vj.lO^ANUlfJ> ^OMALIK)/?^^ ^\U ( AIIK)/,-,!^

'^AaiAiNiiawv

immo/r

*

.S71

>^

-^^lllBRARYQr^

=o r:

AMtUNIV[R5-//i

v\lOSANf,{lf.j-.

)jnV3J0>^ '^.!/0JllVJJO>^

<ril3DNYS01^^^

'^Aa]MN',l 3\\V^

CAIIF0%

^^.OF'CAllFOi?^

\\\[ l'NI\TRS/A

^^i I

,yvaai]-#

I'NIVERS/^,

Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive
vj^lOS AS'OT/?^ witli funding from ^Hm-, aRV />/
ol ^»-v lyiferosoft^orpofation _^ ^

"^^(^AJJVHSIH^^

o

INIVfRV/i

■%],\IN,T3UV^ ^'AOillVJ-JO"^ ■^^■.!/OJ!:^/>Ji^>

.vlOSAS'C[lfx^

^oFCAiiFn;?(>

OF-(A;ifO,?,|-.

^Aa^AINll ]\\v

•VAJiV^idT,!^^^

[IBRARY/?/ vv,\^. llBRARV/7/

\\U1 N'IV[RI/A

■5 ::^ ' — K^ ^. ■ ■■ 1 ^:

)jllVJ Jfinp://wVvk.'arcliive:'^g/detaite/0le!rrients6fagricuOOwarriala, '

CAllFU/,'^> ^^.OKAIIK.%, ,\\\tlSIV[RVA v\lHN AM.tl/j >

o

= u

'^/iilJAINil3V\V'

=0 — :

\\\E1!NI\'ERI/A

jo'^^ ^(^ojnvjjo^^ ^liDNVSov^"^ "^/^ajAiNn^wv

«<.0FCAIIF0%

IIN'^^ '^^^AJiVfl3!l-^Ss'^'

vjs-lOS-A»JCfl5jv

o

<fi1iON\S01^ %J13AIN)imV

.v^NlOS,.W,flfj>

"^/jajAiNiiJWV

^NlOSASGElfX^

''^/iajAiSiiJwv

v^MIPRARY6>/ <^^^L1BRARYQ^

'^<!/0JllV3JO-

:^ %

>'(^OJI1VJJO

,^OFCA[IrO/?,|> ,>^OFCA[IFO%

'^'.VOi'IVjJO'

,nf rAiiF()/?,t

,\\\f[M\fRy/A, vNlOSAVf.Fia^

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON ' CHICAGO
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited

LONDON • BOMBAY - CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.

TORONTO

^1

ELEMENTS OF
AGRICULTURE

BY

G. F. WARREN

PEOnSSOR OP FABM MANAGIHENT AND FARM CROPS, NRW YORK STATK OOUiKOK
or AOBICCLTURX, AT CORNELL tmn^KRSITY

/8S73

J^fto gorfe
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

liONDON: MACMILLAN & CO.. Ltd.

1909

All rijhll retrrred

COPTKIGHT, 1909

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up aud elePtrotyj)eU. fnblished, .luly, 1909

Jteitnt piMMnt PrtM

J. Horace McFarland Company
Harrishurg, Pennsylvania

S49 5

EDITOR'S PREFACE

This book is designed for use in high-schools, academies,
and normal schools, and in colleges when only a short
time can be given to the subject. It is also hoped that
it may be useful to the farmer or general reader who
desires a brief survey of agriculture

So far as I know, this is the first text-book of agri-
culture appearing in North America in a generation that
is distinctly of high-school grade. More than fifty text-
books of agriculture have appeared in the United States
and Canada since Daniel Adams published his "Agricul-
tural Reader" in Boston, in 1824, and J. Orville Taylor
published his "Farmer's School Book" in Albany and
Ithaca, N. Y., in 1837. Nearly twenty of these appeared
before the founding of the colleges of agriculture, on the
land-grant act of 1862. A number of these early books
were distinctly scientific in treatment, and were adapted
to academies and other schools of the rank of our present
high-schools.

With the founding of the chain of agricultural colleges,
the more full scientific treatment of the subject, so far
as school texts are concerned, seems to have been reserved
for these institutions, and the text-books became largely
popular and elementary. This has been the epoch of the
popularizing of science in the schools. The last of the
extended and technical school texts appears to have been
Pendleton's, in 1875. The large number of popular and

(V)

vi PREFACE

practical school texts that have appeared in the last ten
years gives the teacher "in the grades" a wide range of
selection. Some of these texts are also adaptable to high-
schools.

The purpose of the present book is to make the teaching
of agriculture in the existing high - schools comparable
in extent and thoroughness with the teaching of physics,
mathematics, history and literature. In fact, the chemistry
and botany should, if possible, precede the agriculture as
given in this book; and the pupil will be all the better
prepared for the subject if he comes to it with considerable
other high-school training, for much of the value of the
work will be conditioned on the student's maturity and
his experience with life. The subject is not one that can
be memorized, or even acquired in the ordinary method
of school study; it must relate itself to the actual work
and business of the community in such a way as will
develop the student's judgment of conditions and affairs.

If this type of text proves to be useful in the high-
schools, then another kind of book will be necessary
for the grades; and this is in cour.se of preparation.

L. H. BAILEY.

THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE

The interest in the teaching of agriculture is but a part
of a much larger question, — the movement for teaching
by means of things that have come within the student's
experience. Laboratory work and all manual work are
but a part of the same movement. The primary purpose
of teaching agriculture is not to make farmers. It is a

PREFACE . vii

human-interest subject. The underlying reason why such
teaching is desirable is because it brings the schools in
touch with the home life — the daily Hfe of the community.
A large part of our teaching has had no relation whatever
to our daily lives.

To those who are not familiar with the nature of agri-
culture teaching, it may seem like a trade subject. But
it is not primarily a trade subject. Only about half of
our population is engaged in agricultural work ; But
the interest in agriculture includes nearly all the popu-
lation. A very large part of our city population, particu-
larly of the larger cities, is coming to take the keenest
interest in agricultural questions. The number of agri-
cultural inquiries that have come to the Cornell Experi-
ment Station from New York City within the past few
years is very remarkable, but no more so than the move-
ment for the ownership and management of farms by city
men. Nearly every one is interested in growing plants
and animals, and there are some fundamental principles
of this growth that every boy and girl should have an
opportunity to learn, if they so desire, — not that they
may become farmers or farmers' wives, but for the edu-
cational training and intelligent interest in life that this
knowledge brings. This training is often as desirable
for those who are to live in cities as for those who are to
live on farms. We can never wholly separate our interests
from the soil on which we walk, and the plants and ani-
mals on which our life depends.

It is not desirable that a teacher try to make farmers
of farmers' sons, or lawyers of lawyers' sons. The thing
that distinguishes America from the Old World is the

viii PREFACE

mobility of its society. Each man may do what he Hkes,
and become what his energy will make him. While it is
not desirable to try to make farmers, it does seem desir-
able to stop unmaking them. The present trend of all
our education is cityward. We have been living in a city-
making epoch. The bright farm boy, as he has attended
the village high-school, has been taught much that would
naturally interest him in city occupations. The teacher
has become interested in him, and has encouraged him
to "make something of himself." This usually means
that he become a lawyer, a doctor or perhaps an engineer.
The nature of his books, and the advice of his friends,
have led him to believe that these are the lines in which
mental ability will bring the greatest returns. If he
did become a farmer, he frequently felt that by doing so
he lost his real opportunities. In the past, this may have
been so; but today, law, medicine, and 'the ministry are
not the only learned professions. The practice of agricul-
ture now offers as great a field for scientific study as is
offered by the practice of medicine.

The teaching of agriculture will make better farmers,
who will make more money. It will lead more boys to
choose farming as a profession, because it will open up a
field for intellectual life whose existence they never sus-
pected. But the great reason for this work is that it is
one of the best means of training a student's mind, and it
is one of the best means because it studies the things
that come within his experience — the things with which
and by which he lives.

In preparing this book, the author has tried to carry
out, as far as possible, the recommendations of the com-

PREFACE

IX

mittee on methods of teaching agriculture of the Asso-
ciation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experi-
ment Stations.

The author will be glad to correspond with teachers
concerning difficulties in the work, and also to receive sug-
gestions as to changes that they find desirable in the text.

G. F. WARREN.
Ithaca, N. Y., June 21, 1909.

.CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Introduction 1-4

What Is Agriculture, p. 1; Divisions of Agriculture, p. 2; Forces

Controlling Plant and Animal Growth, p. 2; Heredity, p. 2;

Environment, p. 3.

Questions 3

Collateral Reading 4

CHAPTER II

The Improvement of Plants and Animals 5-35

Variation in Plants and Animals 5

Law of Variation, p. 5; Similar Produces iSimilar, p. 6.

Natural Selection 7

Sports and Mutations, p. 8; The Development of Weeds
by Natural Selection, p. 8; De Candolle's Law, p. 9.

Artificial Selection 10

Reproduction in Plants 11

Seed-Producing Organs of Plants, p. 11 ; Sexual and Asexual
Reproduction, p. 12; Artificial Crossing, p. 13.

Some Principles of Heredity 13

Problems of Heredity, p. 13; Mendel's Law, p. 14; Appli-
cations of Mendel's Law, p. 19.

Steps in Breeding 21

Increasing Variation, p. 21; Selection, p. 21; Testing Heredi-
tary Power, p. 22.

Improving Some Farm Crops 23

Plant-Breeding vs. Animal-Breeding, p. 23; Comparative
Improvement of Different Crops, p. 23; Sugar Beet, p. 24;
Com, p. 25; Cotton, p. 29; Other Cross- Fertilized Plants,

(xi)

xii CONTENTS

PAGE

p. 29; Oats, p. 20; Other Self-Fertilized Plants, p. 30; Pota-
toes, p. 30; How Often Do Potdtoes Need to Be Grown from
the Seed- Ball, p. 30; Plant-Breeding Farms, p. 31.

Questions . . . ». 31

Laboratory Exercises 32

Collateral Reading 34

CHAPTER III

Propagation of Plants 36-59

Methods of Propagation 36

Spores, p. 3(5; Creeping Stems and Rootstocks, p. 36; Roots,
p. 39; Tubers, p. 39; Cuttings, p. 41.

Grafting ' 42

Budding, p. 43; Root-Grafting, p. 45; Top-Grafting, p. 46;
Relationship of Cion and Root, p. 47; Effect of Root on Cion,
p. 47.

Seeds 47

Nature of Seeds, p. 47; Importance of Vigorous Germina-
tion, p. 48; Germination Tests of Seed (Jom, p. 48; Seed
Analysis and Valuation, p. 51; Germination Tests, p. 51;
Purity and Germination Tests, p. 52; What is the Cheapest
Seed, p. 52; Size and Weight of Seeds, p. 53; Seed-Testing
Is Plant-Selection, p. 54; Storage of Seed, p. 54; Importation
of Low-Gradc Seed, p. 55.

Questions 55

Laboratory E.xercises 56

Collateral Reading 59

CHAPTER IV

Plant Fooo 60-74

Elements Required for Plant and Animal Growth, p. 60; Sources
of Plant Food, p. 61; Water, Dry Matter and Ash, p. 62;
Relative Amounts of the Different PZlements in Plants,
p. 62; Elements Likely to Be Deficient in Soils, p. 63; Func-
tions of the Different Elements, p. 63.

CONTENTS Xiii

PAGE

How ^'tbe Plant Gets Its Food 64

Root- Hairs, p. 64; Osmosis, p. 65; Importance of Water,
p. 67; How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Air, p. 67.

The Manufacture of Food Materials 68

Carbohydrates, p. 68; Fats, p. 68; Protein, p. 69; Plants
the Only Source of These Foods, p. 69.

Stored Food 69

Periods in the Life of a Plant, p. 69; Effect of Time of Har-
vesting on Composition, p. 71.

Questions 71

Laboratory Exerci.ses 72

Collateral Reading 74

CHAPTER V

The Soil 75-108

What Soil Is * 75

Rock Particles of the Soil 76

Amounts of Mineral Matter, p. 76; How the Size of Particles
Is Determine<i, p. 76; How Soils Are Named, p. 78; Impor-
tance of the Size of Particles, p. 79; Relation of the Size of
Particl&s to Water, p. 79; Relation of the Size of Particles to
Plant Fcx)d, p. 81; Size of Particles and Air, p. 81; Size of
Particles and Temperature, p. 81; Size of Particles and
Crop Adaptation, p. 82; Relation of Labor and Soil, p. 82;
The Best Soils, p. 83; Flocculation, p. 83.

Soil Water * 84

Importance of Soil Water, p. 84; Movement of Water in the
Soil, p. 85; Conservation of Moisture, p. 85; Dry Land Farm-
ing, p. 87.

Irrigation 88

Areas Requiring Irrigation, p. 88; Storage Reservoirs, p. 89;
Seepage from Canals, p. 90; Over- Irrigation, p. 90; Alkali,
p. 90.

Drainage 91

Best Amount of Water for Crops, p. 91; Harmful F^ffects
of Too Much Water, p. 91 ; All Soils Require Drainage, p. 91 ;
Effects of Tile Drainage During Drought, p. 92; Kinds of
Drains, p. 93; I^aying Tile Drains, p. 93; Drainage as a
Government Problem, p. 94.

Xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

Soil Air 94

Importance of Soil Air, p. 94.
Organic Matter of the Soil 95

The Uses of Humus, p. 95; Humus of Arid and Humid Soils,

p. 96.
Life in the Soil 97

Importance of Soil Organisms, p. 97; Soil- Bacteria, p. 97.

Questions 100

Laboratory Exercises 101

Collateral Reading 108

CHAPTER VI

Maintaining the Fertility of the Land 109-153

How Soils Became Productive, p. 109; How Rich Virgin Soils
Become Less Productive, p. 109; Causes of Decreased Produc-
tivity, p. Ill; The Limiting Factor in Crop Growth, p. 112;
The Amount of Plant Food in the Soil, p. 113; Value of
Chemical Analyses of Soils, p. 113; Materials Used as Fer-
tilizers, p. 114.

Nitrogen 116

Sources of Soil Nitrogen, p. 116; Nitrogen in Rainfall,
p. 116; Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria on Legumes, p. 116;
Fixation of Nitrogen without Legumes, p. 119; Impor-
tance of Grasses, p. 120; Losses of Nitrogen from the Soil,
p. 121; Forms of Nitrogenous Fertilizers, p. 122; Nitrate of
Soda, p. 122; Ammonium Sulfate, p. 122; Dried Blood, Tank-
age and Bone Meal, p. 123.

Phosphorus 123

Forms of Phosphorus Fertilizers, p. 123; Phosphate Rock,
p. 123; Bone, p. 124; Thomas Slag, p. 124.

Potash 125

Forms of Potash Fertilizers, p. 125; Kainit, Muriate of
Potash and Sulfate of Potash, p. 125; Wood-Ashes, p. 125.

Lime 126

Functions of Lime, p. 126; Relation of Crops to Lime,
p. 126; How to Tell the Need of Lime, p. 127; Forms of Lime,
p. 127; Application of Lime, p. 128.

CONTENTS XV

PAGR

Complete Fertilizers 129

Cost, Valuation and Analyses, p. 129; Home-Mixing of
Fertilizers, p. 131; How to Determine What Fertilizers to
Use, p. 132.

Barnyard Manure 135

Importance of Manure, p. 135; Value of Manure, p. 135;
Factors Influencing the Value of Manure, p. 138; Fertilizing
Value of Food and Manure, p. 138; Amount and Value of Ma-
nure Produced by Farm Animals, p. 139; Losses of Manure,
p. 140; Application of Manure, p. 144.

Green Manure 147

Questions and Problems 148

Laboratory Exercises 151

Collateral Reading 152

CHAPTER VII

Some Important Farm Crops 154-243

Relative Importance of the Different Crops of the World, p. 154;
Relative Rank of the Different Crops in the United States,
p. 155.

Corp^ 156

Historical, p. 156; Com Crop of the World, p. 156; Rela-
tion of Climate to Corn-Production, p. 157; Why We
Raise Com, p. 159; Tyjjes of Com, p. 161 ; Fertilizers for Com,
p. 163; Plowing for Com, p. 163; Fitting the Land After
Plowing, p. 166; Planting, p. 166; Tillage After Planting,
jp. 169; Harvesting Com, p. 171; Com Silage, p. 171; Prin-
ciple of the Silo, p. 172; The Silo, p. 173; Growing Com for
Ithe Silo, p. 174; Feeding Silage, p. 176; Uses of Com, p. 177.

Wheat 178

Importance of Wheat, p. 178; Types of Wheat, p. 179; Cul-
ture of Wheat, p. 180.

Oats 181

Meadows and Pastures 182

Cultural Methotls, p. 182; Hay and Pasture Plants, p. 184;
Timothy, p. 184; Kentucky Blue-CJrass, p. 185; Red-Top,
p. 186; AwnlesH Brome Grass, p. 186; Tall Meadow Fescue,

xvi CONTENTS

PAGB

p. 186; Orchard Grass, p. 187; Bermuda Grass, p. 187; John-
son Grass, p. 188; Alfalfa, p. 188; Value of Alfalfa, p. 188;
Culture of Alfalfa, p. 189; Red Clover, p. 193; Alsike Clover,
p. 194; White Clover, p. 195; Mixtures of Grasses and
Clovers, p. 195; Management of Pennanent Pastures, p. 197.

Cotton 198

Importance of Cotton, p. 198; Historical, p. 199; Develop-
ment in the United States, p. 199; Habits of Growth, 200;
Types of Cotton, 201; Breeding and Selection, 202; Rela-
tion of Climate to C'otton, p. 205; Cotton Soils, p. 206; Prep-
aration of the Soil, p. 207; Fertilizers for Cotton, p. 208; Plant-
ing and (-ultivating, p. 209; Harvesting, p. 210; Marketing,
p. 211; Grades of Cotton, p. 211; Cotton Seed, p. 212; Fun-
gous Diseases and Insects Affecting Cotton, p. 214.

The Wood Crop 216

Forests of the United States, p. 216; The Settler and the
Forest, p. 217; The Relation of Forestry to the Nation,
p. 218; Forest Policy of the Future, p. 218; National Forests,
p. 219; Forests and Climate, p. 220; Conservative Lumbering,
p. 221; Forest Trees a Profitable Farm Crop, p. 222; The
Farm Wood Lot, p. 222; What Trees to Plant, p. 226.

( )rchards 227

Setting Trees, p. 227; Tillage of Orchards, p. 228; Spraying
Orchards, p. 229; Pruning, p. 230.

Shade Trees ^.233

The Farm Garden 234

Questions and Problems 237

Laboratory E.xercises 238

Collateral Reading 242

CHAPTER VIII

ENEMIE.S OF Far.m Crops 244-271

Weeds 244

What Is a Weed, p. 244; Value of Weeds, p. 244; The Control
of Weetls, p. 245; The Control of Weeds in Tilled Crops,
p. 245; Subduing Land That Is Badly Infested with Weeds,
p. 246; Spraying for Wild Mustard, p. 246; Control of Weeds
in Walks, p. 247.

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE

Diseases of Plants 248

Bacterial Diseases, p. 248; An Example of a Bacterial Disease,

p. 249.
J^ungous Diseases, p. 250; Characteristics of Fungi, p. 250;
An Example of a Fungous Disease, p. 252; Other Fungous
Diseases, p. 253.
Parasitic Flowering Plants, p. 254.

Insects 255

Importance of Insects, p. 255; What an Insect Is, p. 255;
Stages in the Life of an Insect, p. 256; The Control of In-
sects, p. 258; Chewing and Sucking Insects, p. 259.

Spraying for the Control of Insects and Diseases 260

Common Fungicides and Insecticides, p. 260; Spraying
for Fungi, p. 261; The Preparation of Bordeaux Mi.xture,
p. 263; Poisons, p. 264; Contact Remedies, p. 264; Com-
bined Insecticides and Fungicides, p. 265.

Questions 266

Laboratory Exercises 267

Collateral Reading. 270

CHAPTER IX

Systems of Cropping 272-280

The Choice of Crops, p. 272; The Rotation of Crops, p. 273; Crop-
Rotation and Diversified Crops, p. 273; Advantages of
Crop- Rotation, p. 274: Profits from Rotation, p. 277; Crop-
Rotation and Crop Failure, p. 277; Variation of Crop
Areas, p. 278; Examples of Rotations, p. 278.

Questions 280

Laboratory Exercises 280

Collateral Reading 280

CHAPTER X

Feeds and Feeding 281-300

Importance of Animal Food and Work 281

Composition of Feeds 282

Water, p. 282; Ash, p. 283; Protein, p. 283; Ether Extract

Xviii CONTENTS

PAGE

or Fat, p. 283; Crude Fiber, p. 284; Nitrogen- Free Extract,
p. 284; Composition of Feeds and Products Compared,
p. 284.

Functions of the Different Food Materials 285

Water, p. 285; Ash, p. 285; Protein, p. 286; Fats, p. 286;
Carbohydrates, p. 286.

Digestibility of Feeds 287

Feeds Differ in Digestibility, p. 287; Digestible Nutrients
in Feeds, p. 288; Effect of Time of Harvesting on Digesti-
bility, p. 288.

Maintenance and Productive Values 289

Maintenance, p. 289; External Work, p. 289; Production,
p. 289; Energy Lost in Digestion and in Production, p. 289;
Comparison of Concentrates and Roughage, p. 291.

Balanced Rations 292

Food Requirements of Different Animals, p. 292; Carbo-
hydrate Ek}uivalent of Fat, p. 293; Nutritive Ratio, p. 293;
Feeding Standards, p. 293; Computing Rations, p. 293;
Another Method of Computing Rations, p. 296; Cautions
in Using Balanced Rations, p. 296.

Comfort of Animals 297

Relation of the Animal to Profits 297

Condimental Foods 298

Questions and Problems 298

Collateral Reading 299

CHAPTER XI

The Horse 301-321

Substitution of Horse Power for Man Power, p. 301; Types of
Horses, p. 302; Draft Horses and Horses for Speed, p. 303;
Breeds of Horses, p. 307; How to Tell the Age of Horses, p.
308; Care of Horses, p. 311; Training Horses, p. 315; Rules
of the Road, p. 316.

Questions 317

Laboratory Exercises 318

Collateral Reading 321

CONTENTS xix

CHAPTER XII

PAGE

Cattle 322-350

Forms of Beef and Dairy Cattle, p. 323; Care of Beef and

Dairy Cattle, p. 324; Breeds of Cattle, p. 325; Pedigrees,

p. 330; Value of Pedigrees, p. 331; Advanced Registry, p.

332; Grading Up a Herd, p. 333.
Cattle Products 333

Beef, p. 333; Milk, p. 334; Composition of Milk, p. 334;

Clean Milk, p. 334; Commercial Forms of Milk, p. 335;

Babcock Milk Test, p. 336; Dairy Records, p. 337.
Diseases of Cattle 337

Tuberculosis, p. 337; Milk Fever, p. 340; Black-Leg, p. 341;

Texas Fever, p. 341.

Questions 342

Laboratory Exercises 342

Collateral Reading 349

CHAPTER XIII

Sheep 351-356

Types of Sheep, p. 351; Breeds of Sheep, p. 351; Sheep Industry

in America, p. 355.
Collateral Reading 356

CHAPTER XIV

Swine 357-362

Distribution of Hogs, p. 357; Breeds of Hogs, p. 358; Care of
Hogs, p. 360; Hog Diseases, p. 361.

Questions 361

Collateral Reading 361

CHAPTER XV

Poultry 363-371

Importance of Poultry, p. 363; Breeds of Poultry, p. 363;
Feeding Poultry, p. 365; Poultry Houses, p. 366.

XX

CONTENTS

PAOE

Questions 368

Laboratory Exercises 368

Collateral Reading 371

CHAPTER XVI

Farm Management 372-388

What Is Farm Management? 372

The Choice of a Farm 373

Size of Farms, p. 373; Shape and Location of Fields, p. 374;
Topography, p. 375; Soils, p. 375; Neighbors, p. 376; Improve-
ments, p. 377; Other Factors Affecting Farm Values, p. 377;
Working Capital, p. 377.

Farm Labor 377

Farm Records and Accounts 380

Kinds of Accounts to Keep, p. 380; Methods of Keeping
Accounts, p. 380.

Questions 384

Laboratory Exercises 385

Collateral Reading 388

CHAPTER XVII

The Farm Home 389-395

The Farmyard, p. 389; The Farmhouse, p. 391; Modern Con-
veniences for the Farm Home, p. 391.

Laboratory Exercises 395

Collateral Reading 395

CHAPTER XVIII

The Farm Community 396-399

Qu&stions * 398

Collateral Reading 399

CONTENTS XXi

APPENDIX

PAGB

Table 1. Apparatus and Equipment 400

Table 2. Agricultural Library 401

Table 3. Addresses of the Agricultural Colleges and Experi-
ment Stations, and the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and the Canadian Agricultural

Addresses 403

Table 4. Length of Time Seeds Maintain Their Vitality 405

Quantity of Seeds per Acre 405

Table 5. Legal Weights in Pounds Per Bushel 406

Table 6. Fertilizing Constituents in Various Substances 408

Table 7. Feeding Standards 409

Table 8. Digestible Nutrients in Various Feeding-Stuffs 410

Table 9. Production Values of Various Feeding-Stuffs 411

Table 10. Average Weights of Various Feeding-Stuffs 412

Table 11. Values of Leading Agricultural Products 413

Table 12. Agriculture Compared with Manufacturing. (Capital,

Horse Power, Exports and Imports compared.) . . . 414

Table 13. Values of Agricultural Imports and Exports 414

Table 14. Average Yields of Crops by Ten- Year Periods. (Acreage,
Production, Value, Yields Per Acre, and Prices Per

Bushel) 416, 417

Table 15. Farm Animals by Ten- Year Periods. (Total Number

and Value, and Value Per Head) 418

Table 16. Various Statistics Showing the Progress of Agriculture.
(Total Population, Number of Farms, Total Area of
Farm Land, Area of Improved Land, Average Area
Per Farm, Average Improved Area Per Farm,
Value of All Farm Property, Value Per Fann,
Value of Farm I>and, Average Value Per Acre, Aver-
age Value of Fann Implements Per Farm and Per
Acre, Value of Live Stock, Value of Live Stock Per
Fann and Per Acre, Value of Farm Products not
Fed to Live Stock, Average Value Per Farm and
Per Acre, Total Expenditures for Fertilizers, Per

xxii CONTENTS

PAGE

Cent of Rented Farms, Number of Acres Per Male
Worker, Number of Horses Per Male Worker,

Number of Acres Per Horse) 418, 419

Table 17. Average Wages of Farm Labor 420

Table 18. Rules. (Measuring Grain, Ear Com, Hay and Land) . . 420

Index 421-434

PLATES

FACING PAGE

1. One solution of the farm labor problem. One man doing

more work than two would do with walking plows. John
Deere Plow Co Frontispiece

2. Sixty-five Mayweeds. No two alike. B. D. Halstead 5

3. Hybrid squashes. B. D. Halstead 5

4. An excellent cow who is the mother of good cows. Correct

Principle in Breeding. H. A. Moyer 22

5. Reid's yellow dent com. Result of fifty years of selection.

A. D. Shamel 49

6. Timothy hay responds to fertilizers. J. W. Gilmore 132

7. Timothy hay responds to barnyard manure. J. W. Gilmore. . 132

8. Field of com on which a weeder was used before cultivating.

G. F. Warren 168

9. Field of com on adjoining farm on which a weeder was not

used. G. F. Warren 168

10. Distribution of corn roots si.xty days after planting. .4. M.

Ten Eyck 171

1 1 . .\ good field of wheat in New York 178

12. A good pasture in New York, — the Roberts pasture. Samuel

Fraser 197

13. .\ ixK)r pasture adjoining the Roberts pasture. Samuel Fraser. . 197
n. Destructive lumbering. Yearbook, United States Department

of Agriculture 216

15. Conservative lumbering. Yearbook, United States Department

of Agriculture 216

17. An ideal Baldwin apple tree for the northeastern states. G. F.

Warren 227

18. A good spray ng for a small orchard. G. F. Warren 244

19. Oats sprayed for killing wild mustard. G. F. Warren 244

(xxiii)

XXiv PLATES

rAC3NO PAOB

20. Cutting com for the silo. Johnson Harvester Co 281

21. Filling a silo. E. R. Minns 281

22. White Leghorn cock 363

23. White Leghorn hen 363

24. Barred Plymouth Rock cock. Wm. Kllery Bright 363

25. Barred Plymouth Rock hen. Wm. Ellery Bright 363

Figs. 16-18, 20-23, 25-27, 38-40, 44 and 45 were secured from
the New York State College of Agriculture. A few figure.s were repro-
duced from the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. All other figures
were drawn for this book, unless acknowledged where published.

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER I

0073

INTRODUCTION

1. What is Agriculture? Agriculture is the production
of plants and animals that are useful to man.

It is the fundamental occupation on which all mining.
manufacturing and commerce depend. Of course, no
complex civilization could develop without these occu-
pations. All are essential for a high civilization, but agri-
culture is essential for any civilization.

Agriculture is a combination of science, art and business.

A good farmer needs to have executive ability, and should

be a good business man. He needs to be skilful with his

^ hands in farm operations. The reasons for all his farm

^ practices are based on scientific principles. He may learn

« to become a good farmer by imitation, in which case he

> applies scientific principles without knowing it. One who

understands the principles involved will be able to adapt

his practice to new and ever changing conditions. He

will be resourceful.

To be able to understand the reasons for farm prac-
tices requires some knowledge of the sciences, such as
botany, chemistry, physics, meteorology, bacteriology,
zoology, geology, animal and plant diseases. In short,
A (1)

2 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

every science that deals with the factors of plant and
animal growth contributes to the science of agriculture.
It involves more problems than any other occupation, —
unless it be housekeeping. It used to be said that any one
could farm. But this was merely another way of saying
that farming was such a difficult study that no one knew
much about it, and that all, therefore, stood on an equal
footing. Now we say that it requires as much mental alert-
ness and education to be a good farmer as to be a lawyer,
doctor, or merchant; which is another way of saying that
much is now known about agriculture, so that one who
does not avail himself of this knowledge is handicapped.

2. Divisions of Agriculture. Agriculture has many sub-
divisions. The more important ones are:

(1) Crop-growing (or crop husbandry), including grain-
growing, forage-cropping, fruit-growing, forestry, floricul-
ture, cotton-growing, vegetable-gardening, and the like.

(2) Live-stock-growing (or animal husbandry), as cattle-
raising, horse-raising, swine-raising, sheep-raising, poultry-
raising, apiculture, fish-culture, etc.

(3) Manufacture (or agricultural technology), as butter-
making, cheese-making, cider-making, canning, evaporat-
ing, and such other manufacturing as is done on the farms
or in close association with farms.

3. Forces Controlling Plant and Animal Growth. There
are two forces that control all plant and animal growth:
heredity and environment. Heredity is the transmission
of characters from the parent to the offspring. Environ-
ment includes all the external influences and conditions,
such as heat, Ught, food supply, struggle for existence.

4. Heredity. A cauliflower seed looks just like a cab-

INTRODUCTION 3

bage seed, but, when planted in the same row, one develops
into a cauliflower and the other into a cabbage. They
never make a mistake and grow into the wrong plant.
Evidently the seed, or embryo, had its future character-
istics quite definitely fixed before it left the seed-pod.
Two varieties of corn may be planted in the same field
and given identical care, and yet one yield twice as much
as the other. A Hereford and a Jersey calf may be raised
in the same pasture, but one will develop into a heavy
beef animal and one into a dairy animal. Two Jersey
cows may be raised in the same herd and fed exactly alike,
yet one may give twice as much milk as the other.

5. Enviromnent. Two farmers may plant corn from
the same bag, but one gets twice as large a crop as the
other. Perhaps they planted at different times, stirred the
soil differently, or fertilized differently. A farmer may
have two cows that are giving the same amount of milk,
but when one is sold to a neighbor she may produce twice
as much as formerly, because of a better environment.

Nearly all farm operations that have to do with plant
or animal production are performed for the purpose of
modifying either the heredity or the environment.

QUESTIONS

1. Which of the four great industries, Agriculture, Miniog, Manu-
facturing, or Transportation is most important in your county? In
your state?

2. Give some facts showing the relative importance of agriculture
and other industries in the United States. (See Appendix, Tables 12
and 13.)

3. Which of the divisions of agriculture is most important in
your county? In your state? For the United States? (See Appendi.\,
Table 11.)

4 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

4. What are the most important farm crops, fruits and vegetables
of the region?

5. What is the relative importance of horses, cattle, sheep, hogs,
poultry, in the region?

6. What crops and animals are shipped out of the region?

7. What crops or animals are used in manufacturing in the region?

8. What is the etymological meaning of agriculture? Horticulture?
(See dictionary.)

9. Where is your State Experiment Station located? Your Agri-
cultural College? (See Appendix, Table 3.)

10. What kinds of work does each conduct? What work is done by
the United States Department of Agriculture?

11. What publications are available from each of these organi-
zations, and how may they be secured? (See Appendix, Tables 2 and 3.)

12. What state organizations of farmers are there in your state?

COLLATERAL READING

Principles of Agriculture, by L. H. Bailey. Pp. 1-15.
Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 1-13.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, by L. H. Bailey. Vol. 1, pp. 7-14.
Also choose your state from pp. 29-97.

Fig. 1. Sixty-five mayweeds — no two alike

Fig. 2. Hybrui squaslies. Crookneck upper row on the left, scallop lower
row on right . The others are hybrids between these two

CHAPTER II
THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

6. Variation in Plants and Animals. No two persons
are alike, nor are any two living things alike, be they plants
or animals. Two corn plants grown side by side are dif-
ferent in innumerable ways. They differ in height, in
diameter, in size of leaves, amount of roots, size of ears,
number of kernels, size and shape of kernels, size of em-
bryo, chemical composition of kernels, etc. In fact, they
differ in every characteristic that can be named. No two
cows are alike. They differ in color, size, shape, milk-
production, disposition. Some cows produce milk with
2 per cent of fat, and others as high as 8 per cent. Some
can produce three times as much butter-fat as others from
the same feed. No matter on what basis we make the
comparison, we shall always find differences. (See Figs. 1,
3, 11.)

7. Law of Variation. The heights of many men of the
same race and country were arranged in order by Gal-
ton. Fig. 4 represents a line drawn over the heads of a
thousand men when thus arranged in order of height.
From this arrangement he found:

(1) That the middle man represents the average height
of all the men.

(2) That the line drawn over their heads was nearly
horizontal, except at the ends.

(3) That near the upper and lower ends the changes

(6)

6

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

were rapid, that is, there are a few dwarfs and a few
giants.

In other words, the great majority of the men were
of nearly the same height, being from a Uttle over five feet
to six feet. But there were a few extremely short ones
and a few extremely tall ones. These principles apply
when we consider any character of any living thing.

Fig. 3. Variation in timothy beads. No two are alike

Fig. 5 shows the egg-production of 65 hens for a year.
The number of eggs varied from none to 170. The number
is too small to give a smooth curve, but the same general
shape is indicated as that in Fig. 4.

8. Similar Produces Similar. It is often said that like
produces like, but this is not strictly accurate. No two
beings are alike. The members of one family are usually
similar in many ways, but no two are alike. In fact, the

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

>

^

Fig. 4. Heights of a thousand men arranged in order. The great majority
differ by small amounts. There are a few giants and a few dwarfs

tendency to vary may be said to be one of the characters
that is inherited.

9. Natural Selection. There is room in the world for
only a small proportion of the plants and animals that
begin Hfe. A single corn plant usually has five hun-
dred to a thousand kernels. If all were planted and
grew, the entire, world would soon be a corn-field. A
morning-glory plant may produce several thousand seeds.
A puff-ball produces millions of spores, each of which is
ready to grow if given proper conditions. Since the total
number of plants cannot greatly increase, it is evident
that only a few of the hundreds or thousands of seeds
produced by one plant can grow. All the others must be
crowded out. If a thousand plants come up where there
is room for but one, the strong will overshadow the weak

!

1

f

'

.

-

f

-

'

.--

■ -f

■'

,-

-

-'■

,.

,.-

/

J

5

O

>3

to

«s

so

33

<*o

♦9

li

>

a

»

«

o

61

Fio. 5. Egg production of 65 hens for one year. The number varied from
none to 170

8 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

and eventually kill them. These will in turn raise seed,
and the process will be repeated. Thus, the weak, the ill-
adapted, are always being eliminated. This constant se-
lection of the strongest, the ones adapted to the conditions
under which they are to live, may eventually result in a
changed type. There are countless examples of changes
that were probably brought about in this way.

10. Sports, or Mutations. Sometimes a plant appears
that is quite unlike its brothers. Usually, such a one does
not have the power to transmit its qualities to succeeding
generations. The offspring revert to the former type.
Such a new form is also likely to be poorly adapted to the
environment, so that it is quickly exterminated. But,
occasionally, a sport may occur that is better adapted
to the environment than the type from which it came,
and that also has the power to impress its characters on
its offspring. In such a case, it will crowd the old form
out and give a new type in its place. Such a change might
be rather rapid as compared with the ones produced by
natural selection alone. The polled Shorthorn and Here-
ford cattle are sports. Usually such sports are lost by breed-
ing with the common type.

11. The Development of Weeds by Natural Selection.
Our common weeds are a good example of the adaptation
of plants to particular conditions. Nearly all of our bad
weeds are natives of Europe. For centuries they have been
growing in the cultivated fields, until each has developed
certain characteristics that have enabled it to persist in
competition with the crops and in spite of man's efforts
to subdue it. Only a few of the native American plants
are able to persist in cultivated fields; but these foreigners,

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 9

because of their development for just such conditions,
are able to live. Possibly, in succeeding centuries we may
have more of our native plants added to the list of "worst
weeds."

12. De CandoUe's Law. By the process of natural selec-
tion, plants have become adapted to the climate in which
they live, and have thereby become ill adapted to climates
farther north or south. Seed of box elder (Acer Negundo)
grown at St. Louis is not hardy in northern Iowa, altholigh
no botanical differences are observable. The American
plum (Prunus Americana) is hardy in Nebraska; but
when these trees are taken to Texas they winter-kill,
because they start too early in the spring. Red cedars
(Juniperus communis) grow from North Dakota to
Tennessee; but when seed from either region is taken to
the other the trees produced are not hardy. De CandoUe,
who made a careful study of the matter, concluded that
native forms are not hardy when taken one hundred
miles north or south of their source.

This adaptation to climate deserves more attention
than is often given to it. Northern varieties of apples,
grapes, peaches, oats, and corn, are not usually adapted
tc southern conditions, nor are the southern varieties
usually desirable in the North. The Baldwin apple, which
constitutes the greater part of the New York apple or-
chards, is not profitable in Delaware. The Ben Davis,
which is the most important apple in Missouri, is not
desirable bo far north as New York. Alfalfa seed from
southern Europe is not hardy in northern United States,
but much of this seed is sold in New York. Corn does
not mature properly when seed is obtained from a hun-

10 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

dred miles south. Much of the seed corn for northeastern
United States is grown in Illinois and Iowa, but it does
not always mature to the proper stage for making silage.

It is sometimes good farm management to obtain
seed from a climate where more vigorous seed is produced,
or where it can be grown at less cost; but for most of our
farm crops it is better to have the seed grown in the region
where it is to be planted. If not so grown, it is usually
advisable to secure it from a region that has a similar
climate.

13. Artificial Selection. For centuries, man has been
saving the best plants and animals. In this way, the
changes have been much more rapid than they would have
been if natural selection had acted alone. Corn and wheat
are so changed from the original forms that there is a
question as to what the original forms were. Probably
the Indians had been selecting corn for centuries before
Columbus discovered America.

Artificial selection has often developed varieties that
could not persist under natural conditions. We desire
apples with much pulp and few seeds. Natural selection
produced apples with little pulp and many seeds. In the
time of Pliny, apples were so sour that he said they
would turn the edge of a knife. Sour apples seem to
have been best able to persist under natural conditions.

In other cases, man has aided the natural develop-
ment. The corn plant that produces few kernels, or that
does not mature, is discarded by the farmer. The wheat
that succumbs to rust is discarded. Cattle that do. not
thrive on the range are eliminated by the cattleman.

Only within the last century has the improvement

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

11

of plants been taken up in a scientific manner. The achieve-
ments of these years have been remarkable. Much of this
development has been due to an increased knowledge of
the laws of heredity.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS^

of Plants. Fig. 6
The essential parts

14. The Seed-Producing Organs
shows the parts of a pea-blossom,
are the stamens and the pistil. The
stamens are made up of two parts,
the filament and the anther. Their
function is to bear the pollen grains
which the anther contains. The pis-
til has three parts, ovary, style and
stigma. The ovary contains the ovules
that are to be fertilized and that will
then grow to be seeds. The stigma
receives the pollen grains. The pollen
grains start to grow when they come
in contact with the stigma. This
growth eventually reaches the ovules.
The protoplasm of the pollen unites
with the ovule, and a new plant is
formed. We recognize this new plant
as the embryo of a bean or kernel of
corn. The parent plant furnishes the food for its first
growth, and a supply is stored up to give the seed a start
in life when it separates from the mother plant. But the
embryo is a new plant as soon as the pollen grain unites

Fio. 6. Section of a pea
blossom. S, sepal, one di-
vision of the calyx; A', B,
divisions of the corolla;
Sla, anthers of the .sta-
mens; O, Sty, St, parts of
the pistil ; 0, ovary ; Sty,
style; St, stigma.

'This subject is assumed to have been studied in botany. Only a brief
review is given here.

12 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

with the ovule. Thereafter, the parent plant has no

influence on it except to furnish food.

If an ovule is not fertilized, it fails to develop into an

embryo. When shelling peas, we often see small traces of

peas two or three times as large as a pinhead. These

were ovules that were
not fertilized. If an ear
of corn is to fill out,
every silk must receive
one pollen grain. Most

Fio. 7. Ear of com that grew on an isolated earS of COm have a fcW
stalk. Only a few kernels formed. Why? . .

missing kernels because
some embryos were not fertiUzed. The remarkable thing
is that ears are so well filled. (Fig. 7.)

16. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction. When the new
plant is formed by the union of two bits of protoplasm,
it is called sexual reproduction. The two uniting proto-
plasts are called gametes. If the gametes come from dif-
erent plants, they are said to be cross-fertilized. If both
pollen and ovule are borne in the same flower, it is selj-
fertilized.

Many plants reproduce from stems, roots or leaves.
Such reproduction is without sex, or is asexual. Potatoes
are reproduced by the tubers. Quack grass and Johnson
grass reproduce by root-stocks, or underground stems.
Sweet potatoes reproduce by roots; willows grow from
cuttings; white clover stems take root; wheat, oats, and
barley form large clumps by stooling. Most of the farm
plants that reproduce asexually also form seeds.

The first experimental proof of sexuality in plants was
made in 1691, but little application of this knowledge

PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 13

was made in the improvement of plants until within
the last fifty years.

16. Artificial Crossing. It is a very easy matter to cross
plants. The essential steps are:

(1) Prevent undesired pollen from reaching the stigma.

(2) Apply the desired pollen when the stigma is ready
to receive it.

Suppose it is desired to cross a Ben Davis and a Winesap
apple. Shortly before the blossoms open, remove the
stamens from several blossoms on one tree, say the Ben
Davis, and cover with paper bags. Care must be taken
not to injure the pistil. The petals may be removed if
they are in the way. (Fig. 6 shows a pea blossom with
petals and stamens removed.) When the blossoms on
the tree are in full bloom, it is ready for the application
of pollen. Jar a number of blossoms on the Winesap tree
over a small dish, so as to get pollen from them. This
may be appUed to the stigmas of the blossoms on the Ben
Davis tree with a camel's-hair brush or with the finger.
Cover with the paper bags to prevent other pollen entering.
Remove the bags after the fruit is set. In the case of corn,
the ears are covered with bags when the silks appear,
and, later, pollen is applied from the desired tassel.

When two varieties or breeds of plants or animals
are crossed, the new individual is called a hybrid.^

SOME PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY

17. Problems of Heredity. If a pollen grain from a red-
flowered pea fertilizes an ovule from a white pea, some

•The word hybrid was formerly restricted to crosses between different
species, but it is now commonly uaed to designate any cross.

14 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

plants in succeeding generations will bear red blossoms and
some white blossoms. In this, as in all inheritance, two
problems are involved:

(1) How the parent plant can impress its character
on the gametes.

(2) How the uniting gametes impress their characters
on the new individual.

How can the minute pollen grain of the pea carry the
white color, the size of the vine, the shape of thie pea,
the earliness of the variety, and the innumerable other
characters of the parent plant? How does this parent
plant impress these characters on the pollen grain? These
are questions about which there are many theories, but
no one knows the answer.

When two gametes unite to form a new individual,
how do the characters represented by each of them unite?
If one represents a red and one a white blossom, the new
plant cannot be both red and white, — what color will
it be? To these questions we now have partial answers.

18. Mendel's Law.^ Mendel crossed a number of plants
and studied the inheritance of contrasting characters in
the hybrids. Only two of his experiments with peas are
here mentioned. Two of the several characteristics which

iQregor Johann Mendel was an Austrian monk, Abbot of Brunn. He
was bom in 1822, and died in 1884. In the garden of his cloister he con-
ducted many experiments, particulariy with peas. He published a few pap>ers
from 1853 to 1865, but they attracted little attention and were soon for-
gotten. But in 1900 they were discovered. Since then his work has been
the most compelling force in plant and animal improvement. Nearly every
experiment station has gone to work to improve plants, and to study the
pnnciples on which this improvement depends.

His work differed from that of most students, in that he used large
numbers, and so secured averages. When the laws of chance apply, no con-
clusions are of any value xmle.s8 large numbers are used. One might draw
five yellow kernels of com in succession from a dish containing half
white. His conclusions would be entirely wrong. Only when he draws a
large number of times, will he be sure to have approximately equal numbers
of each.

PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 15

he studied were color of flower and shape of seed. He
crossed red-flowered ones with those haying white flowers,
and crossed those having wrinkled or angular seed with
those having round peas.

Sixty blossoms were fertilized so that either the pollen
or the pistil came from a pea that had the round seed,
while the other gamete came from a plant that bore
wrinkled seeds. When these hybrid seeds grew, they all
produced round seeds. These round peas were planted, and
in the next generation there were 7,324 seeds, of which
5,474 were round and 1,850 were angular, or a ratio of
2.96 to 1. When the angular peas were planted, they pro-
duced only angular seeds, and continued so to do indefi-
nitely. One-third of the round ones produced only round,
and continued all round in later generations. The other
two-thirds of the round ones, or approximately half of
the whole number, produced both round and angular peas
in the proportion of 3 to 1. Of these, the angular ones
remained angular when planted, and one-third of the
round ones remained round, while two-thirds again broke
up into round and angular.

Likewise he crossed peas with red flowers and white
flowers. When the seeds were planted, all the plants bore
red flowers. But in the next generation, of 929 plants
705 were red and 224 were white, a ratio of 3.15 to 1.
The white ones produced only white in the future. One-
third of the red ones produced only red, and two-thirds
produced both red and white in the proportion of 3 to 1.

From these and other experiments he drew the follow-
ing conclusions:

(1) It made no difference which way the cross was

16 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

made. When pollen from a red flower was applied to the
stigma of a white flower, the succeeding generations were
just the same as when pollen came from a white flower
to the stigma of the red.

(2) In the first generation the characters did not blend.
He did not get a half-wrinkled pea. All were round and,
similarly, all had red blossoms. The character that thus
appears in the hybrid is called dominant, and the character
that is not apparent is called recessive.

(3) The gametes carried only one of two contrasting
characters; otherwise it would not be possible to get a
pure red and a pure white from hybrids. This is sometimes
called the law of gametic purity.

If we represent the red color by R and the white by W,
a hybrid will be represented by RW. This is what he got
in the first generation, but these all appeared red, this
color being dominant. When seed from these was planted,
the next generation gave three-fourths red and one-fourth
white. But, since two-thirds of the red ones produced
both red and white in succeeding generations, it is evident
that they were hybrids. The proportions may, therefore,
be expressed as follows:

1 R — 2 RW — 1 W

One pure red, two hybrids also red, one pure white. The
first three all appear alike; the only way to tell their dif-
ference being by their action in succeeding generations.
A pollen grain of a hybrid is equally likely to carry the
red or the white color. On the average, half of them will
carry the red and half the white. Similarly, the ovules
of a hybrid carry each color. When they unite, we may

PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY

17

have^: (1) Red uniting with red; (2) red with white;
(3) white with red; (4) white with white, or:

1 RR — 1 RW — 1 WR — 1 WW

Since RW and WR are aUke,

1 RR — 2 RW — 1 WW

If we suppose that each plant produces only four seeds,
and that it follows the average, we should get the following
results, starting with one hybrid:

First Generation

Red Hybrid.

IRW

Second Generation Third Generation

{Pure White
Pure White
Pure White
Pure White

(Pure White
Red Hybrid
Red Hybrid
Pure Red

{Pure White
LI S^bMd'
Pure Red

/"Pure Red

'^PureRed ^"'^ 5^

j Pure Red

[Pure Red
IRR — 2RW — IW 6RR— 4RW — 6WW

An interesting example of dominant and recessive
characters is in eye color in man. Dark color is dominant
over blue or li^ht color. If a person has light-colored
eyes, it is evident that the dark color is not present, else
it would show. Those who have dark eyes may or may not

'The pea is a self-fertilized plant. With crosa-fertilized plants, the
mathematics ia more complex.

18 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

have the Hght color recessive. All children whose parents
have light-colored eyes also have light eyes; but, if one or
both parents have dark eyes, the children may have either
color, depending on whether the dark-eyed parent has the
light color recessive.

The law of chance, on which all these results depend,
may be illustrated as follows:

Put equal numbers of white and yellow kernels of corn
in a dish. Mix them up, then let two students each draw
without looking. Mark down the result of each pair drawn.
If a large enough number is used, the result will probably
have a ratio very close to:

1 YY : 1 YW : 1 WY: 1 WW
or, YY : 2 YW : WW

When more than two characters are considered, Mendel
found that each set of characters may be inherited inde-
pendently of the others.

If a tall, red-blossomed, round pea is crossed with a
short, white-blossomed, angular one, we shall get the
following forms, besides hybrids, in each character:

Tall, white, round. Short, white, round.

Tall, red, round. Short, red, round.

Tall, white, angular. Short, white, angular.

Tall, red, angular. Short, red, angular.

But to get any one of these kinds with each of the
characters pure would be a task for a professional
breeder. When we consider that each plant has very
many characters, we see what a complicated matter it
becomes. The great majority of the new forms will be
undesirable, but occasionally one may be good. We must

PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 19

remember that our new kinds need to be better than what
we now have. It is not enough that they be different.

There are cases in which Mendel's law does not seem
to apply. Sometimes crosses do give blends, or inter-
mediates. Perhaps this is because we do not know what
unit characters are.

19. Application of Mendel's Law. Since the results of
crossing give rise to such a miscellaneous array of forms,
only a very few of which are desirable, it is evidently not
a good practice for farmers to cross plants or animals
of different breeds. This is a very common practice of
American farmers, but certainly does not seem to be a
wise one. A man will get his herd of cattle graded up to
Shorthorn, then for some reason he changes to Hereford,
then to Angus, then perhaps back to Hereford. The re-
sult is a mongrel herd; It is much better to decide on a
breed and then keep breeding to pure-bred sires of that
breed. One will soon have a herd that is nearly pure-bred.

Since we expect, not blends, but a recombination of char-
acters, we shall not expect to get a plant of intermediate
size by crossing a large one with a small one. Nor shall
we expect moderate-sized horses because one parent is
large and one small. We are much more likely to get
an animal with bad proportions. We often see horses
with the body of a trotter carrying the feet of a draft-
horse and sometimes the head of a draft-horse. Many of
the ungainly horses that are seen everywhere are the
failures in attempts to get intermediates between distinct
types. (See Fig. 2.)

If one wishes to produce an entirely new type or breed,
it is often desirable to cross unlike forms, in the hope of

20

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

getting desirable blends or new combinations of charac-
ters. But this is done with the knowledge that the great
majority will have to be discarded. The large number of
poor ones is the price paid for a possible one or two su-
perior ones. The farmer who is not a breeder does well to
decide on what breed he wants, and then stick to it.

Half-breeds are often good in the first generation; but
this is what we should expect, because only the dominant
characters are apparent. Mendel found that by crossing
peas with stems one foot in length with those six feet in
length he got hybrids six to seven and one-half feet in
length — larger than either parent; but, in the next gen-
eration, short forms reappeared. The succeeding genera-

y-

^^

^t

■^

zs:-

z2

lO

ao

30

AO

_52_

60

TO

.^S-

-S2.

Fio. 8. Yield in grams of 100 plants of Fife and Blue-stem wheat and of a

hybrid between the two. (Adapted from Hays.)

Yield of Blue-stem. Yield of Fife, x-x-x Yield of hybrid.

tions are the ones that are likely to bring disappointment.
If the half-breeds are to be sold to the butcher, crossing
may be desirable. This agrees with common experience,
that it is not wise to use half-breed animals as sires even if
they do appear to be good.

Fig. 8 shows the yield of one hundred plants of fife and
blue-stem wheat and of a hybrid between the two. The

STEPS IN BREEDING 21

hybrids do not average so good as the fife. Many of them
are worse than either parent. The few good ones between
o — o are of interest to a professional breeder; but the dis-
cordant array is a strong argument against crossing as
a general farm practice.

STEPS IN BREEDING

There are three steps in improving plants or animals:

(1) Increasing variation.

(2) Selection of desirable forms.

(3) Testing the power of the selected individuals to
reproduce their desirable characters. ,

20. Variation may be increased by any change in envi-
ronment, as a change in food supply or climate. It is greatly
increased by crossing. Only those who make a business
of producing new forms are likely to want to try to in-
crease variation. For ordinary farm purposes, it is usually
better to make selections from the innumerable varia-
tions that already exist.

21. Selection is the most important step in all im-
provement. In making selections, the primary use should
always be of first consideration. It is the number of eggs
produced, and not the feathers, that determines the real
worth of a hen. Unfortunately, the prizes are usually
awarded on the feathers. The amount of butter that a
cow produces, and not the switch of the tail, is the pri-
mary point in selecting a cow. The yield of corn, and not
the peculiarities of the kernels, is the essential point. It
is also necessary to remember that the individual is the
unit to be considered. The hill of potatoes, and not the

22 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

single tuber, is the unit. The melon vine, and not the
single melon, should be chosen. The good melon may
have been the only one that the plant produced.

Constant selection is necessary in order to keep any
of our farm crops or animals up to their present standard.
The breeder of pure-blood cattle who does not cull out
many individuals is certain to run the average down.
Our standard is the upper part of the curve of variation. If
careful selection is not made, we will tend to get back to
the average.

Most of our plants and animals already exhibit more
variation than we desire. Uniformity is often as important
as an increase in the yield. A uniform herd of cattle is a
better indication of good breeding than is a variable herd
that may have some better individuals. Uniformity in
size, color, and general appearance is of more importance
in selling vegetables and fruit than is mere size or flavor.

22. Testing Hereditary Power. Testing the power to
transmit the good qualities to the next generation is really
further selection. Good individuals often fail to produce
good ones. The best ears of corn have been selected for
many years, and great improvement has been made.
Much greater improvement would doubtless have resulted
if the hereditary power had been tested, as explained
in the ear-row test (Fig. 12).

Dairy herds that have been carefully selected often
come to be made up of the descendants of one cow; usually
from a good cow, but not always from the best cow. It
is not enough that a cow be a good one; she should be the
mother of good cows. Fig. 9 shows a good example of
such a cow. On the left is Prilly No. 40082 who produced

IMPROVING FARM CROPS 23

25.20 pounds of butter in seven days. In the center is her
daughter who produced 26.90 pounds in seven days. On
the right her granddaughter who produced 30.03 pounds.

The trotting horse called Messenger was not famous
for his speed, but nearly every one of the best trotting
horses of today has some of his blood.

Not every attractive plant or animal is desirable.
Much too often an attractive young male is placed at
the head of a herd, only to find that a mistake has been
made. Whenever possible, it is desirable that individu-
als be selected because they have good offspring.

IMPROVING SOME FARM CROPS

23. Plant-Breeding vs. Animal-Breeding. The plant-
breeder has several advantages over the animal-breeder:

(1) He can grow large numbers at small cost, and so
have greater numbers to select from. He need save only
one in thousands. The animal-breeder must work with
fewer numbers, and save a larger proportion.

(2) When superior plants are obtained, they can be
rapidly multiplied.

(3) Many plants can be propagated by asexual means,
hence avoiding the reversion that comes from seeds. If
a desirable hybrid is found, it is not given a chance to
revert, but is propagated by buds, roots, or cuttings.
Our varieties of apples, strawberries, and most other fruits,
potatoes, and many flowers, would be lost if they had to
be propagated by seeds.

24. Comparative Improvement of Different Crops. Those
crops in which the individual has been handled by the

24

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fig. 10. Twenty thousand timothy plants-
Each grown from a single seed

farmer have been most rapidly improved. Each ear of
corn is seen when husking, the differences have attracted

attention. The result-
ing selection has given
the . most striking ex-
ample of improvement
on a large scale. Pota-
toes have been more
rapidly improved than
wheat. There are hun-
dreds of named varie-
ties of apples, but no
varieties of timothy.
Yet the differences between timothy plants are probably as
great as the differences between varieties of apples. At
Cornell University, there are about twenty thousand indi-
vidual timothy plants growing in rows. There are many
distinct types that will make very desirable varieties
(Fig. 10).

26. Sugar-beet. The
most striking example of
rapid improvement due to
the application of scien-
tific principles is the sugar-
beet.

In a hundred years, the
percentage of sugar has
been increased from about
8 per cent to an average of

14 to 18 per cent. The Fig- H- two timothy plants growing

, TT • J ^'*^® ^^ Hide, showing difference in yield,

average in the United Each one grew from a single seed.

IMPROVING FARM CROPS 25

States was 14.9 per cent in 1907, and one field of
twenty acres in Washington averaged 22 per cent
sugar^ Less than a hundred years ago (1812), the
first beet-sugar was manufactured for sale; now over
half the sugar supply of the world comes from beets.

Large firms have made a business of breeding beets.
The method of improvement has been about as follows:
When digging the beets, the workmen select the best-
looking ones of medium size (one and one-half to two
pounds), smooth and uniform, and that grow below the
ground. These are stored for winter testing. In the winter
they are tested for sugar and per cent of solids not sugar.
A small core is bored out for the sugar test. This does not
injure the beet for planting. The solid matter other than
sugar makes the extraction of sugar more difficult. Those
with a high percentage of sugar and low percentage of
other soUds are best. The beets are graded into different
classes, based on the percentage of sugar, and are planted
to raise seed.

The seed produced by each of these beets is sown in
separate rows, to test the reproductive power. New selec-
tions for continuing the improvement are made from the
best beets of the best rows. The remaining ones are used
for growing commercial seed. The seed grown from beets
with a high sugar content sells higher than that grown
from the poorer classes.

26. Com Improvement. The best ears may be selected
from a crib, or from the field at husking time, or one may
go into the field before husking and select good ears on
good stalks that grew under normal conditions. A good

'Experiment Station Record, Vol. XIX, p. 32.

26 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

ear from a crib may have been good because the stalk
grew under especially favorable conditions. It may have
grown alone, when most of the plants grew in hills, or it
may have grown on richer soil.

With any of these methods of selection, we know only
half the parentage. The pollen to fertilize the good ear
may have come from stalks with very poor ears. It is
necessary, therefore, to test the yielding power.

The selected ears should be kept in a dry, moderately
warm place during the winter, as freezing hurts the embryos
when they are moist (page 54). In the spring, a germina-
tion test is made as a further selection (page 48). Discard
all ears that do not germinate all of the six kernels tested;
also discard those that produce weak sprouts.

Suppose that twenty-five of the best ears, all of per-
fect germination, are now taken for an ear-row test, the
remaining seed being used for regular field planting.
Shell each of the twenty-five ears into a paper bag bear-
ing the number of the ear. Select a place in the regular
cornfield large enough for fifty hills square. The soil
should be uniform and of average fertility. Plant rows
1 and 26 from ear 1; rows 2 and 27 from ear 2; rows 3
and 28 from ear 3, etc. This gives two trials of each
ear, so that soil differences will be allowed for. Half of
the seed of each ear is saved for next year's planting.

After the corn is up, it is a good practice to thin it to a
uniform number of stalks per row. The corn is cultivated
the same as the regular field. In the fall, husk each row
separately and measure the yield.

Such a test, conducted in 1907 by Yale Deuel, a farmer
living at Churchill, N. Y., gave the following yields: (The

IMPROVING FARM CROPS

27

yields given are the averages of the two rows planted
from each ear.)

Ear
No.

1..

2..
3..
4..
5..
6..
7..
8..
9..
10..

11..

12..
13..

Bushels
per acre

. 50

. 49

. 42

. 29

. 70

. 15

. 35

. 53

. 46

. 45

. 45

. 48

. 39

Ear

No.

14..

15..

16..

17..

18..

19..

20..

21..

22..

23..

24..

25..

Bu.shel8
per acre

. . 42

. . 35

. . 64

. . 61

.. 60

. . 28

. . 74

. . 20

. . 49

. . 43

.. 50

. . 32

This table shows the extremely variable yielding ability
of ears that are apparently all good. No one would imagine
that there would be such a difference. The best four ears
were 5, 17, 18, and 20.
But these were all grown
adjacent to poor rows.
It would not do to save
seed from these good
rows, because they will
be crossed with the ad-
jacent poor rows. Seed
from them might, how-
ever, be used in the field
planting. We still have
parts of each ear saved from the spring planting. The
following year, the remnants of these four ears are
planted in an isolated place, where they will not mix

Fici. 12. Yields of adjacent rows in an ear-
row test, showing the difference in yielding
power of two ears that looked equally good.

28 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

with other corn. This patch will furnish seed for a small
field the following year, and the third year there will be
enough seed for a large area.

Each year, particularly good ears may be selected
from the best rows or from the main field, and the process
continued. When one carries this process out carefully,
his neighbors will likely desire the extra corn for seed.

A trial conducted by the Iowa Experiment Station^
shows that variations in all characters occur. In 1905,
seed from 102 of the best ears of corn was planted in an
ear-row test. Records of yields, barren stalks, broken
stalks, suckers, etc., were made for each row, showing
the variations in the 102 ears, all of which appeared to
be good.

Variation in yield:

Ear No. 75 yielded 91 bushels per acre.
Ear No. 93 yielded 36 bushels per acre.

Variation in number of broken stalks:

Ear 54 had 64 per cent of the stalks broken and yielded 68

bushels per acre.
Ear 85 had 8 per cent of the stalks broken and yielded 77

bushels per acre.

Variation in number of barren stalks:

Ear 19 produced 22 per cent barren stalks and yielded 51

bushels per acre.
Ear 83 produced 1.5 per cent barren stalks and yielded 76

bushels per acre.

Variation in number of suckers:

Ear 106 produced 21 per cent of suckers, and yielded 78

bushels per acre.
Ear 75 produced no suckers, and yielded 91 bushels per acre.

ilowa Bulletin No. 77.

IMPROVING FARM CROPS 29

If one does not care to select corn so carefully, he
may at least select the best ears and make a germination
test. If corn is husked from the field, a box may be tied
on the wagon into which the best ears are put.

27. Cotton may be improved in the same manner.
Seed is saved from the best plants in the field. Rows
are planted from each plant, and in each case half of the
seed is saved. The yield from the different rows deter-
mines which of the original plants were best able to trans-
mit their good qualities. The remaining seed from the
best original plants is then planted together, to grow
seed for field use.

28. Other Cross-fertilized Plants may be improved in
the same way:

(1) Select the best.

(2) Test the yielding power, saving a part of the seed
from each plant.

(3) Plant the remnants of seed from the best plants.
Tobacco, rye and timothy are cross-fertilized plants.

29. Oats. Oats are commonly self-fertilized, so that a
poor row beside a good one will not harm it. The third
step can, therefore, be omitted.

Save seed from the best plants from a field of oats,
or, if the individual plants cannot be distinguished, save
the best heads. The seed from each plant will need to
be tested, to see whether it produces well. The plant may
have been good because the soil where it grew was good.

The seed may be planted in rows six to ten inches
apart, and a rod or more long. If twenty-five heads were
saved, rows 1 and 26 may be planted from head 1 ; rows
2 and 27 from head 2, etc. The best-yielding rows are

30 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

saved for seed. These will have to be raised another
year before there will be enough for a field. The process
may be repeated for further improvement.

30. Other Self-fertilized Plants may be improved in
the same manner:

(1) Select the best.

(2) Test the yielding power. The seed from those
that yield most is saved for field planting.

Wheat, rice, peas, beans, are commonly self-fertilizing.

31. Potatoes are propagated by cuttings. The potato
tuber is a much-enlarged underground stem. The eyes
are really buds. Propagation in this way is asexual. When
a good potato is secured, it is multiplied from cuttings.

The only satisfactory way to improve potatoes by selec-
tion is by hill selection. What is necessary for a good yield
is good hills. If a large potato is selected from a bin of
potatoes, it may have been the only good potato in the
hill. If potatoes are dug by hand, the best hills may be
saved while digging. If they are dug with a machine,
the most promising hills may be dug by hand before dig-
ging the field. The ones that produce the largest yield
of desirable potatoes are saved for seed. Enough may be
saved in this way so that they will produce seed for the
entire field the second year following. It is also desirable
to keep each hill separate and to plant separately. In this
case, the ones that yield most are kept for the breeding
plot.

32. How Often Do Potatoes Need to Be Grown from the
Seed-ball? Potatoes also reproduce by seeds from the
seed-balls. But the number of these seeds is now small.
Probably, the potato that produced fewest seeds has been

QUESTIONS 31

able to grow the best tubers. The statement is often made
that potatoes must be renewed from the seed-ball fre-
quently, in order to keep up their yield. If carefully
selected and well grown, the present varieties would doubt-
less maintain their yield indefinitely. When poor potatoes
are planted and poorly cared for, they will surely deteri-
orate. It is probable that new varieties will continue to
be formed from the seed that are better than any of the
present varieties, so that even if present varieties are im-
proved they are certain to be displaced eventually. Old
varieties cannot be renewed from the seed because pota-
toes do not come true from seed.

33. Plant-breeding Farms. Farms whose business is
the production of improved varieties of plants are now
beginning to develop in different parts of this country.
Several such establishments have been in operation for
a number of years in Europe. In time, farmers will likely
come to look to these farms for seed, as they now go to
stock-farms for pure-bred stock. If improved seeds are
really produced, they must be sold for an increased price.
Improvement, such as can be practiced on any farm,
as described in the preceding paragraphs, is not very ex-
pensive. But to produce new types of plants that are
better than anything else that now exists is expensive.
When once produced, they are too valuable to be grown
by one man only.

QUESTIONS

1. What is protoplasm?

2. What are the worst ten weeds of the neighborhood? Look them
up in the botany manual and see which were introduced from Europe.
What are the characters of each that make it able to persist?

32 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

3. There are about 225,000 alfalfa seeds in a pound. About fifteen
to thirty pounds is sown per acre. If twenty pounds is sown, how many
see<ls would there be on a square foot? Some good old fields do not
have over five plants per square foot. Why is so much seed sown? If
fields are available, count the number of plants on old and new seed-
ings. Do the same principles apply in planting com? To what other
plants do they apply?

4. ^V^ly are the ears on a cornstalk not always filled out?

5. What part of the flower are the com silks? ^^'^lere are the other
parts? To what are the silks attached?

6. What effect does wet weather at blossoming time have on an
apple crop? Wliat effect does dry weather at silking time have on the
com ears? Why is a frost at blossoming time more injurious to peaches
than one later?

7. What would he the proportion of red and white p)ea8 at the end
of the fifth generation from the hybrid between them?

8. Why is the ratio in which hybrids break up not exactly 3 to 1
when dealing with small numbers?

9. Why do apples, peaches and potatoes not come true from the seed?

10. Are small potatoes as good as large ones for planting?

11. Are the kernels of com from the tip and butt good for planting?

12. What crops, or new varieties of crops, if any, have been re-
cently introduced into your region?

13. What seeds of farm crops are regularly shipped into your
county? Where do they come from? Is the climate of the region from
which they came similar to yours?

LABORATORY EXERCISES
1. Variation in Plants.

Materials. — A number of elm leaves for each student, or leaves of
some other plant, two corn-stalks or other plants for each student.

Try to find two leaves that are alike.

Make a list of all the leaf characters, and tell how the leaves differ
in each character.

Make a list of all the characters of the two com plants and state
the differences: Number of leaves, height and diameter of stalk, number
of parts in the tassel, number of ears, size and shape of leaves, number
of ribs, length and diameter of ear, number of rows of kernels, color
of kernels, color of cob, shape of kernels, size of embryo and endo-

LABORATORY EXERCISES 33

sperai, taste of pith and kernels. These are but a few of the many
characters that may be compared.

2. Galton's Law.

Measure 100 or more plants of any kind, arrange the results in
order and draw a curve representing the measurements. The height
of 100 corn-stalks, length, weight, or circumference of 100 ears of com,
or any kind of measurements may be used.

3. Struggle for Existence.

Materials. — An ear of com for each student, also a purslane plant,
pigweed or other weed with many seeds. How many kernels on the
ear of com? Count one row and multiply by the number of rows.

How many seeds on the pigweed, or other plant? Count the seeds
on a few branches and multiply by the number of branches.

Begin with one kernel of com, or one pigweed seed, and suppose
that each grew and developed as these have done. How many would
there be in three years?

4. Struggle for Existence.

Field Trip. (1) Go to a weed "patch." Let each student take
one square foot or more of area. Count all the plants on this area. How
many are apparently not going to be able to form seeds?

(2) Examine an unpruned tree. What proportion of the branches
have been killed by crowding out? Count the buds on a twig. How
many can develop into branches?

(3) If a woodlot where trees grow naturally is available, visit it.
Find trees that have been killed. What proportion survive? Find
those that are overshadowed, but that are still alive waiting for a
chance. Compare their ages with the large trees.

6. Struggle for Existence among the Buds of a Potato.

Materials. — Potato and dish of water.

Place a potato in a glass of water so that the stem end touches
the water, and allow it to grow. How many "eyes" start? After these
have grown some time, cut them out and see if the others start.

6. The Flowers of Some Crops.

Materials. — The flowers of such farm crops as grow in the neighbor-
hood: Com, oats, wheat, rye, rice, cotton, etc. Dried specimens may
be used, but materials preserved in formalin are better; fresh material
is the best.

34 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Find the stamens, anthers, pistils, stigmas, styles and ovaries of
each. Make drawings of each. Compare the abundance of pollen in
a self-fertilized plant, such as wheat, rice, oats, with its abundance
in the cross-fertilized plants, as com or rye. Why this difference?

7. Pollen Grains.

Materials. — Same as for No. 6, and a compound microscope.
Examine pollen grains of several crops with a microscope, using
a one-si.xth-inch objective (X about 400). Make a drawing of each kind.

8. Hybridization.

Materials. — Growing plants about to bloom.

Let each student cross-fertilize several flowers of any plants, pre-
ferably crops. If possible, have the seed from each cross saved and
planted. (See p. 13.)

9. Seed Selection.

Materials. — A field of any crop approaching maturity. Each student
to select ten plants for seed, giving reasons for the choice.

10. The Improvement of Some Crop.

Let each student choose some plant which he is to try to improve
during the next year: An ear-row test of com, hill-row test of potatoes,
selection of carnations, or some other plant. If the school has land
available, this may be done on the experimental grounds, or students
may do the work at home.

COLLATERAL READING

Production of Good Seed Com, by C. P. Hartley. Farmers' Bulletin
No. 229. (Each member of the class should have a copy.)

A Successful Hog and Seed-corn Farm, by W. J. Spillman. Farm-
ers' Bulletin No. 272, p. 12.

Cora-breeding Work at the Experiment Stations, by J. I. Shulte.
Yearbook, 1906, pp. 279-294.

New Citrus and Pineapple Productions of the Department of Agri-
culture, by H. J. Webber. Yearbook, 1906, pp. 329-346.

New Tobacco Varieties, by A. D. Shamel. Yearbook, 1906, pp.
387-404.

COLLATERAL READING 35

Sugar-beet Seed Breeding, by J. E. W. Tracey. Yearbook, 1904,
pp. 341-352.

Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection, by Herbert J. Webber.
Yearbook, 1902, pp. 3G3-386.

The Art of Seed Selection and Breeding, by A. D. Shamel. Year-
book, 1906, pp. 221-236.

Plant-Breeding on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin No. 334, pp. 5-9.

Potato-Breeding. Fanners' Bulletin No. 342, pp. 10-14.

Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 14-25, 63-68, 185-200.

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt. (See Index of
crops.)

Principles of Breeding, by E. Davenport.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 1-35, 53-80.

In giving references, the following abbreviations are used :
"Bureau of Plant Industry," "Bureau of Animal Industry," "Forest
Service," etc., refer to bureaus in the United States Department of
Agriculture. "Farmers' Bulletin" and "Yearbook" also refer to pub-
lications by this department. Publications of state experiment sta-
tions are referred to by the name of the state. "Iowa Bulletin No.
75" means Bulletin No. 75 of the agricultural experiment station that
is located in Iowa.

See Appendix, Tables 1, 2 and 3, for method of securing publica-
tions.

CHAPTER III
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

Plants may be propagated by spores, by seeds, and
by division. The most important methods of propaga-
tion on the farm are by spores, seeds, and by several
methods of division, such as creeping stems and root-
stocks, tubers, cuttings, buds and grafts. Nearly all
economic plants are propagated by means of seeds.

34. Spores differ from seeds in that they do not con-
tain an embryo, or young plant. They are usually one-
celled, or few-celled and microscopic. Only the lower
orders of plants form spores. The flowering plants form
seeds. Spores may be formed sexually or asexually. The
rusty margins on the underside of fern leaves contain
spores. The dust of a puff-ball is composed of countless

# # spores. Corn smut, oat smut, oat rust, are
••^ masses of spores.

^f This method of propagation is not of great

Fig. 13. direct importance in agriculture, because only a

com smut few of these plants are of use to us. But spores

highly . . ,

magnified, are of great importance when we come to con-
sider plant diseases, for nearly all such diseases are caused
by plants that reproduce by spores.

36. Creeping Stems and Rootstocks. The branches of
white clover take root, and so form new plants (Fig. 14).
This enables it to persist many years in pastures where
red clover is exterminated.

(36)

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

\M

Buffalo grass is able to persist in dry regions by means
of the branches that take root, somewhat like strawberry
runners.

The most important example of asexual reproduction
is in grasses. All the perennial grasses increase by new

Fiu. 14. Branch of whHe clover showing the method of forming new plants

stems, or culms, that arise from the nodes of the older
culms. Usually the new stems come from the nodes that
are near the ground, or below it. If the new stems are
very short or sessile, the process is similar to the stooling
in wheat and oats. More often a branch comes out more
or less horizontally, either above or below ground, takes
root at its nodes, and sends up one or more culms. Such a

38

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

horizontal branch is called a stolon. The leaves of a stolon
that grows below ground are reduced to colorless scales.
Such a stolon is called a rootstock. The new stem is at first
a branch of the old one, but it often forms its own root-
system, becomes independent, and in turn gives rise to
stolons and culms (Fig. 15). The distance of the new culm

Fio. 16. Blue grass showing the method of reproduction by underground
stems, or stolons

from the old one determines whether the grass is spread-
ing, like blue grass, or tufted, like orchard grass and blue
joint grass. (See Figs. 91, 92, and 95.)

It is probable that all grass plants would die after the
formation of seed were it not for this means of repro-
duction. The plant that grows from a node apparently
forms seed but once. But it may produce stolons and so
continue the stand of grass. Botanists have classified

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 39

these plants as perennials, but they are a very different
kind of perennials from alfalfa and trees.

The grasses with long stolons, like blue grass, tend to
form a dense sod, and are, therefore, best for pasture. The
less strongly stoloniferous kinds, as timothy, are usually
best for hay; probably because the dense sod developed
by the strongly stoloniferous species contains so many
stems that none of them can grow large enough to produce
a good hay crop.

36. Roots. The edible portion of the sweet potato is
an enlarged root. The potato plants are grown from these.
The roots are put about an inch apart in hotbeds, with
about four inches of dirt under them and two inches on
top. The roots send up many sprouts from adventitious
buds. When these shoots have reached the proper height,
they are pulled. This permits the potato to send up more
sprouts. The plants thus grown will have a good supply
of roots of their own before they are pulled from the
potato. Sweet potatoes are also grown from cuttings
taken from the vines produced by the earlier plants.
Occasionally, the potatoes are cut into pieces and planted
like Irish potatoes.

37. Tubers. The field, or Irish potato, is a modified
stem. The eyes send out branches, so it might be propa-
gated in the same manner as the sweet potato, but this
is not profitable.

Irish potatoes are usually cut into two or more pieces
for planting. The larger pieces have given the larger yields
in most experiments. Of ninety-five experiments reported
from various experiment stations, seventy-six found that
half-potatoes yielded more than those cut to two eyes,

40 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

while nineteen secured greater yields from the latter.
Thirty experiments considered the increased cost of seed
of the half-potatoes over the two-eyed pieces.^ Twenty-
two of these found a net income from the crop above the
cost of seed in favor of the half-potatoes, and eight in favor
of two eyes.^ The most profitable size of seed depends
on the relative value of the seed and of the crop.

The number of eyes per piece above two is of little
consequence. Each eye contains a number of buds. The

fy Fia. 16 Rose cutting showing depth

1 1 to plant

size of the piece determines the number of sprouts that
it sends up. Only a small proportion of the buds sprout.
Placing the potatoes in a well-lighted room some time
before planting increases the yield. Sprouting in a dark
room is harmful, as the sprouts produced are long and
slender. If the potatoes are to be planted with a machine,
the sprouts should only begin to appear before planting.
For a few early potatoes, it is well to let the sprouts get

'Potato tubers are commonly called .seed. They are seed in an agri-
cultural sense, but, of course, not botanical seed.
2 Samuel Fraser, The Potato.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

41

an inch long, and then plant by hand. The Rhode Island

station found a gain of fifty-four bushels per acre due to

allowing potatoes to lie in

a well-lighted room, at a

temperature of 60 to 75

degrees Fahr., for four to

six weeks.

The seed is best' cut
the day of planting, but
may be cut on rainy days
shortly before planting, to
save time.

38. Cuttings. Nearly
all herbaceous plants and
many woody plants can

be propagated from cut- ^'°- ''• Ge«nium cutting ™»dy to plant

tings. Alfalfa and clover plants may be so grown. Of
course, this is not practical under ordinary circumstances;
but alfalfa is sometimes propagated in this way by plant-
breeders when they desire to multiply a desirable indi-
vidual. Most of our
house-plants are prop-
agated by cuttings. In
some cases the leaves
will grow, but usually
stems are taken. Cur-
rants, grapes, willows,
poplars, cotton woods,
are commonly propa-
gated by cuttings.

Fio. 18. Verbena cutting well rooted Grape CUttingS are

42

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

made from wood of the preceding season's growth, usually
with three buds on each cutting. These are planted with

two buds below the ground.

Currant cuttings are usu-
ally made about six inches
long, and are set with one
bud above ground.

The hardwood^ cuttings
are usually made in winter,
and are heeled-in out-of-
doors. They are sometimes
packed in moist sand and
kept in a cellar a little above
freezing temperature, so that
the ends become calloused
over before planting.

39. Grafting. — Some plants

do not readily form roots from

the stems. These • must be

propagated from seeds, or by

budding or grafting. All the

tree fruits in America —

apples, pears, peaches, plums,

cherries, oranges, etc.

— are regularly grown

from buds and grafts.

Pecans and chestnuts

are often grafted.

N

Fio. 19.

A leaf-cutting of

begonia, well started

'Hardwood cuttings are
those made of the mature
wood, as grapes, currants,
etc., as distinguished from
green cuttings,a8 geraniums.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

43

Fruit trees have to be propagated in this way because
they do not come true from the seed (page 23). It is also
sometimes desirable to be able to take advantage of the pre-
vious growth of a tree, rather than to wait for a new one to
grow. Top -grafts in an <^^f

old apple tree may begin ''-" '

to bear the second year.
In most regions it takes
ten or more years for a
young apple tree to reach
bearing age.

The essential point in
all budding and grafting
is: that the cambium lay-
ers be placed together and
held there until they unite.
The cambium layer is the ^
living and growing part
between the wood and the ^Z ^ '^
bark. /^

40. Budding. A bud is
cut as shown in Fig. 21.
A T-shaped cut is then made in the plant to be budded,
the bud is inserted and tied with raffia.

The life history of a peach tree before it is planted in
the orchard is about as follows: The pits are stored in
m6i8t sand or Other material where they will freeze during
the winter so that they will crack. These are planted in
the spring. In June, or about September, the seedling tree
is budded from a tree of the desired variety. The bud
is inserted near the surface of the ground. After it has

Fio. 20. A grape cutting and the same
after one year's growth

44

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Started growth, the raffia is cut, and the top cut ofif
above the bud.

If the buds are inserted in the summer, they will grow
during that season, but will not make a very large growth.

Fio. 21. Fio. 22.

A bud ready for insertion and the The bud in-
T-«ha[)ed cut ready to receive it serted

Fio. 23.
The budding com-
pleted

These trees are called "June buds." They are planted
in the orchard the following spring.

If the buds are inserted in the fall, they unite with the
tree but do not start growth until the following spring.
Having a larger root and a long season, they make much
larger trees than June buds. It takes two years to produce
them, but they are in much greater demand than June
buds.

Cherries and plums are propagated in the same manner
as peaches.

Apple trees are usually root-grafted by the nursery-
man in the Middle West, but are budded in the East. In
either case, the seedling trees are usually produced by
growers in the Middle West, who grow them for one year.
These one-year-old seedlings are planted in the nursery
and are budded the first spring. The trees are usually

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

45

grown for two years in the nursery rows, when they are
ready for sale.

41. Root-Grafting. Seedling apples are grown for a
year in a rich soil. They are dug in the fall. The root-grafts
are made during the winter. After the fibers are removed
from the roots, they are cut into pieces about two inches
long. Smooth, one-year-old twigs of the desired variety
are cut into about six-inch lengths called dons. A slant-
ing cut is made on root and cion, and a slit is cut in each
so that they will fit close together (Fig. 24). This makes
three surfaces where the cambium layers meet. After
being put together, they
are wound with waxed
cord. This holds the
cambium layers so close
together that they can
unite. The wax on the
cord holds it so that
knots are unnecessary.

The root -grafts are
put into bundles of about
fifty, and are packed in
sand in a cool cellar.
By spring the cambium
layers should be well cal-
loused.

Peaches, cherries and
plums are not often root-
grafted. They do not heal
so readily as do apples and
pears.

(1

Fio. 24. Root-grafting. A, cion; B,
root; C, Cion and root united, about nat-
ural sise; D, Rxx>t-graft completed, much
reduced in sise.

46

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

42. Top-grafting. This method is not very often used,
except to work over large trees. For this purpose, limbs
about one to two inches in diameter are sawed off. The
cions are cut about four inches long, and are sharpened

Fio. 25. Cion for
a top-graft

Fig. 26. Cions properly in-
serted for a top-graft

FiQ. 27. A top-graft
completed

on both sides wedge-shaped. One is put in at each side
of the branch, care being taken to keep the cambium layers
in contact. To be sure of a good contact, the cions are set
at a slight angle, and may be cut thinner on the inside.
The ends of the branch and the split sides are all care-
fully covered with grafting wax. Sometimes many varie-
ties of apples are thus grown on one tree.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 47

43. Relationship of Cion and Root. Buds or grafts
will seldom grow on roots of a very different kind. Apples
will grow on pear roots, and pears on apple, but neither
will grow on peach roots. Peaches will grow on plum
roots.

44. Effect of Root on Cion. By grafting or budding,
a sour apple may be grown on a root that would have
produced a sweet apple. Early peaches may be grown
on a root that would have grown late peaches. Many argu-
ments have been made as to the effect of the root on the
fruit. So long as the root is closely related to the cion,
it has no appreciable effect on it. Fifty varieties of apples
may be grown on the same tree, yet each will come true
to its kind. This is what we would expect from the
functions of roots. If the root furnishes the proper
amount of soluble food from the soil, the top will not be
affected. If the root does not furnish enough food, the
tree may die or be dwarfed. Dwarf pear trees are secured
by budding them on quince roots. Dwarf apple trees are
produced by budding on the roots of the Doucin or Para-
dise apples, which are dwarfs,

I

SEEDS

45. Nature of Seeds. A seed consists of a young plant,
or embryo, with a supply of food either in the embryo
or surrounding it, all enclosed in the seed coats. The
food is formed by the parent plant, and is stored up in
the seed to give the young plant a start in life. Some
seeds have a small amount of stored food, while others
have enough to keep the young plant growing several

48

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Cocfi
Fkj. 28
Section of a bean-
seed showinc the coty-
ledon, plumtileand cau
licle, which constitute
tHe e mbryo. Food
stored in the cotyledons.

weeks without having to prepare much food for itself.
As the seedUng develops, it gradually makes more and
more of its own food, until finally the stored food is no
longer needed.

46. Importance of Vigorous Germina-
tion. The vigor of the embryo often lim-
its the crop that is to be grown. Some
kernels of corn germinate promptly and
vigorously, others germinate slowly and
form weak plants, others fail to germi-
nate at all. Often a seed will have vigor
enough to start germination, but not enough to be able
to establish itself in the soil. It is not enough that a seed
germinate; it should germinate vigorously.

47. Germination Tests of Seed Corn. The Iowa Ex-
periment Station examined 3,300 samples of seed corn

for farmers in 1905. Of this number,
an average of 19 per cent of the seed
was entirely dead, and 21 per cent
more was so weak as to be useless,
leaving only 60 per cent of good seed.
In the same year, counts of the number
of stalks per hill were made in over
one thousand corn fields. These showed
an average of 66 per cent of a stand. ^
This may have been an unfavorable
season, but every year there is an
enormous loss in yield of corn because
of dead seed or weak seed.

The kernels on an ear of corn are usually about equally

ilowa BuUetin No. 77

Flo. 29. Section
of a kernel of corn.
Food is stored in the
cotvledon and in the
endosperm which sur-
rounds the embryo.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

49

vigorous. Hence a test of a few kernels taken from differ-
ent parts of the ear will give a fairly accurate idea of the
ear. Since it takes only about a dozen ears to plant an
acre, it is a very easy matter to test every ear. And,
since one ear plants so large an area, it follows that a single
ear that germinates poorly may decrease the yield of corn
several bushels. One of the most important, as well as
one of the easiest ways to increase the yield of corn is
to test the vigor of every ear before planting, and use for
seed only those that show a good germination test. The
germination test should be
made before the spring
work begins.

Secure a box about two
by three feet and six inches
deep. Fill this half full of
saw-dust, sand or soil. Take
a white cloth a little larger
than the box and rule into
squares with a lead pencil about one and one-half inches
each wa}'. Number each square. Lay this cloth over the
sawdust or other material, and tack to the box in a few
places. Put enough sawdust into a sack, so that it will
fit into the box, and cover it an inch deep. Moisten the
sawdust of the box and bag.

Lay out the ears of corn in rows on the floor or on
shelves, and number them to correspond with the squares
on the cloth in the box. Remove six kernels from each
ear, taking them from different places on the ear. Put
the kernels from ear 1 on square 1, those from ear 2 on
square 2, etc. When all the kernels are in place, lay a

Fig. Lil- i.a;i of com laid out for germi-
nation t«8t. (After Holden)

50

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

piece of cloth over them and cover with the sack. Keep
the box in a warm place and moisten it if necessary.
The kernels will germinate in four to six days. Remove
the cover carefully so as not to disturb the kernels, and
examine.

Flu. 32. Cierinination test of different ears of corn. Discard ears 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
7.9. 11. 12, 15. 20

Fig. 32 shows the result of such a test. The kernels
from ears 1,11 and 20 all failed to grow. One or more of
those from ears 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12 and 15 failed. The ears
from which these came are all discarded. Kernels from ear
7 all germinated, but the growth is so weak that this ear is
also discarded. While making this test, the very best
ears may be selected for ah ear-row test.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

51

48. Seed Analysis and Valuation. Corn seed is always
pure seed, but with other farm seeds there is another
factor to consider, — the amount of weed seeds and dirt.
This is more important with the small seeds, such as grass
and clover, than with the larger seeds, such as wheat and
oats. The small seeds are more likely to contain weeds,
the weeds are more likely to escape notice, and are
harder to remove from small seeds. A sample of seed
may contain:

(1) Live, or viable seed.

(2) Dead seed.

(3) Seeds of other useful plants.

(4) Broken seeds, dirt, chaff, etc.

(5) Weed seeds of the kinds common in the region.

(6) Noxious weed seeds, even a few of which condemn
the seed.

49. Germination Tests. Lay a moist blotter or a piece
of moist cotton flannel
on a plate. Count out
one hundred seeds, just
as they come. Put them
on the blotter; cover
with a piece of paper,
and then with another
moist blotter. Lay over
this a piece of glass, or
cover with an inverted
plate. Keep in a moderately warm place, and examine
from time to time. Remove the sprouted seeds, and
count them to get the per cent of germination. Several
samples may be tested at one time on a plate (Fig. 33).

Fio. 33.

Method of testing the germination
of seeds

52

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

50. Purity and Germination Test. For a more careful

test, a sample is weighed. It is then separated into: (1)
pure seed; (2) inert matter — dirt, broken seed, etc.; (3)
weed seed. Each of these is weighed. The germinating
power of the pure seed is then found. The per cent of purity
multiplied by the per cent of germination gives the per
cent of live or viable seed. If a sample of alfalfa seed con-
tains 90 per cent of pure seed, and 90 per cent of this
germinates, it contains 81 per cent of viable seed.

51. What is the Cheapest Seed. The cheapest seed
is usually the most expensive. The following analyses
show the extremes of low-grade, low-priced red clover
seed, and high-grade, high-priced seed:^

Price per 100 pounds

Weed seeds

Dirt, sticks, etc

Red clover seed

Red clover seed tiiat germinated

Number weed seeds per pound

Actual cost of 100 pounds clover seed that
germinated

Red Clover Seed

Low Grade High Grade

$5.20
25.78%
26.16%
48.06%
18.26%
139,727

$28.48

$15.00

.09%

1.08%

98.83%

95.86%

150

$15.65

The seed that could be purchased for $5.20 per hun-
'dred pounds was nearly twice as expensive as the seed
that cost $15 per hundred, because it contained so little
live seed. The low-grade seed should not have been sown
at any price, because of the weed seeds. If one sowed such
seed at the usual rate of sowing, he would not only fail
to get a good stand of clover, but would be sowing weeds.

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 260

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

53

If one sample of seed contains 90 per cent of live seed
and costs $9, and another sample contains 80 per cent
of viable seed and costs $8, they would appear to be
equally cheap. But the former sample is to be preferred,
because, if a sample germinates poorly, we may expect

/?•'•

Fig. 34. Poor clover seed contain-
ing many weeds

Fig. 35. Good pure clover seed

that the same causes that killed many of the seeds weak-
ened all the others.

There is one case in which the cheaper seed might be
best, and that is, if the other contained seed of some very
serious weed that was not present in the cheaper kind.

62. Size and Weight of Seeds. Many experiments
have been tried with large and small seeds, and with seeds
of high and low specific gravity. In the majority of trials,
the larger and heavier seeds have proved best. Usually
the small seeds are lighter for their size, or have a less
specific gravity, than the large seeds.

Heavy cotton seed separated by an air-blast was grown
in comparison with unseparated seed at Lamar and Harts-
ville, S. C, in 1900.^ At each place, equal areas of about
an acrjB were planted with each kind of seed. The average
yields of cotton were:

Heavy seed 1,106 pounds

Unseparated seed 1,010 pounds

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 285

54 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

At the Nebraska station, where equal weights of wheat
were used for eight years, the light seeds gave practically
the same yield as the heavy. Similar results were obtained
in Ohio and Kansas.

An ordinary fanning-mill is of use in removing weed
seeds, and to some extent in removing the lightest seeda
It does not usually remove the moderately Ught ones.
Probably the removal of the weed seeds is the most valu-
able result.

53. Seed Testing Is Plant Selection. All seed selection,
whether it be for germination or size and weight of seeds,
is really plant selection. The seed is a plant. Its size and
the vigor of its germination are some of the first evidences
of its individual characteristics. Seed selection is one step
in plant-breeding.

54. Storage of Seed. We must always remember that
seeds are alive. It is true that they are dormant, and can
stand some adverse conditions, but they are not immune
from injury. One of the chief causes for the poor germi-
nation of Kentucky blue grass seed is the heating during
the curing process. Any seed that smells musty needs to
be tested before being accepted.

Seed corn is not hurt by freezing when it is very dry,
but in many parts of the United States it will absorb
enough water from the atmosphere so that freezing will
damage it. Except in dry regions, the seed corn should
be stored in a warm room. A good method of storing is
to tie up with binder twine (Fig. 36) and hang in the
attic. If there is danger of a frost before the corn is thor-
oughly dry in the fall, the seed corn should be husked
and hung up in a dry room before freezing weather.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

55

Light frosts will not hurt it while it is on the stalks. Seed
corn should never freeze when moist.

55. Importation of Low-Grade Seed. The United States
exports large quantities of clover seed, and imports smaller
quantities of low-grade seed. One reason for this is that
Canada and most of the European countries have laws

Fio. 36. Method of drying seed corn. (After Holden.)

for seed inspection. Screenings, very weedy seed, or seed
of low vitality cannot be sold, but can be exported from
those countries. We shall probably have laws for seed
inspection in this country in the future. In the mean-
time, every farmer will have to examine his own seed,
or send it to the State Experiment Station for examina-
tion,

QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of all the important farm plants of your region and
tell how each is propagated.

2. Do you know of any fruit trees that bear two kinds of fruit?

3. Give the life history of the apple tree from the time the seed is
planted until the tree is set in the orchard.

56 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

4. What time of year is it easiest to make willow whistles? Why?

5. What becomes of a nail that is driven into a tree? Why?

6. Do farmers in your region grow their own fruit trees? Grape-
vines? Currant bushes? Would it pay them to do so?

7. What seeds are shipped out of your region for seed purpose?

8. What seeds are shipped into the region?

9. What bad weeds in your region have come with the seed?

10. How do the farmers of the region store their seed com?

11. Is there any trouble in getting a good stand of com? Was the
stand good this year? Count the stalks in a short row and determine
the per cent of a stand.

12. Which grow^ most rapidly at first, plants from large seeds like
beans or those from small seeds like radishes?

13. Does the fanning-mill or air-blast separate seeds on the basis of
weight or of specific gravity?

14. How long do some of the more important seeds of your section
retain their vitality? (See Appendix, Table 4.)

15. What are the legal weights p)er bushel of a few of the more
important products in your section? (See Appendix, Table 5.)

LABORATORY EXERCISES

11. Spores.

Materials. — Compoimd microscope, com smut, oat smut or spores
of any other kind.

Examine the spores (XoOO). Make drawings of them. How do
they produce new plants?

12. Relation of Habit of Growth of a Grass to its Value for Hay or

Pasture.

Field Trip. — ^^^lat are the best pasture grasses in the region?
Examine them to see whether they are strongly stoloniferous. The
stolon always arises from within the leaf sheath; if it remains there, its
growth is intravaginal. If it breaks through the leaf sheath, it is called
extravaginal. WTiich way do the stolons of these pasture grasses
develop? What are the best hay grasses of the region? Examine
them in the same manner.

13. To Make Grafting-wax and Waxed String.

Materials. — One pound resin, one-h&lf pound beeswax, one-fourth
pound tallow, one ball of No. 18 knitting cotton. Larger or smaller
amounts for classes above or below ten.

LABORATORY EXERCISES 57

F*\ilverize the resin; melt all the materials together. Drop the ball
of cotton into the melted wax. Remove in about five minutes, and
you will have waxed string ready for making root grafts. Pour the wax
into cold water. Grease the hands and pull and work the wax until
it becomes of a straw color.

14. Cambium Layer.

Materials. — Twigs several years old taken from any tree. Make a
drawing of a cross-section of the twig, and indicate: (1) The pith;
(2) annual rings; (3) cambium layer; (4) bark. The cambium layer
is the layer between the wood and the bark. It is this layer that breaks
apart when the bark is removed. Why is the bark more easily removed
in summer than in winter? How old is the twig? Why is there a ring
at the close of each year's growth? Is the wood in the inner or the outer
part of the ring the harder?

15. To Make a Root Graft.

Materials. — Waxed string prepared in No. 13. Seedling apple
trees one or two years old. Smooth, one-year-old twigs from apple
trees of the desired variety.

Let each student make about twenty-five or more root grafts ac-
cording to directions (page 45). These may be taken home to be
planted. They should be packed in sand and kept moist and cool until
spring. The school can raise its own seedling apples, peaches, etc.,
or may get students to raise them.

16. To Bud a Tree.

Materials. — Raffia, knives, growing trees. If possible, have impor-
tant trees of the region.

Cut the buds as shown in Fig. 21. Make the T-shaped cut through
the bark of the tree. Lift the bark carefully and insert the bud. Tie
firmly with raffia.

17. To Top-graft a Tree.

Materials. — Saw, knife, chisel, hammer, grafting wax, apple trees
or other trees.

Perform the operation as directed (page 40). If possible, this
should be done on a tree; but limbs of trees may l>e used in the labora-
tory to teach the method if outdoor work cannot be given.

18. To Make Hard Wood Cuttings.

Materials. — Stems of grapes, currants, willows, or other woody
plants of the region.

58 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Make the cuttings as described (page 42). Each student should
make a number of useful ones to be planted at home.

19. The Bean Embryo.

Materials. — Beans soaked for a day, enough to supply each student
with several.

Make a drawing of the split bean showing the cotyledons, plumule
and radicle. Indicate each part. How many parts are there to a bean
seed? What is the function of each part? Which parts make up the
embryo? In what part is the food stored? What parts come above
ground when the bean grows? Is the plant monocotyledonous or
dicotyledonous?

20. The Kernel of Corn.

Materials. — Com soaked for a day in cold water, or for twenty
minutes in hot water.

Cut the tip from a kernel of corn and make a drawing of the cross
section. Indicate the endosperm, cotyledons or scutellum, plumule
(or radicle if cut very close to the top). Split a kernel of com the narrow
way and one the broad way. Make drawings of each and indicate the
parts. Is the food stored in the embryo, as in the case of the bean?
What parts come above ground when the com grows? Is the corn
monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous?

21. Germination Test of Corn.

Materials. — Germination box and fifty or more ears of com.

Make the test as described (page 49). Compare the appearance
of ears that germinated well and that germinated poorly. Are there
any ways of distinguishing them? Make cross-sections of kernels from
each class. Compare the appearance of the embryos, or "chits." The
more vigorous kernels usually have a bright, "cheerful" appearance,
are plump and full at the tips, and have a large cream-colored genu.
See how well you can determine the germination in advance by these
characters.

22. Analysis of Clover Seed.

Materials. — Balances weighing to centigrams or milligrams, and
hand-lenses. Two samples of clover seed with the prices. Alfalfa,
timothy or other small seeds may be used.

Weigh out a one-gram sample of the seed. Separate it into:
(1) pure seed; (2) inert matter, broken seed, dirt, etc.; (3) weed
seeds. Weigh each. Make a germination test of the pure seeds as

COLLATERAL READING

59

directed (page 51). Repeat for the second sample. Record the results
in the note-book as follows:

Second
Sample

Weight of sample

Weight of pure seed

Weight of inert matter

Weight of weed seed

Per cent of purity

Per cent of germination

Per cent of pure viable seed ....

Price per pound

Cost per pound of pure viable seed

If the school has a set of weed seeds, identify the kinds present
and the number of seeds of each kind.

Which sample of seed would it be best to purchase? Why?

23. Storage of Seed Corn.

Collect a hundred ears of corn in the fall before it has been frozen.
Store fifty in a dry moderately warm room. Leave the others in a corn-
crib. Ne.\t spring make a germination test of each sample.

COLLATERAL READING

Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. Farmers' Bulletin No. 260.

The Production of Good Seed Com. Farmers' Bulletin No. 229,
pp. 17-20.

The Farmer's Interest in Good Seed. Farmers' Bulletin No. 111.

Alfalfa Seed. Farmers' Bulletin No. 194.

The Advantages of Planting Heavy Cotton Seed. Farmers' Bul-
letin No. 286.

Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bulletin No. 186.

The School Garden. Farmers' Bulletin No. 218.

Forage and Fiber Crops in America. Pp. 15-23.

Cereals in America. Pp. 197-201.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Vol. I, pp. 131-152.

CHAPTER IV

PLANT FOOD

"I dropped a seed into the earth. It grew, and the plant was mine.
It was a wonderful thing, this plant of mine. I did not know its name,
and the plant did not bloom. All I know is that I planted something
apparently as lifeless as a grain of sand and that there came forth a
green and living thing, unlike the seed, unlike the soil in which it
stood, unlike the air into which it grew. No one could tell me why it
grew, nor how. It had secrets all its own, secrets that baffle the wisest
men; yet this plant was my friend. It faded when I withheld the light,
it withered when I neglected to give it water, it flourished when I sup-
plied its simple needs. One week I went away on a vacation, and
when I returned the plant was dead; and I missed it."l

56. Elements Required for Plant and Animal Growth.^

Of the seventy different chemical elements, only thirteen
are usually found in plants and animals. These elements
are:

Oxygen Calcium

Hydrogen Magnesium

Nitrogen Iron

Carbon Chlorin

Sulfur Sodium

Phosphorus Silicon

Potassium

Only the first ten of these are considered necessary
for plant growth, but the last three are always found in
plants, and may serve some useful purpose. Manganese
and one or two other elements occur, but are not essential.

'L. H. Bailey. Junior Naturalist Monthly. February, 1903.
*If the class has not studied chemistry, a few elementary lessons on
this subject should precede this chapter, see manual.

(60)

PLANT FOOD 61

Since all animals live on plants, either directly or in-
directly, they are composed of these same elements. The
salt and water that an animal uses only adds to the amount
of sodium, chlorin, hydrogen, and oxygen that the plants
furnish.

If any one of the first ten elements is lacking, the plant
.will die. Of some, very small quantities are required,
but this small amount is necessary. Many experiments
have been performed to test this. Plants have been grown
in distilled water to which all these elements but one
have been added. Fig. 51 shows such a wheat plant
which had all the elements of plant food except nitrogen.
The same results are obtained when an}' nine are fur-
nished, but the tenth omitted. The carbon is furnished
by the air, so that is not put into the water. The legumes
are also able to take nitrogen from the air under certain
conditions.

67. Sources of Plant Food. For a long time no one knew
where the plant got its food. Some argued that its food
• came from the air, and others thought it came from the
•soil. Only within the last fifty years has the question been
entirely answered. We now know that a plant secures
I its food from both the soil and the air, — the larger part
coming from the air.

Oxygen and hydrogen, chemically united in the form
of water, are taken up by the roots from the soil, but all
water comes indirectly from the air.

The carbon is obtained from the air by the leaves in
the form of carbon dioxid.

The nitrogen comes from the soil, except in the case
of legumes, which are able to take nitrogen from both

62

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the air and the soil (page 116). However, the ultimate
source of all nitrogen is from the air. The nitrogen of the
soil wus obtained from the air (pajje IIG).

58. Water, Dry Matter and Ash. If a plant is heated
for some time at a temperature a little above boiling,
the water is driven off. By weighing before and after
drying, the percentages of water and of dry matter are
determined. When the dry matter is heated very hot, a
part of it burns and leaves ash. The ash contains all the
potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, chlorin,
sodium and silicon of the plant, and some of the sulfur.
The ash, therefore, contains all the material that came

from the soil, except part of the
sulfur, and the nitrogen.

59. Relative Amounts of the
Different Elements in Plants.
Oxygen and hydrogen, chemi-
cally united in the form of
water, make up the largest part
of all growing plants. Turnips,
beets and pumpkins are about
nine-tenths water. They contain
a larger percentage of water than does milk. The per-
centage of water is much less in hay or grain, but few
plant products contain less than 10 per cent of water,
even when air-dry.

Hydrogen and oxygen ai^ also contained in other
compounds of the plant. In these compounds they make
up about 40 per cent of the dry matter.

Carbon is next in importance. About half of the dry
matter is carbon.

Fia. 37. Composition of the
potato: 1, Water; 2, compounds
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
chiefly starch; 3, nitrogen; 4, all
other elements

PLANT FOOD

63

Nitrogen sometimes makes as high as 4 per cent of the
dry matter.

No other element occurs in nearly so large an amount,
and the amount of most of them is very small indeed.
It may not require over a pound of iron to grow an acre
of hay, but this iron is absolutely necessary. How small
a part of the plant's substance is obtained from the
soil is shown by the following table. Only one pound in a
hundred of turnips comes from the solid matter of the soil,
and a little over 3 per cent of the grain of corn:

Proportions of Different Elements in Plants

Timothy
Hay

Water (hydrogen and oxygen)
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

in compounds

Nitrogen

All other elements

Com
Grain

Green Com
Fodder

Tumips

Per cent
10.6

86.1
1.6
1.7

Per cent
79.3

19.2
0.3
1.2

Per cent
90.5

8.5
0.2
0.8

Per cent
13.2

81.4
0.9
4.5

60. Elements Likely to Be Deficient in Soils. Since
ten elements are absolutely necessary for plant growth,
if any one of these does not occur in sufficient quantities,
the crop will suffer. Hydrogen and oxygen (in the form of
water), nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sometimes
calcium, are not always available in sufficient quantities
for the production of good crops. The other elements
are practically always present in abundance.

Water is most frequently the factor that limits the size
of the crop. It is increased or conserved by irrigation,
tillage and other farm operations.

61. Functions of the Different Elements. Some text-
books of botany mention iron as the element necessary

04

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

for formation of chlorophyll, but it is no more necessary
than phosphorus and magnesium, and probably all the
other elements have to do with it either directly or indirectly.
A farmer interprets a light green color as indicating a
lack of nitrogen, — not of iron. Plants that have an abun-
dance of manure, or nitrogenous fertilizers, are dark green,
while those that do not have enough nitrogen are light
green. An abundance of nitrogen promotes growth and
leafiness in plants. Too much nitrogen makes oats grow
so rapidly that they are likely to fall down, hence, manure
or nitrogen, in fertilizers, is not often
applied on oats. A shortage of phos-
phorus and potassium is more likely to
show in poorly filled seeds than in lack
of vigor of growth. But we cannot sep-
arate out one particular element and say
that it has one specific function and that
one only.

>

HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD

62. Root-Hairs. Germinate some oats
or clover seed as directed on page 51.
Examine the young roots for root-hairs.
The root is fairly covered with these
minute hairs, as in Fig. 38. These hairs
are not young roots. They are single-
celled tubes that absorb the soil solution.
Remove one of these seedlings, and see

how easily these root-hairs are destroyed when handled.

It would, of course, be very difficult to remove a plant

Fio. 38.
Root - hairs of a
radish. Thene aKsorb
most of the water
for the plant.

PLANT FOOD

65

from the soil without destroying them. The roots take

some part in absorbing the soil solution, but the root-
hairs do most of this work.

63. Osmosis. Tie a piece of parchment or a piece of

bladder over the end of a thistle tube. Fill this with a

strong solution of salt. Invert in water

so that the height of the water and the

solution are the same. Allow this to

stand for some time and observe the

result. The height of the water in the

tube rises above that outside the tube.

This shows that the water has passed

through the membrane more rapidly than

the ^alt__solution. The water passes

through the membrane more readily

than the denser solution.

Pare a potato and cut slices from it.

Place some of these in water and some

in a strong solution of salt. Examine

i in about an hour. The pieces in water

•, will be found very plump and rigid.

i This shows that water passes into the

I potato faster than the sap passes out of it. The pieces

Fig. 39.
Apparatus ready for
osmosis experiment to
8how_ how root -hairs
take in soil-water.

I in the salt solution will be flexible or wilted. This shows

that the concentrated salt solution did not pass into the
potato cells so fast as the cell sap was lost. The potato
"wilts" when immersed in salt solution.

VThe process of the interchange of fluids, either liquids
orfgases, through a membrane is called osmosis. Whenever
a plant or animal membrane separates two solutions, there
is an interchange of the two. The less dense the solution,

QQ ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the more rapidly the water passes through the membrane.
The solutions in the root-hairs are more dense than the
soil solutions, hence more water passes into the root than
passes out into the soil. If extremely strong fertilizer is
used, the soil solution may be so concentrated as to cause^
more water to leave the root than enters it. In this case,
the plant will wilt and may be killed. An excess of any
plant food in solution may thus kill plants. The alkali
soils of arid regions often contain so much soluble material
as to prevent the growth of plants.

Some of the cell sap does pass from the roots to the soil.
This cell-sap is slightly acid, so it helps to make more
of the material in the soil soluble. The acidity of a root
may be easily shown by pressing the root of a sprouting
seed against blue litmus paper.

If a plant were a dead thing, the solution in the cells
would eventually become of the same density as the soil
solution, so that the moisture would pass out of the roots
as rapidly as it passed into them. But the plant cells are
alive. The leaves are constantly using such of the materials
in the cell-sap as are needed for the manufacture of plant
tissues. They remove the surplus water by transpiration.

The transpiration keeps the cell-sap of the leaves and
upper parts of the plant densest, so that the balance
of osmotic movement is always upward.

The plant foods are not taken up as elements, but in
compounds. Nitrogen constitutes four-fifths of the at-
mosphere, but it is in the form of an element. No plant
can take up nitrogen except when it is combined with
other elements. It is taken up in soil solutions in the
form of nitrates. No solid particles can be taken up by

PLANT FOOD 67

the roots. Only soluble materials can pass through mem-
branes by osmosis.

64. Importance of Water. Water not only constitutes
about nine-tenths of the growing plant, but it acts as the

\£arrier of all the other food materials except the carbon.

The enormous amount of water that passes through a

plant in bringing the food from the soil was determined

in Wisconsin by King, and is shown in the following

table:

Amount of Water Lost by Transpiration and Evaporation for
Each Ton of Dry Matter in the Crop

Com 310 tons, equal to 2.64 inches rainfall

Red clover 453 tons, equal to 4.03 inches rainfall

Barley 393 tons, equal to 3.43 inches rainfall

Oats 522 tons, equal to 4.76 inches rainfall

Potatoes 423 tons, equal to 3.73 inches rainfall

In producing a ton of clover hay, which is 85 per cent
dry matter, 375 tons of water are lost by transpiration
and evaporation. It will be seen that oats require more
water than any other
crop, a fact that is
observed by farmers.

65. How the Plant
Gets Its Food from the
Air. Over half the
dry matter of a plant

is carbon. The small . ^S. '"'• Section of a leaf showing the

breathing pores and interoellular spaces. Ihe
amount of carbon di- ""^^ ^''^ •*■* «^hlorophyll grains.

oxid in the air, about three parts in ten thousand, fur-
nishes all the carbon. With the air, the carbon dioxid
passes into the intercellular spaces through the breathing
pores, stomata, of the leaves. (Fig. 40.) When it is in

58 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the intercellular spaces, it is still outside the cells where
the food is nianufacturetl. It passes through the cell-
walls by osmosis. Within the leaf cells the carbon is re-
moved and united with the nutrients brought up by the
roots to form starch and other plant foods. The surplus
oxygen passes back into the intercellular spaces by osmosis,
and thence through the breathing pores to the air.

THE MANUFACTURE OF FOOD MATERIALS

66. Carbohydrates. The most abundant food material
that is built up by the plant is starch. This is a compound
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CgHjQOg). Starch is
formed only in sunlight, and then only by green plants.
The chlorophyll plays an important part in its manufacture.

Starch is insoluble, and hence cannot move through the
cell walls. But the plant can readily change it to sugar
and other soluble substances, so that it can be transferred.
It can then be reconverted into starch. These changes
are independent of light. The starch formed in potato
leaves can be changed to sugar, transferred to the tubers
below ground, and there reconverted into starch. When these
tubers sprout the next year, the starch is again changed
to soluble compounds. All these compounds are carbo-
hydrates. Chemically, they are distinguished from other
compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in that they
contain the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the proportion
of two to one, — that is the proportion of water (H^O).
This is why they are^called hydrates. Some of the other
important foods that plants form are fats and protein.

67. Fats. The fats differ from starch and sugar in hav-

PLANT FOOD 69

ing a higher percentage of carbon. They are more con-
centrated than starch. When burned, one pound of fat
produces about two and one-fourth times as much heat
as is produced by a pound of starch or sugar. One pound
of fat is equal to about two and one-fourth pounds of
starch or sugar as a food for plants or animals.

68. Protein is a term used to cover a large number of
different compound^'. They all contain nitrogen. They
may be more properly called nitrogenous compounds.
They are chiefly composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen. Most of them contain phosphorus, sulfur
and other elements.

69. Plants the Only Source of These Foods. None of
these compounds can be made in any way except by plants.
A chemist cannot get the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
to unite, so as to form starch. Therefore, all animal life
depends on plant life.

70. Stored Food. The food that is stored in a plant is
nearly always in insoluble compounds, such as starch,
oils, insoluble forms of protein. In this form it is less
easily damaged.

71. Periods in the Life of a Plant. There are two rather
distinct periods in the life of a plant: (1) The period of
growth and formation of food; (2) the period of repro-
duction.

These stages are very marked in some plants, as
turnips, that grow and store up food during one season,
and that transfer the food to the seeds during the next
season, and then die.

With trees the stages are less marked. It is a well-
known fact among fruit-growers that' a good growth for

70 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the formation and development of buds is necessary for
a crop the following year. We grow much of the apple
crop the year before we pick it. Food is stored in the
twigs, so that the blossoms and fruit can have an avail-
able supply for growth in the following season.

One of the sure ways to kill any weed is to keep it cut
off, so that it cannot have green leaves for starch forma-
tion. It will eventually exhaust the stored food in the
roots and starve to death.

The asparagus crop is grown from food that was stored
in the roots the preceding year. Many growers of aspara-
gus fertilize the crop in the spring, thinking that it helps
that year's crop. But, since the plant is not allowed to
produce enough green top to prepare food, the fertilizer
can bring no good results the year that it is applied.
Field experiments have verified this conclusion. An
asparagus bed was divided into two plots of one-half
acre each. One-half was fertilized in the early spring
and one-half was not. The fertilized area yielded 460
pounds, and the unfertilized 448.^ But, when the crop
of the following year was measured, the fertilizer showed
a marked result. The time to fertilize the asparagus crop
is when cutting ceases, unless some material is used that
needs time to decay. The crop is grown and stored in
the roots the year before we harvest it.

Many plants are killed or seriously weakened by the
formation of seed. Rye is sometimes pastured during the
first summer, and allowed to go to seed during the second
year. But, if allowed to form seed the first year, it dies
as the seed ripens. Red clover is much weakened by form-

iDelaware Report 1902, p. 90.

PLANT FOOD 71

ing seed. The stand of clover is much better maintained
if the crop is cut for hay before the seed has ripened, unless
the stand is kept up by the growth of new plants from seed
that scatters in the field.

72. Effect of the Time of Harvesting on Composition.
Annual plants take up nearly all their nitrogen and min-
eral matter in their early stages of growth. But the starch
and other organic compounds are more largely accumu-
lated in the later stages. This is one reason why plants
require so much available food in the soil during the early
stages of growth. (See Fig. 90.)

When spring wheat is half grown, it contains about 85
per cent of the total nitrogen that is required for the crop,
and 75 per cent of the total mineral matter, but it con-
tains only 40 per cent of the organic compounds.

When clover is in full bloom, it contains as much dry
matter as when ripe, and more nitrogen and mineral ele-
ments. Slight amounts of these are returned to the soil
in the later stages.^

Any condition that checks the growth of plants before
maturity will, therefore, affect the composition of the crop.
If dry weather or a lack of food supply check the growth
of wheat, it will have a higher percentage of nitrogen and
a lower percentage of starch than if it matured naturally.

QUESTIONS

1. Why is the soil about a tree lifted?

2. How many tons of com, grain and stalks, is an average crop
per acre in your community? Assuming the Wisconsin figures to apply,
how many tons of water would be evaporated from the com leaves
on an acre?

'H. Snyder, Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life. Chapter 26.

72

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

3. Account for the sweet taste of germinating com.

4. ^Tiat difference in composition would you expect to find between
wheat of the semi-arid regions and of the humid regions? Why?

6. ^Miich most frequently limits the size of the crop in your com-
munity, water or one of the other plant foods?

7. Which would be better for feed, the straw of oats cut when
somewhat green or when ripe? Why?

8. P'ollowing a dew, a wilted plant often "freshens." Why?

9. ^^^ly should orchards be well cared for in the years when no crops
are borne?

10. ^^'hat allowance is made for water in buying ear com in the
early winter?

11. Wliy do stored potatoes shrink so much more than grain?

12. K.xplain the comparative effect of plants and animals on the
amount of carbon dioxid in the air.

13. Of two seeds the same size, one an oily seed and one a starchy
seed, which would probably grow more rapidly? Why?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

24. The Percentages of Water, Dry Matter and Ash in Plants.

Materials. — Balances weighing to centigrams, crucible or other
small dish that will stand heating, com grain, potatoes, some growing
plant.

Place each one in a weighed dish, heat a little above the boiling
temperature for one hour or more. If the school has a drying oven,
run it at 110° C. Weigh again, then bum by heating very hot and
weigh. Record the results as follows:

Weight of dish

Weight of dish and specimen

Weight of specimens

Weight of dried specimens. . .

Per cent of water

Per cent of dry matter

Weight of dish and ash ....

Weight of ash

Per cent of ash

LABORATORY EXERCISES 73

26. Osmosis.

Materials. — Potato, thistle tube, parchment paper, bladder, salt.
Perform the experiment described on page 65.

26. Root-Hairs.

Materials. — Comfwund microscope, roots of oats, clover or other
seeds germinated between blotters. (Page 64.)

Examine the root-hairs and make drawings of them. How many
celled are they? How do they differ from roots?

27. Stored Food in Twigs.

During the winter collect some branches of trees two or three feet
long. Place them in water, change the water occasionally. Note how
much growth takes place. AVhere did the food material come from?
What relation has this to orchard management?

28. Tests for Proteids.

Materials. — Nitric acid, ammonia, seeds.

All proteids (and a few other substances) are turned yellow by
nitric acid. This is why one's fingers are made yellow when working
with nitric acid in the laboratory. This yellow color becomes deeper
when moistened with ammonia.

Cut several cross sections of com, beans and other seeds. Make
the protein tests. WTiich part of the kernel of corn contains the most
protein? Do beans or com ap(>ear to contain the larger amount?

29. Tests for Starch.

Materials. — lodin solution, seeds.

Test com, beans and other seeds for starch. Which part of the
kemel of com contains most starch?

30. Microscopic Examination of Starch.

Materials. — Compound microscope, iodin solution, corn, potatoes,

etc.

Examine sections of com and potatoes. (X about 500.)

Make drawings of the starch grains. Compare the shapes and sizes

from different plants. Notice how the grains are arninged in the cells.

Add a drop of iodin solution to the different slides and note the

effect.

74 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

31. Starch in Leaves at Dififerent Times.

Collect leaves of plant-s in early spring and in late fall, preserve
in alcohol. Also collect leaves at daybreak and in the afternoon, and
preserve. Test each for starch. Explain the results.

COLLATERAL READING

Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, by Harry Snyder.

Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King.

Fertilizers, by E. B. Voorhees.

Elementary Exercises in Agriculture. Office of Experiment Sta
tions, Bulletin No. 186, pp. 17-26.

A Secondary Course in Agronomy. OflBce of Experiment Stations,
Circular No. 77, pp. 25-26.

CHAPTER V .

THE SOIL

"Fill a flower-pot with soft, dark earth and mold from the border
of the wood, and carry it to the student of entomology and see if he
can name one-half of the living forms of this little kingdom of life; or
hand it to the botanist, well trained in the lower orders of plants, and
see how many of the living forms which these few handfuls of dirt
contain he can classify. Present this miniature farm to the chemist
and the physicist, and let them puzzle over it. Call in the farmer, and
ask him what plants will thrive best in it; or keep the soil warm and
moist for a time, and have the gardener say of the tiny plants that
appear as by magic, which are good and which are bad. Mark what
all these experts have said, and call in the orchardist to tell you how
to change dead, lifeless, despised earth into fruit; ask the physiologist
to explain how sodden earth is transformed into nerve and brain."!

73. What Soil Is. Many persons look upon soil as "dirt"
— something to be avoided. It is almost invariably thought
of as a dead thing; but it is teeming with life, and is full
of activities of the most complex and interesting kinds.

The almost universal idea of soil is that it is a collec-
tion of small particles of rock that have been made fine
by the process of weathering. Man}^ books give this as
the origin of soil. No crop could grow on a soil composed
entirely of rock particles. An agricultural soil is made
up of:

(1) Small rock particles.

(2) Soil water.

(3) Soil air.

'Roberts' "The Fertility of the Land," p. 1.
(76)

70 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

(4) Decaying organic matter.*

(5) Living organisms.

There are very few soils that are capable of producing
crops that do not have all these constituents. About the
only exception is the class of soils that do not contain
rock fragments. Muck contains little such material. Nearly
all of its solid matter is made up of organic material. It
is one of the most valuable soils for growing celery,
onions, and some other crops.

A soil that is very deficient in water, air, living organ-
isms, or decaying organic matter, will not produce good
crops.

ROCK PARTICLES

74. Amounts of Mineral Matter. The rock particles
in most soils make up G5 to 95 per cent of the weight. The
organic matter usually constitutes 2 to 5 per cent. Most
of the remaining weight is water. The mineral matter
furnishes the solid food. It also acts as a reservoir for
holding the water. In the study of geography, we have
learned how the particles of rock have become so small.
The size of the particles has very much to do with the
value of the land.

75. How the Size of Particles is Determined. If a soil
is thoroughly shaken up with water and then allowed
to settle a few minutes, the larger particles will be sepa-
rated out. The rily water can be poured off and allowed
to settle for a longer period, when the next larger particles
will have settled to the bottom. If the rily water is again

'Organic matter is any material that is, or once was, an organism, or
Jiving thing, such as coal, wood, sugar, straw, manure, etc.

THE SOIL

77

m

Fine Coarse Medium Fine Very tine Silt ^'^'jL

Kravel sand sand sand sand 17.5 % 14.3 %

1.3% 3.3% 4.3% 37.8% 21.3%

Fia. 41. Composition of a fine sandy loam

poured off, we shall have the soil separated into three sizes
of particles. Any number of divisions can be made in this
manner.^

The finest soil particles are called clay, the next small-
est silt. The larger particles are different grades of sand
and gravel. The following table shows the mechanical
analyses of three important soil types as separated by
the Bureau of Soils:

^The common method of making the separation is to put the samples
of soil in bottles of water, and shake for a day in a shaking machine. This
separates the particles that are stuck together. A centrifugal machine is
used to aid in making the separations, as it Ls more rapid than waiting for
the particles to settle. The material is usually separated into three grades
by means of water. The sands are further separated by means of sieves.

Iji

(Vianie
Hand

0.3'X>

Medium Fine

sand Hand

0.4% 1.5%

Fin. 42. Composition of a clay loam

78 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Mechanical Analyses op Three Important Soiii Types^

Diameter of
Particles

Norfolk Sand

Miami Silt
Loam

Wabash Qay

SoU

Subsoil

SoU

Subsoil

SoU

SubsoU

Fine gravel . . .
Coarse sand . . .
Medium sand. .

Fine sand

Very fine sand..
Silt

mm.
2-1
1-0.5

0.5-0.25

0.25-0.10

0.10-0.05

0.05-0.005

0.005-0

%

3

15

22

38

10

8

4

%

3

16

21

37

9

8

5

%
0

1

1

2

8

73

15

%
0

71
19

%
0
1

1

3

7
49
37

%
0
0

1

3

18
48

Clay

40

The Norfolk sand is one of the leading truck soils of
the Atlantic coast. A large part of the vegetables for
eastern cities are grown on this soil. The Miami silt loam
is one of the leading types of soil in the "corn belt" of
the Central West. The Wabash clay occurs along many of
the river bottoms. It is used for corn, oats, cotton, and
hay. Compare the analyses of these three soils and the
crops grown.

76. How Soils Are Named. The soils that contain a
large proportion of the finest particles are called clay.
At the other extreme we have sands and gravels. Soils
that are intermediate in texture are called loams. Those
with a large proportion of silt particles, and not too much
clay, are called silt-loams. These words are joined to de-
scribe intermediate types. There are gravelly loams,
sandy loams, fine sandy loams, clay loams, etc. Since
many soils as thus named are very different in other
respects, the Bureau of Soils prefixes another name to

•Soil Survey Field Book, lOOfi. Biiroau of Soils.

THE SOIL 79

distinguish them. These names are usually names of
towns near which the soils are first mapped.^

The local names used in any community are often
misleading. In a region where nearly all the soils are
sandy, a loam soil is usually called a clay; while, in regions
where most of the soils are heavy clays, the same loam
is Ukely to be called sandy.

Soils are also named in many other ways. Glacial soils
are those that were formed as a result of glaciation, or the
passage of the great ice sheet that once covered part of
America. They occur in northern and eastern United
States.

Arid soils are those that do not receive a sufficient
amount of rainfall to produce regular crops without irri-
gation. They occur in the western half of the United
States. Humid soils are those that receive sufficient
rainfall to produce crops.

77. Importance of the Size of Soil Particles. The size
of the soil particles influences the water-holding power
of the soil, the amount of food that can be dissolved for
plant use, the ease of movement of air and water, the
growth of organisms in the soil, and the crop-producing
power.

78. Relation of Size of Particles to Water. The rock
particles of the soil can hold water on their surfaces only,
hence the water-holding power of the soil increases when
the surface area of the particles is increased.

Dip a pebble in water and a film of water will remain
on it when it is removed. Wipe the pebble and the water
will be gone, because no water has soaked into it. If such

'Soil ina[>H are ba.sed largely on the size of the particles, but origin,
topography, agricultural value, and other factors, are considered.

80 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

a pebble is ])roken in two, it will have more surface area.
It can now hold more water. The finer the material is
broken, the more surface there will be, and the more water
it will hold.

The finest soil particles are extremely small — less than
four hundred-thousandths of an inch in diameter. The total
surface area in a cubic foot of such material would be very
great. Such fine particles do not always act as individ-
uals in holding water, some of the particles usually stick
together. A cubic foot of soil grains having a diameter
of one -thousandth of an inch (coarse silt) would have
a surface area of 37,700 square feet. Four feet in depth
of such a soil would have a water-holding surface of not
less than 3.4 acres for each column of soil with one square
foot of surface area.'

The water capacity of a soil is the amount of water
that it will hold when all the free water is allowed to
drain out. Some clay soils will retain about 40 per cent
of water, that is, 100 pounds of soil may retain 40 pounds
of water. A cubic foot of clay weighs about 80 pounds
and could, therefore, hold about 32 pounds of water.
Sandy soils may have a water capacity as low as 5 per
cent.

Plants cannot remove all the water from a soil. They
die for lack of water long before the soil is absolutely dry.
They can use a larger proportion of the water from a sandy
soil than from a clay. King found that in a sandy soil
whose water capacity was 18 per cent, corn was able to
reduce the water to 4.17 per cent. In a clay soil whose
capacity was 26 per cent, it succeeded in using the water

•King, The SoU, p. 73.

THE SOIL 81

down to 11.79 per cent.^ In this case, the sandy soil
had actually been able to furnish more water for the
growth of corn than had the clay.

79. Relation of Size of Particles to Plant Food. The
rock particles are very slowly soluble. Soil water can act
on the surface of the particles only. Since smaller par-
ticles have more surface for a given volume of soil, they
are able to furnish plant food more rapidly. The finer
soils are usually more fertile, but are less easily managed.

80. Relation of the Size of Soil Particles to Air. About
half the volume of a dry soil is air; that is, a cubic foot
of such soil contains about half a cubic foot of air. The
small particles of which a clay is composed do not pack
so closely as do the larger sand particles, because they are
lighter. Therefore, there is more pore space in clay than
in sand. But the spaces in a sandy soil are larger, so that
the air moves more freely; hence, such a soil is better
aerated.

81. Size of Particles in Relation to Temperature. The
temperature of the soil is influenced by its color, topog-
raphy, humus content, and by several other factors
But the chief factor is the water capacity.

It requires about 20 heat units to raise the tempera-
ture of 100 pounds of dry soil 1° Fahr. To raise the tem-
perature of the same weight of water 1° Fahr. requires
100 heat units. But the effect of water is most striking
when it evaporates. To evaporate 100 pounds of water
requires 966.6 heat units. This explains why wet soils
are always cold soils. Clay soils are cold chiefly because
of the large amount of water that evaporates from them.

»King, The Soil, p. 161.

F

g2 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

King took the temperature of a well-drained, sandy Iqam
and of a black marsh soil on five successive days, and
found the sandy soil to average 7.5° Fahr. warmer, — a
difference sufficient to have a very decided effect on crops.
It is easy to see why gardeners desire a sandy soil for
early truck crops. Few crops begin growth until the soil
has a temperature of 45° to 50° Fahr. The best growth
does not usually take place until the temperature is about
70° Fahr. Different crops differ much in the heat required.
Some, like grasses, oats, onions, peas, will grow before
the soil is warm enough for corn, beans, cucumbers, etc.

82. Size of Soil Particles and Crop Adaptation. The
size of soil particles affects all the soil activities, and con-
sequently must affect the crops that grow on the soils.
Timothy will thrive on a heavy, clay soil on which
apples, corn, and potatoes will give very poor returns.
The sandy soils that are best for market-garden crops
will raise very little timothy or wheat. Whitney states
that a gram of soil contains two to twenty billion soil
particles. He gives the following as the number of soil
particles per gram of soils adapted to different crops:

Early truck 1,955,000,000

Truck and small fruit 3,955,000,000

Tobacco 6,780,000,000

Wheat 10,228,000,000

Grass and wheat 14,735,000,000

No person can comprehend such figures as these, but
the comparison is the valuable point. The table shows
how much coarser the truck soils are than the wheat
soils. (See, also, page 78.)

83. Relation of Labor and Soil. Even if the clay soils
would produce good truck crops, they would not be de-

THE SOIL

83

sirable for truck-growers, because they are so difficult
to work. For any crop that requires so much labor, one
should have a soil that is easy to work.

Sandy soils and other well-drained soils are not only
easier to till, but the number of days on which they can
be worked is much greater. Such soils can be tilled early
in the spring and can be tilled quickly after rains. If one
has a clay soil, he must spend much more time waiting
for it to dry out. Hence, he cannot farm so large an area.
For many kinds of farming, the ease with which soil may
be tilled is of more importance than its fertility.

84. The Best Soils. The great advantages of clay soils
are that they usually retain their fertility well, and will
produce good grass. For
general farm purposes,
the medium- textured
soils, sandy loams, loams
and silt loams, are to
be preferred. They are
fairly easy to work and
are adapted to a wide
range of crops. For per-
manent pastures and
meadows, the clay soils
are usually preferable.

86. Flocculation.
When a silt or clay soil
is in good condition,
many of the particles are united into compound par-
ticles. Such a soil is flocculated. Good management of
such a soil consists very largely in maintaining this

Fio. 43. A clay loam soil as it appeared
in the spring after having been worked too
fine in the fall. Same soil as Fig. 42.

g4 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

granulated condition. If such a soil is worked while wet,
and if it then dries, it will be greatly injured, sometimes
so much lus to damage the crops for several years.
Working a clay soil when wet makes "bricks" of it. The
crust that is formed on the surface of soil after rains is
due to the breaking down of compound particles.

If such a soil is too finely pulverized, it "runs together"
and bakes because the granules have been broken up. (See
Fig. 43.)

The relative fineness of the soil is called its texture,
just as the word is used in speaking of the texture of cloth.
If a soil is composed of very small particles that are floc-
culated, it may yet be of a coarse structure. Structure
refers to the arrangement of soil particles. If the small
particles are united, it is possible to have a soil of fine tex-
ture and coarse structure.

SOIL WATER

86. Importance of Soil Water. In an agricultural
sense, the most important use of soil is to act as a store-
house for water. The productiveness of a soil is limited
by the amount of water that the soil can hold, and by the
extent to which growing crops are able to remove the
water. The soil water is important, not only because it
is the chief plant food, but because it acts as a carrier of
all the other plant foods that come from the soil (page
Of)).

Soil water is very different from rain water. It con-
tains all the plant foods in solution. The solution is very
dilute, but plants use a large amount of it. Plants will

SOIL WATER 85

grow in well-water or water from a tile drain, if it is
renewed often enough. Such water is free soil water.

87. Movement of Water in Soil. The chief ways in
which water exists in the soil are as film water and as
free water. The particles can hold a certain amount of
water on their surfaces, just as one's hands remain wet
when removed from water. Only a limited amount can
be held in this way. If too much water is present, it will
drop off. If more water is present in the soil than can be
held as film moisture, it will fill the pore spaces between
the particles. If there is an outlet, the free water will
drain away and leave the film or capillary water.

88. Conservation of Moisture. The free water moves
downward by gravity. The capillary water can move in
any direction, because the force of adhesion between
the soil particles and the water is strong enough to lift
water, just as oil is lifted in a lamp-wick. After a heavy
rain the soil may be filled with water. Gradually the
free water drains away and leaves capillary water only.
The surface soil loses some of its water by evaporation.
This leaves it drier than the soil below. Some of the water
of the lower layer of soil is then drawn up by capillarity
to take its place, just as more oil is drawn up in the lamp-
wick when that at the end of the wick is removed by burn-
ing. In this way the water may be removed from the soil
very rapidly, particularly when the weather is dry, warm
and windy. ^

If there is not an abundance of rainfall, it is desirable
to stop this movement of water to the surface to be evap-

'Watcr also evaporates within the soil into the soil air. There is a
constant movement of this air in and out of the soil, so that this aids in
drying a soil.

86

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

orated. Any loose mulch, like straw, on the surface of
the soil will accomplish this purpose. The capillary water
moves very slowly through dry soil, so that one of the

M^^yfiS^^y,

^H^^r^f •

>■■■

Fio. 44. Footprints kept moist and dark-colored by the rise of
capillary water

best methods for preventing the evaporation is to form
a dust mulch on the surface. One of the great benefits
of cultivation is the formation of this dust mulch. When
possible, the soil should be cultivated after every rain as
soon as it is in proper condition for working. This culti-
vation will break up the crust, break the capillary connec-
tion, and prevent much of the evaporation. At the same
time it leaves the soil in a loose condition, ready for the
absorption of the next rain.

When a moist soil is stirred, evaporation will first be
increased, but as the loose soil becomes dry it acts as a

Flo. 45. A foot print. The particles are kept closer together and therefore
hasten the rise of water

mulch to check evaporation. Hence, if rains are frequent,
cultivation may keep the soil drier.

In most of the United States, the rainfall during the
growing months is not sufficient for the production of

SOIL WATER 87

maximum crops. In the northern part of the country,
this is particularly true during July and August. The
tillage of the soil is therefore of great importance, as a
means of absorbing and retaining as much water as pos-
sible for use during the months when the demand for water
is so great.

When seeds are planted, it is very often desirable to
increase evaporation, so that the seeds that are near the
surface will be kept moist by the water as it rises to the
surface. This is accomplished by packing the ground over
the seeds by rolling the
field, or by packing it
over the row only, as is
done by a corn planter.
(See Figs. 44, 45, 46.) The
packing makes the pore
spaces smaller so that
the capillary movement of

, ... • Fig. 46. A roller. Crushes clods and packs

the water will be more the surface so as to keep the seed moist at
rftnirl the expense of increased evaporation.

89. Dry-Land Farming. Two-fifths of the United States
is too dry to raise good crops without irrigation. (See Fig.
47.) Few crops can be grown successfully without twenty
or more inches of rainfall. In the past few years, consid-
erable attention has been given to a system of farming
that attempts to save all the rainfall of one or more years
for the use of a crop during the growing season. In this
way, the rainfall of two years can be used for the produc-
tion of one crop. Sometimes two crops are grown in three
years. In this system, the land is kept tilled during the
year when there is no crop, so that the rainfall may be

88

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

>- ''

Fio. 47. Annual rainfall in the United States. Areas receiving less than twenty
inches cannot be farmed by ordinary methods unless irrigated

quickly absorbed, and so that evaporation may be checked
as far as is possible. Fair crops of wheat have thus been
grown every other year with only twelve inches of rain-
fall annually.

Irrigation

90. Areas Requiring Irrigation. As stated above, two-
fifths of the United States is too dry to produce regular
crops without irrigation. If all the water that falls in this
area were used for irrigation, only about one-tenth of
the land could be irrigated. The total area now irrigated
is about 10,000,000 acres. This is a little over one-thou-
sandth of the arid area. Evidently we must ever have
much arid land that is fit only for grazing, and large tracts
will always be too dry for any agricultural use. The im-
portance of saving all the water is apparent.

SOIL WATER 89

The early irrigation enterprises were very wasteful
of water, but more care is now coming to be exercised.
There are three sources of serious loss of water: losses
at seasons of the year when the water in the streams can-
not all be used, seepage from canals, and over-irrigation.
These losses may be decreased by building reservoirs,
and by using more care in constructing canals, and in
applying water.

91. Storage Reservoirs. During a part of the year, the
rivers carry enough water to irrigate much more land than
can be supplied through the summer months. The flow
of the Nile in September is thirty-five times that of June.
To hold back a part of this water, the English built the
Assuan reservoir, which extends up the Nile for a hundred
miles.

Forests in the mountains serve to hold back the water
and so distribute it through the season. But reservoirs
are also necessary. In India, 9,500,000 acres are irrigated
from reservoirs, — an area equal to about five times the
area of improved farm land in New Jersey.

The United States Government is now building large
reservoirs for storing irrigation water. The projects now
approved provide for the irrigation of 1,909,000 acres,
located in fourteen states. The total cost is estimated
to be $34,270,000, or about $18 per acre. The land thus
reclaimed is sold to settlers, so that it more than pays
the cost of the reservoirs and canals. The money can be
used over again for irrigation of more land. After all
the present reservoirs are completed, we shall have only
one-fifth as large an area irrigated from them as is thus
irrigated in India.

90 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

92. Seepage from Canals. Over half the water turned
into canals in the United States is lost before it reaches \
the fields. In India, 47 per cent is lost from many canals.*
Some of this loss is due to evaporation, but most of it is
due to seepage. If the water carries considerable silt,
the losses are less. Silt is one of the greatest factors in
making canals water-tight. Care in canal construction
will also save considerable water.

Seepage not only causes a loss of water, but it often
injures large areas of land, because of the deposits of
alkali by the water, or because of the rise of alkali with
the evaporation of the water.

93. Over-Irrigation. This not only wastes water, but
the excessive amounts are a detriment to crops. It also
aids in spoiling the land by making the accumulation of
alkali more rapid. It is more profitable to use moderate
amounts of water and follow by tillage to prevent evap-
oration.

94. Alkali. In arid regions, very little of the water 'I
drains away as it does in humid regions. Nearly all the
water evaporates from the soil. The water contains i

> small amounts of salts in solution and these are left by '
evaporation. The process is similar to the formation of
salt lakes. The best remedy is drainage. By under-draining
the land and flooding it, the salts may be carried away
with the water. Some soils have such good natural under-
drainage that artificial drainage is not necessary. If the
land is flooded without drainage, the water sinks into the
soil, and, as it rises, brings with it more alkali to be left
near the surface.

'Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, p. 422.

SOIL WATER 91

Drainage

95. Best Amotint of Water. Water is the most im-
portant plant-food, — the one that most frequently limits
the crops of the world. It is also the plant-food that
frequently causes injury by appearing in too large quan-
tities.

For the best growth of x;rops, the water content of
the soil should be maintained at about 50 to 60 per cent
of the water capacity of the soil. (Laboratory Exercise,
page 107.) If there is either much more or much less
water, the growth of the plant is injured. Commonly the
soil is saturated with water during the early part of the
season, and later becomes too dry, so that the crop is
injured by both extremes.

96. Harmful Eflfects of Too Much Water. The most
serious result of having too much water in the soil is the
exclusion of air, which is essential for plant growth and
for the activities of the soil organisms (page 97). It also
prevents plant roots from growing deeply into the soil,
makes the soil cold and delays farm work. Since farjn
work cannot be done at the proper time, weeds are more
likely to obtain a foothold. Wet land is nearly always
weedy land.

97. All Soils Require Drainage. If a soil is not drained,
the excess of water will prevent the growth of crops.
Or, if there is no excess of water, salts and acids will ac-
cumulate to such an extent as to kill crops, as in the case
of alkali and marsh soils. Fortunately a very large pro-
portion of the farm land is underlain by porous subsoil,
so that drainage takes place naturally. Whenever the

92 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

natural drainage is not sufficient, artificial drainage has
to be resorted to.

Much of the sandy land on the Atlantic coast is too
well drained. The soil is so open that truck growls often
say that the rain falls faster after it strikes the soil than
it did in the air. This region also contains the other ex-
treme of marshes that are useless because too wet. Most
farm lands lie l)etween these extremes. There are some
farms that need a complete system of tile drains^ placed
30 to 1(X) feet apart, l^ut for each farm that needs so com-
plete a system of drainage there arc many that need par-
tial drainage. Probably the majority of farms east of the
Mi.s.souri river have one or more wet places that would
be improved by tile drainage or surface ditches. The
necessity for drainage depends much on the crop to be
raised. Hay and pasture may do well on land that is so
wet as to ruin corn and potatoes.

98. Effects of Tile Drainage During Drought. At first
thought, we should expect that tile drainage would make
the land drier during a dry time, and so cause plants
to suffer from drought. As a matter of fact, exactly the
opposite occurs. Tile drains remove the excess of
water during periods of rainfall, so that the plant roots
deeply. The roots are then deep enough to endure a con-
siderable drought. The roots will actually be in more
moist soil as a result of the drains, and will have a much
larger amount of soil from which to draw water. The
shallow-rooted plants in undrained soil are the first to
suffer from drought.

'Tiles are hollow tubes about a foot long. They are made of clav and
are burned like brick. They are laid end to end about two to four feet below
the siirface of the ground.

SOIL WATER 93

99. Kinds of Drains. The most universal kind of drains
are the surface ditches. These are useful in many cases,
but are not so desirable as under-drains where the latter
can be used. Surface drains that are to be permanent
should usually be made with sloping sides, so that they
can be driven across. Stone under-drains are often made
in regions where the land is stony. They require much
more time for construction than tile drains. At the present
relative prices of tile and labor it is probable that tiles
are cheaper than stone. Poles and many other devices
have been employed.

100. Laying Tile Drains. The method of laying drains
can be learned from books, or better by seeing it done,
or best by doing it. There are a few points that are often
neglected.

The tile should be hard-burned and should not be too
small. It is doubtful whether tile smaller than three-inch
should ever be used. Some manufacturers in Illinois —
the state that uses the most tile — do not make any tile
smaller than four inches. Their experience is that farm-
ers who use these sizes are so well pleased as to buy more,
while those who use the smaller sizes are less likely to
be satisfied. It is much more difficult to lay small tile
accurately, and they are much more likely to get out of
place. A slight movement is sufficient to break the connec-
tion of the openings. The small tile are more likely to fill up.
If possible, the lower part of the line of tile should have
a steeper fall than the upper part, so as to guard against
filling up with silt. For the same reason, the outlet should
always be above standing water.

A map of the farm showing the location of drains should

94 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

always be kept. This will make it easier to locate any
tile that fills up. It will also make it possible to lay ad-
ditional tiles in the proper places.

101. Drainage as a Government Problem. Aside from
the problem of drainafj;e on the individual farms, there
are many large swamp areas that can be reclaimed by co-
operative effort. Professor Shaler estimates that there
are over 3,000,000 acres of reclaimable sea-coast marsh
land along the Atlantic coast of the United States. The
draining of such land is a problem for the United States
and state governments, just as is the irrigation of arid
regions. It is probable that such lands could be sold for
much more than the cost of drainage. The drainage of
these areas will not only add to the amount of good farm
land, but it will make the coast cities much more healthful.

SOIL AIR

102. Importance of Soil Air. Most soils are about
half pore space. That is, a cubic foot of dry soil would
contain about half a cubic foot of air. As the water in
soils increases the amount of air decreases, so that in a
saturated soil there is very little air. Soil air is just as
e.ssential for the growth of farm crops as air is for animals.
If water excludes all air from the soil, the crops will drown
just as surely, if not so quickly, as a person drowns in water.
There are some marsh plants that can grow in standing
water, and rice can do so, but the usual farm crops would
utterly fail under such conditions. Even rice requires
some air in the soil, as do the submerged seaweeds, but
in this case they are able to get air from the water.

ORGANIC MATTER OF THE SOIL 95

Aside from its direct use to crops, soil air is essential
in several indirect ways. When air is excluded from the
soil, the beneficial soil organisms cease to be active. It
is from the air in the soil that these organisms and the
leguminous plants secure free nitrogen for the use of crops.
Not only does the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen cease
when air is excluded from the soil, but under these con-
ditions the organisms that break down nitrogen com-
pounds are very active, so that the nitrogen that was
fixed is lost by being returned to the air. One of the first
effects of having the soil too wet is the yellowing of the
leaves. This appears to be due to the lack of nitrogen.

Some soils are too well aerated, just as some are too
well drained. Usually it is the same soils in each case.

ORGANIC MATTER OF THE SOIL

103. The Uses of Humus. All productive soils contain
decaying roots, leaves and animal life. This partly decayed
organic matter is called humus. It is the humus that
gives soils their dark color. Humus is necessary for the
growth of good crops. Plants may be grown in fine sand
if all the plant-food elements are supplied. Under field*
conditions, humus is necessary if these foods are to be
supplied for the successful production of crops.

Humus has many functions in soils. It increases the
water-holding power, which is particularly important on
sandy land. It loosens heavy soil and promotes aera-
tion, which are of special importance on clay soils. It
furnishes food for bacteria. These, acting on the humus,
change nitrogen to nitric acid so that it is ready for

QQ ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

plant food. As humus decays, it also liberates carbon
dioxid (carbonic acid gas). This acts on the minerals
of the soil, making them soluble and ready for plant use.
Another extremely important function of humus is that
it encourages the growth of the bacteria that fix free
nitrogen from the soil air, rendering it available as a plant-
food. Dark-colored soils usually contain considerable
humus. Such soils are usually fertile.

The more air in the soil, the more rapidly the humus
is decomposed. If a soil is saturated with water, the oxi-
dation practically stops and organic matter accumulates.
-This is the way that peat and muck are formed. For
crop-production, a moderate rate of decomposition is to
be preferred. If too rapid, the supply is exhausted; if too
slow, the plant does not receive enough food.

104. Humus of Arid and Humid Soils. In humid regions
the soil is usually much darker colored than in the arid
regions. The surface soil is much darker than the subsoil
because of the presence of more humus. In arid regions
the soils are so well aerated that the organic matter is
rapidly decomposed, leaving no difference in color of soil
and subsoil. The subsoils in humid regions are not very
productive, but in arid regions there is not much difference
between soil and subsoil. This is a great convenience,
for it makes it possible to level fields for irrigation.

Some analyses have shown that, on an average, there
is about four times as much humus in humid soils as in
arid ones. At first thought, this would indicate a lack of
nitrogen in arid regions. But the humus in arid regions
is so much richer in nitrogen that the total amount present l
is not much less.

LIFE IN THE SOIL 97

LIFE IN THE SOIL

106. Importance of Soil Organisms. As we have seen,
soil is not a dead thing. It is much more than a collection
of rock particles. It is teeming with life. Without this
life the soil would never have been able to produce farm
crops. If all the Uving things in the soil should die, the
soil would soon fail to produce crops. Keeping the soil
productive is very largely a matter of keeping these
organisms thrifty. The roots and stems of plants furnish
food for the bacteria and molds. The waste products
furnish food for other bacteria. Eventually, the food is
in a form available for crops to use again. So the material
is worked over and over again. Any break in the link
will affect all of the chain. If the organisms do not decom-
pose the roots and stems properly, the new crops will
suffer. If there is not enough humus in the soil, the bac-
teria suffer and crops are immediately affected.

Earthworms serve a useful purpose in the soil by help-
ing to break down the organic matter. They also do much
good by making the soil porous. A soil that is full of earth-
worms is nearly always fertile.

The molds help in breaking down the organic matter,
particularly the woody matter; but the most important
forms of life in the soil are the microscopic organisms,
yeasts and bacteria.

106. Soil-Bacteria are very minute living things, — far too
small to be seen with the naked eye. They are so small that
they have to be magnified 500 to 1 ,000 times before they
can be seen with a microscope. (See Fig. 48.) On an average,
it takes about 25,000 bacteria placed end to end to meas-

<)S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

ure an inch. Of the very smallest ones, it takes about 150,-
000 to measure an inch. The small size of the bacteria
is more than maile up by the rapidity with which they
multiply. They reproduce by sim-
ple division, one individual divides
into two. This division may take

Fio. 48. The r)f)int of the "'

finest cambric needle. A par- place every fifteen to thirty min-

ticle of (lust alx)ve the point i ^ •'

an.i a inas.s of bacteria below. ^^^^^ under favorablc couditions.
If each divides into two every quarter of an hour, there
will be an immense number of them at the end of a
day, even if there were only one in the morning. The
limit of food supply and other conditions prevent this
rapid multiplication from continuing.

Bacteria of many kinds are present in all soils, ranging
from less than 28,000,000 per ounce of soil to many times
this number. In fertile soils like gardens there are many
billions per ounce. In a fertilizing experiment in New
Jersey it was found that the plots that gave the greatest
yields of asparagus also contained most bacteria. Often
there is a relationship between the number and kind of
soil-bacteria and fertility.

Bacteria may seem to be too small to be of much con-
sequence, but they are far from unimportant. We know
how many contagious diseases are caused by bacteria,
so that we must recognize their power. Perhaps you have
come to look upon all bacteria as harmful, — things to
be avoided. But, while certain ones cause tuberculosis,
diphtheria and lock-jaw, many other kinds are useful
to us. Bacteria are microscopic plants. We should look
on them as we do on other plants. Some plants, as corn
and cotton, are useful; others, like poison ivy, are to be

IJFE IN THE SOIL 99

avoided. Probably we could not live were it not for the
activities of the useful bacteria and yeast plants.

"The different chemical changes produced by soil-
bacteria are quite numerous. Some kinds are specialized
for one series of changes, others for changes of a different
sort. Some will attack by preference carbohydrates like
starch or sugar, some will decompose woody tissue, some
will cause the decay of proteins, some of fats, etc. This
division of labor allows an effective decomposition of
humus. Various gases and acids are produced in the
course of decay, and help to decompose the rock particles
in the soil and to render the mineral plant-food contained
in them available. The insoluble protein compounds in
the roots and stubble are broken down and their nitrogen
changed partly to ammonia. The particles of ammonia,
as they are thus generated by bacteria of many kinds,
are at once pounced upon by a special class of germs
whose function it is-to change the ammonia into nitrate.
Thanks, therefore, to the activities of many species of
bacteria, the nitrogen locked up in the humus and in
green manure is transformed gradually into nitrate, and
is then quite suitable for the building of roots, stems,
leaves and fruits."'

An equally important function of soil-bacteria is the
fixation of free nitrogen from the air. This subject will
be treated under Nitrogen in the next chapter.

'New .Jersey, Hulletin Xo. 211, j). 19.

100 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

QUESTIONS

1. How are soils formed?

2. How do the soil particles become small?

3. Do stones "grow"? Why, then, are there more large onea to be
picke<l from stony lan<l every few years?

4. Which fall faster in the air or water, large particles or small
ones of the same material? Why? Describe the material in the bed
of a stream in its upper, middle and lower courses. Wliy this difference?
Why do raindrops fall faster than the fog?

5. What soil maps has the Bureau of Soils made in your state?
From these can you identify any of the soils in your region?

6. What is the relative surface area of a one-foot cube of stone and
of the same stone divided into one-inch cubes?

7. What is the name of the force that holds the film of water on
a piece of glass? What liquid does not stick to glass?

8. Why docs wet clay stick to one's shoes?

9. How did the Jews make brick in Egypt? Would a dry soil make
brick? Apply these principles to tillage.

10. Wliat is the difference in taste of well water and rain water?
Why?

11. How often should house plants be watere<l? How much should
be applied each time?

12. Which is better, to water a flower-bed a little every day, or
to give it more water less frequently? Why?

13. ^\1lat crops of your region will grow best in wet seasons or on
wet lands? ^^^lich ones will stand more drought?

14. Wliat has Holland done to increase the area of farm land?
How productive is this soil?

15. What human diseases would be decreased if our marshes were
drained? Why?

16. What is a "dead furrow"? Why so named?

17. ^^^lat is the difference in color of hillsides and bottom-land
soils? Why?

18. If a bacterium divided into two every fifteen minutes, how
many would there be at the end of four hours? How many at the end
of a day?

19. What makes bread rise?

20. Where does a fence-post rot most rapidly? Why?

21. The statement is sometimes made that "tillage is manure."
Why?

LABORATORY EXERCISES 101

22. Account for the bubbles that come from a kettle before it
begins to boil. What relation has this to water-plants? To fishes?

23. Which is heavier, sand or clay? ^\'^ly do farmers call a clay soil
"heavy"?

24. (For classes that have chemistry.) The red and yellow colors
of soil are usually due to iron compounds. Ferric compounds cause
the red colors; ferrous compounds cause the yellow colors. Why do
some red soils have yellow subsoils? Explain the formation of red
brick from yellow clay. "VVTiat would you conclude of the aeration
of a soil that has a mottled subsoil?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

32. Origin of Soils.

Field Lesson. — If the following points have not been studied in
Physical Geography, one or more field trips should be devoted to them:
Geological origin of the soils of the region. Evidences of this origin
seen in the field trip. Find a rounded pebble; what rounded it? Find
a "rotten" stone or a place where a rock is covered by a disintegrat-
ing rock; explain. Is the farm land rolling? Account for the low places.
What part has the wind played in soil formation? Find some evidence
of the work of earthworms, woodchucks, prairie dogs, or other animals
in soil formation. Find evidence of the part played by plants in soil for-
mation— decay of roots, leaves, etc. Cross a meadow or pasture. Are
there any sfKJts that are covered with weeds? Are the weeds there chiefly
because they kill the grass or because the grass failed to grow? Notice
that nature rarely leaves any permanently bare ground. Of what value
are weeds in soil formation? If there are any steep hills in the region,
notice the relative erosion on hillsides that are forested, tilled, pastured.
^NTiat use is made of steep hillsides in the neighborhood? Do better
crops grow on a hillside or at the foot of the hill? Why? Why are
valleys generally fertile? Nearly all of these points that are adapted
to the region may be answered in crossing any farm.

33. Field Lesson.

Materiah. — Rule, spade, six fruit-jars.

Go to a nearby farm. Dig a hole about two feet deep. What is the
color of the soil? Of the subsoil? Which is more compact? How deep
is the soil?

Find pieces of partly decayed roots and stems. What color are
they? Which contains more of this organic matter, or humus, the soil

102

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

or the subsoil? How does a fanner increase the amount of humus in
the soil?

Have each pupil rub samples of soil and subsoil between his fingers
so as to become familiar with its texture. Fill one of the jars with soil
and one with subsoil and cover each. L:il>el each with the name and
date. The sjimples are to be kept tightly covered for use in numbers
34 and So. Similarly study and collect several different soils and sub-
soils. If possible, compare good and poor soils. Also compare sandy
soils, loams and clays.

34. Determination of the Per CTent of Water, Organic Matter and Mineral
Matter in Soils.

MatrriitUi. — Soil sjimples collected under No. 33, porcelain cruci-
bles, balances. If the school <loes not have crucibles and laboratory
burners, the .soil may be dried over a stove and then burned in an iron
shovel in a stove.

If different meml)ers of the class take different samples, all those
collected may be compared. Weigh the crucible. Put ten grams
of the sjuiiplc in it. Weigh before the water has time to evaporate
much. Heat this a little hotter than boiling water, but do not bum it;
one hour at 1 10° C. or five hours at 100° C. is about right. Weigh again.
This gives the amount of water evaporated. Now heat to dull redness.
After it is thoroughly burned for one hour, weigh. Compute and tab-
ulate results as follows:

Sandy Loam

Clay

Soil

SubsoU

Soil

SubsoU

Weight of crucible (grams)

10

10

10

Weight of crucible and soil (grams)

Weight of soil (grams)

10

Weight of both when dry (grams)

Per cent of water

Weight of both after burning (grams) ....
Weight of organic matter

Per cent of organic matter

Per cent of mineral matter

What change in color took place as the soil dried? Is the color of
the soil changetl by rain? ^Vhat change is there in color after the soil
was burned? After burning, only mineral matter remains. Compare this

LABORATORY EXERCISES 103

burning with burning wood. WTiat kind of soil contained more water?
More organic matter? Do the surface or the subsoils contain more
organic matter?

35. Per Cent of Air in Soils.

Materials. — Beakers or jars, graduate, soil samples collected in
No. 33.

Put a measured amount of soil into each beaker. Pour in water
from a graduate containing a measured amount of water until it just
rises to the surface of the soil. How much water does it take in each
case? Repeat this for a very dry soil. The amount of water required
is an approximate measure of the air-space. We shall then have the
air space in a dry soil and in those collected under field conditions.
The dryer the soil the more air-space it contains. The total space in
a dry soil is the pore-space. Record results for each soil as follows:

Volume of soil

Volume of water added

Per cent of air-space

36. Soil Particles and Their Separation.

Materials. — Two beakers, three fruit- jars, pan, samples of soil.

(a) Put about a tablespoonful of sand in one beaker and clay in
another. Shake each one and allow to settle. Which settles more
rapidly? ^V^ly? Which would be deposited first when a swift stream
is checked? Where in your neighborhood is there evidence of this
sorting power of water? Did the glaciers thus sort soil? How could
we separate the different-sized particles in a soil?

(6) The day before this lesson is given, put about four tablespoon-
fuls of a loam soil in a fruit-jar and nearly fill with water. Co_yer. Shake
occasionally. After standing a day, shake thoroughly. Allow to settle
one minute. Pour the rily water into another jar; allow this to stand
one hour. Pour off the rily water and evaporate by setting on a stove
or over a flame. When dry (which will probably be for the next lesson),
examine the dry separates. The part that settled out first is sand, the
second is silt, and the finest material is clay. Examine them to find
differences in texture. Which ones stick together? Would pure clay
or pure sand make a good soil? Why? Save the materials for number 37.

37. Microscopical Examination of Soil Particles.

Materials. — Compound microscope. Sand, silt and clay from No. 35.
Examine the sand particles (X50), i. e., use the combination of eye-
pieces and objectives that magnify fifty diameters. Mi.x the silt with

lO'^ ELE\rSNTS OF AGRICULTURE

a little water and examine a drop (XlOO). Only a little of the silt is
better than too much in a drop. Mix the clay with water and examine a
drop of the slightly rily water (X500). Have each student make a draw-
lying of a few particles of each. Notice that the soil particles are real
minute rocks and humus. Find black particles of humus and draw them.
Kind flocculatetl particles of clay, i. e., a number of particles united to
form a compound particle. If such particles are not readily seen, a little
clay soil moistenetl and a drop put under the micsrocope will show
them. Do you see any reason for having the soil soak a day? Keeping
a clay in good condition is largely a matter of keeping the particles
thus flocculated or united into small crumbs.

38. One Effect of Humus and of Lime and of Freezing on a Clay Soil

(for Humid Regions).

Materials — Two quarts of clay, one-fourth pound unslaked lime,
leaf mold or rotted manure, bottles or beakers.

(a) An hour or more before the class period, the lime should be
nearly covered with water to slake it. Divide the clay into four equal
parts. To the first two add water; to the third add water and about
half its volume of humus; to the fourth add lime-milk. Make each into
a ball and set aside to dry. If the weather is cold, put one of the first
two where it will freeze. In a few days examine and see which is more
mellow. What do you conclude as to the probable effect of working
clay land when too wet? What is one value of organic matter in clay
soil? WTiat is one value of using lime on a clay soil? In what way do
farmers add organic matter to their soils?

(6) Put about a tablespoonful of clay in each of the two bottles.
Fill with water and shake. Add a little lime-milk to one bottle. Which
one settles more rapidly? Why? Is lime used on soils in your vicinity?

39. Soil Solutions.

Materials.— Y OUT or more "slips" of Wandering Jew or Inch Plant
(Tra descant ia), two bottles, two crucibles, well water, rain water, or
distilled water.

(a) Evaporate some well water in one crucible and some rain-water
in another. What is left in each case? What causes the inside of a
tea-kettle to become coated?

(6) Put two of these slips in each bottle, fill one with well-water
and one with rain-water. Change the water about three times a week,
until the results are secured. In which do the plants grow best? Why?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

105

40. Water Capacity of Soils.

Materials. — Air-dry. sand, clay, loam, leaf-mold, or rotten manure,
spring-balance, four tin cans or paint-cans with holes punched in the
bottom, holes in the side, and string tied across for a bail.

(a) Weigh each can. Fill two-thirds full, one with each of the three
soils, one with mixed clay and leaf-mold, one with mixed sand and leaf-
mold. Add water until thoroughly wet. Let this drain off for about
fifteen minutes. Weigh.

Weight of can

Weight of can and soil . . .

Weight of soil

Weight of both with water

Weight of water

Per cent of water

Sand

Sand and
leaf mold

Loam

Qay

Clay and
leaf mold

The soil should be very dry before this experiment. It will still
contain some water, so that the results will all be too low. Why does
sand hold less water than clay? What effect on water capacity does
the addition of organic matter have? Notice that the organic matter
not only holds water on its surface, but all through it, like a piece of
bread that soaks up water. Give two ways in which a farmer might
increase the water-holding capacity of his soils.

41. Capillary Rise of Water in Soils.

Materials. — Two small glass plates, thVee glass tubes three feet long,
one and one-half to two inches in diameter, pan of water, cloth, and
sand, loam and clay. Three lamp chimneys may be used in place of
the glass tubes.

(o) Fasten the two pieces of glass together by a rubber band.
Put a little splint at one side and set on edge in water. Notice that
the water rises between the plates and that it rises highest on the side
where the plates are nearest together. Make a drawing of this.

(b) Put a piece of cloth over the end of each tube and fasten with
a rubber band or tie it on. Fill each with one of the soils. Set in the
pan of water. In which does the water rise most rapidly? Record the
results as follows:

106

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Time

One-half hour
One hour. . . .

One clay

Two days . . .

Height of water

Sand

Loam

day

Continue for about a week. In which does the water rivse highest?
Why? Notice that it rises highest l)etween the phites where they were
nejirest together and rises highest in the soil that has the finest spaces.
Compare with the rise of oil in a lamp-wick, ink in a blotter, etc. What
is the objetrt of compacting the soil over seeds when planted? In what
different ways is this done?

42. Evaporation from the Soil. (Special Importance in Arid Regions).

Materials. — Spring balance; three tin cans, holes punched in sides
and string for a bail, the same as used in No. 39; soil, fine grass or
straw.

V\\\ each can nearly full of soil. Water each with the same amount of
water. C\)ver the top of one with grass. Weigh. As soon as the surface
is dry enough, stir the surface on one about an inch deep. Keep this
stirred Weigh every school day for al)out two weeks.

Date

Bare Surface

Cultivated

Grass Mulch

Weight

Loss

Weight

Loss

Weight

Loss

Which loses weight most rapidly? \Vhy? What is one use of cul-
tivation during a dry time? Notice that if we stir the soil when it is
moist we hasten the evaporation in the part stirred. In dry weather
this loose soil may act as a dust mulch to prevent evaporation. Tillage
may, therefore, first hasten and then lessen evaporation. \Vhat would
its general effect be in a wet season? In a dry season? Why is the
soil under a board moist?

LABORATORY EXERCISES 107

43. Drainage.

Materials. — Two flower-pots with soil; two geraniums or other
flowers growing in pots.

Set one geranium in a dish of water. Plant com in two other pots,
and stand one in a dish of water. Keep water constantly in the dishes
under the two pots, and water the other two in the usual way. Notice
the effect of the excess of water on the geranium and on the germination
and the growth of the com. If the com in the wet pot grows, empty
both pots and examine the roots. In which do the roots go deeper?
^Vhat is the effect of flooding on field crops? On trees? Some crops
will live on soils that are so wet that other crops would be killed. What
ones? AVhat kind of material underlies the soil in your neighborhood at
depths of three to ten feet — sand, gravel, clay, rock? This can be
answered by observing cuts in the roads. Is the soil naturally well
drained?

44. Laying Tile Drain.

If possible, practice laying a tile drain. For directions see King,
Physics of Agriculture, pp. 286-328.

45. Temperature of Soils.

Materials. ~Vo\iT or more cigar-bo.xes or other small boxes, soil,
thennometers, lime or chalk dust.

Fill each box with soil. Water one box so as to keep it rather wet,
cover the surface of one with lime, set these and a third one so that
they will face the sun in a window. Set another so that it will not
face the sun, that is, give it a "north slope." Take the temi>eraturc
of each from time to time.

A field trip may also be taken to get the temperatures of wet and
dry soil, north and south slopes, tilled and untilled land.

What effect does color have on temperature? Why? What effect
does the water have? Why? Cut a square hole in a piece of paper. Hold
this perpendicular to the sun's rays. Hold another piece of pape^^ck
of this. Measure the area covered by the sunshine. Now incl^p the
second piece of paper and again mejisure the area of sunshine. Why
does the slope affect the temperature?

46. Absorbent Power of Soil.

Materials. — Tin can with holes in bottom, soil and manure.
Mix water with the manure so as to get manure water. Fill the

108 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

tin can with soil. Pour on the water and compare the color of thai
which is poured on with that which runs through.

47. Examination of Bacteria.

Materials. — Compound microscope, magnifying about 500 to 1,000
diameters.

Moisten some soil. Take a drop of the water and examine under
the microscope for bacteria and other organisms.

COLLATERAL READING

Soils, by S. W. Fletcher.

Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King.

The Soil, by F. H. King.

The Fertility of the Land, by L P. Roberts. Pp. 34-130.

Bacteriology in Relation to Country Life, by J. G. Lipman.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 323-531.

Dry Farming. Farmers' Bulletin No. 329, pp. 10-15, and No. 262
pp. 15-18.

Reclamation of Salt Marshes. Farmers' Bulletin No. 320, pp. 9-12.

Management of Soil to Conserve Moisture. Farmers' Bulletin No.
266.

t

CHAPTER VI
MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND

107. How Soils Become Productive. It has required
untold ages for the soils of the world to be formed and to
become productive. At first the particles of rock were
capable of supporting only such plants as Uchens and
mosses. After generations of these plants died and added
their material to the soil, it became possible for other
plants to grow. For thousands of years the trees and
leaves of the forests have fallen and decayed to form
the forest soils. On the great western plains where "corn
is king," the grasses have grown for centuries and have
fallen down to decay so that still larger grasses might grow.
When such lands are first farmed, the crops are as large
as the climate and culture will allow, for the soils are very
rich.

108. How Rich Virgin Soils Become Less Productive.
The first farming of a virgin soil has nearly always been
grain farming. Grain is grown every year, with no pro-
vision for keeping up the humus supply, either by
means of barnyard manure or by plowing under material,
even the straw in the wheat-growing sections often being
burned. Little barnyard manure is produced, and that
which is formed is either thrown away or is allowed to
lose most of its value before being put on the land. Very
few farmers in any part of America have yet learned to
handle manure without losing one-half of its value. The

(109)

no

\:lkments of agriculture

Fie. 49. Oom crop on a farm that has raised
' little live stock for fifty years

virgin soils are so productive that farmers nearly always
make the mistake of thinking that they will always remain
8o. But the constant tillage exhausts the humus supply,

and our virgin soils be-
come less and less pro-
ductive. The change is
so gradual and is so ob-
scured by the weather
variations from year to
year that the real state
of affairs is often not
realized until the soil is
so poor that it does
not pay to farm it. Sooner or later every farmer must
give attention to means of maintaining the productivity
of the land, no matter how rich the original soil may be.
Thirty to sixty years of grain farming usually exhausts
a rich virgin soil to such an extent that grain farming
no longer pays. It then
becomes necessary to
rai.se stock and use ma-
nure or to plow under
green-manure. Some-
times commercial fer-
tilizers aie resorted to
and the.se may pay for
a few years, but sooner
or later some provision
for renewing the humus supply must be made, or the
field must be temporarily abandoned to allow nature to
renew the supply by growing weeds. Many fields in the

Fi«. 50.

Com crop on a dairy farm near
Fig. 49

MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 111

older sections of the United States are thus abandoned
for a few years to recuperate to such an extent that a
small crop may be grown. A wiser way of farming would
be to begin to raise animals for manure production before
the soils become so exhausted.

109. Causes of Decreased Productivity. (1) The fer-
tile surface soil may be carried away by erosion by wind
()!• water. Probably more soil fertility is lost in this way
than by cropping. This may be prevented by keeping the
soil in sod, by keeping cover crops on it during the win-
ter and by terracing the land as is done in the South.

(2) The soil may cease to hold the proper moisture
supply. This may be remedied by drainage and tillage,
and by additions of humus.

(3) The soil may cease to be favorable for the develop-
ment of soil organisms. This may be remedied as No. 2
and by the application of lime.

(4) The nitrogen of the soil may be carried away in
drainage water or may escape to the air by denitrification.
Many conditions favor the activity of soil organisms that
decompose the nitrogen compounds and allow the nitro-
gen to escape as a gas.

(5) The constant cropping may exhaust the available
•supply of some plant-food. Each crop removes a certain
lamount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash. In time
ithis may limit the available supply. Usually it is not a

shortage of the absolute amount of such food in the soil,
but a shortage of that which the plant can secure in solu-
ble form. This may be remedied by drainage, tillage,
additions of humus, lime, fertilizer and manure.

(6) The exhaustion of the humus supply is usually

112 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the fundamental cause for decrease in crop yields. This
affects crops in many ways. It may result in an unfavor-
able physical condition of the soil that will limit the crop
when there is no shortage of food. The soil may "bake"
or it may lose its water-holding power. Since the humus
furnishes the nitrogen by its decomposition and encourages
the fixation of free nitrogen, the exhaustion of humus
will be accompanied by a shortage of nitrogen. Or because
of the lack of humus the mineral elements may not be
rapidly enough dissolved, although present in abundance.
In such a case the addition of phosphoric acid or potash
might increase the crop, but it would usually be wiser to
apply humus so as to render available the food that is
already in the soil.

Many soils are losing their fertility in all of the ways
mentioned above.

110. The Limiting Factor in Crop Growth. When all
plant-foods are supplied in abundance, if the temperature
is too low or too high, it becomes the limiting factor
and determines the yield. If all other conditions are favor-
able, but there is not enough sunshine, the crop will be
fimited by this factor. A shortage of water or any other
plant-food may be the limiting factor. The other plant-
foods that often limit the crop are nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash and lime. These foods are rarely needed
to the same extent. If nitrogen is most deficient, the
addition of nitrogen will increase the crop; but we may
reach a point where a second element is necessary. Sup-
pose that the weather and all other conditions are such
as to allow a crop of 100 bushels of corn, but that the
phosphoric acid supply is so short as to Umit it to 70

MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 113

bushels, and that the nitrogen supply limits it to 40
bushels. The crop will then be 40 bushels. In growing
such a crop, the farmer does not make use of all the favor-
able conditions; his crop is limited by the "weakest link."
In such a case, the addition of a certain amount of nitrogen
to the soil may bring the yield up to 70 bushels. Then
the phosphoric acid must be added if a greater yield is
to be obtained.

111. The Amount of Plant-Food in the Soil. Forty-
nine analyses of soils in different parts of America showed
an average of 3,-000 pounds of nitrogen, over 4,000 pounds
of phosphoric acid and over 16,000 pounds of potash
per acre.

By multiplying the average yield of crops (Appendix,
Table 14) by the composition (Appendix, Table 6) we
obtain the amount of food removed by each crop. The
average wheat crop of the United States for the past ten
years (1899 to 1908) has been 13.8 bushels. This, together
with the straw, removes about 14.5 pounds of nitrogen,
10. fl pounds of phosphoric acid and 14 pounds of potash
per acre. The average surface soil would therefore con-
tain enough nitrogen for 2(X) crops, phosphoric acid for
400 and potash for 1,000. But many soils do not contain
so much plant-food as this, and in the great majority
of cases the food is too slowly available to produce
maximum crops.

112. Value of Chemical Analyses of Soils. The chemi-
cal analysis of soils does not tell what fertilizers are
needed. The almost universal opinion is that a chemist
can analyze the soil and tell what it needs. The analy-
sis may tell how much food there is in the soil, but it

114 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

cannot tell how much of this the plant is able to get. A
soil may contain enough phosphoric acid for a hundred
crops, and yet the addition of phosphoric acid may be
beneficial, because the plant may be unable to get this
food in soluble form.

A chemical analysis is of some value. It shows the
maximum limitations of a soil. It is quite desirable to
know how great a store of the plant-foods there is in a
soil, in order to provide a permanent agriculture. If
there is potash enough for a thousand years, we may still
add it in the fertilizers, if it pays, but we should certainly
try to find some way of unlocking that which is already
in the soil. But, if a soil contains potash enough for only
50 crops, we may well plan to add this food every year.

Some of the peaty soils in Illinois contain only enough
potash for 41 crops of corn, each yielding 100 bushels.
These soils give greatly increased yields when potash is
added. In general, muck soils are deficient in potash.

The gray silt loams of southern Illinois contain in the
surface soil enough phosphoric acid for 70 such crops of
corn, and enough potash for 1,900 such crops. ^ Evi-
dently one should try to draw on the supply of potash that
is in the soil, and should add phosphoric acid. These
soils were once so productive that southern Illinois was
called "Eg>'pt," but they are now very unproductive.
By the use of lime, phosphoric acid and legumes, these
soils are easily made to produce good crops once more.
Most of the soils in Illinois are deficient in phosphoric
acid.

113. Materials Used as Fertilizers. The oldest and best

•Illinois, Bulletin No. 123

MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 115

fertilizer is barnyard manure. Growing plants have also
been plowed under for many centuries. Usually these
plants have been weeds, but sometimes crops are sown
for the purpose of green-manuring.

The Indians taught the first settlers in America how to
grow corn and to use fish as a fertilizer.

''According to the manner of the Indians, we manured
our ground with herrings, or rather shads, which we have
in great abundance and take with ease at our doors.

"You may see in one township a hundred acres together
set with these fish, every acre taking a thousand of them,
and an acre thus dressed will produce and yield as much
corn as three acres without fish."

Fish are still in common use along the Atlantic coast,
and dried fish and fish scraps are sold as fertilizers.

Salt (NaCl) was sometimes applied to land, but this
is not considered to be a wise practice because it does not
contain the elements that are likely to be deficient. Any
good effects of salt are probably due to chemical action
or to the action of salt in helping to dissolve other ele-
.ments in the soil. Many such substances have been used,
but they are not now used so much as formerly.

The purchased fertilizers that are most commonly
used are mixtures containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash. The materials for making these fertilizers
are usually obtained from slaughter-houses, or are mined
from the earth.

The use of fertilizers in the United States has rapidly
increased, and the area on which they are used is con-
stantly extending westward. Little is yet used west of the
Mississippi river. In 1870, farmers in the United States

116 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

spent $29,000,000 for fertilizers, in 1889, $38,000,000 and
in 1899, $55,000,000.

^

NITROGEN

114. Sources of Soil Nitrogen. All soil nitrogen comes
from the air. There is no nitrogen in the rocks except
when these rocks contain the remains of plants and ani-
mals. The amount of nitrogen in the soil usually decreases
very rapidly with the depth. The great inexhaustible
source of nitrogen is the air. Nearly four-fifths of the air
is nitrogen. There are about 35,000 tons of this gas over
every acre of land. But no farm plants are able to take it
from the air above ground. We may have sickly, yellow
plants, starving to death for nitrogen while immersed in this
inexhaustible supply. Since nitrogen is the most expensive
of the fertilizing materials, costing about 18 cents per
pound when purchased in commercial fertilizers, we may
well be interested in getting the supply in the air into
compounds that are available for the growth of crops.
At the rate it must be paid for in commercial fertilizers,
there are some ten million dollars' worth above each acre
of land, — if it could be used!

115. Nitrogen in Rainfall. A small amount of nitrog-
enous compounds are brought down with the rain and
snow. Usually this does not amount to over two or three
pounds per acre per year, while about 40 pounds are re-
quired to produce a fair wheat crop.^

116. Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria on Legumes. Some
of the oldest writings refer to the fact that pea-like plants
have some effect on the soil that benefits following crops.
Only in the last fifty years has this fact been explained.

NITROGEN

117

1 2 3

Fig. 51. (1) Wheat grown without nitro-
gen, all other foods supplied. (2) Clover
grown without nitrogen. (3) Clover without
nitrogen, but inoculated with legume bacteria.

Until that time the Chinese explanation that "beans are
good for the soil" was as good as any.

In the last fifty years
many investigators have
worked on the subject,
and it has been demon-
strated that when le-
gumes have certain bac-
teria present on their
roots they are able to
grow in soils that do not
contain any nitrogen.
The free nitrogen of the air in the soil has been proved to
be the source of their supply. If the right kind of bacteria
are not present, a legume cannot grow without nitrogen
in the soil. No other farm plants are able to obtain nitro-
gen in this way (Fig. 51).
Peas, beans, clover, alfalfa,
peanuts and vetches are
some of the legumes. Look
at the roots of any of these
plants and you will find
small bunches on them.
On clover they are a little
larger than a pinhead (Fig.
14), but on beans the nod-
ules are as large as small
sweet peas. (Fig. 52).
These nodules are caused
by a certain kind of bac-

Fio. 52. Nodules in which the nitrogen-fix-
tenum ( Pseudomonas radl- ing bacteria Uve on the roota of a bean

118

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

cicola) that enters the roots of the legume. These bacteria
are able to use the free nitrogen of the soil air. After they
have u-secl the nitrogen, it is left in compounds that the
plant can make use of, so that a legume can grow with no

Fig. 53. Nodules on the roots of hairy vetch

nitrogen in the soil if other conditions are favorable. The
legume roots furnish a home for the bacteria and in return
are supplied with nitrogen. These bacteria do not live on
the roots of any other farm crops.

Most soils contain the bacteria, so that all we need to
do is to sow the legume seed; but, if the bacteria are ab-
sent, we must sow them also. In much of the eastern part
of the United States, bacteria need to be supplied for
the growth of alfalfa. The best way of supplying them is
to scatter a bushel or more of soil from a successful alfalfa
field on each acre of land that needs to be inoculated.
Soy-beans, cowpeas and vetches often need to be inocu-
lated when they are grown on a soil for the first time.

Legumes are also able to take nitrogen from the soil

NITROGEN 119

compounds in the same way that other plants do. They
require much more nitrogen than other plants do, and
have two ways of obtaining it.

It is very hard to determine what proportion of the
nitrogen in a legume comes from the air and what pro-
portion comes from the soil. It is certain that a con-
siderable part comes from the air under usual farm
conditions. One German investigator grew twenty-eight
successive crops of lupines (a legume) on the same land
with no nitrogen added. But, in spite of the removal of
these crops, the field gained in nitrogen. We can readily
see how important it is to have some legume like alfalfa,
clover, or cowpeas in a crop-rotation.

117. Fixation of Nitrogen without Legumes. During
the last few years, a great deal of attention has been
given to legumes as a source of nitrogen. But the fixa-
tion without legumes is probably a more important
source of nitrogen. Lipman grew millet in boxes of soil
that had been given different treatments.^ In all cases,
the amount of nitrogen in the soil was determined at the
start, and that in the soil and crop was determined at the
end. A few of his results follow:

(1) No fertilizer used, no crop grown, soil kept bare,
a gain of 1.02 grams of nitrogen.

(2) No fertilizer used, millet grown; slight gain of
nitrogen.

(3) One gram of nitrogen added to the soil in the
form of nitrate of soda, millet grown; a gain of 3.73 grams
of nitrogen.

(4) One gram of nitrogen added in the form of barn-

>N«w Jsney Exp«rim«nt Statign, Bulletin No. 1&('

120 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

yard manure, millet grown; a gain of 10.48 grams of
nitrogen.

The soil that was kept bare contained a gram more
nitrogen in the fall than it did in the spring. There was a
slight gain when millet was grown. When a gram of
nitrogen was added in the form of nitrate of soda, the crop
and soil contained 3.73 grams more nitrogen than were
present in the fertilizer and soil at the beginning. But,
when barnyard manure was used, there was a gain of 10.48
grams — ten times as much nitrogen as was added in the
manure. These gains came from the air. The nitrogen
was fixed by organisms acting independently of legumes.
(Millet is not a legume.)

Certain conditions greatly favor the activities of these
important organisms. The soil should be well aerated
and drained, and it must contain sufficient lime and humus.
The striking results with the barnyard manure are proba-
bly due to the humus that it contains, and perhaps partly
due to the organisms that it brings with it. This partly
explains why fertilizers alone cannot take the place of
manure.

118. Importance of Grasses. Grasses do not have the
power of obtaining any nitrogen from the air, but when
land is left in sod there is usually a considerable gain io
nitrogen. A field at Rothamsted, England, was left to
grow up to weeds and grasses for twenty years. No legumes
were grown on it, but there was a gain of over forty-four
pounds of nitrogen per acre per year — enough to much more
than grow a good crop each year.^

Every faruier knows that a field that has been in sod
for a few years produces much better crops when it is

^The Book of the Rothamsted Experiments, by A. D. Hall, p. 139.

NITROGEN 121

plowed up. This is partly due to the humus added by the
decaying roots, and is undoubtedly partly due to the
fixation of nitrogen. Probably the humus has much to
do with the nitrogen fixation.

In the regions where soils have been so farmed as to
become unproductive, the fields are commonly abandoned
for one or more years, then they will produce crops again.
Where the soils are not quite so far exhausted, one or two
tilled crops are grown and are then followed by hay a
few years, after which small crops can once more be raised.
The same principle should be applied in regular farming.
Under most conditions, the land should be in sod one
to three years out of every five. The poorer the land, the
more time it should be in sod. If legumes can be com-
bined with this sod, so much the better. The same results
may be accomplished in other ways, as by plowing under
green-manure crops.

119. Losses of Nitrogen from Soils. There are other
organisms in the soil which accomplish the opposite re-
sults. They act on nitrogen compounds and break them
up so that the nitrogen escapes into the air as free nitro-
gen. This is called denitrificntion. When manure is left
in loose piles, much of the nitrogen is lost by denitrifica-
tion.

Nitrogen may also be lost by being made soluble too
rapidly, in which case it may leach out of the soil. The
humus in a sandy soil is likely to be burned out so rapidly
that the nitrogen may be lost in this way.

Soils in Minnesota that were kept continuously in
grain lost 14(5 pounds of nitrogen by the destruction of
organic matter for each 25 pounds that was removed in

122 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

crops.' It is evident that these soils will become unpro-
ductive if the one-crop system continues.

The better tiorated the soil, the warmer the climate, and
the more the land is tilled, the more rapidly the humus will
be exhausted. The ideal condition is to have the humus
decompose just rapidly enough to supply the crop with
nitrogen. If it burns out too rapidly, we may keep the
land in sod more of the time, apply manure, or plow
under crops to keep up the humus supply.

120. Forms of Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Nitrogen is
added to the soil in the form of barnyard manure, sodium
nitrate, ammonium sulfate, potassium nitrate, dried
blood, tankage, hoof meal, steamed bone, drietl fish,
linseed-oil meal, cottonseed meal, and in a number of other
forms.

121. Nitrate of Soda (NaNOg). Sodium nitrate, or
Chile saltpeter, is the most common nitrogenous fertilizer.
Beds of it occur along the western coast of South America,
particularly in Peru and Chile. As it is taken from the
earth, it contains about 50 per cent of nitrate of soda.
This is purified, .so that when put on the market it is usually
96 per cent pure. It contains an average of about 15.6
per cent of nitrogen, and costs about $60 per ton, or about
19 cents per pound for the nitrogen contained. This salt
is very soluble and is in a form that plants can take up
at once. It should be applied only where plants will
Boon make use of it; otherwise it may leach out of the soil.

122. Ammonium Sulfate {^Yl^)^ SO^). This sub-
stance is a by-product from the manufacture of gas and
coke. It contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. The

1 Minnesota, Bulletin No> 53

PHOSPHORUS 123

nitrogen in this form is a little cheaper than it is in the
form of sodium nitrate. It is not so desirable as the nitrate
because it tends to make the soil acid. If used continu-
ously, lime must also be used unless the soil is rich in
lime. Nitrate of soda has a slightly opposite effect.

123. Dried Blood, Tankage and Bone Meal are products
from the meat-packing houses. Tankage is made up of
all kinds of waste material from the slaughter-houses.
The names of the others indicate their origin. They con-
tain 5 to 15 per cent of nitrogen. Good dried blood con-
tains about 14 per cent. These products have to be acted
on by soil bacteria beforfe the nitrogen is available for crop
growth. There is less danger of loss of nitrogen than in
the case of sodium nitrate. These forms are particularly
desirable for fall-sown crops. Some farmers who mix
their own fertilizers use about half of the nitrogen in the
form of dried blood and half in the form of nitrate of soda.
This seems to be a good practice.

/
PHOSPHORUS

124. Forms of Phosphorus Fertilizers. The chief forms
of phospnorus fertilizers are barnyard manure, dissolved
phosphate rock, bone meal,- dissolved bone, tankage,
Thomas slag.

126. Phosphate Rock. This rock is found in many
parts of the United States, particularly in the Carolinas,
Florida and Tennessee. It is sometimes called South
Carolina rock. The deposits are remains of marine life.
As the rock is mined, it is about 50 per cent tricalcium
phosphate (Ca, (P04)2). The rock is sometimes finely

124 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

ground and sold as a fertilizer under the name "floats."
There is an increasing amount of floats used, particularly
in the central west, where the soils contain considerable
amounts of organic matter. But most of the rock is
treated with sulfuric acid so as to render it soluble. The
product is called acid phosphate, or dissolved rock. In
this form it contains about 14 per cent of phosphoric
acid,^ and costs about $14 per ton in New York City.
When applied to the soil, it reverts to the original in-
soluble form. Being soluble when it is applied, it is
distributed in the soil moisture. When it reverts it is
deposited on the outside of innumerable soil grains. This
gives a larger area exposed to the action of soil water,
so that it will dissolve and supply plants faster than it
would in the finely ground form.

126. Bone. Bones are sometimes finely ground to form
bone meal, or treated with sulfuric acid to form dissolved
bone. They are also used as bone ash, steamed bone meal
and bone black. The amount of phosphoric acid varies
from 18 to 36 per cent. Good bone meal contains about
4 per cent nitrogen and 22 per cent phosphoric acid.

127. Thomas Slag. This material is a by-product
from the manufacture of steel. It is not used to a very
great extent in America at pre.sent. It is not acid in its
nature and so has an advantage over acid phosphate.
It is sometimes called "basic slag."

'The composition of phosphatic fertilizers is usually given in terms
of phosphoric acid (P^ O5). Such a compound does not exist in fertilizers,
but it furnishes a basis for comparison. Phosphoric acid costs about four
and one-half to five cents per pound. The composition of potash fertilizers
is also expressed in terms of a substance that does not occur in the fertilizers,
potash (KjO). In both ca.ses it would be much more desirable to have the
composition expressed in terms of elements, phosphorus (P) and potassium
(K). An effort is now being made to change to this system, but it has not
yet been generally adopted.

POTASH 125

POTASH

128. Forms of Potash Fertilizers. The chief fertilizing
materials carrying potash are barnyard manure, muriate
of potash (KCl), sulfate of potash (KgSO^), kainit and
wood-ashes.

129. Kainit, Muriate of Potash and Sulfate of Potash.
Kainit is mined in Germany in the same way as rock-salt.
It was probably deposited in the same way. It was while
trying to get salt that kainit was found. It contains
salt and other minerals with about 12 per cent of potash
(KgO). Kainit is used as a fertilizer in Germany, but is
not much used in this country because it contains too many
impurities on which to pay freight.

Nearly all the potash used in America is potassium
chlorid, or muriate of potash (KCl). This is manufac-
tured from the kainit. It contains about 50 per cent of
potash. It costs about $45 per ton, or about 4.5 cents
per pound of potash.

Sulfate of potash (KgSO^; is also manufactured from
kainit. It costs about one cent per pound more for the
potash than in the form of muriate. It is used in cases
where the muriate is not desirable. The muriate usually
injures the quality of sugar beets and tobacco.

130. Wood-Ashes. Hardwood-ashes contain 2 to 10
per cent of potash and average 5 to 6 per cent. They
also contain 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid and about
34 per cent of lime (CaO). If the ashes are leached, most
of the potash is removed. Soft wood-ashes contain less
potash than those from hard wood. Coal-ashes contain
almost no plant-food.

12G ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

LIME

131. Functions of Lime. Lime is usually spoken of
as a soil aniciulmcut rather than as a plant-food, because
its chief value when added to the soil does not seem to
be as a plant-food. A deficiency of lime in the soil seems
to show in other ways before there is really a shorta<;e
of lime as food. Lime helps to improve the physical con-
dition of some soils. It corrects acidity. It helps to liber-
ate other plant-foods. Perhaps its most important effect
is its influence on soil organisms. If there is not sufficient
lime in the soil, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
cannot go on properly, nor can the liberation of nitrogen
from the humus. The addition of lime to the soil so favors
the preparation of nitrogen food that its effect is often the
same as the addition of nitrogen. If a soil is deficient
in lime it is unwi.se to go on farming it until this deficiency
has been corrected. The other fertilizers or barnyard
manure cannot be used most economically if there is not
sufficient lime. On the other hand lime does not take the
place of these fertilizing materials.

132. Relation of Crops to Lime. There is a very decided
difference in the lime requirements of different crops.
Alfalfa and clover need more lime than do any of the
other common farm crops. (See Fig. 97.) These may
show a benefit from the use of lime when timothy, corn
and wheat are not helped. Timothy may fail for lack of
lime where red-top thrives. Alfalfa, clover, lettuce, beets,
cantaloupes, onions, timothy are more sen.sitive to acid
conditions than are soy-beans, cowpeas, red-top and
watermelons.

LIME

127

133. How to Tell the Need of Lime. One of the most
common indications of the need of lime is the failure of
red clover on soils where it once grew. This is generally
due to the exhaustion of lime. If red clover fails and
red-top thrives we should certainly make a test of
lime. Clover sometimes fails because of the root-borer,
but, in this case, it does not fail until it has produced the
first crop of hay. In some regions it fails because of disease
(anthracnose), but, in this case, it makes a good growth
until the disease attacks it. If clover and alfalfa produce
good crops, lime will not be needed. An easy test for the
need of lime is to lay off a plot

four rods square in the field.
Apply a bushel of lime on half of
the plot and apply manure on
half of it in the other direction.
We then have lime and manure
alone and together as compared
with no treatment. The lime is
likely to have a greater effect
the second year.

134. Forms of Lime. Lime
occurs in the earth as limestone rock or calcium carbonate
(CaCO^). When this is burned, carbon dioxid (COg) is
given off and we have left quicklime (CaO). This is the
lime that is used in plastering. When this lime is water-
slaked to form plaster, it takes up water and we have
calcium hydrate, waterslaked lime, or hydrated lime ^,Ca
(OHjg). When this is put on the walls as plaster it dries
out and becomes white. As it loses water, it takes up car-
bon dioxid from the air and the calcium carbonate is

LI

ME

>
2

Fi(i. 54. Experiment to deter-
mine whether lime is needed

128 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

again formed. When quicklime air-slakes it also takes up
carbon dioxid from the air. Similar changes take place
when it is used on the soil.

Quicklime, calcium oxid (CaO) is the most common
form of lime used for agricultural purposes. Usually a
poorer grade is used than for plastering. When this is
applied to soil, the same changes take place as in the
case of plastering. The lump lime is sometimes finely
ground so that it can be applied by machinery. Limestone
rock is sometimes finely ground and is applied to the soil.
Some firms slake the lime with water and sell the hydrated
lime. This is also a powder.

Fifty-six pounds of quicklime (CaO) are equal to 74
pounds of hydrated lime, or to 100 pounds of ground
limestone or air-slaked lime.

The quicklime, or hydrated lime, should not be applied
within a week of the time of planting crops, because it
is sometimes so caustic as to injure young plants.

Ashes contain about one-third lime.

Gypsum or land plaster (CaS04) also contains lime, but
it is not so good as other forms because it contains sulfuric
acid. The use of it is rapidly decreasing.

135. Application of Lime. From 500 pounds to one
ton (6 to 30 bushels) per acre is usually enough to apply
at one time. The application may need to be repeated in
a few years. Formerly much larger applications were
made. There are many conflicting reports as to the benefit
of lime. Many regions have taken it up, dropped it, and
later come to use it once more. The explanation is that
with the amounts applied there was enough to last a con-
^derable time.

COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 129

COMPLETE FERTILIZERS

136. Cost, Valuation and Analyses. Fertilizers that
are purchased by farmers are usually made up of a mixture
of some of the materials previously described. Such fer-
tilizers usually contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash. They are commonly used without much regard
for the needs of crops on the particular soil.

They are subject to inspection in a number of states
and must be labeled with the per cent of each plant-food
that they contain. In Vermont, in 1908, the result of this
inspection showed that the average selling price of mixed
fertilizers was $31.24 per ton, but the materials for mixing
them could have been purchased at retail in Boston or
New York for $20.75. Evidently there is a considerable
loss to farmers in purchasing complete fertilizers. Not
only are the fertilizers likely to be ill adapted to their
needs, but the prices are too high. The difference between
$20.75 and $31.24 per ton covers:

(1) The cost of mixing.

(2) Cost of transportation.

(3) Storage, commission to agents, dealers, etc.

(4) Selling on credit, and bad debts.

A careful farmer should always avoid the last two
expenses, so far as possible.

At the average retail prices in New York City in 1908,
nitrogen cost 18^ cents, phosphoric acid and potash each
cost 4.^ cents per pound. The farmers have paid much
more than these prices. According to the figures above
they must have paid 25 cents per pound for nitrogen and
fi cents for potash and for phosphoric acid.

130 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

A fertilizer containing 2 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent
phosphoric acid and 8 per cent potash is often spoken of
as a 2, 10, 8 (two, ten, eight) fertilizer.

An approximate way to estimate the value of a fer-
tilizer in dollars per ton is to multiply the per cent of
nitrogen by four and add the per cents of phosphoric
acid and potash. This estimates nitrogen at 20 cents per
pound and phosphoric acid and potash at 5 cents each
per pound. (Prove this rule.) These are higher than the
New York prices, but lower than the farmers pay for
complete fertilizers, and allow a considerable margin for
freight. A 2, 10, 8 fertilizer would therefore be worth
approximately 4X2+104-8=$26 per ton.

The labels on fertilizer bags are often confusing, and
are doubtless intended to be so. The following is a copy
of such a label, and at the right are the facts reduced to
their simplest terms:

Per cent

Nitrogen 0.82- 1.64

Nitrogen as ammonia 1.00- 2.00

Soluble phosphoric acid 6.00- 7 00

Reverted phosphoric acid 2.00- 3.00

Insoluble phosphoric acid 1.00- 2.00

Total phosphoric acid 10.00-12.00

Bone phosphate of lime 22.00-25.00

Available bone phosphate of lime , . 18.00-20.00

Available phosphoric acid 8.00-10.00

Potash 4.00- 5.00

Equivalent to sulfate of potash .... 8.00-10.00

The higher percentages in the guarantee mean nothing.
A guarantee of 4 to 5 per cent of potash is a guarantee
of 4 per cent; it would be the same if it said 4 to 50 per cent.
Nor do the numerous equivalents mean anything, except
for comparison, as that .82 per cent of nitrogen is equiva-
lent to 1 per cent of ammonia.

Per cent
Nitrogen 0.82

Available phos-
phoric acid . . .8.00
Potash 4.00

COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 131

Farmers are also likely to be misled by the names
applied to the fertilizers, as potato specials, corn specials,
etc. One firm in Vermont sold three kinds of fertilizer
under thirty-three different names! One firm in New
York sells two grass fertilizers, one analyzing 1, 7, 2, and
one 9, 6, G. They must be for different kinds of grass,
or more likely they are for two different kinds of farmers.
The former fertilizer is cheap, thus pleasing some persons,
the latter is adapted to grass, thus pleasing others.

137. Home Mixing of Fertilizers. It is not a difficult
matter to mix fertilizers at home. The proper proportions
may be put together on a tight barn-floor and be shoveled
over a few times. If any of the ingredients are lumpy,
these should be put in first and the lumps crushed. Fer-
tilizer agents argue that the mixing is better done at the
factories. This may be true, but field experiments have
shown that the home-mixed ones produce as good crops
and are much cheaper. Sometimes a grange purchases
enough materials for a carload or more of fertilizer. The
mixing is then done at the factories at little or no expense.

Suppose that it is desired to make ten tons of a 2, 7, 8
fertilizer. How much nitrate of soda (15.5 per cent), acid
phosphate (14 per cent) and muriate of potash (50 per
cent) will be required? This will require 20,000 X .02 =
400 pounds of nitrogen, 20,000 X. 07=1, 400 pounds phos-
phoric acid and similarly 1,600 pounds of potash. To
furnish these amounts will require:

400-i-0.155= 2,581 pounds of nitrate of soda
1,400h-0.14 =10,000 pounds of acid phosphate
1,600-1-0.50 = 3,200 pounds of muriate of potash

15,781

132 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

This lacks 4,219 pounds of weighing ten tons, but it
has all the plant-food called for. One can put in this much
dirt for filler, but it would be simpler to merely use three-
fourths as much per acre as was planned. If such a fer-
tilizer were purchased ready-made, one would have to
pay freifiht on this much useless material.

138. How to Determine What Fertilizer to Use. Grass
crops and most crops whose yield depends on the total
vegetative growth, are more likely to need nitrogen than
are ordinary crops. On the Cornell University farms,
fertilizers gave little benefit when used on oats, corn or
wheat, but, when nitrate of soda was applied on timothy,
it increased the yield from one and one-half to three and
three-fourths tons per acre. (See Fig. 55.)

Leguminous crops are more likely to need phosphoric
acid, potash and lime than are other crops. (See Fig. 97.)

If lime is needed, phosphoric acid is also very likely
to be needed, because most of the available phosphorus
is in combination with lime. There may, however, be plenty
of lime and not enough phosphorus, for the great store-
house of lime is limestone.

In a general way we may say that nitrogen promotes
leafiness, while phosphoric acid and potash have more
to do with seed-production. This may help in determin-
ing what fertilizer to try, but must not be relied upon too
much.

More important than any of these points is the value
of the crop. High-priced crops may be profitably ferti-
lized when it would be folly to fertilize low-priced ones.
A truck crop may be worth $200 per acre on the same farm
where a corn crop is worth $20. If a certain fertilizer

Nothing 640 lbs. nitrate soda 320 lbs. nitrate soda

2,590 lbs. hay per acre %9) acid phosphate 320 acid phosphate

>*) muriate potash 80 muriate potash

7..>S)0 ihs. hay per acre 7,110 lbs. hay per acre

Fig. 55. Timothy hay respwnds to fertiUzers, particularly nitrate of soda

■JO tons nianun> HI tons nianiir.- NothinK

.43J lbs. hay iht acre 4.1J0 lbs. hay per acre 2,'iK) lbs. hay per acre

Fig. 56. Timothy hay responds to barnyard manure

COMPLETE FERTILIZERS

133

will increase each crop 10 per cent it will mean a gain of
$2 per acre on the corn and $20 per acre on the truck.
One might pay $10 for such a fertilizer if he is raising
truck crops, but could not afford to use it on corn.

Flo. 57. The crop to be grown is as important as the soil, when deciding on a
fertilizer. Floats are of little value for oats but best for rape. (See Fig. 58)

Contrary to the common opinion, fertilizers are usually
not profitable on very poor land. Such land usually needs
humus, and often needs other treatment before it will
pay to use fertilizers. About forty farmers in New York
have reported trials of nitrate of soda for the production

Fki.58. Rape is best with floats. Ck>mpare^th F'ig. 57

of timothy hay. In very few cases has it paid if the field
did not yield at least one and one-fourth tons when un-
treated, and in very few cases did it fail to pay when the
unfertilized area vielded over one and one-fourth tons.

134 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

It seems to be very nearly as easy to double a yield of
one and one-half tons as to double a yield of one-half ton.
In the former case, the gain will be three times as much
as in the latter.

The profitableness of a fertilizer is very much a matter
of season. In general, the best results are secured in
favorable seasons. A fertilizer that pays in a good season
may not pay in a season of deficient rainfall.

In deciding on a fertilizer practice to be followed, one
should consult the State Experiment Station to learn
whether there are any fundamental deficiencies of the
soils of the region. "On practically all Ohio soils that
have been for any length of time in cultivation — possibly
excepting the mucks — phosphorus must be supplied be-
fore the maximum yield of any crop can be attained.
The longer the land has been in cultivation the greater
the need of phosphorus, but many comparatively new-
soils will respond to it."^ Phosphoric acid seems to be
deficient in nearly all of the soils from the Appalachian
mountains to the Mississippi river.

After one has obtained all the public information
concerning the region it is best to make trials of the most
likely combinations on small areas of the farm. For
this purpose, we should select as uniform a place in the
field as possible, and one that is neither better nor poorer
than the average. Even such trials must be accepted with
caution. For instance, at the Ohio Station, where trials
have been conducted on the same land for fourteen years,
the first season was abnormal ; potash gave an increase
in yield of wheat and phosphoric acid decreased the yield.

>Ohio, CSrcular No. 79

BARNYARD MANURE 135

But all the later years have shown that phosphorus was
most needed and potash least needed.

BARNYARD MANURE

139. Importance of Manure. Over half a century ago
a French scientist declared that one of the most important
lessons for the farmer to learn was how to produce good
barnyard manure and to use it rationally; that the funda-
mental question was and would remain the manure ques-
tion. The older our farm lands become, the more truth
we see in his statement. In many parts of America the
manure is thrown away. In regions where thousands of
dollars are spent for fertilizers, a half of the value of
manure is usually lost before it is applied to the land.

Figured at the price that the plant-food in manure
would cost in fertilizers, the amount produced in the
United States is worth $2,353,000,000^ per year. The value
of the corn crop in 1908 was about two-thirds this
amount. 81. GO 1,000. 000.

140. Value of Manure. The value of manure is often
figured on the basis of what the nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash would cost if purchased in commercial
fertilizers. The plant-food in manure is less soluble than
that in fertilizers ; on the other hand, this method does
not give any value to the humus, which is a very important
part of the manure. Field trials usually show that this
is a fair method of comparison with fertilizers, particu-
larly when the lasting effects are considered. Truck-
growers in New Jersey, who buy both manure and ferti-

'F^armers' Bulletin No. 192, p. 5

136 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

lizers, pay much more for the plant-food in manure than
they have to pay for it in the fertilizers. They feel that
they must have the manure, even if it is more expen-
sive. Sometimes they dispense with manure when they
can plow under clover.

The price at which manure can be purchased is quite
variable. In parts of the West a man is paid to haul it
away to get rid of it. Farmers in New Jersey purchase it
by the carload from Philadelphia and New York at about
$2.50 per ton. and there is still the expense of hauling to
the farms. In many of the smaller cities of the East, it
can be had for the hauling, in others, it must be paid for.

How much manure is worth on a given farm depends
on how much it is needed. It may be worth more or less
than the fertility in it would cost in fertilizers.

Seventy-nine analyses of manure and bedding at the
Ma.ssachusetts F.xperiment Station gave an average of
6G per cent water, 0.45 per cent nitrogen, 0.33 per cent
phosphoric acid, 0.56 per cent potash. This is practically
one-half per cent of nitrogen and potash, and one-third
per cent phosphoric acid. The plant-food in a ton of such
manure would cost about $2.83 (4Xi-f J + ^).

At the Cornell Experiment Station, each ton of manure
gave $2.58 worth of hay and oats in three years above
the value from the untreated land. In one three-year rota-
tion of wheat, clover, potatoes in Ohio, each ton of ma-
nure gave $2.90 worth of increased crops. In each case,
there will be a considerable benefit from the manure on
later crops, as the good effects of manure are not all
gone in three years.

Experiments at Rothamsted, England, during fifty

BARNYARD MANURE

137

years on land unmanured, manured continuously, and
manured during the first twenty years only, showed a
gradual decrease in the crop on the unmanured soil and a
gradual increase from year to year on the manured soil.
When the application was stopped there was a gradual

Pounds of grain per atTt-

6.000

4.000

•

2,000

1 000

1852-1871 1872-1881 1882-1891 1892-1901

Fir.. 59. PJffect.s of barnyard manure on the yield of barley — ten-year averages.
■^^^B .Manured every year.

-~ '^ Manured every year until 1871, but no manure since that date.
=^^^= No manure since 1852.

Thirty years after the last application of manure to the second plot it still
Kave a ten-year average yield double that of the unmanured.

decrease, but, at the end of thirty years after the last
application, the yield was still double that on the unma-
nured part.^ (See Fig. 59.)

*The Book of the Rothamstod Expcriraenta, by A. O. Hall, p. 78

138 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

141. Factors Influencing the Value of Manure. Young
animals, poor animals, those producing a rich product,
a« milk, or those doing hard work, usually digest their
food more fully, so that the manure is less valuable. If
the food is rich, the manure is improved. The manure
of different animals differs in value. That from poultry
is most valuable. Sheep manure is more valuable than
cow manure, chiefly because it is drier. The character
of bedding also influences the value of manure. Sawdust
and shavings are of no value, so that if they are used the
manure is not so valuable as when straw is used. If the
liquid portion is lost, if it ferments, or if it leaches, the
manure will be less valuable.

142. Fertilizing Value of Food and of Manure. From
65 to 75 per cent of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash
fed to cows is recovered in the manure. In Ohio, three-
fourths of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and seven-
eighths of the potash in the food of steers, was recovered
in the manure when they were fed on a cement floor.
Two-thirds of the nitrogen, four-fifths of the phosphoric
acid, and nine-tenths of the potash of the food was recov-
ered in the manure* when lambs were fed on a dirt floor.
In general, it is safe to assume that three-fourths of the
fertility in the feed is recovered in the manure. This,
of course, assumes that the liquid portion is saved and
that leaching and other losses are prevented.

This fact has an important bearing on farm manage-
ment. Cottonseed meal, dried blood and tankage are used
as fertilizers and as feed. The meal is fed to cattle. The
dried blood and tankage are fed to hogs and poultry.
It is usually more profitable to feed these to animals and

BARNYARD MANURE

139

use the manure on the land rather than purchase fertil-
izers. In general, it is more profitable to purchase fertility
a.s feed for stock than to buy it in a fertilizer bag. A
good many eastern farmers feed sheep and beef cattle
not so much for the profit that the animals give directly as
for the manure that they produce.

143. Amount and Value of Manure Produced by Farm
Animals. A 1,200-pound horse will produce about eleven
tons of excrement per year, which, together with the
bedding, will make about fourteen tons of manure. A
cow produces about the same amount. Steers fed at the
Ohio Station averaged at the rate of nine tons per year.
An equal weight of sheep produces fewer tons, but the
manure is drier, so that about the same amount of plant-
food is produced. A fairly safe rule for any stock except
sheep, poultry and hogs is to count one ton per month
for each 1,000 pounds of animals kept. To purchase an
equal amount of plant-food in fertilizers would cost about
$40 per year. The following table gives results procured
by Roberts:

Manure Per 1,000 Pounds of Live Weight

]

Excrement
i per year

Manure

with
bedding
per year

Nitrogen
per year

Phosphoric

Acid

per year

^I.b.S.

81

92

88
105
158
119

Potash
per year

Value
per year*

Tons
Horse ... 8.9

Cow 13.5

vSheep .. 6.2

Calf 12.4

PiR 15.3

Fowls . . 4.3

Tons
12.1
14.6

9.6
14.8
18.2

4.3

Lbs.
153
137
175
150
331
293

Lbs.
150
140
133
102
130
72

$42 15

39 00
46 05

40 35
80 60
68 15

'The nitrogen is figured at 20 cents and the other constituents at 5
rcnt»i per pound.

140

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

The amount of manure produced must be considered
in planning a cropping system for a farm. If one wishes
to manure one-fifth of the hind every year with 10 tons
per acre, there would have to be provided two tons per
year for each acre of the farm. This would require about
one cow or horse, or equivalent, for each six acres of land.
Enough more stock would have to be kept to make up
for time on the pasture, provided the pasture were not
a part of the crop-rotation.

144. Losses of Manure. The great sources of loss of
manure are the loss of the liquid portion, the leaching
out of the fertility by rains, and fermentation.

The liquid portion of manure is much more valuable
per ton than is the solid portion, as it contains over twice
as much nitrogen and most of the potiish. The relative
composition of the solid and the liquid portions is as
follows:^

Value
per ton

Horse —

Liquid manure
Solid manure. .

Cow—

Lic^uid manure
Solid manure. .

Nitrogen

Pho.>*phoric
Acid

Per cent
0.
0.35

0.
0.12

Potat^h

Per cent
0.92
0.10

1.36
0.04

Per cent
1.52
0.56

1.05
0.44

$7 00
2 69

5 56
1 92

With cows, over one-fourth of the total excrement is
liquid. This is worth about as much as the solid manure.
Yet many farmers have arranged their barns so as to
drain off the liquid portion. In this way it is easy to lose
fertilizing material that would cost $10 to $15 per year

1 Experiment Station Record V. p. 142,

BARNYARD MANURE

141

for each cow kept. Straw, or some other absorbing ma-
terial, should be used so freely that none of the liquid
is lost. It is also desirable to have cement gutters in
cow barns.

If the manure is exposed to heavy rains, the results
are still more serious, as the drainage from a manure heap
is even more valuable than the liquid manure:^

Nitrogen

Per cent

Liquid from cow gutter 0.98

Drainage from manure heap 1.50

Phosphoric
Acid

Per cent
0.24
0.10

Potash

Per cent
0.88
4.90

Roberts" exposed 4,000 pounds of manure from April
25 to September 22. At the end of this time there were
only 1,730 pounds:

Weight

Nitrogen

Phosphoric acid

Potash

Vahie

April 25

4,000.00 lbs.
19.60 lbs.
14.80 lbs.
.'{6.00 lbs.
$6.46

•September 22

1,730.00 lbs.

7.79 lbs.

7.79 lbs.

8.65 lbs.

$2.38

Loss

%
57
60
47
76
63

Not only was there a loss of 63 per cent of the value
of the plant-food, but the loss in weight was due mostly
to lo.ss of organic matter, which should have been saved
to make humus. At the New Jersey Station, manure
expo.sed for four months lost over half of its value.^

Farmers usually fail to appreciate this loss, because

TyclojxKlia of American Agrioultiire, Vol. I, p. 491.
'I. P. Roberts, The I'ertility of the Land, p. 192.
^Karmera' Bulletin No. 192, p. 20.

142 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

a ton of well-rotted manure is worth more than a ton
of fresh manure. The trouble is that after exposure there
are so few tons. One farmer who looked over these figures
remarked that he hauled 200 loads of manure to a pile
beside a field in the spring, and that when he came to
spread it in the fall, he had 60 loads.

$2.15

$2.96

$4.80

Manure exposed in yard.

Stall manure.

Stall manure and acid phosphate.

Fio. 60. Relative values o£ crops grown from stall manure and from an equal
quantity of manure left e.vposed in yard and from stall manure reinforced with
23 cents' worth of acid phosphate per ton.

At the Ohio Station, manure exposed three months
in an open barnyard lost one-third of its fertilizing value.
This manure was used on crops and was found to be 27
per cent less effective than the same amount of manure
that had not been thus exposed (Fig. 60). As manure is
exposed under the eaves in barnyards, it certainly loses
much more than half of its value. But merely being
under cover is not a sure preventive of loss. Unless it is
kept moist and compact, it will ferment, and a large part
of the nitrogen will pass off into the air.

The ideal way to care for manure is to spread it on
the land as fast as it is made. One can keep a wagon or
manure-spreader on which the manure is thrown each day.
When a load is ready, it is hauled to the field and spread
at once. This is not so difficult as at first appears. It
saves the labor of handling the manure twice, — once to

BARNYARD MANURE

14.3

throw it out of the barn, and once to put it on the
wagon. When the tilled land is all in crops, it can be spread
on the pastures or meadows, so that there is nearly
always a place to put it.

If manure cannot be hauled in this manner, the next
best way is to have a covered barnyard or shed where all
the manure is put and in which stock is kept. The stock
will pack the manure and keep it moist — conditions that

FiQ. 61. Manure exposed under the eaves where it loiu; -j_ : ■__ e^.
cent of its value

are essential for preserving it. If it is kept tramped and
moist, and if the shed has a cement floor, there will be
practically no loss. A cement floor under steers in Ohio
was half paid for in one year by the saving of manure.
When manure is kept in this way, it should be hauled
out during the winter and spring. During the summer,
when the stock are at pasture, it will dry out and ferment,
and much of the nitrogen will escape to the air. If it could
be kept moist, this loss could be avoided.

144 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

To prevent losses from manure, it is necessary:

(1) To use absorbents to retain all the liquid part.

(2) To spread it on the land as soon as possible.

(3) If it cannot be spread at once, keep it under cover,
tramp)ed anil moist, and on a cement floor, if possible.

Various materials are u.sed with manure to help to re-
tain the nitrogen and to reinforce the manure at the same
time. Kainit, gypsum, acid phosphate and floats are most
commonly used. Of these, acid phosphate and floats are best,
unless the farm is in particular need of potash. Any of these
substances tend to retain the nitrogen that might escape
to the air as a result of fermentation. They do not prevent
much of the losses due to leaching. About 40 pounds of
acid phosphate, or twice this amount of floats, may be
mixed with each ton of manure as it accumulates. At the
Ohio Station 40 pounds of acid phosphate, worth about
30 cents, was used with each ton of manure. This pro-
duced a ten-year average increase in crops to the value
of $4.57 for each ton of manure above the cost of the
acid phosphate. It practically doubled the benefits from
each ton of manure. This is doubtless due in part to the
saving of nitrogen,* and in part to the need of phosphoric
acid on this land.

145. Application of Manure. A good place to apply
manure is preceding the corn crop. It is also desirable as
a top-dressing for grass land. Unless there is some reason
for not doing so, the manure should be applied on the most
valuable crop that is being raised, — corn, cotton, potatoes,
truck, etc. On fairly fertile land it is not best to apply
it directly to the small grain crops, as oats, wheat, barley,
as they are Ukely to make too rank a growth.

BARNYARD MANURE

145

I'lo. 62. An expensive way to apply manure.
Thrown in piles and spread as in Fig. 6.3

On the new lands of
the West, manure
sometimes injures
crops when it is plowed
under, chiefly because
it causes the land to
dry out. On such lands
the use of manure
should not be con-
demned. It should be applied as thinly as possible as a
top-dressing on grass lands, where it will help to retain
the moisture. When it is plowed under, it will then be so
well rotted as to do no harm. Sometimes it is best to
let it become well rotten before applying on such land.

Small applications frequently made are much better
than heavy applications
less frequently. The
application should, if
possible, be thin enough
so that the entire farm
may be covered in three
to five years.

Manure may be ap-
plied at any time. The
sooner it is on the land
the better. It is better
to apply it in the fall
or winter than to store
it until spring. It is
much better to apply it
in the spring than to

Fiti. 6;{. .\i\ expensive way of applying
manure. This manure was pitched out of the
ham onto a pile, pitched from the pile onto a

ifon, pitched from the wagon to tne ground,
itched around in the field to spread it —

wagi
and

handled four times. ^Bee Figs. 62 and 65.)

146

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

;*j,;i£^'<'*».:*-»4---r<''?^-''-;i::ijt'"i^^

Fig. 64. Spreading manure directly from
the wagon, a better method than that shown
by Figs. 62 and 63.

wait till fall. It is sometimes feared that applications
when the ground is frozen or when there is snow on the
land may result in loss, but experiments have not shown

this to be serious. The
smaller amount of farm
work during the winter
also makes this a desir-
able time to spread ma-
nure.

The best method of
applying manure, when
large amounts are to be hauled, is to use a manure-
spreader (Fig. 65). These are too expensive to use on .very
small farms. The chief advantages of a manure-spreader
are that it saves labor and will distribute the same amount
of manure over more land and spread it more evenly. If
a spreader is not used, the manure should be spread
from a wagon, and it may be desirable to go over it with a
brush-harrow or spike-
tooth harrow to secure
an even distribution. It
should certainly not be
thrown into small piles
in the field and then
spread, as this involves
handling it once more
than is necessary.

In conclusion, it may
be said that the chief
means of maintaining the fertility of the land are the
rotation of crops, including grass and leguminous crops in

Fig. 65. Spreading manure with a manure
spreader. This manure was pitched from the
stable to the spreader — handled once only .
(See Fig. 63.)

BARNYARD MANURE 147

the rotation, and the use of stable manure — which in-
volves the keeping of stock.

GREEN-MANURE

146. Crops are sometimes grown for the purpose of
plowing under as green-manure. Rye, buckwheat, cow-
peas, crimson clover, are frequently grown for this purpose
This is a desirable practice when the land is very deficient
in humus. So far as possible, such crops should be grown
without extra labor. Crimson clover or cowpeas may be
sown in corn or cotton at the last cultivation with Uttle
expense except for seed. In regions too far north for these
plants rye is often used. It should be plowed under in
the spring before it has made enough growth to exhaust
the water of the soil.

It is not often wise to make a regular practice of plow-
ing under crops that are worth harvesting. It will be
better to feed them to stock and use the manure. If one
is trying to get worn-out land to produce, or under
certain conditions where stock cannot profitably be kept,
the practice may be followed regularly, and by many
means catch crops too small to harvest, but worth plow-
ing under, may be procured.

One is likely to be deceived as to the amount of material
that is being added to the soil by the practice. Green
crops are about 70 to 75 per cent water, which is likely
to deceive one as to the amount of organic matter.

Some of the best potato growers plow under a clover
crop every three years for keeping up the humus supply. The
potatoes are grown on the .sod and are heavily fertilized.

148 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Are fertilizers used in your region? If so, what fertilizers produce
the best result,s?

2. How long has the land been cropped? Are the farms as pro-
ductive as formerly?

3. How do the farm practices on the most productive farms differ
from those on the least productive?

4. What care is taken of the barnyard manure to prevent losses
from leaching, from fennentation, and from escape of the liquid portion?

5. On what crops is manure used? Is it needed more than formerly?
Will it pay to care for it l)ett«r than formerly?

0. If fertilizers are use<l, what is their composition and cost? Would
it pay to buy the separate materials and mix them at home?

7. What wild legumes are common in the region?

8. Wheat and oats can he grown in water cultures, yet they turn
yellow when grown on wet land. Why?

\). What are the three leailing crops of the region? What is an
average yield of each? How much nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash
would each crop remove from an acre per year (Appendix, Table 6)?

10. Clet the pre.sent prices of drie<l blood, nitrate of soda, acid
phosphate and muriate of potash, also the freight rate from the town
where you would purchase them. If these cannot be had, u.se the
following prices, which are f. o. b. in New York City, September,
1908. Freight rate to Ithaca, less than car-lots, 18 cents per hundred.

Dried blood (10 per cent) $39 per ton

Nitrate of soda (15 per cent) 52 per ton

Acid pho.sphate (14 per cent) 12 per ton

Muriate of potash (50 per cent) 41 per ton

Assuming that it is desirable to apply 1,000 pounds jxr acre of
a 34, 8, 10 fertilizer on eight acres of potatoes:

(rt) How much nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of
potash must l>e purcha.sed?

(6) How much would it cost, including freight?

(c) How nmch of the mixture as made by a farmer would need
to be applie<l per acre?

(rf) On how much material is freight saved?

11. Assuming that it is desirable to apply 200 pounds per acre

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

149

of a 2, 10, 4 fertilizer on fall-sown wheat, work problems a, b, c, d, as
on preceding page, but use half the nitrogen in the form of dried blood.
12. In a three-year rotation of corn, wheat and clover at the Ohio
Station, eight tons of manure were applied on the com on certain plots.
No manure was used on the wheat or clover. These crops got the bene-
fits of the manure that was left in the soil. Stall manure and that from
the barnyard were used, and were reinforced with different fertilizers.
The following are results on a few plots:

Plot

7
14
15

16
17

Treatment

Nothing

Yard manure and floats . . . .

Stall manure and floats

Nothing

Yard manure and acid phos

phate

Stall manure and acid phos

phate

Nothing

Nothing

Yard manure

Stall manure

Nothing

Average yield per acre

Com 10 years

Wheat 6 years

Grain

Stover

Grain

Straw

Bus.

Lbs.

Bus.

Lbs.

38.86

2,263

11.49

1,425

59.85

3,347

24.21

2,627 •

63.08

3,630

25.82

2,828 1

33.04

2,047

10.24

1,193

60.07

3,288

24.65

2,615

64.90

3,534

25.55

2,800

32.50

2,014

9.44

1,115

33.97

2,058

9.61

1,105

51.29

2,918

18.20

2,071

58.79

3,372

19.73

2,237

37.84

2,341

9.93

1,209

Hay
6 years

Lbs.
2,443
3,818
4,525
1,754

3,513

4,439
1,672
1,626
2,441
3,140
1,977

Notice that each third plot is a check plot, to eliminate differences
due Uy the variations in soil. It is a.ssumed that the change from one
check plot to another is gradual. Check plot 1 yielded 38.86 bushels
of com, and check plot 4 yielded 33.04 bushels. The difference is
5.82. We assume th-'t the eoil is getting poorer a« we pass from plot 1
to plot 4. If in the width of three plots it has decreased 5.82, we sup-
p(38e that it would decrease one-third this amount or 1.94 in one plot.
If untreated it is, therefore, assumed that plot 2 would have yielded
36.92 bushels and plot 3 would have yieldetl 34.98 bushels. In order
to check the work we may subtract the 1.94 again and we should have
33.04. But plot 2 did yield 59.85 bushels, hence the treatment must
have producetl an increase of 22.93 bushels. Similarly fill out the fol-
lowing table. It may be easier first to make a table of probable yielde
of each plot if not treated.

150 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Increased Yields Due to Manure and Fertilizer

Plot

15
16

Treatment

Yard manure and float.s . .

Stall manure and floats . .

Yard manure and acid phos-
phate

Stall manure and acid phos
phate

Yard manure

Stall manure

Average increase per acre

Com 10 years

Wheat 6 years

Grain

Stover

Grain

Straw

Bus.
22.93

Hay 6
years

If com is worth 40 cents per bushel, wheat 70 cents, hay $8 per
ton, stover $3, and straw 12, fill out the following table:

Value of Increase Due to Manure and Fertilizer.

Plot

Treatment

Total
value of
increase

Cost of
treatment
per acre^

$128

128
2 24
2 24

Net value of increase

Per acre

Per ton of
manure

2
3
5

6

15
16

Yard manure and floats
Stall manure and floats
Yard manure and acid

phosphate

Stall manure and acid

phosphate

Yard manure

Stall Manure

PBOBLEMS FOB CLASSES THAT HAVE STUDIED CHEMISTBT

13. Write the reactions when : (1) Limestone is burned; (2) quick-
lime is water-slaked; (3) plaster dries out; (4) when quicklime air-slakes.

14. Find the comparative amounts of lime (CaO) in limestone,
quick-lime and water-slaked lime.

'Cost of the acid phosphate and floats per acre

LABORATORY EXERCISES 151

15. Complete the following reaction which takes place in the
manufacture of acid phosphate:

Cas (P04)2+2H2S04+5H20=?

The resulting mixture is acid phosphate. About what proportion
of it is land plaster or gypsum?

16. A 2, 8, 10 fertilizer contains what per cent of NH;,? Of P?
Of K?

17. Muriate of potash that is 80 j)er cent pure (80 per cent KCl)
would be stated as what per cent potash (K^.O)?

18. Nitrate of soda that is 96 per cent pure would contain what
per cent of N?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

48. Examination of Fertilizers.

Materials. — Small samples of different fertilizing materials.
Describe each. Test each with litmus paper, to see which are acid
and which are alkaline.

49. Absorption of Manure by Soils. (For humid regions.)

Materials. — One quart of barnyard manure, can of soijj, perforated
bottom.

Let the manure soak in water for a day or two, to get manure-water.
Pour this through the soil. Compare with the water that comes out
at the bottom. •

60. Losses of Manure.

Materials. — Two himdred pounds or more of manure, scales.
Weigh the manure, leave it in a pile outdoors for several months;
weigh again.

61. Mixing Fertilizers.

Materiaht. — Fifty pounds or more of several fertilizing materials.
Mi.x these in the proper proportions for problem 10 or 11.

62. Fertilizer Trial.

Materials. — One-fourth acre or more of farm land; separate ingredi-
ents for fertilizers.

Lay off the field into plots one-fortieth, one-twentieth, or one-

Plot

1.

Plot

2.

Plot

3.

Plot

4.

Plot

5.

Plot

6.

Plot

7.

Plot

8.

152 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

tenth acre each, taking care to have the plots as uniform as possible.
Treat the plots as follows:

Nothing, check.

Nitrate of soda, at the rate of 160 pounds per acre,

4 pounds for one-fortieth acre, etc.
Acid phosphate, 320 jxiunds per acre.
Nothing, check.

Muriate of potash, 80 pounds per acre.
Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; acid phosphate, 320 pounds.
Nothing, check.

Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; muriate of potash, 80
pounds.
Plot 9. Muriate of potash, 80 pounds; acid phosphate, 320

pounds.
Plot 10. Nothing, check.
Plot 11. Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; acid phosphate, 320 pounds.

muriate of potash, 80 pounds.
Plot 12. Barnyard manure, 10 loads or tons per acre.
Plot 13. Nothing, check.
If there is not room for so many plots, the first five may be omitted.
Raise a crop of com, cotton or potatoes according to the region. In
the fall, harvest and weigh the crop, in order to see which fertilizer is
most profitable.

If the school does not have land available for such an experiment,
some farmer nearby will probably furnish it. Correspond with the
State Experiment Station, and an experiment better adapted to the
community may be arranged for.

COLLATERAL READING

Commercial Fertilizers, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 44.

Barnyard Manure, Farmers' Bulletin No. 192.

Home Mixing of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 222, pp. 5-9;
No. 225, pp. 7, 8.

Lime and Clover. Farmers' Bulletin No. 237, pp. 5, 6.

Use of Commercial Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 259, pp. 56.

Leguminous Crops for Green-Manuring. Farmers' Bulletin No. 278.

Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Farmers' Bulletin No. 245.

The Conservation of Natural Resources. Farmers' Bulletin, No
327.

COLLATERAL READING 153

Conservation of Soil Resources. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 342, pp.
5-10.

The Maintenance of Fertility. Ohio Bulletin, No. 182.

The Maintenance of Fertility (Barnyard Manure). Ohio Bulletin
No. 183.

How to Determine the Fertilizer Requirements of Ohio Soils.
Ohio Circular No. 79.

The Fertility in Illinois Soils. Illinois Bulletin No. 123.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Vol. I, pp. 454-513

Soils, by S. W. Fletcher.

The Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts

Soils and Fertilizers, by Harry Snyder.

Fertilizers, by E. B. Voorhees.

CHAPTER VII
SOME IMPORTANT FARM CROPS

147. Relative Importance of the Different Crops of
the World. If under the one word grass we include all
the hay and pasture plants, then the most important
crop of the world is grass. But this is a collection of a
number of different plants.

The most valuable single plant of the world is the
wheat. The potato is second in value and corn third. There
are now more pounds of corn grown than of wheat, but the
wheat is worth more per pound, so that its total value
is still greater than that of com.

It will be noticed that the two crops whose total yields
lead all other crops are natives of the new world. The dis-

Potatoeo 284

Com 218

Wheat 207

Oato 114

Rice 107

Rye 81

Bariey 62

Fig. 66. The worid's crop production for the year 1906 in billions of pounds.'

covery of America was much more than the discovery
of more land. Of these two crops, corn has attained the
greatest development in America, but the potato has at-

lYearbook, United States Department ot Agriculture, 1907. Bushels
of wheat multiplied by 60, com by 56, potatoes by 60, oats by 32, rye by
56, barley by 48.

(154)

SOME IMPORTANT FARM CROPS 155

tained greater prominence in Europe than in its native
land.

Of the cereal^ crops, the leading one in Europe is wheat;
in Asia, rice; in South America, wheat; in North America,
corn.

148. Relative Rank of the Different Crops in the United
States. In 1899, the census value of corn was over one-
fourth of the value of all crops — all plant products — in
the United States. The forest crops are second in value;
then follow in order: cotton, hay, wheat, oats, potatoes,
barley and tobacco. None except those listed has an annual

Com 1.132

Forest Prod-
ucts 850

Cotton 590

Hay 587

Wheat 503

Oats 293

Potatoes 161

Barley 70

Tobacco .... 61

Fio. 67. Crops of the United States. Average values in millions of dollars
for the five years 1903 to 1907. Forest products for 1906 only.'

value as great as $25,000,000. The diagram shows the
comparative values of these crops. The values given
do not include the value of the corn-stalks or the straw
of wheat and oats, or the value of the wood used as fuel.
See Appendix, Table 11 for comparative values of different
agricultural products. The crop yields are given in Table 14.

'A cereal is a grass grown for its edible grain.

^Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1907, and
Forest Service Bulletin No. 77.

166 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

CORN

149. Historical. Corn is a native of the New World.
It is thought to have originated in Mexico, and to havo
been carried north and south by the Indians. The Indians
had grown it for many centuries before America was
discovered. They were raising better crops of it than some
farmers now raise. They taught the first settlers how
to grow it. Had it not been for the corn that the Indians
shared with them, the early settlers would have died of
famine. Had it not been for corn, the settlement of the
middle West would have been long delayed, and it is even
conceivable that this region might not now belong to the
United States. Had it not been for the increased wealth
and population of the North, which was due to corn, it
is possible that the Civil War might have ended differ-
ently. Corn and cotton have had more to do with the his-
tory of America than has "taxation without representa-
tion." In fact, there would have been few people to tax
at the time of the Revolution had it not been for these
crops.

The botanical name of corn is Zea mai/s. It is often
called maize, or Indian corn, in order to distinguish it
from corn a,s the word is used in Europe. Wheat, barley,
and other small grains are there spoken of as corn. The
word is used much as we use the word grain. Probabl>
most Americans think of Indian corn when the word corn
is read in the Bible, but we must remember that in those
days the Indians were probably the only people who knew
this crop.

150. Corn Crop of the World. Over three-fourths of

CORN 157

the world's corn crop is grown in the United States. Nearly
half of the world's crop is grown in the seven states of
Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana and
Ohio. These are the corn-surplus states. It is these seven
states that furnish nearly all of the corn that is sold off
the farms on which it grows. Corn occupies one-third of
the area in crops of all kinds in the United States, other
than pasture. About one-third of the farms raise wheat,
but over four-fifths of them raise corn.

'If the corn crop of the United States for 1906 had
])een placed in wagons, 50 bushels per load, and allowed
20 feet of space for each wagon and team, the train of
corn would have reached nine times around the earth
at the equator.''*

The United States has no rival in corn-production.
Argentina ranks second, but it produces only about one-
fifteenth as much as the United States. Argentina still
has a considerable area of undeveloped land that is adapted
to corn, but it is not prol)able that its production will
ever equal that of the United States.

161. Relation of Climate to Corn-production. As has
been stated in previous chapters, climate is a much more
important factor in crop-growth than is the soil. The
regions that have similar climates have similar plants the
world over.

In ortler to produce the best yields of any crop, it is
necessary that the rainfall, temperature and .sunshine all
be adapted to that crop. For its l)est growth, corn requires
a high temperature during the growing .season, long days
of bright sunshine, and a large amount of rain during the

^Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, \u\. II, p. 40.3

158

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

hottest weather. The "corn- belt" of the United States
seems to be the largest area in the world where these
climatic features are favorable, and where the land is
level enough for economic corn-production. Even here
there are probably no seasons when corn does not suffer
to some extent from unfavorable weather.

Fia. 68. Rainfall for June, July and August and yield of com per acre.*'

Average yields of com 1888 to 1902.

Average rainfall for June, July and August.

It is, of course, the temperature of the growing season
rather than the temperature for the year that Umits the
corn crop. Nearly nine-tenths of the corn of the United
States is grown in regions where the July temperature
is between 70° and 80° Fahr. More is grown in the warmer
part of this region than in the colder part.

The amount and intensity of sunshine is also important.

» Yearbook, 1903, pp. 215-224

CORN 159

Few persons realize that there is much more sunshine in
Illinois than in Louisiana during the summer months.
Not only are there more hours of daylight, but the sunshine
is much more intense. When rains come, they are usually
of short duration and are followed by bright sunshine.
The glaring sunlight of the middle West is one of its natural
resources — worth more than gold mines.

In the corn-belt of the United States there does not
seem to be any very definite, relationship between varia-
tions in temperature from year to year and the corn crop.
But there is a very decided relationship between rain-
fall and yield. Again, it is not the rainfall of the year,
but that of the growing period, that is most important.
The rainfall of western England is 37 inches per year.
That of Lincoln, Nebraska, is 27 inches. Yet the latter
rainfall is better adapted to corn, because 10 inches of
the year's supply falls in May, June, July and August,
while in England only 11 inches falls during these months.
The summer rainfall is deficient in most parts of Europe
and Asia that might otherwise be adapted to corn. Fig. 68
expresses this relationship graphically. It will be seen
that the line representing the rainfall for June, July and
August is almost parallel with the line representing the
yield per acre.

152. Why We Raise Corn. Where corn thrives, it pro-
duces about twice as much food per acre as is produced
by any of the other grains. This, together with the limited
area of land with a corn climate, makes the farms in our
corn-belt very high in price. It also makes it possible to
grow corn in many regions that are not best adapted to
it. \ half-crop of corn may produce as much food us

160

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

a full crop of other grains. The demand for wheat as
human food and for oats as horse food, makes these grains
sell for higher prices per pound than corn.

Average Crops in the Unfted States for Five Years (1903-1907).

Average

Total digestible

Value

yield
Bus.

food per acre*-
Pounds

per acre

Com

27.5

1,540

1,298

SU 99

Wheat

13.9

834

694

10 80

Oats

30.1

963

636

10 00

Potatoes

95.9

5,754

1,001

53 35

Cotton

20 70

Another reason for growing corn is that it is a tilled
crop. It is very desirable to have a tilled crop in the
rotation, in order to free the land of weeds and secure
the other benefits that come from tillage.

Since corn pays better than oats in most parts of the
United States, why should we j:aise^ny oats? Oats are
really not a competitor of corn. A farmer can raise all
the corn that he can care for and raise oats besides, as the
work does not come at the same time. Some persons have
wondered why American farmers give so much less atten-
tion to potatoes and root crops than do the farmers of
Europe. These crops compete with corn. They occupy
the same place in the rotation as corn, and require work
at the same season of the year. In Europe, the climate
and cheaper labor are both favorable to these crops, so
that they can drive corn out. In this country, we raise
few root crops or potatoes except for human food. Our
climate makes corn a cheaper stock food. A farmer should

•Total food here includes the digestible protein-f-carbohydrates-}-2iX
fat. (See page 286.)

CORN

161

grow a sufl5cient variety of crops so that he will be em-
ployed as much of the year as possible. He must then
pick the most profitable crop for each season. In the
South there are two crops that can compete with corn;
they are cottbn and tobacco.

153. Types of Com. There are six
types of corn: (1) Pod corn {Zea tuni-
cata) ; (2) soft corn {Zea amylacea) ; (3)
pop-corn (Zea everta); (4) sweet corn
(Zea saccharata) ; (5) flint corn (Zea
indurata) ; (6) dent corn (Zea inden-
tata).

-'The pod corn is characterized
by having husks around each ker-
nel. It is interesting, because
it is thought to be the type
from which the others were
derived. The scales at the base
of each kernel of common corn
are probably the husks
much reduced in si;5e.

Soft corn is not grown
in North America except
as a curiosity. Its endo-
sperm is all soft white
starch.

Pop-corn is character-
ized by its small size, its
very hard kernel and con-
sequent habit of popping. ^^°- ^ ^^^ ^" °f *^'"*

cofTi. Grown for grain in the
It is the other extreme from northeastern states.

162

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

soft corn, as its endosperm is practically all hard, horny

starch.

Sweet corn is grown chiefly for human food, either
green, dried or canned. The corn-can-
ning industry is now becoming very
important.

Flint corn is characterized by having
the larger part of its endosperm hard.
It is still the prevailing type of field
corn in New York and New England.
It is earlier than most of the dent varie-
ties. Where the latter are successful,
they will out-yield the flint. The dent
types are nearly always grown for silage,
and some of the earlier dent varieties
are displacing the flint corn in many
localities. .

Dent corn has both horny and soft
endosperm. It is the presence of the
soft endosperm that causes the shrinking
when the grain ripens and results in the
"dent" at the top of the kernel. This is
the type that furnishes nearly all of the
world's corn crop. The flint corn is about
as much of a curiosity in the corn-belt
as is the pod corn. A large number of

varieties have been developed. Some of the leading ones

are the Leaming, Reid's Yellow Dent, and, for northern

sections, Pride of the North.

There seems to be no difference in composition of the

dent and the flint varieties. The difference betw-een hard

Kio. 70. A good ear
of dent corn

CORN 163

^and soft endosperm seems to be chiefly a physical one,
being the difference between ice and snow. When com-
pacted, the endosperm is glossy, but when loose it is starchy.

154. Fertilizers for Com. Corn is not a poor-land crop.
On poor soils there are other crops, such as hay, oats,
rye, buckwheat, that will give some thing of a yield when
the soil is so poor that corn would produce little or no
grain. Barnyard manure is nearly always applied on
the corn crop. Some of the farmers in the northern states
are coming to apply it with a manure-spreader on the
meadows one year preceding the corn crop. This seems
to be a good practice. Commercial fertilizers do not
usually give so good results with corn as with hay and the
small grains. This is probably because these crops are
planted earlier, before the soil activities have Uberated
plant-food, while corn grows at the season when the food
of the soil i» being prepared most rapidly.

155. Plowing for Corn. There seems to be no particular
difference between fall plowing and spring plowing on
the average. In exceptional cases, o"ne or the other may
be best. In regions of deficient rainfall, it is desirable
to plow in the summer or early fall, if possible, in order
to have the land in condition to absorb and retain mois-
ture. If the land washes badly, as in parts of the South,
spring plowing is, of course, to be preferred. In most of
tiie country, the labor question is of more importance
than the soil differences. It is desirable to do as much
of the plowing as possible in the fall, so as to have it out
of the way of spring work.

The earlier spring plowing can be done the better;
of course, it should not be done until the soil is fit to work.

164

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Early plowing enables the soil to take up and retain more
moisture, and also increases the activity of the soil organ-
isms, so that more plant-food is made available. The
difference between early and late spring plowing is usually

more than the difference
between fall and spring
plowing.

Quiroga found that the
surface two feet of soil on
early-plowed land con-
Fio.71. .\ good plow tained an average of 21.49

per cent of moisture for the season, while on late-plowed
land the average was 20.27 per cent. The soluble nitrogen
in parts per million of dry soil averaged 4.51 for the early-
plowed land and 2.83 for the late-plowed. The yields
of corn were 59.6 bushels and 47.4 bushels.^ The early-
plowed land had more
moisture, more soluble
nitrogen, and produced
more grain.

Early plowing usu-
ally requires more labor
in subsequent fitting of
the land. If one is
turning under clover,
or ^ other green-manure
crop, the early-plowed
land will also receive less additional humus.

The proper depth for plowing varies with different
conditions. Experiments have not yet shown the exact

^Ohio State University Bulletin, Series 8, No. 28

Fig. 72. A four-horse gang plow. One man
can plow nearly as fast as two men with two-
horse plows.

CORN

165

relationship to these conditions. The trials thus far con-
ducted have given best results with depths of four to
six inches. In the humid regions, deeper plowing has
been more successful than in the arid regions.

Subsoiling^ is nowhere a common practice. Many-
trials of it have shown it to be unprofitable, with rare
exceptions.

In case one wishes to deepen the soil, it should not be

done all at once. If sev-
eral inches of the raw
subsoil are turned up,
it will injure the first
few crops. It is better
to plow one inch deeper
each year until the de-
sired depth is reached.
In semi-arid regions the
subsoil is usually not so different from the surface soil. On
many soils the depth should be varied from year to year,
otherwise a hard layer may form where the plow runs.

When several teams are plowing on the same land, the
plows should all be set at the same depth. If one plow runs
an inch deeper than the
others, it is much harder
for this team than it
would be if all plows
ran at the same depth.

'Subsoiling ia the break-
ing up of the subsoil in the
bottom of the furrow without
hringine the subsoil to the sur-
face. Tlie subsoil plow follows ., _. n , u ^ ■ j .•. .
the regular plow in the same ^'°- ^*V, Buckwheat on land that was
furrfjw. plowed late. Farm adjoining Fig. ia

Fio. 73. Buckwheat on land that was
plowed early and well fitted

106 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

156. Fitting the Land After Plowing. Fall-plowed land
is usually left without other working until spring. If
heavy soil is fall-plowed and too finely pulverized, it is
likely to "run together." (See Fig. 43.)

Spring-plowed land should be dragged with a smooth-
ing harrow or otherwise stirred before the clods become

. too dry to crumble read-

^__ ily. The drier the soil

fJp^l^^P(Q^^^^I^ the more frequently this
Fici. 75. Smoothing harn.w. A good tool for should be done. Under

killing weeds and fitting land ^,g^,j^| eonditioUS, the

hari*owing should l)e done on the day that it is plowed.
If the weather is very dry, and particularly in semi-arid
regions, it may be necessary to harrow within a few hours
after plowing. One may stop in the middle of each half-day
for this purpose. Usually the land should be harrowed with
the smoothing harrow two to four times before planting.
Sometimes it may be better to use the disk harrow. On
stony land or on very hard soil the spring-tooth harrow
may be used. This is really a cultivator.

If corn is to be kept clean, it should be planted in a
seed-bed that is free from weeds and that has been freshly
stirred in order to kill any sprouting seeds. This gives
the corn a chance to start even with the weeds. It is very
foolish to plant on land that has germinating weeds,
thinking to kill them after planting. It is better to delay
the planting long enough to kill the weeds.

157. Planting. The selection of seed and germination
tests have been previously discussed (pages 25 and 48).

"The Indian method of planting maize was to plant
four grains in a hill four feet each way. This method they

CORN

167

taught to the colonists."^ Most of the corn in the corn-
belt is planted 3 feet 8 inches apart each way, with two to
four kernels per hill. In the more humid parts, three stalks
per hill is considered best. In the semi-arid regions or on
poor land, two stalks is considered best. In the South,
where the season is long and the soil often poor, much
thinner planting is better. The rows may be placed five
feet apart and a row of cowpeas planted between for soil
improvement.

Four kernels in a hill seem to give the same yield as
if the same number are planted in drills, one kernel in a
place. If rowed both

ways, as is done by the ^i /7 \ .^ •'--

check-row planter, the
corn may be cultivated
both ways and so kept
clean much more easily.
The check-row planters
are not adapted to very

uneven land or to fields p.,„ -g ^ ,.,,e,.k-r„w com-planter. Plants two
that contain trees For rows at once and rows the corn both ways

these reasons, the corn in the northeastern states is mostly
drilled. The higher cost of the check-row planter is also
a factor. There are, however, many level farms that might
profitably use this machine.

In the semi-arid regions, a considerable part of the
corn is planted with a lister. The lister is a sort of double
plow that opens up a deep furrow and plants the corn in
the bottom. As the corn grows, the cultivation gradually
fills the ditch. Corn planted in this way in dry regions

*-T. F. Hunt, Cereals in America, p. 2:i\

168

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fig. 77. A lister for planting corn in semi-
arid regions

yields as much or more than that planted with a check-
row planter. The chief advantage seems to be in the re-
duction of labor. The land does not need to be plowed
for listed corn. This sav-
ing in cost is of much im-
portance when there is a
possibility of a small crop.
No matter how deep
corn, wheat or oats are
planted, they will send out
their permanent roots at the depth that seems best for
their growth in the particular soil. Fig. 78 shows some
rye plants planted at different depths. By varying the
length of the first internode, they have all started their

permanent roots at the
same depth, — in this case,
seven-eighths of an inch
below the surface. After
the roots have developed
from the node, the lower
roots die if they have been
planted too deeply. The
plant can thus "transplant"
itself to the proper depth.

In humid regions, one
inch deep has usually given
better yields of corn than
deeper planting. It is usu-
ally necessary to set the
planter deeper than one inch, in order to have all the grain
covered. A level seed-bed will make it much easier to

Fig. 78. Readjustment of a rye plant
when planted too deep. No matter how
deep the seed is planted, the permanent
roots are formed at the same depth. Too
deep planting weakens the plant as
shown on the left.

Fi<:. 79. Field of corn on which a weeder was used before cultivating

Fir.. 80. Field of com on fann adjoinini; Fiif. 79. Weeder was not u.s?d. Other
treatment wa.s similar

CORN

169

Fig. 81. A weeder. A good weed killer,
better than a smoothing-harrow on stony
land.

plant at the desired depth. The drier the region and the
more sandy the soil, the deeper corn may be planted. The
greatest danger of too deep
planting is that a poor
stand may result.

168. Tillage After Plant-
ing. After the coin is
planted it should be har-
rowed once with a smooth-
ing harrow, or with a
weeder, and should be gone over again after it is well
up. The best time to kill weeds is when they are just
coming up, — when they appear to be insignificant. When

they are large enough to
attract attention, they
are too large to be easily
killed. If the land is well
prepared and is har-
rowed just before plant-
ing, and is given these
two harrowings after
planting, it will be well started on its way. In large fields
of mellow soil this work may be done with a four-horse
smoothing harrow that
will cover 16 to 20 feet, so
that the work may be done
very rapidly. On stony
land the weeder may be
used.

Corn treated this way
will usually require three j-.^. ^. ^ good riding cultivator

Fio. 82. An undesirable cultivator. Shovels
are too large and the man is required to walk

170 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

cultivations. In some regions, as many as five may ho
needed. The ideal way is to stir the soil after each rain
as soon as it is fit to work, and to maintain a loose, mel-
low surface. In the middle West, the cultivation is most
commonly done with a two-horse cultivator that finishes
one row at a time. Wherever possible, two-horse cultivators
should be used. One-horse cultivators were all right when
men worked for 50 cents a day, but they should not now
be used except for small areas on small farms, or where
labor is still cheap and inefficient, as in the South.

Perhaps there is no single point in the raising of corn
that has been the source of greater loss than too deep
cultivation. A large part of the roots of corn extend
nearly horizontally for some distance within four inches
of the surface of the soil. Deep cultivation cuts these
roots so much as to injure the crop. The substitution of
smaller shovels in recent years has done much to encour-
age shallow culture. The first cultivation may be deeper
than the later ones. The common practice of cultivating
deep and throwing the dirt to the rows when the corn is
"laid by" is very undesirable. The old shovel-plow that
digs off the surface soil, exposes the roots and leaves a
hard surface exposed is much worse. The only excuse
for these methods is to bury weeds in the row. These
weeds should have been killed at previous cultivations
or by the harrowing before or after planting.

Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation at thirteen experi-
ment stations gave an average yield of 9.8 bushels per
acre less corn than shallow culture. In most cases, one to
two inches has been called shallow, and four or more
inches deep.

Fig. 84. Distribution of corn roots sixty days after planting. Notice the mass
of roots that would be cut off by a cultivator running four inches deep

CORN 171

159. Harvesting. More corn is husked from the stand-
ing stalks in the field than is. harvested in any other way.
The standing stalks are then commonly pastured during
the winter. This is the cheapest method of gathering the
grain, but the fodder is of more value when cut. In regions
where feed is less abundant, the corn is usually cut for
fodder or is put in the silo.

Corn harvesters are very desirable, but are not profit-
able unless one has a considerable area to cut. Zintheo'
figures that the interest and depreciation on such a binder
is $22.50 per year, and that the twine and labor of cutting
is worth 75 cents per acre. If one cuts only 10 acres per
year, it would, therefore, cost $3 an acre, besides the
shocking or hauling to the silo. If one cuts 20 acres, the
cost would be about $1.90 per acre besides the shocking,
which costs about 45 cents. It costs about $1.50 per acre
to cut and shock by hand. If one has 20 or more acres
per year to cut, it will probably pay to own a harvester,
as the work can be done more rapidly and with greater
independence, and the bundles are much easier to handle
than the loose corn. For a less area, it will pay better to
hire a neighbor who has a harvester, or do the work by
hand; or a sled may be used. This seems to be the cheap-
e.st of all methods, costing about $1.20 per acre, cut and
shocked.

160. Corn Silage. One of the most important develop-
ments in the use of corn in recent years has been the in-
troduction of the silo. The first silo in America was built
in 1879. Silos have come into general use in dairy sections
during the past fifteen years. The entire corn-stalk and

^F»nnere' Bulletin No. 303

172 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

grain is shredded or cut into small pieces and stored in
the tight silo. (See Figs. 143 and 144.)

The silo prevents much of the loss of food. It makes
it easier to handle the food, and makes the manure much
easier to handle than if fodder is used. In northern sec-
tions, larger varieties of corn can be grown for the silo
than can be matured for fodder. Silage is more palatable
than fodder, and the stock will eat more of it. The same
amount of corn in the silo will produce more milk than it
will if fed as fodder. The following table shows the quan-
tity of milk produced from equal amounts of corn made
into silage and fed as fodder:^

Pounds of Milk Produced

Vermont*

Silage

8,525

Wisconsin^ 7,496

Fodder ' Gain

Per cent

7,688 ' 11

7,119 5

Any kind of green material may be preserved in the
silo. Even dried corn fodder may be put in the silo, antl
sufficient water added to make it keep. Alfalfa, clover,
soy-beans, cowpeas, are used for silage to some extent,
but corn is the almost universal silage material.

161. Methods of Preserving Food and the Principle
of the Silo. Heat and moisture are necessary for the growth
of the bacteria and molds that cause decay. Hence, if
a substance is sufficiently dried or is kept sufficiently
cold, it will be preserved. These principles are used in

^Tlie word fodder is used to include the stalks and grain. Stover is
the stalks alone.

-Vermont Report, 1891.
^Wisconsin Report, 1891.

CORN 173

preserving meat and hay by drying, and in preserving
many articles by cold storage. Hay is well preserved by
drying, but corn fodder retains so much water that when
put in a barn or stack it will usually spoil. Certain sub-
stances prevent the action of decay organisms. These
preservatives are usually harmful to men and animals,
so that this is not a very desirable method of preserving.
Salt is satisfactory for preserving meat and some other
things, because the harmful excess of it can be washed
out. A fourth method of preserving is that used in can-
ning fruit. This is the principle employed in the silo.
By heating fruit so as to kill the decay organisms and
then sealing it air-tight, so that no more can get in, it
may be preserved indefinitely.

In the early attempts to keep silage, it was placed in
pits or tanks and sealed with earth or other material,
and was cooked with steam. Later it was found to keep
nearly as well when merely packed in the silo. Decay
begins at once, and as a result the silage becomes very
hot. This decay uses up the air in the silo and changes
it to carbon dioxid. This process continues until the heat
and the exhaustion of the air stop the decay. The silage
will then keep indefinitely, provided no air can get into
it. That on the top of the silo or near any leaks will spoil.
As soon as the silo is filled, it is well to begin feeding
from it. If this is not done, it may be covered with chaff
and well wet down. Or the corn may be husked from the
last that is put in and the silage itself act as cover; several
inches on the surface will spoil. There should not be too
much surface area per cow, or it will spoil while being fed.

162. The Silo. Any kind of material may be used for

174 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

building a silo. The essential point is that it be air-tight
at the sides and bottom. Cement, stone, and brick are
sometimes used, but they are all more expensive than
wood. There are two common methods of wood con-
struction. In one, vertical posts are sheathed on the in-
side and outside — the sheathing acting as hoops to main-
tain the circular position. The other type is more common.
It is made of two-inch planks that are matched together
and held by hoops in the form of a tank. The hoops may
be tightened by means of burs. The foundation should
be of cement. Wooden silos may be constructed com-
plete for $1.50 to $2 per ton of capacity.

The deeper the silo, the cheaper the construction for
a given capacity, and the better the silage keeps, because
that in the bottom is packed harder. A silo that is 32
feet deep will hold twice as much as one that is 20 feet
deep. Ordinarily, a silo should be at least 24 feet deep.

A silo is not likely to be profitable if there are not
at least ten cattle to be fed. Each cow will eat about
half a ton a month. The required capacity can therefore
be figured from the number of cows.

163. Growing Corn for the Silo. When corn is grown
for the silo, it is usually planted in drills and thicker
than when grown for grain. The distance at which the
total yield of grajn is greatest is probably best. This
results in some "nubbins," but they are as desirable as
large ears, provided the total yield of grain is not decreased.
It is not desirable to plant so thick as to decrease the
yield of grain.

Corn should be cut for the silo when fully glazed. At
this time the kernels will all be dented and a few of the

CORN

175

lower leaves will be dead. The table shows that in the
milk stage the corn weighs more than when glazed, but
there is 00 per cent more dry matter at the later stage.
The difference is water. If put in the silo in the milk stage
or when ripe, the corn does not keep so well as when
glazed:

Yield of Corn When Cut at Different Stages*

Stage of growth

Fully tasseled

Fully silked

Kernels, milk stage
Kernels, glazed. . . .
Kipe

Yield of

com
per acre

Tons
9.0
12.9
16.3
16.1
14.2

Water
per acre

Dry

matter

Tom
8.2
11.3
14.0
12.5
10.2

Tons
0.8
1.5
2.3
3.6
4.0

The large weight in the milk stage deceives many per-
sons as to the best variety to grow. Farmers in the North
often grow a variety that does not become glazed before
frost. Such a variety may grow very large, but the yield
of dry matter will not be so great as that of a variety that
matures to this stage before frost. The larger the variety
the better, so long as this stage is reached.

Even if the right variety is planted in northern United
States, there will be short seasons when it will be in dan-
ger of frosts. If there is danger of a frost, will it pay to
cut the corn, or will it be better to wait for it to mature
and risk the frost? The Vermont Station tested this mat-
ter. Part of a field was cut October 7, when a frost was
expected. The remainder was allowed to grow until
October 23, when it was killed by a hard frost. The two

»New Ytjrk State Station, Report, 1889.

176

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE
Effect of Frost on Corn for Silage

Date cut

October 7

October 23

Frost injury

None
Late milk
22,300 pounds
5,642 pounds

Hard frosted

Ripeness

Glazed

Yield per acre

22,750 pounds
6,506 pounds

Dry matter per acre

The frosted com gave 3 per cent less milk per 100 pounds of dry
matter.

The frosted com gave 15 per cent more yield of dry matter.
The frosted com gave 12 per cent more milk per acre of com.

lots were fed to cows for comparison. The frosted corn
was not quite so good feed, but there was 15 per cent
more dry matter, and the result was 12 per cent more
milk per acre of corn. It seems that one should try to
avoid a frost, but that if corn has not matured it is better
to risk a frost than to cut the corn much too green.

164. Feeding Silage. Silage is not much used where
hay is very cheap. It is not used extensively for fatten-
ing cattle, but experiments have shown that it is a good
feed for that purpose. It is also good for sheep, but is not
fed to horses. Its greatest use is as a food for winter
dairies.

There is some prejudice against milk from silage-fed
cows. One of the largest milk firms in New York City
refuses to buy silage milk. This prejudice does not seem
to be warranted by the facts. Rotten silage or rotten
hay may affect the milk, particularly if they are fed be-
fore milking, so that the odors are in the air ready to be
absorbed by the milk; but, under ordinary conditions,
silage does not give the milk a bad flavor. The Illinois

CORN 177

Experiment Station gave silage and non-silage milk to
372 persons to be tested without knowledge of its source.
Sixty per cent preferred the silage milk, 29 per cent pre-
ferred the non-silage milk, and 11 per cent had no choice.

165. Uses of Corn. The chief use of corn is as a food
for farm animals. The enormous meat-producing indus-
try of the United States is based on corn, grass and alfalfa.
A large amount of corn is also used as human food, par-
ticularly in the South and in the regions where wheat
is less plentiful.

Many products are also manufactured from corn. It
is the chief source of alcohol and whiskey. It is the cheap-
est material in America for making denatured alcohol.
Some of the products are malt liquors, glucose, corn starch,
corn oil. Less important products are paper made from
husks and stalks, explosives from the pith, packing for
war vessels from the pith, corn-cob pipes. The pith has
the property of expanding when wet, so that it will stop
leaks in a vessel when pierced. Some counties in Mis-
souri grow a special variety with large cobs for corn-
cob pipes. Some of the chief by-products are gluten
meal and distilled grains, which are used as stock foods.

The proportion of the corn that is fed to stock is much
greater in states west of Chicago than it is in Illinois.
This is because it is cheaper to ship the meat produced
by a bushel of corn than it is to ship the corn. A bushel
of corn will produce 10 to 11 pounds of pork. Instead of
shipping five or six pounds of corn, a farmer can feed it
to a hog and have only one pound to ship. (See page 357.)

Less than 2 per cent of the corn crop of the United States
is exported, while over one-third of the wheat crop is

178 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

exported, either as grain or as flour. This has an impor-
tant significance. It means that nearly all of our corn is
fed in this country, so that it results in manure-produc-
tion for the maintenance of the productiveness of our
farms. A relatively ^mall amount of wheat is used for
animals, so that wheat farms usually have too little manure
to keep up the productivity.

WHEAT

166. Importance of Wheat. Long before men began
to record history, they learned to raise wheat. It is the
most important human food and the one that is most
universallv liked.

Europe 1,765
North
Amerira 760

Asia . . 446

South
.America 155

Austral-
asia . . 64

Africa. . 51

Fio. 85. Wheat crop of the world in millions of bushels. Average for five
years (j90;i-07).

Nearly all of the wheat crop of the world is used as
human food. This is not l)ecause it is not good for domes-
tic animals, but because men prefer it to other grain,
and hence make the price too high to allow of its general
use as a stock food. The demand for it as human food is
constantly increasing. As fast as men or nations become
wealthy enough to afford it, they seem instinctively to
demand "white bread." The peasants of Ru.ssia and of
parts of Europe are compelled to eat rye, barley, millet,
etc., because they are cheaper; those of Asia eat rice,

WHEAT 179

but as soon as these people become wealthy enough they
demand wheat. One reason why wheat is so highly
esteemed is because it makes light bread and can be
cooked in so many forms. This factor depends on the
gluten that it contains. Chemically, wheat does not seem
to be much better than some other foods, but it is prob-
able that it contains some substance that makes it more
palatable and healthful. Some recent investigations seem
to indicate that this is the case.

The wheat crop of the world is very differently dis-
tributed from the corn crop. Europe produces twice as
much as North America. Europe secures about twice
the yield per acre, so that it is able to compete with Amer-
ica in wheat-production.

In this country, wheat is largely grown on new lands
by a one-crop system. This usually ceases to be prof-
itable after wheat has been grown 80 to (iO years, so
that the wheat region continues to move westward.
Considerable wheat is also grown in crop-rotation in the
older sections. The regions that are now being exploited
by wheat-production are western Canada and Argentina.

167. Types of Wheat. There are six rather distinct
types of wheat from the commercial standpoint: soft
winter wheat, semi-hard winter wheat, hard winter wheat,
soft spring wheat, hard spring wheat, macaroni wheat.

The wheats of the humid region are soft, those of the
drier regions are hard. The hard spring wheats of the
Dakotas and Canada and the hard winter wheats of
Kansas and Nebraska are highly prized for flour. The
best grades of flour are made from the hard wheats or
from mixtures of the.se with the soft varieties. Durum

180

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

^^^^

or macaroni wheat is the hardest of all. It is exported
for the manufacture of macaroni and is coming to be used
for flour.

The introduction of the Turkish varieties has made
the production of wheat profitable in Kansas, Nebraska
and other states where the soft winter varieties are not
successful. Durum wheats will grow with even less rain-
fall. The recent intro-
duction of this type has
added thousands of
acres of semi-arid land

Fio.87. A planker. for crushing clods ^^ ^j^g whcat area.

168. Culture. Wheat lends itself to machine-farming
better than most crops. Nearly all the "bonanza"' farms
with their large machinery are wheat farms. Still, the
greater part of the world's wheat crop is cut with a
sickle.

Wheat is better adapted to short seasons than is corn,
hence it grows farther north. It completes its growth
before the severest sum-
mer droughts occur, hence
it can grow in regions too
dry for corn.

Some of the best wheat
soils are clay loams and
clays — soils that are not

best for corn. In regions Fig. 88. a spring-tooth harrow. Particu-

where the climate is suit- '^'''^ "■^"^"' °" ^'°"*' ^"'^

able for corn, the loamy soils are devoted to corn, not
because they will not raise wheat but because corn pays
better.

OATS 181

Land for wheat is usually plowed, although it is some-
times disked. Early plowing for fall-sown wheat is much
to be preferred, on account of the control of weeds and
conservation of the rainfall. Many experimental tests of
drilling and broad-cast sowing have been made. The
drilled wheat has almost invariably given better yields.

The question of depth of planting, and advantages of
fall and spring plowing have been discussed under corn.
The same principles apply to growing spring wheat.

OATS X

169. Oats thrive best in a cool, nnoist climate. 'ThSy
will grow farther north than either corn qr wheat. For
both of these reasons, the oat crop of* "Europe is much
greater than'*that of the United States. Oats will also
produce something of a crop on land that is too poor
to produce corn or wheat. Oats are usually given the least
fertilizer of any crop in the rotation ; not because they
do not respond to fertilizers, but because they will grow
without them. Too much nitrogen in the soil is likely
to make them lodge, hence manure or nitrogenous fertili-
zers must be used sparingly.

Many oats are used for the manufacture of oatmeal.
They are highly esteemed for horse feed. The average
price of oats in New York for ten years has been 1.12
cents per pound, while the aVerageprice^ of corn has
been .96 cents per pound. The grain of oats costs still
more. About one-third of oats is hull, which has about
the same value as oat straw. If we exclude the hull, the
price of the grain in oats has cost about 75 per cent more

182 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

than corn. This difference is because oats are so much
preferred as horse feed. Corn seems to be as good and
much more economical for farm horses.^

A large part of the oats in America are grown without
plowing the land. The oats are either cultivated or disked
in on corn ground. This reduces the cost of production.

These methods produce
good crops in the corn-
belt. Plowing is best on
heavy soils.

Oats are often mixed
with other crops, such as

F.<;. 89. A disc-harrow ,^j^j.,gy ^^j jj^jj p^^ rpj^j^

is a common practice in New York and Canada. In these
sections, the mixture gives a larger yield than any one
alone. A common mixture is half oats and half barley.
When peas are included, one bushel of each are often
sown per acre.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

170. Cultural Methods. The hay and pasture plants
were the last to receive attention from mankind, and are
yet the crops that are likely to be poorly treated. It is
sometimes said that a good farmer can be told by his
pasture. This is becau.se the pasture is the last thing to
receive attention. If his pasture is cared for, everything
else must be.

The grasses and clovers are usually sown with small
grain. In New England they are often sown with corn.
Some farmers plow the land for the grass crop and seed

^Ohio Bulletin No. 195

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

183

without a grain crop. In humid regions, good stands
are usually secured when seeded with rye or wheat, and
fairly good stands with barley, but when seeded with
oats, the stand of grass is likely to be poor. This is be-
cause the oats take so much water from the soil (page 67),
because they shade the ground so much, and because they
are cut later in the season. The small grass and clover
plants are likely to be smothered out or to be killed by
drought. The drier the year or the region, and the poorer
the land, the more injury the grain crop does. Some
farmers fit the land again and seed after the removal of
oats. When seeded with winter wheat or rye, the grass
seeds are usually sown in the fall and the clover seeds
sown in the spring.

The grass plants respond to nitrogenous fertilizers.
(See Figs. 55 and 56.) Nitrogen promotes vegetative
growth; and it is vegetative growth, and not seed, that

Fio. 90. Timothy hay wa.1 cut at the time indirated, cattle were allowed to
eat at will. They preferred that which wan cut when the seed wa.s just formed.
Missouri Experiment Station.

is wanted for hay. Another reason why the grasses
respond to nitrogen is because they grow so early in the
spring, before the soil organisms are sufficiently active to
supply the nitrogen. Top-dressing of meadows is usually

184

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

profitable if there is a good stand of grass and if there is
sufficient rainfall. There is no use in supplying fertilizers
for a four-ton crop when the climate or the stand of
grass limits the crop to one ton. The price of hay is also
an important factor. In the northeastern states, nitrate
of soda at the rate of 100 to 200 pounds per acre may
be profitably used for the production of timothy. In New
York, the use of this material usually seems to be profita-
ble if the untreated land will yield
a little over a ton of hay. It is ap-
plied as soon as the grass starts
growth in the spring. Many farmers
are now applying manure on the
meadows preceding corn rather than
on the corn crop. This seems to be
a good practice when it can be
spread thinly, ;is is done with a
manure spreader. The corn crop
does not seem to be much poorer
and the hay is greatly benefited.
Probably the bacterial activity that
is favored by the sod (page 120) and
manure (page 119) prepares food
for the corn crop.
171. Timothy (Phleum pratense). The most important
hay plant in America is timothy. The chief timothy region
is north of the city of Washington and east of the 100th
meridian. Timothy has a number of desirable characters
that make it popular. The seed is cheap. It grows well
and produces a good yield of good hay the year after it is
sown. It is easily killed by plowing. No other grass is so

Fig. 91. Timothy plant
grown from a single seed —
A bunch grass.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

185

well adapted to growth in rotation with other crops. The
first two crops are better than the later ones, unless the
land is rich or is made so by fertilizers. It thrives best in
a good soil with a good rainfall. It is primarily a hay
plant, but, since the seed is cheap and since it produces
a fair crop the first year, it is used in nearly all pasture
mixtures. In permanent pastures it is usually displaced
by other grasses in a few years. The seed weighs 45
pounds per bushel. About 10 to 15 pounds is sown per acre.
172. Kentucky Blue-Grass (Poa pratensis). The most
important pasture grass in America is Kentucky blue-
grass. It is of little value as a hay plant. It grows

Fio. 92.

Kentucky blue-grass, urown from a. single seed.
stoloniferous. Compare with Fig. 91

Strongly

throughout the timothy region, but reaches its best de-
velopment a little south of the best timothy section.
It is very strongly stoloniferous (page 38) and will run
out most other plants on good soils. It takes two to three
years for it to reach full development, hence ii is seldom
sown alone. It is an early grass, starting growth early
and heading out early. It also grows well in the fall.

186

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fig. 93. (1) Kentucky blue
gra&s. (2) Canada blue-grass

In midsummer it makes a poor growth. The seed is ex-
pensive and is often poor in quality. The method of cur-
inp: the seed is such that it is often spoiled by heating.

One to ten pounds per acre are
used in seeding pastures. It is
sometimes adulterated with Canada
blue -grass {Poa comprcf<,sa), also
called wire gra.ss. The latter is a
less desirable grass, except for very
poor soils.

173. Red-top {Ayrotitis alba) is
second in importance to timothy as
a hay plant. It does not make as
popular a hay as timothy. If much
of it is mixed with timothy hay, the
price is reduced. The chief value of red-top is that it will
grow on soils that are too wet, too acid, or too poor for
the growth of timothy. It is a shallow-rooted, strongly
stoloniferous plant. It will produce hay or pasture the
year after seeding. The seed is not expensive and is usually
good. Redeaned seed weighs about 35 pounds per bushel.
About 15 pounds is sown per acre.

174. Awnless Brome Grass {Bromus inermis) has been
introduced from the plains of Russia recently. It is
strongly stoloniferous and will produce one or two good
crops of hay, after which the sod becomes too dense for
hay and is adapted to pasture. It makes a very pala-
table pasture grass. It has proved its value in the
semi-arid regions. In the East, it has not been thoroughly
tested, but seems promising.

175. Tall Meadow Fescue (Festma elatior) is a

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 187

"bunch" grass, about as stoloniferous as timothy. It
requires about three years to form a good sod. It is adapted
to good land. The seed is not always good or pure, and
is expensive. It is subject to rust, the same rust that

Fio. 94. Awnless brome grass

attacks oats, but it is a good pasture grass under many
conditions.

176. Orchard Grass {Dactjflis glomerata.) is a tall,
tufted gra-ss. It is adapted to deep, rich soils, as it roots
'deeply, yet it grows on poor soils to some extent. It is
'Often desirable in a pasture mixture. The high price of
•seed and the seed adulteration seem to be the chief causes
for its limited use.

177. Bermuda Grass (Capriola dactylon) is probably
tthe best pasture grass for the South. It is very strongly

188

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

stoloniferous. The seed is very scarce and high in price.
It is sometimes grown from cuttings planted several feet

apart.

178. Johnson Grass (Sorghum
halepense) is one of the best hay
grasses of the South. It has one
very serious objection: it is a
bad weed in cultivated land.
For this reason, some of the
states have laws against sowing
it. It now seems that there are
methods by which it can be
successfully eradicated. If the.'se
methods prove practical, it will
become a popular crop rather
than a weed.

179. Alfalfa {Medicaqo saliva).
Alfalfa, or lucerne, is probably the oldest hay plant now
grown. It came from Media to Greece, 490 B. C. The
genus name refers to the origin in Media.
How long it was grown in Media no one
knows. It has been grown in New York
for one-hundred years. But its effective
introduction into the United States was
from Chili to California, about 50 years
ago. Its distribution has been particularly
rapid during the past 25 years.

180. Value of Alfalfa. The table on next
page shows the total number of acres of different kinds
of hay and total yields, in 1899, according to the
Twelfth Census:

Fig. 95. Orchard grass

Fig. 96.
Alfalfa blossoms

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

189

Comparison of Hays Grown in the United States in 1899

Acres

Yield

Yield
per
acre

Digestible
nutrients
per acre

Digest-
ible

protein
per
acre

Alfalfa

Clover

2,094,000

4,104,000

31,302,000

5,221,000

5,167,000

35,624,000

2.5
1.3
1.1

2,673
1,214
1,091

609
177

Cultivated grasses^

62

It will be seen that from half the area alfalfa gave a
little more total yield than clover. Its composition being
better, it gave over thro&umco the digestible nutrients
per acre.

Its value is sometimes overestimated. It has almost
the same composition as wheat bran. This has led to the
common statement that it is as valuable as wheat bran.
This is not true. It is always unsafe to compare the feed-
ing values of grain feeds with hay on the basis of com-
position only. The coarser feeds are harder to digest.
Feeding trials in milk-production on a commercial scale,
at the New Jersey Experiment Station, showed that
when bran cost $22.50 per ton, the hay was worth $16.50
as a substitute for it. In this case, alfalfa hay was worth
a little over two-thirds as much as bran.

One-sixth of the cultivated area of Argentina is planted
to alfalfa. It is said that on land where eight acres of
native grasses were required per steer, one acre of alfalfa
is sufficient.

181. Culture of Alfalfa. Alfalfa has a long tap-root,
much longer than any other farm crop, therefore the
character of the subsoil and drainage are of much im-

' Figured as timothy.

190

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

portance. It is especially adapted to warm climates, is
alkali-, drought- and heat-resistant. It grows throughout
the warm season if there is sufficient moisture. Hence,
it is possible to get two or three crops in Ontario, Canada,
while in Arizona eight crops are often harvested.

Failures of alfalfa are usually due to one of the follow-
ing causes: drought, lack of drainage, weeds, lack of manure,
lime or inoculation. Sometimes failure is due to poor
seed or to dodder.

Alfalfa is most likely to succeed on a porous, well-
drained soil, but it is successful on some clay soils. It is

not a poor-land crop. If
the soil is not rich, an
application of 10 to 20
tons of manure should l)e
made before sowing it.

It is more sensitive to
acidity than any other
farm crop. Probably half
of the soils east of the
Mississippi river require
lime for best success with
alfalfa.

It is a tender plant
when young, and is not
likely to be successful if
sown with a nurse crop \mless all other conditions are
very favorable. Nearly all experiments have shown that
it is safest to sow it alone. If the rainfall and soil are just
right, it may be successful when sown with wheat, oats, or
barley, but there is much risk in sowing it this way. Fig. 98

Weeds.— Left, limed: right, not limed

Fio. 97. Influence of lime on alfalfa and
weeds on a farm where lime was needed.
Where limed there was no room for weeds;
when not limed the weeds were able to nin
out the alfalfa.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

191

Fici. 98. Influence on alfalfa of seeding
in oats when other conditions were unfavor-
able. On the left i.s the alfalfa from a .souare
rod seeded in oats, on the right seeded alone.
When other conditions are favorable the
nurse crop does less damage.

shows an instance where entire failure resulted from sow-
ing with outs. When conditions are more favorable it may
persist in spite of the oats. If seeded alone in the spring,
the weeds are likely to
injure it. It is, there-
fore, best to sow it in
late summer or earh'
fall. Experiments in
nearly all of the states
east of Colorado have
shown this to be the
best time. Where small
grain or potatoes come
off the land in time, it may be sown after these crops.
As far north as New York, it is usually best to summer-
fallow the land. It is then manured and limed in the
spring when plowed, if these treatments are necessary,
and is kept harrowed and free from weeds until about
August 1. If this cannot be done, it may be seeded with
grain in the spring and the grain cut for hay.

In order to be sure that the seed is alive, a germina-
tion test should be made (page 51). The seed is some-
times adulterated with bur clover, yellow trefoil and
sweet clover. Dodder is the worst weed in the seed. Of
399 samples examined by the United States Department
of Agriculture in 1907, about half (191) contained dodder.
Seed should, if possible, be purcha.sed from regions where
dodder is least prevalent. Before buying seed, a sample
should be examined for dodder seed.

The beginner should .sow at least 25 pounds of good
seed per acre. Older growers whose soils are in condi-

192 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

tion for alfalfa may sow 20 pounds, or less. In some sec-
tions as low as 10 pounds are sown.

Inoculation is absolutely necessary for success. Inocu-
lation may take place naturally or may have to be applied.
Soil from sweet clover will inoculate alfalfa. Most of the
cases of natural inoculation appear to be due to the pre-
vious growth of sweet clover on the soil. Common clover
soil does not inoculate alfalfa. West of the Mississippi
river, inoculation is not so often required; but, east of
it, probably half of the soils require inoculation when
alfalfa is sown for the first time.

Even in fields that require inoculation for success, a
few plants usually become inoculated from some source.
These usually look large and dark green as contrasted
with the small yellowish uninoculated ones. If such a
field is planted and reseeded, it is often well inoculated.
It is, therefore, often desirable to make a new trial on
ground where alfalfa has thus failed.

Peas, beans, peanuts, clover, do not often require
inoculation. So far as we know, alfalfa and soy-beans
are the only legumes that require inocu'ation in New
York. Alfalfa requires it on most soils, and we have not
yet seen any soy-bean nodules where the soil was not in-
oculated. Many examinations have shown clover to be
inoculated in all cases, even on soils where it does not grow
well.

Several methods have befen developed for inoculating
legumes, but the best method is to take soil from a field
that has grown inoculated plants of the desired kind.
One or more bushels of this soil can be scattered on an
acre of land. This is an easy and inexpensive method.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 193

Alfalfa should be cut for hay when about one-tenth
of the heads are in blossom. If allowed to stand longer,
the hay is poorer, and the succeeding cuttings are de-
creased.

182. Red Clover is the most important legume in
eastern United States. There are two varieties, — the
common, medium or June clover (Trifolium pratense),
and the mammoth, sapling or
pea-vine clover (7'. pratense per-
enne). The former is smaller
and about a month earlier than
the latter. The mammoth
clover matures with timothy,
which is a point of great advan-

^ , " Fi(!. 99. A red clover plant,

tage in hay-making. The two it does not reproduce except from

kinds cannot be distinguished "^

by their seeds, hence the difficulty in always getting the

desired kind.

Red clover requires good soil. There are many farms
that are now too poor to grow it. The soil should be well
drained and should not be acid. The first steps in getting
clover on most farms where it fails are applications of
lime and manure.

The root-borer usually kills most of the clover the
second year, but it does not prevent the production of
the first hay crop.

Clover seed is about four times as expensive as timothy.
Four quarts are usually sown per acre. The seed weighs
no pounds per bushel.

Clover hay usually sells for about two-thirds as much
as timothy. Therefore, farmers usually sell timothy, and

194

ELEMENTS OF ACRICULTURE

feed the clover and mixed hay. The chemical analysis
of clover hay would seem to make it as valuable as timothy.
It is better for cattle and sheep, but is not desirable for
horses. This is probably the reason for the low price.
Clover seems to be chiefly responsible for the disease
of horses called heaves. It is said that heaves does not
occur in regions where clover is not used.

183. Alsike Clover {Trijolium hijhridum). This was
formerly thought to be a hybrid between red and white
clover, hence its specific name, hybridum. It is not now
considered to be a hybrid.

It is smaller, earlier, and more decumbent than red
clover. Its greatest use is to grow on soils where red

Fig. 100.

A white clover plant grown from a single seed, showing
spreading habit

clover fails or does poorly. It will grow on soils that are
too wet or too dry for red clover. It will grow on more
acid soils and on poorer soils, is less subject to disease,
and is less severely injured by the root-borer. In the
county where the writer lives, it is the only clover sown
on the poorest and most acid soils. On the fairly good

MEATX)WS AND PASTURES lOfj

soils, it is mixed witli red clover. Oii the richest soils,
red clover is often sown alone.

184. White Clover (Trifolium repens). This plant is
so small that it is of no value for hay purposes. But
it is a very desirable pasture plant. It supplements Ken-
tucky blue-grass for pasture, as red clover supplements
timothy for hay. White clover stems spread about on
the ground and take root, so that a single plant may pro-
duce many plants. (See Figs. 14 and 100.) The other
clovers do not have the power to spread except from
the seed. White clover will grow on poorer soils than
either of the other clovers. A few pounds of it should
be sown in pasture mixtures for permanent pastures.

185. Mixtures of Grasses and Clovers. Alfalfa is usu-
ally sown alone. The other grasses and clovers are com-
monly used in mixtures. Mixtures for hay should mature
at the same time. For pastures, they should mature at
different times. A plant that does not thrive alone on
the soil will be of little value in a mixture.

The advantages of a mixture are that the roots of dif-
ferent plants do not occupy the same areas of the
soil; hence the soil may be more fully used by growing
deep- and shallow-rooted plants together, as red clover
and timothy. Some seasons favor certain of the plants
and some favor others; when red and alsike clover are
sown with timothy, the clover is sometimes chiefly red
and sometimes, on the same farm, chiefly alsike. In most
fields there are irregularities of soil; by sowing a mixture,
each soil variation will bp covered with the type that
thrives best on it. In pastures, a mixture will furnish
gra.sses that grow at different seasons of the year.

196 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

thus furnishing more uniform pasture throughout the

season.

For hay production, where the meadows are left for

one to three years, a good mixture to be sown per acre is:

Timothy 15 pounds

Mammoth red clover 6 pounds

Alsike clover 4 pounds

Such a seeding will usually produce hay that is half
clover the first year and nearly clear timothy in later
years. If the land is very poor, 10 pounds of timothy,
5 pounds of red-top and 4 pounds of alsike may be used.
On the poorest, most acid soils, red-top should be sown
alone.

For pastures on good land a mixture something like

the following may be used. This may be cut for hay

for two years and used for pasture thereafter:

Timothy 10 pounds

Mammoth red clover 4 pounds

Alsike clover 3 pounds

White clover 2 pounds

Kentucky blue-grass 3 pounds

Tall meadow fescue ' 2 pounds

Orchard grass 2 pounds

If the land will produce alfalfa, two pounds of this
should be included. The blue-grass and white clover
will usually be the most prominent plants after a few years.

For pasture on land that is very poor or acid, it will

not pay to spend so much for seed unless fertilizers are

used. Some mixture like the following may be used:

Timothy 5 pounds

Red-top 5 pounds

Alsike clover .5 pounds

White clover 2 {xiunds

Fig.

101. A good pa.sture in New York, thirty years old. Cared for as
suggested on page 197

Fio 102 The opposite side of the same hill as Fig. 101 The cows have
developed this pasture by exterminating the plants that they like and saving
the weeda for seed.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 197

Any of the other plants that will grow on the land
should be included. Such a pasture will soon be chiefly
red-top and white clover if the land is very poor.

Professor Roberts, who developed the Roberts' pas-
ture (Fig. 101), recommended 5 pounds of timothy, 6
pounds of red clover, 4 pounds of alsike, and 3^ pounds
each of Kentucky blue-grass, red-top, orchard grass and
tall meadow fescue.

A good mixture for a lawn is timothy, 10 pounds;
red-top, 10 pounds ; blue-grass, 20 pounds, and white
clover, 5 pounds per acre. The timothy and red-top will
make a cover while the blue-grass and white clover are
becoming established. In arid regions, native buffalo
grass makes a good lawn.

186. Management of Permanent Pastures. Temporary
pastures are usually the second or later year's growth
on land that was seeded for hay, using only timothy and
clover. Too frequently a permanent pasture is made by
neglecting such a field. In time, blue grass and white
clover will appear, but in the meantime numerous weeds
will also have become established.

As stock graze in the pasture, they select the plants
that they like and allow the undesirable kinds to grow and
produce seed. This is really the cultivation of pasture
weeds. The results are easily seen by looking at the per-
manent pastures that one sees in almost any community.

If one is to maintain a good pasture, the weeds that
the cow saves for seed nmst be cut and the desirable plants
must be encouraged. The weeds should be mowed each
year before they have gone to seed. This can be done at
hay-making time, during rainy weather. Occasionally,

198 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

some more seed should be scattered on the bare places.
Sometimes it is* well to go over the pasture in the spring
with a cutaway harrow or disk. On most farms a top-
dressing of manure or fertilizer will be needed every three
to five years. Coarse, strawy manure, or any kind of rub-
bish that is undesirable for the regular fields may be
scattered on the bare spots in the pasture.

COTTON

By (CHARLES H. ALVORD
Professor of Agriculture, Agricultural and Mechanical Collie of Texas

187. Importance of Cotton. Cotton is the most im-
portant fiber crop grown. It is valuable not only for the
fiber or lint which it produces, but for each pound of
lint there is also produced an average of two pounds of
seed, which is valuable for manufacturing purposes and
also as a food for live stock. Thread manufactured from
cotton lint is used in manufacturing all kinds of cloth,
from the coarsest ducking, used in making tents and
sail-cloth, to the finest quality of "lawn." Its use is in-
dispensable to the comfort of the human race, and there
is no similar material produced in sufficient quantity to
substitute for any very great percentage of it. If the
farmers of America should cease growing cotton, there
would be no other available material with which to clothe
the people of this country. Because of its great import-
ance to the industrial welfare of the people, this plant is
famiHarly called "King Cotton." The total farm value of
the cotton lint and seed produced in the United States in
1907 was estimated at $675,000,000, and of this amount
$482,000,000 worth of cotton and cotton-seed products

COTTON 199

were exported.' Galveston and New Orleans are the great
cotton ports of this cbuntry, the shipments from Galveston
alone amounting to over $100,000,000 worth of cotton per
year.

The estimated annual production of cotton in the
world in 1906 was about 21,000,000 bales, each weigh-
ing 500 pounds. Of this vast amount, over three-fifths
was produced in the United States, south of a line
drawn from Norfolk, Va., to Memphis, Tenn., and »west
to Oklahoma City and El Paso, Texas. This means that
the world is dependent on this section of the United States
for its cotton, and indicates the great possibilities which
can be attained by the farmers of the South who carefully
cultivate this crop.

188. Historical. The cotton plant is of very ancient
origin, antedating all recorded history. It is supposed
to have originated in India, but China may have been
its original home.^ It is spoken of in ancient history as
tree wool. The people of India acquired great skill in the
weaving of cloth from the fiber of the cotton plant. An-
cient historians and travelers mention plants similar to
cotton in the various countries of southern Asia and
Africa, and it is also known that Columbus and other ex-
plorers who visited the western hemisphere found native
cotton growing in the West Indian islands and in South
America and in the territory now controlled by Mexico.

189. Development in the United States. Cotton was
first cultivated in the United States in the colony of

'Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture, 1907, pp. 15
and 22.

'Cotton is mentioned as a tribute from southern China to the ruler
3,000 years before Christ. Thesis in Cornell University Library, by
Koliang Yih.

200 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Virginia in the year 1621. It has always been the chief
money crop of the farmers of the southern states, and is
so closely identified with the prosperity of the people
that the welfare of all kinds of business depends very
much upon the success of the cotton crop. For a great
many years, Mississippi was the chief cotton-producing
state, but within the last ten years the opening of new
lands in western Texas and Oklahoma has greatly ex-
tended the area of land devoted to cotton culture. Cotton
occupies the same place in the southern states that Indian
corn occupies in the central states of the Mississippi
valley, and both crops seem peculiarly adapted to the
United States. Barley, wheat and oats are grown all over
the world, but corn and cotton are not grown in other
countries so extensively as they are in the United States.
190. Habits of Growth. In the tropical countries there
are perennial types of cotton, some kinds growing 20 or
more feet in height; but in the United States all of the
varieties are annual, growing in the form of a small shrub
two to eight feet in height, depending on the variety,
the amount of rainfall during the summer, and the pro-
ductiveness of the soil. The plant is very tender when
it first appears above the ground, but, if the weather is
warm, it grows robust very rapidly. The tap-root extends
deep into the soil, and the stalk above ground becomes
tough and woody. There are many branches, called pri-
mary and secondary. The primary branches are longest
near the ground. The flower-buds appear in the axes of
the leaves on secondary branches, and are called "squares."
The flowers are large in size and are short-lived, lasting
only one or two days. When first opened, they are a white

COTTON 201

or pale yellow. The second day they turn somewhat red
in color and soon drop off, leaving a small bc^l which
contains the seed. This boll continues to increase in size
until the .seeds which it contains mature. It then breaks
open and the soft white lint which surrounds the seed
is exposed. The boll contains three to five compartments.
When it breaks open, each compartment opens separ-
ately. The seed and lint contained in each separate com-
partment is called a "lock." Each lock contains six
to ten seeds.

191. Types of Cotton.^ Sea-island cotton is adapted to
low, moist soil and a humid atmosphere. Experiment
station reports indicate that certain varieties of sea-
island cotton have been grown west of the coastal plain,
and in irrigated sections, but, for the most part, the cul-
ture of this type is limited to regions adjacent to the
coasts of Georgia, South Carolina and Florida. This
cotton has a naked, black seed, and flowers that are yel-
low when they first open, but gradually turn purple.
It does not produce so much lint per acre as the upland
cotton, but, because of its greater length and fine
quality, it sells for a higher price per pound.

There are two accepted types of upland cotton — G.
herbaceum and G. hirsutum. These types include all the
varieties which are commonly called short-staple cotton.
The flowers are white or pale yellow when first opened,
and turn to a reddish tinge. The seeds are covered with

'Cotton b«long8 to the family of plants called Malvaceo; and to the
genus Gossypiiim. There are many species belonging to this genus among
the most important of which are the upland cotton (G. herbaceum and hir-
mitum). sea-island cotton (G. Barhadense), tree cotton (G. arboreurn) and India
cotton (G. neglectum). Of these only the upland and sea-island cottons are
cultivated in the United States.

202

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

fuzz and are green in color. They are flattened somewhat
and oblong in shape, and about the size of a white navy
bean. Because of the fuzz or lint left on the seed, they
are somewhat bulky, weighing 33 pounds to the measured
bushel.

The lint which sur-
rounds the seed is ex-
ceedingly fine in texture,
and varies in length from
seven-eighths of an inch
in upland cotton to two
and one-half inches in
sea-island cotton. Some
varieties of upland cot-
ton have been selected
for long fiber. When the
lint produced averages
over one and one-fourth
inches in length of fiber,
it is called "long staple."
The longer fibers are
much more valuable
than the shorter ones,
and "long staple" sells for a higher price in the market.
Other desirable qualities of the lint in addition to length
are (1) fineness, (2) strength, (3) uniformity of color.

192. Breeding and Selecting Cotton. From the fore-
going paragraphs, it will be noted that the cotton plant
may be greatly changed and improved by careful selec-
tion and breeding. Selection is comparatively a simple
matter, but, because of cross-fertilization, which probably

Fio. 103. An early, rapid fruiting, pro-
ductive type of cotton plant, with low fruit
limbs, short joints and continuous growing
long fruit limbs. Leaves removed. (After
Bennett.)

COTTON

203

S>^

*>^

often Of.ours, the breeding o cotton is more difficult.
Because of the fact that the cotton stalks are a
burden to the soil, exhausting its moisture and plant-
food, and a bother to the farmer when it becomes neces-
sary to get the land in
condition for the suc-
ceeding crop, it is desir-
able to produce the
maximum number of
bolls per acre on the
least possible amount of
stalk. Some types of
cotton have the fruit
branches set close to-
gether and the bolls
close to each other on
the branch. Fig. 103
shows cotton of this
kind and represents a
very desirable type.
There are four primary
limbs set close to the
ground and the inter-
nodes are short. It has been determined * that cotton
of this type will blossom earlier than cotton in which the
internodes are long. Early blossoming, with consequent
ear'V fruiting, is especially desirable in localities where the
boll weevil attacks the cotton. A late-maturing undesir-
able type is shown in Fig. 104. The size of the bolls is an
important factor in determining the yield of cotton. In

^Texas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74.

Fio. 104. A late, slow fruiting, unproduc-
tive type of cotton plant, with hJKh fniit
limbs and long joints. Leaves removed.
(After Bennett.)

204

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

some instances, it has been stated that large bolls are
always associated with late maturity, but recent experi-
ments' indicate that large bolls can be produced on the
early maturing, short-jointed type, and greatly increase
the total yield, provided a maximum number of bolls
is maintained.

The percentage of lint to seed is of importance. At
present the average is about two pounds of seed to one

Fig. 105. (1) Big Boll. (2) Small Boll. (3)
and (4) Short fniit limbs. (5) Cluster type
fruit limb. (After Bennett.)

of lint, or 33 J per cent of the total weight; but samples
are often found in which the amount of lint will run as
high as 40 per cent.

In the selecting of cotton for breeding and improve-
ment, careful attention should be given to securing plants
of early fruiting type and medium size, not over five
feet high, with many bolls of large size and high per-

iTexas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 75

COTTON 205

centage of lint. With the seed carefully selected from
individual plants, the breeding operations may be con-
ducted in the same manner as described for corn (see
page 25).

Professor Bennett, of the Texas Experiment Station,
recommends the following types of cotton:

For Early Fruiting. — The first fruit-limbs must be
low — not higher than the fifth joint above the seed-leaf
joint. Primary or wood limbs must be low — the first not
above the fifth joint, and not exceeding four in number.

For Rapid Fruiting. — The joints on the main stem,
fruit limbs and primary limbs must be short — not to
exceed two or three inches is preferable. Fruit limbs should
grow in succession at each joint of the main stem and pri-
mary limbs, and should be continuous in growth for con-
tinuous fruiting.

For Productiveness. — The bolls should not be less
than one and one-half inches in diameter. The ratio of
lint to seed cotton should not be less than 38J per cent.
The rate of growth is very important; and, therefore,
the larger the plant of the type, the greater is its inherent
rate of growth, its earliness, rapidity of fruiting and yield.
Early opening of the bolls is not important in escaping
the weevil. In states farther north, it is of importance
in escaping the early frosts. It is not invariably a measure
of the early setting of fruit.

193. Relation of Climate to Cotton. Cotton is a warm-
weather plant and needs a comparatively long-growing
season. Its growth may be divided into two periods, —
the vegetative or growing period, and the fruiting period.
This does not mean that the plant stops growing when it

200 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

begins to fruit, but that it should make its most rapid
growth during the first period, and attain nearly maxi-
mum size. Sea-island cotton requires 90 to 100 days
for the growing period, and 80 to 90 days for the
fruiting period. The early-maturing type represented in
Fig. 103 should require only about 70 days for the first
period. It is desirable that the vegetative period shall
be short and the fruiting period as long as possible.

Warm, moist weather, with warm nights and gradu-
ally increasing heat, are desirable during the period of
growth. For the fruiting period, dry weather with oc-
casional showers is desirable. An excess of moisture in
the soil at this time will cause the stalk to grow too large
and retard the proper development of the bolls.

194. Cotton Soils. Cotton develops best on a clay or
sandy loam soil, with a clay subsoil at a depth of about
two feet. On bottom land, enriched by occasional over-
flows, there is a tendency for the stalks to grow very
large, and they sometimes become so tough that they must
be chopped down with axes before the land can be cleared
and plowed for the succeeding crop.

Good cotton land should be well drained, but sufficiently
retentive of moisture to insure the crop against injury
by drought. To increase the water-holding capacity of
the soil, there should be a higher percentage of organic
matter than is usually found in cotton fields. This can
be secured by planting peanuts or some bush variety of
cowpeas between the cotton rows, and plowing them under
with the cotton stalks after the cotton has been picked.
This is not yet a common practice. Bur clover grows well
in the southern states in the winter, and can be used as a

COTTON 207

cover crop following the cotton, to be plowed under the
following spring.

195. Preparation of the Soil. Early fall plowing is always
advisable, especially when cotton is to follow cotton.
There are three marked advantages in plowing under
stalks and weeds in the fall: (1) Organic matter is added
to the soil ; (2) boll-weevil and boll-worm, and other in-
sects are destroyed ; (3) the seeds are destroyed which
produce the volunteer cotton on which the boll-weevil
feeds after the regular crop has fully matured.

Where the growth of stalk is very large, it may be
necessary to clear the stalks from the land and burn them,
but on soils of average productivity the stalks should be
cut and turned under.

It is common practice on many cotton farms to plant
cotton on land that grew cotton thf previous season.
The soil is prepared for planting b}' using a small, one-

Fio. 106.

A com and cotton 8talk cutter. To Fio. 107. A "middle-buster" for

cut the stalka before plowing cotton fields

horse turning plow, going twice between each two rows,
throwing the dirt to the center, and leaving the cotton
rows which are then broken up by a plow called a mid-
dle-burster, which throws the dirt to each side. This
forms the land into narrow beds, or ridges, with furrows

208 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

between, and on these ridges the seed is planted. The
chief objection to this plan is the expense of the labor.
In modern systems of farming, the amount of horse power
utilized per man should be increased as much as
possible.

196. Fertilizers for Cotton. When the seed of the cotton
plant is used on the farm for feed, and only the lint is
sold, very little plant-food is removed from the farm.
If manure could be saved and returned to the land, there
would be little occasion to use commercial fertilizers.
On farms in the South, however, the accumulation of
manure is much more difficult than in the northern states,
because of the fact that the cattle and work stock are
not often kept in barns, but are out in the open pastures.

Experiments at various stations indicate that the
nitrogen content of the soil can be maintained by the
growing of cowpeas, peanuts, and clover or alfalfa, in
rotation with Qorn and cotton. At the Texas station, no
benefit was secured by the use of potash, but an application
of 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate, about two weeks
before the seed was planted, produced earlier blossoms
and a greater yield. At the Georgia station, it was found
that when organic nitrogen, cottonseed meal or tankage
was used, it should be applied about two weeks before
the seed was planted; and the same recommendation
was made with reference to applications of potash and
phosphoric acid. It was also recommended that 16 to 20
pounds per acre of nitrate of soda should be applied with
the seed.

The following suggestions may be helpful in applying
fertilizer to cotton on average soil:

COTTON 200

(1) If the cotton is grown after cotton without rota-
tion with a legume, more nitrogen will be needed.

(2) Potash and phosphoric acid will be needed unless
liberal applications of barnyard manure are applied.

(3) Potash will make the plant hardier and more able
to withstand the attacks of fungous diseases.

(4) Phosphoric acid increases the yield of lint and tends
to produce early fruiting.

(5) When plants are small and dwarfish and not well
fruited, apply complete fertilizer.

(G) When the plants are of average size, but not well
fruited, apply acid phosphate.

(7) If the leaves are dropping off before the fruit is
well formed, apply potash.

(8) Mix the fertilizer with the soil underneath the
row or bed. Broadcasting fertilizer for cotton tends to
produce late maturity.

197. Planting and Cultivating. The method of prepar-
ing the soil for planting depends largely on its texture
and the drainage conditions. On wet lands, poorly drained,
the best practice is to plant the seed on beds thrown up
about four feet apart. On soil that is well drained and
in the drier sections, level preparation of the ground is
advisable. The soil should be well compacted, with just
sufficient loose dirt on the surface to cover the seed. The
results of various trials at different experiment stations
indicate that four feet is the best average distance be-
tween the rows, and 12 to 18 inches is the proper distance
between the plants in the row. On rich bottom-land soil
this may result in crowding the plants .so that the lower
branches are too much shaded. If this is true, it would be

210 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

better to select a smaller-growing type of cotton. Early
planting is strongly advised in all localities, and the
quantity of seed should be sufficiently large to insure
absolute certainty of a stand. For early planting, not
less than 30 pounds of seed per acre should be used.

As soon as the plants are well established in the soil
and all danger of frost is passed, the excess number of
plants should be removed by chopping out tiie inter-
vening spaces with a hoe, leaving vigorous plants about
12 to 16 inches apart in the row. Following the chopping,
a cultivator should be run close to the row, so as to throw
some dirt toward the plants. The cultivation of the cot-
ton should be shallow and frequent, and continued until
the plants begin to mature bolls, and later, if necessary,
to prevent a crust forming. If the preparation of the land
was thorough and the soil has been well tilled up to this
time, the crop can be laid by with an assurance that there
is a sufficient quantity of moisture and available plant-
food to mature the bolls.

198. Harvesting. The cotton crop is harvested by hand.
Various attempts have been made, from time to time,
to build a mechanical cotton-picker, and some very credit-
able machines have been produced, but they have not
come into general use. The problem is a difficult one be-
cause of the leaves and trash that are more or less
mixed with the cotton by the machine. Cotton-picking
is the negro's holiday vacation, and where there is a
large percentage of colored people, there is usually little
difficulty in getting sufficient labor to harvest the crop.
They pass rapidly through the fields, deftly picking the
locks from the open bolls, and placing them in a long

COTTON 21 1

sack which they drag behind them. The cotton is usually
picked by the hundred pounds. An average picker can
easily pick 200 pounds of seed cotton per day.

199. Marketing. The seed cotton is carried from the
field to the cotton-gin, where the lint is separated from
the seed. The seed cotton is unloaded from the wagon
by means of a suction tube about eight inches in diameter,
the end of which is placed close to the cotton. Through
this tube the cotton is carried to the "gin stand," where
it passes over small, fine-toothed, circular saws, which
rotate at a very high rate of speed. These saws remove
the lint from the seed, which is returned by mechanical
conveyors to the wagon, or carried into the house used
for the storage of seed. From the "gin," the cotton comes
out in great sheets of snowy whiteness, and is formed by
a powerful hydraulic press into a very compact bale
weighing about 500 pounds. This bale is covered with a
coarse, heavy bagging, and is held together by strong
iron bands. These bales are so compact that they are often
left out in the rain for months without serious injury.

200. Grades of Cotton. Cotton is graded and sold ac-
cording to the quality of lint, as shown by a sample taken
from the bale. The variety of cotton has nothing to do
with its market classification, but it depends much more
on the development of the plant. The accepted standards
for the grading of cotton are, from the best to the poorest:
(1) Fair; (2) middling fair; (3) good middling; (4) middling;
(5) low middUng; (6) good ordinary; (7) ordinary.
Each of these grades is divided into subdivisions which
merge one grade into the other.

Middling is the accepted .standard for all short -staple

212 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

upland cotton of good quality, and all prices are quoted
on this basis. Cotton offered for sale is worth n)ore or less
per pound according to the grade as compared with mid-
dling.

201. Cotton Seed. Cotton seed, which was formerly-
considered worthless, is now held in high esteem as a food
for live stock, and for manufacturing purposes. It is fed
to cattle and sheep extensively, and, in a limited way,
to horses and mules. It is not used to any extent as hog-
feed, because of the fact that when fed in liberal quan-
tities it is liable to kill hogs.

The oil mills use large quantities of seed in the produc-
tion of cotton oil and cottonseed cake. The former, in
the form of cottolene, is extensively used as a substitute
for lard. A ton of cotton seed will produce approximately:

40 pounds of linter, or short fiber, which has adhered to

the seed after ginning.
800 pounds of hulls.

800 pounds of cake, which is ground into meal.
280 pounds of crude oil.
80 pounds of trash and dirt.

The crude oil obtained from the cotton seed is refined
and sold in different grades. The better qualities are used
as substitutes for lard and olive oil, and in the manufac-
ture of oleomargarine. Cotton oil has many valuable
qualities. It has been used to some extent as an adul-
terant, and on this account has acquired a bad repu-
tation; but it has merits of its own that justify its use as
an article of human food, to be sold under its true name.

Cottonseed meal, hulls and linters are the by-products
resulting from the extraction of the oil from the seed.

COTTON 213

The cotton seed, after the Unt has been removed, is crushed,
and the "meat" is separated from the hull. This meat
is cooked at high temperature by steam, and later sub-
jected to great pressure, which expresses the oil and leaves
the residue in the form of a cake, which is ground into
meal.

A different method of extracting the oil from the seed
is used by a very few mills. In these the hulls are not
separated from the meat, and the oil is expressed without
cooking. The cake that is left by this process has more
oil than that which is cooked.

Cottonseed meal mixed with hulls makes a very de-
sirable feed for dairy cows and fattening steers. One ton
of cottonseed meal contains three times the amount of
digestible protein contained in one ton of wheat bran.
This does not mean, however, that it is worth three
times as much as wheat bran for feeding purposes, for what
it gains in percentage of protein it must lose in the per-
centage of carbohydrates or other material. In feeding the
meal to dairy cows, it is best to limit the amount fed to
about two to three pounds to each cow per day. If addi-
tional grain is desired, add wheat bran, rice polish, or corn
chops to the ration.

The nitrogen contained in the cottonseed meal makes
it a valuable fertilizer, and it is much used for this pur-
pose, although it would be a more profitable practice to
feed the meal to dairy cows and carefully save the manure
for application to the soil. If this is done, about three-
fourths of the fertilizing value of the meal will still be
retained in the manure. It is very desirable that more live-
stock be kept in the South.

214 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

The fertilizing constituents of cottonseed meal and
its value per ton as a fertilizer are as follows:

Lbs. in

one ton Value

Nitrogen 135.8 $27 16

Phosphoric acid 57.6 2 88

Potash 17.4 87

$30 91 '

202. Fungous Diseases and Insects Affecting Cotton.
Cotton is, for the most part, a robust plant; yet, where
it is continuously cultivated on the same soil it becomes
subject to certain parasitic and fungous diseases. These
diseases, when present in a field, develop very rapidly,
and the curative measures resorted to are not very effec-
tive. When cotton is grown in rotation with corn and
some legume, which occupy the soil for one or two seasons
and bui d up the organic matter and nitrogen content
of the soil, very little trouble is experienced with para-
sitic or fungous diseases.

The two insects most troublesome in the cotton fields
are the Mexican boll-weevil and the cotton-boll worm.
Both of these can be retarded to some extent by early
planting, and such methods of culture as will hasten the
crop to maturity. (See Figs. 135 and 136.)

The boll-weevil, as its name indicates, originally came
from Mexico, and in ten years' time it has spread over
all of central and eastern Texas and western Louisiana,
advancing at the rate of about 50 miles per year. It is
estimated that the annual loss to the farmers of Texas
occasioned by the boll-weevil is over $25,000,000. Far-
mers' Bulletin No. 189 of the United States Department
of Agriculture states that "there is not even a remote

COTTON 215

possibility that the boll-weevil will ever be exterminated,"
and also "that it will eventually be distributed over all
the cotton-belt."

The weevil appears in early summer, and first attacks
the buds, or squares, which are blasted by the attack and
soon drop off. If any of the blossoms escape the attack
of the little insect, the bolls develop unmolested during
the early season; for, as long as the insects are not very
numerous and the buds continue to form, it attacks them
only. It is thus readily seen that the hope of the farmer,
in infested districts, must rest in an endeavor to produce
a crop early enough in the season to form a large per-
centage of bolls before the weevil appears. It is also of
much importance that the fields be cleared in the fall
and plowed. If cattle can be turned into the cotton field
after the picking is finished, they will undoubtedly destroy
a great many weevils, but the fall plowing of the land should
not be neglected. Frost destroys the weevil to some ex-
tent, and its winter hibernating places should be broken
up. It is also advisable to burn the grass around the
borders of the fields, and to destroy all "volunteer cotton"
on which the weevil might live.

The boll-worm stands second in importance as a menace
to the cotton crop, but experience teaches that this insect
is also beaten by an early crop. The boll-worm feeds on
many other plants besides cotton, and it does not usually
appear in the cotton fields until corn and other crops
have so far matured as to be no longer attractive to it.
If the attack of the boll-worm should be especially severe,
the dusting of the plants with Paris green may be resorted
to. Two. applications at intervals of ten days will be re-

216 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

quired. In considering methods of control for any of
these pests, it should be remembered, that prevention is
much better than cure, and that those conditions of
soil culture which tend to destroy the insect pests will
at the same time produce a strong, vigorous, early crop,
which will be well out of danger before tlic insects ap-
pear in very great numbers. These conditions may be
summarized:

(1) Plow the land deep in the fall.

(2) Select seed from early-fruiting plants.

(3) Use fertilizers that tend to produce vigorous
plants and early fruit.

(4) Plant early and use plenty of seed to insure a
"stand" (not less than one bushel per acre).

(5) Cultivate the land shallow and very thoroughly
during the early growth of the plant.

U THE WOOD CROP

203. Forests of the United States. "The forests of the
United States cover an area of about 699,500,000 acres,
or more than 35 per cent of the surface of the country.
Before so large a part of them were destroyed, they were,
perhaps, the richest on the earth, and with proper care
they are capable of being so again. Their power of repro-
duction is exceedingly good.

"In the northeastern states, and as far west as Minne-
sota, once stretched the great white pine forest from which,
since settlement began, the greater part of our lumber
has come. South of it, in a broad belt along the Atlantic
and the Gulf coasts, lies the southern pine forest, whose

Fig.

108. Destructive lumbering. The slash enabled fire to
complete the ruin

•■TV.'^-. '^1^ •. j^

FT'

HL

H

n^tf

Fio. 10«.

CoQservauvc lumLieniiK. Yuuii^; tcrowtb saved, brush piled
to prevent hre

THE WOOD CROP 217

most important tree, both for lumber and naval stores,
is the southern yellow pine. In the Mississippi valley
lies the interior hardwood forest of oaks, hickories, ashes,
gums, and other hardwood trees. It is bordered on the
west by the plains, which cover the eastern slope of the
continental divide until they meet the evergreen Rocky
mountain forest which clothes the slopes of this great
range from the Canadian line to Mexico. Separated from
the Rocky mountain forest by the interior deserts, the
Pacific coast fore.st covers the flanks of the Sierras, the
Cascades, and the coast ranges. Its largest trees are the
giant sequoia and the great coast redwood, and its most
important timber is the fir.

204. The Settler and the Forest. "When the early set-
tlers from the Old World landed on the Atlantic coast
of North America they brought with them traditions
of respect for the forest created by generations of forest
protection at home. The country to which they came
was covered, for the most part, with dense forests. There
was so little open land that ground had to be cleared for
the plow. It is true that the forest gave the pioneers
shelter and fuel, and game for food, but it was often filled
with hostile Indians, it hemmed them in on every side,
and immense labor was required to win from it the soil
in which to rai.se their necessary crops. Naturally, it
seemed to them an enemy rather than a friend. Their
respect for it dwindled and disappeared, and its place
was taken by hate and fear.

"The feeling of hostility to the fore.st which grew up
among the early settlers continued and increased among
their descendants long after all reason for it had disap-

218 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

peared. But even in the early days far-sighted men began
to consider the safety of the forest."^

205. The Relation of Forestry to the Nation. "The
great industries of agriculture, transportation, mining,
grazing, and, of course, lumbering, are each one of them
vitally and immediately dependent upon wood, water,
or grass from the forests. The manufacturing industries
whether or not wood enters directly into their finished
product are scarcely, if at all, less dependent upon the
forest than those whose connection with it is obvious and
direct. Wood is an indispensable part of the material
structure upon which civilization rests; and it is to be
remembered always that the immense increase of the use
of iron and substitutes for wood in many structures,
while it has meant a relative decrease in the amount of
wood used, has been accompanied by an absolute increase
in the amount of wood used. More wood is used than ever
before in our history. Thus, the consumption of wood
in ship-building is far larger than it was before the dis-
covery of the art of building iron ships, because vastly
more ships are built. Larger supplies of building lumber
are required, directly or indirectly, for use in the construc-
tion of the brick and steel and stone structures of great
modern cities than were consumed by the comparatively
few and comparatively small wooden buildings in the
earlier stages of these same cities. It is as sure as anything
can be that we will see in the future a steadily increasing
demand for wood in our manufacturing industries.

206. Forest Policy for the Future. "When wood, dead
or alive, is demanded in so many ways, and when this

iGiflford Pinchot, Bulletin No. 24, Bureau Forestry, Part 2, pp. 81-83

THE WOOD CROP 219

demand will undoubtedly increase, it is a fair question,
then, whether the vast demands of the future upon our
forests are likely to be met. You are mighty poor Ameri-
cans if your care for the well-being of this country is limited
to hoping that that well-being will last out your own genera-
tion. No man here or elsewhere is entitled to call himself
a decent citizen if he does not try to do his part toward
seeing that our national policies are shaped for the advan-
tage of our children and our children's children. Our
country, we have faith to believe, is only at the beginning
of its growth. Unless the forests of the United States can
be made ready to meet the vast demands which this
growth will inevitably bring, commercial disaster, that
means disaster to the whole country, is inevitable. If
the present rate of forest destruction is allowed to con-
tinue, with nothing to offset it, a timber famine in the
future is inevitable. Fire, wasteful and destructive forms
of lumbering, and the legitimate use, taken together, are
destroying our forest resources far more rapidly than they
are being replaced. It is difficult to imagine what such a
timber famine would mean to our resources. And the
period of recovery from the injuries which a timber famine
would entail would be measured by the slow growth of
the trees themselves. Remember that you can prevent
such a timber famine occurring, by wise action taken in
time; but, once the famine occurs, there is no possible
way of hurrying the growth of the trees necessary to re-
lieve it."*

207. National Forests. On .June 30, 1908, the United
States government owned 165 national forests with an

'Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States, before the Amer-
ican F'orest Congress. Circular No. 3.5, Bureau of Forestry, pp. 6, 7.

220 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

area of 167,976,886 acres. The establishment of these
forest reserves is chiefly due to President Cleveland and
President Roosevelt. The object is not to prevent trees
from being cut. Forestry cuts trees and grows trees,
just as farming grows crops and harvests them. The
government reserves will furnish much more lumber than
would be produced if the reserves were lumbered over in
the usual manner, which leaves the forest practically
ruined and allows fires to complete the destruction.

The chief object of the reserves is to protect the drain-
age basins of the streams that furnish water for irriga-
tion. This also prevents destructive floods and furnishes
a constant supply of water for water power. It also pre-
vents the destruction of the soil that occurs when moun-
tain sides are deforested. In such a case, it often takes
but a few years to wash away the soil that it has required
centuries to form. The reserves also maintain a constant
supply of wood and timber. A number of states also own
forest lands. Nearly every civilized government owns
forests.

But the government reserves in the United States
cannot go far toward furnishing our future lumber supply.
The great bulk of our forest lands belong to individuals.
Most of the lumber supply must be furnished by private
citizens.

208. Forests and Climate. Forests do not have a very
great influence on the heat of the surrounding region.
They modify the wind for short distances. Contrary to
popular opinion, they do not have any appreciable effect
on rainfall. Their great influence is in holding back the
waters that fall and so regulating the flow of streams.

THE WOOD CROP 221

Destruction of forests results in floods and dry rivers.
The severe floods of the Ohio river of recent years are
due to the deforested mountain lands that it drains. The
water all runs off rapidly instead of being held back.
The losses caused by the floods direct and as a loss of
water power would pay for reforesting the mountains.

Possibly it is the fact that forests at the source keep
up the summer flow of streams that has led to the errone-
ous conclusion that forests increase rainfall. Or, perhaps,
the error came from the observation that where forests
occur there is usually a good rainfall. The rain is the
cause of the forest not the result of it.

209. Conservative Lumbering. This differs from ordi-
nary lumbering in that:

(1) The forest is treated as a crop that must produce
successive and regular harvests, rather than as a mine
to be exhausted once for all.

(2) Small trees are not cut when they are needed to
renew the growth.

(3) Attention is given to keeping the stand neither
too thick nor too thin.

(4) The tree weeds, broken and diseased trees, are
removed to make room for good trees. In ordinary lum-
bering, the tree weeds are the ones that are left to reseed
the area.

(5) Lumbering is conducted in such a way as to injure
the young growth as little as possible.

(0) In some cases, .seeds or young trees are planted.
This is expensive and is usually not necessary if a forest
is well handled.

(7) The forest is protected from fire.

222 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

210. Forest Trees Are Now a Profitable Farm Crop.

Neglected as they are, the farm wood-lots of many farms
in northeastern United States produce $2 to $10 worth
of wood per year from each acre.

As an example, a farm on the hill lands of southern
New York consists of 100 acres, 30 acres of which is in
timber. This wood-lot was cut in 1907 for the third time
in 90 years. Each time it has been cut with entire disre-
gard for the future. The third cutting on the 30 acres
sold for $2,100, standing. In spite of the present high
price of lumber, no attention is given to the future in this
cutting. Young trees that are scarcely worth cutting,
but that would be valuable in 10 to 20 years, are cut. Those
that are too small to cut are broken down. This is the
almost universal practice, in spite of the high profits that
come from such a wood-lot.

After "skinning" the wood-lot, the entire farm of 100
acres, with buildings, was sold for $1,400. This farm
would not rent for $1 an acre, as indicated by the selling
price. But, in spite of the owners, it has grown $70 worth
of wood per acre since the last cutting 30 years ago. If
the $1 per acre rent were placed at compound interest
it would not amount to $70 at the end of 30 years. In
other words, the wood land pays better than the farm land.
If the wood land were given a very little attention in
cutting, so as to maintain a stand of the best kinds of
trees, the returns could easily be doubled. This instance
is typical of large areas of land in northeastern United
States.

211. The Farm Wood-Lot. Many farms should make
a business of raising lumber, railroad ties, telephone

THE WOOD CROP

223

poles or posts for sale. With the present prices, the wood-
lot is often the most profitable part of the farm, and
future prices promise to be much higher.

Nearly every farm should have a wood-lot to furnish
posts, fuel and repairs for home use. The majority of
farms have some land
that is practically use-
less, and this land is
usually the best for
trees. A little attention
to planting good seeds
or seedling trees, and
to cutting out the poor
kinds, will often trans-
form these waste areas
into very profitable
woods. In the central
I West, there are many creeks and draws that are too steep
j or too wet or wash too much to be used for farm purposes,
but that furnish an ideal place for trees. On farms where
none of these conditions exist, a wood-lot may often be
desirable near the buildings as a windbreak. If a small
grove is planted, it will also furnish posts.

As a general thing, trees should not be planted between
fields or in fields. A row may be grown along the public
road, because they make the place more attractive. It
is very often desirable to change the shape and size of
fields. Trees along fence lines prevent this. They also
sap the land for many feet. This land is usually worse
than lost, for it is generally farmed each year and both
seed and labor are lost. If left in sod, the loss is less.

FlO. 110. White pines coming into a pas-
ture. On this land trees pay better than the
poor pasture.

224

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

The writer lived for many years on a quarter-section^
of land in Nebraska that had a strip of trees all around the
outside and had one row of honey locust across the farm.
This row of honey locust trees one-half mile long ruined
a strip about four rods wide and injured considerably

more. At the end of about
25 years they were cut for
posts. They required the use
of four acres of land for
most of the time. If this
land had been rented for
cash rent at $2.50 an acre,
and the money put at com-
pound interest at 5 per cent,
it would have amounted to
$487. Probably the posts
were not worth $200. On
the same farm there were
groves of honey locust and
catalpa, cottonwood and
box elder. All these were
very profitable.

Not only are the trees
along a fence line a great
nuisance, but this is not the
place to grow good trees. Such trees branch so much as
to give more brush than lumber. Trees are social beings.
Many publications have recommended such planting. A
recent bulletin" presents a plan for a model farm of 160

'A section of land is one mile square; a quarter-section is one-half
mile square, and contains 160 acres,
sparmers' Bulletin No. 228.

Fig. 111. .\n unsatisfactory fence-
poat. The wire spoils the tree and the
tree spoils the fence.

THE WOOD CROP

225

acres in Kansas or Nebraska that has a belt of trees around
the outside of the farm and has four rows and one belt
of trees running across the farm. This requires two and
one-half miles of trees running across the fields, besides
two miles around the outside of the farm. The rows across
the fields will soon spoil four rods of land which amounts
to 20 acres. The row around the outside will soon spoil
two rods of land or 8 acres. This would make 28 acres
occupied by trees. If grass is grown next to the trees, a
partial crop may be secured. These trees are designed as
a windbreak, but it is doubtful whether the wind ever
will do as much harm as the trees.

Another object of the trees along the fields is to act as
fence -posts. But a tree is a most unsatisfactory post.
The trees grow completely around the wire. The staples
and wire in the tree make it unfit for sawing. A fence
stapled to trees is nearly
always distorted. The
swaying of the trees,
even large trees, spoils
a wire fence. The sap
from the trees rusts the
wire so that it breaks.
Even if trees are along
a fence-line, it is better
to set posts than to use
the trees.

The wood-lot should
very rarely be used as
a pasture. Stock destroy the lea' mulch that is so essen-
tial for the trees. They keep down seedling trees and

l"xG. 11-'. Trees in a pasture. The stock
prevent a good growth of timber and the trees
prevent a good growth of grass. Better re-
move the stock or the trees.

226

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

sprouts. In general, it is best not to mix trees with crops
or with the pasture, except as a few trees may be desired
as shade for stock, or as a windbreak.

212. What Trees to Plant. The following are some of
the desirable trees for posts: Hardy catalpa (Catalpc
speciosa) makes one of the best fence-posts and grows
very rapidly on good land. It is adapted to rich, deep
soils south of the 41st parallel. Black locust makes a
very desirable tree where it is not ruined by borers.
Chestnut is one of the fastest-growing, good post trees

for northeastern United
States. Osage orange is
probably the best post
material. It is a slow-
growing, drought-resist-
ant tree, adapted to
regions south of the
41st parallel.

Some of the trees
adapted to the semi-
arid regions are bur oak, hackberry, black locust, white
elm, Russian mulberry, osage orange, red cedar, western
yellow pine, Jack pine.

White pine, Norway spruce, chestnut, are among the
best trees for planting in regions where the white pine
once grew. For other regions and the numerous other
trees and combinations of trees, see Bureau of Forestry
Circular No. 30.

Several states are growing young forest trees and furnish-
ing them at cost so as to encourage planting. Forest lands
should not be taxed in the same manner as farm land.

Fio. 113. A black-locust grove. Contrast
with the brush in the background on an
adjoining farm.

^ -"

ORCHARDf^

227

ORCHARDS

213. Setting Trees. In digging, the roots of trees are
often broken and the bark at the ends is often torn off.
Before planting, all such roots should be cut back, making
clean wounds that will heal readily. The more roots on a
tree the better. At best, a transplanted tree retains only
a small fraction of its roots.

On the other hand, the branches should ordinarily be
cut back or removed. The tree will soon be larger if this
is done. People usually
leave too much top and too
little roots. It is well to
remember that roots can
quickly grow a top, but
that a top can never take
the place of roots. If too
much top is left, the leaves
will dry the tree to death.

Trees should not be
allowed to lie around in
the sun and wind before
planting. The roots should
never be allowed to dry more than is necessary. If the
roots are coated with clay, they should be dipped in
water before planting.

Holes should be a little larger than the roots require,
so that it will not be necessary to coil the roots into the
hole. Trees should usually be planted about two inches
deeper than they grew.

The most important point in planting a tree is firming

Peach trees pruned for
planting, a, unpnined; b, slightly pruned;
c, four-inch stubs left; d, one-inch stubs;
e, pruned to a whip. Trees that were
pruned like d and « when set, were largest
in the fall.

228 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the soil around the roots. If the soil is thrown in on top
of the roots and then merely stepped on, there will be a
hollow space under the center of the tree. The soil should
be packed under and aroujid the roots firmly. The upper
layers of roots should be lifted up, so that they will come
out in their natural direction, with the soil below them
packed firmly. The last four inches of soil should be left
loose to absorb the rain and act as a mulch. Com-
monly, trees are set in exactly the opposite manner —
loose soil at the bottom and packed soil on top. It must
be remembered that roots take up their water by osmosis.
Only when they are in most intimate contact with the
soil particles are they able to absorb the soil water.

If the region is very dry, the soil should be kept stirred
or mulched, so that no weeds can grow.

214. Tillage of Orchards. Formerly, people thought
that orchards were able to take care of themselves; but,
with the advent of commercial orcharding, many men
have come to till the orchard as regularly as they do the
other crops.

Trees make nearly all of their growth before the sum-
mer months. It is at this season of the year that they
require the most food and moisture. In New Jersey, in
latitude 40° 30', the writer found that nearly all the or-
«-hard trees had completed their twig growth by the last
of June. In this latitude, tillage should begin as early as
possible, and should stop by the middle of July. A cover
crop may then be sown, or the weeds may be allowed
to grow.

In tilling orchards, great care must be taken not to
bark the trees. Such injuries are very serious, while the

ORCHARDS 229

little grass or weeds that grow near the trunk are of no
consequence. Under any ordinary circumstances, a few
feet of untilled land about the base of large trees does no
harm.

Apple orchards will stand more abuse than most kinds
of trees, so that they are frequently grown in sod. They
should ordinarily be tilled. The effects of tillage are
strikingly shown in New York state. Five hundred and
sixty-four orchards in Orleans county, containing 4,881
acres, were e.xamined. The average yields and incomes
from these orchards for five years are shown below :^

Yield Per Acre of Tilled and 8od Apple Orchards, Five-Year
Averages (1900-1904), Orleans County, N. Y.

Average
yield

Bus.

Tilled ten years or more 327

Tilled five years or more 274

Tilled over half of preceding five years ' 225

Sod over half of preceding five years 222

Sod five years or more 204

Sod t«n years or more 176

Average
income

$182
138
113
107
108
87

The sod orchards that were used as pastures for hogs
or sheep were better than the average, but not so good as
the tilled ones. There are, of course, many conditions
under which tillage is not desirable, such as orchards on
steep hillsides.

216. Spraying Orchards. Spraying is now a regular
practice of the best fruit-growers, but the majority of
orchards are still unsprayed. The particular treatment
varies with the kind of fruit and the region. Peaches and

*New York (Cornell) Bulletin No. 229.

230

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

plums are seldom sprayed unless they are infected with
the San Jose s(;ale. In many regions, apples are commonly
sprayed three times, — once just before the blossoms
open, once just as the petals fall, and again 10 to 14 days
later. The mixture used is three to four pounds of copper

sulphate, four to six pounds of lime,

and one-half pound of Paris green in

50 gallons of water.

The effects of spraying apple trees

in Orleans county. New York, in 1904,

were as follows:

I'nsprayed, $92 average income per acre.
Sprayed once, $11G average income per

acre-
Sprayed twice, $127 average income per

acre.
Sprayed three times, $139 average income

per acre.

216. Pruning. Pruning is neces-
sary in order to thin the top, other-
wise the competition among the
branches injures all of them. The
main branches of a fruit tree should
be so arranged as to prevent splitting.
Trees that are to stand many years
should be so pruned as to preserve
sound trunks. This is of less conse-
quence with short-lived trees like the
peach. Correct pruning depends on
a knowledge of the cambium layer.
The living and growing part of a tree is the cambium
layer. This is a tissue that lies on the outside of the wood

Fig. 116. A bad crotch.
One of the limbs should be
removed or the tree will be
likely to split.

ORCHARDS

231

Fiti. 117. li:u..c:i

crotches

of

and beneath the bark. From its outside it produces bark
and from its inside it produces wood. It is the layer of
young, tender cells that makes the bark "slip" so readily
in early spring. A layer of new cells grows on the outside
of a tree every year.
The cells that grow in
the fall are thicker-
walled than those that
grow in the spring. This
makes the wood darker
in color, so that a ring
is formed at the end of
each season's growth.
It is these annual rings
that enable us to tell the age of a tree. The sap of a
tree passes up through the outer layers of wood, the
sap wood, while the elaborated food is distributed
through the cambium layers.

The outer bark and the inner wood of a tree are dead.
This dead inner wood is protected by the cambium layer,
so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a limb
is cut off, or if the bark is removed, the dead cells are
exposed. These cannot heal the wound. The cambium
layer around the edges must grow over it. The safety of
the tree depends on having it heal over before it becomes
infected with molds. If the wound is large and is not
treated, some decay fungus is almost certain to become
established before it heals over. The tree may then heal
over and look all right, but the fungi will continue to grow
and will result in a decayed or hollow trunk. A hollow
tree usually continues to grow all right, as the inner

232

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fio. 118. Most of the apple trees in the
northeastern states are killed in this way.
(See Figs. 119 and 120.)

wood has no use except to support the tree; but, sooner
or later, it is certain to be blown down (Fig. 118). A
great majority of the trees in forests and orchards die

because of rotten trunks
that give way during a
wind.

In order to prevent
:,^ trunks from rotting, care
should be exercised not to
hurt trees with machinery
or to allow them to be in-
jured by stock. They
should be pruned when
young, so as to avoid the
necessity of removing large limbs. If such limbs have to
be removed, they should
be cut in the manner that
will make them heal fast-
est. All large wounds
should be painted, so as
to protect the wood until
it heals over.

Wounds heal most rap-
idly when cut parallel
with the branch, and as
close to it as possible.
This makes a much larger
wound; but it is in line
with the cambium layer

and heals in less time, as Fig. 119. The decayed hole where a

J , . limb was removed. The wood-destroying

proved by experiments. fungi caused the tree to break, Fig. 118,

ORCHARDS

233

Occasionally a sound
tree starts to split, par-
ticularly if crotches were
allowed to develop when
the tree was young.
Such a tree can often be
saved by the use of
bolts. A band put
around a tree will girdle
it, but a bolt put through
it will do no appreci-
able damage. Some-
times it is better to put
a bolt through each
branch and connect
them with a chain.

SHADE TREES

217. The planting and
care of shade trees can be
deducted from the princi-
ples of planting and prun-
ing orchard trees as given
above. The indiscriminate
wounding of shade trees
is the usual cause of death.
Where trees are likely to
be injured by horses, they
should be protected by
wire guards around the

Fio. 120. Inside of the broken limb show-
ing the decay that entered through Fig. 119.
The same tree as Fig. 118.

Fl<i. 1121. .\ long stub left in pruning.
The wound cannot heal. The tape shows
how far the trunk is hollow. The tree will
90on blow over.

234

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

trunks. Some person who knows no better is certain to
hitch to the tree sooner or later, if it is handy. The
indiscriminate cutting of tree-tops and the use of trees
as anchors for telephone lines should not require much

Fig. 122. The wrong way to

make the rut

Fio. 123. The right way to
make the ctit

comment. The telephone is more important than the
trees, but we should have both.

THE FARM GARDEN

218. The crop from a vegetable garden of one-half
acre at the University of Illinois had an average value
of $105 for five years. During this time, the average ex-

THE FARM GARDEN

235

pense for seeds, insecticides and labor was $30.' Every
farmer should have a family orchard and a garden, not
only for pleasure, but for profit that results from a saving
on living expenses.

The garden should be large enough to be plowed and
worked with a team. All cultivation should be given
with horses. This will require a little more area for the
same produce, but land is cheaper than hand labor. One
reason why farmers' gardens are so poor is that so much
dependence is placed on hand labor which cannot be
given. A half-acre to an acre next to the house should be

set aside for the garden, on
most farms. If it is not all
needed, it may be filled in
with pumpkins, roots or corn
for the stock. On most farms,
the garden should be fenced
with poultry-tight wire.

The grapes, raspberries,
blackberries, gooseberries,
currants, winter onions, rhu-
barb, asparagus, straw-
berries, and other perennials,
should be placed in full rows at one side. These rows
should be six to eight feet apart. While they are young,
a row of vegetables may be rai.sed between them. When
they are grown, the land may be plowed between the
rows and kept tilled. Such plants as blackberries should
be confined io solid rows about two feet wide. This
allows for regular horse cultivation between rows. Tillage

J-Illinois Bulletiq No, 10^

Fi'i. 124. The right and the wrong
way to brace a crotch

236 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

is necessary to produce the best fruit, particularly in dry
years.

If all perennials are at one side, the remainder of the
garden will be straight for plowing. The rows of vege-
tables should be at least two and one-half feet apart to
allow for continued cultivation with a horse or team.
Cultivation should be so frequent that weeds wifl never
get started. In this way, little hand labor will be required.

The soil should be generously manured. It is not profit-
able to raise so valuable a crop on poor land. If any part
of the farm is short of manure, let it be the cheapest
crop.

It will pay to save seed of most of the plants, as
the seed will be surer to grow and will be cheaper than
buying it.

The garden and orchard should contain every kind of
fruit and vegetable that will grow in the region and that
the family likes. There should be enough varieties to cover
the season. The season may be prolonged by bringing
vegetables into the cellar. Full-grown green tomatoes
may be kept for about two months by wrapping them in
paper. The writer has had them in December in New
York. Watermelons will keep some time. Celery may be
transplanted to the cellar and kept watered. It will then
grow new shoots that are of the finest quality. If one be-
comes interested, he will find many ways of adding to the
usefulness and pleasure of the garden.

A small hotbed, perhaps four by eight feet, will grow
several crops of lettuce and radishes and also plants for
the garden. A hotbed is a simple affair. Old boards may
be used to make a tight frame, which is about 24 inches

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 237

deep on the north and 18 inches deep on the south. This
is filled with firmly tramped horse manure that is just
beginning to heat. It is covered with about six inches of
good soil, and is then ready for the window-sash. Before
making such a hotbed, one would do well to buy the sash
and make the bed to fit it.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Make a study of Appendix Tables 11, 13 and 14.

2. What are the average crop yields in your region? How do they
compare with the averages for the United States?

3. WTiat are the average yields on the best farms of the region?
Why are these higher than on the average farm?

4. What crops in your county are most valuable? ^Vhich ones
occupy the most area?

5. ^Vhat is a low barometer area? What relation has this to storms?

6. Can rain be made by explosives or by other means?

7. WTiat use can a farmer make of the United States weather maps?

8. How long in advance can weather conditions be foretold?

9. Can plants or animals foretell the weather?

10. Is there a compensating cycle in the weather? Is there any
truth in the statement "March comes in like a lamb and goes out like
;i lion; or, if it comes in like a lion, it goes out like a lamb?" Does a
pleasant January indicate a disagreeable February?

11. Does the moon affect crops?

12. Does the climate of a region change in a man's lifetime? If
not, why do so many persons think that it does?

13. What is the average annual rainfall in your county? What
part of this falls during the growing period?

14. \Miat is the average temperature of the year? Of the growing
months?

15. What is the average date of the last killing spring frost? Of the
first killing fall frost? How many days are there between frosts?

16. At what date may each of the leading crof>8 be safely planted
in the region?

17. What is the length of a June day in Louisiana? In Illinois?
In Manitoba? Of what importance is this to farmers?

238 ELEMENTS OF AOmCULTURS

IS. Is yours an important corn-growing region? Why?

19. What are the best post trees of the region? Are trees grown
for lumber? If so, which are best?

20. What effect does girdling a tree have?
21 What is a knot?

22. What is quarter-sawn lumber? In what other ways is lumber
sawn?

23. How can the age of a tree be determined?

24. Will mulching the soil or tilling it affect the time of blossom-
ing of a tree?

25. How many bushels of ear corn will a wagon box 2 feet
deep, '.i feet wide anil 1 1 feet 9 inches long hold? How many bushels of
shelled corn will it hold? How much will the load weigh in each case?
(See Appendix, Table 18.)

26. A man has plowed a strip G^ rods wide with furrows 30 rods
long. How many acres has he plowed ? How many turns has he
made if the plow cuts 14 inches ?

27. How many tons of hay will there probably be in a mow that
is 15 X 30 feet and that contains 10 feet of hay that has settled all
winter? (See Appendix, Table 18.)

LABORATORY EXERCISES
63. Score Card for Dent Corn.

Materials. — Several samples of com, five or ten ears in a sample.
Use the score card on page 278 of "Cereals in America," or the
following, deducting for imperfections in any of the points.

Points

Maturity and market condition 20

Seed condition 20

Shape of kernels 20

Uniformity 15

Weight of ear 10

Color of grain and cob 5

Length of ear and proportion 5

Butts and tips 5

100
54. Depth to Plant Corn.

Materials. — Com and box of soil, or a garden.

Plant ten kernels of com at each of the following depths: one,
two, four and six inches. How many days does it take for the com
to come up in each case? Which plants are most vigorous? After it

LA BORA TOR F EXERCISES

239

4 Rods

Check
No fertilizer

5 pounds nitrate of soda

5 pounds nitrate of soda
2i ix>unds acid phosphate

has grown three weeks, take it up and make drawings of the roots in
each case. At what depth have the permanent roots appeared? Has
the depth of planting influenced this?

55. Visit to a Flour Mill.

Visit a flour mill, or other similar manufacturing enterprise. Learn
as much as possible of the processes, and write a description of them.

56. Good and Poor Flour.
Materias. — High-grade flour

and cheap flour. One teacup-
ful of each for five students.

Moisten the flour just
t'liough to make dough. Work
it between the fingers, and then
wash it until the starch is
washed out. You will then have
a sticky mass of gluten. Com-
pare the color of the gluten in
high- and low-grade flour. How
many inches will each stretch
before it breaks? Why does the
high-grade flour make lighter
bread? Why does corn or rye
not make as light bread as
wheat?

57. To Determine the Influence

of Fertilizers on the Yield

of Timothy Hay.
Materials. — Field of tim-
othy, 20 pounds nitrate of
soda, 7^ pounds acid phosphate,
3} pounds muriate of potash,
500 pounds (alxjut one- fourth
load) of barnyard manure, 22
stakes, tape-measure. Arrange-
ments can probably be made to
have some student conduct the
experiment at home.

Lay off ten plots, side by
8i«le, each one rod by four rods.

Check

5 pounds nitrate of soda
IJ pounds muriate of potash

2J pounds acid phosphate
1 \ pounds muriate of potash

(;heck

5 pounds nitrate of soda
2} pounds acid phosphate
1 J pounds muriate of potash

i-load, about 500 pounds
of manure

Check

10

240

ELEAfENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Apply fertilizera early in the spring, as shown in the diagram. The
fertilizers for each plot are weighed out and mixed together, then sown
broadcast by hand. These applications are much higher in nitrogen
than those commonly used on other crops than hay. Make notes on
the growth of hay throughout the season.

When the hay is ready to cut, run a binder twine from stake to
stake to keep the plots separate, mow each plot with a scythe. Loop
up the hay with a rope and weigh with a spring balance. Fill out the
following table:

Plot

Treatment

Yield

Rate of

yield
per acre

Apparent
increase

Value of
increase

Cost
of treat-
ment

For method of making calculations see page 149.
A similar experiment is outlined for com, cotton, or potatoes on
page 152.

68. To Determine the Best Method of Growing Alfalfa for Regions
East of the Missouri River.

Materials. — Six-tenths of an acre of land, 12 stakes, 6 bushels of
lime, 15 pounds (one-fourth bushel) of alfalfa seed, soil from an alfalfa

field, or from a place where
sweet clover grows. Plots as
small as one square rod may
be used. In this case, only one-
sixteenth as much land and
materials are needed.

Unless the land selected is
very rich, manure should be
applied to all the plots at the
rate of about ten loads per
acre, or six loads for this area.
Plow the land early in the
spring.

Lay off a plot 8 by 12 rods
and drive a stake every 4 rods,
as in the figure.

■

1

2

LIME

4

3

LIME

SOIL

AND

SOIL

.

6

5

LIME

SOIL

AND

SOIL

)-Sow alone

Sow with
barley
or oats

LABORATORY EXERCISES 241

Apply six bushels of lime to plots 2, 4, and 6. This is at the rate of
twenty bushels, or about 1,500 pounds per acre.

Inoculate plots 3, 4, 5, and 6 with soil from an alfalfa field, or from
a place where sweet clover grows, using about one or two bushels.

Sow one-third of the alfalfa seed on plots 5 and 6, with about seven
quarts of barley or oats.

Continue to harrow the other plots until all weeds are subdued,
then sow the alfalfa alone, two months before the first frost is likely to
come, — August 1 in the latitude of Chicago. In regions where the
season is long enough, potatoes may take the place of the fallow.

The plots may, of course, be of any size. The above areas are large
enough to answer the questions. If one desires to plant a larger area
the following year, he will know the best method to use, and will have
soil for inoculation purposes, if inoculation proves to be necessary on
the farm.

69. Field Lesson on Legumes.

Find as many kinds of legumes as possible. Learn the common
name of each. Learn to distinguish the different clovers. Red clover,
by the white spot on the leaf; alsike, by the absence of this spot, smaller
size, different colored blossoms; white, by still smaller size and un-
branched flower-stalks. Dig up each legume carefully and find the
nodules. Make a drawing of each kind of nodules. What legumes
require inoculation in your region?

60. How to Plant a Tree.

On Arbor Day, or at some other time, plant a tree according to the
directions on page 227.

61. Crop Production.

Let each student select a farm crop, and learn all that is pos-
sible about the crop and its production, and write a complete discussion
from the preparation of the land to marketing the crop. Other mem-
bers of the cla.ss may write up the methods u.sed in the neighborhood
on some important crop, with suggestions for improvement.

242 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos.: (Select those that apply to the region).
233 Root Systems of Field Crops, pp 5-11.
149. Shrinkage of Farm Products, pp. 10-15.
Corn.

81. Corn-growing for the South.
199. Corn-growing.

253. The Germination of Seed Com.

292. The Cost of Filling Silos.

303. Corn-harvesting Machinery.

313. Harvesting and Storing Com.

317. Increasing the Productiveness of Com, pp. 17-22.
Shrinkage of Com in Cribs, pp. 22-26.
Meadows and Pastures.
66. Meadows and Pastures.
72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest.
102. Southern Forage Plants.
147. Winter Forage Crops for the South.
339. Alfalfa.

237. Lime and Clover, pp. 5-7.
260. Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities.
323. Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-Pine Lands of the

North.
271. Forage-crop Practices in Western Oregon and Washington
312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm.
Cotton.

36. Cotton-Seed and its Products.
48. The Manuring of Cotton.
217. Essential Steps in Securing an E^arly Crop of Cotton.
302. Sea-island Cotton.

314. A method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape BoUwee-

vil Damage.
326 Building up a Run-down Cotton Plantation.
Tobacco.

60 Methods of Curing Tobacco.

82. The Culture of Tobacco.

83. Tobacco Soils.

343. The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky.

COLLATERAL READING 243

Forest Trees.

134. Tree-planting on Rural School Grounds.
173. Primer of. Forestry.

262. Planting White Pine in New England, pp. 31-32.
276. Suggestions for the Management of the Farm Wood-lot,
pp. 29-32.

Circulars of the Bureau of Forestry, Nos.:

30. Exhibit of Forest Planting in Wood-lots at the Louisiana

Purchase Exposition.
36. The Forest Service.

97. The Timber Supply of the United States.
117. Preservative Treatment of Fence-posts.
130. Forestry in the Public Schools.

138. Suggestions to Wood-lot Owners in the Ohio Valley Region.
145. Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies.
There are publications among the Farmers' Bulletins on nearly
all the other farm crops. The following are a few of the references,
arranged in alphabetical order: Apples, Nos. 113, 153, 161, 208, 233,
243, 247, 283. Asparagus, Nos. 61, 233, 259. Basket Willow, No. 341.
Beans, No. 289. Broom-corn, No. 174. Buckwheat, No. 267. Cana-
dian Field Peas, No. 224. Celery, Nos. 133, 282. Cowpeas, Nos. 309,
318. Citrus fruits, No. 238. Cranberries, Nos. 176, 178, 221. Cucum-
bers, No. 254. Emmer, Nos. 139, 277. Flax, Nos. 27, 274. Hops,
Nos. 115, 304. Kafir corn. No. 288. Maple-sugar, No. 252. Millet,
Nos. 69, 101, 168. Milo, No. 322. Onion, Nos. 39, 149. Peach, Nos.
33, 80, 208, 276. Pineapple, No. 140. Potato, Nos. 35, 149, 244, 251.
Rape, Nos. 78, 164. Raspberries, No. 216. Rice, Nos. 110, 305. Sor-
ghum, Nos. 135, 246, 288. Soy beans, Nos. 58, 309. Strawberries,
No. 198. Sugar-beet, Nos. 52, 92. Sweet Potatoes, Nos. 129, 273,
324. Tomatoes, No. 220.

Many more references to these crops, and references to nearly all
other crops, may lie found in the Index to Farmers' Bulletins, Circular
No. 4, of the Division of Publications.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. Index.

Oreals in America, by T. F. Hunt.

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt. *

The Potato, by S. Fra.ser.

Com Plants, by Sargent.

Cotton, by Burkett & Poe.

CHAPTER VIII

ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS

The chief enemies of farm crops are weeds, insects,
an«l diseases caused by parasitic plants. A number ot the
larger animals, such as ground-squirrels, crows and gophers,
are sometimes injurious.

WEEDS

219. What Is a Weed? A weed is often described as a
plant that is not wanted. The worst weed in a corn-field
may be corn; that is, if corn is planted too thick, the corn
plants crowd each other so that the extra ones may do
more harm than is done by common weeds. Johnson grass
is a valuable hay plant in the South, but it is so hard to
kill that it is a very bad weed.

220. Value of Weeds. Weeds are a benefit, in that they
force men to till the land and often compel crop-rotation.
The farmer then secures the many other benefits that
come from rotation and tillage.

But many weeds are of direct value. The best plants
in pastures are sometimes those that are weeds elsewhere.
One of the great uses of weeds is to renew worn-out soil.
In all ages some men have farmed in such a-^vay that the
soil has become unproductive. When soil becomes too
poor to grow crops, the hardy weeds will still grow on it,
and as they decay will gradually build up a productive

(244)

WEEDS 245

soil. Many fields in the older parts of the United States
have been abandoned at times to recuperate under this
slow process. With good farming, such a condition will
never arise. But, until our farming is much improved,
we may be thankful that the weeds will reclaim land after
man has exhausted it.

221. The Control of Weeds. The first consideration in
the great majority of cases should be to secure conditions
that will favor the growth of the crop. Many crops will
grow so vigorously as entirely to smother out the weeds,
if conditions are favorable. But, if the conditions are not
just right for the crop, the weeds may overshadow it.
There is always strong competition between hay and small-
grain crops and the weeds. A very slight treatment may
give the one or the other the upper hand. Fig. 97 shows
how lime produced this difference with alfalfa. The
application of lime on this particular soil controlled
the weeds, not because it hurt the weeds, but because it
caused the alfalfa to grow so vigorously as to leave no room
for weeds. The orange hawkweed is very serious in some
old worn-out pastures, and farmers are wondering what
to put on to kill it. The real trouble is that the soil is so
poor for grass that almost any more hardy plant can crowd
it out. An application of barnyard manure and more grass
seed is the real remedy.

222. The Control of Weeds in Tilled Crops. The time
to kill weeds by tillage is before they secure a foothold.
Just as the stored food in the weed seed is exhausted and
before it has become well rooted, a weed is very easily
killed. If we wa^ until, jt has become rooted, it nray be
too late. Figs. 'd9 and 8i show this difference. In one

246 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

case, the corn-field was gone over with a weeder before
the weeds were troublesome, just as they were coming up.
In the other case, the farmer waited until the weeds were
large enough to attract attention. It was then too late
to kill all of them.

223. Subduing Land That Is Badly Infested with Weeds.
Some farms are so badly infested with weeds that special
treatment becomes necessary. Such land may be summer-
fallowed, that is, kept bare and tilled all one year. This
will usually subdue any weed, but often is not profitable,
as the season's crop is lost and the tillage is expensive,
There are several ways of conducting a short fallow with-
out the loss of a crop. The land may be plowed immediately
after harvesting a crop of hay or small grain, and be kept
stirred the remainder of the season; then grow a tilled
crop the following year. Such treatment will usually clean
the land fairly well. This short fallow may sometimes be
reversed. The land may be plowed in the fall or spring,
and be kept stirred until time to sow a crop, such as buck-
wheat or millet. The next year a tilled crop may be grown.
The tillage will kill many weeds, and such a crop as millet
will choke out weeds.

224. Spraying for Wild Mustard. Nearly any soluble
chemical will kill plants if applied in strong solutions.
Even plant foods, such as nitrate of soda, will kill plants
if enough is applied. A solution may often be used that
is strong enough to kill certain weeds, and yet not strong
enough to harm certain crops.

The most important application of this principle for
the control of weeds is in the case of wild mustard. This
plant is easily killed by spraying with a solution of iron

WEEDS

247

Fio. 127.

Wild mustard the prop>er

size for spraying

sulphate or copper sulphate. One hundred pounds of iron
sulphate or 12 pounds of copper sulphate may be used in
50 gallons of water. In either case, about 50 gallons is
sprayed on an acre. It is necessary to have the spray hit
all the land. This is accomplished by using one of the
field-spraying out-
fits with plenty of
nozzles. (See Fig.
126.) With a prop-
erly equipped ma-
chine, 10 to 20
acres may be
sprayed in a day.
The spraying is
best done on a
bright, clear day,

and should be done when the mustard has six to eight
leaves. Mustard may then be killed in any of the cereals,
or in peas, without hurting the crops. Beans, potatoes,
and cabbages must not be sprayed with this mixture,
as these crops would be killed.

225. Control of Weeds in Walks. In walks, tennis-
courts and some other places, any plant is a weed. We
can then use a treatment that kills everything. Salt may
be used. Carbolic acid or sodium arsenate are more lasting
in their effect. A 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid or
a 2 per cent solution of sodium arsenate is about right.
In either case, about eight gallons will be needed per
square rod. Such treatments should not be given under
trees, as the trees as well as the weeds are likely to be
killed.

248 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

By H. H. WHETZEL

Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University

Plants, like animals, are subject to many different kinds
of diseases. Most of the diseases of plants are caused by
insects or by plant organisms, chiefly fungi or bacteria.
Some flowering plants, as the dodder, also cause diseases
in other plants.

Bacterial Diseases

226. Characteristics of Bacteria. Bacteria are the
smallest of all known plants. They are to be found almost
everywhere on the earth, inside and outside the human
body, in milk and water, and even on the dust particles
of the air. Like all plants, they grow only where food and
moisture are present. Some produce diseases in animals;
some cause diseases in plants. By far the most of them
are harmless or beneficial.

Bacteria are among the simplest of plants. They have
neither root, leaves, nor flowers, but consist of single cells
made up of living protoplasm enclosed within a cell-wall.
They are usually spherical, rod-shaped or. spiral in form.
They are commonly slightly attached to each other in
pairs, chains or clusters. Many are surrounded by a muci-
laginous substance, which may aid in their distribution.
Some are motile, being propelled through the liquid in
which they live by long whip-Uke appendages (flagella).
Like all plants, they take their food in solution by diffusion
through their cell-walls and protoplasm. They multiply
very rapidly, reaching maturity and dividing directly into

PLANT DISEASES 249

two, often in half an hour. Some species form spores
by which they may pass through periods of dryness or
other unfavorable conditions without dying. No spore-
forming species is known to cause disease in plants.

227. An Example of a Bacterial Disease. The most
common and destructive disease of pears, apples and
quinces is a bacterial one commonly known as fire-blight
or pear-blight. It occurs on other wild plants of the apple
tribe, and occasionally on plum trees.

The symptom of the disease so well known to every
fruit-grower is, chiefly, the sudden death of the blossoms
or tips of the growing twigs. These leaves turn black and
cling to the twigs after the other leaves have fallen. Some-
times, especially on pear trees, the disease runs down the
limbs, often killing the entire tree.
Cankers are formed on the limbs and
bodies of trees about the base of
blighted spurs and watersprouts.
Frequently the fruit is affected, turns

brown, and shrivels upon the tree. ^^ • ^^ ^*

. . * ^"^ ^ V^

The organism that is responsil)le ^ ^^A-.**^ '

{ovt\)\&d\sea.s>Q\s, Bacillus am iilovor us. ' X ^ *

The bacterium lives over winter in B^,,^ria that calS pear blight,
some of the cankers on the trunks of ^^^^ Whetsei.)

the trees. In the spring, sticky, milky drops, containing
numbers of bacteria, ooze out from these hold-over cankers.
Bees and other insects carry the bacteria from these cankers
to opening flowers and tips of growing twigs. Here they
are introduced into wounds made by the insects. They
multiply rapidly, and in ten to fourteen days the flowers
or leaves begin to show the characteristic blight.

250 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

The control of this disease is not easily accomplished.
The bacteria kill or blight the young shoots on the body
or larger limbs, passing from these to the bark about
their bases. Here they form the cankers in which they
pass the winter. These cankers offer the most hopeful
point of attack. With a sharp knife, remove the canker,
cutting well back into the healthy bark. Scrape out the
diseased bark, cleaning the wound thoroughly, Sponge
the wound with corrosive sublimate solution, one part to
1,000 parts water. When dry, paint thoroughly with
heavy lead oil-paint and keep painted until healed over.
The diseased limbs and twigs in pear trees should be re-
moved promptly whenever discovered, and frequent in-
spections should be made. Always disinfect cut surfaces;
this is absolutely necessary for success.

Among the bacterial diseases of plants may be mentioned
bacterial blight of beans, cucumber wilt, crown gall of
apples, peaches, pears, etc., soft rot of turnips, black rot
of cabbage, and many others.

Fungous Diseases

228. Characteristics of Fungi. Fungi are very different
from bacteria, though they too are plants. Their vege-
tative portion consists of branching, root-like threads
called mycelium (Fig. 129). Many of them are sapro-
phytes,— that is, they live on dead or decaying plant or
animal remains. Others are parasites, which means that
they take their food from the tissues of living plants or
animal^. Fungi, as well as bacteria, differ from the plants
with which we are commonly familiar, in the absence of

PLANT DISEASES

251

the green color due to chlorophyll. Fungi take their food
from the substance in or on which the mycelium is grow-
ing, by diffusion of the soluble substances through the
cell-walls and protoplasmic lining of the mycelium. Many
fungi secrete enzymes that
dissolve cellulose and
other substances, making
them available for ab-
sorption; these secretions
often kill the protoplasm
of the host, thus compel-
ling it to give up nutri-
tious solutions to the
parasite. Others send spe-
cialized branches of myce-
lium (haustoria) into the
host cells. These absorb
the food substances that
come to these cells.
Eventually, they cause the
death of the host cells. Sometimes the irritation of the
parasite causes a response on the part of the host in the
form of knots, swellings, etc. A good example of this is
seen in the black-knot of plums and cherries.

During their vegetative stage, fungi multiply by means
of various kinds of asexual soores cut off from the myce-
lium. This method of reproduction corresponds to the
multiplication by sprouts, sets, bulbs, etc., of the higher
green plants. Many fungi are also known to form sexual
spores called oospores, ascospores or basidiospores, accord-
ing to the group in which they occur. These sexual spores

Fio. 129.

The bread mold fungus.
(Whetzel)

252

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fio. 130. Brown-rot.
Healthy peach above ;
diseased below.

correspond more nearly to the seeds of higher plants,
both in method of formation and in function.

229. An Example of a Fungous Dis-
ease. One of the most common fun-
gous diseases is the brown-rot of
stone fruits, although apples, pears,
etc., are also more or less subject to it.
It is most destructive on peaches and
plums. The chief symptom of this
disease is the appearance of a brown
rot in the fruit, either while it is still
green, or at the time
of ripening. As the disease progresses, the
entire fruit becomes involved. Tiny gray
pustules, or spore masses, break through
the skin, and spores by the thousands are
cut off in long chains to be scattered by the
wind to other fruits, there to reproduce
the rot. The rotted fruit soon shrivels and
dries, to form the wrinkled mummies that
cling to the trees through the winter, or
fall to the ground beneath. With the warm
spring rains, the mummies on the trees give
rise to new masses of spores. These are
carried by the breeze to
the blossoms and green
fruits, and again give rise to the rot.
The mummies that fall to the ground
usually produce the sexual spores (asco-
FiG. 132. Spores of spores) in long, slender sacs (asci), eight

browQTot, and B germ- • i mi i

inaUng spora. sporss m each sac. These sacs are borne

Fig. 131. Brown-
rot. The mummie!!
that carry the dis-
ea.se over winter.

PLANT DISEASES 253

pn the inside of a cup, several of which may grow up from
each half-buried mummy. The spores are ejected from the
sacs into the air, to be carried to blossoms, where they
cause blight and start the summer development of the
disease. Thus in two ways this parasite may continue its
existence from year to year. No satisfactory method of
controlling it is known. Some promise of success is given
by Scott's so-called self-boiled lime and sulfur mixture,
which has recently been used as a summer spray for this
disease on peaches.'

230. Other Fungous Diseases. The apple scab lives over
winter on the fallen leaves. It ordinarily attacks the young
apples and leaves at about the blossoming time. One
spraying just before and one immediately after blossoming
are most important for its control, but it is usually neces-
sary to spray three times in order to secure clean fruit in
regions where the scab is serious.

Potato s.^ab is plantetl with the potato. It also lives
over winter in the fields where scabby potatoes grew.
It may be controlled by soaking the potatoes for one to two
hours in a mixture of one pint of formalin to thirty gallons
of water, after which they are spread out to dry and are
ready to cut for planting. Thirty gallons of the solution
is sufficient for treating about twenty bushels of potatoes.
After treatment, the potatoes must not be placed in the
old crates or bags, as they would become re-infected.
They should be planted on land which did not grow scabby
potatoes, if possible. The treatment may be of .some bene-
fit, even if it is necessary to plant on scab-infested land.

'W. M. .Scott, Self-Boile«l I.ime and Sulfur Mixture aa a Promising
Fuugioicie. Bureau Plant Industry, United States Department of .\gri-
fultiin*. (Circular So. 1.

254 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Oat smut is carried by the seed and may be controlled
in the same manner, using one pint of formalin to fifty
gallons of water. The oats are sprinkled with this solu-
tion until they are moist enough to nearly pack in the hand.
Shovel into a pile, cover and leave two hours. Spread out to
dry before sowing. Or they may be dipped in the solution.

Wheat smut cannot be controlled in this way, because
the disease is inside the seed. Corn smut cannot be con-
trolled, because the disease lives over winter in the fields
and is blown about by the wind. The various rusts of the
grain plants cannot be controlled.

The blight of potatoes may be controlled if the plants
are kept coated with Bordeaux mixture, to prevent the
entrance of the fungus. About five sprayings are commonly
given. In rainy seasons it sometimes pays to give* more.

Parasitic Flowering Plants

Relatively few flowering plants live as para.sites upon
other plants. Perhaps the most common and destructive
of these are the dodders, which live on many wild plants
and on some of our cultivated ones, such as clover, alfalfa,
etc. The dodder stems are long yellow strands with no
leaves, growing in mats over their host plants. They twine
about the host and send haustoria or suckers into their
stems, from which they secure water and food substances.

Dodder seeds are usually small and are carried with
the alfalfa and clover seeds. The best way to control the
parasite is to secure seed from a field that does not contain
dodder. The seeds of some species, of dodder may be separ-
ated out by sieves.

INSECTS 255

INSECTS

231. Importance of Insects. Insects seem to be the
form of life that is peculiarly adapted to this world. About
95 per cent of all kinds of animals are insects. In actual
numbers of individuals they are still more in the lead.
Many of these insects live at our expense, and in spite of
our efforts to subdue them. The cotton-boll weevil, chinch-
bug, grasshopper, San Jose scale, codling moth, potato
beetle, and many others are well-known crop pests. It has
been estimated that insects destroy about $700,000,000
worth of crops per year in the United States. It is well
worth while for the farmer to learn something of the life
and habits of insects, in order that he may prevent some
of this loss.

However, we must not come to think of all insects as
harmful; many of them are very useful. Bees are the first
of which we think. These and other insects are of use in
carrying the pollen for certain crops. Other insects are
useful because they live on the harmful kinds.

232. What an Insect Is. All insects have six legs in
their mature stage. This feature distinguishes them from
spiders, which have eight legs, and from millipedes and
centipedes, which have many legs. A caterpillar appears

I to have more than six legs, but those at the rear end are
: not true legs, as will be seen by examining one. When

the caterpillar changes to a butterfly or moth, only the

six true legs remain.

The body of an insect is divided into three parts that

are usually quite apparent: head, thorax and abdomen.

A wasp shows these parts very clearly.

250

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

233. Stages in the
Life of an Insect. Many
insects have four dis-
tinct periods in their
life. At different stages
they look so unlike that
one would never sus-
pect that they were the
same individual.
Fig. 13.3 shows how a common house-fly looks at dif-
ferent ages. The first stage is the egg. From this the
maggot hatches. This is called the larva stage. When the
fiy maggot becomes full-grown, it changes to the pupa

I 2 3

Fig. 133. Stages in the life of a house-fly:
3, larva ; 1, pupa; 2, mature fly. (After
Howard.)

Fio. 134. Stages of the codling moth: a, the moth or adult insect, .^lightly
enlarged; b, the egg, greatly enlarged; c, the full-grown larva, slightly enlarged;
d, the pu{>a, slightly enlarged; e, the pupa in its cocoon on the inner surface of a
piece of bark, reduced about one-half; /, moth on bark and empty pupa skin from
which it emerged, about natural size. (From Simpson.)

INSECTS

257

Fig. 135. Ck)dling moth larva and its
work. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 283)

Stage. The pupa appears to

be inactive and is sometimes

referred to as a resting stage,

but this is far from true.

Great transformations are

taking place inside the pupa

skin. The wings are develop-
ing and the entire appearance of the body is changing.

After these changes are complete, the fly appears in the

mature stage. The pupa
stage lasts five to seven
days, and the larva stage
about as much longer, so
that a new generation
may be started every two
weeks. A single female
lays 120 to 160 eggs. It
is easy to see why flies be-
come so numerous in late summer.

Each mosquito, codling moth and cotton-boll weevil

passes through these four

stages. Some insects do

not pass through all these

stages. Grasshoppers

and some other insects

grow continually from the

time they hatch until they

are mature. Some plant-
lice are born alive, so that ^ a X /^ ~^ 6

they do not pass through

Fio. 137. Mature cotton-boll weevil.
the different stages. (After W. D. Hunter.)

Fig. 136. Cot ton-boU weevil larva at left;
p\ip& at the right. About five times natural
siae. (After W. D. Hunter.)

258

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fio. 138.

Egg of codling moth

on apple

234. The Control of Insects. One cannot intelligently
combat an insect without knowing its life history. For
years we have been trying to kill mature flies. Now we
are coming to know that one of the best means of limiting
their numbers is to keep the horse manure hauled out, as it
is in this that the flies grow.

The effective way of controlling mosquitos is not to
try to kill "the mature ones, but to eliminate the rain-
water barrels and stagnant water, where
they develop; or, if this cannot be done,
place oil on the water to kill the "wrig-
glers."

The codling moth lays its egg on the
apple. The time to kill it is when the
young worm takes its first meal. If we
wait until it has entered the apple, it is too late. There

must be some poison on
the apple when the worm
begins to eat.

The apple maggot can-
not be controlled in this
way because the small fly
that lays the egg punctures
the skin and places the
egg in the apple. The best
way to control such a pest
is to have the fallen apples
all eaten by hogs or sheep.
The corn root-worm is
very serious in some of the

-Apples just right to spray

for codling moth com states. It does not

Fio. 139.

INSECTS ■

259

live on other crops. Therefore, it may be easily controlled
by rotating crops.

Few insects cause so much loss in America as the chinch
bug. It is most harmful in wheat fields, but often migrates
from the wheat to corn and other crops and there continues
its ravages. There are no satisfactory remedies except
rotation of crops.

We can never hope to exterminate any insect. The
best we can hope for is to Umit the numbers so that
serious damage will be prevented.

235. Chewing and Sucking Insects.
Orchards, potatoes and many vege-
tables are now commonly sprayed for
the control of insects. There are two
general classes of insects so far as
spraying is concerned: those that
chew their food and those that suck
the juices of the plant. Potato beetles
and cabbage worms eat the foliage.
All that is necessary in order to kill
them is to put some poison, such as
Paris green, on the leaves. The San
Jos6 scale, chinch bug, and plant lice
suck the juices of the plant. They
cannot eat poison. To try to poison
them would be like trying to poison a
mosquito by placing poison on the hand. A mosquito
would merely insert his bill and eat to his satisfaction
without getting any of the poison. In order to kill these,
it is necessary to spray with a contact insecticide — one
that kills when it gets on their bodies.

Fui. 140.

Almost too late to spray

for codling moth

260

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

SPRAYING FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS
AND DISEASES

236. Common Fungicides and Insecticides. There are
two general classes of enemies for which treatment is given:

Fio. 141. San Jos6 scale. Natural size on the left; raucli enlarged on the
right. A sucking insect. (After Howard and Morlaft)

fungi and insects. Those materials that are used for de-
stroying fungi are called fungicides; those that are used
against insects are called insecticides. The following
list gives some of the chief materials of each kind:

SPRAYING 261

Fungicides
Bordeaux mixture Sulfur.

Copper sulfate. Potassium sulfide.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate. Formalin.
Lime-sulfur. ' Corrosive sublimate

WSECTICIDES

Poisons Contact Remedies

Paris green. Lime-sulfur.

Arsenite of soda. Sulfur.

Arsenite of lime. Whale-oil soap.

Arsenate of lead Kerosene emulsion.

Hellebore. Crude petroleum.

Soluble oils.

Carbolic acid.

Hydrocyanic acid gas.

Carbon bisulfide.

Tobacco.

It will be seen that, in general, one material is not of
much value for both insects and fungi. Lime-sulfur
is a good fungicide and contact insecticide. In some other
cases the same remedy does good for both insects and
fungi. Bordeaux mixture repels the flea-beetle on potatoes,
Bnd the striped cucumber- and melon-beetle, so that it is
of some value against these insects; and Paris green is
of some value as a fungicide; but generally we must not
expect one remedy to be of value against more than one
of the three classes of enemies. Many of the supposed
failures in spraying are due to the use of the wrong remedy.

237. Spraying for Fungi. The standard remedy for
fungous diseases is Bordeaux mixture. This is made of
(•opper sulfate and lime. It is the copper sulfate that
kills the fungi. But if it is used alone it will also injure the
foliage. The lime prevents most of this injury. As we

262 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

have previously learned, the fungi are small plants that
live on our crops. We might say that there are two kinds
of weeds that we have to control, — those that grow on
the ground and those that grow on our crops. For the
one kind we cultivate, for the other we spray. Fungi
must be killed by a fungicide that hits them. It is just
like spraying for wild mustard. We can apply a spray
that is so strong as to kill the mustard, but that is not
strong enough to harm the oats. If we applied it too strong,
the oats would also be killed. So, in use of the Bordeaux
mixture, we can use it strong enough to kill the fungi
without hurting the tree or crop. Certain trees, as peaches
and plums, are so tender that it is very difficult to spray
without killing the leaves also.

Certain weather conditions favor the growth of fungi,
just as certain kinds of weather favor the growth of corn,
but weather cannot create the one any more than the
other. Close, damp days, with frequent showers, are
favorable for the growth of most fungi.

Another essential in spraying for fungi is that we spray
before they enter the host plant. When a fungus seed
(spore) grows and gets inside the plant, it is too late to
spray. Spray on the outside of a leaf does not hurt a fungus
that is already inside. Ordinarily it is some time after the
fungus has gained entrance before the disease is apparent.
We must, therefore, know the life history of the particu-
lar fungus, know when it is likely to enter the plant, and
spray before that time. Howevei*, it is sometimes worth
while to spray when the first plants show a disease, if
we have not started earlier. In this way, some of the crop
may often be saved. Spraying is insurance, — it should be

SPRAYING 263

done before the disease is apparent. Some years we may
spray for a disease that does not develop seriously, but the
profits on the years when diseases are bad will usually
be much more than enough to pay for the apparent loss
of labor. However, there are very few years when spraying
does not give some benefits.

Another essential in spraying for fungi is thoroughness.
If Paris green is put on a potato plant, even if only part
of the leaves are hit, the potato bugs may be poisoned.
If the poison is there, the bug will probably eat a poisoned
leaf tomorrow if he does not get one today. But when
we spray for fungi, only those leaves that are hit are
protected, and the unsprayed leaves furnish a place for
the disease to enter.

238. The Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. Several

strengths of the spray are used, as follows:

Copper sulfate — Two, three, four, five or six pounds.
Quicklime — An equal number of pounds.
Water— 50 gallons.

For plants with tender foliage, two pounds of lime and
two of copper sulfate are u.sed; for apples and pears,
about three to four pounds of each; for potatoes, .six pounds.
The copper sulfate is dissolved and the lime slaked
separately. The copper sulfate is then diluted with nearly
all the water before the lime is added. If the concentrated
solutions' of lime and copper sulfate are put together,
they form a thick, curdled mass that will not stir up readily
when the water is added. The mixture is all right if either
the lime or the copper sulfate is diluted before adding
the other, or each may be diluted with half the water.
The former method is usually most convenient.

264 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

If much spraying is to be done, a stock solution will
save time. For this, fill a barrel with water and weigh out
one pound of copper sulfate for each gallon. Suspend
this in a bag in the top of the barrel and it will all dissolve.
Instead of weighing it for each tank of spray, we can then
take out as many gallons as we desire pounds. Two pounds
may be dissolved in each gallon, if desired.

The Ume may also be slaked in quantities. The lime
settles, and we cannot be sure when we have enough by
measure, so that if we use a stock solution of lime we should
also use the potassium ferrocyanide test. This is desirable,
anyway. Potassium ferrocyanide makes a yellow solution.
If a drop of it is added to a solution of copper sulfate, it
turns a brick-red. If lime enough is first added to neutralize
the copper sulfate, the drop remains yellow. About a
half more lime is usually added after the copper has been
neutralized.

For spraying small gardens, stock solutions may be
kept in large bottles and the proportionate amounts used.

239. Poisons. Paris green and arsenate of lead are the
most common poisons. Five ounces to a pound of Paris
green are used in fifty gallons of spray. Or one to four
pounds of arsenate of lead may be used. The arsenate of
lead never hurts the foliage, so that it may be used in any
strength. Paris green sometimes causes injury if used
too strong, or if used without lime. Paris green is also
used to dust on plants, either alone or with lime.

240. Contact Remedies. The chief use of contact reme-
dies is to kill the San Jose scale. For this purpose, the
trees must be sprayed while dormant, because any spray
that is strong enough to kill the scale will also kill the leaves.

SPRAYING 265

Lime-sulfur spray is most commonly used. It is usu-
ally made about as follows:

Quicklime 15 pounds

Flowers of sulfur 15 pounds

Water 45 gallons

The sulfur and lime are boiled in a part of the water
for about one hour. The remainder of the water is then
added and the spray is ready for use.

The lime-sulfur spray is also a good fungicide. It
will control peach-leaf curl, and will take the place of Bor-
deaux mixture when this is needed on dormant trees.

Numerous preparations of soluble oils are also on the
market. Many of these are good. Clear oil is not often
used, as it is likely to injure the trees. The soluble oils
are diluted with water, so as to avoid this danger.

Kerosene emulsion is used for killing plant lice when

the trees are in foliage, and is also used on dormant trees.

To make it, use:

Kerosene 2 gallons

Soap ^pound

Water 1 gallon

Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the kerosene and
churn thoroughly until a creamy emulsion is formed.
For use on dormant trees, dilute with 10 to 20 gallons of
water. For killing plant lice on foliage, dilute with 40 to 60
gallons of water.

241. Combined Insecticides and Fungicides. The in-
secticides and fungicides may often be combined. In
most cases, it pays to put Paris green or other poison with
Bordeaux mixture, as in spraying apples, pears, potatoes,
etc. But this combination must not be expected to kill

266 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

plant lice or other sucking insects. There is no generally
used spray that combines the three purposes — fungicide,
poison, and contact remedy for sucking insects. To be
successful in spraying, one must know what he is spraying
for, and apply the right spray at the right time. Apples
are commonly sprayed about three times, once just before
blossoming, once just after the petals fall, and once about
two weeks later. Bordeaux mixture and a poison are com-
bined. Potatoes are commonly sprayed about five times,
beginning when the plants are about six inches high and
repeating every one to two weeks, using Bordeaux and
poison. The particular treatment, of course varies in
different sections, because the weather and enemies differ.
For details in any section, one should apply to the State
Agricultural Experiment Station.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the worst ten weeds in the neighborhood? What is
the character that makes each one a bad weed, that is, able to live
in spite of man? How may each one be most easily controlled?

2. What are the worst plant diseases in the region? How may each
of these be controlled?

3. In how many ways do bacteria differ from the plants with which
you are most familiar? In how many ways do fungi differ from these
plants? How do bacteria differ from fungi?

4. How do spores differ from seeds?

5. In what ways may the spores of disease-producing fungi be
carried to the plants which they infect?

6. Explain how spraying the leaves of the potato with Bordeaux
for late blight increases the yield of tubers.

7. Explain why spraying pear and apple trees will not control
fire blight. "WTiy is the removal and treatment of the hold-over cankers
the first step to be taken in controlling this disease?

LABORATORY EXERCISES 267

8. What are the most serious insect pests in your county? How
may each be controlled?

9. What are the most useful insects in the region? Do insects do
more harm than good?

10. Complete the following reaction which takes place in preparing
Bordeaux mixture:

Cu SO4 -- Ca (OH), = ?

11. What plants are commonly sprayed in your county? What
spray is used? When is it applied? What is the cost of the sprayer?
The cost of the materials? Of the labor? Does the spraying pay?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

62. Bacteria and Molds.

Materials. — Three test tubes, cotton, boiled potato or fruit (apple-
sauce is good); three apples, one partly decayed.

Fill each tube about one-third full of apple-sauce or boiled potato.
Plug each one with cotton. Set one aside. Put the other two into a
pail of water and boil for half an hour. After boiling, set one tube aside
with the cotton undisturbed. Take the cotton from the third tube
and leave it out for half an hour or more, then put it in again. Leave
these for a few days and see what happens. Account for the difference.
Is it desirable to leave canned fruit open a few minutes before covering,
after cooking? Why?

Prick one of the sound apples in several places with a pin which
has Ix^en sterilized by holding it in a flame. Put the pin into the rotten
apple and then into the other sound apple. Repeat this in several places.
Set the two sound apples aside for about a week. What happens?
What is one value of the skin to an apple? Why should fruit be picked
and handled with care?

63. Bacteria.

MnteriaU. — Compound microscope magnifying 500 to 1,000 diam-
eters, if the school has such a microscope or can secure the use of one
temporarily. Examine some stagnant water, or some water in which
seeds or bread have been standing for a day or so. This will contain
many forms of bacteria and other living things. Most of the bacteria
are small, short rods. In many cases there are longer rods made up of
two or more plants fastened en<l to end. Each of the plants is a single
cell. They multiply by the. simple division of each plant into two.

268 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

They may reach their full growth in less than an hour. Make drawings
of the different forms.

64. Bread Mold.

Materials. — -A slice of stale bread, several glasses or jars, magnify-
ing glass, compound microscope.

Moisten a piece of bread slightly and place in one of the jars or
tumblers, and keep covered. In about a week the bread will probably
be covered with black mold. Examine with the lens, notice the white,
moldy growth — the mycelium of the fungus. The mycelium corresponds
to the roots, stems and leaves of other plants. It takes its food from
the bread. The fungus requires heat, moisture and food for its growth,
but does not require light, because it is a saprophyte. Notice that the
dark color is due to black specks attached to the mycelium threads;
these are spore cases. Each one is called a sporangium. Some of these
are white. These are the young, or unripe ones. These spores corre-
spond to seed, while the sporangium corresponds to a pod. Make draw-
ings of all the parts.

Mount some of the fungus in a drop of water and examine with a
compound microscope. Make drawings of mycelium, sporangium and
spores. (See Fig. 129.)

66. Transformations of an Insect.

Bring in cabbage worms, caterpillars and. other insects, and place
in jars in the laboratory. Feed with the proper plants and watch the
transformations. Make drawings of each stage in the life of at least
one insect. For this work a terrarium is very desirable. It is a
box with glass sides and cover that can be conveniently opened and
closed.

66. A Study of a Grasshopper.

Supply each student with one or two grasshoppers (or other mature
insects). How many divisions in the body? How many legs does it
have? What difference is there between the hind legs and the other
pairs? How many wings are there? Do all insects have this number
of wings? How are the wings folded? What differences between the
outer and the inner pair? To what part of the body are the wings
attached? The legs? Find the antennse (feelers). Examine the jaws.
Do they move in the same way that yours do? If you have a com-
pound microscope, see whether you can find the divisions of the
compound eyes. Make drawings.

LABORATORY EXERCISES 269

67. Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. <

Materials. — Half a pound of copper sulfate, half a pound of
quicklime, five cents worth of potassium ferrocyanide. Two-quart
fruit-jars. A measure marked in oimces.

Dissolve the potassium ferrocyanide in a two-ounce bottle of water
and label "poison."

Prepare a stock solution of copper sulfate by dissolving the half-
pound in a two-quart jar of water. This will be at the rate of one pound
per gallon.

Slake the lime and then dilute to two quarts.

1. Place three ounces of the stock solution of copper sulfate in
one two-quart jar; fill nearly full of water, then add a little of the stock
solution of lime and test by adding a drop of potassium ferrocyanide.
If there is enough lime, the drop will remain yellow. If there is not
enough, it will turn a brick-red. About a half more lime than the test
requires should be used. This will probably take about three ounces
of the stock solution of lime if it is well stirred. Set aside to compare
with 2, 3 and 4.

2. Put three ounces of the stock solution of lime in a second jar
and fill nearly full of water; then add three ounces of copper sulfate.

3. In a third jar, put three ounces of copper sulfate solution and
fill half full of water. In a fourth, put three ounces of lime solution and
fill half full of water. Pour these into another jar at the same time.

4. Put three ounces of copper sulfate solution into a jar, then add
three ounces of lime solution and add water to fill the jar.

Set these four jars side by side. The material will gradually settle.
Measure the height of each one and fill out the following table:

Height of column
Condition when mi.xed

.\t End 30

beginning minutes

1 hour

1. Copper sulfate dilute ,

2. Lime dilute

3. Both dilute

4. Neither dilute

1 day

Why does the material settle more rapidly in one than in another?
Which mixture would clog a spray nozzle most? Which would be most
evenly distributed by spraying?

270 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Shake the mixture which proves best and allow it to settle again,
making note of the time required. Compare this with the time that it
took the first mixture to settle. Would it be desirable to use old Bor-
deaux mixture?

How much of the above stock solution of copper sulfate would be
required to make one gallon of a 2 : 2 : 50 (2 pounds copper sulfate,
2 pounds lime, 50 gallons water) spray? Fifty gallons of a 4 : 4 : 50
spray?

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

28. Weeds, and How to Kill Them.
279. A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass.
188. Weeds Used in Medicine.
334. Vitality of Weed Seeds in Manure, p. 18.
Weed Seeds in Feeding Stuffs, pp. 18, 19.
345. Some Common Disinfectants.

243. Fungicides and Their use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits
305. Injury by Bordeaux Mixture, pp. 12, 13.

127. Important Insecticides.

227. Lime, Sulfur and Salt Wash, pp. 19-22.

281. Soluble Oils for the San Jose Scale, pp. 17, 18..

329. Preparation of Soluble Oils, pp. 26-28.

244. Fumigation of Nursery Stock, p. 11.
259. Disease-Resistant Crops, pp. 15, 16.
237. Apple-growing in New York, pp. 8-11.
267. Apple Bitter Rot, pp. 21-23.

283. Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Moth in the
Ozarks.
91. Potato Diseases and Treatment.
316. Potato Scab, pp. 11, 12.
320. Potato Spraying, pp. 22, 23.
219. Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904.
250. The Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oats.
132. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat.
231. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases.
223. Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. <

290. The Cotton Bollworm.
344. The Boll Weevil Problem.
333. Cotton Wilt.

COLLATERAL READING 271

47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant.
209. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Gin-
neries.
211. The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll

Weevil.
126. Insects Affecting Tobacco.
172. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrous Trees.
264. The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It.
275. The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It.
155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts.
221. Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry.
178. In.sects Injurious to Cranberry Culture.
284. Insect and Fungous Enenies of the Grape East of the
Rocky Mountains.

99. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees.

59. Bee-keeping.

54. Some Common Birds.
196. Usefulness of the American Toad.
297. Methods of Destroying Rats.
335. Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the Arid Interior.

The Cereals in America, and Forage and Fiber Crops in America
The more important enemies of crops are discussed. See table of
contents and index.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 35-53, 110-118,
and index.

CHAPTER IX
SYSTEMS OF CROPPING

One of the first farm-management questions to be
considered is the kind of crops to grow and the order
in which they shall be grown.

242. The Choice of Crops. The choice of crops is much
more than a question of which crops will sell for the most
per acre, or even which will produce the most net profit
per acre. Corn may pay better than oats, yet it may be
wise to continue to grow oats. One can raise all the corn
that he has time to grow and raise some oats besides,-
because most of the work on the oat crop comes at a time
when the corn crop does not require attention. Barley,
oats and spring wheat require work at about the same
time, so that a farmer usually chooses one from these.
Rye and winter wheat are also competitors, but neither
one interferes much with the work of raising spring grains.

The general principle is that a farmer should have
work for the entire year. Each day he should do the kind
of work that pays best on that day, although it may be
much less profitable than work that he might do at some
other time. The same principle applies in all occupations.

While a small number of crops is better than a single
crop, yet it is not well to have too many nor to have too
small areas of each. In order to grow potatoes profitably,
one usually needs to have considerable special machinery,
such as a planter, a digger, and a sprayer. One cannot

(272)

Fig. 125. A good spray rig for a small orchard

Fk; !26 O.its sprayed for killing mustard on the left, unsprayed on the right

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 273

afford to have these without a considerable area. The
interest and depreciation on these machines will likely
amount to $25 to $50 per year, an amount that is too
high a tax for a small area to carry. The same may be
said of special machinery for small orchards and for many
other crops. These remarks do not apply to the raising
of small quantities of vegetables and fruits for home use.

With the exception of some very specialized types
of farming, some crops that are to be fed to animals
should be grown in order to keep up the fertility of the
land.

In choosing what crops to grow, it is well to follow the
practice of the best farmers in the section until one gets
started. Changes may then be introduced gradually.

243. The Rotation of Crops. Rotation means that the
crops grown on each field are changed from time to time.
Practically every farmer does change crops occasionally.
Still, we have farms on which nothing but cQtton has been
grown for years; others, on which no crop but wheat
has ever been planted. Sooner or later, all farmers will
come to practice some rotation. If no other system is
followed, the land will be abandoned for a time to grow
weeds, which is a primitive kind of rotation. The present
practices are haphazard, but some of the best farmers in
all sections are coming to more or less definite systems.
We dq not usually speak of the haphazard changes as
crop-rotation.

244. Crop-Rotation and Diversified Crops. The advan-
tage.s of having a variety of crops arc often confused with
the advantages that come from crop-rotation. Diversi-
fication of crops keeps the laborer employed the year

274 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

around; it provides for cash crops and crops to feed; it
prevents total failure when one crop fails. All these
advantages may be had when each of the several crops
grows on the same field continuously.

245. Advantages of Crop-Rotation. The rotation of
crops (1) helps to control weeds, insects and fungi; (2) it
provides for keeping up the humus supply on each field;
(3) it may provide for the growth of grass and legumes
on each field; (4) it often saves labor; (5) it keeps the
land occupied with plants a greater part of the time;
(6) it allows the alternation of deep- and shallow-rooted
crops; (7) it may provide for a balanced removal of plant-
food; (8) it is possible that toxic substances may be de-
stroyed; (9) it systematizes farming.

(1) Nearly every crop is accompanied by certain kinds
of weeds that are able to grow with it. The weeds that
thrive in small grain are usually quite different from those
that thrive in meadows. If small grain is grown continu-
ously, the land is likely to become very weedy. These
particular weeds are likely to be easily killed by cultiva-
tion. Wild oats are a serious pest in the grain fields in
Minnesota, but if crop-rotation is practiced they readily
disappear. Such weeds as daisies may be bad in hay land,
but are not serious in corn. The opposite is true of pig-
weeds.

Similarly, there are many diseases and insects that
live on one crop but that are not harmful to another.
The soil may become infested with potato-scab or corn-
root-worm, but crop-rotation will check either.

(2) If crops are not rotated, those fields that are con-
stantly in tilled crops will have their humus supply ex-

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 275

hausted, and the numerous evil results that follow such
exhaustion will be brought on. The control of weeds,
diseases and insects and the maintenance of the humus
supply are the most important reasons for rotating crops.

(3) If crops are rotated, we may have legumes and
grass on all the fields occasionally. As we have previously
learned, these crops are important in keeping up the pro-
ductivity of the land.

(4) Labor is often saved by crop-rotation. Grasses
are sown in small grain, so that the land needs but one
fitting for two crops. Oats are often disked in on corn
land without the land having to be plowed. In Minnesota
and some other states, the disking is better than plowing,
both for oats and for the grass seeding in oats. It is often
convenient to be able to work land at times when it could
not be done if crops were not rotated.

(5) By crop-rotation the land may be kept occupied
more of the time. Grass seeded in oats occupies the land
after the oats are cut. If corn follows grass, the land
may have the benefit of the grass cover until plowed for
corn. Where the season is long enough, it is possible to
rotate crops so as to grow more than one crop in a year.
One of the best rotations for the South provides five crops
in three years.

(6) Deep- and shallow-rooted crops may be alternated,
thus allowing the use of different layers of soil.

(7) Formerly it was thought that the chief reason
for rotation was that plants use the different plant-foods
in different proportions, so that when the soil became
exhausted for one crop it might contain the kind of food
that the other crop required. As a matter of fact, the

276

ELEMENTS OR AGRICULTURE

PASTURE
24.71 A.

OATS
19 13 A.

BARLEY
14 70 A.

OATS
19 04 A

CORN
12 86 A.

Fig. 142. Fields on a 160-acre farm in
Minnesota

increased yields result-
ing from crop-rotation
will cause the removal
of more of each kind
of plant-food than will
be taken from the field
by the smaller yields
that are secured if any
one crop is grown con-
tinuously. However,
the fact that different
plants do use the plant-
food in different pro-
portions may be of some importance.

(8) It is thought by some persons that each plant
gives off certain substances through its roots that are
toxic, or poisonous, to that plant, but that may not be
harmful to some other

crop. This theorj'^ has
not yet been accepted
by all investigators.

(9) Crop -rotation
systematizes farming.
It does not make farm-
ing more complex or
make more fields, as
.some have supposed.
Thought is required in
getting the system es-
tablished. The farm
mav need to be re-

FCLO A - 27 ACRES
■05 - PASTUSf
'06 - OATS
'07 - CO«N
CS - GRAN
■09- MEADOW
'IQ ■ PASTUWt

TARMSTEAO
ft ACRES

FIELD 'B'
27 ACRES

t)5 • GRAIN .'
"Ob ■ PASTURE
07 ■ OATi
t)» -CORN
\»- &RAN
'10 • MEADOW

FIELD 'C*
27 ACRES

to - GRAIN
'06 ■ MEADOW
'07 RASTUBE
Oa - OATS
tN - CORN
'10 GRAN

'FIELD 'D"

27 ACRES

PERMANENT MEADOW
14 ACRES

FIELD *E
27 ACRES

07 MEADOW '07 Main

'08 PASTURE '0» ■ MEADOW

09 -OATS 09-m&TURE

10 CORN '10 OATS

L-

Fia. 14.3. Same farm as Fig. 142, with the
fields arranged for a five-year rotation (Minne-
sota Bulletin No. 109.)

^-^,

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 277

arranged when the work is begun. After a systematic
rotation is estabUshed, it simplifies the farming. Figs. 142
and 143 show how the re-arrangement of fields and the
establishment of a rotation have simplified a farm lay-out.
Formerly there were more fields, and each year the crop-
ping scheme had to be worked out.

246. Profits from Rotation. Crops differ in necessity
for rotation. At Rothamsted, England/ where experi-
ments have been conducted for fifty years, it has been
found possible to grow good crops of roots, turnips, mangels,
etc., without rotation, if the land is properly fertilized.
Wheat and barley were improved by rotation. Legumi-
nous crops failed entirely if grown continuously on the
same land.

Wheat was grown in a four-year rotation for forty-
eight years, giving twelve crops of wheat and thirty-six
crops of other kinds. The average yields of wheat for the
twelve years compared with the yields for the same years
on land continuously in wheat, were as follows:

Continuous wheat, average yield, 12 crops, 12.4 bushels per acre.
Wheat, in 4-year rotation, average yield, 12 crop>s, 28.6 bushels
per acre.

A similar experiment with barley gave the following

results:

Continuous barley, average of 12 crops, 1,7:35 pounds per acre.
Barley in rotation, average of 12 crops, 2,960 pounds per acre.

247. Crop-Rotation and Crop-Failure. Sometimes the
grass seeding may fail, or frosts or rain.s may spoil a crop.
The.se emergencies can be met without interfering with
the rotation. If a grass seeding in grain fails, it may l)e

^Tho Book of tlic Rothamsted Kxperimcnts, by A. D. Hall.

278 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

re-seeded in the fall. If a frost kills a crop, it may be
re-planted, or, if too late, a catch-crop may be put in
for that year and the rotation continued the next year.

248. Variation of Crop Areas. An objection to rota-
tion is that it fixes the area of each crop each year.
Some persons think that a farmer should watch the market
and vary the areas of different crops to meet the market
demands. Usually it is very unwise for a farmer to enter
this field of speculation.

The real business practice for most men to follow is
to decide on what crops pay best from year to year. Decide
on the proper acreage of each. Fix the rotation, and then
raise the same area each year, regardless of prices. If the
original selection is wise, this practice will have every-
thing in its favor. It will use a constant supply of labor
and machinery, rather than have equipment idle every
other year as the farmer oscillates, usually just in time
to miss rather than meet the high prices.

249. Examples of Rotations. A five-year rotation of
corn, oats, wheat, grass two years, is practiced by many
of the best farmers of the northern states. This re-
quires that the farm be divided into at least five fields.
Corn, oats, wheat, each occupies one-fifth of the farm.
One-fifth is in clover and timothy one year old, and
one-fifth in timothy, as the clover is usually not very
abundant the second year. On many farms in this sec-
tion there is a permanent pasture. If there is none, one
of the meadows in the rotation is used as a pasture. In
this rotation, manure is usually put on the corn, and
some fertilizer may be used on the oats and the wheat.
The grass and clover are seeded in the wheat. With the

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 279

present prices of hay, it will often pay to use a nitrogenous
fertilizer on the grass land if there is not enough manure.
Such farms usually sell dairy products, hay and wheat;
and buy grain feeds.

Many variations are made in this system. One of the
commonest is to allow the grass to stand for more than
two years. Where potatoes are profitable, they may replace
half of the corn; then oats will follow both of these crops;
otherwise, the rotation is unchanged. The potatoes fur-
nish an additional cash crop, and usually add to the profit
if the soil is satisfactory for them.

The following three-year rotation is practiced in sev-
eral potato sections that have light soils: Potatoes, wheat
or oats, clover and timothy. This allows one-third of
the farm to be in potatoes each year. The second crop
of clover is plowed under and sometimes the entire hay
crop. The grain and hay are usually sold. Little stock
is kept and commercial fertilizers are purchased in large
quantities.

A good rotation for the corn-belt is corn two years,
oats, clover and timothy. Wheat may take the place of
oats. The grass may be left two or more years, and may be
used as a pEisture if there is not a permanent one.

For regions where alfalfa is successful, this crop may
be grown four years, and followed by corn two years
and small grain one or two years.

For cotton farms, the most highly recommended
rotation is: First year, corn with cowpeas planted between
the rows or sown broadcast at the last cultivation; second
year, oats, after which a crop of cowpeas is grown; third
year, cotton. In starting this system, the best third of

280 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the farm is planted to cotton. In a few years, this rotation
will produce more cotton than could be grown on the
entire farm without rotation.

QUESTIONS

1. What rotations, if any, are followed in your county?

2. What rotations were formerly followed and how is the practice
changing ?

3. What changes should be made? Why? Ask the opinions of the
best farmers; also consider what you have read on agriculture.

LABORATORY EXERCISE

68- Planning a Cropping System.

Visit a farm near the school and learn what crops were grown
on each field last year and what crops the owner expects to grow
next year. Make a sketch of the farm, showing the present arrange-
ment of fields, approximate areas of each, and write in the present
crops. The entire class should go over each field to see the present
conditions.

Each student should later make a map of the farm, showing the
arrangement of fields that he considers best.

Give the crops for each field for five years, or long enough to get
the rotation established. It will usually take two or three years to
get the rotation going regularly.

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms.
144. Rotation of Crops, pp. 8-11.
98. Suggestions to Southern Farmers, pp. 38-46.
The Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts. Chapter XV.
Soils and FertiUzers, by H. Snyder. Pp. Ill, 112, and 230-240.
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 88-109, and index.
The Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 74, 209, 294, 329,
348, 361, 388, 405.

The Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 344-
346.

Fig. 144. Cutting com for the silo

ijf

^^H|S^^

^^H^^^B

^^^^IN^

Hlf

Fig. 145 Filling a sUo

CHAPTER X
FEEDS AND FEEDING

260. Importance of Animal Food and Work. "It is

estimated by competent authority that over 45 per cent
of the food consumption of the better classes in the United
States consists of animal products. Taking into account
the relatively higher prices of these materials, it seems
safe to estimate that fully half the amount spent for food
by the average well-to-do family goes for the purchase
of meat, eggs and dairy products. Moreover, whatever,
in the light of recent discussion, may be our attitude
toward vegetarianism, or our judgment as to the neces-
sary proteid supply, it is certainly a fact, however we
may explain it, that those peoples are, as a whole, most
efficient which consume a reasonable proportion of animal

food

"These enormous sums spent for meat represent to
a considerable extent the indirect utilization through
the animal of farm products which would otherwise
have no nutritive value for man. This is true on the one
hand of the leaves, stems, husks, pods, etc., of our vari-
ous farm crops — ^the so-called coarse fodders — and, on
the other, of those manufacturing by-products which
accumulate in the preparation of grains and other raw
materials for human consumption. By feeding these
products to our domestic animals, we utilize for feeding
man or performing his work a portion of their stored-up

(281)

282 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

energy, which would otherwise be practically an entire
waste. Of course, surplus edible products are also utilized
in stock-feeding, and, in this country, very largely so.
This, however, can only be regarded as a temporary phase
of our agriculture. While, on the fertile soil of the corn-
belt, it is often found more profitable to convert corn into
beef or pork than to market it directly, as the density
of population and the demand for breadstuffs increases,
the stock-feeder will be more and more constrained to
the use of the cheaper by-product feeds in place of grain.
From the economic point of view, then, it is highly im-
portant that that portion of our national wealth repre-
sented by these inedible products should be utilized to
the best advantage, yielding a greater aggregate profit
to the producer and a more Uberal supply of animal food
to the consumer."^

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS

For feeding purposes, the chemist determines the
composition of feed in terms of water, ash, protein, ether
extract or fat, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract, the
last two together making up the carbohydrates.

251. Water. The chemist places a small quantity of
the finely ground feeding-stufF in a small dish and weighs
it. The sample is then placed in an oven, where it is dried
at a temperature of 212° Fahr. for several hours, or until
it no longer loses weight. It is then weighed again, and
the difference between the two weights is the water that
the food contains. The balance on which this work is

^ Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 84

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 283

done is so delicate that a thimbleful of corn meal can be
weighed with a smaller percentage of error than is usual
when a wagon load of corn is weighed on good wagon
scales.

All food materials, no matter how dry they may appear,
contain a considerable amount of water. The grains
usually contain about 10 per cent of water. Hay con-
tains 10 to 20 per cent; pasture grasses about 75 per cent;
green corn and silage about 80 per cent.

262. Ash. The chemist next burns the sample until
the charcoal is all gone. The remainder is ash. The amount
of ash in different feeds is variable. Corn -contains 1.5
per cent; wheat, 1.8 per cent; wheat bran, 5.8 per cent;
timothy hay, 4.4 per cent; clover hay, 6.2 per cent; alfalfa
hay, 7.4 per cent.

253. Protein. The protein is not determined directly.
In order to find the amount of it, the percentage of nitro-
gen is found and this is multipUed by 6.25, because it
has been found that the average protein substance contains
about 16 per cent of nitrogen. The method of finding
the percentage of nitrogen is too complicated to be con-
sidered here. The amount of protein is highest in legumes.
It is more abundant in seeds than in the stems of plants.
Alfalfa hay contains 14 per cent; timothy, 6 per cent;
wheat, 12 per cent; wheat-straw, 3.4 per cent; peas, 20
per cent; corn, 10 per cent.

254. Ether Extract or Fat. The dry feed is treated
with ether, which dissolves out the wax, chlorophyll
and fat. The largest amount of the extract, particularly
in grains, is fat. It is, therefore, commonly spoken of as
fat, although a more accurate term would be ether extract.

284

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Corn is very high in fat, containing 5 per cent; wheat
contains 2 per cent.

256. Crude Fiber. The crude fiber is found by boiUng
the feed first in a weak acid and then in a weak alkaU.
These dissolve all of the softer substances and leave the
insoluble crude fiber behind. It consists, for the most
part, of the cell-walls or framework of the plant. The
amount of crude fiber is greatest in the coarse feeds.
The stalks of corn co;itain 20 per cent, the grain only
2.2 per cent.

256. Nitrogen-Free Extract. What is left of the organic
matter of the plant after taking out the above substances
is called nitrogen-free extract. It is determined by sub-
tracting the ash, protein, crude fiber and fat from the
total dry matter. It contains starch, sugar and a number
of other substances. The crude fiber and the nitrogen-
free extract together make up the carboht/drates.

257. Composition of Feeds and Products Compared.
Notice the similarity in composition between the foods
or raw materials and the animal body. It is evident that
one cannot hope to secure a protein product without using
a protein feed.

Raw Materials — Foods

ArVater

Per cent

Com 10.6

Timothy hay i 13.2

Alfalfa hay 8.4

Clover hay 15.3

Clover, green 70.8

Ash

Digestible

protein

Per cent

Per cent

1.5

7.9

4.4

28

7.4

11.0

6.2

6.8

2.1

2.9

Digestible

fat plus

carbohydrates

divided by

2.25

Per cent

34.0
20.7
18.8
17.6
1.3

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD MATERIALS

285

Finished Products

Water

Ash

Protein

Fat

Well-fed ox

Per cent

54 3
53.7
53.9
42.0
55.8
65.7
87.2

Per cent
4.8
3.3
2.7
1.8
3.8
12.2
0.7

Per cent

15.8
14.8
13.9
11.0
21.6
11.4
3.6

Per cent
7.1

Well-fed sheep

13.2

Well-fed swine

22.5

Fat swine

40.2

Hen

Eggs

17.0

8.9

Cow's milk

3.7

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT FOOD MATERIALS

258. Water. Water in food serves the same purpose
as that which the animal drinks. It is, therefore, not
considered as having any value. A feed that is moist
may be more palatable than a dry feed. Water is the food
that all animals require in largest quantities. It not
only serves as the carrier of food in the animal body, but
makes up the larger part of the body itself. The great
importance of an abundance of good water for all animals
is not always sufficiently considered.

269. Ash. The ash is chiefly of use in the formation
of bone, but it doubtless has other important functions.
A mixed feed usually contains sufficient ash, so that the
ash has been ignored in calculating the value of feeds.
Possibly, when we learn more about it, we will give more
attention to it.

There are several cases in which the deficiency in ash
is very important. The cereals in general and Indian
corn in particular are deficient in ash. The legumes con-
tain high percentages of ash. Hogs fed on corn alone are
likely to be very weak-boned. To correct the shortage

286 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

of ash, they may be fed lime or wood-ashes, tankage
or bone meal. If fed on corn and alfalfa, the shortage of
ash is made up. Hens always require more lime than is
contained in their feeds. The striking reason for this is
seen when w-e compare the composition of eggs and corn.
The eggs contain 12.2 per cent ash, the corn only 1.5
per cent. Hens are, therefore, commonly fed cracked
oyster shells. Possibly one reason why the Kentucky
horses have such good bones and feet is the high ash
content of the feed that they get in the blue-grass pastures.
It is very probable that the ash food of colts in the corn-
belt should be given more consideration.

260. Protein. There are a large number of compounds
that are classed together as protein. The gluten of wheat,
lean meat, white of egg, the curd of milk, are protein com-
pounds. All the protein compounds contain nitrogen.
They are not all of equal feeding value.

The protein compounds make the basis of the bones,
muscles and other tissues. They are also used, to a limited
extent, as fuel to keep the body warm, but this is not
their important function.

261. Fats. The fats in food serve the same purpose
to the animal as do the carbodydrates. Fat is more effec-
tive than carbohydrate. It has been found that if a pound
of fat is burned it gives 2.2-5 times as much energy as is
furnished by burning a pound of carbohydrates. We
therefore say that a pound of fat is approximately equiva-
lent to 2.25 pounds of carbohydrates as food for a seed
or as food for animals.

262. Carbohydrates. The starch and sugar compounds
are the most important carbohydrates. Crude fiber or

DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS

287

cellulose is a less efficient one/ The carbohydrates form
only a very small proportion of the body, — less than 1
per cent. Their chief function is to furnish energy for
keeping the body warm and for movement. They are
also important as a source of animal fat. The animal can
change the carbohydrates to fat, and the body fat can
be used as a source of energy when the food does not
supply enough. The fat is a reserve source of energy.

DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS

263. Feeds Differ in Digestibility. No feed can be entirely
digested. A part of the food material is never taken up
by the body. The proportion of digestible material is
quite different in different food materials. The propor-
tion also varies with the kind of animal and with the
particular individual. The ruminants, or cud-chewing
animals, cattle, sheep and goats, all digest their food
about equally well. Horses digest 11 to 12 per cent less
than ruminants.

Average Digestibility for Ruminants

Fat

Wheat bran

Com

Timothy hay
Clover nay .
Alfalfa hay. .
Wheat straw

Nitrogen-

Protein

fiber

free
extract

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

79

22

69

76

58

93

48

52

63

62

49

69

74

43

66

11

52

38

Per cent

68
86
57
62
39
31

*-The carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The pro-
portions of hydrogen and oxygen are the same as in water (H,0), hence
the name. That is, there are two atoms of hydrogen for each atom of
o.xygen. There are a large number of different carbohydrate compounds.
The composition of starch is C^'H^.,0^, of cane sugar C12H22O11, of grape
sugar or glucose C,Ht20g.

288

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

It will be seen that 79 per cent of the protein of wheat
bran is digested, while 21 per cent passes through the
animal unused. But only 11 per cent of the protein in
wheat straw is digested. In general, the grain feeds are
much more digestible than roughage — hay, straw, etc.

264. Digestible Nutrients in Feeds. By combining the
above table with the table of compositions, we can get
the amount of digestible material in each food:

Protein

Crude
fiber

Nitrogen-
free
extract

Fat

Composition of com

Per cent

10.3
76.0

7.8

Per cent

2.2
58.0

1.2

Per cent

70.4
93.0

65.5

Per cent
5.0

Digestibility of com

Digestible nutrients in com.. . .

86.0
4.3

Corn contains 10.3 per cent of protein, of which 76
per cent is digestible; or it contains 7.8 per cent of diges-
tible protein. Similarly, it contains 1.2 per cent of diges-
tible crude fiber and G5.5 per cent of nitrogen-free extract.
These are added to give the amount of digestible carbo-
hydrates, or 66.7 per cent. This is the manner in which
Appendix table 8 is calculated.

265. Effect of Time of Harvesting on Digestibility.
When hay ripens, much of the food material is trans-
ferred to the seeds. These seeds are so small and hard
that they are not digested by the animal, hence, hay that
is cut when ripe is not very digestible. (Fig. 90.) In
the case of corn, the seed is digestible, hence the total
product averages higher in digestibility as the plant ripens.
The total product is also much more per acre. Therefore,
we cut hay plants when green and grain crops when ripe.

MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES 289

MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES

The animal uses the energy of its food for three pur-
poses: For maintenance of Ufe, for external work, and
for fattening or the production of eggs, milk, or other
product.

266. Maintenance. Even while at rest, many parts
of the body are active. To maintain this activity, requires
a supply of energy in the feed. If feed is withheld, the
animal will use the substance of its own body to keep
up the life functions. When the supply in the body is
no longer available, the animal will die.

267. External Work. When the demands for main-
tenance are met, the animal may use the extra energy
for carrying loads. The energy stored in the body may
also be used for this purpose, but if this is done the animal
gets poor in flesh.

268. Production. An excess of food above the main-
tenance requirement may also be used to store up meat
or fat in the body, or for the formation of wool, milk or
eggs.

269. Energy Lost in Digestion and in Production.
Formerly, it was considered that the maintenance values
of the feeds were in proportion to the total digestible
nutrients. We still compare foods on this basis in com-
puting balanced rations, because we do not have any
better means of comparison at the present time.

Armsby^ has studied a few feeds in order to determine
how much of the energy is available for maintenance
and for production. For these investigations he constructed

^ Pennaylvania Bulletin No. 84
8

290 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

an apparatus known as the respiration calorimeter. There
are only three such instruments in the world, and this
is the only one used for experiments on domestic animals.
The apparatus is so constructed as to enable the operator
to keep an exact debit and credit account with the animal.
He determines the weight, chemical composition and
energy content of the feed given. He then determines
the amount of matter and of energy carried off in the
visible waste products, and in the gases carried off by
the lungs and skin and by fermentation in the digestive
tract. Finally, the apparatus is a calorimeter, — i. e., a
heat measurer, — by means of which the amount of heat
given off by the animal is determined. Having thus ob-
tained a complete record of the income and outgo from
the body, it is easy to compute whether the animal has
stored up any of the matter and energy of the feed, or
whether he has been living in part on his own tissues.

In this manner, Armsby found that the following
amounts of the energy' of the food were set free in the
animal, or were digested:

Timothy hay 44 per cent

Com meal 77 per cent

These figures represent the percentage of digestibility
of these particular samples of feed which the particular
animal used. With different lots of feed or a different
animal, they might be different.

A part of this material is lost in digestion, so that it is
not all available for maintenance. The percentages of the
digested materials available for maintenance were:

Timothy hay .■ 63 per cent

Com meal 78 per cent

MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES

291

Or 28 per cent (44 per cent of 63 per cent) of the original
energy value of timothy hay is available for maintaining
the animal, and 60 per cent of the energy of corn is thus
available.

When the animal stores up the energy of these feeds,
there is a still further loss. The percentages of the diges-
tible material that could be stored up were:

Timothy hay 33 per cent

Com meal 53 per cent

Or 15 per cent of the energy of timothy was available
for storing up in the body and 41 per cent of the energy
of corn was thus available.

These results agree with common experience, that
timothy hay is fairly good for maintaining a steer, but is
very unsatisfactory for fattening. They may be sum-
marized as follows:

Values per 100 Pounds Containing 15 Per Cent Water

Com meal

Timothy hay

Heat of combustion

Thermal'
170.9

130.8
102.0

69.7

Per cent
100

77
60

41

Therma
175.6

77.7
48.9

25.9

Percent
100

Heat of combustion of ma-
terial digested

Maintenance value

44

28

Productive value for fatten-
ing

15

270. Comparison of Concentrates and Roughage. It
will be seen, in the above comparison, that the losses in
each step are much greater for timothy than for corn
meal. It will not do to compare the values of these two

* A Therm is a thousand large calories. That is the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temf>erature of 1,000 Kilograms of wat«r 1* Cen-
tigrade. The unit here need not be considered, as only the comparative
figures or percentages are important.

292 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

feeds on the basis of digestible material. This would
make the timothy worth 58 per cent as much as the corn
meal, whereas it is worth only 48 per cent as much for
maintenance, and 37 per cent as much for production.

Clover hay contains about two-thirds as much diges-
tible material as oats, but the clover is much harder to
digest. Zuntz calculated that the net nutrients, after
allowing for the amount used in chewing and digestion,
were about one-third as much for clover hay as for oats.^
Similar results have been obtained by other investigators.
(See Appendix, Table 9.)

We thus see that it is not safe to compare hay feeds
with grain feeds on the basis of digestible nutrients. It
is approximately correct to compare feeds of the same
class on this basis. Hay may be compared with hay and
one grain with another without very great errors.

BALANCED RATIONS

271. Food Requirements of Different Animals. Animals
must be fed very differently for different kinds of work.
The kind of feed that is adapted to producing wool, eggs,
milk or muscular work is not the kind that is best adapted
to fattening an animal or to maintaining it when not
producing. If we expect a product that contains a high
percentage of protein, as milk or eggs, we must feed a
protein diet; otherwise, it will be absolutely impossible
to keep up the production.

Very many experiments have been conducted in order
to determine what is the best proportion of the different

'■Farmers' Bulletin No. 170, p. 41.

BALANCED RATIONS 293

nutrients, and how much of each is required. These
experiments have been summarized in feeding standards.

272. Carbohydrate Equivalent of Fat. As we have
previously learned, the fats and carbohydrates have the
same function, but fat is 2.25 times as effective as carbo-
hydrates. One hundred pounds of corn contains 66.7
pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 4.3 pounds of diges-
tible fat. This is equivalent to 76.4 pounds (66.7 + 4.3 X
2.25) of carbohydrates. This is the manner in which the
carbohydrate column in Appendix, Table 8, is calculated.

273. Nutritive Ratio. One hundred pounds of corn
contains 7.9 pounds of digestible protein and the equiva-
lent of 76.4 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, or it
contains one pound of digestible protein for each 9.7
pounds of carbohydrates. This is called the nutritive
ratio.

274. Feeding Standards. The commonly accepted
feeding standards are given in Appendix, Table 7. As
an example, if we look up the standard for horses
heavily worked, we will see that the standard ration is
26 pounds of dry matter, 17.6 pounds of which is diges-
til)le, containing 2.5 pounds of protein and 15.1 pounds
of carbohydrates. This gives a nutritive ratio of 1:6.
If the horse weighs over 1,000 pounds, the ration would
be increased proportionately.

275. Computing Rations.' To illustrate how these
tables may be used, we will examine a system of feeding
cows, which is followed in some diary sections. Timothy
hay constitutes the greater part of the coarse fodder. Oats
are about the only grain grown. Corn is purchased and

^Adapted from Cornell BuUctin Xo. 1.54, by J. L. Stone

294

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

ground with the oats, in about equal weights, to make
"chop," which is fed with the hay. The cows will not
vary greatly from 1,000 pounds live weight. While the.se
cows are in full flow of milk in the spring before pasture
is ready, they are fed about 20 pounds of hay and 8 pounds
of chop per day.. Turning to the table, we find that 20
pounds of hay, 4 pounds of oats and 4 pounds of corn
contain digestible nutrients as follows:

Dry

matter

Protein

C. H. and
fat

Total

Nutritive
ratio

20 pounds hay

4 pounds oats ....
4 pounds com ....

17.36
3.56
3.56

.560
.368
.316

1.244
2.5

9.320
2.272
3.056

14.648
13.4

9.880
2.640
3.372

15.892
15.9

Total

Wolff's Standard. . .

24.48
24.00

1:11.8
1: 5.4

Upon comparison of the nutrients furnished by this
ration with Wolff's standard, as given in the table, it is
discovered that, while the dry matter and total nutrients
are not far out of the way, the protein is much too small,
the carbohydrates and fat are somewhat too great, while
the nutritive ratio is far too wide.

This result might readily have been foreseen had we
paused a moment to note the nutritive ration of each of
the three foods entering into the ration. They are, timothy
hay, 1 : 16.6; oats 1 : 6.2; corn, 1 : 9.7. Neither of them
is as narrow as the standard, and it is impossible to com-
bine them into a ration that is approximately balanced.
As corn is a purchased product, the natural suggestion
is that the corn should be replaced by some food having
a high proportion of protein, or, in other words, a very

BALANCED RATIONS

295

narrow nutritive ratio. Consulting the table, it is found
that among such are linseed meal, cottonseed meal, gluten
feed, malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings, etc. For the
northeastern states, buckwheat middlings is usually
reasonable in price. It is suggested to substitute it for
corn in the ration. Again, taking the figures from the
table, we have:

Dry
matter

Protein

C. H. and
fat

Total

20 pounds timothy hay

4 pounds oats . . ...

17.36
3.56

3.49

24.41

.560
.368

.880

1.808

9.320

2.272

1.824

9.880
2.640

4 pounds buckwheat mid-
c lings

2.704

Total

13.416

15.224

Nutritive ratio, 1: 7. 4

While this ration is much improved over the previous
one and will produce a more abundant flow of milk, it
is still too wide to produce the best results. If the timothy
hay is reduced two pounds, and two pounds of cotton-
seed meal put in its place, we get:

18 pounds timothy hay. . . .

4 pounds oats

4 pounds buckwheat mid-
dlings

2 pounds cottonseed meal.

Total

Dry

matter

Protein

C. H. and

fat

15.62
3.56

3 49
1.84

24.51

.504
.368

.880
.744

2.496

8.388
2.272

1.824

.888

13.372

Total

8.892
2.640

2.704
1.632

15.868

Nutritive ratio, 1:5.4

296 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

This ration corresponds very closely to the standard,
and, while the purchase of the cottonseed meal will add
somewhat to the expense, still it is the experience of care-
ful feeders that the increased production will pay.

The same result may be obtained by using other feed-
ing stuffs having a narrow nutritive ratio. The question
is likely to be raised, which of the various feeding-stuffs
offered in the market may be used most economically
in supplementing the home-grown foods to produce a
balanced ration? This question is best answered by for-
mulating properly balanced rations containing each of the
foods under con.sideration; and, by assigning the actual
market value per pound to each of the constituents of
the ration, its cost is readily ascertanied and the cheapest
may be selected.

276. Another Method of Computing Rations. The
total amounts of nutrients required are sometimes used
instead of the above method. Cows require about 24
pounds of dry matter per day per 1,000 pounds of live
weight. At least 16 pounds of this should be digestible,
and 2 to 2.5 pounds should be digestible protein. This
is an easier method of calculating but gives practically
the same results. It will be seen that only the last one
of the three calculated rations in the preceding section
meets this standard.

277. Cautions in Using Balanced Rations. The nutritive
ratio may vary somewhat from the standard without
serious results. Cows have produced good results on feeds
with a ratio as wide as 1 : 8, but most successful dairy-
men use a ration with more protein.^ One pound of pro-

* Virginia Bulletin No. 169.

BALANCED RATIONS 2J7

tein for 6 to 7 pounds of carbohydrates is usually
better.

It is possible to prepare a ration that will fit the stan-
dard and yet not be satisfactory. The standards are guides
but not laws. They do not do away with skill in feeding,
but will help in deciding on the feeds. One might feed
cows all cottonseed meal for the grain ration, but the
cows would not do well. Cottonseed meal is constipating
in effect. Wheat bran and oil meal are laxative. One can
prepare a ration for horses including clover hay, but
clover is not the best for horses. This is why it sells for less
than timothy. It is better than timothy for feeding cows.

Not all cows of the same size will need the same amount
of feed. Some may be harder to keep and some may be
giving larger quantities of milk. It is well to balance
the ration and then adapt it to the different animals by
feeding larger or smaller quantities.

278. Comfort of Animals. Armsby has found that a
steer produces 30 to 50 per cent more heat when standing
up than when lying down. This heat, of course, comes
from burning up of food. Evidently it will pay to pro-
vide comfortable quarters and a good bed for animals.
This does not mean that the barn should be warm. Fat-
tening animals produce so much heat in digestion that
they are more comfortable in cool stables. All feeding
experiments with steers have shown cool, dry stables to
be best. Cows need warmer quarters, as they are not
fattening, and are not using so much carbohydrates.
Regularity in feeding i.s also of great importance.

279. Relation of the Individuality of the Animal to
Profits. Some animals will not produce profitable results.

298 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

no matter how they are fed. It is necessary to have a
good animal, well fed, for good returns. Either condition
without the other will result in a financial loss.

280. Condimental Foods. Numerous condimental stock
foods are advertised. These are guaranteed to make hens
lay, cows give milk, or pigs get fat. The basis of nearly
all of these is some common feed. Other ingredients are
salt, fenugreek, gentian, ginger, sulfates of iron, and soda,
pepper, sulfur, charcoal, etc. Substances that counteract
each other are sometimes included.

Some of these substances have a tonic effect and may
at times be needed, but it is rarely desirable for animals
or men to take tonics all the time. If we desire to feed
any of these, they can be purchased at a drug store and
at a very small fraction of the cost in patent foods.

Numerous feeding experiments have failed to show
the value of these feeds. If one desires to use them, he
had best get a prescription from a veterinarian, or write
to the State Experiment Station, and save his money
for some useful purpose.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Why does a person need more clothing while sleeping than
while sitting?

2. How much protein would there be in the milk of a cow that
gives 30 pounds per day? What other needs would the cow have for
protein? About how much would, therefore, be required per day?

3. What would be the nutritive ratio of the following ration?
(See Appendix, Table 8.)

Com silage 40 pounds

Clover hay 10 pounds

Com meal 3 pounds

Wheat bran 3 pounds

Oil meal (old process) . 1 pound

COLLATERAL READING 299

How many pounds of dry matter would it contain ? How many pounds
of digestible material? Would it be a good ration? Will it satisfy
the conditions given in paragraph 276?

4. A man has com stalks, clover hay and com. He can buy wheat
bran at $22 per ton, gluten meal at $20. and oil meal at $30. AVhich
ones shall he buy in order to make a balanced ration for cows? What
will the nutritive ratio of the feed be? Will this ration satisfy the
conditions in paragraph 276?

5. Prepare a ration for fattening steers that weigh 1,200 pounds
each, using alfalfa and com.

6. Prepare a ration for a farm horse at moderate work, using
timothy hay, com and oats.

7. Prepare a similar ration for a farm horse while at rest.

8. How much of each feed will it take for a year for a team of
horses each weighing 1,500 pounds, supposing that the team works
half of the time?

9. What are the common feeds of your region? For what purpose
are the animals fed? Prepare rations for them.

10. Find out exactly what some persons are feeding. Find the
nutritive ratio, total dry matter and digestible matter in the ration,
and see whether it agrees with the standards. If not, how may it be
improved?

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

22. The Feeding of Farm Animals.
170. Principles of Horse-Feeding.
186. Rations for Laying Hens, pp. 23-27.
202. Home-Grown Protein for Dairy Cows, pp. 22-24.
222. Weight Per Quart of Feeds, pp. 17, 18.

Grain Rations, pp. 18, 19.

Horse Feeding, pp. 17-24.

Silage for Cows, pp. 31, 32.
225. Mineral Matter for Chickens, pp. 26, 27.
233. Condimental Fee<is, pp. 21, 22.

Methods of Feeding Skimmed Milk to ("alves, pp. 22-25.

Animal Food for Ducklings, pp. 25, 26.
251. Cheap Dairy Rations, pp. 26-30.

Cottonseed Meal for Hogs, pp. 30-32.

300 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

262. Beet Molasses and Pulp, pp. 19-23.

Feed Lots, pp. 23-25.
276. Tankage and Bone Meal for Hogs, pp. 21-24.

Grinding Com for Hogs, p. 25.
305. Laxative Properties of Wheat Bran, pj). IG, 17.

Emmer as Feed, pp. 17-19.

Roots and Cabbages for Stock Food, j)p. 19-24.
316. Horse-?'eeding Tests, pp. 22-30.

Supplements to ('om for Hogs — Tankage for Hogs, pp.
25-30.
320. Protein Content for Forage Crops, pp. 13-17.
329. Importance of Mineral Matter in Feeds, pp. 22-26.
346. The Computations of Rations for Farm Animals by the
Use of Energy Values

Human Foods.

74. Milk as Food.

85. Fish as Food.

93. Sugar as Food.
121. Legumes as Food.
128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food.

142. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.
182. Poultry as Food.
249. Cereal Breakfast Foods.
298. The Food Value of Com and Com Products.
281. Com as Food for Man, pp. 18-22.

Feeds and Feeding, by W. A. Henry.

The Feeding of Animals, by W H Jordan.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 56-119.

CHAPTER XI
THE HORSE

281. Substitution of Horse Power for Man Power. In

1830, it required an average of three hours of time for
each bushel of wheat grown; in 1896 it required ten min-
utes. In 1850 it took four and one-half hours to grow,
harvest and shell a bushel of corn; in 1899, it required
forty-one minutes.^ This saving of time has been due to
the substitution of machinery drawn by horses for human
labor. According to the last census (1900), we had twenty-
one million horses in the United States, or one horse
to each four persons. In Great Britain there is one
horse to twenty-six persons; in France, one to ten; in
Germany, one to thirteen.

In America, we have gone farthest in the substitution
of brute force for human energy. Human labor is the
most expensive of all labor, even if the person be a slave.
One horse, properly directed can do the work of ten men,
while his "board and room" on the farm cost about half
as much as that of one man. The farm boy who drives
a good four-horse team to a gang-plow is doing as much
work as if the horses were replaced by forty men. In the
West, the farmer is no longer content to use a single
team in his farm operations when it is possible to use
larger numbers. The four-horse gang-plow and four-
horse harrow have rapidly replaced the two-horse machines.

'Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture, 1897, page 600

(301)

302 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

There are many parts of the country in which similar
methods can be used. In this way one man can do the
work that would require many men under European
conditions. Because we make our labor count for so much,
we are able to make farming an attractive business, rather
than a peasant's drudgery.

We have wasted our lumber, our coal, our soil fer-
tility; but, we have used human energy more economi-
cally than it has ever been used before. The older nations
are saving of everything but human time. As a nation,
we are extremely saving of time, but wasteful of every-
thing else. Perhaps each hemisphere should learn econ-
omy from the other.

The extensive use of horses has had a great influence
on our national character and history. The boy who trains
a colt gets a lot of training himself. It makes a man expand
as he learns to manage a spirited horse. The less intelli-
gent races cannot manage horses well. They prefer the
thick-skinned, stubborn ass.

282. Types of Horses. There are five chief purposes
for which horses are raised: (1) For speed, as trotters
and runners; (2) for sport or for fashion; (3) for family
driving; (4) for farm purposes; (5) for draft purposes,
usually in cities.

The first three classes are usually of much the same
general type. They are smaller and more active than
draft horses. There are no breeds of horses that are especi-
ally adapted for farm use. The best draft horses for city
use are usually too heavy for general farm purposes.
The horses of the other classes are usually too light.

Too little attention has been given to farm horses.

HORSES

303

Very often the chief reason why a horse is a farm horse
is because he is not one that would bring a good price in
the city. As labor becomes more expensive, we can afford
to give more attention to the character of the farm horses.
283. Draft Horses and Horses for Speed. There are
many contrasts between draft horses and those that are
kept for speed. Many of these characters are contra-
dictory, so that we can never hope to have horses that
are best for both speed and draft purposes. The following
table shows some of the contrasts:

Trotter or roadster
General appearance t high, lithe,

active.
Head and neck long, graceful, thin,

light, little crest.
Large nostrils.
Eyes full, bright, intelligent.
Long sloping shoulders.
Front feet near together.
Body deep up and down.
Flank high.

Legs rather long.

Hoofs smooth, polished, no creases;

not too flat.
Fetlock joint not too short nor too

erect.

Draft Horse
Low, massive, plump.

Short, thick, broad neck, with a

crest.
Same.
Same.

More upright.
Far apart.

Round, with well-arched ribs.
Not so high; should not be

"wasp-waisted."
Not so long ; not over half height.
Same, except flatter and larger.

May be shorter and more erect.

The hind legs of a greyhound and jack-rabbit have
powerful muscles. The front legs are relatively weak.
This is the case in all quadrupeds that are noted for speed.
It has been said that the chief use of the trotter's front
feet is to get out of the way of the hind ones. About all
that they have to do is to support the front part of the
body. An animal that is desired for speed needs good

304

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

lungs, good digestive organs and organs of circulation,
with powerful hind legs and other parts developed as they
are necessary to support these needs. The trotter does
not want to be loaded with extra head and neck, nor
size of front quarters. He needs large nostrils, because

Fig. 146. The speed type. Dan Patch, 1:55J

they must allow the passage of abundant air. His shoul-
ders need to be sloping, flank high, legs rather long, all
for the same reason — to give freedom for long steps.
The front feet need to be near together to correspond
with the body and to be out of the way of the hind feet.
The body should be deep up and down to make room
for the powerful lungs. If the fetlock joint is too short
and erect, the jar when the foot strikes the ground is too

HORSES 305

great; the longer, less erect one gives chance for more
spring.

The whole conformation of the typical draft horse is
heavier. The greyhound build gives way to the round

Fia. 147. The draft type. Baron'a Pride, a noted Clydesdale

body, shorter legs with powerful but slower-moving
muscles. He does not need a body adapted to the long
steps of the trotter. While his hind legs are the stronger,
yet he uses his front legs very much in pulling, therefore
the entire front quarters have a good development. The
broad breast puts the front feet far apart.

Horses weighing 1,500 to 1,600 pounds are classed
as light draft horses. Those weighing 1,G00 to 1,700 are

306 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

medium weight. Those weighing over 1,700 pounds are
heavy draft horses. The heavier horses bring the higher
prices.

When a team cannot pull a load, it is the feet that
give way. They slip because there is not friction enough
to hold them. This explains why a horse can pull more
when a man is on his back. It gives him more weight
so that he can stick to the ground. On dirt roads, horses
"dig their toes in," so as to help in getting a foothold.
On pavements they cannot do this, but the sharp shoes
help. This is one reason why such heavy draft horses
are desired in cities. One way to make a horse heavier
is to have the whiffletree low down, so that the tugs pull
down on the horse's back and hold him to the ground.
If the doubletree is put under the wagon tongue, the
team can pull a heavier load. In his book on "The Horse,"
Professor Roberts tells of an experiment with a 1,500-
pound horse hitched to a post and pulling on a dynamom-
eter (a large spring balance). When the whiffletree
was fastened six inches from the ground, the horse pulled
2,310 pounds; when two feet from the ground, 1,980
pounds; when three feet, 1,732 pounds. This is one reason
why horses draw a walking plow easier when the tugs
are rather short, but here there is another reason in that
the short tugs lessen the friction on the bottom of the
furrow.

With a driving horse, the load is light, so the whiffle-
tree should be high. Then, in driving, we do not want
any additional weight on the horse's feet, because rapid
driving is very hard on the feet and legs. Perhaps some
of you have seen hansom cabs in cities. These are two-

HORSES 307

wheeled and the driver sits at the back, so that the thills
pull up on the horse and support part of his weight. They
are awkward-looking vehicles, but they save the horse's
feet very much when driving on hard pavements.

Appearance is the chief point in coach horses, and
such horses are larger and plumper than roadsters. Coach
horses have high knee action and travel up and down
rather than reaching out, as do trotters.

284. Breeds of Horses. The leading breeds of horses
in America are as follows:

Draft Breeds — Carriage and Coach Horses —
Percherons, from France. Hackneys, from England.

Clydesdales, from Scotland French coach

Belgian, from Belgium. German coach.

English Shire, from England
Suffolk Punch from England.

Roadster Breeds —

American trotter, developed in America.

American saddle horse, developed in America, — mostly

in Kentucky and Virginia.
English Thoroughbred, developed in England.

Something of the relative popularity of the different
breeds is indicated by the number of stallions in Wis-
consin in 1908. There were 207 either pure blood or
grade Percherons; 43 Clydesdales; 28 Belgians; 26 Shire;
115 Trotters; 73 of all other known breeds.'

The Percheron is seen to be the favorite draft breed.
This breed is considered to be superior to other draft
breeds in l)one and feet, and in style and finish. They
are said to be more active and more intelligent than the

A Wisconsin Bulletin .\o. 158

308 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

other draft breeds. Their color is quite variable. Black
and mottled gray seem to be the most popular.

The Clydesdales are said to lack in circumference of
body and in weight. They are also said to have poorer
constitutions. They have a heavy growth of hair on the
fetlocks. This distinguishes them from all other breeds
except the Shire. It is also one of the objections to the
breed. Drivers do not like this mass of hair, which gets
clogged with mud on our poor roads. The English Shires
are nearly like the Clydesdales. They might be called
English Clydesdales.

The Belgians and Clydesdales have not been so popular
in America as the Percherons. The chief reason is probably
that the latter breed is more active.

The Hackneys and coach horses are not much raised
in America, although they seem to be gaining ground.
Our coach horses are usually large grades that contain
considerable of the trotting blood.

The American trotter and American saddler are the
distinctly American productions. They are the best of
their kind in the world. From selected members of these
breeds, the Department of Agriculture is now trying to
develop a breed of American carriage horses. The Indian
pony and bronco are also distinctly American. They
have many valuable characteristics, but they seem destined
to extinction.

285. How to Tell the Age of a Horse. One of the first
questions that is always asked when one wishes to buy
a horse is the age. This is because the age is so important
in determining the value. Every farmer should be able
to estimate the age of a horse.

HORSES

309

The teeth usually furnish a fairly accurate indication
of the age until a horse is ten years old. Horses have two
sets of teeth, the first or temporary set and the second
or permanent set, similar to the two sets in human beings.
There are three pairs of nippers or front teeth on each
jaw. These are the ones that indicate the age. The new
teeth have deep cups or indentations in their centers.
As the teeth are used, they wear down and the cups disap-
pear. It takes about three years for a cup to disappear
from the nippers of the permanent set of teeth on the
lower jaw, and about twice as long on the upper jaw.

Colt. — A colt gets its center nippers at about one week
of age. By the time it is a month old, it
has all three pairs. The cups in these
teeth gradually disappear and are usu-
ally gone at about two years. (Fig.
148.) At about two years and nine
months, the center pair of permanent

teeth appear. Up to

this time, the general

appearance of the colt is usually as

accurate an indication of its age as

are the teeth.

Three Years. — At three years, the

permanent pair of

center nippers will be
up and ready for use. They will have
deep cups, and are much larger than the
temporary teeth. If the colt is a male,
two small tusks will appear at about this Fio. i50.

-, , , , _. The lower nippers at

time. Mares do not have tusks (Fig. 149). four yea™ of age

Fio. 148.

The lower nippers of a

colt two years old

Fio. 149.

The lower nippers at

three years of age

310

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

/

Fio. 151.

Side view at four

years of age

Fio. 152.

Lower nipp>ers at five

years

Four Years. — At four years, the second
pair of permanent nippers are just ready
for use, and the cups in the center pair
are about one-third gone. (Fig. 150.)

Five Years. — At five years, the third
pair of nippers are present and just meet.
The cups of the center
pair are about two-thirds gone. (Fig.
152.)

Six Years. — The cups in the center
pair have disappeared, or nearly so.
Those in the second pair are about two-
thirds gone. The third pair are up and
in full use.

Seven Years. — At seven years, the
cups are gone from the second pair of
nippers. There is then a notch in the
upper tooth where it overlaps the lower
one. (Fig. 156.)

Eight Years. — At eight years, the
cups are gone from all the nippers of
the lower jaw. We then look at the
nippers of the upper jaw. The cups will
then be present in the center pair, but
will not be deep. (Fig. 157.)

Nine Years. — The cups in the cen-
ter pair of nippers of the upper jaw
have disappeared, but they are still
present in the second pair, and fairly
deep in the third pair.
Side view at six years Ten Years. — The cups are gone from

Fig. 153.
Side view at five years

Fig. 154.

Lower nippers at si.x

years

-vs-

HORSES

311

the second pair on the upper jaw, but are still present in
the third pair.

Old Horses. — The cups in the teeth usually all disap-
pear at about eleven years. After this,
the shape and direction of the teeth g;ive
some indication of age. Notice the angles
at which the teeth meet in Figs. 151,
153, 156 and 159. The shapes of the end
of the teeth also change. Compare Figs.
148, 154, 157, and 158. In very old
horses, white hairs usually appear around
the nose, eyes and elsewhere. The back-
bone is Ukely to be curved downward,
and the animal does
not stand squarely on
its legs. The age of a
horse that is over twelve is usually less
important than the condition. The
vigor and activity are then of more
importance than the years.

Irregularities in Teeth. — Some horses
do not wear their teeth as fast as others,
so that they may have an irregular
mouth. Horses that have dense, hard
bones and hoofs sometimes appear
younger than they are.
286. Care of Horses,
here to call attention
points that may be of use on the farm,
principle that is often forgotten when feeding horses is
that the horse's stomach is small, —unlike that of a

Fio. 157.

Lower nippers at

eight years

Fia. 158.

Lower nipf>ers of an

old horse

Fio. 159.

Side view of nippeni of

an old horse

There is space
to only a few
A fundamental

312 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

COW or sheep. The horse cannot use as much bulky
food as a cow. Farm horses are quite commonly fed too
much hay, particularly if they are used on the road. The
driving horse should not have so much hay as is fed to
the farm team. When teams are regularly working, it is
best to feed them only about one-fourth of the day's
ration in the morning and one-fourth at noon, and feed
half the ration at night, when they have time to eat and
digest it. If a horse is not warm, it is better to water
before feeding. The water then passes on to the intestines
and makes room for the feed in the stomach. If a horse
is very warm, it should not be watered or fed until it cools
off.

Dusty Hay is one of the worst things for horses. It
is the chief cause of heaves. Clover is much worse than
timothy in this respect. Timothy is always to be preferred
for horses, while clover is better for cows or sheep. If dusty
hay must be fed, it should be sprinkled before feeding.
Usually, it will pay to buy good hay for the horses and
make some other use of that which is dusty.

Care of the Legs. — When a team comes in with muddy
legs, they should be rubbed down or washed, particularly
in cold weather. Horses, as well as men, can get rheu-
matism. In general, it is well to devote more time to the
legs, even if the back is neglected.

Bits. — When the bits are colder than freezing, they
should be warmed by putting them in water, even freez-
ing water, or by taking them into a warm room. It is
not the direct effect of cold that hurts, but the frosty
bit freezes to the tongue and mouth and may tear the skin.
If one doubts this, he should touch the tip of his tongue

HORSES 313

to -a piece of iron that is colder than freezing. He will
probably never forget the experience.

Sore Shoulders. — Many farm horses suffer with sore
shoulders. This can nearly always be prevented. The
collar should fit. It should be kept clean. The shoulders
should be washed in salt water at noon and evening if
there is danger of sore shoulders. Sometimes a collar
that fitted early in the season ceases to fit when the horse
gets thinner.

There are a few points that are often discussed under
the head of cruelty to animals, and that are not always
understood.

Clipping. — Driving horses sometimes have their hair
clipped in the winter. Clipping of horses can do no harm;
in fact, it is a positive comfort, provided the horses are
well blanketed. I notice the athletes who run in the
winter wear only the thinnest clothing, and run with bare
legs when the thermometer stands below zero. They are
warm enough while running, and the moment they stop
they are covered with overcoats and blankets. So with a
clipped horse; he is more comfortable while going. The
only danger is that he will not be well blanketed when he
stops. A livery horse should not be clipped, because
some of the promiscuous drivers will let him suffer; but
a nice carriage horse that is always well cared for is not
harmed.

Blinders that come close to the head are very objec-
tionable, but those that stand out from the head do no
harm. It is frequently desirable to have some shield that
will keep the horse from watching every move of the driver.

Over-check. — The purpose of the "over-check" is to raise

314 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

the nose of a trotter, so that in a race the air will have a
straighter course from the nostrils to his lungs. When
fractions of a second decide the race, this is important.
We have copied this kind of check-rein from the race-
track. It is not at all suited to ordinary driving, but if
not too tight it is not so .serious.

Docked Tails. — Many city persons desire that their
driving horses have docked tails. This practice is probably
no more painful to the horse than is dehorning to a cow,
but the latter practice is humane when we consider how
much hooking it eliminates. The usefulness of the prac-
tice justifies it. Once in a long time, a horse is docked
because it uses its tail to hold the lines while it runs away,
but this is not common. Perhaps the greatest harm to a
docked horse comes when it is no longer a "high stepper,"
and takes its place on some peddler's wagon, where it
becomes a feeding-place for flies.

The important point is not this particular example,
but the point of view that is back of it all. The primitive
idea of beauty seems to be a distorted body. The savage
paints his body, wears rings in his ears and nose, and
carves out various other improvements. There was a
time when men spent much time in training trees into
odd shapes, or trimmed them into grotesque forms. A
remnant of the same idea of beauty leads men to trim
dogs' ears to the desired shape, and to the docking of
horses' tails. Some day we will come to appreciate the
beauty of a tree that grows in its natural shape, the beauty
and symmetry of a whole horse, with its full, flowing
mane and tail. It is a hopeful sign that few men who
drive their own horses think the bobtail is beautiful.

HORSES 315

It is admired mostly by those who deal with horses second-
hand.

287. Training Horses. Because of the high esteem
in which the horse is held, we are likely to over-estimate
his intelligence. When we consider the matter without
sentiment, we must admit that the horse is a rather stupid
animal. The horse appears to have little affection for men
or other animals, and cares little for our admiration.
The dog will do almost anything to please his master,
and is alwaj's keenly appreciative of a word of commen-
dation. These emotions are of the greatest importance
in training dogs, but we must not expect them to have
much value in training horses.

The horse seems to have very limited reason, — much
more limited than that of a dog. On the other hand,
the horse has a remarkable memory. If a horse is con-
quered by ropes or straps, he does not seem to understand
that he could run away when these are removed. If he
is tripped with a rope at the same time that he feels the
pull on the bit, he seems to rememl^er the fall ever after
and to associate it with a pull on the bit.

Since a horse has such a good memory and so little
reason, we should use extreme care in training him so
that each step will go all right. A single runaway may be
remembered forever, and spoil the horse. We should,
therefore, take no chances, and should trust the horse
as little as possible.

A horse should be trained to stand still while being
harnessed and hitched up, and until the word to start is
given. If this training is not given when the colt is first
used, it will be very hard to acquire later.

316 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Very few words or signals should be used, and these
should always be used to mean exactly the same thing,
and the command should be carried out. Whoa should
always mean to stop; it should not mean to go slowly
or to get ready to stop. Steadi/ is the word to use if we
wish to go more slowly. Back should always mean to
move backwards. Many drivers use it to mean to stop.
A horse should never be allowed to start without the
spoken word. If getting into the wagon is the signal
for starting, we should not blame the horse if he starts
before we are all ready. He is obeying our command
if he starts as soon as he hears the step on the wagon.
If we wiggle the lines to make him start, we must not
blame him for starting when we pick up the lines. Such
words as whoa-back are impossible commands. While
I was writing one of these chapters, a man who was cul-
tivating in the garden under my window, gave the fol-
lowing command: Come here! Where are you going!
Whoa-back! Get up there! Whoa! Whoa! The horse
merely stepped around on a few more vegetables.

The word should precede any severe pull on the hues,
as the command should precede the punishment for diso-
bedience. Some persons pull on the lines when they want
a horse to go faster. The team that ran away and ran
harder the more it was held in, but that stopped when
the pulling ceased, was trained in this manner.

288. Rules of the Road. When two vehicles meet,
each one should turn to the right, and give more than half
of the road. If one of the vehicles has a heavy load and
cannot readily turn out, the lighter one should go around.
The heavy load should stop if the passing is difl&cult.

QUESTIONS 317

If one desires to pass a vehicle going in the same direc-
tion, he should turn to the left. Courtesy demands that
the slower-moving vehicle turn to the right to aid in pass-
ing; however, the law does not require
this in most states.

When crossing streets in cities, one

should turn corners as indicated in Fig. ^^

160. That is, one remains close to the

curb if this keeps him on the right side of

the street (6). But, when making a turn Fig. leo.

as in a, the street is crossed before the tuminrstree^co^m-

turn is made. This avoids collisions. a'eity.^'' "^"** *°

QUESTIONS

1. How long since horse- power began to be used generally in seed-
ing grain? In corn-planting? In harvesting and mowing? In bind-
ing grain? In carrying bundles? In raking? In cutting com? In
lifting hay from wagons to stacks? (Ask some of the older farmers.)

2. Are there any farm operations in your county in which more
horses per man are now used than were formerly used? In what other
operations can the number of horses per man be profitably increased?

3. How has the number of horses per man changed during the
past thirty years ? (See Appendix, Table 16.)

4. What breeds of horses are kept in your county? Which breeds
are most numerous?

5. How many commands or other words does a well-trained dog
understand ? How many does a cat understand ? A horse ?

6. Wliich will a horse obey more quickly, a word or a touch?
Will he move quicker if told to "get over," or if slapped?

7. Where is a horse's knee joint? WTiich way does it bend? Where
is the hock joint? Which way does it bend?

8. Can a horse sleep when standing?

9. What does it indicate if a horse rests one of his front feet?
One of his hind feet?

10. How are the legs placed when a horse lies down? How does a
horse get up? How does a cow get up?

318

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

11. When a horse starts after standing, what foot does he put
forward first? What foot moves next? When he trots, do the feet
on the same side move together, or do lefts and rights go together?
What is the order in pacing?

12. What is meant by "forging" or "over-reaching"?

13. What does it mean to say that a horse is 16 hands?

14. Why do low-wheeled wagons pull harder than high-wheeled
ones ? Under what conditions are low wheels desirable ? When arft
high wheels preferable?

15. Why does a plow draw easier when the tugs are short?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

69. Age of Horses.

Practice telling the age of horses by their teeth, page 308.

70. Proportions of the Horse.

Materials. — Two or more horses. Measure, prepared as follows:
A piece of board 18 inches long and two inches wide is nailed
at right angles to a similar piece four feet long. Mark off the long
piece in one-inch lengths, beginning at the inside. Strap an ordinary
carpenter's square so that it moves freely on the stick. (Fig. 161.)

Take the following measurements of two or more horses (see Fig.
162 for method of measuring) :

1. Length of head, from tip of lips to top of

poll (a-b)

2. Length of the neck, from top of withers to

poll (a-c)

3. Height of the shoulder, from the top of the

withers to the point of the elbow (c-rf) ....

4. Depth of the body, from the middle of the

abdomen to tlie middle of the back (f-g). .

5. Width of the body, from one side to the other. .

6. Length of the body, from point of elbow to

buttock (d-k)

•7. Height at withers (c to ground)

8. Height at rump {h to ground)

9, "Daylight" under body (m to ground)

Names of Horses

LABORATORY EXERCISES

319

If the horse has good proportions, measurements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
will be nearly the same. Measurements 6, 7, and 8 will be nearly equal,
and will each be two and one-half times the length of the head. If

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

— >

[E3

y

Fig. 161. Instrument for measuring horses. Four feet long and eighteen inches
wide. (M. W. Harper.)

the horse is a draft horse, the "daylight" under the body (measure-
ment 9) should not be over half the height. If a roadster, it should
be over half the height.

71. Score Card for Horses. (Adapted from M. W. Harper.)

Materials. — One or more horses. Each student to fill out the score

card for one or more horses.

The object of a score card is to aid one in making a systematic ex-

Fifi. 162 A well-proportioned liorse: a, poll; 6, lips; c, withers or shoulder
tops; (i, point of elbow; e, chest; f, back; 0, abdomen; A, hipts; ;', rump,' Jfc, buttock;
/, knee; n, fetlock joint.

amination. There are so many points to be considered in judging any
animal that one who has not had many years of e.\perience will omit
some if he does not have a list of them.

320

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Score Card for Horses

For draft

For d riving

Scale of points

Perfect
score

u

e

a, a

04

5

General Appearance: Draft 45; Driving 47.

16

9

8
1

4
5
3

1

1
1

1
1

3
3

2
1

2

8

8

6

10

3

10
5
6

2

1
1

1
1

3
3

2
1

2

8

Height. — Estimated hands

Actual hands

Weight. — Estimated . .■ pounds. . . .

Actual pounds ....

Form. — For draft, low, massive, symmetri-
cal; for driving, high, lithe, indicative of

Action. — Step, smooth, quick, long; trot.

Temperament. — Lively, pleasant

Head and Neck: Draft 5, Driving 6

Head. — Lean; length, two-fifths height of
withers; width of forehead, more than
one-third length of head. For driving,
smaller, carried higher and more hon-

Muzzle. — Fine; nostrils large; Hps thin;

Eyes. — Full, bright and intelligent

Ears. — Short, clean, fine, directed forward;

..

Neck. — Pyramidal, muscled; throat clean,
fine; windpipe large. For draft, neck
shorter, thicker, more horizontal

FoREQUARTERs: Draft, 19; driving, 19.

Shoulders. — Long; point of shoulder to

point of withers equals length of head.

For draft, shorter and more upright. . .
Knees. — Clean cut, wide, deep, strongly

Canons. — Vertical, 9 to 10 inches long,
lean, wide; tendons well attached. For

Fetlocks.— Wide, thick, clean, free from

Pasterns. — .\ngle 45°, fetlock to ground,
7 to 8 inches. For driving, long, sloping.
For draft, short, more upright

Feet. — Round, even size, horn dark-colored,
dense; sole concave; bars strong; frog
large, elastic; heel vertical, one -half

COLLATERAL READING

321

Score Card for Horses, continued

Scale of points

Body: Draft, 10; driving 9.

Chest in general. — High, long. For draft,

wide, half height of horse. For driving,

higher

Withers. — Clearly defined for driving . .
Breast. — For driving, high, projecting. For

draft, broad and muscular

Kibs. — Long, round curvature,

Back. — Straight, short, muscular; shoulders

to haunch equals length of head. For

driving, longer

Loin. — Wide, short, thick, strongly joined

to hips

Underline.— Long; for draft, flank low, .
Hi.NUQUARTERs: Draft, 21; driving, 19.
Hips. — Level, wide in proportion to other

parts; for draft, smooth; for driving, more

prominent

Tail. — Set and carried high; long, full, fine
Thighs. — For driving, long. For draft,!

shorter, more horizontal, muscular. . . .
Hocks. — Clean cut, large, straight, deep.

For draft wider,

Canons. — 1 1 to 12 inches long, otherwise as

for front legs

Fetlocks. — As above

Pa.stems. — .\s above; angle, 60°

Feet. — Compared with above, more oval,
more concave; heels higher, more sep-
arated; walls more vertical

Total 1 100

For driving

Si

100

gs

COLLATERAL READING

Market Classes of Horse-s, Bureau of Atiiinal Industry, Bulletin No 37.
The Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses, Bureau of Animal
Industry, Circular No. 137.

The Horse, by I. P. Roberts.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. iS. Plumb, pp. 1-166.
(Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 415-510.
For references on feeding, see page 299.

%.^yLk

FiQ. 163. The dairy type. A Holstein cow

Fig. 164. The beef type. A Hereford cow

(322)

CHAPTER XII
CATTLE

289. Forms of Beef and Dairy Cattle. Just as there
are two distinct types of horses, the roadster and the
draft horse, so there are two distinct types of cattle, —
the dairy and the beef breeds. In both cases, there are
many common animals that do not belong to either class.
As a horse cannot be best for both speed and draft pur-
poses, so a cow cannot excel for both meat and milk. A
few cattle are bred for both purposes. These are called
dual-purpose breeds, but none of these breeds is exten-
sively raised, as they cannot compete with either the
dairy or the beef breeds. The effort to develop a great
dual-purpose breed must always fail. The following table
gives some of the contrasts between the beef and the dairy

form:

Dairy Beef

Form Wedge-shaped. ' Rectangular.

Head Small, long, narrow. Small, but thicker.

Eyes Bright, prominent. Same.

Muzzle Mouth and nostrils Same.

large.

Neck Fine, medium Short, thick.

length, thin.

Shoulders Thin, lean; bony. Heavy, well-fleshed, wide

between front legs, wide
on top just behind
shoulders.

Back Crooked. Straight

Ix)in (back) Not fleshy. Broad, thick, fleshy.

Flank Hi^h. Low.

Thighs Thm. Full, heavy.

Udder and milk veins. Large, prominent. Not prominent.

Skin and hair Soft, pliable. Same.

(323)

324 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Both types of animals need good digestion, good lungs
and good circulation. These are indicated by large abdo-
men, well-developed chest, soft, pliable skin, and general
vigorous appearance.

The dairy animal is wedge-shaped. In Fig. 103 the top
and bottom lines approach each other in the forepart of the
body. If viewed from above, the side lines also approach.
The beef animal has a much better development of the
fore-quarters. The top and bottom lines are parallel.
The animal is shaped like a brick set on edge. The neck,
shoulders and thighs of a dairy cow are thin and lean.
Her loin is also lean. Her hip and tail bones are promi-
nent. If she used her food in developing these parts, it
would be at the expense of milk-production. But all these
parts need to be well developed in a beef animal. The
highest - priced cuts of meat come from the loin. The
back should, therefore, be broad and full. The thighs and
shoulders should be full and heavy. The dairy animal
needs a large udder and large milk -veins that extend
from the udder about half way along the abdomen and
there enter it. If these veins are large, they indicate a
large flow of blood from the udder. This is necessary
if much milk is to be produced.

290. Care of Beef and Dairy Cattle. Beef and dairy
cattle require very different care, so much so that men
in dairy regions rarely know how to handle beef cattle,
and the few dairymen in beef-producing regions usually
do not know how to care for dairy animals. Dairy ani-
mals need to be warmly housed in well-ventilated barns,
and need much attention. Beef animals require much
less attention. Careful experiments by Armsby and the

CATTLE 325

experience of feeders indicate that fattening steers do better
in dry, open sheds, that are well bedded, than in warm
barns. In general, fat animals do not need so warm quar-
ters as do lean ones. The feed requirements are also quite
different. (See Appendix, Table 7.)

291. Breeds of Cattle. The leading breeds of cattle
in America are:

Beef Breeds —

Shorthorn, or Durham, from England.

Hereford, from England.

Polled Hereford, developed in the United States.

Aberdeen-Angus, from Scotland.

Galloways, from Scotland.

Polled Durham, developed in the United States.

Dual-purpose Breeds —

Shorthorns (milking strains).
Devon, from England.
Red Polled, from England.

Dairy Breeds —

Holstein-Friesian, from Holland.
Jersey, from the Island of Jersey.
Guernsey, from the Island of Guernsey.
Ayrshire, from Scotland.
Dutch Belted, from Holland.
Brown Swiss, from Switzerland.

Shorthorns were one of the first breeds to be widely
introduced into the United States. They are more widely
distributed than any other breed of cattle. The early
introductions were mostly of a dual-purpose type, but
there has been a constant development toward better
beef qualities and a loss of milking qualities. At the present
time there are relatively few dual-purpose Shorthorns.

326

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Still, the breed ranks above the other beef breeds in
milk-production. The desirability of having hornless
cattle led to the development of the Polled Durham
breed in the United States. Some of these were secured
by collecting and breeding hornless Shorthorns that

Fio. 165 The beef typw. A famous Shorthorn bull

appeared from time to time as sports. Those that were
developed in this way are called "double standard,'
because they are eligible to record in both the Shorthorn
and the Polled Durham herdbooks. Others were developed
by crossing Shorthorns with native polled cattle. These
are single standard, not being eligible to record in the Short-
horn herdbook. Shorthorn cattle are more variable in
color than any other breed. They may be pure red, pure
white, mixed red and white, or roan.

CATTLE 327

Herefords were not much known in the United States
until about 1880. They gained their first popularity on
the ranges, where they stood the hardship well, and proved
to be able to transmit their good qualities to half-breed
offspring. Later, they have gained favor because of their
early development. Mature animals weigh about the same
as Shorthorns, but the calves and yearlings are heavier

A typical dual-purpose Shorthorn cow

than Shorthorns. The Herefords are very uniform in color,
with white heads and red bodies with white markings.

Aberdeen-Angus cattle attracted little attention in
this country until about 1885. Since that time they have
come to be one of the important breeds. They are horn-
less, and about 95 per cent of the calves are hornless
when they are crossed with horned cattle. The breed is
black and has a smooth coat.

Galloways are another breed of black hornless cattle.
They can u.sually V)e told from the Angus by their longer
hair and coarser bones. During the winter, their long,
shaggy coats give a high value to the hides for robes.

328 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

They are good grazing, hardy cattle, a little slower to
mature than are the Angus.

There are a considerable number of Red-Polled cattle
in the United States, and some Devons and a few Brown
Swiss, but none of these breeds has gained the prominent
place that is occupied by the preceding ones. The Ameri-
can demand seems to be for either dairy or beef breeds,
and not for dual-purpose animals.

Holstein-Friesian cattle are spotted black and white
in color, which distinguishes them from most other breeds.
They are probably the most widely distributed dairy
breed, and are the leading dairy breed in northern Europe
and in America. They are larger than the other dairy
breeds, and can consume more rough feed. They are the
most popular breed for supplying milk for our large cities,
because they give more milk than any other breed of cattle.
The milk is light in color, and contains a lower percentage
of fat than that of some other breeds. But some individu-
als in the breed give rich milk. The milk is high in per
cent of solids not fat. The large size of the Holsteins
makes them of more value for beef than are the other
dairy breeds. They cannot compete with the regular beef
breeds, but their veal calves make a valuable by-product.

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station tested
the milk from a large number of animals with the follow-
ing result:

Per cent of fat

Holstein-Friesian 3.4

Ayrshire 3.6

Shorthorn 4.4

Devon 4.6

Guernsey 5.3

Jersey .,.,.,,,,... 5.6

CATTLE

329

Jersey cattle are usually gray or fawn-colored. They
can be distinguished from Guernseys by their black noses.
They developed in the little island of Jersey, that is only

Fig. 167. Jersey cow

eleven miles long and six wide. They are held in high
esteem for the richness of their milk. They do not stand
exposure and other adverse conditions quite so well as
do the Holsteins, and have not been able to compete

Fio. 168. A two-year-old Jersey bull

with this breed in milk-production. But they have l^een
able to hold their own where butter is made or where
cream is sold. It is the most popular dairy breed in America

330 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

except in the neighborhood of large cities, where the Hol-
steins outnumber the Jerseys.

Guernsey cattle are similar to the Jerseys in many
respects. Like the Jerseys, they have been handicapped
by the limited numbers in their original home, so that
importations could not be so rapid as has been desired.
They are usually yellow or orange in color, with white
spots. The nose is flesh-colored, which distinguishes
them from the Jerseys. They are slightly larger than the
Jerseys. Their friends claim that they give more milk.
They are gaining in popularity in America.

Ayrshires developed under more severe climatic con-
ditions, and are very active and hardy. They are not
well known in America outside of New York and New
England.

292. Pedigrees. The breeders of each breed of pure-
bred stock have organizations for keeping the records
of breeding of the individuals and for advertising purposes.
Each animal that is born is eligible to record in the herd-
book, provided both its parents are recorded, and unless
disqualified for some defect. A record of an individual,
showing the parents, grandparents, etc., a.s far back as
the record has been kept, is called a pedigree. Americans
have been foremost in keeping up these books, because
we attach so much importance to pedigrees. No herd-
books were kept in Holland until our desire for pedigrees
made them necessary. Both Jersey and Holstein herd-
books were first established in the United States.

We have always given more attention to pedigrees
than is given in Europe. In this country, no animal is
eligible to record unless both parents are recorded. In

CATTLE 331

England, an animal that is fifteen-sixteenths Shorthorn
is eligible to record. It is very doubtful whether any
harm comes of this practice; but it is rather absurd for
us to import such animals, when we refuse to record
our own high grades with an equal amount of Shorthorn
blood.

Any animal that is eligible to record in a herdbook
is called a pure-blood or thoroughbred. The latter word
used to be applied to a particular type of running horses,
but it is now commonly used to mean any pure-bred
animal. A cross between a pure-bred animal and com-
mon stock is called a grade. If an animal is three-quarters
or more of one breed, it is called a high-grade. An animal
that is a cross between two pure-bred animals of different
breeds is called a cross-bred animal.

293. Value of Pedigrees. Pure-bred animals are valu-
able, because when bred with common mixed stock they
are usually able to impress their characters on the off-
spring,— they are prepotent. They have been bred to a
single type so long that their characters are more firmly
fixed, and they are usually able to overcome the less
stable characters of common stock. Many grade animals
are as good as pure-bred ones except that they are not
so likely to transmit their good qualities. (See Mendel's
law, page 19.)

Not every animal with a pedigree is worth keeping.
The individual should be a good one and should have good
ancestors for two or three generations. Previous ances-
tors are of much less consequence. Too often we have
paid high prices for animals simply because they carried
a pedigree. A pedigree in itself is merely a record of

332 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

parentage. The mere fact that the record is written does
not prove that the individual is good.

294. Advanced Registry. One of the most hopeful
developments of the system of registry is the taking of
performance records. It is not the mere list of ancestors,
but their records and the record of the individual, that
are of most value. The Holstein-Friesian Association
has been most active in this work. Cows are milked for
a week or more under the supervision of an official repre-
sentative of an agricultural experiment station, and the
milk is tested for butter-fat. In order to be admitted to
advanced registry, a mature cow must give 12 pounds
of butter-fat — equivalent to 14 pounds of butter — per
week. A graduated scale is provided for young cows.
Provision is also made for yearly records. This system
has been of great service in improving and advertising
the l^eed. One can now look up the advanced registry
records of the parents and offspring of an animal. (See
Fig. 9.) The highest record thus far is 28 pounds 3
ounces of butter-fat, or nearly 33 pounds of butter,' in
one week, made by Colantha 4ths Johanna 1849. This
is the world's butter record at the present time.^ Another
Holstein cow produced over 15 tons of milk in a year.

The Jersey and Guernsey Associations also have sys-
tems of advanced registry.

The principle of performance records should be intro-
duced with other pure-bred stock as rapidly as possible.

^The Holstein-Friesian As-sociation calculates 0.8 of a pound of butter-
fat as equivalent to a pound of butter. Good butter will not carry 20 per
cent of water. The factor 0.857 pounds is nearer correct. That is, add one-
sixth to the butter-fat to get the butter that it will make. This is the
method used above.

^The Holstein-Friesian Yearbook, Vol. VIH, p. 320.

CATTLE PRODUCTS 333

296. Grading Up a Herd. When one begins raising
any kind of stock, he can soon develop a good herd from
common stock by using a good pure-bred sire of the
desired kind. One will soon have high grades that are
nearly as productive as pure-bred animals. The use of
pure-bred sires should be continued, in order to prevent
reversion.

If one has money enough, he may begin with pure-
bred animals. If he has not plenty of capital, it is wiser
to begin in the above manner, and then change to pure-
breds if desired.

CATTLE PRODUCTS

The most important cattle products are milk, meat,
and leather. The by-products are almost innumerable,
including fertilizers, combs, hair for plastering, brush
handles, buttons, glue, etc.

Chicago is now the greatest beef market in the world.
A large number of the beef cattle are raised on the ranges
and shipped to the corn- ^^"^9-1-.^^
belt to be fattened. But J •* NccAcHucKWtofS''^''«»W A**\\
an mcreasmg number are ^^ — Y5*\.t6ctAati4aj.F2o<:i*pW-^^-^|
being fattened on the y-^ — putT^^^ / "z^u-ll

ranges. The art of feeding \.Ji^'Br--^^^^^Ll:Mi^^^-\i--J{]

cattle so as to secure the |l»— ^ J'^)!

best me at- production, -^*^^B^P^^^sac«i

. , . Fig. 169. Comparative piices of the dif-

and, at the same time, ferent cuts of beef. Chicago retail dealer's
make a profit is a highlv method of cutting. (Fanners' Bulletin 71.)

developed business. The different cuts of beef and their
relative values are indicated in Fig. 169. From this we
can see the importance of the shape of the beef type.

334

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

The total value of milk and its products is even more
than the value of the beef produced in the United
States.

Milk

296. Composition of Milk. Milk contains much more
nutriment than is commonly supposed. A quart of milk
contains about the same amount of nutriment as three-
quarters of a pound of beef. A quart of skimmed milk
contains as much nutriment as two-fifths of a pound
of beef. Milk is not only a good food, but it is a cheap
food as compared with meat and eggs. One hundred
pounds of good milk contains about:

87 pounds of water.

4 pounds of fat.

5 pounds of milk sugar.

3.3 pounds of casein and albumen.
0.7 pounds of mineral matter.

297. Clean Milk. Milk is an excellent breeding place
for germs of all kinds. It also absorbs odors from the air.

These facts make it an

'!^*^^^-"^"- ^- '^i^'^-r^-^.^^^-^: extremely perishable

product. As the de-
mand for milk in-
creases, there is a con-
stantly increasing de-
mand that the milk
shall be clean. There
are a number of con-
ditions that are essen-

Fio. 170. A clean dairy bam. Note cement \\q\ jf milk is tO keep

floor, tight ceiling, deep gutter, and driveway
for hauling out manure. SWeet ancl Clean;

CATTLE PRODUCTS

335

Fio. 171.

Milk pails. Compare
the chances for dirt to
drop into the different pail.s.

Typhoid fever is

The cows must be healthy.

The feed must be good.

The barn must be clean and light, with plenty of win-
dows, smooth walls and ceilings.

The feeding must be done after milking, and opera-
tions that stir up dust
should not be performed
near milking time.

The cows must be
clean.

The milker must be a
healthy person.

The water-supply must be good,
often carried from infected wells.

The utensils must all be sterilized with scalding water.

A small-top, hooded milk pail should be used.

As soon as the milk is drawn, it should be cooled so
as to check the growth of the bacteria that make it sour.

The milk should be kept sealed and cool until it is
used. It may be spoiled after it reaches the consumer
just as easily as before. If exposed uncovered in cities,
it is more likely to take up disease germs than in the
country, because the city dust contains so many germs.

298. Commercial Forms of Milk. In order to kill a
large proportion of the bacteria in milk it is often pas-
teurized, or heated ten to thirty minutes at temperatures
of 180° to 150° Fahr.; and then quickly cooled. Such
milk will keep sweet longer than if not treated, and is
safer to drink. It is very much better to have the milk
so clean that it will keep until used and be safe without
being pasteurized.

330 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Certified Milk is produced to supply the demand
for the highest grade of clean, safe milk. It is produced
by special agreement under strict regulations prescribed
by milk commissioners. Veterinarians, bacteriologists,
and physicians are usually called upon for inspection
of the milk and its production and handling.

Standardized Milk is that which has been so mixed
as to give a required percentage of fat.

Condensed Milk is formed by evaporating a consider-
able part of the water. This may be sweetened with cane
sugar or be unsweetened; in either case, it is put up in
sealed cans, in which it will keep for years if properly
put up.

Milk Powder or Milk Flour. — There are several methods
of evaporating milk to a powder that is so dry that it will
keep; a part of the fat is removed before evaporation.
This powder can be shipped in flour barrels, or in other
convenient packages. There are now several firms pro-
ducing this powder. It may be dissolved in water to form
a fair quality of milk.

299. Babcock Milk Test. This is one of the best methods
of determining the amount of fat in milk.^ It is one of
the greatest aids to the development of dairying. It
enables the dairyman to determine which are his best
cows. It enables the creamery to pay its patrons justly.
It has greatly facilitated advanced registry systems.
The method of making the test is described in the labora-
tory exercises.

*The Babcock milk test was invented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. Dr. Babcock had it patented,
but, in order that it may be furnished at the least possible cost, he receives
no royalty from its manfacture.

DISEASES OF CATTLE

337

300. Dairy Records. Every dairyman should keep
records of milk-production of the different cows, in order
that he may know which ones pay. Many cows do not
pay their board. These are often obscured by the profits
that come from the good cows.
The opinion of the farmer as to
the relative merits of the cows
is usually not correct. A spring
balance, weighing pounds and
tenths of pounds, with a sheet
of paper beside it, will enable
one to weigh the milk quickly.
It may be weighed at every
milking, but, if this is too much
work, the following method will
give a fairly accurate compari-
son: Weigh the milk for three
days at the beginning of each
month. The sum of the weights,
multiplied by ten will give the
year's production. Take samples from each cow for the
Babcock test in the second, fourth and seventh months
after the cow freshened. Each time take samples for two
days. The average of the three tests will give the ap-
proximate per cent of fat.

Fio. 172. Weighing the milk to
find which cows pay

SOME DISEASES OF CATTLE

301. Tuberculosis is one of the most serious diseases
of cattle. It not only causes great loss in cattle, but is
even more serious with hogs that are fed on the milk

338 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

from tuberculous cows. Such milk is dangerous for human
food. It is believed that people, especially children,
are often infected in this way. Sixty-nine per cent of the
cattle that were condemned by government meat-inspec-
tors at slaughter-houses in the United States in 1907,
were condemned because of tuberculosis. Of the 105,879
hogs that were condemned, 65,G18 were for tuberculosis.
Of the 436,161 parts of hog carcasses that were con-
demned, 364,559 were for tuberculosis.^ All these losses
are borne by the farmer. The packers have to pay
enough less for the live animals, so as to make good the
loss of the condemned ones. A far greater loss is caused
by the low production and slow growth of disea.sed ani-
mals on the farm.

When tubercle bacteria live in different animals, they
become somewhat changed. The bovine and the human
forms of tubercle bacteria are slightly different, but they
are now believed to be the same species of organism.
Cattle inoculated with the human form have been given
tuberculosis. Apes, inoculated from cattle, contract
the disease as readily as when inoculated with germs
from men.^ The opinion now generally accepted is that
little of the pulmonary tuberculosis in man is due to infec-
tion from milk, but that about half of the glandular
cases are of the bovine type. By glandular cases is meant
the cases of tuberculosis of intestines, bones or other
organs, aside from lungs. It is evidently not safe to use
cows' milk that contains the germs. The danger is much
greater for children than for grown persons. Even though

^Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1907, p. 20
'Experiment Station Record, Vol. 18, p. 478

DISEASES OF CATTLE 339

the chances may be small, human life is too valuable
to be risked unnecessarily.

The old opinion was that tuberculosis in man or ani-
mals was inherited. We now know that it is an infectious
disease that is rarely inherited. It is also sometimes
attributed to dark, dirty stables, but these are not the
cause. A filthy stable can no more produce tuberculosis
if the germs are not present, than can a fertile field pro-
duce a corn crop if no corn is planted. The disease will
spread more rapidly in dark, unsanitary barns, just as
corn will yield more on good land. Ten per cent of the
cattle that come from the ranges of Nevada, and that
never were in barns, are tuberculous. We must distinguish
between the germ which is the cause, and the surround-
ings which favor its growth.

One of the chief sources of the spread of the disease
is the creamery. Milk from many herds, some of which
are diseased, is mixed at the creamery, and the skimmed
milk is returned to the farm for feeding calves or hogs.
And these animals are infected. To prevent this loss, the
milk must be pasteurized, as is now done in the cream-
eries of Denmark.

The other important source of infection is the purchase
of diseased animals. To guard against this, one who has
a sound herd should not add animals that are not tuber-
culin-tested. Even tested animals are not safe if they
come from badly diseased herds. One should always
buy from a sound herd.

Animals usually do not show signs of the disease until
they are in the last stages. Fortunately a method has
been found by means of which diseased animals may be

340 ELEMENTS* OF AGRICULTURE

discovered. This is by the tubercuUn test. The tempera-
ture of the animal is taken at intervals for a day. Tuber-
culin is then injected under the skin. If the animal
has tuberculosis, the temperature will rise a few degrees
during the following day. A number of cautions have to
be observed in making the test and interpreting results.
The work should be done by a good veterinarian, or by
an exceedingly careful and well-trained farmer.

Some persons have feared that tuberculin would pro-
duce the disease. It is prepared by allowing tubercle
bacteria to grow in a liquid usually containing beef extract.
Before it is used, it is twice heated and twice filtered,
any one of the four operations being sufficient to remove
or kill all germs. No injury comes from its intelligent use.

It is sometimes desirable to keep diseased animals for
breeding purposes. The calves are removed as soon as
born and all milk is pasteurized before being fed. In this
way a healthy herd has often been developed from a dis-
eased one. The two herds must be kept separate at all
times. If a large part of a herd is diseased, the animals
that do not react are not removed, as they are likely to
develop the disease later. This method of developing a
sound herd is named the Bang method, after its originator.

302. Milk Fever. One of the serious diseases of dairy
cows is milk fever. It attacks the best animals. Formerly,
it was the great obstacle in the way of developing superior
cows. It has been found that the disease can be easily
cured if air is pumped into the teats so as to distentl
the udder. After each quarter is filled, the teat is tied
so as to hold the air in it. The only danger is that bacteria
may be introduced into the udder. The apparatus must

DISEASES OF CATTLE 341

be carefully sterilized. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 206, gives
details of the method.

303. Black-Leg. This is a very serious infectious disease
caused by a certain bacillus. It is not transmitted by
direct contact, but comes from infected soil. Animals
that die from it should be burned. The losses from this
disease have been very serious and widespread. Vacci-
nation will prevent most of the loss. A vaccine for this
purpose is furnished by the United States Department
of Agriculture.

304. Texas Fever. One of the most serious obstacles
to the development of the live-stock industry in the South
is the Texas fever. The direct cause of the disease is a
microscopic animal parasite (protozoan) that Uves in
the blood. But it is not transmitted directly from one
animal to another. It lives a part of its life in the body of
the cattle tick. Cattle contract it from the ticks and in
no other way. The parasite passes a part of its life in the
cow and a part in the tick. This is similar to the method
in which malaria and yellow fever are transmitted to
people by means of mosquitos.

Cattle that are born in the South usually become
immune to the disea.se by infection when calves. When
northern cattle are taken South, they almo.st invariably
die with the disease. When southern cattle are driven
North, they mark their passage by killing the northern
animals with the disease. For many years the southern
states have been quarantined for this reason.

Northern cattle, taken South, are sometimes inoculated,
so as to produce mild cases and cause imnumity. Another
method that is now being tried is to eliminate the ticks.

342 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

These spend a part of their life on the ground. By rotating
pastures, they may be eliminated. To make this method
effective, it must be taken up by states or counties, and
these sections would have to establish a quarantine against
the surrounding infected area. Details of this subject
are given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 258.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the leading breeds of dairy cattle in your county?
What breeds are gaining in numbers? Why are they preferred?

2. What effect does better feed have on the per cent of fat in the
milk? Farmers' Bulletin No. 225, p. 18.

3. Do thunderstorms make milk sour? Why does milk sour?

4. If there are creameries or milk stations in the county, on what
basis do they pay their patrons ? What effect does this have on the
breed of cows kept and on the quality of the milk?

5. About how much is the average yield in pounds or quarts per
year of the cows of the region? (Obtain opinions of farmers.) How
much do some of the best cows produce? How much profit is there on
an average cow? On a poor cow? On a superior cow?

6. If beef cattle are raised, what are the leading breeds? Why are
they preferred?

7. Are the beef cattle of the section raised in the region or shipped
into it for fattening? "Why?

8. At what age are the beef cattle usually marketed? Are they
marketed at the same age as formerly? If not, why?

9. WTiat are the chief feeds of beef and dairy cattle of the
section?

10. Who in your county are raising pure-bred animals of any kind?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

72. Score Card for Dairy Cows.

Materials. — One or more cows. Each student to fill out the score
card. The form here given is a slight modification of that used at
Cornell University.

LABORATORY EXERCISES

343

Score Card for Dairy Cows

Scale of points

General Appearance:

Weight. — Estimated pounds; actual pounds

Form. — Wedge-shaped, as viewed from front, side and top. .J 5
Form. — Spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean bone

and lack of muscular development along ribs and loins .... 8
Quahty. — Hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, medium thickness

secretion yellow, abundant 8

Constitution. — Vigorous, as indicated by alert expression, evi-
dently active vital functions, and general healthy appearance 6

Head and Neck:

Muzzle. — Clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large

Eyes. — Large, bright

Face. — Lean, long; quiet expression

Forehead. — Broad, slightly diished

Ears. — Medium size; yellow inside, fine texture

Neck. — Fine, medium length; throat clean; light dewlap

Fore and Hindquarters:

Withers. — Lean, thin. Shoulders. — Angular, not fleshy.
Hips. — Far apart; not lower than spine. .

Rump. — Long, wide, level

ThurLs. — High, wide apart

Thighs.— Thm, long

Legs. — Straight, short; shank fine

;}

Body:

Chest. — Deep, low; with large girth and broad, well-sprung ribs
Abdomen. — Large, well supported, with moderately nigh flank
Back. — Lean, straight, chine open. Tail. — Long, slim, with fine

switch

Ivoin. — Broad, level

Milk-Secretino Organs:

Udder. — Large, long, attached high and full behind; extending

far in front and full; quarters even

Udder. — Capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin, covered

with short, fine hair

Teats. — Convenient size, evenly placed

Milk Veins. — I.Arge, tortuous, large milk wells

Total I 100

Points
deficient

73. Scoring Beef Cattle.

If beef cattle are very important in the neighborhood, use the
following score card in judging two or mor*> animals. Or a score card
may be obtained from the State College of Agriculture. The following
score card is used at the University of Illinois for judging beef cattle

344

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

that are kept for breeding purposes; a different card is used for fat
cattle.

Score Card for Beef Cattle

Standard of excellence

Per-

feet
I ocore

Student's
Bcore

Weight. — According to age j

Estimate pounds; actual pounds

Form. — Straight top and underline; deep, broad,
low set, compact, symmetrical

Quality. — Hair fine; bone fine but strong; skin plia-
ble; mellow, even covering of firm flesh, free from
rolls; features refined, but not delicate; stylish . .

Constitution. — Chest capacious; brisket well devel-
oped; flanks deep; bone strong

Condition. — Thrifty, well fleshed, but not exces-
sively fat; deep covering of firm flesh

Disposition. — Quiet, gentle

Color and markings. — According to breed

Muzzle. — Mouth and nostrils large; lips thin

Eyes. — Large, clear, placid

Face. — Short, quiet, e.xpressive

Forehead. — Broad, full

Ears. — Medium size, fine texture

Neck. — Thick, short; throat clean, according to
breed

Shoulder vein. — Full

Shoulder. — Covered with flesh; compact

Brisket. — Well developed; breast wide

Dewlap. — Skin not too loose and drooping

Legs. — Straight, short, set well apart; arm full;
bones smooth, strong, being neither too coarse nor
too fine

Ribs. — Long, arched, thickly fleshed

Back. — Broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed.

Loin. — Thick, broad

Flank. — Full, even with underline

Hips. — Smoothly covered; width in proptortion with

other parts

Rump. — Long, level, wide and even in width; tail

head smooth, not patchy

Pin bones. — Not prominent, width in proportion

with other parts

Thighs. — Full, fleshed well down to hock

Twist. — Deep, plump, indicating fleshiness

Legs. — Straight, short, set well apart; bones smooth,

being neither coarse nor too fine

Total 100

10

10

10

6
3
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
1
2
1
1

2
8
8
8
2

No. 1 No. 2

Oorreoted
score

No. 1 No. 2

Animal Date

Student

LABORATORY EXERCISES

345

74. The Babcock Test for Butter-Fat in Milk.^

By R. A. Pearson, formerly Professor of Dairy Industry, Cornell University
Materials. — A hand-power centrifugal tester, at least two milk
test-bottles (Fig. 173), one pipette to measure the milk (Fig. 174),
one acid measure (Fig. 175), about one pint of sulfuric
acid with specific gravity between 1.82 and 1.83, a few
ounces of milk, and some hot water. All the
necessary apparatus and acid can be purchased
for about $5 from any dairy supply company.
They can be ordered through a hardware dealer.
Sulfuric acid is sold also at drug stores.

Sampling the Milk. — The milk to be tested
should be thoroughly mixed just before the
sample is taken, to make sure that the fat or
cream is evenly distributed. This can be best
done by gently pouring back and forth between
two vessels several times. The milk should be
neither very cold nor hot.

Place the small end of the pipette at the
center of the milk and suck the milk up above
the 17.6 cc. mark. Quickly put the index finger over the
upper end of the pipette, and by releasing the pressure allow
the milk to run out until its upper surface is even with 17.6
cc. mark when the pipette is held straight up and down.

Place the point of the pipette a short distance into the
test-bottle neck, holding it against the glass, and with both
pipette and bottle at an angle (Fig. 176). Remove the finger
to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. Be sure to get
every drop of the milk, taking care to drain the
pipette and to blow the last drop into the bottle.
A little practice should make any one proficient

^with the pipette.
It is best always to make this test in duplicate;
hence, two bottles are needed for each lot of milk.
Using the Acid. — The acid is very strong and
must be handle<l with great care. If any gets on
mea^iure. ^^^ hands, face or clothing, it should be washed off
quickly, and water should always be ready for this purpose.
Do not leave the acid where young children can get it.
* Cornell Rural School Leaflet

Fio. 174.
Pipette
or milk

346

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fig. 176. Putting the milk
into the test bottle. The pi-
pette is held at an angle with
the test bottle and its {joint
against the inside of the neck.

After all the samples of milk to be tested have been, measured,
the acid should be added. Fill the acid measure to the 17.5 cc. mark
with acid that is neither very cold nor hot. Pour this into the bottle
with the milk, holding the bottle in a
slanting position. The acid will then carry-
down any milk left in the neck and follow
the glass surface to the bottom of the bot-
tle and form a layer under the milk.

Hold the bottle by the neck and give it
a circular motion for a few minutes, mix-
ing the milk and acid until no milk or
clear acid is visible (Fig. 177). By this
time, the contents will be dark-colored
and hot. This change is due to the acid
dissolving all
the solid constituents of the milk e.xcept
the fat, which it does not affect.

Whirling the Bottles. — The bottles are
whirled to separate the fat so that it can
be measured. They should be hot when
whirled. If necessary, they may be heated
by standing in hot water before being
put into the machine. A steam machine
is easily kept hot when in use. Other
kinds should have
boiling hot water placed in them.

Place the bottles in the machine so that each
one will have another directly opposite, to keep
the machine in balance. Whirl the bottles five
minutes at the prop>er speed for the machine in
use (Fig. 178). Then stop it, and, with the
pipette or other convenient means, add hot water
to each bottle until the contents come up to the
bottom of the neck. Whirl two mintues. Add
hot water enough to bring the top of the fat
nearly to the top of the graduations on the neck
of the bottles. Whirl one minute. The fat should
then form a clear column in the neck of the bottle.

Reading the Percentage. — Keep the fat warm so that it will be in a
fluid condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck, letting

Fig. 177. Mi.\iuK luilk ami
acid. A rotary motion with
the bottle not pointed toward
the face.

Whirling the samples

LABORATORY EXERCISES 347

it hang in a perpendicular position, on the level with the eye. Read
the mark or graduations at the extreme top and bottom of the fat
column. The difference between these is the percentage of fat in the
milk. Most test-bottles are made to read as high as 10 per cent. Each
percentage has its number marked on the glass and there are five
small spaces, each representing .2 per cent between these principal
marks. Thus, if the top of the fat column is even with the third short
mark above the 7 mark, the top reading would be 7.6; and if the bot-
tom is half way between the first and second short marks above the
3 mark, the bottom reading would be 3.3; the difference is 4.3, which
is the percentage of fat or number of pounds of fat in 100 pounds
of the milk tested.

Xotes. — One cc. means one cubic centimeter, or about twenty
drops.

If the fat column is clouded with white specks, probably the acid
was not strong enough, or not enough was used, or the heat was not
high enough.

If the fat column is clouded with dark specks, probably the acid
was too strong, or too much was used, or the heat was too great.

Always keep the acid bottle closed when not in use or the acid
will lose strength. Remember that it is a poison and corrosive.

Points to be Especially Noted in Making the Babcock Test} — (1) Be
sure to mix the sample of milk thoroughly before drawing it out with
the pipette.

(2) When measuring a sample of milk with the pipette, keep the
index finger dry.

(3) VVTien measuring a sample of milk, keep the mark on the pipette
on a level with the eye. The same precaution should be observed
when reading the per cent of fat after the test is completed.

(4) Do not try to measure a sample of milk by trying to draw the
milk just to the mark on the pipette. Draw the milk aboi^e the mark,
as directed.

(5) When adding milk or acid to the test-bottle, slant the bottle.
The liquid will then run down the lower inside of the neck of the bottle,
and will not be forced out by outcoming air.

(6) Do not hold the bottle so that its mouth points toward your-
self or any one else. The action of the acid upon the milk produces
great heat. This heat often causes the contents of the bottle to spurt
out violently.

^H. E. Ross in Cornell Rural School Leaflet

348 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

(7) After adding tlje acid to the milk, shake the bottle thoroughly
until the contents l)ecome quite dark in color.

(S) After using the pipette, wash it thoroughly, preferably in
hot water. This will tenil to prevent the transmission of tlisease germs
from the mouth of one {person to another, should any such germs
be present.

(9) The tester should be firmly fastened to a solid bench or table.

(10) The person operating the machine should give his or her
whole attention to it, and not allow his fingers or clothing to get in
the path of the bottle cups.

(11) Remove all objects from the vicinity of tiie tester. This will
prevent their being hit by the bottle cups when the machine is in
motion.

(12) If acid is spilled upon anything, pour on plentif of water,
and then add some alkali, such as lime or baking soda, to neutralize
the acid.

(13) Do not leave the acid bottle uncorked.

(14) Keep all glassware perfectly clean.

(15) After washing the glassware, rinse it thoroughly in clean
water to remove soap powder. The soap powder and the acid form a
violent chemical reaction.

75. To Determine the Amount of Solids in Milk.

Weigh a sample of milk. Evaporate to dryness and weigh again.
Determine the per cent of dry matter. Fill out the following table:

Weight of dish

Weight of dish and milk

Weight of dish and evaporated milk

Weight of dry matter

Per cent of dry matter in milk

Per cent of solids not fat (per cent of dry matter minus per
cent of fat)

76. Comparison of Methods of Cream Separation.

MateriaU. — Milk-testing outfit as for No. 74, but with special
bottles for skimmed milk; skimmed milk from a cream separator;
skimmed milk that stood in shallow pans, and some that stood in long
cans.

Determine the per cent of fat left in the skimmed milk in each case.
If a cow produces 6,000 pounds of milk in a year, and if butter-fat is

''COLLATERAL READING 349

worth 25 cents per pound, how many dollars worth of fat would be
lost per year in each case?

77. Methods of Churning.

Materials. — Milk-testing outfit as for No. 76. Buttermilk from
different homes or factories, with a record cf how the churning was
done. Determine the per cent of fat lost in the buttermilk in each
case.

78. To Determine the Efifect of Prompt Cooling on the Souring of

Milk.
Divide a sample of new milk into two parts. Cool one by setting
in ice water or very cold water, or with an aerator and cooler. After
it is cooled, place l)oth samples under the same conditions. Which
sours first?

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

71. Essentials in Beef-Production.
233. Beef vs. Dairy Types for Beef, p. 22.
251. Indoor vs. Outdoor Feeding of Steers, pp. 22-25.
lOG. Breeds of Dairy Cattle.

55. The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management.
124. Beef and Dairy Types as Related to Beef-Production,

pp. 28-30.
149. Effect of Exposure on Milk-Production, pp. 28-31.

Profitable and Unprofitable Cows. Bulletin No. 114,
pp. 21-20; No. 190, p. 14; No. 1(52, p. 24.
151. Dairying in the South.
349. The Dairy Industry in the South.

183. Meat on the P'arm; Butchering, Curing and Keeping.

184. Marketing Live Stock.

201. The Cream Separator on Western Farms.
29. Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products.
42. Facts Alx)ut Milk.
63. Care of Milk on the Farm.
74. Milk as Food.

Clean Milk. Bulletin No. 227, pp. 24-28; No. 273, pp.
23-30; No. 210, pp. 26, 27; No. 73, pp. 3, 4; No. 296,
p. 5; No. 169, pp. 5, 6.
166. Cheese-making on the Farm,

350 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

241. Butter-making on the Farm.

350. The Dehorning of Cattle.

258. Texas, or Ticl^ Fever, and Its Prevention.
206. Milk Fever.

351. The Tuberculin Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 175-332.
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 4-44, 122-162,
175-272, 301-382.

CHAPTER XIII

SHEEP

305. Types of Sheep. There are two more or less antago-
nistic uses for sheep, just as there are for cattle or horses.
We raise sheep for wool or for mutton. The type of sheep
that produces the most valuable
wool (Fig. 180) has a conformation ^^^Z
much like that of a dairy cow. The ^^^^^^rmy^r^'^r'
type that produces the best mutton
(Fig. 182) has much the same form
as the beef animal. It is very diffi- C
cult to improve either the wool U|jf,Bi^^^^^™^Hw»*y
or the mutton qualities without ^^^SKIB^S^^^/n
lowering the other. Our common 'PJJmj^BB*^^
breeds are classified as follows: The hlld of The herd

(American Merino
Rambouillet or French Merino
Delaine Merino
{Southdown
Shropshire
Hampshire Down
O.xford Down
Dorset Horn
(Cheviot
Cotswold
Leicester
Lincoln

306. Breeds of Sheep. .Merinos are probably the most
widely distributed breed of sheep. They are the best

(351)

352

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

FiQ. 180. A pair of American merinos

wool-producers. They yield heavy fleeces of very fine,
short wool, that is used for the finest and most expensive
woolen goods. The breed is small in size and lacks the
fullness that is requisite for the best mutton production.
They are hardy and are good grazers, and will thrive
in larger flocks than will some of the other breeds. The
Merinos originated in Spain, but most of their improve-
ment has been accomplished in other countries. Many
different types have been developed in different countries.
The leading types are the American Merino, Delaine
Merino, and Rambouillet.

Fia. 181. A pair of Delaine merinos

SHEEP

353

The American Merinos produce the finest and heaviest
fleece of any breed of sheep. They are small in size, and
do not produce a high quality of mutton. Their bodies
are covered with large folds of skin. These wrinkles are
an inconvenience in shearing. They are not very prolific.
The average number of lambs raised for each hundred
ewes is very low. The heavy wool growth seems to
make too heavy demands for the best reproduction.

Fio. 182. Shropshire ewe

FiQ. 183. Shropshire ram

Several types of Delaine Merinos have been developed
in efforts to correct the faults of the American Merino.
The Delaines are larger and produce a better quality of
mutton. They do not have so many wrinkles and are more
prolific, but their wool is not so good.

Rambouillets were developed in France. They are
the largest Merinos and the best ones for mutton, although
they do not rank with the mutton breeds. They are very
hardy and are popular on western ranges:

Shropshires are one of the most popular of the mutton
breeds. They have nearly black faces and legs, and are
hornless. They are especially noted for their prolificacy.

w

354

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Fi<i. 184. Dorset -horn ram

Nearly 12,000 ewes in England in a year raised an average
of 168 lambs for each hundred ewes. They are especially
adapted to good lands and good pastures, and are very
popular in the East and
Middle West. On the
range they are not so
hardy as the Merino
breeds. Next to the Me-
rinos, they are the most
numerous breed in
America.

Southdowns are an-
other popular mutton
breed. They have gray-
ish brown or reddish brown legs and faces and are
smaller than the Shropshires. Their wool is finer and
more valuable, but they arc less prolific. Other breeds

of the same general class
that are raised in America
are the Oxford Down and
the Hampshire Down.

The Horned Dorset has
attracted considerable at-
tention in sections where
winter lambs are produced,
as it is claimed that a
large proportion of its
lambs will be early enough
The wool is not of the be.st

Mti. 185. Cotswiji.i ew.'

for the winter market,
quahty.

Cotswold is the only coarse-wooled breed that has

SHEEP 355

attained much prominence in America. About twenty-
five years ago, it was prominent, but the Shropshires
are now most numerous in the sections to which it is
adapted.

307. Sheep Industry in America. Sheep-giowing first
developed in eastern United States. Large numbers of
Merino sheep were kept for wool-production. As the
number of sheep on the ranges of North and South America
and Australia increased, and as the cotton-production
increased, the price of wool became so low that there
was little profit in the sheep industry, even on the ranges.
Most farmers in the eastern states went out of the sheep
business. Later, the demand for mutton increased, and
we now have an increasing number of sheep in the East and
Middle West.

Two of the obstacles that have stood in the way of
the sheep indusjtry are fencing and dogs. Many farmers,
who might otherwise keep sheep, do not do so because
their farms are fenced for cattle. Others fear the dog
nuisance, not only for the actual loss of sheep, but because
of the annoyance that such troubles cause. The present
prices of fencing materials make it possible to fence the
sheep in and the dogs out, so that there is little danger.

There are many farms in the eastern states that are
naturally adapted to sheep-production. These farms
promise to be the center of a large sheep industry in the
future. There are many hill farms in these sections that
are now being little u.sed, and that can be made profitable
sheep farms as soon as the western ranges are unable to
supply the demand for sheep. One of the obstacles in
the way is the small size of the farms. It will usually require

366 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

several of the present farms to make one that is large enough
for sheep-production.

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

96. Raising Sheep for Mutton.

119. Establishing a Flock of Mutton Sheep, pp. 23, 24.
159. Scab in Sheep.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 592-633.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 333-454

CHAPTER XIV

swmE

Hogs rank second in total number and third in total
value of farm animals in the United States, being exceeded
in number by cattle, and in value by horses and cattle.
The totals in 1908 were as follows:'

Number J Value

Horses and mules 23,816,000 $2,284,469,000

Cattle j 71,267,000 1,495,995,000

Swine [ 56,084,000 339,030,000

Sheep 54,631,000 j 211,736,000

308. Distribution of Hogs. Hogs are almost universally
distributed as scavengers to eat the waste material from
the farm and the kitchen. The commercial production is
centered in dairy sections and in the corn-belt. In dairy
sections that produce cheese or butter, the hogs are a
l)y-product, being fed on the whey and skimmed milk.
In the corn-belt, they are a by-product of fattening steers.
Here they eat the corn that is wasted by the steers and
that which the steers do not digest. Large numbers are
also grown in the corn-belt independently of other stock.

It is cheaper to ship hogs than to ship the corn that is
required to grow the hogs. About five to six pounds of
corn are required to grow a pound of hog. The weight to be
shipped is, therefore, much less if the corn is fed. If alfalfa

^•United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 15)08
(357)

358

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

or other coarse forage is fed, the difference in the cost of
shipment of the feed and of* the animal is still greater.
The same principle applies in the production of beef, but
does not apply to milk, because the latter product is
perishable. The farther corn has to be shipped, the more
important this matter becomes. We expect to see a city's
milk-supply produced near the city, but expect to see the
meat-supply produced where feed is cheapest. The follow-
ing table shows that this is what occurs:

Illinois . .
Iowa . . .
Nebraska

Bushels of
corn. 1908

298,620,000
287,456,000
205,767,000

milch cows

on the farm

$0 57
52
51

2,056,000
3,842,000
3,200,000

Number of
swine

4,438,000
7,908,000
3,904,000

Nebraska produces about two-thirds as much corn as
Illinois, but produces nearly as many hogs and a half
more beef cattle. Iowa has less corn than Illinois, but
has about twice as many hogs and beef cattle. This shows
that meat-production is most important where corn is
cheapest.

309. Breeds of Hogs. The most important breeds in
the United States are Poland-China, Berkshire, Duroc-
Jersey and Chester-White. Breeds of less importance
are the Cheshire, Large Yorkshire, Tam worth, Victoria,
Small Yorkshire, Hampshire, Essex and Suffolk.

Nearly all of our important breeds of cattle and horses
come from Europe, but all of the more important breeds
of swine, except Berkshire, originated in this country.
The Poland-China were developed in Ohio; Duroc-Jersey
in New York and New Jersey; Chester- White in Pennsyl-

SWINE

359

Fig. 186. The lard type. A Foland-Chiiia

vania; Cheshire in New York; Victoria in Indiana; Hamp-
shire probably in Kentucky. All of the other breeds
mentioned were developed in England.

One of the chief reasons for the development of our
own breeds of swine is that the English breeds are not the

*■ ..^ . - -• f '.-•>

Ficj. 187. The bacon type. A large Vork.shire

best for feeding on corn. Corn is relatively rich in oil and
starch, and deficient in protein. Thi.s leads to the produc-
tion of fat hogs — the lard type. In England, a leaner type
is more profitable — the bacon type. Their mixed foods,

360 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

containing a greater proportion of protein, make the pro-
duction of the bacon type profitable. This type is also
much grown in Canada, where the Large Yorkshire is one
of the most important breeds. Relatively few of the bacon
type of hogs are grown in the United States.

The following points will aid in distinguishing the
breeds: The Poland-China are black with white markings,
and have drooping ears. The Berkshire are about the same
color, but have erect ears. The Essex are black, with erect
ears, but have no white markings. The Hampshire are
black with a belt of white around the body. The Large
Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, Cheshire and Suffolk are all
white, with erect ears. The Chester- White are white,
with drooping ears. The Duroc-Jersey are cherry-red,
chestnut or yellowish red, with drooping ears.

The white breeds are more prominent in the northeastern
states and Canada. They are said to be less desirable in
the intense sunshine of the corn-belt. Poland-China are
the most numerous breed in the corn-belt. The chief com-
plaint against them is that they are so fine-boned as to
lack in vigor, and that they do not raise large enough
litters of pigs. The Duroc-Jersey have been increasing
in numbers, and are said to be more prolific and more
vigorous than the Poland-China. Both of these breeds
and the Berkshire are popular.

310. Care of Hogs. Not many years ago, the common
practice was to keep hogs in small pens that of necessity
became muddy. This practice is still common in many
sections of the country. But, where hogs are grown in
large numbers, the importance of pastures is now recognized.
For cheap production *bf pork, as well as for the health

QUESTIONS AND COLLATERAL READING 361

of the hogs, there should be plenty of pasture. When corn
is the only grain feed, the pasture is also of value in fur-
nishing the mineral matter that the corn lacks. The
more succulent plants are better than the drier grasses.
Alfalfa is the most popular pasture for hogs. Alfalfa hay
is also fed in winter.

311. Hog Diseases. Hog cholera is the most serious
obstacle in the way of hog-production. It is particularly
serious in the corn-belt. Entire herds of hogs are often
lost with it in a few weeks. Recent experiments have
given promise of prevention by means of vaccination.*

Tuberculosis is also a serious disease. It is often con-
tracted from infected milk. (For a discussion of the extent
of this disease and its prevention, see page 337.)

'Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, p. 50

QUESTIONS

1. What are the most numerous breeds of hogs in your county?
Which breeds are increasing in numbers?

2. WTiat are the common feeds for hogs in your community?
About how much of each is fed per day for each 1,000 pounds of live
weight? Find the nutritive ratio of this ration and compare with that
given in Appendix, Table 7. For the production of the lard type of hog,
the ration does not need to contain so much protein as the standard.

3. What is the price of com and of hogs? Find the comparative
price per pound of each. Will it pay better to feed the com or to sell it?

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

100. Hog- liaising in the South.
272. A Successful Hog and Seed Com Farm.
133. Profitable Crops for Pigs, pp. 27-29.
'^96. Grinding Com for Hogs, p. 25.

362 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

329. Hogging Off Com, pp. 21, 22.

315. Supplements to Com in Hog P'eeding, pp. 25-29.

Forage Crops for Hogs. — Bulletins : No. 56, pp. 6, 7;
No. 84, pp. 18, 19; No. 97, pp. 15, 16; No. 124, pp.
25-27; No. 305, pp. 24, 25; No. 331, pp. 1-24; No.
334, pp. 20-22.
Tankage and Bone Meal for Hogs. — Bulletins: No. 169,
pp. 29, 30; No. 296, pp. 21-24; No. 315, pp. 28-30.
Feeding.— Bulletins: No. 22; No. 92, pp. 20, 21; No. 97,
pp. 13-15; No. 133, pp. 26, 27; No. 144, pp. 24, 25;
No. 210, pp. 30, 31; No. 251, pp. 30-32; No. 305,
pp. 2.7-28.
Hog ('ots.— Bulletins: No. 273, pp. 11-14; No. 296,
pp. 27-29; No. 334, pp. 31, 32.
87. Fecundity of Swine, pp. 23, 24.
222. Market Classes and Grades of Swine, pp. 24-32.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 467-554
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 644-681, and Index

Figs. 188, 189. Barred Plymouth Rocks,— a general-purpose breed.

Figs. 190, 191. Single-comb White Leghorns, — an egg breed.

CHAPTER XV
POULTRY

312. Importance of Poultry. Poultry-raising is often
looked upon as a small business. But we are likely to
underestimate the value of farm products because they
are scattered over so wide a territory and the proceeds
are distributed among so many people. A much smaller
industry that is concentrated gives the impression of
being larger. The total value of all poultry raised in the
United States in 1899 was $137,000,000 and the value of
the eggs produced was $144,000,000. The total value of
these products was nearly equal to the combined value
of all the iron, coal, gold and silver that were mined in
that year.* Yet the value of the poultry products is only
sixth among the agricultural products, being exceeded
by corn, beef cattle, dairy products, cotton, wheat and
swine.

313. Breeds of Poultry. Turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons
and squabs are of considerable value, but are of small
importance when compared with chickens. The varieties
of chickens are almost innumerable. There are four gen-
eral classes:

(1) The meat breeds, or Asiatic class — Brahma, Cochin
and Langshan.

•Twelfth Cenmw of the United States: Cx)&\, f 160,0()(),(XX); gold, $33,-
()0(),()(K); silver, $66.(K)0,(XK) ; iron ore, $33.(XK),(XK). A iarffc amount of
poiiltrj' profiuct^ conHtiniefl on farms is omittetl from the census reports,
as is the value of such pro<lucts pnxluced in villages.

(363)

364 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ,

(2) The general-purpose breeds, or American class —
Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, etc.

(3) The egg breeds, or Mediterranean class — Leghorn,
Minorca. Black Spanish.

(4) The ornamental breeds — Polish, Game, Bantam, etc.

The meat breeds correspond to the beef breeds of cattle.
The egg breeds are smaller and more active, and corre-
spond to the milk breeds of cattle. The meat breeds origi-
nated in Asia. They are very superior for meat-production,
but are such poor layers that they have never become
very popular in America.

There are a number of varieties of Plymouth Rocks, —
Barred, Buff, White, etc. Of the Wyandottes, the chief
varieties are White, Silver and Buff. All of these origi-
nated in America and all lay brown eggs.

The Barred Plymouth Rock is the most widely dis-
tributed and most popular variety in the United States.
It is large enough for fair meat-production and is very
good for egg-production, nearly equal to the Leghorn.
It is a quiet breed and so causes Uttle trouble on the farm.
The hens will incubate their own eggs, which is an essen-
tial consideration where incubators are not used.

The White variety is the most numerous of the Wyan-
dottes. It is much like the Plymouth Rock in form
and utility.

The White Leghorns are the most popular of the egg
breeds. They are medium-sized, active birds. They lay
white eggs, and large numbers of them. They are a non-
setting breed, and are more difficult to control, so that
they are not so popular as the Plymouth Rocks or Wyan-
dottes on farms where only a few hens are kept. They

POULTRY 365

are most numerous in the territory surrounding New York
City, where white eggs sell for more than brown ones.
In Boston, the brown eggs are more in demand.

314. Feeding of Poultry. There are a number of points
in which the poultry ration should differ from that of other
farm animals. Chickens require over twice as much feed
as is required for the same weight of cattle, and this food
must be largely grain. This makes the requirement of
net nutrients much more than twice that of cattle. The
nutritive ratio should also be very narrow, as the high
protein product requires a feed high in protein. Laying
hens require one pound of protein for about 4.8 pounds
of carbohydrates. (See Appendix, Table 7.)

About one-third of the grain ration should be ground
and fed dry in a hopper, the whole grain being scattered
in straw, so that the birds will have to exercise in getting
it. The ground feed should be at hand during the after-
noon, so that the fowls can eat as much of it as they care
to after they have eaten the whole grain which is scattered
in the litter. If fed in this way, they will not overeat on
dry ground feed. The exact mixtures will vary with the
section of the country.

It is essential for good results that chickens have some
animal food. This may consist of the insects that they
catch, of meat scrap, or skimmed milk. About 10 to 15
per cent of the ration should be animal food.

Egg-production requires large amounts of lime, so that
this must be supplied in some form. Cracked oyster-
shells are commonly used. Since the hen has no teeth,
grit must be available for grinding the food. Usually the
oyster-shells do not furnish as much grit as is desirable.

36C ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

An abundant supply of fresh water is essential for hens,
as it is for all other farm animals.

A combination that has proved satisfactory at the.
Maine Experiment Station for laying hens, is: Four quarts
of corn, two quarts of wheat, two quarts of oats for the
whole grain per day for 100 Plymouth Rock hens. The dry
mash was made of a mixture of 200 pounds of wheat bran
and 100 pounds each of corn meal, wheat middlings, gluten
meal, linseed meal, and meat scrap. This is fed in the hopper
as mentioned above.

The following mixtures are used at the New York
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University:

Young chickens from three weeks old to maturity. —
Grain mixture: 200 pounds of finely cracked corn, 300
pounds of cracked wheat. Ground feed: 400 pounds corn
meal, 400 pounds wheat bran, 400 pounds wheat middlings,
400 pounds meat scrap, 100 pounds oil meal, 25 pounds
bone flour.

Pullets and laying hens. — Grain ration: 200 pounds
cracked corn, 200 pounds wheat, 100 pounds oats (for
pullets use 300 pounds of wheat). Ground feed: 600 pounds
corn meal, GOO pounds wheat middlings, 300 pounds
wheat bran, 500 pounds meat scrap, 100 pounds oil meal,
1(K) pounds alfalfa meal.

Fattening ration: All ground feed, 100 pounds corn
meal, 100 pounds wheat middlings, 1(X) pounds oat flour,
30 pounds meat scrap.

316. Poultry Houses. The details of construction are
given in some of the references at the end of this chapter.
There are a few general principles that apply in all regions.

Sunlight should reach every part of the house, if pos-

POULTRY

367

sible. If the south side is nearly all made up of windows and
open front, this purpose will be accomplished. The win-
dows should be high, so that the light can reach the back
part of the house. The house shown in Fig. 192 has an

fiMER POSITION
OF CURTAIN

■y. .. ,.^/4i^.-i'/ri>/.'.'.i?//:i'sf(^M..... , . „.,..., ~,.~%.'^?7!7;t~.
Fig. 192. Cross-section of a hen-house

open front that admits sunlight and air. It can be closed
by lowering the curtain. In summer, the same curtain
serves as an awning. The window admits light at the
few times when the curtain is closed.

The floor should always be dry. This is best accom-
plished, as shown in Fig. 192, by using an elevated floor
underlaid by gravel or
cinders. Cement floors do
not need to be over two
inches thick for hen-houses,
as there is little weight to
support. Such a floor is
usually n o t expensive.

Fxa. 193. Front view of hen-house. Cro.-*!*-

hach hen should have section shown in Fig. 192

808 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

about five square feet of floor space. The height does
not need to be great. The only reasons for having a house
more than a few feet high are so that the sunlight can
enter, and so that persons can walk through the houses.

Hens need plenty of fresh air. If the house is tight,
so that the wind will not blow through it, and with the
platform under the roosts, as shown in Fig. 192, the cloth
curtain will not often need to be. closed. For very cold
weather there is a second cloth curtain that comes down
in front of the roosts.

All interior parts, as roosts, nests, etc., should be port-
able, so that they may be quickly removed for disinfecting
the house.

QUESTIONS

1. Make a sketch of a hen house adapted to your region.

2. What diseases of poultry are most common in the section? What
is done to control them?

3. From feeds used in the region, prepare a ration for 100 laying
hens, each averaging 3.5 pounds in weight. (See Appendix, Tables
7 and 8.)

4. How are eggs sometimes tested by egg-dealers?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

79. The Parts of an Egg.i

Materials. — One lens, and facilities for boiling eggs. Each pupil
should be supplied with two eggs, if possible; have one with a light
shell, the other with a dark shell, two saucers; one drawing pencil;
one box of colored lead-pencils, and a knife.

An egg-tester can be made by placing a lamp in a box with a hole,
slightly smaller than the egg, cut through the side. Or, the egg may be
held up to a similar hole in the curtain of a darkened room. In either
case, look through the egg toward the light.

'Adapted from J. E. Rice, in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol. 1,
No. 2.

LABORATORY EXERCISES 369

(1) Strength of the egg shell. — Let each student hold a hard-
shelled egg between the clasped hands, the ends of the egg in the hollow
of the hand, and try to break it.

Observe the great strength of the egg, due to the arrangement of
the particles of the shell in an arch similar to the stones or bricks in
the arch of a bridge.

(2) The contents of an uncooked egg. — (a) Break a fresh, uncooked
egg in a saucer by separating the shell in the middle.

Observe the "germinal disc," which appears as a light-colored spot
usually to be found on the upper surface of the yolk.

The germinal disc contains the life principle of the egg. Being
on the upper surface, it remains in close contact with the source of heat
during natural incubation.

(b) Note the '"chalaza," or the whitish cords of denser albumen
on the sides of the yolk toward either end of the egg. These cords of
denser albumen serve to keep the yolk properly suspended within the
albumen. Thus the chick which develops on the upper surface of the
yolk is protected from injury, if, through rough handling, it should
come in contact with the shell.

(c) Note the transparent, watery appearance of the albumen
(white of the egg).

The albumen supplies the food by which the chick grows within
the shell, in liquid form.

((/) Examine the shell and note the air-space usually found near
the large end. Observe the two tough membrane-s, best seen at the
air-space where the membranes separate.

The air-space furnishes a readily available supply of fresh air to the
embryo chick. The two membranes prevent the too rapid evaporation
of moisture through the poi-es of the shell, but allow oxygen to enter
the egg and carbon dioxid to pass out.

(e) By placing a section of the shell uniler the lens, indentations
or ix)res in the shell may be observed.

These thinner parts permit the gases to, pass through the shell more
readily. If the pores of the shell are closed by oil, varnish, dirt or
broken egg, the chick will be smothered.

(/) Note the pigment of the shell, which gives to each egg its char-
acteristic color.

Observe how the first eggs laid for a brood are more pronounced
in color, and how the color pigment decreases with each egg that is
laid, due to exhaustion of the supply.

870 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

(3) The structure of a boiled egg. — C'rack the large end of a
hard-boiled egg carefully. Remove the shell, piece by piece, to avoid
tearing the shell membrane.

(a) Observe the air-space and the two membranes, which are
separated with difficulty. Note that the outer membrane is the thicker
and tougher.

{b) Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle. Observe the
lighter-colored, flask-shaped center of the yolk, and the darker yolk
arranged around it in concentric layers. Note the "germinal vesicle,"
or "germinal disc," at the upper part of the light yolk. Observe that
the yolk is at one side and not in the center of the white of the egg.
Note also that the germinal disc is on the upper side of the yolk. This
is because the yolk is lighter in weight than the albumen, and hence
floats. The germinal disc on the surface of the white yolk is lighter
than the dark yolk.

Snyder gives the chemical composition of the dry substance of the

inside of the egg as: t> . ■ r- .

°° Protein Fat

Albumen (white of the egg) 88.92 .53

Yolk 20.62 64.43

It will be seen that there is a large amount of fat in the yolk and
almost no fat in the albumen. Fat is lighter than albumen, hence rises
to the surface. This may be ob-served in practice by holding a fresh

CONCt

FiQ. 194. Section of an egg

egg in front of an egg-tester and noting the tendency of the yolk to
float upward.

This tendency of the yolk to float to the surface makes it necessary
to turn eggs frequently when they are kept for hatching, otherwise the

COLLATERAL READING 371

yolk will rise until the germinal disc comes in contact with the shell
membrane. It will then become dry by evaporation and adhere to
the membrane. If the egg is then turned the germ will be killed.

(4) Make a drawing of the longitudinal section of the egg, showing:
(rt) The shell and its pores. (6) The two shell membranes turned
back from the shell, (c) The air-space, {d) The three layers of albu-
men, (e) The vitelline membrane surrounding the yolk. (/) The
vitellus contained within the vitelline membrane, {g) The white yolk
and the dark yolk, showing its concentric layers, {h) The germinal
disc. (/) The chalaza ("hammock cords").

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

287. Poultry Management.
51. Standard Varieties of Chickens.
64. Geese and Ducks.
182. Poultry as Food.
200. Turkeys.
22.5. Turkeys, pp. 21-25.
236. Incubation and Incubators.
281. Incubation, pp. 24-28.
^09. Incubation, pp. 24-26.
128. Eggs and Their Use as Food.

Poultry-House ('onstruction. — Bulletins: No 225, pp.

27-31; No. 227, pp. 28-32.
Poultry Appliances. — Bulletins: No. 244, pp. 25-29; No.

316, pp. 30-32; No. 317, pp. 28-32.
Feeding.— Bulletins: No. 84, pp. 19, 20; No. 97, pp. 16,
17; No. 122,pp. 25, 26; No. 225, pp. 26, 27; No. 305,
p. 28.
122. Weight of Eggs of Different Breeds, pp. 24, 25.
114. Floor Space Neces.sary per Hen, pp. 18, 19.

Preserving Eggs— No. 103, pp. 17, 18; No. 273, pp. 17-19;
No. 296, pp. 29 31.
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 525-587, and
Index.

CHAPTER XVI
FARM MANAGEMENT

316. What is Farm Management. It is not sufficient
that a farmer raise large crops or fine animals, or that
his farm appear attractive. He must so organize his busi-
ness into a single unit that it will pay as a whole. He must
see that his personal and household expenses do not exceed
his net income. He must have a sufficient knowledge of
business dealings so that he can conduct his transactions
in a business-like way. The study of this class of questions
is called farm management. Some of the details that
each prospective farmer must consider are:

With my capital and personal qualifications, where
shall I locate?

What type of farming shall I take up?

Shall I buy or rent?

To what extent may I safely borrow?

What farm shall I choose?

How shall I arrange the fields, buildings and fences?

What system of farming shall I follow?

What stock and equipment shall I buy, and how much
will they cost?

How shall I secure labor and how manage it?

What records and accounts shall I keep?

What shall I sell and where and how shall I sell it?

What income may I expect?

How will this compare with other occupations?

(372)

FARM MANAGEMENT 373

These and many more similar questions must be
answered by the successful farmer. He may not formulate
the questions, but he considers them, nevertheless.

It is manifestly impossible to consider all these ques-
tions in a book of this size. Only the choice of a farm,
the farm labor question and farm accounts will be consid-
ered, and these but briefly.

THE CHOICE OF A FARM

The most important business transaction that a farmer
makes is the purchase of a farm. The score card on page
385 gives some of the points that need to be considered
before purchasing. There are so many points that one is
likely to forget some unless he has a list of them. While
discussing these points, some other questions may be
considered, as the arrangement of fields.

317. Size of Farms. If one has sufficient capital, he
should not buy too small a farm. The exact size will
vary with the type of farming. Investigations in New
York have shown that for general farms and dairy farms
those farmers who have about 200 acres make much more
than those with smaller areas. The most profitable apple
farms also average larger than the smaller ones, 109 acres
being the average size of a number of profitable ones, and
89 acres the average size of less profitable ones.

There are a number of reasons why the man with a
fair-sized farm has an advantage. There are many farm
operations that require two or more men for economical
work. The small farm needs as much machinery as a
large one. Either it must be under-equipped or else the

374 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

machinery will not be used to good advantage. Idle ma-
chinery means lost money. A small farm also necessitates
too small fields, and these require much more time for
tilling and more fencing, for the area. The larger farm
gives a chance to make a profit from the labor of more
men, if their labor is well directed.

These remarks do not apply when we are considering
the very large farm. In this ca.se, there must be a manager
who does not do field work, and his salary must be paid.
With such establishments, the interest of the men is usu-
ally not kept up, and this alone is usually sufficient to
cause a loss. The most efficient and mo.st profitable farm
is usually one where the owner works with the men, and
has as many men working as he is able to manage without
having to stop work himself. By working with the men,
the amount accomplished is often doubled.

318. Shape and Location of Fields. The shape of fields
has an important bearing on the time required to till them.
Odd-shaped fields are very undesirable. Narrow fields
or small fields require more labor and more fencing. A
ten-acre field, 40 x 40 rods, requires 40 rods le.ss fence than
a field that is 20 x 80 rods. If this fence is kept up per-
manently, it will probably cost at least five to ten cents per
rod per year for depreciation and repairs, depending on the
kind of fence; in addition there is interest on the extra
money invested. At five cents per rod, the difference would
be two dollars per year. But this is a fair rate of interest
(5 per cent) on $40. The square field is, therefore, worth
$40 more, or is worth $4 more per acre.^

■•■The value of a farm is determined by its earning fwwer. It should
earn a reasonable rate of interest, here assumed to be 5 per cent on the
value. If a farm earns $2 more, or if a change in it reduces expenses by
$2, the value of the land is $40 more.

FARM MANAGEMENT 375

The distance of the fields from the barn is also of very
great importance in determining the value of the land.
All the time that is lost in passing back and forth from
distant fields must be charged against the earning power
of the land. If it costs $1 per acre in lost time to go to a
field, and if the interest rate is 5 per cent, then a field
near the barn is worth $20 per acre more.

319. Topography is usually most important in its effects
on the ease of cultivation and on the use of farm machinery.
If the land is too steep, it interferes with or may prevent
the use of harvesters, manure spreaders and gang plows.
In some sections, the most serious results of steep hill-
sides is the erosion. In all sections there is some loss of
the productive surface soil. In many cases the direction
of the slope is important. The four-year average yield
of apples in a township in western New York was 43
bushels greater on easterly than on westerly slopes.^
The difference is mostly due to the strong west winds.

320. Soils. The physical properties of soils are even
more important than the fertility. The expense of labor
is very much more on some soils than on others, not only
because of the ease of tillage, but because of the number
of days of po.ssible labor. If one can begin spring work a
few days earlier and can go out after it rains a little more
promptly, it may make a number of acres difference in
the area that can be farmed. The physical properties
aLso affect the possible kinds of crops and the danger of
lo.ss of soil fertility.

The natural fertility is more important than the tem-
porary condition, that is, it is better to buy a soil that is

i.New York Cornell Bulletin No. 226, page 326

376 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

naturally rich, but that is a little out of condition, than it
is to buy one that is naturally poor, but that has been
so fertilized that it is temporarily rich.

The drainage and freedom from stumps, stones, weeds
and waste land must also be considered. In general, one
can buy a farm that is in good condition cheaper than he
can improve one that is not in good condition. Cleared
fields do not often sell for enough more to pay for the cost
of clearing. Fertile fields do not cost as much more than
poor ones as it would take to bring up the poor land.

321. Neighbors. The neighbors are much more than a
social question. With them one must "change work."
They furnish a market for surplus stock. They may fur-
nish inspiration that results in profits. They decidedly
affect the selling value of a place.

It is usually of great importance to have the neighbors
in the same kind of business. Good apples raised out of
an apple region do not sell for what they are worth. A
breeder of Jersey cows will find marketing difficult if his
neighbors all raise Holsteins. Buyers will then come to
the neighborhood for Holsteins, not for Jerseys. Such a
man had better move, or change his breed. Purchasers
always want to go to a neighborhood that is full of the
desired article. The same principle applies in manufac-
turing. Some towns become centers for one article, others
for another. Both buyers and skilled laborers are thus
easier to secure. Each individual contributes to adver-
tising the community, and in turn receives the benefit of
all the other advertising. If one develops special markets
for his products, these points may not apply; but they
apply to most farmers.

FARM MANAGEMENT 377

322. Improvements. It is nearly always cheaper to
buy a farm with improvements than it is to improve one,
provided one can secure the buildings and other improve-
ments that are satisfactory. One exception is in the case
of paint. A coat of paint nearly always increases the
selling price more than it costs.

323. Other Factors Affecting Farm Values. There are
a large number of other items of great importance that
can only be mentioned here. Climate, healthfulness, dis-
tance to market, roadways, markets, shipping facilities,
.mail delivery, telephone, churches, schools, granges, water
supply, taxes, and many more factors, affect the value of
the farm and the profits that can be made from it.

324. Working Capital. Finally, it must be said that
one should, if possible, have a fair-sized farm, and, at
the same time, have sufficient capital to equip it. For
most types of farming, the equipment and supplies will
call for half as much money as is invested in the farm
and improvements. For some kinds of farming, as truck-
growing, more working capital is needed, and for some,
as grain-farming, less is necessary. One of the common
causes of failure in city or country is the investment of
too much of the capital in fixed forms.

FARM LABOR

If mankind consumed all that it produced, there would
be no wealth. If a country is wealthy, it indicates that
human energy is used effectively. The more effectively
labor is used, the higher-priced it becomes. The more
efficient farmers become, the fewer we need. If one man

378 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

produces more than formerly, an increased city popula-
tion can be supported. At the same time, the farmers'
wants will become ^,vea,teT, and more men will be needed
to make his machinery, pianos and furniture. Cities are,
therefore, a necessary result of good farming.

The average farmer just about makes farm wages
besides interest on his capital. His labor is his chief in-
come. He is, therefore, as much interested in having
farm labor high as are his hired men. Whether farm labor
is high or low makes little difference with the farm-labor
problem. The real problem is to use help to a better ad-
vantage than it is used by the average person, otherwise
there is little or no profit in employing men. If labor i.s
cheap, farm products will also be cheap, and the problem
of making money by hiring remains exactly the same.
The man who does not use labor effectively will lose
money by employing help whether wages are high or low.

One of the most important points in efficient direction
of labor is in so managing it that there is work at all times.
To do this, one must plan ahead, and it is usually necessary
to keep lists of work for rainy days, lists of things to be
brought from town, etc., so that there will be as little
lost time as possible. Machinery repairs and much work
about the buildings that is often done in good weather
could just as well have been done long before during bad
weather had it been thought of.

Hired men in the North are usually looking forward
to farm ownership. It is often possible to interest such
men in the plans of the farm by discussing plans with them.
In dealing with all human beings, it is well to remember
that, as a general rule, judicious commendation is better

FARM MANAGEMENT 379

than criticism. At times, criticism is necessary, but it
should not be constant or it will destroy interest. The
hired man is no exception to the rule.

Some men are worth twice as much as others, but wages
are fairly uniform. By paying 20 per cent more one may
often secure a man who is worth nearly twice as much.

One of the means that has accomplished most in the
past few years is in the use of larger machines and more
horses per man. (See Appendix, Table 16.)

On the average, the value of staple products is measured
by the cost to produce them. The world price of wheat is
probably very close to the cost of production and trans-
portation. One community may produce it at a loss and
another make more than wages. If this law is true, an
individual may make more than wages by working harder;
by locating where the cost is below the average; choosing
a farm that will produce out of proportion to the cost;
locating near a market, and thereby gaining on transpor-
tation; increasing the production out of proportion to the
cost; decreasing labor or other cost without a proportion-
ate decrease in crop; foreseeing future conditions and
preparing to meet them; locating where the standard of
living is higher than his own.

Many foreigners succeed in America more by their
lower standard of living than by any other means. Studies
in New York seem to show that the most profitable farms
spend more than the less profitable, but that they spend
so efficiently as to get a greater return for each dollar
spent. This is the way in which many of our most success-
ful American farmers have succeeded — not by decreasing
expenses, but by spending wisely.

380 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

One of the most important questions of farm manage-
ment is that of records and accounts. It is by studying
the results of well-kept records that one is able to extend
or retrench on the different parts of the business, so as to
make more. money in the future.

325. Kinds of Accounts to Keep. Records of different
cows for the dairyman have been discussed under cattle.
The farm map, showing drainage lines, maps showing
varieties of trees in an orchard, etc., are necessary on
many farms. If all business is not done on a cash basis,
it becomes necessary to keep records of accounts that are
owed or that are due. It is also very desirable to keep a
record of the cost and receipts from at least the leading
factors in the farm business. An account may be kept with
cows, potatoes, poultry, horses, etc., showing on which
we are making or losing money.

326. Methods of Keeping Accounts. One may merely
make a list of his property at the end of each year, with
values. Such a hst is called an inventory. The difference
between the inventories at the beginning and the end of
the year is' the gain or loss. This is the most important
single record to keep. It does not show what caused the
gain or loss, but shows the net result. A loss may have been
due to large personal expenses, or to cows or potatoes,
while all other sections of the business may show a profit.

In order to show where the gains and losses occurred,
we must keep a work report and a ledger. It is not neces-
sary to keep any other books.

A convenient form of work report is shown on page 381.

1909

FARM MANAGEMENT
Work Report

381

Man,
hours

Horse,
hours

April 1...
April 2...
April 2...
April 3...
April 3...

Hauled manure to com field . .

18
8

7

L

36

Hauled manure to com field (Smith) . .

Hauled wood for household (self)

Plowed for corn (Smith) ....

16
14
24

Hauled wood for household (self)

17

1909

Work Report, — Chores

Horses

Cows

Poultry

Household

April 1

April 2

April 3

Hrs. Min.
1 25
1 20
3 30

Hrs. Min.

3 30
2 30

4 15

Hrs. Min.
15
1 15
15

Hrs. Min.
2 30

It combines a work report and diary of farm work. A
second page in the same book may be used for a record of
the time spent in doing chores. At the end of the month,
the total time is charged in the ledger to each of the
accounts. This requires very little time to keep, and little
time for posting the results. If one does not care for the
diary, the entire report may be kept in the second form,
adding such headings as corn field, orchard, oat field,
potatoes, etc.

Two accounts from a ledger are given on pages 382 and
383. A few entries are made to show the method. Ledger
accounts kept in this way are complete, so that no day-
book or journal is necessary. For explanation of the prin-
ciples of accounting, see the Farmer's Business Handbook,
or the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. The systems
there given use a daybook-journal, which the writer does
not keep and does not consider to be essential.

382

1909

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE
Cash

Dr.

April 1 Amount on hand

April 10 1 calf

April 15 1 cow

April 15 12 dozen eggs

April 15 3 tons hay

* * * *

April 30 Wages for April (John Smith)

April 30 2,405 pounds milk

$342 25

10 00

45 00

2 40

27 00

30 00
30 00

1909

Cows

Dr.

April
Apri

1 1

April 30
April 30
April 30
April 30

March 31

1910
April 1

Inventory

1 calf, Bessie 74983 — pure-bred Jersey

:»^ if it Hf If if

150 hours labor, April, @ 15 cents

40 hours horse labor @ 10 cents

Hauling milk

3 tons hay, from hay field

Interest on capital (average of inventories) (5) 5

per cent

U.se of dairy buildings

Balance — gain (red ink)

Inventory .

$480 00
37 00

22 .50

4 00

2 40

24 00

25 .50
.50 00

$1,.524 30
200 16

$1,730 4()

$530 00

1909

April 7

April 8

April 8

April 8

April 30

FARM MANAGEMENT 383

Cash Cr.

1 calf ($35; express, $2) ' $37 00

Household supplies 3 00

Horses shod 1 20

70 pounds clover seed I 12 00

Hauling milk (paid Johnson) j 2 40

I

1909 Cows

April 10 1 calf, Delia 's, seven-eighths Jersey, to John Doe,

for cash

April 15 1 cow, Delia, to James Brown, for cash

April 30 2,405 pounds milk, April, @, $1.25

1910 ******

April 1 Estirtiated value of manure for year

April 1 Inveniorv (written in red ink)

Cr.

$10 00
45 00
30 (Mi

120 00
530 00

$1,730 40

384 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. If there is both sandy and clay land in your community, how
soon after a rain can .each be tilled? How many days difference is there
in the spring?

2. To what extent does topography of farms in the community
affect erosion, winds, the use of machinery?

3. How much more time will it take to raise ten acres of com on a
field one-half mile from the buildings than to raise an equal area
adjacent to the buildings? How much more would the nearer land be
worth per acre?

4. What area will a six-foot binder cut during a harvest period of
twelve days, working twelve hours a day? (Obtain estimates from
farmers.)

5. When must one begin plowing a 40-acre field with a 14-inch
plow in order to have it completed by October 1? (Obtain estimates
from farmers.)

6. How many farmers in your community keep accounts to show
the gain or loss on different crops, or on the farm business as a whole?

In answering the following questions, study Appendix Tables 14-17.

7. Which has increased more rapidly, the population or the area
of farm land?

8. Has there been any decided change in the area of improved
land per farm during the past fifty years?

9. What changes in the total value of farm property and in the
value per farm? In the value per acre of farm land?

10. What changes in the value of farm implements per farm and
per acre? Compare with question No. 13.

11. Is the value of live stock per farm increasing or decreasing?

12. Are the values of farm products per farm and per acre increas-
ing or decreasing?

13. How are the number of acres and number of horses per male
worker changing?

14. Is the per cent of rented farms increasing or decreasing? Is
it increasing in your community? Why?

15. How do farm wages compare with those formerly paid? Are
the wages in your community higher than in 1900? Are the farmers
more or less prosperous than at that time?

16. How are the farm crop yields per acre and values per bushel
changing?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

385

17. Which crop shows the most rapid increase in total production?

18. How do the present prices of farm animals compare with those
formerly paid? Which kind of animals are increasing in total number
most rapidly?

LABORATORY EXERCISES

80. Choice of a Farm.

Fill out a score card like the following, for one or more farms:
Score Card — Economic Value op Farms

Size—

1 . Adapted to kind of farminj;

Fields —

2. Sha[>e and size

3. Neame-ss to farmstead

Topography —

4. As affecting ease of cultivation

5. As affecting production

6. As affecting loss of fertility

Fertility —

7. Natural

8. Condition

Physical Phoperties ok the Soil —

9. As affecting economy of cultivation )

10. As affecting number days of labor J

11. As affecting loss of soil fertility

12. As affecting kinds of possible crops

Drainage —

13. Natural )

14. Artificial /

Condition —

15. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc.
Climate —

16. As affecting animal- and crop-production

17. As affecting number of days ot labor

Healthfulnesh —

18. As an economic factor

Location —

19. Distance to market

20. Roadways

21 . I.«cal markets

22. Shipping facilities

'£i. Neighbors as an economic factor

24. Ijibor supply of neighborhood

25. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc

26. Churches, school, grange, etc., as economic factors. .
Taxes

27. Per cent on cash value

Stand-
ard for
a gene-
ral farm

20

30
30

30
10
20

80
40

90

10
20

50

50

10

Points deficient

40

50

30

20

40

10

30

30

386

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Score Card — Economic Value op Farms, Continued

Stand-
ard for
a gene-
ralfarm

Points deficient

Water Supply —

40

10
60
60
30
20

Improvements —

29. Site of farmstead

3 1 . Other buildings

Additional Scores for —

34

—

Areas in acres

Price asked

Price p)er acre

Price f>er acre [excluding waste land] .

Estimated value

WTiich farm would you prefer to buy? .

Name

Date

DIRECTIONS

If the points are not properly distributed for the kind of farming to be followed,
assign what you consider to be correct. The total need not be exactly 1.000.

No points are assigned for climate. This should be con.sidered when judging
farms in different regions or at different altitudes, or when topography or proximity
to water make a difference in the climate of the farms that are being compared.

The number of p>oints assigned to each subject is not the limit but is suggestive.
Deduct more than the total number when it seems ad%isable. For instance, dis-
tance to market may absolutely disqualify a farm if one wishes to sell milk, while
it is much less important for a grain, hay or sheep farm. Similarly, there are con-
ditions that may call for higher deductions on any of the points. Credits for excep-
tional values, such as supierior fences, large orchards, probability of increa.se in
value, etc., may be added under number 34.

81. Farm Inventory.

Make an inventory of all the property on a farm, not including
household articles. What per cent of the capital is in real estate? In
machinery? In each of the other Important items?

82. Farm Accounts.

Enter a set of farm accounts for a part of a year, and balance the
books. (See The Farmers' Business Hand Book, pp. 1-115, or Cyclo-
pedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV, pp. 216-232.)

83. Farm Accounts.

Keep an account with chickens, horses, garden, or some crop, and
determine the profit or loss.

LABORATORY EXERCISES 387

84. A Farm Problem.

A farm problem involves the application of all the principles learned
in the study and practice of agriculture to the management of a par-
ticular farm. It corresponds to the plans and specifications and financial
estimates that an architect makes for a building. Such a plan will
require a considerable amount of time and thought, but it is well
worth while. Such a problem may be written up by the following
outline:

(1) Description of the fann, — location, areas, fields, soils, previous
crops, buildings, fences, roads, markets, etc.

(2) Inventory of property on the farm. (May be replaced by a list
of things necessary.)

(3) Proposed system of management. The chief features of the
plan outlined for at least five years.

(4) Crops (for given year):

(ii) Crop, field, area, estimated yield per acre; total yield. To
be filled out for each field.

(b) Cash crops.

(c) Crops for feed, concentrates — roughage — bedding.

(d) Crops saved for seed.

(5) Food for stock:

(a) Cows, horses, hens, etc., each itemized per animal, and total.

(b) Total food required.

(c) Food to be purchased.

(6) Animal products:

(a) Products of wool, milk, lamb, colts, etc.
(6) Products sold.

(7) Receipts itemized.

(8) E.xpenses itemizetl.

(9) Inventory at end of year, allowing for depreciation, increases
in value, etc. (The depreciation and losses of horses and cows is usually
about 15 |)er cent; of chickens, 40 per cent; of tools, 12 to 15 per cent.)

(10) Financial results:

Balance equals receipts, less expenses.

Farm income equals balance, plus or minus change in inventory.

Labor income et]uals farm income, miiuLs interest on capital,

or 5 |)er cent on avenigc of two inventories.
If a tenant farm, lalxir income of tenant.
Percentage on investment made by landlord.
In a similar way, estimate may be made for a series of years.

388 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

86. Plans for a Farmstead.

Make a plan, showing the arrangements of farm buildings as you
think they should be arranged on some farm. (For exercise on arrange-
ment of fields, see page 280.)

86. Plans and Estimates for Farm Buildings.

Make a plan for a small farm building, a bill of lumber and other
materials require*! to make it, and estimate the cost.

87. Business Forms.

Make out an order for goods, a contract with a hired man, a lease,
a note, a receipt.

COLLATERAL READING

Forest Service, Circular No. 159. The Future ITse of Land in the
United States.

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

242. An Example of Model Farming.

245. The Renovation of Wom-Out Soils.

272. A Successful Hog and Seed Com Farm.

280. A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm.

299. Diversified Farming under the Plantation System.

310. A Successful Alabama Diversified Fann.

312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm.

325. Small Farms in the Corn-Belt.

326. Building Up a Run-Down Cotton Plantation.
.337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms.
355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Fanu.

347. The Repair of Farm Equipment.
62. Marketing Farm Produce.
126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 133-322; Vol. IV,
pp. 215-239, and Index of all volumes.

The Farmers' Business Hand- Book, by I. P. Roberts.
How to Choose a Farm, by T. F. Hunt.
Farm Management, by F. W. Card.
The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts.

CHAPTER XVII
THE FARM HOME

Farming is one of the few occupations in which the
business and the home are united. So close is this union
that the distinction between the business and the personal
and household matters is not often thought of. Of the
many things that have to do with the makiiig of a com-
fortable farm home, we shall here consider only three
points, — the arrangement of the grounds, the type of
buildings, and the modern conveniences.

327. The Farmyard. The first essential for an attrac-
tive farmyard is neatness. After this, a little attention
to planting will accomplish the rest. Nothing is more
attractive than a good lawn, add to this a few trees and
shrubs and flowers, and nearly any farmyard will be attrac-
tive., The shrubs should be planted in groups in the corners,
around the house, and to serve as screens to shut off unde-
sirable views. Scattered, aimless planting is not effective.
Flower beds should also be placed at the sides and in cor-
ners, so as to keep the center of the lawn open. Such an
arrangement is not only attractive, but it also makes the
care of the lawn much easier. Compare Figs. 19() and 197
in this respect. At the same time, over-planting should be
avoided. The farmyard should not be a pattern of city
properties, unless it is the country home of some city man
who is able to hire a gardener to take care of it. The
farm home should be attractive, but not ostentatious.

THE FARM HOME

391

328. The Farmhouse. The type of house that is suited
to the city is wholly out of place in the country. The
superabundance of gables and striking shapes may not
be conspicuous in a city,

but in the country they give
an appearance of lack of
dignity. A house that is to
stand alone must have
strong lines.

City houses are almost
always too tall to look well
if standing alone. When
flanked by equally tall
neighbors, they may look
better than low buildings,
but when set off by them-
selves the appearance is
entirely changed. It is much like a forest tree that ap-
pears well when surrounded by tall trees, but that looks
like an exclamation point when standing by itself.

329. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. As
soon as a farmer becomes able, he should have water
piped int9 the house to supply the kitchen and bathroom.
This not only saves hours of labor for the farm women,
but it adds to the comfort and health of the family. In
many sections of the country an elevated tank and a wind-
mill will supply the water. In other cases, water from a
spring may be piped into the house, or a reservoir may be
established on a hillside, or a hydraulic ram may pump
up the water.

The obstacle that usually deters farmers from installing

Fig. 196. Scattered planting of trees
pruned in artificial shapes. An open
lawn would present a better appearance.

392

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

a water system is the supposed difficulty of disposing of
the drainage water. This is usually not a difficult problem.
The bathroom fixtures and plumbing should ordinarily

Fio. 197. Well-planted farm- yard. Trees at the sides, flowers in the corners
and about the house, open lawn. Contra.st with Fig. 196

be installed by a plumber. All the outside work may be
done with farm labor. The drain-pipe should extend
twenty to one hundred feet from the house, and should
be made of four-inch tile with all joints closed by cement.
This pipe may discharge into a cesspool that is merely a
hole in the ground and that is walled with stone laid without
mortar. Such an arrangement is satisfactory if the ground
is very porous, and if no wells are within any possible
range of contamination. The sewage should not be
pmptied directly into streams or ponds,

THE FARM HOME

393

If the land is not porous, or if there is any danger of
contamination of wells, a cement collecting tank, or septic
tank, should be provided. A tank 3x6 feet and 3 feet
deep is large enough for a family of six persons. While
the sewage remains in this tank, the bacteria decompose
the solids contained in it, so that it may be distributed by
underground irrigation in a lawn or field. The inlet pipe
should have a bend at the end so as to direct the water
downward. The outlet pipe should slope upward so as not
to allow the scum to run off, as this scum is filled with
the bacteria that are essential in destroying the sewage.
The outlet pipe will need to be four to eight feet long for

S<«^' '. - .:-''^'.:.\ ... .:.__ : ;,.iiii:;;2;SMi

Fig. 198. A dilapidated farmhouse made attractive by vines and flowers

each person, depending on the soil. It is made of tile drain-
pipe laid with a fall of one inch in sixteen feet. This pre-
vents the water running to the lower end so rapidly as to
cau.se a wet place there. The water seeps out the entire
length of the drain.

394

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

If the farm is tile-drained, the septic tank may be
connected with the drainage system. The entire cost
of such modern improvements, aside from the well or

Fig. 199. The city house in the country. A tall hou.se standing; alone on a
hill, — condition!! that demand a low hou.se. Trees planted at the sides would help
the appearance. Contrast with Fig. 195.

other water-supply, need not exceed $150 to $300. The
writer knows of one system with an elevated tank in the
barn; sink in the kitchen, bathtub, closet and wash-bowl
in the bathroom, and a system of sewage disposal, complete
that was put in for less than $250. Nothing of equal cost
will add more to the comfort of a farm home. Other con-
veniences may be added as the means permit.

COLLATERAL READING

395

LABORATORY EXERCISES

88. Water System for a Farmhouse.

Make a plan for a water-supply, and sewage disposal, for some farm
in the neighborhood. Obtain estimates of the cost of installing the
system, including bathroom fixtures and kitchen sink.

COLLATERAL READING

Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings.

134. Tree-Planting in Rural School Grounds.

185. Beautifying the Home Grounds (applies to city homes

mostly).
270. Modem Conveniences for the Farm Home.
317. Conveniences for the Farm Home, pp. 5-10.
342. A Model Kitchen, pp. 30-32.
155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 231-245; 278-323.

The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts.

Farm Buildings, Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago.

CEMfNT OR STONE COVER ONE TOOT BELOW GROUND

Klu. 200. A septic liiiiK

CHAPTER XVIII
THE FARM COMMUNITY

We commonly attribute success to the individual
because our observations are usually confined to one
neighborhood. If we compare different communities,
we shall at once see that the success of an individual is
as much dependent on the community as it is on himself.
If the community secures a reputation for good products
of any kind, every man shares in the rewards. If it becomes
noted for poor products, even the good products will not
sell well, because they come from a locality that has a
bad reputation. A certain county fruit-growers' society
subscribed funds to spray the neglected orchards of the
county, because they could not afford to have any poor
apples go out from that county. (See, also, page 87().)

If one wishes to sell his farm, some of the first ques-
tions asked are about the schools, churches, roads, and
the moral standards of the people. Not long ago, the writer
visited two sections of the same river valley. The soils,
crops and railroads were equally good; but, in one neigh-
borhood land was worth $30 per acre, and in the other, $50.
The difference was wholly due to the moral standard of
the community. One was^ composed of self-respecting
farmers, in the other the chief interest of the young men
was said to be in fast horses and whiskey.

The prospective buyer is also influenced by the general
appearance of the community. If the buildings are un-

(396)

THE FARM COMMUNITY 397

painted, the barns covered with patent-medicine adver-
tisements, the roadsides full of weeds, the fences down, it
indicates that the community is not prosperous. No matter
how well some one man's place may look, a buyer will be
afraid that there is some fundamental trouble with the
region. He will ask himself whether the farms are so poor
that their small returns have to be supplemented with an
income from signboards. He will fear that the land is so
poor that it takes all the farmer's energy to make a living
so that he has no time to clean up.

The community affects one's happiness as well as his
profits. At the present time, the ideal in many farming
sections is to make enough money so that one can move
to town to live. One of the arguments that was presented
in the central West to the Commission on Country Life,
to show that farming was all right, was that the farmers
were so prosperous that they were selling or renting their
farms and moving to town. If the farm home and the
farm community are all right, then the farm will be a
place to live and die on, not merely a place to run away
from. It is interesting to note the increasing number of
city men who are retiring to farms at the same time that
farmers are retiring to the towns.

It is the duty of every loyal citizen to take an active
part in improving his community. The best place to begin
such an improvement is by cleaning up the roadsides
and fence-rows, and keeping the farmyard neat and attrac-
tive.

But the interest should not stop here. The obligations
to the grange, the school, the church, are as positive as
are the obligations to keep the corn-field clean. It makes

398 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

no difference whether one belongs to all these organiza-
tions or not. They affect the community, and a loyal citi-
zen is interested in everything that affects the community.
Cooperative organizations of many kinds are needed, if
farmers are to be able to deal successfully with the city
organizations.

A reasonable amount of time spent on these civic duties
will not detract from the farm profits. If one does some
of this public work, he is likely to be more alert, and because
of the recreation that it gives, he will be better able to
conduct his farm. If one does nothing but work, his senses
will eventually become dulled, his interest in life lost, his
step will become slower and his smiles less frequent because
he misses the diversion of community life that all humanity
requires. Occasionally, a man neglects his farm because
of these interests, but this is not necessary. In fact, his
influence in the community is usually lost if his farm is
neglected. The ideal citizen is one who works quietly,
doing those things that lie first at hand; one who keeps
his own place neat and prosperous, and who is ever ready
to assist a public enterprise without becoming officious.

QUESTIONS
(See Appendi.\, Tables 11, 12 and 13.)

1. What are the most important agricultural products in the United
States?

2. Which agricultural products show the greatest net exports?
Imp>orts? Which class of articles are more discu8.sed in framing tariff
laws?

3. Of the imported products, which ones might our government
encourage American farmers to produce?

4. Which kind of exports are more desirable for a nation, — animals,
meat and butter, or grain and cottonseed? Why?

COLLATERAL READING 399

5. What agricultural societies or organizations are there in your
region? What work is each doing?

6. What social, rehgious and educational organizations are there?
What kind of work does each do?

7. Are the farms looked upon as permanent homes, or do the farmers
desire to move to town as soon as possible?

COLLATERAL READING

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV.
The State and the Farmer, by L. H. Bailey.
Chapters in Rural Progress, by Kenyon L. Butterfield.
Farmers' Bulletins Nos.:

327. The Conservation of Natural Resources.

340. Declaration of Governors for Conservation of Natural
Resources.

APPENDIX

TABLE 1
Apparatus and Equipment

Good work in agriculture may be done with very little equipment.
It is desirable that the school be equipped for regular laboratory work
in botany, chemistry and physics. Ordinarily, the same microscopes
and balances that are used for botany and physics may be used in
agriculture, so as to avoid the expense of duplication. The Babcock
milk-testing outfit furnishes an apparatus to demonstrate centrifugal
force to a class in physics. Such of the following equipment as is not
already on hand is desirable for a class of ten:

Two compound microscopes, magnifying to 500 diameters, to cost
$18 to $25 each.

Two balances, weighing to centigrams.

One spring balance.

Ten lenses or small magnifying glasses. (Students should own
these.)

One Babcock milk-testing outfit complete, with special bottles for
testing skim-milk. May be purchased of the Creamery Package
Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111.

One saw, square, hammer, etc.

One graduate, 100 cc.

Three thermometers.

Three tall lamp chimneys, or large glass tubes.

One dozen pint fruit-jars.

One dozen quart fruit-jars.

One-half dozen beakers (drinking-glasses may be substituted).

One dozen four-inch flower-pots, with saucers, and one dozen
six-inch.

Four dozen test tubes.

Si.x porcelain crucibles (iron spoons may be used).

One gasoline burner or laboratory burner (a stove may be used).

Ten tape measures.

One set of samples of fertilizing materials.

(400)

APPENDIX 401

Fertilizing materials for exercises 52 and 57, if these are given.

Six bushels of lime and 15 pounds of alfalfa seed, if exercise No.
58 is given.

One pound of lime.

One-half pound copper sulfate.

One pound resin.

One-fourth pound tallow.

One ball No. 18 knitting cotton.

Land, — any amount from one-fourth acre to a farm.

If the school does not have chemical supplies, apparatus and chemi-
cals for preparing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon-dioxid and hydrogen will
be needed. (See a text book of chemistry.)

Bottles, tin cans and other supplies may be brought from the homes
by the students as needed.

TABLE 2
Agricultural Library

Fortunately, there are so many good bulletins on agriculture that
a good library may be secured at little expense.

The school should secure a complete set of the Farmers' Bulletins
of the United States Department of Agriculture. These may be obtained
from the Congressman of the district or by writing to the Secretary
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. These bulletins should be bound
or should bo punched and tied into volumes, with manila covers.
Regular binding, which will cost $6 to $12, is to be preferred.

The teacher or members of the class may write for additional
copies of such Farmers' Bulletins as are much used for collateral read-
ing, so that each .student may have his own copies of the important
numbers.

Ask the Secretary of Agriculture, Wa.shington, D. C, to place the
school on the mailing list, to receive the monthly list of publications,
and to receive the following:

Owe copy of Circular No. 4, Division of Publication; Farmers'
Bulletin Subject Index; one copy of the List of Publications for free
di.stribution ; one copy of the List of Publications for sale. Bulletins
in the former list will be sent free to any address; those in the latter
list may Ije purchased, or some of them may be secured from Congre.ss-
men.

Write to your Congressman for such copies of the Yearbook of the

Z

402 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Department of Agriculture as he may have for distribution, stating
that they are for the school library.

Write to your State Experiment Station (see page 403) for copies
of available bulletins and reports, and ask to be placed on the mailing
list.

Write to the State Board of Agriculture, asking whether it has
publications for distribution.

Copies of a few good farm papers and country-life magazines are
desirable for the reading-table.

REFERENCE BOOKS

The following books are referred to for collateral reading. As
many of these as possible should be secured. If the school can spend
only $20 for reference books, the writer would recommend the Cyclo-
pedia of American Agriculture as containing the largest amount of
information for the price. Most of the other books in the li.st should be
purchased as soon as possible. Many other books are desirable if they
can be afforded, particularly those that treat of important specialized
agricultural interests of the state. The exact order of purchase will
depend on the type of farming in the region.

List price

1. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, four volumes, by L. H.

Bailey $20 00

2. The Principles of Breeding, by E. Davenport 2 50

3. Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, by Harry Snyder. ... 1 25

4. Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King 1 75

5. The Soil, by F. H. King 1 50

6. Soils, by S. W. Fletcher. (Not so difficult as No. 5) 2 00

7. Soils and Fertilizers, by Harry Snyder 1 25

8. Fertilizers, by E. B. Voorhees 1 25

9. The Fertility of the Land, by L P. Roberts 1 50

10. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life, by J. G. Lipman. ... 1 50

11. The Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt 1 75

12. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt .... 1 75

13. The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening, by L. H. Bailey .... 1 25

14. The Principles of Fruit-growing, by L. H. Bailey 1 50

15. The American Apple Orchard, by F. A. Waugh 1 00

16. The Potato, by S. Frazer 75

17. Com Plants, by Leroy Sargent 75

18. Feeds and Feeding, by W. A. Henry 2 00

APPENDIX 403

List price

19. The Feeding of Animals, by W. H. Jordan. (More difficult than

No. 18.) $1 50

20. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb 2 00

21. The Horse, by I. P. Roberts 1 25

22. The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts 1 50

23. The Farmers' Business Hand-Book, by I. P. Roberts 1 25

24. How to Choose a Farm, by T. F. Hunt 1 75

25. Farm Management, by F. W. Card 2 00

The publishers are as follows: Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 19,
21, 22, 23, 24, The Macmillan Co., 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York.
Nos. 2, 20, Ginn & Co., Boston and Chicago. No. 4, F. H. King, Madi-
son, Wis. Nos. 6, 25, Doubleday, Page & Co., New York City. Nos.
11, 12, 15, 16, Orange Judd Co., New York City. No. 17, Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., New York City. No. 18, W. A. Henry, Madison, Wis.

TABLE 3

Addresses op Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations
AND the United States Department of Agriculture

When not otherwise indicated, the college and experiment station

are at the same place. Any letter addressed to the "Agricultural Col-
lege" or "Experiment Station," with proper post-office address, will
reach the institution.

Alabama— Florida — Gainesville.

College of Agriculture and Ex- Georgia — E.xperiment.

periment Station, Auburn. Haw.a.ii —

Canebrake Station, Uniontown. Federal Station — Honolulu.

Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. Sugar Planters' Station — Hono-

Alaska — Sitka. lulu.

Arizona — Tucson. Idaho — Moscow.

Arkansas — Fayetteville. Illinois — Urbana.

California — Berkeley. Indl\na — Lafayette.

Colorado — Fort Collins. Iowa — Ames.

Connecticut — Kansas — Manhattan.

State Station, New Haven. Kentucky — Lexington.

Agricultural College and Storrs Louisian.v — Baton Rouge.

Experiment Station — Storrs. Maine — Orona.

Uelaw.vre — Newark. Maryland — College Park.

404

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Massachup etts — Amherst .
Michigan — East Lansing.
Minnesota — St. Anthony Park,

St. Paul.
M1S.SIS8IPPI — Agricultural College.
Missouri —

College Station — Columbia.

Fruit Station — Mountain Grove
Montana — Bozeman.
Nebrask.*. — Lincoln.
Nevado — Reno.
New Hampshire — Durham.
New Jersey — New Brunswick.
New Mexico — Agricultural Col-
lege.
New York —

State Station — Geneva.

College of Agriculture and Cor-
nell Experiment Station —
Ithaca.
North Carolina —

College Station — West Raleigh.

State Station — Raleigh.

North Dakota — Agricultural

College.
Ohio—

F^xperiment Station — Wooster.

College of Agriculture — Colum-
bus.
Oklahoma — Stillwater.
Oregon — Corvallis.
Pennsylvania — State College.
Porto Rico— Mayaguez.
Rhode Island — Kingston.
South Carolina — Clemson (Col-
lege.
South Dakota — Brookings.
Tennessee — Knoxville,
Texas — College Station.
Utah — Logan.
Vermont — Burlington.
Virginia — Blacksburg.
Washington — Pullman.
West Virginia — Morgantown.
Wi.sconsin — .Madison.
Wyoming — Laramie.

The United States Department of Agriculture is located at Wash-
ington, D. (,'. One may address the Secretary of Agriculture, or write
to one of the Divisions of the Department. The most important ones
are as follows:

Weather Bureau.
Bureau of Animal Industry.
Bureau of Plant Indu.stry.
Forest Service.
Bureau of Chemistry.
Bureau of Soils.

Bureau of Entomology.
Bureau of Biological Survey.
Division of Publications.
Bureau of Stati.stics.
Office of Experiment Stations.
Office of Public Roads.

The most important addresses in Canada are:
Dominion Department of Agri- Agricultural College, St. Anne de

culture, Ottawa.
Ontario Agricultural
Guelph.

Bellevue.
College, Agricultural (College, Winnipeg.

APPENDIX

405

TABLE 4
Length op Time Seeds Maintain Their Vitality

Average Average

years

Barley 3 Oats

years
...3

Bean 3

Beet 6

Buckwheat 2

Cabbage 5

Carrot 4

Celery 8

Clover 3

Com 2

Cucumber, common 6

Eggplant 6

Flax 2

Hop 2

Ix*ttuce, common 5

Onion 2

Orchard grass 2

Parsnip 2

Peanut 1

Peas 3

Pumpkin 5

Radish 5

Rape ., 5

Rye 2

Salsify 2

Soy-bean 2

Squash 6

Timothy 2

Millet 2 Turnip 5

Muskmelon 5 Watermelon 6

Mustard 3 Wheat 2

TABLE 4a
Quantity of Seed Per Acre
Alfalfa (broadcast) 20-30 lbs. Oats

Alfalfa (drilled) 1.5-20 lbs.

Barley 8-10 pks.

Beans (field) 2-C pks.

Blue-gra.ss (sown alone)... 25 11. s.
Broine gra.ss (sown aloi.e) 12-20 lbs.

Buckwheat 3-5 jiks.

Cabbage J-1 lb.

Carrot (for stock) 4-6 lbs.

Clover (alsike alone) 8-15 lbs.

Clover (red alone) 10-18 lbs.

Com 6-8 <its.

Com (for silage) 9-1 1 (jts.

Cotton 1-2 bus.

Cowpea 1-1 i bus.

Flax 2-4 pks.

Mangels .5-8 lbs.

Millet 1-3 pks.

2-3 bus.

Potato 6-20 bus.

Potato (reconunendcd) . .15-18 bus.

Pumpkin 4 lbs.

Rape 2-8 Ib.s.

Red-Top (recleaned) 12-15 lbs.

Rice 1-3 bus.

Rye 3-8 pks.

Sugar Beets 15-20 lbs.

Sweet Potato 1 ^-4 bus.

Timothy 10-20 lbs.

Timothy and Clover —

Timothy 10-15 lbs.

Clover 4-10 lbs.

Turnip (broadca.st) 2-4 lbs.

Vetch (hairy), 1 bus. -|- 1 bus. snuill

grain.
Wheat 0-9 pks.

»«»iM f gggggggSgggSggggggg :gggggggggg

jCqiomix

•I0 0l0»0»i3 -Ui •IC»0U^»0»^»C»C

sao^Bmox

8.Ca

u^ u) O iC O lA lO

aojj qSnog

V 0) «

H
S

9!

5 as

.s ^

li

W a:
« g

H C3

iCi{foni{x

»af J qSno^

B90JBJ0J

a»00

»ait!W

snij'j

(paasnt))
psMxeij

(puBidji)
paasuoiioQ

[Baai njoQ

jsa a] luoo

tUOQ

IBOQ

nwg

Mwa-anig

■u«ag

iC»H«a

SSoS^^QS

25 o o 55 ■ 55

• BsS • • -3

soooooc

9«0<0<000<:

■ usS -o • -3

5d 95 55 95 55 55 CO

? c^ O 5^ N 00 00
5 Tf 3 ■^ •^ •* '1"

8 :8

9[ddnpe)j(j>

M|ddy

:S :a :a

So "3 •"

is

c3a

OOO -O -Q ■

00X00 -00 -00 •

CO 3 coo 55 55 ^55

opo

l-OO •!

■ff fl-s O
-c o s-axja

• : c c

• ■£■§£:
i.2 c>1

zz

408

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 6
Fektilizing Constituents in 100 Pounds of Various Substances

Acid phosphate

Alfalfa, creen

Alfalfa, nay

Ammonium sulfate

Apples

Apple pomace

Ashes, average

Ash of evergreen trees

Ash of hardwood trees

Ashes, leached

Barley

Barley straw

Beans

Bean straw

Beet, mangel

Beet, sugar

Blood, dried

Bone meal

Brewers' grains, dry

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat middlings

Cabbage

Carrots

Clover (red), green

Clover hay

Com, grain

Com fodder, with ears

Com fodder, green, with ears

Com stover

Com silage

Com cobs

Cotton, lint

Cotton, seed

Cottonseed meal

Gluten meal

Guano, Peruvian

Hominy feed

Kainit

Linseed meal

Malt sprouts

Milk, cows'

Milk, skimmed

Mixed hay

Nitrate of potash

Nitrate of soda

Oat, grain

■ Oat straw

Peas

Pea-vine straw

Potatoes

I'otassium, muriate of, 80 per cent
Potassium, sulfate of, 90 per cent .

Pumpkin

Rice

Rice hulls

Water

12.0
76.0
15.3
4.0
84.7
74.0

■ 5 .6

5.0
30.2
14.3
14.2
14.5

5.3
91.9
82.0

8.5
13.0

9.5
76.2
14.1
15.6
12.0
85.6
87.0
79.0
17.0
13.0
42.2
82.8
40.5
77.9
10.7

10.3

8.8

8.6

15.0

8.9

12.7

8.9

12.0

87.2

90.4

13.7

1.9

1.4

13.3

14.5

14.0

13.6

75.0

1.1

2.2

92.3

12.4

8.2

Nitrogen (N)

.62

1.76

20.50

.05

.17

1.39

1.31

4.08

1.14

.19

.17

13.50

2.30

2.51

.62

1.23

1.18

3.52

.28

.12

.46

1.08

1.26

.40

.16

.27

.14

.37

.28

3.07

5.95

4.12

7.00

1.20

4.(58

2.97

.53

.56

.99

13.09

15.7

1.47

.19

2.68

.68

.14

.11

1.08

.58

Phosphoric

Potash

acid (P^^^)

(KjO)

15.20

.15

.35

.61

1.79

'■.02

■ '.ii

.01

.03

1.53

5.13

2.50

6.00

3.50

10.00

1.51

1.27

.79

.48

0.3

2.09

1.21

1.29

.21

1.84

.09

.38

.08

.37

1.35

.77

17.60

.01

1.61

.20

.42

.05

.69

.30

.42

1.27

1.23

1.14

.22

.52

.09

.26

.15

.48

.55

1.87

.57

.37

.29

1.40

.11

.39

.38

1.64

.11

.37

.04

.43

.07

.64

1.02

1.16

3.04

1.58

.33

14.00

.98

1.66

1.74

.19

.20

.41

.69
.28
.84
.35
.16

.16
.18
.17

APPENDIX

409

Table 6, continued

Rice bran

Rice polish ....

Rye

Rye straw

Rye bran

Soy-bean

Soy-bean straw . .
Timothy hay . . . .
Tobacco stems .

Turnips

Wheat

Wheat bran

Wheat middhngs
Wheat straw . . . .

Water

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphoric
acid (P^^^)

Potash
(KjO)

9.7

.71

.29

.24

10.0

1.97

2.67

.71

13.4

1.58

.86

.58

7.1

.46

.28

.79

12.5

1.84

2.28

1.40

11.8

5.30

1.87

1.90

14.1

1.41

.33

.77

14.3

.44

.50

1.41

18.0

1.64

.92

2.82

90.5

.18

.10

.39

13.4

1.63

.87

.55

13.2

1.95

2.69

1.52

12.6

2.04

1.35

.74

13.6

.06

.22

.63

TABLE 7
Feeding Standards Per Day Per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight '^

Digestible

Dry

Nutritive

Carbohy-

Protein

drates and

Total

fat (X 2.25)
Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

Pounds

Horses lightly worked

20

1.5

10.4

11.9

1:6.9

Horses moderately worked

24

2.0

12.4

14.4

1:6.2

Horses heavily worked

26

2.5

15.1

17.6

1:6.0

Milch cows, Wolff's standard .. .

24

2.5

13.4

15.9

1:5.4

Milch cows, when yielding daily .

1 1 pounds milk

25

1.6

10.7

12.3

1:6.7

16.6 pounds milk

27

2.0

11.9

13.9

1:6.0

22.0 pounds milk

29

2.5

14.1

16.6

1:5.6

27.5 pounds milk

32

3;j

14.8

18.1

1:4.5

Oxen at rest in the stall

18

0.7

8.2

8.9

1:11.7

O.xen moderately worked

25

2.0

12.6

14.6

1:6.3

28

2.8

14.8

17.6

1:5.3

Fattening cattle, preliminary

period

30

2.5

16.1

18.6

1:6.4

Flattening cattle, main period . .

30

3.0

16.1

19.1

1:5.4

Fattening cattle, finishing period
Breeding ewes, with lambs

26

2.7

16.6

19.3

1:6.1

25

2.9

16.1

19.0

1:5.6

Wool sheep, coarser breeds

20

1.2

11.0

12.2

1:9.2

Wool sheep, finer breeds

23

1.5

12.7

14.2

1:8.5

Fattening sheep, preliminary

period

30

3.0

16.1

19.1

1:5.4

Fattening sheep, main period. . .

28

3.5

15.9

19.4

1:4.5

Brood sows

22

2.5

16.4

18.9

1:6.6

Fattening swine, preliminary

period

36

4.5

26.6

31.1

1:5.9

Fattening swine, main period. . .

32

4.0

25.1

29.1

1:6.3

Fattening swine, finishing period

25

2.7

18.9

21.6

1:7.0

Poultry, growing chickens' ....

1:4.0

Poultry, for egg-prod\iction* . .

65

8.2

39.4

47.6

1:4.8

Poultry, for fattening'

1:7.6

■•For discussion of these tables, see Henry's Feeds and Feeding, page 635,
*From data furnished by J. E. Rice.

410

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 8
Digestible NtJTRiENTs in 100 Pounds or Various Feeding-Stuffs*

Kind of fefd

Total dry
matter

Alfalfa, green

Alfalfa hay

Apples

Apple p)omace

Barley, grain

Bean straw

Beet, mangel

Beet, sugar

Blood, dried_

Brewers' grain-', dry

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat, grain

Buckwheat middlings

Cabbage

Carrot

Clover (red), green

Clover (red\ hay

Com-and-cob meal

Com fodder, green

Com fodder, dry

Corn, grain

Corn silage

Corn stover

Cottonseed meal

Cowpeas

Gluten meal

Hominy chops

Hungarian hay

Linseed meal (new process)
Linseed meal (old process)

Malt sprouts

Meat scrap

Milk, cows'

Skim-milk, centrifugal

Skim-milk, gravity

Butter milk

Whey

Hay of mixed grasses ....

Oat straw

Oats, grain

Peas, grain

Peas-and-barley, green ....

Peas-and-oats, green

Pea-vine straw

Pea-vine silage

Potatoes

Pumpkin, field

Rye, grain

Rye bran

Rye straw

Soy-bean

Sugar-beet leaves

Sugar-beet molasses

28.2
91.6
19.0
23.3
89.1
95.0
9.1
13.5
91.5
91.8
24.3
89.5
87.4
87.3
15.3
11.4
29.2
84.7
81.9
20.7
57.8
89.1
20.9
.59.5
91.8
85.2
91.8
88.9
92.3
89.9
90.8
89.8
89.3
12.8
9.4
9.6
9.9
6.6
87.1
90.8
89.0
89.5
16.0
16.0
86.4
27.0
21.1
19.1
88.4
88.4
92.9
89.2
12.0
79.2

Pounds of digestible nutrientH

29.3

18.6

66.2

3.6

2.9

3.1

3.9

0.8

5.9

1.2

9.2

16.8

1.7

1.8

4.3

2.5

.9

1.4

9.9

11.5

.6

29.6

1.7

9.1

Carbohy-

Protein

drates -»-

(fatX2.2S)

3.9

13.8

11.0

42.3

.1

18.8

1.1

16.4

8.7

69.1

3.6

39.7

1.1

5.6

1.1

10.4

52.3

5.6

15.7

47.8

3.9

12.5

7.4

34.7

1 .1

53.3

22.0

45.6

1.8

9.1

.8

8.3

2.9

16.4

6.8

39.6

4.4

66.5

1.0

12.5

2.5

37.3

7.9

76.4

.9

12.9

1.7

34.0

37.2

44.4

18.3

56.7

25.8

68.1

7.5

70.5

4.5

.54.6

28.2

46.4

48.5

40.9

31.1

13.2

5.9

6.5

6.5

5.4

43.6

40.4

56.8

53.4

7.7

7.6

34.1

14.1

16.5

6.5

70.1

54.8

41.5

54.7

5.1

59.5

Total

17.7
53.3
19.5
17.5
77.8
43.3

6.7
11.5
57.9
63.5
16.4
42.1
61.0
67.6
10.9

9.1
19.3
46.4
70.9
13.5
39.8
843
13.8
35.7
81.6
75.0
93.9
78.0
.59.1
74.6
77.8
59.5
97.3
16.8

8.8

9.6
10.4

6.2
49.5
41.6
66.0
70.2

9.4

9.4
38.4
16.6
17.4

7.9
80.0
66.3
42.1
84.3

6.8
68.6

*^ Adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding.

APPENDIX

411

Table 8, continued

Kind of feed

Sugar-beet pulp .
Timothy hay ....
Turnip, flat . . . .
Wheat, grain . .. .

Wheat bran

Wh°at middliriKs
Wheat straw ....

Pounds of digestible nutrients {

Total dry

Oarbohy-

Protein

drateM +
(fat X 2.25)

Total

10.2

.6

7.3

7.9

86.8

2.8

46.6

49.4

9.5

1.0

7.7

8.7

89.5

10.2

73.0

83.2

88.1

12.2

45.3

57.5

87.9

12.8

60.7 ■

73.5

90.4

.4

37.2

37.6

Nutritive
ratio

12.2
16.6
7.7
7.2
3.7
4.7
9.3

TABLE 9

Production Values Per 100 Pounds of Various Feeding Stuffs

The following table is computed according to Kellner (Pennsylvania
Bulletin No. 84, Farmers' Bulletin No. 346). The figures in the last
column give approximate comparative values of different feeds for
producing gains in mature fattening cattle. A pound of timothy hay
produces f^ as much gain as a pound of corn. Clover hay is %% as
effective as oats, ^\^lile these figures are for fattening cattle, it seems
probable that they represent the relative values of these feeding stuffs
for sheep and, probably, for horses, and for growth and milk-produc-
tion as well as for fattening. They are unquestionably the best appro.xi-
mation that we have to the comparative values of these feeds. (See page
289.)

Feeding stntT

Total dry
matter

Green fodder and silage: Pounds

Alfalfa 28.2

Clover (red) 29.2

Com fodder 20.7

Com silage 25.6

Hungarian grass ... . 28.9

Rve 23.4

Timothy j 38.4

Hay and dry coame I
fodders:

Alfalfa hay 91.6

Clover hay (red) 84.7

Corn fodder, field- :

cured 67.8

Com stover 59.5

Cowpea hay 89.3

ilungarian hay I 92.3

Oat hay 84.0

Soybean hay 88.7

Timothy hay 86.8

Digestible

Total
crude fiber

Pounds

7.4
8.1
5.0
5.8
9.2
11.6
11.8

25.0
24.8

14.3
19.7
20.1
27.7
27.2
22.3
29.6

2.50
2.21
.41
1.21
1.33
1.44
1.04

6.93
5.41

2.13
1.80
8.57
3.00
2.59
7.68
2.05

Carbohy-
drates

Fat

Pounds

Pounds

11.20

0.41

14.82

.69

12.08

37

14.56

.88

15.63

-36

14.11

.44

21.22

.64

37.33

1.38

38.15

1.81

32.34

1.15

33.16

.57

38.40

1.51

51.67

1.34

33.35

1.67

38.72

1.54

43.72

1.43

Produc-
tion value

Therms

10.80
14.52
11.02
14.26
13.14
10.31
17.80

MAI
34.74

30.53
26.53
42.76
44.03
36.97
38.65
33.56

412

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

Table 9, continued

Feeding stuff

Straws:

Oat

Rye

Wheat

Roots, etc.:

Carrots

Mangels

Potatoes

Tumipe

Grain*;

Barley

Com

Com-and-cob meal

Oats

Rye

Wheat

Bu-prodiicis:

Brewers' grains, wet
Cottonseed meal ...
(iluten feed, dry . . .
Gluten meal, Buffalo
Linseed fneal —

Old process. . .

New process .

Malt sprouts

Rye bran

Wheat bran

Total dry

Total

matter

crudefitier

Pounds

Pounds

90.8

37.0

92.9

38.9

90.4

38.1

11.4

1.3

9.1

.8

21.1

.6

9.5

1.2

89.1

2.7

89.1

2.1

84.9

6.6

89.0

9.5

88.4

1.7

89.5

1.8

24.3

3.8

91.8

5.6

91.9

6.4

91.8

6.1

90.8

8.9

90.1

8.8

89.8

10.7

88.2

3.3

88.5

9.0

Digestible

Proteids ^r^h^

1.09
.63
.37

.37
.14
.45
.22

8.37
6.79
4.53
8.36
8.12
8.90

3.81
35.15
19.95
21.56

27.54
29.26
12.36
11.35
10.21

drates

38.64
40.58
36.30

7.83

5.65

16.43

6.46

64.83
66 12
60.06
48.34
69.73
69.21

9.37
16.52
54.22
43.02

32.81
38.72
43.60
52.40
41.23

Fat

Pounds

.76
Ji8
.40

.22
.11

1.60
4.97
2.94
4.18
1.36
1.68

1.38
12.58

5.35
11.87

7.06
2.90
1.16
1.79

2.87

Produc-
tion value

21.21
20.87
16.56

7.82

4.62

18.05

5.74

80.75
88.84
72.05
66.27
81.72
82.63

14.82
84.20
79.32
85.46

78.92
74.67
46.33
56.65
48.23

TABLE 10
Average Weights of Different Feeding-Stuffs^

Feeding stuff

Barley meal

Barley, whote

Brewers' dried grains. .
Com-and-cob meal . . . .

Com-and-oat feed

Com bran

Com meal

Com, whole

Cotton.seed meal

Distillers' grains, dried

One (juart
weighs

Pounds
1.1

1.5
0.6
1.4
0.7
0.5
1.5
1.7
1.5
0.5-0.7

One pound
measures

Quarts

0.9
0.7
1.7
0.7
1.4
2.0
0.7
0.6
0.7
1.0-1.4

^Farmers' Bulletin No. 223

APPENDIX

413

Table 10, continued

Feeding stuff

Germ oil meal

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

Hominy meal

Linseed meal, new process .
Linseed meal, eld process . . .

Malt sprouts

Oats, ground

Oats, whole

Rye bran

Rye meal

Rye, whole

Wheat bran

Wheat, ground

Wheat middlings (flour) . . .
Wheat middlings (standard).
Wheat, whole

One quart One p>ound
weighs ; measures

TABLE 11

Values of Leadino Agricultural Products in the United States

FOR THE Year 1899

Com $828,000,000

Animals sold 723,000,000

Hav and forage 484,0O(),(X)0

Millc, butter and cheese 472,000,000

Cotton and cottonseed 371,(XX),000

Wheat :i70,(X)0,000

Poultry and eggs 281,000.000

Oats 217,000,000

Animals slaughtered 190,000,000

MiscellaneouH vegetables 1 14,000,000

Forest })rotlucts (i. e., by-products of the farm, not in-
cluding the luml)er industry) 110,000,000

Potatoes 98,000,000

(Jrchard products 84,000,000

Tobacco 57,000,000

Wool 40,000,000

Barley 42,0()0.(XX)

Small fruits 2*),000,000

Sugar-cane and products 21,(KX),000

Sweet potato<>s 20,(XX),(X)0

Flax seefl 20,000.000

414

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 12

Agriculture Compared with Manufacturing

Total capital invested in manufacturing, 1899 $9,874,664,087

Total value of all farm property, 1899 20,514,001,838

Total horse power employed in factories, 1899 11,300,081

.Total number of horses and mules on farms, 1899 18,276,551

Value of Imports and Exports for the Year Ending
June 30, 1907

All agricultural exports $1,147,354,121

All agricultural imports 749,257,584

Balance of trade $;J98,096,537

All other exports 733,496,957

All other imports 685,163,841

Balance of trade $48,333,116

TABLE 13

Values op Agricultural Imports and Exports for Year Ending

June 30, 1907

Cattle, live

All other live animals

Dairy products

Beef

Hides and skins other than furs . . .

Lard

Pork

All other packing-house products . .
Wool, and hair of the camel, goat, etc

Silk

All other animal matter

Com and com meal

Wheat and wheat flour

All other grain and grain products ..
Flaxseed, linseed oil and oil cake . .
Alcoholic liquors

Amount carried forward

Imports

$565,122
3,779,160
5,832,035

83,206,545

12,768,326

41,534,028

71,411,899

5,370,181

8,337

396,095

4,060,371

129,836

22,104,235

$251,166,170

Exi>ort3

$34,577,392

6,625,688

6,633,226

31,831,263

1,760,032

57,497,980

66,767,58:i

45,599,278

48,820

37,709

3,419,358

46,576,226

122,389,785

15,433,139

16,869,972

3,314,578

$459,382,029

APPENDIX

Table 13, continued

415

Amount brought forward ....

Cotton

All other vegetable fibers

Cottonseed, tjottonseed oil and oil cake

Rubber

All other forest products

Nuts

Sugar

Bananas

All other fruits, dried, preserved or

fresh

(^ocoa and chocolate

Coffee

Tea

Tobacco

All other vegetable matter

Total

Imports

$251,166,170
19,930,988
41,239,538

60,536,072
61,884,704
9,742,883
92,806,253
11,883,168

14,241,109
14,578,980
78,231,902
13,915,544
26,059,985
53,040,288

$749,257,584

Exports

$459,382,029
481,277,797

24,346,496

92,948,705
382,165
831,162

17,206,267

376,467

4,989,417

33,377,398
32,236,224

$1,147,354,121

416

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 14
Crop Statistics for Continental United States i

Com

Wheat

Oats

Barley

Rye

Average num-
ber of acres
1867-1876...
1877-1886...
18S7-1896...
1897-1906...

38,688,449
6.3,408,900
74,290,879
87.971,235

21,690,478
35,062.189
36,583,809
45.540,593

10.195..566
17,826 840
26,919,9.-)4
27,689,458

1,323.839
2.1, '53.883
3.164.889
4.158.986

1.338.763
1.936.360
2.077 653
1.799.512

Average p r o -
duction —
1867-1876...
1877-1886...
1887-1896...
1897-1906...

Bu.shels

1,011,535,800
1,575,626.651
1,800,271,093
2,240.363,473

Bu.shels

258,407,900
436,726,976
464,093,443
631,181.626

Bushels

278,267.071
491.482.427
686,859.971
835,644.006

Bu.shels

29.735,169

48.137.782

72.117,116

108.684.958

Bushels

18.217,420
24,880,175
26,784,385
28,341,965

Average yield
per aero —
1867-1876...
1877-1886...
18S7-1896...
1897-1906...

Bushels

26.2
25.1
24.0
25.^

Bushels

12.0
12.5
12.7
13.8

Bushels

27.5
27.8
25.5
30.1

Bushels

22.8
22.4
22.7
25.5

Bushels

13.6
13.0
12.9
15.7

Average 'total
value —
1 867- 1876...
1877-1886. .
18S7- 1896 . . .
1897-1906...

$457,000,523
625,623,878
6;«,694,378
869.575,310

8262.245,463
388.867.604
319,632,.591
431.717.233

S 103.40 1.326
157.859.103
193.005.251
246.936.31 1

$23,030,837
28.842.694
33.305.476
46.158,110

$14,094,.508
15,454,005
14,487,116
15,444.264

Average value
1867-1876...
1877-1886...
1887-1896...
1897-1906...

Per bushel.
Cents
46.5
40.3
36.6
39.0

Per bushel.
Cents
103.0
89.8
68.7
68.8

Per bushel,
(^nts
37.5
32.5
28.7
29.4

Per bushel
Cents
78.3
60.9
46.6
42.1

Per bushel.
Cents
76.0
62.8
53.6
54.3

Talculatod from Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture.
The average yields per acre and value per bu.shel as here calculated are the
a\'erage.s of the ten yearly averages.

A PPENDIX

417

TABLE 14
Crop Statistics for Continental United States

Hay

Potatoes

Buckwheat

Cotton

Average number

of acres

1867-1876

21.188,781

1,328,050

691,863

1877-1886

31,931,516

2,052,491

803,071

1887-1896

46,721,489

2,651,848

833.871

1897-1906

40,665 523

2.805,707

746,764

Average pro-

Tons

Bushels

Bushels

Pounds of lint

duction —

1867- 1876

25,837,580

119,028,570

12,0.->6.270

1.592,672,300

1877-1886

39,379,146

157,550,905

11,396.686

2,711,681,000

1887-1806

56,276,752

200,401,101

12.656,297

3,768.380.100

1897-1906

58.393,644

241,700.116

13.551.552

5,242,555.500

Averago yield per

Tons

Bushels

Bushels

acre —

1867-1876

1.22

90.0

17.6

1877-1886

1.24

81.4

14.5

1887-1896

1.20

75.0

15.3

1897-1906

1.43

85.5

18.1

Average total

value —

1867-1876

$292,436,319

$65,413,492

$8,837,488

$232,360,987

1877-1886

356,197,702

82.197.677

7,240,815

252.972,074

1887-1896

457,121,860

89.880.929

6,713,646

279,492,062

1897-1906

489.912,828

124.812.869

7,556,820

468.843.688

Per ton.

Per bu.shel.

Per bushel.

Per pound.

Average value

Cents

Cents

Cents

1867-1876

$11 44

56.4

72.4

13.9

1877-1886

9 15

51.4

65.0

9.3

1887-1896

8 21

49.0

53.5

7.5

1897-1906

8 45

52.2

55.6

8.7

Averaite production —

1867-1876

1877-1886

]S«7-1896

1897-1906

Pounds
134.936.928
241 586.016
491.266.048
633.712.352

Pounds

784 000

1.318.912

29,556.800

386.280,832

418

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 15

Numbers and Values of Farm Animals in Continental

United States

Average
Total number

Average
Total value

Average

Value
per head

Horsea —

1867-1876

8.122.847
11.022.680
14.640,702
15.787,407

1,175.543
1,788,987
2,280.411
2.602 J73

9.998.355
12.616.159
15,861,965
16,948,692

14,957,992
24,227,144
35,331,043
38.463.070

35.714.438
43,756,701
43,652,314
48.866,599

27.761,442
38,821,536
47,219,664
45,512,764

$516,776,357
693 368.517
859.623.091
877.903.759

92.287,376
128.281,822
158.260,797
176,754,293

283.515,175
336.001.308
360.505,202
487,693,745

265,992,932
475,656,436
562,422,695
713,738,958

80,586,544

97,979,426

94,192,051

134,085,793

126,707,584
196,704,251
237,864,737
265,059,503

$63 19

1877-1886

62 67

1887-1896

59 51

1897-1906

54 05

Mules —

1867-1876

77 66

1877-1886

71 02

1887-1896

69 55

1897-1906

Milch cows —

1867-1876

65 25
28 42

1877-1886

26 47

1887-1896

22 79

1897-1906

28 74

Other cattle—

1867-1876

17 69

1877-1886

19 12

15 96

1897-1906

18 98

Sheep —

2 27

1877-1886

2 23

2 15

1897-1906

2 72

Swine —

1867-1876

4 58

1877-1886

5 02

5 04

1897-1906

5 72

TABLE 16

Various Statistics Showing the Progress of Agriculture in

THE United States. (Froii Census Reports.)

Total
population

Number
of farms

Acres of farm land

Year

Total

Improved

Average per
farm

Total

Im-
proved

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

23,191,876
31,443,321
38,558,371
50,155,783
62,622,250
75,994,575

1,449,073
2,044,077
2.6.'^.9,985
4.008,907
4,.564.641
5,739,657

293,560,614
407,212,538
407,735,041
536,081,835
623,218,619
841,201,546

113,032,614
163,110,720
188,921,099
284,771,042
357,616,755
414,793,191

202.6
199.2
153.3
133.7
136.5
146.6

78.0
79.8
71.0
71.0
78.3
72.3

APPENDIX

419

Table 16, continued

Year

Value of all farm
property

Value of farm land with

improvements,

including buildings

Average value

of farm

implements

Total

Value per
farm

Total

Average
per acre

Per
farm

Per
acre

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

$3,967,343,580
7,980,493,063
8,944,857 749
12, 180,501, .538
16.082,267,689
20,514,001,838

$2,738
3,904
3,363
3,038
3,523
3,574

$3,271,575,426
6,615,045,007
7,444,054,462
10,197,096,776
13,279,252,649
16,674,690,247

$11 14
16 32

18 26

19 02
21 31
19 82

$105
120
102
101
108
133

$0 52
60
66
76
79
90

Value of live stock

Value of farm products
not fed to live stock

Year

Total

Average

Total

Average

Per
farm

Per
acre

Per
farm

Per
acre

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

$544,180,516
1,089,329,915
1,229,889,610
1,576,884,707
2.308.767.573
3.078,050,041

$376
533
462
393
506
536

$1 85

2 68

3 02

2 94

3 70
3 66

$1,958,030,927
2,212,540.927
2,460.107,4.54
4,7.39,118,752

$737
552
538
826

$4 80

4 12
3 95

5 63

Year

Total
expenditures
for fertilizers

1880 $28,586,397

3890 ' 38,469.598

1900 54.783.757

Per cent , Number of
of acres per

rented farms male worker

55.5
28.4
35.3

23.3

27.5
31 0

Number of
horses^ |jer I
male worker

1.7
2.2
2.3

Number of

acres per

horse'

13.5
12.4
13.5

* Includes number of horses, mules and asses on farms.

420

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 17
Average Wages of Farm Labor ^

Per month

Per day

Per day
during harvest

Difference
per day

with and

without

board

Year

With
board

Without
board

With
board

Without
board

With
board

Without
board

1866

1869 ......

1875

1879

1882

1885

1888

1890

1892

1893

1894

1895

1898

1899

1902

$17 45
16 55
12 72
10 43
12 41
12 34
12 36
12 45

12 54

13 29
12 16

12 02

13 43

14 07
16 40

$26 87
25 92
19 87

16 42
18 94

17 97

18 24
18 33

18 60

19 10
17 74
17 69

19 38

20 23
22 14

$1 08
1 02
78
59
67
67
67
68
67
69
63
62
72
77
89

$1 49

1 41

1 08

81

93

91

92

92

92

89

81

81

96

1 01

1 13

$1 74
1 74
1 35
1 00
1 15
1 10
1 02
1 02
1 02
1 03
93
92
1 05
1 12
1 34

$2 20
2 20
1 70
1 30
1 48
1 40
1 31
1 30
1 30
1 24
1 13
1 14
1 30
1 37
1 63

$0 46
46
35
30
33
30
29
28
28
21
20
22
25
25
19

^Bureau of Statistics Bulletin No. 28.

TABLE 18
RULES

Measuring Grain. — A bushel of prain contains approximately
I cubic feet. To determine the capacity of a bin, find the number
of cubic feet and multiply by i, or multiply by 8 and divide by 10.

Measuring Ear Com. — It requires about two bushels of ear corn
to make one bushel shelled. To find the capacity of a crib, find the
number of cubic feet and multiply by | or n>.

Measuring Hay. — The quantity of hay in a mow is very hard to
estimate accurately. The deeper the day is, the harder it will be packed.
Some kinds of hay are heavier than others, the longer it stands the
more compact it becomes. Settled hay will usually weigh about five
pounds per cubic foot. Or, 400 cubic feet will weigh one ton.

Measuring Land. — The easiest way to calculate land measurements
is to figure 160 square rods as one acre. A strip one rod wide and 100
rods long, therefore, equals an acre, as does a strip four rods wide and
40 rods long, or eight rods wide and 20 rods long, etc.

A surveyor's chain is four rods long. It is divided into 100 links,
so that all calculations are in decimals. Ten square chains equal one
acre.

Square Measure Equivalents

Acre Sq. mile

Sq. in.

Sq. ft. Sq. yd. S

5. rod A

144=

1

1,296=

9 = 1

39,204=

272i= 30 i=

1

6,272,640=

43,560 = 4,840 =

160=

1

4,014,489,600=27,878,400 =3,097,600 =102,400=640= 1

INDEX

Abbre\'iations, 35.

Afcounts, importance of, 380; kind to
keep. 380; ledger. 382; methods of
keeping, 380; milk record. 337; refer-
ences, ;i88; work report, :i81;

Acid phosphate, 123; fertility in, 408.

Addres.ses of colleges and experiment
stations, 403.

Age of horses, how told, 308.

.\gricultural colleges, addresses of, 403.

.■\gricultural exports, 414.

Agricultural imports, 414.

Agricultural technology, defined, 2.

Agriculture, compared with manufactur-
ing, 414; defined. 1; divisions of. 2.

Alfalfa, discussion of, 188; composition
of, 284; culture, 189; digestibility of,
287; digestible food per acre, 410;
digestible nutrients in. 410; fertility
in. 408; for hogs. 360; histor>', 188;
inoculation, 118. 192; lime for, 126;
190; production value as food. 411;
references, 242; rotations with, 279;
.«<eed, number per pound, 32; seed,
source and hardines.*, 9; seeding rate.
32. 191. 405; seed references, 59;
.soils for, 190; value per ton, 189.

Alkali, 90; result of canal .seepage, 90.

.\mmonium sulfate, 122; fertility in, 408.

.Animal f<x)d, importance of, 281.

Animal products, 284.

.■\nimals, composition of, 60.

Angus cattle, 325, 327.

.\nfher, defined, 1 1.

Apparatus, 400.

.Apple, adaptation of varieties, 9; care
of when not l)earing, 70; crown gall,
2.'>0; digpstii)|p nutrients in, 410;
dwarf, 47: fertility in, 408; maggot,
258; oiiginul form, 10; Paradise stock
for dwarfing. 47; propagation of,
42, 44, 45; reterences, 243, 270; scab.
253; spray ins. 265.

.Apple pomace, digestible nutrients in,
410; fertility in. 408.

.Apple worm. See Codling moth.

.Apples, weight per bushel, 406.

.Arsenate of lead, 264.

.Asexual reproduction, defined, 12.

Ash, amount in feeds, 283; function
of, in feeds, 285; how determined,
283.

.Ashes, lime in, 128; fertility in, 125,
408.

.Asparagus, references, 243; time to fer-
tilize, 70.

Ayrshire cattle. 225, 230; fat in milk.
328.

Babcock milk test, 335; method of
making, 345.

Bacteria, described, 97, 248; impor-
tance in soil, 97; relation to agricul-
ture. 1.

Balanced rations, discussion of, 292;
cautions in using, 296.

Bananas, exports and imports, 415.

Barley, amount of water requiretl, 67;
as a nurse crop, 183; averages for
ten-year periods in the United States,
acreage, production, yield per acre,
total value, value per acre, value per
bushel, 416; crop of the world, 154;
digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility
in, 408; manure for, 137; oats and
peas, 182; production value as feed,
412; rotations with, 277; seed vital-
ity, 405; seeding rate, 405; value of
United States crop, 155, 413. 416;
weight per bushel. 406; weight per
quart. 412.

Barley meal, weight per quart, 412.

Barley straw, fertility in, 40S.

Barnyard iiianun*. See Manure.

Basic slag, 124.

Bathroom, 391.

(421)

422

INDEX

Bean, blight of, 250; fertility in. 408;
inoculation, 192; references. 243;
seed \-itality, 405; seeding rate. 405;
weight per bushel, 406.

Bean straw, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in, 408.

Bedding, effect on manure, 138.

Beef, production, 333; exports and im-
ports, 414; references, 349.

Bee-keeping, reference, 271.

Beet, lime "requirement, 126; seed
vitality, 405. See Sugar beet and
Mangel.

Begonia, propagation of, 42.

Belgian horses. 307, 308.

Berkshire hogs, 358, 360.

Bermuda grass. 187.

Birds, reference, 271.

Bits. 312.

Black-leg, 341.

Black-knot, 251.

Blight, fire, 249; potato, 254.

Blinders. 313.

Blood, dried, as a fertilizer, 123; diges-
tible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408.

Blossom, parts of, 11.

Blue-grass, 185; reproduction of, 38;
seed, cause of jioor, 54; seeding, rate,
186, 196, 197, 405; weight per bushel,
406.

Boll-weevil. See Cotton boll- weevil.

Book-keeping. See Accounts.

Bone meal, as a fertilizer, 123, 124;
fertiUty in, 408; for hogs, 286.

Bordeaux mixture, 261; preparation of,
263, 269.

Botany, relation to agriculture, 1.

Bran, weight per bushel, 406.

Bread mold, 251.

Breathing pores, 67.

Breeding, chapter on, 5; cattle, 19, 21,
22, 23; farms, 31; horses, 19, 23; plant
vs. animal, 23; references, 34, 35;
steps in, 21. See Com, Cotton, etc.

Brewers' grains, digestible nutrients in,
410; fertility in, 408; production value
as feed, 412; weight per quart, 412.

Brome gra.ss, 186; .seeding rate, 405.

Broom-corn, references, 243.

Brown-rot, 252.

Brown-Swi!«s cattle, 325, 328.

Brown-tail moth, references, 271. '

Buckwheat, averages for ten-year
periods in the United States, acreage,
production, yield per acre, total
value, value per acre, value per
bushel, 417; digestible nutrients in,
410; effect of time of plowing on, 165;
fertility in, 408; for green-manure,
147; references, 243; seed vitality,
405; seeding rate, 405; weight per
bushel, 406.

Buckwheat bran, digestible nutrients
in. 410.

Buckwheat middlings, digestible nu-
trient* in. 410; fertility in. 408.

Budding. 43.

Buffalo grass. 37.

Buildings) farm houses. 391; prmltry.
366; references. 349. 362, 371, 388,
395.

Bur-clover, 206.

Butter, references, 350; value of, 413;
world's-record cow, 332.

Buttermilk, digestible nutrients in, 410.

Cabbage, black-rot, 250; digestible nu-
trients in, 410; fertility in, 408; seed
vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; worm,
259.

Calcium carbonate, 127.

Calcium, food for plants and animals,
60, 62.

Calves. See Cattle.

Cambium layer, 43, 2;il.

Canada blue-grass, 186.

Canada field peas. See Peas.

Cantaloupe, lime requirement, 126.

Capillary movement of water in soils,
85.

Capital, importance of, 377; invest-
ments in agriculture and manufac-
turing compared, 414.

Carbohydrates, fat equivalent of, 284;
function of in feeds, 286; in feeds, 284;
manufacture of, by plants, 68.

Carbon, amount in plants, 63; food for
plants and animals, 60, 61, 67.

Carbonate of lime, 127.

Carbonic acid gas. See Carbon.

INDEX

423

Carrot, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in, 408; production value as
feed, 412; seed vitality, 405; seeding
rate, 405.

Cattle, chapter on, 323; averages for
ten-year periods in the United States,
total number, total value, value per
head, 418; beef and dairy contrasted,
323; breeding, 19. 21, 22, 23, 333, 337;
breeds of, 322; care of 297, 324; com-
position of, 285; computing rations
for, 293; cottonseed for, 212; diseaseji,
337; exports and imports, 414; feed-
ing references, 299; feeding standards,
292, 296, 409; fertility of food re-
covered in manure, 138; grading up a
herd, 333, 337; manure, composition
and value of, 138, 139, 140; manure,
feed recovered in, 138; milk of dif-
ferent breeds compared, 328; num-
bers of, 357, 418; origin of polled, 8;
products, 333; rate of depreciation,
387; references, 299, 349; score cards,
342, 343; stables for, 297; types of,
323; value of, 357, 418; value of ma-
nure, 138, 140.

Celery, references, 243; seed \-itality,
405.

Cement floor, for poultry houses, 367;
manure saved by, 143.

Certified milk, 336.

Cesspool, 392.

Cheese, references, 349; value of, 413.

Chemistry, relation to agriculture, 1.

Cherries, black-knot of, 251; brown-rot
of, 252; propagation of, 42, 44, 45.

Cheshire hogs, 350, 359.

Chester White hogs, 358, 360.

Chestnut, grafting, 42.

CHieviot sheep, 35.

Chickens. .See Poultry.

Chinch-bug, control of, 259.

Chlorin. food for plants and animals,
60. 62.

Chocolate, exports and imports, 415.

Choice of a farm, 372.

Citrus fruits, references, 243, 271.

Climate, effect of forests on. 220; for
alfalfa, 190; for com. 157; for cotton,
199. 205; for oats, 181; for potafoss

and roots, 160; for wheat, 180; ques-
tions on, 237. I

Clover, alsike, 194; soils for alsike, 194;
bur-, 206; comjwsition of, 284; diges-
tible food per acre, 189; digestible
nutrients in, 410; digestibility of,
287; fertility in, 408; for horses, 312;
green-manure, 147; inoculation, 192;
lime requirement, 126; method of
reproduction, 12; production value,
as feed, 292, 411; red, 193; references,
59. 152, 242; reproduction of, 36;
seed, good and poor, 52; seed mix-
tures with grass, 195; seed vitality,
405; seed weight per bushel, 406;
seeding rate, 193, 195, 196. 197, 405;
time to cut, 70, 71; varieties adapted
to pasture, 36; water requirement,
67; white, 195.

Cion, effect of root on stock, 47.

Oydesdale horses. 307, 308.

Coal, weight per bushel, 406.

Cocoa, e.xp)orts and imf>orts, 415.

Codling-moth, life history and control
of, 257, 258.

Coffee, exports and imports, 415.

Collateral readings, 3, 34, 59, 74, 108,
152, 242, 270, 280, 299, 321, 349.
356,361, 371, 388, 395. 399. 401, 403;
how to secure bulletins, 401; list of
books, 402.

Colleges, addresses of, 403.

Concentrates compared with roughage,
189, 291, 411.

Condensed milk, 336.

Condimentftl feeds, 298.

Com, chapter on, 156; averages for ten-
year periods in the United States,
acreage, production, yield, per acre
total value, value per acre, value per
bushel, 416; barren stalks, 281;
breeding, 21, 25; broken stalks, 28;
' climate for, 157; composition of, 6.3,
284; composition at different stages
of growth, 175; composition of dent
and flint, 162; cost compared with
oats, 182; cultivation, depth for, 170;
dent, 162; digestible food per acre,
160; digestible nutrients in, 410-
digestibility of, 287, 290, 291; dia-

424

INDEX

tribution of, 156; ears, ideal, 49; ear-
row test, 26; exports and imports,
177. 414; fertility in, 408; fertilizers
for, 132. 163; fitting the land for. 166;
flint, 162; germination tests, 48; green-
manure crops seeded with, 147; har-
vesting methods and posts. 171; his-
tory, 156; lime requirement, 126;
method of measuring in cribs. 420;
method of testing gsrmination. 48;
method of storing seed, 26, 54; nativ-
ity of, 154; original form of, 10;
planting depth, 167 168; planting
methods 167; planting rate, 166, 174,
405; plowing for, 163; pollination of,
12; pod, 161; pop, 161; production
value as feed, 411: reasons for grow-
ing. 159; references. 34, 59. 242, 300,
362; roots, 171; root-worm, 254; rota-
tions with, 278, 279; score card, 238;
stands, poor, 48; seed, storing, 26;
seed testing, 54; seed vitality, 405;
smut, 36. 254; soft, 161; suckers, 28;
sweet, 162; time required to grow one
bushel, 301; types, of 161; uses of,
177; value of the crop, 155, 413, 416;
varieties, 162; varieties, composition
of, 162; varieties for the silo, 175;
water required, 67; weight per bushel,
406; weight per quart. 412.

Com-and-cob meal, digestible nutrients
in, 410; production value as feed,
412; weight per quart, 412.

Corn bran, weight per quart, 412.

Com cobs, fertility in, 408.

Com fodder, defined, 172; digestible
nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408;
production value as feed. 411.

Com. kafir.

Corn meal, maintenance value. 290.
291; production value. 291; weiglit
per bushel. 406; weight p)er quart.
412.

Corn silage, discussion of. 171; digestible
nutrients in, 410; effect of frost on,
175; effect on milk, 176; feeding. 176;
fertility in. 408; production value as
feed. 411; time to cut for. 174; vs.
fodder. 172. »

Com stover, defined, 192; digestible

nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408;
production value as feed, 411.

Cotswold sheep, 351, 354.

Cottolene, 212.

Cotton, chapter on, 198; averages for
ten-year periods in the United Btates,
production, total value, value per
pound. 417; bale, size of, 211; breed-
ing, 29. 202; climate for, 199, 205;
crop value and yields, 155, 198. 199,
201, 413; cultivating, 209; diseases
and insects, 214; exports and imports,
198, 415; fertility in lint, meal and
seed, 408; fertilizers for, 208; grades,
211; green-manure crops with, 147;
habits of growth, 200; har\'e8ting,
210; history, 199; lint, per cent of,
202; marketing, 211; planting, 209;
plowing for, 207; rotations with, 279;
references, 35, 242, 270; seed, heavy
vs. light, 53; seeding rate, 210, 405;
soils for, 206.

Cotton boll-weevil, 214, 257.

Cotton boll-worm. 215.

Cottonseed, products. 212; weight per
bushel. 406.

Cottonseed meal. 212; composition, 214;
production value as feed. 412; weight
per q»iart. 412.

Cottonwood, propagation of. 41.

Cows. .See Cattle.

Cowpea. as green-manure. 147, 206;
inooilation, 118; digestible nutrients
in, 410; lime requirement of, 126;
production value as feed, 411; refer-
ences, 243; rotations with, 279; seed-
ing rate, 405.

Cranberries, reference, 243, 271.

Cream separator, references, 349.

Cropping, chapter on systems of, 272.

Crops, choice of, 272; diversified, 273;
relative importance of, 154, 155.

Crop rotations. See Rotation of crops.

Cross-fertilization, 12.

Crossing plants, methods of, 13; when
desirable, 19.

Crown-gall, 250.

Crude fiber, 284.

Cucumber, beetle, 261; references, 243,
270; seed vitality, 405; wilt, 250.

INDEX

425

Culm, defined, 37.
Cultivator, 169.
Currants, propagation of, 41.
Cuttings, 41.

Dair>ing. See Cattle and Milk.

De Candolle's law, 9.

De-homing cattle, references, 350.

Delaine merino .sheep, 351, 352.

Devon cattle, 325. 328.

Digestibility, effect of time of harvest-
ing on, 288.

Digestible nutrients in feeds, 410;
method of finding, 288.

Diseases. .See Plant diseases. Cattle, etc.

Disinfectants, references, 270.

Disk-harrow, 166.

Distillers' grains, weight per quart, 412.

Dodder, 191, 254.

Dog, fencing to protect sheep, 355;
intelligence of, 315.

Dominant character, defined, 16.

Dorset horn sheep, 351, 354.

Double-tree, effect of height on draft,
306.

Drainage, by the government, 94; effect
during drought, 92; effect on temper-
ature, 82; for removal of alkali, 90;
kinds of, 93; lajnng tile, 93; necessity
for, 91; references, 108.

Dried blood. .See Blood.

Dry-land farming, 85, 87.

Dry matter, how determined, 72.

Ducks, reference, 371.

Durham. See Shorthorn.

Duroc-Jereey hogs, 358, 360

Dust mulch, 85.

Dutch belted cattle, 325.

Earthworms, 97.

Ekks, as food, reference, 300; compo-
sition of, 285; parts of, 368; value of,
363.

Eggplant, seed vitality, 405.

Embryo, defined, 11, 47.

Emmer, reference, 300.

P^ngiish .Shire horse, 307. 308

Environment, defined, 2, 3.

Equipment, 400.

Essex hogs, 358, 360.

Ether extract. See Fat.
Evaporation of soil-water, 85.
E.xperiment stations, addresses of, 403.
Exports, 414.

Fanning-mill, value of, 54.

Farm, best size of, 373; how to choose,
372; score card, 385; torK)graphy,375.

Farms, averages for ten-year periods
in the United States, number of
farms, total acreage, average size,
average improved area, value of all
farm property, value per farm, value
of land, value p)er acre, average size of
farms, average improved acreage,
\'alue of hve-stock, average per farm,
average per acre, value of products,
value per farm, value per acre, per
cent of rented farms, number of
acres per male worker, number of
acres per horse, average wages of
labor, 418, 419, 420.

Farm accounts. See Accounts.

Farm buildings. See Buildings.

Farm community, chapter on, 396.

Farm home, chapter on, 389; references,
395.

Farm house, modem improvements for,
391; type of building, 391.

Farm income defined, 387.

Farm labor. See Labor.

F'arm management, chapter on, 372;
references, 388.

Farm products, total value, value per
farm and per acre, 419.

Farm property, compared with that in
manufacturing, 414; value of, 414,
419; value per farm, 419.

Farm records. See Accounts.

Fannyard, 389.

Fat, defined, 283; cabohydrate equiva-
lent of, 286, 293; compared with car-
bohydrates, 68; composition of, 68;
fimction of, 286; how determined,
283; in feeds, 283 .

Feeding, chapter on, 281; horses, 311;
poultry, 365; standard.*), 293, 409;
references, 299, 349. ,

Feeds, chapter on, 281; balanced rations
292; cautions in using balanced ration,

426

INDEX

296; composition of. 282; computing
rations, 293; condimental, 298; di-
gestibility of, 287; effect of time of
harvesting on, 71, 183; fertility of,
recovered in manure, 138; functions
of, 285; maintenance values of, 289;
nutritive ratio, 293; production
values of, 289, 411; references, 299;
relative values of concentrates and
roughage, 189, 291, 411; weed seeds
in, reference, 270.

Fences, for sheep, 355; trees for pasts
in, 225.

Kerlility of the land, chapter on, 109.
.Se« Soil fertility.

Fertilization of blossoms, 12.

Fertilizers, amount spent for. 116, 419;
analyses, 129; cost, 129; effect of too
strong, 66; estimating value, 130;
for alfalfa, 190; for com, 132, 163;
for cotton, 208; grass, 132. 183;
legumes, 132; oats, 132, 181; wheat,
132, 180; home-mixing, 131; materials
used as, 114; references, 152, 153;
valuation, 129; when and what to
use. 111, 114, 132, 163, 181, 183,
184, 208. See Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potassium, Lime, Manure, Green-
manure.

Fertilizing constituents in various
substances, 408,

Fiber, crude. 284.

Fields, arrangement of, 223, 276; shape
and location, 374.

Filament, defined, 11.

Fire-blight, 249.

Fish as food, reference. 300.

Flax, seeding rate. 405; seed vitality,
405.

Flax-seed, exports and imports, 414;
value of crop, 413; weights per bushel,
406.

Flea-beetle, control of, 261.

Floats, 124; as reinforcement for
manure, 144, 149.

Flocculation, 83.

Flowers, 389.

Fly. life history of, 256.

Fodder, See Com.

Food, stored in seeds, 47.

Forest, discussion of, 216; area in
United States, 216; conservative
management of, 221; destmction of,
217; effect on climate, 220; impor-
tance of to irrigation, 89, 220; profits
from wood lots, 222; references, 243;
relation of the government to. 218;
reserves, 219; trees to plant, 226;
wood-lot management, 222.

Forest products, exports and imports,
415; value of, 155, 413.

Fowls. .See Poultry.

French coach horses, 307.

Fumigation of nursery stock, references,
270.

Fungi, attacking tree tmnks. 231;
description and control of. 250. 261.

Fungicides. 260; references. 270.

Fur, exports and imports of. 414.

Galloway cattle, 325, 327.

Galton's law. 5.

Gametes, defined, 12; See Mendel's

law, 14.
Garden, management of, 235; profits

from, 234; school, references, 371.
Geese, references, 371.
Geology, relation to agriculture, 1.
Geranium, propagation of, 41.
German coach horses, 307.
Germination, importance of vigorous,

48; method of testing, 48, 51.
Germ oil meal, weight per quart, 413.
Gipsy moth, references, 271.
Gluten meal, digestible nutrients in,

410; fertihty in, 408; from corn, 177;

production value as feed, 412; weight

per quart, 413.
Grafting, discussion of, 42; root, 45;

top, 46.
Grafting-wax, rule for making, 56.
Grain, method of measuring in bins,

420.
Grapes, propagation of, 41; references,

271.
Gras.ses, di-scussion of, 182.
Grass, and clover mixtures, 195; effect

on soil fertility, 120; fertilizers for,

132, 183; reproduction of, 37; soils

for, 82 See Meadows, Timothy, etc.

INDEX

427

Grasshoppers, life history, 257.

Green-manure, discussion of, 147, 206;
crops for, reference, 152.

Guano, fertility in, 408.

Guem.sey cattle, 325, 330, 332; fat in
milk of, 328.

Gypsum, 128; reinforcement for ma-
nure, 144. 149.

Hackney horses, 307, 308.

Hampshiredown sheep, 351, 354.

Hampshire hogs, 358, 359, 360.

Harrow, 166.

Haustoria, defined, 251.

Hay, averages for ten-year periods in
the United States, acreage, produc-
tion, yield per acre, total value, value
per acre, value per ton, 417; method
of measuring, 420; value of the crop,
1.55, 413, 416.

Heaves, 194,312.

Hens, composition of, 285. See Poultry.

Hereditary power, testing, 22.

Heredity, defined, 2; problems of, 13.

Hereford cattle, 325, 327; origin of
polled, 8.

Hides, e.xports and imports, 414.

Hogs, chapter on, 357; ash for, 285;
averages for ten-year periods in the
United States, total number, total
value, value per head, 418; breeds of,
358; care of. 360; composition of, 285;
cots, reference, 362; cottonseed for,
212; diseases, 337. 361; distribution
of. 357; feeding standards, 409; feed-
ing references, 299, 362; manure,

. amount and value per year, 139;
numbers of, 357, 418; references,
299, 361; regions adapted to, 177;
values of, 357, 418.

Holstein cattle, 325, 329, 332; fat in
milk of, 328.

Home. .See Farm home.

Hominy feed, digestible nutrients in,
410; fertility in, 408; weight per
quart, 413.

Hops, vitality of seed, 405, references,
243.

Horses, chapter on, 301; averages for
ten-year periods in the United States,

total number, total value, value per
head, 418; age, how told, 308
amoimt pulled by, 306; ash for, 286
breeding of, 19, 23, 307; docking, 314
care of, 311; classes of draft, 305
clipping, 313; conformation for draft
and speed, 303; corn for, 182; cotton-
seed for, 212; draft and sjjeed com-
pared, 303; driving, rules of road,
316; effect of clover on, 194; effect of
low double-tree on power, ;}06; feed-
ing, 311; feeding references, 299;
feeding standards, 293, 409; good
proportions for, 318; heaves, 312;
intelligence of, 315; importance of,
301; manure composition, amount,
value. 139, 140; numbers of, 357, 418;
number of acres per horse, 419;
number per man, 301, 419; on farms
vs. horse-power in factories, 414;
over-check. 313; rate of depreciation,
387; references. 299, 321; score card
for, 319; silage for, 176; .sore should-
ers, 313; training, 315; types, of 302;
values of, 357, 418; weight for draft
and speed, 305.

Hot -bed. 236.

House-fly. 256. 258.

Humus. .See Soil humus.

Hungarian grass, digestible nutrients
in. 410; production value as feed,
411.

Hybrid, defined. 13.

Hydrogen, food for plants and animals,
60, 61.

Imports, 414.

Improvement of plants and animals, 5.

Indian corn. See Corn.

Insecticides, 260; references, 270.

Insects, discus.sion of, 255; beneficial,

255; control of, 258; damages caused

by, 255; defined, 255; stages in life of,

256.
Iron, amount in plants, 63; food for

plants and animals, 60, 62.
Irrigation, area irrigated, 88; areas

requiring, 88; canals, seepage from,

90; dangers of. 90; in Egypt, 89; in

India, 89; reservoirs, 89.

428

INDEX

Jersey rattle, 325, 329, 332: fat in milk
of, 328.

Johnson grass, 188; control of, refer-
ence, 270.

Kafir corn, references, 243.
Kainit, 125; fertility in, 408; reinforce-
ment for manure, 144, 149.
Kentucky blue-grass. See Blue-grass.
Kerosene emulsion, preparation of, 265.

Labor, discussion of, 377; average
wages, 420; saving, 82, 144. 160, 167,
170, 272, 275, 301, 373, 374, 375, 377,
378; supply, 376.

Labor reports. See Accounts.

Laboratory equipment, 400.

Laboratory exercises, 32, 56, 72, 101,
151, 238, 267, 280. 318, 342, 368,
385, 395.

Land, method of measuring, 420.

Land plaster, 128; reinforcement for
manure. 144, 149.

Lambs. See Sheep.

Larva, defined. 256.

Ledger, 382.

Legal weights per bushel. 406.

Leghorn hens. 364.

Legumes, as food, reference, 300; fer-
tilizer requirements. 132; inoculation
of, 118, 192; nitrogen fixation by.
116; nodules on the roots of. 117.

Leicester sheep, 351.

Lemons, references, 243, 271.

Lettuce, lime requirement, 126; seed
vitality, 405.

Library, 401.

Lincoln sheep, 351.

Linseed meal, digestible nutrients in,
410; fertility in, 408; production
value as feed, 412; weight per quart,
413.

Lime, application of. 128; forms of.
127; for alfalfa. 190; how to tell the
need of. 127; references. 152; weight
per bushel. 406.

Lime-sulfur spray, preparation of, 265.

Limestone, 127.

Listing com, 167.

Live-stock, imjportance of in maintain-

ing fertility, 110; total value, value
per farm and per acre. 419.

Machinery, rate of depreciation. 387;
value per farm and per acre. 419.

Magnesium, food for plants and animals,
60, 62.

Maintenance values of feeds, 289, 411.

Maize. See Com.

Malt sprouts, digestible nutrients in.
410; fertility in. 408; production
value as feed. 412; weight per quart,
413.

Mangels, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in. 408; production value as
feed, 412; seeding rate. 405.

Manure, discussion of, 135; amount
produced per year. 139; application
of. 142. 144. 184; composition of, 140;
factors affecting value of , 138; fertility
of food recovered in. 138; green crops
for. 147; importance of. 135; lasting
effects of. 136; liquid composition
and value. 140; losses of, 140; pre-
servation of. 143; references, 152;
reinforcement of, 142, 144, 149,
spreader, 144; value in the United
States, 135; value per ton, 136, 140;
value per year, different animals. 139.

Maple sugar, references. 243.

Meadows, discussion of. 182; method of
seeding, 182; references, 242; rota-
tions with, 278, 279; seeding mixtures,
196.

Meadow-fescue, 186; seeding rate, 196,
197.

Meat on the farm, reference. 349.

Meat-scrap, digestible nutrients, in 410.

Melon beetle. 261 .

Mendel, biographical notes. 14.

Mendel's law. 14; summary of. 15; ap-
plications of. 19.

Merino sheep. 351.

Meteorology, relation to agriculture. 1.
See Climate.

Milk, discussion of, 334; as food. 62,
334; as food, reference. 300; Babcock
test of. 336, 345; clean, 334; certified,
336; composition of, 285, 334; con-
densed, 336; digestible, nutrients in

INDEX

429

410; effect of silage on, 176; fertility
in, 408; flour, 336; of different breeds,
328; pails, 335; pasteurized, 335;
powder, 336; records, 337; references,
300, 349; standardized, 336; test,
336, 345; value of, 413.

Milk-fever, 340.

Millet, references, 243; seed vitality, 405.
seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel,
406.

Milo, reference, 243.

Modern conveniences for the home, 391.

Mold, bread, 251.

Mosquito, control of, 94, 258; life his-
tory of, 257.

Mules, averages for ten-year periods in
the United States, total number,
total value, value per head, 418.

Muriate of pota.sh, 125.

Muskmelon, .seed vitality, 405.

Mustard, spraying for, 246; seed vitality,
405.

Mutations, 8.

Mutton, references, 356.

Mycehum, defined, 250.

Natural selection, 7; development of
weeds by, 8.

Neighbors, 376, 396.

Nitrate of soda, 122; composition of,
408; effect on timothy, 132, 133.

Nitrate of potash, composition of, 408.

Nitrogen, amount in air, 116; amount
in plants, 6:i; amount in rainfall, 116;
amount in .soils, 113; effect of time
of plowing on, 161; effect on color of
plants, 64; fixation with legumes, 116,
208; fixation without legumes, 119;
food for plants and animals, 60, 61;
fonns of in fertilizers, 122; in manure,
136, 139, 140, 141; losses of, 121;
losses from manure, 141; of food
recovered in manure, 138; per cent
of in protein, 283; relation to soil
organisms, 97; sources of, 116.

Nitrogen-free extract, 284.

Nutrients, amount of in %'arious feeds,
410.

Nutritive ratio, defined, 293.

Nuts, exports and importu, 415.

Oats, 181; as a nurse crop, 183, 190;
averages for ten-year periods in the
United States, acreage, production,
yield per acre, total value, value per
acre, value per bushel, 416; breeding,
29; climate for, 181; cost compared
with corn, 182; digestible food per
acre, 160; digestible nutrients in,
410; fertility in, 408; fertilizers for,
131, 133, 181; ground, weight per
quart, 413; planting depth, 168; pro-
duction value as feed, 292, 412;
references, 270; rotations with, 270;
soils for, 181; u.ses of, 181; value
of the United States crop, 155, 413;
seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405;
water requirements, 67; weight per
bu.shel, 406; weight per quart, 413;
world's crop of, 154.

Oat.s-barley-and-peas, 182.

Oat hay, production value as feed, 411.

Oat rust, 36.

Oat smut, 36; control of, 254.

Oat straw, fertility in, 408; digestible
nutrients in, 410; production value
as feed, 412.

Onions, lime required, 126; references,
243; seed vitality, 405; weight per
bushel, 406.

Oranges, propagation of, 42; references,
34, 271, 243.

Orchards, discus.sion of, 227; planting,
227; pruning, 230; spraying, 229, 266;
tillage of, 228; value of products, 413.

Orchard gra.ss, 187; reproduction c)f,
38; .seeding rate, 196, 197; .seed
vitality, 405.

Osmosis, definition and experiment, 65.

Ovary, defined, 11.

Oxford-tlown sheep, 351, 354.

Oxygen, as food for plants and animals,
60, 61.

Paris green, 264.

Parsnip, seed vitality, 405.

Pasteurized milk, 335.

Pasture, di.scu.«>sion of, 182; adaptation

of clover and gra.ss varieties, 36, 39;

management of, 197; references, 242;

seed mixtures for, 196.

430

INDEX

Peaches, brown-rot of, 252; danger in
spraying, 262; propagation of, 42, 43,
45; references, 243.

Peanut, inoculation, 192; seed vitality,
405.

Pears, how dwarfed, 47; propagation of,
42, 45; references, 243.

Pear-blight, 249.

Peas, fertility in, 408; inoculation of,
192; seed vitality, 405; weight per
bushel, 406.

Peas-and-barley, digestible nutrients in,
410.

Peas-and-oats, digestible nutrients in,
410.

Peas-barley-and-oats, 182.

Pea-vine silage, digestible nutrients in,
410.

Pea-vine straw, digestible nutrients in,
410; fertiUty in, 408.

Pecan, grafting, 42.

Pedigreees, 330; advanced registry, 333;
value of, 331.

Percheron horses, popularity of, 307.

Perennial, defined, 38.

Phosphoric acid. See Phosphorus.

Phosphorus, amount in soils, 113, 114;
comparative effects of different forin.s,
133; deficiency in soils, 134; effect on
seed formation, 64; food for plants
and animaLs, 60, 62; forms of in fer-
tilizers, 123; in manure, 136, 139, 140,
141; losses from manure, 141; of
food recovered in manure, 138;
reinforcement for manure, 142, 144,
149; relation to lime, 132.

Physics, relation to agriculture, 1.

Pigs. See Hogs.

Pineapple, references, 34, 243.

Pistil, defined, 11.

Plants, composition of, 60; periods in the
life of, 69; storage of food in, 69; the
only source of starch, 69.

Plant-breeding forms, 31.

Plant diseases, discussion of, 248 con-
trol of, 214.

Plant-food, chapter on, 60; amount of,
in soils, 113; deficiency in soils, 63;
elements required, 60; how taken up,
64, 66, 67; sources of, 61 .

Plant lice, life history of, 257; contro
of. 265.

Plowing, depth, 164; spring vs. fall,
163; sub-soiling, 165.

Plums, black knot of, 251; brown-rot
of, 252; danger in spraying, 262;
propagation of, 42, 44, 45.

Plymouth Rock hens, 364.

Poland-China hogs, 358, 359, 360.

Polled Durham cattle, 325.

Poplars, propagation of, 41.

Population of the United States, 418.

Potash. See Potassium.

Potassium, amount in soils, 113, 114;
defined, 11; effect on seed formation,
64; ferro cyanide, 264; food for plants
and animals, 60, 62; forms of in fer-
tilizers, 125; in manure, 136, 139,
140, 141; lo.s.ses from manure, 141;
muriate of, fertility in, 408; of food
recovered in manure, 138.

Potassium chlorid, 125.

Pota-ssium nitrate, fertility in, 408.

Pota-ssium sulfate, 125; fertility in, 408.

Potato, area necessary for profit, 272;
averages for ten-year periods in the
United States, acreage, production,
yield per acre, total value, value per
acre, value per bushel, 417; breeding,
21, 30; composition of, 62; digestible
food per acre, 160; digestible nutri-
ents in, 410; flea-beetle, 261; fertility
in, 408; itiethod of reproduction, 12;
nativity of, 154; planting, prepara-
tion for, 40; planting rate, 405; pro-
pagation of, 39; production value as
feed, 412; references, 35, 243, 270;
rotations with, 147, 274; seed, size
to cut, 39; seed, storage, 40; .seed,
time to cut, 41; spraying, 266; value
of, 155, 413, 417; water requirement,
67; weight per bushel, 406; world's
crop, 154.

Potato-beetle, control of, 259.

Potato-blight, control of, 254.

Potato scab, control of, 253.

Potato, sweet, .See Sweet potato.

Poultry, chapter on, 363; as food,
reference, 300; ash for, 286; breeds
of. 363; feeding, 365; feeding stan-

INDEX

431

dards, 409; houses, 366; imix>rtance
of, 363; manure, amount and value
per year, 139; products, value of,
'i&.i, 413; rate of depreciation, 387;
references, 299, 371; yearly egg-pro-
duction, 6, 7.

Preserving food, methods of, 172.

Production value of feeds, 289, 411.

Propagation of plants, chapter juv-Sfi,^
.See, also. Cuttings, Seeds, Grafting.

Protein, composition of, 69; defined,
283; function of, in feeds, 286; how
determined, 283; in feeds, 283; test
for, 73.

Pruning, 227, 230.

Pupa, defined, 256.

Pumpkin, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in, 408; seed vitality, 405;
seeding rate, 405.

Quince roots for dwarf pears, 47.
(iuestions, 3, 31, 55, 71, 100, 148, 237,

266, 280, 298, 317, 342. 361, 368, 348,

398.

liadish, vitality of seeds, 405.

Rambouillet sheep, 351, 352.

Rape, fertilizer requirements, 133;
rate of seeding, 405; references, 243;
vitality of seeds, 405.

Raspberries, references, 243.

Rations, balanced, 292.

Rats, methods of destroying, reference,
271.

Recessive character, defined, 16.

Records. See Accounts.

Red-Polled, 325, 328.

Red clover. .S'ee Clover.

Red-top, 186; low lime requirements,
126; seeding rate, 186, 197, 405.

References, list of, 401. .S'ee Collateral
reading.

Registry, 330; advanced, 332.
/Rice, fertility in, 408; references, 243;
\ seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel,
'^ 406; world's crop of, 154.
'Rice bran, fertility in, 409.

Rice pohsh, fertility in, 409.

Road, rules of, 316.

Root-borer, clover, 193, 194.

•r R,

Root-crops, why not more grown, 160.

Root-grafting, 45.
foot-hairs, 64.

Roots, acidity of, 66; references, 242.

Root-stocks, 36, 38.

Rotation of crops, chapter on, 272; and
manure supply, 140; advantages of,
274; defined, 273; e.xamples of, 278;
for control of insects, 258; references,
280; vs. crop diversification, 273.

Roughage compared with concentrates,
189, 292, 411.

Rubber, exports and impnirts, 415.

Rusts, 254.

Rye, as a nurse crop, 183; averages for
ten-year periods in United States,
acreage, production, yield per acre,
total value, value per bushel, 416;
digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in,
409; green - manure, 147; planting
depth, 168; production value as feed,
412; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate,
405; weight per bushel, 406; weight
per quart, 413; worlds' crop of, 154.

Rye-bran, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in, 409; production value as
feed, 412; weight per quart, 413.

Rye-meal, weight per quart, 413.

Rye straw, digestible nutrients in, 410;
fertility in, 409; production value as
feed, 412.

Saddler, 307, 308.

Salsify, seed vitality, 405.

Salt as a fertilizer, 115.

Saw-dust as bedding, 138.

San Jos^ scale, control of, 259, 264.

Score card for cattle, 242, 243; corn, 238;
farms, 385; horses, 319.

See<l, adaptation to climate, 9; change
of, 9; analysis, 51; effect of size and
weight on crop, 53; germination tests,
49, 51; importation of low grade, 55;
low vs. high grade, 52; nature of,
47; purity tests, 52; storage of, 54;
vitality, table of, 405.

SeerftfigTrates per acre, 405.

Selection, artificial, 10; characters to
consider, 21; importance of, 21; nat-
ural, 7.

432

INDEX

Self-fertilisation, 12.

Septic t-ank, 303.

Ses-sile, defined, 37.

Sewer sy.stem for farm, 391.

Sexual reproduction, 12.

Shade Irees, 138.

Shavings as bedding, 138.

Sheep, chapter on, 351; averages for
ten-year periods in the United States,
total number, total value, value per
head, 418; breeds of, 351; composi-
tion of, 285; cottonseed for, 212;
feeding standards, 409; fertilizing
value of feed recovered in manure,
138; manure, amount and value per
year, 138, 139; numbers of, 357, 418;
opportunities in raising, 355; refer-
ences, 299, 356; silage for, 176; types
of, 351; values of, 357, 418.

Shorthorn cattle, 325; fat in milk, of
328; origin of polled, 8.

Shoulders, care of .sore, 313.

Shrinkage of products, reference, 242.

Shropshire sheep, 351, 353.

Shrubs, 389.

Silage, materials for, 172. See Corn
silage.

Silicon as food for plants and animals,
60, 62.

Silk, e.vports and imports, 414.

Silo, 171, 173; cost of filling, reference,
242; principle of, 172.

Smut, control of, 254.

Sodium, food for plants and animals,
60, 62.

Sodium nitrate. iSee Nitrate of soda..

Soils, chapter on, 75; analysis, physical,
76; analysis, value of chemical, 113;
best kinds of, 83, 375; composition of
soils, 76; defined, 75;- for alfalfa, 190;
clover, 193-195; corn, 78, 163; cotton,
78, 206; grass, 78. 82, 183-188; oats.
78. 181; tobacco. 82; vegetables, 78.
82; wheat. 82, 180; wood lot. 223; how
formed. 109; how named. 78; man-
agement of clay, 83; plant food in.
113, 114; references, 108, 152; rock
particles of, 76; size of particles and
crop adaptation, 78, 82; size of par-
ticles and water capacity, 79, 80;

warm and cold. 81; water capacity,
determination of. 105; water capacity
of clay and sand. 80. .S'ee. also, Irri-
gation and Drainage.

Soil air, importance of, 94; determina-
tion of the amount of. 103.

Soil-bacteria. See Soil organisms.

Soil fertility, chapter on. 109; amount
in soils, 113; causes of lo.ss of. Ill;
how developed. 104; how lost, 109;
importance of grass. 120; importance
of legumes. 116.

Soil humus, amount in soils, 96; iin-
portance of, 95.

.Soil organisms, 116-122.

Soil particles, effect on labor. 82; floc-
culation of. 83; importance of size of,
79-84; relation to crop adaptation,

78, 82; relation to water capacity.

79. 80; separation of. 76; size of and
temperature, 81 ; surface area p?r
cubic foot, 80.

Soil water, best amount of. 91; com-
position of, 84; conserved by early
plowing, 164; conservation of, 85;
how amount is determined, 72;
importance of, 84; movement of. 85.

Sorghum, references, 243.

South Carolina rock. 123.

Southdown sheep, 351, 354.

Soy-bean, digestible nutrients in. 410;
fertihty in, 409; inoculation. 118, 192;
lime requirement. 126; references,
243; seed vitality, 405.

Soy-bean hay, productive value as feed,
411.

Soy-bean straw, fertility in, 409.

Spores, 36, 251.

Sports. 8.

Spraying, for insects and diseases. 258;
for mustard. 246; profits, from 229;
references, 270.

Squash, seed vitality, 405.

Stamen, defined. 11.

Standardized milk. 336.

Starch as food. 286; compo.sition of, 68;
how formed, 68; translocation of, 68.

Stigma, defined. 11.

Stolon, defined, 38.

Stomata. 67.

INDEX

433

Stooling, 12.

Storage reservoirs, 89.

Stover. See Com.

Strawberries, references, 243.

Style, defined, 11.

Subsoiling, 165.

Suffolk hogs, 358, 360.

Suffolk Punch horses, 307.

Sugar, as food, 286; exports and im-
ports, 415; references, 300.

Sugar-beet, breeding, 24; breeding
references, 35; digestible nutrients
in. 410; fertility in, 408; per cent of
.sugar, 24; total production, 417;
references, 243; seeding rate, 405.

Sugar-beet leaves, digestible nutrients
in. 410.

Sugar-beet mola.sses. digestible nutri-
ents in. 410.

Sugar-beet pulp, digestible nutrien(s
in, 411.

Sugar-cane, total production, 417; value
of crop. 413.

Sugar maple, references. 243.

Sulfate of ammonia. See Ammonium
sulfate.

Sulfate of potash. 125.

Sulfur, food for plants and animals.
60,62.

Sweet potatoes, method of reproduction,
12; propagation of. 39; references,
243; planting rate, 405; value of crop,
413; weight per bushel, 406.

Swine. See Hogs.

Tamworth hogs, 358, 360.

Tankage, as a fertilizer, 123; for hogs,
286.

Tea, exports and imports. 415.

Temperature of soils, 81, 82.

Te.xas fever, 34 1 .

Therm, defined, 291.

Thomas slag, 124.

Thoroughbred, 307.

Tile drains. See Drains

Tillage of orchards, 228.

Timothy, 184; breeding, 24; composi-
tion of. 63. 284; digestibility of, 287;
290, 291: digestible food per acr«, 189;
digentible nutrients in, 411; fertility

in, 409; fertilizer requirements. 132;
for horses, 312; lime requirement, 126;
maintenance value, 290, 291; pro-
duction value as feed, 291, 411; seed
vitality, 405; seeding rate, 185; 196,
197, 405; time to cut, 71, 183; varia-
tion in, 24; weight per bushel, 406.

Toad, usefulness of, reference, 271.

Tobacco, exports and imports, 415;
references, 34, 242, 271; soils for,
82; value of crop, 155, 413.

Tobacco stems, fertility in, 409.

Tomatoes, weight per bushel, 406;
references, 243.

Top-grafting, 46.

Toxic substances, 276.

Trees, how to plant, 227; shade, 233;
treatment of wountLs, 231.

Trotting horse, 307, 308.

Tuber, defined, 39.

TubercuHn, 340.

Tuberculosis, 337.

Turkeys, reference, 371.

Turnips, composition of, 63; digestible
nutrients in, 411; fertility in, 409;
production value as feed. 412; seed
vitality. 405; seeding rate, 405;
soft rot of, 250.

Variation, 5; how increased, 21; law

of, 5.
Vegetables, farm garden, 234; soils for

82.
Verbena, propagation of, 41.
Vetch, seeding rate, 40.5.
Victoria hogs, 358, 359, 360.
Vitality of seeds, table of, 405.

Walks, control of weeds in, 247.

Water, amount in plants, 62, 63; as a
plant food. 61; function in feeds, 285;
in feeds, 282; in feeds, how deter-
mined. 282; requirement of different _
crops, 67. See, aUo, Soil water.

Watermelon, linje requirement, 126;
vitality of seeds, 405.

Water supply, 391.

Weeder, 169.

Weeds, control of, 70. 169. 245. 274;
controlled by fertiliierw. 190: defined.

BB

434

INDEX

244; in pastures, 107; in walks, 247;
reference, 270; spraying for, 246;
value of, 244.

Weights per bushel, 406.

Wheat, discussion of, 178; amount ex-
ported, 177; as a nurse crop, 183;
averages for ten-year periods in the
United States, acreage, production,
yield per acre, total value, value per
acre, value per bu.shel, 416; climate
for, 180; composition of, 179; cul-
ture, 180; digestible food per acre,
160; digestible nutrients, in 411;
Durum, 179; effect of continuous cul-
ture, 110, 121, 170; effect of rotation
on, 277; exports and imports, 414;
fertility in, 409 ; fertility require-
maats, 132, 134 ; fertility removed
by, 113; ground, weight per quart,
413; original form of, 10; planting
depth, 168; production value as feed,
412; references, 270; rotations with
278, 279; seed vitality, 405; seed-
ing, 181; seeding rate, 405; soil for,
82, 180; time to grow one bushel, 301;
Turkish Red, 179; types and varie-
ties, 179; u.ses of, 178; value of crop,
413; value of United States crop,
155, 416; weight per bushel, 406;
weight per quart, 413; world's crop.

154, 178; yields with heavy and light
seeds, 54.

Wheat bran, digestibility of, 287;
digestible nutrients in, 411; fertility
in, 409; laxative properties, reference,
300; production value as feed, 412;
weight per quart, 413.

Wheat middlings, digestible nutrients
in, 411; fertility in, 409; weight per
quart, 413. \

Wheat straw, ' digestibility of, 287;
digestible nutrients in, 411; fertility
in, 409; production value as feed, 412.

AMiey, digestible nutrients in, 410.

Willow, basket, references, 243; propa-
gation of, 41.

Wood, increasing need of, 218.

Wood-ashes, 125.

Wood crop, 216.

Wood-lots, management of, 222; profits
from, 222; what to plant, 226; where
to plant, 224.

Wool, 351, 353; exports and imports,
414.; value of, 413

Work report. See Accounts.

Wyandotte chickens, 364.

Yorkshire hogs, 358, 360.
Zoology, relation to agriculture, 1.

CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN
AGRICULTURE

Edited by L. H. BAILEY

Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American Horticulture,"
Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of Agriculture," etc.

WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2.000 ILLUS-
TRATIONS IN THE TEXT - FOUR VOLUMES — THE SET :
CLOTH, $20 NKT-HALF-MOROCCO. $32 NET-CARRIAGE EXTRA

Volume I — Farms

The Agricultural Regions— The Projecting of a Farm — The Soil
Environment— The Atmosphere Environment.

Volume II — Crops

The Plant and Its Relations— The Manufacture of Crop Products-
North American Field Crops.

Volume III— Animals

The Animal and Its Relations — The Manufacture of Animal Prod-
ucts—North American Farm Animals.

Volume IV— The Farm and the Community

Economics — Social Questions — Organizations — History — Liters
ture, etc.

"Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . . readily comprehen-
sible to any person of averaKe education." — The jVatton.
"The completest exist ine thesuunis of up-to-date facts and opinions on
modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass
before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical value,
and mechanical excellence. It ou^ht to be in every library in the country."
— Jteeord Herald, Chicago.

Published by

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE

On Selection of Land, etc.

Thomas F. Hunt 's How to Choose a Farm $1 76 net

E. W. Hilgard's Soils : Their Formation, and Rela-

tions to Climate and Plant Growth 4 00 net

Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead 1 50 net

On Tillage, Crops, etc.

F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 net

Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land .... 1 50 net

Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions 1 25 net

F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 net

Wm. E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America . . 1 50 net

Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers 1 25 net

Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops 1 50 net

H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life . . 1 25 net

H. Snyder's Soils and Fertilizers. Third edition ... 1 25 net

L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture 1 25 ne*

W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture; Southern

and Western 75 net

J. F. Dug|;ar's Agriculture for Southern Schools . . 75 net

On Plant Diseases, etc.

George Massee's Plant Diseases 1 60 net

J. Or. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life . 1 50 net

E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants 1 25 net

H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English) 1 60 net

A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology .... 4 50 net

On Production of New Plants

L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding 1 25 net

L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike 2 00 net

L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of our Native Fruits . 2 00 net

W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life ... 1 75 net

On Garden Making

L. H. Bailey's Practical Garden-Book 1 00 net

L. H Bailey's Garden-Making 1 50 net

L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardeiiing 1 50 net

L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book 75 net

L. H. Bailey's Forcing-Book 1 25 net

A. French's Book of Vegetables 1 76 net

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE, continued
On Fruit-growing, etc.

L. H. Bailey's Nursery-Book $1 50 net

L. H. Bailey's Fruit-growing 1 50 net

L. H. Bailey's The Pruning-Book 1 50 net

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 net

On the Care of Live Stock

Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 50 net

W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 50 net

I. P. Roberts' The Horse 1 25 net

George C. Watson's Farm Poultry 1 25 net

On Dairy Work

Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products 1 50 net

C. M. Aikman's Milk 1 25 net

Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry 1 00 net

W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary

Bacteriology 1 60 net

I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy 1 00 net

On Economics and Organization

L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer 1 25 net

Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics 1 25 net

I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook . . 1 25 net

George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . . 1 25 net

S. E. Sparling's Business Organization 1 25 net

III the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farming.

Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-Supporting Home ... 1 75 net

Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty 1 75 net

On Everything Agricultural

L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:
Vol. 1. Farms, Climates, and Soils.
Vol. 11. Farm Crops.
Vol. III. Farm Animals.
Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.
Price of sets: Cloth, $20 net; half- morocco, $32 net.

For further information as to any of the above,
address the publishers

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK

FOR THE STUDENT OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTKY

By HARRY SNYDER, B.S.

t*ro(e«sor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and Chemist
of the Minnesota Agricuitural Experiment Station

The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life

Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25; by mail, $1.35.

"The laiiKuage is, as it should be. plain and simple, free from all needless
technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbins interest to every one,
man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent interest In farm life."
—The New England Farmer.

"Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and made
comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely with
those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an invaluable
aid in countless directions."— TAe Farmer's Voice.

Dairy Chemistry

Illustrated. 190 pages. $1 net; by mail, $1.10.
"The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any on'
handling stock, may read with jiro&t."— Rural New Yorker.

Soils and Fertilizers

Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38

A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fer-
tility and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by
the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains
.350 pages, with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of sub-
jects, such as Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Kormation,
etc.; Nitrogen of the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial
Fertilizers, several chapters; Rotation of Crop.s; Preparation of
Soil for Crops, etc.

6> K3?/ ^ </

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK

%m Iff i !

i IGI

?5 c; «ra^

^i'ilJQNYSOl^^ '^m^\

,\\\fUN'iVFRS'/A

'/

^sV.lOSvV'JCflfx^^

<fJlJ'JN\ ^UV^^

^\\E UNIVERS//,

<ril]3NYS0V^'^

^(VAiivyeii^' -''^As..;.

^^^^lIBRARYQ^ ^^^HlBRARYQ/•

>t

^\\[ I'N'IVERi-//, ,^vlOU

^ni/0JITV3JO>^ -^^.i/OjnV} J0>^ '^i'Jli'J.W SUV^^ ''^/'uiiN^

^

OFCA[IFO%

,>^OFCA[IF0/?,v.

>&Aavaaii#

25^ 5 £ fo !

ii

\\\EIMVER.Va

^\\\E L'MVERJ/^_

sVvlOSASCElf;^

.OPrAllFO/?,',.

'^ ,^-r

■\ ;

lV£)i iVf;

A\\MKIVER%

1 "^.J

1158 01159 5393

,il\\v

^vlOU^Cflfj^

o

vr' '

"^^AaiAIN.l 3U^

vvlOSAS'Cf[fX;>

A\M1BRARY6/ ^vMlIBRARYC

^^(!/OJIlV3jO

^OfCAUFO/?^

OFCALIFO/?^;

5 s

30 —

^^;^

fw(i

^\\\E l'N'IVER% ^vlOSA^JCFlfj-;^

I irrti

^0K^\m\\ ^' %]rjN\ soi"^^

"^^AajMNM ]\\V

\V\V uunnn 1 (y/; -oArllBRARYQr

v^xMUBRARYC!/-

u

^'iujiivjjo'^ ^''>m\\\\)\'S-

< 2 =(oLi

i^

OF CAllFOfti;

OFCAllFlWi^