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BOSTON:
D. C. HEATH & COMPANY.
1886.
CoPYRIGHT, FEBRUARY 20, 1886,
By BUEL P. COLTON.
J. S. CusHine & Co., PRINTERS, Boston.
PREFACHE.
—_—_*«oo—_——_
In the entire absence of any handbook of zodlogy
adapted to the grade of work in which he was engaged,
the author began to draw up, for use in his own classes,
simple guides to the study of a few common animals.
After repeated tests in the class-room, and under the
advice of a number of eminent teachers of the subjete; it
was decided to put the work into print.
The author takes this opportunity to thank those who
have so heartily aided him in this undertaking.
Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, of the Boston Society of Natural
History, has generously aided in preparing the book for
publication.
Pres. D. 8. Jordan, of Indiana University, has read
most of the manuscript and proof-sheets, and has given
many valuable suggestions.
Especial thanks are due also to H. Garman, Assistant-
Professor of Zodlogy, University of Illinois, for corrections
and suggestions on the entire manuscript and on the proofs.
Mr. B. H. Van Vleck, Assistant, Boston Society of
Natural History, revised the manuscript on Echinoderms,
Ceelenterates, and Sponges. ?
As the proof-sheets appeared, from time to time,
_ they were critically read by Prof. N. 8S. Shaler, Harvard
os PREFACE.
University; Mr. J. Y. Bergen, Jr., Peabody, Mass.; Prof.
R. E. Call, Missouri Agricultural College and University,
~ Columbia, Mo.; Mr. E. P. Jackson, Boston Latin School;
Prof. L. M. Underwood, Syracuse University, Syracuse,
N.Y., and other well-known teachers. In the preparation
of the book, free use has been made of the works cited in
the text.
To aid in the study of the marine animals, arrangement
has been made by which schools may be supplied with
sets of material put up at the Seaside Laboratory, Annis-
quam, Mass.
60 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
In swimming, is the same end always foremost ?
Read “The Structure of Paramecium” in Brooks’
‘“ Handbook of Invertebrate Zodlogy.”
THE BELL-ANIMALCULE (VORTICELLA),.
Collect leaves and grasses that have fallen into water,
and the stems and leaves of water plants from ponds and
ditches; place some of these leaves in a plate of water,
and examine them closely; with the naked eye there
may sometimes be seen on them little patches resembling
mould; when observed more closely these appear to be in
the form of minute tufts, if these tufts shrink back when
touched, take a lens and examine carefully; cut out a part
of a leaf bearing these clusters, put on a slide with a drop
of water, cover with a cover-glass, and examine with a
one-inch objective.
Sometimes these tufts, which are colonies of Vorticelle,
may be attached to the sides of an aquarium, or jar, in
which clams have been kept. |
Some kinds of Vorticellee are not in colonies, but are
borne singly on independent stalks.
When one is found, note, using a one-inch wlan —
1. The bell-shaped body.
2. The contractile stalk; suddenly jar the table, or
stage of the microscope, by tapping with a hard
object; what follows?
Put on a high power objective and make out the follow-
ing parts of the body : —
THE BELL-ANIMALCULE. 61
1. The projecting outer rim is the peristome.
The central disk, projecting above the peristome.
38. The short, hair-like cilia on the border of the disk
and peristome ; watch the motion of these cilia, and
the currents of water thus produced.
4. A depression between the peristome and disk, deep-
ening at one place to make the vestibule, or entrance
to the gullet, which extends a short way into the
body.
5. A clear space, just under the disk, is the contractile
vesicle; watch this closely for some time; what
changes occur?
6. At various points in the body may be seen rounded
masses, the food-balls; do they remain of the same
size, and keep the same place?
7. Make drawings showing the above points.
bo
Watch patiently to see the accumulation of particles at
the lower end of the gullet; after a time this mass may
be seen to be pushed into the body. This forms one of
the food-balls. These food-balls may be seen moving on
in a circle within the body. Ejection of undigested mat-
ter takes place near the mouth. Sometimes two vorti-
celle are found on one stalk; by watching it patiently it
may be found that the vorticella is dividing to form two
vorticelle; this is one way these animals have of repro-
ducing. What powers and faculties have you and the
vorticella in common ?
Read “ The Structure of Vorticella” in Brooks’ *“ Hand-
book of Invertebrate Zodlogy.”
62 - PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
AMCEBA.
One of the simplest forms of animal life is Ameeba. It
is found in standing water, where it lives on the leaves of
submerged plants or in the mud and ooze at the bottom.
Scrape up a thin layer of the ooze and allow it to stand
a few days.
Place a drop of such water, with a little of the at
ment, on a clean slide, and cover with a clean cover-slip ;
if there be no solid matter in the drop of water, lay a
strip of paper on the slide before putting on the cover-
shp, letting one edge of the cover rest on it. Examine
with a high-power objective.
The ameeba is like a minute drop of ‘alle pale (nearly
colorless), with a more dotted central portion. Its most
noticeable characteristic is its slow, peculiar mode of
changing its form.
The following parts of the body should be made out: —
1. A clearer outer margin.
2. A dotted or granular inner portion.
3. A clearer, round body, in the granular part, called the
nucleus.
Study carefully the movements of the amceba; first a
part of the clear outer portion bulges out, or is sometimes
thrown out as a long projection, called a pseudopodium ;
then the granular part flows into this, and by repeating
this process the amoeba creeps along with a slow gliding
motion, though sometimes the pseudopodia are thrust out
and retracted without moving the body as a whole; care-
fully watch the beginning and the whole process of form-
ing a pseudopodium ; look for movements of the granules
in the central portion.
%
AMCEBA. 63
The larger granules within are particles of matter that
have been taken in as food through that part of the body
with which they first came in contact; there is no mouth,
- no stomach, but any place on the surface serves as a mouth
when a mouth is needed, and any place within serves as a
stomach when food is thus taken; neither is there a defi-
nite opening for ejecting indigestible matter, but by flow-
ing around the substances it meets, it in a way swallows
them, and, having digested and absorbed such parts as are
suitable for food, ejects, or rather flows away from the use-
less remnants.
Make a series of sketches of the outline, at as short
intervals as possible, to show the changes of form.
Make also a careful drawing, showing all the parts of
the body that have been made out.
The jelly-like substance of which the body of the amceba
is composed is protoplasm.
The amceba reproduces its kind by simply dividing into
two parts, each of which becomes a perfect amceba.
‘‘ Thus the amceba lives, moves, eats, grows, reproduces
its kind, and after a time dies, having been during its
whole life hardly anything more than a minute lump of
protoplasm.”
The simplicity of the structure of the amceba and its
simple mode of reproduction show its low place in the
animal kingdom; with the Vorticella, Paramecium, and
myriads of other microscopic aquatic animals, the Amceba
represents the lowest branch of the animal kingdom, the
Protozoa. Most of the Protozoa are one-celled animals,
in distinction from some of the higher protozoa, which
some authors regard as many-celled, and all other animals
from sponges to man, which are undoubtedly many-celled.
64 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
Thus the simpler Protozoa correspond to the eggs of the
higher animals, or the cells of which their bedies are
composed. .
Many of the protozoans have no hard parts, others have
shells; chalk is composed of the shells of certain marine
protozoans, a cubic inch of chalk containing as many as
1,000,000 of these skeletons.
“ A moebee absorb oxygen and give out carbon dioxide and
water, and the presence of free oxygen is necessary to their
existence. When the medium in which they live is cooled
down to the freezing-point, their movements are arrested,
but they recover when the temperature is raised. At a
temperature of 95° F. their movements are arrested, and
they pass into a condition of “heat-stiffening,” from which
they recover if that temperature is not continued too long; —
at about 110° F. they are killed.
“Electric shocks of moderate strength cause amcebe to
assume a spherical form, but they recover after a while ;
strong shocks kill them.
‘The amoeba is an animal, not because of its contractil-
ity or power of locomotion, but because it never becomes
enclosed in a cellulose sac, and because it is devoid of the
power of manufacturing protein from bodies of a compara-
tively simple chemical composition. ‘The amceba has to
obtain its protein ready made, in which respect it resem-
bles all true animals, and therefore is, like them, in the
long run, dependent for its existence upon some form or
other of vegetable life.” :
Since the amceba resembles one of the cells of the
higher animals, it 1s important to fix in mind these
properties and modes of life which are common both to
amoebee and the cells of the higher animals, as thus. we
AMCEBA. 65
have an explanation of many points in the physiology of
man: — |
1. The amceba moves; it has the power of contraction or
contractility, by means of which it accomplishes
motion and locomotion.
2. It feels; when any disturbance, such as contact with
a foreign body, is brought to bear on an amceba at
rest, it moves; this is not because it is pushed or
pulled, but is due to its own activity, the contraction
of its protoplasm. Any living matter which, when
acted on by a stimulus, is excited to activity, is said
to be irritable (sensitive) in the sense of “susceptible
to impression from without.”
3. But the amceba does not always wait to be thus stim-
ulated by something external; it moves “of its own
accord,” as we would say; such action is called auto-
matic; the ameba is an individual capable of spon-
taneous and independent activity.
4. The protoplasm of which the body of the ameceba is
composed is constantly undergoing chemical change ;
this change is of two kinds: one a wearing out, de-
pending on the degree of activity, the other a building
up, to make good the loss. The food is changed so
that it is ready to become part of the body; this
process is digestion. The building of this material
into the body is known by the name assimilation.
The waste products resulting from the breaking up of
the old protoplasm are called excretions, and are
thrown off into the same surrounding medium from
which food is taken. All these processes of taking
food, digesting and assimilating it, the decomposition
6
Cr
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
of the body as an accompaniment of activity, and the
throwing off of the waste products, are included
under the term nutrition.
The amoeba breathes; that is, takes in oxygen and
throws off carbon dioxide; this is really a part of
the process of nutrition, being most intimately con-
nected with the breaking down of the protoplasm
(which invariably accompanies any form of action),
during which not only motion, but also heat is
produced.
The amceba reproduces its kind by simple division
into two. Each individual of the higher, many-celled
animals develops from an egg, which is a cell, and is
essentially ike an amoeba. As it develops, this cell
divides, forming two; each of these divides, and the
division continues till many cells are formed; these
cells are at first all alike, but soon they grow different
from one another, and are arranged in order, forming
the various parts of the body; thus one set of cells
form muscle, another set, developing in a different
way, produce the brain and nerves; other groups of
cells form bone, skin, cartilage, etc. Each of these
sets of different kinds of cells is called a tissue; thus
there is muscular tissue, nervous tissue, etc. The
process of “ growing unlike” or “ growing different,”
which the cells undergo in their development, is called
differentiation ; thus, of the cells which were all es-
sentially alike, those of one set have taken one shape,
and have acquired certain peculiarities by which they
may be recognized, and we say they have become
differentiated into nervous tissue or muscular tissue,
ete.
AMCEBA. 67
Now, in the development of higher animals, while all the
cells which result from the original cell (egg) are at first
essentially alike, not only in structure but in properties,
they grow unlike in this latter respect as well; that is,
while all the cells have at first in equal measure the proper-
ties of motion, sensation, digestion, respiration, assimi-
lation, and reproduction, each set (tissue) soon develops
in a special degree some one of these properties. Take, for
instance, the nervous tissue; the cells composing this tissue
are regarded as having had originally not only irritability
but contractility, and all the other characters enumerated
above in describing the amceba; but this kind of tissue has
developed, in a high degree, the property of irritability, and
has lost, in a large measure, the other properties; so the
muscular tissue, while it has not wholly lost its irritability,
has it feebly developed when compared with nervous tissue,
but has the power of contraction in a very high degree.
Thus each tissue has some one of the general properties in
a very marked degree, while the other properties are less
apparent, though seldom entirely wanting. All the tissues
work together for the common good of the whole animal ;
all the tissues grow by the increase of the number of their
cells, and this is accomplished by the division of the cells;
but that division of cells which gives rise to new individ-
uals is limited to the reproductive tissues.
Although one set of tissues (the organs of digestion)
has the chief work of preparing the food to be built into
the tissues of the body, yet each cell must take for itself
the food thus prepared for it, and, really, each cell leads an
independent life bathed in the liquid part of the blood,
which soaks through the walls of the blood-vessels and
surrounds every cell; from this liquid nourishment. is
68 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
taken (or cell starvation follows), and into this surround-
ing liquid the cell throws its waste products.
In consequence of the complexity of structure, a compli-
cated set of organs 1s required to circulate this liquid to
all parts of the body, so that each cell may be supplied,
and to bring air into contact with this current in one part
of its course, where oxygen is absorbed for all the cells.
It now becomes evident why one can hold his breath
longer after taking several deep breaths, and why distress
for breath continues for some time after one has ase
at the end of a foot-race.
The differentiation of cells in the formation of the vari-
ous tissues of the body may be compared with the division
of labor in a community. In a community of savages
there is little division of labor; each one, or at least each
family, gets and prepares his own food, makes his own
clothing, builds his own dwelling (if he has one), and in
general supples all his own wants; in rude communities
of more enlightened people the same is very nearly the
case. But as time goes on, it is found more advantageous
to divide the labor, each devoting himself to one special
kind of work; thus each acquires skill in his special line,
better articles are produced, and time is saved for all; so,
in time, come tailors and butchers, teachers and tanners.
But just in proportion as each individual devotes him-
self exclusively to one pursuit, he neglects the others, and
consequently grows unable to do well in them; that is, by
becoming especially fit for one kind of labor, he propor-
tionally unfits himself for others. The grocer does not
make his own boots, clothes, hat, house, nor wagon.
In the human body, also, the work is better done by
having a special set of cells devoted to a given kind of
THE WHEEL-ANIMALCULE. 69
work; and the cells of the different tissues, like the indi-
vidual members of society, by giving themselves entirely
to one kind of work, make themselves specially fit for this
work, and become almost completely unfitted for anything
else.
This is what is meant by the physiological division of
labor. |
Read the descriptions of Amceba in Brooks’ “ Handbook
of Invertebrate Zoology,” and in “ Practical Biology,” by
Huxley and Martin; the characters of Protozoa, in Pack-
ard’s “ Zodlogy’’; the lecture ““On a Piece of Chalk,” in
Huxley’s “ Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews’; the
Introduction to Foster’s “ Physiology.”
THE WHEEL-ANIMALCULE (ROTIFER).
Rotifers are often found in the water of an aquarium
where clams and crayfishes have been kept; pick out
clusters of plant growth, found in the rubbish and sedi-
ment in the aquarium, or on the shells of clams; with a
lens look at the walls of the aquarium for small, white,
worm-like forms.
The body of the wheel-animalcule is tapering, ending
in a two-forked foot. At the larger end, when expanded,
are two circular disks, fringed with cilia; the disks are
retractile, as in Vorticella. Between the disks is the
mouth; this opens into the pharynx, lined with teeth;
back of the pharynx are the stomach and intestine.
Rotifers are classed with the worms; though small, the
presence of a distinct digestive tube, a distinct nervous
(i aie PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
system, and organs of sight and hearing, show the rotifer
to be much more highly developed than the protozoans.
Rotifers have been dried and kept for years, and yet
when put into water they revived. |
Study carefully —
The mode of locomotion.
The action of the disks and cilia.
The motions of the pharynx.
The contraction and expansion of the body as a
whole.
Pee Oe
Make drawings showing the body both.in the expannaa
and in the contracted state.
Read the “General Characters of Rotifers” in Packard’s
“ Zodlogy ”; “ Rotifera” in Claus and ade si ae
Book of Zoblogy.”
THE Wisi:
Let each pupil have a live minnow in a fruit-jar.
Watch the movements of the mouth and gill-covers at the
sides of the head. Observe the motions of the eyes.. Can
a fish wink? Does a fish sleep? Study the. action of
each fin, trying to discover what work is done by each.
What is the chief propelling power? Consider the pe |
of the shape of the body for locomotion in water.
THE EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE FISH.
For this work, and the dissection which follows, the
perch is preferable, but bass or croppies serve very well.
THE FISH. 71
Use the dissecting-pan described under “ The Crayfish,”
or put the fish on a large plate.
1. Notice the shape of the fish as a whole; hold the fish,
with the belly down and the tail toward you, and
observe that there is an anterior and a posterior
part, a dorsal and a ventral surface, and that it is
bilaterally symmetrical. A fish whose body is flat-
tened from side to side, is said to be “compressed” ;
the word “flat,” when used in describing a fish,
means flattened from above downward, and is applied
to such a fish as the flounder.
Close the mouth of the fish, and measure from the
foremost point of the head, the tip of the snout, to
the front edge, the base, of the tail-fin; this is the
length of the fish. Measure from the tip of the
snout to the hinder point of the hard part of the flap
which covers the side of the head; this is the length
of the head. How many times is the length of the
head contained in the length of the fish? Measure
from above downward at the deepest part; this is the
depth of the fish. How many times is it contained in
the length? Compare the width and depth of the fish.
2. The fins on the back are the dorsal fins; spread them
out to their fullest extent, and study them thoroughly ;
their framework consists of fin-rays; some of them
spinous rays, or spines (unjointed, or inarticu-
lated), others soft rays (jointed, or articulated) ;
study carefully one of the soft rays, using a lens;
count each kind of rays; observe the membrane
connecting the rays. This membrane is double; the
fin is really a fold of the skin, with supporting parts
within the fold.
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
Measure along the base of each fin; this is the
length of the fin; extend the fin fully, and measure
the length of its longest ray; this is the height of
the fin. Compare the length and height of the fin.
In some fishes the dorsal fin is single; in others it is
divided, forming two or more dorsal fins.
The tail-fin is the caudal fin; when this fin is sym-
metrical, or nearly so, the backbone apparently ending
at the centre of its base, the tail is said to be homo-
cercal, as in most fishes; if the backbone extends
into the upper lobe of the fin, making this lobe larger,
as in the sturgeon, the tail is called heterocercal.
The fin in front of and below the caudal, is the
anal (being just back of the external opening of the
intestine, the anus); compare this fin with the dorsal.
The fins above named, being in the middle line,
are called median, or vertical fins.
The remaining fins are called paired fins; the pair
back of the head are the pectoral fins, and are con-
sidered as representing the forelimbs of the higher
animals; the lower pair (usually farther back) are
the ventral fins, representing the hind limbs of
higher animals. ‘Take the ventral fins between the
thumb and finger to feel their bony support; rest
the fish on its back, and press the thumb and fore-
finger of the other hand on the bony structures at
the bases of the pectoral fins; move the ventrals
about to determine, as far as possible by feeling, the
relations between the bones supporting the two pairs
of fins.
. Open the mouth of the fish by pulling its lower jaw
down as far as possible; the bone which forms the
THE FISH. 73
border of each side of the upper lip is the pre-max-
illary; note its extension backward on the middle of
the snout; observe the fine teeth on it. Observe
their size, shape, arrangement, and the direction in
which they point.
The paddle-like bone back of the pre-maxillary is
the maxillary.
The bone on each side of the lower jaw is the
dentary. Which of these bones bear teeth? Open
and shut the mouth repeatedly, watching the move-
ments of these parts, and their relations to each
other.
Compare the perch or bass with the sucker in the
movements of the mouth parts.
Back of the pre-maxillary, in the front part of the
roof of the mouth, is a patch of teeth, borne on a
bone called the vomer; extending backward from
the vomer, on each side of the roof of the mouth, are
rows of teeth on the palatine bones.
Examine the short tongue; feel its surface with
the tip of the finger, or scrape it with the head of a
pin; examine also the whole of the inside of the
mouth, to see if there are more ‘teeth than those
mentioned. Can a fish taste?
Note the shape and position of the eyes; with the
handle of the forceps press on the eye at various
points near its margin, to see its range of motion;
watch the roof of the mouth while pressing the eye,
also press outward on that part of the roof of the
mouth nearest to the eye. Compare the eyes with
human eyes. Are eyelids present? Observe a thin
bone imbedded in the skin immediately in front
14
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
of the eyes; it is the ante-orbital bone. This and
several smaller bones just under the eye are known
as sub-orbital bones.
Examine the nostrils in front of the eyes. How
many are there? Probe them with a bristle tipped
with sealing wax; do they open into the mouth? do
any of them communicate with each other?
The flap at the side of the head is the gill-cover, and
the opening back of it is the gill-opening. The upper,
hinder piece of the gill-cover is the opercle; along its
lower posterior border, and rather closely attached to
it, is the sub-opercle; in front of the opercle, and
below and back of the eye, bordering the part known
as the cheek, is the pre-opercle. If the margin of
this be toothed, it is said to be serrate; under the
pre-opercle, and in front of the lower end of the sub-
opercle, is the inter-opercle. : |
The thin membrane below the gill-cover is the
branchiostegal membrane; the curved bones sup-
porting it are the branchiostegal rays; count them.
The narrow part of the body between the branchio-
stegal membranes is the isthmus.
Raise the gill-cover and examine the gills: each gill
has a central bony arch; on the hind and outer border
of this arch is a fringe of red gill-filaments; on the
front and inner border of the arch are the teeth-like
gill-rakers. Are these alike on all the gills? A red
streak along the arch, at the base of the filaments, is
made by the blood-vessels, which bring the blood to,
and carry it away from, them.
Thrust a finger into the mouth, and depress the
tongue. What effect has this on the gills? what
THE FISH. | 75
effect on the gill-rakers? The slits between the gills,
which allow communication from the mouth to the
gill-opening, are the gill-clefts. How many gills are
there? How many gill-clefts? After this study of
the gills in their natural position, remove the fore-
most gill, severing it at its upper and lower ends, and
note more fully the parts above named, especially the
structure and arrangement of the gill-filaments and
gill-rakers; tear away some of the filaments, and find
the groove along the posterior, outer border of the
bony arch in which run the blood-vessels. Look
on the inside of the gill-cover for a red spot —the
false gill.
Observe the arrangement of the scales. Pull out a
scale and study its shape and markings, the radiat-
ing and concentric striz. Compare its inner and
outer surfaces, its anterior and posterior margins ;
make a drawing of it, naming its parts; pull out a
scale from a black spot; compare that part of its sur-
face which was exposed with the part overlapped by
other scales; scrape the portion that was exposed ;
thrust one point of the forceps under the hind edge
of a scale, and watch closely this edge, while slowly
raising it, to see that a thin skin covers it and passes
on to the scale behind. This thin outer skin is
chiefly epidermis. In this epidermis lie the black
pigment cells which make the dark spots.
A scale with a smooth hinder border is a cycloid
scale; if the hinder portion is toothed or spiny, the
scale is ctenoid.
A raised line along the side is the lateral line. Re-
move one of the scales on this line, and find what
makes the line. Is the line continuous?
76 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
10. Make a drawing of the fish as seen from one side,
naming all the parts visible. Describe fully all the
parts above noted, including the general color and
markings.
DISSECTION OF A FISH.
Hold the fish with its back in the palm of the left hand,
and the tail towards you; thrust the point of one blade
of the scissors obliquely forward through the body-wall,
just in front of the anus, and cut forward in the middle
line to the ventral fins. After observing the organs with-
in, cut upward, z.e., toward the dorsal region of the fish,
with scissors, from the beginning of the first cut as far as
possible without cutting anything but the body-wall, being
especially careful not to cut into the air-bladder which
occupies the upper part of the body-cavity ; now cut for-
ward to a point a little above the pectoral fin; make the
same cut on the other side; turn forward the flaps thus
made, noting the silvery membrane, the peritoneum,
lining these flaps, and study the organs of the body-cavity.
1. In the front part of the body-cavity is a reddish or
brownish mass, the liver, lying chiefly on the left side
of the fish. Raise the hinder edge of the liver, and
observe how closely it fits the organs next to it.
Press the liver backward, and observe the hepatic
veins passing forward from the liver through the
thin partition in front.
2. Lay the fish on the right side and turn the liver
downward, gently tearing away its thread-like attach-
ments. This uncovers a pinkish sac, the stomach.
Pass a probe back through the mouth and wide
THE FISH. a
gullet into the stomach, to determine its shape and
extent. When the stomach ends blindly behind, the
intestine arising from its front end, the stomach is
said to be czcal. Compare the stomachs of the
perch and sucker. Observe a branch of the pneumo-
gastric nerve distributed over this side of the stomach.
Find a large tube arising from one side of the stomach,
the intestine. In many fishes there are at or near
this point several worm-like branches, often matted
together by fat. Rest the fish on its back, and turn
the liver to the left, to examine these. Clear away
this fat, separate these tubes and count them. They
are pyloric ceca. With scissors make a small hole
in the end of one cecum; insert the point of a blow-
pipe and inflate it.
Just beyond the ceca, on the posterior surface of the
liver, is a thin-walled sac, of a greenish or yellowish
color, the bile-sac. When empty, it has a worm-like
appearance. Snip it open with the scissors, or prick
it with a dissecting needle to see the bile.
Trace the intestine to the anus, observing that it is
held in place by a thin, transparent membrane, the
mesentery; observe the blood-vessels in it; tear this
away in foliowing the intestine; find a small, deep red
body near the intestine, the spleen. Compare the
length of the intestine in the perch or bass with that
of a sucker. The sucker eats vegetable matter, and
may be called herbivorous; while the perch and bass
feed chiefly on other fishes, and are carnivorous.
In the hinder part of the body-cavity are the repro-
ductive organs; the yellow ovary (varying greatly
in size, according to the season) in the female, thie
78
—]
10.
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
two white testes in the male. In some fishes the
ovary is single, in others it is double. If double,
the two ovaries unite in one tube, which discharges
the eges— the egg-tube, or oviduct. ‘Trace the ovi-
duct; has it a separate outlet? Sometimes the eggs
in the ovary can be discerned.
Back of the oviduct or hinder part of the testes is a
small pink sac, the urinary bladder. Look for its
external opening back of the anus.
In the upper part of the body-cavity is the air-
bladder.
Make now a drawing of the organs above noted
in their natural positions, as seen from below.
Look closely to see if there is any connection be-
tween the air-bladder and the stomach; gently scrape
away the thin outer covering, peritoneum, and note
its thin wall; examine the whole of this wall to see
if there are any blood-vessels in it. After thoroughly
examining, puncture and remove it.
Above the air-bladder, extending along the roof of the
body-cavity are slender, dark red bodies, the kidneys.
Look for an enlargement of the kidneys in front of
the air-bladder; trace one kidney to its posterior ter-
mination in the urinary bladder. Cut away all the
organs thus far studied, except the kidneys.
In front of the liver is a thin partition, the false dia-
phragm. If this is not already opened, cut carefully
through it to see the heart; also cut from the anterior
end of the first sht in the walls of the abdomen for-
ward to one side of the ventrals, through the bones
of the pectoral arch and on through the thick mass
of muscle, in the middle line, to the isthmus, and pull
aan Se
—
beak
THE FISH. 79
the walls of this cavity, the pericardial cavity, out
to the sides.
The red, angular portion of the heart, which in the
natural position of the fish les lowest aud hindmost,
is the ventricle; the darker, more irregular portion
lying (in the natural position) above the ventricle, is
the auricle; the larger blood-cavity back of the auri-
cle, and extending across the body-cavity, above the
false diaphragm, is the venous sinus; in front of
the ventricle is the light-colored conical arterial bulb.
This narrows forward into an artery which gives off
branches on both sides, one to each gill. Make a
drawing of the heart and arterial bulb. After passing
through the gills, the blood-vessels re-unite to form
the dorsal aorta, which passes backward just under-
neath the spinal column. From above the gills
branches also run forward to the head.
Insert the finger into the fish’s mouth and depress the
tongue. Observe the thin membrane which forms
the floor of the mouth on each side of the tongue;
cut through this membrane close to the inner border
of the lower jaw on each side and across the band of
muscle which is attached to the point where the two
halves of the lower jaw unite; continue the cut back-
ward on each side between the gill-cover and the
branchiostegal membrane, and wholly separate them.
Turn back the whole flap thus loosened, and again
examine the gills; note the joints in the gills; with
the forceps seize the tongue, raise and lower it, to see
the action of these joints in the gill-arches.
Observe, where the gills unite above and below,
patches of closely set teeth, the superior and inferior
80
12.
138.
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
pharyngeal teeth. The bones supporting these
teeth, above and below, are the pharyngeal bones;
they represent a fifth gill-arch. Again depress and
raise the lower ends of the gills, observing how the
pharyngeal teeth are brought together. What is
the probable use of these teeth, and what is the work
done by the teeth previously examined ?
Again examine the gill-rakers, and observe how
they are affected by bending and straightening the
gill-arches. Examine the bone which bears the
_branchiostegal rays, and note with what bones it is
connected.
Examine the bones in the posterior border of the gill-
opening; these are together called the pectoral arch.
The largest of these bones is the clavicle; its upper
part forms a projection above the base of the pectoral
fin. Connected with the upper end of the clavicle is
the supra-clavicle, which, in turn, is connected with
the skull through the post-temporal. Cut away the
flaps of the body-wall bearing the fins. ti
Note also the bones supporting the ventral fins; these
are considered as representing the pelvis. In the
higher fishes the pelvis is fastened to the clavicle ; in
the lower fishes it is separate from the rest of the
skeleton and imbedded in the flesh. How is it in
the specimen you are studying? Carefully remove
the ventrals, with the bones which support them; ex-
amine and describe them, after scraping away all
muscles and other soft tissues.
If the dissection of the muscles and the brain are
not to be made at this time, carefully cut away the
gills at their upper attachment, and remove them;
14.
15.
16,
17.
THE FISH. 81
wash the fish thoroughly, wipe it dry, and keep it ina
cool place.
Hold the fish in the left hand, with its back up and
its head away from you; insert the point of one blade
of the scissors at the base of the caudal fin and cut
the skin forward, passing to the left of the dorsal fin
and on to the head; remove the skin of this side,
carefully leaving the white muscles beneath undis-
turbed; scrape part of the skin clean on the inside;
note the arrangement of the scales as seen on each
side of the skin; look also for traces of the lateral line
on the inside of the skin. Hold the skin up and look
through it toward the light, alternately stretching and
shortening it, noting especially the lateral line. Roll
the skin lengthwise, with the scales outermost, to see
how the epidermis passes from one scale to another.
Observe the parallel, transverse markings on the mus-
cles along the body.
Cut and scrape away all the muscle of this side of the
body down to the bones, and make out the central
backbone, with its bony projections above and below.
Bend the dorsal and anal fins from side to side, to
show the bones which support these fins and the rela-
tion of these fin-supporters to the projections of the
backbone.
Break across the backbone under the centre of the
second dorsal fin, and remove one of the pieces, or
vertebra, of the backbone; clear away all muscle and
other tissue, and make out the following parts : —
a. The central body, or centrum, shaped like an
hour-glass, and hollowed at each end.
82
18.
19:
20.
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
6. Two projections extending upward, soon uniting
to form one spine, the neural spine.
c. The archway formed above the body of the ver-
tebra is the neural arch.
d.
little sea-urchins, about the size of pins’ heads, are found
crawling up the sides of the glass vessels in which they
are kept.
The first of the changes here described should be care-
fully remembered, as this division, or segmentation, of
the egg is common to all but the very lowest animals,
though the manner of division may greatly vary.
THE FRESH-WATER HYDRA.
The fresh-water hydra has a cylindrical body, varying in
diameter from the size of a fine needle to that of a common
pin, and from one-fourth to one-half an inch in length. It
is found in fresh-water ponds and streams, usually attached
by one end to submerged stems, leaves, etc., frequently
on the under surface of a leaf. Surrounding the free end
of the hydra is a circle of thread-like appendages, the
tentacles, which often are longer than the body itself.
THE FRESH-WATER HYDRA. 167
Two species of hydras are found; one green, the other
brown or flesh-colored. Put the leaves and stems to
which the hydras are attached into shallow dishes, such as
fruit-dishes, and keep them in a hght but shaded place;
watch their behavior when thus kept undisturbed. Cut
off a bit of leaf bearing a hydra, and transfer it to a deep
watch crystal half full of water. Without the aid of any
lens watch the hydra for several minutes. When it is
expanded, gently touch it with the tip of a pencil or other
blunt object. —
Examine a hydra with a hand lens; are all parts colored
alike? Place the watch crystal on the stage of a micro-
scope and examine with a one-inch objective. The follow-
ing points of structure should now be made out: —
1. That the body is a hollow tube closed at one end and
open at the other. This opening, within the circle of
the tentacles, is the mouth.
2. That the tentacles are also hollow tubes, closed at
their outer ends, but at the inner communicating
freely with the body cavity.
8. That the body wall consists of two layers, which are
continuous with the corresponding layers of the ten-
tacles. How do these layers differ from each other ?
The body is, then, a double-walled sac, and the ten-
tacles are simply extensions of this sac. Watch the
movements of the different parts of the body. Can
hydras move from place to place? If so, how is this
accomplished? Look in the body cavity for foreign
matter which has been taken in through the mouth
as food. Look also for minute particles obtained by
the digestion of such food matter. ‘These particles
may often be seen in motion, caused by contractions
168
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
of the body walls, or by the action of cilia lining the
body cavity. Look for knob-like extensions of the
side of the body. Buds are formed as outgrowths
of the body walls with a cavity continuous with the
body cavity. Place in a dish by itself with some
aquatic plants, a hydra bearing buds, and watch from
day to day the development of the bud into the form
of the parent. Observe the free circulation of food
material from the parent to the bud. Watch the
formation of tentacles. Look also for a thinning
away of the free end of the bud. |
What is the greatest number of buds found on any
one specimen? Are buds borne on buds? By means
of a pipette transfer a hydra in a large drop of water
to a slide. Cut two strips of thick paper a quarter of
an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch wide and
lay one on each side of the drop of water. Carefully
place the coverslip on the water, with its edges rest-
ing on the papers so as not to crush the specimen.
Examine now with a quarter or one-fifth inch
objective. Observe the cells of which the body walls
are composed. Note the knotty appearance of the
tentacles. In these projections of the tentacles and
in the walls of the body are certain distinct oval
cells, the thread cells. Place a drop of acetic acid
on the slide at one edge of the coverslip, and touch
the opposite edge of the coverslip with a piece of
blotting paper, meanwhile watching the specimen
closely. Examine carefully to see the thread-like
prolongations of the thread cells which have been
discharged as a result of the irritating acid. Small
animals coming in contact with the tentacles are
THE FRESH-WATER HYDRA. 169
paralyzed by means of these threads which are sud-
denly shot out; the tentacles then carry the victim
to the mouth and it is swallowed.
Note the simplicity of the structure of hydra —the
absence of any distinct nervous system, and all
special organs of circulation and respiration.
Hydras have been cut into shces, lengthwise and
crosswise, and each part not only continued to live
but grew into a perfect hydra. Hydras have also
been turned inside out and in a short time digested
food as usual, what had been the outer layer of the
body now becoming the lining of a stomach. The
tentacles when cut off do not live.
Besides multiplying by budding, hydra also pro-
duces ova and spermatozoa in projections of the body
walls. Both kinds of sexual elements are produced
in the same individual. Such an animal is called a
hermaphrodite.
There is a large group of animals, almost without
exception marine, constructed on essentially the same
plan as hydra, though often much more complicated.
Hence the hydra is the type of the group known as
the Hydroids. Many of them live in colonies, as
if the young hydras, instead of dropping off from
the parent and becoming distinct individuals, re-
mained attached with a free communication between
them all. At least two distinct forms of individuals
are commonly found: —
a. A hydra-like form, devoted to obtaining and pre-
paring nourishment for the colony, hence called
the nutritive zooid.
6b. Modified forms, producing the generative ele-
ments, the generative zooids.
0
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
c. Besides these two are often found forms modified
for protection, etc.
If a stained and mounted specimen of a campanu-
larian or other hydroid be at hand, it will be found
very useful in showing these points.
The different kinds of individuals, though often
greatly modified, still show the essential plan of the
hydra. Some hydroids have a tube of hard material
developed by the outer layer, and at the base of the
colony some kinds secrete a layer of this material
incrusting the object on which the colony is borne.
Some forms spread by runners like strawberries.
One form is common on the shells inhabited by her-
mit crabs. Others are attached to seaweed, while still
others are dredged up from great depths of the ocean.
Among certain forms of hydroids the generative
zooid becomes peculiarly modified in form, and ulti-
mately becoming detached, is known as a free gener-
ative zooid, jelly-fish, or medusa. These jelly-fishes,
or meduse are usually either bell-shaped or umbrella-
shaped, the part answering to the top being called the
bell or disk. Corresponding to a short handle is the
manubrium. ‘This has at its free end an opening,
the mouth. The handle is hollow, and communi-
cates with tubes radiating through the disk, answer-
ing to the umbrella rays. These tubes are connected
by a circular tube, extending around the margin of
the disk. Along this margin are tentacles and organs
for receiving impressions of light or sound. Most
jelly-fishes swim by contracting the umbrella-like disk.
Along the radiating tubes, or in the manubrium,
are borne the generative elements; the eggs develop
THE SEA-ANEMONE. Tit
into hydra-like forms, which, on becoming attached,
give rise by a process of budding, to a hydroid colony,
some members of which assume a medusa form, thus
completing the cycle. This mode of development
has been called, though inappropriately, an alterna-
tion of generations. All jelly-fishes do not, however,
develop in this way. Jelly-fishes are richly supplied
with lasso-cells, and the larger ones sting severely,
being dangerous to bathers.
Read the description of Cyanea and other jelly-
fishes in “ Seaside Studies.”
THE SEA-ANEMONE.
In its general form the sea-anemone resembles a hydra,
having a cylindrical hollow body attached by one end to
some foreign object, and at the free end a mouth sur-
rounded by tentacles. In its internal structure, however,
the sea-anemone presents some new features. The mouth,
instead of opening directly into the body cavity, as in the
hydra, opens into a stomach which hangs like a bag sus-
pended in this cavity; the stomach has no bottom, but at
its lower end communicates freely with the body cavity.
The body wall and stomach may be represented by a
glove-finger with its tip cut off and the open end turned
back part way into the larger part of the finger.
The cavity of the body is divided into a series of radial
compartments by fleshy vertical partitions, the mesente-
ries, which extend inward from the body wall, some reach-
ing the stomach and being attached to it, others not ex-
dy PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
tending as far inward as the stomach. Each tentacle
communicates with one of these radial compartments, and
is to be regarded as a mere extension of part of the body
cavity.
Alcoholic specimens should be sliced transversely and
longitudinally. In a transverse section of the lower part
of the body there will be seen the body wall with a series
of partitions extending inward and ending in a free edge.
The section across the upper part of the body shows an
outer circle, the body wall, an inner circle, the stomach
wall, and, connecting the two, the radially arranged parti-
tions, or mesenteries. Like the hydroids, the sea-anemone
is well provided with lasso cells.
Food is taken into the mouth, digested in the stomach,
then passed, mixed with sea water, into the body cavity,
through which it is made to circulate by the contractions
of the body walls. The indigestible portions of the food
are expelled from the stomach through the mouth.
The tentacles are often brilliant and variegated in color:
and when the sea-anemone is expanded, it well proves the
fitness of its name. For a very interesting description of
these beautiful animals read Mrs. Agassiz’s little book, * A
First Lesson in Natural History” (No. IV. in “ Guides for
Science Teaching ’’).
CORAL POLYPS.
The coral polyps are similar to the sea-anemone in their
general structure. They usually grow in colonies with
their bases connected by a continuous layer of living
matter, from which the polyps grow by budding.
——- Ts el
CORAL POLYPS. — STONY CORALS. 173
Through this common base the cavities of the polyps
commuuicate, more or less directly, so that food obtained
by one may nourish the whole colony. ‘The coral polyps
also differ from the sea-anemone in forming a deposit of
hard matter. Representatives of the two kinds of coral
should now be examined.
STONY CORALS.
(Corals Proper.)
In a piece of stony coral, or compound skeleton of a
colony of coral polyps (Galazea is a good form to study),
make out the following points : —
1. The nature of the material itself; test by putting a
very small piece into weak acid, or by touching the
specimen with a drop of acid.
2. The cup, or theca, formed by an individual polyp,
often traceable as a long tube. Observe, —
a. The outer wall of the cup.
6b. The partitions, or septa, extending inward from
the wall of the cup.
3. Between the cups, the porous limy secretion, which
was secreted by the common body substance, or cee-
nosarc, connecting the individual polyps.
Imagine the sea-anemone depositing limy matter in
the base of its body wall, forming a cup; fleshy radial
ridges rising from the floor and wall of the cup be-
tween the mesenteries, and a similar deposit in these
ridges; thus it will be seen how the cup is formed by,
174
=
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
the individual polyp. By the continued growth of
the polyp, and the continuation of the limy deposit,
the cup becomes an elongated tube. By budding are
formed the branches of these tubes, increasing in size
and in the number of partitions as they grow.
Between the cups, a porous secretion of the same ma-
terial as that in the cups. ‘This is deposited in the
common fleshy base, -filling up, in some forms, the
spaces between the cups; and when one polyp dies, its
cup is covered over and buried out of sight by this —
secretion of the common base.
Make a drawing of a mass of stony coral, showing
the general arrangement of the cups, their mode of
branching, and the common secretion between them.
Draw a cup as seen from its free end. Make also a
drawing of a cross-section of the same cup toward
the smaller end.
In the stony corals the mesenteries are always in
pairs, and the fleshy ridges, in which are secreted the
septa, arise between them.
The tentacles are generally in multiples of six, and
are not fringed. It is of this kind of coral that the
reefs are formed.
SEA-FEATHER, OR SEA-FAN.
In a sea-feather, e.g., Muricea, note : —
di.
An outer bark-like layer; with the thumb-nail scrape
off a little of this layer and pulverize it between the
thumb and finger; mix this powder with water and
examine under a microscope. A better way to see
SEA-FEATHER, OR SEA-FAN. 175
the spicules is, to thoroughly clean them by boiling
some of the outer layer in caustic potash. In this
layer are holes from which the polyps protruded. In
this form, then, the secretion is wholly in the living
matter between the polyps, the bark-like layer being
composed of the dried flesh in which the spicules lie
imbedded. 4
Strip off a piece of the bark-like layer and note the
-grooves.on its inner surface. By examining the end
of this piece it may be seen that these grooves are
caused by a series of tubes running lengthwise near
the inner surface of this layer. Find the openings of
the tubes where they were broken; these tubes con-
nect the polyps of the colony. |
The central axis of horn-like substance. Test its flexi-
bility and strength. Observe the grooves on its sur-
face, and the relation between them and the tubes
above noted. This horny axis is excreted by the
walls of these tubes, and is not penetrated by liy-
ing matter like the outer layer. In the precious red
coral the central axis is formed in the same way, but
is calcareous instead of horny, and the outer bark-like
layer has been removed.
Note the mode of branching in a sea-fan, comparing
the margin with the central portion to see how the
meshes are formed. Remove some of the outer layer,
and compare with the sea-feather. In this group
Cncluding sea-feathers, sea-fans, the precious red coral,
etc.) each polyp has eight fringed tentacles; also
eight mesenteries, which are never in pairs. An alco-
holic specimen, with the polyps expanded, should, if
possible. be examined,
176
cavity.
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
The hydroids, jelly-fishes, sea-anemones, and corak
polyps, with many other interesting forms, belong to
the branch Ceelenterata. The ccelenterates are many-
celled, radially symmetrical animals, and never pos-
sess a digestive tube wholly cut off from the a
_
SPONGES.
Each pupil should have a small specimen of a commer-
cial sponge, showing large holes at the top, but not with
large holes running straight through.
The teacher will need several specimens of larger
sponges; one of the simple calcareous sponges, in alco-
hol;
the
a piece of a commercial sponge in alcohol, showing
sponge-flesh still in place; a silicious sponge; and
slides showing sponge spicules.
The pupil should make out the following points from
his specimen : —
ibs
Its elasticity; test first the specimen dry, and again
after wetting it. Compare. the elasticity of different
kinds of sponges. .
The fibrous structure; with forceps tear off a bit of
the sponge and examine with a lens. ‘Then examine
under the microscope.
The sponge was attached by its basal seria to rock.
Find where it has been trimmed away with shears;
perhaps if this has not been thoroughly done, some
bits of rock may be found clinging to the base.
Examine now the different channels by which the
sponge is perforated.
SPONGES. Efi
a. Large crater-like tubes, opening at the top of the
sponge. Looking into these, it may be seen that
they give off branches. If you can see right
through the sponge by looking into these open-
ings, you may know that too much of the base
has been cut away, and your specimen is not a
good one. With a razor or sharp knife, cut the
sponge in two down one of these large tubes, and
examine from the inside.
6. Trace the branches of the large tubes by gently
pushing into them a probe (a wire with a little
knob on one end). ‘These lead, usually, to holes
seen on the outside.
e. Grooves on the surface of the sponge, some shal-
low, others already becoming enclosed by the
union of the tufts of fibres outside of them; in
this way is formed another set of tubes (d).
d. Tubes running parallel to the surface of the
sponge, whose cut-off ends may be seen near the
margins of the split sponge. Hoid the half
sponge up to the light to see the radiating fibres
and the concentric series of holes indicating the
mode of growth of the sponge.
e. Minute branches of the above tubes penetrating
the sponge in all directions.
It must be borne in mind that the sponges we buy
are only the skeletons of sponges. In the living
sponge the skeleton is entirely imbedded in soft liv-
ing matter, and the skeleton cannot be seen on the
exterior; in fact, its fibres are not very evident in a
section of a fresh sponge. The outside of the sponges
whose skeletons we buy, when alive resembles, in color
178
PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
and general appearance, the back of a kid glove, vary-
ing from dark reddish-brown to almost black. The
consistency of the living sponge is about the same as
that of beef liver. If one of these live sponges be
watched, a current of water is found to come out of
the larger holes at the top, and currents pass in
through the numerous smaller holes on the exterior.
If the sponge be handled, many of the smaller holes
close and entirely disappear.
In order to understand a little more clearly the
structure of the common sponge, and to see how the
currents of water are maintaimed, an examination of a
simple sponge will be useful. Our simplest sponges
have no elastic skeleton composed of horny fibres like
those of the commercial sponge, but have little needle-
shaped and three-pronged spicules of limy matter.
One form common on the northern Atlantic coast
is a simple or branched white tube, an inch or so in
height and sometimes as thick as a pigeon’s quill.
These are in clusters, attached by one end and open at
the other. Imbedded in the wall of each tube are the
spicules above mentioned, projecting both on the out-
side and on the inside. The inside of the tube is lined
with cells bearing cilia which, by their vibration, drive
the contained water out of the mouth of the tube; to
replace which, water enters through many holes which
pierce the wall of the tube. In sponges a little more
complicated, the cilia, instead of lining the main tube,
are limited to small pouches, or lateral branches of the
main tube, extending into the body wall and communi-
cating with the exterior through small pores. In others
the cilia are found only in certain enlarged portions
SPONGES. 179
of these radiating tubes. This represents the condi-
tion in the commercial sponges; certain cavities are
lined with cilia and are connected on the one hand
with the smaller tubes entering the whole surface of
the sponge, and on the other with the large tubes
opening at the top. These cilia cause the currents
above mentioned. Thus the sponge gets both food
and oxygen. _
Sponges (including, besides those already men-
tioned, silicious sponges, whose spicules are flinty)
constitute the branch Porifera.
_ For avery interesting account of the gathering and
preparation of sponges for the market, read “ Com-
mercial and Other Sponges” by Hyatt (No. II. in
“Guides for Science Teaching’’).
180 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
REVIEW OF ALL THE ANIMALS STUDIED.
1. How many different plans of structure have been shown by the
animals thus far examined ?
2. How many different ways of eating, and how do the digestive
organs differ ?
What different arrangements for the circulation of the blood?
Compare the various methods of breathing.
In what ways do animals effect motion and locomotion?
me. Fe
Describe the different sorts of organs of feeling, seeing, hearing,
smelling, and tasting.
7. Describe the methods of producing sounds.
8. What different kinds of coats do animals wear?
9. What weapons of attack and defence do they carry?
10. What different kinds of skeletons?
How many kinds of animals are native to your neighborhood ?
The animals of a given region constitute its fauna. Thus, the
faune of North and South America are unlike; and North
America may be divided into regions having more or less dis-
tinct faune.
What characters are common to all the animals you have studied ?
What is an animal?
BRANCHES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
(Packard.)
Vertebrata: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Batrachians, Fishes, ete.
Arthropoda: Crustaceans and Insects, Spiders, Myriapods, etc.
Mollusca: Bivalves, Snails, Cuttle-fishes, etc.
Vermes: Worms.
ney ee
Echinodermata: Crinoids, Starfishes, Sea-urchins, etc. -
3.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 181
Ceelenterata: Hydroids, J elly-fishes, Polyps, ete.
2. Porifera: Sponges.
LE
Protozoa: Amceba, Paramcecium, Vorticella, etc.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR THE ZOOLOGICAL
LABORATORY.
Of the following books, Nos. 1 to 9 are almost indis-
pensable. For general reference, at least, one of the first
three should be at hand, and every one of 4 to 9 gives
great aid in practical work.
-
He 99 bo
12.
13.
TextT-Boox oF ZooLtoey. Claus & Sedgwick. Macmillan & Co.
2 vols. $8.00.
ZooLtocy. Packard. Henry Holt & Co. $3.00.
Text-Booxk oF ZodLocy. Nicholson. D. Appleton &Co. $1.50.
HANDBOOK OF INVERTEBRATE ZoOLoGy. Brooks. Cassino.
$3.00.
PracticaL Brotogy. Huxley & Martin. Macmillan & Co.
$1.50.
PractTicaL PuysioLtoay. Foster & Langley. Macmillan & Co.
$2.00.
GuIpEs FoR Science Tracuine. Hyatt and others. D.C.
Heath & Co. 10-40 cts. each.
First Boox or Zoé.toay. Morse. D. Appleton & Co. $1.00.
ZootTomy. Parker. Macmillan & Co. $2.25.
THe CrayrisH. Huxley. D. Appleton & Co. $1.75.
ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED AND INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS.
Huxley. 2vols. D. Appleton & Co. $2.50 each.
GuIDE TO THE Stupy or Insects. Packard. Henry Holt &
Co. $5.00.
Insects InNsuRIOUS TO VEGETATION. Harris. Cassino. $6.00.
182 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
14. Insects Insurious to Fruirs. Saunders. J. B. Lippincott
& Co. $3.00.
15. VEGETABLE MouLp AND EARTHWORMS. Darwin. D. Apple-
ton & Co. $1.50.
16. THe Naturauist’s AssisTANT. Kingsley. Cassino. $1.50.
17. COMPARATIVE ZoOLoGy. Orton. Harpers. $1.80.
18. SEASIDE Stupres in Naturat History. Mrs. E. C. and
Alexander Agassiz. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. $8.00.
19. SprmpERS, THEIR STRUCTURE AND Hasits. Emerton. Cas-
‘sino. $1.50. |
20. Lire ON THE SEASHORE. Emerton. Cassino. $1.50.
21. MANUAL OF THE VERTEBRATES. Jordan. Jansen, McClurg
& Co. $2.50.
22. SYNOPSIS OF THE FisHES OF NortTH ‘AMERICA. Jordan &
_ Gilbert.
23. Key To THE Birps or Norra America. Coues. $10.00.
24. Tue BUTTERFLIES OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. French.
J. B. Lippincott & Co. $2.00.
25. Tue Cat. Mivart. Scribners. $3.00. es
26. Tur AMERICAN NATURALIST. Cope & Packard. Monthly.
$4.00 a year. 7
TYPES OF MARINE ANIMALS. 183
“TYPES OF MARINE ANIMALS FOR LABORA-
TORY USE.
Protozoa.
Foraminiferal sand. Bahamas.
Sponges.
Commercial sponge. Small hand specimens for class use.
Florida Keys . . . Se Org ok ares Seay ger Naat
Same. Section mounted on ade wah ee Rate |
Same. Alcoholic specimen showing fleshy ee ai
piece in vial fas ee Behe
Sea cap sponge. Florida Keun each onbis Cae soacdeat ek
Calcareous sponge in vials. New En ete rete sees, |
Microscopical prep. Showing spiculesin place ..... 1
Silicious sponge. New England . Sits.) = hie 1
Spicules of same. Mounted 1
Chalinula. Pieces.
Ccelenterates.
HypDROIDs.
Seema, in yials). New England ... 2. <5 « s .
Tubularia. Exhibition cluster.
Clava on seaweed; clusters in vials. New England . . . 12
mmeemncmonics on shells. . : 2. . . . ow ike « £6
Campanularian. Inviais . .. . svar 12
Campanularian colony. Stained and aed: ‘Slide 1
Campanularian jelly-fish. Stained and mounted. New Eng-
land . - ]
Sertularia on seaweed. pe: ‘New Biiiands
ACTINOIDS.
ee New PNCIANG 6 us Oe ee lap ling
mea-anemone. Section on slide... 3... 6. ee we «1
Stony coral (Galaxea). Pacific. Small hand specimens. . 20
Aleyonarian coral (Muricea). Dry. Florida Keys. Ex. spec. 1
Same. Branches forclass use . . every? 2H
Same. Branch in alcohol showing pitty; ps er ein. 2
Same. Slide with spicules cf skeleton . 1
184 PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY.
ACTINOIDS.
Sea-fan. Bahamas
Same. Horny axis
Same. Spicules mounted
Echinoderms.
Starfish for dissection. New England .
Same. Dry. :
Same. Prepared, shame sRolotar >
Same. Decalcified PA
Same. Injected rays showing water urn : oe
Section of plate showing microscopic structure. Mounted
Young starfish showing the Cae out of rays. Stained
and mounted. . : 2 ee wo
Large W. I. Starfish (Sicisie)
Brittle stars (Ophiurans). Dry = ig eh
Sea-urchins. Alc. For dissection. New England
Same. Tests. Dry .
Same. Ale. specimen pecieion tee
Same. Section of plate showing microscopic str scrural Slide
Large W. I. Sea-urchin (Hipponoe). Test
Clypeastroid (Sand-dollar), with spines .
Clypeastroid (Sand-dollar), without spines .
Clypeastroid (Echinanthus). W.I.. ee
Holothurian. Common sea-cucumber (Pentacta). New Eng-
land. . a ew pte RS) a ee: Cer
Synapta. Microscopical preparation showing plates in body
wall . |
Worms.
Nereis in test-tube... Ale... ee a a ee
Polyzoan (Bugula). Dry.
Brachiopod (Terebratulina). Alc.
Mollusks.
Clam killed with eee extended
Mussel. Alc. or shell
Carnivorous sea-snail (Lunatia)
Carnivorous sea-snail (Purpura)
Limpet. Ale. New England .
Squid. New England
NNONF Fe
TYPES OF MARINE ANIMALS. 185
Arthropods.
CrusTAcEA. New England.
Lobster. Small specimen. Dry .
Shrimp. Ale. i
Crab. Dry or alc.
Goose barnacle. Alec.
Acorn barnacle. Dry.
eee tamulus). Smallspecimen. Ale. . s+ . . . 2
Gh ND
Peneteatcie. TY le eee ee 8 ew,
eaeeeeviodiic small specimens . ... . . «2. . «8
INSECTS.
White ants (Termites). In vial. Bahamas. —
Ascidians.
Pee emland . ee we ]
Pee NO ATIA fe ke
Vertebrates.
Young shark (Acanthias). 6inches. New England . .. 38
Geemteeme New lneland §....-. . . . #2). « » 1
eee we Mond ee ee
The above collection, carefully prepared and designed
especially for class work, may be obtained from B. H.
VAN VLECK, Boston Society of Natural History, Boston,
Mass.
Price (including packing), $25.00.
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SCIENCE.
‘‘ Thinking again the thoughts of God.’’
Organic Chemistry:
An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon. By IRA
REMSEN, Professor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Adapted to the needs of all students of Chemistry, whether they intend
to follow the pure science, or to deal with it in its application to the
arts, medicine, etc. 51% 7% inches. x-+ 364 pages. Cloth. Price by
mail, $1.30; Introduction price, $1.20. .
HIS book is strictly an zztroductzon to the study of the compounds
_ of Carben, or Organic Chemistry, and is intended to meet the
wants of students in our scientific schools, medical schools, schools of
technology, and colleges. It is difficult to see how, without some such
general introductory study, the technical chemist and the student of
medicine can comprehend what is usually put before them under the
heads of ‘‘ Applied Organic Chemistry” and ‘* Medical Chemistry.”
The book is perhaps rather more elementary than most of the existing
small books on the subject, and is therefore, it is believed, better adapted
to the classes of students mentioned. It takes nothing for granted
except an elementary knowledge of General Chemistry. Special care
has been taken in selecting for treatment such compounds as will best
serve to make clear the fundamental principles. General relations
as illustrated by special cases are discussed rather more fully than is
customary in books of the same size; and, on the other hand, the
number of compounds taken up is smaller than usual, though all which
are of real importance to the beginner are treated of with some degree
of fulness. Thus there is less danger of confusion than when a larger
number is brought to the attention of the student. The author has
endeavored to avoid dogmatism, and to lead the student, through a
careful study of the facts, to see for himself the reasons for adopting
the prevalent views in regard to the structure of the compounds of
carbon. Whenever a new formula is presented, the reasons for using
2 SCIENCE.
it are given so that it may afterward be used intelligently. Full direc-
tions are given for making a number of typical compounds, by methods
quite within the reach of every chemical laboratory, so that with the
aid of the book a systematic course of laboratory work on carbon com-
pounds may be carried on.
The following description of the book, which is also a noteworthy
commendation of it, we quote from a review of it by Prof. M. M.
Pattison Muir, Cambridge University, Eng., published in /Vature,
London, June 4, 1885.
“This is chemistry. Of how few books professing to be books on
chemistry can it be said that they teach us anything of the science!
The student who begins with the study of the carbon compounds has
to suffer many things from the text-books. Some of them present him
with dry bones in the shape of isolated facts, and bold assertions
regarding structural formule and the linking of atoms. Others lead
him into speculations which he is unprepared to follow; he makes little
flights into these, and comes back fancying he is a chemist. Other
books (there are not many of them) proceed on the true scientific lines ;
but very frequently their pages are encumbered with too many facts
about more or less widely separated compounds, or they deal so much
with groups of compounds, rather than with the typical individual
bodies, that the beginner soon loses his way, becomes perplexed, and
is ready to abandon the pursuit.
“Prof. Remsen has shown us a more excellent way than any of these.
He leads the learner by degrees through the early difficulties ; he places
before him distinct and detailed accounts of a few typical compounds ;
he shows him how these compounds are mutually related; and then he
takes him back to the beginning again, and teaches him how each com-
pound he has learned to know represents a group, and how, when he
knows the properties of one member of the group, he also knows much
about all the members.
‘“ At the outset Prof. Remsen makes a few wise and pregnant remarks
on the meaning of the structural formula. These ‘enable the chemist
who uwzderstands the language in which they are written to see relations
which might easily escape his attention without their aid. In order to
understand them, however, the student must have a knowledge of the
reactions upon which they are based; and he is warned not to accept
any chemical formula unless he can see the reasons for accepting it.’
The whole book is a practical sermon on this text.
SCLENCE. 3
“Tn no other elementary book in the English language will the student
find so many admirably chosen examples of the formation of structural
formule. The important facts are noted; then the inference is drawn;
then the hypothesis is ventured upon; analogous facts are recalled ;
the hypothesis is strengthened or weakened; suggestions are made;
experiments are conducted; and all is finally summarized in the for-
mula. But the book is more than a selection of examples showing how
structural formule ought to be gained. It is a systematic although
elementary treatise on organic chemistry. The student is first taught
about the two paraffins, methane and ethane; then he learns how the
halogen derivatives of these are prepared, and what relations they bear
to the parent hydrocarbons. By this time he has had his first taste of
isomerism. Then he proceeds to the oxygen derivatives of methane
and ethane; he learns what an alcohol is; he becomes acquainted with
ether, aldehyde, formic, and acetic acids, some ethereal salts, and ace-
tone. This method of studying a few simple compounds in detail is
pursued until the student is more or less familiar with representatives
of all the principal groups of compounds derived from the paraffins.
He is now ina position to study these hydrocarbons as a group, and
to deal in some detail with the questions of isomerism. When the
paraffins and their derivatives have been thus studied, the more difficult
subject of the benzenes and their compounds is approached. And here
the author shows an admirable power of dealing with facts as facts, and
with theories as theories.
** Many admirable illustrations of the scientific method of inquiry
are to be found throughout the book. I would especially draw atten-
tion to the simple but thorough-going treatment of the ‘ equivalency
of the hydrogen atoms’ in the molecule CH, (pp. 28, 29) and in the
molecule C,H, (pp. 234-236). It is on subjects such as are discussed
in the pages referred to that the chemical student so frequently suffers
shipwreck. If he will use this little book by Prof. Remsen as his pilot,
and will keep a good lookout as he proceeds, he may hope to pass the
shoals of the hexagon-formula and the shallows of the ortho-, meta-,
and para-derivatives of benzene.
“The author of this book deserves the thanks of all chemical teachers
who have tried to teach organic chemistry to beginners for the clear
and short directions which he gives for preparing the important com-
pounds of carbon. The book may well be used as a laboratory guide
-~no Jess than an introduction to the science of organic chemistry.”
8 SCIENCE.
The Elements of Inorganic Chemistry:
Descriptive and Qualitative. A Text-Book for Beginners, based on Ex-
perimental and Inductive Methods. By JAs. H. SHEPARD, Instructor in
Chemistry, Ypsilanti High School, Mich. 51% by 7% inches. xx + 377
pages. Cloth. Price by mail, $1.25. Introduction price, $1.12.
T is a practical embodiment of the modern spirit of investiga-
tion. It places the student in the position of an investigator, and
calls into play mental faculties that are too often wholly neglected. It
leads him Zo observe, to experiment, to think, to originate. Coming as
it does from the working laboratory of a practical instructor, who has
had the constant advice of fellow-teachers in all parts of the country,
this text may be fairly taken as an exponent of the latest methods of
teaching chemistry.
Its distinctive features are: experimental: and inductive methods;
the union of descriptive and qualitative chemistry, thus allowing these
kindred branches to supplement and illustrate each other; a practical
course of laboratory work, illustrating the general principles of the
science and their application; a fair presentation of chemical theories,
and a conciseness which confines the work to the required limits.
Each element and compound is treated in the following natural
manner : —
1. /ts occurrence, in which the student learns where he may find it.
2. Its preparation, or how he may obtain it for examination.
3. Lts properties and uses.
4. Its tests, or how he may detect its presence in known or in un-
known substances.
_ Many equations are given to illustrate the chemical reactions in the
different operations, and there are also special directions for detecting
the acids as well as for separating the metals into sroups, and isolating
the individuals from each group.
The work closes with full and explicit directions for successfully and
economically equipping the laboratory, and preparing the needed re-
agents and solutions.
Teachers who are compelled to compress their work into a few weeks’
course can adopt the ‘“ Briefer Course” outlined in the preface, and
have meanwhile the benefit of a book sufficiently complete to cover any
want likely to arise in the laboratory. But average pupils of sixteen
years can do all the work laid down in this text. A fair class can do the
SCIENCE. 9
whole work up to the metals in twenty weeks, and all the work given
in metals in eight or ten weeks. .
We confidently recommend Shepard’s Chemistry to any reaches who
now uses, or who wishes to adopt, the laboratory method of instruction.
Among its many new and valuable features, a prominent teacher
specifies the following : —
1. Its excellent methods, which bring out the great educational force
of the science, and yield exceptionally large practical results.
2. The logical arrangement of its subject-matter, introducing the
principles of the science by easy steps.
3. Its conciseness and its completeness fully covering the beginner’s
wants in the working laboratory.
4. Its mechanical excellence, the typography being open and attrac-
tive, and the large type allowing the text to be read at a distance with-
out injury to the eyes; the binding being such that the book will stay
open on the desk while the student is at work, and the color of the
cloth being such as is least affected by acids.
5. The Appendix, which gives (1) Instructions for equipping the
laboratory; (2) Directions for preparing all needed reagents; (3) A
complete list of working materials; (4) The impurities found in com-
mercial reagents; (5) All the names by which reagents are known.
The book is based upon plans and methods which have been em-
ployed in the author’s laboratory throughout a series of years, and no
work has been incorporated in the text or in the exercises that has not
there been proven practicable.
A wide correspondence with the best teachers in all parts of the
country shows that they are pursuing essentially the same plan.
Throughout the book the aim is to make the labors of the teacher as
light as possible, and to ‘‘place the laboratory work where it will do the
most good in the hands of the students.”
** This work and Remsen’s Organic Chemistry (page 1 of this cata-
logue) form an admirable course for the presentation to the student
of the facts of inorganic and organic chemistry.” — CurTIs C. HOWARD,
Prof. of Chemistry, Starling Med. Coll., Columbus, O.
t= A Circular, suggesting various plans of shortening the course, as
well as a Special Circular, of interest to chemists and teachers of chem-
istry, will be sent on application to the publishers.
26 CLLEGE.
The Elements of Chemical Arithmetic,
with a Short System of Elementary Qualitative Analysts.
Coit, M.A., Ph.D. 7% by 5 inches. iv + 89 pages.
mail, 55 cents; Introduction price, 50 cents.
By J. MILNOR
Cloth. Price by
HIS manual is designed to supplement the teaching of ordinary
text-books of descriptive chemistry. It is the result of the author’s
own experience in elementary science-teaching, and has been success-
fully used by him in his own classes. The methods have therefore
been practically tested. Part I. contains the more important rules
and principles of chemical arithmetic, followed by a series of prob-
lems. The matter in this part of the book is purposely very much
condensed, and brought within the scope of the average student in
high schools or colleges.
Part II. contains a short system of elementary qualitative analysis.
The simplest and best tests have been adopted, and the tables of sep-
aration of the metals will be found to be the least complicated. Some
tables for reference will be found at the end of the book.
The manual will invite the examination of those who are inter-
ested in making the teaching of chemistry more practical even to
beginners. It is suggested that the book be used together with a good
work in descriptive chemistry. Inthe preparation of this manual the
writer has had the benefit of the advice and suggestions of several
eminent and experienced teachers.
Though issued so recently, the following opinions have
come to hand :—
A. S. Hall, Prof. of Chemistry, U.S,
Naval Acad., Annapolis, Md.: 1 am very
much pleased with the arrangement of
the first part. Itis presented in such a
simple way as to render it well adapted
to schools in which elementary sciences
are taught. (May 22, 1886.)
T. H. Norton, Prof. of Chemistry,
Univ, of Cincinnati, O: It is admirably
written, and I regard it as well adapted
to supplement the ordinary descriptive
text-book or series of lectures, especially
for high-school training preparatory to
scientific courses. ‘~ (May I2, 1886.)
W. K. Higley, Prof. of Chemistry,
Univ. of Chicago: I like it very much.
We shall use it next year in our labora-
tory, and I have recommended it to this
year’s students. (Fune 5, 1886.)
John W. Fox, Prof. of Chemistry,
Georgetown Coll,, D.C.: It is an excellent
little book. (May 15, 1886.)
J. W. Holland, Prof. of Chemistry,
Fefferson Medical Coll., Philadelphia,
FPa.: It is an excellent manual, and will
be of great service to teacher and pupil,
(June 5, 1886.)
SCIENCE. 25
The Laboratory Note-Book.
For Students using any Chemistry. 434 by 7% inches. Board covers.
Cloth back. 192 pp. Price by mail, 40 cts.; Introduction price, 35 cts.
T contains blanks for experiments; blank tables for the reactions of
the different metallic salts; pages for miscellaneous matter; and an
extra chart for the natural classification of the elements similar to that
on page 221 of Shepard’s Chemistry. This may be rolled into a
cylinder by the student.
The advantages of using this note-book are, briefly, these: It saves
time for the student; its size is convenient; and it is cheaper than an
ordinary blank-book. The paper is such that it readily takes ink with-
out blotting or smearing, and it may be used with a lead pencil.
The value of systematic note-taking by the student in chemistry can
hardly be over-estimated. The careful analyst habitually keeps record
of his work, and thus the greater portion of our most valuable chemical
literature has originated. If the expert finds his notes to be of ines-
timable value to him, what shall we say in the case of the beginner?
Evidently, that he should form, at the very outset, those habits which
will tend to make him accurate, and which will insure his after-success.
In the note-book the teacher has a most potent ally; for, through its
aid, he may know just how his students are doing their work, and can
therefore better adapt his teaching to their needs.
Our Special Circular contains fac-similes of three pages, prepared
by the students in the Ypsilanti high school for 1885-6, showing how
the book is to be used.
Robt. B. Warder, Prof of Chemistry, | plan very well for the purpose intended.
Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.: It strikes | (April 24, 1886.)
me very favorably. I think further ex-
amination may lead me to introduce itin| « wanner Prin of Vi
a : . of York High
Purdue University next fall. (4pr. 24, '86.) | School, Pa.: Laboratory Notes in the
F. J. Roche, Prof. of Chemistry, Uni- | hands of students will encourage system-
versity Coll., Toronto, Ont.: I have been ) atic experiment. It is a good book for
struck with the excellence of the second | beginners, who have not the experience
part as a means of tabulating results of | yet to enable them to judiciously use a
simple qualitative analysis, —something _blank-book, It not only will lead to fre-
most students sadly need. (May 15, 1886.) | quent reference to the chemistry used, but
| will cultivate a habit of accurately, clearly,
Chas. W. Hargitt, Prof of Natural
| and driefy recording known conditions.
Science, Moore's Hill Coll., Ind,: Vike the | (March 1, 1886.)
28 _ SCIENCE.
Furst Book tn Geology.
By N. S. SHALER, Professor of Paleontology, Harvard University. 5% by
7% inches. Cloth. xvii+ 255 pages, with 130 figures in the text. 74 pages
additional in Teacher’s Edition. Price by mail, $1.10; Introduction, $1.00.
HE design of this book is to give the student from ten to fifteen
years of age a few, clear, well-selected facts that may serve as a
key to the knowledge of the earth. The number of facts dealt with
is far less than is usually given in such books, but pains is taken in
their presentations to make them open the way to the broadest veins
that the science affords. The aim is to illustrate the principles of
geology by reference to as many facts of familiar experience as pos-
sible.
The first part of the book treats of the simpler phenomena of a
physical sort, the movements of the water and the air, and their effect
on the machinery of the earth’s surface; then the simpler underground
actions are taken up, such as the formation of veins, the folding of
mountains, and the forces that lead to earthquakes and volcanoes.
The latter half of the book is given to the history, in outline, of the
earth’s organic life. This is treated in a very general way, in order to
show the student only the great steps of advance, and the method in
which they are accomplished.
In the appendix is a brief account of certain more important mineral
species, arranged to give the student an outline of mineralogy, and
some idea of the common uses of minerals.
The Teacher’s Edition contains seventy-four pages of directions for
those who use the book in class instruction. First there are general
directions for the guidance of teachers in their work in natural history,
then each chapter of the book is taken up in turn, and the instructor is
told how to supplement each lesson, by reference to facts me may be
easily accessible in the nature about the school.
The instructor who will make proper use of these pages will always
find it possible to enliven the printed page with many an illustration of
value to his students. And the average reader who desires to get a
glance at geology and a general notion of its bearings on ordinary life,
will find this edition of exceeding interest. It is being used in many
schools as a Supplementary Reader, and is admirably adapted for such
purpose.
SCIENCE. 35
Lllustrations of Geology and Geography.
For Use in Schools and Families. By N. S. SHALER, Professor of Palzon-
tology, assisted by Wm. M. Davis, Assistant Professor of Physical Geography,
and T. W. Harris, Assistant in Botany, in Harvard University.
ONSISTING of twenty large photographs and an equal number of
colored plaster models. The photographs are separately mounted
on suitable light frames, 15x20 inches in size. They represent a wide
range of terrestrial phenomena, seashores, valleys, glaciers, mountains,
volcanoes, caverns, etc. Alongside of each photograph is a detailed
description of the important points illustrated in the picture, with
occasional small diagrams, designed to show the detailed structure of
the field; also references to the features in the models, which serve to
explain the facts shown in the view.
The models, which are colored, are each 7x5 inches, and about
2 inches thick. One series shows the principal features of horizontal,
tilted, and folded stratified rocks, and the varied effects of river and
ocean erosion upon them; others exhibit the process of development
of a volcano, of coral islands, of ocean shores, glaciers, etc. These
models are separately mounted on wooden backs, to which are appended
descriptions of the structures indicated, with reference to the photo.
graphs.
In the text appended to both models and photographs, there are
abundant references to several text-books, where further information
may be obtained. They are large enough to be seen, when in the in-
structor’s hand, by a class of thirty students. They are designed to
hang on the wall, and may, when necessary, be passed from hand to
hand without injury.
The price of the full collection of fifty pieces, securely boxed for
transportation, is one hundred dollars. A smaller set, containing ten
models and ten photographs, will be sold at fifty dollars. When desired,
the collection will be divided, and the models or photographs sold sep-
arately ; the price for each set of twenty-five pieces will be fifty dollars.
Specimen copies of the models and photographs, one of each, to show
the nature of the method, will be sent by express, carriage paid, on
receipt of four dollars, which will be returned on the receipt of the
objects in good order, or accounted for if the collection is taken. A
circular containing a detailed list of the models and photographs will be
sent on application. [Ready Aug. I.
0 SCIEAECE.
Oo
Guides for Science Teaching.
Published under the auspices of the Boston Society of Natural
History.
se TENDED for the use of teachers who desire to practically instruct
their classes in Natural History, and designed to supply such infor-
mation as they need in teaching and are not likely to get from any
other source.
These Guzdes were prepared solely as aids to teachers, — not as text-
books. The plan of teaching followed throughout is based upon the
assumption that, —
Seeing ts the first step on the road to knowledge; that, —
How MucuH ¢he child learns in his early years ts of little tmportance,
— HOW ke learns, everything; that, —
The teacher’s work ts not to teach the facts, but to lead the mind of
each pupil to work out for ttself the simple physical problems witnessed
or described, and to cultivate the habit of observation and of persever-
ance in investigation.
The Series at present consist of the following numbers : —
A bout Pebbles. (No. L)
By ALPHEuUS HyATT, Professor of Zodlogy and Paleontology in the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology. 4% by 6 inches. Paper. 26 pages.
Introduction price, 10 cents.
This pamphlet is an illustration of the way in which a few common
objects may be used to cultivate the powers of observation, and to
teach interesting lessons in elementary natural science. It contains all
the suggestions necessary to enable any teacher to make the lesson, or
lessons, a complete success.
Concerning a Few Common Plants. (No. IL.)
By GEORGE LINCOLN GOODALE, Professor of Botany in Harvard Univer-
sity. 4% by 6inches. Paper. 61 pages. Introduction price, 10 cents.
The design of these lessons is to point out one method by which a
few of the more important and easily observed facts can be taught
respecting the structure, growth, and work of plants. The purpose
of this Gwzde is to call attention to the manner of preparing the
SCIENCE. 37
objects selected for such elementary study, and to furnish suggestions
as to the way they can most readily be turned to good account. The
appliances recommended are of the most trifling cost. Even simple
lenses are not absolutely required for any of the studies suggested.
Commercial and Other Sponges. (No. LIL.)
By Professor ALPHEUS HyYATT. J///ustrated by 7 plates. 4% by 6 inches,
Paper. 43 pages. Introduction price, 20 cents.
This little manual gives an account of the sponges in common use,
and amply illustrates their processes of growth, and the methods of
obtaining them and preparing them for the trade. The skeletons are
present to the eye every day, and even the dullest scholar will under-
take with interest to find out their different qualities, their common
names, where they come from, and how they are formed.
A Set of Hight Specimens has been prepared for the use of
classes taking these lessons, and will be furnished for $1.00.
A first Lesson in Natural History. (No. IV.)
By Mrs. ELIZABETH AGASSIZ. J/lustrated by woodcuts and 4 plates. 4%
by Ginches. Paper. 64 pages. Introduction price, 25 cents.
A general history of hydroids, corals, and echinoderms, written in
narrative form, for very young children, under the direction of Prof.
Louis Agassiz. Amply illustrated. ,
While scientifically accurate and clear, it is as simple and fascinat-
ing as a wonder story. No fairies could more completely win the
interest of children than do sea-anemones, corals, jelly-fishes, star-
fishes, and sea-urchins, as described and represented in this little
book.
A Set of Twenty-four Specimens, to accompany Guzdes 1V. and
V., will be furnished for $2.00.
Common Flydrotds, Corals,and Echinoderms. (No. V.)
By ALPHEUS Hyatt. Amply illustrated. 4'4by 6 inches. Paper. 32
pages. Introduction price, 20 cents.
This pamphlet shows how the studies, or observations, are to he
most satisfactorily made, and supplies such information as one neg ‘s
38 SCIENCE.
in teaching, and is not likely to get from any other source. The illus-
trations are remarkably clear and suggestive; but, to teach the pupil
the value of personal observation and a correct habit of study, nothing
can take the place of specimens. It is desirable that those who are to
use this Guzde shall be able to refer to No. IV. of this series, which is
frequently quoted.
A Set of Twenty-four Specimens, to accompany Guides IV.
and V., will be furnished for $2.00.
Mollusca. Oyster, Clam, and Other Common Mol.
lusks. (Vo. VI.) By ALPHEUS HYATT. Illustrated with 17 plates, con-
taining 53 figures. 4% by © inches. Paper. 65 pages. Introduction
price, 25 cents.
This book not only holds in compact form all that need be taught
beginners about the oyster, clam, and other common mollusks, but is
invaluable as illustrating in detail the natural method of teaching.
From first to last, the pupil is a discoverer; the teacher is simply the
guide, —the pupil is self-taught. The author condescends to the
simplest things, and tells in the plainest way just how to lead the class
to make, in proper order, the necessary investigations and discoveries.
The most inexperienced teacher will be able, with this manual, to give
these lessons with success.
A Set of Seventeen Specimens to be used in giving the lessons
outlined in Guzde No. V1. will be furnished for $1.00.
Worms and Crustacea. (No. VIL)
By ALPHEUS Hyatr. J/lustrated. 41% by 6 inches. Paper. 68 pages.
Introduction price, 25 cents.
The space given to the description of the lobster (and fresh-water
crayfish) will, it is hoped, incite teachers to occupy more time in dealing
with some one common animal, and thus cultivating the habit of close
observation. The specimens needed for the lessons upon worms are
the common earthworms and the Neresis. In these lessons, as in the
preceding, the children are to be discoverers, not mere learners, — they
are to be taught by experience the value and the pleasure of direct per-
sonal observation.
SCIENCE, oe
A Set of Fifteen Specimens, to be used in connection with
Guide VI1., will be furnished for $1.00.
Orders for Specimens to accompany Guides 111., 1V., V., VL, or
Vil., should be addressed to SAMUEL HENSHAW, Boston Society of
Natural History, Boston, Mass.
Larger collections, and sets for students’ use, containing ten, twenty,
forty, and sixty specimens of a single form, can be obtained by special
arrangement with Mr. Henshaw.
Common Minerals and Rocks. (No. XIL)
By W. O. Crossy, Assistant Professor of Mineralogy and Lithology in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. J//lustrated. 414 by 6 inches.
Paper. 200 pages. Introduction price, 40 cents. Cloth, 60 cents.
This includes, first, a brief and simple account of the principal geo-
logical agencies ; second, descriptions of about twenty minerals of which
rocks are chiefly composed, and of all the more common and important
varieties of rocks; and, third, an explanation of the leading kinds of
structure occurring in rocks, such as stratification, folds, faults, joints,
etc. This last section of the Gwzde is illustrated by forty figures, which
add very materially to the clearness and value of the text.
Especial prominence is given to the easy identification of the com-
mon minerals and rocks, and to the constant association, in the mind,
of the rocks and rock-structures with the agencies by which they have
been formed.
This little volume is not merely a guide to teachers, but it is also a
simple and logical presentation of the leading facts and principles of
structural geology, and is well adapted for class use. It is hoped, how-
ever, that teachers will base their instruction upon specimens of min-
erals and rocks, using this work more as a reference book than as a
text-book, in the hands of pupils. Natural science cannot be success-
fully taught with books alone; and even the best books should sup-
plement, but not precede or take the place of, actual observation.
Specimens to illustrate Guide No. XII, comprising the twenty
principal elements and minerals, are supplied in durable, covered boxes,
properly labelled, as follows : —
I large specimen of each kind, 2ein au, labelled . .°“."$".50
5 smaller specimens of each kind, 100 “ i a 5 ee
Io if) “ec “ ‘ 200 if3 ic 3 5 ‘ 2.25
20 ee “ec “ “ 400 ‘sé «é : ‘ ; 4.00
40 - SCIENCE.
Ten additional varieties are supplied in the same way : —
I large specimen of each kind, 10 in all, labelled - 7 aes
5 smaller specimens of each kind, 50 “ a ee eae
Io &e ec cs &é 100 «ce ce b i ae
20 ¢é 6é é¢ €¢ 200 <3 sé ¥ . 3 2.50
Orders for these spectmens should be addressed to Prof. W. ©
Crossy, Boston Soctety of Natural History, Boston, Mass.
first Lessons in Minerals. (No. XTIZ.)
By ELLEN H. RICHARDs, Instructor in Mineralogy, Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology. 44 by 6 inches. Paper. 50 pages. Introduction
price, 10 cents. A valuable introduction to Guide No. XII.
The outline of the lessons was first worked out with three successive
classes of children, from six to eight years old, just out of the Kinder-
garten. The lessons were then given to classes in two public schools
in the city of Boston. During the two years which have since elapsed,
they have been given to about one thousand children of the fourth
classes of several of the Boston Grammar Schools. They have also
been adopted by teachers in other places. Such changes have been
made as experience has shown to be desirable, and the Gude is now
presented in a form which can be recommended to teachers in general.
The specimens to illustrate Guide No. XIII. consist of large,
carefully selected cabinet specimens, with printed labels. It is desirable,
however, to have a specimen of each type for every pupil, or at least
for every two or three pupils. To meet this need, duplicate collections
of somewhat smaller specimens, numbered but not labelled, have been
prepared.
50 specs. SO specs. 125 specs. F50'specs
Cabinet size, $2.00 $4.00 $ 8.00 $10.00
Student size, 2-5 colls. 1.00 ea. 2.00 a. 4.00 ea. 5.00 ea.
3 canta So £0 pi gO ea. 1.80 ea. 3.60 ea. 4.50 ea.
The student collections are not sold singly.
Other collections, adapted to more extended courses, are supplied as
follows : —
Minerals. 50 specs. 100 specs. 150 specs.
Cabinet size, $6.00 $15.00 $30 00
Student size, 2.00 5.00 10,00
44 SCLIENEE.
PTE SA net te ene
Elementary Course in Practical Zoblogy.
By B. P. Cotton, A.M., Teacher of Science, Ottawa High School, III.
5% by 7% inches. Cloth. xiv-+ 182 pages. Price, by mail, 85 cts, Intro-
duction price, 80 cts.
HIS work is designed to aid the student in getting a clear idea
of the animal kingdom as a whole, by the careful study of a few
typical animals.
The student is first told how to collect and preserve the material for
his study. He is then given detailed directions for its examination
and dissection. It is not described for him, thus robbing him of the
opportunity to develop his own powers of description, but its parts are
named, giving barely enough of description that he may be sure to
recognize and apply the proper name to each. He is thus led to
observe and describe for himself. His attention is especially called
to some of the less obvious points, but explanations are seldom given
except when lack of time or ability renders it unlikely that he will prove
able to solve the problem unaided.
All the animal sub-kingdoms are represented, more attention being
paid to those forms which the student is likely to find. He is led to
compare them, one with another, and by noting their resemblances and
differences he is shown how to classify animals, rather than taught a
system of classification.
The work is limited to what can be done by the average high-school
pupil, as proved by the experience of several years during which these
guides to the study of animals have been in use.
The following opinions are from those who have read
the work in manuscript or proof :—
Alpheus Hyatt, Poston Society of
Natural History: ‘The book is a very
fine thing. ‘The author knows his sub-
fect. (Dec. 11, 1885.)
David S. Jordan, Pres. /ndiana
Univ. (author of “Synopsis of Fishes of
NV. A.”): I have looked over the book
with much interest. It strikes me as
just the thing for teaching general zo6l-
ogy in high schools, I have long since
given up zodlogical text-books as a bad
job, believing that no book which could
be used without specimens had any value
to the student. ‘This is just the book we
need for beginning zoological work in a
scientific spirit. I can promise you that
we shall adopt it here for beginning
classes, and think I shall not be dis-
appointed init. It will be a great help
to me, as to many other teachers of
science,
SCIENCE.
W.K. Brooks, Director of the Ches-
apeake Zoblogical Laboratory, Fohns Hop-
kins Univ.: I have examined the Ms. of
your proposed book on zodlogy, for use
in schools, and I am glad that the author
has undertaken to make his experience
in teaching natural science available for
other teachers, who have not had the
special training in this branch of science
which he has enjoyed. I am sure that
the book will meet with a ready sale,
and will be very useful to teachers.
(Dec., 1885.)
S. A. Forbes, Prof of Zoélogy, Univ.
of Illinois, and State Entomologist: It
seems to be in every way skilfully pre-
pared, and cannot but be both usefuland
successful. This is just such a piece of
work as has long been needed in public
schools,
Newton Bateman, President Knox
Coll., Galesburg, Ill. (formerly Supt. of
Public Instr. of the State of Ill.) : If you
are able to develop the whole subject
with the clearness and charm of these
specimen chapters, the result will be a
very useful and fascinating book. It will
train the faculties of observation to alert-
ness and accuracy. It will bring that
deep satisfaction which comes only from
original work; from getting first-hand
knowledge. It will vitalize the half-dead
facts of mere book and memory by the
quickening and realistic power of the eye
and the hand, directed by keen curiosity
and the wide-awake mind. The book is
needed. It will be welcomed and ap-
preciated.
Henry Raab, State Supt. of Public
Instruc., Springfield, Ill, : ‘This is a work
that presents, for the first time, a guide
for the teacher, by means of which he may
introduce the pupils to the science suc-
cessfully, z.e., that they may /zke the study
of nature, may prepare for more advanced
science work, and gain a lasting benefit
for their intellectual development. I shall
commend it to teachers of science in our
45
|
public schools whenever I have an op-
portunity.
L. M. Underwood, Jnstructor in
ZLoblogy, Syracuse Univ., N.Y.: 1 am
more and more pleased with it as it pro-
ceeds. I expect to make use of the book
in my classes next fall. (une 26, 1886.)
M. L. Seymour, Prof. of Zodlogy,
Ill, Normal Univ. : 1 have no criticisms.
I find the plan, directions, description,
and wording excellent. I want to use the
book in my classes as soon as published.
J. H. Pillsbury, Ziological Labor-
atory, Smith Coll., Northampton, Mass. :
The plan seems to me to be a very good
one for the work for which the author
has intended it. I am glad to see so
good a plan offered for our high schools.
If the remainder of the work is equally
good, it ought to be a success.
(March 19, 1886.)
K. P. Jackson, Jeacher of Zoélogy,
Boston Latin School: 1 think the pages
I have examined excellent. All enlight-
ened teachers are aiming at the very
standard zz general which these pages
reach zm particular. If 1 had a book in
my class constructed on precisely this
model, I should use it with great confi-
dence and zeal. (Nov, Io, 1885.)
O.S. Westcott, Prin. N. Div. High
School, Chicago, l[ll.: ‘The book is at-
tractive. I think it would sell with
thoughtful teachers.
J. ¥. Bergen, Jr., Prin. of High
School, Peabody, Mass. : | have gone over
the manuscript with care, and feel satis-
fied that there is no American book on
zoology adapted for use with high-school
classes which will enable them to learn
so much af first hand as they can from
this book. It does for the pupil what
without it the conscientious teacher must
otherwise do for him by constant and
laborious reference to the fuller works,
( Fan. 3, 1886.)
46 SCZEA GE:
How to Find the Stars.
By REv. JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE. 4% by 5% inches. Paper. 47 pages.
Introduction price, 15 cents.
HE object of this little book is to help the beginner to become
better acquainted, in the easiest way, with the visible starry
heavens; to know the winter and summer constellations, and the
principal fixed stars. It shows the position of the constellations at
different periods of the year, giving their place in each of the four
seasons. It also shows how to find the separate clusters by a series of
triangles and diagrams, covering the whole heavens, and connecting
each constellation with its neighbors. It indicates the most interesting
objects at each period of the year, especially such as can be found with
a telescope of moderate power. It closes with a description of the
Astronomical Lantern.
An Astronomical Lantern.
Invented by REv. JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE, Boston. Japanned tin; the
face (6% by Io inches in size) is of ground glass, behind which lights may
be placed. Thirty-two constellations are photographed upon seventeen
slides of semi-transparent card-board, and stars of four magnitudes are rep-
resented by perforations of proper size. The maps have been prepared
under Dr. Clarke’s personal supervision, and the plates, being photographed
from the original drawings, are correct in every particular. The former price
of the Lantern was $6.00; we now offer it, in improved form, with the
slides, and a copy of “ How to Find the Stars,” for $4.50. The whole care-
fully packed in a wooden box, with sliding cover.
ees object of this useful piece of apparatus is to facilitate the
study of stellar astronomy. It is intended for beginners in
astronomy in schools and in families, and, in fact, for all who desire
to become acquainted with the constellations.
The difficulty hitherto experienced in this study, and which is obvi-
ated by the use of the lantern, is this: In order to study the starry
heavens, it has been necessary to use an astronomical atlas or a celes-
tial globe. These must be examined in the house, by the light of a
lamp. The observer, having found his constellation on the atlas, goes
out to look for it in the sky. But by the time he gets out of doors,
he has forgotten how it looked on the atlas. And when he has found
it in the sky, he forgets how it looked there, before he gets back to his
atlas or globe.
SCIENCE. 47
SSS
Now, the astronomical lantern makes the study of the stars perfectly
simple and easy. It is constructed like a dark-lantern, closed on three
sides, and on the fourth provided with a ground glass, in front of
which maps can be inserted. On each of these maps, which are semi-
transparent, is represented a constellation, the places of the stars
being indicated by perforations, through which the light shines. The
largest perforations are for the stars of the first magnitude, and the
smaller, in due proportion, for the lesser stars. The student, there-
fore, wishing to observe any particular constellation or cluster, has
only to light a candle within the lantern, insert the appropriate slide,
and go out into the night. Holding up the lantern in one hand, he
can compare the constellation as it appears on the lantern with that in
the sky, until he becomes perfectly familiar with the latter.
It is easy to see how much the use of such a lantern facilitates the
- whole study. In fact, we think that henceforth no one wishing to
become acquainted with the heavens can afford to dispense with it.
The increased ease of the study should also enlarge the number of
students in this interesting department of science.
The following testimonials as to its value have been
recently received : —
C. A. Young, Prof of Astronomy, | constellations could be obtained by its
Princeton Coll. : 1 find it to be an admir- | use, in connection with the little book that
ably contrived apparatus for its purpose, | accompanies it, more rapidly and easily
—simple, easily managed, and efféctive. | than from the most elaborate and expen-
I think an adequate knowledge of the | sive celestial globe, (Aug. 8, 1885.)
VS
SCIENCE.
Organic Chemistry: |
An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon. By Ira REmsEn, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. x -+ 364 pages. Cloth. Price by
mail, $1.30; Introduction price, $1.20.
The Elements of [norganice Chemtstry:
Descriptive and Qualitative. By James H. SHEPARD, Instructor in Chemistry in the
Ypsilanti High School, Michigan. xxi + 377 pages. Cloth. Price by mail, $1.25; Introduc-
tion price, $1.12.
The Elements of Chemical Arithmetic :
With a Short Systent of Elementary Qualitative Analysts. By J. MILNor Coir,
M.A., Ph.D., Instructor in Chemistry, St. Paul’s School, Concord, N.H. iv + 89 pages.
Cloth. Price by mail, 55 cts.; Introduction price, 50 cts.
The Laboratory Note-Book.
For Students using any Chemistry. Giving printed forms for “taking notes” and
working out formula. Board covers. Cloth back. 192 pages. Price by mail, 40 cts.; Intro-
duction price, 35 cts.
Elementary Course in Practical Zoology.
By B. P. Cotton, A.M., Instructor in Biology, Ottawa High School.
First Book of Geology.
By N.S. Sater, Professor of Paleontology, Harvard University. 272 pages, with 130
figures in the text. 74 pages additional in Teachers’ Edition. Price by mail, $1.10; Intro-
duction price, $1.00.
Guides for Scrence-Leaching.
Published under the auspices of the Boston Society of Natural History. For
teachers who desire to practically instruct classes in Natural History, and designed to supply
such information as they are not likely to get from any other source. 26 to 200 pages each. . Paper.
I. Hyatt’s ApouT PEBBLES, ro cts. VI. Hyatt’s MOLtusca, 25 cts.
II. GoopaLe’s FEw Common Ptants, 15 cts. VII. Hvyatr’s Worms AND CRUSTACEA,
Ill. Hyatr’s CoMMERCIAL AND OTHER 25 cts.
SPONGES, 20 cts. XII. Crosspy’s Common MINERALS AND
IV. Acassiz’s First Lesson 1N NATURAL Rocks, 4o cts. Cloth, 60 cts.
History, 20 cts. XIII. RicuHarps’ First Lessons 1n MIn-
V. Hyatr’s Corats AND ECHINODERMS, ERALS, I0 Cts.
20 cts.
The Astronomical Lantern.
By Rev. JAMEs FREEMAN CLARKE. Intended to familiarize students with the constella-
tions by comparing them with fac-similes on the lantern face. Price of the Lantern, in im-
proved form, with seventeen slides and a copy of ‘‘ How to FIND THE Stars,” $4.50.
How to Find the Stars.
By Rev. JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE. Designed to aid the beginner in becoming better
acquainted, in the easiest way, with the visible starry heavens.
D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers,
3 TREMONT PLACE, BosTON.
Abdomen
of clam, 50.
of crayfish, 24.
of cricket, 9.
of frog, 88.
of grasshopper, 5
of rabbit, 121.
of sow-bug, 36.
Air-bladder, 85
Air-sacs, 6, 110.
Ameeba, 62.
Analogy, 85.
Antenna, 1, 10, 29.
Arachnida, 22, 40.
Arteries
of clam, 52.
of crayfish, 32.
of fish, 79.
of frog, 90.
of pigeon, 112.
of rabbit, 128, 132.
of sheep, 138, 142.
of snake, 100, 101.
Arthropoda, 40.
Assimilation, 65.
Batrachia, 97.
Beetle, 17.
Bell animalcule, 60.
Bladder
of fish, 78.
of frog, 89.
of rabbit, 122.
Blood,
circulation of, 91.
of earthworm, 41.
of frog, 92.
Books of reference, 181.
Brain
of fish, 82.
of frog, 92.
of pigeon, 115.
of rabbit, 126, 129.
Breeding cages, xv.
Bumble-bee, 10.
Butterfly, 11.
Cabbage worm, 13.
Ceca
of fish, 77.
of grasshopper, 7
of pigeon, 111.
of rabbit, 122.
of starfish, 154.
Capillaries, 91.
Carapace
of crayfish, 24.
of turtle, 102.
Cartilage, 135.
Cephalothorax
of crayfish, 24.
of spider, 21.
Cilia, 50, 59.
Clam, 46,
INDEX.
| Classification, 12, 20, 40, 180.
| Celenterata, 17 16.
cen te ELT tt A OCA LLC LLC LLL CT
Coleoptera, 19.
Collecting insects, xii.
Coral polyps, 172.
Crayfish, 24.
Cricket, 9.
Crustacea, 35, 37, 38. 40.
Cyclops, 37.
Development, 119.
of butterfly, 13.
of chick, 118.
of clam, 5d.
of crayfish, 35.
of dragon-fly, 19.
of fly, 16.
of frog, 96.
of grasshopper, 8.
of sea-urchin, 164.
Diaphragm, 124.
Differentiation, 66.
Digestion, 65.
Digestive organs
of clam, 53.
of coral polyps, 173.
of crayfish, 33.
of earthworm, 41.
of fish, 76.
of frog, 89.
of grasshopper, 7.
of hydra, 167,
of pigeon, 111.
of rabbit, 121.
of sea-urchin, 163.
of snake, 100.
of starfish, 154.
of turtle, 103.
Diptera, 16.
Dissecting pan, 31.
Dragon-fly, 19.
of pigeon, 105.
Earthworm, 40.
Echinodermata, 164.
Egg
of butterfly, 13.
of crayfish, 35.
of cyclops, 38.
of fish, 78
of fly, 16.
of frog, 89.
of grasshopper, 6, 8.
of hen, 116.
of mammal, 118.
of sea-urchin, 165.
of sow-bug, 37.
Embryology, 119.
Esophagus.
Kye of beetle, 17.
See Gullet.
Eustachian tube, 88, 134.
| Eye of fish, 73, 83.
of grasshopper, l.
of ox, 145.
of snail, 57.
Excretions, 65.
Fish, 70.
Feathers, 107.
Fly, 15.
Frog, 86.
Function, 45,
Ganglia
of clam, 55.
of crayfish, 34.
of earthworm, 48.
of grasshopper, 8.
of rabbit, 128.
Gill
of clam, 50.
of crayfish, 26.
of fish, 74
Gland, salivary,
of rabbit, 1338.
Glottis
of frog, 88.
of snake, 100.
Grasshopper, 1.
Gullet
of crayfish, 33.
of earthworm, 42.
of fish, 77.
of rabbit, 122.
of sheep, 136.
of snake, 100.
Heart
of clam, 51.
of crayfish, 32.
of fish, 79.
of grasshopper, 6.
of pigeon, 112.
of rabbit, 132.
of sheep, 136, 139, 142.
of snake, 100.
of turtle, 103.
Hemiptera, 17.
Hermaphrodite, 44, 169.
Homology, 84.
Hydra, 166.
Hymenoptera, -11.
Insecta, 20, 40.
Intestine
of crayfish, 34.
of earthworm, 41.
of fish, 77.
of grasshopper, 7.
of rabbit, 121.
of snake, 101.
Jellyfish, 170, 171.
Kidney
of clam, 52.
of fish, 78.
of frog, 90.
of pigeon, 118.
SA
ae
ll
Kidney
of sheep, 125.
of snake, 101.
Labor, physiological divis-
ion of, 69
Lacteals, 125.
Larynx, 147.
Lepidoptera, 12.
Ligament, 185.
Liver
of clam, 43.
of crayfish, 33.
of fish, 76.
of pigeon, 111.
of rabbit, 122.
of snake, 101.
of turtle, 103.
' Lung
of frog, 90.
of pigeon, 112.
of sheep, 1386.
of snake, 100.
of spider, 22.
of turtle, 103.
Madreporic body, 153,161.
Mantle, 48.
Medusa, 170.
Mesentery
of fish, 77.
of frog, 89.
of pigeon, 111.
of rabbit, 122.
of starfish, 154.
- Mollusca, 58.
Mounting insects, xiv.
Muscle,
action of, 95.
insertion of, 94, 114.
origin of, 94, 114.
sheath of, 94, 114.
structure of, 94, 136.
Muscles
of clam, 50.
of crayfish, 33.
of earthworm, 43.
of eyeball, 83, 144.
of fish, 81.
of frog, 94.
of grasshopper, 7.
of rabbit, 121.
Myriapoda, 23.
Nerves
of clam, 55.
of crayfish, 34.
of earthworm, 43.
of fish, 77, 83.
of frog, 92.
of pigeon, 110.
of rabbit, 130.
of starfish, 154.
Neuroptera, 20.
Nutrition, 66.
Organ, 45.
Orthoptera, 10.
Ovary
of crayfish, 33.
of fish, 77.
of frog, 89.
INDEX.
| Ovary
of pigeon, 1138.
of snake, 101.
of turtle, 103.
Ovipositor
of bee, 11.
of cricket, 9.
of grasshopper, 6.
Pancreas
of frog, 89.
of pigeon, 111.
of rabbit, 122.
Parameecium, 58.
Peristome
of sea-urchin, 162.
of starfish, 154.
of vorticella, 61.
Peritoneum, 76, 121.
Pigeon, 105.
Porifera, 179.
Protoplasm, 63.
Protozoa, 63.
Pseudopodium, 62.
Rabbit, 119.
Reflex action, 93.
Reproductive organs
of crayfish, 33:
of earthworm, 42.
of fish, 77.
of frog, 89.
of pigeon, 113.
of sea-urchin, 164.
of snake, 101.
of starfish, 155.
of turtle, 103.
Respiration, 66, 67.
Rotifer, 69.
Sea-anemone, 171.
Sea-fan, 174.
Sea-feather, 174.
Sea-urchin, 160.
Segmentation, 119, 166,
Skeleton
of fish, 80, 81.
of frog, 95.
of pigeon, 115.
of turtle, 104.
Snail, 56.
Snake, 98.
Sow-bug, 36.
Spermatozoa, 165,
Spider, 21.
Spinal cord
of fish, 82.
of frog, 93.
of pigeon, 115.
reflex action of, 98.
of rabbit, 126.
Spiracle, 3.
Spleen
of fish, 77.
of frog, 89.
of pigeon, 112.
of rabbit, 122.
of snake, 101,
Sponges, 176.
Squash-bug, 17.
Starfish, 150.
Stomach
of crayfish, 33.
of fish, 76.
of frog, 89.
of pigeon, 111, 112.
of rabbit, 122.
of snake, 100.
of starfish, 155.
of turtle, 103.
Synovia, 135.
Tendon, 113, 135.
Testis |
of crayfish, 33.
of fish, 78.
of frog, 90.
of pigeon, 113.
of snake, 101.
Teeth
of clam-shell, 54.
of fish, 78, 80.
of rabbit, 120.
of sea-urchin, 163.
of snake, 99.
‘Thorax, 1, 15: 131.
Thousand legs, 22.
Tissue, 66.
Tongue
of bee, 10.
of fish, 73.
of grasshopper, 2.
of pigeon, 106.
of snake, 100.
Trachea. See Windpipe.
‘Trachez, 5.
Tube feet, 154, 163.
Turtle, 102.
Tympanun, 5, 87.
Uterus, 118.
Veins
of fish, 76.
of frog, 91.
of grasshopper, 3.
of pigeon, 110.
of rabbit, 123, 133.
of sheep, 1388.
valves in, 142.
Vermes, 45.
Vertebra, 81.
Villi, 124.
Vocal cords, 149.
Vorticella, 60.
Water system
of sea-urchin, 164,
of starfish, 159.
Wheel animalcule, 69.
Windpipe
of pigeon, 106.
of sheep, 136.
of snake, 100.
of turtle, 103.
Wings
of beetle, 18,
of butterfly, 12.
of cricket, 9.
of fly, 15, 16.
of grasshopper, 3.
of pigeon, 106,
Worma, 45,
D | i i I |