at public expense some distance

201

902 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

to the larger centralized schools, which have so
many advantages over the one-room rural school.
More expert teachers may be had, a trained super-
intendent can be employed, the children are better
graded and the larger classes create more enthusi-
asm in study and recitation. A teacher trained in
the science of agriculture can be secured to take
charge of that subject and of the school garden.
Centralized schools, besides being better equipped
in every way, may be managed more economically
in one building which requires only one heating sys-
tem and one janitor. And all this is possible only
when the roads are kept in good condition.

City People Interested. City people also demand
good country roads because the better the roads, the
more easily they obtain country produce and the
cheaper it is. City people are using the country
roads more every year for pleasure-driving and for
automobiles. It is said that automobiles, because
of the high rate of speed at which they go, do more
to wear out the roads than all the heavy teaming
of the farmers. The suction of the swift-moving
wheels picks up all the finer partreles and scatters
dust far and wide. Because of the ravage done by
the city automobiles, it is unjust to expect the
farmers to build and keep the roads in repair. More-
over, the cost of the produce that the farmer takes
to market is of as much concern to the people in
the city that consume it, as it is to the man who
has it to sell.

COUNTRY ROADS 203

Marketing Farm Produce. More than two hun-
dred fifty million tons of freight are hauled from
farms to the market or railway stations each year.
Counting the labor of men and horses, the wear of

Courtesy of the National Paving Brick Mfg. Ass’n, Cleveland, Ohio

Fig. 101. A brick road raises the value of farm land.

vehicles and harness, it costs on an average about
twenty-three cents to move each one of these mil-
hons of tons one mile. Railroads haul a ton of
freight for long distances for less than a cent a mile.
The farmer’s distance to market averages nine miles
and so the cost of hauling a ton of farm produce to
market averages two dollars and nine cents. Better

204 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

roads would permit larger loads to be hauled in
the same time and lighter loads in much less time.
(rey 1025)

The First Expert Road Builders. The Romans
were the first to solve the problem of how to build
good highways. The central government at Rome
built all the roads and kept them up. They were
made of stone by trained experts, and in so solid
a manner that, though the surface has required re-
pair from time to time, the stone foundations are
as good to-day as when they were built two thou-
sand years ago. They will be serviceable for cen-
turies yet to come.

Roads Abroad and at Home. European countries
commonly have fine roads because they are con-
structed by skilled engineers under government
service. But most states in our country still have
their roads in charge of county officers who are not
skilled in road building and who serve only short
terms, giving place to others less experienced than
themselves. These county officers are perhaps good
business men, but are not students of scientific road
construction; consequently, although millions of dol-
lars have been spent on American country roads,
they are in the main a failure. (Fig. 103.)

Plantation Mud Pikes. The earliest American
roads were built in Virginia and led from the plan-
tations to the landings on the rivers. These were
simply mud roads built by the plantation owners.
Hogsheads of tobacco were fitted with a pair of

COUNTRY ROADS 205

Fic. 102. A brick road needs but little care or repair and brings
the market nearer.

shafts for a horse and were thus rolled along these
roads to the river landings by horse power. Sup-
plies for the plantations were hauled homeward in
rude carts.

Our Early Roads. Save the Cumberland road,
our national Government has done very little road
building. The task of constructing good highways
through rough and hilly sections has been poorly
done and at great expense. In the early days many
long roads were made and paid for by private par-
ties, who then made every one who wished to use

206 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

big. 1038. Every township should own a steam road roller.

them pay a toll. There are now but few toll roads.

Working Out the Road Tax. There are two ways
of paying road taxes used in different parts of our
land. One way is for the farmer to take his team
and work on the road long enough to pay for the
tax levied against him. This method is a failure,
for the farmers seldom know how to build good
roads and care very little how they work so long
as they put in their time and get back to their
crops.

A Better Way. The other method is much more
satisfactory. It is this: Hach farmer pays his road
tax in cash and the money is used to employ men
who are practiced in road making. Sometimes a
man is employed the year round to prevent the

COUNTRY ROADS 207

~

roads from getting out of repair. ‘‘A stitch in time
saves nine,’’ and so it is with a shovelful of gravel.
A man and a horse and cart kept busy at the gravel
pit all through the year are worth many times more
in securing good roads than all the ‘‘working out’’
of taxes.

The State’s Part. Many people are now coming
to see that the state ought to keep up at least the
main roads as well as build them. This will insure
the employment of road engineers, and it will be
done in a more permanent manner.

Drainage. It is useless to build a road without
first providing a dry roadbed. Standing water and
the grinding of wagon wheels will soon reduce any

Fig. 104, Grading and draining are essential to good roads,

208 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

road to a quagmire. The first step towards making
permanent roads is to provide permanent drainage
by ditching and tiling where it is necessary. (Fig.
104.)

Grading. Next in importance to drainage comes
erading. The narrower the roadbed the easier it
is to keep in order, because water will not so readily
collect in it, but roads must be wide enough for
teams to pass. The surface should be slightly
rounded to shed water quickly, and the ruts must
be filled as soon as they appear. Here is where
the care-taker gets in his best work by preventing
deep ruts from forming and keeping the roadbed
dry. (Fig. 105.)

Surfacing Clay Roads. After drainage and grad-
ing comes the surfacing of the road. On a clay road
a fairly hard and inexpensive surface may be made
by thoroughly mixing gravel with the clay. This
packs well and makes a hard surface, so if the mix-
ture is of sufficient thickness the road will bear
heavy traffic.

Sand Roads. Sand roads may be greatly im-
proved by surfacing with clay. Sand mixed with
clay does not make so firm a roadbed as gravel and
clay, but it makes a fairly good surface.

Loam Roads. There are tens of thousands of
miles of loam roads in the Central West and these
roads are almost bottomless in wet weather. Loam
takes water like a sponge, and on such roads it is
not an uncommon sight to see an empty wagon

COUNTRY ROADS 209

mired and abandoned. Farmers are told not to work
their fields when it is wet, because it will harden
them and they will bake afterward. This is the very
reason why loam roads should have the surface
stirred when wet. Such working is called puddling.
It brings the soil grains in closer contact, making
a harder surface than before.

The Split-log Drag. The tool most useful for pud-
dling is the split-log drag. The halves of the log
are held on edge a few feet apart by rounds inserted
like the rounds of a ladder. This drag used on
muddy roads will smear or puddle the surface,
making it tough and hard. By lengthening one
chain and allowing the inner end of the drag to lag
behind as it is drawn along, it fills up the ruts and
works all loose material toward the middle of the
road. This gives the surface a rounded shape for
good drainage.

Other Aids to Good Roads. This drag is very
useful on dry roads also. By riding on the outer or
ditch-end of the drag and driving once on either
side of the road, the ruts are filled and the center
made higher. There should be a law requiring all
heavy hauling to be done with wide-tire wagons
only. Wide tires pack and harden the road like a
roller, whereas narrow tires cut and injure the road
surface.

Gravel and Shell Surfacing. Different kinds of
materials are used in surfacing roads. When suit-
able gravel can be found it will make an excellent

210 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

lie. 105. Grading a country road.

road. In communities near the coast, shells from
the sea are often used to surface roads and with
excellent results.

Stone Roads. Probably the most popular mate-
rial is broken stone. Stone-bedded roads are said
to be macadamized, because a Scotch engineer
named Macadam was the first to use and urge this
kind of road.

Thick Roman Roads. The old Roman roads were
surfaced with stone, which was often several feet
thick and thus very expensive. Macadam believed
that a smaller amount of stone could be made to
serve just as well, and he urged that it would cost
much less. The world has come to see the correct-
ness of this plan, and now macadamized roads are
found everywhere.

COUNTRY ROADS Al ah

The Macadam Road. In order to build a mac-
adam road, the roadbed is first given the slope de-
sired, so the water will quickly flow to the side
gutters. After this the bed is rolled hard with a
heavy roller; then it is covered with a layer of
coarse stone and rolled again. Then another layer
of finer crushed rock is spread on top and rolled
until it works in between the pieces of the coarser
stone. <A layer of still finer crushed stone or sand
is next spread on and sprinkled with water, after
which it is rolled until a smooth, hard surface is
formed. Such roads are from six to twelve inches

Courtesy of the National Paving Brick Mfg. Ass’n, Cleveland, Ohi»

Fig. 106. Laying a brick road.

thick. They cost from three thousand to six thou
send dollars per mile, but intelligent farmers realize
that such tax money is well invested.

212 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Brick Roads. It is said that the best road mate-
rial to resist the wear of automobiles is brick. Brick
pavements cost considerably more than the macad-
amized road, but they are more satisfactory in many
ways. They last longer, they require less repair,
and they are not so dusty. In many places, as in
Cleveland, Ohio, the brick pavements are being ex-
tended from the city limits to the county line, where
the adjoining county is planning to take it up and
extend the road to other cities. (Figs. 101, 102, 106.)

The Draft on Different Surfaces. How much a
team can pull depends upon the firmness and
smoothness of the roadbed and the grade. <A load
that three horses can just pull on level, hard asphalt,
would require seven horses on smooth block pave-
ment, fourteen horses on cobblestone, forty horses
on an ordinary country earth road, and eighty on
a sandy road.

Pulling Up Hill. The grade is also important.
It has been found that if a horse can just pull a
thousand pounds on a level road, he can draw only
nine hundred pounds up a one per cent grade, eight
hundred pounds up a two per cent grade, four hun-
dred pounds up a five per cent grade, and only two
hundred fifty pounds up a ten per cent grade. A
one per cent grade is one that rises one foot in each
hundred feet of distance, a two per cent grade rises
two feet for each hundred feet, and so on. It is
therefore much better to build the road around a
hill than over it under most circumstances.

CHAPTER XXIV

PRESERVING FOODS

Germs which Help and Hinder. The farmer’s
wife has her problems of canning fruits and pre-
serving foods. It is a help to her to know the ene-
mies she must fight and the harm they do. There
are three living organisms that will cause animal
or vegetable matter to decay. These are yeast,
molds, and germs, or bacteria.

The Yeast Plant. In order to grow, the yeast
plant must have warmth, air, moisture, and sugar.
This plant grows and divides into two plants, and
these divide again and so on. Thus this tiny plant
multiplies amazingly in a short time. It will grow
in fruit juice and in fruit slightly sweetened, but it
will not grow in thick sirups or preserves. It is
easily killed by a high or low temperature.

Making Bread. A small amount of yeast is put
in the dough to make it ‘‘rise’’ for bread. When
sugar is added, the plants increase in great numbers
in a few hours. They start the decay of the mix-
ture and create a gas which forms bubbles through-
out the mass, and these make the bread rise. When
the bread is baked the yeast plant is killed by the
heat, and the gas escapes.

Mold. Mold is spread about by tiny spores or
seeds floating in the air. When they lodge on a

213

214 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

warm, moist surface, such as foods, they readily
germinate and spread over the surface. Molds may
be destroyed by heating to a- high temperature for
about twenty minutes. Canned and preserved fruits
are more liable to be injured by yeast and mold
than by bacteria.

Canning Fruit. The important things to remem-
ber in canning and preserving are to keep all cook-
ing utensils clean and to kill all germs. This we
eall sterilizing. The kettles, jars, strainers, covers,
rubbers, and other utensils used in canning, must
be scalded to kill the germs, or bacteria. When
all germs in the jars and fruit are killed, the cans
are sealed while hot so as not to permit other germs
from the air to enter. If live germs are left in
eanned fruit, a gas will escape which means that
decay or decomposition has set in, and the food has
begun to spoil. Foods and other organic matter
will not decay if germs are kept out.

Bacteria. Bacteria multiply rapidly in meat,
milk, and legumes. They cannot grow without the
presence of water. Dried fruits and meats will keep
because there is no water in which the germs may
grow. Neither can bacteria live in a strong solution
of common salt. That is why we salt meat to pre-
serve it.

Smoking Meats. Meats are also preserved from
germs by smoking. Smoking leaves a thin coat of
creosote on the surface of the meat, which not only
kills all germs but gives the meat a good flavor.

PRESERVING FOODS 25

Certain kinds of wood smoke give the best flavor,
though any wood may be used for the purpose.
Cold Storage. Putting foods in cold storage does
not kill the bacteria, but it keeps them from grow-
ing and multiplying. As soon as the temperature
rises, they begin to act and the food soon spoils.
Preserving Fruits. Sugar is used somewhat in
curing meats and very extensively in preserving
fruits. When fruits are cooked for a long time the
‘boiling down’’ kills all germs and drives off the
water so that other germs can not grow.
Souring of Milk. It is also germs that cause milk
to sour. The air contains many germs, the dust of
the barn is full of them, and there are some on the
milk pail and on the hands of the milker. So it is
impossible to keep germs from milk. All milk cans
should be sealded after using and, if possible, placed
in the sunlight, which is a powerful enemy of germs.
Bacteria in Butter and Cider. Germs or bacteria
make butter rancid. This can be prevented by
working out of the butter all the milk and water
which bacteria need to thrive and by thoroughly
mixing salt into it. It is bacteria that makes cider
turn sour and ferment. The solid, slimy mass known
as the ‘‘mother of vinegar’’ is merely a vast colony
of bacteria. Sweet cider makes the best vinegar
because it contains more sugar for the bacteria to
work upon. The process of making vinegar from
new cider may be hastened by introducing some
‘‘mother of vinegar.”’

CHAPTER XXV
FARM SANITATION

Location of tine Farmhouse. The farmhouse
should, if possible, be located near the center of the
farm so as to save the farmer’s time in going to and
from his fields. But the health of the family must
have first consideration, and the home ought to be
on high, well-drained ground away from marshes,
swamps, and stagnant ponds. If the country is
hilly, the south slope may be chosen for the house,
because it is somewhat shielded from cold north
winds and because the south slope affords more
sunlight, which is the greatest friend of health and
the greatest enemy of germs.

Dry Surroundings. The yard should be graded
in such a manner as to turn all surface water away
from the house, not only for health’s sake, but for
cleanliness, as mud and dampness about the house
make the task of cleaning, fall heavily on the house-
wife. Farmers can easily learn to make cement
walks to connect the house with the other farm
buildings. Damp cellars cause mildew, and the
decay of vegetables stored there sends a moldy, dis-
agreeable odor over the whole house. The cellar
should be light and ventilated by open windows,
covered in summer by coarse netting to keep out
flies and mosquitoes. The mosquito that carries the

216

FARM SANITATION 217

malaria germ will breed in any damp corner of the
cellar unless it is screened.

Shade. Trees are very desirable about the home,
but they should not be so dense as to shut out sun-
hight, nor should they be too close, because leaves
will fall in the house gutters.

Water Supply. One of the richest blessings of
any farm is good, pure drinking water. It is of the
greatest importance that wells are carefully covered
over and that no surface water is allowed to run
in over the unguarded edges. Surface water is al-
ways more or less dangerous, because it may carry
a small amount of sewage which contains the ty-
phoid germ. After water has soaked through a few
feet of earth it is said to be filtered and free from
germs. Every well or cistern should be provided
with a modern pump. The old-fashioned bucket is
a danger to health, since careless people drink direct-
ly from it, perhaps leaving disease germs in the
vessel which endanger others. Cistern water is
more liable to contain disease germs than that from
wells, because the water comes from house gutters,
where in dry weather many germs are carried by
the wind. Although many of these are killed by sun-
light, those that escape are carried into the cistern.

Sewage a Source of Disease. Surface streams are
most to be feared. If they have passed close to
neighboring houses and their outbuildings, the
water should never be considered drinkable without
having first been boiled or filtered. Water may

218 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

look clear and pure and yet be dangerous to health.
The thing that most often pollutes water supplies
is sewage. Sewage is the term given to house refuse
such as grease, soap, and human waste. It has in
it millions of microbes or bacteria, some of which,
if taken in drinking water, cause typhoid fever,
others the cholera. Typhoid is one of the leading
causes of death in our country, and it is caused by
drinking water or milk polluted by sewage.

River Water. A river which has passed many
towns in its course is not a safe water supply. Rivers
will purify themselves if the water is allowed to run
many miles without receiving a fresh supply of
sewage, but when they have been the receiving place
for the sewage of many cities the water becomes so
laden with deadly bacteria that epidemics of typhoid
have been known to break out in several towns
along the stream at the same time.

Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are troublesome and
dangerous pests which carry the germs of human
disease. Malaria is spread by mosquitoes, and in
no other way. The malaria microbes are taken into
the system of the mosquito with the blood sucked
from people troubled with disease. In the body of
the mosquito, the malaria microbe undergoes a
change that is necessary to its life, so if all mos-
quitoes were destroyed, malaria microbes could not
thrive and spread. When the mosquito attacks a
well person, some of the microbes pass from it to
the human system as the insect sucks the blood.

FARM SANITATION 219

Yellow fever is also spread by a certain kind of
mosquito which is common in our Southern states.
By destroying the water breeding places, the yellow
fever has been stamped out of such cities as New
Orleans. Mosquitoes on the farm may be disposed
of by draining pools of standing water so the pest
eannot multiply. Large ponds may be covered with
oil so the ‘‘wigglers’’ which hatch into mosquitoes
cannot get air at the surface of the water. Barrels
or other vessels filled with water must be emptied
or covered with oil.

The House Fly. The eggs of flies are laid in wet,
decaying refuse, such as manure, slop, dead animals,
garbage, and human waste. The eggs hatch into
maggots which feed upon these materials and grow
rapidly. Then they cover themselves with a leather-
like ease and are quiet a few days, after which they
come forth as full-grown flies. It requires only a
few days for the egg to grow into an adult fly. A
few fles live through the winter, and these start
broods in the early spring. By the end of summer
there are flies without number.

Flies as Disease Carriers. Flies carry upon their
feet and mouths the germs of disease. They visit
all sorts of filthy places to lay their eggs and after-
wards approach our kitchens in search of food, and
wherever they crawl they seatter disease germs.
The house fly has been called the typhoid fly.

Fighting Flies. There are two ways to protect
the family from flies. One is to clean up all garbage

990 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

piles and filth where flies breed and to sprinkle
diluted carbolic acid about such places frequently.
Carbolic acid drives away the flies and kills many
typhoid and other disease germs. The other remedy
is to screen the house thoroughly, especially the

aa
A sanitary dairy barn.

Fig. 107.

kitchen and living rooms. No house is complete
until it is fitted with screens.

Milk a Germ Carrier. It is known that milk
spreads diphtheria and tuberculosis as well as
typhoid fever. The typhoid germs are in the water
in which the cans are washed. The ceiling of the
cow stable should be dust-proof and the floor ce-
ment, so it may be washed often. Some apparently

FARM SANITATION Papal

healthy cows have tuberculosis and in many places
where milk is sold to cities the cows are examined
and tested for this disease.

Ventilating the Barn. The average barn is not
very tightly built and plenty of air enters for the
stock through the cracks, but the newer barns are
now built tight and warm, and in this case some
means should be planned to ventilate, because bad
air 1s the cause of the spread of tuberculosis among
cows as well as among the human family. Window
ventilation is far better than none, but the cold dratt
should not strike the cows and other stock. (Fig.
107.)

Cold Air Heavier than Warm. Every boy and
eirl knows that cold air is heavier than warm air
and so the warmest air in the room is always near
the ceiling. One reason smoke goes up the chimney
is because it is carried up by warm, light air, while
heavy, cold air is crowding in to take the place left
by the warm air.

Best Barn Ventilation. The best way to ventilate
any building, home, school, or barn that must be
kept warm is to take out the colder air near the
floor instead of the warm air near the ceiling. For
this purpose there should be an air shaft leading
from near the floor to the roof to carry out the air.

Home Ventilation. The best way to heat and
ventilate a home is probably the hot-water system,
placing the radiators in each room near the wall.
Behind each radiator is an opening through the

299 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

wall. The outside fresh air comes in through the
radiator that warms it. Beside the chimney are
air vents leading from points near the floor of the
room to the attic. The cold air of the room enters
these air vents near the floor and passes to the attic,
where openings lead to the outside. The heat of
the chimney keeps the air vents warm, causing them

Courtesy of the Smith Heating Co.
Fig. 108. A well-ventilated country school.

to draw the colder air out of the room like another
chimney. The hot pipes that extend to radiators
on the second floor might be arranged to extend up
the other air vents, heating the air and sucking
the cold air out of other rooms. Hach bedroom
should be well ventilated either by an air vent along
the chimney or by an open window. Bedrooms
ought never to be less than ten by twelve feet, with
a ceiling not lower than eight feet.

School Ventilation. These same principles of
ventilation apply to schoolhouses. Where the

FARM SANITATION PRS)

schools are consolidated in one large central build-
ing the fan system to drive the air in and out is
the best in use. There are now excellent ways of
heating and ventilating one-room schools without
opening windows, and no country schoolhouse can
afford to be without such a moderate priced bless-
ing. (Fig. 108.) The illustration shows a heating
and ventilating system where the fresh outside air
passes in near the furnace and is warmed. It then
circulates as the arrows indicate. The cold, foul
air near the floor is drawn out by the opening intc
a separate chimney flue at the floor level. The best
way to prevent and to fight tuberculosis, either
among cows or human beings, is with plenty of
good, fresh fair. Keeping the house and the barn
supplied with plenty of fresh air and sunlight is the
greatest safeguard to health.

School Lighting. The only perfect way of light-
ing a schoolroom is from the top, which is nature’s
plan. (Fig. 109.) The children’s eyes should be
protected from the strong light from side windows,
because the eye, like a camera, can adjust itself to
but one intensity of light at a time. The strong
glaring windows cause the pupil of the eye to close
so much as to make all objects in the room look dim
and the eyes are strained, trying to see clearly.
The only way to secure a_ well-distributed, even
light is from skylights, and country schools, being
of one story, can easily be provided with them, and
the protection to the children’s eyes justifies the cost.

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CHAPTER XXVI
THE FARMER’S COLLEGE

Educating the Farmer. When the farmers have
good crops, the whole country is happy, and business
is good. A crop failure not only harms the farmer,
but causes the wheels of industry and business to
stop, and the result is hard times. Thus, vou see,
the entire country is interested in good crops.

The United States Government has become greatly
concerned about the farmer’s success and has estab-
lished a college for farmers called the Department
of Agriculture. This department is located at
Washington, but it has branches in every state in
the Union. It is not like the ordinary college, for
farmers cannot leave their crops and stock to attend
it. The Department of Agriculture has hundreds of
learned men studying and experimenting all the
time. They are finding out all about soils and farm
crops, about animals, their care and diseases, about
plants and their enemies. Everything that will help
the farmer to raise splendid crops, this college is
learning about. And they will send out to any
farmer who asks for it, all the wonderful knowledge
that has been discovered.

Learning the Best Way. Now, instead of guess-
ing at what is best to do, or depending upon the
advice of a neighboring farmer, who may be even

225

926 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

more ignorant than ourselves, we can just drop a
one-cent post card in the mail box or post office
addressed like this:
The Department of Agriculture,
Washington,
De;

We may ask about any crop, or about soils and till-
age, or about farm stock and how to raise and feed
them, or how to destroy insects. In a few days
comes a little booklet to us with all the latest knowl-
edge about the things we are interested in. This
college, or department, will even advise about farm
buildings, farm machinery, poultry, and many kinds
of wild game. If you are planning to build a hen-
house, you had better learn the best way, as it costs
nothing to find out. For some of these thousands
of booklets, prepared for the help of the farmer, a
small price of ten or fifteen cents is asked, but the
most of them are free. What a wonderful thing it
is to have a real education in farming! The Goy-
ernment is spending millions of dollars each year
to help the farmer, and thousands of intelligent
farmers and their boys are becoming students of
agriculture.

Not only will this department help the farmer
and his sons with their problems, but the farmer's
wife and daughters can get advice about milk, but-
ter, and cheese, about canning fruit and how to
preserve food, and about many other problems of
the farm home.

THE FARMER’S COLLEGE 227

Experiment Stations. Eesides the Department at
Washington, every state has experiment stations
where learned men are making tests of crops, ani-
mals, and whatever the farmers of that particular
state may wish to know. These experiment stations
are also kept up with tax money, and the farmers

Tie. 110. College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin.

have a right to the knowledge and discoveries made
here. Booklets from the experiment stations are
mailed free to any one engaged in farming. Should
a disease of animals or plants suddenly break out
in some community, a man will be sent upon request
from the experiment station to advise and show the
farmers how to fight the trouble. The farmers of
Dakota have gained ten millions of dollars through
the secrets learned at the experiment station about
grain. We have learned that the Babcock test has

228 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

changed the dairy industry of the whole world. Dr.
Babcock is one of the clever men who has spent his
life helping to solve the farmer’s problems in the
Wisconsin Experiment Station.

Colleges of Agriculture. If a boy is plucky he
will gain much useful knowledge about farming
from these booklets. But every state also has its
school of agriculture, a real college where farmers’
sons gather by the hundreds to study the problems
of the farm (Fig. 110). Every young man who is
looking forward to the farmer’s life should resolve
to take a course in such a college, even if it is only
for a few months in winter. The farmer of the
future will have to know more than those of the past
in order to be successful. So one had best prepare
well by taking a full course. If, however, a boy
cannot be spared from the farm so long, or if he
has not the funds to pay his way through a long
course, there are shorter courses for him. Many
wise farmers, who need their sons through the crop
season, are sending them to some College of Agricul-
ture year after year for the winter terms, when they
ean be spared from the farm. A few winters spent
in this way will open the boy’s eyes to many inter-
esting and important secrets of suecess. He will
then no longer wish to leave the farm. The farm
offers a delightful place on which to live, but in
order to be successful one must have good training
and good judgment. These, with industry, will
bring happiness and prosperity.

CHAPTER XXVII

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS

More Food Needed. The population of our coun-
try is increasing very rapidly, much faster than the
production of food; and so the cost of everything
wé eat is a great deal higher than formerly. Every
citizen is, therefore, interested in increasing the
farmer’s crops by methods of scientific agriculture.
Not only are the farmers anxious to improve crops,
but business men, journalists, and statesmen are all
helping along the movement. People are realizing
more and more how closely their living, their pros-
perity, and their business success are linked with the
work of the farmer who produces the nation’s food.

The Whole Country Interested. Not only are
farm journals teeming with suggestions and advice,
but magazines and newspapers of all descriptions
are spreading the great truths of scientific tillage
and stock-raising. Business men’s clubs are offer-
ing prizes to boys for the best acre crops, and the
champion corn raisers are getting large money
prizes and often splendid trips to the state or
nation’s capital with all expenses paid. President
Roosevelt during his term of office appointed a com-
mission consisting of eminent men to study country
life and make such recommendations as seemed wise

to them.
229

230 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Agriculture in Schools. The principles of agri-
culture are rapidly being introduced into the rural
schools as part of the course of study. Thirteen
states now require the teaching of agriculture in
the common schools. It is also encouraged and
taught in thirty-one other states, which have not
as yet required it by law. This makes in all forty-
four states where agriculture is being taught in some
measure. Many city schools are also attempting
some work in connection with school gardens.
(Fig. 97.)

Field Agents. The Department of Agriculture
has been studying and investigating for a long time,
and they have been sending out millions of copies
of pamphlets to any one asking for them. But
since so many farmers are not alive to their need
for instruction and are not reading these pamphlets,
the Department is now sending out expert men as
field agents (Fig. 111) to meet the farmers and to ©
encourage them to form for their own improvement
such organizations as cow-testing associations and
the like. For boys there are Cotton Clubs, Corn
Clubs, and numerous others; while for girls there
are such organizations as the Girls’ Garden Clubs
and Tomato Canning Clubs. (Fig. 112.)

Club Movement Spreads. The club movement
among country boys and girls has grown in a re-
markable way. At the close of June, 1913, there
were 60,000 club members doing the regular club
work of raising a crop under the special instructions

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS 93]

at

furnished by the Department of Agriculture. Aside
from the clubs already mentioned are Good Roads
Clubs, Poultry Clubs, Vegetable Garden Clubs, Sugar
Beet Clubs, and Father and Son Clubs.

Boys’ Corn Clubs. The Corn Club idea started
in the South in this way. The boys of a county

=

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fie. 111. Mr. O. H. Benson, specialist in charge of National club
work, conducting a School of Instruction in Home and
School Canning Methods.

were invited to join such a club and were assisted
in forming the organization. During the winter they
held meetings and studied the pamphlets received
from the Department at Washington. These gave
them information about selecting seed and fertilizer,
and how to plant, cultivate, and harvest the crop.

232 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Courtesy = U.S. Dene of ARS.
Fig. 112. Play and contest a part of the game in National club work.
(Grading: Skill, 80%; speed, 30%; weight of
peeling, 40%; Total, 100%.)

In the early spring the boys selected seed and tested
its power to grow, or germinate, by taking a few

kernels from each ear of seed corn.

The Crop. Then each boy was allowed an acre
of ground and expected to keep a careful account
of the money spent on his crop in labor and fer-
tilizer. Even when he did the work himself he
charged ten cents an hour against his crop and five
cents an hour for each horse used. The rental value
of the land was placed at $5 per acre and that, too,
was charged against his crop, while for each load
of manure another $2 was charged.

Net Profit. When the crop was sold, the lad
deducted from the amount of money he received for

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS 233

it, all the cost of raising, which included labor, fer-
tilizer, and other expenses. What was left after
this subtraction was clear gain or net profit, as
business men eall it.

Growth of Corn Clubs. Corn Clubs have been
organized in large numbers in the Southern and
Central states, and they are doing a splendid work
for every county in which they are found. The boys
are epening the eyes of their parents and neighbors
to the wonderful in-
crease in the crop Be
when some attention
is given to scientific
culture, (Hig. 113:)

The 1912 Crop.
For the season of
1912 the average
vield of all the Corn
Club members who
reported to the Of-
fice of Farm Man-
agement was 74.5
bushels per acre.
Fifteen club mem-
bers made a yield
ofel40 or more
bushels per acre.
Sixty-one boys made over 120 bushels an acre. The
average net profit an acre of all club members
reporting was $25.55.

ee

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fig. 113. A Wisconsin club winner
and his prize bushel of seed corn.

934 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Illinois. The average yield of Corn Club mem-
bers from Illinois was 79 bushels per acre, but
eighty-six members made over 100 bushels an acre.
There were more than 5,000 members in that state
alone and $2,000 was given out as premiums to the
high score boys.

Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio. Indiana, with 3,000
members, grew an average of 78 bushels per acre.
It is said that the work of the club members in
Kentucky contributed $10,000,000 to the wealth of
that state. One boy in West Virginia grew 140
bushels, while four others raised 120 bushels or
more. Ohio members who reported averaged 941!
bushels per acre.

Father and Son Clubs. In Kentucky there are
many Father and Son Clubs in which the father
raises ten acres of corn alongside the son’s one acre,
and both follow the same careful instructions in
selecting seed, planting, and cultivating. The cham-
pion father and son of that state in 1912 were
Herman Gallrein and his son, Edward G. Gallrein,
aged fourteen. The son raised 146 bushels and 36
pounds of white corn on his acre and his clear profit
was $67.32. The father grew ten acres of the same
kind of corn on land adjoining the boy’s one acre;
and his average per acre was 139 bushels and 405
pounds, which brought a net profit of $69.91 per
acre. Both cultivated their crops eight times, the
first being a rather deep cultivation, while the seven
others were shallow.

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS 235

Potato Clubs. Cumberland County in Hast Ten-
nessee has a schoolboys’ Potato Club, that has
taught the farmers of that section an important les-
son. It had been supposed that potatoes were not
a profitable crop in that state. It was claimed that
the cost of raising an acre of potatoes there, includ-

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fig. 114. Idaho boys and girls receiving field instructions on
the diseases of the potato.

ing labor, fertilizer, and the rent of the land, was
about $75 per acre, while the crops raised hitherto
at the rate of fifty cents a bushel brought a return
of only $40 an acre. But the Boys’ Potato Club told
a different story. One lad raised on one acre 584
bushels and his net profit was $78. Another boy
raised 379 bushels which gave him a net gain of

236 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

$111. Each of these lads received a $40 prize. There
will now be more attention given to potato raising
in Hast Tennessee. (Fig. 114.)

Tomato Canning Clubs. The Girls’ Canning
Clubs are also doing splendid work in many coun-
ties, especially in the Southern states. They are
usually organized by women field agents from the
Department at Washington. Each club member
receives instructions about growing and canning
vegetables, especially tomatoes. (Fig. 115.) They
are learning to can this vegetable so it will keep;
they are learning to make excellent catchup, chow-
chow, chili-sauce, and other relishes. Many fine
recipes are sent to them from Washington. They
are also taught how to market their goods to the
best advantage.

Girls’ Profits. The Virginia girl who made the
best record for high yield in tomatoes in 1912 ob-
tained 5,928 pounds of tomatoes from her tenth of
an acre plot in that season. Many girls have made
a profit of over $100 from their tenth-acre plots with
one crop. One Mississippi girl is paying her way
through the State Normal School by canning work.

Prize Winning Girls in Washington. During four
or five days of December, 1913, fifteen girls, one
from each of the Southern states, had a free trip
to Washington as a prize for high class work in
tomato canning. They were the fortunate winners
from 25,000 girls who were enrolled in the canning
clubs during that year. The prizes and trips are not

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUBS 237

furnished by the Government, but by public spirited
people,—bankers, business men’s organizations, and
women’s clubs.

Seeing the President. For several years the state
champion corn raisers have had the free trip to
Washington. The winners of the several counties
had their exhibits displayed at the county fairs,

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Fic. 115. An Ohio girl in her Tomato Club plot.

and the county winners were met by the state gov-
ernor and the high score boys were sent off with
much applause to the nation’s capital. They have
usually visited the Secretary of Agriculture and
called on the President at the White House. They
have been everywhere treated as distinguished vis-
itors. On one occasion they were invited to meet

938 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Rep-
resentatives, and the chairman of that committee
declared the boys’ and girls’ clubs movement to be
the best work the Department of Agriculture had
ever attempted.

Getting Information. It is impossible in this
short chapter to give all the information necessary
to form any club, but all one wishes to know may
be obtained from: Office of Farm Management,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The Club and School. These clubs are the very
best way of connecting the work of the country
schools and the farm home. Parents and teachers
are working together in this movement. Since the
teacher is likely to be crowded with her work of
teaching reading, arithmetic, and the other impor-
tant subjects that the children must know, she can-
not do very much experimenting in school hours in
the way of agriculture. So the club which meets
after school, in the evenings or on Saturdays, is the
best means of teaching good practice in agriculture
and home canning. In this way the entire neighbor-
hood is receiving instruction. Our Government real-
izes that the future of American agriculture is
largely dependent on the boys and girls of to-day,
and it is the purpose of this club movement to assist |
in instructing and directing the youth of our vil-
lages and rural communities so that they will appre-
ciate the fact that farming is a dignified, important,
and profitable life work.

PAte il

APPENDIX

ONE THOUSAND QUESTIONS ON

AGRICULTURE ANSWERED

DRAWN FROM THE BEST WORKS ON THE SUBJECT, ACOURATE

AND UP-TO-DATE, AND WRITTEN IN SIMPLE LANGUAGE
FOR TEACHERS AND FARMERS

PLANT LIFE
How many parts are there to a plant?

There are five: (1) root; (2) stem; (3) leaf; (4)
flower; (5) seed.

What are the purposes of roots?

Roots have three uses: to hold the plant in place
and prevent its blowing away; to take nourishment
and moisture from the soil; and to serve as storage
places for plant food.

What is a root cap?

The tip of the tender root has a little cap on the
end to enable it to force its way among the soil par-
ticles without injury.

What are root hairs?

They are a hair-like velvety growth covering the

real roots.
What is the use of root hairs?
The root hairs present a much greater surface

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

through which the plant may absorb food and
moisture.
Do not the real, or fibrous roots themselves absorb
food and moisture?
No, this is the work of the root hairs, which cover
the fibrous roots.
Do the root hairs have openings or mouths through
which to take food?
No, their walls are very thin and the plant food, in
order to enter, must be in a soluble or watery form
which passes through the thin walls of the root hairs

. What is the name or term of this passing of liquids,

or exchange of liquids through thin partitions of

membranes?

It is called osmosis. It is the same process by which
food passes from the alimentary canal of animals into
the blood.

How does the real or fibrous root grow longer?

The root grows only at the tip, and it does not grow
straight, but in a winding fashion to take advantage
of the openings between soil particles.

What are the uses of plant stems?

They support the leaves and hold them up in the
air and sunlight. They serve also as storehouses for
starch and sugar and other forms of plant food for the
future use of the plant. The stems are also channels
for the passage of sap through the plant.

What is the office of the sap?

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1x

It carries raw plant food from roots to leaves and
then carries the manufactured food like starch and
sugar to the place where it is needed to build up the
plant or to the place of storage.

What functions have leaves?

To give off water to the air, to take carbon from the
air, and to change raw plant food to starch and sugar.
They are the food factory of the plant.

In what form does carbon exist in the air?

The air contains carbonic-acid gas, which is a com-
pound of two elements, oxygen and carbon. It is also
called carbon dioxide.

Where does the air get the carbonic-acid gas?

It is exhaled or breathed off by all animal life. It
is also given off by decaying plant life.

How does the leaf get hold of this carbonic-acid gas?

The air may enter the leaf through openings on
the underside called stomata, the word meaning
‘*mouths.’’

How does the leaf separate the carbonic-acid gas into
oxygen and carbon?

The heat furnished by sunlight and the green color-
ing matter of leaves called chlorophyll act together
and separate the oxygen from the carbon.

What becomes of the oxygen?
It is given off to the air.
What becomes of the carbon?
It is combined with other food elements to make

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

compounds such as starch or sugar, which are then

ready to build up the plant.

What other use have the stomata or mouths which
cover the underside of leaves?

They not only take air in, but they allow water or
moisture in the leaf to escape through them into the
alr.

Are these stomata always open?

No, they may be opened or closed according to the
weather.

Why are they closed?

In dry weather they are closed to keep moisture
from passing too freely out of the leaves into the air.
Is the green chlorophyll necessary to the manufacture

of starch and sugar by plants?

Yes, only those plants which have chlorophyll are
able to use carbon dioxide from the air and change it
in this way.

Are there any plants that grow in the dark?

Yes, mushrooms grow in dark places, but they have
no chlorophyll and can get no food from the air nor
from the real soil. Their food comes from partly
decomposed matter in the soil.

What is meant by the balance in nature?

Animals need large quantities of oxygen which
plants give off; while plants need large amounts of
carbon dioxide which animals give off. What is poison
or waste of animals is food for plants and vice versa.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xi

What four things are needed by plants besides plant
food?

Plants need light, heat, moisture, and air.

What is the main aim of life for all plants?

It is to produce seed.

What part of the plant has the work of bearing seed?

The flower.

Are all flowers alike in their parts?

No, there are many variations in flowers.
What parts has a perfect flower?

A perfect flower has pistils and stamens.
What is the office of the stamens?

Stamens are the male part of the flower. They
bear the yellow dust or pollen, which is needed to
fertilize the pistil or female part to enable it to pro-
duce seed.

What are imperfect flowers?

The flowers of many plants do not contain both
male and female parts. Some have only stamens, oth-
ers only pistils.

How do imperfect flowers bear seed?

The pollen must be carried to the flowers having
the pistil by some means.
How is pollen carried?

The pollen of corn, being light, is carried by the
wind. In some cases it is carried by insects, such as
bees.

Why are some flowers bright and showy ?

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

To attract the eyes of insects so that they will carry
the pollen from the stamens to the pistils.

. Why are some flowers fragrant?

For the same reason that they are bright in color, to
attract insects.

What is cross-pollination ?

Plants are cross-pollinated when the pollen is taken
from one to another by some means. A number of
varieties of apples, pears, peaches, and plums, will
not bear fruit if grown by themselves; but they will
bear abundantly if pollinated by other varieties that
blossom at the same time.

What is a seed?

A seed bears within its coat a minute plant called
a germ.

What is the purpose of this germ or tiny plant?

To develop into a new plant like the parent when
proper conditions are offered.

How ean the seed begin to grow with no leaves in the
air and no roots in the ground?

Some nourishment prepared by the parent plant
is stored up in the seed to feed it until it can put
forth leaves and roots of its own.

Where is this store of nourishment ?

In the bean it is in the two seed leaves. In the
corn kernel a store of starch is found about the germ.
What part of the stem carries the water from the

roots to the leaves?

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xiii

In plants with netted vein leaves the water passes
up mainly through ducts or conducting channels in
the outer wood.

Through what part of the stem does the manufactured
food from the leaves or sap pass down to the roots?
Just under the bark.

How does girdling a tree kill it?

Girdling starves the tree by preventing any food
from passing down to the roots, which therefore shrivel
and die.

What forces the water from the roots up through the
stem to the leaves?

It is the same power that carries oil up the lamp-
wick, and is called capillary attraction.

Why do fruit trees often die when they overbear ?
Nearly all the food made by the leaves is required

to mature the large crop of fruit and not enough

passes down to nourish the roots, so the tree sometimes
dies the following spring.

How are plants classified ?

They may be classified in different ways. One way
is according to length of life—as annuals, biennials,
and perennials.

What are annuals?

Annuals are plants that live only one year from
the planting of the seed to the production of new seed.
Name some farm annuals.

Wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, and tomatoes.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Name some biennials with which the farmer deals.

Biennials live two years from seed to seed. Such
are cabbages, parsnips, and common mullein.

What are some of the common perennials?

Perennials live more than two years, such as aspar-
agus, alfalfa, strawberries, bushes, and trees.

How else are plants classified besides that of length of
life?

They are commonly classified according to use, into:
forage crops, grain crops, root crops, fiber crops, fruit
crops, vegetable crops, ornamental plants, and timber
crops.

Name the forage and fodder crops.

Timothy, alfalfa, sorghum, cowpea, and corn fodder.
What are included in the grain crops?

Corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, and rice.

Name the root crops?

Carrots, parsnips, turnips, mangels, beets, and sugar
beets.

What are the fiber crops?

Flax, hemp, cotton.

Name the common fruit crops.

Apple, peach, pear, plum, quince, currant, black-
berry, grape, orange, and banana are the most com-
mon fruit crops.

What are the chief vegetable crops?

Tomato, pea, bean, cucumber, and celery.
How does the botanist classify plants?

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XV

According to likeness of characteristics he groups
them into families and gives them Latin names.
How does nature scatter plant seeds?

Plants have developed different methods of scatter-
ing seeds. Some, like the cocoanut, will float on water,
others, like the maple seed, are provided with wings.
How are animals helpful in scattering seeds?

The burdock and sticktights cling to animals and
ride away to new homes.

Have birds any chance to assist?

Some plants have bright attractive seeds that taste
good to birds and they scatter them in their flight.
What are some of man’s methods of disseminating

plants?

By using seeds, roots, cuttings, buds or grafts, man
spreads the plants far and wide.

What are grown from seeds?

Nearly all farm crops.

Why is this the simplest and easiest method ?

Because seeds are usually produced in great num-
bers, are easily gathered and stored, and they may be
easily planted.

How are sweet potatoes and sugar cane planted?

From cuttings—a whole or a part of the sweet potato
and a joint from the sugar cane.

Why are not apples and potatoes raised from the seed?

Because the seed of these plants does not produce
new plants true to the variety of the parent.

Xvi

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

THE FARMER AND THE SOIL

In choosing a farm what are the two chief points of
value to consider?
The economic, or money-making, value and the home

value.

What is meant by the home value?
The farm home should be in a healthful location,
near to schools, churches, and desirable neighbors.

Which should be considered first, the home or the
economic value?

If one intends to live on the farm, the home value
should have the first consideration.

Should a farmer invest all his capital in land?

If it is in a pioneer country where land values are
certain to rise, one may be safe in investing all the
capital in land. But in older communities the higher
the price of land, the lesser proportion of one’s capital
should be invested in the bare land.

When should a farmer locate near a market?

When he intends producing cream, milk, or fruit, or
even grain, for market.

When could a farmer afford to locate farther from a
market or shipping point?

When he raises stock almost entirely, because they
ean be easily driven some distance to the shipping
point.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Xvil

Is it wise to pay more for a farm near a transconti-
nental railroad?

Yes. It costs more to ship when two roads must be
used to reach the great city market. Better live on
a through line two hundred miles from Chicago, New
York, or Pittsburgh, than to live fifty miles and have
to change roads.

How far may milk and grain be hauled to market with
profit ?

Three miles is as far as a farmer can profitably haul
his own milk, while five miles is a long haul for grains.
For stock, ten miles is not far to market.

. What bearing do wagon roads have upon farming?

One may travel two miles over a hard road with easy
grades more easily and quickly than over one mile of
muddy or hilly roads.

What other elements should be considered in locating?

Electric and telephone lines add to the value of
farms, especially the former. The occupation of the
other farmers may help to advertise a section for fruit
or fine stock and thus bring buyers that way.

Is it possible to put too much capital in buildings?

For general farming it hardly seems wise for money-
making uses to invest in buildings of all kinds more
than one-fourth the value of the entire farm.

For an investment, which is better—a farm with no
improvements or one with extensive improvements ?

Better than either is a farm with only moderate

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

improvements and yet sufficient for the conduct of

the farm.

Why did the American farmer a century ago succeed
without much knowledge of the soil?

Because for countless ages nature had been storing
up plant food in the virgin American soil, and crops
did well if only half cared for.

How does farming here to-day differ from that of the
olden day?

The virgin soil has nearly all been taken up, and it
has been abused and worn out in many localities.
Knowledge and skill are now needed to keep from
exhausting all our lands and to make them yield what
they did formerly with little labor or science.

Upon what does the profit of the farm depend?

Upon the size of the crops and more especially upon
the yield per acre, provided the expense is not in-
creased unduly.

Can a farmer increase the yield per acre faster than
the expense is increased ?

Yes. It has been proven many times that the present
average of crops can be doubled at but slight advance
in cost.

What practice of farmers has contributed most toward
exhausting the soil?

Raising the same crop on a given ‘eld year after
year for forty or fifty years without fertilizing or
manuring or rotating.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS X1X

How do we know that different plants take different
amounts of plant foods from the soil?

Chemists have analyzed various plants and thus
ascertained what elements they contain and in what
proportion.

How many elements in the soil?

Between seventy and eighty are known.

Why are they called elements?

Because scientists have not been able to separate
them into simpler substances.

Are most materials that we know simple elements?
No, most materials are compounds, that is, they are

combinations of two or more elements combined in

different amounts or proportions.

What are some compounds that are different articles
because of the differing proportions of their ele-
ments?

Alcohol, sugar, starch, and fats all contain the same
elements—carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—but in dif-
ferent proportions.

Are there many compounds in a single plant?

Yes, but they may be separated and known.

What proportion of corn plant is water?

Of 1,000 pounds of mature corn plant nearly 800 are
water, 12.7 pounds are hydrogen and 88.9 pounds are
oxygen; and since both the hydrogen and oxygen come
from water, nearly 900 pounds of the 1,000, or nine-
tenths of the corn plant, is water.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Is this nine-tenths of the plant’s weight all the water
it needs to grow?

No, only a small part, for the leaves are constantly
giving off moisture to the air, and it is from this mois-
ture that the plant obtains mineral foods.

For each pound of dry matter of the plant how many
pounds of water does the plant use?

About three hundred pounds of water passes through
the plant for each pound of dry matter produced.
How much water is needed by an acre of good corn

during the growing period?

About nine hundred tons—an amount that, if spread
over the acre, would be nearly eight inches deep.
Does this nine hundred tons include the water lost by

the land by drainage?

No, about as much water runs away and passes down
beyond the reach of the roots as is used by the crop,
so that about eighteen hundred tons of water should
fall upon an acre of growing corn.

How does the plant obtain all the moisture?

It all comes from the ground through the roots.
How else is water useful to plant life besides being

a plant food?

It not only furnishes about ninety per cent of the
plant’s weight but it dissolves other plant foods in
the soil and puts them in shape to be taken up in liquid
form by the rootlets.

What makes a plant wilt on a very hot day?

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36.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xxi

It wilts because the leaves are giving off moisture to
the air faster than the roots can supply it to the plant.
Is there any other factor so important to plant life

as is proper moisture ?

No. More soils fail to produce good crops for lack
of moisture than for any other cause. Too much stress
cannot be laid upon the importance of an adequate
supply of water in soil.

Do plants get any food from the air?

Nearly one-half of the dry matter in the plant con-
sists of an element called carbon, all of which comes
from the air in the form of carbonic-acid gas.

Is carbonic-acid gas pure carbon?

No, it is a compound of carbon and oxygen, but the
plants separate these elements, retain the carbon, and
set the oxygen free.

How can the plant separate these elements?

The green coloring matter of the leaves, called chlo-
rophyll, with the help of the heat energy furnished
by sunlight, breaks apart the carbon and oxygen.

Is sunlight necessary to this process?

Yes, plants grow more vigorously in full sunlight
than in shade, and at night this growing process ceases.
Will not plants germinate in the dark?

Yes. They grow until they use up the food stored
in the seed, but they have no power to use the food
in the air and soil, for both chlorophyll and sunlight
are necessary to do this. Analysis shows that the plant

XXll

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

grown in the dark contains less dry matter than was
present in the seed.
What does the plant make of carbon?

It causes the carbon to combine with water and
mineral matter which are taken through the roots,
and these elements form carbohydrates, proteids, and
other compounds of which the plant is composed.

Is it necessary for the farmer to buy carbon to fer-
tilize his soil?

No, the atmosphere furnishes free an inexhaustible
supply of carbon for all vegetation.

What is the most costly plant food?

Nitrogen.

Do plants contain a high percentage of nitrogen ?

Not at all. Nitrogen forms only from one to three
per cent of the dry matter, or about one-half of one per
cent, of the green plant. But a crop must have this
proportion available in order to thrive.

Where do plants get their supply of nitrogen ?

From the soil only.

Where does the soil get nitrogen to supply growing
crops?

A small part comes directly from the atmosphere
brought by rain water. But most of the nitrogen is
taken from the air and stored in the soil by bacteria
which live in small swellings, or nodules, on the roots
of certain plants called legumes, such as clover, alfalfa,
soy bean, cowpea, and the like.

44,

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47.

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49.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Xxill

How can the farmer assist these bacteria ?

By stirring the soil so air can enter it, for bacteria
cannot live without oxygen from the air.

What other aids are known?

These bacteria cannot live in an acid soil, so an appli-
cation of lime, by neutralizing the acid, sweetens the
soil and renders it an agreeable home for the bacteria.
Is there more than one kind of bacteria in the soil?

Yes, there are many kinds. In fact, those that grow
on clover roots differ even from those on alfalfa or
other legumes.

Do all soils contain all these nitrogen-gathering
bacteria ?

No. Many soils will not grow a leguminous crop
until the right bacteria have been introduced into the
particular fields.

How are they introduced and what is the process
called ?

It is called inoculation and consists in taking soil
from lands that have been growing the particular
legume and scattering this upon the new fields, from
one hundred to three hundred pounds per acre, and
working it in before the bacteria die from surface
exposure.

Is there no other way of supplying nitrogen to our
soil save by raising legumes with their nitrogen-
gathering bacteria?

Yes, one may use freely stable manure which is rich

XXiv

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

in nitrogen, or one may buy fertilizer containing nitro-

gen; but such fertilizer is very expensive. The best

method of fixing nitrogen in the soil is by raising a

legume such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea.

What part of the green plant comes originally from
the atmosphere?

Including water, ninety-eight and one-half per cent
comes from the air free of cost and the supply of these
elements of food in the air is beyond control.

Are there many elements of food in the other one and
one-half per cent of green plants?

Yes, about a dozen, but the three needing the farm-
er’s attention are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and
potash, which are used by plants in larger quantities
than the other elements.

Are not the other elements as recessary as these?

Yes, but most soils contain the other elements in
abundance. Occasionally soils are found that are defi-
cient in lime, but in most cases sufficient lime is present
for all plant growth.

Is all the nitrogen or phosphorus or potash in a given
soil available to plants at once?

No. The greater portion of them is locked up in
compounds in such a form that plants cannot get hold
of them.

Is there danger of exhausting the available portions
of these elements?

Yes, constant cropping of cereals, especially wheat,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXV

without rotation will practically exhaust the available

nitrogen.

Is there any way the farmer can assist nature to change
the complex compounds into simpler forms, so the
elements may be available to plants?

Yes, the most helpful assistance is through good
tillage. By tillage is meant stirring and pulverizing
the soil by means of plows, harrows, cultivators and
the like, either before or after the crop is sown.

In what way does pulverizing the soil help?

It loosen the soil and makes it easier for the plant
roots and root hairs to penetrate the soil.

How is plant food taken from the soil into the rootlets?
No plant food can be taken up except in solution.

Plant roots are covered with innumerable tiny hairs

which drink in the liquid food.

Are there openings or mouths in the root hairs?

No, but the walls are so thin that the watery food
easily passes through.

Is it possible for root hairs to penetrate solid or hard
earth clods?

No, they are tender and can only push their way

between the soil grains; and if the soil is not pulver-

ized, they are barred from entering at all.

Where do the root hairs feed?

On the surface of the soil grains. The better the soil
is pulverized the more surface is exposed to the root
hairs and the more food they get from the soil.

XXVl

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

How does pulverizing increase the area of soil exposed
to root hairs?

A cube two inches each way presents a surface of
twenty-four square inches. If this cube is cut into
eight smaller cubes the exposed surface is doubled.
As this breaking up continues the surface area increases
amazingly.

Besides increasing the area of soil particles and making
room for more root hairs, how else does tillage help?
Stirring the soil brings different particles into con-

tact and having different elements they act chemically

upon each other, releasing plant food by breaking up
compounds.

What effect does tillage have upon air in the soil?
Tillage introduces more air into the soil, and the

oxygen of air is needed by the roots of all farm crops.

Oxygen makes seeds germinate, and it helps to make

the mineral elements soluble in water so plants can get

them.

What effect does air have upon organic matter in the
soil?

The oxygen of air helps to decompose organic matter
in the soil, and to put it in form to be used by growing
plants.

Are there bacteria in the soil that help the decay of
organic matter?

Yes, and these bacteria cannot live without the
oxygen of air.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

ree

72.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXVli

Where do the bacteria that live on the roots of legumes
get the nitrogen which they store up in the roots of
the plant?

They get it from the air alone.

Do they come to the surface for air?

No, the air must be in the soil and the looser and
better pulverized the soil, the more air there is in it.
What effect has tillage upon moisture in the soil?

It enlarges the water supply by giving the soil
greater capacity for holding moisture.

How is the water-holding capacity of soil increased by
tillage?

Each soil grain is covered by a thin film of water,
and the finer the grains of soil, the greater surface
area on a cubic foot of them and the more water they
will hold on their surface.

If good tillage breaks the soil particles into grains only
one-tenth their former size, what effect has this upon
the extent of surface of the particles?

Reducing the size to one-tenth, multiples the surface
area by ten.

If the soil particles of an acre of soil were reduced
to one-tenth, would it make the one acre equal to ten
acres ?

Yes, it would supply ten times as much moisture and
mineral matter to the crop, or as much as ten acres
not so tilled.

What is more important than moisture for the farmer?

Fe ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

(Ey

74.

75.

76.

Ui.

78.

Moisture in the soil is one of the farmer’s chief
problems because ninety per cent of his crop comes
from water.

Do crops ordinarily get sufficient water ?

No, they seldom get enough water for the maximum
yield.

Can the farmer influence rainfall?

No, but by good tillage he can save for his crops a
large part of the water that may otherwise go to waste.
How can he do this?

By good tillage and finely-pulverized soil, the ground
is made to absorb and hold a large amount of water,
and a dust mulch helps to retain this moisture for the
growing crop.

What is meant by a dust, or earth, mulch?

It is a finely-pulverized surface of two or three
inches that prevents evaporation of soil water.
How is this explained?

Where the ground is firm, water is drawn up from
below by capillary attraction as oil passes up a lamp-
wick, and the soil water evaporates rapidly into the air.
Fine tillage breaks up this capillary attraction and a
finely pulverized surface acts as a blanket to prevent
this evaporation.

Are there other ways of preventing this loss of soil
water ?

Yes, by covering the ground with loose straw or hay,
or even with weeds, evaporation may be prevented.

19.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XX1X

What kind of cultivation makes the most effective dust
mulch ?

The cultivation should be shallow and frequent with
tne aim of making a surface layer as fine and dry as
possible.

How does rain affect a surface mulch?

It hardens or forms a crust on the surface and capil-
larity starts again.

Should the farmer cultivate after each rain?

Yes, for the best results.

Is cultivation needed in the absence of rain?

Yes, the soil will become too compact if left without
stirring.

During what season should the soil be stirred most
frequently ?

In the spring, in order to hold the water from spring
rains.

Can one make a mulch on a sandy soil?

Yes, sandy soils produce better results from mulch-
ing than clays or loams.

What advantage has late fall plowing for spring crops?

It prevents evaporation and enables the soil to absorb
more water from the winter rain and snow.

Is it well to plow all soils in the fall?

No, it is better not to plow hard soils that are low
in humus.

Does early spring plowing help to increase soil water?

Certainly, the wise farmer always plows early.

XXX

88.

89.

90.

he

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Is it possible to plow too early?

Not if the ground is right and not too wet.
What other advantage has tillage?

Tillage destroys weeds which rob the crop of mois-
ture and plant food. All growing plants pump up
water through their roots and give it off through the
leaves.

What two forms of water exist in the soil?

Film moisture and ground water.

How does ground water differ from film moisture?

Film moisture is a thin coat of moisture on each soil
grain. Ground water occupies the spaces between the
soil grains.

What is the surface of this ground water called?

It is called the water table.

How near the surface is the water table?

In some soils it is very near the surface, while in
others it is many feet below.

How ean one find out the depth of the water table?

By sinking a hole to such a depth that the water
will stand in it. The level of the water in the hole is
the same as the water table.

In what kind of ground is the water table at the level
of the ground?

In marshes and swamps.

What objection is there to a high water table?

When the level of the ground water is near the sur-

face of the soil, it limits the space where plant roots

Alls

08:

99:

100.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXX1

may feed, for they will not penetrate soil that is
water-soaked.
Why will not roots penetrate water-soaked soil?
Because roots must have air about them, and water
drives out air.
Will not plant roots go below the water table?
No, this is why plants can not be made to grow in
swampy land.
How may a farmer lower the water table?
By under drainage with tile.
How will tiling improve the soil?
The tile carry off all stagnant water near the sur-
face and lower the water table, thus rendering a deeper
soil for the plant roots.

101. What changes follow the lowering of the water level?

102.

103.

Air, with its oxygen and carbonic-acid gas, enables
roots, earthworms, and bacteria to reach a greater
depth.

Why is well-drained soil safer from drought?

Because good drainage enables the roots to penetrate
deeper and because plants live on film moisture which
is increased by good drainage. Roots will not pene-
trate free water.

Do not tile drains carry away too much of the rain
water in dry weather?

No, because the water does not reach the drain unless
the rainfall is excessive enough to raise the level of
free water in the soil to the drain pipes.

el ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109;

110.

LY

Do tile drains carry off film moisture in the soil?

No, only the free, or ground, water which keeps

roots from reaching down deep into the soil.
Is it ever well to tile-drain high lands?

Sometimes with heavy clay soils it is, because the
subsoils will allow water to pass through them so
slowly that it is about the same as a water table.
How does tiling affect such soils?

It makes these soils more mellow, and they respond
to tillage better.

What is humus?

It is formed by the decay of organic matter, and it
gives a rich black appearance to the soil. The black
mould under the leaves in the forest is humus.

What are the sources of humus?

In most cases it comes from the decay of plants
which have been previously grown on the soil, but
it may also come from manures.

How does cropping affect the amount of humus?

Continued cropping, with no way of replacing the
humus, reduces it one-third or even one-half.

Why is humus needed in the soil?

Humus increases the power of the soil to absorb and
retain water. But more important than this, it fur-
nishes elements of plant food.

How does humus do this?

Humus in the soil acts like a sponge, but holds the

water in such form that plants can get it.

112.

113.

114.

116.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXxXill

Does humus contain plant food 2
Yes, it is a storehouse for plant food, especially for
nitrogen.
How else does humus aid crops?
Humus enables plants to obtain more plant food
from the soil.
How may humus be restored to worn-out soils?
Plowing under green crops, which is called green
manuring, is one method practiced by some good
farmers.

5. What is the best crop for green manures?

Legumes not only add humus, as would other crops,
but legumes also add nitrogen.

Which crop of legumes seems best for green manure ?

Red clover is the most common; but cowpea, soy
bean, or the ordinary field bean or field pea may be
used to plow under.

117. What danger is there in green manuring?

118.

In a dry season the growth of a crop to plow under
may use up most of the moisture, leaving the following
crop too little to grow well.

Is green manure needed on stock farms?

No, because the crop to be plowed under makes fine
feed, and it is more profitable to feed it and return
the manure to the soil.

Seria ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

FERTILIZERS
1. What is the oldest fertilizer ?

Barnyard manure.

2. Is its popularity justified ?

Yes. It has proven its importance.

3. What is the estimated value of the manure produced
by an animal in a year?

If all is saved that from the horse is worth twenty-
seven dollars; from the steer, twenty dollars; from the
hog, eight dollars.

4. What kind of manure is most valuable?

Sheep manure is richest in fertilizer and horse
manure is second.

5. What elements in manure render it valuable?

The phosphorie acid, potash, and nitrogen are the
chief elements.

6. Why do horse and sheep manure heat while others do
not?

Probably because that from the horse and sheep
contain less water.

7. Does the kind of feed given affect the manure ?

Manure varies with quality and quantity of feed.

8. What feeds produce the best manures?
Feeds high in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash.
9. Give a few feeds in the order of their value as fertilizer.
Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, wheat

10.

ia

12,

13.

14.

16.

Wie

18.

19;

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ROKOKGV,

bran, and corn meal, rank in value in the order given.
What elements do growing stock need in greater
amounts than mature animals?
They need nitrogen and phosphoric acid.
What proportion of the fertilizer of the feed may
be recovered in the manure?
About eighty per cent on the average farm.
What is the chief factor in determining the fertilizing
value of a given manure?
The age of the animal.
What is the most valuable element in manure?
Nitrogen.
Why ?
Because nitrogen is usually present in larger quanti-
ties, and it is more costly when purchased.
What effect has bedding upon manure?
The richer the bedding in fertilizer elements, the
richer the manure.
Is it economical to pile manure in the open barn lot,
exposed to the weather?
No, the result is great loss, due to leaching from
rains.
Is open lot feeding advisable ?
No, the loss in manure from leaching is wasteful.
What is the purpose of bedding?
To absorb the liquid excrement which contains over
one-half the value of the manure.
What bearing has this upon the amount of bedding?

cera ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

20.

ae

22.

23.

24.

27.

There should be abundance of bedding to absorb all
liquid waste.

How does cutting bedding affect its absorbent powers?

Straw cut in one-inch lengths will absorb three
times as much urine as long straw.

What other advantage comes from cutting bedding?

The manure is in condition to be much more easily
handled and less bedding is needed.

Does stored manure lose strength ?

Yes. Nitrogen passes to the air in the form of
ammonia which is noticed as a strong odor on a winter
morning.

What is the best method to prevent loss in manure ?

To haul it to the field as fast as it is made.

What other advantages are there in immediate
hauling?

Manure should be handled only onee if its total value
as manure is realized.

If manure must be stored, what is the best manner ?

Stored manure loses by leaching due to rains and
hot fermentation. Leaching is prevented by keeping
manure under shelter or by placing it in water-tight
pits or bins of cement.

How may heating be prevented ?

By keeping manure in a compact heap so air cannot
enter to enable bacteria to thrive. Each daily addition
to the pile should be firmly packed into place.

What other treatment is needed?

28.

29.

30.

ol.

32.

33.

34.

30.

36.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXXVil

Water will cool the pile and keep out air, so water
should be added when necessary.

When manure is to be stored for some time, what added
direction may be given?

Cover the heap with a few inches of earth which
will prevent the escape of ammonia.

What is the best method of saving manure?

A covered barnyard is probably the best means.
What advantage has this besides saving manure?

It saves labor as it is easy to gather the manure
outside the stalls at any time, and it can be handled
when the ground is right.

How is exposed manure best cared for?

By making the heap so high that the heaviest rains
could not soak through it.

What is the best manner of applying manure?

As a top dressing.

What is the advantage of this method?

It is nature’s way. As the fertilizer descends grad-
ually, it feeds the plant roots, and it is not covered
beyond their depth.

What other advantage has top dressing?

It acts as a mulch, preventing the escape of moisture
from the soil.

What objection is there to this method ?

It may interfere with tillage unless the manure is
fine.

Should manure be spread before or after harrowing?

XYXV1i1 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

oT.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

It should pe spread after plowing, and then har-
rowed into the soil.
Should manure be left in piles in the fields?

No, because this means a second handling and in-
creases the labor.

. Are there other objections?

In piles it is lable to lose by fermentation and by
leaching; it makes the ground under the piles highly
fertilized and thus the fields are spotty.

What objections are there to a spotty field?

Part of the crop may grow too rank and fall, and the
erop is apt to mature unevenly. In either case there
is a money loss to the farmer.

What is the better way of spreading?

Broadeasting from the wagon either by hand or by
using a manure spreader.

When coarse manure must be plowed under what
caution is necessary ?

It should not be covered too deep especially in clay
soils where the air may not reach it readily to assist in
decay.

How deep should it be covered?

In clays, about four inches, but it may be much
deeper in sandy soils.

Ts it possible to apply too much manure?

Yes. In general one should not use more than eight
or ten tons per acre.

Is it well to try to cover the entire farm each year?

45,

46.

47.

48.

49,

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XXX1X

No. It is better to manure only one crop in a rota-
tion, thus covering only a part of the farm annually.
How long is the effect of manuring noticed?

It may affect crops for a dozen years or more, but
each year the effect is less noticeable.

All things considered, is there any fertilizer better than
manure ?

No. When barnyard manure has been properly
eared for, it has no superior.

How does selling crops from the farm affect fertility?

The loss of fertility is much greater than where stock
is fed or a dairy kept.

Does stock farming or dairying actually rob the farm
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash?

No. It adds to the soil large quantities of nitrogen
and some phosphorus, but a small amount of potash is
lost.

Does this mean that stock and dairy farming may
actually increase the fertility of a farm?

Yes. Where the barnyard manure is properly used
in connection with leguminous crops and the_ best
method of tillage adopted, the fertility may be in-
creased without the purchase of any fertilizer.

Where plants fail to grow, is it usually due to a lack
of plant food?

Not necessarily. Some soils are not sufficiently por-
ous to allow plant roots to develop; others may lack
either moisture or drainage.

xl

dl.

D2.

53.

D4.

58.

59.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Is it possible to rely too much on fertilizer?

Yes. Some farmers expect fertilizer to take the
place of tillage.

How did commercial fertilizer come to be used ?

When it was discovered that certain elements in the
soil are necessary to plant growth, farmers concluded
to supply these elements artificially.

How may commercial fertilizers be classified ?

Into three classes. Those made chiefly from nitrogen
sources, those chiefly from phosphoric acid, and those
chiefly from potash.

Are there any wonderful secrets known only to certain
manufacturers of fertilizer?

No. Some salesmen pretend this is true in order to
make sales.

What is meant by the so-called ‘‘ Complete fertilizer’’?

It is simply a mixture of two or more basic mate-
rials in order to give the required per cent of nitrogen,
phosphorie acid, and potash.

Where does the nitrogen usually come from?

From animal refuse matter, from packing houses,
soap and glue factories.
What is dried blood?

It is the blood from slaughter houses dried by heat-
ing to a powder.

Is there more than one kind?

There is the red blood and the black blood.

What is the difference?

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xli

The red blood is dried more carefully and not
charred, while the black blood is dried more rapidly.
Which is the more valuable fertilizer ?

The red blood contains from thirteen to fourteen
per cent nitrogen, while the black contains from six to
twelve per cent.

What are meat meal, azotin, and ammonite?

They are all the same thing—a meat product con-

taining thirteen to fourteen per cent nitrogen.
How much nitrogen in hoof meal?

It contains about twelve per cent nitrogen.
How valuable is horn meal?

It contains from ten to twelve per cent nitrogen,
but not in good form for plant food.
What is tankage?

It is the dried animal waste from slaughter houses,
containing from four to nine per cent nitrogen and
from three to twelve per cent phosphoric acid.

What is fish fertilizer or guano?
The oil of the fish is extracted and the remaining

““pumace’’

is dried and ground for fertilizer.
What elements of fertilizer does it contain?
From eight to eleven per cent of nitrogen and three
to five per cent of phosphoric acid.
Is leather meal a good fertilizer?
No, because it resists decay.
What can be said in favor of sulphate of ammonia?

It is a by-product of coal gas and coke, resembling

xlil

69.

73.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

common salt and is the richest in nitrogen of all fer-
tilizing materials, containing from twenty to twenty-
three per cent.

What is nitrate of soda, or Chili saltpeter?

It resembles salt, is entirely soluble in water, and
is a very desirable nitrogenous fertilizer with from
fifteen to sixteen per cent nitrogen.

For early spring growing crops which fertilizer is best ?

Chili saltpeter, because it is immediately ready for
the plants.

How does nitrogen compare in cost with the other ele-
ments ?

It is the most expensive, costing nearly three times
as much per pound as phosphoric acid or potash.

Is it usually advisable for the ordinary farmer to buy
nitrogenous fertilizer?

No. It can best be supplied by the use of barnyard
manures and by growing legumes.

What is the source of the potash of fertilizer?

Nearly all of it comes from the potash salt mines of
Strassfurt, Germany.

In what forms does it sell?

Kainite, containing about twelve per cent potash;
muriate of potash, containing about fifty per cent;
and sulphate of potash, with about fifty-three per cent.
Do these furnish available plant food?

Yes. All are soluble in water and available to

plants.

76.

Wis.

78.

80.

81.

82.

83.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xlili

flow is phosphoric acid obtained for fertilizer?

From phosphates—the bones of dead animals and
minerals containing phosphates.

How are bones treated for this purpose?

Raw bone meal is made by grinding raw bones to
a powder, the finer the better.

How rich is bone meal in phosphorus?

It contains twenty-two per cent of phosphoric acid
and four per cent nitrogen.
Does bone meal decay rapidly ?

No, the elements in bone are only gradually avail-
able to the crop.

What is the value of steamed bone meal?

Steaming removes the fat and some nitrogen, so
that it contains about twenty-eight per cent phosphoric
acid and one and one-half per cent nitrogen.

Does steamed bone meal decay more rapidly than the
raw ?

Yes. The removal of fat causes more rapid decay
and so they are considered a better source of phos-
phorie acid.

What is bone tankage ?

It is merely bones mixed with tankage and contains
from seven to eighteen per cent phosphoric acid.
How valuable is bone black, or animal charcoal, as a

fertilizer ?

It is made by heating bone in air-tight vessels. It is
first used to refine sugar and afterwards as a fertilizer.

xliv

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

It contains from thirty-two to thirty-six per cent phos-
phonie acid.
Where are the mineral phosphates found ?
In the Carolinas and the neighboring states.
How rich in plant food are they?

They contain from eighteen to thirty-two per cent of
phosphoric acid.

Is the phosphoric acid in mineral phosphates soluble
in water?

No, because of the lime combined with it. It is
sometimes treated with sulphuric acid which unites
with lime, leaving less lime with the phosphoric acid
which thus becomes soluble in water.

Why is it desirable to have the phosphate soluble in
water?

Because it distributes itself through the ground
better in this form.

What are treated phosphates called ?

Superphosphates or manufactured phosphates.
Should farmers buy cheap, low-grade fertilizer or a

higher priced brand?

The plant food is really cheaper per pound in the
higher grade fertilizers.

How are farmers protected from dishonest dealers?

The manufacturers are required by law to guarantee
the amount of nitrogen (or ammonia), the available
phosphoric acid and potash that each brand contains;
and this must be stated on each bag offered for sale.

Ot.

92.

93.

94.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xlv

How does lime aid the soil?

Lime changes the physical condition of sandy soils
so as to make them hold water. Some soils may be
deficient in lime.

How does lime affect clays?

It makes clays more mellow. A soil rich in lime
crumbles more easily and is more readily brought into
good condition for crops. It also helps to break up
compounds so as to make their elements available for
plants.

Are there other uses of hme?

Yes. It helps the growth of bacteria. It makes an

acid, or sour, soil sweet.
How is lime applied?
It is drilled and afterward harrowed in.

ROTATION OF CROPS

Do all plants require food in the same proportion ?

No. Different crops vary in their food requirements.
Why should not the same crop be grown continuously

on the same soil?

Such cropping will tend to exhaust certain plant
foods needed by the crop, because some crops make an
especial drain on one element of food.

Do all crops require their food to be in the same simple
form?

xlvi

On

10.

dls,

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Some require the food, especially the mineral matter,
to be in a more soluble form than others.

How do erops differ in their manner of root growth?

Some plants, like wheat, being shallow-rooted, are
surface feeders while others extend their roots deeper.
Why is it wise to rotate deep and shallow-rooted crops?

Because they feed at different depths, and this plan
will not exhaust the soil so quickly.

What other reason for this method?

The deep-rooted crops probably leave near the sur-
face some food procured deeper in the soil.

What is the effect of shallow-rooted crops following
deep-rooted crops?

They always do better.

How does rotation affect the physical condition of the
soil?

Different crops receive different cultivation and the
shortcomings of one crop treatment is corrected by
the next, and thus the soil is kept in better condition.
Does the different manner of rooting affect the soil?

It is well to have the roots of stubble, clover, and
grasses periodically left in the soil to decay. This
improves the texture of the soil.

What effect has rotation on labor?

Rotation distributes the care of crops throughout the
season and thus economizes labor.

What effect has rotation on the kind of labor em-
ployed?

12.

lisy

14.

16.

iNT ip

18.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xlvil

The farmer may keep regular help which is more
reliable and efficient than transient help.
Does rotation affect plant diseases?

Most plant diseases are fungi or bacteria that live
in only one kind of plant. Therefore rotation starves
them out.

What effect has rotation upon insects?

Most insects, like the fungi, have their favorite crops,

and as many of them can live only a few years, they,

too, are starved out by rotation, because they cannot

live till the crop on which they flourish is again sown.
How does rotation affect weeds?

Crops are cultivated differently and also harvested
in different manners and at different times, and this
tends to drive out weeds by striking them at their
weak point.

Does rotation affect insects that migrate?

No, it does not.

If land is badly infested with a certain weed, how can
it be freed from it?

By leaving out of the rotation the particular crop
whose cultivation offers aid to this pest.

What effect has rotation upon the size of crops?

All experiments show much better crop yields where
rotation is practiced.

Can any general rules be given for planning rotation ?

Every rotation should include at least one cultivated
or hoed crop such as corn or potatoes, and one legume.

lean ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

19.

20.

21.

Why is the hoed crop desirable?

It is useful in destroying weeds and improving tilth.
Why should one leguminous crop be included?

Because they are deep-rooted, getting food from the
subsoil; they increase the nitrogen supply in the soil
and leave it more porous.
What general rule may be given for rotation?

The crops should vary as much as possible in their
food requirements, manner of growth, root system, and
in the season during which they occupy the ground.

INSECTS ON THE FARM

How may we identify insects?

Insects have six legs when full-grown.
Suppose the ‘‘bug’’ has eight legs ?

Then it is classed as a spider or its relative, a mite
or a scorpion.
What are sow bugs?

They are bugs, having twelve or more legs, which
live in damp places or in water.
What are centipedes?

Centipedes are many-legged worm-like creatures.
What other qualities or parts has an insect besides six

legs?

Their bodies are divided into three parts: the head;
the thorax, or middle part; and the hind part, or
abdomen.

10.

fd

12.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xlix

How do they migrate?

Some have wings and fly, some jump, and a few
crawl.

Do all insects eat alike?

No, some bite off and chew what they eat, while
others only suck the juices or sap of plants or the blood
of animals.

Do insects have a steady growth?

No, they shed their skins a number of times; and
each new skin soon stretches to two or three times the
size of the old one.

Do the full-grown insects and the young ones look
alike ?

Most full-grown insects look quite different from
their young. The ‘‘grub worm’’ does not resemble its
parent, the June beetle; the caterpillar is very differ-
ent from its parent, the butterfly, or moth.

What are some other illustrations of this difference?

The ‘‘wiggler’’ in the rain barrel is the young of the
mosquito; the maggot is the young of the green or
bluebottle fly, that lays its egg on decaying meat.
Describe the early stages of insect growth?

The egg hatches into a worm-like animal known as
a grub or caterpillar, but more accurately, larvae,
which settles down and spins a home of silk, called a
cocoon.

What shall we find in a cocoon?
An insect covered with an outside skeleton, scarcely

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iW

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

able to move and unable to eat. In this state it is
called a ‘‘pupa.”’
What is the next change?

After a rest in the pupa stage, the animal comes
forth a mature insect.
How do insects breathe?

They have little holes placed along both sides of the
body and through these the air passes in and out.

. Do insects have blood like mammals?

No, their blood is transparent like water and _ is
pushed along through the body not by a beating heart,
but by the beating of a large vein or artery which lies
along the back.

Where is its brain?

The brain of the insect is not all in one place, but
scattered in knots or bunches along the principal
nerve situated near the lower side in the middle of
the body.

Have insects bones? ‘

No, their skeletons are on the outside of their bodies.
Are any of them warm blooded?

No, they are cold blooded and can freeze without
being killed.

Where do they live through the winter?

They hibernate; that is, a great many kinds live
through winter hidden away among old grass or under
stones, fallen leaves, logs or loose bark, and in the
ground.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

20.

26.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS li

Does freezing injure the young and the eggs of the
insects ?

No, the young and the eggs can be frozen solid and
not be injured.

How long do insects generally live?

Some kinds live longer than others, raising several
generations, but insects generally die soon after laying
their eggs.

Do they live to rear their young?

A great many die even before their eggs hatch. A
few, like the queen bee, live much longer and even
take some care of their young.

Do insects need much food?

Some insects eat all the time while growing, never
going to sleep. They stop to rest only long enough to
shed their skins.

How many times their own weight may insects eat ?

Such kinds as live on flesh have been known to eat
two hundred times their own weight of food in a
single day.

Do caterpillars grow rapidly?

Certain kinds may increase in size ten thousand
times inside of thirty days.
How widely are insects found?

In all countries at all times of the year. They are
found in our homes, gardens, and fields; in the air,
water, and the earth; both within and upon the bodies
of animals.

li

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Are they ever useful to mankind?

Some gather honey, fertilize flowers, and make wax.
Others spin silk, and some clean away dead animals.
What proportion of all animal life do insects form?

They form about nine-tenths of all the animal life
upon the earth.

Name some insects that are man’s friends?

Bees, wasps, ichneumon flies, flesh flies, dragon flies,
tiger beetles, burying beetles, ladybirds, and silkworms
are helpful to man.

Of what use are bumblebees?

They gather honey and pollen, and while doing this
help to fertilize plants by carrying pollen from one to
the other. Red clover would not grow in New Zealand
until bumblebees were taken there to fertilize the
clover.

Are there other useful bees?

Yes, a large number of other kinds of wild bees have
their favorite flowers which they cross-fertilize as they
gather honey.

Are there many kinds of wasps?

cc Dt Bal 5

There are ‘‘yellow jackets, mud daubers,’’ hor-

nets, and many other kinds.

Of what use to man are hornets and ‘‘yellow jackets’’?
They often catch large numbers of biting flies, like

the house fly and those that worry our cattle.

What useful work is done by other wasps?

Some feed their young upon caterpillars; other kinds

30.

36.

37.

38.

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40.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS hi

eat grasshoppers and still others devour cicadas and
the lke.
In what ways are ichneumon flies our friends?

There are hundreds of kinds of them and they at-
tack other insects in vast numbers.
How do flesh flies serve us?

They attack dead animal flesh by laying eggs that
hatch into maggots, and these eat the flesh that might
otherwise spread disease.

Is this the only work of flesh flies?

No, many of these flies have the habit of laying their
eggs upon the bodies of caterpillars, grasshoppers, and
plant lice. The eggs hatch and kill their hosts.

What other names are given to dragon flies?

They have been called ‘‘snake feeders’’ and ‘‘darn-
ing needles’? by people who did not know much about
their ways of living.

What habits have dragon flies that are helpful to us?

They eat all kinds of mosquitoes, gnats, and small
flies.

What are robber flies?

They are long-bodied, strong-legged flies with faces
covered with stiff whiskers, and they make a loud
buzzing noise as they fly. Some are as large as bum-
blebees.

Why should we look upon them as friends?

They kill grasshoppers and many other kinds of

insects, though they like grasshoppers best.

44.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

as What is another name for locust?

Short-horned grasshopper.

. Why are locusts enemies of man?

Because they feed on plants and most of the plants
are useful to man.

Where do they lay their eggs?

They lay their eggs, from two dozen to a hundred
at a time, in the ground, usually in the late summer
or early fall.

How may the farmer destroy them?

By disking or harrowing in the fall, winter, or
spring.

Do crickets and katydids do much harm to crops?

No, they seldom become humerous enough to do seri-
ous harm.

What kinds of insects suck blood and sap instead of
biting their food?

Some are called cicadas; others, leaf and tree hop-
pers; and still others, lice and plant lice.

Are they all harmful?

Most of them are either enemies of man or of domes-
tic animals or of plants that are useful to man.
Name some insects with sucking mouths.

Lice and bedbugs, squashbug and chinch bug and the
like.

What are cicadas?

They are wrongly called locusts. One kind lives for
sixteen years underground, sucking the sap from roots.

51.

D2

53.

54.

5d.

56.

57.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lv

The seventeenth year they come to the surface, get
wings, lay eggs on the twigs of trees and die. The egg
hatch and the young drop to the ground and dig down
to live as their parents did for another sixteen years.
How do the treehoppers and leafhoppers live?

They live on sap. Some of them have such queer
faces that they have been called brownie bugs.

Are there many kinds?

There are hundreds of different kinds, and each one
seems to be the enemy of some one kind of plant. There
is scarcely a blade of grass or a weed or a cultivated
plant but has several working on it.

What is the most common of the injurious beetles ?

The ‘‘Junebug’’ or ‘‘Maybeetle,’’ whose young are
the grubworms found in the ground.
What plants do they attack?

Sometimes they attack in great numbers our fruit
and shade trees, eating blossoms, leaves, and fruit.
How shall one fight the cabbage worm ?

Cabbage worms are the young of a small white but-
terfly. Paris green on young plants will destroy many
young or larvae. Birds kill many.

What is one of the worst pests of the farmer?

The chinch bug. It has caused a loss of $4,000,000
in one year in one state.

What means are taken to fight it?

Their winter quarters are destroyed by burning dry
grass, leaves, and rubbish in fields and fence rows.

lvi

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Does not the chinch bug have wings?

Yes, but it seldom uses them, usually traveling afoot.
What other method is used to fight them?

A deep furrow is plowed around the field for them
to fall into, where they may be destroyed by spraying
with kerosene emulsion.

What is the plant louse?

It is a tiny insect that multiplies very fast. It gives
off a sweetish fluid of which ants are very fond. Ants
are said to protect and care for them for the sake of
milking them.

How may one fight the plant louse?

Since they suck their food, poison sprays will not
kill them. They must be sprayed with kerosene emul-
sion or strong soapsuds.

Will poisons kill the squash bug?

No, about the only way to destroy them is to pick
them by hand.

How shall we protect melons and cucumbers from these
bugs?

By planting squashes alongside and picking the bugs
from the squashes where they gather.

What plant is chiefly attacked by the Hessian fly ?

The Hessian fly does more damage to wheat than all
the other insects together.

What method is used to fight the Hessian fly ?

All stubble and trash are burned to kill the winter-
ing insects.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

ok.

72.

73.

74.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lvii

What is the San José scale?

It is one of the most dreaded enemies of fruit trees.
What is the nature of it?

It is small and multiplies very =apidly.

What precautions are advisable?

Never bring in new trees without making sure that
they are free from this scale.

What shall we do if they are already in?

Prevent spreading by spraying thoroughly with a
fire-boiled lime-sulphur mixture.

What crop does the codling moth attack?

The apple crop. Sometimes seventy-five per cent of
the crop is lost through this pest. A loss of $3,000,000
a year has been caused by it in New York state.

How shall we fight the codling moth?

By destroying orchard trash, spraying the trees with
Paris green as soon as the blossoms fall, and trapping
the worms with cloth bands wrapped around the tree
trunks.

What is the chief enemy of the plum tree?

The plum curculio.

How does it injure the crop?

It injures the plum by stinging it and depositing an
egg from which a maggot-like larva soon hatches and
burrows through the fruit, causing it to drop to the
ground before it is ripe.

What then becomes of the larva?
It burrows several inches into the ground, then it

lvili

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

becomes a pupa and at last a beetle that comes forth to
winter in cracks and crevices.
How can the plum ecurculio be destroyed ?

One remedy is to spray the trees twice with a mix-
ture of two pounds of arsenate of lead and three
pounds of lime in fifty gallons of water.

What injury does the cankerworm ?

Cankerworms devour the leaves of an orchard, de-
stroying the crop and doing permanent injury to the
tree.

How may one fight the cankerworm ?

By protecting and furnishing needed food to the
common birds, nearly all of which feed upon this pest.
The chickadee will devour thirty female cankerworm
moths a day.

What other remedy is there?

As the female moth cannot fly, the tree may be pro-
tected by smoothing the bark and fitting close to it a
band of paper over which is smeared something sticky,
like printer’s ink or tanglefoot.

How can the apple-tree tent caterpillar be destroyed?

By burning the nests with torches at dusk when all
the worms are inside. Care must be exercised not to
burn the tender young branches of the tree by allow-
ing the flame to approach them too closely.

What else may be done?

Encourage birds and spray the trees.

What are insecticides?

oa)
tw

83.

84.

86.

87.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lix

Insecticides are substances that are used to poison
insects.

How many classes of insecticides are there?

There are three: internal poisons, contact poisons,
and fumigation poisons.
What are internal poisons?

They are food or internal poisons like Paris green,
London purple, or lead arsenate, which are used to kill
insects that chew their food.

What are contact poisons and how applied?

They are poisons, such as oil and caustic alkalies
which are used to kill sucking insects. They destroy
the body of the insect, such as the San José scale.
What are fumigation poisons ?

They are substances that enter the breathing pores
of the insect and cause death by poison or suffocation.
What is the Bordeaux mixture ?

It is a fungicide used everywhere to reduce damage
done to fruits and vegetables by fungi. There are sev-
eral formulas for different purposes of spraying, but
the standard Bordeaux mixture is: 6 pounds copper
sulphate (bluestone), and 4 pounds of lime to 50 gal-
lons of water.

If this mixture injures the foliage of the trees, how is
the formula altered ?

The peach Bordeaux mixture may be used: 3 pounds
copper sulphate and 9 pounds of lime to 50 gallons
of water.

Ibs

88.

89.

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fhe

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

What is the color of the Bordeaux mixture?

When properly prepared it has a sky-blue color. If
the lime used is not fresh the mixture has a greenish
color which indicates that more lime is needed.

Is it possible to mix and use an insecticide with the

Bordeaux mixture?

Yes, this is often done when internal poisons lke
Paris green, London purple or arsenate of lead are
used. They may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at
the rate of one-fourth pound to 50 gallons of Bordeaux.
What are lime and sulphur preparations used for?

They are much used to destroy scale insects, acting
both as a fungicide and insecticide.

Give a common preparation of lime and sulphur.

Fresh lime, 15 to 80 pounds; flowers of sulphur, 15
pounds; common salt, 10 pounds; water enough to
make 50 gallons.

What is said of kerosene preparations?

They should be applied to plants with great caution,
but they are very efficient in fighting certain injurious
insects.

How is kerosene emulsion made?

Dissolve one-half pound of naptha soap in one gal-
lon of water, add two gallons of kerosene and thor-
oughly mix. Dilute by adding water. Use for scale
and other sucking insects that can not be destroyed by
the use of poisons.

What is Paris green used for?

96.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xi

It is a standard poison for all insects that bite and
swallow their food.

What caution is needed in using it?

It needs constant stirring to keep the poison from
settling in the vessel.
How is it mixed?

It is used at the rate of about 4 ounces to 50 gallons
of water and some lime is often added to prevent harm
to the foliage.

What is arsenate of lead ?

It is often used instead of Paris green, because it is
lighter and so remains suspended better. It also ad-
heres to the foliage better.

WEEDS
What is a weed?

Any plant growing out of place or where it is not
wanted is a weed. Rye growing in a wheat field or
wheat growing in a field of corn is an injury to the
crop and may be regarded as a weed.

How are weeds harmful?

In many ways. They use moisture and plant food
needed by the crop, they shade and crowd out other
plants, they increase the cost of tillage and harvesting
and decrease the value of grain for market.

Can a farmer ignore weeds?

No farmer can make a success of his business until

he learns how to fight weeds effectively.

]xii

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

How do weeds get into our fields?

Some weed seeds remain in the soil for several years
and retain their vitality, some are carried by wind, by
water, by birds, by animals, by machinery, or in seed
grain or grass seed.

What is one essential in controlling weeds?

To know the common weeds and their habits and
thus to take advantage of their weak points.
Are there a great many very troublesome weeds?

Not a great number, and it is not a difficult matter to
know them both as seeds and as young or mature
plants.

How great is the loss from weeds?

It is hard to estimate, but weeds cost many times as
much as do all the schools of the country.
What are annual weeds?

Those that produce seeds in one year and die.
What are some of the annual weeds?

Pigeon grass, wild oats, wild barley, mustard, corn
eockle, cocklebur, ragweed, ete.

Which is the most common ?

Pigeon grass, or foxtail, which is very troublesome
on poor soils and in cornfields after cultivation has
ceased.

How shall one fight this pest ?

It is well to plant rape, grain or clover just before
the last cultivation of corn, and the growth of this crop
will hold back the pigeon grass and other weeds.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

life

18.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Lxiil

How is mustard identified?

It has yellow blossoms with four petals and round
black seed.

Where is mustard likely to be found?

It is very common in grain fields and it is very hard
to get rid of.

Why is mustard hard to kill?

Because the seed will live for five years or more in
the soil. Ifthe main stem is cut off by binder or mower
before the seeds are ripe, side branches grow out
quickly and mature seed.

What is the best way to fight mustard?

By spraying with a three per cent solution of copper
sulphate or a twenty per cent solution of iron sulphate
before the mustard pods form.

What about wild oats?

They ripen earlier than most grain and, the seeds
fall to the ground, where they may live from two to
four years and still grow.

Is it difficult to rid the fields of wild oats?

If they get a start in a field devoted to grain it is
almost impossible to get them out unless the fields are
put to corn, so that cultivation may kill them.

What is wild barley or squirrel-tail like ?

This troublesome annual is a fine grass-like plant
growing in bunches along roadsides and in old meadows
and pastures. It has soft, drooping heads with long
beards.

lxiv

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20.

at.

22.

23.

24.

25.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

How may wild barley be eradicated ?

By breaking up the field and planting corn two or
three years and then reseeding to pasture or meadow.
Will a few weed seeds in seed grain do much harm?

Yes, if there are weed seeds in grain that cannot be
cleaned out it should not be used, but clean seed should
be procured.

What other rules may be suggested for keeping weeds
off the farm?

Insisting that the threshing machine be well cleaned
before it moves to the farm; never feeding stock
troublesome weeds, as some seeds pass through undi-
gested; preventing all weeds from seeding.

What effect has rotation of crops on weeds?

It is the best remedy for controlling annuals.
Wil! stock help to destroy weeds?

Yes, especially in stubble fields. Sheep are par-
ticularly helpful, as they eat many kinds of weeds and
eat them so close to the ground that they cannot seed.
What other treatment may be given stubble fields?

Disking them soon after harvest kills many and
covers others.

Are there any crops that are specially helpful in de-
stroying weeds?

Quick-growing crops, like barley and millet, may be
sown late, giving a chance to cultivate well before seed-
ing. They grow thickly and ripen early, thus giving
the weeds a poor chance.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lxv

What are biennial weeds?

They are those that grow from seed one year, live
over winter, mature seed the second year, then die.
What are the most troublesome biennials?

Thistles and burdocks.

What are the kinds of thistles?

The bull thistle, or common thistle; the Canada
thistle; and the sow or milk thistle. The last two are
perennials.

Which most need to be guarded against?

The Canada and sow thistles are very bad. No farm-
ers should allow the Canada thistle to get a start.
Where does the burdock grow?

The burdock is found in pastures, waste places, and
along the roadside.

How is the burdock most easily identified ?

By the nearly round bur with its many little spines
which enable it to cling to clothing or the hair or wool
of animals.

How may one eradicate biennials?

By preventing them from seeding. It is best to cut
them off just below the ground with a spade to prevent
branches from starting.

What are perennial weeds?

They grow both from seeds and from roots which
remain in the ground over winter. Breaking up the
roots and spreading the pieces is just planting so many
new weeds, for every joint will grow.

Ixvi
34.

30.

36.

37.

39.

40.

41.

42.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

What are the worst perennials?

Morning glory, curled dock, Canada thistle, and sow
thistle.

Describe the curled dock.

It grows about two feet high from underground root-
stalks and has long, narrow leaves. It is commonly
found in low, moist places.

How is it best handled?

By good drainage, cultivation, and rotation of crops.
Why are morning glories a nuisance on the farm?

They twine about crop plants and choke them. These
weeds spread by underground root stalks and ordinary
cultivation and rotation will not kill them.

How may they be killed?

By persistent hoeing, so as to keep all leaves cut off,
allowing none to appear above ground.
What distinguishes the sow thistle?

It is smooth leaved with yellow blossoms, and it some-
times practically takes possession of whole fields. Its
seeds are blown about and it spreads easily, both in this
way and by root stalks.

How does the Canada thistle spread ?

In the same manner as the sow thistle.

What means are used to kill the Canada thistle?

Large stalks may be killed by cutting them off when
in bloom. The stems are hollow and rain running dowr
the hollow stems causes the roots to decay.

How may perennials be exterminated ?

43,

bo

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lxvli

If the patch is small the roots may be dug up, or it
may be smothered with tar paper, because no plant
can live if the leaves are kept in the dark away from
the sunlight.

How else may they be smothered ?
By a thick covering of straw or manure.

THE ORCHARD

. What is the most popular and widely-grown fruit?

The apple is most widely known and prized, but it
does not, cover so great a range of latitude as some
others.

What are some of the leading apple states?

New York, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Ore-
gon, and Washington.

What soils does the apple require ?

It thrives on a great variety of soils, but when
planted in large areas for profit it becomes necessary
to select those soils that give the best results.

What are some of the soil qualities desirable?

A deep soil of gravelly loam, rich in plant food,
with porous subsoil free from hardpan. Apple trees
cannot thrive in a poorly-drained soil.

How shall one select his nursery trees?

They should be free from obnoxious insects and
fungous diseases. The Government inspection is not
always a sufficient guarantee of this.

xvii ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

6.

#10.

ne

12.

What slope is most desirable for fruit?

The north slope and east slope are generally con-
sidered best because they are shielded from the warm
sun. The trees therefore do not blossom so early and
are less liable to be caught by late frosts.

. What may be said in favor of a south slope?

Fruit on the south slope has a deeper color, though
it is usually smaller than that grown on the north
slope because the south slope is drier from evapora-
tion.

What soil preparation is necessary for a fruit orchard?

The soil preparation should be made as carefully
for fruit as for a corn crop, so that the roots of the
trees may grow far and wide for food.

What is required as to drainage?

Thorough drainage must be provided because an
orchard should not be too wet.
Shall one import trees?

No, they should be purchased as near home as pos-
sible, so they will be accustomed to the climate.
What season is proper for planting?

Trees may be planted either in the fall or spring.
What rule may be given for the distance between

trees?

It is common practice to plant apples 30 to 40 feet
apart each way; pears, 20 to 30 feet; quinces, 10 to
12 feet; plums, 15 to 20 feet; sweet cherries, 15 to 25
feet; and peaches, 15 to 20 feet apart each way.

13.

14.

15.

16.

1,

18.

19,

20.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |xix

What advantage is there in straight rows?

Straight rows not only improve the appearance of
an orchard, but they make tillage easier.

What is the reason for pruning the tops of nursery
stock ?

Many of the roots have been destroyed in trans-
planting, so the tops should be cut back proportion-
ately that there may not be a shortage of food. If
the top is left there will be greater demand for plant
food than the roots can supply.

How large a hole is needed for planting?

The hole must be large enough to accommodate the
roots in their natural position. They should not be
bent or crowded together.

How should the soil be arranged about the tree?

The soil must be packed firmly about the roots, so
they can begin to draw plant food at once.
What directions are given about the surface?

The surface of the soil about the tree should be
loose to act as a mulch to prevent evaporation.
What is a common mistake in planting trees?

Leaving the soil about the roots loose and packing
the surface hard.

Why is this bad practice?

It is favorable to the evaporation of the moisture
needed by the plants, and the drying of the soil kills
the young tree.

Why is tillage of an orchard advisable?

lxx

21.

22.

23.

24.

26.

27.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Tillage improves the soil. saves moisture, and sets
ffee plant food.

What proportion of fruit is water?

More than ninety per cent of most fruit is water.

Is it wise to grow any other crop in the orchard?

Trees make a heavy demand on plant food, and un-
less the soil is very rich it is unwise to grow any other
crop.

What fertilizer may an orchard need?

It needs humus, which may be supplied by barn-
yard manure. It may need nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash.

What are the purposes of pruning?

To give the tree an attractive shape and to keep
limbs from interfering with one another. Also to pro-
vide air and light for all parts of the tree.

5. What different effects have winter and summer

pruning?

Winter pruning encourages the growth of wood,
while summer pruning encourages the production of
fruit.

Upon what does the market price of fruit largely
depend ?

Upon how well the fruit is graded and how attrac-
tively it is packed.

What is meant by grading fruit?

When they are separated into piles of like sizes and

packed separately.

28.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lxxi

Why is the peach harder to grow than the apple?
Because it is more easily injured by frost.

CORN

What effect would a more careful selection of seed
corn have upon the crop?

It is believed that by more scientific selection of seed
the crop in any state in the Union could be made to
yield from five to twenty bushels per acre more than
it now yields.

Is judging corn a difficult lesson to learn?

By no means. By learning the desirable points of
a good ear a little experience will make one a proficient
corn judge.

How may one select a well developed ear?

Only the best developed ears are filled out at the
tips.

What kind of kernels are desirable?

Uniform and rectangular kernels.
How are such kernels secured ?

By selecting only ears with straight rows and by
discarding the kernels at both tip and butt.

Why do we wish all kernels to be uniform in size and
shape?

Because most farmers plant with a machine and
wish to plant three kernels in a hill. If the kernels
are irregular in size and shape the machine will not
plant evenly.

Ixxll

LO:

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12.

13.

14.

ELEMENTARY AGKLCULTURE

Why is it desirable to plant large kernels?

The larger kernel contains a larger amount of food
material to sustain the early growth and thus a more
vigorous plant results.

Can one tell by looking at an ear of corn whether cr
not the kernels will sprout?

No, the only way is to test it. If the farmer takes
ten kernels from one ear and they all sprout it is a
good ear for seed.

What is a corn grader?

Graders are machines that sift out the small grains
or kernels that grow on the tips of the cob and the
large, irregular ones that grow on the butt.

Is it advisable for a farmer to own one?

_ A corn grader costs about $10, and it will soon pay
for itself if the farmer plants fair-sized corn crops.
What land is best fitted for corn?

Land that grew clover, alfalfa, cow peas or grass
the preceding year.

Why is clover or grassland best for corn?

Because it has much vegetable matter left in the
soil and this is good for the crop.

If there is neither clover nor grassland to be had for
corn, what then?

Choose well-drained land, manure heavily, and disk
it in well.

When is the best time to plow for corn?

Usually in the fall.

15.

17.

18.

19:

20.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS lxxill

What treatment should fall-plowed land have in the
spring?
_ It should be thoroughly disked before planting to
corn.
How early should one plant?
As a rule, corn is planted in May as early as the
soil can well be prepared.
Is it desirable to plant earlier in wet soil?
No, because the corn will not sprout in cold, wet soil,
but will rot.
What is the most common mistake in planting corn?
Planting too deep. Corn cannot be made to root
deep by planting deep.

What are some of the reasons for cultivating?

Keeping down weeds, preventing evaporation, and
furnishing air to the soil.
How do corn roots grow?

In a dry soil corn roots will grow nearly straight
down while in a heavy or more moist soil they spread
out near the surface of the ground.

How deep shall one cultivate?

Shallow cultivation is usually best, for one should
not break off the roots that are feeding the plant.
Which is better—a cultivator, with two or several

shovels?

A cultivator with four or five small shovels on a
side is better unless the corn is very weedy, in which
ease larger shovels will better destroy the weeds.

Tey ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

What device is often better than shovels, especially for
weeds ?

In place of shovels two or more knives or blades that
run an inch or two below the surface, separating the
surface soil and cutting the weeds.

What advantage has the check planter?

In weedy soil it enables the farmer to cultivate both
ways and destroy all weeds.

What is the best method of securing seed corn ?

A farmer will get the best results by selecting the
seed from his own farm.

Is there any variety adapted to all latitudes?

No, each section, even each locality, has varieties
that have adapted themselves to that particular region
and it is unwise to import seed corn from a distance.
How may one develop an early variety?

By selecting for seed, year after year, the ears that
ripen first.

Shall one select seed from a load of husked corn or
from the bin?

It is better to select seed corn in the field, because
the stalks must be considered as well as the ear.
Usually good ears come from good plants, but a good
ear that comes from a stalk that bears two ears is to
be preferred for seed.

What are qualities to look for in the ear?

The ear must be firm and solid to the touch and the

kernels should not be loose on the cob. Loose kernels

30.

31,

33.

34.

30.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xxv

indicate immature ears and these do not germinate
readily. The rows on the cob need to be straight and
the kernels flat, as round grains leave space of cob
uncovered. The tips should be well filled out.

Why should seed corn be dried before cold weather?

Because if corn is not thoroughly dry, freezing in-
jures the seed germ.

How may seed be treated in order to dry well?

It should be stored in a room so the air may cir-
culate about it freely. Often the heat of a stove or
furnace is used to assist in the drying operation.
What good storage place is suggested ?

In the attic over the kitchen with windows open.
Why is the loft over the stable, where stock is kept, a

poor place for seed corn?

Because the steam and breath from the animals will
keep the corn moist enough to greatly reduce its
vitality.

Is it wise to leave seed corn in a pile?

It should not be piled over eight or ten inches deep.
as it hinders a free circulation of air about it.

What are some of the devices used in drying corn?

”? which is merely an up-

Some use the ‘‘corn tree,
right post with headless nails slightly driven in. An
ear of corn is easily stuck on each nail by jamming it
into the pith at the butt of the ear. This holds it
horizontally apart from the other ears. Other farm-

ers use a wall thickly driven with nails.

lxxvl ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

What portion of the world’s corn crop is produced in

America ?

Over three-fourths is grown in the United States.
Nearly half the world’s crop is grown in the Corn
Belt: Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, In-
diana, and Ohio.

How does a full crop of corn compare in food value
with a crop of other grains?

A full crop of corn may produce twice the amount
of food furnished by other grains.

What was the Indian method of planting corn?

They planted four grains in a hill four feet each
way and taught this method to the early colonists.
At what distance is corn generally planted now?

Most of the corn in the Corn Belt is planted three
feet eight inches apart each way, with two to four
kernels per hill.

Does it pay to own a corn harvester?

They are very convenient, but not profitable unless
one has a considerable area to cut.

What is the more general way of harvestirg corn?

More corn is husked from the standing stalks in the
fields than is harvested in any other way.

Are silos in general use in the United States?

They have come into common use in the dairy sec-

tions in the past fifteen years.

. What advantage comes from the use of the silo?

It prevents much of the loss of food and makes both

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Ixxvii

the feed and the manure easier to handle. Silage or

ensilage is more palatable than fodder and stock will

eat more of it.

How does silage compare with fodder for milk pro-
duction ?

The same amount of corn in the silo will produce
more milk than it will if fed as fodder, and as silage
it is all eaten by the cows.

By what principle is the food preserved green in the
silo?

The principle is the same as that of canning fruit.
The silage heats very hot and begins to decay, which
uses up the air in the silo, changing it to carbon
dioxide. When the air in the silo is exhausted the
decay ceases and the bacteria die. The silage will
then keep indefinitely, provided no more air can get in.
What is the best building material for a silo?

Any kind of material may be used; cement, stone, or
brick; but they are all more expensive than wood.
What is the chief essential ?

That the silo be air-tight at the sides and bottom.
The deeper the silo the cheaper the construction for a
given capacity and the better the silage keeps, because
that in the bottom is packed harder.

When should corn be cut for the silo?

When the kernels are glazed and the lower leaves
have begun to die.

For what animals is silage used as a feed?

ieeeaaa ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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51,

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53.

Its chief use is for feeding dairy animals. Though
it is good for sheep and fattening cattle, it is not often
so used. It is not fed to horses.

Is there reason in the prejudice against silage milk?

No, if the silage is in good condition there is no un-
pleasant flavor in the milk, and the user in many cases
prefers the silage milk.

To what different uses is corn put?

The chief use of corn is as food for farm animals;
a large amount is used as human food; it is also made
into alcohol, whiskey, glucose, cornstarch, and corn
oil.

How much pork will a bushel of corn produce?

From ten to eleven pounds of pork may be pro-
duced from a bushel of corn.

What proportion of the American corn crop is ex-
ported ?

Less than two per cent is exported.

WHEAT

Why is the price of wheat higher than that of other
grains?
Because it is more highly valued as human food

than are the other grains.

. Are the food elements of wheat superior to that of

other grains?

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS josS-:

No, chemically wheat does not seem to be superior,
but it has certain elements that make it more palatable
and healthful.

How does the wheat crop of North America compare
with that of Europe?

Kurope produces twice as much wheat as North
America.

How can Europe compete with America in the world’s
market ?

Europe secures about twice the yield per acre, and
so is able to compete with the great wheat farms of
our country.

What is the difference between wheat adapted to humid
regions and that of drier regions?

The wheat of humid regions is a soft variety, while
that of drier climates is hard.

What makes possible the ‘‘bonanza’’ wheat farms?

Wheat lends itself to machine-farming better than
most other crops, and this makes very large farms
profitable.

Why does wheat thrive farther north than corn?

It is better adapted to short seasons and completes
its growth before the severest summer droughts occur.
A drought late in summer is injurious to corn.

. What soils are well adapted to wheat growing?

Wheat will grow on a variety of soils, but does best
on clay loams and clays. These are not the best soils
for corn.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Whick is the better paying crop, wheat or corn, when
the land is suitable to either?
The corn crop is more profitable.
How much wheat is sown to the acre?
From six to eight pecks.
What uses has wheat other than the flour used in mak-
ing bread?
Breakfast foods, paste, starch, and macaroni and
food for animals.

POTATOES

Whence came the potato?

It is a native of South America and was carried to
Europe by the early explorers.

Why is it sometimes called the Irish potato?

It was early introduced into Ireland, where it be-
came the staple food plant. Great famines resulted
there from potato crop failure.

What is the part of the plant that we eat called?

A tuber.

What is a tuber?

A root plant like the carrot is a development of the
root, but the potato is not a root: it is an enlarged
underground stem called a tuber.

Are rootlets ever attached to the potato tuber?
No, rootlets grow from other roots and the tuber

is not a root.

10.

i005

12.

13.

14.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Ixxxi

Why should a fair-sized piece of the potato be left
with the ‘‘eye’’ when planted?

The young plant must have food to sustain it until
it can send its roots down and its leaves into the sun-
light.

How deep are the seedpieces planted ?

From two to five inches, according to the soil.

Why do not some growers hill up their plants?

Level culture wastes less moisture by evaporation
than does hilling.

When should potatoes be harvested ?

The early ones should be dug as soon as they are
large enough for market. Late varieties are left until
the vines are dead and dug when the ground is dry.
What is the average yield in the United States?

About eighty-five bushels to the acre. Under ideal
conditions from three hundred to five hundred bushels
to the acre is not uncommon.

What are the early enemies of the potato plant?

The first enemies are the fleabeetles, which appear
as soon as the plant is above ground.
How are they checked ?

By spra*ing with Paris green, combined with the
Bordeaux mixture.

How may one identify the Colorado potato beetle?

It has a black and yellow coat when mature.
How is it checked?

By the same means as the fleabeetles.

laeaas ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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16.

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18.

49.

20.

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22.

23.

What diseases often check the growing crop?

The early blight usually appears in June. The late

blight is more serious.
How is blight checked ?

By spraying with the Bordeaux mixture.
How may the potato scab be prevented ?

By soaking the seed potatoes in a three per cent
solution of formaldehyde for one or two hours.
What are the uses of the potato?

It is used largely for human food, but it is good food
for stock, either raw or cooked.

How does the potato crop compare with grain or hay
as to labor?

It requires a greater amount of labor per acre, and,
as a rule, yields a much larger income.

How do they compare in cost of production ?

It costs about $25 an acre to produce potatoes; alout
$9 per acre for wheat, and about $7 for hay.

What are some of the difficulties in raising potatoes?

They are a bulky crop and expensive to market,
especially if it is a long haul to the station.

Compare the keeping qualities of potatoes with grain.

Potatoes are a perishable crop and cannot be held
over for high prices as can grain or hay. Potatoes
must be protected from the cold in winter.

What effect have potatoes on the soil ?

About the same effect as corn. By thorough culti-

vation they give an opportunity to destroy weeds, to

24.

26.

27.

28.

7B

30.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWETS [xxxili

conserve moisture, and to aid the decay of vegetable

matter in the soil.

How may the best prices be obtained by the farmer
for potatoes?

It is better to raise one variety in large quantities
than several varieties, so as to ship in unmixed ecarload
lots.

How can farmers codperate in raising potatoes?

The farmers in one locality could well choose one or
two varieties that suit their soil and all raise these
same varieties so as to ship together in unmixed ear-
loads.

When is the time to select seed potatoes?

In the fall, when the crop is being dug, if one wishes
to improve the variety; otherwise it tends to run out.
What is a guide in selecting seed?

Select only from hills that yield from five to eight
good-sized potatoes, of even size, discarding those hills
that have any very large or very small potatoes in
them.

Why not simply select seed from the bin?

Because the good-looking potato chosen from the
bin may have grown on a plant that had many other
small ones, and the tendency of the seed is to produce
like the parent plant.

How many seed potatoes are required per acre?

About ten bushels.

How does sprouting injure seed potatoes?

]xxxiv

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

It uses up part of the food stored for the young
plant and leaves the seed less vigorous.

Why can a farmer afford to spend more time prepar-
ing an acre of ground for potatoes than for grain?
Because a fair crop of potatoes should net $40 per

acre, while grain is worth about $10 per acre.

Why should potatoes be planted early?

They should be planted in April or early May, so
they will have a chance to grow before the dry hot
weather comes.

How long should cultivation continue ?

Until the vines cover the ground in order to keep
down weeds and check evaporation.

COTTON

Whence came the cotton plant?

It was cultivated in the Old World in the earliest
historic times. It was also cultivated in Mexico and
South America before Columbus discovered this con-
tinent.

When was cotton introduced into the American
colonies ?

The colony of Virginia first began cotton culture
in 1621.

How did the invention of the cotton gin help the cot-
ton industry of the world?

It greatly increased the profits of cotton raising.

On

10.

11.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |xxxv

What is the chief cotton-growing country?

Nearly two-thirds of the world’s crop is grown in
twelve of our Southern states.

What other countries produce large amounts?

India, Egypt, Russia, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru,
Persia, and Turkey.

What may be said of the importance of the cotton
plant?

Cotton is by far the most important fiber crop of
the world.

How is thread woven from cotton fiber ?

The fibers of the common cotton are only about an
inch long, but they become crooked and wavy as they
ripen, and this causes them to cling together well to
form thread when put through the spinning process.
What are the different types of cotton?

The cotton grown in this country is chiefly of three
kinds: Common or short-staple upland cotton, long-
staple upland, and sea-island cotton.

Why is sea-island cotton so called?

It originated in the West India islands. It grows
well on islands and on the mainland within one hun-
dred miles of the coast.

What makes the sea-island cotton valuable ?

The fibers are long and of value in making spool
cotton thread.

How may cotton growers improve their cotton?

By selecting seed from heavy yielding plants.

Ixxxvl

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

How else may the yield be increased ?

By proper fertilizer, good rotations, and early plant-
ing.

When is the best time to select the seed?

Just before and during the second picking; bolls
should be selected from thrifty plants with compact
erowth of branches.

Why should the soil for cotton be deep?

The plant has a tap root and is a deep feeder.
What bearing has this tap root upon drainage?

It makes good drainage necessary.

How may the soil be kept up where cotton is grown
year after year on the same fields?

It is then well to grow a crop of green manure be-
tween the rows to be plowed under in the fall or the
next spring. Such crops might be cowpeas, peanuts
or soy beans.

Why is it bad practice to burn the stalks?

The soil needs them to replace the humus taken out
by the crop.

How then may the stalks be disposed of ?

They should be cut up with a stalk cutter or broken
to pieces and plowed under.

What is the best method of keeping up the fertility of
cotton fields?

The cottonseeds or their equivalent should be re-
turned to the soil. The best method is to feed the seed
to stock and scatter the stable manuye over the field.

29.

26.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Ixxxvil

How much fertilizer may be substituted for each one
hundred pounds of cottonseed ?
Three pounds of nitrogen, onc pound of phosphoric
acid and one and one-fourth pounds of potash.

. What is the best method of supplying the nitrogen?

Growing legumes and plowing them under as green
manure.

What element are cotton fields likely to need?

Phosphoric acid.

What is the planting time?

About two weeks after the last killing frost.
What distance is allowed between the plants?

The rows are from three and one-half to four feet
apart and the plants twelve to eighteen inches apart.
How much seed is allowed per acre?

From one to one and one-half bushels per acre to
insure a good stand of plants.

What cultivation is needful?

The cultivation should be frequent and shallow
until about time for picking to begin. A crust should
not even then be allowed to form.

What is a good yield of cotton?

The most productive fields will grow two bales per
acre, but the average of the cotton belt is only two
hundred pounds, or two-fifths of a bale, per acre.
What good is being done by Government demonstra-

tion farms?

The cotton yield in Louisiana, due to United States

Cees ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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31.

32.

33.

34.

demonstration methods, was increased from three hun-

dred and eighty to seven hundred and sixty pounds

per acre, all of which resulted from using better

methods in cotton production.

What mistake is sometimes made in storing the bales
of cotton?

The bales are too often exposed to the weather with- .
out shelter for months, and this may darken and
weaken the outer layers and lower the selling price of
the entire bale.

What are some by-products of cotton?

The chief by-product is cottonseed oil, extracted
from the seed. The oil is used in making salad oils,
cottolene, oleomargarine, soaps and other articles. The
part left after the oil is taken out is ground into meal
and fed to stock, chiefly dairy cows.

From what diseases may the cotton crop suffer?

From cotton wilt, cotton rust, and cotton root knot,
all of which may be avoided by a proper rotation with
corn, wheat, and legumes.

What are the insect enemies of cotton?

Two insects, the bollweevil and the bollworm, do
most of the harm to the cotton crop.

How may the grower best guard against the ravages
of the weevils?

By forcing the crop to mature early.

How may early maturity be hastened ?
(a) Preparing the soil early and thoroughly.

Oo.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |xxxix

(b) Planting early, using plenty of seed.

(c) Cultivating often during the growing season.

(d) Growing such varieties as set bolls early.

(e) Selecting seed from early-maturing plants.

(f) Using plenty of phosphoric acid as fertilizer.
What other precautions are advisable?

Picking the cotton as early as possible and imme-
diately destroying the entire field of plants, so as to
starve the weevils several weeks before the cold weather
drives them into winter quarters among rubbish.

TIMOTHY HAY

How did timothy get its name?

From Timothy Hansen, who took it from New York
to the Carolinas about 1720.

Why is timothy a popular crop?

The seed is cheap, the crop is easily and cheaply
grown, it stands well, it cures quickly, it loses but lit-
tle in handling, it produces a good crop the year after
it is sown, and it is well adapted to growth in rota-
tion with other crops.

What kind of soil is suited to the raising of timothy?

It grows well on clay, clay loam, loam, and even on
sandy soils; but it grows best on clay loam.

What is the minimum or smallest amount of timothy
sown to the acre?

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10.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Nine pounds. Eleven pounds is the usual amount
sown with cereals and fifteen pounds when sown alone.
About how many seeds in nine pounds of timothy

seed ?

About ten million, or two hundred for each square
foot in the acre.

Do most of these seeds grow ?

No, some never sprout, some die because not well
covered, and some are crowded out by more vigorous
neighbors.

Is it necessary to have a finely pulverized seed bed for
grasses ?

Very necessary, unless: one wishes to waste a great
deal of seed. The better the seed bed is prepared the
less seed need be sown.

Is it necessary to cover grass seed at all?

Much seed is sown without covering, which is all
very well in continued rainy weather. Probably in
well prepared soil deeper covering would bring a bet-
ter stand, because many sprouting seeds die from the
surface soil drying out before the roots get a deeper
hold.

Why is it best to sow grasses with fall crops?

Because the seed sprouts better then’ and because
fall crops are harvested earlier in the spring, thus giv-
ing the grass a better chance.

Under what conditions is spring seeding of grass
better?

ii.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

AA

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xel

In places where the autumn rainfall is very hght
and the soil dry, it is better to sow in the spring.
How deep should grass seed be sown?

Grass seed needs shallower covering than cereals
beeause the grass seed contains less starch to feed the
plant until it gets its leaves into the sunlight.

How long should the average field remain in timothy?

Two or three years will give the highest hay yields
and also give the soil its best power for producing
other crops.

What fertilizer is best for this crop?

Manures rich in nitrogen give best returns in grass.
Into what rotations of crops does timothy fit?

The most common rotation in the North Atlantic
and North Central States is: maize, oats, and wheat,
each for one year, followed by timothy and clover for
two or more years.

When should timothy be cut?

If intended for market, it will weigh most when
nearly ripe, but for feeding it is best cut when the
seed is in the dough.

How does timothy compare with grains for feed?

Timothy is low in muscle-making protein and fat
and high in carbohydrates and indigestible fiber. It
makes better feed for horses than for cows.

Do animals get all the food value from hay, straw, and
grain?

No, only from forty to fifty per cent of the food in

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

straw; fifty to sixty-five of that in hay; and seventy-

five to ninety of that in grain.

Why is the net value of hay so much less than that of
grains?

Because it contains a far less amount of food and
because a larger proportion of the energy of the food
is used up in masticating and digesting it.

Is this energy used a dead loss?

No. It generates heat and helps to keep the animal
warm.

When should timothy hay and straw be fed?

For wintering mature animals.

When is it a mistake to feed timothy hay or straw
alone?

They should not be used alone to feed to working
animals, to growing stock, or to milch cows.

What are the disadvantages of timothy hay compared
with other hay?

It produces but one crop a year; it grows very little
for several weeks after it is harvested, and thus if the
weather be hot and dry many plants are injured; it is
slow to start in the spring; and it does not produce a
dense sod.

How much seed may be raised per acre?

Timothy produces from four hundred to five hun-
dred pounds of seed per acre.

What is the weight of a bushel of timothy seed?

The seed weighs forty-five pounds per bushel.

26.

aff

On

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xeiil

. Is timothy uscd for anything else than hay?

It is used in nearly all pasture mixtures.
Does it hold well in pasture?

No. It gives place to other grasses in a few years.
Is timothy a good milk producer?

No. It is a very poor food for cows. Clover is
more than twice as valuable for milch cows, and
alfalfa is still better.

LEGUMES

What are the chief leguminous crops?
The chief legumes are clover, alfalfa, soy bean, cow-
pea, velvet bean, and vetch.

What makes legumes a highly desirable food for stock ?

They contain a relatively high percentage of protein.
Why is a leguminous crop good for the soil?

Because these plants have upon their roots innum-
erable nodules in which live bacteria which gather a
great deal of nitrogen from the air. Much of this
nitrogen is left stored in the roots, and later crops feed
upon it.

Why is this deposit of nitrogen in the soil desirable?

Because all crops need nitrogen in order to mature,
and they cannot take this nitrogen direct from the
air, but are only able to take it from the soil.

Sometimes it is difficult to get a stand of alfalfa, soy
bean, or even clover. What is the difficulty ?

<piv ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

The soil may be deficient in the bacteria needed by
the plant.

6. What is the remedy?

Over each acre of the new field scatter one hundred
pounds or more of soil from a field where the crop
has grown and this will give the needed bacteria.
This process is called inoculation.

7. Is there no other way of starting alfalfa, clover, and
the like on new soil?

Sometimes a heavy coating of manure and lime will
give the legume a hold. Repeated sowing of the same
crop will enable the right bacteria to develop in the
soil until it will grow a good crop.

8. What is the best way to inoculate a new field with soil
from the old?

After the new field is plowed scatter a hundred
pounds or more per acre of the soil from a field con-
taining the right bacteria and harrow it in at once
before the bacteria are killed by drying and sunlight.

9. Can one expect the bacteria of a clover field to give a
start to alfalfa or soy bean or other legume?

No. Each legume has its peculiar bacteria and un-
less the legumes are closely related inoculation is often
necessary.

10. Why do legumes make good food for stock?

Because they help to make a balanced ration. Farm-

ers who give no heed to balancing rations lose money.

11. How is this explained?

12.

13.

14.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xev

The great bulk of grain and roughage which is used
for stock feed contains an abundance of starch and
other heat-forming substance, but is deficient in pro-
tein, or muscle-forming foods. Both the whole plant
of legumes, as well as the seed, contain a high per-
centage of protein, which balances the starch and fats
of other foods.

Do human beings need a balanced ration, too?

Yes. Men eat meat to balance the starchy potatoes,
just as growing cattle need clover or alfalfa or cowpea
hay to balance the grain or stover of maize. If any
animal can not secure a balanced feed it overtaxes its
digestion in an effort to secure the missing elements.
What is the chief element of food furnished by the

legume ?

It is nitrogen. A ton of alfalfa, clover, or cowpea
hay contains more nitrogen than a ton of timothy, or
fodder; it contains more nitrogen than a ton of corn
or oats.

Is manure formed from legumes particularly valuable?

Since nitrogen is the most expensive of commercial
fertilizers, manure produced from legumes, being rich
in nitrogen, is more valuable than that from other
feed.

Why do legumes leave the soil in better condition
than grains?

Legumes leave in and on the soil a larger quantity
of vegetation than do cereals, and this organic matter

Xevi

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

contains relatively a great quantity of nitrogen, phos-

phorie acid, and potash, which become valuable for

other crops with the decay of the vegetation.

Do not grass crops leave behind a large quantity of
vegetation in the form of roots, stems, and the like?
Yes, but this vegetation is not so rich in nitrogen,

phosphorus and potash as is that of legumes.

How do the roots of legumes compare with grasses?
The roots of red clover and alfalfa are much longer,

from six to ten feet, and often extend far down when

the soil will permit.

What advantage comes from the deeper root habits
of most legumes?

They not only secure food from lower depths, but
leave a part of it near the surface to feed shallower-
rooted crops.

How does the organic matter left by the crop improve
drainage ?

The long tap roots of red clover and alfalfa, decay-
ing, leave openings for the passage of water and thus
assist drainage.

How does the decay of large amounts of vegetable
matter near the surface improve the physical con-
dition of the soil?

It makes the surface looser and more porous and
so enables more water to enter instead of running off
on the surface, and it also enables the soil to hold
more water, which is needed in abundance by plants.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS xevli

RED CLOVER

. What other names has red clover?

It is known as common clover, June clover, meadow
clover, broad-leafed clover, and meadow trefoil.
To what depth do the roots extend?

The tap root, which often forks into two or more
branches, sometimes extends more than six feet into
the ground, but their usual length is about two feet.
. Do all clover roots extend straight down ?

No, the secondary roots, which are numerous, arise
from the upper third of the tap root and spread
through the surface soil.

Can clover withstand a drought?

The long tap root reaches moisture beyond the dan-
ger from the ordinary drought.

Is red clover seed often adulterated ?

Not often. Of twenty-eight samples examined by
the Ohio station only one was below ninety-three per
cent pure. Standard purity should be ninety-eight
per cent or more.

How old may red clover seed be and still be safe?

It seems unwise to use seed over three years old.
How widely distributed is the clover crop?

It is grown throughout the United States and
Canada east of the hundredth meridian and north of
the Gulf States, on the Pacific coast, and in many for-
eign countries of temperate climate.

eet ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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How long does the red clover plant live?

By some it is called a biennial, by others a perennial
of a few years’ duration.

How does its life compare with timothy ?

When timothy and clover are grown together it is
usual for the first crop to be largely clover, the sec-
ond year about half and half, the third year largely,
if not quite wholly, timothy.

To what climate is red clover adapted?

It is adapted to a temperate climate. It will not
stand as much cold and moisture as alsike clover, nor
as much heat and drought as alfalfa.

Will it grow on all soils?

On all but the poorest if the rainfall is ample, but
it is best adapted to well-drained loams.

If clover will not grow where it formerly grew, what
assistance is needed ?

Apply a generous coat of stable manure and lime,
the manure to hold moisture for early growth and the
lime to furnish proper conditions for the growth of
the nodules of bacteria.

When is the best time to sow clover seed?

It may be sown at any time during the growing
season but early spring sowing gives the best results.
What dangers must be avoided ?

The young plants may be killed by a sharp freeze
or by a few days dry spell; but as drought is more
to be feared than freezing, it is best to sow early.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS XC1X

Should the seed of clover be covered?

Yes, by a light covering of soil whether secured by
harrowing or rolling.

Is it wise to sow on a late snow?

Yes, because the seed sink into the liquid mud pro-
duced by the melting snow.

How may clover seed be sown late on fall grain crops?

When the clover seed is sown on fall grains it may
be harrowed in without injury to the grain. This is
especially desirable on heavy clays and soils lacking in
organic matter.

Is harrowing needed on loam soils?

No, on loams rich in organic matter, rolling is all
that is needed to cover the clover seed.

What are the objections to seeding with spring grain
using seeder attached to grain drills?

This is often done with good results or the clover
may be seeded after the grain by use of a wheel-
barrow seeder.

How much red clover seed should be sown?

Ten pounds to the acre or eighty-five seeds a square
foot is about the average when sown alone, but many
farmers use twice this amount.

How much is used when sown with timothy or other
grasses ?

From six to eight pounds will give good results.
What are the causes of failure in red clover?

The difficulty may be one of several. It may be

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

fungous diseases or insect enemies or lack of a plant
food such as potash; or the soil may be acid or it may
be lacking in the nitrogen-gathering bacteria.
What is the best time to harvest red clover?

Most authorities agree that the best time is when
one-third of the heads have just begun to turn brown.
Why is curing red clover more difficult than curing

grasses?

For the first crop the weather is liable to be unfa-
vorable; the plant contains a higher percentage of
water, which requires time to evaporate; clover ab-
sorbs rain more readily than timothy when placed in
piles. The leaves and heads are more likely to become
dusty when rained upon or when improperly cured.
How is it cured?

No specific directions can be given. Much sun-
shine is necessary; it must not be rained upon; it
should be turned in order to cure quickly; and it
should not be handled too much.

When should clover be cut for seed?

The crop should be cut when the flower heads are
in the main brown or black and the seeds mostly hard.
Why is the second crop best for seed?

The second crop seeds more abundantly because the
bumblebees have become numerous and they cross-
fertilize the crop. The second crop is also less likely
to fall down because it does not grow so luxuriantly.
What is the best use for clover hay?

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS &

Because it is high in nitrogen, it makes fine feed for
milch cows and for growing animals, especially sheep.
Is clover hay good for horses?

No, because it is liable to be dusty and to give
horses the heaves.

Which is better to restore the fertility of the soil,
red or alsike clover?

Red clover adds more fertility because of the
greater amount of organic matter left in and upon
the soil and because of the greater depth of its tap
root.

In what way is red clover better than alfalfa?

It grows readily with grasseS and fits better into
almost any plan of rotation.

Compare the value of plowing under a clover crop
with a heavy coat of rich stable manure.

Starr’s Experiment Station found in the two and
one-half tons of red clover on one acre: 138 pounds
of nitrogen, 152 pounds of potash, and 32 pounds
phosphoric acid. A ton of rich manure may contain:
10 pounds of nitrogen, 8 pounds of potash, and 10
pounds phosphoric acid. Thus the clover on this one
acre contained as much nitrogen as 13 tons of ma-
nure; as much potash as 20 tons of manure; and as
much phosphoric acid as three tons of manure.
Compare red clover with timothy as a feed.

Clover hay contains three times as much protein
as timothy. But if the feed ration already contains

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

sufficient protein for the needs of the animal then
clover hay is no better than timothy. Most feeds are,
however, short in protein, and clover helps to balance
them.
When is clover superior to timothy?

For growing cattle and sheep and for milch cows
and in all feed rations that lack protein.

ALFALFA

. What is unusual about the root of the alfalfa plant?

It has a strong, deep-growing taproot which will
have reached a depth of five feet in six months.
How deep is the taproot of alfalfa known to reach?

It is reported by one authority to have been found
at a depth of forty-five feet. Another has reported
a depth of more than a hundred feet.

What effect has the water table on alfalfa roots?

They will cease to grow when they reach the water
table or water-soaked earth. Alfalfa refuses to grow
in soil that is not well drained.

How many stems grow from one taproot’?

Sometimes with old plants twenty or thirty stems
arise from one crown.

How may alfalfa seed be distinguished from that of
clover ?

Alfalfa seed has a light olive-green color, while red
clover seed is purple and yellow.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ii

How many pounds of alfalfa seed to the bushel?

Sixty pounds are sold for a bushel.

How is alfalfa seed sometimes adulterated ?

By mixing with it black medic seed imported from
Europe. But this is now forbidden by law.

What is the most serious impurity of alfalfa?

The dodder, of which there are three kinds.
What are the chief varieties of alfalfa?

One of the two chief types has a dark green color,
narrow leaves with red stems, and usually deep pur-
ple flowers; while the other has green stems and much
lighter flowers.

Which is considered the better variety ?

The red-stem variety is leafier and earlier but a
little less vigorous than the green stem variety.
What climate is best suited to this plant?

Alfalfa is naturally adapted to a warm or a tem-
perate climate, though the Grimm Alfalfa may be
grown in colder latitudes.

Why is alfalfa drought-resisting’?

Because the long taproot reaches down to moist soil,
however dry the surface soil.

What conditions hinder alfalfa growth?

Excessive rainfall or poor drainage or an acid soil.
Will alfalfa spread over the soil like blue grass or

white clover?

Only shghtly. Grasses may spread between alfalfa
plants and reduce their growth.

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What bearing does this have upon soil preparation
for alfalfa?

It shows that the seed bed for alfalfa should be well
pulverized and clean of weeds and weed seeds.

What crops may well precede alfalfa?

Any crop that secures thorough tillage, such as
corn, or peas, or root crops.

What fertilizer is needed for alfalfa?

Twenty loads of good stable manure to the acre
gives good results, in spite of the weed seeds thus
scattered. On many soils in humid sections, lime
should be used at the rate of one thousand pounds to
three thousand pounds per acre.

How should manure and lime be applied in moist
climates ?

The manure may be spread during the winter or
spring, followed by plowing. Then a week before
seeding, the lime is spread and immediately worked
into the soil with spring tooth or disk harrow. The
soil is then worked to a fine seed bed by harrow and
roller or drag.

Is the manure appled in the same way in dry
climates ?

No, because manure worked into the soil may cause
it to dry out too rapidly. In dry soils it is better to
top dress with manure after a stand has been secured.
Is lime needed in the West?

It is seldom needed west of the Missouri River.

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26.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ev

Will manure and lime give a stand everywhere?

No. In soil moderately adapted to alfalfa it may
be necessary in addition to the manure and lime to
inoculate the soil per acre with from one hundred
to four hundred pounds of soil from an alfalfa field
so as to introduce the proper bacteria.

If the young alfalfa in three weeks lacks the proper
green color, what is needed?

More nitrogen is needed and may be supplied by
one hundred pounds of nitrate of soda to the acre.
When should the young crop be first cut?

If sown without grain or nurse crop it should be
clipped well above the crown about July first. This
will retard the growth of weeds and cause more
alfalfa stems to branch off, thus shading the ground
and securing a better yield.

How long may a field be left in this crop?

Alfalfa has been known to grow good crops continu-
ously for fifteen years or more without re-seeding, but
the best crops come the third and fourth years after
seeding.

What rotations are recommended for alfalfa?

For humid climates maize one year; barley, with
which alfalfa is seeded, one year; alfalfa four years.
Others divide the farm into five fields and keep one-
fifth of the farm in alfalfa all the time.

How much seed is sown per acre?
From fifteen to thirty pounds per acre. Thick

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

seeding is better because the crop stands better and
the weeds are kept down.

. When is the best time to sow?

In the month of April, though if the weather is
tavorable it may be sown any time during the growing
season.

Why are poor results obtained by sowing with oats?

Because the seeding is apt to be done to suit the
oats and not to suit the alfalfa.

How deep is the seeding?

The depth depends on the soil and climate, the drier
the climate and the sandier the soil, the deeper the
sowing. In most climates good results are had by
sowing with seeder attached to a grain drill, dropping
the seed just ahead of the hoes.

How is deeper sowing obtained ?

By using the grain drill itself and mixing soil or
bran with the seed to make it feed evenly and yet not
use too much seed.

Is any nurse crop helpful to alfalfa?

It is seldom an advantage and may be a disadvan-
tage if the plant food or moisture of the soil is low.
What is the best nurse crop for alfalfa?

Barley is better than oats because it takes less mois-
ture from the young alfalfa and barley is cut earlier
than oats.

What is the most injurious fungous disease of alfalfa ?-

The leaf spot.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS evil

What is the best remedy for it?

Mow the crop as soon as the disease is noticed.
What are the injurious insects?

The chief one is the grasshopper.

How may one fight this pest?

By plowing in the fall to bury the eggs and spring
harrowing.

How many cuttings may be expected?

The number depends upon the climate and soil and
the stage at which the crop is cut. Commonly there
are from two to five, but in Arizona seven cuttings
are known.

In humid climates when should the crop be cut?

When the lower leaves begin to turn yellow even
though but few flowers have appeared, or perhaps
none.

When is the crop cut in irrigated or dry climates?

When the alfalfa is coming into blossom.

What makes alfalfa hard to cure in humid climates?

Its juicy stems cure slowly, and if handled much
with tedder, hay rake, and other tools many of the
leaves, which are the best part of the hay, fall off.
When can alfalfa be teddered with least harm?

Just as soon as it has become wilted.

What is the best method of saving the crop in moist
climates?

It should be raked and put into cocks when quite
green.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

What effect will rain have upon alfalfa in the cock?

Cocks are not greatly injured save where the hay
touches the ground. If the weather is such that there
is danger of moulding, the cocks must be spread out
and rebuilt.

When is alfalfa made into silage?

When on account of the weather there is trouble
in curing the last crop, it is sometimes mixed with
corn in the silo, one load of alfalfa to two of corn,
both being put through the cutter.

How does alfalfa compare with red clover in yield?
Alfalfa yields twice as much tonnage per acre an-

nually as does clover.

How do these crops compare in digestible nutrients?
A pound of alfalfa contains more than twice the

amount of digestible nutrients that is obtained from

a pound of red clover.

Does alfalfa contain more or less nitrogen than
clover ?

Alfalfa contains nearly four times as much diges-
tible nitrogen as does clover.

What stock is alfalfa good for?

It can be fed with good results to horses, cattle,
sheep, hogs, and laying hens.

How will the introduction of alfalfa into the feed
ration of milch cows and fattening cattle affect it?
It will greatly reduce the grain needed to balance

the ration.

50.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS cix

What other article of food is alfalfa similar to?
In composition and digestibility, alfalfa is quite
similar to that of bran.

CATTLE

From where have the improved breeds of cattle come?

From western Europe, chiefly Great Britain.
How are cattle classified ?

As beef breeds, dual or general-purpose breeds, and
dairy breeds.

Are the beef breeds profitable for milk?

Some do not give enough milk for their calves.
None except the Shorthorn gives enough to be con-
sidered profitable for dairy use.

What are the chief points about the beef breeds?

They have plump bodies of blocky appearance. The
back is broad, the neck and legs short, and all quar-
ters are quite thick.

Name the chief beef breeds.

(1) Shorthorns, including Polled Durham, (2)
Hereford, (3) Aberdeen Angus, (4) Galloway.
Where did the Shorthorns originate?

In northeastern England. They are now very
popular.

Why the name?

It was given to distinguish them from the long-

horned cattle of England.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

. What are the Bates Shorthorns?

A branch so much inclined toward the dairy type
as to be classed as general-purpose animals.

How do the Polled Durhams differ from Shorthorns?

‘‘Polled’’ means hornless, which ig their only char-
acteristic difference from the Shorthorns.

What are the prevailing colors of Shorthorns?

Red, white, and roan.

Whence came the Herefords? (Pronounced Her’ford.)

They originated in Herefordshire, England, and
were first brought to this country by Henry Clay.
What is the color?

Herefords are red with white faces and often some
other white markings along the back and on the feet
or tail.

How do they compare with Shorthorns?

The Herefords are more blocky and a little heavier.
What makes Herefords so popular?

They are well suited to grazing and fatten easily
on the grassy plains of the West where they have
been extensively mixed with native cattle. This cross-
ing makes a hardy and profitable beef breed.

Are Polled Herefords more desirable?

Hornless cattle are always to be desired, for horned
cattle often do each other and sometimes their keepers
much harm.

What other names are given to Aberdeen Angus
cattle ?

lye

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exi

The hornless are called Polled Angus, those with
horns, ‘‘Doddies.’’

Describe the Aberdeen Angus?

They are black, sleek, short-legged, and plump, a
little smaller than the Shorthorns.

What qualities make the Aberdeen Angus popular?

They are quiet and gentle, fatten easily, either on
blue-grass pasture or in close feeding quarters; their
beef is of the best quality, bringing the highest market
price.

What is the appearance of the Galloway cattle?

They are black with shaggy hair, hornless, and
have very short legs. The hair is so long and curly
that their skins are used for making rugs.

What are the marked qualities of the Galloways?

They are hardy and can subsist on the poorest
roughage or pasture. Their beef is of good quality,
selling next to that of the Angus, but they respond
rather too slowly to good feeding.

What are the chief general-purpose breeds?

Devon cattle, Red Polled, and Brown Swiss. Also
the Bates family of Shorthorns.

Under what conditions are general-purpose cattle
desirable ?

They are popular with general farmers, because
they are fair milkers and the calves are heavy enough
to be sold as veal.

What is probably the best general-purpose breed ?

exll

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

The Red Polled. The cows give a good flow of
rich milk and when dry fatten easily, while the steers
are good beef animals.

What are the marked qualities of the Brown Swiss?

They come from Switzerland and are well suited to
foraging for themselves, yet they respond well to good
treatment and feeding.

What are the chief dairy breeds?

(1) The Jerseys for butter; (2) Guernseys for a
good quality of cream; (3) Holsteins or Holstein-
Friesians for market milk; (4) Ayrshires for cheese,
home milk, and infant feeding.

Where did the Jersey cow originate?

On a small island by that name in the English
Channel.

How was the breed kept pure?

By stringent laws against the importation of cattle.
Any cattle imported to the island were slaughtered
within twenty-four hours.

Why is this the most popular dairy breed in America?

Both because of the abundance and the richness of
the milk, but especially the richness.

What are the markings of the Jersey?

Color, squirrel gray or fawn; nose, usually black
or dark colored; the tongue and switch may be either
black or white.

What is considered a high yield of butter for a

Jersey ?

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ex

‘‘Loretta D.’’ produced 330 pounds of butter in
120 days.
31. Where did the Guernsey originate ?
On the Island of Guernsey in the English Channel.
32. How do they compare in yield with the Jersey ?

They yield about the same amount of milk and
butter, but the cream is smoother and the fat particles
not so coarse as that of the Jersey.

33. What of the appearance of the Guernsey ?

They are a little larger than the Jersey and more
rugged in appearance with colors of red-and-white or
fawn-and-white and a flesh-colored nose.

34. Whence come the Holstein-Friesian, commonly called

Holstein ?

From two provinces in Holland, for which they are
named.

35. How are they identified ?
They are much larger than the Jersey, and black
and white in color.
36. What of the Holstein milk?
It is of fair quality but not rich in fat. Holsteins,
- however, are the heaviest milk producers of all cattle.
37. What is one of the best records?

‘“Colantha 4’s Johanna’’ produced 27,432 pounds of
milk and 1,164 pounds of butter in one year.

38. Under what conditions is this breed popular?

Among dairymen who sell milk in the markets of
large cities and in cheese-making districts.

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

What peculiarity of Holstein milk makes it especially
desirable for city delivery ?

The fat particles are very fine and hence the cream
does not rise quickly.

What makes the Ayrshire cow popular?

The same qualities as the Holsteins, an abundance
of milk but not rich in fat.

What are the markings of the Ayrshire?

They are smaller than the Holstein, larger than the
Jersey, with a color of red, brown, and white, often
mixed.

Are there any peculiar qualities of Ayrshire milk?

It has much solid matter which denotes high food

value and cheese-making qualities.

HORSES

. Whence came the horses of America?

They were either imported or are offsprings of im-
ported stock.

. When were they first introduced ?

Columbus brought some on his second voyage,
others were brought by Cortés and De Soto and by
French, Dutch, and English settlers.

. Where did the Texas ponies originate ?

They are probably descendants of horses abandoned
by De Soto.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS CXV

Has any distinct breed originated in America?
Yes, the saddle horses and trotters.

. How many types of horses are there?

There are three: the draft type, the light horse type,
and the dual or general-purpose breed.

. What are the pure breed groups?

The draft breed, coach breeds, light breeds, and
ponies.
What are the chief draft breeds?

Clydesdale, Percheron, English Shire, and Belgian.
What are the chief coach breeds?

Hackney, German and French coach, and the Cleve-
land Bay.

. What are the chief light breeds?

Thoroughbred, American trotting horse, and Amer-

ican saddle horse.
What are the chief pony breeds?

The Welsh, Shetland, and Exmoor.
What are the qualities of the Percheron?

Percherons are docile, intelligent, active, heavy in
weight and are steady pullers under loads. They
have excellent feet and are the most popular breed in
America.

How are the Clydesdales marked ?

They usually have white markings on the legs and
a strip of white on the face. The thick stout legs are
heavily fringed below the knees with long, shaggy
hair.

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How do Clydesdales compare with Percherons?

The Clydes usually have smaller bodies and longer
legs, which are supposed to allow more action.
Why are Clydes well suited to farm work?

Because of their strength, Sei walking gait, and
gentle disposition.

What qualities mark the Belgian?

The Belgian is probably the heaviest of our draft
breeds. His body is more blocky, the breast wider,
and the neck thicker than the other draft breeds.
What are the chief qualities desired in coach horses?

They are large, with high-knee action and fine style;
and they draw medium loads with moderate speed.
What distinguishes the American or Kentucky saddle

horse ?

They are quick in action, show good style, and may
develop some speed if desired. Besides the walk, trot,
and canter of other horses, they have also the run-
ning-walk, the slow pace, the fox trot, and the single-
foot.

What is a mule?

It is a cross between a donkey and a horse.
What are the chief qualities of the mule?

Mules are faithful, reliable, quick in movement, and
have wonderful endurance. The common idea that
they are more treacherous and more apt to kick than a
horse, does them an injustice.

What attention does a horse’s feet need?

HAE

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exvil

They should be carefully examined in ease of lame-
ness. The hoofs should be trimmed when overgrown
and the shoes should be suited to the kind of work the
horse is to do. Shoes should be regularly changed.
What other points need watching?

The shoulders should be watched in order to keep
them from soreness. Bathing with salt water will
protect the shoulders.

What is likely to be the trouble if a horse refuses corn
on the cob?

Swollen gums.

What per cent of the horse’s weight is muscle?

About forty per cent.

How are the muscles employed to produce motion?

They are attached to the bones and when they con-
tract they cause the bones to which they are fastened
to move.

Is horse power the cheapest power on the farm?

There is cheaper power for certain purposes. The
gas engine is cheaper power, but it will not do all
the work of the horse.

About what is the cost of horse labor on the farm?

Careful accounts place it at eight cents per hour,
or eighty cents for a ten-hour day, when the horses
are owned on the farm.

What does it cost to keep a work horse a year on
the farm? |

The United States Department of Agriculture and

oath ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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the Minnesota Experiment Station by keeping accurate

records on twenty-four Minnesota farms, show the

average yearly cost to be $84.

What is the average number of hours of work a year
for each horse?

About one thousand hours.

What elements enter into the cost of keeping a horse
on the farm?

Feed, labor of caring for him, depreciation, interest
on investment, shelter, shoeing, and depreciation and
repair of harness.

How ean horses be made to do double duty?

The farm work may be done with mares that raise
colts, and at least a portion of the feed for the mares
will be paid for in the value of the colt.

How else may the cost of horse labor be reduced ?

By keeping fewer horses and occasionally hiring an
extra horse for a few days.

How does diversified farming affect the cost of horse
labor ?

By distributing the need for horse labor over a
longer season through diversified crops, fewer horses
will be needed.

Can one economize by having cheap horses?

No, it is important to have good strong horses for

it costs as much to feed a poor one as a good one.
Do farm tools enter into the horse question?
The poorer the implements the less a horse can do

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @xix

in a day; therefore the more horses will be needed.

. What is the greatest item of expense in keeping a

horse ?

Feed is the chief item of expense. The average cost
of grain fed to a horse in a year is about $50.

For what purposes does a horse need food?

To maintain his body, to replace muscle broken
down by work, and to supply the energy necessary to
perform the work.

Shall we feed much roughage to a work horse?

A horse has but one stomach and that is not nearly
so large as that of a cow, so he should be fed oftener
than a cow, and on more concentrated food.

What is the favorite feed for the horse?

Oats and timothy hay.

What cheaper ration might be fed?

Corn and clover hay, if the hay is good, bright and
well-cured. Poor, dusty clover hay is not good for
horses.

Give three daily rations for a 1,200-pound horse at
heavy work.

(1) 18 pounds oats and 14 pounds timothy hay; or
(2) 15 pounds corn and 14 pounds clover hay, or (3)
10 pounds corn, 7 pounds bran, and 14 pounds tim-
othy hay.

If a horse on one of the above rations is to stand idle

a few days what change should be made?

The grain should be reduced considerably.

exx

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

SHEEP

In what respect do sheep resemble cattle and differ
from hogs?

In the matter of diet: sheep can eat and thrive
on roughage like cattle. Hogs have a comparatively
small stomach and a greater proportion of their ration
must be grain.

Why should most farms have sheep ?

Because they eat weeds, leaves, and shrubs, and
thus help to keep the farm clean.
What are the chief types of sheep?

There are two: the mutton type, blocky in form,
which correspond to the beef type of cattle; and the
wool type, which are lean and angular in form like the
dairy cow.

What are the chief mutton breeds?

They are the long-wooled Cotswold and Lincoln,
and the medium-wooled Shropshire, Southdown,
Hampshire, Oxford, and Dorset.

What are the wool breeds?

The Merinos, of which there are three breeds: the
American Merino, the Rambouillet (Ram-boo-ya’) or
French Merino, and the Delaine Merino.

What are the chief merits of the Merinos?

They are all hardy and good grazers and therefore
are well suited to the large sheep farms of the West.
What. advantage comes from their wrinkles?

10.

Ff,

12.

13.

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15.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XX1

The deeper and more numerous the wrinkles the
ereater the skin surface for the growth of wool.
What of the Merino wool?

It is very fine in quality and the fleece is much
heavier than those of other breeds.

Is Merino mutton of value?

The mutton is not of good quality and none but
the largest Merino sheep are killed for their mutton.
What is the weight of the fleece?

In some strains of Merinos the clip of wool may
equal one-fourth and sometimes one-third that of the
animal’s gross weight.

What weight do the mutton breeds dress?

They dress out from fifty to sixty per eent of their
live weight.

Why are sheep said to produce two crops a year?

They produce a crop of wool and a crop of lambs.
Will the wool crop pay their way?

In many cases it does, leaving the lamb crop as
clear profit.

Are there any farm animals that require as little care
as sheep?

No, sheep require comparatively little labor and
special attention except during the lambing season.
How does the income of sheep compare with that of

COWS ?

From fiv. to seven sheep will bring in as much profit
in a year as one cow and with less care or labor.

aoe ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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ILE

18.

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20.

21.

Do sheep need protection from cold?

They are so well protected by their wool that they
need little or no protection from the cold.
What shelter, if any, is used?

A board or straw shed closed tight on three sides
shelters them from rains and drafts.

Will such a shed do for the lambing season?

No, if the lambs come in cold weather. New-born
lambs must not be chilled.

What difficulty do some farmers find in keeping sheep ?

The difficulty of fencing them in with the same
fences that will suffice for other stock.

How much more does a sheep fence cost than a cattle
fence?

A cattle fence can be built for from twenty to
twenty-five cents per rod, while a sheep fence may
cost from forty-five to sixty cents per rod.

What makes a good winter feed for sheep?

The winter ration should include plenty of roughage
such as clover hay, cut corn fodder, and oat straw.
Sheep are fond of root crops and will eat plenty of
sugar beets, mangels, or turnips.

HOGS

. What is the origin of the present breeds of hogs?

They have been developed from the wild hogs of
Europe and Asia.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXill

. What are the chief types?

There are two: the lard, or fat type and the bacon,
or lean type.

. What are the chief breeds of the fat type?

Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester-White, and Duroc-
Jersey.

. Where did these breeds originate ?

All but the Berkshire were developed in America.
Swine from Europe are not so well suited to this
country.

. What states developed these breeds?

The Poland-China originated in Ohio; the Chester-
White in Chester County, Pennsylvania; the Duroc-
Jersey in New Jersey.

. What makes the Duroc-Jersey especially popular?

The breed is liked throughout the country because
of the large litters of pigs together with the good size
and quick growth.

. What are the chief bacon breeds?

The Yorkshires and Tamworths.

. What are the chief characteristics of lard hogs?
Lard hogs have large hams and shoulders, short

bodies, and broad backs and necks. They have deep

layers that contain a large amount of lard-bearing

tissue.

. What are the marked qualities of the bacon hogs?
They are long in body, deep in sides, with rather

narrow back, light hams and shoulders. They have

naar ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

10,

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

strong muscular development and furnish choice hams
and bacon.
Why should every farm have some hogs?

Because hogs will eat any kind of slops or waste
that other stock refuse, and they produce meat more
cheaply than other stock. They do not require such
careful housing as other stock.

What proportion of live weight will they dress?

Hogs ‘‘dress out’’ from seventy to eighty-five
pounds per hundred live weight.

What are some of the advantages of hog raising?

A brood sow may produce from four to twenty pigs
a year so the cost of a pig is less than that of a calf
oralamb. Hogs have large litters that mature quickly
and do not require expensive shelter. They require
less care than cattle to produce an equal income.
What are some of the disadvantages of hog raising?

They use but little roughage and need a great deal
of grain. They are likely to die in large numbers
from disease.

What may be expected annually from a good brood
sow ?

She will, if desired, produce two litters a year of
from six to ten pigs. Fourteen pigs each weigh-
ing 200 pounds at eight months make 2,800 pounds,
which at five cents per pound makes an annual income
of $140.

Can hogs be vaccinated against cholera?

16.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXV

Yes, cholera may be prevented by vaccination, but
it is quite expensive.
How does hog cholera spread?

The germs are carried by diseased hogs, on men’s
clothes, by dogs, and by running water.

What measures of prevention may be taken?

Keep hogs well fed in clean, healthful quarters,
With opportunity for exercise and they will better
resist disease.

What shall be done in case cholera breaks out?

Dispose of all hogs not infected, or separate the
hogs into several bunches and keep these groups a
considerable distance apart.

What special care should be given a brood sow?

They should have plenty of succulent and muscle-
forming food, but not be overfed. They need plenty
of exercise apart from other hogs. It is well to let
them have the run of a good pasture with only grain
enough to keep them in a thrifty condition. They
must not get too fat.

If only one litter of pigs is raised a year, when should
they come?

Early in the spring. This does away with expensive
housing as they will need shelter only for the summer.
Do sows raising two litters a year need more shelter?

Yes, in that case good, warm quarters are needed,
though they need not be expensive.

exxvi ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

POULTRY

1. Why do many farmers regard poultry raising as a
small business?
Because the profit comes in a little at a time.
2. How does the annual poultry product of the United
States compare with the dairy product?
The poultry product is the greater. It brings in
to the farmers millions of dollars annually.
3. About what is the annual average income of the gen-
eral farmer from poultry?
It ranges from $60 to $150 per farm each year,
with an average of about $100.
4. What is the best breed of poultry?
Different breeds suit different conditions.
5. How are chickens classified?
In three classes: egg breeds, meat breeds, and gen-
eral-purpose breeds.
6. Which are the egg-producing breeds?
Leghorns, Minoreas, Spanish, and Andalusians.
7. Name the meat-producers.
Cochins, Brahmas, and Langshans.
8. Give the general-purpose breeds.
Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, and Orping-
tons.
9. How can one get eggs in winter?
By supplying, as nearly as possible, summer con-
ditions.

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13.

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15.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXV1l1

How make hens exercise in winter?

By throwing the grain in loose straw or litter with
fine sand under it.

What substitute for the bugs and worms of the sum-
mer bill-of-fare ?

Seraps of meat and ground bone will take the place
of insects.

How can one furnish the green feed of summer ?

Cabbages, beets, or potatoes will supply this need;
also mangels and carrots.

What other requirements are necessary ?

Grit must be provided to aid in grinding the food,
and crushed oyster shell will supply lime for the
eggshells.

What protection from cold do hens need in winter ?

The house should be kept warm enough to keep their
combs from freezing and they should be protected
from drafts of cold air.

How can this be done and still provide ventilation ?

By muslin-covered open windows and, in extreme
weather, a muslin curtain closing in the roost.
What is the best way to fight lice?

By dust baths and by whitewashing the building
twice a year and spraying the roosts frequently with
kerosene.

What may be said of the location of the poultry
house?

It should be on well-drained soil with ample yards

exxviii ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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23.

where some protection is afforded from the north and

west winds by a hill, a dense evergreen grove, or a

building.

What directions may be given for the size of the
poultry house?

Not more than fifty hens should be kept together,
and they can be housed in a space sixteen feet square.
What is the usual shape of a poultry house?

They are usually made from twelve to eighteen feet
wide and as long as is needed for the flock. A house
eighteen by thirty-two feet will house one hundred
chickens if it is kept well cleaned.

Why is light very necessary in the poultry house?

Sunlight is the strongest known enemy of germs, so
all farm animals should have light quarters. The
poultry house should be so arranged that the sunlight
will reach every portion of it some time in the day.
What is the ratio of window space to floor space?

One square foot of window to every sixteen or
twenty square feet of floor. The windows should be
on the south, high enough to permit hght to reach the
north side of the coop.

What is a good ration for laying hens?

For one hen one day .175 pounds wheat, .07 pounds
ground bone, .022 pounds cabbage, with plenty of
fresh water, grit, and oyster shell.

What is the danger from feeding corn?
Corn is fattening and mature hens may soon get too

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS aie

fat to lay. Where corn is fed it should be given at
the evening meal to keep the chickens warm.

THE FEEDING OF STOCK

. Of what use is food to the ox?

It builds up his body, warms him, and furnishes
him with energy or motive power?

. Where does this energy come from?

The energy comes from plant life.
From where do the plants get it?

From the earth and the sun’s rays.

Does nutrition, or the building up of the bodies of
animals, differ from that of man?

No, the foods are masticated by the teeth and
digested in the stomach and intestines.

Are the digestive tracts of all animals alike?

No, they differ; but each is adapted to the classes
of substances the animal feeds upon.

. What is peculiar about the digestion of birds and
fowls?

They swallow their food whole without chewing.
It passes first into the crop, where it is stored, and
softened by soaking, and then into the gizzard.

Of what use is the gizzard?

It is a thick-walled, muscular stomach whose power-

ful muscles break up the food.

. What is the chief difference between the digestive

tract of the horse and the ox?

Cxxx

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

The horse has a comparatively small, single stomach,
while the stomach of ruminating animals has four

parts or compartments.

. What are the ruminating animals?

The chief ones on the farm are the cattle, sheep, and
goats. They chew the cud and have split hoofs.

Do ruminating animals chew the grass before swal-
lowing ?

When a sheep or cow bites off a bit of grass, it is
moistened with saliva and swallowed without chewing,
passing into the first stomach, or paunch, which is
merely a storehouse.

When do ruminants chew their coarse food?

When they become quiet they regurgitate, or send
back into the mouth, the balls of grass, called cuds,
which are slowly ground fine between the teeth.

What then becomes of the finely-ground cuds?

They are again swallowed and pass into the second
stomach, from there into the third, and then into the
fourth, or true stomach, where digestion begins.

Do ruminants digest food more thoroughly than the
horse ?

Yes, they digest a larger part of the foods than the
horse, because they chew their food finer and take
a longer time to digest it.

Do ruminating animals fed on grains alone chew the
cud?

No, they do not.

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18.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXXi

Is there any truth in the idea of ‘‘losing the cud’’?

There is no such thing as losing the cud.

How many stomachs, or digestive sacs, has the horse?

The pig?

The stomachs of both the horse and the pig have
but one sac.

Does wetting, steaming, cooking or fermenting foods
before feeding pay?

No, this practice has declined. It is thought now
that such treatments of foods have no favorable in-
fluence.

Do animals get any part of their food from the air
as do plants?

They do not.

What are the different nutrients in feeds?

There are five. They are proteids, fats, carbo-
hydrates, mineral matters, and water.
Of what use are the proteids?

They form the tendons, muscles, gristle, hair, and
hoofs and supply the proteids of blood and milk as
well as that in the whites and yolks of eggs.

What foods furnish fuel or heat for the body?

The chief heat-giving foods are carbohydrates and
fats.

What foods are burned in the body for heat?

Starches, sugars, and fats are oxidized, that is:
burned in the body for heat just as coal is burned
in a stove for heating or steam power.

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29.

26.

27.

28.

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30.

Upon what does the usefulness of a food depend?

Upon the amount of nutrients it contains in a diges-
tible form.

Is it sufficient to know the proportions of proteids,
carbohydrates, and fats in food?

No, one must also know what per cent is digestible.
What is the ‘‘nutritive ratio’’?

It is the ratio of digestible proteids, or flesh-forming
nutrients, to the digestible heat-forming substances.
How does fat compare with carbohydrates for heat’

production ?

Fat has two and one-fourth times as much heat
energy per pound as carbohydrates.

How is the ‘‘nutritive ratio’’ estimated ?

The digestible fats in grams is multiplied by two
and one-fourth and the product added to the grams
of digestible carbohydrates, thus giving the heat
energy. The ratio of this to the grams of digestible
proteids is the ‘‘nutritive ratio.’’

Should the ratio be the same for all animals?

No, animals at heavy work, when the muscle mate-
rials are being used up, require, relatively, more
proteids than when the same animals are at rest.
What other animals require foods rich in proteids?

Young growing animals require plenty of building
material or proteids as do animals producing milk,
eggs, or wool.

When is a food balanced ?

3l.

32.

33.

34.

36.

37.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXXll

When the proteids and heat-producing substances
are supplied in about the same ratio or proportion that
they are consumed by the animal.

Does an unbalanced ration do harm to the animal?

No, but if the proportion is not right the animal may
be using expensive proteids to supply heat or energy.
It does, however, tax digestion unnecessarily.

What are the cheapest energy-producing foods?

Starchy foods will supply heat and muscular energy
cheaply.

What is a deficient ration?

It is one on which the animal loses weight.
What is a maintenance ration?

It is one that allows just enough to keep the animal
in good health without loss or gain.
What is a growing ration?

It is one that is sufficient to maintain the animal
and provide a regular gain in weight.
What is a work ration?

It is one that will sustain an animal at work with-
out loss of weight or vigor.
What is roughage?

Substances like hay and straw which contain a
large per cent of indigestible matter, are called forage
or roughage.

What are concentrates ?

Those foods like grains and cottonseed meal, which

are nearly all digestible, are called concentrates.

pete ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

46.

47.

48.

How do horses and ruminating animals differ in the
amount of roughage?

Horses need about one-half of roughage, while rumi-
nants need two-thirds of their rations to consist of
roughage.

Is it ever wise to feed on concentrates alone?

No, because it cannot be digested thoroughly and
disorder follows.

Do animals with a balanced ration ever need a change?

Yes, a change is relished by stock as by man.

What caution is necessary in changing rations?

The change should be made gradually.
Why are green feeds advisable in the winter?

Because animals relish the variety and green food
aids the digestion of other foods.
How often do animals need salt?

It should be placed where they can get it every day.
How should it be supplied ?

Under a shed to prevent waste from rains.

Do some animals need more than others?

Ruminating animals like sheep and cattle need it
more abundantly than horses.

Why should dairy cows especially have plenty of salt?

Because it aids digestion, improves the appetite, and
lessens danger from disease.

Is grinding grain for feed advisable ?

Several experiments have been made. In three trials

with horses using both corn and oats, grinding caused

49.

D4.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXXV

an increase in digestibility of from three to fourteen
per cent.
Is grinding profitable?

It depends upon the cost of grinding. If the miller
takes one-tenth toll the practice is of doubtful economy.
But if the farmer has a gas engine it will be profitabie
to grind grain for feed.

How does the animal use heat energy?

In muscular activity such as working, walking,
breathing, the beating of the heart, the movements of
the stomach and intestines.

What becomes of the feed given, over and above the
maintenance ration?

The Hereford steer deposits it in steaks and thick
quarters, the dairy cow makes of it the fat, sugar, and
eurd of milk.

How many pounds above maintenance should be given

a dairy cow?

It depends on the cow. Some will not pay a profit
on more than three or four pounds, while others may

be given with profit twelve or fifteen pounds.

Is this difference all in the breed?

No, in every herd there are ‘‘good feeders’’ and
‘‘noor feeders,’’ and the intelligent farmer breeds
only from the former.

How does one begin to fatten hogs or steers?

By beginning with lght rations and increasing

gradually until the stock are on full feed,

@XxxXVvl ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

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56.

57.

58.

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60.

61.

What effect has shelter on feeding?

Shelter reduces the amount of feed. Exposure
reduces the milk of dairy cows and the eges of laying |
hens. Exposure uses up the animal’s energy and it
thus requires more food.

In fattening steers for market, what is a good daily
gain ?

An average of two pounds live weight per day for
a long period is satisfactory.

What is the fat-forming food?

Carbohydrates.

Is there much need of protein here?

No, the amount of protein needed for fattening
mature animals is very small, almost nothing.

How much and what kind of feed can be fed daily
with profit to a 1,000-pound steer?

From 8 to 10 pounds of coarse food, dry, and from
15 to 18 pounds of grain.

Will this ration suit steers smaller and larger than

1,000 pounds?

Those smaller need more feed per 1,000 pounds live
weight, and very heavy steers need less than this
amount per 1,000 pounds.

What are the two important things to keep in mind
in fixing the ration?

The ration should be palatable; that is, stock should
like it, and it should be composed of a variety of easily
digested materials.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS @XXXV1i

Give three well-balanced rations, or mixtures, for
1000-pound steers.

(1) 5 pounds clover hay, 16 pounds corn silage, 13
pounds corn meal, 3 pounds of bran.

(2) 8 pounds alfalfa hay, 12 pounds corn meal, 5
pounds ground oats.

(3) 8 pounds mixed hay, 12.5 pounds corn meal, 3
pounds wheat bran, 2 pounds oil meal or gluten food.
About how much feed is needed daily for fattening

sheep per 1000 pounds live weight ?

Sheep need relatively more than cattle—about 21
pounds per 1000 pounds live weight.

Give a mixture for feeding sheep.

Eight pounds oats, 8 pounds corn, 2 pounds bran,
1 pound oil meal.

Which is more profitable to the farmer, to place his
pigs on the market weighing from 300 to 400 pounds
or weighing from 100 to 150 pounds?

The earlier selling at a weight of about 150 pounds
pays better. It requires more hogs to be raised to pro-
duce the same income.

What makes a good mixture or combined feed for
erowing swine ?

Cereal grain, supplemented by skim milk and but-
termilk.

What is the most economical mixture?

One pound of corn meal to one-third pound of skim
milk; but if there is abundance of milk it can be made

eee fe ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

68.

69.

70.

th.

=]

Or

to replace corn. Then the best result will probably
be 1 pound of grain to 2 pounds of skim milk.
What protein feeds are adapted to pigs?

Gluten meal, gluten feed, buckwheat middlings, peas
and middlings.

What carbohydrates are suitable?

Oats, barley, wheat, rice products, and especially
corn are useful.

Is it profitable to feed forage crops to pigs?

When fed with grain good results are obtained.
Grain is needed to balance the ration.

What forage crops are adapted to pigs?

Clover, alfalfa, rape, sorghum, rye, and ordinary
pasturage are all found to be adaptable to hogs.
What is a good mixture for colts?

Corn, two parts; oats, four parts; bran, three parts;
oil meal, one part.

Should colts be given roughage?

Yes, a reasonable amount of coarse feed to develop
the alimentary canal, or digestive organs.

Is it possible to increase the fat or cream of milk by
feeding richly of fats to cows?

No, it has been tried often, but with failure.

What is a good daily ration for a resting 1000-pound
horse ?

(1) 16.5 pounds of medium mixed hay; or (2) 10
pounds timothy hay and 5 pounds oats; or (3) 10
pounds timothy hay and 4 pounds of cracked corn.

76,

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80.

81.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS CXXX1X

How much milk may a high-grade cow give annually?
Record cows have given 26,000 pounds of milk in a

year. This high record, however, can not be expected

from a herd of even the best breed.

Ilow many pounds of digestible organic food should

a good cow have daily?

A good cow of average size should have about six-
teen pounds daily.

How does the ration for milch cows differ from that
of steer maintenance?

The cow needs much more protein; about two and
one-fourth pounds of protein daily.

Give two examples of well-balanced-rations for good

COWS.

(1) 10 pounds clover hay, 35 pounds corn silage, 2
pounds hominy chops, 4.5 pounds wheat bran, 2.5
pounds linseed meal.

(2) 10 pounds mixed hay, 40 pounds corn silage, 4
pounds wheat middlings, 3 pounds malt sprouts, 1
pound gluten meal.

What is the best stable temperature in winter?

Temperature should be above 45 degrees Fahr., and
it may well be below 60 degrees.

What other stable precautions are necessary ?

The stable should be well ventilated without having
cold-air currents blowing on the animals.

Is it wise to keep cows tied in one spot for months at

a time because exercise costs food?

exl

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

All animals need exercise for health and vigor, even
though it does cost a little extra feed.
Does kindness to animals have a money value?

Close observers declare that it does, especially with

dairy cows.

COUNTRY ROADS

What is the value of good roads?

They have a social value, encouraging travel and
sociability ; and an educational value, encouraging at-
tendance at schools at a distance, also at churches and
at lectures.

What is the economie value of good roads?

They reduce the cost of marketing farm products.
In what sense do poor roads cost more than good ones?

Poor roads either add to the cost of the product for
the consumer or reduce the profits of the farmer.
Why should city people be taxed to make good roads?

Because the better the roads the more produce will
be hauled in from the farm, making it cheaper in |
price. :
What is the usual width of roads?

In the Central West they are two rods, or thirty-
three feet, in width.

Why is this width necessary ?

To enable teams to turn, as well as to allow space

for ditches, cuts, and fills.

10.

HH,

12.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exli

Which is the better way for farmers to pay road tax,
by working it out or paying it in cash?

The cash system is better.

Give reasons.

Cash enables competent road men to be employed
to make all repairs, and these can be made whenever
needed instead of only in the summer, as is the case
When farmers work out a road tax.

What is a macadam road?

It is a hard stone-made road, named for a Scotch
engineer by that name.

How is a macadam road made?

The roadbed is first given the proper slope, then
covered with a layer of coarse crushed rock, which is
rolled with a heavy roller. Then another layer of
finer crushed rock is placed on top and rolled well into
the coarser underlayer. The last layer is of still finer
material, covered with sand, both sand and material
being separately rolled to a smooth hard surface.
What does a macadam road cost per mile?

It varies from $3000 to $6000 per mile, according to
the distance necessary to draw or transport the stone.
What is another problem of roadmaking besides the

surface?

Proper drainage. A small rill or stream will soon
do serious harm to any good road surface, therefore
the road should have a good slope and the ditches must
be clear.

exlii

13.

14.

16.

LT.

18.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

What is the most necessary tool for keeping dirt roads
in order?

A split-log drag.

How is it made?

With two halves of a log fastened some feet apart
by cross pieces, so the sharp edges of the log will
smooth off the road as it is dragged along, the dirt
from the high places being drawn into the depressions.

5. When is the best time to drag a road?

After a rain by driving up one side of the road and
back on the other, covering one rut in each ease. Rid- -
ing on the outer, or ditch-end of the drag, forces the
loose dirt to the center of the road, thus giving it the
slope needed.

What good results from such dragging?

Ruts are filled up and less chance is offered for
standing water or puddles; the ridges are smoothed
off and the surplus loose dirt is pushed to the middle
of the road, making a better slope.

What is the average cost of overland transportation of
farm products?

According to investigations, hauling costs 1.4 per
cent of the value of cotton, 2.7 per cent of wood, 7.2
per cent of wheat, 7.7 per cent of oats and 9.6 per cent
of the value of corn.

What was found to be the average cost per ton mile?

Reports including all kinds of roads from all parts
of the country give an average of 25 cents per ton mile.

nS:

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exlili

What is the difference in cost of hauling over good
roads and bad ones?

The cost per ton mile over good stone roads is 8
cents, over earth roads, containing ruts and mud, 39
cents; over dry, sandy roads, 64 cents.

How does the road surface affect the draft of a horse?

A load that 3 horses are just able to draw on a level
asphalt road would require 7 horses on a smooth block
pavement, 14 horses on cobblestone, 40 horses on an
ordinary earth road, and 80 horses on a dry, sandy
road.

What is a 1 per cent grade?

One that rises 1 foot for every 100 feet of distance.
How does steepness of grade affect the draft of a

horse ?

When a horse can pull 1000 pounds on a level road
he can draw only 900 pounds on a 1 per cent grade,
800 pounds up a 2 per cent grade, 400 pounds up a
5 per cent grade and 250 pounds up a 10 per cent
grade.

What is the difference in narrow and broad tires on
the draft?

There is no difference on hard roads, but narrow
tires cut in dirt roads and thus reduce the draft.

How does the width of the tire affect the road?

Narrow tires injure roads, but wide tires roll and
harden the roads like a roller.

aoe ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

—

PRESERVING FOODS

What causes the loss of canned goods?

The presence of any one of three living organisms
will cause decay of animal or vegetable matter—they
are yeast, molds, and bacteria.

What conditions are conducive to the growth of yeast
plants?

They need warmth, air, moisture, and sugar.

How does the yeast plant grow?

By budding, which means that the parent plant
divides into two plants and these grow and divide, and
the process continues as long as conditions are favor-
able.

Where will yeast easily grow?

It will grow in fruit juice and fruit slightly sweet-
ened, but not in thick sirups or preserves. It is easily
killed by a high or a low temperature.

How does mold get a start?

The spores or seeds of mold are very light and may
be floating in the air. When they lodge on a warm,
moist surface, such as food often presents, they germi-
nate and cover the surface.

How may molds be destroyed ?

By exposure to a high temperature for about twenty

minutes.

Where do bacteria grow most readily ?

Way

oa

12.

13.

14.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exly

They multiply rapidly in meat, milk, and legumes,
but will not grow in acids or thick sirups.

Which of these organisms injure canned and pre-
served fruits?

Such foods are more liable to be injured by yeast
and molds than by bacteria.

What makes fruit juices form jelly?

Pectin, a carbohydrate resembling starch, is an im-
portant factor in the juice of ripe, or nearly ripe fruit.
When equal amounts of sugar and fruit juice are
mixed and heated, the pectin causes the mixture to
gelatinize, thus forming jelly.

What are the chief essentials in canning and pre-
serving ?

Cleanliness and sterilization.

How is sterilization effected?

Kettles, jars, strainers, covers, rubbers, and all uten-
sils to be used should be scalded or otherwise sterilized.
What general rules may be given for canning foods?

Kill all germs in the food and inside the cans and
seal while hot, so as not to permit other germs from the
air to enter.

Why does drying fruits and meats preserve them?

Germs or bacteria cannot grow without the pres-
ence of water.

Upon what principle is canning based ?

It is based on the fact that exclusion of bacteria from

organized matter will prevent decomposition or decay.

exlvi

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

15. How may one know if living germs are in the canned

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

foods?

It is known by the escape of gas, which indicates
that decomposition, or fermentation, has set in. Such
foods quickly spoil unless used or recanned.

Why does salting meat preserve it?

Because bacteria cannot live in a strong solution
of common salt.

Does putting fruit and meat in cold storage kill the
bacteria ?

No, a low temperature simply keeps them from
growing and multiplying. As soon as the temperature
rises they begin to act and the food soon spoils.
How does smoking meat preserve it?

Smoking meat coats the outside with a thin layer of
creosote, which not only kills all germs present, but
gives the meat a different flavor.

Is any particular wood necessary to the successful
smoking of meats?

No, the smoke of almost any wood will preserve meat,
but some kinds give better flavor than others.

What effect has sugar upon keeping qualities?

Sugar is a preservative against the action of germs.
It is used somewhat in curing meats and extensively
in preserving fruits.

How is the process of nreserving fruits explained ?

Preserved fruits are cooked for a long time and this
‘*boiling down’’ process kills all germs and drives off

22.

23.

24.

20.

26.

27.

28.

29.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS exlvil

the water, thus making conditions unfit for others to
grow.
What makes milk sour?
Germs or bacteria.
Where do they come from?

The air is full of germs, the barn dust is laden with
them, and there are some in the milk pail and on the
hands of the milker.

How should milk cans and pails be treated?

All milk vessels should be thoroughly washed,
scalded, and, if possible, placed in the sunlight, which
is an enemy of germs, or, in other words, a disinfectant.
What causes butter to become rancid?

Bacteria.

How ean this best be prevented?

By working out all the water which bacteria need
and by mixing salt well into butter.

What is it that makes cider turn to vinegar?

Bacteria. The solid, slimy mass, known as ‘‘mother
of vinegar,’’ is merely a vast colony of bacteria.
What kind of cider makes the best vinegar ?

Sweet cider, because it contains more sugar.

Where do the vinegar-making bacteria come from?

From the air and from the barrel. The process may
be hastened by introducing mother of vinegar.

USEFUL INFORMATION
EVERY GIRL SHOULD KNOW HOW TO REMOVE STAINS

Tar or Wagon Grease. Cold soapsuds will remove most
stains if used before the garment is dipped in hot water.
For pitch stains, grease with lard before using soap and
water. Turpentine will remove all such stains.

Grass. Remove grass stains when fresh if possible. A1-
cohol, naphtha soap and water, or ammonia and water will
remove grass stains.

Ink. Wet the spot with warm water, apply sapolio,
and rub gently between the hands, or wash in a solution
of hydrochloric acid and rinse in ammonia water.

Mildew. Mix equal parts of soft soap and starch, half
as much common salt and the juice of half a lemon, spread
over the spots and lay the article on the grass for twenty-
four hours or until the stain disappears.

Blood Stains. Fresh stains may be rubbed out after
soaking in cold or tepid water. If very dry, use javelle
water or peroxide of hydrogen. Kerosene in water will
remove obstinate stains. Articles that cannot conve-
niently be washed, may be cleaned by making a paste of
bulk starch and cold water, spreading on thickly and
drying in the sunlight. When dry brush off and repeat
process.

Iron Rust. Apply salt and lemon juice to the dampened
spots and place in the sun or near the fire. Rinse thor-
oughly.

Fruit Stains. Pour boiling water over the surface, hav-
ing it fall from a distance of three feet, or wring article
out of cold water and hang out of doors on a frosty night.

exlviii

USEFUL INFORMATION exlix

If obstinate, diluted muriatic acid, javelle water, or sul-
phur fumes are good.

Meat Juice. Hot water will set the stain. Soak in
cold water, wash in suds of cold water, and rinse in cold
water.

Paint Spots. Equal parts of ammonia and turpentine
will remove paint stains of long standing.

Tea, Coffee, or Cocoa. Wash in cold water. cover
with glycerine, and let stand two or three hours; wash
with cold water and hard soap. If stains are fresh, pour
boiling water through from a height after soaking.

Perspiration. Soak in cold water, wash with borax,
and expose garment to sunshine. Stains under the arms
require an acid, such as a weak solution of muriatic acid.

Burned Cooking Utensils. To clean granite ware where
mixtures have been burned on. Half fill with cold water,
adding any good soap or washing powder; heat water
eradually to the boiling point.

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

For Biting INsEcts—PoIlsons.
1. Arsenate of Lead.

ATSC CKOLeICAGs 7.0.2 Mn ae wha os es 2 to 3 pounds
Water, or Bordeaux, or lime-sulphur.....50 gallons

Arsenate of lead is found on the market both as a pow-
der and as a putty-like paste. The paste must be worked
free in water before it is added to the lime-sulphur mix-
ture or to the Bordeaux mixture. The paste form of the
poison is used at the rate of two or three pounds to each
fifty gallons of the liquid and is added to it after it has
been well dissolved in water.

el ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

2. Wet Paris Green.

Paris STeem 602 eal. 5 oe os ce Seer Y, pound
BMG See ays ahs ho ahs oaks ih eee ate eee 14 pound
IVISTER th erica SEA has Neste bee eee 50 gallons

If the above amount of Paris green is to be used with
fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture the half-pound of lime
should be omitted.

3. Dry Paris Green.

1 ESN ehh 2) af) 5) ole eee SPR ro 1 pound
Powdered? nme (260 OS sect ace chase ak nee 20 pounds

For SucKING INSECTS.

4. Kerosene Emulsion.

Strong hard soap, shaved fine........... 1%, pound
SBDEIS 68 etna sa anc pnreine Sinet en ties co ae nae 1 gallon
Kerosene or crude petroleum........... 2 gallons

The soap should be dissolved in the water by boiling,
remove from the fire while still boiling hot and at a safe
distance from the fire add the oil, stirring violently until
it is thick like cream. If it is well made it will keep
indefinitely and may be diluted when needed for use.
During the growing time of summer, for plant lice and
other soft-bodied insects, dilute the emulsion with fifteen
parts of water; for the red spider and other plant mites,
the same, with the addition of one ounce of flowers of
sulphur to the gallon; for scale insects, the large plant
bugs, and larve, dilute with from seven to ten parts of
water. Apply with a spray pump.

USEFUL INFORMATION eli

5. Bordeaux Mixture—Used as a Fungicide to Prevent
Diseases.

Copper sulphate (bluestone)............. 6 pounds
Nislakedilimdes aac). 5 fesdwas ce eds ckan 4 pounds
BNR eTeenrritnteins 9 4ei fils cree irae eines Os 50 gallons

Dissolve the copper sulphate at the rate of one pound
of copper to a gallon of water. Slake the lime until it
is thick like cream. This is a stock solution and may be
kept covered until needed.

6. Lime-sulphur—to Kill San Jose Scale and Prevent
Disease.

Powdered flowers of sulphur ........... 15 pounds
PuMed sane: 6132p wee tian wre hace Be 15 to 20 pounds
WRU aoe OOS Se Se es go me 50 gallons

Add the wet sulphur and the slaked lime to ten gallons
of boiling water. Boil for an hour or until well dissolved.
Add water to make fifty gallons.

FERTILIZERS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS
THESE FORMULAS MUST VARY ACCORDING TO THE SOILS

Field Corn.

CG ROMMGMWOME se grains she Cllrs ces is.0 Ob 250 pounds
PCI CA OLAS 0) C10 IRE, Se ee ae ee 500 pounds
Migrate Or Olas, joc. oh. wears 8 bees 250 pounds

Apply 200 to 300 pounds to each acre on manured soils;
300 to 500 pounds on medium soils without manure. In.
erease nitrogen for forage corn or ensilage.

elii ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Oats.
INGiEALE Ol SOMA ass a tarde as autatee Se Sete 150 pounds
RP tay a 0 ie nares ened ble 2d he rae 200 pounds
AGIA phOSsplale snc. a so. chine eee 600 pounds
WirTAte OF OOtASI: aol ei. aiuto aden sees 50 pounds

_ Apply on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds to an acre; 300
to 500 pounds per acre on medium soils with manure.

Wheat.
Dred bloody. ck os eet ee ec ne 150 pounds
RTA ere rate tere eae ds ess eg net ee 100 pounds
ACI: DOS DMACE ick. suru atresia none 700. pounds
MERE OL Potash scr kw fete ieee 50 pounds

Apply same as oats.
Early Potatoes.

INDEPACE: Ol BOMaR take Mater setae tes cated 100 pounds
Sulphate sok AmimMonilas cB aavnc ease os 100 pounds
Pankdve insets. ane ee ook a tok be 100 pounds
Acid phosphate’... 0... 2... 22. c/42 S00 pemmeme
Sulphate or muriate of potash ........ 200 pounds

Apply from 500 to 1,200 pounds per acre.

Sweet Potatoes.

BEES AT CCV ETEK an oe UN OR UE 300 pounds
1B es 206 MD 1° Cay 6 EE OO Be HO foe A Sek ag kn ee 100 pounds
ACU URGE IEE Wb! h is be oles tov ke Serer 400 pounds
Miirinte cot qotash 5.46 2iso! eee 200 pounds

Apply from 500 to 800 pounds per acre.
Early Tomatoes and Market Garden Crops.

NEE AO “Oly SOC A: 5.0.5 aioe ei 2 coset 250 pounds
Growigd HOWE. ah ye 0. eee vee 100 pounds
Acid phosphate ..,.....-a-.¢2 22-55 +--. 000 "pOlmmae
Mumiategow potash (3.0 e325", co5 cro ae 100 pounds

Apply 800 peunds per acre

USEFUL INFORMATION eli

Timothy Hay, Top Dressing.

ING BPAGCAOMESOOAe ty sen tte sa cad we ntsdients 5 500 pounds
ROU GOONE meek vie oe Walvis ei scaeede ne As 8g 200 pounds
NCTA GDHOSMHALES ete. ss. co ies wales oe 200 pounds
Miuriateron potash i2o...0.2.5)2 20085 8 100 pounds

Apply 200 to 300 pounds per acre.

THE FARMER’S ARITHMETIC

One acre of land measures 160 square rods, or 4,840
square yards, or 43,560 square feet.

If the length of a field is known in rods, the width
necessary to make one acre is found when the given
length is divided into 160.

A ton of hay on a wagon rack measures about 500
eubic feet.

A ton of newly stored hay measures about 422 cubic
feet.

After hay has settled several months it measures 270
cubic feet to the ton.

231 cubie inches make one liquid gallon.

2,150.4 eubic inches make one bushel.

This standard bushel is a cylinder 8 inches deep and
18.5 inches in diameter.

1.25 eubie feet are allowed for one bushel of shelled
corn or grain.

2.25 eubie feet are allowed for one bushel of corn on
the cob.

A erate 10x11x20 inches inside measurement is used
for a bushel of onions, potatoes, or other vegetables.

cliv

QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE AND LEGAL

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

WEIGHTS PER

BUSHEL

Alfalfa 30 Ibs. 60 lbs.
Barley 8 to 10 pks 48 lbs.*
Blue Grass 20 to 25 lbs 14 Ibs.
Buckwheat 3 to 5 pks 48 lbs.*
Clover 10 to 15 Ibs 60 lbs.*
Corn, shelled, check row 6 to 8 qts 60 lbs.
Corn, ensilage 10 qts.

Cotton, upland 4 to 8 pks 32 lbs.*
Cowpea 4 to 7 pks 60 lbs.
Oats 2 to 3 bu. 32 lbs.
Potato 6 to 18 bu 60 lbs.*
Rye 3 to 8 pks 56 Ibs.*
Timothy 10 to 20 Ibs 45 lbs.*
Wheat 6 to 9 pks 60 lbs.

FEET
PA LCG aan tonics. tha wk 30-40
PATPIGOTS Lal feces nace as 15-20
(@erries® 256.0025 53 «) 15-25
Oran@en le io si. e-kee 25-30
Peace «. course ue 15-20
Pears sdb eee Sk oe 20-30
nS, es eA oes 15-20
CUURVNEER! (8.6 shoes 10-12
Blackberries ......2.. 4.5-7
Coerants) . athe ee 4-4.5
Gooseberries ......... 4-4.5
Rags®berries 2. .4 2... .3:0-5
Strawberries ........ 14
AS ORTHSUS 2s key 3-4
Beans, bush and pole.. 2-4
est: oo 5S Sot ee 1.5-2

*Varies in a few states,

FEET
GA DbaAge )cnccsae eee 2-3
Oarrot, ceo eo nee ies
Corn, Bweel’ .\..o.sseee 3-3.5
Oe. Gane Spates ot) 3-4
het htienn2 Hi ee eee 1-2
6) a0 | eRe Ne 1522
Parsley octet 1-2
PEAS 3.4 Seay 5 en ae 13
IPOtHEO |<. Osos eee 25-3
Radish icc. eee 1-05
Bhubirh: «2. ne eee 4
PBISIEY) 5.9 sca oe eee 1.5-2
Squash and pumpkin.. 6-8
TPT (knoe soa tee eee 1.5-2
Pomato: +s. eee 3-4

USEFUL INFORMATION elv

AGRICULTURAL BULLETINS

Each school may secure a good library of agricultural
bulletins at small expense. Write to the Secretary of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C., asking that your school
be placed on the mailing list to receive the monthly list
of bulletins. Ask also to have sent one copy of each of
the following:

Circular No. 4, Division of Publications.
Farmers’ Bulletin Subject Index.

List of Publications for free distribution.
List of Publications for sale.

Those pamphlets on the list for free distribution will
be sent to any one for the asking. Those listed for sale
may be purchased at slight cost, or perhaps some of them
may be secured through your Congressman. Write to
your State Experiment Station (See p. XXV) for the list
of state bulletins for free distribution and ask to have
your name placed on their mailing list. A few of the
many farmers’ bulletins to be obtained from the Secre-
tary of Agriculture are given below:

Horse, Nos. 170, 222; Cattle, 106, 71, 233; Milk and
Butter, 55, 42, 63, 251; Swine, 100, 133, 205, 272; Poultry,
51,186; Turkeys, Ducks, and Geese, 64, 200; Insects, 127;
Bees, 59, 397; Birds, 54; Soils, 44, 187, 192, 245; How
Plants Grow, 157; Corn, 199, 229, 253, 313, 409; Potato,
35; Hay, 89, 339; Orchards, 87, 113, 283; Gardens, 154,
218, 255; Sanitation, 155.

elvi ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

LOCATION OF STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS

Any letter addressed to the ‘‘ Experiment Station’’ with
proper post-office address will reach the institution.

Alabama—Auburn or Uniontown or Tuskegee.
Arizona—Tueson,
Arkansas—Fayetteville.
California—Berkeley.
Colorado—F ort Collins.
Connecticut—New Haven or Storrs.
Delaware—Newark.
Florida—Gainesville.
Georgia—Experiment.
Hawaii—Honolulu.

Idaho—Moscow.

Illinois—Urbana.
Indiana—Lafayette.

Iowa—Ames.

Kansas—Manhattan.
Kentuecky—Lexington.
Louisiana—Baton Rouge.
Maine—Orona.

Maryland—College Park.
Massachusetts—Amherst.
Michigan—FEast Lansing.
Minnesota—St. Paul.
Mississippi—A gricultural College.
Missouri—Columbia or Mountain Grove.
Montana—Bozeman.
Nebraska—Lincoln.

Nevada—Reno.

USEFUL INFORMATION oss

New Hampshire—Durham.

New Mexico—Agricultural College.
New York—Geneva or Ithaca.
North Carolina—Raleigh.

North Dakota—A gricultural College.
Ohio—W ooster.
Oklahoma—Ntillwater.
Oregon—Corvallis.
Rennsylvania—State College.
Rhode Island—Kingston.

South Carolina—Clemson College.
South Dakota—Brookings.
Tennessee—Knoxville.
Texas—College Station.
Utah—Logan.
Vermont—Burlington.
Virginia—Blacksburg.
Washington—Pullman.

West Virginia—Morgantown.
Wisconsin—Madison.
Wyoming—Laramie.

The United States Department of Agriculture is located
at Washington, D. C. Address the Secretary of Agri-
culture.

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR TEACHERS

First Principles of Soil Fertility. A. Vivian ($1.00),
Orange, Judd Co.

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. J. G. Lipman
($1.50), Maemillan.

elviti ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

Cereals in America. T. F. Hunt ($1.75), Orange, Judd
Company.

Forage and Fiber Crops in America. T. F. Hunt
($1.75), Orange, Judd Co.

Manual of Gardening. L. H. Bailey ($2.00), Macmillan.

The Principles of Fruit-growing. L. H. Bailey ($1.50),
Maemillan.

The American Apple Orchard. F. A. Waugh ($1.00),
Orange, Judd Co.

The Potato. S. Frazer ($1.75), Orange, Judd Co.

Feeds and Feeding. W. A. Henry ($2.00), W. A. Henry,
Madison, Wis.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. S. C. Plumb
($2.00), Ginn and Co.

BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ AGRICULTURAL CLUBS

Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work.
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 521 (U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture).

Special Contests for Corn-Club Work. Bureau of
Plant Industry, Circular No. 104 (U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture).

Organization and Instruction in Boys’ Corn-Club Work.
Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular No. 803.

Note.—For Agricultural Club Organization Blank Forms, address
U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Bureau of Plant Industry
Office of Farm Management—Club Work
Washington, D.C.

INDEX

All figures refer to pages; heavier type is used for the
more important references

Aberdeen Angus, cix, cx, cxi

Agricultural Bulletins, see Farm-
ers’ Bulletins

Agricultural Clubs, see Clubs,
Boys’ and Girls’

Agricultural Colleges, see Colleges
of Agriculture

Alcohol, 125, 144, 146, xix

Alfalfa, cii-cix; for pasture, 40,
47; for honey, 69; a rotating crop
for fertilizing, 91, 94, 95, 148, 156,
160, xxii, xxiv, Ixxii; soil and
crops, 161, xiv, civ, cv, cvii; root,
161, 163, xcvi, cii, ciii; plant
showing long tap root (Fig. 88),
163; how to start, 161, 162, xciii,
xciv, civ-cvi; conditions, hinder-
ing growth, ciii; preceding crops,
civ, ev; fertilizer for, 161, civ,
cv; rotation for, cv; nurse crop,
ev, cvi; climate, 161, ciii; seed
161, 162, cii, ciii, cv, cvi; impuri-
ties, ciii; cutting, 161, cv, cvil;
disease, cvi; injurious insects,
cvii; effect of rain, cviii; a field
(Fig. 87), 162; feed for stock,
20, 47, 161-163, cxxxviii, cviii-
cix; and corn as feed, 163; when
made into silage, cviii; compared
with clover, xcviii, ci, cviii; va-
rieties, ciii; Grimm, cili; quan-
tity of seed per acre and legal
weight per bushel, cliv

Ammonite, xli

Anchor bend, 13

Andalusian, cxxvi

Annuals, xiii

Ants, 82 “4

Apples, soil for, 85, 165, Ixvil;
location of orchards, 164; plant-
ing trees, 165, lxviii, cliv; spray-
ing, 169, 170; from trees not
sprayed (Fig. 38), 62; from trees
sprayed (Fig. 39), 63; thinning
crop, 171; grading and packing,
172; growing and use of, 172, 173;

seedless, 173; seed, XV; Cross
pollination, xii; leading fruit
crop, xiv, Ixvii; easier grown

than the peach, 1xxi
Apricots, planting trees, cliv

clix

Arithmetic, the farmer’s, cliii
Army worms, 78

Arsenate of lead, lix-lxi, cxlix
Ash trees, seeds of, 101
Asparagus, 194, xiv, cliv
Ayrshire cattle, 24, cxii, cxiv
Azotin, xli

Babcock milk test, 24, 27, 228

Bacteria, in soil, 85, 90, 91, xxii,
xxiii, xxvi, xxvii, xxxi, xciv; and
clover, 91; work of, 91, 92, 156,
160; in food, 213, 214, 215, exliv,
exlv, exlvii; in milk and butter,
215, cxlvii; in cider, 215, cxlvii;
in sewage, 218

Balance in nature, x

Balanced ration, see Stock, feed-
ing of

Banana, xiv

Bantams, 50

Barley, 10, 39, 92, 181, xiii, xiv,
ev, evi, cxxxviii, cliv; bread,
126; wild, lxii, Ixiii, lxiv

Barns, horse, 11; cattle, 19, 221;
ventilation, 221; a sanitary dairy
barn (Fig. 107), 220

Beans, 10, 191, xiii, xiv; string,
191, 192; butter, 192; lima, 192;
bush and pole, cliv

Becket hitch, 12

Bedding, importance of,
XXXvi

Beef cattle, 18; a beef breed
(Fig. 9), 17; uses made of, 28

Bees, 61, 62, 64, 68-76; first sugar
makers, 68; finding the bee tree,
68, honey train, 68; where honey
comes from, 69; a profitable api-
ary (Fig. 44), 69; pollen and
wax, 69, 70; members of the bee
family, 70—the worker, the
queen and the drone (Fig. 45),
70; work of the queen, 71; why
bees swarm, 71, 72; stand of bees
near swarming time (Fig. 46),
71; getting a new queen, 72;
dividing the work, 72; drones,
73; Italian bees, 73; helping the
bee, 73; honey extractor, 73, 75;
it’s all in knowing how (Fig. 47),

XXXV,

elx ELEMENTARY

74; keeping bees warm, 75; do
not starve bees, 75; another
service, 75, lii; busy as a bee, 76

Beetles, 61, 64, 67; cucumber, 79,
197; flea, 142, Ixxxi; flower, 81;
potato, 79 (Fig. 77), 141, 142,

Ixxxi; tiger, lii

Beets, ’85, 189, 190, 192, xiv, cliv;
see also. Sugar beets

Belgian, bay, 5, exv, cxvi ;

Berkshires (Fig. 29), 48, exxiii

Biennials, xiii, xiv

Binder, see Self-binder

Bindweed, 81

Bird houses (Fig. 52), 81, 82

Birds, 77-83; “Birds of Killing-
worth,’’ 77, 78; service to farm-
eYVSnaras other friends of the
farmer, 78, 79; Grosbeaks are
friends, 79; tarring the seeds,
80; protecting grain fields, 80;
the Grosbeak and the orchard,
80, 81; policemen of the air, 815
eating weed seeds, 81; big appe-
tites, 81, 82; making friends of
the birds (Fig. 52), 81, 82; shar-
ing with the birds, 82; digestive
tracts of, exxix; see also names
of birds

Bits, frosty, 10

Blackberries, 198, 199, xiv, cliv

Black rot, 198

Blackwall hitch, 13

“Black weevil,’ see Weevil

Blight, the, 143, lxxxii

Bluebirds, 78, 82

Blue grass, cliv

Blue jays, 83

Bobolink (Fig. 49), 78, 81

Bobwhite (Fig. 51), 80, 82

Boll Weevil, sce Weevil

Bone meal, 95, xliii

Books, reference, for
elvii, elviii

Bordeaux mixture, 142, 169, 170,
199" 198" lik: Isoexi, Ixxsxiis color;
Ix; formula, lix, cli; peach, lix

Bowline, 12

Brahmas (Fig. 30), 50, exxvi

Bread, making, 213; white, 126,
131,-137

Bridle, the, 14

“Broilers,’’ 49, 56, 57

Bronze turkeys (Fig. 35), 58

Brown Swiss, 24; exi, cxii;
ealves (Fig. 15), 25

Brownie bugs, lv

Buckwheat, 69, 181, cliv

Bumblebees, 75, lii

Burdocks, 101, xv, Ixv

Butter, bacteria in, 215; churning
the first, 16, 17; see also Milk
and butter :

Butterflies, 61, 62, 64, 65, xlix

Buttermilk, 32

teachers,

twin

AGRICULTURE

Cabbage, 85, 190, 191, 195, 196, xiv;
a well cultivated cabbage lot
(Fig. 99), 195; distances apart for

planting, cliv; maggot, 196;
worm, 196, lv
Calves, 19-21; getting ready for

market, 19, 20; feeding meal, 20;
an empty dinner pail (Fig. 11),
20; mixed food, 20; weaning, 20;
“Where are our mothers?” (Fig.
12), 21; saving cream, 21; Brown
Swiss twin calves (Fig. 15), 25

Canada thistle, Ixv, Ixvi

Cankerworm, 78, 79, 81, 169, lviii

Carbohydrates, in feeds, cxxxi,
CXXXil, CXXXVi, CXXXVili

Carbon, xxi

Carbonic-acid gas, ix, xxi, Xxxi

Cardinal, 79, 80

Carrick bend, 13

Carrots, 10, 189, 193, cliv

Caterpillar, 65, 78, 79, 81, xlix, hy
lili; apple-tree tent, Iviii

Cattle, 16-28, cix-cxiv; more useful
than horses, 16; origin, 16; tam-
ing wild cattle, 16; churning, 16,
17; hitching to loads, 17, 18;
care and feed, 18, 19; beef cat-
tle, 18, cix-cxi; general pur-
pose, cxi-cxii; dairy cows, 21-
27, cxii-cxiv; Babcock § milk
test, 24, 27; uses made of beef
cattle, 28; how to get good
stock, 28; stomachs of rumi-
nants, cxxx; cattle and sheep,
37; see also Calves, Dairy cows,
and names of breeds

Cauliflower, 187

Celery, 187, xiv,

Cellars, 216, 217

Centipedes, xlviii

Cheese making, 32, 33

Cherries, 165, Ixviii, cliv

Cheshire, 46 (Fig. 27), 47

Chester-White, 45, cxxili

Chickadees, 78, lviii

Chickens, see Poultry

Chili saltpeter, xlii

Chinch bug, lv, lvi

Chlorophyll, ix, x, xxi

Churn, the, 31, 32

Churning, 16, 17, 30

Cicidas, liv

Cider, 215, exlvii

Clay, soils, 84, 85; crops for, 85;
why wet, 88, 89, 196; roads, 208

Clove hitch, 12

Clover, 156-160, xecvii- cii; for
horses, 9, ci; for calves and
milch eows, 20, 159, ci, cii; for
sheep, 39, 40, 159, ci, cii; for hogs,
47, exxxviii; for cattle, 159. cli;
for honey, 69; in New Zealand,
75; bacteria and, 91, 93-95, 156,
xxii, xxiii, xciv;-for fertilizing)

cliv

INDEX elxi

93, 94, 158, xxxiii, ci; rotating
erop, 148, Ixxii, xci, ci; roots,
156, 157, xevi, xevii; climate and
soil, 157, xcviii; ready to cut,
157, 158, c; careful handling, 158;
curing, 158, c; uses of, 158, 159;
to fight weeds, lxii; in balanced
ration, xcv; getting a stand, 159,
Xxiv, xcili, xciv; names, xcvii;
seed, xcvii-c; color of seed, cii;
seed per acre and legal weight
per bushel, cliv; distribution and
duration of life of crop, xcvii,
xevili; grown with timothy,
xCviii; assistance needed _ for
growth, xeviii; causes of failure,

' x€iv, Cc; comparison with alfalfa,
XCVili, cviii; alsike, 160

Cleveland Bay, cxv

Club and School, The, 238

Clubs, Boys’ and Girls’, 229-238

Clydesdale horses, 5, (Fig. 5) 6,
CXV, Cxvi

Coach horses, 3, 4, (Fig. 2) 3

Cochins, 50, exxvi

Cockerels, 57

Cocklebur, Ixii

Cocoanut seed, 101, xv

Cocoon, 65, xlix

Codling moth, 81, lvii

Colantha 4’s Johanna, exiii

Cold frames, 188

Colleges of Agriculture, 228; Col-
lege of Agriculture, Uni. of Wis.
(Fig. 110), 227

Colorado potato beetle, see Potato
beetle

Corn, 92, 113-125, xiv, xev, Ixxi-
Ixxviii; for horses, 10; for calves,
20; for sheep, 39; for hogs, 46, 47,
exxxviii; for poultry, 54, exxviii;
clay soil not good for, 85; best
land for, Ixxii; grown with and
without fertilizer (Fig. 53), 93;
as rotating crop, 94, 95, civ, cv;
flowers, 99; pollination of, 99, 100;
discovery of, 113; saves the pio-
neers, 113, 114; Indian farming,
114; Indian method of planting,
Ixxvi; where grown, 114; corn
belt, 114, 115, Ixxvi; a corn train,
115; corn land valuable, 115;
choosing good seed, 115, Ixxiv;
prize ear, 115, 116 (Fig. 60), 116;
good kernels, 116; cobs, 116, 117;
cob too large or too small (Fig.
61), 116; space between kernels
(Fig. 62), 117, xxv; judging corn,
lxxi, Ixxii; when to select seed,
117; curing the seed, 118; stor-
age, Ixxv; corn tree, 118, Ixxv;
some devices used in drying,
118, Ixxv; testing seed, 118; test-
ing twelve ears of seed corn
(Fig. 63), 119; improving corn,

118; planting, 118, 119, 121, xxiii,
Ixxvi; making soil rich, 120; how
to plow, 120-122; best time to
plow, Ixxii; how to keep ground
moist, 121; keeping weeds down,
122; reasons for cultivating,
Ixxili; harvesting, 123, Ixxvi;
corn cutter (Fig. 67), 123; saving
it all, 124; a great discovery,
124; building silos, 124, 125, Ixxvi-
Ixxviii; filling the silo (Fig. 68),
124; chief uses, 125, Ixxviii; with
alfalfa as feed, 163; corn plant,
proportion of water in, xix, xxi;
food value, lxxvi; proportion pro-
duced in America, Ixxvi; pro-
portion exported, Ixxviii; fertil-
izer, cli; seed per acre and legal

_ weight per bushel, cliv

Corn, sweet, see Sweet corn

Corn Clubs, Boys’, 231-233

Corn cockle, Ixii

Corn grader, Ixxii

Corn meal, 21, xxxv

Corn stover, 124

Cotswold, cxx

Cottage cheese, 32

Cottolene, Ixxxviii

Cotton, xiv, 147-155, Ixxxiv-Ixxxix;
rotation for, 94; its home, 147;
origin and introduction into
America, Ixxxiv; chief cotton-
growing countries, Ixxxyv; cli-
mate, 147; best soil, 147; pre-
paring the _ soil, 148, Ixxxvi,
lxxxvii; deep plowing, 148, 149;
planting, 149, Ixxxvi, Ixxxvii;
cultivation, 149, 150, Ixxxvii;
ready to pick, 150; cotton boll
and leaf (Fig. 79), 150; cotton
blossom (Fig. 80), 151; cotton
field ready for pickers (Fig.
81), 1538; harvesting, 151; yield,
Ixxxvii; cotton gin, 152; baling
cotton for market, 152; seed
selection, Ixxxv, Ixxxvi; use of
seed, 152, 153; by-products,
Ixxxviii; oil meal, 153, 180; two
kinds most raised, 154, Ixxxy;
diseases, Ixxxviii; insect ene-
mies, Ixxxviii; boll weevil,
148, 154 (Fig. 438), 66, Ixxxviii,
Ixxxix; fighting the weevil, 154,
155; to hasten the crop, 155; im-
portance of crop, Ixxxv; govern-
ment demonstration farms,
Ixxxvii, Ixxxviii; seed per acre
and legal weights per bushel,
cliv

Cowpeas, 20, 163; bacteria and,
Wily By ale. Sera s:ocahig, U50:0-dhul
Ixxxvi; a rotating crop, 94, 95,
147, 148, 175, Ixxii; for feed, xiv,
xcili, xcv; seed per acre and
legal weight per bushel, cliv

elxii ELEMENTARY

Cow-testing assn’s, 27, 28

Crab grass, 81

Cradle (rig. 71), 180;
wheat with a (Fig.
scythe or, 132

Cream separator, 30, 31; the old
way (Fig. 18), 31; the new way
(Fig. 19), 31

Creepers, 78

Crickets, liv

Crops, farm, and soils, 84-200;
fiber, xiv; forage and fodder,
xiv; fruit, xiv; grain, xiv; root,
xiv; vegetable, xiv; rotation of,
xlv-xlviii; variation in food re-
quirements, xlv; deep and shal-
low-rooted crops, xlvi; effect on
labor, xlvi-xlvii; on. plant dis-
eases, xlvii; on insects, xlvii;
on weeds, xlvii; on size of crop,
xlvii; general rules, xlvii-xlviii

Crows, 83

Cucumber beetles, 79, 197 :

Cucumbers, 187, 196, 197, xiv, lvi

Curculio, Ivii, lviii; depositing egg
on young peach (Fig. 40), 64;
young grub destroying fruit
(Fig. 41),

Curled dock, Ixvi :

Currants, 200, xiv, cliv; dried, 198

Cutworms, 145, 200

Dairy cows, 18, 21-27, cxii-cxiv;
choosing a good cow, 21; Jersey
type, 22, 23, cxii-cxiii; Guern-
seys, 23, 24, cxii, cxiii; Holstein,
24, cxii-cxiv; Babcock test, 245
what a good cow produces, 24;
caring for the dairy cow, 25;
their food 25, 26, cxxxiv, CXXXvV,
exxxviii, cxxxix; testing cows,
26-28; ‘“‘A row of money makers”’
(Fig. 16), 26; how to get good
stock, 28; stable temperature,
CxXxxix; exercise, CxXxxix, cxl

Dandelion seed, 101

Devon cattle, cxi

Diphtheria, 220

Dorset, cxx

Draft horses, 3; kinds of, 4,5

Dragon flies, 61, lii; usefulness, liii

Drainage, importance of, 89; how
to drain swampy land, 90; how
drainage helps, 90; map of tile
lines, 90; importance in road
making, 207, 208, cxli

Dried blood, xl, xli

Drill, wheat (Fig. 70), 129

Dry farming, 107 :

Ducks, 59; Pekin (Fig. 36), 59

Duroc-Jersey hogs, 45, cxxiil

Dutch belted, 24

eutting
12), 3;

Earthworms, 78, xxxi
Egg plants, 187, 189

AGRICULTURE
Eggs, hen’s, 49-51; duck’s, 59;
geese, 60

Exmore ponies, cxv
Experiment Stations, 227; location
of, clvi-clvii

False reef or granny, 12

Farm, the, points to consider in
selecting, xvi-xvii; upon what
does profit depend, xviii

Farm animals, 1-83

Farm machinery, 103-112;.making
machinery better, 108; copper
tools, 108-109; first iron tools,
109, 110; farm machinery of to-
day, 110, 111; tractor engine
drawing four plows (Fig. 58),
110; care of machinery, 111, 112;
gas engine, a labor saver (Fig.
59), 111; see also names of farm
machinery

Farm sanitation, see Sanitation,
farm

Farmers’ bulletins, 226, clv

Farmer’s College, 225-228; edu-
cating the farmer, 225; learning
the best way, 225, 226; experi-
ment stations, 227, clvi; colleges
of agriculture, 228

Father and Son Clubs, 234

Fertilizers, xxxiv-xlv; oldest and
best, 103, 104, xxxiv-xxxix; value
of feeds as, xxxiv; effect of
stock and dairy farming, xxxix;
commercial fertilizers, xl; three
classes, xl-xlv; ‘‘Complete fer-
tilizer,’’ xl; law with regard to,
xliv; formulas for different
crops, Cli-cliii

Fertilizing, 91-95; best and cheap-
est fertilizer (Fig. 54), 103, 104;
old way of spreading (Fig. 64),
120; manure should be spread
evenly (Fig. 65), 121; corn, 120,
wheat, 130; cotton, 147, 148,
Ixxxviii; hay crops, 156-163, civ,
xci; sugar beets, 176; tobacco,
180; gardens, 184

Fish fertilizer, see Guano

Flax, xiv

Flicker, 82

Flies, 64, 65, 67, 79, 83, 216, 219, lii;
as disease carriers, 219; as
friends, liii; fighting, 219, 220

Flowers, work of, 98, xi, xii; parts
of, 98, xi; imperfect, 99, xi; why
some are bright and showy, 99,
xi; why fragrant, 99, xii

Fly catchers, 78

Food, preserving, see Preserving
foods

Formaldehyde, Ixxxii =

Formaline, solution, 143 ’

rout, canning, 214; preserving,

INDEX

Fruit trees, distances apart for
planting, cliv

PSICIdes, insecticides and, cxlix-
cli

cow (Fig. 10), 19,

Garden, the farm, 182-200; the
boy’s garden, 182—beautiful as
well as profitable (Fig. 98), 185;
a school garden (Fig. 97), 183;
gardens everywhere, 182-183; lo-
cation and soil, 183; fertilizing,
184, clii; preparation, 184, 185;
tools, 185; mulch, 186; planting,
186, 187; transplanting, 187, 189;
window box, 187; hot-beds, 188;
cold frames, 188; rotating crops,
189, 190; planting between rows,
190; weeds, 190; mulching, 190;
gee ‘also names of vegetables and
rui

Geese, 59, 60; Christmas bird, 59,
(Fig. 37), 60

Girls’ Canning Clubs, 236

Glucose, 146

Gluten meal, xxxiv

Gnats, 83

Gooseberries, 200, cliv

Grafting, 102

Grapés, 85, 169, 197, 198, xiv

Grapevines, 102, 198

EEaEspOPP Sra: 49, 58, 61, 78, 82, liii,

evi

“Grecns” 194

Grosbeaks, 79-81

Grubworm, 193, xlix

Guano, xli?

Guernseys, 18, 23, 24, cxii, cxiii

Galloway, 18;
cix, cxi

Hackney Coach, cxv

“Halter-break,” 11

Hampshire sheep, cxx

Hansom cab,

Harrow, disk or spring tooth, 121
(Fig. 66), 122

Harvesters, combined, 135, 136;
steam, 136, 137

Hawks, chicken, 57, 83

Hay, 9, 85, 156-163; timothy, 156
(Wiz. 82), 157; the clovers, 156-
160; alfalfa, 160- 163; hay loader
(Fig. 85), 160; stacking hay (Fig.
86), 161; cowpeas, 163

Header, the, 133

Hemp, xiv

Herefords, 18, cix, cx

Hessian fly, lvi

Hogs, see Swine

Holsteins, 18, 24, cxii, cxiii, cxiv;
a record cow (Fig. 14), 23

Horse, the, 1-15, cxiv-cxix; origin,
1, cxiv; taming the wild, 1; va-
riety in size, 1; horse’s foot, 1-2;
riding horseback, 2; first work

elxili

animal, 2; the horse and the
Indian, 2; draft horses, 3-5, cxv;
coach and roadsters, 3, 4, CxXv,
exvi; saddle horses, 7, Cxv,cxvi;
trotters, 7, CXV; ponies, cxiv,
exv; how to hitch, 5, 6; driving
fast, 6, 7; race horses, 7; horses
as food, 8; proportion of, to peo-
ple, 8; horse power cheap, 8;
exvii, cxviii; cost of keeping,
cxvii-cxix; cheaper than human
labor (Fig. 86), 161; feeding,
8, 9; rations, cxix, cCxxxvill;
stomach compared with rumi-
nating animals, cxxx, CXxXxi,
cxxxiv; good variety, 9, 10;
cleaning and care, 10, cxvii;
healthy shoulders, 10, 11, exvii;
stable, 11; shoeing, 11, cxvii;
breaking colts, [ihe his first
bridle, 14; driving the colt, 14;
signals, 14, 15; kindness pays,
1S diversified farming and,
exviii; farm tools and, cxviii; see
also names of breeds

Horse-radish, 193

Hotbeds, 187, 188

“Hothouse” lambs, 40

Humus, 87, 88, 94, 147, 159; what it
is, xxxii; sources of, xxxil; effect
of cropping on, xXxxii; its im-
portance to soils, xxxii, xxxiii;
how restored to worn-out soils,
Xxxili

fclyicumpn flies, lii; usefulness,
lil

Indian farming, 114

Inoculation, xxiii, xciv

Insecticides and fungicides, dis ix:
exlix-cli

Insects, 61-67, xlviii-lxi; enemies,
61, liv-Iviii; friends, 61, lii-liii;

parts of insects, 61, 1; bit-
ing insects, 61, 62, xlix, liv;
sucking insects, 62, Ixix, liv;

contact insecticides, 62; moult-
ing, 63, 64; stages of develop-
ment, 64, 65, xlix; larva stage,
65; pupa stage, 65, 67; freezing
the insect, 67; insect life short,
67, 1; identification, xlviii;_ mi-
gration, xlix; where found, ibe
how to destroy, 63, 142, 148, 154,
169, 170, liv-Ixi, cxlix-cli; see
also names of insects

Irrigation, 107, 108; private irri-
gation plant (Fig. 56), 108; ir-
eating an orchard (Fig. 89),

6

Jerseys, 18, 22, 23, 24, cxii, cxiil;
the dairy type (Fig. 13), 22

June-berry trees,

June bug (Fig. 42), S, 200, xlix, lv

elxiv ELEMENTARY

Kainite, xlii

Katydids, liv

Kerosene emulsion, 63,
ula, Ix, cl

Kingbirds, 78

Knots that every farmer should
know (Fig. 8), 12, 13

Ladybirds, lii

Langshans, cxxvi

Leaf-blight, 192, evi, evii

Leather meal, xli

Leaves, their function, ix

Leghorns, 50, exxvi

Legumes, xciii-xcvi; chief crops,
xxii, xlviii, xciii; why good for
soil, xcili, xecv, xcvi; importance
of green manuring, XxXxiii,
Ixxxvii; why good for feed, xciii-
xev; chief element of food in,
xcev; assist drainage, xcvi

Lettuce, 187, 190, 196, cliv

Lime, as fertilizer, xxiii, xxiv, xlv,
xeviii, civ, cv; how applied, xlv

Lime-sulphur, lvii, cli

Lincoln sheep, cxx

Linseed meal, 21, xxxiv

Loam, 85

Locust, liv

London purple, lix, lx

“Loretta D,’’ cxiii

Macaroni, 137

Maggot, 65, xlix, liii

Mangles, xiv

Manure, as fertilizer, 95, 180, 184,
XXlli-xxiv, xxxiv-xxxix; the best
and cheapest fertilizer (Fig. 54),
108, 104; old and new ways of
spreading (Figs. 64, 65), 120, 121;
best methods to prevent loss in,
xxxvi; storing, xxxvi, XxxxXvii;
best way to save, xxxvii; best
way to apply, xxxvii, xxxviii; to
assist legumes, xciv, xcviii, Civ,
ev; from legumes, xXcv

Maple seed, 101, xv

Martins, 82

May beetle, see June bug

Meadow lark (Fig. 50), 79, 81

Meadow mice, 79

Meal, as calf feed, 20, 21

Meat. meal, xli

Melons, 196, lvi; muskmelons, 197

Merinos, 36-38; merino ram (Fig.
21), 36, cxx, cxxi

Milch cows, see Dairy cows

Mildew, 169, 191, 198, 200

Milk and butter, 29, 30; milk as
food, 29; keeping milk pure and
clean, 29; milking the cows,
29, 30; butter-fat, 24, 27, 305
ready to churn, 30; churning,
30; preparing butter for market,
30, 31; the churn, 31, 32; cheese
making, 32; by-products, 32, 33;

lvi; form-

AGRICULTURE

souring of milk, 215; milk a germ
carrier, 220, 221; bacteria in,
exlvii; distan ‘ce profitably
hauled, xvii

Milk sugar, 32

Millet, 80; bread, 126

Minorcas, 50, cxxvi

Mold, 213, 214, cxliv, exlv

Moles, 79

Morning glory, Ixvi

Mosquitoes, 61, 64, 67, 79, 216, 218,
219, xlix, liii

‘“‘Mother of Vinegar,’’ 215, exlvii

Moths, 64, 79, 196, xlix

Mulberry trees, 80, 82

Mulch, dust or earth, xxviii; effec-
tive cultivation for, xxix; effect
of rain on, xxix

Mule, cxvi

Mullein, xiv

Mushrooms, x

Mustard, 196, Ixii, xiii
Nighthawks, 79, 82
Nitrate of Soda, see Chili salt-

peter

Nitrogen, 91-93, 95, 148, 156, 180,
184, xxii-xxv, xxxiii-xxxv, xxxix-
xliii, IXXXVil, XCili;~ xCV, =XGVi,
eviii

Nuthatches, 78

Oats, 9, 10, 20, 39, 85, 87, 92, 94,
98, 132) 181, xiii, xiv, xclhiexey.
evi, cxix, cxxxviii; a heavy crop
(Fig. 96), 180; fertilizer, clii;
seed per acre and legal weight
per bushel, cliv; wild, Ixii, Lxili

Oil meal, 20, 153

Oleomargarine, 1xxxviii

Onions, 187, 197, cliv

Oranges, xiv, cliv

Orchards, 164-173, Ixvii-Ixxi; help-
ing one another, 164; keep near
market or railroad, 164; hill
lands for orchards, 164; the best
slope, 164, 165, Ixviii; influence
of water, 165; kinds of soil for
fruit, 165; preparation of fruit

land, 165, Ixviii; planting trees,
165, Ixviii, Ixix; setting trees,
166; irrigating (Fig. 89), 166;

packing about the roots, 167;
tilling orchards, 167, 168, Ilxx;
crop between rows (Fig. 90),
167; injury to trees, 168; prun-
ing, 168, Ixx; spraying, 168, 169;
Bordeaux mixture, 169; spraying,
machines, 170; spraying outfit
(Fig. 91), 171; spraying (Fig.
92), 173; thinning fruit, 170-172;
harvesting fruit, 172; grading
and packing, 172. Ixx; peaches,
172; apples, 172, 173, Ixvii; nurs-
ery trees, Ixvii; fertilizer, Ixx

INDEX

Orioles, 82

Orpingtons, cxxvi

Osmosis, viii

Owls, 79

Oxford sheep, cxx

Oxygen, use of, in plant life, xxvi,
SSG

Paris green, 142, 169, 170, 196, lv,
lvii, lix, lx, Ixxxi; formula, Ixi,
cl

Parsley, cliv

Parsnips, 193, xiv

Peaches, 164-166, 169, 170, 172, xii,
xiv. Uxvill, bxxi; cliv

Peanuts, 147, 148, Ixxxvi

Pears, 85, 165, 166, 169, 171, xii, xiv,
Ixvili, cliv

Peas, 10, 39, 79, 187, 190, 191, xiii,
xiv, cliv

Pectin, cxlv

Peppers, 187

Percheron, 5; Percheron stallion
(Fig. 3), 4; prize six-horse team
(Fig. 4), 5, cxv, exvi

Perennials, xiii, xiv

Phosphates, mineral, where found,
xliv

Phosphoric acid, XXIV, XXXiv, XXXV,
2OOwee pdb xlii, 1xxxvii, xevi,
source, xiii; in clover, ci

Phosphorus, 93, 95

Picket rope with a half- -granny
and half-hitch, 12

Pigeon grass, Ixii

Pistil, the, 98, 99, xi, xii

Plants and how they grow, 96-
102, vii-xv; learning about
plants, 96; dividing their work,
96, vii; roots and their work,
96, 97, vii, viii; the stem, 97, viii;
leaves, 97, 98, ix; flower, 98, xi,
xii; seed, 98, xi, xii, xv; father
and mother, 98; corn flowers, 99,
earrying the poilen, 99, xi, xii;
night workers, 99, 100; pollen
from other plants, 100, xii; kinds
of plants, 100, xiii, xiv; why dif-
ferent, 100, 101; interesting
habit, 101; scattering their seed,
101, 102, xv; how man helps, 102,
xv; four needs of, xi; importance
of moisture, xx-xxi; sunlight
necessary, Xxi; relation of car-
bon to, xxi, xxii; proportion of
nitrogen required, xxii; plant
louse, liv, Ivi

Plow, the first, 18; how to plow,
120, 121; plowing corn, 122;
spring and fall plowing, xxix,
xxx

Plums; “165, 166) xii xive
Ixviii, cliv

Plymouth Rocks
exxvi

lvii,

(Mis; +31), (51;

elxv

Poisons, internal, lix, lx; contact,
lix; fumigation, lix

Poland China, 45 (Wig. 26), 46,
exxili

Polled Durham, cix, cx

Pollination, 98, 99; carrying pollen,
75, 99, xi; night workers, 99, 100;
pollen from other plants, 100,
xii

Pop corn, 122

Potash, 148, 180, 184, xxiv, xxxiv,
.eodng, od ibeo-qiain- XCv1; source,
xlii; three forms, xiii; in clover,

ci

Potato beetle, 79, 142, 169, Ixxxi
at work on plant (Fig. 77), 141

Potato Clubs, 235

Potatoes, Irish, 138-144, Ixxx-
Ixxxiv, food for chickens, 54;
clay soil not good for, 85; in ro-
tation, 94, 190; early home, 138,
Ixxx; in Ireland, 138, xxx; wide-
ly-grown crop, 138; a tuber, 138,
139, Ixxx; standard varieties
(Fig. 76), 139; kinds of seed, 139,
140; eyes, 102, 140; cutting seed,
140; how to choose seed, 140-
142, Ixxxiii; climate and soil, 142;
cultivation, 142, Ixxxiv; insect
enemies, 142, Ixxxi; potato bug
(Fig. 77), 141, Ilxxxi; diseases,
142, 143, Ixxxii; harvesting, 143,
144, Ixxxi; field yielding 350
bushels per acre (Fig. 78), 143;
average yield in U. S., Ixxxi;
machinery, 144; uses of, 144,
Ixxxii; mulching for, 191; plant-
ing, Ixxxi; comparison with re-
gard to labor, Ixxxii; cost of pro-
duction, Ilxxxii; difficulty in rais-
ing, Ixxxii; keeping qualities,

Ixxxii; effect on soil, Ixxxii; how
to obtain best prices, Ixxxiii;
coéperation in raising, Ixxxiii;
more valuable than grain,

Ixxxiv; why plant early, Ixxxiv;
distances apart, cliv; seed per
pore and legal weight per bushel,
cliv

Potatoes, sweet, 102, 145, 146; a
root, 145; its home, 145; climate
and soil, 145; planting, 145, xv;
cultivation, 145, 146; harvesting,
146; storing crop, 146; uses of,
146; fertilizer, clii

Poultry, 49-57, cxxvi-cxxix; orig-
inal home, 49; value to farmer,
49, cxxvi; eggs, 49-51, 54; meat-
producing, 50, cxxvi; egg-pro-
ducing, 50, exxvi; game chickens,
50; general purpose, 50, 51, exxvi;
Cochins, 50, exxvi; Brahmas
(Fig. 30), 50, exxvi; Leghorns,
50, cxxvi; Minorcas, 50, cxxvi;
Bantams, 50; Plymouth Rocks

elxvi ELEMENTARY

(Fig. 31), 51, exxvi; Wyandottes,
51 (Fig. 32), 525 Rhode Island
Reds, 51, exxvi; habits, 51; nests,
51, 52; in pens, 53; care of hen-
house, 53, cxxvii, cxxviii; sanitary
poultry house (Fig. 33), 55; lay-
ing hens, 53, 54; hatching little
chicks, 54; how to care for the
brood, 54, 55; chicken lice, 55,
exxvii; brooder chicks, 55, 56;
incubator babies (Fig. 34), 56;
fattening broilers, 56, 57; poul-
try pests, 57; protection from
cold, exxvii; winter food, cxxvii;
ration for laying hens, cxxviii;
digestive tract of, cxxix
Preserving’ foods, 213-215, cxliv-
cxlvii; germs which help and
hinder, 213, exliv; yeast plant,
213, cxliv, cxlv; making bread,
213; mold, 213, 214, cxliv, cxlv;
canning fruit, 214, cxlv; bacteria,
214, exliv, cxlv, cxlvii; smoking
meats, 214, 215, cxlvi; cold stor-
age, 215, exlvi; preserving fruits,
215, exly, cxlvi; souring of milk
215; bacteria in butter and cider,
215, cxlviil; pectin, cxlv; drying
fruits and meats, exlv; indica-
tion of germs, cxlvi; sugar as a
preservative, cxlvi
Proteids in feeds,
CXxXxvVi, CXxxvili
in clover, ci, cii

cxxxl, cxxxii,
Protein, xcv;
Prunes, 170
Puddling, 209
Pumpkins, cliv
Pupa, 64

Quail, see Bobwhite

Questions, One ‘Thousand, an-
swered, vii-cxlvii

Quinces, xiv, Ixviii, cliv

Radishes, 96, 187, 190, 193, cliv

Ragweed, 81, Ixii

Raisins, 198

Rakes, hand-dump (Fig. 83), 158;
self-dump (Fig. 84), 159

Rambouillet, cxx

Rape, 47, cxxxviii

Raspberries, 198, 199, cliv

Rats, 57, 79

Razor backs, 46

Reap hook, 127, 132; ancient tool
for reaping grain (Fig. 69), 127

Reaper, 133, 134; the first (Fig.

Red- bird, see Cardinal L
nee: renee Woodpecker (Fig. 48),

Red Polled, cxi, cxii

Red rust, 199

Reef knot or square knot, 12
Regurgitate, cxxx

AGRICULTURE

Rhode Island Reds, 51, cxxvi

Rhubarb, cliv

Rice, 126, 138, 177, xiv; growing,
es products and enemies, 178,

Rice-stock borer, 179

Roads, country, 201-212, cxl-cxlvii;
importance of good roads, 201,
xvii; sociability encouraged, 201,
exl; good roads and schools, 201,
202, cxl; city people interested,
202; marketing farm produce,
203, cxl, cxlii, cxllii; first expert
road builders, 204; roads abroad
and at home, 204; plantation
mud pikes, 204, 205; early roads,
205; toll roads, 205, 206; working
out road tax, 206, cxli; every
township should own a steam
roller (Fig. 103), 206; a better
way, 206, 207; state’s part, 207;
drainage, 207, 208, cxli; grading
and draining are essential to
good roads (Fig. 104), 207; grad- '
ing, 208; grading a country road
(Fig. 105), 210; surfacing clay
roads, 208; sand roads, 208; loam
roads, 208, 209; split-log drag,
209, exlii; other aids to good
roads, 209, exliii; a gravel and
shell surfacing, 209, 210; stone
roads, 210; Roman roads, 210;
macadam, ”210, 211, GRIT brick,
a eee brick road raises value
of farm land (Fig. 101), 203; a
brick road needs little care and
repair and brings the market
nearer (Fig. 102), 205; laying a
brick road (Fig. 106), 211; draft
on different surfaces, 212, cxliii;
pulling up hill, 212, cxliii; usual
width, cxl

Robins, 78

Rock phosphate, 95

Root cap, vii

Root hairs, vii;
xxvi

Roots, purpose of, vii; will not go
below water table, xxxi

Rotation of crops, 92, 93; good
reasons for, 93, 94; weeds
checked by, 93; in the north, 94;
in potato states, 94; for cotton,
94, 148; for corn, 94, 120

“Royal jelly, tet 2

oo animals, cxxx

Rust,
118, 115, 226; I8l\ veiv:

use of, viii, xxv,

131
Rye, 92,
CXXXVili, cliv

Salsify, 193, cliv

Sanitation, farm, 216-224; location
of farmhouse, 216; dry surround-
ings, 216; shade, 217; water sup-
ply, 217; ‘sewage a source of dis-

INDEX

ease, 217, 218; river water, 2185
mosquitoes, 218, 219; house fly,
219, 220; milk a germ carrier,
220; 221, cxlvii; ventilating the
barn, 221; cold air heavier than
warm, 221; home ventilation,
221, 222; school ventilation, 222,
223; a well-ventilated country
school (Fig. 108), 222; school
lighting, 223; the first top-lighted
school (Fig. 109), 224; poultry
houses, cxxvii, cxxviii

Sap, office of, ix

Scab, the, 142, 143, Ixxxii

Scale insects, 79, 170; black olive

scales, 81; San José, lvii, lix, cli
School, The Club and, 238
School lighting, 223; first top-

lighted school (Fig. 109), 223

School ventilation, 222, 223; a well
ventilated country school (Fig.
108), 222

Schools, Agriculture in, 230

Seed, 98; how scattered, 101, xv;
main aim of plant, xi; purpose of,
xii; growth of, xii, xiii; quantity
of, per acre, cliv

Self-binder, 134, 135;
binder (Fig. 74), 135

Sewage, 217, 218

Shade, 217; every farm needs its
shade and water easily accessi-
ble (Fig. 1), frontispiece; all
rte stock need shade (Fig. 24),

Sheep, 34-43, cxx-cxxii; wild, 34;
taming, 34; where sheep live, 35;
use of, 35, 36, iv: (Cxxs mutton
breeds, 36, 38, CXX; wool breeds,
36, CXX, Cxxi; Merinos, 36-38,
cxx, cxxi; Merino ram (Fig. 21),
36; cattle and sheep, 37, cxxi;
Shropshires, 38; Southdowns,
38; dogs and sheep, 37, 38; food
for sheep, 39, 40, cxxii, cxxxvii;
fattening lambs, 40; weaning
lambs, 40; shepherds, 40; shear-
ing, 41-43; Dorset ewe and lamb
(Fig. 25), 42; farms, 43; com-
pared with cattle and hogs,
exx, cxxi; stomach of, cxxx;
shelter, cxxii; fencing, cxxii; see
also names of sheep

Sheepshearers, 41-48

Shepherd dog, 37, 38

Shepherds, 4

Shetland ponies, cxv

Shire, the, 5, cxv

Shoeing the horse, 11

Shorthorns, 18 (Figs. 9 and 17),
17, 27, cix, cx; Bates, cx, cxi_

te te 88, exx; ram (Fig.

modern

as)»

Sickle, see Reap hook
Silage, Ixxvii-|Ixxviii

elxvii

Silkworms, 61, 65, lii

Silos, 124, Ixxvi-Ixxvii; building,
125; filling the silo (Fig. 68), 124

Slip knot, running noose or halter
knot,

Smartweed, 81

Smut, 131

Soils, 84-95; the farmer and, xvi-
xxxiii; what they do, 84; light,
84; heavy, 84, 85; crops for clay,
85; loam, 85; what the soil eon-
tains, 85; plant food, 86, 87,
xvlii-xix, xxii-xxv; humus, 87-
88, xxxii-xxxiii; soil and surface
water, 88; why clay soils are
wet, 88, 89; holding water for
plants, 89, xxvii-xxviii; impor-
tance of drainage, 89, XXXi,
xxxii; good soil contains air,
89, 90; how to drain swampy

land, 90; farmer’s. bacteria
friends, 91, xxiii; bacteria and
clover, 91; growing several

crops, 92; not too many crops,
92; rotation of crops, 92-94;
green manuring, 94, xxxili; phos-
phorus a plant food, 95; keeping
up the land, 95; importance of
tillage, 104-106, xxv- xxvii; vir-
gin, xviii; inoculation, xxiii, xciv

Sorghum, xiv, eCxxxviii

Southdowns, 38, cxx; prize ewe
(Fig. 23), 39

Sow bug, xlviii

Sow thistle, Ixv, lxvi

Soy beans, 91, 156, xxii,
Ixxxvi, xciii

Spanish breed, cxxvi

Sparrows, 82, 83; tree, 81

Spinach, 190

Split-log drag, 209, exlii

Spraying, 168, 169; apples (Figs.
38, 39), 62, 63; outfit for the or-
chard (Fig. 91), 171; the suc-
cessful orchardist always sprays
(Fig. 92), 173

Squash bug, liv, lvi

Squashes, 113, 187, 190,
cliv

Stable, see Barns

Stains, how to remove,
cxlix

Stamen, the, 98, 99, xi, xii

Starch, 125, 137, 144, 146, xix

Sterilizing, 214, cxlv

Stick tights, 101, xv

“Stink bug,’’ 197

Stock, feeding of, cxxix-cxl;
horses, 8-10, cxxxviii; beef cat-
tle, 18-20, cxxxv-cxxxvii; dairy
cows, 25-26, cxxxiv, cxxxv,
CXxxvi, cxxxviii, cxxxix; sheep,
39-40, cxxxvii; swine, 46, 47,
CXXXV, CXxXxXVii, cxxxviii; poul-
try, 53-56, 59-60; use of food,

xxxiii,

196, lvi,

cxlviii-

elxviii ,; ELEMENTARY

exxix; digestive tracts of ani-

mals, cxxix, cxxx; ruminants,
CXxx, cxxxi; five nutrients in
feeds, _cxxxi, ecxxxii; nutritive
ratio, cxxxii; balanced ration,
26;,) 635.) XCive, ~XCVe TGSOCKHII,

exxxvii; deficient ration, exxxiii;
maintenance = ration, @xXxXxiii,
cxxxv; growing ration, cxxxiil;
work ration, cxxxili; roughage,
CXXXili, s«cxxxiv, @xXxXxviii; con-
centrateés, exxxiii, cxxxiv; green
feeds,~:;;exxxiv; salt, cxxxiv;
grinding food, cxxxXiv, CxXxXXv;
effect of shelter on feeding,
exxxvi; forage crops, 161-163,
exxxviii; feeds valuable as fertil-
izers, XXXiv

Stomata, ix; uses of, ix, x

Strawberries, 164, 199, 200, xiv;
nothing so fine as home-grown
strawberries (Fig. 100), 199, cliv

Sugar beets, 175-177, xiv; how dis-
covered, 175; a field (Fig. 93),
176; preparation and soil, 176,
177; harvesting, 177

Sugar cane, 174-175; planting, 102,
174, 175, xv; harvesting, 175

Sulphate of Ammonia, xli

Swallows, 78, 83 :

Sweet corn, 190, 194, 195, cliv

Swine, 44-48, cxxii-cxxv; wild
boar, 44, exxii; improving hogs,
44; protecting hogs, 44, 45; a
scuare deal, 45; their snouts, 45;
best breeds, 45, cxxiii; Poland-
China, 45; a prize (Fig. 26), 46;
Chester-white, 45, exxiii; Du-
roc-Jersey, 45, exxiii; Cheshire;
46; pig (Fig. 27), 47; for lard or
bacon, 46, cxxiii;, kind to raise,
46;: what» they eat, 46, 47,
cxxxvii, cxxxviii; good feeders
(Fig. 28), 47; eastern and west-
ern hog farms, 47; cholera, 48,
exxiv, cxxv; a pig sends a boy
to college, 48; Berkshires (Fig.
29), 48; pigs and chickens, 57;
advantages and disadvantages
of hog raising, ¢xxiv; brood
SOWS, CXXiV, CXxXXV

Swiss chard, 194

Tamworth breeds, cxxili

Tankage, xli

Thistles, Ixv ;

Tiling, xxxi, xxxii ce

Tillage, 103-111, xxv-xxviii; Sow-
ing-and reaping in olden times,
103;, wearing out the soil, 104;
Jethro Tull, 104; fields in poor
and good tilth (Figs. 55a, 55b),
105; feeding plants, 105. 106,
xxvi; keeping moisture in the
soil. - 106, xxvii, xxviii; dust

AGRICULTURE
mulch, 106, 107, xxviii; dry
farming, 107; other advantages
of, xxx
Timber hitch, 13
Timothy, 87, Ixxxix-xciii, xev; a

field (Fig. 82), 157; name, Ixxxix;
why popular, Ixxxix; soil, 1xxxix;
seed, xc-xcii; fertilizer, xci, cliii;
rotating crop, 94, xci; for feed-
ing, 9, xiv, XCl, xecli, Cxixs dis=
advantages, xcii,, xcili; com-
pared with clover, xeviili, ci, cii;
seed per acre and legal weights
per bushel, cliv

Tobacco, 118, 179-181; a heavy
crop and drying barn (Fig. 94),
178; drying and curing (Fig. 95),

at fertilizer, 180; curing, 180,
Tomato Canning Clubs, 236
Tomatoes, 187, 189-191, 197, xiii,

xiv, clii, cliv

Trees, effect of girdling, xiii; fruit
killed by overbearing, xiii; see
also names of trees

Trotting horse, American (Fig. 6),
uo ON mares and colt (Fig.
ae

Tuberculosis, 220, 221

Tull, Jethro, 104

Turkeys, 58-59; bronze (Fig. 35), 58

Turnips, -10, 39, 54, 85, 190, 192,
193, 196, xiv, cliv

Typhoid, 217, 218, 22

Urus, the, 16

Vegetable oyster, see Salsify

Vegetables, distances apart for
planting, cliv; see also names
of vegetables

Velvet bean, xcili

Ventilation, see Sanitation

Vetch, xciii

Vinegar, 215, exlvii

Warblers, 78

Wasps, 61, 64, lii f
Water, film moisture, xxx-xxxii;
ground, xxx; table, xxx-xxxii

wae supply, 217; river water,

Weavers’ knot or sheet bend, 13

Weeds, !Ixi-Ixvii; defined, .lxi; how
to control, 122, 129, 142,.146, 190,
{xii-Ixiv; annual, Ixii-lxiv; effect
of rotation of crops on, 93, 104,
Ixiv; birds help to destroy, 81;
stock helps to destroy, Ixiv;
crops help to destroy, Ixiv; bi-
ennial, Ixv; perennial, -lxv-Ixvii;
how to exterminate, Ixvii

Weevil, bean, 192; ‘‘black,’’ 179;
cotton boll, 148, 154, 155; (Fig.
43), 66, Ixxxviii, Ixxxix

INDEX

Weights per bushel, legal, cliv

Welsh ponies, cxv

Wheat, 92, 95, 118, 115, 126-137,
xb, ahi bodhig [ho adiiilia [hood
Cxxxviii; for calves, 20; for
chickens, 54; on clay soil, 85,
Ixxix; composition of, 87; white
bread, 126; first wheat farmers,
126; in Asia, 126; in America,
127; in Europe and America,
Ixxix; world’s crop, 127, 128; va-
rieties, 128; climate, 128, Ixxix;
preparing soil, 128; sowing, 128,
Ixxx; cultivation, 129; drill (Fig.
70), 129; in Japan, 129; cradle
Giron (2) lon odes 1o2eain
rotation, 94, 130, xci: enemies,
130, 131; harvest, 131; sickle,
132 (Fig. 69), 127; animal power,
132; header, 132, 133: reaper, 133,
134; the first (Fig. 73). 134; self-
binder, 134, 135; modern binder,

clxix

(Fig. 74), 185; combined harvest-
ers, 135, 136; shocks of golden
grain (Fig. 75), 186; steam har-
vesters, 136, 137; how much we
eat, 137; other uses, 137, 1lxxx;
new kind, 187; higher priced
than other grains, Ixxviii; food

elements, Ixxix; “ bonanza ”’
wheat farms, 1xxix; fertilizer,
elii; seed per acre and legal

weight per bushel, cliv
Wheat bran, xxxiv
Whey, 32
Window box, 187
Woodpecker, see

Woodpecker
Wren, 82
Wyandottes, 51;

(Fig. 32), 52

Yeast, 213, cxliv, cxlv
Yorkshires, cxxiii

Red - headed

pen of white

UN

000254865108