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GRAY'S LESSON^S IN^ B0TA:N^Y

REVISED EDITION

THE

ELEMENTS OF BOTANY

FOR BEGINNERS AND FOR SCHOOLS

By ASA GRAY

NEW YORK-:. CINCINNATI-: -CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

GRAY'S BOTAMICAL SERIES

Gray's How Plants Grow
Gray's How Plants Behave
*Gray's Lessons in Botany
Gray's Field, Forest, and Garden Botany

(Flora only)

*Gray's School and Field Book of Botany

(Lessons and Flora)

Gray's Manual of Botany. (Flora only)
*Gray's Lsssons and Manual of Botany
Gray's Botanical Text-Book

I. Gray's Structural Botany
II. Goodale's Physiological Botany

Coulter's Manual of Botany of the Rocky

Mountains
Gray and Coulter's Text-Book of

Western Botany

EDITIONS OF 1901
*Leavitt's Outlines of Botany

(Based on Gray's Lessons)

*Leavitt's Outlines of Botany with Flora

(Outlines and Gray's Field, Forest, and Garden Botany)

*Leavitt's Outlines and Gray's Manual

Copyright, 1S87, by Asa Gray

REV. LESSONS
w. p. 27

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tt PREFACE.

O This volume takes the place of the author's Lessons in Botany

C^ AND Vegetable Physiology, published over a quarter of a cen-

^ tury ago. It is constructed on the same lines, and is a kind

of new and much revised edition of that successful work. While

in some respects more extended, it is also more concise and terse

?«■ than its predecessor. This should the better fit it for its purpose

^ now that competent teachers are common. They may in many cases

^ develop paragraphs into lectures, and fully illustrate points which

arc barely, but it is hoped clearly, stated. Indeed, even for those

without a teacher, it may be that a condensed is better than a

c ^ diffuse exposition.

; cj The book is adapted to the higher schools, " How Plants Grow
5 ^ and Behave " being the " Botany for Young People and Common
Schools." It is intended to ground beginners in Structural Botany
and the principles of vegetable life, mainly as concerns Flowering
or Phanerogamous plants, with which botanical instruction should
always begin ; also to be a companion and interpreter to the Man-
uals and Floras by which the student threads his flowery way to
a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation. Such a
book, like a grammar, must needs abound in technical words,
which thus arrayed may seem formidable ; nevertheless, if rightly
apprehended, this treatise should teach that the study of bot-
any is not the learning of names and terms, but tlie acquisition
of knowledge and ideas. No effort should be made to com-
mit technical terras to memory. Any term used in describing a
plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when it is
wanted, and that should suffice. On the other hand, plans of

392415

iv PREFACE.

structure, types, adaptations, and modifications, once understood,
are not readily forgotten ; and they give meaning and interest to
the technical terms used in exi)laining thera.

In these "Elements" naturally no mention has been made of
certain terms and names which recent cryptogamically-minded
botanists, with lack of proportion and just perspective, are en-
deavoring to introduce into phanerogamous botany, and wliich are
not needed nor appropriate, even in more advanced works, for the
adequate recognition of tlie ascertained analogies and liomologies.

As this volume will be the grammar and dictionary to more than
one or two Manuals, Floras, etc., the particular directions for pro-
cedure which were given in the " First Lessons " are now relegated
to those works themselves, which in their new editions will pro-
vide the requisite explanations. On the other hand, in view of
such extended use, the Glossary at the end of this book has been
considerably enlarged. It will be found to include not merely the
common terms of botanical description but also many which are
unusual or obsolete ; yet any of them may now and then be encoun-
tered. Moreover, no small number of tlie Latin and Greek words
which form the whole or part of the commoner specific names are
added to this Glossary, some in an Anglicized, others in their Latin
form. This may be helpful to students with small Latin and less
Greek, in catching the meaning of a botanical name or term.

The illustrations in this volume are largely increased in number.
They are mostly from the hand of Isaac Sprague.

It happens that the title chosen for tliis book is that of the
author's earliest publication, in the year 1830, of which copies are
rarely seen ; so that no inconvenience is likely to arise from the
present use of the name. *

ASA GRAY.

Cambridge, Massachusetts,
March, 1887.

CONTENTS.

Paob

SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY , . . . 9

SKCTION II. FLAX AS A PAT TERN PLANT 11

Growtli from the Seed, Organs of Vegetation 11

Blossoming, Flower, &c 14

SECTION IIL MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS 15

Germinating Maples 15

Cotyledons thickened, hypogaeons in germination 18

Store of Food external to the Embryo 20

Cotyledons as to number 22

Dicotyledonous and Polycotyledonous 28

Monocotyledonous 24

Simple-stemmed Plants 26

SECTION IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS; BRANCHING . ... 27

Buds, situation and kinds 27

Vigorous vegetation from strong Buds 28

Arrangement of Branches 29

Non-developed, Latent, and Accessory Buds 30

Ejuimoration of kinds of Buds 31

Definite and Indefinite growth ; Deliquescent and Excurrent . 31

SECTION V. ROOTS 33

Primary and Secondary. Contrast between Stem and Root . 34

Fibrous and Fleshy Roots ; names of kinds 34

Anomalous Roots. Epiphytic and Parasitic Plants .... 30

Duration : Annuals, Biennials, Perennials 37

SECTION VL STEMS 38

Those above Ground : kinds and modifications 39

Subterranean Stems and I'.r.iiiclies 42

Rootstock, 42. Tuber, 44. ("orm, 45 Bulb and Bulblets . . 40

Consolidated Vegetation 47

SECTION VII. LEAVES 49

§ 1. Leaves as Foliage 49

Parts and Venation 50

Forms as to general outline 52

As to apex and particular outline 53

vi CONTENTS.

As to lobing or division 66

Compound, Perfoliate, and Equitant Leaves 67

Witli no distinction of Petiole and Blade, Pliyllodia, &c. ... 61

§ 2. Leaves of Special Conformation and Use .... 62

Leaves for storage 62

Leaves as bud-scales, 63, Spines, 64, and for Climbing ... 64

Pitchers, 64, and Fly-traps 65

§ 3. Stipules 66

§ 4. The Arrangement of Leaves 67

Phyllotaxy, 67, of Alternate Leaves 69

Of Opposite and VVhorled Leaves 71

Venation or Praefoliation 71

SECTION Vin. FLOWERS 72

§ 1. Position and Arrangement, Inflorescence .... 73

Raceme, 73, Corymb, Umbel, Spike, Head 74

Spadix, Catkin, or Ament 75

Panicle: Determinate Inflorescence 76

Cyme, Fascicle, Glomeruie, Scorpioid or Heliooid Cymes . . 77

Mixed Inflorescence 78

§ 2. Parts or Organs of the Flower 79

Floral Envelopes : Perianth, Calyx, Corolla 79

Essential Organs : Stamen, Pistil 80

Torus or Receptacle 81

§ 3. Plan of the Flower 81

When perfect, complete, regular, or symmetrical 81

Numerical Plan and Alternation of Organs 82

Flowers are altered branches 83

§ 4. Modifications of the Type 85

Unisexual or diclinous 85

Incomplete, Irregular, and Unsymmetrical 86

Flowers with Multiplication of Parts 88

Flowers with Union of Parts : Coalescence 88

Regular Forms, 89, Irregular Forms 90

Papilionaceous, 91, Labiate, 92, and Ligulate Corollas .... 93

Adnation or Consolidation 94

Position of Flower or of its Parts 96

§ 5. Arrangement of Parts in the Bdd 97

.^istivation or Praefloration, its kinds 97

SECTION IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR 98

Androecium, 98, Insertion, Relation, &c 99

Anther and Filament. Pollen 101

SECTION X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR 105

§ 1. Angiospermous ok Ordinary Gynceciim 105

Parts of a complete Pistil 105

Carpels, Simple Pistil 106

CONTENTS. vii

Compound Pistil witli Cells and Axile Placentae 107

One-celled with Free Central Placenta 108

One-celled with I'aiietal Placentae 108

§ 2. Gymnospermous Gyncecium 109

SECTION XI. OVULES 110

Their Parts, Insertion, and Kinds Ill

SECTION XII. MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE . . 112

Torus, Stipe, Carpopiiore, Disk 113

SECTION XIII. FERTILIZATION 114

§ 1. Adaptations for Pollinatiox of the STroMA . . . 114

Close and Cross Fertilization, Aneinophilousand Entomophiloiis 115

Dichogamy and Heterogony 116

§ 2. Action of the Pollen and Formation ok the Emisuyo 117

SECTION XIV. THE FRUIT 117

Nature and kinds 118

Berry, Pepo, Pome 119

Drupe and Akene 120

Cremocarp, Caryopsis, Nut 121

Follicle, Legume, Capsule 122

Capsular Dehiscence, Silique and Silicle 123

Pyxis, Strobile or Cone 124

SECTION XV. THE SEED 125

Seed-coats and their appendages 125

The Kernel or Nucleus, Pimbryo and its parts, AlbuiiiLU . . 127

SECTION XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK 128

§ 1. Anatomical Strlctuue and Growth 129

Nature of Growth, Protoplasm 129

Cells and Cell-walls. Cellular Structure or Tissue .... 130

Strengthening Cells. Wood, Wood-cells, Vessels or Ducts . 1-32

§ 2. Cell contents 136

Sap, Chlorophyll, Starch 136

Crystals, Rhaphides 137

§ 3. Anatomy of Roots and Stems 138

Endogenous and Exogenous Stems 139

Particular structure of the latter 140

Wood, Sapwood and Heart-wood. The living parts of a Tree 141

§ 4. Anatomy of Leaves 142

Epidermis, Stomata or Breathing pores 143

§ 5. Plant Food and Assimilation 144

§ 6. Plant Work and Movement 149

Movements in Cells or Cyclosis 149

Transference from Cell to Cell 160

viii CONTENTS.

Movements of Organs, Twining Stems, Leaf-movements . . 150

Movenieiits of Tendrils, ISensiiiveness 152

Movements in Flowers 153

Movements for capture of Insects 154

Work costs, using up Material and Energy 155

SECTION XVII. CUYPTOGAMOUS OU FLOWERLESS PLANTS 156

Vascular Cryptogams, Pteridopliytes 156

Horsetails (Equisetacea;), Ferns . 157

Club-Mosses (Lycopodium), &c 161

Quillworts (Isoiites), Pillworts (Marsilia) 161

AzoUa. Cellular Cryptogams 162

Bryopliytes. Mosses (Musci) 163

Liverworts (Hepaticse) 164

Thallophytes 165

Cliaraceae 167

AlgEe, Seaweeds, &c 168

Lichenes or Lichens 171

Fungi 172

SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE 175

§ 1. Kinds and Relationship 175

Species, Varieties, Individuals 176

Genera, Orders, Classes, &c 177

§ 2. Names, Terms, and Characters 178

Nomenclature of Genera, Species, and Varieties 179

Nomenclature of Orders, Classes, &c. Terminology .... 180

§ 3. System 181

Artificial and Natural 182

Synopsis of Series, Classes, &c 183

SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK 184

§ 1. Collection or Herborization 184

§ 2. Herbarium 186

§ 3. Investigation and Determination of Plants . . . 187

§ 4. Signs and Abbreviations 188

Abbreviations of the Namks of Botanists 190

(jlossary combined with Index 193

ELEMENTS OF BOTANY.

Section I. INTRODUCTORY.

1. Botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in
general • that is, of plants.

2. Plants may be studied as to their kinds and relationships. This
study is Systematic Botany. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables,
as far as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance
or difference, constitutes a general System of j)li:i}it.i. A similar account of
the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a Flora.

3. Plants may be studied as to their structure and parts. This is
Structural Botany, or Organography. The study of the organs or
parts of plants in regard to the different forms and different uses which
the same kind of organ may assume, — the comparison, for instance, of
a flower-leaf or a bud-scale with a common leaf, — is Vegetable Mor-
phology, or Morphological Botany. The study of the minute structure
of the parti, to learn by the microscope what they themselves are formed
of, is Vegetable Anatomy, or Histology; in other words, it is Micro-
scopical Structural Botany. The study of the actions of plants or of their
parts, of the ways in which a plant lives, grows, and acts, is the province
of Physiological Botany, or Vegetable Physiology.

4. This book is to teach the outlines of Structural Botany and of the
simpler parts of the physiology of plants, that it may be known how
plants are constructed and adapted to their surroundings, and how they
live, move, propagate, and have their being in an existence no less real,
although more simple, than that of the animal creation which they support.
Particularly, this book is to teach the principles of the structure and rela-
tionsliips of plants, the nature and names of tlieir parts and their modifica-
tions, and so to prepare for the study of Systematic Botany ; in which the
learner may ascertain the name and the place in the system of any or all
of the ordinary plants within reach, whether wild or cultivated. And in
ascertaining the name of any plant, the student, if rightly taught, will come
to know all about its general or particular structure, rank, and relationship
to other plants.

10 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. [SECTION 1,

5. The vcgetahlc kingdom is so vast and various, and the difference is
so wide between ordinary trees, shrubs, and herbs on the one hand, and
mosses, moulds, and sueh like on the other, that it is hardly possil)le to
frame an intelligible aeeouut of plants as a whole without contradictions
or misstatements, or endless and troublesome qualifications. If we say
that plants come from seeds, bear flowers, and have roots, stems, and
leaves, this is not true of the lower orders. It is best for the beginner,
therefore, to treat of the higher orders of plants by themselves, without
particular reference to the lower.

6. Let it be understood, accordingly, that there is a higher and a lower
series of plants ; namely : —

Phanerog.vmous Plants, which come from seed and bear fowers, es-
sentially stamens and jnstils, through the co-operation of which seed is
produced. For shortness, these are commonly called Phanerogams, or
Phaenogams, or by tlie equivalent English name of Flowering Plants.^

Cryptogamous Plants, or Cryptogams, come from minute bodies, which
answer to seeds, but are of much simpler structure, and such plants have
not stamens and pistils. Therefore they are called in English Flowerless
Plants. Such are Ferns, Mosses, Algse or Seaweeds, Fungi, etc. These
sorts have each to be studied separately, for each class or order has a plan
of its own.

7. But Phanerogamous, or Flowering, Plants are all constructed on one
plan, or type. That is, taking almost any ordinary herb, shrub, or tree for
a pattern, it will exemplify the whole series : the parts of one plant answer
to the parts of any other, with only certain differences in particulars. And
the occupation and the delight of the scientific botanist is in tracing out
this common plan, in detecting the likenesses under all the diversities, and
in noting the meaning of these manifold diversities. So the attentive study
of any one plant, from its growth out of the seed to the flowering and
fruiting state and the production of seed like to that from which the plant
grew, would not only give a correct general idea of the structure, growth,
and characteristics of Flowering Plants in general, but also serve as a pat-
tern or standard of comparison. Some plants will serve this purpose of a
pattern much better than others. A proper pattern will be one that is
perfect in the sense of having all the principal parts of a phanerogamous
plant, and simple and regular in having these parts free from complications
or disguises. The common Flax-plant may very well serve this purpose.
Being an annual, it has the advantage of being easily raised and carried
in a short time through its circle of existence, from seedling to fruit and
seed.

^ The name is sometimes Thanerogamons, sometimes Phcenoffamous (Phanero-
gams, or TlKOingams), terms of the same meanitiff ctyninlociraily ; the former of
preferable form, but ihe latter shorter. The meaning of sueh terms is explained
in the Glossary.

SECTION 2.]

A PATTERN PLANT.

11

Section II. FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT.

8. Growth from the Seed. Phanerogamous plants grow from seed,
and their flowers are desthied to the production of seeds. A seed has a
rudimentary plant ready formed in it, — sometimes with the two most
essential parts, i. e. stem and leaf, plainly discernible ; sometimes with no
obvious distinction of organs until germination begins. This incipient
plant is called an Embryo.

9. In this section the Piax-])lant is taken as a specimen, or type, and
the development and history of common plants in general is illustrated by
it. In flax-seed the embryo nearly fills the coats, but not quite. There
is a small deposit of nourishment between the seed-coat and the embryo :
this may for the present be left out of the account. This embryo consists
of a pair of leaves, pressed together face to face, and attached to an ex-
tremely short stem. (Fig. 2-4.) In this nidimentary condition the real
nature of the parts is not at once apparent ; but when the seed grows they
promptly reveal their character, — as the accompanying figures (Fig. 5-7)
show.

10. Before the nature of these parts in the seed was altogether under-
stood, technical names were given to them, which are still in use. These
initial leaves were named Cotyledons. The initial stem on which they
stand was called the Radicj^e. That was because it gives rise to the first
root ; but, as it is really the beginning of the stem, and because it is the
stem that produces the root and not the root that produces the stem, it is
better to name it the Caulicle. Recently it has been named Hypocotyle ;
which signifies something below the cotyledons, without pronouncing what
its nature is.

Fig. 1. PodofFkx. 2. Section lengthwise, sliowing two of the seeds; one whole,
the other cut half away, bringing contained embryo into view. 3. Similar section
of a flax-seed more magnified and divided flatwise; turned round, so that the
stem-end (caulicle) of the embryo is below: the whole broad upper part is the
inner face of one of the cotyledons; the minute nick at its base is the plumule.
4. Similar section through a seed turned edgewise, showing the thickness of the
cotyledons, and the minute plumiile between them, i. e. the minute bud on the
upper end of the caulicle.

12

A PATTERN PLANT.

[SECTION 2.

^

11. On committ ing tlieso seeds to moist and warm soil tbcj soon sprout,
i. e. (jermimte. Tlic very short stem-part of the embryo is the first to
grow. It lengthens, protrudes ils rool-eud ; this turns downward, if not
already pointing in that direction, and while it is Icngthoning a root forms
at its point and grows downward into the ground. This root continues to
grow on from its lower end, and tlius insinuates itself and
penetrates into tlie soil. The stem meanwhile is adding
to lis length throughout; it erects itself, and, seeking the
light, brings the seed up out of the ground. The mate-
rials for this growth have been supplied by the cotyledons
or seed-leaves, still in the seed: it was the store of nour-
ishing material they held which gave them their thickish
shape, so unlike that of ordinary leaves. Now, relieved of
a part of this store of food, which has formed tlie growth by
which they have been raised into the air
and light, they appropriate the remain-
der to their own growth. In enlarging
they open and throw off the seed-husk ;

they expand, diverge into a horizontal

position, turn green, and thus become

a pair of evident leaves, the first foliage

of a tiny plant. This seedling, although

diminutive and most simple, possesses

and puts into use, all the Organs of

Vegetation, namely, root, stem, and

leaves, each in its proper element, — the

root in the soil, the stem rising out of

it, the leaves in the light and open air.

It now draws in moisture and some 6 5 7

food-materials from the soil by its root,

conveys this through the stem into the leaves, where these materials, along

with other crude food which these imbibe from the air, are assimilated into

vegetable matter, i. e. into the materia! for further growth.

12. Further Growth soon proceeds to the formation of new parts, —

downward in the production of more root, or of branches of the main root,

upward in the development of more stem and leaves. Tiiat from which a

stem with its leaves is continued, or a new stem (i.e. branch) originated, is

a Bud. The most conspicuous and familiar buds are those of most shrubs

and trees, bearing buds formed in summer or autumn, to grow the following

Fig. 5. Early Fla.K scrdling ; .stem (caulick'), root at lever end, cxpamled socil-
leaves (cotyledons) at the other: minute Imd (plumule) lietween these. 6. Same
later; the bud developed into .second pair of leaves, with hardly any stem-part be-
low them; then into a tliird p.air of leaves, raised on a short .joint of stem; and a
fifth leaf also showinc. 7. Same still older, with more leaves developed, but these
singly (one after another), and witli joints of stem between them.

SECTION 2.]

A PATTERN PLANT.

13

spring. But every such poiut for uew growl li may equally bear the name.
When there is such a bud bctwceu the cotyledons m the seed or seedling
it is called the Plumule. Tins is conspicuous enough in a bean (Fig. 29.),
where the young leaf of the new growl h looks like a little plume, whence the
Tomae, plumule. In Hax-seed this is very minute indeed, but is discernible
with a magnilier, and in the scedhug it shows itself dislmetly (Fig. 5, 6, 7).

13. As it grows it shapes itself into a second pair of loaves, which of
course rests on a second joint of stem, although in this instance that remains
loo sliort to be well seen. Upon its

summit appears the third pair of
leaves, soon to be raised upon its
proper joint of stem; the nest leaf is
single, and is carried up still furthci'
upon its supporting joint of stem ;
and so on. The root, meauwhilc,
continues to grow underground, not
joint after joint, but continuously,
from its lower end ; and couimonly
it before long multiplies itself by
branches, which lengthen by the
same continuous growth. But
stems are built up by a succession
of leaf-bearing growths, such as are
strongly marked in a reed or corn-
stalk, and less so in such an herb as
ria\. The word "joint" is ambigu-
ous : it may mean cither the portion
between successive leaves, or their
junction, where the leaves are at-
tached. For precision, therefore,
the place -where the leaf or leaves
are borne is called a Node, and the
naked interval between two nodes,
an Tnternode.

14. In this -way a simple stem
with its garniture of leaves is de-
veloped from the seed. But besides
this direct continuation, buds may form and develop into lateral steins, that
is, into branches, from any node. The proper origin of branches is from
the Axil of a leaf, i. e. the angle between leaf and stem on the upper side ;
and branches may again branch, so building up the hei-b, shrub, or tree.
But sooner or later, and without long delay in an annual like Flax, instead
of this continuance of mere vegetation, reproduction is prepared for by

Fig. 8. Upper part of Flax-jilant in blo.ssom.

14

A PiVTTEllN PLANT.

[SECTION 2.

15. Blossoming. In Flax the flowers make tlicir appearaucc at the
end of the stem and branches. The growth, wliich otherwise might con-
tinue them farther or iudefiuitely, now takes the form of blossom, and is
subservient to the production of seed.

16. The Flower of Flax consists, first, of five small green leaves,
crowded into a circle: this is the Calyx, or flower-cup. VVlien its sepa-
rate leaves are referred to they are called Sepals, a name which distin-
guislies them from foliage-leaves on the one hand, and from petals on the
other. Then come five delicate and colored leaves (in the Flax, blue), which
form the Corolla, and its leaves are Petals ; then a circle of organs, in

9 10

which all likeness to leaves is lost, consisting of slender stalks with a knob
at summit, the Stamens ; and lastly, in the centre, the rounded body,
which becomes a pod, surmounted by five slender or stalk-like bodies.
This, all together, is the Pistil. The lower part of it, which is to contain the
seeds, is the Ovary ; the slender organs surmounting this are Styles ; the
knob borne on the apex of each style is a Stigma. Going back to the sta-
mens, these are of two parts, viz. the stalk, called Filament, and the body
it bears, the Anther. Anthers are filled with Pollen, a powdery sub-
stance made up of minute grains.

17. The pollen shed from the anthers when they open falls upon or is
conveyed to the stigmas ; then the pollen-grains set up a kind of growth (to
be discerned only by aid of a good microscope), which penetrates the style :
this growth takes the form of a thread more delicate than the finest spider's
web, and reaches the bodies which are to become seeds (Ovules they are
called until this change occurs) ; these, touched by this influence, are in-
cited to a new growth witliin, which becomes an embryo. So, as the ovary
ripens into the seed-pod or capsule (Fig. 1, etc.) containing seeds, each
seed enclosing a rudimentary new plantlet, the round of this vegetable
existence is completed.

Fig. 9. Flax-flowers about natural .size. 10. Section of a flower moderately
enlarged, showing a part of the petals and stamens, all five styles, and a section
of ovary with two ovules or rudimentary seeds.

SECTION 3.]

SEEDLINGS.

15

Section III. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS.

18. Having obtained a general idea of the growth and parts of a pha-
nerogamous plant from the common Flax of the field, tlie seeds and seed-
lings of other familiar plants may be taken up, and their variations from the
assumed pattern examined.

19. Germinating Maples arc excellent to begin with, the parts being
so much larger than in Flax that a common magnifying glass, although
convenient, is hardly necessary. The only disadvantage is that fresh seeds
are not readily to be had at all seasons.

20. The seeds of Sugar Maple ripen at the end of summer, and germi-
nate in early spring. The em-
bryo fills the whole seed, in
which it is nicely packed ; and
the nature of the parts is ob-
vious even before growth begins.
There is a stemlet (caulicle) and
a pair of long and narrow seed-
leaves (cotyledons), doubled up and coiled, green even in the seed, and in
germination at once unfolding into the first pair of foliage-leaves, though
of shape quite unlike those that follow.

21. Red Maple seeds are ripe and ready to germinate at the beginning o£
summer, and are therefore more convenient for study. The cotyledons are
crumpled in the seed, and not easy to straighten out until they unfold them-
selves in germination. The story of their development into the seedling is
told by the accompanying Fig. 14-20 ; and that of Sugar Maple is closely
similar. No plumule or bud appears in the embryo of these two Maples
until the seed-leaves have nearly attained their full growth and are acting
as foliage-leaves, and until a root is formed below. There is no great store
of nourishment in these thin cotyledons ; so further growth has to wait
until the root and seed-leaves have collected and elaborated sufficient ma-
terial for the formation of the second internode and its pair of leaves,
which lending their help the third pair is more promptly produced, and
so on.

22. Some change in the plan comes with the Silver or Soft White Maple.
(Fig. 21-25). This blossoms in earliest spring, and it drops its large and
ripened keys only a few weeks later. Its cotyledons have not at all the
appearance of leaves ; they are short and broad, and (as there is no room
to be saved by folding) they are straight, except a small fold at the top, —
a vestige of the habit of Maples in general. Their unusual thickness is due

Fig. 11. Embryo of Sugar Maple, cut throiigli lengthwise and taken out of the
seed. 12, 13. Whole embryo of same just beginning to grow; a, the stemlet or
eaui'cle which in 13 has considerably lengthened.

16

SEEDLINGS.

[section 3.

to the liirgo store of nutritive matter tliey contain, and this prevents their
developing into actual loaves. Correspondingly, their caulicle does not
lengthen to elevate them above tlie surface of the soil; the growth below
the cotyledons is nearly all of root. It is the little plumule or bud between

them which makes the upward growth, and which, being well fed by the
cotyledons, rapidly develops the next pair of leaves and raises tliom upon
a long internode, and so on. The cotyledons all the while remain below,
in the husk of the fruit and seed, and perish when they have yielded up the
store of food which they contained.

23. So, even in plants so much alike as Maples, there is considerable
difference in the amount of food stored up in the cotyledons by which the
growth is to be made ; and there are corresponding differences in the ger-

FiG. 14. One of the pair of keys or winged fruits of Red Maj^le; the seed-bear-
ing portion cut open to sliow tlie seed. lo. Seed eidarged, and divided to show
tiie cnimpled embryo wliich fills it. 16. Embryo taken out an<l partly opened.

17. Embryo wliich has unfolded in early stage of germination ami begun to grow.

18. Seedling with next joint of stem and leaves ajiparent; and 19 with these parts
full-grown, and bud at apex for further growth. 20. Seedling with another joint
of stem and pair of leaves.

SECTION 3.]

SEEDLINGS.

17

niiiiatioii. The larger tlie supply to draw upon, tlie stronger tlie growth,
and the; quicker the forniatiuu of root below and of stem and leaves above.
This deposit of food thickens the
cotyledons, and renders them less
and less leaf-like iu proportion to
its amount.

24. Examples of Embryos
with thickened Cotyledons.
Iu the Pumpkin and Squash (Fig.
2G, 27), the cotyledons are well
supplied with nourishing matter,
as their sweet taste demonstrates.
Still, they are flat and not very
thick. In germination this store
is promptly utilized in the devel-
opment of the caulicle to twenty or
thirty times its length in the seed,
and to corresponding thickness, in
the formation of a cluster of roots
at its lower end, and the early pro-
duction of the incipient plumule ;
also in their own growth into effi-
cient green leaves. The case of
our common Bean (Phaseolus vul-
garis. Fig. 28-30) is nearly the
same, except that the cotyledons

are much more gorged ; so that, altliough carried up into the air and light
upon the lengthening caulicle, and there acquiring a green color, they
never expand into useful leaves. Instead of this, they nourisli into rapid
growth the plumule, which is plainly visible in the seed, as a pair of
incipient leaves; and these form the first actual foliage.

25. Very similar is the germination of the Beech (Fig. 31-33), except
that the caulicle lengthens less, hardly raising the cotyledons out of the
ground. Nothing would be gained by elevating them, as they never grow
out into efficient leaves; but the joint of stem belonging to the plumule
lengthens -well, carrying up its pair of real foliage-leaves.

26. It is nearly the same in the Bean of the Old World (Vicia Faba,
iiere called Horse Bean and Windsor Bean) : the caulicle lengthens very
little, does not undertake to elevate the heavy seed, which is left below or

Pig. 21. Fruit (one key) of Silver Maple, Acer dasycarpum, of natural size, the
seed-hearing portion divided to show the seed. 22. Embryo of the seed taken
out. 23. Same opened out, to .show the thick cotyledons ami the little plumule
or bud between them. 24. Germination of Silver Maple, natural size; merely the
base of the fruit, containing tlie seed, is shown. 25. Embryo of same, taken out
of tlie husk ; upp* r part of growing stem cut off, for want of rnorti.

2

18

SEEDLINGS,

[SECTION 3.

upon the surface of the soil, the flat but thick cotyledons renminiiig iu it,
and supplying food i'or the growth of the root below and the j)lumule
%bove. In its near relative, the Pea (Fig. M, '6^), this use of cotyledons

for storage only is most completely carried out. For they are thickened
to the utmost, even into hemispheres ; the caulicle does not lengthen at all ;
merely sends out roots from the lower end, and develops its strong plu-
mule from the upper, the seed remaining unmoved underground. That is,
in technical language, the germination is hypogeeous.

27- There is sufficient nourishment in the cotyledons of a pea to make
a very considerable growth before any actual foliage is required. So it
is the stem-portion of the plumule which is at first conspicuous and strong-
growing. Here, as seen iu Fig. 35, its lower nodes bear each a useless
leaf-scale instead of an efficient leaf, and oidy the later ones bear leaves
fitted for foliage.

Fio. 26. Embryo of Pumpkin-seed, partly opened. 27. Young seedling of same.

Fig. 28. Embryo of Common Bean (Phaseolus vxdgaris): caulicle bent down
over edge of cotyledons. 29. Same germinating : caulicle well lengthened and root
beginning; thick cotyledons partly spreading; and plumule (pair of leaves) growing
between them. 30. Same, older, with plumule developed into ijiternode and
pair of leaves.

SECTION 3.]

SEEDLINGS.

19

28. This hypogmous germination is exemplified on a larger scale by the
Oak (Fig. 36, 37) and Horse-chestnut (Fig. 38, 39) ; but in these the
downward growth is wholly a stout tap-root. It is not the caulicle; for

this lengt,hens hardly any. Indeed, tbe earliest growth which carries
the very short caulicle out of the shell comes from the formation of foot-
stalks to the cotyledons ; above these develops the strong plumule, below
grows the stout root. The growth is at first entirely, for a long time

Fig. 31. A Beech-nut, cut across. 32. Beginning germination of the Beech,
showing the plumule growing before the cotyledons have opened or the root has
scarcely formed. 33. The same, a little later, with the plumule-leaves developing,
and elevated on a long internode.

Fig. 34. Emhryo of Pea, i. e. a pea with the coats removed; the short and
thick caulicle presented to view. 35. Same in advanced germination : the plumule
has developed four or five internodes, bearing single leaves ; but the first and sec-
ond leaves are mere scales, the third begins to serve as foliage ; the next more so.

20

SEEDLINGS.

[SECTION 3.

mainly, at the expense of the great store of food in the cotyledons. These,
after serving their purpose, decay and fall away.

29. Sueh thick cotyledons never separate; indeed, they sometimes grow-
together by some part of their contiguous faces ; so that the germination

seems to proceed from a solid bulb-like mass.
This is the case in a liorse-chestnut.

30. Germinating Embryo supplied by its
own Store of Nourishment, i. e. the store in
tlie cotyledons. This is so in all the illustrations
thus far, essentially so even in the Flax. This
nourishment was supplied by the mother plant to
the ovule and seed, and thence taken into the
embryo during its growth. Such embryos, filling
the whole seed, are comparatively large and strong,
and vigorous in germination in proportion to the
amount of their growth while connected with tlie parent plant.

31. Germinating Embryo supplied from a Deposit outside of It-
self. This is as common as the other mode; and it occurs in all degrees.

Fig. 36. Half of an aconi, cut lengthwise, filled by the verj' thick cotyledons,
the l)a.se of which encloses the minute caulicle. 37. Oak-seedlin|r.

Fig. 38. Half of a horse-chestnut, similarlj' cut ; the caulicle is curved down on
the side of one of the thick cotyledons. 39. Horse-chestnut in pernniiat ion; foot-
stalks are formed to the cotyledous, j)ushing out in their lengthening the growing
parts.

SECTION 3.]

SEEDLINGS.

n

Some seeds liave very little of this deposit, but a comparatively large em-
bryo, with its parts more or less developed and recognizable. In others
this deposit forms the main bulk of the seed, and the embryo is small or
minute, and comparatively rudimentary. The following illustrations exem-
plify these various grades. When an embryo in a seed is thus surrounded
by a white substance, it was natural to liken the latter to the white of an
egg, and the embryo or germ to the yolk. So the matter around or by
the side of the embryo was called the Albumen,
i. e. the white of the seed. The analogy is not
very good ; and to avoid ambiguity some botan-
ists call it the Endosperm. As that means in
English merely the inwards of a seed, the new
name is little better than the old one ; and, since
we do not cliange names in botany except
when it cannot be avoided, this name of albu-
men is generally kept up. A seed with such a
deposit is albuminous, one with none is e.ral-
huminous.

32. The Albumen forms the main bulk of
the seed in wheat, maize, rice, buckwheat, and
the like. It is the floury part of the seed.
Also of the cocoa-nut, of coffee (where it is dense
and hard), etc. ; while in peas, beans, almonds,
and in most edible nuts, the store of food, al-
though essentially the same in nature and in
use, is in the embryo itself, and therefore is not
counted as anything to be separately named.
In both forms this concentrated food for the
germinating plant is food also for man and for
animals.

33. For an albuminous seed with a well-developed embryo, the com-
mon Morning Glory (Ipomoea purpurea. Fig. 40-43) is a convenieut exam-
ple, being easy and prompt to grow, and having all the parts well apparent.
The seeds (duly soaked for examination) and the germination should be
compared with those of Sugar and Red Maple (19-21). The only essen-
tial difference is that here tlie embryo is surrounded by and crumpled up in
the albumen. This substance, which is pulpy or mucilaginous in fresh
and young seeds, hardens as the seed ripens, but becomes again pulpy in
germination ; and, as it liquifies, the thin cotyledons absorb it by their

Fig. 40. Seed of Morning Glory diviiled, moderately magnified ; shows a longi-
tudinal sectiou through the rentre of the embryo as it lies crumpled in the albu-
men. 41. Embryo taken out whole and unfolded; the broad and very thin
cotyledons notched at summit ; the caulicle below. 42. Early state of germina-
tion. 43. Same, more advanced; caulicle or primary stem, cotyledons or seed-
leaves, and behiw, the root, wi-Jl develojied.

SEEDLINGS.

[SECTION 3.

whole surface. It supplemcnls the nutritive matter coutaincd in the
embryo. Both together form no large store, but sufficient for establishing
the seedling, with tiny root, stem, and pair of leaves for initiating its
independent growth ; which in due time proceeds as in Fig. 44, 45.

34. Smaller embryos, less developed in the seed, are more dependent
upon the extraneous supply of food. The figures 4G-53 illubtratc four

45

grades iu this respect. Tbe smallest, that of the Peony, is still large enough
to be seen with a hand magnifying glass, and even its cotyledons may be
discerned by the aid of a simple stage microscope.

35. The broad cotyledons of Mirabilis, or Four-o'clock (Fig. 52, 53),
with the slender cauliclc almost encircle and enclose the floury albumen,
instead of being enclosed in it, as in the other illusti'ations. Evidently
here the germinating embryo is principally fed by one of the leaf-like coty-
ledons, the other being out of contact with the supply. In the embryo of
Abronia (Fig. 54, 55), a near relative of Mirabilis, there is a singular
modification ; one cotyledon is almost wanting, being reduced to a rudi-
ment, leaving it for the other to do the work. This leads to the question
of the

36. Number of Cotyledons. In all the preceding illustrations, tlie
embryo, however different in shape and degree of development, is evidently

Fig. 44. Seedling of Morning Glory more advanced (root cut away); cotyledon.s
well developed into foliage-leaves: .succeeding internode and leaf well developed,
and the next forming. 45. Seedling more advanced; reduced to much below
aatural size.

SECTION 3.]

SEEDLINGS.

23

constructed upon one and the same plan, namely, that of two leaves on a
caulicle or initial stem, — a plan which is obvious even when one cotyledon
becomes very much smaller than the other, as in the rare instance of Abro-
uia (Fig. 54, 55). In other words, the embryos so far examined are all

37. Dicotyledonous, that is, two-cotyledoued. Plants which are thus
similar iu the plan of the embryo agree likewise in the general structure of

46 48 60 52

their stems, leaves, and blossoms; and thus form a class, named from their
embryo Dicotyledones, or iu English, Dicotyledonous Plants. So long
a name being iucouveiiient, it may be shortened into Dicotyls.

38. Polycotyledonous is a name employed for the less usual case in
which there are more than two cotyledons. The Pine is the most familiar
case. This occurs in all Pines, the number of cotyledons varying from three
to twelve ; iu Fig. 56, 57 they are six. Note that they are all on the same
level, that is, belong to the same node, so as to form a circle or whorl at the
summit of the caulicle. When there are only three cotyledons, they divide
the space equally, are one third of the circle apart. When only two they
are 180° apart, that is, are opposite.

39. The case of three or more cotyledons, which is constant in Pines
and in some of their relatives (but not in all of them), is occasional among
Dicotyls. And the polycotyledonous is only a variation of the dicotyledonous
type, — a difTereuce in the number of leaves in the whorl ; for a pair is a
whorl reduced to two members. Some suppose that there are really only

Fig. 46. Section of a seed of a Peony, showing a very small embryo iu the
albumen, near one end. 47. This embryo detached, and more magnified.

Fig. 48. Section of a seed of Barl)erry, showing the straight embryo in the
middle of the albumen. 49. Its embryo detached.

Fig. 50. Section of a Potato-seed, showing the embryo coiled in the albumen.
51. Its embryo detached.

Fig. 52. Section of the seed of Mirabilis or Four-o'clock, showing the embryo
coiled round the outside of the albumen. 53. Embryo detached; showing the very
broad and leaf-like cotyledons, applied face to face, and the pair incurved.

Fig. 54. Embryo of Abronia umbellata; one of the cotyledons very small.
55. Same straightened out.

24

SEEDLINGS.

[section 3

58

two cotyledons even in a Piiic-cnibryo, but these divided or split ilp cou-
gcuitaiiy so as to imitate a greater number. But as leaves are oftea in
whorls ou ordinary stems, they may be so at the very beginning.

40. Monocotyledonous (meaning with
single cotyledon) is the name of the one-coty-
ledoned sort of embryo. This goes along
with peculiarities in stem, leaves, and flowers ;
whicli all together associate such plants into
a great class, called Monocotyledonous
Plants, or, for shortness, Monocotvls. It
means merely that the leaves are alternate
from the very first.

41. In Iris (Fig. 58, 59) the embryo in
the seed is a small cylinder at one end of the
mass of the albumen, with no apparent dis-
tinction of parts. The end which almost
touches the seed-coat is caulicle ; the other
end belongs to the solitary cotyledon. In

germination the whole lengthens (but mainly the
cotyledon) only enough to push the proximate
end fairly out of the seed : from this end the root
is formed; and from a little higher the plumule
later emerges. It would appear, therefore, that
the cotyledon answers to a minute leaf rolled up,
and that a chink through which the plumule
grows out is a part of the inrolled edges. Tiie
embryo of Indian Corn shows these parts on a
larger scale and in a more open state (Fig. 66-
68 j. There, in the seed, the cotyledon remains,
imbibing nourishment from the softened albu-
men, and transmitting it to the growing root
below and new-forming leaves above.

42. The general plan is the same in the Onion (Fig. 60-65), but with
a striking difference. The embryo is long, and coiled in the albumen of the
seed. To ordinary examination it shows no distinction of parts. But
germination plainly shows that all except the lower end of it is cotyledon.
For after it has lengthened into a long thread, the chink from which the

Fig. 56. Section of a Pine-seetl, .showing its polycotyledonous emljrj'o in the
centre of the albumen; moderate! }• niagnitied. 57. Seedling of same, showing the
freshly expanded si.x cotyledons in a whorl, and the plumule just apjiearing.

Fig. 58. Section of a seed of the Iris, or Flower-de-Luce, enlarged, showing its
small embryo in the albumen, near the bottom. 59. A germinating seedling of the
same, its plumule developed into the first four leaves (alternate), the first one
rudimentary; the cotyledon remain.^ in the seed.

Fig. 60. Section of an Onion-seed, showing tlie slender and eoiled emliryo in the
albumen ; moderately magnified. 61. Seed of same in early germination.

SECTION 3. J SEEDLINGS. 25

pliiniule in time emerges is seen at the base, or near it ; so the caulicle is

62 63 64 65

extirmcly short, and docs not elongate,
but sends out from its base a simple
i"0()t, and afterwards others in a cluster.
Not only does the cotyledon lengthen
enormously in the seedling, but (un-
like that of Iris, Indian Corn, and all

Fig. 62. Germinating Onion, more advanced ; tlie cliink at base of cotyledon
opening for the protrusion of the plumule, consisting of a thread-shaped leaf.
63. Section of base of Fig. 62, showing plumule enclosed. 64. Section of same
later; plumule emerging. 65. Later stage of 62; upper part cut off. 66. A grain
of Indian Corn, flatwise, cut away a little, so as to show the embryo, lying on the
albumen, which makes the principal bulk of the .seed. 67. A grain cut through the
middle in the opposite direction, dividing the embryo through its thick cotyle-
don and its plumule, the latter consisting of two leaves, one enclosing the other.
68. The endiryo, taken out whole: the thick mass is the cotyledon; the narrow
body partly enclosed l)y it is the ])lumide ; the little projection at its base is the
very short radicle enclosed in the sheathing base of the first leaf of the plumule.

Fig. 69. Grain of Indian Corn in germination ; the ascending sjiront is the first
leaf of the jdnmule, enclosing the younger leaves within; at its base the primary
root has broken through. 70. The same, advanced; the second and third leaves
developing, while the .sheathing first leaf does not further develop.

26

SEEDLINGS.

[section 3.

the cereal gi;iiiis) it raises the comparalively liglit seed iuto the air, the
tip still reuiamiug in the seed aud feeding upon the albumen. When
this food is exhausted and the seedling is well es-
tablished in the soil, tlie upper end decays and the
emptied husk of the seed falls away.

43. In Maize or In-
dian Com (Fig. 66-70),
the embryo is more de-
veloped in the seed, and
its parts can be made out.
It lies against the starchy
albumen, but is not
enclosed therein. The
larger part of it is the
cotyledon, thickish, its
edges involute, and its
back in contact witli the
albumen ; partly enclosed
by it is the well-devel-
oped plumule or bud
■wiiich is to grow. For
the cotyledon remains in
the seed to fulfil its office
of imbibing nourishment
from the softened albu-
men, which it conveys to
the growing sprout ; the
part of this sprout which is visible is the first leaf of the plumule rolled up
into a sheath and enclosing the rudiments of the succeeding leaves, at the
base enclosing even the minute caulicle. In germination the first leaf of
the plumule develops only as a sort of sheath, protecting the tender parts
within; the second and the third form the first foliage. The caulicle never
lengthens: the first root, which is formed at its lower end, or from any
part of it, has to break through the enclosing sheath ; and succeeding roots
soon spring from all or any of the nodes of the plumule.

44. Simple-stemmed Plants are thus built up, by the continuous pro-
duction of one leaf-bearing portion of stem from the summit of the preced-
ing one, beginning witii the initial stem (or caulicle) in the embryo. Some
Uicotyls and many Monoootyls develop only in this single line of growth (as
to parts above ground) until the flowering state is approached. For some
exani[)les, see Cycas (Fig. 71, front, at the left) ; a tall Yucca or Spanish
Bayonet, and two Cocoa-nut Palms behind ; at the right, a group of Sugar-
canes, and a Banana behind.

Fig. 71. Simple-stemmed vegetation.

SECTION 4. J

BUDS.

27

Section IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS : BRANCHING.

45. Most plants increase the amount of their vegetation by branching,
that is, by producing lateral shoots.

46. Roots branch from any part and usually without definite order.
Stems normally give rise to branches only at definite points, namely, at the
nodes, and there only from the axils of leaves.

47. Buds (Pig. 72, 73). Every incipient shoot is a Bud (12). A
stem continues its growth by its terminal bud; it branches by tiie forma-
tion and development of lateral buds. As normal lateral buds occupy tlie
axils of leaves, they are called axillary buds. As leaves are symmetrically
arranged on the stem, the buds in their axils and the branches into which
axillary buds grow partake of this symmetry.
The most conspicuous buds are the scaly winter-
buds of most shrubs and trees of temperate and
cold climates ; but the name belongs as well to
the forming shoot or branch of any herb.

48. The Terminal Bud, in tlie most general
sense, may be said to exist in the embryo, — as
cotyledons, or the cotyledons and plumule, — and
to crown each successive growth of the simple
stem so long as the summit is capable of growth.
The whole ascending growth of the Palm, Cy-
cas, and the like (such as in Fig. 71) is from
a terminal bud. Branches, being repetitions of
the main stem and growing in the same way,
are also lengthened by terminal buds. Those of
Horse-chestnut, Hickory, Maples, and such trees,
being the resting buds of winter, are conspicu-
ous by their protective covering of scales.
These bud-scales, as will hereafter be shown,
are themselves a kind of leaves.

49. Axillary Buds were formed on these
annual shoots early in the summer. Occasion-
ally they grow the same season into branches ; at least, some of them are
pretty sure to do so whenever the growing terminal bud at the end of the
shoot is injured or destroyed. Otherwise tliey may lie dormant until the
following spring. In many trees or shrubs these axillary buds do not
show themselves until spring ; but if searched for, they may be detected,
though of small size, hidden under the bark. Sometimes, although early

Fig. 72. Shoot of Horse-chestnut, of one y.ear's growth, taken in autumn after the
leaves have fallen ; showing the large terminal hud and smaller axillary buds.
Fig. 73. Similar shoot of Shagbark Hickory, Carya alba.

28

BUDS.

[section 4.

formed, they are concealed all siimincr long under the base of tlie leaf-stalk,
wiiich is tlieii hollowed out iuto a sort of inverted cup, like a caiidle-
extinguislier, to cover tliein ; as ill the Locust, the Yellow-wood, or more
strikiugly iii the Button-wood or Plaue-tree (Fig. 7^)-

50. The lea/scars, so conspicuous in Fig. 72, 73, under each axillary
bud, mark the place where the stalk of the subtending leaf was attached
until it fell in autumn

51. Scaly Buds, which are well represented in Fig. 72, 73, commonly
belong to trees and shrubs of countries in which growth is susjiended dur-
hig winter. The scaly coverings protect the tender young parts beneath,
not so much by keeping out the cold, which of course would penetrate the
bud in time, as by shielding the interior from the effects of sudden changes.
There are all gradations between these and

52. Naked Buds, in which these scales are inconspicuous or wanting,
as in most herbs, at least above ground, and most tropical trees and shrubs.
But nearly related plants of the same climate may differ widely in this re-
spect. Rhododendrons have strong and scaly winter-buds ; while in Kalmia
they are naked. One species of Viburnum, the Hobble-bush, has com-
pletely naked buds, what would be a pair of scales developing into the first
leaves in spring; while another (the Snowball) has conspicuous scaly buds.

53. Vigor of Vegetation from strong buds. Large and strong buds,
like those of the Horse-chestnut, Hickory, and the like, contain several
leaves, or pairs of leaves, ready formed, folded and packed away in small
compass, just as the seed-leaves of a strong embryo are packed away in the
seed : they may even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing season, plainly
visible as small buds. And the stems upon wiiieh these buds rest are filled
with abundant nourishment, wliicli was deposited the summer before in the

Fig. 74. An axillary Ijiul, concealed under the hollowed base of Llie leafstalk,
in Buttouwood or Plaue-tree.

SF/'TION 4.] BUDS. 29

wood or ill the bark. Under tlie surface of the soil, or ou it covered with
the fallen leaves of autumn, similar stroug buds of our perennial iierbs may
be found ; while beneath are thick roots, rootstocks, or tubers, charged
with a great store of nourishment for their use. This explains how it is that
vegetation from such buds shoots forth ho vigorously in the spring of the
year, and clothes the baru and lately frozen surf;ice of the soil, as well as
the naked boughs of trees, very promptly with a covering of fresh green,
and often with brilliant blossoms. Everytliiug was prepared, and even
formed, beforehaud: the short joints of stem in the hud have only to
lengthen, and to separate the loaves from each other so tliat tlicy may un-
fold and grow. Only a small part of the vegetation of the season comes
directly from the seed, and none of the earliest vernal vcgetatinu. Tliis is
all from buds which have lived through llic winter.

54!. The Arrangement of Branches, being that of axillary buds, answers
to that of the leaves. Now leaves principally arc cither opposite or alternate.
Leaves are opposite when there are two from the same joint of stem, as in
Maples (Fig. 20), the two being on opposite sides of the stem ; and so the
axillary buds and branches arc opposite, as in Fig. 75. Leaves are altcr-
mte when there is only cue from each joint of stem, as in the Oak, Lime-
tree, Poplar, Button-wood (Fig. 7^), Morning-Glory (Fig. 45, — not
counting the seed-leaves, which of course arc opposite, there being a pair
of them) ; also in Lidian Corn (Fig. 70), and L'is (Fig. 59). Consequently
the axillary buds are also alternate, as in Hickory (Fig. 73) ; and the
brandies they form alternate, — making a different kind of spray from the
other mode, one branch shooting on one side of the stem and the next
on some other. For in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same
side of the stem as the one next above or next below it.

55. But the symmetry of branches (unlike that of the leaves) is rarely
complete. This is due to several cause.*, and most commonly to the

56. Non-development of buds. It never happens that all the buds
grow. If they did, there might be as many branches in any year as there
were leaves the year before. And of those which do l)egin to grow, a
large portion perish, sooner or later, for want of nourishment, or for want
of light, or because those which first begin to grow have an advantage,
which they are apt to keep, taking to themselves the nourishment of the
stem, and starvincc the weaker buds. \\\ the Horse-chestnut (Fig. 72),
Hickory (Fig. 73) Mnguolia, and most other trees with large seuly buds,
the terminal bud is the strongest, and has the advantage ingrowth; and
next in strength are the upper axillary buds: while the former continues
the shoot of the last year, some of the latter give rise to branches, and
the rest fail to grow. Li the Lilac also (Fig. 75), the uppermost axillary
buds are stronger than the lower ; but the terminal bud rarely appears at
all ; in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow, and so each
stem branches every year into two, — making a repeatedly two-forked
ramification, as in Fig. 76.

30

BUDS.

[section 4

57. Latent Buds. Axilhrv l)uds lliat do not grow at the proper season,
and espceiully tliosc which make no appearaiiee externally, may loug remain
latent, and at length upon a favorable occasion start into giowth, so i'orm-

ing bi'auches apparently out of [)lace
ab tliey are out of time. The new
shoots seen springing directly out
of large stems may sometimes orig-
inate from such latent buds, which
have preserved their life for years.
But commonly these arise from

58. Adventitious Buds. These
are butls which certain shrubs and
trees produce anywhere on the sur-
face of the wood, especially where
it has been injured. They give rise
to the slender twigs which often
feather the .sides of great branches
of our American Elms. They some-
times form on the root, which natu-
rally is destitute of buds ; they are
even found upon some leaves ; and
they are sure to appear on the
trunks and roots of Willows, Pop-
lars, and Chestnuts, when these are
wounded or mutilated. Indeed
Osier- Willows &re pollarded, or cut
off, from time to time, by the culti-
vator, for the purpose of produc-
ing a crop of slender adventitious twigs, suitable for basket-work. Such
branches, being altogether irregular, of course interfere with the natural
symmetry of the tree. Another cause of
irregularity, in certain trees and shrubs,
is the formation of wiiat are called

59. Accessory or Supernumerary
Buds. There are cases where two, three,
or more buds spring from the axil of a
leaf, instead of the single one which is or-
dinarily found there. Sometimes they are
placed one over the other, as in the Aris-
tolochia or Pipe- Vine, and in the Tartarean Honeysuckle (Fig. 17) ; also
in the Houey-Locust, and in the Walnut and Butternut (Fig. 78), where

Fig. 75. Shoot of Lilac, with winter buds ; the two uppermost axillary ones
strong; the terminal not flevelopeil. 76. Forking ramification of Lilac; reduced
in size.

FlQ. 77. Tartarean Honeysuckle, with three accessory buds in each axiL

SECTION 4. J

BUDS.

31

the upper supenuimerary bud is a good Wtay out of the axil and above tin;

others. Aud this is here stronger tlian the otliers, and grows into a

branch which is considerably out of tlie axil, while the lower aud smaller

ones commonly do not grow at all. In other cases

three buds stand side by side in the axil, as in the

Hawthorn, and the Red Maple (Fig. 79.) If these

were all to grow into branches, they would stifle each

other. But some of them are commonly flower-buds :

in the Red Maple, only the middle one is a leaf-bud,

and it does not grow until after those on each side of

it have expanded the blossoms they contain.

60. Sorts of Buds. It may be useful to enumerate
the kinds of buds which have been described or men-
tioned. They are

Terminal, when they occupy the summit of (or ter-
minate) a stem.

Lateral, when they are borne on the side of a stem ;
of which the regular kind is the

Axillary, situated in the axil of a leaf. These are

Accessory or Supernumerary, when they are in
addition to the normal solitary bud ; and these are
Collateral, when side by side ; Superposed, when one
above another;

Extra-axillary, when they appear above the axil, as
some do when superposed, and as occasionally is the
case when single.

Naked buds ; those which have no protecting scales.

Scaly buds; those which have protecting scales,
■which are altered leaves or bases of leaves.

Leaf-buds, contain or give rise to leaves, and develop into a leafy shoot.

Flower-buds, contain or consist of blossoms, and no leaves.

Mixed buds, contain both leaves and blossoms.

61. Definite annual Growth from winter buds is marked in most of
the shoots from strong buds, such as those of the Horse-chestnut and
Hickory (Fig. 72, 73). Such a bud generally contains, already formed in
miniature, all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to pro-
duce, makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks, or
sometimes even in a few days, aud then forms and ripens its buds for the
next year's similar growth.

62. Indefinite annual Growth, on the other hand, is well marked in
such trees or shrubs as the Honey-Locust, Sumac, and in sterile shoots of

Fig. 78. Butternut branch, with accessory buds, the uppermost above the axil.

Fig. 79. Red-Maple branch, vvitli accessory buds placed side by side. The an-
nular lines toward the base in this and in Fig. 72 are scars of the bud-scales, and
indicate the place of the winter-bud of the preceding year.

32

BUDS.

[section 4.

the "Rose, Blaclcborry, and E;ispberry. Tliat is, these shoots are apt to
grow all samnier long, until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some other
cause. Consequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected by
scales, and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the season that
they have no time to mature, nor has their wood time to solidify and ripen.
Such stems therefore commonly die back from the top in winter, or at
least all their upper buds arc small and feeble ; so the growth of the suc-
ceeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary buds, which are
more mature.

63. Deliquescent and Excurrent Growth. In the former case, and
wherever axillary buds take the lead, there is, of course, no single main
stem, contiuued year after year in a direct line, but the trunk is soon lost

in the branches. Trees so formed commonly have rounded or spreading
tops. Of such trees with deliquescent stems, — that is, witli the trunk
dissolved, as it were, into the successively divided branches, — the common
American Elm (Fig. 80) is a good illustration.

G4. On the other hand, the main stem of Firs and Spruces, unless de-
stroyed by some injury, is carried on in a direct line throughout the whole
growth of the tree, by the development year after year of a terminal bud :
this forms a single, uninterrupted shaft, — an excurrent trunk, which can-
not be confounded with the branches that proceed from it. Of such spiry
or spire-shaped trees, the Eirs or Spruces are cliaracteristic and fainiUar
examples There are all gradations between the two modes.

Fig. 80. An American Elnj, with Spruce-trees, and on tlie left Arbor Vitae.

SECTION 5.]

ROOTS.

33

Section V. ROOTS.

65. It is a property of stems to produce roots. Stems do not spring
from roots in ordinary cases, as is generally tliought, but roots from stems.
Wheu perennial herbs arise from the ground, as they do at spring-time,
they vise from subterranean stems.

60. The Primary Root is a downward growth from the root-end of
the caulicle, that is, of the initial stem of the embryo (Fig. 5-7, 81). If
it goes on to grow it makes a main or tap-root, as in Eig. 37, etc. Some
plants keep this main root throughout
their whole life, and send off only
small side branches ; as in the Carrot
and Radish : and in various trees, like
the Oak, it takes the lead of the
side-branclies for several years, unless
accidentally injured, as a strong tap-
root. But commonly the main root
divides oif very soon, and is lost in the
branches. Multiple primary roots now
and then occur, as in the seedling of
Pumpkin (Fig. 27), where a cluster
is formed even at the first, from tlie
root-end of the caulicle.

67. Secondary Roots are those
which arise from other parts of tlie
stem. Any part of the stem may
produce tliem, but they most readily come from the nodes,
rule they naturally spring, or may be made to spring, from almost any
young stem, when placed in favorable circumstances, — that is, when
placed in the soil, or otherwise sup|)lied with moisture and screened from
the light. For the special tendency of the root is to avoid the light, seek
moisture, and therefore to bury itself in the soil. Propagation by dicision,
which is so common and so very important in cultivation, depends upon
the proclivity of stems to strike root. Stems or branches which remain
underground give out roots as freely as roots themselves give off branches.
Stems which creep on the ground most commonly root at the joints; so
will most branches when bent to the ground, as in propagation by layer-
iiuf ; and propagation by cuttings equally depends upon the tendency of the
cut end of a shoot to produce roots. Thus, a piece of a plant which has
stem and leaves, either developed or in the bud, may be made to produce
roots,, and so become an independent plant.

Fig. 81. Seedling Maple, of the natural size ; the root well supplied with root-hajjs.
here large enough to be seen by the naked eye. 82. Lower eml of this root,niaglu-
tied, the root seen just as root-hairs are beginning to form a little behind the tip.

3

As a general

34

ROOTS.

[section 5.

68. Contrast between Stem and Root. Stems are aso ;udiiig axes ;
roots are descending axes. Stems grow by the successive development of
internodes (13), one after anotlier, each leaf-bearing
at its summit (or node) ; so that it is of the essen-
tial nature of a stem to bear leaves. Roots bear uo
leaves, are not distinguishable into nodes aud iuter-
nodes, but grow on continuously from ihe lower
end. They commonly branch freely, but not from
any fixed points nor in definite order.

69. Although roots
generally do not give
rise to stems, and there-
fore do not propagate
the plant, exceptions are
not imcommon. Por as
stems may produce ad-
ventitious buds, so also
may roots. The roots of
the Sweet Potato among
herbs, and of the Osage
Orange among trees
freely produce adventi-
tious buds, developing
into leafy shoots ; and
so these plants are
propagated by root-cut-
tings. But most growths
of subterranean origin
which pass for roots are forms of stems, the common Potato for example.

70. Roots of ordinary kinds and uses may be roughly classed mio fibrous
&x^^fieshy.

71. Fibrous Roots, such as those of Indian Corn (Fig. 70), of most
annuals, and of many perennials, serve only for absorption : these are
slender or thread-like. Fine roots of this kind, and the fine branches which
most roots send out are called Rootlets.

72. The whole surface of a root absorbs moisture from the soil while fresh
and new ; and the newer roots aud rootlets are, the more freely do they im-
bibe. Accordingly, as long as the plant grows above ground, and expands
fresh foliage, from which moisture largely escapes into the air, so long it
continues to extend and multiply its roots in the soil beneath, renewing and
increasing the fresh surface for absorbing moisture, in proportion to the
demand from above. And when growth ceases above ground, and the
leaves die and fall, or no longer act, then the roots generally stop growing.

FiQ. 83-85. Forms of tap-root

SECTION 5.)

ROOTS.

35

aud their soft and tender tips harden. From this period, therefore, until
growth begins anew the next spring, is the best time for transplanting ;
especially for trees aud shrubs.

73. The absorbing surface of young roots is much increased by the for-
mation, near their tips, of Root-hairs (Fig. 81, 82), which are delicate

tubular outgrowths from the surface, through the delicate walls of wWch
moisture is promptly imbibed.

74. Fleshy Roots are those in which the root becomes a storehouse of
nourishment. Typical roots of this kind are tliose of such biennials as the
turnip and carrot ; in which the food created in the first season's vege-
tation is accumulated, to be expended the next season in a vigorous growth
and a rapid development of flowers, fruit, and seed. By the time the seed
is matured the exhausted root dies, aud with it the whole plant.

75. Fleshy roots may be single or multiple. The single root of the
commoner biennials is the primary root, or tap-root, which begins to
thicken in the seedhng. Names are given to its shapes, such as

Conical, when it thickens most at the crown, or where it joins the stem,
and tapers regularly downwards to a point, as in the Parsnip and Carrot
(Fig. 84);

Turnip-shaped or napiform, when greatly thickened above, but abruptly
becoming slender below ; as the Turnip (Fig. 83) ; and

Fig. 86. Sweet-Potato plant forming thickened roots. Some in tlie middle are
just beginning to thicken," one at the left has grown more; one at the right is still
larger.

FiG. 87. Fascicled fusiform roots of a Dahlia : a, a, bud.s on base of stem.

36

ROOTS.

[section

Spindle ->ihaped, or Fusiform, wlicu thickest iu the iniddlc aud tapering to
both ends; as the cuminou Kadish (Fig. 85).

70. These cxaiiij)les are uf primary roots. It will be seen that turnips,
carrots, and tue like, are not pure root throughout : for the caulicle, from
tlie lower end of which the root grew, partakes or me thickening, jjcrhaps
also some joints of stem above : so the bud-bearing aud growing top is
stem.

77. A fine example of secondaiy roots (67), some of which remain fibrous
for absorption, while a few thicken aud store up food for the next season's
growth, is furnished by the Sweet Potato (Fig. 86). As stated above,
these are used for ])ropagatiou by cuttings; for any part will produce ad-
ventitious buds aud shoots. The Dahlia produces fascicled (i. e. clustered)
fusiform roots of the same kind, at the base of the stem (Fig. 87) : but
these, like most roots, do not produce adventitious buds. The buds by
which Dahlias are propagated beloug to the surviving base of the stem
above.

78. Anomalous Roots, as they may be called, are those which subserve
other uses tliau absorption, food-storing, and fixing the plant to the soil.

Aerial Roots, i. e. those that strike from stems in tlie open air, are,
common in moist and wann .^

climates, as in the Mangrove
which reaches tlie coast of
Florida, t he Banyan, and, less
strikingly, in some lierbace-
ous plants, such as Sugar
Cane, and even in Indian
Corn. Such roots reach the
ground at leugtli, or tend to
do so.

Aerial Rootlets are abun-
dantly produced by many
climbing plants, such as the
Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet
Creeper, etc., springing from
the side of stems, which they
fasten to trunks of trees,
walls, or other supports.
These are used by the plant
for climbing.

79. Epiphytes, or Air-
Plants (Fig. 88), are called by the former name because comraonly growicg

Fig. 88. Epiphytes of Florida and Gonrjiia. viz., Epidendrum conopsenm, a
.small Orchid, and Tillandsia nsncoides, the .so-called Long Mo.ss or Black Moss,
which is no moss, but a flowering plant, also T. recurvata ; ou abouj,h of Live Oak.

SECTION 5. J

HOOTS.

37

upon tlie trunks or limbs of other pLuits; by the latter because, having no
couucctioii with the soil, they must derive liieir sustenance from the air
only. They have aerial roots, wiiicli do not reaeli the ground, but are used
to fix the plant to the surface upon wiiich the plant grows : they also talic
a part in absorbing moisture from the air.

80. Parasitic Plants, of wliieh there are various kinds, strike their
roots, or what answer to roots, into the tissue of foster plants, or form at-
tachments with their surface, so as to prey upon their juices. Of this sort
is the Mistletoe, the seed of which germinates on the bough where it
falls or is left by birds ; and the forming root penetrates tiie bark and en-
grafts itself into the wood, to which it becomes united as firmly as ?iuatural
branch to its parent stem ; and indeed the parasite lives just as if it were
a branch of the tree it grows and feeds on. A most common parasitic herb
is the Dodder ; which abounds in low grounds in summer, and coils its
long and slender, leafless, yellowish stems — resembUug tangled threads of
yarn — round and round the stalks of other plants ; wherever they touch
piercing the bark with minute and very short rootlets in the form of
suckers, which draw out the nourishing juices of the plants laid hold of.
Other parasitic plants, like the Beech-drops and Pine-sap, fasten their roots
under ground upon the roots of neighboring plants, and rob them of their
juices.

81. Some plants are partly parasitic ; while most of their roots act in
the ordiuary way, others make suckers at their tips which grow fast to the

roots of other plants and rob them of nourishment. Some of our species of
Gerardia do this (Fig. 89).

82. There arc phanerogamous plants, like Monotropa or Indian Pipe,
the roots of which feed mainly on decaying vegetable matter in the soil.
These are Saprophytes, and they imitate Mushrooms and other Fungi in
their mode of life.

83. Duration of Roots, etc. Roots are said to be either annual, bien-
nial, or 'perennial. As respects the first and second, 1 hese terms may be
applied either to the root or to the plant.

84. Annuals, as the name denotes, live for only one year, generally for

Fig. 89. Roots of Yellow Gerardia, some attached to and feeding on the root of
a Blueberry-bush.

392415

38 STEMS. [SECTION G.

only a part of the year. Tliey are of course herbs ; they spring from the
seed, blossom, mature their fruit and seed, and then die, root and all. An-
nuals of our temperate climates with severe winters start from the seed in
spring, and perish at or before autumn. Where the winter is a moist and
growing season and the summer is dry, winter annuals prevail; their seeds
germinate under autumn or winter rains, grow more or less during winter,
blossom, fructify, and perish in the following spring or summer. Annuals
are fibrous-rooted.

85. Biennials, of which the Turnip, Beet, and Carrot are familiar ex-
amples, grow the first season williout blossoming, usually thicken their
roots, kying up in them a stock of nourishment, are quiescent during the
winter, but shoot vigorously, blossom, and seed the next spring or summer,
mainly at the expense of the food stored up, and then die completely.
Annuals and biennials flower only once ; hence they have been called
Monocarpic (that is, once-fruiting) plants.

86. Perennials live and blossom year after year. A perennial herb, in
a temperate or cooler climate, usually dies down to the ground at the end
of the season's growth. But subterranean portions of stem, charged with
buds, survive to renew the development. Shi'ubs and trees are of course
perennial ; even the stems and branches above ground live on and grow
year after year.

87. There are all gradations between annuals and biennials, and between
these and perennials, as also between herbs and shrubs ; and the distinc-
tion between shrubs and trees is quite arbitrary. There are perennial herbs
and even shrubs of warm climates which are annuals when raised in a cli-
mate which has a winter, — being destroyed by frost. The Castor-oil plant
is an example. There are perennial herbs of which only small portions
survive, as off-shoots, or, in the Potato, as tubers, etCt

Section VI. STEMS.

88. The Stem is the axis of the plant, the part which bears all the
other organs. Branches are secondary stems, that is, stems growing out of
stems. The stem at the very beginning produces roots, in most plants a
single root from the base of the embryo-stem, or caulicle. As this root
becomes a descending axis, so the stem, which grows in the opposite direc-
tion is called the ascending axis. Rising out of the soil, the stem bears
leaves ; and leaf-bearing is the particular characteristic of the stem. But
there are forms of stems that remain underground, or make a part of their
growth there. These do not bear leaves, in the common sense ; yet they
bear rudiments of leaves, or what answers to leaves, although not in the
form of foliage. The so-called stemless or acaulescent plants are those
which bear no obvious stem (caulis) above ground, but only flower-stalks,
and the like.

SECTION 6.]

STEMS.

39

89. Stems above ground, through differences in duration, texture, and
size, form herbs, shrubs, trees, etc., or in other terms are

Herbaceous, dying down to the ground every year, or after blossoming.

Suffnttesce/it, slightly woody below, there surviving from year to year.

Suffniticose or Frutescent, when low stems are decidedly woody below,
but herbaceous above.

Fruticose or Shrubby, woody, living from year to year, and of considerable
size, — not, however, more than three or four times the height of a raau.

Arborescent, when tree-like in appearance or mode of growth, or ap-
proaching a tree in size.

Arboreous, when forming a proper tree-trunk.

90. As to direction taken in growing, stems may, instead of growing
upright or erect, be

Diffuse, that is, loosely spreading in all directions.
Declined, when turned or bending over to one side.
Decumbent, I'echning on the ground, as if too weak to stand.
Assurgent or Ascending, rising obliquely upwards.
Procumbent or Prostrate, lying flat on the ground from the first.
Creeping or Repent, prostrate on or just beneath the ground, and striking
root, as does the White Clover, the Partridge-berry, etc.

Climbing or Scandent, ascending by clinging to other objects for support,
whether by tendrils, as do the Pea, Grape- Vine, and Passion-flower and
Virginia Creeper (Fig. 92, 93) ; by their twisting leaf-stalks, as the Virgin's
Bower; or by rootlets, like the Ivy, Poison Ivy, and Trumpet Creeper.

Twining or Voluble, when coiling spirally around other stems or
supports ; hke the Morning-Glory (Fig. 90) and the Hop.

91. Certain kinds
of stems or branches,
appropriated to spe-
cial uses, have re-
ceived distinct substantive names ; such as the following :

92. A Culm, or straw-stem, such as that of Grasses
and Sedges.

93. A Caudex is the old name for such a peculiar
trunk as a Palm-stem ; it is also used for an upright and
thick rootstock.

94. A Sucker is a branch rising from stems under
ground. Such are produced abundantly by the Hose,
Raspberry, and other plants said to multiply " by the
root." If we uncover them, we see at once the great
difference between these subterranean brandies and real

90 roots. They are only creeping branches under ground.

Remarking how the upright shoots from these branches become separate

Fig. 90. Twining or voluble stem of Morning-Glory.

40

STEMS.

[SECTION G.

plants, simply by the dying nil' of the connecting under-ground stems, the
gardnur expedites the result by cutting them through with his spade.
That is, he propagates the plant " by divisiou."

95. A Stolon is a branch from above ground, which reclines or becomes
prostrate and strikes root (usually from the nodes) wherever it rests on the
soil. Thence it may scud up a vigorous shoot, which has roots of its own,
and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies, as it
does after a while. The Currant and the Gooseberry naturally muUiply in
this way, as well as by suckers (which are the same thing, only the connect-
ing i)art is concealed under ground). Stolons must have suggested the
operation of layering by bending down and covering with soil branches
which do not naturally make stolons ; and after they have taken root, as
they almost always will, the gardener cuts through the conuectmg stem,
and so converts a rooting branch into a separate plant.

96. An Offset is a short stolon, or sucker, with a crown of leaves at the
end, as in the Houseleek (Fig.
91), which propagates abundantly
in this way.

97. A Runner, of which the
Strawberry presents the most fa-
mihar and characteristic example,
is a long and slender, tendril-like
stolon, or branch from next the
ground, destitute of conspicuous
leaves. Each runner of the Straw-
berry, after having grown to its full
length, strikes root from the tip, which fixes it to the ground, then forms
a bud there, which develops into a tuft of leaves, and so gives rise to a new
plant, whicli sends out new runners to act in the same way. In this
manner a single Strawberry plant will spread over a large space, or produce
a great number of plants, in the course of the summer, all connected at
first by the slender runners ; but these die in the following winter, if not
before, and leave the plants as so many separate individuals.

98. Tendrils are branches of a very slender sort, like runners, not destined
like them for propagation, and therefore always destitute of buds or leaves,
being intended only for climbing. Simple tendrils are such as those of
Passion-flowers (Fig. 92). Compound or branching tendrils are borne by
the Cucumber and Pumpkin, by the Grape-Vine, Virginia Creeper, etc.

99. A tendril commonly grows straight and outstretched until it reaches
some neighboring support, such as a stem, when its apex hooks around it
to secure a hold ; then the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up
spirally, and so draws the shoot of the growing plant nearer to the sup-
porting object. But the tendrils of the Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis, Fig.

Fig. 91. Houseleek (Sempervivum), with olTsets.

SECTION 6.]

STEMS.

41

93), ;is also the sliorter ones of the Japanese species, effect the object differ-
ently, namely, by cxpaiidinj^ the tips of the tendrils into a flat disk, with
an adhesive face. This is applied to the supporting object, and it adheres

lirinly ; tlicn a
shortening of
the tendril and
its branches by coiling brings up the growing
shoot close to tlie support. This is an adapta-
tion for climbing mural rocks or walls, or the
■"n^N trunks of trees, to which ordinary tendrils are
unable to cling. The Ivy and Poison Ivy attain
the same result by means of aerial rootlets (78).

100. Some tendrils are leaves or parts of
leaves, as those of the Pea (Fig. 35). The na-

v\ i~^\ «?» ma ture of the tendril is known by its position. A

f\ K %'/ M \m tendril from the axil of a leaf, like that of Pas-
sion-flowers (Fig. 92) is of course a stem, i. e.
a branch. So is one which terminates a stem,
as in the Grape-Vine.

101. Spines or Thorns (Fig. 95, 96) are
commonly stunted and hardened branches
or tips of stems or branches, as are those of
Hawthorn, Honey-Locust, etc. In the Pear

92 and Sloe all gradations occur between spines

and spiue-likc (spiuesceut) branches. Spines

may be reduced and indurated leaves ; as in the Barberry, where their
nature is revealed by their situation, underneath an axillary bud. But

Fig. 92. A small Passion-flower (Passiflora sicyoides), showins; the tendrils.

Fio. 93. Piece of tlie stem of Virginia Creeper, bearing a leaf and a tendril.
9t. Tips of a tendril, about the natural .size, showing the disks by which they hold
fast to walls, etc.

42

STEMS.

[section 6.

prickles, such as those of Blackberry aud Roses, are only excrescences
of the bark, aud not brauclies.

102. Equally strange forms of
stems are characteristic of the
Cactus family (Fig. 111). These
may be better understood by com-
parison with

103. Subterranean Stems
and Branches. Tiiese are very
numerous and various ; but they
are commonly overlooked, or else
are confounded with roots. From
their situation they are out of or-
dinary sight ; but they will well
repay examination. For the veg-
etation that is carried on under
ground is hardly less varied or
important than that above ground.
All their forms may be referred to
four principal kinds : namely, the
Rhizoma (^Rhizome) or Rootstock,
tlie Tuber, the Conn or solid bulb,
and the true Bulb.

104. The Rootstock, or Rhi-
zoma, in its simplest form, is
merely a creeping stem or branch
growing beneath the surface of the soil, or partly covered by it. Of
this kind are the so-called creeping, running, or scaly roots, such as those

by which the Mint (Fig. 97), the Couch-grass, or Quick-grass, and many
other plants, spread so rapidly and widely, — " by the root," as it is s;iid.
Tiial these arc really stems, aud not roots, is evident from the way in which

Fig. 95. A branching thorn of Honey Locust, being an indurated leafless branch
developed from an accessory bud far above the axil : at the cut portion below, tliree
other buds (a) are concealed luider the i)etiole.

Fig. 96. Spine of Cockspur Thorn, developed from an axillary bud, as the leaf-
scar below witnesses: an accessory leaf-bud is seen at its base.

Fig. 97. Rootstocks, or creeping subterranean branches, of the Peppermint.

SECTION C] STEMS. 43

they grow ; from their consisting of a succession of joints ; and from the
leaves which they bear on each node, iu the form of small scales, just like
the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground. They also pro-
duce buds in I lie axils of these scales, showing the scales to be leaves;
whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds. Placed as
they are iu the damp and dark soil, such stems naturally produce roots,
just as the creeping stem does where it lies on the surface of the
ground.

105. It is easy to see why plants with these running rootstocks take
such rapid and wide possession of the soil, and why they are so hard to
get rid of. They are always perennials ; the subterranean shoots live over
the first winter, if not longer, and are provided with vigorous buds at every
joint. Some of these buds grow in spring into upright stems, bearing
foliage, to elaborate nourisliment, and at length produce blossoms for re-
production by seed ; while many others, fed by nour-
ishment supplied from above, form a new generation
of subterranean shoots ; and this is repeated over and
over in the course of the season or in succeeding
years. Meanwhile, as the subterranean shoots in-
crease in number, the older ones, connecting the suc-
cessive growths, die off year by year, liberating the
already rooted side-branches as so many separate plants ; and so on indefi-
nitely. Cutting these running rootstocks into pieces, therefore, by the hoe
or the plough, far from destroying the plant, only accelerates the propaga-
tion ; it converts one many-branched plant into a great number of separate
individuals. Cutting into pieces only multiplies the pest ; for each piece
(Fig. 98) is already a plantlet, with its roots and with a bud in the axil of
its scale-like leaf (either latent or apparent), and with prepared nourishment
enough to develop this bud into a leafy stem ; and so a single plant is all the
more speedily converted into a multitude. Whereas, when the subterra-
nean parts are only roots, cutting away the stem completely destroys
the plant, except in the rather rare cases where the root freely produces
adventitious buds.

106. Rootstocks are more commonly thickened by the storing up cf
considerable nourishing matter in their tissue. The common species of
Iris (Fig. 104) in the gardens have stout rootstocks, which are only partly
covered by the soil, and which bear foliage-leaves instead of mere scales,
closely covering the upper part, wliile the lower produces roots. As the
loaves die, year by year, and decay, a scar left in the form of a ring marks
the place wliere each leaf was attached, that is, marks so many nodes,
separated by very short internodes.

107. Some rootstocks are marked with large round scars of a different

Fig. 98. A piece of the running rootstock of tlie Peppermint, with its node or
joint, and an a.xillary bud ready to grow.

44

STEMS.

[section 6.

sort, like tliose of the Solomon's Scul (Fit^. 09), which gave this name to
the plaut, I'rom their looking somewhat like the impression ot'a seal upon

wax. Here the
rootstock sends up
every spring an
herbaceous stalk or
stem, which bears
the foliage and
flowers, and dies
in autumn. The
seal is the circular

scar left by the death and separation of the base of the stout stalk from the
living rootstock. As but one of these is formed each year, they mark
the limits of a year's growth. The bud at tlie end of the rootstock in the
figure (which was taken in summer) will grow the next spring into the
stalk of the season, which, dying in autumn, will
leave a similar scar, while another bud will be formed
farther on, crowning the ever-advancing summit or
growing end of the stem.

108. As each year's growth of stem makes its
own roots, it soon becomes independent of the older
parts. And after a certain age, a portion annually
dies off behind, about as fast as it increases at the
growing end, death following life with equal and cer-
tain step, with only a narrow interval. In vigoi'ous
plants of Solomon's Seal or Iris, the living rootstock
is several inches or a foot in length ; while in the
short rootstock of Trillium or Birthroot (Fig. 100)
life is reduced to a narrower span.

109. An upright or short rootstock, like this of Trillium, is commonly
called a C.'VUDex (93) ; or when more shortened and thickened it would
become a corm.

110. A Tuber may be understood to be a portion of a rootstock thick-
ened, and with buds (eyes) on tiie sides. Of course, there are all grada-
tions between a tuber and a rootstock. Helianthus tuberosus, the so-called
Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. 101), and the common Potato, are typical and
familiar examples of the tuber. The stalks by which the tubers are at-
tached to the parent stem are at once seen to be different from the roots,
both in appearance and manner of growth. The scales on the tubers are the
rudiments of leaves ; the eyes are the buds in their axils. The Potato-plant

Fig. 99. Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of the stalk of the sea-
son, and the Inul for the ne.xt year'.s growth.

Fig. 100. The very short rootstock and strong terminal bud of a Trillium or
Birthroot.

SECTION 6.]

STEMS.

45

has three forms of branches : 1. Those that bear ordinary leaves expanded
in the air, to digest what they gather from it and what the roots gather
from the soil, and convert ii into nourishment. 2. After a while a second
set of branches at the summit of the plant bear flowers, which form fruit
and seed out of a portion of the nour-
ishment which the leaves have pre-
pared. 3. But a larger part of this
nourishment, while in a liquid state,
is carried down the stem, into a third
sort of branches under ground, and
accumulated in the form of starch at
their extremities,
which become tu-
bers, or deposito-
ries of prepared
solid food, — just
as in the Turnip,
Carrot, and Dah-
lia (Fig. 83-87),
it is deposited in ^01

the root. The use of the store of food is obvious enough. In the autunui
the whole plant dies, except the seeds (if it formed them) and the tubers ;
and the latter are left disconnected in the ground. Just as that small
portion of nourishing matter which is deposited in the seed feeds the
embryo when it germinates, so the much larger portion deposited in the
tuber nourishes its buds, or eyes, when they Ukewise grow, the next
spring, into new plants. And the great supply enables them to shoot
with a greater vigor at the beginning, and to produce a greater amount
of vegetal ion than the seedUug plant could do in the same space of time;
which vegetation in turn may prepare and store up, in the course of a
few weeks or months, the largest quantity of solid nourishing material,
in a form most available for food. Taking advantage of this, man has
transported the Potato from the cool Andes of Chili to other cool climates,
and makes it yield him a copious supply of food, especially important in
countries where the season is too short, or the summer's heat too little, for
profitably cultivating the principal ijrain-plants.

111. The Corm or Solid Bulb, like that of Cyclamen (Fig. 103), and
of Indian Turni|) (Fig. lOi), is a very short and thick fleshy subterranean
stem, often broader than iiigh. It sends ofl' roots from its lower end, or rather
face, leaves and stalks from its upper. The corm of Cyclanion goes on to
enlarge and to produce a succession of flowers and leaves year at'ler year.

Fig. 101. Tubers of Helianthus tuberosus, called "artichokes."
Fig. 102. Bulblet-like tubers, such as are occasionally formed on the stem of a
Potato-plant above ground.

46

STEMS.

[SECTION C.

That of ludiuu Turuip is formed one year aud is cousumed tlie next. Tig.
lO'l represents it iu early summer, having below the corm of last year, from
which the roots have fallen. It is partly consumed by the growth of the

stem for the season, and the
corm of the year is forming
at base of the stem above
the line of roots.

112. The corm of Crocus
(Fig. 105, 106), like that
of its relative Gladiolus, ia
also reproduced annually,
the new ones forming upon
the summit aud sides of the old. Such a corm is like a tuber in bud-
ding from the sides, i. e. from the axils of leaves ; but these leaves, instead
of being small scales, are the sheathiug bases of fo-
liage-leaves which covered the surface. It resem-
bles a true bulb iu having these sheaths or broad
scales ; but in the corm or solid bulb, this soUd part
or stem makes up the principal bulk.

113. The Bulb, strictly so-called, is a stem like
a reduced corm as to its solid part (or plate) ;
while the maiu body consists of thickened scales,
which are leaves or leaf-bases. These are like bud-
scales; so that in fact a bulb is a bud with fleshy
scales on an exceedingly sliort stem. Compare a
Wliite Lily bulb (Fig. 107) with the strong scaly
buds of the Hickory and Horse-cliestuut (Fig. 72
and 73), and the resemblance will appear. In
corms, as in tubers and rootstocks, the store of
food for future growth is deposited in the stem;
while in the bulb, the greater part is deposited in
the bases of the leaves, cliangiug them into thick
scales, which closely overlap or enclose one another.

114. A Scaly Bulb (like that of the Lily, Fig. 107, 108) is one in which
the scales are thick but comparatively narrow.

115. A Tunicated or Coated. Bulb is one in which the scales enwrap
each other, forming concentric coats or layers, as in Hyacinth and Onion.

Fig. 103. Corm of Cyclamen, much reduced in size : roots from lower face, leaf-
stalks and flower-stalks from the upper.

Fig. 104. Corm of Indian Turnip (Arisaema).

Fig. 105. Corm of a Crocus, the investing sheaths or dead leaf-bases stripped
off. The faint cross-lines represent the scars, where the leaves were attached, i. e.
the nodes : the spaces between are the internodes. The exhausted corm of the
previous year is underneath ; forming ones for next year ou the summit and sides.

FlQ. 106. Section of the .■same-

SECTION 6.]

STEMS.

47

116. Bulblets are very small bulbs growing out of larger ones ; or
small bulbs produced above ground on some plants, as in the axils of the
leaves of the bulbiferous Lihes of the gardens (Fig. 110), and often iu the
flower-clusters of the Leek and Onion. They are plainly
buds with thickened scales. They never grow into
branches, but detach themselves when full grown, fall to
the ground, and take root there to form new plants.

117- Consolidated Vegetation. An ordinary herb,
shrub, or tree is evidently constructed on the plan
developing an extensive surface. In fleshy rootstocks.

108 109

tubers, corms, and bulbs, the more enduring portion of the plant is con-
centrated, and reduced for the time of struggle (as against drought, heat,
or cold) to a small amount of
exposed surface, and this mostly
sheltered in the soil. There are
many similar consolidated forms
which are not subterranean.
Thus plants like the Houseleek
(Fig. 91) imitate a bulb. Among
Cactuses the columnar species of
Cereus (Fig. Ill, (^), may be Hk-
ened to rootstocks. A green rind serves the purpose of foliage ; but the
surface is as notliing compared with an ordinary leafy plant of the same
bulk. Compare, for instance, the largest Cactus known, the Giant Cereus
of the Gila River (Fig. Ill, in the background), which rises to the height
of fifty or sixty feet, with a common leafy tree of the same height, such
as that in Fig. 89, and estimate how vastly greater, even without the foli-
age, the surface of the latter is than tliat of the former. Compare, in the

Fig. 107. Bulb of a wild Lily. 108. The same divided lengthwise, showing two
forming buds of the next generation.

Fig. 109. A ground leaf of White Lily, its base (cut across) thickened into a
bulb-scale. This jilainly shows that bulb-scales are leaves.

Fig. 110. Bulblets in the axils of leaves of a Tiger Lily.

id

STEMS.

[SECTION 6.

same view, an Opuntia or Prickly-Pear Cactus, its stem and brandies
formed of a succession of thick and flattened joints (Fig. Ill, a), which
may be likened to tubers, or an Epipliyllum (d), having short and flat
joints, with an ordinary leafy slirub or herb of equal size. And finally,
in j\Ielon-Cactuses, Echinocactus (c), or other globose forms (which may
be likened to permanent conns), with their globular or bull)-hkc shapes,
wc have plants in the compaetest shape; their spherical figure being such
as to expose the least possible amount of substance to the air. These are
adaptations to climates which are very dry, either throughout or for a part
of the year. Similarly, bulbous and corm-bearing plants, and the like, are
examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season may expand a
large surface to the air and light, while during the period of rest the living
vegetable is reduced to a globe, or solid form of the least possible surface;
and this protected by its outer coats of dead and dry scales, as well as by
its situation under ground. Such are also adapted to a season of drought.
They largely belong to countries which have a long hot season of little or
no rain, when, their stalks and foliage above and their roots beneath early
perishing, the plants rest securely in their compact bulbs, filled with
nourishment and retaining their moisture with great tenacity, until the
rainy season comes round. Then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with
wonderful rapidity, and what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes
green with foUage and gay with blossoms, almost in a day.

SECTION 7.j ORDINARY LEAVES. 49

Section VII. LEAVES.

118. Stems bear leaves, at definite poiuts (nodes, 13) ; and tliese are
produced in a great variety of forms, and subserve various uses. The
coiiimouest kind of leaf, which therefore may be taken as the type or
pattern, is an expanded green body, by means of which the plant exposes
to the air and light the matters which it imbibes, exhales certain portions,
and assimilates the residue into vegetable matter for its nourisbment and
growth.

119. But the fact is already familiar (10-30) that leaves occur under
other forms and serve for other uses, — for the storage of food already
assimilated, as in thickened seed-leaves and bulb-scales ; for covering, as in
bud-scales ; and still other uses are to be pointed out. Indeed, sometimes
they are of no service to the plant, being reduced to mere scales or rudi-
ments, such as those on the rootstocks of Peppermint (Fig. 97) or the
tubers of Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. 101). These may be said to be of
service only to the botanist,, in explaining to him the plan upon which a
plant is constructed.

120. Accordingly, just as a rootstock, or a tuber, or a tendril is a kind
of stem, so a bud-scale, or a bulb-scale, or a cotyledon, or a petal of a flower,
is a kind of leaf. Even in respect to ordinary leaves, it is natural to use
the word either in a wider or in a narrower sense ; as when in one sense
we say that a leaf consists of blade and petiole or leaf-stalk, and in another
sense say that a leaf is petioled, or that the leaf of Hepatica is three-lobed.
The connection should make it plain whether by leaf we mean leaf-blade
only, or the blade with any other parts it may have. And the student will
readily understand that by leaf in its largest or morphological sense, the
botanist means the organ which occupies the place of a leaf, whatever be
its form or its function.

§ 1. LEAVES AS FOLIAGE.

121. This is tautological ; for foliage is simply leaves : but it is very
convenient to speak of typical leaves, or those which serve the plant for
assimilation, as foliage-leaves, or ordinary leaves. Tliese may first be
considered.

122. The Parts of a Leaf. The ordinary leaf, complete in its parts,
consists of blade, foot-stalk, qx petiole, and a pair of stipules.

123. First the Blade or Lamina, which is the essential part of ordinary
leaves, that is, of such as serve tlie purpose of foliage. In structure it con-
sists of a softer part, the ffree7i pulp, called parenchyma, which is traversed
and supported by a fibrous frame, the parts of whicli are called ril)s or veins,
on account of a certain likeness in arrangement to the veins of animals.

4

50

LEAVES.

[SKCTION 7.

The wholo surfaco, is covered l)y n transparent skin, tlip Epider/nis, not

niililce tliat. wliicii covers t he surface ol' all IVosh shoots.

12 k Note that the leat'-blade expands iiorizontally, — that is, normally

presents its laces one to the sky, the other to the ground, or when the

leaf is erect the upper face looks toward the stem that bears it, the lower

face away from it. Whenever this is not the case there is something to be

explained.

125. The framework consists of zcood, — a fibrous and tough material

which runs from the stem through the leaf-stalk, when there is one, in the

form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres ;
and in the blade these spread out in a hori-
zontal direction, to form the ribs and cei>is
of the leaf. The stout main branches of
the framework are called the Ribs. When
there is only one, as in Fig. 112, 114, or a
middle one decidedly larger than the rest,
it is called the Midrib. The smaller divi-
sions are termed Feins ; and their still
smaller subdivisions, Veinlets. The latter
subdivide again and again, until they be-
come so fine that they are invisible to the
naked eye. The fibres of which they are
cpmposed are hollow; forming tubes by
which the sap is brought into the leaves
and carried to every part.

126. Venation is the name of the mode
of veining, that is, of the way in M-hich the
veins are distributed in the blade. This is

of two principal kinds ; namely, the parallel-veitied, and the netied-veined.

127. In Netted-veined (also called Reticulated') leaves, the veins branch
off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer veinlets, and the
branches unite with each other to form meshes of network. That is, they
anastomose, as anatomists say of the veins and arteries of the body. The
Quince-leaf, in Fig. 112, shows this kind of veining in a leaf with a single
rib. The Maple, Basswood, Plane or Buttonwood (Fig. 74) show it in
leaves of several ribs.

128. In parallel-veined leaves, the whole framework consists of slender
ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so, from the
base to the point of the leaf, — not dividing and subdividing, nor forming
meshes, except by minute cross-veinlets. The leaf of any grass, or that of
the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 11,3) will furnish a good illustration. Such
parallel veins Linnaeus called Nerves, and parallel-veined leaves are still
<4ommonlv called nerved baves, while those of the other kind are said to be

Fiu. 11:2. Leaf of ihu Quince, h, blade, p, petiole; st, stipules.

SECTION 7.]

ORDINARY LEAVES.

51

veined, — terms which it is convenient to use, although these "nerves"
and " veins " are all the same thing, and have no likeness to the nervies and
little to tlie veins of animals.

129. Netted-veined leaves belong to plants which have a pair of seed-
leaves or cotyledons, such as the Maple (Fig. 20, 24,), Beech (Fig. 33), and

the like ; while parallel-veined or nerved leaves belong to plants with one
cotyledon or true seed-leaf; such as the Iris (Fig. 59), and Indian Corn
(Fig. 70). So that a mere glance at the leaves generally tells what the
structure of the embryo is, and refers the plant to one or the other of these
two grand classes, — which is a great convenience. For when plants differ
from eacb other in some one important respect, they usually differ corres-
pondingly in other respects also.

130. Parallel- veined leaves arc of two sorts, — one kind, and the com-
monest, having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the point of
the leaf, as in the examples already given ; while in another kind they run
from a midrib to the margin, as in the common Pickerel-weed of our
ponds, in the Banana, in Calla (Fig. 114), and many similar plants of
warm climates.

131. Netted-veined leaves are also of two sorts, as in the examples al-
ready referred to. In one case the veins all rise from a single rib (the
midrib), as in Fig. 112, 116-127. Such leaves are called Feather-veined
ox Penni-veined, i. e. Pinnateli/-veined; both terms meaning the same thing,
namely, that the veins are arranged on the sides of the rib like the plume
of a feather on each side of the shaft.

Fig. 113. A (parallel-veined) leaf of the Lily of tlie Valley. 114. One of the
Calla Lily.

52

LEAVES.

[section 7.

132. la the other case (as in Fig. 74, 129-132), the veins braucli off
from three, five, seven, or nine ribs, whicli spread from the top of the leaf-
stalk, and run through the blade like tlie toes of a web-footed bird. Hence
these are said to be Palmatel^ or Digitatelij veined, or (since the, ribs di-
verge like rays from a cenircj Radiate-veined.

133. Since the general outUuc of leaves accords with the frame-work or
skeleton, it is plain W\^\ feather-veined (or penni-i:ei)ied ) leaves will incline
to clfjugated shapes, or at leabt to be longer tiian broad ; while in radiate-
veined leaves more rounded forms are to be expected. A glance at the
following figures shows this.

13'1. Forms of Leaves as to General Outline. It is necessary to give
names to the principal shapes, and to define them rather precisely, since
they afford easy marks for distinguishing species. The same terms are used

1^

115 116 117 118 119 120

for all other flattened parts as well, such as petals ; so that they make up a
great part of the descriptive language of Botany. It will be a good exer-
cise for young students to look up leaves answering to these names and
definitions. Beginning vnth the narrower and proceeding to the broadest
forms, a leaf is said to be

Linear (Fig. 115), when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of
the same breadth thrnnghout.

Lanceolate, or Lanrr-stiaped, when conspicuously longer tlian wide, and
tapering upwards (Fig. 116), or both upwards and downwards.

Oblong (Fig. 117), when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad.

Elliptical (Fig. 118) is oblong with a flowing outline, the two ends alike
in width.

Oval is the same as broadly elliptical, or elliptical with the breadth con-
siderably more than half the length.

Ovate (Fig. 119), when the outline is like a section of a hen's t^g
lengthwise, the broader end downward.

Orbicular, or Rotund (Fig. 132), circular in outhne, or nearly so.

135. A leaf which tapers toward the base instead of toward the apex
may be

Oblanceolate (Fig. 121) when of the lance-shaped form, only more tapering
toward the base than in the opposite direction.

Spatulate (Fig. 122) when more rounded above, but tapering thence to a
narrow base, like an old-fashioned spatula.

Fig. 115-120. A series of shapes of feather-veined leaves.

SECTION 7.]

ORDINARY LEAVES.

53

Obovate (Fig. 123) or inversely ovate, that is, ovate with the narrower
end down.

Cunealc or Cuneiform, that is,
Wedge-^aped (Fig. 124), broad
above and tapering by nearly
straight lines to an acute angle at
the base.

13G. As to the Base, its shape
characterizes several ioriiis, such as
Cordate or Heart-shaped (Fig.
120, 129), when a leaf of an ovate form, or something like it, has the out-
line of its rounded base
turned in (forming a
notch or sinus) where the
stalk is attached.

Reniform, or Kidney-
shaped (Fig. 131), like
the last, only rounder and
broader than long.

Auriculate, or Eared,
having a pair of small
125 126 127 and blunt projections, or

ears, at the base, as in one species of Magnolia (Fig. 12G).

Sagittate, or arrow-shaped,
where such ears are acute
and turned downwards,
while the main body of the
blade tapers upwards to a
point, as in the common
Sagittaria or Arrow-head,
and in tlie Arrow-leaved
Polygonum (Fig. 125).
Hastate, or Halberd-shaped,
when such lobes at the base
point outwards, giving the
shape of the halberd of the
olden time, as in another
Polygonum (Fig. 127).

Peltate, or Shield-shaped (Fig. 132), is the name applied to a curious
modification of the leaf, commonly of a rounded form, where the footstalk
is attached to the lower surface, instead of tlie base, and therefore is natu-

FiG. 121, obl.-inceolate ; 122, spatulate ; 123, obovate; and 124, wedge-shaped,
feather-veined, leaves.
Fig. 125, .sagittate ; 126, auriculate ; and 127, halberd-shaped or hastate leaves.
Fig. 128-132. Various forms of radiate-veined leaves.

54 LEAVES, [section 7.

rally likened to a shield borne by the outstretched arm. The common
Watershield, the Nelumbium, and the White Water-lily, and also the Man-
drake, exhibit this sort of leaf. On comparing the shield-shaped leaf of
the common Marsh Pennywort (Fig. 132) with that of another common
species (Fig. 130), it is at once seen that a shield-shaped leaf is like a
kiduey-shaped (Fig- 130,'131j or other rounded leaf, with the margins at
the base brought together and united.

137. As to the Apex, the following terms express the princii)al varia-
tions : —

Acuminate, Pointed, or Taper-pointed, when the summit is more or less
prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point; as in Fig. 133.

Acute, ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point ; Fig. 134.

Obtuse, with a blunt or rounded apex ; as in Fig. 135, etc.

Truncate, with the end as if cut off square ; as in Fig. 136.

Retuse, with rounded summit slightly indented, forming a very shallow
notch, as in Fig. 137.

Emarginate, or Notched, indented at the end more decidedly; as in
Fig. 138.

Obcordate, that is, inversely heart-shaped, where an obovate leaf is more
deeply notched at the end (Fig. 139), as in W' hite Clover and Wood-sorrel ;
so as to resemble a cordate leaf inverted.

Cuspidate, tipped with a sharp and rigid point ; as in Fig. 110.

Mucronate, abruptly tipped with a small and short point, like a mere
projection of the midrib ; as in Fig. 141.

Aristate, Awn-pointed, and Bristle-pointed, are terms used when this
mucronate point is extended into a longer bristle-form or slender appen-
dage.

The first six of these terms can be applied to the lower as well as to the
upper end of a leaf or other organ. The others belong to the apex only.

138. As to degree and nature of Division, there is first of all the dif-
ference between

Simple Leaves, those in which the blade is of one piece, however much
it may be cut up, and

Compotmd Leaves, those in which the blade consists of two or more sep-
arate pieces, upon a common leaf-stalk or support. Yet between these two
kinds every intormediate gradation is to be met with.

139. As to Particular Outlines of Simple Leaves (and the same
applies to their separate parts), they are

Fig. 133-141. Forms of the ape.x of leaves.

SECTION 7.]

ORDINARY LEAVES.

55

142

113

144

145

140

147

Entire, whea their general outline is completely filled out, so that the
margin is an even line, without teeth or notches.

Serrate, or Saw-toothed, when the margin only is cut into sharp teeth,
like those of a saw, and pointing forwards : as in Fig. 142.

Dentate, or Toothed,

A

when such teeth point
outwards, instead of
forwards ; as in Fig,
143.

Crenate, or Seal- j
loped, when the teeth j
are broad and round- i ^
ed ; as in Fig. 144. ^ -

Repand, Undulate, \
or Wavy, when the \
margin of the leaf
forms a wavy line,
bending slightly in-
wards and outwards in succession; as in Fig. 145.

Sinuate, when the margin is more strongly sinuous or turned inwards
and OTitwards ; as in Fig. 146.

Incised, Cut, or Jagged, when the margin is cut into sharp, deep, and
irregular teeth or incisions ; as in Fig. 147.

Lobed, when deeply cut. Then the pieces arc in a general way called
Lobes. The number of the lobes is briefly expressed by the phrase two-
lobed, three-lobed , Jice-lobed, ma nj/ -lobed, etc., as the case may be.

140. When the depth and character of the lol)!ng needs to be more par-
ticularly specified, the following terms are employed, viz. : —

Lobed, in a special sense, when the incisions do not extend deeper than
about half-way between the margin and the centre of tlie blade, if so far,
and are more or less rounded ; as in the leaves of the Post-Oak, Fig. 148,
and the Hepatica, Fig. 152.

Cleft, when the incisions extend half way down or more, and especially
^hen they are sharp ; as in Fig. 149, 153. And the phrases two-cleft, or,
in the L'ltin form, bijid, three-cleft or trifid, four-cleft or quadrifid, five-
cleft or fini/iquefid, etc., or mang-cleft, in tlie Latin form, midtifid, — express
the number of the Segments, or portions.

Parted, when the incisions are still deeper, but yet do not quite reacli
to the midrib or the base of the blade; as in Fig. 150, 154. And
the terms tico-parted, three-parted, etc., express the number of such
divisions.

Divided, when the incisions extend quite to the midrib, as in the lower
part of Fig. 151, or to the leaf-stalk, as in Fig. 155 ; Avhicli really makes the

Fig. 142-147. Kinds of margiu of leaves.

66

LEAVES.

[SECTION 7

leaf compound. Here, using the Lat in form, the leaf is said to be bisected,
trisected (Fig. 153), etc., accurdiug to the number of the divisions.

141. The Mode of Lobing or Division corresponds to that of the
veining, \\\\iii\\t\: jjinnalelj/ veined or palniatclif veined. In tlie former the
notches or incisions, or sinuses, coming Ix'twcen the principal veins or ribs
are directed toward the midrib : in tlie latter they are directed toward the
apex of the petiole ; as the figures sliow.

142. So degree and mode of division may be tersely expressed in brief
phrases. Thus, in tlie four upper figures of piunately veined leaves, tlie
first is said to be pinnatel^ lobed (in the special sense), the second pinnateli/
cleft (or pinnatijid in Latin form), the third pinnatelj parted, the fourtli
^innately divided, or pinnaiisected.

143. Correspondingly in the lower row, of palmately veined leaves, the
first is palmately lobed, the second palmately clfft, the third palmately
parted, the fourth palmately divided. Or, in other language of the same
meaning (but now less commonly employed), they are said to be digitately
lobed, cleft, parted, or divided.

144. The number of the divisions or lobes may come into the phrase.
Thus in the four last named figures the leaves are respectively palmately

three-lobed, three-cleft (or trifd), three-parted, three -divided, or better (in
Latin form), trisected. And so for higher numbers, -a^ fve-lobed, fve-cleft.

Fig. 148, pinnately lohed; 149, pinnately cleft; 150, piunately parted ; 151,
pinnately divided, leaves.

Fig. 152, palmately three lobed ; 153, j)almately three-cleft; 154, [lalmately
three-parted ; 155, palmately three-divided or trisected, leaves.

SECTION 7.]

ORDINARY LEAVES.

57

etc., up to matiy-lobed, many-cleft or muUiJid, clc. The same mode of ex-
pression may be used for piuuatcly lobed leaves, as pumatclj 1-lobed, -cleft,
-parted, etc.

145. The divisions, lobes, etc., may themselves be ailire (without teeth
or uotches), or serrate, or otherwise toothed or iucised; or lobed, cleft,
parted, etc. : in the latter cases making twice pinnafifid, twice palmately or
piimately lobed, parted, or divided leaves, etc. From these illustrations
one will perceive how the botanist, in two or three words, may describe
any one of the almost endlessly diversified shapes of leaves, so as to give a
clear and definite idea of it.

14G. Compound Leaves. A compound leaf is one wliich has its blade
in entirely separate parts, each usually with a stalklet of its own ; and the
stalklet is oiten Jointed (or articulated) with the main leaf-stalk, just as this

re

g>^s?

is jointed witU the stem. When this is the case, there is no doubt that
the leaf is compound. But when the pieces have no stalklets, and are not
jointed with the main leaf-stalk, it may be considered either as a divided
simple leaf, or a compound leaf, according to the circumstances. This is
a matter of names where all intermediate forms may be expected.

147. While the pieces or projecting parts of a simple leaf-blade, are
called Lobes, or in deeply cut leaves, etc., Segments, or Divisions, the sep-
arate pieces or blades of a compound leaf are called Leaflets.

148. Compound leaves are of two principal kinds, namely, the Pinnate
and \\\Q Palmate ; answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated
leaves, and to the two sorts of lobed or divided leaves (141).

149. Pinnate leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on the
sides of a main leaf-stalk; as in Fig. 1.50-1.58, Tlicy answer to the

Fig. 156-158. Pinnate leaves, the first with an odd leaflet (ivld-pinnnte); the
second with a tendril in place of uppermost leaflets ; the third ahrupthj iiinnate,
or of even pairs.

58

LEAVES.

[section 7.

feather-veined (}. c. pin)iateli/-veined) simple leaf; as will be seen at ouce
ou conipariiig the tonus. The leajiels of the former answer to the lobes or
divisions of the latter; aud the coutiuuatioii of the petiole, along whieh the
leallets are arranged, answers to the midrib of the simple leaf.

150. Three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given. Tig. 156 is pinnate
with an odd or end leaflet, as in the Common Loeust and the Ash. Fig.
157 is pinnate with a tendril at the end, in place of the odd lc;allet, as in
the Vetches and the Pea. Fig. 158 is evenly or abruptlij pinnate, as in the
Honey-Locust.

151. Palmate (also named Digitate) leaves are those in which the leaf-
lets are all borne on the tip of the leaf-
stalk, as in the Luj)ine, tiie Common
Clover, the Virginia Creeper (Fig- 93),
and the Horse-chestnut aud Buckeye
(Fig. 159). They evidently answer to
the radiate-veined or palmately-veined
simple leaf. That is, the Clover-leaf of
three leaflets is the same as a palmately
three-ribbed leaf cut into three separatii
leaflets. And such a simple tive-lohed
leaf as that of tiie Sugar-Maple, if
more cut, so as to separate the parts,

wonld produce a palmate leaf of five leaflets, like that of the Horse-chestnut
or Buckeye.

152. Either sort of compound leaf may have any number of leaflets ; yet
palmate leaves cannot well have a great many, since lliey are all crowded
together on the end of the main leaf-stalk. Some Lupines have nuie-, or
eleven; the Horse-chestnut has seven, the Sweet Buckeye more commoulj
five, the Clover three. A pinnate le'af often has only seven or five leaflets,
or only three, as in Beans of the genus Phaseolus, etc. ; in some rarer cases
only two; in the Orange and Lemon aud also in the common Barberry
there is only one! The joint at the place where the leaflet is united witli
the petiole distinguishes this last case from a simple leaf. In other species
of these genera the lateral leaflets also are present.

153. The leaflets of a compound leaf may be ^x^tx entire (;is in Fig.
126-128), or serrate, or lobed, cleft, parted, etc. ; in fact, may present all
the variations of simple leaves, and the same terras equally apply to tlicm.

154. When the division is carried so far as to separate what would be
one leaflet into two, t'liree, or several, the leaf becomes doubh/ or twice
compound, either finnateiy m palmately, as the case may be. For example,
while tlie clustered leaves of the Honey-Ijoeust are simply pinnate, that is,
once pinnate, those on new shoots are hipmnate, or twice pinnate, as in
Fiff. 160. When these leaflets are again divided in the same way, the leaf

Fig. 159. Palmate (or digitate) leaf of five leaflets, of the Sweet Buckeye.

SECTION 7.]

ORDINARY LEAVES.

59

becomes thrice pinnate, or tripinnate, as in many Acacias. Tlie first divi-
sious are called Pinna; ; the others, Pinnules ; aud the last, or little blades
themselves, Leajlets.

155. So the palmate leaf, if again
compounded in the same way, be-
comes twice 'palmate, or, as we say
when the divisions are in threes,
twice ternate (in Latin form biter-
nate) ; if a third time compounded,
thrice ternate or triternate. But
if the division goes still further,
or if the degree is variable, we
simply say that the leaf is decom-
pound; either palmately or pin-
nately decompound, as the case
may be. Thus, Fig. 161 repre-
sents a four times teruately com-
pound (in other words a ternately
decompound) leaf of a common
Meadow Rue.

156. When the botanist, in de-
scribing leaves, wishes to express
the number of the leaflets, he
may use terms like these: —

Unifoliolate, for a compound
leaf of a single leaflet ; from the
Latin unum, one, aud foliolum,
leaflet.

Bifoliolate, of two leaflets, from the Latin bis, twice, and foliolum, leaflet.

Trifoliolute (or ternate), of three leaf-
lets, as the Clover ; and so on.

Palmateli/ bifoliolate, trifoliolate,
quadrifoliate, plurifoliolate (of several
leaflets), etc. : or else

Pinnately hi-, tri-, quadri-, or pluri-
foliolate (that is, of two, three, four,
five, or several leaflets), as the case
may be : these are terse ways of de-
noting in single plirases both the num-
ber of leaflets and the kind of com-
pounding.

157- Of foliage-leaves having certain peculiarities in structure, the
following may be noted : —

Fig. 160. A twice-pinnate (abruptly) leaf of tlie Honej'-Locust.
Fig. 161. Temately decompound leaf of Meadow Rue.

160

60

LEAVES.

[SECTION 7.

158. Perfoliate Leaves, la tlicse the stem that bears tliem seems (o
run through the Ijhalc of tlic leaf, mure or less above its base. A commou

Bell-wort (Uvularia perfoliata, Fig

162) is a familiar illustration. The '"C-^i

lower and earlier leaves show it

distinctly. Later, the plant is apt

to produce some leaves merely

clasping the stem by the sessile

and heart-shaped base, and the

latest may be merely sessile. So

the series explains the peculiarity :

in the formation of the leaf the

bases, meeting around the stem, grow together there.

159. Connate-perfoliate. Such are the upper leaves of true Honey-
suckles. Here (Fig. 163) of the opposite and sessile leaves, some pairs,
especially the uppermost, in the course of their formation unite around the
stem, which thus seems to run through the disk formed by their union.

160. Equitant Leaves. While ordinary leaves spread horizontally, and
present one face to the sky and the other to the earth, there are some that
present their tip to the sky, and their faces right and left to the liorizon.
Among these are the equitant leaves of the Iris or Flower-de-Luce. In-
spection shows that each leaf was formed as '\l folded together lenffthwise.

Fig. 162. Asiinuner branch of Uvularia perfoliata; lower leaves perfoliate, upper
cordate-clasping, uppermost simply sessile.

Fig. 1G3. Brancli of a IToiieysuckle, with coniiate-perfoliate leaves.

Fig. 164. Rootstock and equitant leaves of Iris. 16,'j. A .section across the
cluster of leaves at the bottom, showing the equitatiou.

SECTION 7.J

ORDINARY LEAVES.

Gl

so that what would be the upper surl'acc is wil.hiu, and all grown together,
except next tlie bottoii\, where each leaf covers the next younger one. It
was I'roni their straddling over each other, hkc a man on horseback (as is
seen in the cross-section. Fig. 105), that Linaajus, with his lively I'aucy,
called these EqiiUcud leaves.

IGl. Leaves ■with no distinction of Petiole and Blade. The haves
of Iris just mentioned show one form of this The iiut but narrow leaves
of Jonquils, UalTodils, and the cylindrical leaf of Onions
are other instances. Needlc-shujjed leaves, like those of
the Pine, Larch, and Spruce, and the awl-shajjed as well
as the scale-shaped leaves of Junipers, lied Cedar, and
Arbor-Vitffi (Fig. IGG), arc examples.

IG2. Phyllodia. Sometimes an expanded /W/o/i? takes
the place of the blade ; as in numerous New Holland
Acacias, some of which are now common in greenhouses.
Such counterfeit blades arc called phjjlludia, — meaning
leaf-like bodies. They may be known from true blades
by their standing edgewise, their margins being directed
upwards and downwards ; while in true blades the faces
look upwards and downwards ; excepting in equitant
leaves, as already explained.

163. Falsely Vertical Leaves. These are apparent
exce|)tions to the rule, the blade standing edgewise in-
stead of flatwise to the stem ; but this position comes

by a twist of the stalk or the base of the
blade. Such leaves present the two
faces about equally to the light. The
Compass-plant (Silphium laciniatum) is
an example. So also the leaves of Bolto-
nia, of Wild Lettuce, and of a vast num-
ber of Australian Myrtaceous shrubs
and trees, which much resemble the
phyllodia of the Acacias of the same
country. They are familiar in Calliste-
mon, the Bottle-brush Tlower, and in
Eucalyptus. But in the latter the
leaves of the young tree have the nor-
mal structure and position.

164. Cladophylla, meaning branch-
leaves. The foliage of Ruscus (the Butcher's Broom of Europe) and of
Myrsiphyllum of South Africa (cultivated for decoration under the false

Fio. 166. Branch of Arbor-Vitse, with awl-shaped and scale-shaped leaves.
Fig. 167. The ambiguous leaf ? (cladophyllum) of Myrsiphyllum.
Fig. 168. Same of Ruscus, or Butcher's Broom.

62

LEAVES.

[SECTION 7.

name of Smilax) is peculiar and puzzling. If these blades (Fig. 167, 168)
are reall}' leaves, they are most anomalous in oecupying the axil of anothei
leaf, reduced to a little seale. Yet they have an upper and lower face, as
leaves should, although they soon twist, so as to stand more or less edge-
wise. If they are brauclics which have assumed exactly the form and
office of leaveSj thej are equally extraordinary in not making any further
development. But in Ruscus, flowers are borne on one face, in the axil
of a little seale : and this would seem to settle that they are branches. In
Asparagus just the same things as to position are thread-shaped and
branch'Jike.

§ 2. LEAVES OF SPECIAL CONFORMATION AND USE.

165. Leaves for Storage. A leaf may at the same time serve both
ordinary and special uses. Thus in those leaves of Lilies, such as the
common White Lily, which spring from the bulb, the upper and green part

serves for foliage
and elaborates
nourishment, while
the thickened por-
tion or bud-scale
beneath serves for
the storage of this
nourishment. The
thread-shaped leaf
of the Onion ful-
fils the same office^
and the nourishing
matter it prepares
is deposited in.
its sheathing base,
forming one of the
concentric layers of
the onion. When
these layers, so thick and succulent, have given up their store to the grow-
ing parts within, they are left as thin and dry husks. In a Houseleek,
an Aloe or an Agave, the green color of the surface of the fleshy leaf indi-
cates that it is doing the work of foliage ; the deeper-seated white por-
tion within is the storehouse of the nourishment which the green surface
has elaborated. So, also, the seed-leaves or cotyledons are commonly used
for storage. Some, as in one of the Maples, the Pea, Horse-chestnut,
Oak, etc., are for nothing else. Others, as in Beech and in our common

Fia 169. A young Agave Americana, or Century-plant} fleshy-leaved.

SECTION 7. J

SPECIAL LEAVES.

63

Beans, give faint indications of service as foliage also, chiefly in vain. Still
others, as in the Pumpkin and Flax, having served for storage, develop

iuto the first efficient foliage. Compare
11, 22 -.'iO, and the accompanying figures.

166. Leaves as Bud-Scales serve to
protect the forming parts within Hav-
ing fulfilled this purpose they commonly
fall off when the shoot develops and
foliage-leaves appear. Occasionally, as
in Y\g. 170, there is a transition of bud-
scales to leaves, wiiich reveals the nature
of the former. Tiie Lilac also shows a
gradation from bud-scale to simple leaf.
In Cornus florida (the Flowering Dog-
wood), the four bud-scales which through
the winter protect the head of forming
lowers remain until blossoming, and then the base of each grows out into

Fig. 170. Series of bnd-scales ami foliage-leaves from a developing bud of the
Low Sweet Buckeye (^Esculus parvillora), sliowiiig nearly complete gradation, from
a scale to a couipoiind leaf of five leaflets; and that the scales answer to reduced
petioles.

Fig. 171. Shoot of common Tjarlierry, showing transition of foliage-leaves to
spines.

64

LEAVES.

[section 7.

a large and very slio\ry petal-like leaf ; the original dry scale is apparent
ill the notch at the apex.

107. Leaves as Spines occur in several plants. A familiar instauce is
that of the couiinon Barberry (Fig. 171)- In almost any summer shoot,
most of the gradations may be seen between tlie ordinary leaves, with
sharp bristly teeth, and leaves which are reduced to a brandling spine or
tliorn. The fact that the spines of the Barberry pioduce a leaf-bud iu
tbeir axil also proves them to be leaves.

168. Leaves for Climbing are various in adaptation. True foliage-
leaves serve this purpose ; as in Gloriosa, where the attenuated tip of a sim-
ple leaf (otherwise like that of a Lily) hooks around a supporting object ;
or iu Solanum jasminoides of the gardens (Fig. 172), and in Maurandia,
etc., where tlie leaf-stalk coils round and clings to a support: or in the
compound leaves of Clematis and of Adlnmia, in which both the leaflets
and their stalks hook or coil around the support.

109. Or in a compound leaf, as in the Pea and most Vetches, and in
Cobsea, while the lower leaflets serve for fohage, some of the uppermost
are developed as tendrils for climbing (Fig. 167). In the common Pea this
is so with all but one or two pairs of leaflets.

170. In one European Vetch, the leaflets are wanting and the whole
petiole is a tendril, while the stipules become the only foliage (Fig. 173).

171. Leaves as Pitchers, or hollow tubes, are familiar in the common
Pitcher-plant or Side-saddle Flower (Sarracenia, Fig. 174) of our bogs.
These pitchers are generally lialf full of water, in which flies and other in-
sects are drowned, often in such numbers as to make a rich manure for the
plant. More curious are some of the southern species of Sarracenia, which
seem to be specially adapted to the capture and destruction of flies and
other insects.

Fig. 172. Leaves of Solanum ja.iniinoides, the petiole adapted for flimhing.
Fig. 173. Leaf of Lathyrus Aphaca, consisting of a pair of stipules ami a tendril.

SECTION 7. J

SPECIAL LEAVES.

65

172. The leaf of Nepenthes (Fig. 175) combiues three structures and
uses. The expanded part below is foliage -. this tapers into a tendril for

climbing ; and this bears a pitcher with a lid. Insects are caught, and per
haps digested, in the pitclier.

173. Leaves as Fly-traps. Insects are
caught in another way, and more expertly,
by the most extraordinary of all the plants
of this country, the Dionsea or Venus's Fly-
trap, which grows in the sandy bogs around
Wilmington, North Carolina. Here (Fig.
170) each leaf bears at its summit an appen-
dage which opens and shuts, in shape some-
thing like a steel-trap, and operating much
like one. For when open, no sooner does
a fly alight on its surface, and brush against
any one of the two or three bristles that grow
there, tlian the trap suddenly closes, captur-
ing the intruder. If the fly escapes, the trap
soon slowly opens, and is ready for another
oa]>lure. When retained, the insect is after
a time moistened by a secretion from mi-
imte glands of the inner surface, and is
digesteil. In the various species of Drosera or Sundew, insects are caught

Fig. 174. Leaf of Sarracenia purpurea, entire, and another with the upper part
cut off.

Fig. 175. Leaf of Nepenthes; foliage, tendril, and pitcher combined.
Fig 176. Leaves of Diousea; the trap in one of them open, in the others closed.

5

66

LEAVES.

[section 7.

by sticking fast to very viscid glaiuls at the tip of strong bristles, aided
by adjacent glaud-tippcd l)ristlcs wliich bend slowly toward the captive.
The use of such adaptations and ()j)eratious may be explained in anothci
place.

§3. STIPULES.

174. A leaf complete in its parts consists of blade, leaf-stalk or petiole,
and a pair of stipules. But most leaves have either fugacious or minute
stipules or none at all ; many have no petiole (the blade being sessile or
stalkless) ; some have no clear distinction of blade and petiole ; and many

of these, such as tliose of the Onion and
all phyllodia (166), consist of petiole only.
175. The base of the petiole is apt to
be broadened and flattened, sometimes
into thin margins, sometimes into a sheath
which embraces the stem at the point of
attachment.

176. Stipules are such appendages, either wholly or partly separated
from the petiole. When quite separate they are said to he free, as in Fig.
112. When attached to the base of the petiole, as in tlie Rose and in

Fig. 177. Leaf of Red Clover: st, stipules, adhering to the base of ;>, the petiole;
b, blade of three leaflets.

Fig. 178. Part of stem and leaf of Prince's-Feather (Polygonum orientale) with
the united sheathing stipules forming a sheath or ucrea.

Fig. 179. Terminal winter bud of Magnolia Umbrella, natural size. 180. Outer-
most bud-scale (pair of stipules) detached.

SECTION 7.]

THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

67

Clover (Fig. 177), they are adnate. Wlieu the two stipules unite and
sheathe the stem above the insertion, as in Polygonum (Fig. 178), this
sheath is called an Ocrea, from its likeness to a greave or leggiu.

177. In Grasses, when tlie sheathing base of the leaf may answer to
petiole, the summit of the sheath commonly projects as a thin and short
membrane, like an ocrea : this is called a Ligula or Ligule.

178. When stipules are green and leaf-like they act as so much foliage.
In the Pea they make up no small part of the actual foliage. In a related
plant (Lathyrus Aphaca, Fig. 173), they make the whole of it, the remainder
of the leaf being tendril.

179. In m^ny trees the stipules are the bud-scales, as in the Beech, and
very conspicuously in the Fig-tree, Tulip-tree, and Magnolia (Fig. 179).
These fall off as the leaves unfold.

180. The stipules are spines or prickles in Locust and several other
Leguminous trees and shrubs ; they are tendrils in Smilax or Greenbrier.

§ 4. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.

181. Phyllotaxy, meaning leaf-arrangement, is the study of the position
of leaves, or parts answering to leaves, upon the stem.

182. The technical name for the attachment of leaves to the stem is

the insertion. Leaves (as already noticed, 54) are inserted in three modes.
They" are

Alternate (Fig. 181), that is, one after another, or in other words, with
only a single leaf to each node ;

Fig. 181. Alternate leaves, in Linden, Lime-tree, or Basswood.
Fig. 182. Opposite leaves, in Red Maple.

68

LEAVES.

[section 7.

Opposite (Tig. 182), wlien there is a pair to each node, the two leaves in
this case being always on opposite sides of the stem ;

Whorled or Verticillate (Fig. 1S3) when there are more tlian two leaves
on a node, in which case they divide the circle
equally between them, forming a Verticel or whorl.
When there are three leavi.s in the whorl, the
leaves are one third of the circumference apart ;
wlieu four, one quarter, and so on. So tlie plan of
opposite leaves, which is very common, is merely
that of whorled leaves, with the fewest leaves to the
whorl, namely, two.

183. In both modes and in all their modifica-
tions, the arrangement is such as to distribute the
leaves systematically and in a way to give them a
good exposure to the light.
184. Ko two or more leaves ever grow from the same point. Tlie so-
called Fe^nicled or Clustered leaves are
the leaves of a braucli the nodes of
which are very close, just as they are
in the bud, so keeping the leaves in a
cluster. This is evident in the Larch
(Fig. 184), in which examination shows
each cluster to be made up of nume-
rous leaves crowded on a spur or short
axis. In spring there are only such
clusters ; but in summer some of them
lengthen into ordinary shoots with scat-
tered alternate leaves. So, likewise,
each cluster of two or three needle-
shaped leaves in Titeh Pines (as in Fig. 185), or of five leaves
iu White Pine, answers to a similar extremely short branch,
springing from the axil of a thin and slender scale, which
represents a leaf of the main shoot. For Pines produce two
kinds of leaves, — 1. primary, the proper leaves of the shoots,
not as foliage, but in the shape of delicate scales in spring,
which soon fall away ; and 2. secondary, the. fascicled leaves,
from buds iu the axils oi the former, and these form the
actual fohfia-e.

Fig. 183. Whorled leaves of Galium.

Fig. 184. A piece of stem of Larch with two chisters (fascicles) of numerous
leaves.

Fig. 185. Piece of a branch of Pitch Pine, with three leaves in a fascicle or bun-
dle, in the axil of a thin scale which answers to a primary leaf. The bundle is sur-
rounded at the base by a short sheath, formed of the delicate scales of the axillary
bud.

SECTION 7.]

THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

69

185. Phyllotaxy of Alternate Leaves. Alternate leaves are distrib-
uted along the stem in au order wliicli is uuiform ibr each species. The
arrangement in all its modifications is said to be spiral, because, if we
draw a line from the insertion (i. e. the point of attachment) of one leaf to
that of the next, and so on, this line will wiud spirally around the stem as
it rises, and in the same species will always bear the same number of leaves
for each turn round the stem. That is, any two. successive leaves will
always be separated from each other by an equal portion of the circum-
ference of the stem. The distance in height between any two leaves may
vary greatly, even on the same shoot, for that depends upon the length of
the internodes, or spaces between the leaves ; but the distance as measured
around the circumference (in other words, the Angtdar Divergence, or angle
formed by any two successive leaves) is uniformly the same.

186. Two-ranked. The greatest possible di-
vergence is, of course, where the second leaf stands
on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the
first, the third on the side opposite the second, and
therefore over the first, and the fourth over the
second. This brings all the leaves into two ranks,
one on one side of the stem and one on the other,
and is therefore called the Two-ranked arrangement.
It occurs in all Grasses, — in Indian Corn, for in-
stance ; also, in the Basswood (Fig. 181). This
is the simplest of all arrangements, and the one
which most widely distributes successive leaves, but
which therefore gives the fewest vertical ranks.
Next is the

187. Three-ranked arrangement, — that of all
Sedges, and of White Hellebore. Here the second
leaf is placed one third of the way round the stem,
the third leaf two thirds of the way round, the fourth
leaf accordingly directly over the first, the fifth over
the second, and so on. That is, three leaves occur
in each turn round the stem, and they are separated
from each other by one third of the circumference.
(Fig. 186, 187.)

188. Five-ranked is the next in the series, and
the most common. It is seen in the Apple (Fig. 188), Cherry, Poplar,
and the greater number of trees and slirubs. In this case the line traced
from leaf to leaf will pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf

Fig. 186. Three-ranked arrangement, shown in a piece of the stalk of a Sedge,
with the leaves cut off above their l)ases ; the leaves are numbered in order, from
lto(J. 187. Diagram or cross-section of the same, in one plane ; the leaves simi-
larly numbered ; showing two cycles of three.

70

LEAVES.

[SECTION 7.

situated directly over any lelow (Fii,'. 189). Here the sixth leaf is over
the first ; the leaves staud iu five perpendicular rauks, with equal angular
distance from each other; and this distance between any two successive
leaves is just two fifths of the circumference of the stem.

189. Ttie five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction |. This
fraction denotes the divergence of
the successive leaves, i. e. the an-
gle they form with each other : the

'numerator also expresses the num-
ber of turns made round the stem
by the spiral line in completing
one cycle or set of leaves, namely,
two ; and the denominator gives
the number of leaves in each cy-
cle, or the number of perpendic-
ular ranks, namely, five. In the
same way the fraction ^ stands for
the two-ranked mode, and ^ for
the three-ranked : and so these
different sorts are expressed by

the series of fractions ^, ^, f . Other cases follow in

the same numerical ])rogressiou, the next being the

190. Eight-ranked arrangement. In this tlie ninth i
leaf stands over the first, and three turns are made
around the stem to reach it; so it is expressed by
the fraction |. This is seen in the Holly, and in the
common Plantain. Then comes the

191. Thirteen-ranked arrangement, in which the
fourteenth leaf is over the first, after five turns around the stem,
common Houseleek (Fig. 191) is a good example.

192. The series so far, then, is ^, ^, |, f, ^\; the numerator and the
denominator of each fraction being those of the two next preceding ones
added together. At this rate the next higher should be ^j, then J|, and
so on : and in fact just such cases are met with, and (commonly) no others.
These higher sorts are found in the Pine Family, both in the leaves and
the cones and in many other plants with small and crowded leaves. But
in those the number of the ranks, or of leaves in each cycle, can only rarely

190

The

Fig. 188. Shoot with its leaves 5-ranked, the sixth leaf over tlie first; as in the
Apple-tree.

Fig. 189. Diagram of this arrangement, with a spiral line drawn from the attach-
ment of one leaf to the next, and so on ; the parts on tlie side turned from the eye
are fainter.

Fig. 190. A ground-plan of the same; the section of the leaves similarly num-
bered ; a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf to that of the next marks out
thp spiraL

SECTION 7.]

THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

71

be made out by direct inspecliou. They may be indirectly ascertuiued, how-
ever, by studying the secondary spirals, as they are called, which usually
become conspicuous, at least two series oi" I hem, one
turning to the riglit and one to the left, as shown hi
Fig. 191. For an account of the way in which the
character of the phyllotaxy may be deduced from the
secondary spirals, see Stnictural Botany, Cliaptcr IV.
193. Phyllotaxy of Opposite andwhorled Leaves.
This is simple and comparatively uniform. The leaves
of each pair or whorl are placed over the intervals
between those of the preceding, and tlierefore under
the intervals of the pair or whorl next above. The
whorls or pairs alternate or cross each other, usually
at right angles, that is, they decussate. Opposite
leaves, that is, whorls of two leaves only, are far com-
moner than whoi'ls of three or four or more members.
This arrangement in successive decussating pairs gives
an advantageous distribution on the stem in four verti-
cal ranks. Whorls of three give six vertical ranks,
and so on. Note that in descriptive botany leaves in
whorls of two are simply called opposite leaves ; and
that the term verticiUate or tchorled, is employed only
for cases of more than two, unless the latter number
is specified.

194. Vernation or Praefoliation, the disposition
of the leaf-blades in the bud, comprises two things ; 1st,
the way in which each separate leaf is folded, coiled,
or packed up in the bud; and 2d, the arrangement
of the leaves in the bud with respect to one another.
The latter of course depends very much upon the
phyllotaxy, i. e. the position and order of the leaves upon the stem. The
same terms are used for it as for the arrangement of the leaves of the
flower in the flower-bud. See, therefore, " Jistivation, or Prgefloration."

195. As to each leaf separately, it is sometimes straight and open in
vernation, but more commonly it is either bent, folded, or rolled up. Wlien
the upper pari is bent down upon the lower, as the young blade in the
Tulip-tree is bent upon the leafstalk, it is said to be Inflexed or Reclined in
vernation. When folded by tlie midrib so that the two halves are placed
face to face, it is Conduplicate (Fig. 193), as in the Magnolia, the Clierry,
and the Oak. When folded back and forth like the plaits of a fan, it is

Fig. 191. A young ])lant of tlie Houseleek, with the leaves (not yet expanded)
numbered, and exhibiting the 13-ranked arrangement; and showing secondary
spirals.

Fig. 192. Opposite leaves of Enonyinus, or Spindle-tree, showing the successive
pairs crossing each other at right angles.

72

FLOWERS.

[SECTIO^^ 8.

Plicate or Plaited (Fig. 19 1), as in the Maple and Currant. If rolled, it
may be so cither from the tip downwards, as in Ferns and the Sundew

(l''iy. 197), when in unroll-

193 194 195 ing it resembles the head

y'^ A A ^- — ->^ of a crosier, and is said to

/^^ I 4% ^^^^ ^^ Circiiiate ; or it may be

^£^ {A/} Cvl vvA/y lolled up parallel with the

^^ VMttM ^^ — ^ axis, either from one edge

into a coil, when it is Co/i-
voluie (Fig. 195), as in ihe
Apricot and Plum ; or rolled
from both edges towards
the midrib, — sometimes
inwards, when it is Invo-
lute (Fig. 19S), as in the
Violet and Water - Lily ;
sometimes outwards, when it is Kevolute (Fig. 196), in the Rosemary and
Azalea. The figures are diagrams, representing sections through the leaf,
in the way they were represented by Linneeus.

196

Section VIII. FLOWERS.

196. Flowers are for the production of seed (16). Stems and branches,
which for a time put forth leaves for vegetation, may at length put forth
flowers for reproduction.

§ 1. POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS, OR INFLOR-
ESCENCE.

197. Flower-buds ajipear just where leaf-buds appear; that is, they are
either terminal or axillarij (47-49). Morphologically, flowers answer to
shoots or branches, and their parts to leaves.

198. In the same species the flowers are usually from axillary buds only,
or from terminal buds only ; but in some they are both axillary and
terminal.

199. Inflorescence, which is the name used by Linnaeus to signify mode
of flower-arrangement, is accordingly of three classes : namely. Indetenninate,
when the flowers are in the axils of leaves, that is, are from axillarv buds;
Determinate, when they are from terminal buds, and so terminate a stem
or branch ; and Mixed, when these two are combined.

200. Indeterminate Inflorescence (likewise, and for tlic same reason,
called indefinite inflorescence) is so named because, as the flowers all come
from axillary buds, the terminal bud may keep on growing and prolong the
stem indefinitely. This is so in Moneywort (Fig. 199).

SECTION 8.]

INFLORESCENCE.

73

201. When flowers tlius arise singly from the axils of ordinary leaves,
they are axillary and sOlUari/, not collected into flower-clusters.

202. But when several or many flowers are produced near each other,
the accompanying leaves are
apt to be of smaller size, or of
different shape or character :
then they are called Bracts,
and the flowers thus brought
together form a cluster. The
kinds of flower-clusters of the
indeterminate class have re-
ceived distinct names, according to their form and disposition. They are
principally Raceme, Corymb, Umbel, Spike, Head, Spadix, Catkin, and
Panicle.

203. In defining these it will be necessary to use some of the following
terms of descriptive botany which relate to inflorescence. If a flower is
stalkless, i. e. sits directly in the axil or other support, it is said to be
sessile. If raised on a naked stalk of its own (as in Fig. 199) it is pedun-

dilate, and the stalk is a Peduncle.

204. A peduncle on which a flower-cluster is raised is a
Common peduncle. That which supports each separate flower
of the cluster is a Partial peduncle, and is generally called a
Pedicel. The portion of the general stalk ahjng which
flowers are disposed is called the Axis of inflorescence, or,
when covered with sessile flowers, the Rhachis (liack-bone),
and sometimes the Receptacle. The leaves of a flower-cluster
generally are termed Bracts. But when bracts of different
orders are to be distinguished, those on the common pedun-
cle or axis, and which have a flower in their axil, keep the
Xi9.me o^ bracts ; and those on the" pedicels or partial flower-
stalks, if any, that of Bractlets or Bracteoles. The for-
mer is the preferable English name.

205. A Raceme (Fig. 200) is that form of flower-cluster
in which the flowers, each on their own foot-stalk or pedicel,
are arranged along the sides of a common stalk or axis of
inflorescence; as in the Lily of the Valley, Currant, Bar-
berry, one section of Cherry, etc. Each flower comes from
the axil of a small leaf, or bract, which, however, is often
so small that it might escape notice, and even sometimes (as
in the Mustard Family) disappears altogether. The lowest blossoms of a

Fig. 199. Piece of a flowering-stem of Moneywort (Lysiniaehia nunimularia,)
with .single flowers successively produced in the axils of the leaves, from below
upwards, as the stem grows on.

Fig. 200. A raceme, with a general peduncle (p), pedicels (/?'), bracts (b), and
bractlets {,b'). Plainly the bracts here answer to the leaves in Fig. 199.

'^^asS'

FLOWERS.

fSECTTON 8.

raceme are of course the oldest, aud therefore open first, and the order of
bhjssoming is ascending fruiu the bottom to the top. The suiiiinit, never
being stopped by a teruiiual llower, may go ou to grow, and often docs
so (as in the commou Shepherd's Purse), producing lateral flowers one
after another for many weeks.

200. A Corjnnb (Fig. 202) is tlie same as a raceme, except that it is
flat and broad, cither convex, or L'vel-toppcd. That is, a raceme becomes
a corymb by lengthening the lower pedicels while the uppermost remain

shorter. The axis of a corymb is short in proportion to the lower pedicels.

By extreme shortening of the axis the corymb may be converted into
207. An Umbel (Fig. 203) as in the Milkweed, a sort of flower-cluster

where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point, from the top

of the peduncle, so as to resemble, when spreading, the rays of an umbrella ;
whence the name. Here the pedicels are sometimes called the
Rays of the umbel. And the bracts, when brought in this way
into a cluster or circle, form what is called an Involucke.

208. The corymb and the umbel being more or less level-
topped, bringing the flowers into a horizontal plane or a con-
vex form, the ascending order of development appears as Cen-
tripetal. That is, tiic flowering proceeds from tiie margin or
circumference regularly towards the centre; tlie lower flowers
of the former answering to the outer ones of the latter.

209. In these three kinds of flower-clusters, the flowers arb
raised on conspicuous pedicels (204) or stalks of their own. The
shortening of these pedicels, so as to render the flowers sessiU
or nearly so, converts a raceme into a Spike, aud a corymb or an
umbel into a Head.

210. A Spike is a flower-eluster with a more or less length-
ened axis, along which tlie flowers are sessile or nearly so; as in
the Plantain (Fig. 20 1).

A Head {Cupifiiluin) is a round or roundish cluster of flowers.

Fro. 201. A raceme. 202. A corynili. 203. An umbel.
Fig. 204. Sjiike of tlie common Plantain or Rjbwort,

SECTION 8.]

INFLORESCENCE.

75

•which are sessile on a very sliort axis or receptacle, as in the Button-ball,
Button-busli (Fig. 205), aud Kcd Clover. It is just what a spike would

were all

become if its axis were shortened; or an nmbel, if its pedicels

shortened until the flowers became sessile. The head

of the Button-bush is naked ; but that of the Thistle,

of the Dandelion, and the like, is surrounded by empty

bracts, which form an Lirolucre. Two particular forms

of the spike and the head have received particular

names, namely, the Spadiv and the Catkin.

212. A Spadix is a fleshy spike or head, with small
and often imperfect flowers, as in the Calla, Indian
Turnip, (Fig. 206), Sweet Flag, etc. It is commonly
surrounded or embraced by a peculiar enveloping leaf,
called a Spatiie.

21 3. A Catkin, or Ament, is the name given to the
scaly sort of spike of the Birch (Fig. 207) and Alder,
the Willow and Poplar, and one sort of flower-clusters
of the Oak, Hickory, and the like, — the so-called Amen-
taceous trees.

214. Compound flower-clusters of these kinds are
not uncommon. When the stalks which in the sim-
ple umbel are the pedicels of single flowers themselves
branch into an umbel, a Compound Umbel is formed.

Fig. 205. Head of the Bnttoii-bush (CephalaTithus).

Fig. 206. Spadix and spatlie of the Indian Turuip; the latter cut through below.

Fig. 207. Catkin, or Anient, of Birch.

76

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

This is tlie inflorescence of Caraway (Fig. 208), Parsnip, and aliiiobl all of
the great laniily of Uiiibellircrous (uiiibel-beariug) plants.

215. Tlic second-
ary or partial umbels
of a compound um-
bel are Umbellets.
When the umbellets
are subtended by an
involucre, this sec-
ondary involucre is
^^8 called an Involucel.

216. A Compound raceme is a cluster of racemes
raccmosely arranged, as in Smilacina racemosa. A
compound corymb is a corymb some branches of which
branch again in the same way, as in Mountain Ash. A
compound spike is a spicatcly disposed cluster of spikes.

217. A Panicle, such as that of Oats and many
Grasses, is a compound flower-cluster of a more or less
open sort whicli branches with apparent ii'regularity,
neither into corymbs nor racemes. Fig. 209 repre-
sents the simplest panicle. It is, as it were, a raceme
of which some of the pedicels have branched so as to
bear a few flowers on pedicels of their own, while
others remain simple. A compound panicle is one that
branches in this way again and again.

218. Determinate Inflorescence is that in which the flowers are from
terminal buds. The simplest case is that of a solitary terminal flower, as

iu Fig. 210. This stops the growth of the stem ; for its terminal bud, be-
coming a blossom, can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud. Any

Fig. 208. Compound Umbel of Caraway.

Fig. 209. Diagram of a .simple panicle.

Fig. 210. Diagram of an opposite-leaved plant, with a single terminal flower.
211. S.iiij'', Willi a cj-nie of tliree flowers; a, tlie first flower, of the main axis; b b,
those of brandies. 212. Same, witli flowers also of tlie tiiird order, c c-

SECTION 8.]

INFLORESCENCE.

77

further growth must be from axillary buds developing into branches. If
such braucties are leafy shoots, at length terminated by single blossoms,
the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the summit of stem and
branches. But if the flowering branches bear only bracts in place of ordi-
nary Icavtis, the result is the kmd of flower-cluster called

219. A Cyme. This is comiuoaly a flat-topped or convex flower-cluster,
like a corymb, only the blossoms arc from terminal buds.
Fig. 211 illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opjjo-
sile leaves, namely, with three flowers. The middle flower,
a, terminates the stem ; the two others, b b, terminate branches,
one from the axil of each of the uppermost leaves ; and being
later than the niiddb one, the flowering proceeds from the
centre outwards, or is Ceiitriftigal. This is the opposite of
the indeterminate mode, or that where all the flower-buds are
axillary. If flowering branches appear from the axils below,
the lower ones are the later, so that the order of blossoming
continues ccnlrifuyal or, which is the same thing, descending,
as in Fig. 218, making a sort of reversed raceme or false ra-
ceme,— a kind of cluster which is to the true raceme just
what the flat cyme is to the corymb.

220. Wiierever there are bracts or leaves, buds may be
produced from their axils and appear as flowers. Fig. 212 represents the
case where the branches, b b, of Fig. 211, each with a pair of small leaves
or bracts about their middle, have branched again, and produced the
branchlets and flowers c r, on each side. It is the continued repetition of
this which forms the full or compound cyme, such as that of the Laures-
tinus, Hobble-bush, Dogwood, and Hydrangea (Fig. 214-).

221. A Fascicle (meaning a bundle), like that of the Sweet William
and Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded.

222. A Glomerule is a cyme still more compacted, so as to imitate a
head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding
centripetally, that is, not from the circumference towards the centre.

223. The illustrations of determinate or ci/mose inflorescence liave been
taken from plants with opposite leaves, which give rise to the most regular
cymes. But the Rose, Cinquefoil, Buttercup, etc., with alternate leaves,
furnish also good examples of cymose inflorescence.

224. A Cymule (or diminutive cynic) is either a reduced small cyme of
few flowers, or a branch of a compound cyme, i. e. a partial cyme.

225. Scorpioidor Helicoid Cymes, of various sorts, are forms of de-
terminate inflorescence (often puzzling to the student) in which one half of
the ramification fails to appear. So that they may be called incomplete
cymes. The commoner forms may be understood by comparing a complete

Fig. 213. Diagram of a simple cyme in which the axis lengthens, so as to take
the form of a raceme.

78

FLOWERS.

[SECTION 8.

cyme, like that of Fig. 215 with Fig. 216, the diagram of a cyme of an op-
posite-leaved plant, having a series of terminal flowers and the axis con-

tinued by the development of a branch in the axil of only one of the leaves
at each node. The dotted lines on the left indicate the place of the wanting

branches, which if present would
convert this siorpioid cyme into the
complete one of Fig. 215. Fig. 217
is a diagram of similar inflorescence
with alternate leaves. Both, are
kinds oi false racemes (219). When
the bracts are also wanting in such
cases, as in many Borragineous
plants, the true nature of the in-
florescence is very much disguised.

Fig. 214. Coinpouncl cyrne of H)'draTige<a arborescens, with neutral enlarged
flowers round the circumference.

Fig. 215. A complete forking cyme of an Arenaria, or Ohickweerl.

1<'IG. 216. Diagram of a scorpioid cyme, witli opposite leaves or bracts,

F'O- 217. Diagram of analogous scorpioid cyme, with alternate leaves or bractm.

SECTION 8.] ORGANS OF THE FLOWER. 79

22G. These distiuctious between deteniiiuate and indeterminate inflores-
cence, between corymbs and cymes, and between the true and tlie false
raceme and spike, were not recognized by botanists much more tlian lialf
a century ago, and even now are not always attended to in descriptions.
It is still usual and convenient to describe rounded or flat-topped and open
ramification as coiymbose, even wlien essentially cymose; also to call the
reversed or false racemes or spikes by these (strictly incorrect) names.

227- Mixed Inflorescence is that in whicii the two plans are mixed or
combined in compound clusters. A mixed panicle is one in which, while
the primary ramification is of the indeterminate order, the secondary or
ultimate is wliolly or partly of tiie determinate order. A contracted or
elongated inflorescence of this sort is called a Tuyrsus. Lilac and Horse-
chestnut attbrd common examples of mixed inflorescence of this sort. When
loose and open such flower-clusters are called by the general name of
Panicles. The heads of Compositse are centripetal; but the branches or
peduncles which bear the heads are usually of centrifugal order.

§2. PARTS OR ORGANS OF THE FLOWER.

228. These were simply indicated in Section II. 16. Some parts are
necessary to seed-bearing ; these are Essential Organs, namely, the Stamens
and Pistils. Others serve for protection or for attraction, often for both.
Such are the leaves of the Flower, or the Floral Envelopes.

229. The Floral Envelopes, taken together, are sometimes called the
Perianth, also Periyone, in Latin form Perigonium. In a flower which
possesses its full number of organs, the floral envelopes are of two kinds,
namely, an outer circle, the Calyx, and an inner, the Coroli,.\.

230. The Calyx is commonly a circle of green or greenish leaves, but
not always. It may be the most brightly colored part of the blossom.
Each calyx-leaf or piece is called a Sepal.

231. The Corolla is the inner circle of floral envelopes or flower-leaves,
usually of delicate texture and colored., that is, of some other color thui
green. Each corolla-leaf is called a Petal.

232. There are flowers in abundance which consist wholly of floral envel-
opes. Such are the so-called full double flowers, of which the choicer roses
and camellias of the cultivator are familiar examples. In them, under the
gardener's care and selection, petals have taken the place of both stamens
and pistils. These are monstrous or unnatural flowers, incapable of pro-
ducing seed, and subservient only to human gratification. Their common
name of double flowers is not a sensible one : except that it is fixed by
custom, it were better to translate their Latin name, flores pleni, and call
them full floioers, meaning full of leaves.

233. Moreover, certain plants regularly produce neutral flowers, consist-
ing of floral envelopes only. In Fig. 214, some are seen around the margin

80

FLOWERS.

[s.-iCTION 8.

of tlie cjMie ill Hydraugea. Tliey are likewise familiar in tlie llobble-bush
and ill \\'ild-('raiiberrv tree, Viburuuiu Uxycoceus ; where tiioy form an
attractive setliug to the cluster of small aud comparatively ijicouspicuous

218

perfect flowers which they adoru. In the Guelder Rose, or Snow-ball of
ornamental cultivation, all or most of the blossoais of this same shrub are
transformed into neutral flowers.

234. The Essential Organs are likewise
of two kinds, placed one above or within
the other ; namely, first, the Stameks or
fertilizing organs, and second, the Pistils,
which are to be fertilized and bear the
seeds.

235. A Stamen consists of two parts,
namely, the Filament or stalk (Fig. 219 a),
and the A-nther (I/). The latter is the only
essential ]iart. Tt. is a case, commonly with two lobes or cells, each opening
lengthwise by a slit, at the proper time, and discharging a powder or dust-
like substance, usually of a yellow color. This powder is the Pollen, or
fertilizing matter, to prodnoe which is the office of the stamen.

236. A Pistil (Fig. 220, 221) when complete, has three parts; Ovaby,
Style, and Stigma. The Ocan/, at base, is tlie hollow portion, which con-
tains one or more Ovules or rudimentary seeds. The Sfj/le is the tapering

Fro. 218. k fins pleniis, namely, a full doiihle flower of Rose.
Fig. 219. A stamen : a, filament : h, anther, (liscliarainc; pollen.
Fio. G.^ii. A j>istil; with ovary, a, half cut away, to show the contained ovules i
5, style; t, .stigma.

SECTION 8.]

PLAN OF THE FLOWER.

81

portion above : the Stigma is a portion of the style, usually its tip, with
moist naked surface, upon whicii grams of pollen may
lodge and adhere, aud theucc make a growth wiiicli ex-
tends dowu to the ovules. Wheu there is no style tlieu
the stigma occupies the tip of the ovary.

237. The Torus or Receptacle is the end of the
flower-stalk, or the portion of axis or stem out of which
the several organs of the flower grow, upon which they
are borne (Fig. 223).

238. The parts of the flower are thus disposed on the
receptacle or axis essentially as are leaves upon a very
short stem ; first the sepals, or outer floral leaves ; then
the petals or inner floral leaves ; then the stamens ; lastly,
at summit or centre, the pistils, when there are two or
more of them, or the single pistil, when only one. Fig.
223 shows the organs displayed, two of each kind, of such
a simple and symmetrical flower as that of a Sedum or
Stouecrop, Fig. 222.

221

§ 3. PLAN OF FLOWER.

239. All flowers are formed upon one general plan, but with almost in-
finite variations, aud many disguises. This common plan is best understood
by taking for a type, or standard for comparison, some perfect, complete.

regular, and symmetrical blossom, and one as simple as such a blossom
could well be. Flowers are said to be

Perfect {hermaphrodite'), when provided with both kinds of essential or-
gans, i. e. with both stamens and pistils.

Complete, when, besides, they have the two sets of floral envelopes, namely.

Fig. 221. Model of a simple pi.stil, with ovary cut across and slightly opened
veiitrally, to show the ovules and their attacliinent.

Fig. 222. Flower of Seduni ternatnm, a Stonecrop.

Fig. 223. Parts of same, two of each kind, separated and displayed ; the torus or
receptacle in the centre; a, a sepal ; b, a petal ; c, a stamen ; d, a pistil.

6

82

FLOWERS.

[SECTION 8.

calyx and corolla. Such are completely furnished with all that belongs to
a flower.

Regular, when all the parts of each set are alike in shape and size.
Symmetrical, when there is an equal number of parts in each set or circle
of organs.

240. Flax-flowers were taken for a pattern in Section II. 16. But in
them the five pistils have their ovaries as it were consolidated into one body.
Seduni, Fig. 222, has the pistils and all the other parts
free from such . combination. The flower is perfect,
complete, regular, and symmetrical, but is not quite
as simple as it might be ; for there are twice as many
stamens as there are of the other organs. Crassula,
a relative of Sedum, cultivated in the conservatories
for winter blossoming (Fig. 224) is simpler, being
isosiemonous, or with just as many stamens as petals or
sepals, while Sedum is diplostemonous, having double
that number : it lias, indeed, two sets of stamens.

241. Numerical Plan. A certain number either
runs through the flower or is discernible in some of
iy^ // // •-y"' t'^.^ts. This number is most commonly either five

^^^;^j,^==:i^ or three, not very rarely four, occasionally two. Thus
WiQ ground-plan of the flowers thus far used for illus-
tration is five. That of Trillium (Fig. 226, 227) is
three, as it likewise is as really, if not as plainly, in Tulips and Lilies, Crocus,
Iris, and all that class of blossoms. In some Sedums all the flowers are
in fours. In others the first flowers are
on the plan of five, the rest mostly on
the plan of four, that is, with four sepals,
four petals, eight

stamens (i. e. twice
four), and four pis-
tils. Whatever the
ground number may
be, it runs through
the whole in symmet-
rical blossoms. 227 ' 226

242. Alternation of the successive Circles. In these flowers the
parts of the successive circles alternate ; and such is the nde. That is,

225

Fig. 224. Flower of a Crassula. 225. Diagram or ground-plan of same.

Fig. 226. Flower of a Trillium ; its parts in threes.

Fig. 227. Diagram of flower of Trillium. In this, as in all such diagrams of cross-
section of blossoms, the parts of the outer circle represent the calyx ; the next, co-
rolla; within, stamens (here in two circles of three each, and the cross-section is
through the anthers) ; in the centre, section of three ovaries joined into a compound
one of three cells.

SECTION 8.] PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 83

the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals ; the stamens, when
of the same number, stand over the intervals between the petals; or when
twice as many, as in the Trillium, the outer set alternates with the petals,
and the inner set, alternating with the other, of course stands before the
petals; and the pistils alternate with these. This is just as it should be on
the tiieory that the circles of the blossom answer to whorls of leaves, which
alternate in lliis way. While in such (lowers the circles are to be regarded
as whorls, in others they are rather to be rpg.uiii d as condensed spirals of
alternate leaves. But, however this may be, in the mind of a morphological
botanist,

243. Flowers are altered Branches, and their parts, therefore, altered
leaves. That is, certain buds, which might haye grown and Iciigi honed
into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to accomphsh other
purposes, develop into blossoms. In these the a.\is remains short, nearly
as it is in the bud ; the leaves therefore remain close together in sets or
circles; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally ])artake more or less
of the character of foliage ; the next set are more delicate, and form the co-
rolla, while the rest, the stamens and pistils, ap|)car under forms very dif-
ferent from those of ordinary leaves, and are concerned in tlie production
of seed. This view gives to Botany an interest which one who merely no
tiecs the sliape and counts the parts of blossoms, without understanding
their plan, has no conception of.

244. That flowers answer to branches may be shown, first, from thei\
position. As explained in the section on Inflorescence, flowers arise fron^
the same places as branches, and from no other; flower-buds, like leaf-buds,
appear either on the summit of a stem, that is, as a terminal bud, or in the
axil of a leaf, as an axillary bud. And, as the plan of a symmetrical flower
shows, the arrangement of the parts on their axis or receptacle is that of
leaves upon the stem.

245. That the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident
from thair appearance; they are commonly called the leaves of the flower.
The enlyx is most generally green in color, and foHaceous (leaf-like) in
texture. And though the corolla is rarely green, yet neither are projjcr
leaves always green. In our wild Painted-cup, and in some scarlet Sages,
common in gardens, the leaves just under the flowers are of the brightest
red or scarlet, often much brighter-colored than the corolla itself. And
sometimes (as in many Cactuses, and in Carolina Allspice) there is such a
regular gradation from the last leaves of the plant (bracts or bractlets) into
the leaves of the calyx, that it is impossible to say where the one ends and
the other begins. If sepals are leaves, so also are petals ; for there is no
clearly fixed limit between them. Not only in the Carolina Allspice and
Cactus (Fig. 229), but in the Water-Lily (Fig. 228) and in a variety of
flowers with more than one row of petals, there is such a complete transi-
tion between calyx and corolla that no one can surely tell how many of the
leaves belong to the one and how many to the other.

84

FLOWERS.

[SECTION 8.

between petals and stamens.

246. Tliat stamens are of tlie same general nature as petals, and there-
fore a modilicalion of leaves, is shown bj the gradual transitions that occur

betwi'di tlie one and the
other in many blos-
soms; especially' iu cul-
tivated flowers, such as
Roses and Camellias,
when they begin to
double, thai is, to change
their stamens into pet-
als. Some wild and
natural flowers show

"\\ '; ' •' 1 '' 'If il K/ //^ ^^^^ ^'''""^ interesting

W \ ' ' M '"Wi.lll # transitions. The Caro-

lina Allspice and the
White Water-Lily ex-
hibit complete grada-
tions not only between
sepals and petals, but
The sepals of our Water-Lily are green out-
side, but white and petal-like on the inside ; the petals, in many rows,
gradually grow narrower towards the centre of the flower ; some of these
are tipped with a trace of a yellow
anther, but still are petals; the
next are more contracted and sta-
men-like, but with a flat petal-like
filament; and a furtlier narrow-
ing of this completes the genuine
stamen.

247. Pistils and stamens now
and tiien change into each other in
some Willows; pistils often turn
into petals in cultivated flowers ;
and in the Doul)le Cherry they
are occasionally replaced by small
green leaves. Sometimes a whole
blossom changes into a cluster of
green leaves, as in the "green
roses " occasionally noticed in gar-
dens, and sometimes it degenerates into a leafy branch. So tlie botanist
regards pistils also as answering to leaves ; that is, to single leaves wlien
simple and separate, to a whorl of leaves when conjoined.

Fig. 228. Series of sepals, petals, and stamens of White Water-Lily, sho-wing
ihe transitions.

FlQ. 229. A Caotns lilossom.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

«5

§ 4. MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

248. The Deviations, as they may be called, from the assumed type or
pattern of flower are most various aud extensive. The differences between
one species and another of the same genus are comparatively insignificant;
those between different genera are more striking; those between different
families aud classes of plants more and more profound. They represent
different adaptations to conditions or modes of life, some of which have
obvious or probable utilities, although others are beyond particular expla-
nation. The principal modifications may be conveniently classified. First
those wliich in place of perfect (otherwise called hermajihrodUe or bisexual)
flowers, give origin to

249. Unisexual, or Separated, or Diclinous Flowers, imperfect flow-
ers, as they have been called in contradistinction to perfect flowers ; but that

230

term is too ambiguous. In

these some flowers waut the ^^

stamens, while others waut the pistils. Taking
hermaphrodite flowers as the pattern, it is natural
to say that the missing organs are suppressed. This
expression is justified by the very numerous cases
in which tlie missing parts are abortive, that is,
are represented by rudiments or vestiges, which
serve to exemplify the plan, although useless as
to office. Unisexual flowers are

Monoecious (or Monoirmis, i. e. of one household), when flowers of boll:
sorts or sexes are produced by the same individual plant, as in the Ricinus
or Castor-oil Plant, Fig. 230.

Dioecious (or Dioirous. i. e. of separate households), when the two knids
are borne on different plants; as in Willows, Foplars, Hemp, and Moon-
seed, Fig. 231, 232.

Poli/gamous, when the flowers are some of them perfect, and some

staminate or pistillaie only.

Fig. 230. Unisexual flowers of Castor-oil plant : s, staminate flower ; p, pistillate
flower.

Fig. 231, staminate, and 232, \.istillate flower of Moonseed.

86

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

V6'6

250. A blossom liaving stamens and no pistil is a Staminaie or Male
flower. Sometimes it is called a Sterile flower, not ajjpropriately, for other
flowers may equally be sterile. One having pistil but uo stamens is a
Pistillate or Female flower.

251. Incomplete Flowers are so named
in contradistiuctiun to complete : they want
either one or both of the floral envelopes.
Those of Fig. 230 are incomplete, having ca-
lyx but no corolla. So is the flower of Anem-
one (Fig. 233), although
its calyx is colored like a
corolla. The flowers of
Saururus or Lizard's-tail,

although perfect, have neither calyx nor corolla (Fig.
234). Incomplete flowers, accordingly, are

Naked or Achlanii/deous, destitute of both floral en-
velopes, as in Fig. 234, or
Apetalous, wlien wanting only the corolla. The case of corolla present
and calyx wholly wanting is extremely rare, although there are seeming
instances. In fact, a single or simple perianth is taken to be a calyx,
■anless the absence or abortion of a calyx can be made evident.

252. In contradistinction to
regular and symmetrical, very
many flowers are

Irregular, that is, with the
members of some or all of the
floral circles unequal or dissim-
ilar, and

JJnsymnietrical, that is, when
the circles of the flower or
some of them differ in the num-
ber of their members. (Sym-
metrical and unsymmetrical are
used in a different sense in some
recent books, but the older use
should be adhered to.) Want
of numerical symmetry and
irregularity commonly go to-
gether; and both are common.
Indeed, few flowers are entirely

Fig. 233. Flower of Anemone Pennsylvanica; apetalous, hermaphrodite.
Fig. 234. Flower of Saururus or Lizard's-tail; naked, but hermaphrodite.
Fig. 235. Flower of Mu.stard. 236. Its stamens and pistil .separate and enlarged.
Fig. 237. Flower of a Violet. 238. Its calyx and corolla displayed: the five
smaller parts are the sepals; the five intervening larger ones are the petals.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

87

symmetrical beyond calyx, corolla, and perhaps stamens ; and probably no
irregular blossoms are quite symmetrical.

253. Irregular and Unsymmetrical Flowers may therefore be illus-

trated together, beginning with cases
•whicii are comparatively free from other
complications. The blossom of Mustard,
and of all the very ii:itural family which
it represents (Fig. 235, 236), is regular
but unsymmetrical in the stamens. There
are four equal sepals, four equal petals ;
but six stamens, and only two members
in the pistil, which for the present may

Fig. 2'J9. Flower of a Larkspur. 240. Its calyx and corolla displayed ; the five
larger parts are tlie sepals; the four smaller, of two shapes, are the petals; the
place of the fifth petal is vacant. 241. Diagram of the same; the place for the
missing petal marked by a dotted line.

Fig. 242. Flower of a Monkshood. 243. Its p.arts disjilayed ; five sepals, the up-
per forming the hood; the two lateral alike, broad and flat; the two lower small.
The two pieces under the hood represent the corolla, reduced to two odd-shaped
petals; in centre the numerous stamens and three pistils. 244. Diagram of the
calyx and corolla; the three dotted Hues in the place of missing petals.

88

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

be left out of view. The want of syiiinietry is iu the stamens. Tliese are ii<
two circles, au outer and an inner. The outer eircle consists of two staineus
only; the inner has its proper number of four. Tiie flower of Violet, which
is ou the plan of five, is symmetrical iu calyx, corolla, and stamens, inas-
much as each of these circles consists of five members ; but it is conspicu-
ously irregular in the corolla, one of the petals being very dilferent from the
rest.

254. The flowers of Larkspur, and of Monkshood or Aconite, which are
nearly related, are both strikingly irregular in calyx and corolla, and con-
siderably unsymmetrical. In Larkspur (Fig. 239-241) the irregular calyx
consists of five sepals, one of which, larger than the rest, is prolonged be-
hind into a large sac or spur; but the corolla is of only four petals (of two
shapes), — the fifth, needed to complete the symmetry, being left out. And
the Monkshood (Fig. 242-244) has five very dissimilar sepals, and a corolla
of only two very small and curiously-sliajied petals, — the three nteded to
make up the symmetry being left out. The stamens in both are out of
symmetry with the ground-])lan, being numerous. So are the pistils, which
are usually diminished to three, sometimes to two or to one.

255. Flo-wers with Multiplication of Parts are very common. The

stamens are indefinitely numerous
in L'lrkspur and in Monkshood
(Fig. 242, 243), while the pistils
are fewer than the ground-plan
suggests. Most Cactus -flowers

have all the organs much in-
creased in number (Fig. 229),
and so of the Water-Lily. Iu
Anemone (Fig. 233) the stamens
and pistils are multiplied while
tlie petals are left out. In Buttercups or Crowfoot, while the sepak and
petals conform to the ground-plan of five, both stamens and pistils are indefi-
nitely multiplied (Fig. 245).

256. Flowers modified by Union of Parts, so that these parts more
or less lose the appearance of separate leaves or other organs growing out
of the end of the stem or receptacle, are extremely common. There are two
kinds of sucli union, namely : —

Coalescence of parts of the same circle by their contiguous margins; and
Adnation, or the union of adjacent circles or unlike parts.

257. Coalescence is not rare iu leaves, as in the upper pairs of Honey-
suckles, Fig. 163. It may all the more be expected in the crowded circles
or whorls of flower-leaves. Datura or Stramonium (Fig. 246) shows this
coalescence both in calyx and corolla, the five sepals and the five petals be-
ing thus united to near their tips, each into a tube or long and narrow cup.
These unions make needful the followin": terms : —

Fig. 245. Flower of Ranunculus bulbosus, or Buttercup, in .section.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

89

Gamopetalous, said of a corolla the petals of which arc thus coalescent
iuto oue body, whether only at base or higher. The uniou may extend to
the very summit, as in Morning Glory and
the liiie (Fig. 247), so that the number of
petals in it may not be apparent. The old
name for this was Monopetalous, but that
means " oue-petalled ; " while gamopetalous
means " petals united," and therefore is llie
proper term.

Folypetalous is the counterpart term, to
denote a corolla of distinct, that is, separate
petals. As it means " many pctallcd," it is
nut the best possible name, but it is the old
one and in almost universal use.

Gamosepalous applies to the calyx when
the sepals are in this way united.

Polysepalous, to the calyx wlieu of sepa-
rate sepals or calyx-leaves.

258. Degree of union or of separation in
descriptive botany is expressed in the same
way as is the lobing of leaves (139). See
Pig. 249-233, and the explanations.

259. A corolla when gamopetalous com-
monly shows a distinction (well marked in
Fig. 249-251) between a contracted tubular
portion below, the Tube, and the spread-
ing part above, the Border or Limb. The
junction between tube and limb, or a more
or less enlarged upper portion of the tube
between the two, is the Throat. The
same is true of tlie calyx.

260. Some names are given to partic-
ular forms of the gamopetalous corolla,
applicable also to a gamosepalous calyx,
such as

Wheel-shaped, or Rotate; when spread-
ing out at once, without a tube or with
a very short one, something in the sliape
of a wheel or of its diverging spokes, Fjg.
252, 253.

Salver-shaped, or Salver-form ; when a flat-spreading border is raised on

Fig. 246. Flower of Datura Stranionium ; gamosepalous and gamopetalous.
Fig. 247. Fuinielform corolla of a commou Morning Glory, detached from its
poly.sepalous calyx.

90 FLOWERS. [section 8.

a narrow tube, from which it diverges at right angles, like the salver rep-

249

resented in old pictures, with a slender
handle beneath. Fig. 249-251, 255.

Bell-shaped, or Campanulale ; where
a short and broad lube widens upward,
in the shape of a bell, as in Fig. 254.

Funnel-shaped, or Funnel-form ; grad-

ually spreading at the summit of a tube whicli is narrow below, in the

254 255 256 257 25S

shape of a funnel or tunnel, as in the corolla of the common Morning
Glory (Fig. 247) and of the Stramonium (Fig. 246).

Fig. 248. Polypetalous corolla of Soapwort, of five petals with long claws or
stalk-like bases.

Fig. 249. Flower of Standing Cj^iress (Gilia coronopifolia); ganiopetalous: the
tube answering to the long claws in 248,. except that they are coalescent: the limb
or border (the spreading part above) is five-parted, that is, the petals not there
united except at very base.

Fig. 250. Flower of Cypress-vine (Ipomoea Quamoclit); like preceding, but limb
fice-lihed.

Fig. 251. Flower of Ipomcea coccinea; limb almost enftVe.

Fig. 252. Wheel-sliaped or rotate and five-parted corolla of Bittersweet, Solanum
Dulcamara. 253. Wheel-shaped and five-lohed corolla of Potato.

Fig. 254, Flower of a Campanula or Harebell, with a campanulate or bell-shaped
corolla; 25.5, of aPlilox, with salver-shaped corolla; 256, of Dead-Nettie (Lainiuni),
with labiate rmge-nt (nr gaping) corolla; 257, of Snapdragon, with labiate person-
ate corolla; 258, of Toad-Flax, with a similar corolla spurred at the base.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

91

Tabular ; wlieu prolonged into a tube, with, little or no spreading at the
border, as iu the corolla of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, the calyx of Stra-
luoniuni (Fig. 246), etc.

261. Although sepals and petals are usually all blade or lamina (123),
like a sessile leaf, yet they may have a contracted and stalk-like base, an-
swering to petiole. This
is called its Cl.vw, iu
Latiu Unguis. Unguicu-
late petals are universal
and strongly marked in
the Pink tribe, as in
Soapwort (Fig. 248).

262. Such petals, and
various others, may have
259 260 an outgrowth of the in-

ner face into an appendage or fringe, as in Soapwort, and iu Silene (Fig.
259), where it is at the junction of
claw and blade. This is called a
Crown, or Corona. In Passion-
flowers (Fig. 260) the crown consists
of numerous threads on the base of
each petal.

263. Irregular Flowers may be
polypetalous, or nearly so, as in the
papilionaceous corolla; but most of
them are irregular through coales-
cence, which often much disguises
the numerical symmetry also. As
affecting the corolla the following
forms have received particular names :

264, Papilionaceous Corolla,
Fig. 261, 262. This is polypetalous,
except that two of the petals cohere,
usually but slightly. It belongs only
to the Leguminous or Pulse family.
The name means butterfly-like ; but
the likeness is hardly obvious. The
names of the five petals of the
papilionaceojis corolla are curiously
incongruous. They are.

Fig. 259. Unguicxilate (clawed) petal of a Silene; with a two-parted crown.
Fig. 260. A small Passion-flower, with crown of .slender threads.
Fig, 261. Front view of a papilionaceous corolla. 262. The parts of the same,
displayed : s, Standard, or Vexillum ; w, Wings, or Alae ; k. Keel, or Carina.

92

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

Tlie Standard or Banner {yexilluni), the large upper petal which is

external iu tlie bud and wrapped around the others.

The Wings {AUe), the pair of side petals, oi' quite different shape from

the standard.

The Kkel {Canna), the two lower and usuall.y smallest petals ; these are

lightly coalescent into a body which bears some likeness, not to the keel,

but to the prow of a boat ; and this encloses the stamens and pistil. A

Pea-blossom is a typical example; the present illustration is from a species

of Locust, Robinia hispida.

265. Labiate Corolla (Fig. 256-25S), which would more properly have
been called Bilabiate, that is, two-lipped.
This is a common form of gamopetalous co-
rolla ; and the calyx is often bilabiate also.
These flowers are all on the plan of five ;
and the irregularity in the corolla is owing
to unequal union of the petals as well as to
diversity of form. The two petals of the
upper or posterior side of the flower unite
with each other higher up than with the
lateral petals (iu Fig. 256, quite to tlie top),
forming the Upper lip: the lateral and the
lower similarly unite to form the Loicer lip.
The single notch which is generally found
at the summit of the upper lip, and the two
notches of the lower lip, or in otlier words
the two lobes of the upper and the three of
the lower lip, reveal the real composition.
So also docs the alternation of these five
parts with those of the calyx outside. When
the calyx is also bilabiate, as iu the Sage,
this alternation gives three lobes or sepals
to the upper and two to the lower lip. Two
forms of the labiate corolla hr.ve been desig-
nated, viz. : —

Ringent or Gaping, when the orifice is
wide open, as in F'ig. 256.

Personate or Masked, when a protube-
rance or intrusion of the base of the lower
lip (called a Palate) projects over or closes

the orifice, as in Snapdragon and Toad-Flax, Fig. 257, 258.

Fig. 263. Corolla of a purple Gerardia laid open, showing the four stamens ; the
cross shows where the fifth stamen would be, if present.

Fig. 264. Corolla, laid open, and stamens of Pentstemon grandiflorus, with a
sterile filament in the place of the fifth .stamen, and representing it.

Fig. 265. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, displaying two good stamens and three
abortive ones or vestiges.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE,

93

266. There are all gradations between labiate and regular corollas. In
those of Gerardia, of some species of Peutsteuion, and of Catalpa (Fig.
"263-265), the labiate character is slight, but is manifest enclose inspection.
In almost all such flowers the plan of five, which, is obvious or ascertain-
able in the calyx and corolla, is obscured in the stamens by the abortion or
suppression of one or three of their number.

'iiSJ. Ligulate Corolla. The ligulate or Strap-shaped corolla mainly
belongs to the family of Composite, in which numerous small flowers are

gathered into a head, within an involucre that imitates a calyx. It is best
exemplilied in the Dandelion and in Chiccory (Fig. 266). Each one of
these straps or Ligules, looking like so many petals, is the corolla of a dis-

tinct flower : the base is a short tube, which opens out into the ligule : the
five minute teeth at the end indicate the number of constituent petals. So
this is a kind of gamopetalous corolla, whicli is open along one side nearly

Fig. 2ti6. Two flower-lieads of Chiccory.

Fig. 267. One of them half cut away, better showing some of the flowers.

94

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

to the base, and outspread. The nature of sucli a corolla (and of tlic sta-
mens also, to l)c cxi)lauicd in the next section) is illustrated by the flowei
of a Lobelia, Fig. 2S5. •

268. In Asters, Daisies, Sunflower, Coreopsis (Fig. 2G8), and the like,
only the marginal (or Raj/) corollas are ligulate ; the rest (those of the

Disk) are regularly gamopetalous,
tubular, and tive-lobed at summit;
/^y but they are small and individually
/n inconspicuous, only the rajf-Jlowers
making a show. In fact, those of
Coreopsis and of Sunflower are
simply for show, these ray-flowers
being not only sterile, but neutral,
that is, having neither stamens
nor pistil. But in Asters, Daisies,
Golden-rods, and the like, these ray-flowers are pistillate and fertile, serving

6

therefore for seed-bearing as well as for show. Let it not be supposed that
the show is useless. See Section XIIL

269. Adnation, or Consolidation, is the union of the members of parts
belonging to ditierent circles of the flower (256). It is of course under-
stood that in this (as likewise in coalescence) the parts are not formed aud
then conjoined, but are produced in union. They are l)orn united, as the
term adnate implies. To illustrate this kind of union, take the accompany-
ing series of flowers (Fig. 270-274), shown in vertical section. In the
first. Fig. 270, Flax-flower, there is no adnation; sepals, petals, and sta-
mens, Sivefree as well as distinct, being separately borne on the receptacle,
one circle within or above the next ; only the five pistils liave their ovaries
coalescent. In Fig. 271, a Cherry-flower, the ])etals and stamens are borne
on the throat of the calyx-tube ; that is, the sepals are coalescent into a cup.
and the petals and stamens are adnate to the inner face of this; in other

Fig. 268. Head of flowers of a Coreniisis, divided lengthwise.

Fig. 269. A slice of the preceding more enlarged, with one tuhular perfect flower
(") left standing on the receptacle, with its hractlet or chaff (h), one lignlate and
nentral ray flower (ct), and part of another; dd, section of bracts or leaves of the
involucre.

SECTION 8.] MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.

95

words, tlie sepals, petals, and stamens are all consolidated up to a certain
lieiglit. In Fig. 272, a Purslane-flower, the same parts are aduate to or
consolidated with the ovary up to
its middle. In Fig. 273, a Haw-
thorn-flower, the consolidation has
extended over the whole ovary ;
and petals and stamens are aduate
to the calyx still further. In Fig.
274, a Cranberry-blossom, it is the
same except that all the parts are
free at the same height; all seem
to arise from the top of the ovary.

270. In botanical description,
to express tersely such diiferences
in the relation of these organs to
the pistil, they are said to be

Hypogynijus (i. e. under the pis-
til) vv'hen they are ally)r^, that is,
not aduate to pistil nor connate
with each other, as in Fig. 270.

Ferigynous (around the pistil)
when connate with each other,
that is, when petals and stamens
are inserted or borne on the calyx,
whether as in Cherry -flowers (Fig.
271) they are free from the pistil, ^
or as in Purslane and Hawthorn
(Fig. 272, 273) they are also ad-
uate below to the ovary.

Epigynous (on the ovary) when
so adnate that all these parts ap-
pear to arise from the very summit of the s)vary, as in Fig. 274.
last two terms are not very definitely distinguished.

271. Another and a simpler form of expression is to describe parts of
the flower as being

Free, when not united with or inserted upon other parts.

Distinct, when parts of the same kind are not united. This term is the
counterpart of coalescent, as free is the counterpart of adnate. Many
writers use the term " free " indiscriminately for both ; but it is better to
distinguish them.

The

Fig. 270. Flax-flower in section; the parts all free, — hypogyuous.

Fig. 271. Cherry-flower in section ; petals and stamens adnate to tube of calyx, —
perigynous.

Fig. 272. Purslane-flower in section; calyx, petals, stamens, all adnate to lowei
half of ovary, — perigyuoua.

FLOWERS.

[section 8.

Connate is a term common for cither not free or i>ot distinct, that is, for
parts united congenitally, wlictlier of same or of different kinds.
Adnate, as properly used, relates to tlie union of dissimilar jjarts.

272. lu still another form of ex-
pression, the terms superior and.
inferior have been much used in
the sense of above and below.

Superior is said of the ovary of
Flax-tlower, Cherry, etc., because
above the other parts ; it is equiv-
alent to "ovary free." Or it is
said of the calyx, etc., when above
the ovary, as in Fig. 273-275.

Inferior, when applied to the
ovary, means the same as " calyx
adnate ; " when appUed to the flo-
ral envelopes, it means that they
are free.

273. Position of Flower or
of its Parts. The terms superior
and inferior, or upper and lower,
are also used to indicate the relative
position of the parts of a flower in

274 reference to the axis of inflores-

cence. An axillary flower stands between the bract or leaf which sub-
tends it and the axis or stem which bears this bract
or leaf. This is represented in
sectional diagrams (as in Fi^. 275,
276) by a transverse line for the
bract, and a small circle for the axis
of inflorescence. Now the side of
the blossom which faces the bract
is the

Anterior, or Inferior, or Lower side ;
while the side next the axis is the
Posterior, or Superior, or Upper side of the flower.
274. So, in the labiate corolla (Fig. 2.5(5-258), the lip which is composed
of three of the five petals is tlie anterior, or inferior, or lower lip; the other
is the posterior, or superior., or upper lip.

Fig. 273. Hawthorn-blossom in section ; parts adnate to whole face of ovary,
and with each other beyond ; another grade of perigynous.

Fig. 274. Cranberry-blossom in section ; parts epigynous.

VlG. 275. Diagram of papilionaceous flower (Robinia, Fig. 261), with bract be-
low; axis of inflorescence above.

FiQ. 276. Diagram of Violet-flower; showing the relation of parts to liract and
ads.

SECTION 8.'

ARRANGEMENTS IN THE BUD.

97

275. In Violets (Fig. 238, 276), the odd sepal is posterior (next the
axis) ; the odd petal is iherel'ore anterior, or next the subtending leaf. In
the papilionaceous flower (Fig. 261, and diagram. Fig. 275), the odd sepal is
anterior, and so two sepals are posterior; consequently, by the alternation,
tiie odd petal (the standard) is posterior or upper, and the two petals form-
ing the keel are anterior or lower.

<^^^^^

§ 5. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD.

276. ^Estivation was the fanciful name given by Linnaeus to denote
the disposition of the parts, especially the leaves of the flower, before An-
theds, i. e. before the blossom opens. Prcefloration, a better term, is some-
times used. This is of im|)ortance in distniguishing different families or
genera of plants, being generally uniform in each. The aestivation is best
seen by making a slice across the flower-bud ; and it may be expressed in
diagrams, as in the accompanying figures.

277. The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in
the bud, or they do not. When tliey do not overlap, the aestivation is

Vulcate, when the pieces meet each other by tiieir
abrupt edges, without any infolding or overlapping;
as the calyx of the Linden or Bass wood (Fig. 277).
Imluplicate, which is valvate with the margins of
each piece projecting inwards, as in the calyx of a
common Virgin's-bower, Fig. 278, or

Iiiroliife, which is the same but I ho margins rolled
inward, as in most of the large-flowered species of
Clematis, Fig. 279.

Redujdicate, a rarer modification of valvate, is similar but with margins
projecting outward.

Open, the parts not touching in the bud, as
the calyx of Mignonette.

278. When the pieces overlap in the bud, it
is in one of two ways ; either every piece has
one edge in and one edge out, or some pieces
are wholly outside and others wholly inside. In
the first case the aestivation is

Convolute, also naiiied Contorted or Ttcided, as in Fig. 280, a cross-sec-
tion of a corolla very strongly thus convolute or rolled up together, and in
the corolla of a Flax-flower (Fig. 281), where the petals only moderately
overlap in 1 his way. Here one edge of every petal covers the next before

Til

Fig. 277. Diagram of a flower of Linden, showing the calyx valvate and corolla
imbricate in the bud, etc.

Fig. 278. Valvate-induplicate aestivation of caly.x: of common Virgin's-bower.
Fig. 279. Valvate-involnte a'stivation of same iu Vine-bower, Clematis Vitialla.

98

STAMENS.

[SECTION 9.

it, while its other edge is covered by the next behind it. The oilier mode
is the

Imbricate or Imbricatpd, in Aviiicli tlie outer parts cover or overlap the
inner so as to "break joints," like tiles
or shingles on a roof ; whence the name.
When the parts ave three, the first or jl
outermost is wholly external, the third
wholly internal, the second has one
margin covered by the first while the
other overlaps the third or innermost
piece : this is the arrangement of alternate three-
ranked leaves (187). When there are five pieces, as in the corolla of Fig.
225, and calyx of Fig. 281, as also of Fig. 241, 276, two are external,
two are internal, and one (the third in the spiral) has one edge covered
by the outermost, while its other edge covers the in-
nermost; which is just the five-ranked arrangement of
alternate leaves (1S8). When the pieces are four, two
arc outer and two are inner; which answers to the ar-
rangement of opposite leaves.

279. The imbricate and the convolute modes some-
times vary one into the other, especially in the corolla.

?80. In a gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx,
the shape of the tube in the bud may sometimes be notice-
able. It may be

Plicate or Plaited, that is, folded lengthwise ; and the
plaits may either be turned outwards, forming projecting
ridges, as in the corolla of Campanula; or turned in-
wards, as in that of Gentian Belladonna ; or

Supervolute, when the plaits are convolutely wrapped
round each other, as in the corolla of Morning Glory and of Stramonium,
Fi^. 282.

Section IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR.

281. Androecium is a technical name for the staminate system of a
flower (that is, for the stamens taken together), which it is sometimes con-
venient to use. The preceding section has dealt with modifications of the
flower pertaining mainly to calyx and corolla. Those relating to the sta-
mens are now to be indicated. First as to

Fig. 280. Convolute aestivation, as in the corolla-lobes of Oleander.

Fio. 281. Diagram of a Fla.x-flower ; calyx imbricated and corolla convolute in
the bud.

Fig. 282. Upper part of corolla of Datura Stramonium in the bud ; and below
a section showing the convolution of the plaits.

SECTION 9.]

STAMENS.

99

282. Insertion, or place of attaclimeut. The stamens usually go with
the petals. Not rarely they are at base

Epipetalous, that is, inserted
oil (or adiiate to) tlie corolla, as
in Fig. 283. When free from
the corolla, they may be

Hi/pogi/iious, inserted on the
receptacle under the pistil or
gyncecium.

Periffi/noiis, inserted on the
calyx, that is, with the lower
part of filament aduate to the
culyx-tnbe. 283

Epigynous, borne apparently on the top of the ovary ; all which is ex-
plained in Fig. 270-274.

Gynandrous is another term relating to insertion of rarer occurrence,
that is, where the stamens are
inserted on (in other words,
adnate to) the style, as in
Lady's Shpper (Fig. 284), and ,,.
in the Orchis family generally.
283. In Relation to each
Other, stamens are more com-
monly

Bktbict, that is, without any
union with each other. But
when united, the following
technical terms of long use 285
indicate tlieir modes of mutual connection : —

Monadelphoiis (from two Greek words, meaning "in one brotherhood"),
•when united by tlieir filaments into one set, usually into a ring or cup
below, or into a tube, as in the Mallow Family (Fig. 286), the Passion-
flower (Fig. 260), the Lupine (Fig. 287), and in Lobelia (Fig, 285).

Biadelphous (meaning in two brotherhoods), when united by the fila-
ments into two sets, as in the Pea and most of its near relatives (Fig. 288),
usually nine in one set, and one in the other.

Triadelphous {\h\'ee brotherhoods), when the filaments are united in three
sets or clusters, as in most species of Hypericum.

Fig. 283. Corolla of Morning Glory laid open, to .show the five stamens inserted
on it, near the base.

Fig. 284. Style of a Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium), and stamens united with it ;
a, a, the anthers of the two good stamens ; st, an abortive stamen, what should
be its antlier cliaiiged into a petal-like body ; stig, the stigma.

Fig. 285. Flower of Lobelia cardiualis, Cardinal flower; corolla making approach
to the ligulate form; filaments (st) monadelphou.s, and anthers (a) syngenesious.

100

STAMENS.

[section 9.

286

288

PentuiMphous (five hrothorliouds), wlicii in five sets, as m some species
of Ily])ericiuii and ui Amerieaii Liudeu (Fig. 277, 289).

Polyadelphous (many or several
brotlierhouds) is the term generally
employed when these sets are several,
or even more than two, and tlic par-
ticular number is left unspecified.
Tlicsc terms all relate to tlie fila-
ments.

Syngenesious is the term to denote
that stamens have their anthers united,
coalcsccut into a ring or tube ; as in
Lobelia (FiJ,^ 285), in Violets, and in
all of the great family of Composilae.

284. Their Number in a flower is commonly expressed directly, but
sometimes adjectively, by a series of terms which were the name of classes
ill Ihe LiniiEean artificial system, of which the following names, as also the
preceding, are a suivival -. —

Momndrous, i. e. solitary-stamened, when the flower has only one stamen,

Dia)idrotis, when it has two stamens only,

Tfiandrous, when it has three
stamens,

Tetrandrous, wlien it has four
stamens,

Pentandroiis, when it has
five stamens,

Hexandrous, when with six
stamens, and so on to

Polyandrous, when it has
many stamens, or more than a dozen.

285. For which terms, see the Glossary,
prefixed to -andria (from the Greek), which Linnfens used for andrcpcium,
and are made into an English adjective, -androHs. Two other terms, of
same origin, designate particular cases of number (four or six) in con-
nection with unequal length. Namely, the stamens are

Didynamous, wlien, being only four, they form two pairs, one pair longer
than the other, as in the Trumpet Creeper, in Gerardia (Fig. 203), etc.

Fig. 286. Flower of a l\I;illo\v, witli calyx and corolla '^nt away ; showing niona-
delplinus .stamens.

Fig. 287. Monadelphous .stamens of Lupine. 288. Diadelphous stamens (9 and 1)
of a l'ea-lilossom.

Fig. 289. One of the five stanien-chi.sters of the flower of American Linden, with
accompanying scale. The five clusters are .shown in .section in the diairrani of this
flower, Fig. 277.

Flo. 2!t0. Five .syngenesions stamens of a Coreopsis. 291. Same, with tube laid
open aud displayed.

They are all Greek numerals

SECTION 9. J

ANtHERS.

101

Tetradynamous^ wlien, being ouly six, iour of tlieiii surpass the other
two, as in the Musturd-llower uudali the Cruciferous family, I'ig. 235.

28G. The Filament is a kiud of stalk to the auther, couiiuouly slender
or thread-like : it is to the auther nearly what the petiole is to tlie blade of
a leaf. Therefore it is not an essential part. As a leaf may be without
a stalk, so the anther may be Sennile, or without a filament.

287. The Anther is the essential part of the stamen. It is a sort of
case, filled with a One powder, the Pollen, which serves to fertilize the pis-
til, so that it may perfect seeds. The anther is said to be

I/i/iale (as in Fig. 292), when it is attached by its base to the very apex
of the filament, turning neither inward nor outward ;

Achiate (as in Fig. 293), wlien attached
as it were by one face, usually for its whole
length, to the side of a continuation of the
filament ; and

Versatile (as in Fig. 291), when fixed by
or near its middle only to the very point of
the filament, so as to swing loosely, as in
the Lily, in Grasses, etc. Versatile or ad-
uate anthers are

Introrse, or Incumbent, when facing in-
ward, that is, toward the centre of the flow-
er, as in Magnolia, Water-Lily, etc.

Extrorse, when facing outwardly, as in the Tulip-tree.

288. Rarely does a stamen bear any resemblance to a leaf,
or even to a petal or flower-leaf. Nevertheless, the botanist's
idea of a stamen is that it answers to a leaf developed in a
peculiar form and for a special purpose. In the filament he
sees tiie stalk of the leaf; in the anther, the blade. Tiie
blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides ; so the anther
consists of two Lobes or Cells, one answering to the left, the
other to the right, side of the blade. The two lobes are often
connected by a prolongation of the filament, which answers
to the midrib of a leaf; this is called the Connective. This
is conspicuous in Fig. 292, where the connective is so broad
tliat it separates the two cells of the anther to some distance.

289. A simple conception of the morphological relation of
an anther to a leaf is given in Fig. 295, an ideal figure, the lower part rep-
resenting a stamen with the top of its anther cut away ; the upper, the
corresponding upper part of a leaf.

Fig. 292. Stamen of IsopjTum, with innate anther. 293. Of Tulip-tree, with
ailnate (and extrorse) anther. 294. Of Evening Primro.se, with versatile anther.

Fig. 295. Diagram of tlie lower part of an anther, cut across ahove, and the upper
part of a leaf, to .show how tlie one answers to the other; the filament to petiole,
the connective to midrib; the two cells to the right and left halves of the blade.

102

STAMENS.

[section 9.

290. So aatliers are generally two-celled. But as the pollen begius to
form in two parts of each cell (the anterior and the posterior), sometimes
these two strata are not confluent, and the anther even at maturity may be
four-celled, as in Moonseed (Fig. 296) ; or rather, in that case (the word

cell bt;ing used for each lateral half of the
organ), it is two-celled, but the cells bilocel-
lale.

291. But anthers may become one-celled,
aud that either by eoufluence or by suppres-
sion.

292. By confluence, when the two cells
run together into one, as they nearly do in
most species of Pentstemon (Fig. 297), more
so in Monarda (Fig. 300j, aud completely

in the Mallow (Fig. 29S) and all the Mallow family.

Fig. 296. Stamen of Moonseed, with anther cut acro.ss; tins 4-celled, or rather 4-
locellate.

Fia. 297. Stamen of Pentstemon pubescens ; the two anther-cells diverging, aud
almost confluent.

Fig. 298. Stamen of Mallow ; the anther supposed to answer to that of Fig. 297,
but the cells completely confluent into one.

Fig. 299. Stamen of Globe Amaranth ; very short filament bearing a single
anther-cell; it is open from top to bottom, showing the pollen within.

Fig. 300-305. Stamens of several plants of the Labiate or Mint Family. Fig.
300. Of a Monarda : the two anther-cells with bases divergent so that they are
transverse to the filament, and their contiguous tips confluent, so as to form one
cell opening by a continuous line. Fig. 301. Of a Calamintlia: tlie broad connec-
tive separating the two cells. FiG. 302. Of a Sage (Salvia Texana ; with long and
slender connective resembling forks of the filament, one bearing a good anther-cell ;
the other an abortive or poor one. Fig. 303. Another Sage (S. coccinea), with
connective longer and more thread-shaped, the lower fork having its anther-cell
wholly wantnig. FiG. 304. Of a White Sage, Audibertia grandiflnra; the lower
fork of connective a mere vesticre. Fig. 30.'). Of another White Sage (A. stachy-
oides), the lower fork of connective suppressed.

oECTION 9.]

POLLEN.

103

293. By suppressiou iu certain cases the anther may be reduced to one
cell or halved. Iu Globe Amaranth (Fig. 299) there is a single cell without
vestige of any other. Difiereut species of Sage and of the White Sages of
California show various grades of abortion of one of the anther-cells, along
with a singular lengthening of the connective (Fig. 302-305).

294. The splitting open of an anther for the discharge of its pollen is
termed its Dehiscence.

295. As the figures show, this is commonly by a line along the whole
lengtli of each cell, either lateral or,

when the anthers are extrorse, often
along the outer face, and when introrse,
along the inner face of each cell. Some-
times the opening is only by a chink, hole,
or pore at the top, as in the Azalea, Py-
rola (Fig. 307), etc. ; sometimes a part of
the face separates as a sort of trap-door
(or valve), hinged at the top, and open-
ing to allow the escape of the pollen,
as in the Sassafras, Spice-bush, and Barberry (Fig. 308).

296. Pollen. This is the powdery matter, commonly of a yellow color,
which fills the cells of the anther, and is discharged during blossoming.

309 310 311 312 313

after which the stamens generally fall or wither away. Under the micro-
scope it is found to consist of grains, usually round or oval, and all alike
in the same species, but very different in different plants. So that the

314 315 316 317

plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen alone,
are shown in the accompanying figures.

318
Several forms

Fig. 306. Stamen with the usual dehiscence of anther down the side of each cell.

Fig. 307. Stamen of Pyrola; cells opening by a terminal hole.

Fig. 308. Stamen of Barberry ; cells of anther each opening by an uplifted valve.

Fig. 309. Magnified pollen of a Lily, smooth and oval; 310, of Echinocystis,
grooved lengthwise; 311, of Sicyos, with bristly points and smooth bands; 312, of
Musk Plant (Mimuhis), with spiral grooves; 313, of Succory, twelve-sided and
dotted.

Fig. 314. Magnified pollen of Hibiscus and other Mallow-plants, beset with
prickly projections ; 315, of Circsea, with angles bearing little lobes; 316, of Even-

104

STAMENS.

[SECTION 9.

297. An ordinary polleu-graiu lias two coats ; the outer coat tliickisb,
but weak, aud frequently adorned with lines or bands, or studded with
points ; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible, and
its cavity when fresh contains a thickish protoplasmic Huid, often rendered
turbid by an immense number of minute particles that float in it. As the
pollen matures this fluid usually dries up, but the protoplasm does not lose
its vitality. When the grain is wetted it absorbs water, swells up, aud is
apt to burst, discharging the contents. Bui when weak
syrup is used it absorbs this slowly, aud the tough in-
ner coat will sometimes break througii the outer aud
begin a kind of growth, like that which takes place when
the pollen is placed upon the stigma.

298. iSome pollen - grains are, as it
were, lobed (as in Fig. 315, 316), or
formed of four grains united (as in the
Heath family, Pig. 317) : that of Pine
(Fig. 318) has a large rounded and empty
bladder-like expansion upon each side.
This readers such pollen very buoyant,
and capable of being trans-
ported to a great distance
by the wind.

299. In species of Acacia
simple grains lightly cohere
into globular pellets. In
Mdkweeds and in most
Orchids all the poUen of an

anther-cell is compacted or coherent into one mass, called a Pollen-mass, ot
PoLLiNiuM, plural PoLLiNiA. (Fig. 319-322.)

©J

319

ing Primrose, the three lobes as large as the central body; 317, of Kalmia, four
grains united, as in mo.st of the Heath family; 318, of Pine, as it were of three
grains or cells united ; the lateral enijity and light.

Fig. 319. Pollen, a pair of poUinia of a Milkweed, Asclepias, attached by stalks
to a gland; moderately magnified.

Fig. 320. Pollinium of an Orcliis (Habenaria), with its stalk attached to a
sticky gland; magnified. 321. Some of tlie packets or partial pollinia, of wliieh
Fig. 320 is made up, more magnified.

Fig. 322. One of the yiartial pollinia, torn up at top to show the grains (which
are each composed of four), aud highly magnified.

SECTION 10.] PISTILS. 100

Section X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR.

§ 1. ANGIOSPERMOUS OR ORDINARY GYNCECIUM.

300. Gynoecium is the techuical name for the ])isiil or pistils of a
flower taken collectively, or for whatever stands in place of tliese. The
various modifications of the gynoecium and the terms which relate to
tliem require particular attention.

301. The Pistil, when only one, occupies the centre of the flower;
when there arc two pistils, they stand facing each other in the centre of
the flower ; when several, they commonly form a ring or circle ; and when
very numerous, they are generally crowded iu rows or spirals on the sur-
face of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle. Their number
gives rise to certain terms, the counterpart of those used for stamens (284),
which are survivals of the names of orders in the Liunsean artificial system.
The names were coined by prefixing Greek numerals to -ffj/nia used for
gynoecium, and changed into adjectives in the form of -ffi/nous. That is, a
flower is

Momgijnous, when it has a single pistil, whether that be simple or com-
pound ;

Bigi/nous, when it has only two pistils; Trigynous, when with three;
Tctragijnous, with four; Pcntagguous, with five; Hexagynoiis, with six;
and so on to Polggj/iious, with many ])istils.

302. The Parts of a Complete Pistil, as already twice explained (16,
236), are the Ovary, the Style, and the Stigma. The ovary is one es-
sential part: it contains the rudiments of seeds, called Ovules. The
stigma at the summit is also essential : it receives the pollen, which fer-
tilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds. But the style,
commonly a tapering or slender column borne on the summit of the ovary,
and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side, is no more necessary to a
pistil than the filament is to the stamen. Accordingly, there is no style in
many pistils : in these the stigma is sessile, that is, rests directly on the
ovary (as in Pig. 326). The stigma is very various in shape and appear-
ance, being sometimes a little knob (as in the Cherry, Pig. 271), sometimes
a point or small surface of bare tissue (as in Pig. 327-330), and sometimes
a longitudinal crest or line (as in Pig. 321, 311-343), or it may occupy the
whole lengih of the style, as in Pig. 331.

303. The word Pistil (Latin, PisliUum') means a pestle. It came into
use in the first place for such flowers as tiiose of Crown Imperial, or Lily,
in which the pistil in the centre was likened to the pestle, and the perianth
around it to tiie mortar, of the apothecary.

304 .\ pistil is either simple or compound. It is simple when it answers
to a single flower-leaf, compound when it answers to two or three, or a
fuller circle of such h'aves conjoined.

106

SIMPLE PISTILS.

[SECTION 10.

305. Carpels. It is convenient to liave a name for each flower-leaf of
the gynceciuiii ; so it is called a Carpel, in Latin Carpellum or Carpidium.
A simple pistil is a carpel. Each component tlower-leaf of a compound
pistil is likewise a carpel. When a flower has twu or more pistils, these
of course are simple pistils, that is, separate carpels or pistil-leaves. There
may be only a single simple pistil to the flower, as in a Pea or Ciierry
blossom (Fig. 271) ; there may be two such, as in many Saxifrages ; or
many, as in the Strawberry. More commonly the single pistil in the
centre of a blossom is a compound one. Then there is seldom much
difficulty in ascertaining the number of carpels or pistil-leaves that com-
pose it.

306. The Simple Pistil, viewed morphologically, answers to a leaf-
blade with margins incurved and united where they meet, so forming a
closed case or pod (the ovary), and bearing ovules at the suture or junction
of these margins : a tapering upper portion with margins similarly inrolled,
is supposed to form the style ; and these same margins, exposed at the tip
or for a portion of the length, become the stigma. Compare, under this
view, the three accompanying figures.

307. So a simple pistil should have a oue-colled ovary, only one line of

attachment for the ovules, a single style,
and a single stigma. Certain variations
from this normal condition which some-
times occur do not invalidate this mor-
phological conception. For instance, the
stigma may become two-lobed or two-
ridged, because it consists of two leaf-
margins, as Fig. 324 shows ; it may
become 2-locellate by the turning or grow-
ing inward of one of the sutures, so as to
divide the cavity.

308. There are two or three terms which primarily relate to the parts
of a simple pistil or carpel, and are thcncs carried on to the compound
pistil, viz. : —

Ventbal Suture, the line which answers to the united margins of the
rarpel-leaf, therefore naturally called a suture or seam, and the ventral
or inner one, because in the circle of carpel-leaves it looks inward or to the
centre of the flower.

Dorsal Suture is the line down" the back of the carpel, answering to

Fig. 323. An inrolled small leaf, such as in double-tlQwered Cherry blossoms is
often seen to occupy the place of a pistil.

Fig. 324. A simple pistil (of Isoiiyrum), with ovary cut across ; the inner (ven-
tral) face turned toward the eye : the ovules seem to lie borne on the ventral suture,
answering to leaf-margins : the stigma above seen also to answer to leaf-margins.

Fig. 325. Pod or simple pistil of Caltha or Marsh-JNIarigold, which has opened,
and shed its seeds.

SECTION 10.]

PISTILS.

107

the midrib of the leaf, — not a seam therefore ; but at maturity many fruits,
sucli as pea-pods, opeu by this dorsal as well as by the ventral line.

Placenta, a name given to the surface, whatever it be, which bears
the ovules and seeds. The name may be needless vrheii the ovules grow
directly on the ventral suture, or from its top or bottom ; but when there
are many ovules there is usually some expansion of an ovule-bearing
or seed-bearmg surface ; as is seen in our Mandrake or Podophyllum,
Fig. 326.

309. A Compound Pistil is a combination of two, three, or a greater
number of pistil-leaves or carpels in a circle, united into one body, at least

326 327 328 329 330

by their ovaries. The annexed figures should make it clear. A series
of Saxifrages might be selected the gynoecium of which would show every
gradation between two simple pistils, or separate carpels, and their com-
plete coalescence into one compound and two-celled ovary. Even when
the constituent styles and stigmas are completely coalesceut into one, the
nature of the combination is usually revealed by some external lines or
grooves, or (as in Fig. 328-330) by the internal partitions, or the number
of the placenta^. The simplest case of compound pistil is that

310. With two or more Cells and Axile Placentae, namely, witli as
many cells as there are carpels, that have united to compose the organ.

Fig. 326. Simple pistil of Podophyllum, cut across, showing ovules borne on
placenta.

Fig. 327. Pistil of a Saxifrage, of two simple carpels or pistil-leaves, united at
the base only, cut across botli above and below.

Fig. 328. Compound 3-carpellary justil of common St. John's-wort, cut across :
the three styles separate.

Fig. 329. The same of shrubliy St. John's-wort ; the three styles as well as
ovaries here united into one.

Fig. 330. Compound 3-carpellary pistil of Tradescantia or Spiderwoi t ; the three
stigmas as well as styles and ovary completely coalescent into one.

108

COMPOUND PISTILS.

[section 10.

Such a pistil is just wliat would be formed if tiic simple pistils (two, three,

or five ill a circle, as the case iiia^ be), like those of a Pseouy or Stonecrop

(Fig. 224, 225), pressed together in tiic centre of the flower,

were to coiiere by their contiguous parts. In such a case

the placentae are natui-ally axilp, or all brought togetlier in

the axis or centre; and the ovary has as many Dissepiments,

or internal Partitions, as there are carpels in its composition.

For these are the contiguous and coalesceut walls or sides of

the component carpels. When such pistils ripen into pods,

they often separate along tliese lines into their elementary

carpels.

311. One-celled, with free Central Placenta. The
commoner case is that of Purslane; (i"ig. 27:2) and of the
Pink and Chickweed families (Fig. 331, 332). This is ex-
plained by supposing that the partitions (such as those of
Fig. 329) have early vanished or have been suppressed. In-
deed, traces of them may often be detected in Pinks. On Uie other hand,
it is equally supposable that in the Primula family the free central is de-
rived from parietal placeutation by the carpels bearing ovules
only at base, and forming a consolidated common placenta
in the axis. Mitella and Dionsea help out this conce|)tion.

312. One-celled, with Parietal Placentae. In this not
uncommon case it is conceived that the two or three or
more carpel-leaves of such a compound pistil coalesce by
their adjacent edges, just as sepal-leaves do to form a gamo-

sepalous calyx,

S'^^JFrjg; ^ ^ — ^^^.^_^ or petals to form

\^^^JB />^f>>oX // ,«:<^^ a\ a gamopetalous

corolla, and as
is shown in the
d iagram, Fig,
333, and in an
actual cross-sec-
tion. Fig. 334. Here each carpel is an open leaf, or with some introflexion,
bearing ovules along its margins; and each placenta consists of the con-

334

335

336

Fig. 331, 332. Pistil of a Sandwort, with vertical ami transverse section of tlie
ovary : free central placenta.

Fig. 333. Plan of a one-celled ovary of three carpel -leaves, with parietal pla-
centaa, cut across below, where it is complete; the upper part showing the top of
the three leaves it is com]iosed of, ajiproaching, but not united.

Fig. 334. Cross section of the ovary of Frost- weed (HelianthemunO, with three
parietal placentae, bearing ovule.s.

Fig. 335. Cross section of an ovary of Hypericum graveolens, the three large pla-
centae meeting in the centre, so as to form a three-celled ovary. 3o(>. Same in fruit,
the placeutai now separate and roniideil.

SECTION 10.]

PISTILS.

109

tiguous margius of two pistil-leaves grown together. There is every grada-
tion between tLis and the three-celled ovary with the placenta; in the axis,
even in the same genus, sometimes even in different stages in the sp.nie
pistil (Fig. 335, 336).

§ 2. GYMNOSPERMOUS GYNCECIUM.

313. The ordinary pistil lias a closed ovary, and accordingly tlie pollen
can act upon tlie contained ovules only indirectly, llirougli tlie stigma.
This is expressed in a term of Greek derivation, viz. : —

Aiigiospermous, meaning that the seeds are borne in a sac or closed
vessel. The counterpart term is

Gymmspermous, meaning naked-seeded. This kind of pistil, or gyiioe-
cium, the simplest of all, yet the most peculiar, characterizes the Pine
family and its relatives.

314. While the ordinary simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to
be a leaf rolled together into a closed pod (306), those of the
Pine, Larch (Fig. 337), Cedar, and Arbor-Vitse (Fig. 338,
339) are open leaves, in the form of scales, each bearing two
or more ovules on the inner face, next the base. At the time
of blossoming, these pistil-leaves of the young cone diverge,

and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the stam-
iuate blossoms, falls directly upon the exposed
ovules. Afterward the scales close over each
other until the seeds are ripe. Then i hey sepa-
rate that the seeds may be shed. As the pollen
acts directly on the ovules, such pistil (or organ
acting as pistil) has no stigma.

315. In the Yew, and in Torreya and Gingko,
the gynoeeium is reduced to extremest simplicity,
that is, to a naked ovule, without any visible
carpel.

316. In Cycas the large naked ovules are borne
on the margins or lobes of an obviims open leaf
plants have other peculiarities, also distinguishing
Angiosfermous plants.

All Gymnospermods
them, as a class, from

Fig. 337. A pistil, that i.s, a scale of the cone, of a Larch, at the time of flower-
ing; insitle vii'w. showing its pair of iiakeil ovules.

Fig. 338. Branclilet of the American Arbor-Vitse, considerably larger than in
nature, terniinatiMl by its pistillate flowers, each consisting of a single scale (an
open pistil), together forming a small cone.

Fig. 339. One of the scales or carpels of the last, removed and more enlarged,
the inside exposed to view, showing a pair of ovules on its base.

no

OVULES.

[SECTION 11,

Section XI. OVULES.

317. Ovule (from tlio Latin, meaning a little egg) is the technical name
of that which in the flower answers to and becomes tlie seed.

318. Ovules are naked m gymnospermous plants (as just described); in
all others they are enclosed in the ovai'y. They may be produced along tlic

whole length of the cell or cells of the ovary, and then tliey are
apt to be numerous ; or only from some part of it, generally
the top or the bottom. In this case they are usually few or
single {jiolitary^ as in Fig. 34:l-3i3). They may be sessile,
i. e. without stalk, or they may be attached by a distinct stalk,
3^ the FuNiCLE or Funiculus (Fig. 340).

319. Considered as to their position and direction in the ovary, they are
Horizontal, when they are neither turned upward nor downward, as in

Podophyllum (Fig. 326) ;

Ascending^ when rising obliquely upwards, usually from the side of the
cell, not from its very base, as in the But-
tercuj) (Fig. 341), and the Purslane (Fig.
272);

Erect, when rising upright from the
very base of the cell, as in the Buck-
wheat (Fig. 342) ;

Pendulous, when hanging from the
side or from near the top, as in the Flax (Fig. 270) ; and

Suspended, when hanging perpendicularly from the very summit of the
cell, as in the Anemone (Fig. 343). All these terms equally apply to
seeds.

320. In structure an ovule is a pulpy mass of tissue, usually with one
or two coats or covei-ings. Tlie following parts are to be noted ; viz : —

Kernel or NucLiius, the body of the ovule. In the Mistletoe and some
related plants, there is only this nucleus, the coats being wanting.

Teguments, or coats, sometimes only one, more commonly two. When
two, one has been called Primine, the other Secundine. It will serve all
purposes to call them simply outer and inner ovule-coats.

Orifice, or Foramen, an opening through the coats at the organic apex
of t!ie ovule. In the seed it is Micropj/le.

Ch.^laza, the place where the coats and the kernel of the ovule blend.

HiLUM, the place of junction of the funiculus with the body of the ovule.

Fig. 340. A cluster of ovules, pendulous nn their fnnicles.

Fig. 341. Section of the ovary of a Buttercup, lengthwise, showing its ascending
jvule.
Fig. 342. Section of the ovary of Buckwlieat, showing the erect ovule.
FiQ. 343. Section of the ovary of Anemone, showing its suspended ovule.

SECTION 11.]

OVULES.

Ill

321. The Kinds of Ovules. The ovules in their growth develop in
three or four different ways, and tliereby are distinguished into

Orthotropous or Straight^ those which develop without curviug or torn-

'1,

_/

344 345 346 347

ing, as in Fig. 344. The chalaza is at the insertion or base ; the foramea
or orifice is at the apex. This is the simplest, but the least common kind of
ovule.

Campylotropous or Licurced, in which, by the greater growth of one side.

355

352 353 ■ 354

the ovule curves into a kidney-shaped outline, so bringing the orifice down
close to the base or chalaza; as in Fig. 345.

Amphitropous or Half-Inverted, Fig. 346. Here
the foruiiug ovule, instead of curving perceptibly,
keeps its axis nearly straight, and, as it grows, turns
round upon its base so far as to become transverse to
its funiculus, and adnate to its upper part for some
distance. Tlierefore in this case the attachment of
the funiculus or stalk is about the middle, the chal-
aza is at one end, the orifice at the other.

Anatropous or Inverted, as in Fig. 347, the com-
monest kind, so called because in its growth it has
as it were turned over upon its stalk, to which it has continued adnate.
The organic base, or chalaza, thus becomes the apparent summit, and the

Fig. 344. Orthotropous ovule of Buckwheat ; c, hilum and chalaza; /, orifice.

Fig. 345. Campylotropous ovule of a Chickweed: c, hilum and chalaza; /, orifice.

Fig. 346. Amphitropous ovule of Mallow:/, orifice; h, hilum; r, rhaphe; c,
chalaza.

Fig. 347. Anatropous ovule of a Violet; tlie parts lettered as in the last.

Fig. 348-3.50. Three early stages in the growth of ovule of a Magnolia, showing
the forming outer and inner coats, which, even in the later figure have not yet
completely enclosed the nucleus ; 351, further advanced, and 352, completely aua-
tropous ovule.

Fig. 353. Longitudinal section, and 354, transverse section of 352.

Fig. 355. Same as 353, enlarged, showing the parts in section : a, outer coat;
6, inner co-vt; c, nucleus; d, rhaphe

112

THE RECEPTACLE.

[section 12.

orifice is ut tlie base, l)y the side of the hiluin or place of attach incut. The
adiiate portion of the funiculus, which appears as a ridge or cord cxteudiiig
from the hilum to the chalaza, and which distinguislies this kind of ovule,
is called the Riiapue. The aniphitropous ovule (Fig. 346) has a short or
iiicoinplete rhaplic.

322. Fig. 348-352 show the stages tiirough which an ovule becomes
anutropous in the course of its growth. The annexed two figures are sec-
tious of sucli an ovule at maturity ; and Fig. 355 is Fig. 353 enlarged,
with the parts lettered.

Section XII. MODIPICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE.

323. The Torus or Receptacle of the flower (237, Fig. 223) is the por-
tion whicii belongs to the stem or fixis. In all preceding illustrations it is
small and short. But it sometimes lengthens, sometimes thickens or vari-
ously enlarges, and takes on various forms. Some of these have received
special names, very few of which are in common use. A lengthened por-
tion of the receptacle is called

A Stipe. This name, which means simply a trunk or stalk, is used in

botany for various stalks, even for the leaf-stalk in Ferns. It is also applied
to the stalk or petiole of a carpel, in tlie rare cases when there is any, as in

Fig. 356. Longitmliiial section of flower of Silene Pennsylvanica, showing stipe
between calyx and corolla.

Fig. 357. Flower of a Cleome of the section Gynandropsis, showing broadened
receptacle to bear petals, lengthened stipe below the stamens, and another between
these and pistil.

Fig. 358. Pistil of Geranium or Cranesbill.

Fig. 359. The same, ripe, with the five carpels splitting away from the long
beak (carpophore), and hanging from its top by their recurving styles.

SECTION 12.j

THE RECEPTACLE.

113

Goldthread. Then it is tecliuically distinguished as a Thecaphore. "When
there is a stalk, or lengtliciied iuteriiode of receptacle, diicctl)- under a
compound pistil, as in Stauleya and sonic other Cruciferse, it is called a
Gynophoke. When the stalk is developed below the stamens, as in most
species of Sileue (Fig. 35G), it has been called an Anthophore or Goko-
puoRE. In Fig. 357 the torus is dilated above the calyx where it bears
the petals, then there is a long internode (gonophore) between it and the
stamens ; then a shorter one (gynophore) between these and tlie pistil.

324. A Carpophore is a prolongation of receptacle or axis between the
carpels and bearing them. Umbelliferous plants and Geranium (Fig. 358,
359) afford characteristic examples.

325. Flowers with very numerous simple pistils generally have the re-
ceptacle enlarged so as to give them room ; sometimes becoming broad and
flat, as in the Flowering liaspberry, sometimes elongated, as in the Black-

360 361 362

berry, the Magnolia, etc. It is the receptacle in the Strawberry (Fig. 360),
much enlarged and pulpy when ripe, which forms the eatable part of the
fruit, and bears the small seed-like pistils on its surface. In the Rose
(Fig. 361), instead of being convex or conical, the receptacle is deeply
concave, or urn-shaped. Indeed, a Rose-hip may be likened to a straw-
berry turned inside out, like the finger of a glove reversed,
and the whole covered by the adlierent lube of the calyx.
The calyx remains beneath in the strawberry.

326. In Nelumbium, of the Water-Lily family, the singu-
lar and greatly enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top, and

bears the small pistils immersed in separate cavities of its flat I
upper surface (Fig. 302).

327. A Disk is an enlarged low receptacle or an out-
growth from it, hypogynous when underneatii the pistil, as in
Rue and the Orange (Fig. 363), and perin/nous when adnate

to calyx-tube (as in Buckthorn, Fig. 364, 365), and Cherry (Fig. 271), or

Fig. 3G0. Longitudinal section of a young .strawbei'i-y, etilargeil.
Fig. 36L Similar section of a young Rose-liip.

Fig. 3(52. Enlarged and top-.sliaped receptacle of Nelumbium, at maturity.
Fig. 3t53. Hypogynous disk iu Orange.

8

114 FERTILIZATION. [SECTION 13.

to both calyx-tube and ovary, as in Hawthorn (Fig. 273). A flattened

hypogyuous disk, underlying the ovary
or ovaries, and from which they fall
away at maturity, is sometimes called
a Gynobase, as in the Rue family.
In some Borragineous flowers, such as
Houndstongue, the gynobase runs up
in the centre between the carpels into

a carpophore. The so-called epigymus disk (or Stylopodiumj crowning

the summit of the ovary in flowers of Urabelliferse, etc., cannot be said to

belong to the receptacle.

Section XIII. FERTILIZATION.

328. The end of the flower is attained when the ovules become seeds.
A flower remains for a certain time (longer or shorter according to the
species) in aaihesis, that is, in the proper state for the fulfilment of this
end. During anthesis, the ovules have to be fertilized by the pollen ; or at
least some pollen has to reach the stigma, or in gymnospermy the ovule
itself, and to set up the peculiar growth upon its moist and permeable tis-
sue, which has for result the production of an embryo in the ovules. By
this the ovules are said to be fertilized. The first step is pollination, or,
so to say, the sowing of the proper pollen upon the stigma, where it is to
germinate.

§ 1. ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION OF THE STIGMA.

329. These various and ever-interesting adaptations and processes are
illustrated in the "Botanical Text Book, Structural Botany," chap. VI.
sect, iv., also in a brief and simple way in " Botany for Young People, How
Plants Behave." So mere outlines only arc given here.

330. Sometimes the application of pollen to the stigma is left to chance,
as in dioecious wind-fertilized flowers ; sometimes it is rendered very sure,
as in flowers that are fertilized in the bud ; sometimes the pollen is prevented
from reaching the stigma of the same flower, although placed very near to
it, but then there are always arrangements for its transference to the stigma
of some other blossom of the kind. It is among these last that the most
exquisite adaptations are met with.

331. Accordingly, some flowers are particularly adapted to close or sslf-
fertilization; others to cross fertilization; some for either, according to
circumstances.

Fig. 364. Flower of a Bucktliorn sliowing a conspicuous i)erigyuous disk.
Fig. 365. Vertical section of same flower.

SECTION 13,] FERTILIZATION. 115

Close Fertilization occurs when the pollen reaches aad acts upon a stigma
of the very same flower (tliis is also called self-fertilizalion), or, less closely,
upon other blossoms of the same cluster or the same individual plant.

Cross Fertilization occui's when ovules are fertilized bv pollen of other
individuals of the same s[)ecies.

Hybridization occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of some other
(necessarily some nearly related) species.

332. Close Fertilization would seem to be the natural result in ordi-
nary herniapbrodite flowers; but it is by no means so in all of them. More
commonly the arrangements are such that it takes place only after some
opportunity for cross f'eriilization has been afforded. But close fertiliza-
tion is inevitable in what are called

Cleistogamous Flowers, that is, in those which are fertilized in the flower-
bud, while still unopened. Most flowers of tliis kind, indeed, never open
at all ; but the closed lioral coverings are forced off by the growth of the
precociously fertilized pistil. Connnou examples of this are found in the
earlier blossoms of Specularia perfoliata, i]i tlie later ones of most Violets, es-
pecially the steniless species, in our wild Jewel weeds or Impatiens, in the
subterranean shoots of Amphicarpsea. Every plant wliich produces these
cleistogamous or bud-fertilized flowers bears also more conspicuous and
open flowers, usually of bright colors. The latter very commonly fail to
set seed, but the former are prolific.

833. Cross Fertilization is naturally provided for in dioecious plants
(249), is much favored in monoecious plants (249), and hardly less so in
dichogamous and in heterogonous flowers (33S). Cross fertilization depends
upon the transportation of pollen ; and the two ])rincipal agents of convey-
ance are winds and insects. Most flowers are in their whole structure
adapted eitiicr to the one or to the other.

334. Wind-fertilizable or Anemophilous flowers are more commonly
dioecious or monoecious, as in Pines and all coniferous trees, Oaks, and
Birches, and Sedges; yet sometimes herma])hrodite, as in Plantains and
most Grasses ; they produce a superabundance of very light pollen, adapted
to be wind-borne ; and they offer neither nectar to feed winged insects,
nor fragrance nor bria:ht colors to attract them.

335. Insect-fertilizable or Entomophilous flowers are those which
are sought by insects, for pollen or for neclar, or for both. Through their
visits pollen is conveyed from one flower and from one plant to another.
Insects are attracted to such blossoms by their bright colors, or their fra-
grance, or by the nectar (the material of honey) there provided for them.
While supplying their own needs, they carry pollen from anthers to stigmas
and from plant to plant, thus bringing about a certain amount of cross fer-
tilization. Willows and some other dioecious flowers are so fertilized,
chiefly by bees. But most insect-visited flowers have the stamens and pis-
tils associated either in the same or in contiguous blossoms. Even when
in the same blossom, anthers and stigmas are very commonly so situated

116 FERTILIZATION. [SECTION 13.

that uuilcr iiisect-visitalion, some polleu is more likely to be deposited upon
other thau upon own stigmas, so giving a chauce for cross as well as for
close fertilization. On the other hand, numerous flowers, of very various
kinds, have their parts so arranged that they must almost necessarily be cross-
fertilized or be barren, and are therefore dependent upon tlie aid of insects.
This aid is secured by different exquisite adaptations and coutrivauces,
whieii would need a volume for full illustration. Indeed, there is a good
number of volumes devoted to this subject.^

336. Some of the adaptations which favor or ensure cross fertilization
are peculiar to the particular kiud of blossom. Orchids, Milkweeds, Kal-
mia. Iris, and papiliouaceous flowers each have their own special contriv-
ances, quite ditlereut fur each.

337. Irregular llo'wers (253) aud especially irregular corollas are usu-
ally adaptations to insect-visitation. So are all Nectaries, whether hollow
spurs, sacs, or other concavities in which nectar is secreted, and all nectar-
iferous glands.

338. Moreover, there are two arrangements for cross fertilization com-
mon to hermaphrodite flowers in various difl'creut families of plants, which
have received special names. Dichogamy and Heterogony.

339. Dichogamy is the commoner case. Flowers are dichogamous when
the anthers discharge their pollen either before or after the stigmas of that
flower are in a condition to receive it. Such flowers are

Proterandrous, when the anthers are earlier than the stigmas, as in Gen-
tians, Campanula, Epilobium, etc.

Proterogyuous, when the stigmas are mature and moistened for the re-
ception of pollen, before the anthers of that blossom are ready to supply
it, and are withered before that pollen can be supplied. Plantains or
Ribworts (mostly wind-fertilized) are strikingly proterogyuous : so is Amor-
pha, our Papaws, Scropliularia, and in a less degree the blossom of Pears,
Hawthorns, and llorsc-chestnut.

340. In Sabbat ia, the large-flowered species of Epilobium, and strikingly
in Clerodendron, the dichogamy is supplemented and pcrlectcd by move-
ments of the stamens and style, one or both, adjusted to make sure of
cross fertilization.

341. Heterogony. This is the case in which hermaphrodite and fer-
tile flowers of two sorts are produced on different individuals of the same
species; one sort having higher anthers and lower stigmas, the other hav-
ing higher stigmas and lower anthers. Thus reciprocally disposed, a visit-
ing insect carries pollen from the high anthers of the one to the high stigma
of the other, and from the low anthers of the one to the low stigma of the
other. These plants are practically as if dioecious, with the advantage that

1 Beirinning with One by C. C. Sprengel in 1793, and again in our day with
Darwin, " On the Various Coutrivauces by which Orchids are fertihzed by Insects,"
and in succeeding works.

SECTION 14.] FRUIT. 117

both kinds are fruitful. Houstonia and MitcLella, or Partridge-berry, are
excellent and familiar examples. These are cases of

Heteroffone Dimorphism, the relative lengths being only short and long
reciprocally.

Heterogone Trimorphism., in which there is a nsid-length as well as a long
and a short set of stamens and style; occurs in Ly thrum Salicaria and some
species of Oxalis.

342. There must be some essential advantage in cross fertilization or
cross breeding. Otherwise all these various, elaborate, and exquisitely
adjusted adaptations would be aimless. Doubtless the advantage is the
same as that which is realized in all the higher animals by the distinction
of sexes.

§ 2. ACTION OF POLLEN, AND FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO.

343. Pollen-growth. A grain of pollen may be justly likened to one
of the simple bodies {sporeft) which answer for seeds in Cryptogamous plants.
Like one of these, it is capable of germination. When deposited upon the
moist surface of the stigma (or in some cases even when at a certain dis-
tance) it grows from some point, its living inner coat breaking through the
inert outer coat, and protruding in the form of a delicate tube. This as it
lengthens penetrates the loose tissue of the stigina and of a loose conduct-
ing tissue in the style, feeds upon the nourishing liquid matter there pro-
vided, reaches the cavity of the ovary, enters the orifice of an ovule, and
attaches its extremity to a sac, or the hning of a definite cavity, in the
ovule, called the Embri/o-Sar.

344. Origination of the Embryo. A globule ^f living matter in the
embryo-sac is formed, and is in some way placed in close proximity to the
apex of the pollen tube ; it probably absorbs the contents of the latter ; it
then sets up a special growth, and the Embryo (8-10) or rudijueutary
plantlet iu the seed is the result.

Section XIV. THE FRUIT.

345. Its Nature. The ovary matures into the Fruit. In the strictest
sense the fruit is the seed-vessel, technically named the Pericarp. But
practically it may include other parts organically connected with the peri-
carp. Especially the calyx, or a part of it, is often incorporated with the
ovary, so as to be undistinguishably a portion of the pericarp, and it even
forms along with the receptacle the whole bulk of such edible fruits as
apples and pears. The receptacle is an obvious part in blackberries, and
is the whole edible portion iu the strawberry.

346. Also a cluster of distinct carpels may, in ripiMiing, he consolidated
or compacted, so as practically to be taken for one fruit. Such are raspber-

118

FRUIT,

[section 14.

ries, blackberries, the Magnolia fruit, etc. Moreover, Ibe ripened product
of mauy flowers may be coiiipucted or grown together so as to form a single
compound fniit.

347. Its kinds have therefore to be distinguished. Also various names
of common use iu descriptive botany have to be mentioned and defined.

348. In respect to composition, accordingly, fruits may be classified
into

Simple, those which result from the ripening of a single pistil, and con-
sist only of the matured ovary, either by itself, as in a cherry, or with
calyx-tul)e completely incorporated with it, as in a gooseberry or cranberry.
Aggregate, when a cluster of carpels of tlie same flower are ci'owded into
a mass ; as iu raspberries and blackberries.
Accessor!/ or Anthocarpous, when the surroundings or supports of the
pistil make up a part of the mass; as does
the loose calyx changed into a fleshy and
berry-like envelope of our Wintergreen
„',«, V y (Gaultheria, Fig. 366, 367) and BuiralD-

4il/ ^A f=^ berry, which are otherwise simple fruits.

In an aggregate fruit such as the straw-
^^^ ^''" berry the great mass is receptacle (Fig.

360, 368) ; and in the blackberry (Fig. 369) the juicy receptacle forms the
central part of the savory mass.

Multiple or Collective, when formed from several flowers consolidated

into one mass, of which the common
receptacle or axis of inflorescence,
^ the floral envelopes, and even the
bracts, etc., make a part. A mul-
berry (Fig. 408, which superficially
much resembles a
blackberry) is of this
multiple sort. Aj)ine-
apple is another ex-
ample.

349. In respect to
texture or consist-
ence, fruits may be
distinguished into three kinds, viz. : —

Fleshy Fruits, those which are more or less soft and juicy throughout;

r^? cnr

3G8

869

Fig. 366, Forming fruit (capsule) of Gaultheria, with calyx thickening around
its base. 367. Section of same mature, the berry-like calyx nearly enclosing the
capsule.

Fig. 368. Section of a part of a strawberry. Compare with Fig. 3G0.

Fig. 369. Similar section of part of a blackberry. 370. One of its component
simple fruits (drupe) in section, showing the pulp, stone, and contained seed: more
enlarged. Compare with Fig. 375.

SECTION 14.]

FRUIT.

119

Stone Friiils, or Drupaceous, the outer part flesliy like a berry, the inner
hard or stouy, like a nut ; and

Dri/ Fruits, those which have no flesh or pulp.

350. In rcfereucc to the way of disseminating the contained seed, fruits
are said to be

Indehiscent when they do not open at maturity. Pleshy fruits and stone
fruits are of course indeliiscent. The seed becomes free only through
decay or by beiug fed upon by animals. Those which escape digestion are
thus disseminated by the latter. Of dry fruits many are indehiscent; and
these are variously arranged to be transported by animals. Some burst
irregularly; many are

heldscent, that is, they split open regularly along certain lines, and
discharge the seeds. A dehiscent fruit ahnost always contains many or
several seeds, or at least more than one seed.

371 372 373 374

351. The principal kinds of fruit which have received substantive names
and are of common use in descriptive botany are the following. Of fleshy
fruits the leading kind is

352. The Berry, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry
and cranberry (Fig. 371), the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole
flesh is soft throughout. The orange is a berry with a leathery rind.

353. The Pepo, or Gourd-fruit, is a hard-rinded berry, belonging to
the Gourd family, such as the pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon.
Fig. 372, 373.

354. The Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear (Fig. 374), and
quince; fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is calyx, only

Fig. 371. Leafy shoot and beny (cut acrcss) of the larger Cranberry, Vacciaium
iDacrocarpon.

Fig. 372. Pepo of Gnurrl. in .section. 373. One carpel of same in diagram.
Fig. 374. Longitudinal and transverse sections of a pear (pome).

120

FRUIT.

^SECTION 14.

the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging to the
carpels. The iVuit of the Hawthorn is a drupaceous pome, something be-
tween pome and drupe.

355. Of fruits wliieh are externally fleshy and internally hard the lead-
ing kind is

350. The Drupe, or Stone-fruit ; of which the cherry, plum, and peach
(Fig. 375) are familiar examples. In this the
outer part of the thickness of the pericarp I)e-
comes fleshy, or softens like a berry, while the
inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which
the pistil is constructed, it is evident that the
fleshy part here answers to the lower, and the
stone to the upper face of the component leaf.
The layers or concentric portions of a drupe, or
of any pericarp which is thus separable, are named,
when thus distinguishable iulo three portions, —
Epicarp, the external layer, often the mere skin of the fruit,
Mesocarp, the middle layer, which is commonly the fleshy part, and
Endocarp, tbe innermost layer, the stone. But more conmiouly only two
portions of a drupe are distinguished, and are named, the outer one

Sarcocarp or Exocarp, for the flesh, the first name referring to the fleshy
character, the second to its being an external layer; and
Putameii or Endocarp, the Stone, within.

357. The typical or true drupe is of a single carpel. But, not to multiply
technical names, this name is extended to all such fruits wlien
fleshy without and stony within, although of compound pistil,
— even to those having several or separable stones, such as the
fruit of Holly. These stones in such drupes, or drupaceous
fruits, are called Pyrenee, or Nucules, or simply Nutlets of
the drupe.

358. Of Dry fruits, there is a greater diversity of kinds hav-
ing distinct names. The indehis-
cent sorts are commonly one-
seeded.

350. The Akene or Ache-
nium is a small, dry and indchis-
cent one-seeded fruit, often so
seed-like in appearance that it is
popularly taken for a naked seed,
is a good example, Fig. 376, 377-

377 378

The fruit of the Batter cup or Crowfoot
Its nature, as a ripened pistil (in this

FiQ. 375. Longitudinal .section of a peach, showing flesli, .stone, aiid seed.

Fig. 376. Akene of a Buttercup. 377. The same, divided lengthwise, to .show
the contained seed.

Fig. 378. Akene of Virgin's-bower, retaining the feathered style, which aids in
disseniination.

SECTION 14.]

FRUIT.

121

case a simple carpel), is apparent by its bearing the remains of a style or
stigma, or a scar from wlucli this lias fallen. It may retain the style and
use it in various ways for dissemination (Fig. 378).

360. The fruit of Composita; (tliougli not of a single carpel) is also an
akeue. In tliis case the pericarp is invested
by an adherent calyx-tube ; the limb of which,
when it has any, is called the Pappus. Tliis
name was first given t(j the down like that of
the Thistle, but is applied to all forms under
which the limb of the calyx of the " compound
flower " appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig.

1

380

384), and the like, the acheuium as it matures tapers upwards into a slender

beak, like a stalk to the pappus.

361. A Cremocarp (Fig. 385), a name given to the fruit of Umbclli-
ferai, consists as it were of a pair nf akeues imitcd com-
plciely ra the blossom, but splitiiiig apart when ripe ifT,
into the two closed carpels. Each (jf these is a 3Ien-
carp or Hemicarp, names seldom used.

362. A Utricle is the same as an akene, but with
a thin and bladdery loose pericai-p ; like that of tlic
Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. 3S6). \Mien ripe il may
burst open irregularly to discharge the seed ; or it may
o|)en by a circular line all round, the ujiper part fall-
ing off like a lid ; as in the Amaranth (Fig. 387).

363. A Caryopsis, or Grain, is like an akene with
the seed adhering to the thin pericarp throughout, so

that fruit and seed are incorporated into one body ; as in wheat, Indian
corn, and other kinds of grain.

364. A Nut is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and one-

FiG. 379, Akene of Mayweed (no pappiis). 380. That of Snccory (its pappus a
shallow cup). 381. Of Sunflower (jiappus of two deciduous scales). 382. Of
Sneezeweed (Heleniuin), with its pappus of five scales. 383. Of Sow-Tlusfle, with
its ])appus of delicate downy hairs. 38t. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on
a long beak.

Fig. 385. Fruit (cremocar]i) of Osmorrhiza; the two akene-like ripe carpels sep-
aratiiic; at maturity from a slender axis or carpophorse.

Fig. 386. Utricle of tlie common Pigweed (riienopodium alt)uni).

Fig. 387. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round (circuniscissile).

122

FRUIT.

[SECTION 14.

seeded, with a hard, crustaceous, or bony wall, such as llic cocoanui, hazel-
nut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. 37, 388.) Here the
involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the
CupuLE. In the Chestnut fhc cupulc forms the bur; in
the Hazel, a leafy husk.

305. A Samara, or Key-fruit, is either a nut or an
akeue, or any other iiidchiseent fruit, furnished witli a wing,
like that of^Vsh (Fig. 389), and Elm (Fig. 390). The
Maple-fruit is a pair of keys (Fig. 391).

366. Dehiscent Fruits, or Pods, are of two classes, viz.,
those of a simple pistil or carpel, and those of a compound

pistil. Two common sorts of the first are named as follows : —

367. The Follicle is a fruit of a simple carpel, which dehisces down one
side only, i. e. by the inner or ventral suture. The
fruits of Marsh Marigold (Fig. 392j, Pseouy, Larkspur,
and Milkweed are of this kind.

368. The Legume or true Pod, such as the pcapod
(Fig. 393), and the fruit of the Leguminous or Pulse \«s
family generally, is one which opens along the dorsal as

well as the ventral suture. The two pieces

388

389 390

into which it splits are called Valves. A Lomext is a legume which is
constricted between the seeds, and at length breaks up crosswise into dis-
tinct joints, as in Fig. 394.

369. The pods or dehiscent fruits belonging to a compound ovary have
several technical names : but they all may be regarded as kinds of

370. The Capsule, the dry and dehiscent fruit of any compound pistil.
The capsule may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the

Fig. 388. Nut (acorn) of the Oak, with its cup or cupule.

Fig. 389. Samara or key of the White Ash, winged at end. 390.
the American Elm, winged all round.

Fig. 391. Pair of .samaras of Sugar Maple.

Fig. 392. Follicle of Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris).

Fig. 393. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened.

fiG. 394. Loment or Jointed legume of a Tick-Trefoil (Desmodium),

Samara oi

SECTION 14.]

FRUIT,

123

Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the Snapdragon ;
but coiiunouly it splits open (or is dehiscent) lengthwise into regular pieces,
called Valves.

371. Regular Dehiscence in a capsule takes place in two ways, which are
best illustrated in pods of two or three cells. It is either

Loculicidal, or, splitting directly into the loculi or cells, that is, down
the back (or the dorsal suture) of each cell or carpel, as in
Iris (Fig. 395) ; or

Septicidul, that is, splitting through the partitions or septa,
as in St. John's-wort (Fig. 39G), Rhododendron,
etc. This divides the capsule into its compo-
nent carpels, which then open by their ventral
suture.

372. In loculicidal dehiscence the valves nat-
urally bear the partitions on their middle ; in
the septicidal, half the thickness of a partition
is borne on the margin of each valve. See the
annexed diagrams. A variation of either mode
occurs when the valves break away from the
partitions, these remaining attached in the axis of
the fruit. This is called Spptifragal&(^\\vs,^mo.^.
One form is seen in the Morning-Glory (Fig.
400).

373. The capsules of Rue, Spurge, and some others, are both loculi-
cidal and septicidal, and so split
into half-carpellary valves or pieces.

374. The Silique (Fig. 401) is
the technical name of the peculiar
pod of the Mustard family; which
is two-celled by a false partition
stretched across between two pa-
rietal placentae. It generally opens
by two valves from below up-
ward, and the placentae with the
paititiou are left behind when the
valves fall off.

375 . A Silicle or Pouch is only
A short and broad silique, like that
of the Shepherd's Purse, Fig. 402,
403.

Fig. 395. Capsule of Iris, with loculicidal dehiscence; below, cut across.
Fig. 396. Pod of a Marsh St. John's-wort, with septicidal dehiscence.
Fig. 397, 398. Diagrams of the two modes.

Fig. 399. Diagram of septifragal dehiscence of the loculicidal type. 400. Same
of the septicidal or marginicidal type.

124

FRUIT.

[SECTION 14.

376. The Pyxis is a pod wliich opens by a circular horizontal line, the
upper part I'onniiig a Ud, as in Purslane (Fig. 404), the PLintain, lieu-
bane, etc. In these the dehiscence extends all round, or is cir-
cumscissile. So it does in Amaranth (Fig. 387), forming a one-
seeded utricular pyxis. In JelTersonia, the line does not separate
quite round, but leaves a portion for a liiuge to the lid.

377. Of Multiple or Collective Fruits, which are properly

401

axis or
mmute

into one body (as is seen in
the Mulberry (Fig. 408), Pine-
apple, etc.), there are two kinds
with special names and of pe-
culiar structure.
378. The Syconium or Fig-
403 402 404 fruit (Fig. 405, 406) is a fleshy

summit of stem, hollowed out, and lined within by a multitude of
flowers, the whole becoming pulpy, and in the common fig, luscious.

379, The Strobile or Cone (F'ig. 411), is the peculiar multiple fruit
of Pines, Cypresses, and the like ; hence named Conifercp, viz. cone-bearing

Fig. 401. Silique of a Cailamine or Spring Cress.

Fig. 402. Silicle of She])lier(rs Purse. 403. Same, with one valve removed.

Fig. 404. Pyxis of Purslane, the lid detaching.

Fig. 405. A fig-frnit wlien young. 406. Same in section. 407. ISIagnified por-
tion, a slice, showing some of the flowers.

Fig. 408. A mulberry. 409. One of the grains voimtrcr, enlarged ; seen to l>e
a jiistill.ate flower with caly.\ becoming fleshy. 41U. Same, with fleshy calyx cut
:icross

SECTION 15.]

SEEDS.

125

plants. As already shown (313), these cones are open pistik, mostly in
the t'oriii of flat scales, regularly overlying each
other, and pressed together in a spike or liead.
Each scale bears one or two naked seeds on its
iuucr face. When ripe and dry, tlie scales turn
back or diverge, aud in the Pine the seed peels
oil" and falls, generally carryiug with it a wing, a
part of the lining of the scale,

which facilitates the dis[)er-
sion of the seeds by the wind
(Fig. 412,413). InArbor-
Vitaj, the scales of the small
cone are few, and not very
unlike the leaves. In Cy-
press tiiey are very thick at
the top and narrow at the
base, so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone. In Juniper and Ked
Cedar, the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy, and ripen into
a fruit which closely resembles a berry.

Section XV. THE SEED.

380. Seeds are the final product of the flower, to which all its parts and
offices are subservient. Like the ovule from which it originates, a seed
consists of coats and kernel.

381. The Seed-coats are commonly two (320), the outer and the inner.
Fig. 414 shows the two, in a seed cut tlirough lengthwise.
The outer coat is often hard or crustaceous, whence it is
called the Testa, or shell of the seed; the inner is almost al-
ways thin and delicate.

382. The shape and the markings, so various in different
seeds, depend mostly on the outer coat. Sometimes this fits
the kernel closely ; sometimes it is expanded into a winff, as in the Trum-
pet-Creeper (Fig. 415), and occasionally this wing is cut up into shreds
or tufts, as in the Catalpa (Fig. 416) ; or instead of a wing it may bear a
Coma, or tuft of long and soft hairs, as in the Milkweed or Silkweed (Fig.
417). The use of wings, or downy tufts is to render tlie seeds buoyant

Fig. 411. Cone of a common Pitch Pine. 412. Inside view of a .separated scale
or open carpel ; one seed in place: 413, the other seed.

Fig. 414. Seed of a Linden or Basswood cnt through lengthwise, and ningnitied,
the parts lettered: a, the hilum or scar; b, the outer coal; c, the iiiuer; d, ilie
albumen; e, the embryo.

126

SEEDS.

[section 15.

for dispersion by the winds. This is clear, nof only from their evident
adaptation to this purpose, but also from the fact that winged and tufled
seeds are found only in fruits that split open at maturity, never in those
that remain closed. The coat of some seeds is beset with
iC^-^Awl ^"^"S ''^'""^ "'" ^*^°'- Cotton, one of the most important vege-
table products, since it forms the principal clothing of the

384.

415 416

larger part of the human race, consists of the long and woolly hairs which
thickly cover the whole surface of the seed. There are also crests or otiier
appendages of various sorts on certain seeds. A few seeds
have an nd(lition;d, but more or less incomplete covering, out-
side of the real seed-coats called an

383. Aril, or Arillus. The loose and transparent
bag which encloses the seed of the White Water-Lily
(Fig. 418) is of this kind. So is the viace of the
nutmeg ; and also the scarlet pulp around the seeds
of the Waxwork (Celastrus) and Strawberry-bush
(Euonymus). The aril is a growth from the ex-
tremity of the seed-stalk, or from the placenta when
there is no seed-stalk.
A short and thickish appendage at or close to the liilum in certain
seeds is called a Caruncle or Strophiole (Fig. 419).

385. The various terms wliich define the position or direc-
tion of the ovule (erect, ascending, etc.) apply equally to the
seed : so also the terms anatropous, orthotropous, campylotro-
pous, etc., as already defined (320, 321), and such terms as

HiLUM, or Scar left M'here the seed-stalk or funiculus falls
away, or where the seed was attached directly to the placenta
when there is no seed-stalk.

Rhaphe, the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the clialaza in
anatropous and amphitropous seeds.

Chalaza, the place where the seed-coats and the kernel or nucleus are
organically connected, — at the hilum in orthotropous and eampylotropous
seeds, at the extremity of the rhaphe or tip of the seed in other kinds.

MiCROPYLE, answering to the Foramen or orifice of the ovule. Compare
the accompanying figures and those of the ovules. Fig. 341-355.

Fig. 415. A winged seed of tlie Tninipet-Creeper.

Fig. 416. One of Catalpa, the kernel cut to .show the embryo.

Fig. 417. Seed of Milkweed, with a Coma or tuft of long silky hairs at one end.

FiQ. 418. Seed of Wliite Water-Lily, enclosed in its aril.

Fig. 419. Seed of Ricinus or Ca.stor-oil plant, witli c.iruncle.

SECTION 15.]

EMBRYO.

127

3S6. The Kernel, or Nucleus, is the whole body of the seed withiu tlie
coats. Ill many seeds the ker-
nel is all Embryo ; in others
a large part of it is the Al-
bumen. For example, in Fig.
423, it is wholly embryo; in
Fig. 422, all but the small
speck (^(j) is albumen.

387. The Albumen or Endosperm of the seed is sufficiently charac-
terized and its ofHcc cxphiiued in Sect. 111., 31-35.

388. The Embryo or Germ, wliich is the rudimentary plantlet and the
final result of blossoming, and its development in germination have been
extensively illustrated in Sections II. and 111. Its essential parts are the
Radicle and tlie Cotyledons.

389. Its Radicle or Caulicle (the former is the term long and gener-
ally used in botanical descriptions, but the latter is the more correct one,
for it is the initial stem, wliich merely gives origin to the root), as to its
position in the seed, always points to and lies near the niicropyle. In re-
lation to the pericarp it is

Superior, when it points to the apex of the fruit or cell, and
Inferior, when it points to its base, or downward.

390. The Cotyledons have already been illustrated as re-
spects their number, — giving the important distiuction of Dicoty-
ledonous, Polycotyledonous and Monocotyledonous embryos (36-43),
— also as regards their thickness, whether _/o/2tf^^o«s or _/^s/^^;

and some of the very various shapes and adaptations to the seed, have been
figured. They may be straight, or folded, or rolled up. In the latter
case the cotyledons .may be rolled up as it were from one margin, as
in Calycanthus (Fig. 424), or from apex to base in
a flat spiral, or they may be both folded {plicate)
and rolled up (j'onvolute), as in Sugar j\Iaj)le (Fig.
11.) In one very natural family, the Crnciferae, two
ditierent modes prevail in the way the two cotyledons
% '■'■# Vy are brought round against the radicle. In one series
they are

Seed of a Violet (anatropous) : a, hiluin; b, rhaphe; c, chalaza.
Seed of a Larkspur (also anatropous); tlie parts lettered as in the last.
The same, cut through lengthwise: a, the liilum; c, chalaza; d, outer
inner seed-coat; /, tlie albuiiieii ; g, the minute embryo.
Seed of a St. John's-wort, divided lengthwise; here the whole kernel

Fig. 420.

Fig. 421.

Fig. 422.
seed-coat; e,

Fig. 423.
is embryo.

Fig. 424. Eniliryo of Calycanthus; upper part cut away, to show the convolute
cotyledons.

Fig. 425.
cotyledons.

Seed of Bitter Cress, Barbarea, cut across to show the accumbent
426. Embryo of same, whole.

128

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [silCTION IG.

Accumlfnt, that is, the edges of tlie Hat cot^leduus lie agaiust llie radicle,
as ill Fig 425, 420. In auotlier they are

lacumbenl, or with the j)Iaue ot the cotyledons brought up iu the opposite
direction, so that the back of one of them lies agaiust
the radicle, as shown in Fig. 427, 428.

391. As to the situation of the embryo with respect

to the albumen of the seed, when this is present in any

quantity, the embryo may be Axile, that is occupying

428 the axis or centre, either for most of its lengtli, as in

Violet (Fig. 429), Barberry (Fig. 4S), and

Pine (Fig. 56) ; and iu these it is straight.

But it nuiy be variously curved or coiled

iu the albumen, as in Heliauthemum

(Fig. 430), in a Potato-seed (Fig. 50), ^I'll^ (|(Q)J
or Ouion-seed (Fig. 60), and Linden

(Fig. 414) ; or it may be coiled around 499 430 430 «

the outside of the albumen, partly or into a circle, as in duckweed (Fig.
431, 4;i2j and in Mirabilis (Fig. 52). The latter mode prevails in Campylo-
tropous seeds. In the cereal grains, such as Indian
1*1 Corn (Fig. 67) and Rice, 4o0"), and in all other
_^^' Grasses, the embryo is straight and applied to the
431 432 outside of the abundant albumen.

392. The matured seed, with embryo ready to germinate and reproduce
the kind, coinpletes the cycle of the vegetable life in a phanerogamous
plant; the account of which began with the seed and seedling.

Section XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK.

393. The following simple outlines of the anatomy and physiology of
plants (3) are added to tbe preceding structural part for the better prepar-
ation of students in descriptive and systematic botany; also to give to all
learners some general idea of the life, growth, intunate structure, and action
of the beings wliicli compose so large a part of organic nature. Those who
would extend and verify the facts and principles here outlined will tise the
Physiological Botany of the " Botanical Text Book," by Professor Goodale,
or some similar hook.

Fig. 427. Seed of a Si.symlinum, cut across to sliow the incumbent cotyledons.
428. Embr5'o of the same, detarlieil whole.

Fig. 429. Section of seed of Violet ; anatropous witli straight axile embryo in
the albumen. 4.30. Section of seed of Rock Rose, Helianthemuin Canadense ;
orthotropous, with curved embryo in the albumen. 430". Section of a grain of
Rice, lengthwise, showing the embryo outside the albumen, which forms the
principal bulk.

Fig. 431. Soeil of ;i Chickweed, campylntinjions. •J32. .Section of same, show-
ing slender embryo coiled around the outside ot the albumen of the kernel.

SECTION IG.] STRUCTURE AND GROWTH. 129

§ 1. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH.

394. Growth /.? the Increase of a living thing in size and substance. It
appears so natural that plants and auiinals should grow, that cue rarely
tliiuks of it as requiring explanation. It seems enough to say that a thing
is so because it grew so. Growth from the seed, the germination and de-
velopment of an embryo into a plant let, and at length into a mature plant
(as illustrated in Sections II. and III.), can be followed by ordinary obser-
vation. But the eml)ryo is already a miniature plantlet, sometimes with
hardly any visible distinction of parts, but often one which has already
made very considerable growth in the seed. To investigate the formation
and growth of the embryo itself requires well-trained eyes and hands, and
the exjiert use of a good compouud microscope. So this is beyond the
reach of a beginner.

395. Moreover, although observation may show that a seedling, weigh-
ing only two or three grains, may double its bulk and weight every week
of its early growth, and may iu time produce a huge amount of vegetable
matter, it is still to be asked what this vegetable matter is, where it came
from, and by what means plants are able to increase and accumulate it, and
build it up into the faln-ic of herbs and shrubs and lofty trees.

396. Protoplasm. All this fabric was built up under life, but only a
small portion of it is at any one time alive. As growth proceeds, life is
passed on from the old to the new parts, much as it has passed on from
parent to offspring, from generation to generation in unbroken continuity.
Protoplasm is the connnon name of that plant-stuff in which life essentially
resides. All growth depends upon it; for it has the peculiar power of
growing and multiplying and building up a living structure, — the animal
no less than the vegetable structure, for it is essentially the same in both.
Indeed, all the animal protoplasm comes primarily from the vegetable,
which has the prerogative of producing it ; and the protoplasm of plants
furnishes all that portion of the food of animals which forms their flesh
and living fabric.

397" The very simplest plants (if such may specifically be called plants
rather than animals, or one may say, the simplest living things) are mere
particles, or pellets, or threads, or even indefinite masses of protoplasm of
vague form, which possess powers of motion or of changing their shape,
of imbibing water, air, and even other matters, and of assimilating these
into plant-stuff for their own growth and multiplication. Their growth
is increase in substance by incorporation of that which they take in and
assimilate. Their multiplication is by spontaneous division of their sub-
stance or body into two or more, each capable of continuing the process.

398. The embryo of a phanerogamous plant at its beginning (344) is es-
sentially such a globule of protoplasm, which soon constricts itself into two
and more such globules, which hold together inseparably in a row ; then
the last of the row divides without separation iu the two other planes, to

9

130

VEGETABLE LIFE AND \\0?Ai. [.SECTION IG.

form a compound mass, each grain or globule of wliicli goes on to double
itself as it grows ; and the definite shaping of this still increasing mass
builds up the embryo into its form.

399. Cell-w^alla While this growth was going on, each grain of the
forming structure formed and clothed itself with a coat, tiiin and trans-
parent, of something different from protoplasm, — sometliing which hardly
0and only transiently, if at all, partakes of the life and action.
The protoplasm forms the living organism ; the coat is a kind
433 of protective covering or shell. The protoplasm, like the
flesh of animals which it gives rise to, is composed of four

a chemical elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxvgen, and Nitro-
I gen. The coating is of the nature of wood (is, indeed, that
— ' which makes wood), and has only the three elements. Car-
bon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, in its composition.

400. Although the forming structure of an embryo in
the fertilized ovule is very minute and difficult to see, there
are many simple plants of lowest grade, abounding in pools
of water, which more readily show the earlier stages or sim-
plest states of plant -growth. One of these, wliich is common
in early spring, requires only moderate magnifying power
to bring to view what is shown in Fig. 437. In a slimy
mass which holds all loosely together, little spheres of green
vegetable matter are seen, assembled in fours,
and these fours themselves in clusters of fours.
A transient inspection shows, what prolonged
watching would confirm, that each sphere di-
vides first in one plane, then in the other, to
make four, soon acquiring the size of the original, and so on,
producing successive groups of fours. These pellets each
form on their surface a transparent wall, like that just des-
cribed. The delicate wall is for some time capable of expan-
sive growth, but is from the first mucli firmer than the
protoplasm within; through it the latter imbibes sur-
rounding moisture, which becomes a watery sap, occupy-
ing vacuities in the protoplasmic mass ■which enlarge or
run together as the periphery increases and distends.
When full grown the protoplasm may become a mere lining
to the wall, or some of it central, as a nucleus, this usually connected with
the wall-lining by delicate threads of the same substance. So, when full
grown, tlie wall witli its lining — a vesicle, containing liquid or some

QQ QQ

QQ QQ
QQ ©Q

437

FiG. 433-436. Figures to illustrate the earlier stages in the formation of an
embryo; a single mass of protoplasm (Fig. 433) dividing into two, three, and then
into more incijiieiit cells, which bj- continued multiplication build up an embr\'0

Fig. 437. MaLrnified view of some of a simple fresh water Alga, the Tetraspora
lubrica, eucli sphere of which may answer to an individual plant.

SECTION IG.J ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE.

131

-\""l]|[l|VB!^"-

bolid matters and iu age mostly air — naturally came to be named a Cell.
But the name was suggested by, and first used only for, cells iu combination
or built up into a fabric, much as a wall is built of bricks, that is, into a

401. Cellular Structure or Tissue. Suppose numerous cells like
those of Fig. 4:37 to be heaped up Hke a pile of cannon-balls, and as they
grew, to be compacted together while soft and yielding; they would flatten
where they touched, and each sphere,
being touched by twelve surrounding
ones would become twelve-sided. Fig.
438 would represent one of them.
Suppose the contiguous faces to be
united into one wall or partition be-
tween adjacent cavities, and a cellular
structure would be formed, like that
shown in Fig. 439. Hoots, stems, leaves,
and the whole of phan-
erogamous plants are a
fabric of countless num-
bers of 8\ich cells. No
such exact regularity in
size and shape is ever
actually found ; but a nearly truthful magnified view of a small portion of
1 slice of the flower-stalk of a Calla Lily (Fig. 440) shows a fairly corres-

ponding structure ; except that, owing to the great air-spaces of the interior,
the fabric may be likened rather to a stack of chimneys than to a solid
fabric. In young and partly transparent parts one may discern the cel-
lular structure by looking down directly on the surface, as of a form-
ing root. (Fig. 82, 441, 442).

402. The substance of which cell-walls are mainly composed is called
Cellulose. It is essentially tiie same in the stem of a delicate leaf or
petal and in the wood of an Oak, except that in the latter the walls are

Fig. 438. Diagram of a vegetable cell, such as it would be if when splierical it
were equally pressed by similar surrounding cells in a heap.

Fig. 439. Ideal construction of cellular tissue so formed, in section.

Fig. 440. Magnified view of a portion of a transverse slice of stem of Calla
Lily, The great spaces are tubular air-channels built up by the cells.

152

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION IG.

441

cells is from

to

-g-^ of an inch

mucli thickened and tlie calibre siiuill. The protoplasm of each living cell
appears to be completely shut up and isolated in its shell of cellulose ; but
microscopic invest igaliou has brouglit to view, in many cases, minute
threads of protoplasui which here and there traverse
the cell-wall througli minute pores, thus connecting
the living portion of one cell with that of adjacent
cells. (See Fig. 447, &c.)

403. The hairs of plants are cells formed on the
surface ; either elongated single cells
(liice the root-hairs of Fig. 441, 442),
or a row of shorter cells. Cotton
fibres are long and simple cells grow-
ing from the surface of tlie seed.

404. Tlie size of the cells of which
common jjlanis are made up varies
from about, the thirtieth to the thou-
sandth of an inch in diameter. An
ordinary size of short or roundish
; so that there may generally be from
27 to 125 millions of cells in the compass of a cubic incli!

405. Some parts are built up as a compact structure ; in others cells
are arranged so as to build up regular air- ' " JMrnrn r^i, fH r~\ f"^^^
channels, as in the stems of aquatic and other "
■water-loving jilauts (Fig. 440), or to leave
irregular spaces, as in the lower part of most
leaves, where the cells only here and there
come into close contact (Fig. 443).

406. All such soft cellular tissue, like
this of leaves, t1i:it of pith, and of the green
bark, is called ParenciiymAj while fibrous
and woody parts are composed of Peosen-
CHTMA, that is, of peculiarly transformed

407. Strengthening Cells. Common cellular tissue, which makes up
the wliole structure of all very young plants, and the whole of Mosses
and other vegetables of the lowest grade, even when full grown, is too
tender or too brittle to give needful st rengtli and toughness for plants
which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves. In
these needful strength is imparted, and the conveyance of sap through the
plant is facilitated, by the change, as they are formed, of some cells into
thicker-walled and tougher tuhes, and by tlie running together of some of

Fig. 4n, Much majinified small portion of young root of a .seedling Maple
(such as of Fig. 82); and 442, a few cells of .same moie niagnitied. The prolonga-
tions from the back of s<inie of the cells are root-hairs.

F:g. 443. Magiiilied section through the tliickuess of a leaf of Florida Star-
Anise.

SECTION 16. J

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE.

133

these, or the prolongation of others, into hoUow fibres or tubes of various size.
Two sorts of sucii trausformed cells go together, and essentially form the

408. Wood. This is found in all common herbs, as well as in shrubs
and trees, but the former have much less of it m proportion to the softer
cellular tissue. It is formed very early in the growth of the root, stem,
and leaves, — traces of it appearing iu large embryos even wiiile yet in the
seed. Those cells that lengthen, and at the same time thicken their walls
form the proper Woody FiiiRE or Wood-cells ; those of larger size and
thinner walls, which are thickened only in certain parts so as to have
peculiar markings, and which often are seen
to be made up of a row of cylindrical cells,
with the partitions between absorbed or bro-
ken away, are called Ducts, or sometimes
Vessels. There are all gradations between
wood-cells and ducts, and between both these
and common cells. But iu most plants the
three kinds are fairly distinct.

409. The proper cellular tissue, or j)aren-
chi/}na, is the ground-work of root, stem, and
leaves; this is traversed, chiefly lengthwise,
by the strengthening and conducting tissue,
wood-cells and duct-cells, in the form of
bundles or threads, which, in I he stems and
stalks of herbs arc fewer and comparatively
scattered, but in shrubs and trees so uumer-
rous and crowded that iu the stems and
all permanent parts they make a solid mass
of wood. They extend into and ramify iu
the leaves, spreading out in a horizontal
plane, as the framework of ribs and veins,
which supports the softer cellular portion or
parenchyma.

410. Wood-Cells, or Woody Fibres,
consist of tubes, commonly between one and
two thousandths, but in Pine-wood sometimes two or three hundredths,
of an inch in diameter. Those from the tough bark of the Basswood,

Fig. 444. Magnified wood-cells of the bark (bast-cells) of Basswood, one and
part of another. 44.5. Some wood-cells from the wood (and below part of a duct);
and 446, a detached wood-cell of the same; equally magnified.

Fig. 447. Some wood-cells fiom Buttonwood, Platanus, highly magnified, a
whole cell and lower end of another on the left ; a cell cut half away lengthwise,
and half of another on the riglit ; some pores or pits (a) seen on the left; while
b h mark sections throngli these on tlie cut surface. When living and young the
protoplasm extends into these and b\- minuter perforations connects across them.
In age the pits become open passages, facilitating the passage of sap and air.

134

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

shown in Fig. 444, are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch wide. Tliose
of Buttouwood (Fig. 447) are larger, and are here liiglily magnified besides.
The figures sliow the way wood-eclls are commonly put together, namely,
with their tapering ends overlapping eaeh other, — spUced together, as it
were, — thus giving more strength and toughness. In hard woods, sueh
as Hickory and Oak, the walls of these tubes are very thick, as well as
dense ; while in soft woods, such as White-Piue and Basswood, they are
thinner.

411. Wood-cells in the bark are generally longer, finer, and tougher
than those of the proper wood,- and appear more like fibres. For example.
Fig. 44G represents a cell of the wood of Basswood of average length, and
Fig. 444 one (and part of another) of the fibrous bark, both drawn to the
same scale. As these long cells form the principal part of fibrous bark, or
bast, they are named Bast-cells or Bast-fibres. These give the great tough-
ness and flexibility to the inner bark of Basswood (i. e. Bast-wood) and of
Leatherwood ; and they furnish the invaluable fibres of flax and hemp ;

the proper wood of their stems
being tender, brittle, and de-
stroyed by the processes which
separate for use the tough and
sleuder bast-cells. In Leather-
wood (Dirca) the bast-cells are
remarkably slender. A view of
one, if magnified on the scale
of Fig. 444, would be a foot
and a half long.
412. The wood-cells of Piues,

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1

~

e

^

\

C;

.

\

9

e\

'■)

c)

n

o

lc>

O

G

0

A

0

"/i®\

G

/ q1

Q

of 0

0

448

449

and more or less of all other Coniferous trees, have on two of their sides
very peculiar disk-shaped markings (Fig. 44S-450) by which that kind of
wood is recognizable.

413. Ducts, also called Vessels, are mostly larger
than wood-cells : indeed, some of them, as in Bed Oak,
have calibre large enough to be discerned on a cross
section by the naked eye. They make the visible porosity
of such kinds of wood. This is ])articularly the case with

Dotted ducts (Fig. 451, 452), the surface of whicli
appears as if riddled with round or oval pores. Such
ducts are commonly made up of a row oflarge cells more
or less confluent into a tube.

Scalari/orm ducts (Fig. 458, 459), common in Ferns,
and generally angled by mutual pressure in the bundles,

Fig. 448. jNLagnified bit of a pine-shaving, taken parallel with the silver grain.
449. Separate wliole wood-cell, more magnifieil. 450. Same, still more magnified j
both sections represented : a, disks in section, b, in face.

Fig. 451, 452. A large and a smaller dotted duct from Grape-Vine.

SECTION IG.] ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE.

135

have transversely elongated tliiu places, parallel with each other, giving
a ladder-like appearance, whence the name.

Annular ducts (Fig. 457) are marked with cross lines or rings, which
are thickened portions of the cell- wall.

Spiral ducts or vessels (Fig. 453-455) have thin walls, strengthened by
a spiral fibre adherent within. This is as delicate and as strong as spider-
web : when uncoiled by pulling apart,
it tears up and annihilates the cell-
wall. The uncoded threads are seen
by gently pulling apart many leaves,
such as those of Amaryllis, or the
stalk of a Strawberry leaflet.

Laliciferotis ducts. Vessels of the
Latex, or Milk-vessels are peculiar
branching tubes which hold latex or
uiilky juice in certain plants. It is
very difficult to see them, and more
so to make out their nature. They
are peculiar in branching and inosculating
tubes, running in among the cellular tissue ; and they are very small,
except when gorged and old (Fig. 460, 461).

so as to make a net-work of

Fig. 453, 454. Spiral ducts which uncoil into a .single thread. 455. Spiral
duct which tears up as a band. 456. An annular duct, with variations above.
457. Loose spiral duct passing into annular. 458. Scalariform ducts of a Fern;
part of a bundle, prismatic by pressure. 459. One torn into a band.

Fig. 460. Milk Vessels of Dandelion, witli cells of the common cellular tissue.
46L Others from the same older and gorged with milky juice. All highly mag-
nified.

136 VEGETABLE LIFE AND GROWTH. [SECTION 16.

§ 2. CELL-CONTENTS.

414. The living coutents of young and active cells arc mainly protoplasm
with water or waicry sap whicli this has imbibed. Old and effete cells are
ol"ten empty of solid matter, contaiuiug only water with wliatever may bo
dissolved in it, or air, according to the time and circumstances. All tlie
various products which plauts in general elaborate, or which particular
plants specially elaborate, out of the common food which they derive from
tlie soil and the air, arc contained in the cells, and iu the cells they are
produced.

415. Sap is a general name for the principal liquid contents, — Crude sap,
for that which the plant takes in, Elaborated sap for what it has digested or
assimilated. They must be undistinguisli:d)ly mixed in the cells.

410. Among the solid matters into which cells convert some of their
elaborated sap two are geuei-al and most important. These are Chlorophyll
and Starch.

417. Chlorophyll (meaning leaf-r/ reeii) is what gives the green color to
herbage. It consists of soft grains of rather complex nature, partly wax-,
like, partly protoplasmic. These abound in tlie cells of all common leaves
and the green rind of plants, wherever exposed to the light. The green
color is seen through the transparent skin of the leaf and the walls of the
containing cells. Chlorophyll is essential to ordinary assimilation in plauts :
by its means, under the iuliuence of sunlight, the plant converts crude sap
into vegetable matter.

418. Far the largest part of all vegetable matter produced is that which
goes to build up the ])lanl's fabric or cellular structure, either directly or
indirectly. There is no one good name for this most important product of
vegetation. In its final state of cell-walls, the permanent fabric of herb
and shrub and tree, it is called Cellulose (40S) : in its most soluble form
it is Sugar of one or another kind ; in a less soluble form it is Dextrine, a
kind of liquefied starch : iu the form of solid grains stored np in the cells
it is Starch. By a series of slight chemical changes (mainly a variation in
the water entering into the composition), one of these forms is converted
into another.

419. Starch {Farina oy Fecula') is the form in which this common plant
material is, as it were, laid by for future use. It consists of solid grains,
somewhat different in form in ditferent plants, in size varying from ^-^ to
5^'g-o of an inch, partly translucent when wet, and of a pearly lustre. From
the concentric lines, which commoidy appear inider the microscope, the
grains seem to be made np of layer over layer. When loose they are com-
monly oval, as in potato-starch (Fig. 4G2) : when much compacted the
grains may become angular (Fig. 468).

420. The starch iu a potato was produced in the foliage. In the soluble
form of (Icxtrlne, or that of sugar, it was conveyed through the cells of the
herbage and stalks to a subterranean shout, and there stored up iu tlic

SECTION IG.]

CELL-CONTENTS.

137

tuber. When the potato sprouts, the starch in the vicinity of developing

l)uds or eyes is ehaugcd buck again, lirst into mucilaginous dextriuc, then

into sugar, dissolved

in the sap, and in this

form it is made to

How to the growing

parts, where it is laid

down into cellulose

or cell-wall. "02 463

421. Besides these cell-contents which arc in obvious and essential rela-
tion to nutrition, there are others ihe use of which is problematical. Of
such the commonest are

422. Crystals. These when slender or needle-shaped are called
RuAPUiDES. Tlicy are of inorganic matter, usually of oxalate or phosphate
or sulphate of lime. Some, at least of the latter, may be direct crystallizg-

469 464 470 465

tions of what is taken in dissolved in the water absorbed, but others must
be the result of some elaboration in the plant. Some plants have hardly
any ; others abound in then), especially in the foliage and bark. In Locust-
bark almost every cell holds a crystal ; so that in a square inch not thicker
than writing-paper there may be over a million and a half of them. When

Fig. 462. Some magnified starch-grains, in two cells of a potato. 463. Some
cells of the albumen or floury part of Indian Com, tilled with starch-grains.

Fig. 464. Four cells from dried Onion-peel, each liolding a crystal of different
shape, oiiie of them twinned. 465. Some cells from stalk of Rhubarb-plant, three
containing chlorophyll ; two (one torn across) with rhaphides. 466. Rhaphides
in a cell, from Arisrema, with small cells surrounding. 467. Prisniati(! crystals
from the bark of Hickory. 468. Glomerate crystal in a cell, from Beet-root.
469. A few cells of Locust-bark, a crystal in each. 470. A uetached cell, witb
rhaphides being forced out, as happens when put in water.

138

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WOEK. [SECTION 16.

needle-shiipcd (rhapliidcs), as in stalks of Calla-Lily, Rhubarb, or Four-
o'clock, they are usually packed in sheaf-like buudlcs. (Fig. 465, 46G.)

§ 3. ANATOMY OF ROOTS AND STEMS,

423. This is so nearly the same that an account of the internal structure
of steins may serve for the root also.

424. At the begiuuiug, either in the embryo or in an incipient shoot
from a bud, the whole stem is of tender cellular tissue or parenchyma.
But wood (consisting of wood-cells and ducts or vessels) begins to be
formed in the earliest growth ; and is from the first arranged in two ways,
making two general kinds of wood. The difference is obvious even in
herbs, but is more conspicuous in the enduring stems of shrubs and
trees.

425. On one or the other of these two types the stems of all plianero-
gamous plants are constructed. In one, the wood is made up of separate
threads, scattered liere and there throughout the whole diameter of the
stem. In the other, the wood is all collected to form a layer (in a slice
across the stem appearing as a ring) between a central cellular part which
has none in it, the Pith, and an outer cellular part, the Bark.

426. An Asparagus-shoot and a Corn-stalk for herbs, and a rattan for a
woody kind, represent the first kind. To it
belong all plants with monocotyledonous em-
bryo (40). A Bean-stalk
and ihe stem of any com-
mon shrub or tree rep-
resent the second ; and

to it belong all plants with dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous embryo.
The first has been called, not very properly, Endogenous, which means in-
side-growing ; the second, properly enough. Exogenous, or outside-growing.
427. Endogenous Stems, those of Monocotyls (tO), attain their
greatest size and most characteristic development in Palms and Dragon-
trees, therefore chiefly in warm climates, although the Palmetto and some

Fig. 471. Diagram of structure of Palm or Yucca. 472. Stnictnre of a Corn-
stalk, in transverse ami longitudinal section. 473. Same of a small Palm-stem.
The dots on the cross sections represent cut ends of the woody Imiidhvs or threads.

SECTION IC]

ANATOMY OF STEMS.

139

Yuccas become trees along the soutliern borders of the United States. In
such stems the woody bundles are more numerous and crowded toward the
circumference, and so the hai'der wood is outside ; while in an exogenous
stem the oldest and hardest wood is toward the centre. An endogenous
stem has no clear distinction of pitli, bark, and wood, concentrically ar-
ranged, no silver grain, no annual layers, no bark that peels off clean from
the wood. Yet old stems of Yuccas and the like, that continue to increase
in diameter, do form a sort of layers and a kind of scaly hark when old.
Yuccas show well the curving of the woody bundles (Fig. 471) which
below ta])er out and are lost at the rind.

428. Exogenous Stenas, those of Dicotyls (37), or of plants coming
from dicotyledonous and also polycotyledonous embryos, have
a structure which is famihar in the wood of our ordinary
trees and shrubs. It is the same in an herbaceous shoot
(such as a Tlax-stem, Fig. 474) as in a Maple-stem of the
first year's growth, except that the woody layer is com-
monly thinner or perhaps reduced to a circle of bundles.
It was so in the tree-stem at the beginning. The wood all
forms in a cylinder, — in cross section a ring — ai'ouud a cen-
tral cellular part, dividing the cellular core within, the pith, from a cellu-
lar bark without. As the wood-bundles increase in number and in size.

they press upon each other and become wedge-shaped in the cross sec-
tion ; and they continue to grow from the outside, next the bark, so that
they become very thin wedges or plates. Between the plates or wedges
are very thin plates (in cross section lines) of much compressed cellular
tissue, which connect the pith with the bark. The plan of a one-year-old
woody stem of this kind is exhibited in the figures, which are essentially
diagrams.

429. When such a stem grows on from year to year, it adds annually a

Pig. 474. Short piece of stem of Flax, magnified, showing the bark, wood, and
pith in a cross section.

Fig. 475. Diagram of a cross section of a very young exogenous stem, showing
six woody bundles or wedges. 476. Same later, with wedges increased to twelve.
477. Still later, the wedges tilling the space, separated only by the thin lines, or
medullary rays, ruDuing from pith to bark.

140

VEGETABLE LIFE AXD WORK. [SECTION IG,

layer of ■wood outside the preceding one, between that and the barii. This
is exogenous growth, or outside-growing, as the name denotes.

430. Some new i)ark is formed every year, as well as new wood, the

former inside, as the latter
is outside of that of the
year preceding. The ring
or zone of tender forming .
tissue between the hark
and the wood has been
called the Cambium Layer.
Cambium is an old name
of the physiologists for
nutritive juice. And this
thin layer is so gorged
with rich nutritive sap
when spring growth is re-
newed, that the bark then
seems to be loose from
the wood and a layer of
viscid sap (or cambium) to
be poured out between the
two. But there is all
the while a connection of
the bark and the wood by
delicate cc\h, rapidly mul-
tiplying and growing.

431. The Bark of a

year-old stem consists of

beginning next the wood, —

This contains some

480

three parts, more or less distinct, namely,

1. The Liber or Fibrous Bark, the Luier Bark.
wood-cells, or their equivalent, commonly in the form of bast or bast-cells
(111, Fig. 44'4), such as those of Basswood or Linden, and among herbs
those of flax and hemp, which are spun and woven or made into cordage.
It also contains cells which are named sieve-ceWsi, on account of numerous
slits and pores in their walls, by which the protoplasm of contiguous cells
communicates. In woody stems, whenever a new layer of wood is formed,
some new liber or inner bark is also formed outside of it.

Fig. 473. Piucu of a .stem of Soft Maple, of a year old, cut crosswise and length-
wise.

Fig. 479. A portion of the same, magnified.

Fig. 4S0. A snnll piece of the same, taken froni one side, reaching from tlie bark
to the pith, and highly magnified: a, a.<mall hit of the jiith; b, .spiral ducts of what
is called the mrdiillary shrrith ; c, the wood; d, d, dotted ducts in the wood;
e,e, annular ducts;/, the liber or inner bark; (j, the green bark; //, the corky
layer; i, the skin, or epidermis; j, one of the medullary rays, or plates of silver
grain, seen on the cross-sectiuu.

SECTION If).]

ANATOMY OF STEMS.

141

2. The Guicen Bark or Middle Bark. This cousists of cellalar tissue
only, and contains the same green matter {chlorophyll, 417) as the leaves.
In woody stems, before the season's growth is completed, it becomes cov-
ered by

3. The Corky Layer or Outer Bark, tlie cells of which contain no
chlorophyll, and are of the nature of cork. Common cork is the thick
corky layer of the bark of the Cork-Oak of Spain. It is this which gives
to the stems or twigs of shrubs and trees the aspect and the color peculiar
to each, — light gray in the Ash, purple in the Red Maple, red in several
Dogwoods, etc.

4. The Epidermis, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of thirk-
sidcd empty cells, which may be considered to be the outermost layer, or
in most herbaceous stems the only layer, of cork-cells.

432. The green layer of bark seldom grows much after the first season.
Sometimes the corky layer grows and forms new layers, inside of the old,
for years, as in the Cork-Oak, the Sweet Gum-tree, and the White and the
Paper Birch. But it all dies after a while ; and the continual enlargement
of the wood within finally stretches it more than it can bear, and sooner or
later cracks and rends it, while the weather acts powerfully upon its sur-
face ; so the older bark perishes and falls away piecemeal year by year.

433. So on old trunks only the inner bark remains. This is renewed
every year from within and so kept alive, while the older and outer layers
die, are fissured and rent by the distending trunk, weathered and worn, and
thrown off in fragments, — in some trees slowly, so that the bark of old
trunks may acquire great thickness ; in others, more rapidly. In Honey-
suckles and Grape-Vines, the layers of liber loosen and die when only a
year or two old. The annual layers of liber are sometimes as distinct as
those of the wood, but often not so.

Fig. 481. Magnified view of surface of a bit of young Maple wood from which
the barlv has been torn away, showing the wood-cells and the bark-ends of medul-
lary rays.

Fig. 482. Section in the opposite direction, from bark (on the left) to beginning
of pith (on the right), and a medullary ray extending from one to the other..

142 VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

434. The Wood of an exogenous trunk, having the old growths covered
by the new, remains nearly unclianged in age, except from decay. Wherever
there is an annual suspension and renewal of growth, as in temperate cli-
mates, the annual growths are more or less distinctly marked, in the form
of concentric rings on the cross section, so that the age of the tree may be
known by counting tliem. Over twelve hundred layers have been counted
on the stumps of Sequoias in California, and it is probable that some trees
now living antedate the Christian era.

435. Tiie reason why the annual growths are distinguishable is, that the
wood formed at the beginning of the season is more or less different in the
size or character of the cells from that of the close. In Oak, Chestnut, etc.,
the first wood of the season abounds in dotted ducts, the calibre of which
is many times greater than that of the proper wood-cells.

43G. Sap-wood, or Alburnum. This is tlie newer wood, living or
recently alive, and taking part in the conveyance of sap. Sooner or later,
each layer, as it becomes more and more deeply covered by the newer ones
and farther from the region of growth, is converted into

437. Heart-wood, or Duramen. This is drier, harder, more solid,
and" much more durable as timber, than sap-wood. It is generally of a
different color, and it exhibits in different species the hue peculiar to each,
such as reddish in Ked-Cedar, brown in Black-Walnut, black in Ebony, etc.
The cnange of sap-wood into heart-wood results from the thickening of the
walls of the wood-cells by the deposition of hard matter, lining the tubes
and diminishing their calibre; and by the deposition of a vegetable coloring-
matter peculiar to each species. The heart-wood, being no longer a living
part, may decay, and often does so, without the least injury to the tree,
except by diminishing the strength of the trunk, and so rendering it more
Jiable to be overthrown.

438. The Living Parts of a Tree, of the exogenous kind, are only
tnese : first, the rootlets at one extremity ; second, the buds and leaves of
the season at the other; and third, a zone consisting of the newest wood
and the newest bark, connecting the rootlets with the buds or leaves, how-
ever widely separated these may be, — in the tallest trees from two to four
hundred feet apart. And these parts of the tree are all renewed every year.
]Mo wonder, therefore, that trees may live so long, since they annually re-
produce everything that is essential to their life and growth, and since only
a very small part of their bulk is alive at once. The tree survives, but
notl'.ing now living Tias been so long. In it, as elsewhere, life is a transi-
tory thing, ever abandoning the old, and renewed in the young.

§ 4. ANATOJIY OF LEAVES.

439. The wood in leaves is the framework of ribs, veins, and veinlets
(125), serving not only to strengthen them, but also to bring in the sap,
and to distribute it throughout every part. The cellular portion is the

SECTION 10.]

ANATOMY OF LEAVES.

143

green pulp, and is nearly the same as the green layer of the bark. So that
tlie leaf may properly enough be regarded as a sort of expansion of the
fibrous and green layers of the bark. It has uo proper corky layer ; but
the whole is covered by a transparent skin or epidermis, resembling that
of the stem.

440. The cells of the leaf are of various forms, rarely so compact as to
form a close cellular tissue, usually loosely arranged, at least in the lower
part, so as to give copious intervening spaces or air passages, communi-
cating throughout the whole interior (Fig. 443, 483). The green color is
given by tiie chlorophyll (417), seen through the very transparent walls of
the cells and through tlie translucent epidermis of the leaf.

441. In ordinary leaves, having an upper and under surface, the green
cells form two distinct strata, of different arrangement. Those of the
upper stratum are oblong or cylindrical, and stand endwise to the surface
of the leaf, usually close together, leaving hardly any vacant spaces ; those
of the lower are commonly irregular in shape, most of Ihem with their
longer diameter parallel to the face of the leaf, and are very loosely ar-
ranged, leaving many and wide air-chambers. The green color of the
lower is therefore diluted, and paler than that of the upper face of the leaf.
Tlie upper part of the leaf is so constructed as to bear the direct action

of the sunsliine ; the lower so as to afford freer circulation of air, and to
facilitate transpiration. It communicates more directly than the upper
with the external air by means of Siomates.

442. The Epidermis or skin of leaves and all young shoots is best
seen in the foliage. It may readily be stripped off from the surface of a
Lily -leaf, and still more so from more fleshy and soft leaves, such as those

Fig. 483. I\Iagiiified section of a leaf of White Lily, to exliibit the cellular
structure, both of upper and lower stratum, the air-passages of the lov>'er, and
the epidermis or skin, in section, also a little of that of tlie lower face, with somo
of its stomates.

144

VEGETApLE LIFE AND WORK, [SECTION 16.

of Houseleek. The epidermis is usually composed of a single layer, occa-
sionally of two or three layers, of empty
cells, mostly of irregular outline. The sin-
uous lines which traverse it, and may be dis-

cerned under low powers of the microscope (Fig. 487), are the boundaries
of the epidermal cells.

443. Breathing-pores, or Stomates, Stomata (singular, a Stoma, — •
literally, a mouth) are openings through the epidermis into the air-chambers
or intercellular passages, always between and guarded by a pair of thin-
walled guai'dian cells. Although most abundant in leaves, especially on
their lower face (that which is screened from direct sunlight), they are
fouud on most other green parts. They establish a direct communication
between the external air and that in the loose interior of the leaf. Their
guardian cells or lips, which are soft and delicate, like those of the green
pulp within, by their greater or less turgidity open or close the orifice as the
moisture or dryness varies.

444. In the White Lily the stomata are so remarkably large that they
may be seen by a simple microscope of moderate power, and may be dis-
cerned even by a good liand lens. There are about 60,000 of them to tbe
square inch of the epidermis of the lower face of this Lily-leaf, and only
about 3000 to the same space on the upper face. It is computed tbat an
average leaf of an Apple-tree has on its lower face about 100,000 of these
mouths.

§5. PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION.

445. Only plants are capable of originating organizable matter, or the
materials which compose the structure of vegetables and animals. Tiic es-
sential and peculiar work of jjlants is to take up portions of earth and air
(water belonging to both) upon which animals cannot live at all, and to
convert them into something organizable ; that is, into something that,
uuder life, may be built up into vegetable and animal structures. All the
food of animals is produced by plants. Animals live upon vegetables,

Fig. 484. Small portion of epidermis of the lower face of a Wliite-Lily leaf,
with stomata.

Fig. 485. One of these, more magnified, in the closed state. 4S6. Another
stoma, open.

Fig. 487. Small jiortion of epidermis of the Garden Balsam, liighly magnified,,
showing very sinuous-walled cells, and three stomata.

SECTION IG.] PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION. 145

directly or at second hand, the carnivorous upon the herbivoruiis ; ami
vegetables live upon earth and air, immediately or at second hand.

446. The Food of plants, then, primarily, is earth and air. This is
evident enough from the way in which they live. Many plants will flourish
in pure sand or powdered chalk, or on the bare face of a rock or wall,
watered merely with rain. And almost any plant may be made to grow
from the seed in moist sand, and increase its weight many times, even if it
will not come to perfection. Many naturally live suspended from the
branches of trees high in the air, and nourished by it alone, never hav-
ing any connection with the soil; and some which naturally grow on the
ground, like the Ijive-forever of the gardens, when pulled up by the roots
and hung in the air will often flourish the whole sumuier long.

447. It is true that fast-growing plants, ov those which produce much
vegetable matter in one season (especially in such concentrated form as
to be useful as food for man or the higher animals) will come to maturity
tnly in an enriched soil. But what is a rich soil? One which contains
decomposing vegetable matter, or some decomposing animal matter; that
is, in cither case, some decomposing organic matter formerly produced by
plants. Aided by this, grain-bearing and other important vegetables will
grow more rapidly and vigorously, and make a greater amount of nourish-
ing matter, than they could if left to do the whole work at once from the
beginning. So that in these cases also all the organic or organizable matter
was made by plants, and made out of earth and air. Far the larger and
most essential jiart was air and water.

448. Two kinds of material are taken in and used by plants; of which
the first, although more or less essential to perfect plant-growth, are in a
certain sense subsidiary, if not accidental, viz. : —

Earthy constituents, those which ai-e left in the form of ashes when a leaf
or a stick of wood is burned in the open air. These consist of some potash
(or soda in a marine plant), some silex (the same as flint), and a little lime,
alumine, or magnesia, iron or manrjanese, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., — some
or all of these in variable and usually minute proportions. They are such
materials as happen to be dissolved, in small quantity, in the water taken
up by the roots ; and when that is consumed by the plant, or flies off" pure
(as it largely does) by exlialation, the earthy matter is left behind in the
cells, — just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which much
hard water has been boiled. Naturally, therefore, there is more earthy
matter (i. e. more ashes) in the leaves than in any other part (sometimes
as much as seven per cent, when the wood contains only two per cent) ;
because it is through the leaves that most of the water escapes from the
plant. Some of this earthy matter incrusts the cell-walls, some goes to
form crystals or rlmphides, which abound in many plants (422), some
enters into certain special vegetable products, and some appears to be ne-
cessary to the well-being of the higher orders of jilants, although formuig
no necessary oart of the proper vegetable structure.

10

146 VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

The essential constituents of the organic fabric are those which are dissi-
pated into air and vapor in complete burning. They make up from 88 to
99 per cent of the leaf or stem, and essentially the whole both of tlie cellu-
lose of the walls and the protoplasm of the contents. Burning gives these
materials of the plant's structure back to the air, mainly in the same condi-
tion in which the plant took them, the same condition which is reached
more slowly in natural decay. The chemical elements of the cell-walls (or
cellulose, 402), as also of starch, sugar, and all that class of organizable
cell-material, are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (899). The same, with
nitrogen, are the constituents of protoplasm, or the truly vital part of
vegetation.

449. These chemical elements out of which organic matters are com-
posed are supplied to the plant by water, carbonic acid, and some combina-
tions of nitrogen.

Water, far more largely than anything else, is imbibed by the roots ; also
more or less by the foliage in the form of vapor. Water consists of oxygen
and hydrogen; and cellulose or plant-wall, starch, sugar, etc., however
different in their qualities, agree in containing these two elements in the
same relative proportions as in water.

Carbonic acid gas (Carbon dioxide) is one of the components of the atmos-
phere, — a small one, ordinarily only about g^oo' ^'^ ^^^ bulk, — sufficient
for the supply of vegetation, but not enough to be injurious to animals, as it
would be if accumulated. Every, current or breeze of air brings to the leaves
expanded in it a succession of fresh atoms of carbonic acid, which it absorbs
through its multitudinous breathing-pores. This gas is also taken up by
water. So it is brought to the ground by rain, and is absorbed by the roots
of plants, either as dissolved in the w^ater they imbibe, or in the form of
gas in the interstices of the soil. Manured ground, that is, soil containing
decomposing vegetable or animal matters, is constantly giving out this gas
into the interstices of the soil, whence the roots of the growing crop absorb
it. Carbonic acid thus supplied, primarily from the air, is the source of the
carbon which forms much the largest part of the substance of every plant.
The proportion of carbon may be roughly estimated by charring some wood
or foliage ; that is, by heating it out of contact with the air, so as to decom-
pose and drive off all the other constituents of the fabric, leaving the large
bulk of charcoal or carbon behind.

Nitrogen, the remaining plant-element, is a gas which makes up more
than two thirds of the atmosphere, is brought into the foliage and also to
the roots (being moderately soluble in water) in the same ways as is car-
bonic acid. The nitrogen which, mixed with oxygen, a little carbonic acid,
and vapor of water, constitutes the air we breathe, is the source of thig
fourth plant-element. But it is very doubtful if ordinary plants can usa
any nitrogen gas directly as food ; that is, if they can directly cause it to
combine with the other elements so as to form protoplasm. But when com-
bined with hydrogen (forming ammonia), or when combined with oxygen

SECTION 16.] PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION. 147

(nitric acid and nitrates) plants appropriate it with avidity. And several
natural processes are going on in whicli nitrogen of the air is so combiued
and supplied to the soil in forms directly available to the plant. The most
eflScieut is nitrification, the formation of nitre (nitrate of potash) in the soil,
especially in all fertile soils, througli the action of a bacterial ferment.

450. Assimilation in plants is tiie conversion of these inorganic sub-
stances— essentially, water, carbonic acid, and some form of comi)iued or
combinubL' nitrogen — into vegetable matter. This most dilute food the
living plant concentrates and assimilates to itself. Only plants are capable
of converting these mineral into organizable matters ; and this all-important
work is done by them (so far as all ordinary vegetation is concerned) only

451. Under the light of the sun, anting upon green parts or fulic/ge, that
is, upon the chlorophyll, or upon what answers to chlorophyll, which these
parts contain. The sun in some way supplies a power which enables the
living plant to originate these peculiar cliemical combinations, — to organ-
ize matter into forms which are alo'ie capable of being endowed with life.
The proof of this proposition is simple ; and it shows at the same time, in
t!i3 simplest way, what a plant does with the water and carbonic acid it
consumes. Namely, 1st, it is only in sunshine or bright dayhght that the
green parts of plants give out oxygen gas, — then they regularly do so;
and 2J, the giving out of this oxygen gas is required to render the chemical
composition of water and carbonic acid the same as that of cellulose, that
is, of the plant's permanent fabric. This shows why plants spread out so
lar^e a surface of foliage. Leaves are so many workshops, full of ma-
chinery worked by suu-power. The emission of oxygen gas from any
sun-lit foliage is seen by placing some of this under water, or by using an
aquatic plant, by collecting the air bubbles which rise, and by noting tiiat
a taper burns brighter in this air. Or a leafy plant in a glass globe may
03 supplied with a certain small percentage of carbonic acid gas, and after
proper exposure to sunshine, the air ou being tested will be found to con-
tain less carbonic acid and just so much the more oxygen gas.

452. Now if the plant is making cellulose or any equivalent substance,
— that is, is making the very materials of its fabric and growth, as must
generally be the case, — all this oxygen gas given off by the leaves comes
from th3 decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the plant. For cellu-
lose, and also starch, dextrine, sugar, and the like are composed of carbon
along with oxygen and hydrogen in just the proportions to form water.
And the carbonic acid and water taken in, less the oxygen wiiich the carbon
l).-ought with it as carbonic acid, and which is given off from the foliage in
sunshine, just represen's the manufactured article, cellulose.

453. It comes to t'.ic same if the first product of assimilation is sugar,
or dextrias which is a sort of soluble starch, or starch itself. And in the
plant all those forms arc rradily changed into one another. In the tiny
seedling, as fast as this assimilated matter is formed it is used in growth,
that is, in the formation of cell-walls. After a time some or much of

148 VEGETABLH MKR AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

tlic product, limy be accumulated in store f(jr I'uturc growth, us iu tlie root
of the turui|), or the tuber ot the potato, or tlic seed of com or pulse.
This store is luuiuly iu the form of starch. When growtii begins anew,
this starch is turucd iuto dextrine or into sugar, in licjuid form, and used
to nourish and build up the germinating embryo or the uew shoot, where
it is at length converted into cellulose and used to build up plant-structure.

451. But that which builds plant-fabric is not the cellular structure
itself; the work is dune by the living protoplasm which dwells within the
walls. This also has to take and to assimilate its proper food, for its own
maintenance and growth. Protoplasm assimilates, along with the other
three elements, the nitrogen of the plant's food. This comes primarily from
the vast, stock in the atmosphere, but mainly through the earth, where it is
accunmlated through various processes in a fertile soil, — mainly, so far as
concerns crops, from the decomposition of former vegetables and animals.
This protoplasm, which is formed at the same time as the simpler cellulose,
is essentially the same as the Hesh of animals, and the source of it. It is
the common basis of vegetable and of animal life.

435. Su plant-assimilation produces all the food and fabric of animals.
Starch, sugar, the oils (which are, as it were, these farinaceous matters
more deoxidated), chlorophyll, and the like, and even cellulose itself, form
the food of herbivorous animals and much of the food of man. When
digested they enter iuto the blood, undergo various transformations, and are
at length decomposed iuto carbonic acid and water, and exhaled from the
lungs in respiration, — in other words, arc given back to the air by the ani-
mal as the very same materials which the plant took from the air as its food,
— are given back to the air in the same form that they would have taken if
the vegetable matter had been left to decay where it grew, or if it had been
set on fire and burned ; and with the same result, too, as to the heat, — the
heat in this case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the
animal.

456. The protoplasm and other products containing nitrogen (gluten,
legumine, etc.), and which are most accumulated in grains and seeds (for
the nourishment of their embryos when they germhiate), compose the most
nutritious vegetable food consumed by animals; they form their proper
flesh and sinews, while the earthy constituents of the plant form the earthy
matter of the bones, etc. At length decomposed, in the secretions and
excretions, these nitrogenous constituents are through successive changes
finally resolved into mineral matter, into carbonic acid, w-ater, and ammonia
or some nitrates, — into exactly or essentially the same materials which the
plants took up and assimilated. Animals depend upon vegetables abso-
lutely and directly for their subsistence; also indirectly, because

457. Plants purify the air for animals. In the very process by which they
create food they take from the air carbonic acid gas, injurious to animal res-
piration, which is continually poured into it by the l)reatliing of all animals,
by all decay, by the burumg of fuel and all other oi-dmary combustion; and

SECTION IC]

MOVEMENTS.

149

they restore an equal bulk of life-sustaiuing oxygen needful forthe respiration
of auiaials, — needful, also, in a certain measure, for plants in any work they
do. For in plants, as well as in animals, work is done at a certain cost.

§ 6. PLANT WORK AND MOVEMENT.

458. As tlie organic basis and truly living material of plants is identical
with that of animals, so is the life at bottom essentially the same ; but in
animals something is added at every rise from the lowest to highest organ-
isms. Action and work in living behigs require movement.

459. Living things move ; those not living are only moved. Plants
move as truly as do animals. The latter, nourished as they are upon or-
ganized food, which has been prepared for them by plants, and is found
only here and there, must needs have the power of going after it, of collect-
ing it, or at least of taking it in ; which requires them to make spontaneous
movements. But ordinary plants, with their wide-spread surface, always
in contact with the earth and air on which they feed, — the latter every-
where the same, and the former very mucli so, — might be thought to liave
no need of movement. Ordinary plants, indeed, have no locomotion; some
float, but most are rooted to the spot where tliey grew. Yet probably all
of them execute various movements which must be as truly self-caused as
are those of the lower grades of animals, — movements which are over-
looked only because too slow to be directly observed. Neveitheless, the
motion of the hour-hand and of the minute-hand of a watch is not less real
than tliat of the second-hiaid.

460. Locomotion, iloreover, many microscopic plants living in water
are seen to move freely, if not briskly, under the microscope ; and so like-
wise do more conspicuous
aquatic plants in their embryo-
like or seedling state. Even at
maturity, species of Oscillaria
(such as in Fig. 4S8, minute
worm-shaped plants of fresh , ^
waters, taking this name from -<5^m£rf55^
their oscillating motions) freely 488

execute three different kinds

of movement, the very delicate investing coat of cellulose not impeding the
action of the living protoplasm within. Even when this coat is firmer and
hardened with a siliceous deposit, such crescent-shapod or boat-shnped
one-celled plants as Closterium or Ndtncula are able in some way to move
along fro;)i jilace to [ilace in the water.

4G1. Movements in Cells, or Cell-circulation, sometimes called Cy-
closis, has been dit.-ctcd in so many plants, especially in comparatively

Fig. iSS. Two iudiviJuals of au Oscillaria, magnitied.

150

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

transparent aquatic plants aad in hairs ou the surface of land plants (where
it is easiest to observe), that it may be inferred to take place in all cells
during the most active i)art of their life. This motion is commonly a
streaming movement of threads of protoplasm, carrying
along solid granules by which the action may be ob-
served and the rate measured, or in some cases it is a
rotation of the whole protoplasmic contents of the cell.
A comparatively low magnifying power will show it in
the cells of Nitella and Cliara (which are cryptogamous
plants) ; and under a moderate power it is well seen in
the Tape Grass of fresh water, Vallisneria, and in Naias
flexilis (Fig. 489). Minute particles and larger green-
ish globules arc seen to be carried along, as if in a cur-
rent, around the cell, passing up one side, across the
end, down the other and across the bottom, completing
the circuit sometimes within a minute or less when well
warmed. To see it well in the cell, which like a string
of beads form the hairs on the stamens of Spidcrwort,
a high magnifying power is needed.

462. Transference of Liquid from Cell to Cell,

and so from place to place in the plant, the absorption

of water by the rootlets, and the exhalation of the

greater part of it from the foliage, — these and similar

operations are governed by the physical laws which

regulate the diffusion of fluids, but are controlled by the

action of living protoplasm. Equally under vital control

*^^ are the various chemical transformations which attend

assimilation and growth, and which involve not only molecular movements

but conveyance. Growth itself, which is the formation and shaping of

new parts, implies the direction of internal activities to definite ends.

403. Movements of Organs. The living protoplasm, in all but the
lowest grade of plants, is enclosed and to common appearance isolated in
separate cells, the walls of which can only in their earliest state be said to
be alive. Still plants are able to cause the protoplasm of adjacent cells
to act in concert, and by their combined action to effect movements in
roots, stems, or leaves, some of them very slow and gradual, some manifest
and striking. Such movements are brought about through individually
minute changes in the form or tension in the protoplasm of the innumera-
ble cells which make up the structure of the organ. Some of the slower
movements are effected during growth, and may be explained by inequality
of growth on the two sides of the bending organ. But the more rapid
changes of position, and some of the slow ones, cannot be so explained.

Fig. 489. A few cells of a leaf of Naias flexilis, highly maguiiied: the arrows
indicate the courses of the circulating currents.

SECTION IG.] MOVEMENTS. 151

404. Root-movements. lu its growth a root turns or bends away
from the liglit and toward the centre of the earth, so that in lengthening
it buries itself in the soil where it is to live and act. Every one must
have observed this in the germination of seeds. Careful observations have
sliowu that tlie tip of a growing root also makes little sweeps or short
movements from side to side. By this means it more readily insinuates
itself into yielding portions of the soil. The root-tips will also turn
toward moisture, and so secure the most fa^vorable positions in the soil.

465. Stem-movements. The root end of the caulicle or first joint of
stem (that beh)W I he cotyledons) acts -like the root, in turning downward
in germination (making a complete bend to do so if it happens to })oint
upward as tlie seed lies in the ground), while the other end turns or
points skyward. Tliese opposite positions are taken in complete dark-
ness as readily as in the ligiit, in dryness as much as in moisture-, there
fore, so far as these movements are physical, the two portions of the same
internode appear to be oppositely afi'ected by gravitation or other in-
lluences.

466. Rising into the air, the stem and green shoots generally, while
young and pliable, bend or direct themselves toward the light, or toward
the stronger light when unequally illuminated; while roots turn toward the
darkness.

467. Many growing stems have also a movement of Nutation, that is,
of nodding successively in different directions. This is brought about by
a temporary increase of turgidity of the cells along one side, thus bowing
the stem over to the opposite side; and this line of turgesceuce travels
round the shoot continually, from right to left or from left to right accord-
ing to the species : thus the shoot bends to all points of the compass in
succession. Commonly this nutation is slight or hardly observable. It is
most marked in

46S. Twining Stems (Fig. 90). The growing upper end of such
stems, as is familiar in the Hoj), Pole Beans, and Moruiug-Glory, turns
over in an inclined or horizontal direction, tiius stretching out to reach a
neighboring support, and by the continual change in the direction of the
nodding, sweeps the whole circle, the sweeps being the longer as the stem
lengthens. When it strikes against a support, such as a stem or branch of
a neighboring plant, the motion is arrested at the contact, but continues
at the growing apex beyond, and this apex is thus made to wind spirally
around the supporting body.

469. Leaf-movements are all but universal. The presentation by
most leaves of their upper surface to the light, from whatever direction
that may come, is an instance ; for wlien turned upside down they twist or
bend round on the stalk to recover this normal position. Leaves, and the
leaflets of compound leaves, change this position at nightfall, or when the
light is withdrawn ; they then take what is called their sleeping posture,
resuming the diurnal position when daylight returns. This is very striking

152

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [SECTION 16.

in Locust -trees, in tlie Sensitive Plant (Fig. 100), and in Woodsorrel
Young seedlings droop or close tlicir leaves at night in plants wliicli are
not thus affected in tiie adult i'uliagc. All this is thought to be a protec-
tion against the cold by nocturnal radiation.

470. Various plants climb by a coiling movement of their leaves or iheir
leaf-stalks. Familiar examples are seen in Clematis, Maurandia, Troi)8eo-
lum, and in a Solanum which is much cultivated in greenhouses (Fig. 172).
In the latter, and in other woody plants which clind) in this way, tiie
petioles thicken and harden alter they have grasped iheir support, thus
securing a very firm hold.

471 • Tendril movements. Tendrils are either leaves or stems (98,
16S), specially developed for climbing purposes. Cobaea is a good exam-
ple of partial transformation; some of the leaflets are normal, some of the
same leaf are little tendrils, and some intermediate in character. The
Passion-flowers give good examples of simple stem-tendrils (Fig. 92) ;
Grape-Vines, of branched ones. Most tendrils make revolving sweeps, like
those of twining stems. Those of some Passion-flowers, in sultry weather,
are apt to move fast enough for the movement actually to be seen for a part
of the circuit, as plainly as that of the second-hand of a watch. Two
herbaceous species, Passiflora grac.lis and P. sicyoides (the first an annual,
the second a strong-rooted perennial of the easiest
cultivation), are admirable for illustration both of
revolving movements and of sensitive coiling.

472. Movements under Irritation. The mo.^t
familiar case is that of the Sensitive Plant (Fig. 490).
The leaves suddenly take their nocturnal position
when roughly touched or when shocked by a jar.
The leaflets close in pairs, the four outspread par-
tial petioles come closer together, and the common
petiole is depressed.
The seat of the move-
ments is at the base of
the leaf-stalk and .^talk-
lets. Schrankia, a near
relative of the Sensitive
Plant, acts in the same
way, but is slower.
These are not anoma-
lous actions, but only *^
extreme manifestations of a faculty more or less common in foliage. In
Locust and Honey-Locusts for example, repeated jars will slowly pro-
duce similar effects.

Fig. 490. Piece of stem of Sen.sitive Plant (Jlimosa pudica), with two leaves,
the lower open, the upper in the closed state.

SECTION 16.]

MOVEMENTS.

153

473. Leaf-stalks and tendrils are adapted to their uses in climbing by a
similar sensitiveness. The coiling of the leaf-stalk is in response to a
kind of irritation produced by contact with the supporting body. This
may be shown by gentle rubbing or prolonged pressure u[)ou the upper
face of the leaf-stalk, whieb is soon followed by a curvature. Ten-
drils are still more sensitive to contact or light friction. This causes the
free end of the tendril to coil round the support, and the sensitiveness,
propagated downward along the tendril, causes that side of it to become
less turgescent or the opposite side more so, thus throwing the tendril into
coils. This shortening draws the plant up to the support. Tendrils which
have not laid liold will at length commonly coil spontaneously, in a simple
coil, from the free apex downward.

In Sieyos, Echinocystis, and the
above mentioned Passion-fiowci'S
(471), the tendril is so sensitive,
under a high summer temperature,
that it will curve and coil prompt-
ly after one or two light strokes
by the hand.

474. Among spontaneous move-
ments the most singular are those
of Desmodiuin gyrans of India,
sometimes called Telegraph-plant,
which is cultivated on account of
this action. Of its three leaflets,
the larger (terminal) one moves
only by drooping at nightfall and
rising with the dawn. But its two
small lateral leaflets, when in a
congenial high temperature, by day
and by night move upward and
downward in a succession of jerks,
stopping oceasioually, as if to re-
cover from exhaustion. In most
plant-movements some obviously
useful purpose is subserved -. this i^i
of Desmodium gyrans is a riddle.

475. Movements in Flowers are very various. The most remarkable
are in some way connected with fertilization (Sect. XIII.). Some occur
under irritation : the stamens of Barberry start forward when touched at
the base inside : those of many polyandrous flowers (of Sparmannia very
strikingly) spread outwardly when lightly brushed : the two lips or lobes

Fig. 491. Portion of stem aud leaves of Telegraph-plant (Desmodium gyrans),
almost of natural size.

154

VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK. [.SECTION IG.

of the stigma in Mimulus close after a touch. Some arc automatic and
arc connected with dichogamy (339) : the style of Sabbatia and of large-
flowered species of Epilobium bends over strongly to one side or tarns down-
ward when tlie blossom opens, but slowly erects itself a day or two later.

476. Extraordinary Movements connected -with Capture of In-
sects. Tlie most striking cases arc those of Drosera and Dionsea; for an
account of wliich see " How Plants Behave," and Goodale's " Physiological
Botany."

477. The upper face of the leaves of the common species of Drosera,
or Sundew, is beset with stout bristles, having a glandular tip. This tip
secretes a drop of a clear but very viscid liquid, which glistens like a dew-
drop in the sun; whence tlie popular name. When a fly or other small
insect, attracted by the liquid, alights upon the leaf, the viscid drops are so
tenacious that they hold it fast. In struggling it only becomes more com-
pletely entangled. Now the neighboring bris-
tles, which have not been touched, slowly bend
inward from all sides toward the captured in-
sect, and bring their sticky apex against its
body, thus increasing the number of bonds.
Moreover, the blade of the leaf commonly aids
in the capture by becoming concave, its sides
or edges turning inward, which brings still
more of the gland-tipped bristles into contact
with the captive's body. The insect per-
ishes; the clear liquid disappears, apparently

by absorption into the tissue of
the leaf. It is thought that the
absorbed secretion takes with it
some of the juices of the insect
or the products of its decompo-
sition.

478. Dionaea muscipula, the
most remarkable vegetable fly-trap
(Fig. 176, 492), is related to the
Sundews, and has a more special
and active apparatus for fly-
^'^^ catching, formed of the summit

of the leaf. The two halves of this rounded body move as if they were
hinged upon the midrib; their edges are fringed with spiny but not
glandular bristles, whicli interlock when the organ closes. Upon the face
are two or tliree short and delicate bristles, whicli are sensitive. They do
not themselves move when touclied. but they propagate the sensitiveness to
the organ itself, causing it to close with a quick movement. In a fresh

Fig. 402. Plant of Dioncea imiscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap, reduced iu size.

SECTION 16.] TRANSFORMING MATERIAL AND ENERGY. 155

and vigorous leaf, under a high suiiinicr tomporature, and when the trap
lies widely open, a touch of any one of the minute bristles on the face, by
the finger or any extraneous l)ody, springs the trap (so to say), and it
closes suddenly; but after an hour or so it opens again. When a fly or
other small insect alights on the trap, it closes in the same manner, and so
quickly that the intercrossing marginal bristles obstruct the egress of the
insect, unless it be a small one and not worth taking. Afterwards and
more slowly it completely closes, and presses down upon the prey ; then
some liidden glands pour out a glairy liquid, which dissolves out the juices
of the insect's body ; next all is re-absorbed into the plant, and the trap
opens to repeat the operation. But the same leaf perhaps never captures
more than two or three insects. It ages instead, becomes more rigid and
motionless, or decays away.

479. That some few plants should thus take animal food will appear
less surprising when it is considered that hosts of plants of the lower grade,
known as Fungi, moulds, rusts, ferments. Bacteria, etc., live upon animal
or other organized matter, either decaying or living. That plants should
execute movements in order to accomplish the ends of tlieir existence is
less surprising now when it is known that the living substance of plants
and animals is essentially the same ; that the beings of both kingdoms par-
take of a conunon life, to which, as they rise in the scale, other and liiglier
endowments are successively superadded.

480. Work uses up material and energy in plants as well as in ani-
mals. The latter live and work by the consumption and decomposition
of that which plants have assimilated into organizable matter through an
energy derived from the sun, and which is, so to say, stored up in the as-
similated products. In every internal action, as well as in every movement
and exertion, some portion of this assiuiilated matter is transformed and
of its stored energy expended. The steam-engine is an organism for con-
verting the sun's radiant energy, stored up by plants in the fuel, into me-
chanical work. An animal is an engine fed by vegetable fuel in the same
or other forms, from the same source, by the decomposition of which it
also does mechanical work. The plant is the producer of food and accumu-
lator of solar energy or force. But the plant, like the animal, is a con-
sumer whenever and by so much as it does any work except its great work
of assimilation. Every internal change and movement, every tr-'^nsforma-
tion, such as that of starch into sugar and of sugar into cell-walls, as well
as every movement of parts which becomes externally visible, is done at
the expense of a certain amount of its assimilated matter and of its stored
energy ; that is, by the decomposition or combustion of sugar or some such
product into carbonic acid and water, which is given back to the air, just
as in the animal it is given back to the air in respiration. So the respira-
tion of plants is as real and as essential as that of animals. But what plants
consume or decompose in their life and action is of insignificant amount in
comparison with what they compose.

156 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

Section XVTT. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS
PLANTS.

481. Even the beginner in botany should have some general idea of
what cryptogamous plants are, and what are the obvious distinctions of the
,irincipal families. Although the lower grades are diffieult, and need special
books and good microscopes for their study, the higher orders, sucli as
Ferns, may be determined almost as I'cadily as phanerogamous plants.

482. Linnaeus gave to this lower grade of plants the name of Cryjito-
gamia, thereby indicating that their organs answering to stamens and
pistils, if they had any, were recondite and unknown. There is no valid
reason why this long-familiar name should not be kept up, along with the
countei'part one of Phuiierofjamia (G), although organs analogous to stamens
and pistil, or rather to pollen and ovule, have been discovered in all the
higher and most of the lower grades of this series of plants. So also
the English synonymous name of Flowerless Plants is both good and con-
venient : for they have not flowers in the proper sense. The essentials of
flowers are stamens and pistils, giving rise to seeds, and the essential of a
seed is an embryo (8). Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants are propagated
by Spo;ies ; and a spore is not an embryo-plantlet, but mostly a single
plant-cell (399).

483. Vascular Cryptogams, which compose the higher orders of this
series of plants, have stems and (usually) leaves, constructed upon the
general plan of ordinary plants; that is, they have wood (wood-cells and
vessels, 408) in the stem and leaves, in the latter as a frame work of veins.
But the lower grades, having only the more elementary cellular structure,
are called Cellular Crypforjums. Far the larger number of the former are
Ferns : wherefore that class has been called

484. Pteridophyta, Pteridophytes in English form, meaning Fern-
plants, — that is, Ferns and their relatives. They are mainly Horsetails,
Ferns, Club-Mosses, and various aquatics which have been called Hydiop-
terides, i. e. Water-Ferns.

485. Horsetails, Equisetacece, is the name of a family which consists
only (among now-living plants) of Equisetum, the botanical name of Horse-
tail and Scouring Rush. They have hollow stems, with partitions at the
nodes ; the leaves consist only of a whorl of scales at each node, these
coalescent into a sheath : from the axils of these leaf-scales, in many species,
branches grow out, which are similar to the stem but on a much smaller
scale, close-jointed, and witli the tips of the leaves more apparent. At the
apex of the stem appears the fructification, as it is called for lack of a better
term, in tlie form of a short spike or head. This consists of a good num-
ber of stalked shields, bearing on tlieir inner or under face several wedge-
shaped spore-cases. The spore-cases when they ripen open down the inner

SECTION 17.]

rTERIDOPHYTES.

157

side and discharge a threat mimbor of rrreen spores of a size large enough
to be well seen by a hand-glass. The spores are aided in their discharge
494

497 498 493 499

and dissemination by four club-shaped threads attached to one part of them.
These are hygrometric : when moist tliey are rolled
up over the spore ; when dry they straighten
aod exhibit lively movements, closing over liie
spore when breatlied upon, and unrolhng promptly
a moment after as they dry. (See Fig. 493-49 S)
486. Ferns, or Filices, a most attractive family
of plants, are very numerous and varied. In warm
and equable cUmates some rise into forest-trees,
with habit of Palms ; but most of them are peren-
nial herbs. The wood of a Fern-trunk is very dif-
ferent, however, from that of a palm, or of any exogenous stem either. A
section is represented in Fig. 500. The curved plates of wood each ter-

FiG. 493. Upper part of a stem of a Horsetail, Equisetum sylvaticum. 494. Part
of the head or spike of spore-cases, witli some of tlie latter taken off. 495. View
(more enlarged) of under side of tlie shield-shaped body, bearing a circle of spore-
cases. 496. One of the latter detached and more magnified. 497. A spore with
the attached arms moistened. 498. Same when dry, the arms extended.

Fig. 499. A Tree-Feni, Dicksoiiia arborescens, with a young one near its base.
In front a common lieibaceous Fern (Polypodiiim vxilgare) with its creeping stem
or rootstock.

Fig. 500. A section of the trunk of a Tree-Fern.

500

158 CRYPTOGAMOUS OK FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

miiiate upward in a leaf-stalk. The subterranean truuk or stem of any
strong-growing herbaceous Fern shows a similar structure. !Most Ferns
are circinate in the bud ; that is, are rolled up in the manner shown in Fig.
197. Uncoiling as they grow, they have some likeness to a crosier.

487. The fructification of Ferns is borne on the back or under side of
the leaves. The early botanists thought this such a peculiarity that they

506 507 502

always called a Fern-leaf a Frond, and its petiole a Stipe. Usage con-
tinues these terms, although they are superfluous. The fruit of Ferns
consists of Spoke-cases, technically Sporangia, which grow out of the
veins of the leaf. Sometimes these are distributed over the whole lower

Fig. 501. The Walking-Feni, Camptosorus, reduced in size, showing its fruit-
dots on the veins approximated in pairs. 502. A small piece (innnule) of a
Shield-Fern : a row of fruit-dots on each side of the midrib, each covered by its
kidney-shaped indusium. 503. A spore-case from the latter, just bursting by the
partial straightening of the incomplete ring; well magnified. 504. Three of the
spores of 509, more magnified. 505. Schizsea pusilla, a very small and simple-
leaved Fern, drawn nearly of natural size. 506. One of the lobes of its fruit-
bearing portion, magnified, bearing two rows of spore-cases. 507. Spore-case of
the latter, detached, opening lengthwise. 508. Adder-tongue, Ophioglossiini:
spore-cases in a kind of spike: n, a portion of the fruiting part, about natural
size; showing two rows of the firm spore-cases, which open transversely into two
valves.

SECTION 17.]

PTERIDOPHYTES.

159

surface of the leaf or frond, or over the whole surface when there are no
proper leul-blades to the froud, but all is reduced to stalks. Coniinonly the
spore-cases occupy only detached spots or Ihics, each of which is called a
SoKUS, or in English merely a Eruit-dot. In many Ferns these fruit-dots
are naked ; in others they are produced under a scale-like bit of membrane,
called an Indusium. In Maidenhair-Ferns a little lobe of the leaf is folded
back over each fruit-dot, to serve as its shield or indusium. In the true
Brake or Bracken (Pteris) the whole edge of the fruit-bearing part of the
leaf is folded back over it like a hem.

488. The form and structure of the spore-cases can be made out with
a common hand magnifying glass. The commonest kind (sliown in Fig.
503) has a stalk formed of a row of jointed cells, and is itself composed
of a layer of thin-walled cells, but is incompletely surrounded by a border of
thicker-walled cells, forming the Ring. This extends from the stalk up
one side of the spore-case, round its summit, descends on the other side,
but there gradually vanishes. In ripening and drying the shrinking of the
cells of the ring on the outer side causes it to straighten ; in doing so it
tears the spore-case open on the weaker side and
discharges the minute spores that fill it, com-
monly with a jex"k which scatters them to the
wind. Another kind of spore-case (Fig. 507)

is stalkless, and has its

ring-cells forming a kind

of cap at the top : at ma-
turity it splits from top

to bottom by a regular

dehiscence. A third kind

is of firm texture and

opens across into two

valves, like a clam-shell

(Fig. 508") : this kiiid

makes an approach to the

next family.

489. The spores germi-
nate on moistened ground.

In a conservatory they

may be found germinating
on a damp wall or on the edges of a well- watered flower-pot. Instead of
directly forming a fern-plantlet, the spore grows first into a body which

Fig. 509. A young prothallus of a Maiden-hair, moderately enlarged, and an
older one with the first fern-leaf developed from near the notch. 510. Middle por-
tion of the young one, nmcli magnified, sliowinic below, partly among tlie rootlets,
the nntheridia or fertilizing organs, and above, near the notch, tliiee pistillidia
to be fertilized.

160 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

closely resembles a small Liverwort. This is named a Prothallus (Fig.
509) : from some point of this a bud appears to originate, which produces
the first fern-leaf, soon followed by a second and third, and so the stem
and leaves of the plant are set up.

490. Investigation of tliis prothallus under the microscope resulted in
the discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind of fertilization, takin? place at

this germinating stage of the plant. On the under side of the prothallus
two kinds of organs appear (Fig. 510). One may be likened to an open
and depressed ovule, with a single cell at bottom answering to nucleus ;
the other, to an anther; but instead of pollen, it discharges corkscrew-
shaped microscopic filaments, whicli bear some cilia of extreme tenuity, by
the rapid vibration of which the filaments move freely over a wet surface.
Tiiese filaments travel over the surface of the prothallus, and even to other
prothalli (for there are natural hybrid Ferns), reach and enter the ovule-

FiG. 511. Lycopodium Carolinianum, of nearly natural size. 512. Inside view
of one of the bracts and spore-case, magnified.

Fig. 513. Open 4-valved spore-case of a Selaginella, and its four large spores
(niacrospores^^ magnified. 514. Macrospores of another Selaginella. 51.i. Same
separated.

Fig, 516. Plant of Isoetes. 517. Base of a leaf and contained s]iorocarp filled
with microspores cut across, magnified. 518. Same divided lengthwise, equally
magnified; some microspores seen at the left. 519. Section of a spore-case contain-
ing macrospores, equally maguilied; at the right three macrospores more magnified.

SECTION 17.]

PTERIDOPHYTES.

161

like cavities, and fertilize the cell. This thereupon sets up a growth, forms
a vegetable bud, and so develops the new plant.

491. An essentially similar process of fertilization has been discovered
in the preceding and the following families of Pteridophytes ; but it is
mostly subterranean and very difficult to observe.

492. Club-Mosses or Lycopodiums, Some of the common kinds,
called Ground Pine, are familiar, being largely used for Christmas wreaths
and other decoration. They are low evergreens, some creeping, all with
considerable wood in their stems: this thickly beset with small leaves. In
the axils of some of these leaves, or more commonly, in the axils of pecu-
liar leaves changed into bracts (as in Fig. 511, 512) spore-cases appear, as
roundish or kidney-sliaped bodies, of firm texture, opening round the top
into two valves, and discharging a great quantity of a very fine yellow
powder, the spores.

493. The SelagineUas have been separated from Lycopodium, which
they much resemble, because they produce two kinds of spores, in sepa-
rate spore-cases. One kind (Miceospokes) is just that of Lycopodium;
the other consists of only
four large spores (Macro-
spores), in a spore-case
which usually breaks in
pieces at maturity (Fig.
513-515),

494. The Quillworts,
Isoetes (Fig. 516-519),
are very unlike Club Mos-
ses in aspect, but have been
associated with them. They
look more like Rushes, and
live in water, or partly out
of it. A very short stem,
like a corm, bears a cluster
of roots underneath ; above
it is covered by the broad
bases of a cluster of awl-
shaped or thread-shaped
leaves. The spore-cases
are immersed in the bases
of the leaves. The outer

leaf-bases contain numerous macrospores ; the inner are filled with innu-
merable microspores.

495. The Pillworts (Marstlia and Pil/daria) are low aquatics, which

520

Fig. f)20. Plant of Marsilia qiiaih-ifoliata, reduced in size; at the right a pair of
sporo-carps of about natural size.

162 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

bear globular or pill-sliapcd fruit (Sporoca.kps) on the lower part of their
leaf-stalks or on their slender creeping steins. The leaves of the commoner
species of Marsilia might be taken for four-leaved Clover. (See Fig. 520.)
The sporocarps arc usually raised on a short stalk. Within they aru
divided lengthwise by a partition, and then crosswise by several partitions.
These partitions bear numerous delicate sacs or spore-cases of two kinds,
intermixed. The larger ones contain each a large spore, or maerospore ;
the smaller contain numerous microspores, immersed in mucilage. At
maturity the fruit bursts or splits open at top, and the two kinds of spores
are discharged. The large ones in germination produce a small prothallus ;
upon which the contents of the microspores act in the same way as in
Ferns, and wi(h a similar result.

496. AzoUa is a little floating plant, looking like a small Liverwort or
Moss. Its branches are covered with minute and scale-shaped leaves.
On the under side of the branches are found egg-shaped thin-walled sporo-
carps of two kinds. The small ones open across and discharge micro-
spores ; the larger burst irregularly, and bring to view globose spore-cases,
attached to the bottom of the sporocarp by a slender stalk. These delicate
spore-cases burst and set free about four macrospores, which are ferti-
lized at germination, in the manner of the Pillworts and Quillworts.
(See Fig. 521-526 )

522 524

497. Cellular Cryptogams (1-S3) are so called because composed,
even in their higher forms, of cellular tissue only, without proper wood-
cells or vessels. Many of the lower kinds are mere plates, or ribbons,
or simple rows of cells, or even single cells. But their highest orders
follow the plan of Ferns and phanerogamous plants in having stem and
leaves for their upward growth, and commonly roots, or at least rootlets,

FlQ. 521. Small plant of Azolla Caroliniana. 522. Portion magnified, showing
the two kinds of sporocarp; the small ones contain microspores ; 52-3 represents
one more magnified. 524. The larger sporocarp more magnified. 525. Same
more magnified and burst open, .showing stalked spore-cases. 526. Two of the
latter highly magnified ; one of them bursting shows four contained macrospores?
between the two, three of these spores highly magnified.

SECTION

17.]

BRYOPHYTES.

163

to attach them to the soil, or to trunks, or to other bodies on which tliey
grow. Plants of this grade are chieflj Mosses. So as a whole they take
the name of

498. Bryophyta, Bryophytes iu English form, Bryum being the
Greek name of a Moss. These plants are of two principal kinds . true
Musses Qlusci, which is their Latin name iu tlie pluralj ; and Hepatic
Mosses, or Liverworts {flepaiicfe).

499. Mosses or Musci. The pale Peat-mosses (species of Sphagnum,
tlie princijial component of sphagnous bogs) and the strong grownig Hair-
cap Moss (Polytrichum) are among the lar-
ger and commoner representatives of this
numerous family ; while Fountain Moss (Fon-
tiualis) in running water sometimes attains the
length of a yard or more. On the other hand,
some are barely individually distinguishable
to the naked eye. Fig. 527 represents a com-
mon little Moss, enlarged to about twelve
times its natural size ; and by its side is part
of a leaf, much magnified, showing that it is
composed of cellular tissue (parenchyma-cells)
only. The leaves of Mosses are always sim-
ple, distinct, and sessile on the stem. The
fructification is an urn-shaped spore-case, in
this as in most cases raised on a slender stalk.
The spore-case loosely bears on its summit
fl thin and pointed cap, like a candle-extin-
guisher, called a Calj/ptm. Detaching this, it
is found that the spore-case is hke a pyxis
(37fi), that is, the top at maturity comes off
as a lid {Operc7dum) ; and that the interior is
filled with a green powder, the spores, which
are discharged through the open mouth. In
most Mosses there is a fringe of odjC or two
rows of teeth or membrane around this mouth
or orifice, the Peristome. When moist the peristome closes hygrometri-
c.'illy over the orifice more or less ; when drier the teeth or processes
commonly bend outward or recurve ; and then the spores more readily es-
cape. In Hair-cap ]\Ioss a membrane is stretched quite across the mouth,
like a drum-head, retaining the spores until this wears away. See Figures
527-541 for details.

500. Fertilization in Mosses is by the analogues of stamens and pistils,
which are hidden in the axils of leaves, or in the cluster of leaves at the

Fig. 527. Single plant of Physcomitrium pyriforme, magnified. 528. Top of a
leaf, cut across; it consists of a single layer of cells.

164 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

end of the stem. The analogue of the aiitlier {Antheridium ) is a cellular
sac, w'liich in bursting discharges innuiiicrabic delicate cells floating in a
mucilugiuous liquid; each of these bursts and sets free a vibratde self-
531 531 541 540

529 536 535 537

moving thread. These threads, one or more, reach the orifice of the pistil-
shaped body, the Pistillidium, and act upon a particular cell at its base
within. This cell in its growth develops into the spore-case and its stalk
(when there is anv), carrying on its summit the wall of the pistillidium,
wliich becomes the calyptra.

501. Liverworts or Hepatic Mosses {Hcpatica) in some kinds re-
semble true Mosses, having distinct stem and leaves, although their leaves
occasionally run together ; while in others there is no distinction of stem
and leaf, but the whole plant is a leaf-like body, which produces rootlets on
the lower face and its fructification on the upper. Those of the moss-like
kind (sometimes called Scale-Mosses) have their tender spore-cases splitting
into l\>ur valves; and with tlicir spores are intermixed some slender spiral

Fig. 529. Mnium cuspidatum, smaller than nature. 530. Its calyptra, detached,
enlarged. 531. Its spore-case, with top of stalk, magnified, the lid (532) being
detached, the outer peristome appears. 533. Part of a cellular ring (nnnulus)
which was under the lid, outside of the peristome, more niagnilied. 534. Some
of the outer and of the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth) much magni-
fied. 535. Antheridia and a pistillidium (tlie so-called flower) at end of a stem
of same plant, the leaves torn away ((f, antheridia, $, j)isiiUidium), magmfied.
536. A bursting antheridium, and some of the accompanying jointed threads,
highly magnified. 5?>7. Summit of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has
a peristome of 16 pairs of teeth. 538. The double peristome of a Hypnum.
539-541. Spire-case, detached calyptra, and top of more enlarged spore-cast
and detached lid, of Physcomitrium pjTiforme (Fig. 527) : orifice shows that there
is no peristome.

SECTION 17. J

BRYOrHYTES.

105

and very liygromrtrio threads (called Elafers) which are thought to aid in
the dispersion of the spores. (Fig. 542-544.)

502. Marchautia, tlie commonest and largest of the true Liverworts,
forms large greeu plates or fronds on damp and shady ground, and sends up
from some part of the upper face a stout stalk, ending in a several-lobed
umbrella-shaped body, under the lobes of which hang several thin-walled
spore-cases, which burst open and discharge spores and elaters. Riccia
natans (Fig. 545) consists of wedge-shaped or heart-shaped fronds, which
float free in pools of still water. The under face bears copious rootlets ; iu
the substance of the upper face are the spore-cases, their pointed tips

merely projecting : there they burst open, and discharge their spores.
These are compai-atively few and large, and are in fours ; so they arc very
like the macrospores of Pillworts or Quillworts.

503. Thallophyta, or Thallophytes in English form. This is the name
for the lower class of Cellular Cryptogams, — plants iu which there is no
marked distinction into root, stem, and leaves. Roots in any proper sense
they never have, as organs for absorbing, although some of the larger
Seaweeds (such as the Sea Colander, Fig. 553) have them as holdfasts.
Instead of axis and foliage, there is a stratum of frond, in such plants
commonly called a Thallus (by a strained use of a Greek and Latin word
which means a green shoot or bough), whicli may have any kind of form,
leaf-like, stem-like, branchy, extended to a flat plate, or gathered into a
sphere, or drawn out into threads, or reduced to a single row of cells, or
even reduced to single cells. Indeed, Thallophytes are so multifarious, so
numerous in kinds, so protean in their stages and transformations, so re-
condite in their fructification, and many so microscopic in size, either of

Fig. 542. Fructification of a Jungermannia, magnified; its cellular spore-stalk,
surrounded at base by some of the leaves, at summit the -i-valved spore-case open-
ing, discharging spores and elaters. 543. Two elaters and some spores from the
same, higlily magnified.

Fig. 544. On'3 of the frondose Liverworts, Steetzia, otherwise like a Junger-
mannia ; the spore-case not yet protruded troin its sheath.

166 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWEKLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

tlie plant itself or its essential organs, that they have to be elaborately
described in separate books and made suljjects of special study.

50i. Nevertheless, it may be well to try to give some general idea of
what Algae and Lichens and Fungi are. Linnseus had them all under the
orders of Algae and Fungi. Afterwards the Lichens were separated ; but

545 646 547

of late it has been made most probable that a Lichen consists of an Alga
and a Fungus conjoined. At least it must be so in some of the ambiguous
forms. Botanists are in the way of bringing out new classifications of the
Thallophytes, as they come to understand their structure and relations
better. Here, it need only be said that

505. Lichens live in the air, that is, on the ground, or on rocks, trunks,
walls, and the like, and grow when moistened by rains. They assimilate air,
water, and some earthy matter, just as do ordinary plants. Algae, or Sea-

550

551

weeds, live in water, and live the same kind of life as do ordinary plants.
Fungi, whatever medium they inhabit, live as animals do, upon organic mat-
ter, — upon what other plants have assimilated, or upon the products of

Fig. 545, 546. Two plants of Riccia natans, about natural size. 547. Magnified
section of a part of the frond, .showing two immersed spore-cases, and one emptied
space. 548. Magnifietl section of a spore-case with some spores. 549. Magni-
fied spore-case torn out, and spores; one figure of the spores united; the other of
the four separated.

Fig. 550. Branch of a Chara, about natural size. 551. A fruiting portion,
magnified, showing the structure; a sporocarp, and an antheridium. 552. Outlines
of a portion of the stem in section, showing the central cell and the outer or
cortical cells.

SECTION 17.]

TIIALLOPHYTES.

IG'i

their decay. True as these general distinctions are, it is no less true that
these orders run together in llicir lowest forms ; and tiiat Algse and Fungi
may be traced down into forms so low and simple that no clear line can be
drawn between them ; and even into forms of which it is uncertain whether
they should be called plants or animals. It is as well to say that they are
not high enough in rank to be distinctively either the one or the other. On
the other hand there is a peculiar group of plants, which in simplicity of
composition resendjle the simpler Algae, while in fructification and in tlie
arrangements of their simple cells into stem and branches they seem to be
of a higher order, viz. : —

506. Characeae. These are aqnatie herbs, of considerable size, abound-
ing in ponds. The simpler kinds (Nitella) have the stem formed of a
single row of tubular cells, and at the nodes, or junction of the cells, a
■whorl of similar branches. Cliara (Fig. 550-552) is the same, except tliat
the cells which make up tlie stem and the principal branches are strength-
ened by a coating of many smaller tubular cells, applied to the surface

of the main or central cell. The fructifi-

'O iUSc^-^ cation consists of a globular sporocarp

of considerable size, which is spirally

554

enwrapped by tubular cells twisted around it: by the side of this is a
smaller and globular antheridium. The latter breaks up into eight shield-

FiG. 553. Agarum Turneri, Sea Colander (so called from the perforations with
which the frond, as it grows, becomes riddled); very much reduced in size.

Fio. 554. U;iper end of a Rockweed, Fucus vesiculosus, reduced half or more,
b, the fructitic.ition.

1G8 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLAxNTS. [SECTION 17.

shaped pieces, with au iulerual stalk, and bearing long aud ribbuu-shaped
fdameiits, which cunsist of a row of delicate cells, each of vvhicli dis-
charges a free-moving microscopic thread (the analogue of the pollen or
p.ollen-tube), nearly in the manner of Ferns and Mosses. One of these
threads reaches aud fertilizes a cell at the apex of the nucleus or sohd
body of the sporocarj). This subsequently germinates aud forms a new
individual.

507. Algae or Seaweeds. The proper Seaweeds may be studied by
the aid of Professor Farlow's " Marine Algae of New England ; " the

fresh-water species, by Prof. H. C. Woods's " Fresh-water Algae of North
America," a larger aud less accessible volume. A few common forms are
here very briefly mentioned and illustrated, to give an idea of the family.
But tliey are of almost endless diversity.

508. The common Rockwecd (Fucus vesiculosus, Fig. 554, abounding
between liigli and low water mark on the coast), the rarer Sea Colander
(Agarum Turneri, Fig. 5b'-\), and Laminaria, of which the larger forms
are called Devil's Aprons, are good rejn-esentatives of the olive green or
brownish Seaweeds. They are attached either by a disk-like base or by
root-like holdfasts to the rocks or stones on which they grow.

509. The lioUow and inflated places in the Fucus vesiculosus or Rock-
weed (Fig. 551) are air-bladders for buoyancy. The fructification forms
in the substance of tlie tips of the frond : the rough dots mark the places
where the coneeptacles open. The spores and the fertilizing cells are in
different plants. Sections of the two kinds of coneeptacles are given in Fig.
555 and 556. The contents of the coneeptacles are discharged through

Fig. 555. Magnified section through a fertile conceptacle of Rockweed, showing
the large spores in the midst of tlireads of cells. 556. Similar section of a sterile
conceptacle, containing slender antheridia. From Farlow's " Marine Algae of New
England."

SECTION 17.]

THALLOPHYTES.

169

a small orifice which in each figure is at the margin of the page. The large
spores are formed eight together in a mother-cell. The minute motile
iilaments of the antheridia fertilize the large spores after injection into the
water: and then the latter promptly acquire a cell- wall and germinate.

510. The Floridese or Rose-red series of marine Algse (which, however,
are sometimes green or brownish) are the most attractive to amateurs.
The delicate Porphyra or Laver is in some countries eaten as a delicacy, and

the cartilaginous Chondrus crispus has
been largely used for jelly. Besides their
conceptacles, which contain true spores
(Fig. 560), they mostly have a fructifi-
cation in Tetraspores, that is, of spores
originating in fours (Fig. 559).

511. The Grass-green Algae sometimes form broad membranous fronds,
such as those of the common Ulva of the sea-shore, but most of them form

^(T0qOo|

mere threads, either simple or branched. To this division belong almost

Fig. 557. Small plant of Chondrus crispixs, or Carrageen Moss, reduced in
size, in fruit; the spots represent the fructification, consisting of numerous tetra-
spores in hunches in the substance of the jilant. 558. Section through the thickness
of one of the lobes, magnified, passing through two of the imbedded fruit-clusters.
559. Two of its tetraspores (spores in fours), highly magnitiwl.

■piG. 560. Section through a conceptacle of Delesseria Leprieurei, much magni-
fied, showing the spores, which are single specialized cells, two or three in a row.

Fig. 561. A piece of the rose-red Delesseria Lepreinrei, double natural size.
r)62. A jiiece cut out and much magnified, sliowing that it is composed of a la}-er
Bf cells. 563. A few of the cells more highly magnified: the cells are gelatinous
»nd thick-walled.

170 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLAN're. [SECTION 17,

aJl the Fresh-wafer Algae, such as those which constitule the silky threads
or greeu slime of ruuuiiig streams or standing pools, and which were all
called Confervas before their immense diversity was known. Some are
formed of a single row of cells, developed each from the end of another.
Others branch, the top of one cell producing more tlian one new one
'" (I'ig- 564). Others, of a kind which is very common

in fresh water, simple threads made of a line of cells,
have the chlorophyll and protoplasm of each cell ar-
ranged in spiral lines or hands.
They form spores in a peculiar
way, which gives to this family the
designation of conjugating Alga;.

512. At a certain time two par-
allel threads approach each other
more closely; contiguous parts of

a cell of each thread bulge or grow out, and unite when they meet; the
cell-wall partitions between them are absorbed so as to open a free commu-
nication; the spiral band of green matter in both cells breaks up; the whole
of that of one cell passes over into the other ; and of the united contents
a large green spore is formed. Soon the oW cells decay, and the spore

Fig. 564. The growing end of a branching Conferva (Cladophora glonierata),
much magnified; sliowing how, by a kind of budding growth, a ne\s' cell is formed
by a cross partition separating the newer tip from the okler part below; also, how
the branches arise.

Fig. 565. Two magnified individuals of a Spiiogyin, forming spores by con-
jugation; a completed spore at base : above, successive stages of the conjugation
are represented.

Fig. 566. Closterium acutnni, a conmion Desmid, moderately magnified. It is
a single firm-walled cell, filled with green protoplasmic matter.

Fig. 567. More magnified view of three stages of the conjugation of a pair cl
the same.

SECTION

THALLOrriYTES.

171

set free is ready to f^erminate. Fig. 5G5 represents several stages of the
conjugating process, wliicli, however, would never be found all togettier like
this in one pair of threads.

513. Desmids and Diatomes, which are niicrosco])ic one-celled plants of
the same class, conjugate in the same way, as is shown in a Closteriuni by
Fig. 566, 567- Here the whole living contents of two individuals are in-
corporated into one spore, for a fresh start. A reproduction which costs
the life of two individuals to make a single new one would be fatal to the
species if there were not a provision for multiplication by the prompt divi-
sion of the new-formed individual into two, and these again into two, and
so on in geometrical ratio. And the costly process would be meaningless
if there were not some real advantage in such a fresh start, that is, in
sexes.

514. There are other Algae of the grass-green series which consist of
single cells, but which by continued growth form plants of considerable
size. Three kinds of these are represented in Fig. 568-571!.

515. Lichens, Latin Lichenes, are to be studied in the works of the
late Professor Tuckerman, but a popular exposition is greatly needed.
The subjoined illustrations (Fig- 575-580) may simply indicate what some
of the commoner forms are like. The cup, or shield-shaped spot, or knob,
which bears the fructification is named the Apothecium. This is mainly

Fig. 568. Early stage of a species of Botrydium, a globose cell. 569, 570. Stages
of growth. 571. Full-grown plant, extended aud ramified below in a root-like
way. 572, A Vaucheria; single cell grown on into a much-branched tliread; the
end of some branches enlarging, and the green contents in one (a) there condensed
into a spore. 573. More magnified view of a, and the mature s})ore escaping.
574. Bryopsis phunosa; apex of a stem with its branchlets; all the extension of
one cell. Variously magnified.

172 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

composed of slender sacs (Asri), liaving lliread-slmpod cells intermiypd ;
and each ascus contains lew or several spores, wliicli are commonly double
or treble. Most Lichens are flat expansions of grayish hue ; some of them
foliaceous in texture, but never of bright green color; more are crusta-
ceous; some are wholly pulverulent and nenrly formless. But in several
the vegetation leuglheus into an axis (as in Fig. 5 SO), or imitates stem

575

and branches or threads, as in the Reindeer-Moss on the ground in our
northern woods, and the Usnea hanging from the boughs of old trees
overhead.

516. Fungi. For this immense and greatly diversified class, it must
here suffice to indicate the parts of a Mushroom, a Sphseria, and of one or
two common Moulds. The true vegetation of common Fungi consists of
slender cells which form what is called a Mycelium. These filamentous

Fig. 575. A stone on ■which various Lichens are growing, such as (passing from
left to right) a Parmelia, a Sticta, and on the right, Lecidia geographica. so called
from its patches resembling the outline of islands or continents as depicted upon
maps. 576. Piece of thallus of Parmelia conspersa, with section through an
apothecium. 577. Section of a smaller apotheciiim, enlarged. 578. IVo asci
of same, and contained spores, and accompanying filaments; more magnified.
579. Piece of thallns of a Sticta, with section, showing the immer.sed apotheci.i;
the small openings of these dot the surface. 580. Cladonia coccinea; the fructi-
fication is in the scarlet knobs, which surround the cups.

SECTION 17.]

THALLOPHYTES.

173

cells lengthen and branch, growing by the absorption through their whole
surface ot" the decaying, or orgunizable, or living matter wiiieh they feed
upon. In a Mushroom (Agaricus), a kuol)by mass is at length formed,
which develops into a stout stalk (Sl/'pr), bearing tlie cap {PUeus) : tlie
under side of tlic cap is covered by the Ih/nienium, in this genus consisting
of radiating plates, tlie gills or LamelLe ; and these bear the powdery spores
in immense numbers. Under the microscope, the gills are found to be
studded with projecting cells, each of which, at the top, produces four
stalked spores. These form the powder wliicii collects on a sheet of paper
upon which a mature Mushroom is allowed to rest for a day or two. (I'ig.
581-586.)

517. The esculent Morel, also Splia;ria (Fig. 585, 586), and many other
Fungi bear their spores in sacs (usci) exactly in the manner of Lichens
(515).

518. Of the Moulds, one of the commoner is the Bread-Mould (Fig.
587). In fruiting it sends up a slender stalk, which bears a globular sac ;

Fig 581 Agaricus campestris, the common edible Mushroom. 582. Section
of cap and stalk. 583. Minute portion of a section of a gill, shbwmg some spore-
hearing cells, much magnified. 584. One of these, with its four spores, more

magnified. . , , , i

Fig. 585. Sphjeria rosella. 586. Two of the asci and contamed double spores,
quite like those of a Lichen ; raucli magnified.

174 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. [SECTION 17.

this bursts at maturity and discharges innumerable spores. The blue
Cheese-Mould (Fig. 588) bears a cluster of branches at top, each of
which is a row of naked spores, like a string of beads, all breaking apart

at maturity. Botrytis

(Fig. .589), the fruit-
ing stalk of which
branches, and each
branch is tipped with
a spore, is one of the
many moulds which
live and feed upon the
juices of other plants
or of animals, and are
often very destructive.
The extremely nume-
rous kinds of smut, rust, mildew, the ferments, bacteria, and the like,
many of them very destructive to other vegetable and to animal life, are
also low forms of the class of Fungi.^

Fig. 587. Ascophora, the Bread-Mould. 588. Aspergillus glaucus, the mould
of cheese, but common on mouldy vegetables. 589. A species of Botrytis. All
magnified.

1 The "Introduction to Cryptogamous Botany," or third volume of "The Botan-
ical Text Book," now in preparation by the author's colleagixe, Professor Farlow,
will be the proper guide in the study of the Flowerless Plants, especially oi tlie
Algae and Fungi.

SECTION 18.] CLASSIFICATION. 175

Section XVIIL CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.

519. Classification, in botany, is the cousideratiou of plants in respect
to their kinds and relationships. Some system of Nomenclature, or nam-
ing, is necessary for fixing and expressing botanical knowledge so as to
make it available. The vast multiplicity of plants and the various degrees
of their relationship imperatively require order and system, not only as to
tiames for designating the kinds of plants, but also as to terms for defining
their differences. Nomenclature is concerned with the names of plants.
Terminology supplies names of organs or parts, and terms to designate
their differences.

§ 1. KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP.

520. Plants and animals have two great peculiarities : 1st, they form
themselves ; and 2d, they multiply themselves. They reproduce their kind
in a continued succession of

521. Individuals. Mineral things occur as masses, which are divisible
into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of properties. But
organic things (vegetables and animals) exist as individual beings. Each
owes its existence to a parent, and pi'oduces similar individuals in its turn.
So each individual is a link of a chain ; and to this chain the natural-
historian applies the name of

522. Species. All the descendants from the same stock therefore com-
pose one species. And it was from our observing that the several sorts of
plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, or, in other words, keep
up a succession of similar individuals, that the idea of species originated.
There are few species, however, in which man has actually observed the
succession for many generations. It could seldom be proved that all the
White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came from the same stock.
But observation having familiarized us with the general fact that indi-
viduals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike, we infer from
their close resemblance that these similar individuals belong to the same
species. That is, we infer it when the individuals are as much like each
other as those are which we know, or confidently suppose, to have sprung
from the same stock.

523. Identity in species is inferred from close similarity in all essential
respects, or whenever the differences, however considerable, are not known
or reasonably supposed to have been originated in the course of time under
changed conditions. No two individuals are exactly alike ; a tendency to
variation pervades all living things. In cultivation, where variations are
looked after and cared for, very striking differences come to light ; and if
in wild nature they are less common or less conspicuous, it is partly be-
cause they are uncared for. When such variant forms are pretty well
marked they are called

176 CLASSIFICATION. [SECTION 18.

524. Varieties. The Wliitc Oak, for example, presents two or three
varieties in the shape of the leaves, altliough they may be all alike upon
each particular tree. The question often arises, and it is often hard to
answer, .vhether the difference in a particular case is that of a variety, or
is specific. If the former, it may commonly be proved by finding such
intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals as to show that
no clear distinction can be drawn between them ; or else by observing the
variety to vary back again in some of its ofi'spring. The sorts of Apples,
Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show that ditfereuces which are permanent
in the individual, and continue unchanged through a long series of gen-
erations when propagated by division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts,
bulbs, tubers, etc.), are not likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they
sometimes are so, and perhaps always tend in that direction. For the
fundamental law in organic nature is that offspring shall be like parent.

Races are such strongly marked varieties, capable of coming true to
seed. The different sorts of Wheat, Maize, Peas, Radishes, etc., are
familiar examples. By selecting those individuals of a species which have
developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from min-
gling with their less promising bretliren, and selecting again the most
promising plants raised from their seeds, the cultivator may in a few
generations render almost any variety transmissible by seed, so long as it is
cared for aud kept apart. In fact, this is the way the cultivated domesti-
cated races, so useful to man, have been fixed and preserved. Races, in
fact, can hardly, if at all, be said to exist independently of man. But
man does not really produce them. Such peculiarities — often surprising
enough — now and then originate, we know not how (tlie plant sporfs, as
tli€ gardeners say) ; they are only preserved, propagated, and generally
further developed, by the cultivator's skilful care. If left alone, they are
likely to dwindle and perish, or else revert to the original form of the
species. Vegetable races arc commonly annuals, which can be kept up
only by seed, or herbs of which a succession of generations can be had
every year or two, and so the education by selection be completed without
great lapse of time. But all fruit-trees could probably be fixed into races
in an equal number of generations.

Bud-varieties are those which spring from buds instead of seed.
They are uncommon to any marked extent. They are sometimes called
Sports, but this name is equally applied to variations among seedlings.

Cross-breeds, strictly so-called, are the variations which come from
cross-fertUizing one variety of a species with another.

Hybrids are the varieties, if they may be so called, which come from
the crossing of species (331). Only nearly related species can be hybridized;
and the resulting progeny is usually self-sterile, but not always. Hybrid
plants, however, may often be fertilized and made prolific by the pollen
of one or the other parent. This produces another kind of cross-breeds.

525. Species are the units in classification. Varieties, although of

SECTION 18.] KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP. 177

utmost importance in cultivation and of considerable consequence in the
flora of any country, are of less botanical significance. For tliey are apt
to be indefinite and to shade off one form into another. But species, the
botanist expecls to be distinct. Indeed, the practical diff"erence to the
botanist between species and varieties is the definite limitation of the one
and the iudefiuiteness of the other. Tiie botanist's determination is partly
a matter of observation, partly of judgment.

526. In an enlarged view, varieties may be incipient species ; and ucarly
related species probably came from a common stock in earlier times. For
there is every reason to believe that existing vegetation came from the
more or less changed vegetation of a preceding geological era. However
that may be, species are regarded as permanent and essentially unchanged
in their succession of individuals through the actual ages.

527. There are, at nearly tlie lowest computation, as many as one hun-
dred thousand species of phanerogamous plants, and the cryptoganious
species are thought to be still more numerous. They are all connected liy
resemblances or relationships, near and remote, which show that they are
all parts of one system, realizations in nature, as we may affirm, of the con-
ception of One Mind. As we survey them, they do not form a single and
connected chain, stretching from the low-est to the highest organized
species, although there obviously are lower and higher grades. But the
species throughout group themselves, as it were, into clusters or constel-
lations, and these into still more comprehensive clusters, and so on, with
gaps between. It is this clustering which is the ground of the recognition
of kinds of species, that is, of groups of sj)ecies of successive grades or
degree of generality ; such as that of similar species into Genera, of genera
into Families or Orders, of orders into Classes. In classification the se-
quence, proceeding from higher or more general to lower or special, is always
Class, Order, Genus, Species, Variety (if need be).

528. Genera (in the singular, Geftus) are assemblages of closely related
species, in which the essential parts are all constructed on the same partic-
ular type or plan. White Oak, Bed Oak, Scarlet Oak, Live Oak, etc.,
are so many species of the Oak genus (Latin, Quercus'). The Chestnuts
compose another genus; the Beeches another. The Apple, Pear, and
Crab are species of one genus, the Quince represents another, the various
species of Hawthorn a third. In the animal kingdom the common cat, the
wild-cat, the panther, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion are species of the
cat kind or genus; while the dog, the jackal, the different species of wolf,
and the fo.'ces, compose another geims. Some genera are represented by
a vast number of species, others by few, very many by only one known
species. For the genus may be as perfectly represented in one species as
in several, although, if this were the case throughout, genera and species
would of course be identical. The Beech genus and the Chestnut genus
would be just as distinct from the Oak genus even if but one Beech and
one Chestnut were known ; as indeed was once the case.

12

178 CLASSIFICATION. [SECTION 18.

529. Orders are groups of genera that resemble each other ; that is,
they are to genera what genera are to species. As familiar illustrations,
the Oak, Cliestnut, and Beech genera, along with the Hazel genus and the
Hornbeams, all belong to one order. The Birches and the Alders make
another; the Poplars and Willows, another; the Walnuts (with the But-
ternut) and the Hickories, still another. The Apple genus, the Quince
and the Hawthorns, along with the Plums and Cherries and the Peach,
the Raspberry with the Blackberry, the Strawberry, the Rose, belong
to a large order, which takes its name from the Rose. Most botanists
use the names " Order " and " Family " synonymously ; the latter more
popularly, as " the Rose Family," the former more technically, as
"Order Rosacece.'"

530. But when the two are distinguished, as is common in zoology,
Family is of lower grade than Order.

531. Classes are still more comprehensive assemblages, or great groups.
Thus, in modern botany, the Dicotyledonous plants compose one class,
the Monocotyledonous plants another (36-40).

532. These four gi-ades. Class, Order, Genus, Species, are of universal
use. Variety comes in upon occasion. For, although a species may have
no recognized varieties, a genus implies at least one species belonging to
it ; every genus is of some order, and every order of some class.

533. But these grades by no means exhaust the resources of clas-
sification, nor suffice for the elucidation of all the distinctions which
botanists recognize. In the first place, a higher grade than that of class
is needful for the most comprehensive of divisions, that of all plants into
the two Series of Phanerogamous and Cryptogamous (6) ; and in natu-
ral history there are the two Kingdoms or Realms, the Vegetable and
the Animal.

534. Moreover, the stages of the scafi'olding have been variously ex-
tended, as required, by the recognition of assemblages lower than class but
higher than order, viz. Subclass and Cohort; or lower than order, a Sub-
order; or between this and genus, a Tribe; or between this and tribe, a
Suhtribe ; or between genus and species, a Subgenus; and by some a
species has been divided into Subspecies, and a variety into Subvarieties.
Last of all are Indiciduals. Suffice it to remember that the following are
the principal grades in classification, with the proper sequence ; also that
only those here printed in small capitals are fundamental and universal
in botany : —

Seeibs,

Class, Subclass, Cohort,

Order, or Family, Suborder, Tribe, Subtribe,
Genus, Subgenus or Section,
Species, Variety.

SECTION 18.] NOMENCLATURE. 179

§ 2. NAMES, TERMS, AND CHARACTERS.

535. The name of a plant is the name of its genus followed by that ot
the species. The name of the genus answers to the surname (or family
name) ; that of the species to the baptismal name of a person. Thus C^uer-
ctts is the name of the Oak genus; Quercus alba, that of the White Oak,
Q. rubra, that of Red Oak, Q. nigra, that of the Black-Jack, etc. Botani-
cal names being Latin or Latinized, the adjective name of the species
comes after that of the genus.

536. Names of Genera are of one word, a substantive. The older
ones are mostly classical Latin, or Greek adopted into Latin ; such as
Quercus for the Oak genus, Fagus for the Beech, Corijlus, the Hazel, and
the like. But as more genera became known, botanists had new names to
make or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property of
the flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few examples
from the early pages of the " Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
States," — the genus Hcpatlca comes from the shape of the leaf, resembling
that of tlie liver. Mj/osunis means mouse-tail. Delphinium is from dol-
phin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the flower, which was thought
to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin. Xanthorrhiza is from two
Greek words meaning yellow-root, the common name of the plant. Cimi-
cifuga is formed of two Latin words meaning to drive away bugs, i. e.
Bugbane, the Siberian species being used to keep away such vermin.
Sanguinaria, the Bloodroot, is named from the blood-like color of its juice.
Other genera are dedicated to distinguished botanists or promoters of
science, and bear their names : such are Magnolia, which commemorates
the early French botanist, Maguol ; and Jeffersonia, named after President
Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedition over the Rocky Moun-
tains. Others bear the name of the discoverer of the plant ; as, Sarra-
cenia, dedicated to Dr. Sarrazin, of Quebec, who was one of the first to
send the common Pitciier-plant to the botanists of Europe ; and Clai/tonia,
first made known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton.

537. Names of Species. The name of a species is also a single word,
appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and therefore
agrees with the generic name in case, gender, etc. Sometimes it relates to
the country the species inhabits ; as, Claytonia Virginica, first made known
from Virginia; Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada, etc. More com-
monly it denotes some obvious or characteristic trait of the species ; as,
for example, in Sarraceuia, our northern species is named -purpurea, from
the purple blossoms, while a more southern one is named flaxa, because
its petals are yellow ; the species of Jeffersonia is called diphylla, meaning
two-leaved, because its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are
named after the discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist wlio has made
them known ; as, Magnolia Fraaeri, named after the botanist Fraser, one

180 NOMENCLATURE. [SECTION 18.

of the first to fiud tins species ; aud Sarraccnia Drummondil, for a Pitcher-
plant found by Mr. Druumiuud in i*'lorida. Such personal s])eoilic names
are of course written witli a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old
substantive name is used for the species ; as Magnolia Umbrella, the Um-
brella tree, and Ranunculus Flammula. These are also written with a
capital initial, aud need not accord with the generic name in gender. Geo-
graphical specific names, such as Canadensis, Caroliniana , Americana, in
tlic hitcr usage arc by some written witliout a capital initial, but the older
usage is better, or at least more accordant with English orthography.

538. Varietal Names, when any are required, are made on the plan of
specific names, and follow these, with the prefix var. Ranunculus Flam-
mula, var. reptans, the creeping variety : R. abortivus, var. micranthus,
the small-flowered variety of the species.

539. In recording the name of a plant it is usual to append the name,
or an abbreviation of the name, of the botanist who first published it ; and
in a flora or other systematic work, this reference to the source of the
name is completed by a further citation of the name of the book, the
volume and page where it was first published. So " Ranunculus acris,
L.," means that this Buttercup was first so named and described by Lin-
naeus ; " R. multijidus, Pursh," that this species was so named aud pub-
lished by Pursh. The suffix is no part of the name, but is an abbreviated
reference, to be added or omitted as convenience or definiteness may re-
quire. The autliorify for a generic name is similarly recorded. Thus,
*' Ranunculus, L.," means that the genus was so named by Linnaus;
" Myosurus, Dill.," that the Mouse-tail was established as a genus under
this name by DiUenius ; Caulophi/lluni, Miclix., that the Blue Cohosh was
pul)lished under this name by Michaux. The full reference in the last-
named instance would be, " in Flora Boreali-Americaua, first volume, 205 th
page," — in the customary abbreviation, "Michx. Fl. i. 205."

540. Names of Orders are given in the plural number, and are com-
monly formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a
representative of it. For example, the order of which ihe Buttercup or
Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representative, takes from it the name
of Ranunculacece ; meaning Planta Ranunculacete when written out in
full, that is, Rauunculaceous Plants. Some old descriptive names of
orders are kept up, such as Crucifera for the order to which Cress and
Mustard belong, from the cruciform appearance of their expanded corolla,
and Umhelliferce, from the flowers being in umbels.

541. Names of Tribes, also of suborders, subtribes, aud the like, are
plurals of the name of the typical genus, less prolonged, usually in ea,
inem, idea, etc. Thus the proper Buttercup tribe is Ranunculece, of the
Clematis tribe, Clematidece. While the Rose family is Rosacea, the special
Rose tribe is Rosea;.

543. Names of Classes, etc. For these see the following synopsis o£
the actual classification adopted, p. 183.

SECTION 18.] TERMINOLOGY. 181

543. So a plant is named in two words, the generic and the specific
names, to which may be added a third, tliat of tlie variety, upon occasion.
The generic name is peculiar: obviously it must not be used twice over in
botany. The specific name must not be used twice over in I he same genus,
but is free for any other genus. A Quercus alba, or While Oak, is no
hindrance to Betula alba, or White Birch ; and so of other names.

544. Characters and Descriptions. Plants are characterized l^y a
terse statement, in botanical terms, of their peculiarities or distinguishing
marks. Tiie ciiaracter of the order should include nothing wliicli is com-
mon to the whole class it belongs to; that of the genus, nothing \vnich is
common to the order ; that of the species nothing which is shared with
all other species of the genus; and so of other divisions. Descriptions
may enter into complete details of the whole structure.

545. Terminology, also called Glossology, is nomenclature applied to
organs or parts, and their forms or modifications. Each organ or special
part has a substantive name of its own: shapes and other modilications of
au organ or part are designated by adjective terms, or, when the forms
are peculiar, substantive names are given to them. By the correct use
of such botanical terms, and by proper subordination of the characters
under the order, genus, species, etc., plants may be described and deter-
mined with much precision. The classical language of botany is Latin.
While modern languages have their' own names and terms, these usually
lack the precision of the Latin or Latinized botanical terminology. For-
tunately, this Latinized terminology has been largely adopted and incor-
porated into the English teciinical language of botany, thus securing pre-
cision. And these terms are largely the basis of specific names of plants.

546. A glossary or vocabulary of the principal botanical terms used in
phanerogamous and vascular cryptogamous botany is appended to this
volume, to which the student may refer, as occasion arises.

§ 3. SYSTEM.

547. Two systems of classification used to be recognized in botany, — the
artificial and the natural ; but only the latter is now thought to deserve
the name of a system.

548. Artificial classifications have for object merely the ascertaining
of the name and place of a plant. They do not attempt to express relation-
ships, but serve as a kind of dictionary. They distribute the genera and
species according to some one peculiarity or set of peculiarities (just as a
dictionary distributes words according to their first letters), disregarding
all other considerations. At present an artificial classification in botany
is needed only as a key to the natural orders, — as an aid in referring an
unknown plant to its proper family ; and such keys are still very needful,
at least for th.^ beginner. Formerly, when the orders themselves were
not clearly made out, an artificial classification was required to lead the

182 SYSTEM, [section 18.

student down to the genus. Two sucli classificatious were long iu vogue :
I'irst, that of Touniet'ort, I'ouuded mainly on the leaves of the flower, the
calyx and corolla : this was tiie prevalent system throughout the first half
of the eighteenth century; but it has long since gone by. It was suc-
ceeded by the well-known

bid. Artificial System of Linnaeus, which was founded on the sta-
mens and ))istils. It consists of twenty-four classes, and of a variable
number of orders ; tlie classes founded mainly on the number and dispo-
sition of the stamens ; the orders partly upon the number of styles or stig-
mas, partly upon other considerations. Useful and popular as this system
was down to a time within the memory of still surviving botanists, it is
now completely obsolete. But the tradition of it survives in the names of
its classes, Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, etc., which are fannliar in
terminology in the adjective terms monandrous, diandrous, triandrous, etc.
(284) ; also of the orders, Monogynia, Uigynia, Trigynia, etc., preserved iu
the form of monogynous, digynous, trigynous, etc. ('01) ; and iu the name
Cryptogamia, that of the 2ith class, which is coniiuued for the lower series
in the natural classification.

550. Natural System. A genuine system of botany consists of the
orders or families, duly arranged under their classes, and having the tribes,
the genera, and the species arranged in them according to their relation-
ships. This, when properly carried out, is the Natural Sydem ; because
it is intended to express, as well as possible, the various degrees of relation-
ship among plants, as presented in nature ; that is, to rank those species
and those genera, etc., next to each other in the classification which are
really most ahke in all respects, or, in other words, which are constructed
most nearly on the same particular plan.

551. There can be only one natural system of botany, if by this term
is meant the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called into
being, with all its grades and diversities among the species, as well of past
as of the present time. But there may be many natural systems, if we
mean the attempts of men to interpret and express that plan, — systems
which will vary with advancing knowledge, and with the judgment and
skill of different botanists. These must all be very imperfect, bear the
impress of individual minds, and be shaped by the current philosophy of
the age. But the endeavor always is to make the classification answer to
Nature, as far as any system can which has to be expressed in a definite
and serial arrangement.

552. So, although the classes, orders, genera, etc., are natural, or as
natural as the systematist can make tliem, their grouping or order of
arrangement in a book, must necessarily be in great measure artificial.
Indeed, it is quite impossible to arrange the orders, or even the few classes,
in a single series, and yet have each group stand next to its nearest relatives
on both sides.

553. Especially it should be understood that, although phanerogamous

SECTION 18.] SYSTEM. 183

plants are of higher grade than cryplogamous, and angios[)ermous or or-
dinary phanerogamous liiglier than llic gymuospermous, yet there is no
culmination in the vegetable luugdom, nor any highest or lowest order of
phanerogamous planls.

554. Tiie particular system most largely used at present in the classi-
fication of the orders is essentially the following : —

Series I. PHANEROGAMIA: Phanerogamous or Flowering Plants.

Class I. DICOTYLEDONES ANGIOSPERME^, called for shortness

in English, Dicotyledons or Dicotyls. Ovules in a closed ovary.

Embryo dicotyledonous. Stem wilh exogenous plan of growth. Leaves

reticulate-veined.

Artificial Division I. Polypetal^, with petals mostly present and

distinct. Orders about 80 in number, Ranunculacea to Comaceec.
Artificial Division II. Gamopetal.e, with gamopetalous corolla.

Orders about 45, Caprifoliacece to Plantuginacece.
Artificial Division III. Apetal.e or Incomplet^e, with perianth,
when present, of calyx only. Orders about 35 in number, from
Nyctaginaceae to Salicacece.
Class II. DICOTYLEDONES GYMNOSPERME^, in English Gym-
NOSPERMS. No ovary or pericarp, but ovules and seeds naked, and no
proper calyx nor corolla. Embryo dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous.
Stem with exogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel-veined.
Consists of order QnetacecB, which strictly connects with Angiospermous
Dicotyls, of Conifera, and of Cycadacece.
Class III. MONOCOTYLEDONES, in English Monocotyledons or
MoNOCOTYLS. Angiospermous. Embryo monocolyledonous. Stem with
endogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel- veined.

Division I. Petaloide^. Perianth complete, having the equivalent
of both calyx and corolla, and all the inner series corolline. About
18 orders.
Division II. Calycin^. Perianth complete (in two series) but not
corolline, mostly thickish or glumaceous. Chiefly two orders,
Juncaceee, the true Rushes, and Palma, Palms.
Division III. SpADiciFLORiE or Nudiflor^. Perianth none, or rudi-
mentary and incomplete: inflorescence spadiceous. Of five orders,
Typhaceo' and Aroideo' the principal.
Division IF. Glumace^. Perianth none, or very rudimentary:
glumaceous bracts to the flowers. Orders mainly Cyperacea and
Graminece.
Series II. CRYPTOGAMIA: Cryptogamous or Elowerless Plants.
Class L PTERIDOPHYTA, Pteridopiiytes (484).
Class II. BRYOFHYTA, Bbyophytes (498).
Class III. THALLOPHYTA, Tuallopuytes (503).

184 BOTANICAL WORK. [SECTION 19,

Section XIX. BOTANICAL WORK.

555. Some hiuts and brief instructions for the collection, examination,
and preservation of specimens are added. Tliey are especially inl ended
for the assistance of those who have not the advantage of a teacher. They
apply to phanerogamous plants and Ferns only, and to systematic botany.^

§ 1. COLLECTION, OR HERBORIZATION.

556. As much as possible, plants should be examined in the living state,
or when freshly gathered. But dried specimens should be prepared for
more leisurely examination and for comparison. To the working botanist
good dried specimens are indispensable.

557. Botanical Specimens, to be complete, should have root or root-
stock, stem, leaves, flowers, both open and in bud, and fruit. Some-
times these may all be obtained at oue gathering ; more commonly two or
three gatherings at different times are requisite, especially for trees and
shrubs.

558. In Herborizing, a good knife and a narrow and strong trowel are
needed ; but a very strong knife will serve instead of a trowel or small pick
for digging out bulbs, tubers, and the like. To carry the specimens, either
the tin box {casculum) or a portfolio, or both are required. The tin box is
best for the collection of specimens to be used fresh, as in the class-room :
also for very thick or fleshy plants. The ])ortfolio is indispensable fur long
expeditions, and is best for specimens which are to be preserved in the
herbarium.

559. The Vasculum, or Botanical Collecting-box, is made of tin, in shape
Uke a candle-box, only flatter, or the smaller sizes like an English sandwich-
case ; the lid opening for nearly the whole length of oue side of the box.
Any portable tin box of convenient size, and capable of holding specimens
a foot or fifteen inches long, will answer the purpose. The box should shut
close, so that the specimens may not wilt : then it will keep leafy branches
and most flowers perfectly fresh for a day or two, especially if slightly
moistened. They should not be wet.

560. The Portfolio is best made of two pieces of solid binder's-board,
covered with enamel cloth, which also forms the back, and fastened by
straps and buckles. It may be from a foot to twenty inches long, from
nine to eleven or twelve inches wide. It should contain a needful quantity
of smooth but strong and pliable paper (thin so-called Manilla paper is
best), either fastened at the back as in a book, or loose in folded sheets
when not very many specimens are required. As soon as gathered, the
specimens should be separately laid between the leaves or in the folded
3l)i;ets. aii'l kcnt under moderate pressure in the closed portfolio.

^ For fuller directions ia many particulars, see " Structural Botany," pp. 370-
574.

SECTION 19.] HERBORIZATION, 185

561. Of small herbs, especially annuals, the whole plant, root and all,
should be taken for a specimen. Of larger ones branches will suffice, with
some leaves from near tlie root. Enough of the root or subterranean part
of the plant should be collected to show whether it is an annual, a
biennial, or a perennial. Thick roots, bulbs, tubers, or branches of speci-
mens intended to be pressed should be thinned with a knife, or cut into
slices. Keep the specimens within the length of fifteen or sixteen inches,
by folding, or when tliat cannot be done, by cutting into lengths.

562. For Drying Specimens a good supply of soft and unsized
paper is wanted; and some convenient means of applying considerable
pressure. To make good dried botanical specimens, dry them as rapidly
as possible between many thicknesses of sun-dried paper to absorb their
moisture, under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the
more delicate parts. This pressure may be had by a botanical press, of
which various forms have been contrived ; or by weights placed upon a
board, — from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds, according to the
quantity of specimens drying at the time. Por use while travelling, a
good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for tlie sides,
and the pressure may be applied by strong straps with buckles. Still
better, on some accounts, are portable presses made of wire network,
which allow the dampness to escape by evaporation between the meshes.
For herborization in a small way, a light wire-press may be taken into
the field and made to serve also as a portfolio.

563. It is well to have two kinds of paper, namely, driers of bibulous
paper, stitched into pads (or tlie pads may be of thick carpet-paper, cut to
size) and thin smooth paper, folded once; the specimens to be laid into the
fold, either when gathered or on returning from the excursion. These
sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry. Every day, or
at first even twice a day, the specimens, left undisturbed in their sheets,
are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh driers, and the pressure
renewed, while the moist sheets arc spread out to dry, so as to take their
turn again at the next shifting. This course must be continued until the
specimens are no longer moist to t lie touch. Good and comely specimens
are either made or spoiled within the first twenty-four or tSirty-six hours.
After that, when plenty of driers are used, it may not be necessary to
change them so frequently.

564. Succulent plants, which long refuse to part with life and moisture,
and Spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their
leaves, may be plunged for a moment into boiling water, all but the flowers.
Delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put into the press.
Thick parts, like the heads of Sun-flowers and Thistles, may be cut in two
or into slices.

565. Dried specimens may be packed in bundles, either in folded paper
or upon single hall'-slicets. It is better that such paper should not be
bibulous. The packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases.

18G BOTANICAL WORK. [SECTION 19.

566. Poisoning is necessary if specimens are to be pcrniauently pre-
served from the depredation of insects. The usual application is an almost
saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in 95 per cent alcoliol, freely ap-
plied wilh a laxge and soft brush, or the specimens dipped into some of the
solution poured into a large aud flat dislij the wetted specimens to be
transferred for a short time to driers.

§ 2. HERBARIUM.

567. The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their
names, place, and time of collection, and systematically arranged under
their geiicra, orders, etc., forms a Hortus Siccus or Heriarium. It com-
prises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself collected,
but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges, or in other ways.
The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets of paper;
or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white paper, either
by gummed slips, or by glue applied to the specimens themselves. The
former is best for private and small herbaria; tbe latter for large ones
which are much turned over. Each sheet should be appropriated to one
species; two or more ditlerent plants should never be attached to the same
sheet. The generic and specific name of the plant should be added to
the lower right-hand corner, either written on the sheet, or on a ticket
pasted down; and the time of collection, the locality, the color of the
flowers, and any other information which the specimens themselves do
not afford, should be duly recorded upon the sheet or the ticket. The
sheets of the herbarium should all be of exactly the same dimensions.
The herbarium of Linnaeus is on paper of the common foolscap size, about
eleven inches long and seven wide. Tliis is too small. Sixteen and three
eighths inches by eleven and a half inches is an approved size.

508. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed
\\\ genus-covers, made of a full sheet of thick paper (such as the strong-
est Manilla-hemp paper), to be when folded of the same dimensions as the
s])ecies-sheet but slightly wider: the name of the genus is to be writ-
ten on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the
orders to which tliey belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or cabi-
nets, either laid flat in compartments, like "pigeon-holes," or else placed
in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes. All should be kept, as
much as practicable, in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or boxes.

569. Fruits, tubers, and other hard prirts, too thick for the herbarium,
may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden bo.xes, in a collection apart.
Small loose fruits, seeds, (letaohed flowers, aud the like mny be conven-
iently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes, attached to the herbarium-
sheets.

SECTION 19.] INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION. 187

§ 3-. INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS.

570. The Implements required are a band maguil'ying glass, a pocket
lens of an inch or two focus, or a glass of two lenses, one of the lower
and the other of the higher power; and a sharp penknife for dissection.
With these and reasonable perseverance tiie structure of the flowers and
fructification of most phanerogamous plants and Ferns can be made out.
But for ease and comfort, as well as for certainty and riglit training, the
student should have some kind of simple stage microscope, and under
this make all dissections of small parts. Without it the student will be
apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain.

571. The simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet,
of an inch focus, mounted over a glass stage, so that it can be moved up
and down and also side wise, and with (or without) a Utile mirror under-
neath. A better one would have one or two additional lenses (say of half
and of a quarter inch focus), a pretty large stage, on the glass of which
several small ol)jects can be placed and conveniently brought under the
lens ; and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a rack-
work ; also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath, which is needed for
minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light.

572. For dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the
microscope, besides a thin-bladed knife, the only tools needed are a good
stock of common needles of various sizes, mounted in handles, and one or
more saddler's-needles, which, being triangular, may be ground to sharp
edges convenient for dissection. Also a pair of delicate-pointed forceps ;
those with curved points used by the dentist are most convenient. A
cup of clean water is indispensable, with which to moisten or wet, or
in which occasionally to float delicate parts. Small flowers, buds, fruits,
and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as well as fresh ones.
They have only to be soaked in warm or boiling water.

573. The compound microscope is rarely necessary except in crypto-
gamic botany and vegetable anatomy ; but it is very useful and convenient,
especially for the examination of pollen. To the advanced botanist it is a
necessity, to all students of botany an aid and delight.

574. Analysis. A few directions and hints may be given. The most
important is this: In studying an unknown plant, make a complete ex-
amination of all its parts, and form a clear idea of its floral structure
and that of its fruit, from pericarp down to the embryo, or as far as the
materials in hand allow, before taking a step toward finding out its name
and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which the Manuals
and Floras provide. If it is the name merely that is wanted, the shorter
way is to ask some one who already knows it. To verify the points of
structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial key, without
any preparatory investigation, is a usual but is not the best nor the surest

188 BOTANICAL WORK. [SECTION 19.

way. It is well to make drawings or outline sketches of tlie smaller parts,
aud especially diagrams of tlie plan of the llovver, such as tiiose of Fig.
225, 227, 241, 244, 275-277. Fur these, cross sections of the llower-bud
or flower are to be made : aiid longitudinal sections, such as Fig. 270-274,
are equally important. The dissection even of small seeds is not difficult
after some practice. Commonly they need to be soaked or boiled.

575. The right appreciation of characters and terms used in description
needs practice and calls for judgment. Plants do not grow exactly by
rule and plummet, and measurements must be taken loosely. Difference
of soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations, and other
divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the surroundings, nor
be anticipated i)i geneial descriptions. Annuals may be very depauperate
in dry soils or seasons, or very large when particularly well nourished.
Warm and arid situations promote, and wet ones are apt to diminish pubes-
cence. Salt water causes increased succulence. The color of flowers is
apt to be lighter in shade, and brighter in open and elevated situations.
A color or hue not normal to the species now and then occurs, which
nothing in the conditions will account for. A tchite-flowered variation of
any other colored blossom maij always be expected ; this, though it may be
notable, no more indicates a distinct variety of the species than au albino
would a variety of tlie human species. The numerical plan is subject to
variation in some flowers ; those on the plan of five may now and then vary
to four or to six. Variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar
that they do not much mislead. Only wider and longer observation suf-
fices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study. But the weighing
of evidence and the balancing of probabilities, no less than the use of the
well-ordered and logical system of classification, give as excellent training
to the judgment as the search for the facts themselves does to the observing
powers.

§ 4. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.

576. For a full account of these, whetlier of former or actual use, see
" Structural Botany " of the " Botanical Text Book," pp. 367, 392, as also
for the principles which govern the accentuation of names. It is needful
here to explain only those used in the Manuals and Floras of this country,
for which the present volume is an introduction and companion. They
are not numerous.

577. In arranging the species, at least those of a large genus, the divi-
sions are denoted and graduated as follows : The sign § is prefixed to sec-
tions of the highest rank : these sections when they have names affixed to
them (as Prunus § Cerasus) may be called subgenera. When the divi-
sions of a genus are not of such importance, or when divisions are made
under the subgenus itself, the most comprehensive ones are marked by as-
terisks, ■■■■ fjr the first, * * for the second, and so on. Subdivisions are

SECTION 19.] SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 189

marked witli a prefixed h- ; those under this head with ++ ; and those
under this with =, if there be so many grades. A similar uotation is fol-
lowed in the synopsis of the genera of an order.

578. The interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt. Thus
Clematis crispa, L.? expresses a doubt whether the plant in question is
really the Clematis crispa of Linuaus. Clematis ? polyjietala expresses
a doubt whether the plant so named is really a Clematis. On liie other
hand the exclamation point (!) is used to denote certainty whenever there
is special need to affirm this.

579. For size or height, the common signs of degrees, minutes, and
seconds, have been used, thus, 1°, 2', 3", stand respectively for a foot,
two inches, and three lines or twelfths of an inch. A better way, when
such brevity is needed, is to write 1". 2'". li'.

580. Signs for duration used by Linnseus were © for an annual, J for
a biennial, % for a perennial herb, 5 lor a shrub or tree. DeCandolle
brought in 0 for a plant that died after once flowering, ® if annual, (2)
if bienniiil.

581. To indicate sexes, 5 means staminate or male plant or blossom;
9 , pistillate or female ; g , perfect or hermaphrodite.

582. To save room it is not uncommon to use oo in place of " many ; " thus,
*' Stamens 00," for stamens indefinitely numerous : " 00 fiora " for pluriHora
or many-flowered. Still more common is the form " Stamens 5-20," or
" Calyx 4-5-parted," for stamens from five to twenty, calyx four-parted or
five-parted, and the like. Such abbreviations hardly need explanation.

583. The same may be said of such abbreviations as Cal. for calyx,
Cor. for corolla, Pet. for petals, St. for stamens. Fist, for pistil. Hah. for
habitat, meaning place of growth. Herb, for herbarium, Hort. for garden.
Also /. c, loco citato, which avoids rej)etition of volume and page.

584. "Structural Botany" has six pages of abbreviations of the names
of botanists, mostly of botanical authors. As they are not of much
consequence to the beginner, while the more advanced botanist will know
the names in full, or know where to find them, only a selection is here
appended.

190

ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BOTANISTS.

ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OP BOTANISTS.

Adans.

Ait.

All.

Andr.

Arn.

Aub.

Bartr.

Brauv.

Benth.

Bernh.

Bigel.

Bong.

Bon pi.

Br. or R.

Cass.

Cav.

Cham.

Chapm.

Ckois.

Clayt.

Curt.

Curt. {M.

Barl.

LC.

DeCand.

A. DC.

Desc.

Lesf.

Desv.

Dili:

Bougl.

Duham.

Dun.

Eat.

Ehrh.

Ell.

Errdl.

Engelm.

E>,gl.

Fisch.

Frcel.

Gcertn.

Gaud.

Gaudich.

Ginff.

= Adanson.

Gmel. :

= Ginolin.

Aiton.

Good.

Goodenough.

AUioni.

Greo.

GreviUe.

Andrews.

Griseb.

Grisebach.

Arnott.
Aublet.

Gron.
Gronov.

]• Gronoffius.

Bartram.

Hall.

Ilaller.

Palisot de Beauvois.

llartm.

Ilartmann.

Benthain.

llartw.

Ilartweg.

Bernhardi.

llarv.

Harvey.

Jacob Bigtlow.

Haw.

Haworth.

Bongard.

H eg elm.

Higelmaier.

Bonpland.

Hem si.

Hemsley.

Br. Robert Brown.

Herb.

Herbert.

Cassini.

I I off m.

Hoffmann.

Cavanilles.

Uoffmans.

HofFmansegg.

Chaniisso.

Hook.

Hooker.

Chapman.

llook.f.

J. D. Hooker.

Choisy.

llornem.

Hornemann.

Clayton.

Uiids.

Hudson.

Curtis.

lh(mb.

Humboldt. [Kunth.

A.) M. A. Curtis.

HBK.

Humboldt, Bonpland, aad

Darlington.

Jacq.

Jacquin.

• DeCandolle.

Jacq.f.
Juss.

J. F. Jacquin.
Jussieu.

Alphoiise DeCandolle.

A. Juss.

Adricn de JnssietL

Descourtilz.

Kit.

Kitaibel.

Desfontaines.

L. or Linn.

Linn.TUs.

Desvanx,

LabUl.

Labillardiere.

Dillon ius.

Lag.

Lagasca.

Douglas.

Lam.

Lamarck.

Duhamel.

Ledeb.

Ledebour.

Dunal.

Lehm.

Lehmann.

Eaton (Amos) or D. C.

Lesq.

Lesquereux.

Ehrhart.

Less.

Lcssing.

Elliott.

Lestib.

Lestibudois.

Endlicher.

L'Her.

L'Heritier.

Engelmann.

Lindb.

Lindberg.

Engler.

Lindh.

Lindheimer.

Fischer.

Lindl.

Lindley.

Froelich.

Lodd.

Loddiges.

Gsertner.

Loud.

Loudon.

Gaudin.

M. Bieb.

Marschall von Bieberstein.

Gaudichaud.

Marsh.

Marshall (Humphrey).

Gingins.

Mart.

Martius.

ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BOTANISTS.

191

Mast. =

= Masters.

Ihem.^-Schnlt. = Rujuier & Schulte8.

Maxim.

. Maximowicz.

Rottb.

Rottboell.

Meisn.

Meistier or
Meissner.

Riipr.

Ruprecht.

Ahissn.

St. Hit.

Saint- Hilaire.

Michx. or M

./. Michaux.

Sa/isb.

Salisbury.

Michx.f.

F. A. Michaux.

Schk.

Schkuhr.

Mill.

Miller.

Schlecht.

SchlechtendaL

Miq.

Miquel.

Schrad.

Schrader.

Mitch.

Mitchell.

Schreb.

Schreber.

Moq.

Mo9ino.

Schwein.

Suhweinitz.

Moq.

Moquiii-Tandon.

Scop.

Scopoli.

Moric.

Moricand.

Spreng.

Sprengel.

Moris.

Morison.

Sternb.

Sternberg.

Muell. Arg.

J. Mueller.

Sieud.

Steudel.

MuelL {F.)

Ferdinand Mueller.

Sail.

Sullivant.

Muhl.

Muhlenberg.

Thiinb.

Thunberg.

Murr.

Murray.

Torr.

Torrey.

Naud.

Naudin.

Tourn.

Tournefort.

Neck.

Necker.

Trautv.

Trautvetter.

Nees

• Nees von Esenbeck.

Trin.

Trinius.

N. ab E.

Tuck.

Tuckerraaa.

Nutt.

Nut tall.

Vaill.

VaiUant.

(Ed.

CEder.

Vent.

Ventenat.

Ort.

Ortega.

nil.

Villars.

P. de Beauv

. Palisot de Beauvois.

Wahl.

Wablenberg.

Pall.

Pallas.

Walds.

Waldstein.

Pari.

Parlatore.

Wall.

WaUich.

Pav.

Pavon.

Wallr

Wallroth.

Pers.

Persoon.

Walp.

Walpers.

Planch.

Planchon.

Walt.

Walter.

Pluk.

Plukenet.

Wang.

Wangenheim.

Plum.

Plumier.

Wats.

Sereno Watson, unless

Poir.

Poiret.

other initials are given

Radlk.

Radlkofer.

Wedd.

Weddell.

PLaf.

Rafinesque.

Wendl.

Wendland.

Red.

Redoute.

Wiks.

Wikstrom.

Reichenb

Reichenbach.

Willd.

Willdenow.

Rich.

L. C. Richard.

Wulf.

Wulfen.

Rich.f. or A

Achille Richard.

Zucc.

Zuccarini.

Richard*.

Richardson.

Zuccag.

Zuccagini.

Ridd.

BiddeU.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX,

OR

DICTIONARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS IN DESCRIPTIVE
BOTANY, COMBINED WITH AN INDEX.

For the convenience of unclassical students, the commoner Latin and Greek words (or
tlieir equivalents in English form) which enter into the composition of botanical names, as
well as of technical terms, are added to this Glossary. The numbers refer to pages.

A, at the beginning of words of Greek derivation, commonly signifies a negative,
or the absence of something ; as apetalous, without petals; aphj'llous, leaf-
less, &c. In words beginning with a vowel, the prefix is an; as a^iantherous,
destitute of anther.

A hnnrmal, contrary to the usual or the natural structure.

Aboriginal, original in the strictest sense; same as indigenous.

Abortive, imperfectly formed, or rudimentary.

Abortion, the imperfect formation or the non-formation of some part.

Abrupt, suddenly terminating ; as, for instance,

Abruptly piRnate, pinnate without an odd leaflet at the end, 58.

Acantho-, spiny.

Acaulescent (acaulis), apparently stemless; the proper stem, bearing the leaves
and flowers, being very short or subterranean.

Accessory, something additional; as Accessory buds, 30, 31 ; Accessory fruits, 118.

Accrescent, growing larger after flowering.

Accrete, grown to.

Accumbent, lying against a thing. The cotyledons are accumbent when they lie
with their edges against the radicle, 128.

Acephalous, headless.

A cerose, needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines.

A cetabuliform, saucer-shaped.

Achoenium, or Achenium (plural acheni,a), a one-seeded, seed-like fruit, 120.

Achlamydeotis (rtower), without floral envelopes, 86.

Acicular, needle-shajied; more slender than acerose.

Acinaciform, scimitar-shaped, like some bean-pods.

Acines, the separate grains of a fruit, such as the raspberry.

Acorn, the nut of the Oak, 122.

Acotyledonous, destitute of cotyledons or seed-leaves.

Acrogenous, growinc: fi-om the apex, as the stems of Ferns and Mosses. Acrogens,
or Acrogenous Plants, a name for the vascular cryptogamous plants, 156.

Aculeate, armeil with prickles, i. e. aculei ; as the Rose and Brier.

Aculeolate, armed witli small prickles, or slightly prickly.

Acuminate, taper-jiointed, 5t.

Acute, merely sharp-pointed, or ending in a point less than a right angle, 54.

194 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Adelphous (stamens), joined in a fraternity (ndelphia); see inoiiadelphous, &c.

Aden, Greek for gland. So Adenophorous, gland-beaiing.

Adherejit, sticking to, or more conirnonly, growing fast to another body.

Adnate, literally, growing fast to, born adherent, 95. The anther is aduate when

lixed by its whole length to the hlament or its prolongation, lUl.
Adnation, the state of being adnate, 'J4.

Adpressed or appressed, brought into contact with, but not united.
Adscendent, ascendent, or ascending, rising gradually ujjwards, 39.
Adsurgeiit, or assurgent, same as ascending, 39.

Adventitious, out of the proper or usual place; e. g. Adventitiaas buds, 30.
Adventive, apjilied to foreign plants accidentally or sparingly introduced into a

country, but hardly to be called naturalized,
^Equilateral, equal-side<l ; opposed to oblique.
Aerial roots, &c., 36.
jEruginous, verdigris-colored.
jEstival, produced in summer.

jEstivation, the arrangement of parts in a flower-bud, 97.
Agamous, sexless.
Aggregate fruits, 118.
Agrestis, growing in fields.

Air-cells or Air-2Mssages, spaces in the tissue of leaves and some stems, 131.
Air- Plants, 36.
Akene or Akenium, 120.

Ala (plural, ake), a wing; the side-petals of a papilionaceous corolla, 92.
Alabastrum, a flower-hud.
Alar, situated in the forks of a stem.
Alate, winged.

Albescent, whitish, or turning white.
Albus, Latin for white.

Albumen of the seed, nourishing matter stored up with the embryo, 21, 127.
Albumen, a vegetable product, of four elements.
A Ibujninous {^eeds), furnished with albumen, 21.
Alburnum; young wood, sap-wood, 142.
Alliaceous, with odor of garlic.
Allogamous, close fertilization.
Alpestrine, subalpine.

Alpine, belonging to high mountains above the limit of forests.
Alternate (leaves), one after another, 29, 67. Petals are alternate with the

sepals, or stamens with the petals, when they stand over the intervals between

them, 82.
Alveolate, honeycomb-like.

Ament, the scaly spike of trees like the Birch and Willow, 75.
Amentaceous, catkin-like, or catkin-bearing.
Amorphous, shapeless, without any definite form.
Amphicarpous, producing two kinds of fruit.

Amphigastrium (plural, amphigastria), a peculiar stipule-like leaf of Liverworts.
Amphitropous, ovules or seeds. 111.
Amphora, a pitcher-shaped organ.

Amplectant, embracing. Amplexicaul (leaves), clasping the stem by the base.
Ampullaceous, swelling out like a bottle or bladder {ampulla).
Amylaceous, Amyloid, composed of starch (amylum), or starch-like.
Anandrous, without stamens.

Anantherous, without anthers. Ananthovs, destitute of flowers ; flowerless.
Anastomosing, forming a net-work {anastomosis), as the veins of leaves, 50.
Anntripous ovules or seeds. 111.
Ancipital {anceps), two-edged.
Andrcecium, a name for the stamens taken together, 98.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 195

AnfJro-tHoeciotts, flowers staniinate on one plant, perfect on another.
Androgynous, having both starainate and pistillate flowers in the same cluster.
Androphore, a column of united stamens, as in a Mallow.
Androus, or Ander, andra, andrum, Greek in compounds for male, or stamens.
Anemophilous, wiud-loviug, said of wind-fertilizable flowers, 113.
Anfractuose, bent hither and thither as the anthers of the Squash, &c.
An</iosperinm, Angiospermous, with seeds formed in an ovary or pericarp, 109.
Angular divergence of leaves, 69.

Anisos, unequal. Anisomerous, parts unequal in number. Anisopetalous, with un-
equal petals. Anisophyllous, the leaves unequal in the pairs.
Annual (plant), flowering and fruiting the year it is raised from the seed, and then

dying, 37.
Annular, in the form of a ring, or forming a circle.
Annulate, marked by rings; or furnished with an

Annulus, or ring, like that of the spore-case of most Ferns. In Mosses it is a ring
of cells placed between the mouth of the spore-case and the lid in many species.
Annotinous, yearly, or in yearly growths.

Anterior, in the blossom, is the part next the bract, i. e. external; while the
posterior side is that next the axis of inflorescence. Thus, in the Pea, &c., the
keel is anterior, and the standard posterior, 96.
Anthela, an open paniculate cyme.
Anther, the essential part of the stamen, which contains the pollen, 14, 80, 101.

Antkeridium (plural antheridia), the organ in Cryptogams which answers to the

anther of Flowering Plants, 150.
Antkeriferous, anther-bearing.

Antkesis, the period or the act of the expansion of a flower.

Antliocai'pus (fruits), 118.

Anthophore, a stipe between calyx and corolla, 113.

Anlhos, Greek for flower ; iu composition, Monanthous, one-flowered, &c.

Anticous, same as anterior.

Antrorse, directed upwards or forwards.

Apetalous, destitute of petals, 86.

Aphyllous, leafless.

Apical, belonging to the apex or point.

Apiculate, pointleted; tipped with a small point.

Apocarpous (pistils), when the several pistils of the same flower are separate.

Apophysis, any irregular swelling ; the enlargement at the base of the spore-case of
the Umbrella-Moss.

Apothecium, the fructification of Lichens, 171.

Appendage, any superadded part. Appendiculate, provided with appendages.

Appressed, close pressed to the stem, kc.

Apricus, growing in dry and sunny places.

Apterous, wingless.

Aquatic {Aquatilis), li\ing or growing in water ; applied to plants whether growing
under water, or with all but the base raised out of it.

Arachnoid, Araneose, cobwebby; clothed with, or consisting of, soft downy fibres.

Arboreous, Arborescent, tree-like, in size or form, 39.

Arboretum, a collection of trees.

Archegonium (plural archegonia), the organ in Mosses, &c., which is analogous to
the pistil of Flowering Plants.

Arcuate, bent or curved like a bow.

Arenose (Arenarius), growing in sand.

Areolate, marked out into little spaces or areolae.

Argenteous, or Argentale, silvery-like.

Argillose, growing in clay.

Argos, Greek for pure white ; Argophyllous or Argyi'ophyllous, white-leaved, &c.

Argutus, acutely dentate.

196 GLOSSARY AND LVDEX.

Arillate (seeds) furnished witli an aril.

Arilliform, aril-like.

Ariiius, or Aril, a lleshy growth from base of a seed, 126.

Aristate, awued, i. e. fui'iiished with an arista, like the beanl of Barley, &c., 54.

Ai'istulate, diminutive of tlie last; short-awned.

Arrect, brought into upriglit position.

Arrow-shaped or Arrow-headed, same as sagittate, .53.

Articulated, jointed ; furnished with joints or articulations, where it .separates or

inclines to do so. Articulated leaves, 57.
Artificial Classification, 181.

Ascending (stems, &c.), 39; (seeds or ovules) 110.
Ascidium, a pitcher-shaped body, like leaves of Sarracenia.
Ascus (asci), a sac, the spore-case of Lichens and some Fungi.
Aspergilliforni, shaped like the brush used to spriukle holy water; as the stigmas

of many Grasses.
Asperous, rough to touch.
Assimilation, 144, 147.
Assurgent, same as ascending, 39.
Atropous or Atropal (ovules), same as orthotropous.
Aurantiacous, orange-colored.
Aureous, golden.

Auriculate, furnished with auricles or ear-like appendages, 53.
Autogamy, self-fertilization, 115.
Awl-shaped, sharp-pointed from a broader base, 61.

Awn, the bristle or beard of Barley, Oats, &c.; or anj' similar appendage.
Awned or Awn-pointed, furnished with an awn or long bristle-shaped tip, 54.
Axil, the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem, 13.
Axile, belonging to the axis, or occupying the axis.
Axillary (buds, &c.), occurring in an axil, 27.
Axis, tlie central line of anybody ; the organ round which others are attached; the

root and stem. Ascending and Descending Axis, 38.

Baccate, berried, berry-like, of a pulpy-nature like a berry (bacca).

Badius, cliestnut-colored.

Banner, see Standard, 92.

Barbate, bearded; bearing tufts, spots, or lines of hairs.

Barbed, furnished with a 6ri/-6 or double liook ; as the apex of the bristle on the

fruit of Echinospermum (Stickseed), &c.
Barbellate, said of the bristles of the pappus of some Coniposita; when beset with

short, stiff hairs, longer than when denticulate, but shorter than when plumose.
Barbellulate, diminutive of barbellate.
Bark, the covering of a stem outside of the wood, 138, 140.
Basal, belonging or attached to the

Base, that extremity of any organ by which it is attached to its support.
Basifixed, attached by its base.
Bast, Bast-fibres, 134.
Beaked, ending in a prolonged narrow tip.
Bearded, see barbate. Beard is sometimes used for awn, more commonly for long

or stiff hairs of any sort.
BAl-shaped, of the shape of a bell, as the corolla of Harebell, 90.
Berry, a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout, as a grape, 119.
Bi- (or Bis), in compound w^ords, twice; as

Biarticulate, twice-jointed, or two-jointed; separating into two pieces.
Biauricidate, having two ears, as the leaf in fig. 126.
Bicallnse, having two callosities or harder spots.
Bicarinaie, two-keeled.
Bicipital {Biceps) . two-headed; dividing into two parts.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 11)7

Biconjugate, twice paired, as when a jjctiole forks twice.

Bidentate, having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate).

Biennial, of two years' continuance; springing from the seed one season, flowering

anddying the next, 38.
Bifarious, two-ranked; arranged in two rows.
Bijid, two-cleft to about the middle.
Bifuliolate, a compound leaf of two leatlets, 59.

Bifurcate, twice forked; or more commonly, forked into two branches.
Bijuijate, bearing two pairs (of leaflets, &c.).
Bilabiate, two-lipped, as the corolla of Labiata?.
Bilamellate, of two plates {lainell(je), as the stigma of Mimulus.
Bilubed, the same as two-lobed.
Bilocellate, when a cell is divided into two locelli.
Bilocular, two-celled; as most anthers, the pod of Foxglove, &c.
Binary, in twos.

Binate, in couples, two together. Bipartite, the Latin form of two-parted.
Binodal, of two nodes.

Binomial, of two words, as the name of genus and species taken together, 180.
Bipalmate, twice palmaiely divided.
Biparous, heaxin^ two.

Bipinnate (leaf), twice pinnate, 58. Bipinnatijid, twice pinnatifid, 57.
Bipinnatisect, twice pinnately divided.
B'plicate, twice folded together.

Biserial,or Biseriate, occupying two rows one within the other.
Biserrate, doubly serrate, as when the teeth of a leaf are themselves serrate.
Bisexual, having both stamens and pistil.

Biternate, twice ternate; i. e, principal divisions three, each bearing tliree leaflets, 59.
Bladdery, thin and inflated.
Blade of a leaf, its expanded portion, 49.
Bloom, the whitish powder on some fruits, leaves, &c.
Boat-shaped, concave within and keeled without, in shape like a small boat.
Border of corolla, &c., 89.

Brachiate, with opposite branches at right angles to each other.
Bracky-, short, as Brachycarpous, short-fluited, &c.
Bract (Bractea), the leaf of an inflorescence. Specially, the bract is the small leaf

or scale from the axil of which a flower or its pedicel proceeds, 73.
Bracieate, furnished with bracts.
Bracteolate, furnished with bractlets.
Bracteose, with numerous or conspicuous bracts.

Bractlet (Bractcola), or Bracteole, is a bract seated orathe pedicel or flower-stalk, 73.
Branch, Branchiny, 27.
Brealhimj-pores, 144.

Bristles, stiff, sharp hairs, or any very slender bodies of similar appearance.
Bristly, beset with bristles. Bristle-pointed, 54.
Brunneous, brown.
Brush-shaped, see aspergillijorm.

Bryolofjy, that part of botany which relates to Mosses.
Bryiiphyta, Brynjjhytes, 163.

Bud, a branch in its earliest or undeveloped state, 27. Bud-scales, 63.
Bulb, a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean, 46.
Bulbils, diminutive bulbs.

Bulhiferuus, bearing or producing bulbs. Bulbose or bulbous, bulb-like in shape, &o.
Bulbk'ts, small bulbs, borne above ground, 46.
Bulb-scales, 46.

Bullate, appearing as if blistered or bladdery (from bulla a bubble).
Byssaceous, composed of fine flaxdike threads.

198 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Caducous, dropping ofT very early, compared with other parts; as the calyx in the

Poppy, falling when the tlower opens.
Cmruleous, blue. Ccerulescent, becoming bluish.
Ciespitose, or Cespilose, growing in turf-like patches or tufts.
Calathi/uriii, cup-shaped.

Calcarate, furuislied with a spur (cnlcar), 86, 87.

Calceolate or Calcei/orm, slipi)er-shaped, like one petal of the Lady's Slijjper.
Callose, hardened ; or furnished with callosities or thickened spots.
Calvous, bald or naked of hairs.

C'llyciflurus, when petals and stamens are adnate to calyx.
t'dlycine, belonging to the calyx.
Calyculate, furnished with an outer accessory calyx (caly cuius) or set of bracts

looking like a calyx, as in true Pinks.
Calyptra, tlie hood or veil of the capsule of a Moss, 163.
Calyptrate, having a calyptra.

Calyptriform, shaped like a calyptra or candle-extinguisher.
Calyx, the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower, 14, 79.
Cambium, Cambium-layer, 140.
Campanulale, bell-shaped, 90.
Campylotropous, or Campylotropal. curved ovules and seeds. 111. Campylospermous,

applied to fruits of Umbelliferse when the seed is curved in at the edges,

forming a groove down the inner face ; as in Sweet Cicely.
Canaliculate, channelled, or with a deep longitudinal groove.
Cancellate, latticed, resembling lattice-work.
Cnndidus, Latin for pure white.
Canescent, grayish-white; hoary, iisually because the surface is covered with fine

white hairs. Incanous is whiter still.
Canous, whitened with pubescence; see incanous.

Capillaceous, Capillary, hair-like in shape; as fine as hair or slender bristles.
Capitate, having a globular apex, like the head on a pin.
Capitellate, diminutive of capitate.

Capitulum, a close rounded dense cluster or head of sessile flo^vers, 74.
Capreolate, bearing tendrils (from capreolus, a tendril).
Capsule, a dry dehiscent seed-vessel of a compound pistil, 122.
Capsular, relating to, or like a capsule.
Capture of insects, 154.

Carina, a keel ; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower, 92.
Carinate, keeled, furnished with a sharp ridge or projection on tlie lower side.
Cariojjsis, or Caryopsis, the one-seeded fruit or grain of Grasses, 121.
Corneous, flesh-colored; pale red. Camose, fleshy in texture.
Carpel, or Carpidium, a simple pistil or a pistil-leaf, 106.
Carpellary, pertaining to a carpel.

Caipolo(/y, that department of botany which relates to fruits.
Caipophure, the stalk or support of a pistil extending between its carpels, 113.
Carpos, Greek for fruit.

Cartilaginous, or Cartilagineous, firm and tough in texture, like cartilage.
Caruncle, an excrescence at the scar of some seeds, 120.
Carunculate, furnished with a caruncle.

Caryophyllaceous, pink-like: applied to a corolla of 5 long-clawed petals.
Cassideous, helmet-shaped.
Cassus, empty and sterile.

Catenate, or Catenulate, end to end as in a chain.
Catkin, see Ament, 75.
Caudate, tailed, or tail-pointed.

Caudex, a sort of trunk, such as that of Palms; an upright rootstock, 39, 44.
Caudicle, the stalk of a pollen-mass, &c.
Caulescent, having an obvious stem, 36.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 199

Caulicle, a little stem, or rudimentary stem (of a seedling), 11, 127.

Cauline, of or belonging to a stem, 36. Qiulis, Latin name of stem.

Caulocarpic, equivalent to perennial.

Caulume, the cauline parts of a plant.

Cell (diminutive, Ctllult), the cavity of an anther, ovary, &c.; one of the anatomi-
cal elements, 131.

Cellular Cryptogams, 102. Cellular tissue, 131.

Cellulose, 131. Cell-walls, 130.

Centrifugal (inflorescen';e), produced or expanding in succession from the centre
outwards, 77.

Centripetal, the opposite of centrifugal, 74.

Cephala, Greek for head. In comiiounds, Munnc^phalous, with one head, Micro-
cephalous, small-headed, &c.

Cereal, belonging to corn, or corn-plants.

Cernuous, nodding; the summit more or less inclining.

ChiEta, Greek for bristle.

Chaff, small membranous scales or bracts on the receptacle of Compositae; the
glumes, &c., of grasses.

Chaffy, furnished with chaff, or of the texture of chaff.

Chalaza, that part of the ovule where all the parts grow together, 110, 126.

Channelled, hollowed out like a gutter; same as canaliculate.

Character, a phrase expressing the essential marks of a species, genus, &c., 181.

Chartaceous, of the texture of paper or parchment.

Chloros, Greek for green, whence Chloranthous, green-flowered; Chlorocarpous ,
green-fruited, &c.

Chluriiphyll, leaf green, 136.

Chlorosis, a condition in which naturally colored parts turn green.

Churipetalous, same as polypetalous.

Chorisis, separation of the normally united parts, or where two or more parts take
the place of one.

Chromule, coloring matter in plants, especially when not green, or when liquid.

Chrysos, Greek for golden j'ellow, whence Chrysanthous, yellow-flowered, &c.

Cicatrix, the scar left by the fall of a leaf or other organ.

Ciliate, beset on the margin with a fringe of cilia, i. e. of hairs or bristles, like the
eyelashes fringing the evelids, whence the name.

Cinereous, or Cineraceous, ash-grayish; of the color of ashes.

Circinate, rolled inwards from the top, 72.

Circumscisnile , or Circumcissile, divided by a circular line round the sides, as the
pods of Purslane, Plantain, &c., 124.

Circumscription, general outline.

Cirrhiferous, or Cirrhose, furnished with a tendril (Latin, Cirrhus) ; as the Grape-
vine. Cirrhose also means resembling or coiling like tendrils, as the leai-
stalka of Virgin's-bower. More properly Cirrus and Cirrose.

Ciireous, lemon-yellow.

Clados, Greek for branch. Cladophylla, 64.

Class, 178, 183.

Classification, 175, 183.

Clathrate, latticed; same as cancellate.

Clavate, club-shaped; slender below and thickened upwards.

Clavellate, diminutive of clavate.

Claviculate, having Claviculce, or little tendrils or hooks.

Claw, the narrow or stalk-like base of some petals, as of Pinks, 9L

Cleistogamous (Cteistogamy), fertilized in closed bud, 115.

Cle/t, cut into lobes, 55.

Close fertilization, 115.

Climbing, rising by clinging to other objects, 39, 151.

Club-shaped, see clavate.

Clustered, leaves, flowers, &c., aggregated or collected into a bunch.

200 GLOSSAUY AND INDEX.

Clypeate, Ijiitkler-sliaped.

Coadunnle, same as connate, i. e. united.

Coalesctiit, throwing together. Coalescence, 88.

Cuarctate, contracted or brought close togetlier.

Coated, having an integument, or covered in layers. Coated bulb, 46.

Cobwebby, same as arachnoid; bearing hairs like cobwebs or gossamer.

Coccineous, scarlet-red.

Coccus (plural cocci), anciently aberrj'; now mostly used to denote the separable

carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit.
Cochleariform, spoon-shaped.
Cockleate, coiled or shaped like a snail-shell.
Ccetospennous, applied to those fruits of Umbelliferae which have the seed hollowed

on the inner face, by incurving of top and bottom; as in Coriander.
Coherent, usually the same as connate.

Cohort, name sometimes used for groups between order and class, 178.
Coleorhiza, a root-sheath.
Collateral, side by side.
Collective fruits, 118.

Collum or Collar, the neck or junction of stem and root.
Colored, parts of a plant which are other-colored than green.
Columella, the axis to which the carpels of a compound pistil are often attached,

as in Geranium (112), or which is left when a pud opens, as in Azalea.
Column, the united stamens, as in Mallow, or the stamens and pistils united into

one body, as in the Orchis family.
Columnar, shaped like a column or pillar.
Coma, a tuft of any sort (literally, a head of hair), 125.
Comose, tufted; bearing a tuft of hairs, as the seeds of Milkweed, 126.
Commissure, the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of Umbelliferae.
Complanate, flattened.

Compound led/, b-i, 57. Compound pistil, 107. Compound umbel, lb, Si.c.
Complete (flower), 81.
CiimpUcate, folded upon itself.
Compressed, flattened on opposite sides.
Conctptacle, 168.
Concinnous, neat.
Concolor, all of one color.
Conchifurm, shell- or half-shell- shaped.
Conduplicate, folded upon itself lengthwise, 71.
Cone, the fruit of the Pine family, 124. Coniferous, cone-bearing.
Confertus, much crowded.

Conferruminate, stuck together, as the cotyledons in a horse-chestnut.
Confluent, blended together; or the same as coherent.
Conformed, similar to another thing it is associated with or compared to; or clo.?ely

fitted to it, as the skin to the kernel of a seed.
Congested, Conglomerate, crowded together.
Conglomerate, crowded into a glomerule.
Conjugate, cow^AgA; in single pairs. Conjtigntion, XIO.
Connate, united or grown together from the first formation, 96.
Connate-perfoliate, when a pair of leaves are connate round a stem, 60.
Connective, Connectivum, the part of the anther connecting its two cells, 101.
Connivent, converging, or brought close together.
Consolidation (floral), 94.
Consolidated forms of vegetation, 47.
Contents of cells, 136.

Continuous, the reverse of interrupted or articulated.
Contorted, twisted together. Contorted (estivation, same as convolute, 97.
Contortiij/licate, twisted bark upon itself.
Contracted, either narmwed or shortened.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 201

Contrary, turned in opposite direction to the ordinary.

Convolute, rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the Plum in vernation, 72. In

astivation, same as contorted, 97.
Cordate, heart-shaped, 53.
Coriaceous, resembling leather in texture.
Corky, of the texture (if cork. Coiky layer of bark, 141.
Corm, a solid bulb, like that of Crocus, 45.
Corneous, of the consistence or appearance of horn.
Corniculale, furnished with a small horn or spur.
Coinute, horned; bearing a horn-like projection or a[)pendage.
Corolla, the leaves of the flower within the calyx, 14, 79.
Corollaceous, Corolline, like or belonging to a coroUa.

Corona, a coronet or crown; an appendage at the top of the claw of some petals, 91.
Coronate, crowned; furnished with a crown.
Cortex, bark. Cortical, belonging to the bark (cortex).
Corticate, coated with bark or bark-like covering.
Corymb, a flat or convex indeterminate flower-cluster, 74.
CorymbiJ'erous, bearing corymbs. •

Corymbose, in corymbs, approaching the form of a corymb, or branched in that way.
Costa, a rib; the midrib of a leaf, &c. Costate, ribbed.
Cotyledons, the proper leaves of the embryo, 11, 127.
Crateriform, goblet-shaped or deep saucer-shaped.

Creeping (stems), growing flat on or beneath the ground and rooting, 39.
Cremocarp, a half-fruit, or one of the two carpels of Uinbelliferaj, 121.
Crenate, or Crenelled, the edge scalloped into rounded teeth, 55.
Crenulate, minutely or slightly crenate.

Crested, or Ciistate, bearing any elevated appendage like a crest.
Cretaceous, ch.ilky or chalk-like.

Cnbi-ose, or cribriform, pierced like a sieve with small apertures.
Crinite, bearing long hairs.
Crispate, curled or crispy.
Croceous, saffron-color, deep reddish-yellow.
Cross-breeds, the progeny of interbred varieties, 176.
Cross fertilization, 115.
Croton, see corona. Crowned, see coronate.
Cruciate, or Cruciform, cross-shaped. Cruciform Corolla, 86.
Crustaceous, hard and brittle in texture; crust-like.
Cryptogamous Plants, Cryptogams, 10, 156.
Cryptos, concealed, as Cryptopetalous, with concealed petals, &c.
Crystals in plants, 137.
Cucullate, hooded, or hood-shaped, rolled up like a cornet of paper, or a hood

(cucullus), as the spathe of Indian Turnip, 75.
Culm, a straw; the stem of Grasses and Sedges, 39.
Cultrate, shaped like a trowel or broad knife.
Ctineate, Cuneiform, wedge shaped, 53.
Cup-shnped, same as cyathiform or near it.
Cupiile, a little cup; the cup to the acorn of the Oak, 122.
Cupulnr, or Cupidate, provided with a cupula
CupuKj'eroui, cupule-bearing.
Curviveined, with curved ribs or veins.
Curviserial, in oblique or spiral ranks.

Cushion, the enlargement at the insertion or base of a petiole.
Cuspidate, tipped with a sharp and stiff point or cusp, 54.
Cut, same as incised, or applied generally to any sharp and deep division, 55.
Cuticle, the skin of plant<=, or more strictly its external pellicle.
Cyaneous, bright i)lue.

Cyathiform, in the shape of a cup, or particularly of a wine-glass.
Cycle, one complete turn of a spire, or a circle, 70.

202 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Cydlcdl, rolled up circularly, or coiled into a compk'te circle.

Cijclosis, circulation in closed cells, 1-19.

Cyliiidraceous, approaching to the Cylindrical form, terete and not tapering.

Cymbceform, or Cynibiform, same as boat-shaped.

Cyme, a cluster (jf cenrrifugal inllorescence, 77.

Cyniuse, furnished with cymes, or like a cyme.

Cymule, a partial or diminutive cyme, 77.

Deca- (in words of Greek derivation), ten ; as

Decayynoiis, with 10 pistils or styles, Ihcamtrous, of 10 parts. Decandrous, with

10 stamens, (S:c.
Deciduous, falling off, or subject to fall; said of leaves which fall in autumn, and

of a calyx and corolla which fail before the fruit forms.
Declinate, declined, turned to one side, or downwards.
Decompound, several times compounded or divided, 5'J.
Decumbent, reclined on the ground, the summit tending to rise, .39.
Decurrenl (leaves), prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion, as in Thistles.
Decussate, arranged in pairs which successively cross each other, 71.
Deduplication, same as chorisis.

Definite, when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so.
Definite Inflorescence, 72.
Defiexed, bent downwards.

Deflorate, past the flowering state, as an anther after it has discharged its pollen.
Dehiscence, the regular splitting open of capsule or anther, 103, 119.
Dehiscent, opening by regular dehiscence, 119, 123.
Deliquescent, branching off so that the stem is lost in the branches, 32.
Deltoid, of a triangular shape, like the Greek capital a.
Demersed, growing below the surface of water.
Dendroid, Dendritic, tree-like in form or appearance.
Dendron, Greek for tree.
Deni, ten together.
Dens, Latin for tooth.

Dentate, toothed, 55. Denticulate, furnished with denticulations, or little teeth.
Depauperate, impoverished or starved, and so below the natural size.
Depressed, flattened or as if pressed down from above.
Derma, Greek for skin.

Descending, tending gradually downwards. Descending axis, the root.
Desmos, Greek for things connected or bound together.
Determinate Inflorescence, 72.
Dextrorse, turned to the right hand.
Di- Dis (in Greek compounds), two, as

Diadelpkous (stamens), united by their filaments in two sets, 99.
Diar/nosis, a short distinguishing character or descriptive phrase.
Dialypetidous, same as polypetalous.
Diandrous, having two stamens, &c.
Diaphanous, transparent or translucent.
Dicarpellary, of two carpels.

Dichlamydeous (flower), having both calyx and corolla.
Dichogamous. Dichogamy, 116.
Dichotomous, two-forked.

Diclinous, having the stamens in one flower, the pistils in another, 85-
Dicoccous (fruit), splitting into two cocci or closed carpels.
Dicotyls, 23.
Dicotyledonous (embryo), having a pair of cotvledons, 23. Dicotyledonous Plants, 23,

182.
Didymous, twin.

Didynamous (stamens), having four stamens in two pairs, 100.
Diffuse, spreading widely and irregularly.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 203

Dhjitnte (fingered), where the leaflets of a compound leaf are all borne on the apex
of the petiole, 58.

Digynous (flower), liaving two pistils or st^'les, 105.

Dimerous, made up of two parts, or its organs m twos.

Dimidiate, halved; as where a leaf or leaflet has only one side developed.

Dimorphism, 117. Dimorphous, Dimorphic, of two forms, 117.

Diwcious, or Diuicous, with stamens and pistils on different plants, 85.

Dipetalous, of two petals. Diphyllous, two-leaved. Dipterous, two-winged.

Diplo-, Greek fur double, as Diplostemonous, with two sets of stamens.

Disciform or Disk-shaped, flat and circular, like a disk or quoit.

Discoidal, or Discoid, belonging to vr like a disk.

Discolor, of two different colors or hues.

Discrete, separate, opposite of concrete.

Disepalous, of two sepals.

Disk, the face of any flat body; the central part of a head of flowers, like the Sun-
flower, or Coreopsis, as opposed to the ray or margin; a fleshy expansion of the
receptacle of a flower, 11.3.

Disk-Jlowers, those of the disk in Composita?.

Dissected, cut deeply into many lobes or divisions.

Dissepiments, the partitions of a compound ovary or a fruit, 108.

Dissiiienl, bursting in pieces.

Distichous, two-ranked.

Distinct, uncombined with each other, 95.

Dithf.cous, of two thecae or anther-cells.

Divaricate, straddling; very widely divergent.

Divided (leaves, &c.), cut into divisions down to the base or midrib, 55.

Dodeca, Greek for twelve ; as Dodecagynous, with twelve pistils or styles, Dode-
candrous, with twelve stamens.

Dodrnns, span-long.

Dolabriform, axe-shaped.

Dorsal, pertaining to the back (dorsum) of an organ. Dorsal Suture, 106.

Dotted Ducts, 148.

Double Flowers, where the petals are multiplied unduly, 79.

Downy, clothed with a coat of soft and short hairs.

Drupaceous, like or pertaining to a drupe.

Drupe, a stone-fruit, 120. Drupelet or Drupel, a little drupe.

Ducts, the so-called vessels of plants, 134-

Dumose, bushy, or relating to bushes.

Duramen, the heart-wood, 142.

Dwarf, remarkably low in stature.

E-, as a prefix of Latin compound words, means destitute of; as ecostate, without a

rib or midrib; exalbuminous, without albumen, >S:c.
Eared, see nuriculate, 53.

Ebracteate, destitute of bracts. Ebracteolnte , destitute of bractlets.
Eburneous, ivory-white.

Echinate, armed with prickles (like a hedgehog). Echinulate, a diminutive of it.
Edentate, toothless.

Effete, past bearing, &c. ; said of anthers which have discharged their pollen.
Effuse, very loosely branched and spreading.
Eglandulose, destitute of glands.

Elaters, threads mixed with the spores of Liverworts, 165.
Ellipsoidal, approaching an elliptical figure.
Elliptical, oval or oblong, with the ends regularly rounded, 52.
Emarginate, notched at the summit. 54.
Embryo, the rudimentary plantlet in a seed. 11, 127.
Embryonal, belonging or relating to the embryo.
Embryo-sac, 117.

204 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Emersed, raised out of water.

Endecayynvus, with eleven pistils or styles. Endccandrous, with eleven stamens

Endemic, peculiar to the country gfeographically.

Endocarj), the inner layer of a pericarp or fruit, 120.

Endochruine, the coloring matter of Algae and the like.

Enilogenous Stems, luS. Endogenous plants, an old name for monocotyledons.

Endopleuia, inner seed-coat.

Endinhizul, radicle or root sheathed in germination.

Endosperm, the albumen if a seed, 21.

Enlostome, the oriHce in the inner coat of an ovule.

Ennta-, nine. Ennenpyniius, witli nine petals orstyles. Enneandrous, nine-stamened

Ensate, Ensifovm, sword-shajied.

Entire, the margins not at all toothed, notched, or divided, but even, 55.

Entumophilous, said of flowers frequented and fertilized by insects, 11.3.

Ephemeral, lasting for a day or less, as the corolla of Purslane, <&o.

Epi-, Greek for upon.

Epicalyx, such an involucel as that of Malvaceae.

Epicarp, the outermost layer of a fruit, 120

Epidermal, relating to the Epidermic, or skin of a pliint, 50, 1-11, 143.

Epir/ccdus, growing on the earth, or close to the ground.

Epigynous, upon the ovary, 95, 99.

Epipttidims, borne on the petals or the corolla, 99.

Epiphyllous, borne on a leaf.

Epiphyte, a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it, 36.

Epiphytic or Epiphytal, relating to Epiphytes.

Epipterous, winged at top.

Episperm, the skin or coat of a seed, especially the outer coat.

Equal, alike in number or length.

Equally pinnate, same as abruptly pinnate, 57.

Equitunl (riding straddle), 60.

Erii n, Greek for wool. Erianthous, woolly-flowered. Eriophorous, wool-bearing, &c.

Erase, eroded, as if gnawed.

Erostrate, not beaked.

Erythros, Greek for red. Erythrocarpous, red-fruited, &c.

Essential Organs of the flower, 80.

Estivation, see cestivatiun.

Etiolated, blanched by excluding the light, as the stalks of Celery.

Eu, Greek prefix, meaning very, or much.

Evergreen, holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear, or longer.

Ex, Latin prefix; privative in place of ''e" when next letter is a vowel. So Ex-

alate, wingless; Exalbuminous (seed), without albumen, 21.
Excurrent, running out, as when a midrib projects beyond the apex of a leaf, or a

trunk is continued to the very top of a tree, 32.
Exiguous, puny.
Exilis, lank or meagre.
Eximius, distinguished for size or beauty.
Exo-, in Greek compounds, outward, as in
Exocarp, outer layer of a pericarp, 120.
Exogenous, outward growing. Exogeno7is stems, 139.
Exorhizal, radicle in germination not sheathed.
Exastome, the orifice in the outer coat of the ovule.
Explan'ite, spread or flattened out.

Exserted, protruding out of, as the stamens out of the corolla.
Exstipuldte, destitute of stipules.
Extine, outer coat of a pollen-grain.

Extra -axillary, said of a branch or bud somewhat out of the axil, 31.
Extrorse, turned outwards; the anther is extrorse when fastened to the filament 00

the side next the pistil, and opening on the outer side, 101.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 205

Falcate, scythe-shaped; a flat body curved, its edges parallel.

False Maccmcs, 78.

Family, in Ixitaiiy same as Order, 177.

Farina, meal or starchy matter, i;j(i.

Farinaceous, mealy in texture. Farinose, covered with a mealy powder.

Fasciate, banded; also applied to monstrous steins which grow flat.

Fascicle, a close cluster, 77.

Fascicled, Fasciculated, growing in a bundle or tuft, as the leaves of Larch, 68, and
roots of Peony, .'55.

Fasti(jiate, close, parallel, and upright, as the branches of Lombardy Poplar.

Faux (\A\\Ya.\, fiiuccs), the throat of a calyx, corolla, &c., 89.

Faveolate, Favose, honeycombed; same as fi/cco/^f^c.

Feather-veined, with veins of a leaf all springing from tiie sides of a midrib, 51.

Fecula or Fmcula, starch, 1-36.

Female flower or plant, one bearing pistils only.

Fenestrate, pierced with one or more large lioles, like windows.

Ferrugineuus, or Ferruginous, resembling iron-rust; red-grayish.

Fertile, fruit-bearing, or capable of it ; also said of anthers producing good pollen.

Fertilization, the process by which pollen causes the embryo to be formed, 114.

Fibre (woody), 133. Fibrous, containing much fibre, or composed of fibres.

Fibrillose, formed of small fibres, or Fibrillce.

Fibro-vnscular bundle or tissue, formed of fibres and vessels.

Fiddle-shaped, obovate with a deep recess on each side.

Fidus, Latin suflix for cleft, as Bifld, two-cleft.

Filament, the. stalk of a stamen, 14, 80, 101 ; also any slender thread-shaped body.

Filamentose, or Filamentous, bearing or formed of slender threads.

Filiform, thread-shaped; long, slender, and cylindrical.

Fimbriate, fringed; furnished with fringes {fimbria).

Fimbi-illate, Fimbrilliferous, bearing small fimbr'ite, i. e.fimbrillcB.

Fissiparous, multiplying by division of one body into two.

Fissus, Latin for split or divided.

Fistular, or Fistuiose, hollow and cylindrical, as the leaves of the Onion.

Flabelliform, or Flabellate, fan-shaped.

Flagellate, or Flagelliform, lon<r, narrow, and flexible, like the thong of a whip; or
like the runners (flagellce) of the Strawberry.

Flavescent, j'ellowish, or turning yellow.

Flavus, Latin for 3'ellow.

Fleshy, composed of firm pulp or flesh.

Flexuose, or Flexuous, bending in opposite directions, in a zigzag way.
floating, swimming on the surface of water.

Floccose, composed of or bearing tufts of woolly or long and soft hairs.

Plora (the goddess of flowers), the plants of a country or district, taken together, or
a work systematically describing them, 9.

Floral Envelopes, or Flower-leairs, 79.

Floret, a diminutive flower, one of a mass or cluster.

Floribund, abundantly floriferous.

Florula, the flora of a small district.

Flos, floris, Latin for flower.

Flosculus, diminutive, same as floret.

Flower, the whole organs of reproduction of Phsenogamous plants, 14, 72.

Flower-bud, an unopened flower.

Flowering Plants, 10, 156. Flowerless Plants, 10, 156.

Fly-trap leaves, 65.

Fluitans, Latin for floating. Fluviatile, belonging to a river or stream.

Foliaceous, belonging to, or of the texture or nature of, a lea.1' (folium).

Foliate, provided with leaves. Latin prefixes denote the number of leaves, as bifo-
liate, trifoliate, &r. Foliose, leaf}-; aboimding in leaves.

Foliolate, relating to or bearing leaflets (foliola) ; trifoliate, with three leaflets, &;c.

^OG GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Folium (plural, /"?K(), Latin for leaf.

Follicle, a simple pod, opeiiiiif; down the inner suture, 122.

Follicular, resembling or belonging to a follicle.

Food of Plants, 144.

Footstalk, either petiole or peduncle, 49.

Foramen, a hole or orifice, as that of the ovule, 110.

Foraminose, Foraminulose, pierced with holes.

Forked, branched in two or three or more.

Fo7-nicate, bearing fornices.

Fornix, little arched scales in the throat of some corollas, as of Comfrey.

Foveate, deeply pitted. Foveolaie, diminutive oi foveate.

Free, not united with any other parts of a different sort, 95.

Fringed, the margin beset with slender appendages, bristles, <S:c.

Frond, what answers to leaves in Ferns, &c., 157; or to the stem and /eaves fused.

into one, as in Liverwort.
Frondescence, the bursting into leaf.

Frondose, frond-bearing; like a frond, or sometimes used for leafy.
Fructijication, the state or result of fruiting.
Fructus, Latin for fruit.

Fruit, the matured ovary and all it contains or is connected with, 117.
Fniit-dots in Ferns; see Sorus.

Frustulose, consisting of a chain of similar pieces, or Frustules.
Frutescent, somewhat shrubb\'; becoming a shrub (Frutex), 39.
Fruticulose, like a small shrub, or F ruticulus. Fruticose, shrubby, 39.
Fugacious, soon fallinjr off or perishing.
Fulcrate, having accessory organs or fulcra, i. e. props.
Fulvous, tawn\-; dull yellow with gray.
Fungus, Fungi, 172.

Funicle, Funiculus, the stalk of a seed or ovule, 110.
FunnelJ'orm, or funneUshnped, expanding gradually upwards into an open mouth,

like a funnel or tunnel, 90.
Furcate, forked.

Furfuraceous, covered with bran-like fine scurf.
Furrowed, marked by longitudinal channels or grooves.
Fuscous, deep gray-brown.
Fusiform, spindle-shaped, 36.

Galbalus, the fleshy or at length woody cone of .Juniper and Cypress.

Galea, a helmet-shaped bod}-, as the upper sepal of the Monkshood, 87.

Galeate, shaped like a helmet.

Gamnpetalous, of united petals, 89.

Gamophyllous, formed of united leaves. Gamosepalous, formed of united sepals, 89.

Geminate, twin; in pairs.

Gemma, Latin for a bud.

Gemmation, the state of budding; budding growth.

Gemmule, a small bud; the plumule, C.

Genera, plural of genus.

Geniculate, bent abruptly, like a knee (genu), as manj' stems.

Generic Names, 179.

Genus, a kind of a rank above species, 177.

Germ, a growing point; a young bud; sometimes the same as embryo, 127.

Germen, the old name for ovar}'.

Germination, tiie development of a plantlet from the seed, 12-

Geron'ogwous, inhabiting the Old World.

Gibbous, more tumid at one place or on one side than the other.

Gilvous, dirty reddish-yellow.

Ghibrate, l)ecoming glalirous with age, or almost glabrous.

Glabrous, smooth, in the sense of having no hairs, bristles, or other pubescence.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 207

Gladiate, sword-shaped, as the leave? oi Iris.

Glands, small cellular organs wliicli secrete oily or aromatic or other products; tlie^-
are sometimes sunk in the leaves oi rind, as in the Orange, Prickly Ash, &c. ;
sometimes on the surface as small projections; sometimes raised on hairs or
bristles {(jlandular hairs, tfc), as in the Svveetbrier and Sundew. The name is
also given to any small swellings, &c., whethei they secrete anything or not; so
that the word is looselj' used.
Glandular, Glandulose, furnished with glands, or gland-like.
Glans (Gland), the acorn or mast of Oak and similar fruits.
Glareose, growing in gravel.
Glaucescent, slightly glaucous, or bluish-gray.
Glaucous, covered with a bloom, viz. with a fine wiiile powder of wax that rubs off,

like that on a fresh plum, or a cabbage-leaf.
Globose, spherical in form, or nearly so. Globular, nenil y globose.
Glochidiate, or Glochideous, (bristles) barbed; tipped with barbs, or with a double

hooked point.
Glomerate, closely aggregated into a dense cluster.
Glomerule, a dense head-like cluster, 77.

Glossology, the department of botany in which technical terms are explained.
Glumaceous, glume-like, or glume-bearing.
Glume ; Glumes are the husks or floral coverings of Grasses, or, particularly, the

outer husks or bracts of each spikelet.
Glumelles, the inner husks of Grasses.
Gonoplurre, a stipe below stamens, 113.
Gossypine, cottony, flocculent.
Gracilis, Latin for slender.

Grain, see Caryopsis, 121.

Gramineous, grass-like.

Granular, composed of grains. Granule, a small grain.

Graveolent, heavy-scented.

Griseous, gray or bluish-graj'.

Growth, 129.

Grumous, or Grumose, formed of coarse clustered grains.

Guttate, spotted, as if by drops of so.nething colored.

Gymnos, Greek for naked, as

Gymnocarp(yus, naked-fruited. Gymnospermous, naked-seeded, 109.

Gymnospermous f/yncecium, 109.

GymnospernuB, or Gymnospermous Plants, 183.

Gynandrous, with stamens borne on, i.e. united with, the pistil, 99.

Gynaecium, a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether, 105.

Gynobase, a depressed receptacle or support of the pistil or carpi Is, 114.

Gynophore, a stalk raising a |)istil above the stamens, 113.

Gynostegium, a sheath around pistils, of whatever nature.

Gynostemium, name of the column in Orchids, &c., consisting of style and stigma
with stamens combined.

Gyrate, coiled or moving circularly.

Gyrose, stronglj' bent to and fro.

Habit, the general aspect of a plant, or its mode of growth.
Habitat, the situation or country in which a plant grows in a wild state.
Hairs, hair-like growths on the surface of plants.
Hairy, beset with hairs, especially longish ones.
Halberd-shaped, see hastate, 53.

Halved, when appearing as if one half of the body were cut away.
Hamate, or Hamose, hooked; the end of a slender body bent round.
Hamulose, bearing a small hook; a diminutive of the last.

Haplo-, in Greek compounds, single; as Haplostemonous, having only one series of
stamens.

208 GLOSSARY AND INUEX,

Hastate, or Hastile, shaped like a lialberd; furnished with a spreading lobe on each

side at tlie base, 53.
Head, capitulum, a form of inflorescence. 74.
Henrt-shapcd, of the shape of a heart as painted on cards, 53.
Heart-wood, the older or matured wood of exogenous trees, 142.
Helicoid, coiled like a helix or snail-shell, 77.
Helmet, tlie upper sepal of Monkshood is so called.
Helvolotis, grayish-yellow.

Heini- in compounds from the Greek, half; e. g. Hemispherical, &c.
Hemicarp, half-fruit, one carpel of an Umbelliferous plant, 121.
Heriitropous (ovule or seed), nearly same as amphitrupous, 123.
Hepta- {in words of Greek origin), seven; as Heptagynuus, with seven pistils or

styles. Heptumerouf, \is parts in sevens. i/«-/)tant/»"0«s, having seven stamens.
Herb, plant not woody, at least above ground.
Herbaceous, of the texture of an herb; not woody. 39.
Herbarium, the botanist's arranged collection of dried plants, 186.
Herborizatii'Ti. 184.

HermaphriK/ite (flower), having stamens and pistils in the same blossom, 81.
Hesperidium, orange-fruit, a hard-rinded berr}'.
Hetero-, in Greek compounds, means of two or more sorts, as
Heterocarpous, bearing fruit of two kinds or shapes.
Heterogamous, bearing two or more sorts of flowers in one cluster.
Heterogony , Heterogove, or Heterogenous, with stamens and pistil reciprocally of

two sorts, 116. Heterostyled is same.
Heteromorphous, of two or more shapes.
Heterophyllous, with two sorts of leaves.
Heterotropous (ovule), the same as amphitropovs, 123.
Hexn- (in Greek compounds), six; as Hexagonal, six-angled. Hexagynous, with

six pistils or styles. Hexamerous, its parts in sixes. Hexandrous, with six

stamens. Hexapterous, six-winged.
Hibernaculum, a winter bud.
Hiemal, relating to winter.
Hilar, belonging to the hilum.

Hilum, the scar of the seed ; its place of attachment, 110, 126.
Hippocrepiform, horseshoe-shaped.
Hirsute, clothed with stiflish or beard-like hairs.
Hirtellous, minutely hirsute.

Hispid, bristly, beset with stiff hairs. Hispidulous, diminutive of hispid.
Histology, 9.

Hoary, grayish-white ; see canescent, &c.
Holosericeous, all over sericeous or silky.
Homo-, in Greek compounds, ail alike or of one sort.
Homodromous, running in one direction.
Homogamous, a head or cluster with flowers all of one kind.
Homogeneous, uniform in nature; all of one kind.
Homogone, or Homogonous, counterpart of Heterogone or Homostyled.
Homologous, of same tj-pe; thus petals and sepals are the homologues of leaves.
Homomallous (leaves, &c.), originating all round an axis, but all bent or curved

to one side.
Homorphous, all of one shape.

Hwnotropous (embryo), curved with the seed; curved only one way.
Hood, same as helmet or galea. Hooded, hood-shaped; see cucullate.
Hooked, same as hamate.

Horn, a spur or some similar appendage. Horny, of the texture of horn.
Hortensis, pertaining to the garden.

Hortus Siccus, an herbarium, or collection of dried plants, 201.
Humifuse, Humistrate, spread over the surface of the ground.
Humilis, low in stature.

GLOSSARY AXD IxMDEX. 209

fTynline, transparent, or partly so.

Hybrid, a cross-breed between two allied species, 176.

Ihjilniphtjtes, water-plauts.

JJyemal, see liiemal.

Ihjmtnium of a Mushroom, 172.

/Jiipantkium, a hollow fJower-receptacle, such as that of Rose.

Hypo-, Greek prefix for under, or underneath.

Ifypocotyle, or flypvcolyl, part of stem below the cotvledons, 11,

Ilynocrdtenform, properly IlypocraUriinorphous, salver-shaped.

Ilypogcean, or Hypogceons, produced under ground, I'J.

H jipoyynous, inserted under the pistil, 05, 'J'J.

IJ ysttrnnthuus, with the blossoms developed earlier than the leaves.

Icosamlrous, having 20 (or 12 or mo e) stamens inserted on the calyx.

Imbevbif. Latin for beardless.

Imbricate, Imbricated, Jmbricntive, overlapping one another, like tiles or shincrles

on a roof, as the bud-scales of Horse-chestnut and Hickory, 27. In testivation,

where some leaves of the calyx or corolla are overlapped on both sides by

others, 98.
Immart/iwite, destitute of a rim or border.
Immersed, growing wholly under water.
Impari-pinnnte, pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex, 57.
I inpe rf'cct flowers, wanting either stamens or pi>tils. 8-5.
Imequilateral, unequal-sided, as the leaf of a Begonia.
Inane, empty, said of an anther v,hich produces no p.illen, &c.
IiKtppendiculate, not appeiidaged.

Incaniius, Incanesctnt, hoary with soft white pubescence.
Incarnate, flesh-colored.

Incised, cut rather deeply and irregularly, 58.

Included, enclosed; when the part in question does not project beyond another.
Incomplete Flower, wanting calyx or corolla, 86.
Incrns.<ated, thickened.

Incubuu-, with tip of one leaf lying flat over the base of the next above.
Incumbent, leaning or resting upon; the cotyledons are incumbent when the back of

one of them lies against the radicle, 128; the anthers are incumbent when

turned or looking inwards.
Incurved, gradually curving inwards.

Indefinite, not uniform in number, or too numerous to mention (over 12).
Indefinite or Indeterminate Inflorescence, 72.
Indehiscent, not splitting open; i. e. not dehiscent, 119.
Indigenous, native to the country.
Individ uals, ]75.

Indumentum, any liairy coating or pubescence.
Jnduplicate, with the edges turned inwards, 97.
Induviate, clothed with old and withered parts or induvice.
Indusium, the shield or covering of a fruit-dot of a Fern, 159.
Inermis, Latin for unarmed, not prickly.
Inferior, growing below some other organ, 96.
Infertile, not producing seed, or pollen, as the case may be.
Inflated, turgid and bladdery.
Inflexed, bent inwards.

Inflorescence, the arrangement of flowers on th'^ stem, 72.
Infra-axillnry. situated beneath the axil.
InfundibuUfnrm or Ivfundibulor, funnel-shaped, 90.

Innate (anther), attached by its base to the very apex of the filament, 101.
Innovation, a young shoot, or new growth.

Insertion, the place or the mode of attachment of an orsan to its support, 95, 99o
Integer, entire, not lobed. Inteyerrimus, quite entire, not serrate.

14

210 GLOSSARY AND IXDEX.

Inlercdlular Passnr/es or Sp'rces, 1.31, 143.

Interfulidctvusi, between tlie leaves of a pair or whorl.

Internoik, the part of a stem between two node^;, i'i.

/aterpttiular, between petioles.

Interiiiptedly pinnate, pinnate with small leaflets intermixed with larger.

/lUine, inner coat of a pollen grain.

/ntrnjoliactuus (stipules, &C.). placed between the leaf or petiole and the stem.

/lUrorse, turned or facinjj inwards; i. e. towards the axis of the flower, 101.

Jiitruse, as it were pushed inwards.

liictrstd or Inverted, where the apex is in the direction opposite to that of the organ
it is compared with.

Involucel, a partial or small involucre, 76.

Invijlucellate, furnished with an involucel. Involucmte, furnished with an involucre.

Invilucre, a whorl or set of bracts around a flower umbel, or head, &c., 7i, 75.

Incolute, in vernation, 72; rolled inwards from the edges, 97.

Ii-reyular t towers, 86. 91.

Isos, Greek for equal in number. Isomenni.t, the same number in the successive cir-
cles or sets. Jsustemoiwus, the stamens eiiual in number to the sepals or petals.

Jointed, separate or separable at one or more places into pieces, 64, &c.

Juyuin (plural Juijn), Latin for a pair, as of leaflets. — thus Unijuya'e, of a single

pair; Bijayate, of two pairs, tkc.
JuUiceus, like a catkin or Julus.

Keel, a projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat ; the two auterioi

petals of a papilionaceous corolla 92.
Keeled, furnished with a keel or sharp longitudinal ridge.
Kermesine, Carmine-red.
Kernel of the ovule and seed, 110.
Key, or Key-fruit, a Samara, 122.
Kidney-shaped, resembling the outline of a kidney, 53.

Lahellum, the odd petal in the Orchis Family.

Labiate, same as bilnbiate or two-lipped, 92.

Lnbidtijiorotis, having flowers with bilabiate corolla.

Labium (plural. Labia), Latin for lip.

Lacerate, with margin appearing as if torn.

Laciniate, slashed: cut into deep narrow lobes or LncinicB.

Lactescent, producing milky juice, as does the Milkweed, &c.

Lacteus, Latin for milk-white.

Lacunose, full of holes or gaps.

Lacustrine, belonging to lakes.

Lceviyate, smooth as if polished. Latin, Lmris, smooth, as opposed to rough.

Lageniform, gourd-shaped.

Layopnus, Latin, hare-footed ; densely clothed with long soft hairs.

Lamellar or Lamellate, consisting <if flat plates, Laniellce.

Lamina, a plate or blade, the blade of ^ leaf, &c.. 49.

Lanate, Lanvse, woolly; clothed with long and soft entangled hairs.

Lanceolate, lance-shaped, 52.

Lanuginous, cottony or woolly.

Latent buds, concealed or undeveloped buds, 30.

Lateral, beIongin£r to the side.

Lnfer. the milky juice, &c., of plants, 1.35.

La.r (Lotus), lonep in texture, or sparse: the opposite of crowded.

Leaf, 49. Lenf-buds .SI

Leaflet, one of the divisions or blndes of a compound leaf, 57.

Leaf-like, same us, foJiaceovs

Leatheiy. of about the consistence of leather; coriaceous.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 211

Legume, a simple pod which dehisces in two pieces, like that of the Pea, 122.

Legumiiwus, beloii{:jiiig to legumes, or to the Leguminous Family.

Lenticular, lens-shaped; i. e. tlattish and convex on both sides.

Lippaceuus, bur-like.

Lasio, Greek for woolly or hairy, as Lasianthus, woolly-flowered.

Lateritious, brick-colored.

Laticiferous, containing latex, l'^8.

Latus, Latin for broad, as LatlJ'olius, broad-leaved.

Leaf-scar, Leaf stalk, petiole.

Lcnticels, lenticular dots on young bark.

Lentiginose, as if freckled.

Lepal, a made-up word for a sfaminode.

Lepis, Greek for a scale, whence Lepidote, leprous; covered with scurfy scales.

Leptos, Greek for slender; so Leptophyllous, slender-leaved.

Leukos, Greek for white; whence Leucnnlhous, white-flowered, &c.

Liber, the inner bark of Exogenous stems, 140.

Lid, see operculum.

Ligneous, or Lignose, woody in texture.

Ligulate, furnished with a ligule, 93.

Ligule, Ligula, the strap-shaped corolla in many Compositje, 93; the membranous
app)endage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most Grasses, 57.

Limb, the border of a corolla, ttc, 89.

Limbate, bordered (Latin, Limbus. a border).

Line, the twelfth of an inch ; or French lines, the tenth.

Linear, narrow and flat, the margins parallel, .52.

Lineate, marked with parallel lines. Lineolate, marked with minute lines.

Lingulate, Linguiform, tongue-shaped.

Lip, the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx, 92.

Literal or Littoral, belonging to the shore.

Livid, pale lead-colored.

Lobe, SLny projection or division (especially a rounded one) of a leaf, &c.

Lobed or Lobate, cut into lobes, 55, 56; Lobulate, into small lobes.

Locellate, having Locelli, i. e. compartments in a cell: thus an anther-cell is often
bilocellate.

Loculament, same as loculus.

Locular, relating to the cell or compartment {Loculus) of an ovar}', &c.

Loculicidal (dehiscence), splitting down through the back of each cell, 123.

Locusta, a name for the spikelet of Grasses.

Lodicule, one of the scales answering to perianth-leaves in Grass-flowers.

Lament, a pod which separates transversely into joints, 122.

Lomentaceous, pertaining to or resembling a loment.

Lorate, thong-shaped.

Lunate, crescent-shaped. Lunulate, diminutive of lunate.

Lupuline, like hops.

Lusus, Latin for a sport or abnormal variation.

Luteolus, yellowish; diminutive of

Luteus, Latin for yellow. Lutescent, verging to yellow.

Lyrate, lyre-shaped; a pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate outline, the end-
lobe large and roundish, and the lower lobes small, as in tig. 149.

Macros, Greek for long, sometimes also used for large: thus MacrophyUous, long.

or large-leaved, &c.
Macrospore, the large kind of spore, when there are two kinds, 160, 161,
Maculate, spotted or blotched.

Male (flowers or plants), having stamens but no pistU.
Mammose, breast-shaped.
Marcescent, withering without falling off.
Marginal, belonging to margin.

212 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Marginate, margined with an edge different from the rest.

Marginiddal dehiscence, 123.

Mnritinif, belonging to sea-coasts.

Marmurate, marbled.

Mas., Masc, Masculine, male.

Masked, see personate.

Mealy, see J'arinaceous.

Median, Medial, belonging to the middle.

Medifixed, attached b3' the middle.

Medullary, belonging to, or of the nature of, pith (Medulla)', pithy.

Medullary Rays, the silver-grain of wood, 140, 141.

Medullary Sheath, a set of ducts just around the pith, 140.

Meiiistevionous, having fewer stamens than petals.

Membranaceous or Membranous, of the texture of membrane; thin and soft.

Meniscoid, crescent-shaped.

Mei-icarp. one carpel of the fruit of an Umbelliferous plant, 121.

Merismatic, separating into parts by the formation of partitions across.

Merous, from the Greek for part; used with numeral prefix to denote the number of
pieces in a set or circle: as Monomerous, of only one, Dimerous, with two, Tri-
merous, with three parts (sepals, petals, stamens, &c.) ni each circle.

Mesocarp, the middle part of a pericarp, when that is distinguishable into three
layers, 120.

Mesophlceum, the middle or green bark.

Micropyle, the closed orifice of the sied, 110, 12G.

Microspore, the smaller kind of spore when there are two kinds, 161.

Midrib, the middle or main rib of a leaf, 50.

Milk-vessels, 1-38.

Miniate, vermilion-colored.

Mitriform, mitre-shaped: in the form of a peaked cap, or one cleft at the top.

Moniliform, necklace-shaped; a cylindrical body contracted at intervals.

Monocarpic (duration), flowermg and seeding but once, 38.

Monochlamydeous, having onl_v one floral envelope.

Monocotyledonous (embryo), with only one cotyledon, 24.

Monocotyledonous Plants, 24. Monocofyls, 24.

MoncBcious, or Monoicous (flower), having stamens or pistils only, 85.

Monoijynous (flower), having only one pistil, or one style, 105.

Manopelahms (flower), with the corolla of one piece, 89.

Monophyllous, one-leaved, or of one piece.

Mmios, Greek for solitary or only one; thus Monndelphous, stamens united by their
filaments into one set, 99 ; Monandroiis (flower), having only one stamen, 100.

Monosepalous, a calyx of one piece; i. e. with the sepals united into one body.

Monospermous, one-seeded.

Monstrosity, an unnatural devintion from the nsual structure or form.

Morphology, Morphological Botany, 9; the department of botany which treats of
the forms which an organ may assume.

Moschate, Musk-Uke in odor.

Movements, 149.

Mucronate, tipped with an abrupt short point (Macro). 54.

Mucronulate. tipped with a minute abrupt point; a diminutive of the last.

Multi-, in composition, many; as Multangular, many-anirled : Multiripil d, many-
headed, &c.; Multifarious, in many rows or ranks; Multijid, many-cleft; Mul-
tilocular, many-celled; Multiserial, in many row.s.

Multiple Fruits. l"]8, 124.

Muricate, beset with short and hard or prickly points.
Muriform, wall-like; resembling courses of bricks in a wall.
Muticous, pointless, blunt, unarmed.

Alycelinm, the spawn of Fungi; i. e. the filaments from which JIushrooms, &c.,
originate, 172.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 213

Naked, wanting some usual covering, as aclilaniydeous flowers, 86, g}'mnospermous
seeds, 109, 125, &c.

Names in botany, 179.

Nanus, Latin for dwarf.

Napiform, turnip-sliaped, 35.

Natural iSystem, 182.

Naturalized, introduced from a foreign country, and flourishing wild.

Navicular, boat-shaped, like the glumes of most Grasses.

Necklace-shaped, looking like a string of beads; see moniliform.

Nectar, the sweet secretion in flowers from which bees make honey, &c.

Nectariferous, honey-bearing; or having a nectary.

Nectary, the old name for petals and other parts of the flower when of unusual
shape, especially when honey-bearing. So the hollow spur-shaped petals of
Columbine were called nectaries; also the curious long-clawed petals of Monks-
hood, 87, &c.

Needle-shaped, long, slender, and rigid, like the leaves of Pines.

Ntmorose or Nemoral, inhabiting groves.

Nerve, a name for the ribs or veins of leaves when simple and parallel, 50.

Nerved, furnished with nerves, or simple and parallel ribs or veins, 50.

Nei'vose, conspicuously nerved. Nervulose, minutely nervose.

Netted-veined, furnished with branching veins forming network, 50, 51.

Neuter, Neutral, sexless. Neutral flower, 79.

Niger, Latin for black. Nigricans, Latin for verging to black.

Nitid, shining

Nival, living in or near snow. Niveus, snow-white.

Nodding, bending so that the summit hangs downward.

Node, a knot; tha "joints" of a stem, or the part whence a leaf or a pair of leaves
springs, 13.

Nodose, knotty or knobby. Nodulose, furnished with little knobs or knots.

Nomenclature, 175, 179.

Normal, according to rule, natural.

Notate, marked with spots or lines of a diiTerent color.

Nucamentaceous, relating to or resembling a small nut.

Nuciform, nut-shaped or nut-like.

Nucleus, the kernel of an ovule (110) or seed (127) of a cell.

Nucule, same as nutlet.

Nude, (Latin. A^udus), naked. So Nudicaulis, naked-stemmed, &c.

Nut, Latin Nux, a. hard, mostly one-seeded indehiscent fruit; as a chestnut, butter-
nut, acorn, 121.

Nutant, nodding.

Nutlet, a little nut; or the stone of a drupe.

Ob- (meaning over against), when prefixed to words signifies inversion ; as, Ob-
compressed, flattened the opposite of the usual way; Obcordale, heart-shaped,
with the broad and notched end at the apex instead of the base, 54; Oblance-
olate, lance-shaped with the tapering point downwards, 52.

Oblique, applied to leaves. &c., means unequal-sided.

Oblong, from two to four times as long as broad, 52.

Obovate, inversely ovate, the broad end upward, 53. Obovoid, solid obovate.

Obtuse, blunt or round at the end, 54.

Obrerse, same as inverse.

Obvolute (in the bud), when the margins of one piece or leaf alternately overlap
those of the opposite one.

Ocellate, with a circular colored patch, like an ej'e.

Ockroleucous, yellowish-white : dull cream-color.

Ocreate, furnished with Ocrea (boots), or stipules in the form of sheaths, 57.

Octo-, Latin for eight, enters into the composition of Octngynous, with eight pistils
or styles; Octamerous, its parts in eights; Octandrous, with eight stamens, &c.

214 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Oculate, with eye-sliaped markintj.

Oj/icinal, used in luediciiie, therefdre kept in the shops.

Offset, short branches next the ground which take root, 40.

OiiJes, terminati(ii), from tiie (Jreek, to denote likeness; so Diantkoides, Pink-like.

Oltraceous, esculent, as a pot-herb.

Oligos, Greek for few; thus Oliijanthous, few-fiowered, &c.

Olivaceous, olive-Kreen.

Oophoridium, a name for spore-case containing niacrospores.

Opaque, applied to a surface, means dull, not shining.

Operculale, furnished with a lid (Oi>erculum), as the spore-case of Mosses, 1C3.

Opposite, said of leaves and branches when on opposite sides of the stem from each

other (i. e. in pairs), 29, G8. Stamens are oj)posite the petals, &c., when they

stand before tliem.
OppositiJ'olius, situated opposite a leaf.
Orbicular, Orbiculnte, circular in outline, or nearly so, 52.
Order, group below class, 178. Ordinal names, 180.
Organ, any member of the plant, as a leaf, a stamen, &c.
Organogi-ajihy, study of organs, 9. Oryanugenesis, that of the development of

organs.
Orgyalis, of the height of a man.
Orthos, Greek for straight; thus, Orthocarpous, with straight fruit; Orthostichous,

straight-ranked.
Ortkotropous (ovule or seed). 111.
Osseous, of a bony texture.

Outgrowths, growths from the surface of a leaf, petal, &c.
Oval, broadly ellipticMl, 52.

Ovary, that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds, 14, 80, 105.
Ovate, shaped like an egg, witli the broader end downwards; or, in plain surfaces,

such as leaves, like the section of an egg lengthwise, 52.
Ovoid, ovate or oval in a solid form.

Ovule, the body which is destined to become a seed, 14, 80, 105, 110.
Oouliferous, ovule-bearing.

Palate, a projection of the lower lip of a labiate corolla into the throat, as in Snap-
dragon, &c.

Palea (plural pn/ece), chaff; the inner husks of Grasses; the chaff or bracts on the
receptacle of many Compositie, as Coreopsis, and Sunflower.

P(deaceuus, furnished with chaff, or chaffy in texture.

Paleolate, having Paleolce or palejE of a second order, or narrow palene.

Palet, English term for palea.

Palmate, when leaflets or the divisions of a leaf all spread from the apex of the
petiole, like the hand with the outspread fingers, 57, 58.

Pidmatehj (veined, lobed, &-C.), in a palmate manner, 51, .56.

P(diiiiitijid, -lobeil, -sect, palmately cleft, or lobed, or divided.

Pitludose, inhabiting marshes. Palustrine, same.

Pandurifoi^m, or Pandurate, fiddle-shaped (which see).

Panicle, an open and branched cluster, 81.

Panicled, Paniculate, arranged in panicles, or like a panicle.

Piinnose, covered with a felt of woolly hairs.

Papery, of about the consistence of letter-paper.

Papilionaceous, butterflv-shaped; applied to such a corolla as that of the Pea, 91.

Papilla (plural /laj/ilhe), little nipple-sliape<l protuberances.

Papillate, Papillvsf, covered with papilla'.

Pappus, thistle-down. The down crowning the achenium of the Tiiistle, Groundsel.
&c., and whatever in Compositoe answers to calyx, whether hairs, teeth, or
scales, 121.

Papyraceous, like parcliment in texture.

Paralltl-veined or nerved (leaves), 50.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 215

Paraphyses, jointed filaments mixed with the antheiidia of INIosses.

Parasitic, liviiij^ as a parasite, i. e. on anotiier plant or animal, ■il.

Parenchemyluus, composed of parenchyma.

Parenchijma, soft cellular tissue of plants, like the green pulp of leaves, 132.

Parietal (placenta, &c.), attached to the walls (parities) of the ovary.

Paripinnatc, pinnate with an even number of lealiets.

Parted, separated or cleft into parts almost to the base, 55.

Parthenogenesis, producing seed without fertilization.

Partial involucre, same as an invnlucel; partial petiole, a division of a main leaf-
stalk or the stalk of a leaflet; partial j)eduncle, a branch of a peduncle; par-
tial umbel, an umbellet, 70.

Partition, a segment of a parted leaf; or an internal wall in an ovary, anther, &c.

Patelliform, disk-shaped, like tUe patella or kneepan.

Patent, spreading, open. Patulous, moderately spreading.

Pauci-, in composition, few; a.» paucijlorous, few-flowered, &c.

Pear-shaped, solid obovate, the shape of a pear.

Pectinate, pinnatitid or pinnately divided into narrow and close divisions, like the
teeth of a comb.

Pedate, like a bird's foot; palmate or palmately cleft, with the side divisions again
cleft, as in Viola pedata, &c.

Pedicel, the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster, 73.

Pedicellate, Pedicelled, borne on a pedicel.

Pedalis, Latin for a foot high or long.

Peduncle, a flower-stalk, whether of a single flower or of a flower-cluster, 73.

Peduncled, Pedunculate, furnished with a peduncle.

Peloria, an abnormal return to regularity and symmetry in an irregular flower; com-
monest in Snapdragon.

Peltate, shield-shaped; said of a leaf, whatever its shape, when the petiole is at-
tached to the lower side, somewhere within the margin, 5-3.

Pelviform, basin-shaped.

Pendent, hanging. Pendulous, somewhat hanging or drooping.

Penicillate, PenicilliJ'orm, tipped with a tuft of tine hairs, like a painter's pencil; as
the stigmas of some Grasses.

Pennate, same as pinnate. Penninerved and Penniceined, pinnate' v veined, 51.

Penta- (in words of Greek composition), five; as Ptntadttphous, 99; Pentoffyanus,
with Ave pistils or styles; Pentamerous, with its j)arts in fives, or on the plan of
five; Pentandrous, having five stamens, 112; Pintustichous, in five ranks, iS:c.

Pepo, a fruit like the Melon and Cucumber, 119.

Perennial, lasting from v-ear to year, .38.

Perfect (flower), having both stamens and pistils, 81.

Perfoliate, passing through the leaf, in appearance, GO.

Perfoi-ate, pierced with holes, or with transparent dots resembling holes, as an
Orange-leaf.

Pert-, Greek for around; from which arc such terms as

Perianth, the leaves of the flower collectively, 79.

Pericarp, the ripened ovary; the walls of the fruit, 117.

Pericarpic, belonging to the pericarp.

Perit/onium, Perit/one, ^ame us perianth.

Perigynium, bodies around the pistil; applied to the closed cup or bottle-shaped
body (of bracts) which encloses the ovary of Sedges, and to the bristles, little
scales, &.C., of the flowers of some other Cyperacea;.

Periyynous, the petals and stamens borne on the calyx, 95, 99.

Peii'pfi^.ric, around the outside, or peri])hery, of any organ.

PerLiperm, a name for the albumen of a seed.

Peristome, the frmge of teeth to the spore-case of Mosses, 163.

Persistent, remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall, as the
leaves of evergreens, and the calyx of such flowers as persist during the growth
of the fruit.

216 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Personate, masked; a bilabiate corolla witii aptilnlc in tlio throat, 92,

Pertnse, perforated with a hole or slit.

Perulate, haviii^^ scales (Pcrulce), such as biid-scales.

Pes, pedis, Latin for the foot or support, whence Lungipcs. long-stalked, &C.

Petal, a leaf of the corolla, 14, 79,

Pelnlody, metamorphosis of stamens, &c., into petals.

Petaloid, PeUiUne, petal-like; resembling or colored like petals.

Petiole, a footstalk of a leaf; a leaf stalk, 49.

Petioled, Petiolate, furnished with a petiole.

Petiululate, said of a leatlet when raised on its own partial leafstalk.

Petrmus, Latin for growing on rocks.

Phalanx, 2}Jinl(infjes, bundles of stamens.

Phceno(jamous, or Phanerof/amous, plants bearing flowers and producing seeds;

same as Flowering Plants. Phcenojams, Plunierof/ams, 10.
Phlmum, Greek name for bark, whence Endojjldaium, inner bark, &c.
P/imniceous, deep red verging to scarlet.
Plnjcology, the botany of Algre.

PlnjUoclndia, branches assuming the form and function of leaves.
Phyllodium (plural, phyllodia), a leaf where the seeming blade is a dilated petiole,

as in New Holland Acacias, 61.
Pliyllome, foliar parts, those answering to leaves in their nature.
PliyUon {\i\ural, pliylla), Greek for leaf and leaves; used in many compound terms

and names.
Phyllotaxis, or Phyllolaxy, the arrangement of leaves on the stem, 67.
Physiolo(jical Botany, 9.

Phytoffvaphy, relates to characterizing and describing plants.
Pliyton, or Phytomer, a name used to designate the pieces which by their repetition

make up a plant, theoretically, viz. a joint of stem with its leaf or pair of leaves.
Pileus of a mushroom, 172.

Pili/erous, bearing a slender bristle or hair (piluin), or beset with hairs.
Pilose, hairy; clothed with soft slender hairs.

Pinna, a primary division with its leaflets of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf.
Pinnule, a secondary division of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf, 66.
Pinnate (leaf), when leaflets are arranged along the sides of a common petiole, 57.
Pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, divided, veined, 56.

Pinnatijid, Pinnatisect, same as pinnately cleft and pinnately parted, 56.
Pisiform, pea-shaped.

Pistil, the seed-bearing organ of the flower, 14, 80, 105.
Pistillate, having a pistil, 85.

Pistillidium, the body which in Mosses answers to the pistil, 159, 164.
Pitchers, 64.

Pith, the cellular centre of an exogenous stem, 138.

Placenta, the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached, 107.
Pla cent i form, nearly same as quoit-shaped.
Plaited (in the bud), or Plicate, folded, 72, 98.

Platy-, Greek for broad, in compounds, such as Platyphyllous, broad-leaved, &c.
Pleio-, Greek for full or abounding, used in compounds, such as Pltiopetalous, of

man}- petals, &c.
Plumbeus, lead-colored.
Plumose, feathery; when any slender body (such as a bristle of a pappus or a style)

is beset with hairs along its sides, like the plume of a feather.
Plumule, the bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet above the cotyledons, 13.
Pluri; in composition, many or several; as Plurifoliolate, with several leaflets.
Pod, specially a legume, 122; also may be applied to any sort of capsule.
Podium, a footstalk or stipe, used only in Greek comp<uinds, as (suffi.x:ed) Lepto-

podus, slender-stalked, or (prefixed) Podocephnlus, with a stalked head, and

in Podosperm, a seed stalk or funiculus.
Pofjon, Greek for beard, comes into various compounds.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 217

Pointless, destitute of any pointed tip, such as a nuicri), nwn, ncumination, &c.

Pollen, tlie fertilizing powder contained in tlie anther, 14, 80, 103.

Pollen-growth, 117. Polleniferous, pollen-bearing.

Pollen-mass, Pollinium, the united mass of pollen, 104, as in Milkweed and Orchis.

Pollicaris, Latin for an inch long.

Pollination, the application of pollen to the stigma, 114.

Poly-, iu compound words of Greek origin, same as multi- in those of Latin origin,

viz. many, as
Polyadelphous, stamens united by their filaments into several bundles, 100.
Polyandrous, with numerous stamens (inserted on the receptacle), 100.
Polycaipic, term used by DeCandolle in the sense of perennial.
Polycotyledonous, having many (more than two) cotyledons, as Pines, 23.
Polyyamous, having some perfect and some unisexual flowers, 85.
Polygonal, many-angled.
Pohjf/ynous, with many pistils or styles, 105.
Polymerous, formed of manj^ parts of each set.
Polymorphous, of several or varying forms,

Pvlypetaluus, when the petals are distinct or separate (whether few or many), 89.
Polyphyllous, many-leaved; formed of several distinct pieces.
Polyseimlous, same as the last when applied to the calyx, 89.
Puiyspermous, many-seeded.

Pome, the apple, pear, and similar fleshy fruits, 119.
Pomiferous, pome-bearing.
Porrect, outstretched.

Posterior side or portion of a flower (when axillary) is th.'-t toward the axis, 96.
Pouch, the silicle or short pod, as of Shepherd's Purse, 123.
Prcecocious (Latin, pnecox), unusually early in development.
Prcefloration, same as (estivation, 97.
PneJ'oliation, same as vernation, 71.
Prcemorse, ending abruptly, as if bitten off.
Pratensis, Latin for growing in meadows.

Prickles, sharp elevations of the bark, coming off with it, as of the Rose.
Prickly, bearing prickles, or sharp projections like them.
Piimine, the outer coat of the covering of the ovule, 110.

Primordial, earliest formed; primordial leaves are the first after the cotyledons.
Prismatic, prism-shaped; having three or more angles bounding flat sides.
Procerous, tall, or tall and slim.

Process, any projection from the surface or edge of a bod}'.
P rocumbent, trailing on the ground, 39.
Procurrent, running through but not projecting.
Produced, extended or projecting; the upper sepal of a Larkspur is produced above

into a spur, 87.
Proliferous (literally, bearing offspring), wh^re a new branch rises from an older

one, or one head or cluster of flowers out of another.
Propaculum or Propagulum, a shoot for propagation,
Prosenchyma, a tissue of wood-cells.
Prostrate, lying flat on the ground, 39.

Protandrous or Proterandrous, the anthers first maturing, 116.
P roteranthous, flowering before leafing.

Proterotjynous or Protogynous, the stigmas first to mature, 116.
Prothallium or Prothallus, 160.

Protoplasm, the soft nitrogenous lining or contents, or living part, of cells, 129.
Protos, Greek for first; in various compounds.
Pruinose, Pruinate, frosted; covered with a powder like hoar-frost.
Pseudo-, Greek for false. Pseudo-bulb, the aerial corms of epiphytic Orchids, &c.
Psilus, Greek for bare or naked, used in-many compounds.
Pteridophyta, Pteridophytes, 15f>.
Pteris, Greek for wing, iiud general name for Fern, enters into many compounds.

218 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Pubervlenl, covered with fine .and sliort or almost imperceptible down.

Pubescent, hairy ur downy, e.s])ecially witii tine and soft hairs or pubescence.

Pidverulenl or Pulreraceuus, as if dusted with fine powder.

Pulvimite, cushioned, or sliaped liiic a cushion.

Pumilus, low or little.

Punctate, dotted, either with minute holes or what look as such.

Puncticulate. minutely punctate.

Punr/ent, prickly-tipped.

Puniceous, carmine-red.

Purpureus, originally red or crimson, more used for duller or bluish-red.

PusiUus, weak and small, tiny.

Putamen, the stone of a drupe, or the shell of a nut, 120.

Pyt/mceux, Latin for dwarf.

Pyramidal, shaped like a pyramid.

Pyrene, Pyrena, a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe.

Pyviform, pear-shaped.

Pyxidate, furnished with a lid.

Pyxis, Pyxidium, a pod opening round horizontally by a lid, 124.

Quadri-, in words of Latin origin, four ; as Quadrangular, four-angled ; Quadri-
foliate, four-leaved; Quadrijid, four-cleft. Quaternate in fours.

Quinate, in fives. Quinque, five.

Quincuncial, in a quincunx; when the parts in aestivation are five, two of them
outside, two inside, and one half out and half in.

Quintuple, five-fold.

Race, a marked variety which may be perpetuated from seed, 176.

Raceme, a flower-cluster, with one-flowered pedicels arranged along the sides of a
general peduncle, 73.

Racemose, bearing racemes, or raceme-like.

Rachis, see rhachis.

Radial, belonging to the ray.

Radiate, or Radiant, furnished with ray-flowers, 94.

Radiate-veined, 52.

Radical, belonging to the root, or apparently coming from the root.

Radicant. rooting, taking root on or above the ground.

Radicels, little roots or rootlets.

Radicle, the stem part of the embryo, the lower end of which forms the root, 11, 127

Rameal, belonging to a branch. Ramose, full of branches (rami).

Ramentaceous, beset with thin chaffy scales {Ramenta), as the stalks of many Ferns.

Ramification, branching, 27.

Ramulose, full of branchlets {ramuli).

Raphe, see rhaphe.

Ray, parts diverging from a centre, the marginal flowers of a head (as of Coreopsis,
9i), or cluster, as of Hydrangea (78), when different from the rest, especially
when ligulate and diverging (like rays or sunbeams); also the branches of an
umbel, 74.

Ray-flowers, 94.

Receptacle, the axis or support of a flower, 81, 112; also the common axis or sup-
port of a head of flowers, 73.

Reclined, turned or curved downwards ; nearly recumbent.

Rectinerved, with straight nerves or veins.

Recurred, curved outwards or backwards.

Reduplicate (in restivation), valvate with the margins turned outwards 97.

Reflexed, bent cutwards or backw.irds.

Rifracted, bent suddenly, so as to appear broken at the bend.

Rifjular, all the parts similar in shape, 82.

Utniform, kiduey-shaped, 53.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 219

Repand, wavy-margined, 55.

Repent, creeping, i. e. prostrate and rooting underneath.

Replum, the frame of some pods (as of Prickly Poppy and Cress), persistent after

the valves fall away.
Replant, same as repent.

Resupinate, inverted, or appearing as if upside down, or reversed.
Reticulated, the veins forming network, 50. Retiform, in network.
Retinerved, reticulate-veined.
Retrojiexed, bent backwards; same as reflexcd.

Refuse, blunted; tlie apex not onI\' obtuse but soro°what indented, 54.
Revtihite, rolled backwards, as the margins of many leaves, 72.
Rhachis (the backbone), the axis of a spike or other body, 73.
Rhaphe, the continuation of the seed-stalk along the side of an anatropous ovule or

seed, 112, 126.
Rliaphides, crystals, especially needle-shaped ones, in the tissues of plants, 137.
Rhizanthous, flowering from the root.
Rhlzoma, Rhizome, a rootstock, 42-44.

Rhombic, in the shape of a rhomb. Rhumboidal, approaching that shape.
Rib. the principal piece, or one of the principal pieces of the framework of a leaf,

or anj- similar elevated line along a body, 49, 50.
Rimose, having chinks or crncks.
Ring, an elastic band on the spore-cases of Ferns, 159.
Riiiyent, grinning; gaping open, 92.
Riparious, on river-banks.

Rivalis, Latin for growing along brooks; or Rimlai-is, in rivulets.
Root, 33.
Root-hairs, 35.

Rootlets, small roofs, or root-branches, 33.

Rootitock, root-like trunks or portions of stems on or under ground, 42.
Roridus, dewy.

Rosaceous, arranged like the petals of a rose.
Rostellate, bearing a small beak {Rostellum).
Rostrate, bearing a beak (Rostrum) or a prolonged appendage.
Rosulate, in a rosette or cluster of spreading leaves.
Rotate, wheel-shaped, 89.
Rotund, rounded or roundish in outline.

Ruber, Latin for red in general. Rubescent, Rubicund, reddish or blushing.
Rudimentary, imperfectly developed, or in an early state of development.
Rufous, Rufescent, brownish-red or reddish-brown.
Rugose, wrinkled; roughened with wrinkles.
Ruminated (albumen), penetrated with irregular channels or portions, as a nutmeg,

looking as if chewed.
Runcinate, coarsely saw-toothed or cut, the pointed tectii turned tnward.s the base of

the leaf, as the leaf of a Dandelion.
Runner, a slender and prostrate branch, rooting at the end, or at the joints, 40.

Sabulose, growing in sand.

Sac, anv closed membrane, or a deep purse-shaped cavity.

Saccate, sac-shaped.

Sagittate, arrowiiead-shaped, 53.

Salsuginous, growing in brackish soil.

Salver-shnped, or Snlver-form, with a border spreading at right angles to a slender

. tube, 89.
Samara, a wing-fruit, or key, 122.
Samaroid, like a samara or key-fruit.
Sap, the iuices of plants generalh', 136. Sapwood, 142.
Saprophytes. 37.
Sarcocarp, the fleshy part of a stone-fruit, 120.

220 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Sarmentaceous, Sarmentose, bearing long and flexible twigs (Sa7-ments), eitliei-

spreading or procmnbcut.
Sato-toothed, see seriate, 55.
Scabrous, rough or harsh to the touch.

Scalariform, with cross-bands, resembling the steps of a ladder, 1-34.
Scales, of buds, 28; of bulbs, &c., 4G.
Scalloped, same as crenate, 55.

Scaly, furnisiied with scales, or scale-like in texture.
Scandent, climbing, 3!).

Scape, a peduncle rising from the ground or near it, as in many Violets.
Scapiform, scape-like.
Scapigerous, scape-bearing.
Scar of the seed, 126. Leaf-scars, 27, 28.
S carious or Scariose, thin, dry, and membranous.
Scion, a shoot or slip used for grafting.
Scleras, Greek for hard, hence Sclerocaipous, hard-fruited.
Scobiform, resembling sawdust.

Scorpiuid or Scorpioidal, curved or circinate at the end, 77.
Scrobiculate, pitted; excavated into shallow pits.

Scurf, Scurf ness, minute scales on the surface of many leaves, as of Goosefoot.
Scutate, Scutiform, buckler-shaped.

Scutellate, or Scutelliform, saucer-shaped or platter-shai)ed.
Secund, one-sided; i. e. where flowers, leaves, &c., are all turned to one side.
Secundine, the inner coat of the ovule, 110.
Seed, 125. Seed-leaves, see cotyledons. Seed-vessel, 127.
Segment, a subdivision or lobe of anj' cleft body.
Seyreyate, separated from each other.
Semi; in compound words of Latin origin, half; as
Semi-adherent, as the calyx or ovary of Purslane; Semic"i-date, half-heart-shaped;

Semilunar, like a half-moon ; Semiuvate, hall-ovate, &i'.
Seminal, relating to the seed (Semen). Seminiferous, seed-bearing.
Sempervirent, evergreen.
Sensitiveness in plants, 149, 152.
Senary, in sixes.

Sepal, a leaf or division of the calyx, 14, 79.
Sepaloid, sepal-like. Sepaline, relating to the sepals.
Separated Flowers, those having stanioiis or pistils only, 85.
Septate, divided by partitions.
Septenate, with parts in sevens.

Septicidal, where dehiscence is through the partitions, 12-3.
Septiferous, bearing the partition.

Septifragal, where the valves in dehiscence break away from the partitions, 12-5.
Septum (plural septa), a partition or dissepiment.
Serial, or Seriate, in rows ; as biserial, in two rows, &c.
Sericeous, silky; clothed with satiu}' pubescence.
Serotinous, late in the season.

Serrate, the margin cut into teeth {Serratures) pointing forwards, 55.
Serrulate, same as the last, but with fine teeth.
Sessile, sitting; without an}' stalk.

Sesqui-, Latin for one and a half; so Sesquipedalis, a foot and a half long.
Seta, a bristle, or a slender body or appendage resembling a bristle.
Setaceous, bristle-like. Setifoim, bristle-shaped.

Setigerous, bearing bristles. Setose, beset with bristles or bristly hairs.
f^etula, a diminutive bristle. Sefu/ose, provided with such.
Sex, six. Sexangular, six-angled. Sexfariotis, six-faced.
Sheath, the base of such leaves as those of Grasses, which are
Sheathing, wrapped round the stem.
Shield-shaped, same as scutate, or as peltate, 53.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 221

Shrub, Shrubby, 39.

Sieve-ctlls, 140.

Sigmoid, curved in two directions, like the letter S, or the Greek sigma.

Silicic, a pouch, or short pod of the Cress Family, ii-i.

Siliculose, bearing a silicle, or a fruit resenibliug it.

Silique, capsule of tlie Cress Family, 123.

Siliquose, bearing siliques or pods which resemble siliques.

Silky, glossy with a coat of lino and soft, close-pressed, straight hairs.

Silver-grain, the medullary rays of wood, 139.

Silvery, shmnig white or bluish-gray, usually from a silky pubescence.

Simple, of one piece ; opposed to compound.

Siidstrorse, turned to the left.

Sinuate, with margin alternate!}' bowed inwards and outwards, 55.

Sinus, a recess or bay, the re-entering angle between two lobes or projections.

Sleep ofPlunU (so called), 151.

Smooth, properly speaking not rough, but often used for glabrous, i. e. not pu-
bescent.

Soboliferous, bearing shoots (Snboles) from near the ground.

Solitary, single , not associated with others.

So7-diil, dull or dirty in hue.

Sorediate, bearing patches on the surface.

Sorosis, name of a multiple fruit, like a pine-apple.

Sorus, a fruit-dot of Ferns, 159.

Spadiceous, chestnut-colored. Also spadix-beanug.

Spadix, a flesh}' spike of flowers, 75.

Span, the distance between the tip of the thumb and of little finger outstretchtd, six
or seven inches.

Spathaceous, resembling or furnished with a

Spathe, a bract which inwraps an inflorescence, 75.

Spatulate, or Spathulate, shaped like a spatula, 52.

Species, 175.

Specific Names, 179.

Specimens, 18-1.

Spermaphore, or Spermophore, one of the names of the placenta.

Spermum, Latin form of Greek word for seed; much used in composition.

Spica, Latin for spike; hence Spicate, in a spike, Spiciform, in shape resembling a
spike.

Spike, an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile, 74.

Spikelet, a small or a secondary' spike; the inflorescence of Grasses.

Spine, 41, G4.

Spindle-shaped, tapering to each end, like a radish, 36.

Spinesccnt, tipped by or degenerating nito a thorn.

Spinose, or Spiniferous, thorny.

Spiral Vessels or ducts, 135.

Spithameous, span-high.

Spora, Greek name for seed, used in compound words.

Sporadic, widely dispersed.

Sporangium, a spore-case in Ferns, &c., 158.

Spore, a body resulting from the fructifjcation of Cryptogamous plants, in them
the analogue of a seed.

Spore-case {Sporangium), 1.58.

Sporocarp, 162.

Sport, a newly appeared variation, 176.

Sporule, same as a spore, or a small spore.

Spvmesrent, appearing like frnth.

Spur, any prDJecting appendage of the flower, looking like a spur but hollow, as
that of Larkspur, fig. 239.

Squamaie, Squamose, or Squamaceous, furnished with scales (s/juamw).

222 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Squamellate, or Squamulose, furnishefl witli little scales {Squamell(B, or Sqtiamulw).

Si/uamiJ'oi-m, shapud like a scale.

Squarrose, where scales, leaves, or aii}' ap[)eiidages spread widely from the axis on

which the}' are thickly set.
Squarrulose, diminutive o\ squarrose ; slightly squarrose.
Stachys, Greek for spike.

Stdlk, the stem, petiole, peduncle, &c., as the case may be.
Stamen, 14, 80, 98.

Staminate, furnished with stamens, 86. Staniinedl, relatinj^ to the stamens.
Staminodium, an abortive stamen, or other body in place of a stamen.
Standard, the upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla, 02.
Starch, 136, 163.

Station, the particular kind of situation in which a plant naturally occuij.
Stellate, Stellular, starry or star-like; where SRveral similar parts spread out from

a common centre, like a star.
Stem, 39. Stemlet, diminutive stem.
Stemiess, destitute or apparently destitute of stem.
Stenos, Greek for narrow ; hence Stenophyllous, narrow-leaved, Ike.
Sterile, barren or imperiect.

Stiyma, the part of the pistil which receives the pollen, 14, 80, 105.
Stigmntic, or Stigmatose, belonj^ing to the stigma.
Stipe (Latin Stipes), the stalk of a pistil, &c., when it has any, 112; also of a Fern,

158, and of a Mushroom, 172.
Stipel, a stipule of a leaflet, as of the Bean, &c.
Stipellate, furnished with stipels, as in the Bean tribe.
Stipitate, furnished with a stipe.

Stipulaceous, belonging to stipules. Stipulate, furnished with stipules.
Stipules, the appendages one each side of the base of certain leaves, 66.
Stirps (plui'al, stirpes), Latin for race.
Stock, used for race or source. Also for any root-like base from which the herb

grows up.
Stole, or Stolon, a trailing or reclined and rooting shoot, 40.
Stoloniferous, producing stolons.

Stomate (Latin Stoma, plural Stomata), the breathing-pores of leaves, 144.
Stone-fruit, 119.
Storage-leaves, 62.

Stramineous, straw-like, or straw-colored.
Strap-shaped, long, flat, and narrow.

Striate, or Striated, marked with slender longitudinal grooves or stripes.
Strict, close and narrow; straight and narrow.

Strigillose, Strigose, beset with stout and appressed, stiff or rigid bristles.
Strobilaceous, relating to or resembling a strobile.
Strobile, a multiple fruit in the form of a cone or head, 124.
Strombuliform, twisted, like a spiral shell.

Strophinle, same as caruncle, 126. Strophiolate, furnished with a strophiole.
Struma, a wen; a swelling or protuberance of any organ.
Strumose, bearing a struma.
Stupose, like tow.

Sti/le, a stalk between ovary and stigma, 14, 80, 105.
Styliferous, Stylose, bearing styles or conspicuous ones.
Stylopodium, an epigynous disk, or an enlargement at the base of the style.
Sub-, as a prefix, about, nearly, somewhat : as Subcordatv. sliirhtiy cordate; Subser-

rate, slii,rhtly serrate; Subaxillary, just beneath the axil, \c.
Subclass, Suborder, Siiblribe, 178
Subei-ose, corky or cork-like in texture.

Subnlate, awl-shaped; tapering from a broadish or thickisii base to a sharp point-
Sucrisp, as if cut off at lower end.
Succuhous, when crowded leaves are each covered bv base of ne.\t above.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 223

Suclkers, slioots from subterraneMii branohes, .39.

Suffrutescent, sliglitly shrubby or woody at the base only, 39,

StJ^ruiicuse, rather more than suffrutescent, 37, 3'J.

Sulcate, grooved longitudinally with deep furrows.

Superior, above, 90; sometimes equivalent to posterior, 96.

Supernumerary Buds, 30, 31.

Supervolule, plaited aud convolute in bud, 07.

Su//ine, lying flat, with face upward.

Supra-axillary, borne above the axil, as some buds, 31.

Supra-decompound, many times compounded or divided.

Surculvse, producing suckers (Surculi) or shoots resembling them.

Suspended, hanging down. Suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very summit

of the cell which contains them.
Sutural, belonging or relating to a suture.

Suture, the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together, lOG.
Sword-shaped, applied to narrow leaves, with acute jjarallel edges, tapering above.
Syconium, the fig-fruit, 124.
Sylvestrine, growing in woods.

Symmetrical Flower, similar in the number of parts of each set, 82.
Sympetalous, same as gamopetalous.
Sympode, Sympodium, a stem composed of a series of superposed branches in such

a way as to imitate a simple axis, as in Grape-vine.
Synaiitherous or Synf/enesious, where stamens are united by their anthers, lOO.
Syncnrpiius (fruit or pistil), comi)osed of several carpels consolidated into one.
Synonym, an equivalent superseded name.
Synsepalous, same as ganiose|)alous.
Sy4em (artificial and natural), 182, 183.
Systematic Botany, the study of plants after their kinds, 9.

Tabescent, wasting or shrivelling.

Tail, any long and slender prolongation of an organ.

Taper-pointed, same as acuminate, 54.

Tap-root, a root with a stout tapering body. .'52-35.

Tawny, dull yellowish, with a tinge of brown.

Taxonomy, the part of botany which treats of classification.

Tegmen, a name for the inner seed-coat.

Tendril, a thread-shaped organ used for climbing, 40.

Terete, long and round; same as cyliivlrical, only it ma}' taper.

Terminal, borne at, or belonging to, the extremity or summit.

Termlnolor/y trea.ts oi technical terms; same as Glossology, 181.

Ternate, Ternately, in threes.

Tessellnte, in checker-work.

Testa, the outer (and usuall_v the harder) coat or shell of the seed, 125.

Testaceous, the color of unglazed pottery.

Tetra- (in words of Greek composition), four; as, Tetracoccous, of four cocci.

Tetradynamous, where a flower has six stamens, two shorter than the four, 101.

Tetrayonal, four-angled. Tetragynous, with four pistils or styles. Tetramerous,

with its parts or sets in fours. Tetrandrous, with four stamens, 100.
Tetraspore, a quadruple spore, 169.

Thalaniajlorous, with petals and stamens inserted on the torus or Thalamus.
Thallophyta, Thallophytes, 165.
Thallus, a stratum, in place of stem and leaves, 165.
Theca, a case; the cells or lobes of the anther.
Thecaphore, the stipe of a carpel, 113.
Thorn, an indurated pointed branch, 41, 42
Thread-shaped, slender and round or roundish, like a thrend.
Throat, the opening or gorge of a monopetaioiis corolla. &c., where the border and

the tube join, and a little below, 89.

224 GLOSSAr.Y ANT) INDEX.

Tliijrse or Thyrsnis, a compact and [ivramidal panicle of cj'nies or c\Tnules, 79.

Tuiatntuse., clothed vviUi niatled woolly liuirs (UmuiUuin).

Toii(jue-sluijJtid, long and tlat, but tliickish and blunt.

I'ooLhtd, furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on the margin; used
especially when these arc sharp, like saw-teeth, and do not point forwards, 55.

Top-s-liaped, shaped like a top, or a cone with apex downwards.

Torosc, Tovulose, knobby; where a cj-lindrical body is swollen at intervals.

Torus, the receptacle of the tlower, 81, 112.

Trachea, a spiral duct.

Trachys, Greek for rough; used in compounds, as, Trachyspermous, rough-seeded.

Transverse, across, standing right and left instead of fore and aft.

Tri- (in composition), three; as,

Triadelphous, stamens united by their filaments into three bundles, 99,

Triaudrous, where the tlower has three stamens, 112.

Tribe, 178.

Trichome, of the nature of hair or pubescence.

Trichutoiiious, three-forked. 'Tricoccuus, of three cocci or roundish carpels.

Tricolor, having three colors. Tricostate, having three ribs.

Tricuspidute, three-pointed. Tridentate, three-toothed.

Ti-iennial, lasting for three years.

Triftirious, in three vertical rows; looking three ways.

Trifid. three-cleft, 56.

Trifoliate, three-leaved. TrifoUolate, of three leaflets.

Trifurcate, three-forked. Trigonous, three-angled, or triangular.

Trigynous, with three pistils or styles, 110. Trijugate, in three pairs (Jugi).

Trilobed or Trilobate, three-lobed, 55.

Trilocular, three-celled, as the pistils or pods in fig. 328-330.

Trimerous, with its parts in threes. Trimorphism, 117. Trimorphic or Trimor-
phous, in three forms.

Trinervate, three-nerved, or with three slender ribs.

Tricecious, where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or different individ-
uals, as in Red Maple. A form of Polygamous.

Tripartible, separable into three pieces. Tripartite, three-parted, 55.

Tripetalous, having three petals.

Tnphyllous, three-leaved; composed of three pieces.

Tripinnate, thrice pinnate, 59. Tripinnatijid, thrice pinnately cleft, 57.

Triple-ribbed, Triple-nerved, &c., where a midrib branches into three, near the base
of the leaf.

Triquetrous, sharply three-angled; and especially with the sides concave, like a
ba3'onet.

Tiiserial, or Triseriate, in three rows, under each other.

Tristichous, in three longitudinal or perpendicular ranks.

Tristigmatic, or Tristigmatose, having three stigmas.

Trisulcate, three-grooved.

Triiernnte, three times ternate, 59.

Trivial Name, the specific name.

Trochlear, pulley-shaped.

Trumpet-shaped, tubular; enlarged at or towards the summit.

Truncate, as if cut off at the top.

Trunk, the main stem or general bodv of a stem or tree.

Tube (of corolla, &c.), 89.

Tuber, a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with ej'es
(buds) on the sides. 44.

Tubercle, a small excrescence.

Tubercled, or Tuberculate. bearing excrescences or pimples.

Tubcef 01111 , trumpet-shaped.

Tuberous, resembling a tuber. Tiiberiferous, hearing tubers.

Tubular, hollow and (jf an elongated form; hollowed like a pipe, 91.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 225

Tubulijlorous, bearing only tubular flowers.

Tunicate, coaleil; invested witii layeis, as an onion, 46.

Turbinate, top-shaped.

Turio (plural turiones), strong young shoots or suckers springing out of the ground ;

as -Vsparagus-shoots.
Turnip-shaped, broader than high, abruptl3' narrowed below, 35.
Twining, ascending by coiling round a support, 39.
Type, the ideal pattern, 10.
Typical, well exemplifying the characteristics of a species, genus, &c.

Uliginose, growing in swamps.

Umbel, the umbrella-like form of inflorescence, 74.

Umbellate, in umbels. Umbellifernus, bearing umbels.

Umbellet (uinbellula), a secondar}- or partial umbel, 76.

Umbilicate, depressed in the centre, like the ends of an apple; with a navel.

Umbonate, bossed; furnisiied with a low, rounded projection like a boss (umbo).

Umbraculifurm, umbrella-shaped.

Unarmed, destitute of s])ines, prickles, and the like.

Uncial, an inch {uncia) in length.

Uncinate, or Uncate, hook-shaped : hooked over at the end.

Under-shrub, partially shrubby, or a very low shrub.

Undulate, or Undate, wavy, or wavy-margined, 55.

Unequally pinnate, pinnate with an odd number of leaflets, 65.

Unguiculate, furnished with a claw (unguis), 91.

Uni-, in compound words, one; as Unicellular, one-celled.

Unijlorous, one-flowered. Unifoliate, one-leaved.

UnifoUolate, of one leaflet, 59. Unijugate, of one pair.

Unilabiate, one-lipped. Unilateral, one-sided.

Unilocular, one-celled. Uniovulate, having onlv one ovule.

Unisenal, in one horizontal row.

Unisexual, having stamens or pistils only, 85.

Univalved, a pod of only one piece after dehiscence.

Unsymmetrical Floivers, 86.

Urceolate, urn-shaped.

Utricle, a small thin-walled, one-seeded fruit, as of Goosefoot, 121.

Utricular, like a small bladder.

Vaginate, sheathed, surrounded by a sheath (vagina).

Valve, one of the pieces (or doors) into which a dehiscent pod, or any similar body,
splits, 122, 123.

Valvate, Valvular, opening by valves. Valvate, in estivation, 97.

Variety, 176.

Vascular, containing vessels, or consisting of vessels or ducts, 134.

Vascular Cryptogams, 156.

Vaulted, arched ; same as fornicate.

Vegetable Life, &c., 128. Vegetable anatomy, 129.

Veins, the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves, &c., 49, 50.

Veined, Veiny, furnished with evident veins. Veinless, destitute of veins.

Veinlets, the smaller ramifications of veins, 50.

Velate, furnished with a veil.

Velutinous, velvety to the touch.

Venation, the veining of leaves, &c., 50.

Venenate, poisonous.

Venose, veiny; furnished with conspicuous veins.

Ventral, belonging to that side of a simple pistil, or other organ, which looks to-
wards the axis or centre of the flower; the opposite of dorsal; as the

Ventral Suture, 106.

Ventricose, inflated or swelled out on one side.

15

226 GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

Venulose, furnished with veinlets.

Vermicular, worm-like, sliaped like worms.

Vernal, belonging to spriiig.

Vernation, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud, 71.

Vernicose, the surface appearing as if varnished.

Verrucose, warty; beset with little projections like warts.

Versatile, attached by one point, so that it may swing to and fro, 101.

Vertex, same as apex.

Vertical, upright, perpendicular to the horizon, lengthwise.

V^erticil, a whorl, 68. Verticillate, whorled, 68.

Verticillaster, a false whorl, formed of a pair of opposite cymes.

Vesicular, bladdeiy.

Vespertine, appearing or expanding at evening.

Vessels, ducts, &e., 134.

Vexillary, Vexillar, relating to the

Vexillum, the standard of a papilionaceous flower, 92.

Villose, shaggy with long and soft hairs (Villosity).

Vimineous, producing slender twigs, such as those used for wicker-work.

Vine, in the American use, any trailing or climbing stem; as a Grape-vine.

Virescent, Viindescent, greemah; turning green.

Virgate, wand-shape; as a long, straight, and slender twig.

Viscous, Viscid, having a glutinous surface.

Vitta (plural vittce), the oil-tubes of the fruit of Umbellifera;.

Vitelline, yellow, of the hue of j'olk of egg.

Viviparous, sprouting or germinating while attached to the parent plant.

Voluble, twining; as the stem of Hops and Beans, 39.

Volute, rolled up in any way.

Wavy, the surface or margin alternately convex and concave, 55.

Waxy, resembling beeswax in texture or appearance.

Wedge-shaped, broad above, tapering by straight lines to a narrow base, 53.

Wheel-shaped, 89.

Whorl, an arrangement of leaves, &c., in circles around the stem.

Whorled, arranged in whorls, 68.

Wing, any membranous expansion. Wings of papilionaceous flowers, 92.

Winged, furnished with a wing; as the fruit of Ash and Elm, tig. 300, 301.

Wood, 133, 142. Woody, of the texture or consisting of wood.

Woody Fibre, or Wood-Cells, 134.

Woolly, clothed with long and entangled soft hairs.

Work in plants, 149, 155.

Xanthos, Greek for yellow, used in compounds; as Xanthocnrpus, yellow-fruited.

Zygomorphous, said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane into similai
halves.

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